v
f
ESSAYS AND NOTES
O N
HUSBANDRY
AND
RURAL AFFAIRS.
BY J. B. BORDLEY.
Still let me COUNTRY CULTURE fcan :
My FARM'S my Home : " My Brother, MAN
" And GOD is every where."
PHILADELPHIA:
P.RINTED BT BUDD AND BARTRAM,
FOR THOMAS DOBSON, AT THE STONE HOUSE,
No 41, SOUTH SECOND STREET.
1799.
[Copy-Right Secured according to Laiv.~\
PREFACE.
H E writings of the refpe&able Mr.
TOLL, firft excited the author's atten
tion to agriculture: but, to Mr. YOUNG
he is moftly indebted for his knowledge of
its prefent ftate and the modes of practice
in Europe. It was a happy firft thought
which led Mr. Young to make his farm
ing-tours, for collecting faffs of the then
exifting ftate of hufbandry in England : the
reft followed ; and the world has the fruits
of his labours, his ingenuity, and his pub
lic fpirit.
On
IV PREFACE.
On the turn of middle age and whilft
gradually quitting public employments, the
author fat down on a farm in Maryland,
and became enthufiaftically fond of huf-
bandry. Farmers in the neighborhood
informed him of their modes of practice ;
but they taught him nothing of the princi
ples of the art. Whilft they knew how
to pra&ife in the manner common to
the country, he knew neither principles
nor practice ; but began however with
obferving their practices, which he con
tinued to imitate ; until gaining informa
tion from a number of inftruftive expe
riments, he was encouraged to deviate
from fome of them ; and became more
and more affured that great improvements
might be made by profefled farmers, in
this firft of all employments, if they could
be brought to relinquiih the worft of their
habits.
It was hoped the Society of Agriculture
in Philadelphia would have induced farm
ers, in i'ennfylvania at leait, to feek im
provement
PREFACE. V
provement in better practices. Succefs
was chiefly looked for from perfons who
becoming farmers had been of other pro-
feflions (foldiers, failors, &c.) and were
never trained to follow mere habits,
unexamined ; and moreover whofe fupport
fhould not altogether depend on the pro
duce of their farms ; but with minds un-
fhackled, would practife upon well digefl>
ed and approved principles tefted by expe
riments.
Little eflays have been occafionally writ
ten and difperfed amongft his friends ;
which, with others hitherto remaining in
manufcript pertaining alfo to the concerns
of hufoandmen and country affairs, com-
pofe the prefent work. If fortunately they
fhall induce improvements and better atten
tions, for afluring competency with do-
meftic and focial comforts, his firft wifh
will be accomplifhed.
CONTENTS.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
l.STSTEMS and Rotations i
II. Grafs-rotations 3
III. Gram-rotations 22
IV. Defign for a Gram Farm 57
V. Grain and Meadow-rotation 65
VI. Farm-Tard 84
VII. Clover 98
VIII. Wheat on Clover 107
IX. Beans 115
X. Maize and Wheat-culture 116
XI. Hemp 126
XII. Farm-yard Manure 139
XIII. ^rflj 158
XIV. Cattle Stalls 165
XV. Cattle Pastured and Soiled ; Kept
and Fattened 168
XVI. Obfervations on Cattle, Sheep,
and Hogs 190
XVIL
CONTENTS.
XVII. Maize and Potatoes' as Fallow-
Crops and Fattening Materials 227
XVIII. Fences *. ; 234
XIX. Treading Wheat 245
XX. Method of Registering Experiments 258
XXL Principles of Vegetation 270
XXIL NeceJ/aries best Produft of Land 299
XXIII. Family Salt 318
XXIV. Rice 335
XXV. Country Habitations 338
XXVI. Ice-Houfes 364
XXVII. Intimations on new Sources of
Trade , &c. 371
XXVIII. Potato-Spirit and Beer 386
XXIX. Diet in Rural Economy 399
XXX. Gypfum Manure 417
XXXI. State Society of Agriculture 434
XXXII. Notes and Intimations 45 1
ERRATA.
Page 68. line 3 from bottom, for covered read f mothered.
303. For Columal read ColumeL
To the Explanation of the Cuts, add e. Kitchen Garden.
. y. Nurfery and Truck-patch.
Plate II. fig. 6. Ice-houfe referred to in page 367. The Ice being
contained within a Log Pen, under ground, and infulated
\vith Straw.
Page 73. Fill up blank with 190.
ij6. Say, III.
O N
HUSBANDRY, &c.
SYSTEMS AND ROTATIONS IN
FARMING BUSINESS.
FARMERS bleffed with difpofitions to
improve on what they know, will acknow
ledge there are great deficiencies in the modes
of common farming, for want efpecially of
well digefted fyftematic applications of la
bour with a proper choice of crops ; and
that, there are great irregularities and mif-
application of labour and attentions in the
practices of huibandmen.
A It
I GRASS ROTATIONS
It is not long fmce we began to read and
talk of rotations of crops, without apply
ing any adequate meaning to the expreffion.
It feems as if farmers, in common, under-
ftand little more by it than the practices or
courfes, irregular and wild as they are, in
common farming. They indeed are not
apt to elevate their minds to views of im
provement; but rather fetthemfelves againft
it : for, improvement implies new labour
and attention ; although it may be in lieu
of and lefs than the ufual courfe of labour;
and they cannot give up their old habits,
already and infenfibly acquired without any
expenfe of thought.
A recurring rotation of crops is the com
pletion of as many years crops of the fame
kinds, in regular changes from field to field,
as there are fields cultivated; and which
form a cycle or round of fuch crops as will
recur in the fame order for ever. But where,
for inftance, there are feven fields, if the
farmer proceeds on the defigned fyftem, but
flops fhort of the feven years, it is not a
rotation?
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 3
rotation^ but is only a courfe of crops for fo
many years as it has been continued ; for
there is no cycle or round of crops com
pleted.
Experience teaches, and a little reflection
on viewing defigns of fyftematic recurring
rotations of crops and bufmefs, affures think
ing perfons that well chofen fyftematic bu-
fmefs muft have important advantages over
random practices and courfes.
GRASS ROTATIONS.
A valuable friend of the focial virtues,
the late Mr. Rigal, a gentleman from Man-
heim in Germany, aiked me how he fhould
cultivate a fmall farm near fo confiderable
a town as Philadelphia. On which the fol
lowing was written for him ; and it is here
inferted entire, becaufe of the principles and
intimations contained in it, which may alfo
be ufeful, as well as the fyftem of bufmefs
propofed.
Commerce feeds the paffions ;
" Agriculture calms them."
A 2 Intending
4 GRASS ROTATIONS
Intending to retire from the buftle of &
town life, to a fmall feat, a few miles in the
country, confiding of a comfortable houfe,
offices, garden, and 56 acres of arable land
having a clay-loam rather impoveriihed, but
knowing nothing of hufbandry from expe
rience, and but little in theory, I confult
practical farmers ; who aflure me labour is
fcarce, hirelings are with difficulty manag
ed, even by experienced hufbandmen, and
that many peculiar attentions with much of
complicated work are appendant to a grain
farm. In fhort, that the moft fimple, the
moil pleafing, and the moll advantageous
ufe that I can apply my land to, is to keep
it in grafs,
It is alfo faid that fome filch mode as i&
offered in the defign below, is beft adapted
to my talents and fituation. It is my wifh,
however, to have it approved or amended
by experienced perfons, or that a better be
propofed.
DESIGN.
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 5
DESIGN.
No kind of grain is to be cultivated. No
horfe, ox, cow or other beaft is to graze on
pafture. They are to be kept up the year
through. There then will be little need of
divifion fences. Such as are on the place
may be removed, and the out fence be made
perfect. The fields will then be under one
general inclofmg fence ; and exhibit a beau
tiful unit of grafs, unbroken by fences, but
dotted here and there with clumps of trees,
and marked off in equal divifions by head
lands or turnings, and cultivated as below.*
The
* The trees may be locufts, fugar-maples, black mul
berries, black-walnuts, black-gums, dogwoods, faflafraf-
fes : none whereof materially injure grafs growing under
them. If it fhould be requifite to guard againft bleak
winds, divifions may be formed with hedges, or only
trees planted clofe in rows. Other trees may be two or
three weeping-willows, for their fmgularity ; the yellow-
willow for ufe. : The fugar-maple is a handfome clean
tree, which gives a deep {hade. A grove of them, two
or three acres, would give comfortable fhady walks, and
fugar for family ufe ; the making whereof would require
but a (hort time, and be an entertaining harvefl. The
trees 30 feet apart, are above 140 on an acre ; which at
6 GRASS ROTATIONS
The live-ftock may be two oxen for a
plow, harrow and cart, occafionally ; four
oxen in harnefs for a waggon, the journies
being fhort ; and two good cows, befides
carriage or {addle horfes.* Much of in-
con-
the lowed reckoning would yield 200 ft>. of fugar an
acre. Two acres, yielding 400 Jb. would pay an annual
rent of 30 or 40 Dollars an acre, deducting only a trifle,
not fo much for labour as for a fhort attention in the
leifure month of February. From feeds, it may be 20
years before the trees yield fufficiently of fugar : but they
foon form a delightful lhady grove.
* Mr. Rigal for whom this was written, lately died
in eafy circumftances. Others, lefs able, may conduct
the bufmefs of their grafs-farms with fewer draught
cattle, and even without owning any, by occafionally
hiring teams, for drawing hay, carrying out manures,
plowing, &c. But, four oxen, a waggon, a plow and
a harrow, would pay well when kept on the farm, al
ways at command. Indeed oxen cannot be deemed coft-
ly, expenfive, and in the end a dead lofs, as horfes are.
An ox cofts . . .40 Dollars.
3 years keep, at 24 . 72
i year ditto, and fatting 40
He gains from 4 years but partial work . 1 60
. 4 years dung (winter and fummer) . 40
fold, for firlt colt 40 and increafe
4 years 40 . . . 80
152 .. 280
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. J
convenience and but little profit would at
tend the making butter for fale, by any
other than a proprietor who is of the clafs
of dairy people. Rather prefer buying
butter and grain wanted. The hay, a fim-
ple unit of attention and produce, pays
for them to the beft advantage : and a com
plication of attentions is to be avoided.
But, if butter muft be made on fuch a
farm, let it be no more than for family
confumption.
Some ground for potatoes, truck- patch,
and experiments will be wanted : therefore
eight acres are referved ; which are to have
no connection with the other fields ; nor
are ever to grow any corn or grain, which
would require the thrafher to be introduced.
Thefe eight acres may contain a garden for
the market, or for pleafure, according to
the views of the owner.
In the firft year plow up all the arable,
deep as the foil will admit of. Then fow
buckwheat, and plow in the plants before
they
8 GRASS ROTATIONS
they produce feeds. Repeat this, for pro-
teBing the fallow from exceffive exhalation ;
and for adding a manure to the foil as often
as the buckwheat is plowed in. On the
fields A and B, lay a quantity of rich dung :
beft done in the fall, on the laft turning in
of the buckwheat. Sow thefe and the other
four fields with rye, for giving bay. When,
hereafter, clover and timothy feeds are fown,
rye will firft Jhelter thefe grafles in their
tender ftate, and then be cut and cured in
to hay. In the fecond year, give dung alfo
to C and D fields ; and in the third to E
and F fields. 1 have not indeed ever feen
rye-hay ; but have heard farmers fay, it is
good in quality and the crop great.
To dung the whole in the firft year might
be beyond your power, or be very inconve
nient. Therefore a third part is propofed
to be dunged in each of three years : which,
however, rather difadvantageoufly poft-
pones, till the feventh year, the commence
ment of the defired courfe, for giving year-
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 9
ly two fields of rye-hay, two of clover, and
two of timothy.*
For effecting rotations of recurring
crops, four articles of produce, if all an
nual^ would require four fields. If of three
articles of crop, one is annual, as in the
fubfequent table, and two are biennial, then
fix fields are requifite. With fewer fields
the fyftem would be defective, and the
round of crops could not be continued.
For inftance : if thefe articles, annual and
biennial, as above, were cultivated in only
three fields, in the feventh and eighth years
there would be no clover. If of two arti
cles of crop one is annual and the other tri
ennial, then four fields are requifite.
The
* If the ground is already in good heart, after plow-
ing in the firft fowing of buckwheat for a manure, in
July you may fow buckwheat for a crop, and clover feed
immediately on it. Thus in the very firft year, a crop
of buckwheat is gained ; and in the fecond year a crop
of clover, from the whole 48 acres. If the ground is
fuitable to gypfum, then reftore with gypfum duft as far
as the dung falls fhort, which will greatly reduce the
poftponement of the intended grafs-crops.
JO GRASS ROTATIONS
The firft fix years of the above defign
are rather preparative to the intended round
of crops (fee the table). It is the feventh
year which enters upon the defigned and
proper recurring rotation of crops, manur
ing, and work. A regular fyftem of recur
ring crops and bufmefs in hufbandry exifts
on the principles of the fpiral line, as well
as of the circle. This is illuftrated by
reading the plan diagonally, from A field
in the feventh year, downward through B
field 8, C field 9, &c. to F field in the
twelfth year inclufive; being in all fix
fields, and fix years ; all whereof direct to
" mow timothy, plow in timothy, dung,
few rye." The like of the other articles.
By wrapping the paper plan or table round
a cylinder, the fpiral line of crops is clearly
underftood. The plan is alfo advantage-
oufly read directly downward, taking any
one field at a time; and alfo laterally through
all the fields of either year.
Though the firft fix years, in the fyftem
exhibited in the table, give crops, except
the
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. II
the firft year, yet they are not according to
the defigned variety ; as they are moftly in
rye-hay, inftead of two fields of rye, two
of clover^ and two of timothy. But the
proper courfe being once entered on, the
intended crops will regularly recur as long
as you pleafe to continue it.
Manuring* alfo recur in rotation and fpi-
ral order ; and being frequent are applied
in lefs quantities at a time than would be re-
quifite after the ufual lengthy delays in re
newing them : and alfo applying them fre
quently in moderate quantities^ approaches
nearer to the economy of nature ; which
conftantly commits to the earth the food of
plants, or the means of obtaining that food,
in moderate portions : not in gluts to fur-
feit, nor at diftant intervals of time which
might ftarve the plants.
Not only the crops and manurings^ but the
plowing* and the work in general, recur or
derly and of courfe, without the hazard of a
wrong bias or fallible reafoning leading you
into
12 GRASS ROTATIONS
into error, confufion, or ill judged and irre
gular practices and courfes. Such are impor
tant advantages, which fyftematic hufband-
ry has over random or common practices.
Your live ftock will give the dung requi-
fite,~ after the third year : and beeves bought
and foiled on cut green grafs, will add to
the dunghil.
Rye is fowed in September or October.
Clover in Maryland, in March, by ftrew-
ing the feeds on the ground which is already
fown with fmall corn, without any attempt
to cover them. The dilated ftate of the
ground, and the motion given to its parti
cles by the alternate light frofts and thaws
ofthefeafon, fuffice for the growing of the
feeds 5 and the fun is too feeble to injure
them in that early month, fhcltered too as
they are by the wheat or other cornplants.
Some farmers in Pennfylvania of late, pre
fer ftrewing clover feed on their wheat fields
in April. For the climate of Maryland about
the 2oth of March feems the beft time.
Timothy
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 13
Timothy fown in the fpring, would
fometimes be injured by drought and heat,
of the midfummer fun, whilft in its feeble
ftate, on the lofs of its grain-fhelter. On the
other hand, though timothy is more perfect
from being fown on grain in autumn, yet
it fometimes overgrows and injures the crop
of grain. But when the grain is fown for
the purpofe of hay and Jhelter only, the
objection is avoided : and autumn is gener
ally the preferable feafon for fowing timothy
feed. On rye being, in September, fown
and harrowed in, immediately, before the
foil can be fettled down by time or rain,
ftrew the timothy feed over it ; and either
roll it in or leave it to the crumbling of the
foil in its fettling with the aid of wind and
rain; which in experience is found to be
fufficient.
Clover and timothy grow admirably well,
when fown in July on Buckwheat. The
feedling plants are thus well fheltered againft
the fcorching fun, and will have a good
length
14 GRASS ROTATIONS
length of time for growing ftrong for with-
ftanding the winter's frofts.
Two years are the moft that clover ought
ever to be continued in the ground. Ti
mothy would continue good feveral years
longer. But this is of no consideration in a
rotation courfe, which does not well admit
of any grafs or clover being continued two
years on the ground : and it is of great ad
vantage to turn up the ground, fhift its fur-
face, and bury the fods of grafs. The ex-
penfe of feed for renewing grafs is thought
too much of by farmers. It is a trifle, when
oppofed by the advantages gained.
The following rotations further illuftrate
the aforementioned principles ; and fhew
other varieties of crops.
Clover, with Rye. t Timothy, with Rye. t Clover and Timothy,
without fhelter.
ift rPpp
i ft fRTTT
ift fCTCT
Round I CRQ
Round JTRTT
Round JCTCT
of ICCR
of 1 TTRT
of 1 TCTC
Crops.
Crops. LTTTR
Crops. LTCTC
f T? f^f 1
fRTTT
fCTCT
2d. -5 CRC
ICCR
J TRTT
2 Cl *^ ri~tr*-fi rrt
(.TTTR
, J CTCT
2 i TCTC
LTCTC
The
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. 15
The want of a flickering crop to the
young clover and timothy, in moft years
might prove very material.
In the inftances where timothy is propof-
ed, orchard grafs may be fubftituted.* In
fome particulars they have a fimilarity of
character : in others they materially differ.
Both are blade or fpire grafles, tufty and
fibrous rooted. Their principal difference
is in the forwardnefs of their fpring growth,
the time of their arrival to maturity, and
their continuance towards winter. Orchard
grafs comes early, is matured foon, and
continues green late in the feafon; juft as
clover does. Timothy is late in its coming
in the fpring, and late in ripening.
It is not uncommon in the ordinary huf-
bandry, to fow lots of ground with clover
and timothy feeds, mixed. But a better
companion
* It is faid there is a grafs called orchard grafs in
England ; which from the defcription given me, is very
different from the orchard grafs of A merica fo called
from its growing better under trees than other grafs.
l6 GRASS ROTATIONS
companion for clover is orchard grafs. Yet
in a rotation fyftem, clover ought not to
admit any kind of grafs feeds to be mixed
with it.
When clover is grown, it muft be cut :
it ought to be fooner than is ufual. Timo
thy growing with clover, is cut with it, in
a young and very imperfect ftate. In this
cafe the clover gives matured hay : the ti
mothy a crude food containing little of nou-
rifhment. Horfes prefer ripe, full-grown
timothy in hay. Mr. Gettings, of Gun
powder Foreft, Maryland, prefled with
work, could mow but a part of his timothy
before harveft. He ordered the pretty green
hay from this mowing fhould be referved
for his favourite horfes. His hoftler in
formed him, they preferred the brown hay
cut after harveft ; and he faw and was fatis-
fied of the fact. Afterwards, Col. Lloyd,
of Kent, cut a part of his timothy before
harveft, and the reft in July after harveft.
He attended to the feeding his horfes with
thefe, in confequence of what he had heard
of
OF CROPS AND BUSINESS. iy
of Mr. Getting's experiment, and afliir-
ed me his horfes preferred the brownifli
matured hay to what was cut before har-
veft.*
* " In fome meadows I faw timothy grafs (landing
very thick and high ; and clofe to it, it was much thinner.
On inquiry, I found the part where it was thin had been
mowed twice ; and what flood thick had been mowed once
only, and that after wheat harveft. Mowing timothy
only once in a feafon, and that after harvcft, gains almoft
as much as if twice mowed (once before harveft, and once
a gain in autumn ): befides, horfes and cattle will eat ript
timothy when they will not look at the other." Journ.
from Hope, in New Jerfey : Columb. Mag. Sept. 1788,
p. 502.
B TABLE-
GRASS ROTATIONS
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f Not Ray or Rye Grafs ; but Rye Corn; to be cut
and cured into hay, when the heads are (hooting out of the
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OF CROPS AND BUSINESS.
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GRASS ROTATIONS
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OF CROPS AND BUSINESS.
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GR4IN
32 GRAIN ROTATIpNS.
GRAIN ROrATIONS.
If reducing the cultivation of grafs to
regular fyftematic rotations be advantageous,
how much more fo muft it be to apply fuch
rotations to the more complicated and va
rious bufinefs of grain farms !
Of the Englifh Old Courfes of Crops.
Until about the middle of the prefent
century, one of the beft common courfes
of farming, in England, confiited of &f al
low i which broke up and cleaned the
ground, by feveral plowings, but left the
foil expofed to the fcorching fun, during
the hotteft feafon, without any fhading
crop, and on this wheat was fown ; peas or
beans following the wheat : then barley (or
oats or both) in fucceffion, on one moie
ty of the farm, during ten to twenty or
more years : the other moiety during that
time
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 23
time being in common pafture grafles.*
When a change was to be made, the moie
ty in grafs was plowed and prepared ; and
then thrown into the courfe of crops as
above ; and that which had been in crops,
was fown with mixed grafs feeds (not clo
ver) to lay as before ten or twenty years.
The whole arable or plowable part of the
farm thus divided into "moieties, or nearly
fo, was exclufive of the homeftead and
ftanding meadow. So that a farm of 300
acres, admitted of 150 acres in grafs, lay,
or old field, and 150 in crops. Their
fields bearing crops were feldom equal in
quantity : but in the following defign they
are fo confidered.
* " In good land the worfe rotation of fallow wheat
leans (or peas or barley) more ufually prevailed,"
This and the following notes diftinguifhed by an Si were
written with a pencil, in the margin of one of my
(ketches, by an Englifh country gentleman.
No.
24 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
No. I.
Acres.
37 fallow, naked, yields nothing exhausting*
37 wheat, bufhels 555 exhausting
37 peas or beans 555 ameliorating
37 barley 740 exhausting
1 50 in crops, 4 fields 1850 bulhels.f
150 in grafs or lay.
500 acres.
The
* The richnefs of a clean foil is in a ft ate of wafte,
when expofed to the exhaling hot fun. But their fallows
are manured. The plowings open and clean the foil for
receiving feed and producing the crop defired ; though
in lefs perfection than when the fallow is protected by
fhade during its being plowed or horfehoed. Exhaufting
here means no more than that the fallow, when expofed
naked to the fun, is robbed by exhalation of a part of
the nutrition of plants depofited in the foil, more than
if it were flickered by plants growing in rows on the
fallow : yet naked fallow is fo far advantageous that it
breaks and cleans the foil, without which feed ftrewed
on the ground would yield no crop. But the ground
broken and cleaned whilft under fhade, is confiderably
defended from the exhaling fun and wind ; and is alfo
meliorated by perforation from j.uicy plants, growing in
the rows. If what voyagers fay be true, that fome dews,
f See the next page.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 25
The manure added, ameliorates: yet
the fun filming on the naked foil, in the
hot feafon, is thought to exhale much of
the valuable contents of the manure, and
of the ground.
The above is of the crops of one. ji 'eld dur
ing four years ; or of the four fields in one
year. The following is a plan of the .
whole
particularly in the Perfian Gulf, are fait, the farmer
may readily apprehend that a part of the riches of his
foil may alfo be exhaled by the fun ; and he will refort
tojkading crops on his fallow, for defending it againft
wafte. He knows the value of mere moijlure^ and how
foon it evaporates when the earth is expofed to the fun
and wind without flicker. Befides what I have read of
this in Harris's Collection of Voyages, a celebrated late
traveller into Egypt and Syria, affures me it is true ; and
that he has tafted the fait from dew on his lips, in thofe
countries.
f The quantities given, of the crops, -are not meant
as real or even as eftimated quantities ; but, are noted at
random, and continued at the fame rates in fubfequent
courfes, for comparing the grain products of entire farms,
as they are differently divided. All contain 300 acres.
The Maryland and Pennfylvania bulhel, like the Lon
don meafure in ufe, is fomewhat larger than the En-
\ glifli ftatute bulhel about ^th.
26 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
whole farm (homeftead, meadow, and lay
excepted) with the courfes of the crops in
ihofe four folds during four years.*
Years.
1791
1792
B
D
Fal.
Wh.
Pe.,
Ba.
'794
W
P
B
F
P
B
F
W
B
F
W
P
The medium produce of thefe fields, in
England, is more than is above ftated.
But it is well to fuppofe the quantity they
produce per acre is as- in this and the fol
lowing ftatements : nor is it material what
the quantity is, when how much the En-
gliih foil or how much the American gives,
is not under confideration.
Englijh
* Four years crops, of four feveral articles, Inter
changed QT\fourjields, complete a rotation of four years ;
which if properly defigned, will recur as often as you
pleafe ; and on the plan will read, diagonally, the fame
through every Rotation.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 27
Engltfh New Courfes or Rotations of Crops.
The better courfes of crops are founded
on thefe principles : To fallow,* and to
have growing on the fallow, whilft it is yet
under the plow or hoe, ajhading and ame
liorating or mild crop : never to fow any
fort of corn immediately after corn of any
kind : to fow clover or an equivalent on
every field of fmall grain: and with a
courfe of well chofen crops and the Jhaded
fallows, prevent the foil from re/ting ,
hardening and running into weeds.
Thus entire farms are continued in a
conftant rotation under 4 to 6 or 8 divifi-
ons or fields ; fo as with the clean, mellow
irate of the whole arable, to give a pleafing
fyftem of bufmefs, improve the foil and
procure a confiderably larger income.
Plowing
* The intention in fallowing is to plow up and pulve-.
rife the ground ; fhift its furfaces ; deftroy weeds and bring
up or cover feeds to be fprouted and deftroyed. " Hills
fhould be plowed olllquely to the right hand, from the top>
down. By which. the furrow turns readily : as it alfo does
when the plow returns .obliquely up hill, parallel to the
former furrow made in going down hill."
20 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
Plowing the fields every year, bids fair to
annihilate even John s-wort and garlick
indeed every growth but of the crops de-
Jtgned. The rotation fyftem, waring againft
weeds, a :d all coalefcence or fettling and
binding of the ground \ will, not allow the
land to reft. It urges you on to perpetual
culture : but reft, being a friend to weeds
and a hardnefs of the ground, cannot belong
to culture. There is a ftrong expreffion
among hufbandmen, of " land untiliing it-
felf." They apply it to ground which has
been cultivated, and afterwards neglected ;
fo that it refls, fettles, and returns to its
wonted hardnefs.
No. II.
60 acr. barley bufhels 1200 exhaufting
60 clover . . ameliorating
60 wheat . 900 exhaufting
60 clover* . . ameliorating
60 peas or beans . 900 ameliorating
300 acr. in 5 fields. 3000 bufhels.
In
* " I believe it is never praclifed to fow clover twice
" m Jive years. The ground would foon be exhaufted of
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 29
In their fandy light lands, turnips in a
well prepared foil are a common fallow
crop,
" the pabulum of clover, and the feed would not vege-
" tate. The rotation of clover, fown once mfour years-,
" cannot be long continued without occafionally changing
" the clover for fome other grafs, ufually hop-clover or
" trefoil mixed with rye-grafs. Without fuch change
" the ground becomes fick of clover, and the clover will
" no longer thrive. The bed rotation <y&ftrong land that
" will not bear treading with fheep, is barley clover
" wheat leans : or barley, beans, wheat, clover two
" years. In light land, the bed and almoft univerfal
" rotation is barky clover wheat turnips." S. The
above is faid of clover in England. And it alfo is there
faid of their clover, that it fails much more than form
erly ; for that it comes up very thick and fine, but " dies
" away in winter." 2 E. Tour 128. And again, the
fame book, p. 165. " Land is tired of clover. It
" comes up thick and fine, but is all eaten off in Febru-
" ary, by a red worm ; which did not ufe to happen/*
Home's Pr. Agr. 161, fpeaking of change of fpecies,
fays, " fome plants are defigned to jfa the foil ; others,
" to open it ; the Jllrous rooted and the tap rooted." So
far at leaft, change of fpecies is advifable, and fowing
corns, which have fibrous roots, and legumiet or clover,
which have tap-roots, alternately, tend to effecT: this ame
liorating purpofe, and preferve a due medium between
too clofe and too open a foil. Though change of fpecies
may be neceflary, I do not believe that change of feed
of the fame kind, at leaft of wheat or other common
corns is. I never could perceive any difference. Many
30 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
crop, inftead of peas or beans ; the turnips
being thinned greatly, and frequently hand-
hoed, or if in rows, horfe-hoed, fo as to
keep the ground clean and well ftirred ; and
they are always on manured ground.*
A
ideal old fayings pafs current without examination.
What more current than that acid of vitriol is a poifon
to foil, or to vegetation ? yet Doctor Home proved it to
be a powerful manure ; and plafter of Paris is but a cal-
carious earth faturated with acid of vitriol. So it is
faid of animals, that it is necenary to crofs the Jlra'm.
To be fure a horfe of fuperior breed, may be expected
to give a better colt to your prefent inferior breed.
Mr. Bakewell fays, propagate from your own horfes till
you meet with better. Certain feeds of exotic-plants,
may be changed to advantage : yet the corns, common
to all the world, it feems, require not a change of feed.
But it is faid that, " in Egypt, the French are obliged
" to import, annually, the feeds of cauliflowers, beats,
" carrots, and falfify ; and apricots, pears, and peaches,
" tranfported to Rofetta, degenerate." Vol. Syr. And
fo it is in America, reflecting cauliflower feeds.
* Our American farmers are 10 to 15 degrees
fouth of the farms in England ; yet fo keen are our frofts
and fo fudden and frequent the changes from thaw to
froft, that common turnips do not ftand the winter
through, in our fields. The new turnip, called roota
laga, is likely to ftand our winters ; for fupplying cattle
and fheep with a juicy food in winter and fpring, a
GRAIN ROTATIONS.
D
1791
Ba
Cl
Wh
Cl
Pe
1792
C
W
C
p .
B
1793
W
C
p
B :
c
J 794
C
p
B
c .
w
*795
p
B
C
w :
c
Fields.
1791
fauce to their dry food, for keeping them open againft
the coftive effects of ftraw. I have but once had an
opportunity of fowing its feeds : the roots from which
ftood through the winter perfectly found, in the ground.
But it was the mild winter 1795-6. The common
courfe of crops in England, of turnips, barley, clover,
wheat, a change of only four fields, on their light lands,
after twenty years experience, is thought by fome farm
ers, to furfeit the ground, by the frequency of the repe
tition or recurrence of the fame crops, CC/" when they are
without manuring* : the fame crops returning in the mort
fpace of every four years Mr. Pitt, an excelknt farmer
in England, who mentions this to Mr. Young, thinks
it is very bad tillage, efpecially on ivsak foils, unlefs the
land is marled or twice QCj* manured in the rotation. He
adds, that on breaking up the turf, fome have with fuc-
cefs, taken fpring corn, followed immediately, after work-
GRAIN ROTATIONS.
Here the crops are the fame
as the preceding but the courfe
is different. In that the clover
is annual : in this it continues
two years. When clover is con
tinued two or more years, it lets
in weeds and fome binding of
the ground, to a degree that
may have occafioned the faying,
in England, of the ground be
coming, in that country, " clo-
" ver fick." But yearly renewing the clo
ver.
ing the land well, with wkeaf, turnips, larky with grafs
feeds, and manuring upon the feeds and for the turnips ;
which courfe, he adds, proves good, and the crops hea
vy. The fuperiority of crops in this courfe, he thinks,
is caufed hy manuring on the feeds, and by a fifth of the
land laying Jive years in grafs. 4 An. 478. This fuggefts
the propriety of having, in every rotation of crops, one
field extraordinary to lay in grafs, not clover, till the
courfe ends : that is, whilft the four to five or fix fields
are revolving in crops, one other field is to be laid down
and continued in grafs, or rather (landing meadow.
For inftance : wheat, clover, rye, clover, bsans or roots,
interchange whilft the gra r s-field continues unbroken,
during the five years crops of grain and clover. Then
this is broke up, and put into a courfe of crops, als the
others ; and one cf the crop-fields is laid down in grafs.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 33
ver in the rotation of crops, neither admits
of- weeds or a binding of the ground. The
clover in this cafe, being fufficiently thick
and well fown, effectually {hades and mel
lows the foil, without having time allowed
it or the foil to decline.*
C Comfarifon
-
* The climate and the foil of America may be believed
to differ greatly from thofe of England, reflecting the
growth and perfection of fome particular plants. Wheat
fown there 2 to 3 buftiels an acre, yields great crops of
corn. Two buftiels an acre fown in Maryland or Penn-
fylyania, would yield ft raw without grain. In Maryland
three pecks are commonly fown. I never had better crops
than from half a buftiel of feed wheat to an acre, in a few
inftances. In thefe inftances, the ground was perfectly
clean and fine, after many plowings or horfehoings of
maize ; on which the wheat was fown in September, whilft
the maize was ripening. It was a clay-loam, highly
pulverized. But becaufe of the lofs of plants at other
times, I preferred to fow three pecks an acre. The at
tentive Mr. E. an excellent farmer of Pennfylvania, made
a farming tour in England ; and obferved that clover
there is very inferior to what it is in Pennfylvania. This
may be owing, partly, to the climate and foil being lefs
friendly to this plant than in America : and certainly it
is againft clover to continue it growing for years, fo that
weeds and fibrous rooted grafles are let in to rob the clover
and bind the foil. It is even an Englifti practice to fow
rye grafs with clover : and rye grafs is a very fibrous
34 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
Comparifon between the Englifh Old and New
Courfes of Crops.
Upon comparing the old with the new
courfes in England, it occurs that the 120
acres in clover, may be confiderably fuperior
to the 150 acres of common grafTes on the
hide-bound foil of the lay or old field ; and
that the grain and ftraw is fuperior as 300
to 185. Peas and beans are inoffenfive,*
as is clover, and even are ameliorating.
They alljhade the ground during the hot-
teft time of the year. All corns impoverifli ;
and withal, the fmall kinds let in weeds;
which with reft, bind and foul the foil. But
they
rooted binding plant. The ground becoming " clover-
fick" is unknown in America, unlefs its being reduced
by a long continuance of the clover and introduction of
weeds and grafles, will admit of the expreffion. But
clover-fick in the fenfe fpoken of in the note page 29, is
unknown and unfufpe&ed in America. Red clover is
only meant.
* " Not unlefs they are kept clean from weeds by ho-
*' ing, which cannot be performed, unlefs they are fown
in drills*" S.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 35
they check the wafhing away of foil ; which
maize culture greatly promotes, by repeat
ed plowings or fcratchings given whilft the
maize is growing.
No. I. has two fields ftirred and cleaned :
the fallow, a naked one ; and the pea or
bean field when in rows. The growing
crop of the laft flickers the foil from ex
treme exhalation ; and is the only amelio
rating crop againft the two exhaufting crops,
wheat and barley. No. II. has one horfe-
hoed or plowed field, in a fallow crop of
peas or beans ; and three fields of amelio
rating productions, which are peas, clover,
clover (that is continued two years) againft
the two exhaufters, wheat and barley. The
field-bean in England, though fmall, is of
the nature of the garden or Windfor-bean,
It grows upright, and giving but a partial
fhade, is not fully an ameliorating crop,
unlefs well horfehoed in the intervals, be
tween the rows.* Neither are turnips or
C 2 potatoes
* " Beans are ufually drilled in rows 18 or 20 inches
" afunder, in England, and kept clean by handhoing.,
36 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
potatoes good fallow crops unlefs they are
manured and cultivated in the like manner.
They there are always on manured ground.
Englifh peas foon covering the ground, even
when fowed broad-caft, are good fallow
crops, although not horfehoed.
American Old Courfes of Crops.
When in Maryland, a farm is divided in
to three fields, the common courfe is maize,
wheat or rye, and fpontaneous rubbifh
pafture. When in four fields, it is maize,
naked fallow, wheat, and the like mean
pafture : or maize, wheat, lay or poor pat-
ture during two years. And whilft in fome
parts of America, the fields are four or
five, in other parts the divifions are as low
as
" in Yorkfhire, the diftance not admitting of a horfehoe ;
" nor did I ever hear of one being ufed, except perhaps
" in fome part of Kent, where beans grow with an un-
" ufual luxuriance, and are confequently fown at an un-
" ufual diftance." S. In Maryland I fhimmed (a kind
of horfehoing) peas, beans and potatoes, growing in
rows 1 8 or 20 inches apart, equal to two of my plow
furrows.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 37
as two. Two exhaufting corn crops re
peatedly taken from three or four fields,
after fome years of fuch crops, would fcarce-
ly admit of eight bufhels of wheat an acre
being produced on common land, one year
with another :* but, fuppofe
No. III.
100 acr. maize, at 12 bufhels 1200
100 wheat, 8 800
100 lay, or mean paflure
300 acres in 3 fields 2000 bufhels.
No. IV.
75 acr. maize
75 wheat
75 la y
75 Ia 7
300 acres, in 4 fields.
No.
* A few years fmce, it was a general belief that fix
bufhels of wheat an acre, was the medium produce of a
large extent of country within the peninfula of Chefa-
peak : but fmce then, till the Heffian fly took pofleffion
of the wheat growing there, the wheat culture was im
proved fo as to gain a larger produce, in that diftrift.
I cannot fo well judge of the crops in Pennfylvania ; but
believe they exceed twelve bufhels of wheat on an acre^
38 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
No. Ill and IV. give light crops, moftly
of a cheap corn, very poor pafture, and
but little hay (if any) for keeping a ftock
of hide-bound beafts and prefervation of a
foil which is in an obvious confumption.
Under fuch fevere treatment, land is conti
nually lofing ftrength; and it may be,
greater productions are here allowed than
the old fettled maize farms yield, and than
new ones can long continue to yield, under
the old habits of farming, if it may be
called farming.*
We
and that they are progreffing with the increaflng ftate of
clover and manurings with dung, gypfum and lime.
* What is above faid, applies rather to Maryland
than to farming in Pennfylvania ; where watered or irri
gated meadows have long been in common ufe : and
it is remarkable that the irrigated and bottom meadow
lands are now thought lightly of, in comparifon with
the very high eftimation they were in before clover came
into field culture. Still irrigated grounds are, as
they ever will be, very valuable : but fo fure and plenti
ful are clover crops, that the Pennfylvania farmers are
lefs folicitous about meadows. Till lately a farm without
irrigated or bottom meadow, was never much valued.
Now, purchafers are lefs anxious for thofe articles, as
they are fure of abounding in clover and hay from the
upland.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 39
We almoft univerfally cultivate one field
in maize, whatever may be in the other
fields. The maize being frequently plowed
or horfehoed,* the ground is thereby kept
light and clean ; and it gives a fallow with
a crop : but it is an ill chofen crop for a
fallow, becaufe of its giving only a trifle of
Jhade to the frefh expofed foil, and becaufe
it is corn, to be fucceeded commonly by
other corn : and all corns are terrible ex-
haufters. Some farmers fow wheat on this
maize-field, in September before the maize
is ripe, on a clean, light foil. Others de
lay fowing it till the enfuing autumn, when
the foil being fomewhat fettled and much
in weeds, they plow, harrow, and fow it
with wheat. Of the two methods farmers
differ in the choice. I have known fome
who had pratifed in both methods, return
to
* Horfehoing, is {Hiring and cleaning from weeds
the interval ground, with a plow or any inftrument which
cuts, divides and breaks it by the power of horfes, at
the fame time that a crop is growing in rows between
the parts horfehoed. Whilft our maize is growing, we
repeatedly horfehoe it ; and we call it, " plowing the
corn."
4-O GRAIN ROTATIONS. .
to the former ; becaufe the latter was, as
they judged, more injurious to the foil
than the former method.
American Fallow-Crops ; and New Rotations,
with and without Maize.*
Maize taken into a rotation under the
new fyftem, according to the newly adopted
principles of hufbandry, occafions fome dif
ficulty, which feems beft overcome by in-
creafing the number of fields. Our huf-
bandmen are fo ufed to maize crops, that
fcarcely any appear difpofed to give up the
culture of this corn, for productions much
milder in their effect on land. Nor is
it ad vi fable that they fhould relinquifh it,
xmlefs it may be on thin foil very liable to
be
* Thefe methods are rather propofed than as yet prac-
tifed in America. But, a beginning is made. Mr.
M'Donough of Delaware has praclifed rotations on the
new principles, with the moft pleafmg fuccefs : and Mr.
Pearce, of Maryland, in leafing out his fine eftate in Safia-
fras Neck, referved 120 acres, which he cultivates in fix
fields, and gives his neighbours an inviting example of
the fupericrity of the new, over the old modes.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 41
be wafhed away, and the land apt to be
broken into gutters. . Maize is the beft of
all the corns. It is food for moft animals,
and its plant yields a great increafe of grain.
Seafons or plagues which injure other corns
do not affect maize : the growing it therefore
gives many chances again ft want. As a
food to man it is remarkably wholefome
and nourishing, and admits of the great'eft
variety in its preparations. In cultivating
it the foil is cleaned and lightened, prepa
rative to other crops : though it is inferior
to preparations with ameliorating crops
giving more fhade, and moiflure from per-
fpiration.
No. V.
A MAIZE COURSE.
50 acr. maize 750
50 wheat or fpring barley 750
50 clover
50 rye or winter barley 900
50 clover
50 clover, pulfe, or roots
300 acres in 6 fields 2400 bufliels.
It
42 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
It is a fault in this fyftem that wheat fuc-
ceeds maize, that is corn fucceeds corn. Rye
or barley might have been in the place of
wheat, but thefe alfo are corns, which ex~
hauft the foil. Clover after maize which
has not been manured is not likely to fuc-
ceed, efpecially when fown without a Jhd-
tering crop; and this flickering crop being
from any grain, would introduce the mif-
chief incident to corn on corn. But even
this faulty fyftem is far preferable to any
of our old courfes.* Had there been only
five fields, it would have been worfe for the
foil ; becaufe a courfe of only two fields in
ame-
* On the above maize courfe No. V. Mr. S. obferves
that " unlefs there is fomething in the foil and climate
" of America, far more favourable to clover than in
" thofe of England, this rotation could not be repeated,
" for reafons before given. It probably is not fuffi-
" ciently afcertained how frequently clover can be fown
" in America." S. Buckwheat is an excellent fal
tering crop to clover, fown in July. If maize has been ma
nured, a. crop of buckwheat, from a fowing in July, may
be taken off in October, after it has fheltered clover fown
alfo in July on the buckwheat being fown. See the note
page American beans are meant in American
crops.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 43
ameliorating crops to three in exhaufting
corn, muft in time render the ground weak,
and comparatively unproductive.
BETTER MAIZE COURSES.
No. VI.
50 acr. maize 750
50 pulfe (or roots) 500
50 barley 1000
50 clover
50 wheat 750
50 clover
300 acres, in 6 fields 3000 bufhels.
No. VII.
43 acr. maize 645
43 pulfe or roots 430
43 barley 860
43 clover
43 wheat 645
43 clover
43 clover (a fecond year)
300 acres in 7 fields 2580 bufliels.
Here
44 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
Here the corn crops are interpofed by-
clover and pulfe : both of them ameliorat
ing to foil ; efpecially when the pulfe grows
in rows fo near as tojhade the well plowed
and cleaned intervals ; and thefe crops are
of three or four araelioraters, to three ex-
haufters.*
BEAN-COURSES.
Farmers having wafliy foils, who would
exclude maize from their crops, may adopt
No. II. in five fields ; or one of the fol
lowing in 6 or 7 fields ; obferving that the
beans muft be the American forts.
No. VIII.
50 acr. beans and roots 500
50 barley . . 1000
50 clover
50 wheat . . . 750
50 clover
50 rye 750
300 acres, in 6 fields . 3000 bufliels.
No.
* Wheat, barley, rye, maize, oats, and generally all
forts of grain of which bread is made, are corns.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 45
No. IX.f
43 acr. beans and roots . 430
43 barley . . 860
43 clover
43 wheat . . 645
43 clover
43 rye . 645
43 clover
300 acres, in 7 fields . 2580 bufliels.
Beans or peas, following clover, are
drilled on one deep plowing in June. Bar
ley is fown in September or Odober, on
one plowing ; the ground having been left
clean and mellow after inning the beans.
Wheat is fown in September on one plow
ing in of the clover. What a faving of
work! Three crops on only one plowing
for each, and performed at leifure ! on'
ground in the melloweft condition. The
beans
\ " For reafons before given this muft be the worft
" rotation yet pointed out ; the clover being fown three
" times in feven years." S. This in England. But,
in America, clover is free from the diforders imputed
to it there.
46 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
beans are plowed for in June ; the wheat
in September ; the barley in Oftober, or
September: or .on fome crops in March.
One of them, a cleaning crop, is horfchped
or fhimmed without any interference with
the plowings and other work in fowing the
wheat or barley. The clover which is to
be plowed in for beans, rriay be paftured
till June, if not mowed for hay : this
would be efpecially advantageous on farms
deficient in meadow ; as there will then be
two clover fields for grafs and hay; and
moreover the ground of that mown, will
be preferved in a light and mellow ftate,
for receiving the bean feed on the one
plowing.
The following are plans of all the fields
in No. VI. a maize fyjl em, and No. VIII.
a beanfyftem ; {hewing the whole of their
crops during fix years,
No.
6 Tears.
I 79 I
I 79 2
1793
1794
1795
1796
GRAIN ROTATIONS.
No. VI.
A B C D E F
Ma
Be
Ba
Cl
Wh
Cl
Be i Ba
c : w : c
M
Ba: C
w: c :M
Be
c : w
C : M ! Be
Ba
w: c
M : Be : Ba
C
c : M
Be '. Ba i C
W
47
Fields.
No. VIII.
A B C D E F
6 rears. .- : & Field*.
Be
Ba
Cl
Wh
ci
Rye
Ba
c
W
C
R
Be
: c
w
C
R
Be
Ba
: w
c
R
Be
Ba
C
: c
R
Be
Ba
C
W
: R
Be
Ba
C
w :
C
Three,
48 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
Three valuable, crops produced on only
one plowing for each, is very important :
and they are on ground in the mellower!
. condition. Other valuable crops may be
procured from ground not eveft once plow
ed for them. Every American- farmer has
his maize field; which is or ought to be
highly plowed or horfehoed, and if not
fown with the txkaufters wheat or rye, it
is fuffered to run up in weeds. "
Inftead of fowing wheat or rye on the
maize ground, or leaving it naked, why not
profit of the maize plowings and cultivation,
in obtaining milder crops on the fame
ground ; which require no other cultivation
than what are neceiTarily applied to the
maize, unlefs it be tp ftrew manure along
the rows of foots, below mentioned ?
Wheat and rye are fown in other fields,
on clover.
If the maize is 4 feet apart in the rows ;
and the interval ground between the rows
7 feet* the cltifters or hills of maize are
155
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 49
, fay 1500011 an acre. Between the
clufters of maize, in the rows, may grow
cabbages, carrots, or potatoes. One cab
bage in that fpace ; or two holes of pota
toes, a foot apart; or five carrots, five
inches apart. Along the middle of the in
tervals, turnips 10 of 12 inches apart, the
feeds fown the loft of July : or roota baga ;
the fame di fiance, fown in May or June*
Plows or Ihims are to be worked length
ways of the intervals, in a fpace of 3^- feet
on each fide of the rows of turnips, whilft
the maize and other plants are growing*
Near the end of September or firft of Oc*
tober, with (harpened hoes, cut up the
maize ftalks clofe to the ground ; having firft
dripped the blades, or not, as you like, but
always with the ears on : and pile the ftalks
in pyramidal form, in fmall parcels, on the
turnings or head-lands, to cure* What of
the roots cannot be faved in cellars and holes,
may be covered with earth by plowing.
The greateft quantity <A grain produced
in a rotation is not alone a proof of its be-
D ing
50 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
ing the beft fyftem. A large quantity of
good meadow would yield much hay. It
is a fin againft good hufbandry to fell off
the hay of a farm. Numbers of cattle well
fed and well littered, give the manure, in
addition to other manures, requifite for in
vigorating the foil : but numbers of cattle
cannot be kept in good condition through
the year i unlefs clover or grafs as well as
hay abound. The fummer food and that
of the winter are to bear a due proportion
to each other : and the fields of grain are
not to exceed the fields of ameliorating crops.
Thefe preferve the foil, as well as produce
crops : but grain reduces the foil in produc
ing the crops.
It is reafonable to expect that the better
courfes No. VI. VII. VIII. and IX. would
yield by the acre, more of every article of
produce than the inferior courfe No. V.
But they are ftated alike. Of the feveral
forts of white beans, I have only cultivated
the white dwarf or bufh bean, in my fields,
which was in rows 18 inches apart, and
cleaned
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 5!
cleaned with a {him, the blade whereof was
a little convex in the line of its front or edge,
which was 1 3 inches wide. The ground
perfectly clear of ftone and gravel. Thefe
beans confiderahly {haded the ground,
though not fo fully as was wifhed. It was
therefore intended to have tried the fort of
white beans which would run and Jloelter
the ground more perfeGly, after being
horfehoed with a {him* repeatedly, as long
D 2 as
* Shims are in various forms, acute or obtufe, as the
ground is flony or not. In general, it is a hoe drawn
by a horfe. The blade of the one I ufed, was 12 inches
wide, and was welded to a fmall coulter on each fide of
it, ferving alfo as ftandurds to the blade. Two Hilts are
failened to the coulters with fcrews and nuts, which
could be {Lifted to different holes for fetting the (him to
go deeper or fhallower in the ground : but they were little
ufed. The fliim is. not ufed in half plowed ground : but
this being previoully well plowed and harrowed, the (him
runs 3 or 4. inches .deep, and crumbles the earth into fuch
minute parts that, as it proceeds, the earth feems to pour
over the blade of the fbim like water. A coarfe rake of
4 or 5 teeth, hung to the tail of the {him, as it worked.
The two coulters or fide ftandards feemed to interfere
with the growing vines, when they were advanced to a
confiderable fize : but there appeared no real damage
from it. A fmgle iUndard of wood or iron would be
52 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
as that inftrument could be admitted to pafs
between the rows to advantage. Remov
ing to refide in Philadelphia, prevented
the making this experiment. It is faid that
white beans are generally in great demand
in Madeira and the fouthern countries of
Europe. I have feen letters from Barcelo
na ftating the price of" white beans" high
er there than of wheat. Other forts of
American beans as well as feveral forts of
American peas, I have cultivated ; and the
crops
clear of even full grown vines. I did not always hill or
ridge up potatoes and beans, nor even maize. For
though maize is the better, yet the ground and future
crops are the worfe for it. But it is well to edge up fome
moderate quantity of earth to plants cultivated in rows
with the horfehoe or fhim. The intention whereof is to
fmother infant weeds which have juft broken out clofe to
the crop, and beyond the reach of the fhim. Hills and
ridges are not otherwife fo advantageous as is commonly
thought : and there are advantages in keeping the ground
nearly level when under maize. A flip of iron is made to
fhift off and on each fide of the blade of the fhim, for oc-
cafionally edging up light ridges of earth. The fhim is an
excellent inftrument againft young weeds ; but is infuffici-
ent where grafs and weeds have obtained ftrength. When
the ground is in good condition, it performs a vaft deal
of work, very fatisfa&orily.
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 53
crops of all were rather precarious ; peas
generally more fo than beans, excepting the
lady pea, which is round and the fize of
duck-fhot. Until fome other plant fhall be
introduced which will anfwer better than
beans for a fallow crop, farmers ought to
think nothing of giving a dollar a bufhel
for them to be applied to produce -^Jhading
and ameliorating article of fallow, although
not a bean fhould be gained from them :
preferving the fyftem being fo very impor
tant ! It is not uncommon for adive fpirited
farmers in England, to fow feeds of various
plants, merely for improving their foil :
fuch as vetches, tares, buckwheat.* Thefe
whilft
* Vetches and Tares are different names for the fame
pulfe, the varieties are great. Generally, they are divid
ed into winter and fummer vetches. Confult Mr. An-
derfon's Agriculture. He fpeaks of forts which are per
petual. I would prefer a vetch hardy enough to bear our
winters ; and that is of quick growth and ripens early,
whether it be of the perennial kind or not. With fuch
a plant might be practifed Mr. Toung's'" round and com
plete" mode, prefently mentioned in the text, One fort
of winter vetch, I have tried; the feed imported from
England. The feeds werefown in two fucceffive au
tumns. The ground being rather of the fort called
54 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
\vhilft growing, Jheltel their fallows ; and
being plowed in green, they ferment and
open the foil. Such alfo is the effec~i from
clover; which having wheat fown on it,
upon one plowing, is followed with extra
ordinary crops. Mr. Young mentions an
excellent courfe of made and green dreffing,
preparative to a corn crop ; by which feeds
for producing three crops were fown on
the fame ground, between autumn and au
tumn, with only three plowings, thus:
winter tares were fown in September with
one plowing. They were reaped early
next fummer. Then immediately buck-
wheat was fown on one plowing and har
rowing. The buckwheat was plowed in,
in September ;* and wheat was fown on
this,
" water holding," and only about a moiety of the plants
ftood through the winters.
* Buckwhfat is to be plowed in before it feeds, left a
new growth becomes a weed to the crop of corn. The
partridge pea, Aquamaque or Magothy bay-bean, has
wonders imputed to it as an ameliorater of the light fatufy
lands in the peninfula of Virginia. In fize and other
particulars, the plant may be confidered as being a Lilli
putian locuft tree. For, although it is an annual, yet its
GRAIN ROTATIONS. 55
this, on one plowing j the crop whereof
was great. " Thus, fays Mr. Young, as
" the fpring advances, and the fun becomes
<c powerful enough to exhale the humidity
" and with it the nutritious particles of the
" land, the crop (which was from a full
" fowing) advances and fcreen^ it from the
" action of his beams. Whatever weeds
" are in the foil vegetate with the young
" tares, and are either firangled by their lux-
" uriance,
ftem is a hard locuft-like wood ; and its leaves, flowers^
pods and feeds greatly refemble thofe of that tree. The
woody hardnefs of the plant is in appearance againft its
being a choice ameliorater, as it is not likely to ferment
and as it were melt away in the ground, fo foon as buck
wheat and other juicy foft fubftances. No plant, how
ever, can exceed fazjhade it gave on a piece of ground in
my garden. A Lilliputian might have been there loft in.
darknefs. ThisJ&ade and a perfpiration from the plants,
during the greateft heat of fummer, together with an ex
traordinary quantity of lloflbms, pods and leaves, which
the plants depofit on the ground are probably what give
the great manuring and amelioration, which the people
of Aquamaque fatisfa&orily experience. But this plant
is fo difficult to eradicate, it is faid that it is fufpected it
might become an injurious weed in other foils and courfes
of crop;, than thofe in Aquamaque. Their courfes being
maize, oats and lay, on a fandy loofe foil, good of the fort.
56 GRAIN ROTATIONS.
c< uriance, or cut off with them before
<c they can feed. This crop is cleared from
* c the land fo early that the foil would re-
" main expofed to the fun through the moft
" burning part of the fummer for three
" months ; and if fo left expofed, the three
<c plo wings would do mifchief, except in
" killing fome weeds. To give one plow-
< ing immediately and harrow in buck-
" wheat, fpares expenfe, and the growing
" herbage lhades the earth when it wants
" moft to be fo protected : withal a dref-
" fmg of manure is gained at no expenfe.
" It is not in the power of fcience, of the-
" ory or of pra&ice to introduce a fyftem
" more round and complete. Many have
" fown tares ; and many have plowed in
" buckwheat; and moft have given a year
" to each ; but it is the combination of the
" two that forms the merit. 3 '
A Parti-
DESIGN, &c. . 57
A Particular Defign for a Gram Farm.*
Timothy grafs, when cut not before
milk is in the feeds, makes a brownifh and
feemingly harfh. hay : but horfes, the beft
of judges, prefer it to early cut green hay.
On fome accounts orchard grafs may be
preferred for permanent meadows. It comes
early in the fpring, lafts till winter, is hardy
and gives large crops. The feeds of it {hat
ter out before the heads are generally
changed from the green colour. Watch
the moment for faving feeds of it.
Keep 20 acres of permanent meadow in
timothy or orchard grafs, for hay. This
laft comes early in the fpring, with clover.
They may be cut immediately one after the
other, or at the fame time; and the hay
flowed away together, layer on layer which
may be a means of correcting fome fuppof-
ed
s Written for the late Mr. Rigal ; when he thought of
fitting down on a grain farm, at a confiderable diftancc
from town.
^8 DESIGN FOR
ed bad qualities in clover : at leail thofe
dry hays would abforb any redundant moi-
fture remaining in the clover hay. Befides
you can ftack your clover hay out of doors
more fecurely, when you have a good
quantity of timothy or orchard grafs mea
dow, for furniihing the clover Racks with
good toppings from its hay ; if you are not
in the practice of thatching with ftraw.
C Homeftead i o acres
General Divifion. ) Meadow 20
^ Crops 120
150
Acres. v Acres.
so Pulfe and roots, fal- 1 7 Maize, fallow crop,
low crop. 17 Pulfe and roots, do.*
20 Barley. 17 Barley or rye.
20 Clover. 17 Clover.
TTT v ("May befownin
20 Wneat. T*TI<. 3 July with BW.
~, I? Wheat 'V& Clover, if the
20 Clover. foil is rich .
20 Rye. J 7 Clover.
17 Roots, or cL 2 d year.
120 acres in 6 fields. 120 acres in 7 fields.
The
* Inftead of pulfe or roots, here, there may be a ma-
fiuring given by a fpring fcnving of buckwheat turned iff.
A GRAIN FARM. 59
The maize courfe requires one of the
fields to be continued in clover, two years ;
unlefs it be tended in roots, buckwheat, &c.
upon turning in the firft year's clover, after
the fpring mowing. Potatoes are beft when
plarf&d in June ; by which their bulbing
ftate avoids the too dry feafon of midfum-
mer. I doubt however of the buckwheat
crop ; as it is faid to be rather impoverim-
ing when it feeds. Roots are excellent on
feveral accounts : they are but little injuri
ous to the foil ; and when duly cultivated
they are even ameliorating. They are pe
culiarly
and then buckwheat fown in July for a crop with clover feed
on it : which would alfo give a fyftem in manured maize
thus ; maize ; buckwheat, preceded by a manuring of
plants turned in green ; clover ; wheat ; clover ; barley or
rye and roots ; clover, in 7 fields : a great variety and
change of fpecies eafily manured every 7 years ! and ac
cording to the note in page 32, there may be a portion al
lowed to lay, in meadow, during the rotation of crops. If
the maize groundlia-S been well manured, on the laft plowing
in July, buckwheat may be fowed for crop, and immediate
ly on it, clover feed ; the ground being kept level with'
cut any hill or ridge to the maize plants. Or if a field is
meant to be turned out, to lay in meadow during a rota
tion of crops, then inftead of clover, fow timothy or
orchard grafs with the July fowing of buckwheat.
60 DESIGN FOR
culiarly defirable as a winter and fpring
food to live flock, for their nouri filing
quality, and to correcl the coftive tendency
of their dry food. If you cannot think fo
highly of roots as I do, you may prefer fix
twenty acre fields, in maize, pulfe, barley
or rye, clover, wheat, clover one year.
In fome of the flates there is a ruinous bias
for large felds of grain, efpecially wheat
and maize; and this efpecially in young
giddy farmers, wild after expenfive amufe-
ments, and wafteful of time and income
which ought to be applied to dome/lie com-
forts. A great deal of ground is fcratch-
ed and hurried over, with the delufive ex
pectation of much wheat and maize, for ex
tricating them from debt, or to fupport
their habits of frivolous enjoyments abroad^
inftead of improving their farms and pro
moting happinefs at home. But, how mife-
rable are the crops ! how impcrverifhed
the foil ! and how entangled the improvi
dent farmer !*
A bean
* Farmers differ in the opinion whether buckwheat is
an impoverillier or not of foil. Some fay it impoverifties
A GRAIN FARM. 6l
A bean fallow crop is where beans are
fown in rows, about 10 inches apart; and
the
when fuffered to run to feed : but all, who have tried it,
admit that it improves foil when plowed in before it
forms feeds. My experience of it is flight. Few farmers
fouth of Pennfylvania, know the value of buckwheat :
for, being ignorant of its properties, they hold it in no
eftimation, and avoid it. In England a Mr. Farrers
and Mr. Young have given their opinion of it as follows ;
and in Pennfylvania there are few farmers who do not
find their account in it ; for all fow it for crop, and fome
to turn in for a manure to the foil. Mr. Farrers, a con-
fiderable corn ''factor, defires that all who have horfes to
feed, will try buckwheat mixed with bran, chaff, or grains %
either whole or broken in a mill. When ufed as grafs it
flufhes cows with milk : it is therefore prefumed the meal
mixed with grains, would have the fame good effect, and
enrich the milk. A bufhel of it, he adds, goes further
than two bufliels of oats; even with beans mixed with
four times as much bran it will be full food for a horfe>
a week, and much lefs hay will do. Be aflured, he rays,
8 bulhels of buckwheat meal will go as far as 1 2 bufhels of
barley meal ; and he writes this from experience, and he
concludes with obferving that the advantages produced^
from fowing buckwheat are as follows :
i ft. To p/o<w it in, which mends the land :
2d. In a dry fummer, it is fodder (grafs) for the cattle :
3d. If it ftands for a crop, it may be equal in quantity
with oats, -
62 DESIGN FOR
the intervals^ between row and row are 1 8
or 20 inches apart, and horfehoed or fhim-
med repeatedly ; whereby the ground is
kept ftirred and clean, fo as to be a well
prepared fallow for receiving another crop.
So it is of a maize fallow crop.
If
On what Mr. Farrer fays, Mr. Young obferves that the
application of buckwheat as a food to horfe^ has been very
properly touched on by Mr. Farrer ; and that it is of
very great importance. On my own repeated experi
ence, fays Mr. Young, this plant ameliorates the foil fo
much that the farmer may have any crop after it, efpecially
wheat ; and fo it is commonly cultivated about Norwich.
I An. 199. Yet farmers in America fay it is an impro
per food for horfes on a journey or any a&ive bufmefs :
but its meal mixed with other corn, or perhaps cut ftraw,
anfwers well even for horfes, in a flow draught. But
certainly it is a cheap corn t which anfwers many good pur*
pofes. I never have feen ground tolerably prepared for
a buckwheat crop. In common it is fown upon a fingle
flovenly plowing of oat or other ftubble ; and the feed is
hurried in, as oats too commonly are, on ground we
know not how elfe to employ. If clover or timothy
feeds are to be fown during the hot weather of the rum
mer, buckwheat plants give the mofl excellent flicker,
till in October the buckwheat is ctit for its crop : after
which the fun can no longer injure the clover ; but gives
it a due p'ortion of warmth, and pufhes it forward till
eold of winter locks up all vegetation.
A GRAIN FARM, 63
If one field is manured in each year,
then the fix fields will be all manured in fix
years, at ao acres a year : and ieven fields
in feven years at 17 acres a year. The
farmer vyho manures the whole of his ara
ble fields in every feven years, will accom-
plifh a great object, tending highly to his
domeflic comfort, his reputation, and his
independency of creditors ! The {landing
meadow muft have its full fhare of manure.
Manuring one field every year, is to be
an unceafing practice, in a regular rotation
for ever. Manures are to be faved in com-
pacl: mafles," flickered from the fun ; and in
fome meafure from the rain, though what
of it falls on the area of the dungheap can
fcarcely injure the dung, fome moifture be
ing requifite to its fermenting.' It is advi-
fable to make fmall trials of your foil, with
lime, gypfum, clay, trench plowing, &c.
on flips of your land : for no one can fay
beforehand, what will be the efied of thefe
applied to your particular foil.
Every
64 DESIGN FOR
Every kind of manure is to be carefully
collefted and duly flickered. On manure
being carried to the field, fpread and plow
it in quick as poffible. Have the implements
and the labourers ready on the fpot. Range
the loads in lengths / fpread and inftantly
plow the dung in, line by line. It diflblves
better in the ground when turned in frefh ;
and the whole ftrength of it is fecured to
the foil.
For the fake of manure, and on account
of the cattle ; keep all live ftock houfed ;
fully littered ; duly fed, including a fhare
of 'juicy food added to their Jlraw.* A lefs
quantity
* I farmed in a country where habits are againft a due
attention to manures :' but having read of the application
of marl, as a manure, I inquired where there was any in
the peninfula of Chefapeak, in vain. My own farm had
a greyifh clay which to the eye was marl : but becaufe it
did not effervefce with acids, it was given up ; when it
ought to have been tried on the land ; efpecially as it
rapidly crumbled and fell to mud, in water, with fomc
appearance of efFervefcence. Elfewhere I fpeak of com
mon yellowi/h clay, tunned up to two feet at one place,
and three or four feet deep at another, proving very pro
ductive of mellon vines. Mr. Tmng fpeaks of clays (4 E.
I
A GRAI'N FARM. 65
of litter 1 is requifite to beafts houf-
ed, than when they are in a wet, dirty
yard.
A System of Recurring Crops ; in which one Field
is in Meadow whilst the others are interchange
ing Crops : with a Plan of a Farm Tard, and
Buildings ) adapted to it.
To farmers approving of the new me
thods of cultivation, but who contend that
a part of the arable ground ought to lay
out a number of years at perfect reft from,
being broken up or yielding any thing elfe
than grafs, the following defign is {'ubmit-
ted ; the rather, as a permanent meadow of
fpire -leaved graffes, certainly is very ad-
E Van-
Tour 412.) where 8 loads an acre on a fandy loam, an-
fwcred greatly. At another place, 40 loads of clay an
acre, on rich, light, mixed loam, lafted 40 years. All
whereof was in a country faid to underftand and to have
experienced marl more than mod ; and they there prefer
the clay to marl, where both are to be had. This is im
portant ! and impels me to repeat it, that farmers are to
make trials of their foils, in fmall parcels, with clay, and
other fubftances. Alfo trials of trench plowing, of vari
ous depths.
66 CROPS WITH MEADOW
vantageous ; efpecially if it be only cut for
hay and never trod clofe in pafturing, ex
cept it may be, difcretely, the aftermath,
and alfo that it be fupported by manures.
Any found land may be brought to yield
crops of grafs : but clover, requiring re
newal every fecond year, is infufficient for
a ftanding or permanent meadow.
The prefent defigfi allows a feventh of
time in grafs ; and is accompanied as well
with the fyftem of recurring rotations of
crops, as with eftimates and obfervations
which may afford ufeful intimations.
Acres.
Fds. 30 Timothy, in standing meadow during the
years in which the other fields are
under a change of crops.
30 Maize. In July buckwheat and clover feed
are fown on it: the maize having
been previoufly manured, plow
ed, harrowed, and occafionally
rolled ; and left quite level with
out the leafl hill or ridge.*
30 Clover.
3
* For this, fee a new mode of cultivating maize, page
IN ROTATION. 67
30 Wheat 3
30 Clover. Gypfumed in the fpring ; if not
before on the clover fown on the
maize. |
E 2 30 Rye
*] Mr. Middleton, farmer on Pool's Ifland, informs
me, that in December he gives his wheat a top-dreffing
of frefh dung from the flable, and then rolls it. In the
fpring he rolls it again, and " finds the wheat is improv-
" ed, and greatly relieved from the HeJJianfy. The dung
" gives vigour to the plants ; and he thinks rolling fmo-
" thers or crufhes many of the eggs or maggots." Mr.
Middleton, bred to the fea, is alfo an excellent farmer ;
and has pra&ifed the above two years, for oppofmg the fly.
J Where the manurings are frequent, the quantity-
each time applied may be moderate : provided that on the
whole round of crops they (hall amount to a full manuring.
The gypfum in this cafe may be only a biilhel ; the lime
20 to 40 according to the quality of the foil ; the pow
dered limeftone (or fhells) 6 or 8 bufhels ; the dung 10
loads. Thefe annually applied to the fields in rotation,
one after another, will keep ground in good heart, where
exhaufting crops do not predominate over mild crops.
Gypfum is not a manure to all foils. So of trench plow
ing ; which improves mod foils, but not all : and every
Farmer ought to try lime, gypfum, raw limeftone or
oyfterfhells in powder, clay, marl, &c. in fmall, before
he pronounces they are or are not manures to his parti
cular foih
68 CROPS WITH MEADOW
30 Rye and barley. A top-drefling with
raw limeftone, or {hells, pulver
ized.
30 Turnips and potatoes 18 acres, beans or
peas 12 acres.
30 Buckwheat plowed in : and in July fown
for crop Timothy feed on it.||
240
20 Homeftead ; including manfion,
farmyard, ftackyard, orchard, &c.
260 acres, arable and meadow.
Produfls
Rye, for its meal and ftraw to live Hock ; barley for
beer.
|] On covering the buckwheat fown for crop, lofe nd
time in fowing the timothy, leaving it uncovered. The
fame of clover on buckwheat. Settling of the foil ; or
rains, dews, or wind, will fuffice for bringing the grafs
feeds to grow ; or run a light roller over it : but beware
that the foil is not left to crumble down or fettle before
the grafs feed is fown. Suffer no time to run between
fowing the feeds of buckwheat and grafs : but perform
the laft as in the next breath after the buckwheat is har
rowed in. If however, the fun be very powerful, it may
be fafei to cover the grafs feeds with a very light harrow,
or light roller. Many gtafs feeds are covered by evert
fmall lumps of earth ; and therefore more feeds are requi-
fite than when left altogether uncovered.
IN ROTATION. 69
Produtts of the Crops, by Estimation.
c.
Maize 30 acr. at 20 bitftr. 600 at 50 cents 30000
Wheat 30 12 360 100 36000
Buckwheat 60 12 720 50 36000
Rye & Bar. 30 15 450 60 27000
Potatoes &c. 30 (pot. 4 a .=8oo b . turnips i4 a .= -|
56oo b . at 8 C .=5I200 C . Beans I2 a :zi4o b . > 65200
Hay 6o a 120 T. at iooo c 120000
Clover, foiled, 24 mow 4= 60000
Straw, hufks and fodder of go 3 exclufive of 1 x g
buckwheat ftraw. J
Buckwheat ftraw of 6o a I oboo
402000
Which 402000 cents, by dotting off the two figures on
the right hand are 4020 dollars.
Crops
* An acre ought to produce above 400 bufliels of
turnips or 200 of potatoes. Turnips when early thinned
to about 1 2 inches apart, and well hoed, yield above
double the quantity, and more perfect than what are
fcarcely at all thinned or hoed. Country people have not
refolution to cut up plants in hoing, however thick they
ftand ; as it feems to them robbing the ground. In efti-
mates of crops, the coft of cultivation or loweft country
price of products, for country confumption, is to be reck
oned, without any regard to town price. For what is con-
fumed by cattle on the farm, the valua is received out of
70 CROPS WITH MEADOW
Crops expended in Food to Live Stock.
Stock cattle are kept : others are fattened.
The feeding is different. Cattle kept, need
no kind of grain ; and it would be wafte
to give it them ; nor even bay, unlefs to
cows about calving time. Straw with any
juicy food, fuch as roots or drank^ abun
dantly fuffices for keeping cattle in heart
through winter, provided they are flickered
from cold rains. Mr. Bakewell kept his
fine cattle on Jlrcwo and turnips in winter,
To
the flock maintained and fattened, including their dung
and urine. An acre of 200 buftiels of potatoes at 10 cents
?. bufyel gives 20 dollars ; when an acre of 1 2 bufhels
o wheat at 100 cents gives but 12 dollars. The feeding
articles of produce being fairly expended on the farm, the
foil is the better of it ; but when they are fold off, the foil
is foon weakened ; becomes unproductive, and keeps the
farmer poor as itfelf.
f The word drank is given us by Count Rumford,
who underftands as well the German as the Englifh Ian-,
guage ; and in a work of his in Englifh, drank is prefer-,
red, for diftingui flung his ccmpofition from fimple wa^
ter as a drink. It is therefore preferred in the prefent
Work.
IN ROTATION. 71
To the fouth of Pennfylvania, flock cattle
are kept, though indeed meanly, in winter
on corn-hufks and ftraw, without roots or
drank or any aperient .or diluent material
that could correct the coftive effect of the
dry food ; unlefs mayhap a nibble of a few
weeds and buds, when they ramble abroad
poaching the fields, and expofing them-
felves to debilitating cold rains and fleet.
Water, often too cold to be drunk by them,
is their only diluent : and how common is
it to fee them only fip and then turn away
from their water, in winter ; efpecially
when put to it early, before the fun has
reduced its cold.
HORSES;
CRO?S WITH MEADOW
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Dung
IN ROTATION. - 73
Dung yearly procured from the above
ftock of cattle, ftieep and hogs, may be ;
from
* Mr. Cook (drill inventor) fuppoited in winter, 40
cattle near 7 months on 30 acres of Jlraw, cut into chaff,
and 4 acres of turnips ; and faved from them 400 tuns of
dung. 28. E. Rev. 89. Thefe cattle had their/raw c ut
fmall, but the turnips were raw. Had the cut-ftraw and
turnips been boiled together in water with fait, as a drank
(a term convenient to be retained) it would have been
of more advantage to the cattle. A drank for keeping
cattle may be made thus : roots, chaff or cut-ftraw, and
fait, boiled together in a good quantity of water : the
roots cut or mafhed. The cattle drink the water, and
eat the reft. Drank for fattening cattle, thus : roots,
meal, flaxfeed (fee page ) chaff or cut-ftraw and fait,
well boiled together, in a plenty of water. If given
warm, not hot, it is the better. The 70 full raters are
thus ftated: Cows 48 Calves 8
Bulls 2 Yearlings 8
Oxen 14 Two years 8
64 24=14
64
78
Off the fattened 8
Winter full eaters 70
f Lambs to drop about 2Oth March, 60 : whereof
raife 38 for fupplying the places of 13 ewes and rams,
killed at 4 years old, an.d 25 weathers killed at z years
old. There may remain 20 lambs for fale. The win
ter kept fheep will be 52 ewes and rams, and the 38
y4 CROPS WITH MEADOW
from the cattle 820 loads ; the (heep, 1 80 ;
the hogs 60: in all 1060 loads.* At 10
loads
lambs ; together 90 head. The fame numbers are foiled
in fummer. Not having feen any inftance ofJifef>Jbt/fJ t
I only believe from certain circumftances and facts ftated
by writers that it would anfwer well, as with other beafts :
and in Flanders, it is faid, " their fheep are always in
ftables, an<J every day let into the yard, to breathe the
air." 20 An. 466. Sheep are a neceflary variety of live
ftock. Their meat is generally valued, and by many
preferred. Their wool is eflential in clothing. Their
dung is rich. Hogs alfo give rich dung ; and when at
tentively faved it is in good quantities. Sheep are to
have hay or corn blades in winter with roots and fait : for
fattening them add Indian meal. How would flaxfced or
its jelly agree with fheep ? The turnips and potatoes ex
pended above, are rather fcanty ; though confiderable,
where they never before were fo applied.
* Cattle in England, when fully Jittered, have given
twelve large loads of manure, each, in the courfe of a
winter only. During fummer they ran on pafture. But
in the propofed cafe of cattle being houfed through the
whole year, though but partially littered, the dung being
well faved, may be expected to amount to much more
than 10 loads each. Mr. Bakewell was not in the practice
of littering his cattle, till fome years before his death :
but he carefully faved their dung, by dally fhovelling it
up from their flails, and ftoring it on the dunghill. A
yian and a boy attended to 40 head of grown cattle. Not
kaving feen dung faved from fneep or hogs, my calcula-
IN ROTATION. 75
loads an acre, the 1060 loads, together
with the other manures propofed, is dung
enough for 100 acres. Twenty loads of
fuch rich dung, to an acre, would be a
good manuring alone : but the 1060 loads,
laid on one of the fields of 30 acres, give
above 35 loads an acre ; which are abund
ant. A variety of manures is defirable:
gypfum, lime, rawlimeftone and {hells in
duft, marl, clay, &c.
If no more live flock w r ere kept on the
farm, than fhouLd be neceflary for labour
and food, and all the crops were fold off,
the income for a. few years would confider-
ably exceed what could be derived from a
full
tion refpecling their dung is at random. Reckoning 5
fheep to a cow, it is then fuppofed they make but half as
much dung as one cow, and the eftimate fhould be under
rather than over rated. The dung at the rate of five hogs
to a cow, 68 hogs ought to yield 136 loads: but there
are only 60 of hogs dung ftated. Great attentions are due
to faving their dung. Though hogs feem to make much
dung, yet.it is apprehended it will be long ere old habits
will give way to American farmers adopting proper me
thods of faving this valuable article of produce.
j CROPS WITH MEADOW
full ftock of beafts kept on the farm and
fattened. But how great the injuftice to
the foil ! to what a heartlefs, unproductive
ftatc it foon would be reduced ! This it is
which has ruined the fine lands rn Mary
land and Virginia plowing much land,
and felling off the produce, without repa
ration to the foil This it is which, with
idle habits, rivets on country families per
petual want, poverty, and debts, oft-times
in the midft of a deceitful appearance of
plenty !
It is prefumed the foil of the farm under
consideration is in good heart ; and in a
way of becoming better from a mode of
farming far fuperior to what is feen in the
countries, of America, fouth of Pennfyl-
vania. In Fennfylvania and the eaftern
Hates, quick renewals of clover, in entire
fclds, are coming into practice ; and with
various manures are feen to reftore abufed
foil, and yearly improve it. But in the
countries of noted bad hufbandry there is
only feen, what is bragged of, here and
there
IN ROTATION. 77
there a /<?/, a patch of clover : a narrow
aim at doing fomething. It feeds a favorite
horfe ; but nothing comes of it towards im
proving the fields. A third of fourth of the
whole arable of farms fown with clover
yearly upon finall grain, and cut onefccifon^
and then plowed in together with the re
mains of old ftubble, might be expecled
gradually to improve foil from poor clover
nibbled to flout clover cut. Whilfl: this
courfe of improvement is in practice, all
forts of manures are to be unceafingly add
ed. Here let it be repeated that, it is not
immediate income alone which the provi
dent farmer aims at : for whilft he wiihes
to obtain annual full crops, he knows it is
neceflary for the purpofe, that the foil fliould
be preferved in full vigour. His cares are
therefore chiefly applied to the means of
preferring and improving the productive
powers of the earth : and he fees that no
random purfuits can enfure a fucceffion of
advantageous hufbandry.
INCOME
CROPS WITH MEADOW
o
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IN ROTATION.
79
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8o CROPS WITH MEADOW
ILLUSTRATION, of the whole round of Crops dur
ing 7 years ; with one Field continually in Mea
dow, during the Ti?ne of the Rotation.
1 Yr ,
B C D E F G Hs F
r^JTim.JMaizj Cl. (Wh.j Cl. JRye.j Po. |_B\
9 l :Tim7: ~~cTTw~ rc7 R P~ ~B~;~M
3 :Tim.: W:C:R:P:B:M:C
4 :Tim.: c R P : B ; M : c : w
5 :Tim.: R:P:B:M:C:W:C
6!Tim.: p : B : M : c : w : c : R
7 :Tim.: B:M:C:W:C:R:P
The crops of the frft year, of this table,
are particularly treated of in page 66 ;
where it is feen that the rye field contains
lome barley ; the potatoe field, fome turnips
and beans or peas : the maize field alfo
gives buckwheat. The buckwheat field,
which is next after the potatoe field, is
fown with timothy feed, for giving a new
meadow
IN ROTATION. 8l
meadow next year, which like the former
is to ftand out the renewed rotation of crops.
This new meadow will be on field B. The
next on field C. and fo on.
In defigning a recurring round of crops,
their fucceffion is to be tried on a plan or
table, drawn for the purpofe, by reading
the table, and flightly marking it with a pen
diagonally downward, and feeing that they
run the fame throughout ; and moreover
that there are not more nor lefs in the num
ber of each fort in a year, any where in the
table, than are in the firft year among all the
feven fields, or are in B field, during the
feven years rotation. The table anfwering
in thefe particulars, warrants a true, order
ly courfe of crops and employment, which
will recur for ever.
The following is a fketch of a fyftem of crops j
in which one field is 7 years in hemp, and the fame
field is followed with timothy meadow another 7
years ; whilft other 7 fields are in annual changes
of various crops: fo that of the 9 fields, 2 are in
hemp or timothy during 14 years; and 7 in
various rotation, recurring crops. Every field
coming into hemp and timothy in time.
F
82
Years. A
D
H I
1791
He. | Tim.
Maiz
Cl.
Wh.
CI.
Rye.
Bk.
Po.|
Fields.
92! He. .'Tim.! C \ W \ C '. R \ Bk ! P ! M !
93 : He. .'Tim.! W \ C .' R .' Bk \ P ! M ! C \
94; He. .'Tim.: C \ R .* Bk \ P \ M ! C I W \
95 \ He. iXim.: R ! Bk I P ! M | C .' W ] C '.
9^: He. :xim.: Bk : p : M : c : w : c : R :
97 : He. :Tim.: p:M:c:w:c:R:Bk:
X X X - X X X X X - X X Ift Ro '
98 :xim.; M : c : w : c : R : Bk : P : He. :
99 .'xim..: c : w : c : R : Bk : p : M : He. ;
1800 ;xim.: w : c : R : Bk: p : M : c :HC. :
1 :xim,: c : R : Bk : p : M : c : w; He. ;
2 ;xim.: R : Bk : p : M : c : w : c : He. :
3 :xim.: Bk : P M ; c : w : c R : He. :
4:xim.: P : M : c : w c : R : Bk :He. ;
X X X X X X X X X X 2d Ro '
5 : M : He. : c : w : c ; R : Bk : p :xim.:
6 : c : He. : w : c : R : Bk : p : M :xim.:
7 : w : He. : c : R : Bk : P : M : c :xim.:
8 : c : He. : R : Bk : p : M : c : w iTim.:
9 : R : He. : Bk : P : M : c : w : c :xim.:
1810 : Bk : He. : P : M : c : w : c : R :Tim.:
ii : p : He. : M : c : w : c : R : Bk :Tim.:
X --- X --- X X --- X --- X --- X ---- X -- X --- X 3^ Ro.
83
The ground, well prepared, is in April fown
with hemp, and for 7 years fucceflively, after
being plowed and harrowed in the fall and fpring,
fometimes with manure added, it is repeatedly in
hemp.
Timothy is to follow hemp ; fo that in the
feventh year, the hemp being inned, and in
early Auguft the ground being plowed and har
rowed fine, you fow buckwheat and timothy feeds,
after the hemp crop.
This is continued 7 years in timothy, mowed
once a year for hay ; and now and then receives
a top-dreffing of manures. When the 7th crop
is off, plow in the fward neatly, and harrow and
roll it in the direction of the furrows. The fward
being duly fmothered, heats and rots if done
before cold weather. It refts thus till April for
perfecting the rotting. Then lift, crofs, and
plant maize.
Potatoes manured and well cultivated, clean
and mellow the ground perfectly. Hemp is always
to be begun on a new field, after manured
potatoes.
- Hemp leaves the ground clean and mellow,
therefore timothy is renewed after hemp, in Au-
guft or July ; the feeds fown on buckwheat,
which is a neceiTary flicker to the young ti
mothy.
The maize culture cleans the ground, and
pulverizes it after timothy, for future changes
of crops. F 2
84 FARM YARD.
A FARM TARD,
ADAPTED to the PRECEDING STSTEM.
It is an efpecial obje& in this defign that
the whole yard and its buildings, fhould be
in view from the manfion ; and that they
be conftrudted at a proper diftance, neither
too near nor too far from the manfion.
The food fhould be near to the houfed live
flock, for readily diftributing it. The yard
ought to be compad ; and the doors of the
buildings, and the gates of the yard, feen
from the manfion.*
The
* It is not to fave ground that compaftnefs is here de-
fired ; but that the attentions due to the live ftock may be
performed in the readied and beft way. A yard contain
ing cattle always houfed, is never to be littered with
ftraw, but all litter carelefsly dropt on it, is to be raked
off, for fecurity againft fire dropt on the way to the boiling
houfe ; and the beafts are not fuffered to ftroll about
wafting dung and urine. When let out and watered,
they are to be inftantly returned to their ftalls, regularly
in detachments, one fet after another. On paper, an
o&agon form of a farm yard is pleafmg to the eye : but
the above is preferred,
FARM YARD. 85
The home/lead includes this yard ; toge
ther with its ftackyard, the garden, nurfery,
orchard,* and fome acres for occafional
ufe : fuch as the letting mares, or fick beafts
run in, at liberty.
Explanation of Plate.
1. Manfion. 8. Pigeon-houfe.
2. Kitchen, Oven, and Aflv
hole.
3. Poultry-houfe, and yard.
4. Wood-yard.
5. Laboratory (Laborature)
6. Milk-houfe.
7. Ice-houfe.
9. Cloacas.
10. Family yard.
11. Pump.
1 2 . Watering troughs
13. Sow and Pig fties.
14. Cow-houfe.
15. Boiling-houfe.f
16.
* Beer is always certainly attainable on farms ; but
cyder is very precarious : therefore no more orchard
fhould be eftablifhed than would plentifully fupply the
farm with fummer and winter fruit, for cookery and to
eat. But in great fruit years, cyder may be made for
family confumption, without ever laying out for it in
quantities. Beer is the moft wholefoine of all made
drinks, the chief in all the countries where robuft health
is the moft confpicuous. It proved on my Wye farm,
very excellent to harveft men ; who preferred it to rum ;
and it kept them in fteady good heart, without any in-
ftance of fuch irregularity as rum commonly produces.
\ The Boiling-houfe here may be too near to combufti-
bles, hay and ftraw. Leaving this fpot for Swill-ct/lcrns
86 FARM YARD
1 6. Hogs. I 25. Granary.
17. Stercories.
1 8. Barn.
19. Sheep-houfe, and yard.
26. Stable, for farm.
27. Area of Bridge and
vault.
20. Chaife-houfe and ftable. 2 8. Bees.
2 1 . Waggon and cart-houfe.
22. Implements of hufband-
ry, houfe.
23. Workfhop.
a. Treading-floor.
b. Straw ricks.
c. Hay ricks.
24. Herdfmen's hovel. ! d. Root pits.
The Manfion, is airy on every fide.
The offices, being on the northeaft and
northweft angles, leave the manfion open to
the fouth, eaft, and weft, in a clean lawn :
and from the north rooms there is a view
of the farm yard and its bufmefs.
The Kitchen^ has its oven and afhhole:
this laft opening out of doors, for avoiding
the difperfion of afhes, in the kitchen, on
moving them for ufe. No ftairs proceed
from the kitchen ; as it would be a paflage
to
or tubs ; the boiling would be better at 29. Which might,
{& near the manfion, alfo contain a brewing and diftilling
apparatus. If hemp is in the round of crops, it may be
rided at 30, and broke andfamgled at a boufe at 31.
OFFICES. 87
to duft and down from the bed-rooms to the
kitchen : the ceiling ought alfo to be tight.
Lay an arch of brick over the afhhole and
oven, as a barrier againft fire, the flairs
may be over the arch, from without. Indeed
here might a wafh-boufe have its roof ex
tended, for covering the flairs. Inadvertent
ly, the wafh-houfe is omitted in the plan.
The Poultry-houfe and yard are roomy ;
and kept fweet by being frequently cleaned
out ; and frefh fand and gravel are ftrewed
in the yard. Their food is to be fteamed
potatoes and meal, in winter ; cut grafs,
potatoes and a little meal in fummer. Poul
try ranging at large, feed on grain, feeds,
grafs and infeds. Gravel is neceflary to
them.
The Laboratory (Laborature), is con-
ftrufted from one invented by my valuable
friend, the late Mr. Lawfon, of Fonthill,
which anfwered many purpofes in country
houfe-wifery. No better name occurs for
diftinguifhing it from other houfes on
farms.
88 FARM YARD
farms. See a fedion of the houfe in plate
No. and a further account of it,
page
The Milk-houfe^ adjoins the Laboratory,
which is a fcalding houfe to it. It may be
two feet under ground. The offal milk is
conveyed to the pigs in wheel-barrows,
and might be conveyed in a tube, under
ground, to the pig-ftie. Ice is at hand for
hardening butter as it is taken from the
churn and worked on a cold marble table.
Water cold from the pump is conftantly
ufhered, through pipes, to an upper fhelf,
and paffing round the room, falls on the
under (helves and runs off.
The Ice-houfe^ is to be detached from the
milk-houfe, that it may be clear of all moift-
ure, and receive air on all fides. The ice-
houfe at Glofter point, near Philadelphia,
ftrongly recommends that it be moftly above
ground. Four feet under ground, fix above
ground and twelve fquare, would hold 1440
folid
OFFICES. 89
folid feet : which is enough for family and
milk-houfe purpofes, though very freely
expended.
Pigeon-houfe. Pigeons feed expenfively,
when it is alone on the corns : but they
alfo feed on many wild feeds. They make
an agreeable variety on the table ; but ought
not to be fuflfered to become too numerous ;
and therefore their houfe is to be of a mo
derate fize.
The Family-yard, is a barrier again ft
farm-yard intrufions. It is covered with a
clean, clofe fward of fpire grafs. Its mar
gin alone may be admitted to grow flowers.
It is fenced by a funk fence ; on the top
whereof may be, if neceflary, alow, light
palifade ; which with the bank may be hid
by rofe trees planted in the ditch, which is
to flope gently up towards the manfion.
The white rofe bufh or tree is the hardieft
and handfomeft fort, and fomething the
talleft.
The
90 FARM YARD
The Pump ferves both family and farm
yard purpofes, working by a brake or han
dle on either fide of the palifade. This
large expenfe of water is advantageous to
its quality. The pump nozle delivers the
water 5 or 6 feet above the furface.of the
ground : and at every time of its being
worked, a portion of the water is delivered
into a veflel, from whence proceeds a tube,
three feet under ground (for avoiding froft
and heat) to the kitchen, where fome of it
is depofited in a ciftern : the reft proceeds
alfo under ground, to the milk-houfe;
only leaving on the way a fmall part in a
receptacle of the manfion for wam-bafon
ufes. For the boiling-houfe, which takes
much water, either the water muft be con
veyed through pipes, or in calks on bar
rows, or a pump is to be placed near the
boiling-houfe.
The watering troughs are to have plugs
in their bottoms ; that when the cattle have
drunk, the remainder of the water may be
immediately let out ; that in winter it may
not
OFFICES. 91
not freeze, and in fummer it may not be
warm or ftale : and the cattle are returned
to their ftalls, and not allowed to ftroll at all
in the yard to no purpofe, but a wafte of
dung and urine. Fancy induces a pretty
current fuppofition that all animals require
fome confiderable range and change of
place ; which indeed, as far as for the feek-
ing food, difperfed as it is in their wild
Hate, is true. The exercife of their legs
and their wings are fo far efpecially necef-
fary to them, as well as for avoiding their
enemies. But, experience proves that they
exift in perfect health and good plight
when clofely confined, in no want of food,
as long for aught that is known as if they
had continued at large in their wild ftate.
Cattle, horfes, and hogs prove this in
many countries : and the horfe, like the
deer, is of a very active, wild, and roving
nature. Sheep are efpecially imagined to
require fuch fhifting of place : which may
have arifen from the very early and gene
ral practice of letting them pafture at large.
They are in flocks commonly too nu
merous
92 FARM YARD
merous to be conveniently houfed, and
being hardy are not thought to require it.
But above all the habit, continued down
from the firft of time, of people called
fhepherds ftrolling after flocks of them, for
the fake of fcattered fpontaneous food, is
the principal fupport of the fuppofition.
On the other hand, it is proved by the
practices of the hufbandmen of Flanders
and fome other countries, that Iheep thrive
well when kept up in houfes the year
through : and Mr. Bakewell fcarcely, if
at all, ever let out his fine rams, except
In the month of their being put to the ewes.
Even the heath fowl, fo wild and roving
as they are, have been domefticated, un
der a degree of confinement very oppofite
to their habits in their wild ftate. A gen
tleman of Scotland, and his lady, of high
confideration, inform me, that they have
feen the black cock of that country, in the
tame ftate in a yard. A Mr. Lewis Duval,
formerly of Hawling's a branch of Patuxent
river, Mary land % affured me that he had
growfe, quite tame in his yard, and that
they
OFFICES. 93
they raifed young ones. Their manner of
courtfliip as related by him was fmgular.
The male was long in making his advances
and coaxing the hen, in vain till he fudden-
ly turned on his back, fhrieked, and qui
vered his wings as if in a fit of agony. She
then came up to him, walked round and
looked on him with feeming compaffion.
The Jow and pig Jlies. The offal milk
may be conveyed to the troughs in the flies,
from the milk-houfe, by pipes under ground
or otherwife. Sticks in a frame are fo fixed
over the troughs, rack like, that the hogs
cannot get into the troughs, further than
their mouths. The fwine are to be kept
clean, and littered in their fhelters. Salt
may be offered them in the pen.
The cow-houfe. Hay and ftraw are rick
ed at the back of it; the houfe is 16 feet
wide, including its paffage; 7 feet pitch
for the cattle to ftand under ; and above
this 7 or 8 feet pitch to the j Gifts and raf
ters. Into this upper part ftraw and hay
are
94 FARM YARD
are pitched up, to be at hand in all forts of
weather : from whence it is thrown to the
paflage, to be given to the cows. Wheel
barrows of drank pafs along the paffage to
the cattle cribs. Thefe barrows carrying
heavy tubs or barrels of drank, would pafs
with more fafety and fteadinefs, with two
wheels ; fuch as every farmer can make,
independently of wheelrights, by doub
ling inch plank. In one corner of each
crib is to be at all times a falt-lick in a firm
mafs of the purefl impalpable potter's clay
or fuller's earth faturated with fait. The
very important article, fait, is fhamefully
neglected, in common. A ftercory is in
front of the cow-houfe, within eafy pitch
of dung from (hovels. Carts never need to
pafs between the ftercory and houfe : fo
that the fpace is defigned for the cattle
to pafs along to their ftalls. The dung is
carted away from the further fide of the
ftercory. .
The boiling-bouje contains alfo the con
veniences hrjieaming. Care is to be taken
that
OFFICES. 95
that fire cannot be blown about, and mix
with any ftraw neareft to it. For the
boiler and the apparatus for {learning, fee
plate
The ftercorieS) may be 4 feet under
ground, 2 or 3 above ; and walled. Over
them may be fupported, by fhort ftandards,
a covering of bruih or ftraw, which will
exclude the fun, but let through rain.
The barn^ 30 feet wide, has a paflage its
whole length, and ftalls on each fide of the
paflage. Straw is cut in the paflage, and
the cattle are fed from it. At the fouth end
of the houfe, a bridge is raifed from the
ground up to the fecond floor, about 8 feet
from the ground. The bridge is 30 feet
wide, and has an eafy afcent for loaded
waggons. Under it, next to the houfe, is
a vault, for ftoring roots, 30 feet by 12 or
15, and 6 or 7 feet deep. At the end of
the paflage a door opens into the vault. The
fecond ftory is high enough for thrafhing
in.
The
96 FARM YAUD
The Jheep-houfc and yards^ are to be
roomy and airy in divifions. Back of the
houfe is the hay requifite for the fheep, in
ricks. Its ftercory is at one end. The dung
is to be carried to it in large wheel-barrows.
The granary, had better be longer and
narrower than in the drawing ; with divi
fions acrofs it, without any communica
tion between them ; by which the different
corns will be kept from mixing, and a ge
neral accefs to them will not happen when
only one fort is to be carried in or taken
out. A lock is to be to each of the feveral
out doors. Windows facilitate thefts . There
needs none to the low r er rooms, if an air
hole be between every two joifts, clofe under
the fecond floor, the vapour and heat na
turally afcending will pafs off at the airholes.
The pitch of the rooms may be only 6|-
feet.
Bees. From inftructions given by an
Englifh writer, 1 tried bees in lateral boxes.
On the firft experiment, in the morning of
the
OFFICES. gf
the firft of November 1787, after a cold
night, the bees being all houfed, a pair of
the boxes were leaned on one fide, and
{hewed the bees were all in one of the box*
es : on which the other box was taken
away ; and proved to be full of comb and
honey, perfectly pure without an atom of
any thing foreign. Not a bee was killed or
even difiurbed. This was on Wye Ifland,
where the bees had half a mile to fly over
the river before they could reach the main.
Many at times muft have perifhed, in rains
and ftorms, whilft they were endeavouring
to crofs the river ; and the diftance in re
turning from the fields exhaufted their
ftrength and retarded returns of honey, fo
as to render their particular fituation very
ruinous to them. In the next fummer, a
very wet one, they were reduced ; and it
being a bad feafon for honey, they all died
in the winter, though no honey had been
taken from them. The boxes were exat
cubes of 10 inches. The method is pro-
mifing.
G The
t)8 FARM YARD, &C.
The treading- floor. Though but fix to
eight horfes fhould tread on it, yet it ought
not to be of a lefs diameter than 80 or 90
feet. But the track and bed of wheat is
narrowed to 1 2 or 15 feet. I was long and
greatly prejudiced againft treading wheat.
But experiencing the advantages of getting
out the crops with Jpeed, and very clean
when on a permanent well preferved floor,
with horfes gently trotted in ranks, diftant
and airy each rank from the others, the
preference in my opinion is in favour of
treading, over the moft expert thrafhing
with flails. So much fo that, confidering
the greater opportunities of pilfering, and
lengthy troublefomenefs of thrafhers, I
would prefer treading to having my large
crops thrafhed for nothing.
CLOVER.
This is an important article in the im
proved fyftem of crops in rotation: but its
feed bearing fome price or cofting fome la
bour to obtain it, renders it a bugbear to
com-
CLOVER. 99
common hufbandmen, whofe habits have
diverted them from a large ufe of it. It is in
deed abfolutely neceflary that clover fhould
be a common crop in rotation with other
articles of crop, in entire fields. It is hoped
there are farmers fpirited and determined
enough to defeat the objections; and who
will confider the coft not chargeable mere
ly to the crop of clover, but to the whole
round of crops ; the clover being fo eflenti-
al thereto that without it the foil, the cattle
and the corn-crops would greatly fuffer;
and the farmer's income, his reputation,
and his independency would be leflened.
If 4ft of clean clover feed, when fown
with fuch a box as is defcribed below,
clothe the ground as well with plants as I o
or I2?b fown in the common broad-caft
way and covered, of which I have had a
little experience, then a bufhel of feed will
fow 15 acres. Thirty loads of dung (un-
bought) would coft much more for loading,
carrying and difperfing them on the field.
The farmer can ameliorate 100 acres with
G 2 clover
IOO CLOVER.
clover more certainly than he can 20 from
his fcanty dung-heap ; and moreover, in
the time his clover is flickering the foil,
perfpiring its excrementitious effluvium on
the ground, dropping its putrid leaves, and
mellowing the foil with its tap roots, it
gives full food to the flock of cattle, keeps
them in heart, and increafes the dung-hill.
Nor is the amelioration by clover very in
ferior to that by dung, as this is commonly
managed. In fome refpedts it is preferable.
With dung innumerable feeds of weeds are
carried out and fown on the fields : not fo
of clover, when the feed has been properly
cleaned. Clover is the beft preparative for
a crop of wheat. Dung inclines wheat to
run more into ftraw than full grain.
Wheat on clover has the beft grain and the
fulleft crop.
A farming friend gave me a pleafing
account of an improved method for gather
ing and cleaning clover-feed. In general
the heads of the clover are rippled off, by
a fimple machine moved by a horfe, at the
rate
CLOVER. IOI
rate of 5 acres of them in a day. The heads
are carried to an oil mill, having two ftones
rolled in the manner of a tanner's bark-
flones which feparates from the haulm,
five bufhels a day.
Of two fields, 50 acres each, in clover,
one is kept up for giving feed in Auguft,
after cutting the early growth. In 10 days
the 50 acres of feed may be gathered at a
fmall expence ; and in 10 more, 50 bu
fhels may be feparated from the haulm, and
cleaned with a fan or with fieves* What
ever may be the medium produce, I count
on only one bufhel of feed an acre,*
A box
* Mr. L'Hmmefau, of New- York, fays : The feed
is collected both from \hzfrft crop and from \hefecondi
but the largeft quantity is from the jirft. By fowing
three or four pounds of clover feed to the acre, on light
loamy foils which yield 8 or 10 bufhels of wheat or rye
to the acre, the clover will not be profitable to mow :
but {landing thin on the ground, the heads will be well
filled with feed. Thefe fields are kept up the next
year, till the feed is collecled. When above one half of
the field has changed its colour by the drying of the clo
ver heads, then begin to collecl them j which is done by
IO2 CLOVER.
A box for fowing clover feed on wheat
beds (rather than ridges) feven feet wide,
including
a machine drawn by a horfe and guided by a man or boy,
who will collect from the field by this means, the heads
of clover growing on five acres, in one day. The ma
chine (fee the plate) is an open box of about 4 feet fquare
at the bottom, and about two feet high on three fides.
The forepart is open ; and on this part are fixed fingers,
fimilar to the fingers of a cradle, about three feet long,
and fo near together as to break off the heads from the
clover ftalks, which are taken between thofe fingers.
The heads are thrown back into the box, as the horfe
walks on. The box is fixed on an axle-tree, fupported
by two fmall wheels about two feet diameter. Two
handles are fixed to the box behind, by which the man
or boy at the fame time he guides the horfe, lowers or
raifes the fingers of the machine, fo as to take off all the
heads from the grafs ; and often as the box gets full of
heads, they are thrown ut, and the horfe goes on again.
This machine is feldom ufed to collect from the fecond
crop. Thofe who do not own one, fuppofe the expenfe
of hiring with the lofs of feed trod down, nearly equal to
the expenfe of mowing the fecond crop. On rich lands,
ordinarily, no feed comes of the firft crop. If the land is
lightly manured or otherwife very good, the firft crop of
grafs is fo thick that it yields no feed worth gathering :
but the fecond crop being fhorter and thinner is commonly
well feeded. 'Sometimes, indeed, confiderable quantities
of feed are gathered from the firft crop, on land where
wheat is cut the fame year : the ftubble preventing the
clover from growing too thick for producing feed. The
CLOVER. 103
including the water or opening furrow,
was made of light half inch plank, for
the fides, bottom, and partitions. It was
feven feet long, five or fix inches wide,
that the feed lying thin may eafily fliift
about and not prefs heavily on the outlet
holes.* It was three inches deep, and di
vided
fecond crop of grafs in good land is mowed fo high as to
cut off the heads of clover, and as little of the grafs as
poffible. A man in this manner will mow 2 or 3 acres
a day. The time of mowing is when at leaft one half of
the heads become dried. It is raked immediately into
Jmall heaps or cocks. In what manner foever collected,
all ought to be put into fuch heaps in the field, and there
expofed that the huflcs may rot (about three weeks) or
otherwife the feed will be got out with great difficulty.
Attention is to be paid to the heaps, left they rot too
much next to the ground. If much rain falls, the heaps
are to be turned. When the heaps are fufficiently rotted
and dry, known by rubbing fome heads in the hand,
cart them into the barn ; and afterwards thrafh out on the
barn floor, and clean with a wire riddle. It was an ex
traordinary quantity of feed that I once knew produced,
i bufhel and 4 quarts from of an acre ; equal to 4^ bu-
fliels an acre,"
* The 7 feet lands were preferred to 5 4- feet lands
which had been before ufed (the farm a very level, ftrong
wheat foil). The clearing out or water furrows were
included both in the 7 feel; and the 5! feet lands. After
104 CLOVER.
videdinto feven parts, each divifion or re
ceptacle having two holes bored through
the
making a number of inftructive experiments on eleven
acres ; of wheat harrowed in and compared with wheat
at the fame time phwed in ; of wheat fown on a broad
level, on round ridges of various heights, and on flat leds
having deep parting furrows, the ridges and beds with
their water furrows being 7 feet wide, and running fome
N. and S. others E. and W. 1 clearly preferred beds to
ridges ; becaufe it is immaterial in what direction they lie,
the fun fhining equally on the whole horizontal furface
of the beds ; becaufe the foil being alike in quality on the
whole of the bed, the wheat grew equally well from edge
to edge ; becaufe therefore, in reaping, the wheat was
better faved, there not being fhort wheat as on the edges
of ridges ; and becaufe the furrows being opened deep
the greateft rains prefently glided into the furrows and
were by them conveyed into the main drains of this flat
land, without ever drowning or fcalding the growing
wheat, or hardening the ground on the beds. Upon the
ridges E. and W. the wheat on the north-fide was inferior
to that on the fouth-fide. This of the ridges raifed fome-
thing higher than is common. On the higheft ridges,
which were in the extreme for a flrong contrail, the wheat
en the north fide was nearly all dead, in the fpring. In
ridges the bed foil is heaped in the middle ; and die thin
ner foil at the edges gave fhort ftraw and mean grain,
much whereof was loil in reaping and gathering. The
ridges formed receptacles of rain which were angular at
bottom, fo that rain water rofe fuddenly halfway up the
fides of the ridges, and eventually hardened the ground
CLOVER. 105
the bottom, half an inch diameter, and
placed diagonally. The holes were finged
with a hot iron rod to fmooth them.
Square pieces of ftrong writing paper, (any
gummed paper) were paired over the holes,
on the infide of the box. A hole was burnt,
with coarfe knitting needles, through each
paper ; and trials were made with feed
gently fhook in the box, over a floor or
carpet ; and the holes are enlarged as far as
there may be occafion for dropping a due
quantity of feed. It was ufed for fowing
turnip feeds : the old papers being taken
off, and new ones parted on ; and then
holes burnt fuitable to turnip feeds. At
about a third of the diftance from each end
of the box were fattened ftrong leathern
ftraps;
on them, as well as drowned or fcalded much of the grow
ing wheat. On ridges, clover is more expofed to frofts,
winds, and wafhing of the earth away from the plants,
than when on flat beds ; nor is it fo advantageoufly mowed.
My beds were feparated by deep water furrows, formed
by a double mould board plow dipt deep by the power
of only two horfes, not large, and which had a good
fhare of the Englifh race blood in them. This mtxt breed
bear heat well, are brife, and willingly exert their powers.
106 CLOVER.
ftraps ; by which the box was held, and a
little agitated in carrying it before the feedf-
man, in a direction croffing the beds, whilft
the feedfman walked along the beds.
The only comparative experiment made
by me, of clover feed fown with the box
above defcribed, againft broad caft fowing,
was thus : In the moment when a feedf
man long ufed to fow clover feed, was
fowing feed in the chaff at the rate of iatb
of clean feed, according to his eftimation,
clean feed was fowed on feveral lands or
ridges of growing wheat, with the box.
After fowing about 200 yards in length,
the feed put into the box did not appear re
duced in quantity, and I feared it was
fown too thin. But the growth from the
box fowing, proved to be thicker and much
more equally diftant than that from the
broad caft, and the plants were fufficiently
clofe. Thefe operations left the feeds on
the ground of the field of wheat without
any means ufed to cover them. The time
of fowing was about the middle of March,
whilft
WHEAT ON CLOVER.
whilft there were yet light frofts. It was
a feafon in which I often had clover feed
fown in the chaff, and left it uncovered,
without ever experiencing any lofs or dif-
ap point ment.
When clean clover feeds are fown on a
clean ground and harrowed in, numbers
are fmothered under fmall lumps of earth
as well as under larger ones : not fo of feed
left on the ground uncovered during the
froftsy in March rather than earlier. It
therefore feems proper that much more
than 4*b an acre fhould be fown, when,
the feeds are to be covered**
Wheat on Clover.
The language of Englifh farmers on this
head is, that wheat on clover is to be fown
on " one earth 1 ' one plowing. To con
form
* Mr. E. is lately returned to America from a fecond
vifit to England, and is confirmed in his former opinion
that clover is better in Pennfylvania than in England ;
merely, as he thinks, from the foil or the climate of
America being more fuitable to it. See page 33.
IO8 WHEAT ON CLOVER.
form to this idea, I conducted this bufinefs
on 15 acres, in this manner;
1. The clover having been cut once and
then paftured, though not clofe, was turn
ed in deep by a plow.
2. The wheat was fowed, broadcaft.
3. The harrow followed twice, in the
fame direction in which the clover was
plowed in.
4. The fown wheat was then rolled.
The crop flood well and yielded fatisfac-
torily. It grew near two miles from my
other field wheat, on a foil not quite fimi-
lar ; fo that a juft comparifon could not be
made between them. The operations im
mediately followed each other, without any
paufe. The plow, the harrow, the feed,
&c. were all ready on the fpot, before the
plow proceeded.*
Mr.
* Mr. Macrons experience is againft this immediate fow-
ing upon plowing in the clover ; and his experiments
were repeated } mine ^fingle inftance, which proved high-
WHEAT ON CLOVER. 109
Mr. Young was requefted in Ireland, to
inftru6t the farmers of that country in pro
per
ly fatisfadtory, In general, without any
occurring of a much fuperior produce. Mr. Macro gives
the following encouraging detail of his practice and
fuccefs. " From upwards of 20 years experience," he
fays, " I am of opinion that, the beft way of fowing
" clover lands with wheat, is to plow the land 10 or 14
" days before you fow it, that the land may have fome time
** to get dry, and after rain enough to make it drefs
" well, lay on the feed in September, two bufhels an
** acre ; in October, three bufhels an acre ; and in No-
*' vember, four bufhels an acre/' Thefe quantities of
feed are here mentioned from Mr. Macro, for the enter
tainment of farmers in America ; who may wonder that
difference of climate or foil, fhould admit of fuch differ
ence in the quantities fown : America, three pecks to a
bufhel of feed : England, two to four bufhels, an acre !
The atmofphere in America is dry in comparifon to that
in England ; the Englifh atmofphere abounds more in
humidity than the American ; and affords drink and
with \tfood to mare plants than the humidity of the air in
America can beftow. Itfeems, he plows in the clover
on a fall of rain, and then waits for a due ftate of the
ground. " The furrows, he continues to fay, ought not
" to be more than 8 or 9 inches broad : lefs is better if the
" plow turns them well ; and the two laft furrows fhould
" not be lapped one on to the other, but plowed fo as to
" leave a fpace of near two inches between them, for
" fome feed to fall in. I am at a lofs, he fays, to ac-
" count for the wheat thriving letter on lands that have been
IIO WHEAT ON CLOVER.
per courfes of crops. In directing them
how to fow wheat on clover, he fays ; " The
clover
" plowed fame time, than it does on frefh plowed lands
" which drefs as well or better : but I 'have often tried
" both ways on the fame lands, and always found the
former anfwer bed." i An. 109 Conjecture :
the clover plants being buried, and the wheat fown at
the fame time, they both ferment and run into heat in
the fame moment : the germ then fhoots and the root is
extremely delicate and tender for fome days ; during
which the buried herbage obtains its higheft degree of
heat ; which added to the internal heat of the germ
may, though only (lightly, check and a little injure the
delicate (hoot of the wheat. In fprouting barley for
making malt, a little exctfs of heat in the bed, checks,
and a little more totally ft ops the fprouting or growth
of the roots. Both modes, give crops fuperior to what
are produced from wheat fowed on fallow. Farmers
may well try both methods, for determining which to
prefer ; that is, as well in the immediate fowing, on plow
ing in the clover, as in the method of fowing not till 10
to 14 days after having plowed in the clover : fuppofe
an half in each way. Both modes are excellent. In
letting the foil reft 10 to 14 days an opening is given to
heavy rains confolidating and leaving it in an inferior
ftate for receiving the wheat feed. If rain falls after
burying the clover, and before fowing the wheat, it may
fometimes be neceflary to wait for the ground becoming
only moift, rather than fow when it is wet and heavy. If
the farmer plows in the clover when the ground is dry,
he may then choojfe to wait for rain before he fows.
WHEAT ON CLOVER. Ill
clover is to be well plowed in, with an even,
regular furrow ; and the wheat fown and
harrowed well.*'
One
Though for this reafon alone, he need not wait. I have
found it generally fafe to fow during a drought, when
the foil is very dry : but not when a light rain has fallen
on the very dry ground. In the former cafe the feed is
fafe till a rain falls, which is ufually in plenty after a
drought : the feed now quickly grows up : but in the
other cafe it is (lightly damped, and it fwells ; but the
moifture is fo foon and totally evaporated as to leave the
feed to dry-rot and perifh. There may have been fome
peculiarity in Mr. Macro's foil : but it probably was
but a light foil, little liable to be hardened in 10 to 14
days ; as ftrong wheat land would. Of all the
modes of fowing wheat, I am ftrongly perfuaded that in
clufters it gives the beft crops. A number of experiments
made by me are the foundation of this opinion. Thefe
experiments were made at Wye in Maryland. There I
invented a fimple ftrong machine (on leaving my farm it
was given to Major Rofs) which dropt 5 or 6 grains of
wheat in each clufter on above 8 acres. The clufters
were 7 inches apart in the rows ; and the rows were about
9 inches from each other. A horfe on each fide of a bed
walked in the water furrows and fowed an entire bed in
8 rows at a time. A light pole extended between the
horfes, from the neck of one to that of the other. Ac
counts of fome of the experiments were published in
the Columbian Magazine : and it appeared from them
fehat as far as 9 grains in a clufter, (being no further
112 WHEAT ON CLOVER.
One of my neighbours intending to fow
wheat on clover, plowed up the clover a
week
tried by me) and from Mr. Singleton's experiments, made
at the fame time in Talbot, as far as 15 grains in each cluf-
ter, the produce in wheat was progreflively the better. At
that time I had never tried wheat fown on clover plowed
in : but the machine was perfectly adapted to cluttering
wheat on ground in that ftate. The following mode of
fowing and cultivating wheat and clover may be intro
duced. Clover is to be plowed in deep and the furrow
neatly turned. On this is drawn by a horfe walking in
the water furrow on each fide the bed, a machine which
Ihould open the ground about two inches deep in rows 8
inches apart, and in the rows drop clutters of feed wheat,
each confifting of 8 or 10 grains, at 6 inches apart,
equal to about a bufliel to an acre. The whole bed is
finifhed in the horfes walking once through the furrows.
In November, a fhim of feveral blades or hoes 6 or 7
inches wide, and fixed in a frame fhould cut the ground
between the 8 inch intervals of ground ; which, cutting
up the weeds and ftirring the ground, would leave it in
good condition till March or early April; when the
fhim fhould again clean and ftir the ground ; and at the
fame time with the clover feed box and feed on the frame
of the fhim, by jogging the box, the clover feed would
be fowed, immediately after the fhim. This alfo is per
formed by the horfes walking in and being confined pre-
cifely by the water furrows. A light harrow or rake
may be attached to it. In cluttering wheat endeavour
to drop the feeds all in a heap, in contact with each other if
it can be. They thus proved greatly fuperior, dropt in
WHEAT ON CLOVER. IIj
week or two before feeding tj$ne ; and then
gave it afecond plowing, acrofs, and fowed
wheat on it : whether the wheat was plow
ed or harrowed in, I know not.* Vaft
numbers of roots of the clover were turn
ed up, and left {landing eret above ground,
all over the field. Here was unneceflary
H labour,
fmall holes made by a dibble, to the fame number of
grains fpread within circles of three inches, the centres
whereof were 7 inches from the centres of other like cluf-
ters ; when the dibbled holes were only 6 inches apart.
Befides fowing clover feed in the moment of ihimming,
gypfum, lime, or rotten dung, may alfo be difperfed
as the machine proceeds in fliimming, thus : In 7 fields
the rotation confifts of,
I Roots, the ground dunged beforehand.
i Spring grain ; in fowing it,
ftrew on each acre> lime 12 bufli. gypfiim I bufh.
i Clover
i Wheat 12 i
i Clover
I Rye or Barley 12 -'-'&>$&&'
i Clover or Pulfe
7 Fields
* Had not this been plowed a fecond time, it would
have been precifely in Mr. Macro's method ; but the fe*
cond plowing overfat die good work.
114 WHEAT ON CLOVER.
labour, an ufelefs and even injurious plow
ing, by which the manure from thofe fub-
ftantial roots and a part of the green herbage,
was loft to the crop of wheat.
Another neighbour proceeded thus, in
fowing wheat on clover :
i. Plowed in the clover, deep.
3. Harrowed.
3. Rolled.
4. Sowed wheat.
5. Plowed it in, Jhallow.
6. Harrowed it, in the fame dire&ion.*
BEANS.
* Whilft the former copy of this was at prefs, an ac
count of the effedl of this experiment was expected from
the experimenter ; but I was obliged to fpeak of it from
memory, which proved to be incorrect, and that part is
now omitted. Mr. Singleton, ofTalbot, walking in his
wheat field, was furprifed to find the wheat much fuperior
on the meaner foil of the field ; it being higher with ftrong-
er ftraw and larger heads. This part of the field had been
in clover, which was twice mowed, and in Auguft broke
up, and fowed with the wheat the firft of September.
The other part had the clover plowed up in March, for
tobacco : but tobacco being laid afide, this ground was
then repeatedly plowed in the fummer as a fallow, and
BEANS. II^
BEANS.
Let not the novelty or labour of fowing
beans in field hufbandry be made a difficulty
to the application of them in a rotation of
crops. They may be dropt by hand. But a
fimple and cheap machine may be made for
dropping them in clufters, as quick as a horfe
drawing it can walk. Two wheels made of
inch plank doubled, turn an axis of about
5 inches diameter, having notches on one
line round it, from each of which 3 or 4
beans are difcharged at the fame moment
into a furrow opened by a plowfhare or
wooden coulter, the ground being firft well
prepared. A ftave at the tail of the machine
may ferve to cover the beans, if occafion :
though the ground, being mellow, always
tumbled
fown alfo the firft of the fame September, with wheat :
from which it yielded 14^ bufhels an acre ; when the
part twice mown and but once plowed gave 24^ bufhels
an acre. The difference is great : to which add the value
of the clover crops and the faving of plowings. They
abundantly prove the fuperiority of wheat on one earth.
Mr. Singleton is to be depended on, and keeps a diary of
his farming bufmefs.
H 2
Il6 NEW CULTURE OF
tumbled in on the beans, with me. If the
wheels be two feet diameter, they will have
a circumference of 75 inches, which divi
ded by i o-j inches, give 7 for the number
of notches round the axis, for dropping the
beans, in clufters, IQ~ inches apart in the
rows. With fuch an inftrument beans were
drilled for me, at Wye.
PRACTICES in the CULTURE of MAIZE.
and WHEAT.
The common modes of cultivating the
various corns, are every where familiar :
but the following practices and obfervations
are upon new modes, or particular branches
of the bufinefs.
In Maryland, moft of the wheat fown
is amongft maize, whilft it is ripening in
September. The farmer is urged to fow
wheat early, for avoiding damage from rujl^
and from farms. A ftorm, upon maize
having the tops on, would proftrate or en
tangle the tall ftalks, fo as to render plow
ing
MAIZE AND WHEAT. Iiy
ing in the feed wheat difficult and lefs per-
fed ; and he dares not cut off the tops till
after the wheat is fown and covered ; be-
caufe in plowing in the feed, the fwingle-
trees catching and bending down the ftalks,
and then fuddenly letting them go with a
fpring, throw off the ears of corn with fome
force ; which with the tops and taflels on
would be confiderably refifted. Another
mifchief is common, as well from horfeho-
ing the maize as plowing in the wheat,
which is that the roots are torn or cut by
the plowihare.
For avoiding the above mentioned mi/chiefs^
and that the feed wheat fhould be covered
folely by plows ; and alfo that the wheat
fhould grow on perfectly fiat beds^ and the
plowfhares work partly above the mat of
fibrous roots of the maize, I introduced the
following practices in my maize and wheat
culture, which was on very large fields.
Obferving much irregularity in the ftand-
ing of maize in the rows, which prevented
plows
Il8 NEW CULTURE OF
plows from working fufficiently near to the
plants for covering the feed wheat, and that
much was left for the expenfive and often
bad work of handhoes to perform, I caufed
the maize feed, after lifting and croffing,
to be carefully placed clofe to the landfide of
the furrows : not dropt in the carelefs fcat-
tering manner ufual. The maize thus
grew very ftraight in lines, and admitted
the plows to pafs near the plants. Thefe
being up and a little grown, the defign was
formed of directing the firft or finger-like
roots to dip deeper than common before the
lateral roots fhould ftrike out. The foil
was plowed full five inches deep ; and turn
ed at firft from the maize, on both fides of
the plants : but they being then very young,
it was neceflary to leave more moulder or
bed to them than was defired, to avoid bu
rying them with the earth falling back :
therefore the plow, on having worked
through the field, immediately returned to
the place where it beg-m to plow from the
plants, and it now took off as much more
earth, ftill turning it from them, on each
fide,
MAIZE AND WHEAT. 119
fide, as they could well bear without dan
ger of their tottering. All now re/ted i o
or 12 days, even in the drieft weather,
with intention that the lateral roots fhould
take their direction under the artificial fur~
face of the ground formed by the plow-
fhare. The plows next turned a furrow,
on each fide of the rows, to the plants,
through the whole field ; and then plowed
through the balks or whole of the intervals
not before plowed or horfehoed. The hand-
hoes performed as ufual, except that hilling
was wholly forbidden. Soon as plowing
through the intervals wasfinifhed, the plows
again plowed from the plants : and fo repeat
edly continued to plow through the intervals
alternately from and fo the rows and plants ;
whereby another important purpofe was
anfwered : the keeping the whole field level,
for growing the wheat on flat beds y and
avoiding ridges or beds at all rounded. The
alternate plowings from and to were conti
nued even during the forming and filling
of the grain, as far as was requifite for
keeping the ground clean and Jlirred to re
ceive
I2O NEW CULTURE OF
ceive the feed wheat ; and it was a continu
al work to the plows, in which the plow-
fhares pafled rather over the roots which
fpread and ran deeper than if they had
taken their firft flart under the common
furface of the earth, and therefore they were
not torn up, or the plants fired or checked
in their growth. Thus at the time of fow-
ing wheat the ground was fo perfectly clean,
fine and light, that for feveral years fuccef-
fively, half a biijhel of wheat fufficed for
feed to an acre. This thin fowing made
fome talk, and a neighbour came to fee the
feedfmen at work. He examined them
feparately, they were two ; then meafured
the diftance of the maize plants from each
other ; faw a portion of the feed meafured
and fowed ; then counted the clufters of
plants that the portion of feed extended to
when fown ; and he feemed fatisfied. He
was not a wordy man, and I afked no quef-
tions. Great advantages were obtained in
cutting off the maize tops before fowing
the wheat ; which in common would be
improper, where wheat is to be fowed on
maize.
MAIZE AND WHEAT. 121
maize. That the fwingle-trees might not
hang on the maize-ftalks, the rope traces
were half buried in a groove cut in the ends
of the fwingle-trees, by which the corn
ftalks never were caught, but gently glid
ed off.
Light one horfe plows covered the feed
wheat clofe to the rows of maize, without
any want of handhoes : but a rake followed
and levelled the ridge, here and there form
ed by the one horfe plows lapping the op-
pofing furrows which they ought not.
For chopping round llumps, a handhoe
\vas ufed. The light plows went only a
bout or two, next to the maize plants : then
followed the two horfe plows, for covering
the reft of the feed ; and thefe left a nar
row balk, which the double mould board
plow fplit. This was pleafingly performed :
the double mould board plow, dipping
deep, fhouldered up the earth on each fide
and gave fquare edges to the beds^ leaving
. them with flat furfaces, and deep furrows
as
122 NEW CULTURE OF
as drains for receiving heavy rains as they
fall and gently glide off the beds.*
My Maize was planted four feet apart
in the rows, with feven feet intervals be
tween the rows ; which gave beds of wheat,
after deducting the water furrows, full $^
feet wide. Concerning beds and water
furrows, fee before, page 102. The maize
fo planted in fquares of 4 by 7 feet, takes
28 fquare feet to each clufter of maize plants,
commonly called hills of corn, but which
in the above method of culture has no hill ;
and there are 1550 of them on an acre.
By a fingle dip of the double mould board
plow and progreffing along, the edges of
the wheat beds are formed and finifhed, the
water furrow is left deep and clean for re
ceiving from the flat beds and carrying off
redundant rain, and for conveying as fun
nels frefh nourifhing air to the growing
wheat
* The one horfe plows might have performed the
whole ; except opening and finiiliing the water furrows
and edging up the fides of the beds, which no plow elfe
than the double mould board plow, could well perform.
MAIZE AND WHEAT.
wheat in the fpring till the grain is ripe :
and when fhimming the wheat in autumn
and fpring is pradifed, the water furrows
will be as paths to the horfes ; which aflure
precifion in the work.
In OGober, the wheat plants being up,
with iharpened hoes the maize plants were
chopt offclofe to the ground, without in
juring the wheat, even although a plant of
wheat was here and there cut up. Two
of the people take a row between them ;
and bear off the corn and ftalks to the head
lands at the ends of the rows : one perfon
carries to one end and the other to the other
end. There on the headlands the ftalks
and all were fet up in conical heaps, with
the buts on the ground. They remained
thus, airy, in not too large heaps, till the
corn was cured ; and then the ears with
hufks on were feparated from the ftalks and
carted to the fodder lioufe, or hollow rick,
made from the maize tops, which were
early cut for avoiding impreffions from
equinoctial ftorms. The naked ftalks were
carted
124 NEW CULTURE OF
carted to the farm-yard, for litter, at leifure;
the blades having been ftripped off in the
field, before chopping off the ftalks.
In making experiments, it is well to
have fome variety, progrefiing from fmall-
er deviations into extremes : by which the
beft medium is to be afcertained, and the
uunoft that the plants can bear is difcovered.
I had tried tops of maize cut off, foon as
the taJTels and ears had fhot out ; and
thought the grain rather better for it. I had
alfo expofed infant plants eight to ten or
twelve days, to drought and fcorching fun,
{landing on parched narrow ridges, and
then continually plowed the ground to and
from the plants, even whilft they were in
ears and grain filling, without any injury
to the corn. Now it was determined to try
the effect of plowing fo clofe to the young
maize plants as to rub the plowfhare. along
the mafs of roots, turning the eanhfrom
them, on both fides, and let them ftand
expofed to the fun and wind fome days.
It was in a very heavy ftrong piece of
ground
MAIZE AND WHEAT.
ground which the horfes, flraddling the
rows, plowed thus and turned the earth
from the plants, on both fides, fo that the
plants about five inches high, generally
tottered, and a few were plowed up.
They flood fo eight days in very hot, dry
weather. The earth was then plowed to
them : and from and to them, alternately
juft as the reft of the field, from this period.
This was of four rows. When near five
feet high, fhewing the field to a neighbour,
I afked if he perceived any difference be
tween the firft four rows (the above men
tioned) and the reft of the maize in that cut,
which was a fmall one. He paufed, but
concluded that if there was any difference,
the four rows were rather the beft. To me
there appeared no difference. The whole
had been plowed from and to the plants,
but not fo clofe as the four rows.
At other times I had ftripped blades
bolder than common : and now about 150
hills of maize were pitched on for flopping
the blades and cutting off the tops at a time
when
126 HEMP.
when the corn was not hard, but here and
there might be fome nearly foft enough for
roafting ears. Injury was apprehended
from this fe verity : but the value of fo few
hills of corn was difregarded, when it was
fought to know how far the maize would
bear fevere treatment. Beyond expcda-
tion, no difference was obferved between
this and the reft of the maize.
HEMP.
The extenfive ufefulnefs of hemp, the
little interference of its culture with the
other work of farmers in America ; and
when water- rot ted) the eafe with which it is
prepared for rope, as well as the general
certainty of the crop with a good price, led
me to admire it in preference to other
uncommon articles of crop.*
Ground,
* My hemp harvefts at Wye in Maryland, were always
after thofe of wheat, and before feeding winter grain.
In England they interfere with the grain harvefts. Be
tween water-rotting, dally as it is pulled, and the fpread-
ing it in fields to rot, is all the difference in the world :
the former is difpatched in a few days : the latter requires
HEMP. 127
Ground, level and rather low, not wet,
a mellow loam^ whether of the fandy or
clayey forts, was preferred. Thefe foils
are not cold ; and when well cleaned and
prepared by plowings and a due quantity
of manure, are in condition to yield many
repeated crops of hemp ; a little manure be
ing now and then added. -f-
Farmers without experience, if not alfo
without thought on the fubjecl:, fay their
lands will not bring hemp. Moft kinds of
foil will yield good crops of it, if not wet.
*If poor, manure them. Every hufband-
man can manure and cultivate land enough
for giving him rich crops of hemp* The
plow-
careful turning once or twice a week, for a number of
weeks ; and then is found ftraggling or tangled : but
with attention it is gathered up and the ftems are placed
in order. In America, hemp and flax are commonly dry
before they are fpread to be dew-rotted. If fpread before
the laft of September, they become fun-burnt, red, harfh,
and dead.
f Mr. Young fpeaks of a piece of ground at Hoxne
in Suffolk, England, which has been under crops of
hemp hrfevcnty fiiccc/five years.
128 HEMP.
plowings for reducing ground to a mellow
garden-like ftate fhould be many, preced
ing thejfty? lowing. Every time that young
weeds appear, plow them in. When the
ground is thus well cleared of the feeds of
weeds, then fow hemp-feed, and repeat it
year after year on the fame ground ; giving
it now and then a little manure and two au
tumnal plowings; and the like plowings
with harrow ings in the next fpring, imme
diately before fowing. If to cultivate an
acre thus highly fhould deter the farmer,
let him at firfl try a fourth of it ; which
would give him more than he would want
of traces, leading lines and other rope. The
fpinning and working it up into rope would
be mere play : but, as is feen below, ma
king as much hemp as he can for market,
would yield him a good income.*
April,
* The tobacco planter thinks nothing of cultivating
twenty acres in tobacco, and creeling four or five large
framed houfes for curing it. But he would Hart at a
propofal that inftead of tobacco he fhould cultivate the
20 acres in hemp, although it would require but one
fuch houfe, not an eighth of the labour and attentions,
HEMP.
April, f when the ground is moift, clean
and mellow, in garden-like condition from
plowings and harrowings, is the time for
fowing and lightly harrowing in hemp feed.
The plants then foon appear, and rapidly
cover and fhelter the whole furface of the
ground ; whereby weeds are kept under,
and immoderate exhalation is prevented*
My hemp never fuffered materially from
drought but once, and that of a fowing in
May. It was never found neceflary to weed
what was fown for a crop ; but only fuch
as was fown thin for producing feed. Some
times feed was faved from the margin of
the field, where the plants had room to
branch, and were coarfe.
When the male or impregnating plants
fhewed maturity by fome change in the co
lour, and by the farina or duft flying off
I ' from
and is without any of the uncertainty. It is a common
miftake that hemp requires low ground or rich bottom
land. Almoft any land that is not wet, may be made
to yield good crops.
t The middle to the end of April.
HEMP.
from the bloflbms, all was pulled up, both
male and female : and the pulling of every
day was put into a fait water cove, in the
evening of the fame day, promifcuoufly
bound up in fmall bundles, and funk 4-J
feet in the water, in a thick fquare bed.
On the third day it was infpeded ; and
from the third to the fifth it was enough
rotted, as it is called. In examining it,
jvith finger and thumb fome of the roots
were broke. If they bent or were tough,
it was not enough : when they fnapt off
fhort like glafs, it was enough : but the
bark alfo was tried. The hemp was then
taken out of the water, and laid Hoping
with the heads down to drain till morning :
for it was ufually taken out in the evening.
In the morning it was fpread, and whilft
drying, once turned. In a few fair days
it was dry, and then carted to an old tobacco
houfe, where it was bulked up till the hur
ry of fecuring the other crops was over. It
was broke and fwingled in the next winter.
Some of it was made into ropes for my
farms : the reft fold to rope-makers, from
the
HEMP.
the fwingle. The rope was bright and
ftrong, and the hemp faid to be of a quality
entitling it to the bounty then offered for
water-rotted hemp.
A fmall part of one of my crops of hemp
was dew rotted : which was fufficiently dif-
gufting to forbid a repetition of that mode.
It was a tedious while on the ground*
Winds blew it about and entangled it. It
rotted partially : not the whole of the fame
fibre alike. Here it was ftrong: there
weak.
Where there is only a ftream of water, it
might be proper not to place the hemp in
the ftream; but, digging a deep oblong
receptacle, let a fufficiency of the ftream
pafs through it, when full, on one fide of
the natural current. There rot the hemp in
clean water ; which fhould conftantly be
coming into and pafling through the pit, in
a degree of plenty for preferving the water
I i from.
132 HEMP.
from corrupting or being ftagnant j but not
fo rapidly as to fret off its bark.*
After
* The operation called rotting of hemp, ought to avoid
every tendency to rot or ferment the plant. Water when
pure and lively does not rot> but it diffohes a vifcous
gumfny fubftance which had bound the fibres of the bark
together and to the body of the plant. The pureft wa
ter is the beft di/ohent of fuch vifcous fubftances. I
have feen hemp which had been rotted in ftagnant dirty
water ; the appearance whereof was bad. The hemp I
rotted in clear tide-water, had a light ftraw colour. I
fee no reafon for apprehending damage to the bark or
firm part of the hemp, if it remains in the running or live
water a week after it is proved to be enough foaked for
breaking and drefling. It probably would be freer from
the gummy matter, and would break and hackle much
eafier and better, without being at all weakened. But,
let experiment be made ! When the bed of hemp in clean
live water is enough, let a part remain in the water a day
or two longer ; another part two or three days, &c. that
we may fee the effect of its being continued in the water till
different periods after its bark is commonly enough for
being ftripped. The water muft be alive, not ftagnant.
Experiments carried on progreffively till in the extreme,
have their ufe.
A Mr. Antil fays, if hemp is put into ftagnant water,
it will be enough in four or five days : if in running water,
in three or four days : which ftrongly implies the fuperior
diilblving power of live water, and that the operation ef
fects folution, not rottennefs.
HEMP, 133
After pulling the hemp, weeds grew up ;
which were reduced, and the ground was
kft in clean condition till the fpring, by
plowings.
Having no minute of the quantity of
feed fown, I can only recommend what
feems beft. But, it greatly depends on the
ftate of the ground, and the purpofes for
which the crop is intended. A little expe
rience will afcertain the proper quantity.
Two bufhels of feed to an acre, I believe
are a full portion for rope. A little lefs
might be about the quantity I fowed. It
-is faid in a publication by the Bofton Com
mittee of Agriculture, that in the common
method of fowing by broad caft, " not lefs
than three bufhels are ufually fowed, and
fometimes more, according to the richnefs
of the foil." They fow a great deal in New
England for making linens, efpecially fai/*
cloth ^ as well as for ropes.
A defign was formed by way of experi
ment, but not put in pra&ice, of fowing
the
134 HEMP.
the hemp feed on flat beds, having paths
between them from whence the hemp
plants might be pulled, half way acrofs the
bed, and then the other half ; with inten
tion that the male hemp fhould be pulled
and water-rotted alone, leaving the female
hemp to ftand longer, which its deep green
colour and thriving appearances feemed to
jrecommend ; but why fhould this double
work be impofed, when the crop which
had been all pulled at once, foon as the male
plants fhewedripenefs, proved fo excellent
and fo unexceptionable ?
The plants of one crop, which grew too
thinly, were fo firmly fixed, that it was
found neceflary to cut them off near the
ground ; which left their numerous fnags
Handing : and they were dangerous to fuch
beafts as might any how get into the ground ;
and to people walking there, efpecially in
the dark.
If the ground be good and well prepared,
no crop is more certain than hemp, fowed
in time, and when the foil is moift. But,
how
HEMP. 13$
how uncertain is the tobacco crop ! Failure
of plants from froft, drought, or fly ; want
of feafonable weather for planting ; deftruc-
tion by the ground-worm, web-worm,
horn- worm ; buttening low, for want of
rain ; curling or frenching, from too much
rain ; houfe-burning or funking whilfl
curing ; froft before houfed ; heating in
bulk or in the hogfhead ; infpedion, cull
ing, &c. Cultivating tobacco cleans, -but
expofes foil to exhalation and warning away.
It is only about a month that it flickers the
ground : but hemp fhades it from May till
about the firft of Auguft : and from early
Auguft it would be advantageoufly flielter-
ed with a growth of buckwheat, till this
bloflbms; and then during a temperate
ftate of heat, it is plowed in as a manure.
This buckwheat manure repeated every
fall, would I believe preferve the foil in
good heart for yielding rich crops of hemp,
that are not fuffered to go to feed, during
many fucceffive years. Plants fuffered to
go to feed, remarkably impoverilh foil.
Not
136 HEMP.
Not fo of what are harvefted before they are
injeed. Hemp is pulled before it feeds :
flax whilft in full feed. The effeds on
the foil are accordingly. But if the male
Hemp is pulled by the beginning of Auguft
and the female not till September, the feed
being then ripened, the foil is thereby
greaily impoverifhed ; and two hemp har-
vefts are produced inftead of one : the laft
whereof interferes with feeding of wheat,
rye, and barley.
Buckwheat muft not run to feed on
ground to be fown with hemp. I have
had it fpiring up and contending with
growing hemp, till the buck has been five
feet high.
The heavieft work in procuring Hemp,
is the breaking and fcutching or fwingling
it. But as it is the work of leifure winter,
and every perfon who ftrips tobacco can
break and fwingle hemp : and moreover
as hirelings, ifnecefTary, are in that feafon
eafily obtained, this bugbear part of the
bufmefs
HEMP. 137
bufmefs can afluredly be accompliflied, and
the hemp got rid of at market in the fpring.
A planter gaining 20 hogfheads of tobac
co from 20 acres of ground, value 800 dol
lars, might expert 12000 or i6ooolbs.
of hemp from the fame ground, value i ooo
or 1200 dollars. But, if the income
from the hemp mould be a fourth lefs than
from the tobacco crop, yet I would, on
feveral accounts, prefer the hemp culture.
For the country houfe- wife who wifhes
for information, the following is inferted
as what I have read of a method offoftemng
and preparing hemp, for making it into
linen. The Hemp is laid at full length in
a kettle. If the kettle is too fmall to admit
it at full length, the hemp may be doubled,
but without twifting it ; only the fmall end
of every hand is twifted a little, to keep the
hands whole, and from tangling. Smooth
flicks are laid in the bottom of the kettle,
acrofs and acrofs three or four layers, accor
ding to the fize and depth of the kettle ;
which
138 HEMP.
which is for keeping the hemp from touch
ing the liquor. Then pour lye of middling
ftrength, half the ftrength of that for foap,
gently into the kettle till it rifes nearly to
the tops of the flicks. The hemp is then
laid in, layer croffing layer, fo that the
fteam may pafs through the whole body
of the hemp. The kettle is now covered
clofe as can be, and hung over a very gentle
fire to ftew or funnier, but not boil, fo as
to raife a good fteam for 6 or 8 hours. It
is then taken off, and let ftand covered till
the hemp is cool enough to be handled.
It is now taken out, and wrung very care-
fully ^ till dry as can be : then hang it up out
of the way of the wind, in a garret or barn
with all the doors Ihut. Here it remains,
now and then turning it, till perfectly dry.
Then pack it up in a clofe , dry place, till
it is to be ufed. Yet at times it is to be
vifited, and examined if any part has be
come damp. At leifure, twift up as many
hands of hemp as are intended for prefent
ufe, bardzsjQM can; and with a fmart,
round, fmooth hand-beetle, on a fmooth
ftone
FARM-YARD MANURE. 139
ftone beat and pound each hand by itfelf,
all over very well, turning it round till all
is well bruifed. Then untwift and hackle
it through a coarfe, and after it through a
fine hackle. Hackling is performed in the
fame manner as if combing a fine head of
hair ; beginning at the ends below as thefe
are entangled, rifing higher and higher:
at laft the top of the head is reached. The
firft tow makes country rope ; the fecond,
ofnaburgs, fheeting and bagging ; and the
pure hemp excellent linen.
FARM-YARD MANURE.
For conducting the bufinefs of a farm to
full advantage, the farmer is to purfue ob-
jefts which fyftematically embrace fuch a
regular courfe of particulars as fliall beft fol
low and depend on each other, for obtain
ing the one whole of the defign of farming,
It is not immediate product alone that we
aim at : for, whilft we \vifh to obtain re
peated full crops, our reafon affures us it is
indifpenfably neceflary to that end, that the
foil
140 FARM-YARD MANURE.
foil be preferved in full vigor. The mind
then is employed, principally, on the ob
jects of prefervation and improvement of
the productive powers of the earth. Obfer-
vations on the ftate of common farming fix
the opinion, that no unconnected random
purfuits tend to enfure a fucceffion of advan
tageous hufbandry for any length of time.
Well chofen rotations of crops together
with due culture, are believed to be fo
favourable to the ground as to need but lit
tle of manure in comparifon of what the
common random or ill chofen crops abfo-
lutely require. Still the fteady and atten
tive application of manures, is held to be
an eflential duty in farming, a great link of
the chain, in every inilance. If rich foils
require, comparatively, but a moderate
quantity, in a rotation where ameliorating
crops are prevalent, yet middling and poor
foils want all that can be obtained ; and,
under the old Maryland courfes ejpeclally^
all foils eagerly demand more manure than
can be procured. Thefe exhaufting courfes
we
FARM-YARD MANURE*
we fee continually impoverish the foil. Too
many farmers therefore incline to move to
frefli lands; where they would precifely
aft the fame murderous part over again.
The principal links in good farming are
due tillage , proper rotations of crops, which
are treated of above, and manures, of which
it is wifhed the occafion would admit of
more than the few obfervations which fol
low.
<c In the American practice, bay and
fodder arejlacked in the fields ; and the cat
tle are fed round thejlacks and fodder-houfes :
the difad vantages whereof are,
1 . A wijleful ufe of the provender ;
2. The dung lying as it is dropped with
out Jlraw, or other vegetable fubftance
brought to it, the manure is little in quan
tity; and
3. That
142 FARM-YARD MANURE.
3. That little not lying in heaps^ is redu
ced abundantly by exhalation and rain\
without leaving any thing to the foil.
In the Englifti and Flemifh practice
(feebly obferved by a few of our hufband-
men) cattle are carefully boufed, or other-
wife confined to a fold yard in which are
(belters againft cold rains, during the whole
winter, and as far through the fpring as
food will laft : the advantages of which
are,
1. A fair expenditure of the provender,
without wqfte :
2. Lefs exhaujlion of the juices ; becaufe
cf the dung lying together, in large heaps :
3. The dung being mixed with the
/{raw, and other vegetable fubftances
brought to the beafts as litter, the whole is
trod together, and forms a large quantity
of very valuable manure.
It
FARM-YARD MANURE.
It may be no exaggeration to affirm, that
the difference in the quantities of manures
obtained from an equal flock of cattle by
thofe feveral methods, may be as three to
one. If fix acres may be annually ma
nured by the inferior method, then may
eighteen by the fuperior. Now on a fup-
pofition that manured land is kept in heart
fve years without repeating, in the one
cafe but thirty acres will always remain in
good order; in the other ninety acres : a
very important difference ! Indeed it is all
the difference between an hufbandman's
poverty and his riches/**
Do cattle, when foddered round hay-
ftacks and fodder-houfes or ricks, give
twelve loads of manure each ? Do they
yield one fuch load ? It is a facl: ftated I
think by Mr. Young, that in the courfe of
a winter cattle have yielded full twelve fuch
loads, each beaft ; and if foiled or fed well
during
6 The above quoted paflage is fron^ a friend, who
\vifhed to have fomething faid of farm yard manure ; and
in very few words he has faid a great deal.
144 FARM-YARD MANURE.
during the fummer with cut green grafs oif
clover, they may be expected to yield more
and richer manure ; provided that they are
kept up) on a/#// quantity of Utter. Here,
by the way, it may be noted that a portion
of grafs only fufficient to keep one beaft in
pa/luring, has fufficed five in joiling : and
what is of immenfe importance to the ftate
of the ground and of future crops, the
ground being untrod, in foiling, is left light
and mellow. Another favourable circum-
ftance attends foiling : the beafts are kept in
jhade^ and confiderably protected from flies ;
efpecially when the houfe is kept dark dur
ing the heat of the day, with only airholes
near the ground and above their heads, f
It
) In towns, <wajh is given to cows ; and in the coun
try fwill to fows, &c. Wafli is compofed of the wafhing
of diflies, and the offal of roots and cabbage from kitch
ens. Swill is meal, or rye or buckwheat foaked in water
till the grains fwell, and with ftirring burfl ; and fome-
times maize is fo foaked. Swill is faid to be the moft nou-
riifting when foured by long ftanding. The celebrated
Count Rumford fays it is coming faft into ufe in Germa
ny to keep horned cattle confined in ftables, all the year
round, and there feed and frequently give them a drank*
compofed of bran, grains, maflied potatoes, maflied
FARM-YARD MANURE. 145
It will be faid, the ground round the
Hacks receives the dung dropt, as a dreffing
K to
turnips, or oat meal, rye meal, or barley meal, with a
large proportion of 'water and a good quantity of fait : and
it is difcovered to be the moil nouriihing when given
warm, and when the mixture has been well boiled* Ano
ther advantageous practice, the Count fays, is to give
one-third of cut ftra<w, mixt with two-thirds of chopt
green clover ; with which horned cattle ruminate (chew
the cud) better than with green clover alone. Coach
horfes are kept up in ftables, many of them fcarcely ever
being permitted to run out on grafs. My coach horfes
for above feven years pad have never been a moment at
pafture, but in all that time have been kept in ftables,
and fed on nothing but hay and oats, and now and then
a little bran and fhorts or maize ; obferving withal to
give them fait frequently. Their health and plight have
conftantly been good in the whole of that time. Then
why need farmers fuffer their beafts to tread, harden and
untill their foil, and wafte grafs and dung, by running in
paftures, inftead of being kept up, houfed and fed dur
ing fummer with cut green clover and ftraW) and in win
ter with fodder and drank. If no beafts were ever fuffered
to pafture, there then fcarcely would be any neceflity
for having crofs fences What a faving of labour and
wood ! But what is to be done with (heep ? Give them a
range of woodland and rough grounds ? Why not keep
them up ? Mr. Bakewell praftifed ftall-feeding them, if he
did not alfo keep fome in houfes the year round. They
would require airy fhelters and roomy yards, in divifions,
for the different conditions of iheep. In Italy are fheep-
146 FARM-YARD MANURE.
to fo much of the field. Alas ! we know
this extends to a very fmail diftance, and
the
houfes built of ftone in rows, with divifions, a variety.
Before them is a large fquare inclofure, divided into five
equal parts. In the firil divifion and in the flails belong
ing to them, are the e wes lig with young ; in the fecond
fucking lambs ; in the third and fourth, the two year old
lambs ; and in the fifth are the lambs done fucking. Trav.
through Naples, tranflated by Aufrere, 1789. In Flan
ders their fheep are always in ftables, and are let out
every day into the yard. 20 An. 466. Mr. Cook (inven
tor of the drill) fays that the benefits fromj^raw cut into
chaff, and pafling through cattle, inftead of being trod un
derfoot as titter, are very great. He fupported in winter,
40 cattle near 7 months on 30 acres of Jiraw ; and 4
of turnips ; and made from it 400 tuns of dung 10
tuns each beaft. When he wrote this he was making ex
periments in feeding his horfes on green food, clover,
vetches and grafs cut withjlraw ; and expecled the dung
from it will more than pay for all their keep and the ex-
penfe of cutting. 28 Eng. Rev. 1796, p. 89. "It has
fay the reviewers, long been ufed in Germany to chop
green clover, and mix \fw\\hchoptjlraw : two (tone (i81b)
of clover, and one (i4lb) of ftraw. It is pradifed by
thofe chiefly who confine horned cattle in ftables, the year
round; feeding with thefe in fummer, drank in winter."
Sheds with large boilers are fitted to ftables and cow-
houfes, to prepare food for horfes and cattle. Englifh
farmers fay they find it highly advantageous. The
dranh being boiled are more nourifhing and wholefome.
Fuel and attendance are compenfated by improvement
FARM-YARD MANURE. 147
the effeft is in no part confiderablc. The
place where, is fome eminence : the rains
K 2 and
of the food. They boil potatoes two or three hours ; the
longer the more the food is improved. But of late
foaming, inftead of boiling potatoes, is preferred, for
faving fuel. They throw away the water, as it is appre
hended there is fomething noxious to animals in ra-w pota
toes, and in potatoe-nuater. In Japan they univerfally
feed all beafts in houfss ; in which they are kept up the
year through. They feem to know nothing of pafturing.
" I took the idea of maintaining cattle in yards or
houfes, fays Mr. Baker, from having frequently heard
that, in Flanders, they fcarcely ever fuffer their cattle to
pajlure at large : but the farmers all feed them in houfes.
I have now purfued it three or four years ; and have "fo
much rcafon to be fatisfied with it, that I cannot fuffici-
ently recommend it to others." I An. 93. In foiling
there is fometimes a wafting of the green food, by giving
more than is eaten ; laying it in heaps ; where it remains
till it ferments and becomes four, &c. By foiling in a
yard littered, with the food in racks and cribs, labour in
cleaning, and faving urine, is leffened. But the value
of this labour fo faved, is loft in the cattle thriving lefs, the
quality of the manure, the beafts pufhing and driving
each other and illnaturedly preventing others from eating,
being worried by flies. Trampling dung and litter in the
winter, or much rain, gives an appearance of rottennefs
very fallacious. Not water, but urine is the proper fer
ment for dung, (fays the book) ; and treading dung as
faft as it is made, impedes fermentation. It is certain
(it continues to fay) that dung made under cover (the
148 FARM-YARD MANURE.
and winds of half the year wa/h away and
evaporate from the frozen ground moft of
the rich fubftance of the dung fo dropt
about ; and the ground, whilft unfrozen,
is trod clofe and poached, to a degree that
untills it nearly equal to the value of the
dung left on it uninjured. This is illuftrat-
ed : a fodder houfe (a hollow rick made of
maize tops in the way of thatch) was fet up
in a field, as is ufual : it was fenced in.
At the fouth front, maize was hulked,
and the hufks were fheltered in the fodder
houfe. In the courfe of the winter they
were given out to the cattle, in front of the
rick. In April the fodder houfe being
then empty was pulled down, and the co
vering of maize tops was given to the
cattle. The ground thus faltered by the
fodder houfe for fix months, October to
April, {hewed marks of richnefs greatly
fuperior to the ground on which the cattle
were
beafts kept up) is better than made in a yard: cattle do
better and the food goes further. 14 An. 160. But is it
not better that dung fhould be rotted, not more than
partially, when the ground receives it, that it may fer
ment and rot moftly wbiJft in the ground ?
FARM-YARD MANURE. 149
were foddered during the fame time : grafs,
weeds and crops, during the four or five
following years of my remaining on the
farm, {hewed this in their great growth.
Where the fodder-houfe, three hundred
feet long and twenty broad, flood and
fheltered the ground, the richnefs of the
foil was ftrongly marked ; when but a faint
fuperiority over the common field appeared
on the part where the cattle were foddered.
Litter is an eflential ; without which
yard manure is of fmall account ; and un-
lefs it be in full proportion to the number of
cattle, it is not thought highly of : but is
as a half done thing. Good farmers in Eng
land deem full littering of fuch importance
that after reaping with fickles and inning
their wheat, they chop the Jlubble with
fithes, and ftack it for litter. Befides ftraw
and ftubble for litter, they apply to the
fame ufe, fern and fuch other vegetable
fubftances as they can procure : and they
buy ftraw from common farmers who are
not
FARM-YARD MANURE.
not in the practice of littering.* In all
countries, common farmers are indifferent
to improvements : they look not beyond
old habits. A full littering is three loads
of 12 or i3Ootb of frraw to each grown
bead. In England ftraw is fold by farmers
who are tenants on fliort leafes, who jog
on as their fathers and as themfelves were
trained^ and from which they cannot de
viate, f It is prefumed that here alfo ftraw
is to be bought. Maize Stalks will for a long
while coft little elie than 'carriage. A fke-
leton
* Mr. Bakewell (4 E Tour. 449) never litters. He
prefers the dung from a given quantity of flraw eaten by
cattle, to a larger quantity gained by littering. On
which Mr. Young obferves, that his reafoning is good
where ftubble, fern, and the like are to be had for litter
ing with ; but adds that a fmall quantity of dung very
rich, is not equally efficacious with a large quantity of
weak dung that contains altogether equal richnefs. Mr.
Bakewell afterwards pradifed littering his cattle in their
fheds.
)- " I believe it is never done, except in the vicinity
" of large towns ; where it is eafy to exchange draw for
" manure to a double profit. Maize ftalks might un-
" doubtedly be converted to excellent manure, but feem
*' to be univerfally wafted." S,
FARM-YARD MANURE. 151
leton frame made of a light xvood may be
contrived to carry a vaft quantity when
they are dry : but whilft yet uncured they
are better^ becaufe of their fweet and nou-
ri filing juice, which invites cattle to browfe
on them, as they lie under foot in the
yard. When they are much trodden they
become of a fponge-like confidence, which
retains the dung and the urine very effectu
ally. Let us not be fparing of expenfe,
or be dilatory in procuring the neceflary
materials for a full littering. It increafes
and preferves the manure requifite for the
improvement and prefervation of the pow
ers of the foil, for enabling it to yield
greater crops and more of pecuniary in
come, and comfort.
In America, ftraw, ftubble, maize ftalks,
fern, weeds before they feed, flags, wild
oats, fea grafs, and leaves of trees are to be
applied as litter. Our farmers fay, " there
is no manure in corn ftalks;*' and they are
left ftanding in the fields. I have been
ufed to draw them into my cattle-yard, in
the
152 FARM-YARD MANURE.
the fall and during winter ; where they
were laid thick, as litter to grown cattle,
and were trod into a fponge-like ftate; in
which they catch and retain the dung and
urine of the cattle, fo as to give a great
quantity of rich manure. A farmer near
Philadelphia, after inning his wheat crop,
mowed and fecured \\\zftubble : the motives
whereof were to preferve his young clover
from being fmothered by a rank ftubble,
and to ufe the ftubble as Utter to his beafts.
This is the firfl inftance I have known, of
Jlubble being faved in America, with any
view to littering cattle ! Farmer Rufh has
thus given an important leflbn, for thofe
who are difpofed to fecond their judgment
with determined exertion !
The quantity of ftraw and ftubble to be
produced in crops, is eftimated at very great
uncertainty beforehand, becaufe of the va
rious growths which crops take in different
years. It may be from 50 or 60 to 90 or
loofb of ftraw alone, for each bufhel of
wheat produced. In the Mufeum Rufti-
cum,
FARM-YARD MANURE. 153
cum, and in the 8 vo. volume of feleft papers
from it, are accurate details of a crop of
wheat, with its proportions of ftraw and
chaff to that of the wheat.
In November all the cattle are to be con
fined from wandering about the fields. The
cattle-yard is then well littered ; and as
often as the litter is trod into the dung and
muck, or is foaking wet, more litter is ad
ded ; fo that the beafts may lye always clean
and dry. They are thus confined to a yard
and littered till there is a full bite of grafs in
May. All the cattle are to be under fhel-
ter from cold rains during that time. Lit
ter is to be given them, as above.
It is advantageous to a farm, and of fome
immediate income, to have on it as numer
ous a flock of cattle as can be kept well,
and no more than can bey# kept. It is bet
ter to have too few than too many : yet in
fome parts of America, farmers exceeding
ly difproportion their cattle to their proven
der. They will have numbers of hidebound
creatures,
154 FARM-YARD MANURE.
creatures, many xvhereof die from mere
want of food snAJbelter: fo that lefs meat
and lefs manure are derived from a great
number fa poorly kept, than better farmers
have from a due proportion well kept. Be-
fides, does not the man feel fhame in the
cruelty ^ of ftarving or keeping in a ftate of
want and mifery, a fellow-creature com
mitted to his care ? Is it not a truft to the
creature man, from the Father of all crea
tures ?
The live-ftock is to be as many as can
be keptyW/mv/from cold rains, with abun
dant winter and Jummer food. Of all the
kinds, the horfe is the moft coftly and the
rnoft injurious to the farm. He bites clofe,
is aline!! continually treading and poaching
the ground ; and eats more than the ox as
5 to 3 ; yet is not himfelf, eatable : when
he dies he is loft for ever, The ox is meat.
After having given us his labour, he becomes
food to us. Steers are unprofitable : they
coil five or fix years keeping, without
yielding labour; and are then fold for lefs
than
FARM-YARD MANURE. 155
than the coft of keeping and fattening them.
Cows give milk, and oxqn give labour.*
Sheep
* Cows and oxen may be fattened and difpofed of when
7 or 8 years old. If 6 are to be clifpofed of, then the
ftock is to confift of 6 calves, 6 of two years, 6 of 3
years, 6 of 4, 6 of 5, 6 of 6, 6 of 7, and 6 of 8 years ;
in all forty-eight head : whereof thirty give milk, la
bour, or meat. After marking fix calves, yearly, the
very beft for cows and oxen, die reft are to be fold : fo
that not a fteer is to be raifed, other than fhall be necef-
fary for oxen. An ox improves in value, ten dollars a
year from the time that he comes to be ufed and fed as
an ox. A horfe declines, till he comes to nothing. " Mr.
Cooper was much prejudiced againil oxen : but is now
fuch a convert as to have parted with moft of his horfes.
A horfe cofts as much as 4^ oxen : and the ox's
keep is in fummer, graft alone ; in winter, Jlraw : on
- which they may be worked moderately. If hard worked,
they have hay. In barnefs, they are ftill more valuable.
Their harnefs is much the fame as for horfes ; except that
the collars open and are buckled en, and are worn contra
ry to thofe for horfes : the narrow end of the collars,
which open, being downwards ; and as the chains are
fattened to them in the fame direction as in horfe-harnefs,
the beads of courfc draw much higher than horfes. The
line of the chains is almoft up to their backs ; but much
above the cheft : which is neceilary from the different
fhape of horfes and oxen. They draw when /;; harnefs,
alred/l in pairs, Jingle or in a line one before another ; and
walk as faft as horfes. An ox- team five in a waggon,
and a borfe-team, four in another waggon. Both went
156 FARM-YARD MANURE.
Sheep are profitable. Sows and pigs ought
to be efpecially kept where there is a dairy,
as they make a confiderable part of its profit,
from the offal milk. Hogs are advantage-
oufly kept on green clover ; and fattened on
potatoes with meal of maize.
Quantity
twice a week, fourteen miles out, and fourteen miles
home each day : the load equal, about two tuns. The
oxen were generally at home two hours before the horf-
es ; and were in harnefs. Driving with gentknefi and
good temper, without ever hurrying, is found neceffary to
procure their exertions. A perfon who drew r with oxen,
two or three years, and made fair experiments comparing
them with horfes fays, an ox value thirty dollars, is
equally ftrong in the draught, with a horfe value ninety
dollars, and equally fit for plow, cart or harrow ; and
that the ox requires a fourth part lefs provender than the
horfe : alfo that the ox works and increafes, from four till he
is ten years old ; but that feven hours work a day is to him
as much as eight to a. horfe" See E. Tour, vol. i. p. 172
vol. iii. 152 vol. iv. 5. 82. 269 vol iii. 398. 418
vol. iv. 268. 273. An. vol. xxiii. 68. 70. Oxen may eve
ry way be ufed inftead of horfes : bridled and rid ; harnef-
cd and driven in waggons, plows, &c. In Maryland one
Sutton Sicklemore rode on a bull about the country ; and
I have feen a woman going to a race, with her chefl of
cakes and fitting in a truck drawn by a bull bridled. In
Pennfylvania, I faw a waggon drawn by tiuo lulh and
two cxen, bridled and gee red in harneft and collars.
FARM-YARD MANURE. 157
Quantity of land, alone, is no rule for
fixing on the number of cattle to be kept.
Not only the quantity and quality, but alfo
the fituation and the crops will aflFecT: the
queftion : and the attentive farmer will de
termine from his experience, how far he
is to enlarge or reduce the numbers and
kinds of his live-ltock.
"In many fituations, fays Mr.
" the dependance of a farm for manure,
" is on the ftraw-yard. If in that cafe
" the farmer does not properly propor-
" tion his arable crops which feed cattle, to
" thofe which litter the yard, and both
" thefe to the quantity of his grafs fields,
" the farm will be long before it gets well
" manured."
How advantageous for acquiring dung,
fo eflential for preferving the productive
powers of the earth, is the practice of
keeping cattle up in yards, well littered
How much more fo the keeping them up
in boujes, well littered ! efpecially, when
fo
/
158 BARNS.
fo houfed^ if it be on green food cut for
them infummer, and dry food with juicy
roots and drank in winter ! and houfing
cattle keeps them in full plight with a faving
of food.
BARNS.
Farmers in Pennfylvania have a com
mendable fpirit for building good barns,
which are moftly of ftone. On the ground
floor are flails in which their horfes and
oxen arc fed with hay, cut-ftraw, and
rye-meal ; but not always their other beafts.
Roots are feldom given to their live-ftock,
and are too little thought of. The fecond
floor with the roof, contains their fheaves
of grain, which are thrafhed on this floor.
a part of their hay is alfo here ftored.
Loaded carts and waggons are driven in,
on this fecond floor; with which the fur-
face of the earth is there level ; or elfe a
bridge is built up to it, for fupplying the
want of height in the bank, the wall of one
end of the houfe being built clofe to the
bank
i
BARNS.
bank of a hill cut down. For giving room
to turn waggons within the houfe, it is
built thirty-fix to forty feet wide : and the
length is given that may be requifite to the
defign or fize of the farm. But if the wag-*
gon is driven directly into the barn, it may
be as directly drawn back without turning
it a great faving of room ; and the houfe
need not be fo wide as for the fake of turn
ing waggons in it. If waggons carry more
to the barn at a time, yet carts are briiker :
their loads are fhot down in aninftant, and
they turn ihort. Waggons are tedioufly
unloaded.
I have feen a barn, in Ghefter county,
Pennfylvania, which had a cellar under a
floor of planks on joifts, on which horfes
and oxen flood ; and their dung was daily
fhovelled into the cellar. The farmer faid,
this dung is the better for being thus kept
dry : but, may it not be there too dry ?
Dung drowned with water muft be much
injured. But if a large mafs of dung
receives no more water than what falls 011
its
l6o BARNS.
its furface from the clouds, and is well
flickered from the fun, is it then injured ?
Is it better or worfe for being rotten before
it is applied to the ground as a manure ?
If firft rotted, it will fpread and mix with
the foil more perfectly. If but partly rot
ted, and then fpread and plowed into the
ground, inftantly as it is carted out, will it
not be ftronger more powerful in opening
and enriching the foil ? It there finifhes its
heat and fermentation, which precede and
bring forward rottennefs, whilft it is in the
ground : provided its lying too thinly dif-
perfed or fcattered in the ground is not
againft its fermenting.*
There
* The 4 E. Tour, 452. fpeaks of dung being put up
in a fmall compafs, that the/ux, wind and ram, may
have but little power over it, to do it mifchief. Of thefe,
the fun exhales without its rays adding any known vir
tue to the dung ; and the rain when in excefs, would rob
it by too great dilution and waihing away its fubftance :
but the atmofpheric air would impart to it fome of its rich
combinations. For making gunpowder, nitre is collected
in beds of ftraw, earth and rubbifh, raifed in thin banks
or walls above the ground, expofed to the air ; and fhel-
tered only from fun and rain. From fuch thin ma/fts t
rains would wofh out the nutritive ftor? s, and the fun
BARNS. l6l
There are not many inftances of fheds
tacked to their modern barns. Their mode
of building, of late, does not well admit of
them ; and room is gained by all being un
der one roof. The roof is a coftly part of
buildings : but it cofts no more to cover
three or four ftories than one.
. Their barns on the fides of hills (which
they always prefer) may be built three fto
ries high, inftead of the ufual two ftories*
Cut down the hill perpendicularly feven or
eight feet, and build up one end of the barn
clofe to the bank. The other walls are to
be quite free and airy from bottom to top.
The ground ftory feven or eight feet high ;
the next thirteen feet the third alfo thir
teen feet ; into which grain in the ftraw is
pitched up, and there thrafhed out. If the
L bank
would exhale them. But, would what my ftercories re
ceive of rain, foaksd into a large deep mafs of dung, injure
the dung, when there is fcarcely more than with the urine
may be requifite for producing a fermentation in the dung
and litter ? If dry Jung is applied to a dry foil, it cannot
ferment till a fufficiency of rain falls and dilutes it.
163 BARNS.
bank is not fo high as the fecond floor, or
if there is no bank, lay a bridge up to that
floor. The width of the barn being thirty-
fix feet clear ; , a paflage in the middle, ele
ven or twelve feet wide, will leave a range
of cattle-ftands on each fide of it. The cat
tle are fed from the paflage ; and there ftraw
is cut and meal ftored. The doors are one
to every two flails or four beafts. They
may be latticed, or otherwife airy : and at
the end of the paflage next the bank, may
be a door opening into a vault excavated
from the bank, for keeping roots. The
dung may be thrown into a ftercory ten
feet from the doors. There will be no oc-
cafion for carts pafling between the range
of doors and the dung pit or ftercory. All
is carted into the houfe, at the end door of
the fecond floor. The ftercory may be co
vered with whatever may fhelter the dung
from the fun, although it fhould fuffer
rains to pafs through the covering : but no
other rain or water is to have accefs to the
dung, but urine is to be faved and thrown
on it. One end of the ftercory or pit is
open
BARNS. 163
open, where a hill will, admit of letting
carts in. Air is admitted into the barn
through long loopholes in the walls, rather
than windows. A go.o.d thunder rod, half
an inch diameter, infures the barn againft
injury from lightning at the coft of lefs
than fifty cents a year.
A ftone barn, lately built in Philadelphia
county , has its ground ftory i Q^ feet high ;
the next 19 feet, and the third 14 feet.
Waggons are driven into the fecond ftory.
Seven feet are high enough for horned cat~
tle. Horfes require more height; and
there are inconveniences in keeping horfes
and horned cattle in the fame houfe. The
conftrudion of their refpedive houfes
fhould be adapted to their feveral purpoies^
-
A foreigner alks, if the fteam from the
perfpiration and breath of the cattle, clofe
houfed, would not taint the hay and ftraw
on the floor above them ; and if the houfe
being built up againft the bank would not
occafion an injurious dampnefs to the grain,
L 2 the
164 BARNS.
the ftraw and the hay ? I have heard no
complaint of either, and prefume there is
no caufe for any in a country of fo dry an
air; efpecially as thefe ftone barns, built
againft banks, ftored with cattle on the
ground-floor, and containing grain, ftraw,
and hay, on the upper-floor, continue to
be preferred.
.
It is faid that cattle are kept very clofe
and warm in their houfes in Brabant and
parts of Germany. I never knew of out-
cattle fuffering materially by mere cold,
unattended with rain, wet f now or fleet.
But as often as they experience thefe, their
wretchednefs claims compaffion : and the
owner, feeling for himfelf as well as for
the beafts committed to his care, at fome
time or other may refolutely practife giv
ing them due Jhelter and attention ; and
thereby profit of the increafe of milk, of
labour and of meat, if not alfo of felf fatis-
fation on feeing them through his provi
dent induftry in comfortable good flight, in
no want.
What-
CATTLE-STALLS. 165
Whatever the number of floors or ftories
are, the bank is not to be higher than to
the fecond floor, which is immediately
above the cattle floor : fo that the bank is
fcarcely ever more than feven or eight feet
high ; and to that height at the mofr, one
end of the barn is attached to the bank.
In Chefter county, I have feen where a
bank was cut down three or four feet, and
a bridge for waggons was from the top of
it four or five feet more, to the fecond
floor of the barn.
CATTLE-STALLS.
On this particular is here given what I
have collected of Mr. BakewelFs method of
houfing his cattle, from the Annals of Agri
culture, or from John Burnet^ who was
fent to America by Mr. Bakewell with cat
tle, a few years fmce.
Mr. Bakewell keeps his cattle in houf-
es : in which a paflage is at the heads of
them, to feed from. The troughs out of
which
j66 CATTLE-STALLS.
which they eat their hay or turnips (I
prefurne alfp their ftraw, for he feeds large
ly with ftraw) are 2^ feet wide at top, and
Hope to the bottom which is of brick, three
feet long, eight or nine inches deep. The
bottom of brick is on the ground. No rack.
Every flail is fix feet wide for two cows :
eight for two bulls. In each corner of the
ftalls is a fmooth poft, with a ring larger
than the poft, for fliding up and down. A
chain, not a foot long, connects with the
ring, and alfo with a chain collar round the
bead's neck, which locks with a T. The
cattle can but juft reach their food next to
the divifion between the two beafts. Three
feet for each cow, are better than more
room : in which they lye down. More
fpace would admit of their dirtying each
other. Their ftanding is fix feet : and be
hind is a ftep five or fix inches down to
where the dung falls. The houfe is clean
ed once a day ; and the cattle are driven
twice to water. He has forty-five in one
place fo tied up : and they are fed and taken
care of by a man and a boy.
Cows
CATTLE-STALLS. 167
Cows in milk are not to want water. In
the American climate they ought to be wa
tered three times a day in fummer. Their
water ought to be near. Driving cows any
diftance is very injurious to their milk. In
England, dairy cows are faid to give from
200 to 4ooft of butter. Do the American
give looto 200? Many attentions are re-
quifite for obtaining much butter, or good
butter and alfo much and good milk.
Below is a Iketch of Mr. Bakewell's
ftalls ;* which are without racks : but the
manger is the wider. Next to it is a {ketch
of one drawn by a gentleman lately from
Yorkshire ; which has a rack leaning with
its back part in the feeding paffage ; a trough
for food ; a fpace for the cattle to ftand in ;
a fink for receiving their dung ; and a way
behind the cattle. Lord Holdernefs's fink
to his cattle houfe is faid to be without any
drain : fo that the dung, urine and refufe
fcraps of hay are all mixed there, and barrow-
ed
* See the Plate.
l68 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
ed away from it, together, to the dunghil ;
which feems a good practice, atleaft where
fervant cannot be depended on for faving
the urine alone , and then carrying it to the
dunghil.
Cattle Pastured and Soiled in Summer : Kept and
Fattened in Winter :
In fome of my little eflays, are intimati
ons of methods for keeping and feeding
live-flock, very different from the ufual
practices of hufbandmen, but being conciie
or in notes, they are too obfcure to be at
tended to. The fubjecl: claims attention,
from farmers accuftomed to think with a
defire to improve Such particulars there
on as at preient occur, are therefore pre-
lented to the confideration of this clafs of
hufbandmen.
As well grain as grafs farms maintain
live-ftock : but their kinds fize and number
proportionate to the means of fubfiftence
arc not iufficiently attended to ; nor are
the
KEPT AND FATTENED. 169
the modes of keeping them, and faving
their manure. They are commonly raifed
on'thefarm: but, fometimes are bought
full grown, of drovers; and grazed in
paftures.
The common farmer's live-flock runs OR
a fort of pafture during fix or feven months.
In the rell of the year they are kept entire
ly on dry food, at leaft in Maryland. Who
among our farmers ever think of procuring
Si Juicy winter food, for tempering the cof-
tive effects of dry ftraw and maize fodder
eaten by their cattle ? Juicy food in general
tends to keep their bodies open, their fkins
and mufcles mellow, pliant and eafy for
their better thriving. Hence the fine ef-
fedt of root and turnip-feeding, fo highly
valued by European farmers.
It is faid, coxys require in England, from
one to two acres of pafture : but the me
dium of a number of inflances is found
to be one and a third acre. Their paf-
tures are made} by fowing grafs feeds after
the ground has been a number of years
producing
IJO CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
producing crops, ameliorating as well as ex-
haufting, under manunngs and good tillage.
They continue many years afterwards in
grafs, carefully cleared of brambles and
ftrong weeds. During the ten or twenty
years of their being paftured, the cattle
drop their dung, fcattered and left ex-
pofed on the ground to exhauftion by fun
and wind. Some good the foil obtains
from it: but the continual treading by the
beads paftured, has a bad effecl: in deaden
ing and untilling the foil. Neverthelefs,
in fo long lying unimpoverifhed by renew
ed corn crops, the ground is partly reftored
from conftant though flow depofits of the
atmoiphere as well as in an inferior degree
from the dung dropt.
Have our American lay- ii elds equal ad
vantages ? Very frequent returns of corn
crops of different forts ha/e robbed the
ground, generally without aiy application of
manure : the ground is then left to a fpon-
taneous growth of weeds and a four or
poor grafs, which give what farmers of
cafe and pleafure contentedly deem good
enough
KEPT AND FATTENED. I /I
enough pafture. On this their ill fated
horfes, cows, oxen, and fheep are promif-
cuoufly turned early in the feafon before
there is a bite : but they nibble off the fcan-
ty growth of rubbifh as it rifes. Here they
continue till winter: fometimes through
the winter; fo that the ground becomes
goached and trod to a dead clofenefs. The
dung dropt is but of one or two years, to
wards reftoring the foil, when corn crops
are renewed, and reduce it ft ill lower.
The acquifition from detached fcraps of ex-
pofed dung and from the flow effect of the
atmofphere, in that fhort time, is trifling :
and far fhort of repairing the wafte, from
poaching, and quick returns of corn crops.*
Oppofed to our unmade paftures, are
the made paftures of Europe and fome parts
of
* Witlings may fancy they fee a palpable contradiction
between quick returns of corn crops as here mentioned,
fo greatly impoverishing, and as they are recommended,
in the rotations, to be every other year. But, their geni
us forbids them to fee the difference between good culture
with manures and intervening amsfiorating or mild crops, and
bad culture without manures or ameliorating crops.
172 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
of America : and oppofed to all pafturing,
is foiling. Soiling is common in Flanders,
and is advancing into extenfive ufe in Ger
many and in England. It is to the prefent
purpofe that thefe practices and their efFe&s
be compared.
Advantages in pajluring are that rich
grafs pafture keeps grown cattle at the rate
of one and a third acre to a beaft, during
the fix or feven warmer months : common
pafture, at the rate of two acres to a beaft.
Attendance on them in paftures is very little.
They range at pleafure and drop their ma
nure on the field, fo that labour in heaping,
carting out, and fpreading it is faved. The
difad vantages are, the grafs and the ground
are trod and reduced in value : the paftures
require coftly divifion fences : the dung is
fcattered on the ground, expofed to exha
lation and wafte by fun and wind, fo as to
be greatly reduced : the horfes and oxen
are driven to the liable with much wafte of
time, and fome vexation and confcquent
abufe.
The
KEPT AND FATTENED. 173
The advantages of foiling are that the
ground requires but few or no divifion
fences : grown cattle are kept at the rate of
a fourth part of an acre to a beaft, during
the fix warmer months ; their manure is
all well preferved, and given to the foil
when and where it is moft wanted, and
in the beft condition : the foil is untrod and
left mellow and lively : the horfes, oxen,
and cows are always up,* ready for ufe
without lofs of time : they are kept cool,
fhaded and lefs worried by flies : they ac
quire good coats and full flefh, on a lefs
expenfe of food. When it is objected to
the laying afide divifion fences, that there
would be, at times, bad feafons when grafs
could not be cut and carried in, becaufe of
great
* Except that for a few hours, after they are returned
to the flails on the morning watering, they may be let
out to flrole and rub themfelves in the farm-yard ; from
1 1 o'clock till 3, then put up in the flails ; by which they
will not have time to drop much dung in the yard : and
what is there dropt ihould be harrowed to the ftercory.
Carried immediately to the flails, after being watered, they
dung and ftale plentifully in the ftalls : then being turn
ed out they do not dung much whilft in the yard.
174 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
great rains, or of cold drying winds which
check the growth of grafs, fo that it would
be requifite there fhould be fome fields di
vided off for the beafts to run on at thofe
times, the anfwer is that there is another
way of providing for the cattle, and that
much preferable. In towns we fee horfes
and cattle are kept up on hay zndjlraw the
year round, and that it agrees with them.
A quantity of hay is therefore to be kept
in ftor.e, as a provifion againjlfuch untoward
feafons as mall deprive the beafts of their
mefs of cut grafs. Prudent farmers deem
it requifite always to have forae ftock of
old hay.*
A farmer paflures his ftock : his neigh
bour foils his. Each has 3 2 head of grown
horfes, oxen and cows.
Pajtured
* Befides, as Mr. Duplaine intimates, maize may be
fown thick, 3 to 3^bufhels an acre, harrowing the ground
even, when the taffels ihoot, mow and cure it into fod
der. Or cut it daily and give it green to cattle. 9 Muf.
253.
KEPT AND FATTENED. 175
Paftured 32, at 2 a. of common
pafture each, ... 64 acr.
Soiled- 32, at an acre of cut grafs
to 4 beafts 8
gained 56 a.' by foiling ; which will keep
224 cattle : or give 140 tons of hay, worth
1400 dollars.
,
Accounts given of cattle foiled in Eng
land, make the beafts foiled to be 4 to 6
head from an acre of cut clover. Mr. Wynn
Baker, who was an accurate experimenter,
found an acre kept five head, the graft part
ly cut from head-lands. J A farmer in Eng
land foiled 20 horfes and 7 cows, from 7
acres of clover, without giving any corn
or hay. He clofely watched the manage
ment of his tenant with the fame number
of flock pajlured in a field ; and it proved
that one acre mown went as far as fix paf-
tured. When his beafts had eaten 5 acres,
the tenants had confumed 30 acres, and his
horfes were in inferior condition.
When
\ See the note f page 144.
176 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED :
When foiling is recommended, farmers
having inveterate habits, or who are driving
after pleafures, equally check all that might
be faid, by Vehemently objecting to the
labour and ,expenfe of cutting, carting and
giving the grafs to the. beafts ; and the far
mer of lounging habits, ever feeking for
fhort cuts and even tor nothing to do, can
never find time for cleaning flails and faving
and carrying out dung, eflential as they
are.*
A man and a boy perform all the work
and attendance in foiling 40 to 50 beafts.
They cut grafs, enough in the morning for
the evening feed ; let it lay to deaden a lit
tle, and cart it in, in the evening. So the
morning feed is cut in the evening to be
carried in, in the morning. Suppofing all
the work performed in 3 hours of the
morning,
* He is a bad farmer who feeks for nothing to do. A
good farmer knows how to accompiifh the ordinary round
of work, and it is without grudging full labour for hav
ing it complete. The fhort cut which would do it but
fomehow, and not perfectly, he fpurns at. When all
this is done he feeks to improve the eftate.
KEPT AND FATTENED. 177
morning, and 3 of the evening, there then
remain 6 hours for other work. The ex-
penfe of the man and boy is therefore
but one half chargeable to the foiling ac
count : but even let them be 8 hours em
ployed in foiling, or two-thirds the ex-
penfe.
Reckoning on only 32 head, they give per Dols.
year 320 loads of rich manure 300
Time daily faved in catching the beafts :
foil left untrod and lively : gentle-
nefs and docility of the beafts, value 40
Wages and expenfes, a man and boy, a
year 200, off y 140
Gain, in foiling, . . . 56 acres, or 140
tons of hay, 1400
1740
140
Net gain 1600
Will you fpurn at the offer of 1600 dol
lars that you may avoid paying wages and
expenfes of a man or two ? Thefe herdf-
men would be requifite for winter feeding,
cleaning flails and faving manure, even if
the beafts were paftured in fummer inftead
M of
CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
of being foiled. How little then is chargea
ble to the foiling !
It is in this cafe unwife to fuffer the mind
to be biafled by apprehenfions of expenfes
which evidently muft be greatly below the
benefit acquired. Let us make trials of this
new method of managing cattle : fuppofe
at firft our horfes and oxen fo kept. How
docile, how well flefhed, what healthy coats,
and what a valuable quantity of manure of
the richeft and moft perfect kind on the
fpot !
Many horfes are kept up, in towns, the
year through ; except only whilft they are
employed : and all cattle thrive better, on
lefs food, when tied up than when at large
in fields. Even fheep are fo kept. The
celebrated Mr. Bake well, lately deceafed,
tied up his favorites, at lead: during winter :
I believe too his choiceft rams were tied up
the year through, except for the moment
of giving them the ewes, to run together
in a lot, for they were not to be feen out at
other
KEPT AND FATTENED. 179
other times. In keeping foeep up, they
ought to have room, and much frefh air in
feparate apartments, according to their ages
and fexes, allowing to ewes with lamb a
great portion of room.
Without knowing the quantity of cut
grafs that beafts may daily require, 7515
are aflumed ; which quantity would cure
into 1 7*b of hay : but it may be that lefs of
green grafs would cloy them than what
might when cured into a feed of hay*
It is faid, 28*b of green clover cut up,
with I4!b of ft raw cut into chaff and mixed
together, are a feed for a day to one beaft ;
which agrees with 75 !b of green clover
alone : what a faving of clover ! But in the
feafon of foiling, clover is plentier than
ftraw ; and ftraw 'is an efiential in winter :
fo that Sib or lefs of ftraw and 40 of clover
may be better. When 4^lb of green clo
ver cures into one of hay, 28$* are equal to
6|- of hay: to which add 14^ of ftraw;
the whole is equal to 20^ of dry food.
M 2 But
l8o CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED:
But the ftraw is inferior to the fame quan
tity of hay ; and I yib of hay is a good al
lowance to full grown beafts per day. As
much ftraw cut and mixt with green clover
as will but improve the cud, is fufficient ;
and it feems Sib of ftraw to 40 of green
clover will anfwe-r, or even lefs : for clover
alone anfwers for the purpofe of rumina
tion, though not fo well as when aided by
ftraw or hay.
A Table of Food for a Day, in Soiling grown
Cattle.
The herdlmen
ought to know
how much clo
ver and ftraw to
cut and give dai
ly ; that there
may be enough
without wafte.
If not enough
the beafts fuffer :
if too much of
green clover or grafs is cut and brought
in,
Beafts.
Clover
Clover &
alone.
ftraw.
I
ib
75
f C.40
{ S. 8
10
750
I 400
| 80
: 800
20
1500
1 60
1 200
30
2250
240
' 1600
40
3000
320
2OOO
5
375
4OO
KEPT AND FATTENED. 1 8 1
in, lying in a heap it ferments, turns
four and is loft. Till herdfmen are well
pradifed, it may be well that they meafure
each mefs, and chalk down how much a
baiket and cart body hold of the articles,
in weight. The practice will at leaft have
a defirable tendency of leading fervants to
obferve method ; the value whereof in all
bufinefs is nearly as ri$bt is to wrong.
Without method, random flights predo
minate and divert employment from its
beft objects to unimportant or wafteful
purpofes.
On the fuppofition that 75 Ib of green
clover, alone, fuffices, in the morning are
carried to the 32 beafts, isootb: in the
evening the like quantity. Eight acres,
cut four times* in the feafon of foiling, is
about
* In fome years this might be accomplifhed. In other
years the cuttings would be not more than thrice ; or
even in years of fevere droughts might be not more than
twice. In cafes of neceflity the horfes and cattle can be
tethered awhile ; and hay may be referred to fupplj
fuch deficiencies of grafs. Mr. Boys, in 2oth Annal,
flakes his fine team horfes, all fummer on clover.
l82 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED I
about once in every fix weeks : or near 30
perches are cut in a day : that is 1 5 in the
morning, 1 5 in the evening ; or a fquare
of near four perches each time. Would it
require fix hours to cut, cart in and give to
the beafts a fquare of eight perches of grafs,
befides cleaning the ftalls and heaping or
depofiting the dung ?
But, in many parts of America are idle
improvident people, matters of farms, who
fpend their time in taverns or other places
of wafteful amufement : any where rather
than at home. Thefe haunts are at the ex-
penfe of their dome/tic happinefs. Sooner
or later they bring on them debts, wants
and grating claims of creditors. Such a
people can never be brought to foil cattle,
or at all improve their farms. Where is
folid comfort to be found if not at borne ?
The meannefs, the felfifhnefs and the fol
ly of thefe bit/bands, fathers or maflers^ are
confpicuous, degrading and fhameful; who,
regardlefs of wife, child and dependents
claiming their protection, their affections
and
KEPT AND FATTENED. 183
and their attentions, and even regardlefs of
the true interefts of their precious felves,
fly from their own happinefs in the moment
when they mount their horfes and hurry to
the tavern, the race, nine-pins, billiards,
excefs upon excefs of toddy, and the moft
nonfenfical and idle chat, accompanied
with exclamations and roarings, brutal and
foreign to common fenfe and manners as -
the mind of wifdorn can conceive of deprav
ed man. Had thefe men, fo deficient in
character, been trained but a few years
among the orderly, thoughtful good farm
ers of fome neighbouring diftricl:, they
would have learnt valuable leflbns for con
ducting their farms, themfelves and their
domeftic affairs, greatly to their comfort and
advantage, and to the comfort due to their
families and dependents ; to whom they
owe more than they are accuftomed to feel
for them. There are on the other hand,
thofe who with induftry aim at providing
for their families, but it is not with an ho-
neft mind and fairnefs of reputation. The
ftrength of thefe. is in low cunning. If in
deed
184 CATTLE PASTURED AND SOILED :
deed they wifli to be perfect in that deteft-
able of all qualities, country-cunning^ they
need not go far from home ; unlefs for the
fake of embellifhing the fatanical talent
with fome variety. They might then go
among the thoughtlefs clafs of people in
neighbourhoods diftinguifhed for more of
this bafe quality than of provident induftry,
fairnefs and honeft candour.
The foil of the ftates fouth of Pennfylva-
nia, has been impoverifhed % by the ftaple
articles of produce tobacco and maize.
Maize being cultivated in large fields for
feeding Supernumerary negroes, and alfofor
the market without ever being manured, is
the chief exhaufter. Tobacco ground in de
tached parcels is manured, and fo far is
helped : but the hand-hoe fcratchings and
icrapings expofe the foil to be hurried off
by every guft of wind or rain, and its nu
tritive contents to exhalation by the fun and
wind. Another great evil attending tobac
co-making is the attentions to it which are
imceafmg and unrivalled, fo that the due
culture
KEPT AND FATTENED. 185
culture .of all other articles of husbandry is
loft in that of tobacco. Houfes are un-
grudged for curing tobacco, two to eight or
ten houfes are cheerfully built for this crop ;
but not one for live-flock; nor a blade of
hay for them, though multiplied beyond
the prefent means of keeping them on the
pretence that the more the cattle the more
the dung for the tobacco : but the tobacco
planters herein deceive themfelves ; for,
their cattle being pinched in quantity and
quality of food, give a fmall portion of but
lean dung ; and becoming hide-bound and
expofed to fleet and cold rains, die in great
numbers, yearly. For renewing the re
dundancy all calves are reared But enough
of thefe gloomy and barbarous practices !
Humanity ought, and felf intereft well
underftood, will, at fome time or other, in
duce the erecting houfes for cattle. The like
motives ought to make meadows, provide
great quantities of good food, and propor
tion the cattle to the means of keeping them
fo as to have many, and no more than as
many
186 OX-HOUSE.
many as can be comfortably kept in good
heart.
Some account is already given of the
houfes and method of keeping cattle up in
ftalls, by Mr. Bakewell and farmers in
Pennfylvania.
The great difference, befides, of the
American and the European modes of win
ter keeping live-flock, is in the Europeans
giving with dry -food, foots or liquid food;
which the Americans generally negleft,
whereby their cattle become coftive and
hide-bound. The Engliih give turnips, the
Germans drank.
Mr. Young gives an account of an ox-
houfe, which in England is reckoned very
complete. The owner, a Mr. Moody, keeps
36 beafts, each in a ftall 8 feet wide for
large oxen, 6 feet for fmaller. How dif
ferent from Mr. BakcuMTs of the fame
country; which are ftalls 6 feet for two
cows.
OX-HOUSE. 187
cows, 8 feet for two bulls.* Mr. Moody's
has at the head of each ftall, a fquare man
ger, for hay put in through a window in
the wall oppofite to the beaft's head. The
hayftacks are in a yard at the back of the
building ; fo that the feed of hay is taken
from the ftack, and at one ftep put into the
manger. On one fide the hay is a fmall
ftone ciftern, as a trough to eat oil-cake out
of. On the other fide is another ftone ci
ftern for water ; which is thus fupplied :
Outfide the houfe is a pump which raifes
the water into a ciftern, exaclly on a level
with all thofe that receive water for the
oxen. A pipe of lead leads from this pump
ciftern to all the others in the houfe ; fo
that it may be feen by the height of water
in the pump ciftern, how high it is in all
the reft. The houfe is fhut quite up. In
the doors are holes to let in air : but Hid
ing mutters exclude it at pleafure. At one
end of the houfe is a fmall room for oil
cakes,
* Mr. Bake welU<?jW beads : Mr. Moody fattened diem.
Does this occafion the difference ; or is it not an error,
in applying 8 and 6 ftet flails tofwgfe hearts ?
l88 CATTLE KEPT
cakes, and a ftove with a broad iron top,
for laying on the cakes to be heated a little
for breaking. A block ftands by it, on
which the cakes are broken.
Mr. Moody is fingular in the practice
of fweating cattle, for promoting their fat
tening. He fays, the hotter they are kept
the better they will fatten. He fhuts them
up, and for fome time lets in no air through
the holes of the doors. The breath of fo
many and the heat of their bodies, foon
bring them to fweat prodigioufly ; and when
this is at its height, they fatten beft and
quickeft. After fweating two weeks, the
hair all comes off and a frefh coat comes,
like that in the fpring : after which they
fweat no more. He adds, thofe beafts
which do not fweat at all fcarcely ever fat
ten w r ell. His beafts are a large fort, from
80 to 130 ftone.* He gives to thofe of
100
* 1 100 to iSootb ; or 280 to 450!^ a quarter : or is it
meant a flone of lefs weight by the cuftom of the place ?
Such deviations fupported by local cuftoms are perplex
ing.
AND FATTENED. 189
100 ftone, two oil-cakes a day for two
months : then three, till fat : alfo 2otb of
hay each a day ; of which they eat only the
prime part. Lean hearts are kept on their
offal hay. Such a beaft in winter fatting
eats above 30 dollars worth ; but he im
proves in value more than to that amount.
There is a great difference between keep
ing and fattening. Mr. Bakewell keeps :
Mr. Moody fattens : and there is much dif
ference in the expenfe of jummer fattening
on grafs, and fattening on winter food.
We, in America, keep cattle through the
winters, on draw, maize fodder, and hufks,
giving them water, though much better
juicy food or drank : and fatten on hay,
cut ftraw with meal, linfeed jelly, &c. in
the winter : on grafs in fummer. It is re-
quifite that they have/i// very frequently ;
eipecially when tied up : and it is beft made
up with fine clay into a mafs, to be licked,
as in the wild ftate hearts lick earth, in
fpots, for obtaining fait.
Oil
OF CATTLE, SHEEP AND HOGS.
Oil cake is faid to be a great fattener, and
gives doubly rich dung ; but becoming dear,
linfced jelly is taking place of it in England.
This jelly is a valuable difcovery; and
ought to be introduced into America, for
fattening cattle. Hay, meal, and linfeed
jelly with drank, muft be excellent food in
ftall-fattening. Linfeed jelly is thus made :
7 of water to i of flaxfeed fteeped in a part
of the water 48 hours : then add the re
maining water cold, and boilgert/fy 2 hours,
ftirring conftantly to prevent burning. It
is cooled in tubs, and given mixed with any
meal, bran and cut chaff. Each bullock
(large) has two quarts of jelly a day : equal
to a little more than one quart of feed in four
days. Cattle fix or feven years old fatten
moft advantageoufly to the grazier. Their
fummer grazing is commonly but a pre
paration to ftall-fattening.
Obfervatiom on Cattle, Sheep, and Hogs.
In judging of the preference to be given
to different kinds of cattle, fize is far from
being of the firft confideration. Their be
ing
CATTLE.
ing of a large kind implies bulk rather than
charafler. It may be prefumed the mafs
of meat and bone contained in three beeves,
generally requires no more food than the
fame quantity in one beef. But there is a
rage in America for large horfes, large cat
tle, large fheep, /argehogs; whether they
are more or lefs docile, a&ive and produc
tive of net income, or are kept and fatten
ed with more or lefs coft or not. This for
merly was a diftemper of the mind among
farmers in England ; of which they have
been cured by experience and the obferva-
tions and communications of ingenious in-
veftigators on the nature arid qualities of
the feveral breeds, refpedting ufe and net
profit.
The common cow-kind of Maryland
(the fame I believe as thofe of Virginia)*
are
* The old breed of Virginia cattle is meant. Whether
the cattle of Maryland were firft introduced from what
the Virginia firft adventurers brought with them from
England, or that the Roman Catholic Maryland adven
turers encouraged by Lord Baltimore brought a few
with them, is uncertain. But, from the high value let
192 CATTLE.
are valuable as they are hardy, feed cheap
ly, yield milk well if ho if fed and well
kept in winter , are docile, laborious, and
give a fine grained good meat, with a due
proportion of tallow. But being in com
mon very meanly kept, they want fize.
When well fed and houfed, they are of a
good fize for all ufeful purpofes.
Northward of the Sufquehanna, this old
breed is moftly fupplanted by new kinds,
imported from Europe and valued more for
their great fize and heavy appearance than
good qualities. They have large bones
with a deep flat-fided but marly appearance,
and their fore-quarters are heavier than
their
upon cows by the firfl adventurers to Maryland, which
alfo feems to imply but few cattle and little intercourfe
with the James River Proteftant fettlers and prior adven
turers, who then difliked each other, it is probable fome
one or two cows were brought from England directly to
St. Mary's in Maryland ; which were fo effential to the
colony as to have occafioned a law declaring the punifh-
ment of death for killing a cow. If my memory is cor
rect it was in one of the books of land records in Mary
land, that when a youth I faw an account of the con
victing and fentencing a man to be hung for " killing a
cow." But he was pardoned.
CATTLE.
their hind ; in fome breeds amazingly fo :
which indicates their keeping and fattening
hardly and coftly ; befides that their meat
is coarfe, and they are difproportioned in
their weight of bone. The old breed of the
country have the fore and hind quarters
weighing nearly alike : mine at Wye had
the hind-quarters a few pounds heavier
than the fore. What a contrail to this is
the weight of the quarters in beeves fome-
times killed in Philadelphia ! The common
weights of my
tt> ft
Wye cattle, from grafs, the fore quarters 122 hind 134
A Philad*. ox, highly fed from a Calf, 403 280
The famous Blackwell ox was reckoned
the fineft though not the heavieft beaft ever
killed in England. His hind quarters
weighed more than fasfore^ nearly in the
proportion of the old breed in Maryland.
His legs were very fmall-boned and neat,
according to the picture and account of him
publifhed, This Blackwell, not Bakewell,
fine boned ox weighed thus :
N The
194 CATTLE.
The two fore-quarters 1 05 7 ib
hind-quarters 1067
How very different from thefe are the
huge lubberly beafts, once in fafhion in
England and now becoming fo in America !
which are imported into different parts of it.
One of that character was killed in England,
under five years old : a fhort-horned, big-
boned clumfy bealt ; and weighed,
The t wo fore- quarters 1107^
fo'W-quarters 924.
A big-boned fteer, killed in Philadelphia,
weighed,
The two /^-quarters 805 ft
^/W-quarters 560 : and
A big boned fteer in New-Jerfey,
The twq/0r-quarters 75 8ft
bin ^-quarters 525.
The Maryland old breed if well fed and
Jheltered^ would be a good fize : and if cau-
tioufly
CATTLE*
tioufly mixed with other breeds, the moft
ufeful and productive of net income, would
be improved. But it is with much caution
that we mould admit other breeds. There
are better; and certainly there are much
worfe.
A Mr. Fowler, in England, with great
care and judgment, changed for the better ;
in chiefly introducing Mr. Bakewell's long-
horned beef cattle : which are not fo re
markable for great fize or quantity of milk
though very rich, as for their giving meat
on the parts which fell for the moft money
by the pound from a given quantity of food ;
and for their fattening on lefsfood, and that
on the moft valuable parts. The horns of
the few I havefeen, though long were very
flim : either hanging downward, or ftand-
ing wide nearly at right angles to the
cheeks. Yet the experienced Mr. Bakewell
allows for fuch cattle but fix feet width of
ftalls for two cows, that is three feet each,
and eight feet for two bulls. More room
he faid would admit of their turning and
N 2 dirtying
196 CATTLE.
dirtying each other. The young cows,
lean, appeared to me like racers compared
with the heavy big-boned cattle coming in
to fafhion in America.
There may be breeds preferable for Ame
rican farms to Mr. Bake well's valuable cat
tle ; efpecially the Suffex old red, Suffolk
polled, and the Hereford breeds : but it re
mains to be afcertained by experience.
Wiv.-Toung, fpeaking of Suffolk cows, fays
the quantity of milk they give exceeds that
of any other breed he has met with, and
that there is hardly a dairy of any confider-
ation in the county of Suffolk which has
not cows giving early in June, eight gal
lons of milk a day ; and fix are common
among many foralarge part of the feafon ;
and five gallons a day medium in a whole
dairy for two or three months. It is alfo
obferved by him, that this breed is much
inclined to fatten, and the milk excels in
richnefs as well as being abundant.* Yet
after
* Lord Egremont has a Chinefg conu ; whofe milk is
fmgularly rich. One pint of it, on experiment, yielded
CATTLE. 197
after Mr. Young had faid this, and kept of
the Suffolk breed a number of years, and
had been well acquainted with Mr. Bake-
well and his breed of cattle, he purchafed
for his own farm, a bull and two cows of
the Suffex old breed, having had a great
deal of riding in fearch for the pureft of
that breed ; they being efteemed excellent
for milk, for beef, and for oxen. He gave
about fifty guineas for the bull and two
heifers, which were the beft he could pro
cure in Suffex. The Suffolk polled cattle
coil rather lefs money.
Befides the Suffolk polled and the Suffex
breeds, there is a Hereford breed, preferred
by
as much butter (4 ounces) as feven pints of the milk of
a Suffex cow ; both were churned directly from the cows ;
without being fet for cream. This Chinefe cow is de-
fcribed as being fmaller than any Alderney cow : feems
very fat ; and as clean in the chap as a deer. This fa6l
confirms other obfervations on the quality of the milk of
different breeds of cows. It is the quality, not the quantity
of milk, that ought moftly to be attended to. Suffolk
cow's milk is not fo rich as that of Suffex cows. 20 An.
381.
198 CATTLE.
by Mr. Marfhal and Mr. Campbell, as the
beft in England for oxen^ for dairy , and
for fattening. The European cattle beft
worth attention in America, are the Bake-
well long horned, the Suffolk polled, the
Suffex and the Hereford ; alfo the fmaller
Englifh breed mentioned below, having
fmall fine bones and being well formed,
with generally a brindle or red colour and
white along the back and acrofs the thighs
and fore legs or the fhoulders ; and likewife
the white breed having a yellow Jkin and
brown ears, alfo mentioned below.
There is on the other hand, a large,
bony, coarfe meat breed of cows, which
give a deal of milk-and-water , rather than
milk, and feed expenfively. It has had its
run in England againft other breeds, till its
bad qualities were noticed. Some of this
breed are imported into America, and
eagerly fought after : for they have bulk
and certain fafhionable fancied charms about
the head and horns. Mr. Maurice, a farm
er in England, as Mr. Young informs us,
changed
CATTLE. 199
changed his better Shropjhire breed, for the
then fafhionable Holdernefs and Dutch
fhort-horned cattle, efpecially becaufe they
gave a great deal of milk : but he foon
found they were cojlly in feeding ; that they
were tender in keeping, and gave the poor-
eft milk. He thereon got rid of them for
other breeds, chiefly Bakewell's.
Thofe mort-horned cattle feed to vaft
weights ; yet are not profitable to the breed
er, the grazier, or the dairy- man. How
poor the milk ! twenty-four quarts of their
cream yielded i6|-ft> of butter ; and the fame
quantity from the long-horned gave 28lb
of butter. From Suffolk polled cows, 18
quarts of their milk have given a quart
of cream; which yielded i^ fe of butter.
" Holdernefs cows and their relations, the
u Fifes, give the greater! quantity of milk;
l( and the coarfeft grained meat. Fine flejh-
Ct ed cattle give milk of a better quality and
" higher richer flavour." In refpecT: to
food, 30 long-horned, it is faid, will win
ter 100 dollars cheaper than the fame
number
200 CATTLE.
number of fhort horned. Mr. Young in
forms the world of thefe obfervations and
opinions of farmers in England ; who at
tend to and well know the qualities of the
refpe&ive breeds of cattle.
The rage for large beafts is not now fo
great in England as it has been, or as it is
in America. The breeds having flat broad
fides, large deep fore-quarters, large bones
and legs, and that with their deep fore-
quarters are lank on the hinder parts, have
injured our better common breed in fome
of their beft qualities. Our old breed milk
well, if houfed and kept in good plight
during winter: or, in other words, if as
well kept and attended to as the favourite
new comers. The Maryland old breed of
fleers will fatten in common 600 to 800.
I have raifed and killed of them fed to up
wards of goolb, at only five years old.
There is a fancy in country people by
which they often eflimate the qualities of
cattle from their colours : but this is a falfe
ground
CATTLE. 201
ground on which to judge of them. Dif
ferent diftrids of people preferring fome
one and fome another colour. The red,
the black, brindle, brown, dun, pied, are
favourite colours with different people. A
cow is faid to be g ood becaufe of the quanti
ty of milk {he gives : but, this cow and her
offspring may be bad on all other accounts,
in comparifon with other cattle. She may
be tender, hard to keep, and give coarfe
flabby meat and poor milk. It is indeed
obferved of white cattle that fuch as have
a white Jkin are tender in keeping : but
there is a ftriking difference between white
cattle having a white Jkin^ and fuch as have
a yellowijh Jkin. They are different breeds,
of different natures and qualities.
On my farm at Wye, were ufually win
tered 170 head of cow-kind, young and
old ; of the old breed of the country, and
of various colours, though moftly red,
brown, and brindle. About the year 1774,
I began to mix this breed with a rather
fmall but well-formed, fmall-boned Englifh
breed.
202 CATTLE.
breed. The cattle from this mixture were
generally" brindle or red with a dafli of
white acrofs the fhoulders or fore-legs, the
thighs, and along the back. The ftock was
thus improved in gentlenefs and in milk.
About the year 1785, thefe cows firft had
my fine bull, Horace, who was out of a
country cow by a bull imported by the late
Mr. Calvert, from Mr. Wildman a dealer
in England. My cattle were further im
proved from this mixture, m gentlenefs, in
draught, meat, milk, and Jtze. As oxen
they were aftive and powerful, and very
docile. Horace and his fire had white hair
on zyellowijhjkin, and their ears and nofes
were a reddifh brown. Such Lord Anfon
found the cattle of Tinian to have been ; and
he efpecially commends their gentlenefs
and the good quality of their meat. Did
Lord Anfon or others import the breed
from Tinian ?
Farmers are impofed on by butchers ;
who by praifes prevail on them to prefer
the breeds having large bones, and that
are
CATTLE. 203
are deep fore-quartered heavy looking
beads ; whofe fore quarters outweigh their
hind quarters, with the aid of their maiTy
fcimitar-like ribs. Why do butchers re
commend this bead of bone? Why do farm
ers comply with their fubtle recommenda
tion ? Is it becaufe their appearance is
agreeable to the farmer's paffion for what
is big ? The choiceft beef is on beafts hav
ing fmall bones. The Bakewell cattle and
Iheep have not the heavy appearances of
the clumfy, big-boned, and flat-fided beafts
preferred by retailers of meat : but they are
greatly fuperior in their meat, and in cheap
feeding,
Breeders of cattle will attend to the dif
ference in expenfe of food requifite for the
big-boned, and the fmall-boned lighter
formed cattle : and the confumer of meat
may compare the weight of bone and meat
in a quarter of the fmall-boned with one
of the large-boned breed. The greater the
proportion of bone, the oftener he recurs
to the butcher., In general, fmall-boned
animals,
204 CATTLE.
animals, carry it even to man, fatten more
readily and with lefs food than the large
boned.
The firft great error in improvers of live-
ftock, in America, is in their paffion for
the largeft kinds. The large/1 and thefmall-
efl breeds are the very worft ; and ought to
be avoided in cattle, and generally in all
animals. The huge big-boned dray-horfe,
what is he on a farm ? the fcimitar-ribbed,
flat-fided lubberly big-legged cattle, what
are they other than expenfive mafles of
unimportant bone, with an inferior portion
of coarfe meat dearly obtained in the feed
ing.
" No quantity or quality of food given
" /;; fummer, will procure milk in good
" quantities, from cows that have been
" poor in the preceding winter;" whether
their mean plight be owing to a fcanty al
lowance or poor quality in the food, or to
a want of flicker. Dry food from ftraw,
or from hufks and fodder of Indian corn,
cannot
CATTLE. 205
cannot carry cattle through winter in full
fiejh, unlefs there be added fome juicy or
moijl food, to prevent their becoming cof-
tive and hide-bound. Turnips and the
common fiefliy pompions may be given in
the fore part of winter ; the red thin flefh-
ed more hardy pompion, potatoes, wurz-
zle, ruta baga, and other hardy roots or
cabbages afterwards ; and drank with any .
dry good food, till there is a full bite of
grafs in May. With common care I have
kept the lefs flefhy pompion having a deep
orange-coloured rind, till the 25th of
March in a cellar having a fmall vent for
vapour at the South front. Cows ought
to have hay from a month before calving.
The vines of field peas and beans are ex
cellent for cows and for fheep.
That/2?// is advantageous to all live-flock
is well known : but the giving it to them
is not fufficiently attended to and valued.
For health it is admirable and even necefla-
ry. It is faid, it enables the farmer to in-
creafe his ftock, as it augments the nourifo-
ment
2O6 CATTLE.
ment of the food eaten in proportion to the
quantity of fait eaten ; and that there can
be no excels in the fait eaten, give as freely
as you pleafe. It alfo is faid that fait great
ly improves wool in quality as well as quan
tity. It ought to be without flint always
before them; mixing it w r ith water and
pure fine clay in a mafs, for them to lick
it, as in their wild flate, rather than to
give the fait alone. In twenty years refi-
dence on my farm at Wye, a fait water
river, and always having there upwards of
50 horfekind, I know of no inftance of
their having botts. Near 60 years ago a
famous country horfe doftor told me that
once or twice a week giving fait to horfes,
effectually fecures them againft botts ; which
I have ever fince well obferved, and believe
it to be perfectly juft.*
SHEEP,
* Salt fecms to be necefTary to all animals. In 1775,
I was defirous to make experiments for producing nitre
and common fait. A tobacco houfe yielded the former,
and Wye river the latter. From the firft trial of the
river water was produced a pint of fine grained fait.
From a rapid boiling the fait was too fine to be ftrong.
It was fpread in a diih, and placed on the ground in a
SHEEP. 2O7
SHEEP.
Mr. BakeweW s fuperior difcernment and
attentions, produced a new breed of fheep ;
which is fpreading over England, and
is diftinguiflied by the name of Dijbley
fheep. They are defcribed as having fine
lively eyes, clean heads, flraight, broad,
flat backs, round bodies, very fine fmall
bones, thin pelts, with a difpofition to be
fat at an early age, They become peculi
arly fat, with a very fine grained and well
flavoured meat, above all other large long
woolled fheep. There are much larger
fheep in England. The weight of the
Difhley carcafs in general is, ewes three or
four years old, from 18 to a6ib. a quarter;
wethers, two years old, 20 to 30^. The
wool on a medium 8lb. a fleece : the length
from fix to fourteen inches. There have
been muttons of other breeds in England,
which
yard to be dried and hardened ; and was fome days ex-
pofed to fun and wind. Numbers of fmall ants proceed
ing in lines, like Indian files, boie off grains, to them
huge mafTes of fait, to their (lores.
ao8 SHEEP.
which weighed above 6olb. a quarter. But
large fize was no object with Mr. Bake-
well
The wethers of the Dilhley breed are
killed when fwo years old ; becaufe they
then yield the moft profit; and if kept
longer they become too fat for genteel ta
bles. One killed when three years old,
meafured feven and an eighth inches of folid
fat on the ribs, and his back from one end
to the other, was like the fatteft bacon.
At two years old, they commonly cut four
inches thick on the ribs, and two to three
inches all down the back. Ewes fattened
from July to Chriftmas give 1 8 to 24^. of
tallow. Country houfe-wives cut off re
dundant fat, and make fuet dumplings or
pafte of it : and fome cure the fides as
flitches of bacon. But, the great object,
to Mr. Bakewell, of producing this very
extraordinary breed of Iheep, was the fu-
perior quantity and quality of the mutton ob
tained at the leaft expenfe of food and wafte
of time \
Mr.
SHEEP. 209
Mr. Cully, a noted breeder, fays the
mode of management of this breed is thus :
" The ewes larnb in March, and then a
few turnips are given for increafing their
milk.* The laft of June or firft of July
the lambs are weaned and fent to middling
O paftures.
* I preferred to have my lambs drop about the 2Oth
of March in general ; allowing only 8 or 10 ewes in
a hundred to give lambs early as is common. Thefe
few lambs., coming in December, January or February,
perifhed at the rate of twenty or thirty in a hundred.
What of them furvived had a ftart of what dropped
between the 2oth and the laft of March ; but for want
of green juicy food to the ewes, they were bony and
poor ; when the latter, from their dams having grafs
foon after their yeaning, and when the lambs are fo
young as to require lefs milk at that time than the early
lambs, were always thriving and in good plight, whilft
growing of the ;grafs increafed with the growth of the
late lambs. By July thefe were equal to the early
lambs ; and what is very important fcarcely any of the
March lambs died ; fo that in the one cafe near 100
lambs were raifed ; in the other fcarcely 80. It is pro
per to keep the March ewe lambs from the ram till
October come twelve months after they are yeaned;
and even the early lambs would be the better for it.
My few early lambs were for early meat : but if among
them there was a promifmg fine-formed ram or ewe
or two, they were kept over for ftock. This at Wye-
IHand.
2IO. SHEEP.
paftures. The ewes are thereon milked
two or three times, for eafmg their udders ;
and fuch as are not to be continued for
breeding, are put to clover till it fails : then
they get turnips, and are fold about Chrift-
mas, very fat, at the price of 750 cents
to 9 dollars. His fterling money is re
duced to dollars and cents.
The lambs after being weaned adds Mr.
Cully are put to turnips in the beginning of
November, and continue at them till the
middle of April or firft of May, and then
are put into good pafture on fecond year's
clover. The fecond winter they have tur
nips till the clover is enough grown, gene
rally the middle of April. They are dipt
about the middle of May, and fold by the
end of June for 9 to 1 1 dollars.
One third of the Difhley breed of ewes
are reckoned to have two lambs each : fo
that 60 ewes have 80 lambs. They are
put to the ram fo as to have lambs at two
years old ; and are kept for breeding un
til three or four years old ; except fuch as
are
SHEEP- 211
are of particular good forms or other valu
able properties : thefe are kept as long as
they will breed. Such as are defective in
fhape, fufpeted of being flow-feeders, or
of having other unprofitable qualities are
never put to the ram."
It is a rule applicable to all forts of live-
flock, to breed from ftraight backed,
round bodied, clean, fmall boned, healthy
creatures ; carefully avoiding fuch as have
roach backs and gummy heavy legs with
an abundance of external offal and lubberly
mafles of coarfe any thing.
Fifty or fixty years ago the fheep in Ma
ryland were nearly all of one breed ; of
which I fhould be at lofs to find one at
this time. They were light made, and
clean boned ; giving at four or five years
old the beft flavoured mutton, dark and
juicy. The wool was in but moderate
quantities, yet of good quality. They
were called rat-tail (heep, from the tail be
ing fmall and round.
O 2 The
212 SHEEP.
The only flieep of Mr. Bakewell's breed
being in America, that I have heard of,
are what the Rev. Mr. Toofy, an im
proving farmer from England, brought to
Quebec. Mr. Toofy lately died there. A
country gentleman in Maryland, who has
a number of farms, was offered in a letter
from England, which I read, what he
might want of Mr. Eakewell's Difliley
fheep, to be fent to him by the letter-writ
er. But alas ! the gentleman declined all
thought of having them ; and even faid he
fhould not anfwer the letter. I therefore
wrote to the perfon in England. But the
{hip carrying my letter fprang a leak and
put back. That I never received an an
fwer was, probably, owing to the letter
mifcarrying ; from the Englifli farmer who
was to deliver it not having renewed his
paffage.
Sheep, on a Farm bordering on a Salt River in
Maryland.
I ufually iheared about 130 flieep, moft-
ly ewes : they paftured through the fummer,
with
SHEEP. 213
with little other attention than now and
then counting them. In winter they alfo
fhifted for themfelves, in fields of fpontane-
ous grafs and weeds, without being houfed,
or fed with aught elfe than a few corn
blades, if fnows happened to be fo deep as
to deprive them of their common pafture
food, and fome green food from tailings of
fmall grain fown ; and alfo a few too few
roots, to 1 8 or 20 muttons. The flock
however had a large range, befides the two
fields of rubbim grafs and weeds, flickered
by pines at the heads of coves, They found
food amongft bufhes and weeds on points
and broken grounds along the margin of a
fait water river.
An eftimate might be made of a flock of
fheep fuppofed to be improved when in
numbers affording a ihepherd conftantly
to attend them, feed them, and ufe the beft
means to preferve them in fafety and good
plight. But the ftatement below is of t oo
flieep as they were kept by me, with too
little care.
Eftimates
SHEEP.
Eftimates vary greatly. Scarcely two
men are found to agree in the articles of
charge and difcharge ; and the attentions
and the negieds of fheep, with the modes of
keeping them are various : which may apo
logize for the prelent eftimate being fo dif
ferent from others. No charge is made of
intereft : it is but ideal when not really paid,
and when inftead of paying intereft, I ac
tually receive from the Iheep, as fo many
bonds carrying intereft, an annual income
of above fix times fix per cent, on their
value, with rent and all expenfes. No
charge is made for common cafualties ; be-
caufe a flock fyftematically managed, is
not thereby leffened or reduced below the
defigned number whilft new fheep are con
tinually raifed, at no perceptible expenfe,
and fill up the place of thofe loft. So it is
of the fheep fold off: their place is filled
by the Hock lambs kept for the purpofe.
It may be faid of fheep fo attended to, as
is faid of kings they never die. When
inftead of their being loft they are fold or
confumed in the family, we receive the
value ;
SHEEP. 215
value ; for which the flock is to have cre
dit in the account kept of them ; juft as
money received on bonds. A lamb cofts
fo little in raifmg him, that by the time he
ceafes to be a lamb his wool pays the coft.
A charge might be made againft fheep for
damage in untilling ground; from their
treading it and thereby eventually injuring
the future crop of wheat, on an arable farm,
more than their dung fcattered in fcraps
improves it :* but then, againft this differ
ence, may be fet off in fome inftances at
leaft, the advantage derived from their eat
ing down or preventing to rife up into feed
manyfticky, ft out weeds, which other live-
ftock fuffer to grow up, foul the paftures,
and reduce the foil. I have doubted of
making a charge againft my fheep for their
pafturage ; becaufe in an arable fyftem of
husbandry fome fields muft neceflarily be in
grafs,
* Sandy foil, not being the common or general foil of
the country, is not here under confederation. The foils,
in general, are loams and clays. The loam is of two
kinds: that which partakes moilly offand, called fandy-
loam ; and that which partakes moftly of clay, called
clay-loam.
2l6 SHEEP.
grafs, Spontaneous or (own, and on thefe
they graze : but on a grazing farm there is
no rubbiih field following a grain crop,
fo that grafs is the only tenant which
can pay the rent ; and it would be nice and
difficult to fatisfa&orily apportion the rent
between arable and grazing fields. If upon
the- whole, between treading the foil and
definition of weeds, and the giving fome
fmall improvement from dung whilft paf-
"turing, fheep do no notable damage to the
foil of an arable farm, I fee not fufficient
caufe for charging the flock a full pafture
price for the pickings they get from fields
turned out from tillage, at prefent, for the
benefit of future corn crops or as being ne-
ceflary in a common arable fyftem. The
little benefit which foil receives from fheep
pafturing, where there is not any fummer
folding may be about balanced by damage
in deadening the foil (other than fandy foil)
with their feet, as it feems to me : but I
conclude on charging 20 dollars, for their
pafturage.
An
SHEEP. 217
An eftimate of the income and expenfes
of 100 theep, as kept at Wye in Maryland :
Cents.
Corn blades, occafionally, 800
Winter green food and roots to 18 or 20
muttons i ooo
Some flight attendance 400
Pafttirage 2000
Taxes, wafhing, ihearing 800
5000
Wool 338fb, at 25 cents 8450
Lambs 40 out of 80, fold at i2oC. 4800
Muttons, 20 wethers at 240 C. 1
2700
15 ewes at 180 C. J
Manure in pafturing, and treading
the foil, oppofed ~- 15950
Annual Income 159 50
Annual Expenfe 50 oo
Annual Profit Z)//, 109-50
This is a profit of 1 09 cents and 5 mills
on each fheep : or i 095 mills on each of
the one hundred fheep ; which is more
than lands diftant from fuch a river can
give, with no better management. In Eng
land, the Duke of Grafton's accurate ac
count of feven years (heep bufinefs, gave
an average of but 633 mills net profit on
each
2l8 SHEEP.
each fheep. His expenfes were on keep
ing very fmall fheep, which gave but about
i-|lb of wool each, and were for grafs, rent,
county-poor and parifh-rates, rye, rye paf-
turage, turnips, hay, barley, wafhing,
fhearing, carriage of wool, tithe, and inter-
eft. The 633 mills amount to 25 per cent
net profit, on his capital. Others in England
reckon they gain 1 10 to 400 cents a head,
on their fheep. They fpeak of fterling
money ; which is here reduced at the rate
of I oo cents for 4$. 6d. fterling ; and i oo
cents are a dollar, 10 mills one cent.
As far as dung is received by foil it ought
to be allowed for ; and this is meant of
dung applied from ftock kept up or folded :
but how far, it is to be valued when flow-
3y dropt about in pafturlng^ is a queftion.
Beads conftantly ramming the foil into a
clofe compact ftate, untill it more than is
commonly apprehended. That the foot of
the beaft does more damage to wheat foil
than his dung fo difperfed and expofed to
exhalation and wafte does good, is probable
from
SHEEP. 219
from feveral inftances related of clover fields
having been divided, and one half paftur-
ed on all the fummer, the other mowed
twice, and both fowed at the fame time
with wheat on one plowing, when the
mown gave confiderably the beft crops of
wheat. Let it be fuppofed that a lay of
grafs has been left impqfturedh? three years;
another like field at the fame time is paftur-
ed clofe as is ufual, during the fame three
years : now let the farmer walk in thefe,
and obferve how mellow, light, and lively
the one is ; how hard and dead the other.
Which of them would he prefer for giving
him a crop ? If the former, it may then be
fufpe&ed that pasturing but very little, if
at all, improves the foil. When however
pafture ground has been of many years
{landing, efpecially if clothed with grafs for
fhielding the foil from the midfummer fun,
it will have gained improvement from the
atmofphere and the fcraps of dung together,
that will be greater than the injury from
treading the ground. After two or three
years, the fettling and hardening of the
ground,
22O SHEEP.
ground, probably, will not much further
be increafed.
Amongft the attentions to fheep, it is
advifable to fufFer a few ewes to run with a
ram, at large, for giving early lambs;
and that the reft ' of the ewes be kept from
the rams till the middle of October, and then
be allowed a ram to 20 or at moft 25.
Their lambs will come from the middle to
the end of March. It is alfo proper to
keep ewe and ram lambs apart 1 8 or 20
months, from January or March till Oto-
bef come twelve months. It is beft that
there be not more than one ram with a divi-
iion of ewes at a time ; where they can be
parcelled off into feparate lots, for two or
three weeks.
It is neceflary to obferve the ages of
fheep : and fome age ought to be fixed on
by the farmer, beyond which fcarcely any
thing mould induce him to keep them.
At fhearing time the mouth of every fheep
and lamb is to be infpected ; and the lambs
having
SHEEP.
having blackifh gums or that are not
ftraight, well made and promifmg, are
marked for fale ; as alfo are the aged
rams, ewes and wethers. 'Whatever is the
age fixed on, for clearing the flock of old
fheep, as many lambs, the be/}, are to be
turned out for breeders, and for muttons,
proportioned, as there are meant to be aged
fheep difpofed of; and a few more for fup-
plying loiTes whilft they are growing up.
The idea of four or five years old, was
long retained from the practice of keeping
muttons of the old, rat-tail breed to thofe
ages, for obtaining the beft flavoured meat.
But I prefer two or three years of age, for
the new breeds in America.
The farmer will firft fix on the number
of grown fheep to be kept by him : then
on the age he means to obferve for difpofing
of them ; for he is to have none in his
flock that are not in full vigor. Dividing
the number in the whole flock, by the age
at which he means to difpofe of them, di
rects to the number of lambs he is to turn
our.
222 SHEEP.
out, as a fupply for the fame number of
fheep to be difpofed of from the old flock :
and a few more lambs may be turned out
with the ftock lambs, for making good any
lofles. If two years are fixed on, for the
full age, and there are 100 fheep, the twos
in a hundred being 50 times, diredt to the
difpofing of 50 aged fheep ; and to the turn
ing out 50, more 4 or 5 ; in all 55 lambs.
But the ewes are to be 4 years old. Then
the fours in 60 ewes are 15 ewes to fell ; and
the twos in 40 wethers (together i oo fheep)
are 20 wethers to fell. In all fell off 3 5
old fheep ; and turn out 35 more 5, are
40 lambs to be railed. After 5 or 6 years
of age, fheep decline in figure and wool.
Brambles are charged by common farmers
with taking off all the wool that fheep ap
pear to have loft : but when fheep decline
in vigour and good plight, they decline in
the quantity of their wool, and look mean,
even in paftures clear of brambles.*
At
* Mr. Samuel Jones, in an addrefs to the Philadelphia
county fociety of Agriculture, recommends that on ac
count of the failure of wheat crops, from depredations
HOGS. 323
HOGS.
At Rhode Ifland a hog weighed 82416,
alive; and yijib when it was cleaned for
market.
by the Heffian fly, Indian corn, rye, and buckwheat
[why did he omit barley, fo eflential to beer3 fhould be
the only corns fown ; and that clover fhould be increafed,
for food to an increafe of fheep. He fays 10 acres of
clover, with a fmall help, will paflure a hundred fheep.
His eilimate of expenfe and profit on the hundred fheep,
is thus ftated :
Cents Cents
100 Sheep, value 12000: intereil 720
Salt 10 bulh. 266
Buckwheat ftraw, 6 loads 480
Hay 2 loads 2I 33
Indian corn I oo bulh. 4000
Deaths 5
Wool 3ootb
Lambs 80
Manure
Income
Expenfe
D. mills.
Profit on 100 Sheep 124-41. Each flieep 1.244
HOGS.
market. Was it fattened with a lefs quan*
tity of food than would fatten four hogs of
iSolb each ? Wherein is the advantage of
having fuch a huge mafs of coarfe meat in
one more than in three or four hogs of a bet
ter meat ? The Chinefe hog mixed with the
American old breed of white hogs having
ftiff,
Of Buckwheat ftrav)) Mr. Jones fays : " it is found, by
experience, valuable in feeding fheep during winter.
The ftraw is put up in fmall flacks, foon as thrafhed,
round a pole fixed in the ground ; fait being fprinkled
amongft it, in making up the ftack," This information
agrees with that of an attentive tenant, in Maryland :
and yet,' in general, but little account is made of the
ftraw of buckwheat ; and till within a few years, it was
but feldom faved. It indeed feems to be but lately that
the grain has had its value and advantages known : and
it is daily coming more in fafliion and efteem. Even
whilft growing it may be eaten as a grafs, by cows. Its
meal muft be excellent in drank, and for working horfes,
mixt with cut ftraw : for hogs, at firft dufted on potatoes,
afterwards potatoes with maize meal ; and in all/w/Y/ and
<wa/a : aifo for poultry : but is never to be given to fad-
die or travelling horfes ; nor to horfes or oxen when to
be put to brifk work. It injures foil lefs than other corn ;
and is the moft excellentjto/^r to grafs or clover, fown at
midfummer. Scarcely any thing exceeds it as a green
dreffing manure the plants plowed in before they pro
duce any feed; and it is the cheapeft plant fo ap
plied.
HOGS.
ftiff, erect ears, as I have experienced,
gives an excellent breed, which is hardy,
feeds cheap, and weighs 1 60 to upwards of
200. The meat of this breed is fine and clofe,
curing well and preferred by thofe who have
raifed them. Of this mixt breed I killed a
litter of thirteen pigs at eighteen months
old ; and they weighed when killed and
cleaned, odds of 2700^: an extraordinary
inftance !
But, it is faidby farmers in Pennfylva-
nia, that lumps of fat of the coarfe flabby
meat hogs iboneft cloy labourers. This
may continue to be an irrefiftible mo
tive with fome clafles of folks ; when to
others it will be difgufting and contempti
ble. Yet if we can oppofe the 715^ hog
by one of 716, though it fliould be a mafs
of inferior meat, we fhall have a fomething
to give us confcquence the biggeft hog !
At a Nifi Prius court, in Maryland, a per-
fon was introduced to me, whofe horfe
had lately won a race. This victory, as I
was told, recommended him, though not
P before
226 HOGS.
before thought of, as being qualified to re-
prefent the people in their legiilature. An
election foon followed j and the horfe if
you pleafe his influence carried the election
for his matter, all hollow. So might 716
of even the coarfeft flabby pork fucceed
againft 7 1 5 of better meat. Quality with
fome country people is unimportant.
The 19 An. 291, fays wean pigs in nine
weeks. Sell fucking pigs at three or four
weeks old. Wean in March, and not later
than July. Litters average feven pigs ; of
which five are raifed, after all hazards :
and that in four months, feventy fat hogs
gave 1 06 loads of dung ; they taking that
time to fatten. In Maryland they are fat
tened on maize given in ears, in two
months, from fome time of October, and
killed loth to 2Oth December; weighing
15010 200, after eating feven or eight bu-
fhels of maize : with which no food is com
parable in giving firmnefs to their fat. It
is good economy to pen them for fattening,
the firfl of October. They thrive beft in a
mild
MAIZE AND POTATOES.
mild feafon ; and the bacon may be early
cured, before the approach of fpring and
warm weather. Salt is not given them
that I know of ; but I would offer it to
them to be taken or not at their pleafure,
and not by forcing it on them mixed among
their food. Why do fows fometimes eat
their pigs, though abounding in food ? I
can only guefs, it is for want of common
fait, that they feek to find the condiment in
the animal juices.
Maize and Potatoes conjidered as Fallow Crops
and Fattening Materials.
In eftimating and comparing different
materials for feeding live-fiock, the value
of the rent and culture expended for pro
curing them, and the condition in which
the foil is left by the culture and crop,
ought to be considered.
When potatoes are cultivated under ma-
nurlngs and repeated horfeboing or fhim-
ming, and then sfepjowed up and hoed out^
P 2 /the
228 MAIZE AND POTATOES AS
the high ftate in which the ground is there
by left, preparative to a fucceeding crop,
pays for cultivating the potatoes. The
ground is left in the beft condition for re
ceiving barley and clover feeds in the fpring.
Wheat cannot follow potatoes to the bell
advantage, in Maryland, becaufe of the
latenefs of the feafon. But it feems juft
that the expenfe of cultivating and prepar
ing the ground, fhould be apportioned
between the crops ; becaufe as it is necef-
fary that the cultivation fhould be given for
gaining a good potatoe crop, it is equally
fo for gaining a good barley crop, and both
partake of it. Add the country value of
both crops together, and afcertain the ap
portionment arithmetically.
The cultivation given to maize alib leaves
the ground clean and light for receiving
feed-wheat or other crop. It however is
far inferior to the preparation given in cul
tivating potatoes. No manure or but little
is given the maize ground ; and it is left
in hillocks and finks. Apportionments are
alfo
FOOD AND FALLOW CROPS. 229
alfo to be made of the expenfe between
maize and wheat crops.
When maize ground is manured, it is
beft not to fow wheat on it ; but leaving it
a clean fallow till the fpring, then (perhaps
after adding more manure between autumn
and fpring) fow barley and clover feeds.
Wheat is to be fowed upon plowing in
this clover.
Cultivating ten acres of potatoes vc^j coft,
dollars 36.60 ; and it prepares the ground
for a crop of barley^ to follow the potatoes.
What of the coft ought to be charged to
the refpedive crops? The value of the
potato and the barley crops are to be feve-
rally afcertained. The potatoes produced
by ten acres are 1700 bufhels, at 15 cents
they amount to 255 dollars ; and the bar
ley, 300 bufhels, at 60 cents, to 1 80 dol
lars : together 435 dollars. Then,
D. c.
as 435 : 36-60 : : 255 = 21.50, the apportionment on
the coft of potatoes.
as 435 : 36.60 : : 180 = 15.10, the apportionment on
barley.
So
230 MAIZE AND POTATOES /. S
So on the culture of the 50 acres of
maize, the produce, 750 bufhels, at 50 C.
amounts to 375 dollars ; and the wheat
fown on it produces 600 bufliels, at i oo
cents, amounting to 600 dollars : together
975 dollars. The coft of cultivating the
50 acres of maize is 250 dollars. Then,
D. C.
as 975 : 250 : : 375 = 96.11 apportionment of coflon
maize :
as 975 : 250 : : 600 = 153-89 apportionment of coft on
'wheat.
It is faid, a hog of 224lb is fattened in
60 days with 24 bufhels of potatoes and
one bufhel of meal. At which rate a hog
of i6ofe would require 17 bufh. of pota
toes, and T V of a bufhel of meal. An acre
ought to yield not lefs than soo bufhels of
potatoes ; fay 1 70, and of maize 1 5 bufh
els. Potatoes are beft when boiled or
fteamed.
One hundred hogs weighing each i6otb,
fattened with 1 7 bufhels of potatoes and
near three pecks of meal, each, will eat al
together
FOOD AND FALLOW CROPS. 23!
together 1700 bufhels, the produce of ten
acres, and 70 bufhels of meal, the produce
of 4 A acres: together 14^ acres. The
100 hogs, if fattened with 7^- bufhels of
maize, each, would eat 750 bufhels of
corn the produce of fifty acres.
See then the difference between fattening
with potatoes and with maize. An expenfe
in rent and culture is paid on 50 acres, for
producing the requifite quantity of maize ;
when the rent and culture for producing
the potatoes with a dufting of meal, are
only on 14^-3- acres : and,
7 o- acres of potatoes and meal fatten loohogs D.
weighing i6ooofo, of the value of . . 960
Rent and culture 3.66 an acre, off .. . . 54
-- -.906
50 a. maize fatten no more ..... . 960
Rent and culture 5 dol. an acre off . . 250
- 7 10
So that there is gained on pot a toe feeding
196 dollars more than on maize feeding
i oo hogs : near two dollars a hog.
Reckon-
232 MAIZE AND POTATOES AS
Reckoning on four millions of fouls, and
ten of them to each farm, gives 400,000
farms. Each farm fattening ten hogs
weighing i6oolb at fix dollars a hundred,
gains 96 dollars : and fattening on potatoes
gaining 196 cents a hog, more than fatten
ing on corn, gives an increafed gain of
nearly twenty dollars to every farmer who
kills ten fat hogs, more than if he had fat
tened on maize.*
Potato food requiring but 14^ acres pro
duce for fattening i oo hogs ; when corn
food requires 50 acres for fattening the fame
number, is to each farm of 10 hogs 1.47
acres for potato ground, or five acres for
maize : fo that every farmer fattening ten
hogs with potato food (including a dufting
of meal) has the ufe of %-* acres ; and
the nation the ufe of 1,412,000 acres,
more
* Perfection in eftimates is not to be looked for.
Different fituations vary them, as well as difference in
experience and habits of thinking. Principles are
aimed at.
FOOD AND FALLOW CROPS. 233
more than if the hogs were fattened on
corn.
But make an eftimate on what the farm
ers might gain without difficulty, rather
than on what is fuppofed they do gain
with inferior attentions. Inftead of 1.47
acre in potatoes, double the quantity.
Then 2.94 acres at 1 70 give 500 bufhels
of potatoes : which at 17 to a hog (with
feven-tenths of a bufhel of meal) inftead
of ten would fatten twenty hogs on each
farm. The fuperiority of potato food,
would give the farmer near forty dollars,
on twenty hogs, more than if he had fed
with corn : and the fuperiority, among all
the farmers in the nation, would be fixteen
millions of dollars, yearly, befides what
the ground, faved as above, would yield
in other produce.
We may count upon all the arable land
of farms, yielding a yearly income, without
any part lying idle in rubbiih old field : not
as what is the cafe at prcfent, but as believ
ing
234 MAIZE AND POTATOES.
ing that perpetual alternate crops from the
whole plowable land will infenfibly become
very general, as the fpirit for improvement
fhall, though flowly, advance on the grounds
of reafon and experiment. With thefe may
be eftablifhed found and familiar Jyft ems of
the bejl agricultural employment : in which
ameliorating, or mild crops, will be at leaft
as frequent as exhaufting crops.
Improvements in agriculture will proba
bly be firft introduced amongft us by foldi-
ers, failors, phyficians, clergymen, or others
who become hufbandmen with minds un
fettered by the confined views and habits in
which common farmers are trained, accord
ing to thofe which had been fixed on and
handed down through many generations.*
Attentive hufbandmen will at firft only look
on, afhamed to imitate; which would im
ply deficiency in their own practices : yet,
after a while, they will cautioufly begin to
adopt certain of the approved new practices.
Varying thefe in fome unimportant particu
lars, they will cherifh them as difcoveries
altogether
FENCES. 235
altogether their own. It is a fort of apology
they make to themfelves, for their imitat
ing improvements pointed out by men they
deem ignorant of what themfelves praftife
and deem to be farming.
FENCES.
Whether we have large or fmall portions
of rail timber on our eftates, it is advifablc
that a beginning be immediately made to
wards acquiring permanent live fences. It
withal would be a pleafing" work, giving a
kind of new creation on the eftates : and
would afford the pleafmg reflection to fu
ture pofleffors, that this is the work of a pro
vident man^ who has thus benevolently pro
moted fo much good, and fet this excellent
example of a well chofen employment.
A fcarcity of timber and even of fire
wood, fenfibly affects the apprehenfions of
hufbandmen in many parts of the country ;
and it increafes rapidly. We may afk our-
felves, how we are to inclofe and divide
our
236 FENCES.
our fields when in a few years timber fliall
be much more exhaufted. Inclination to
plant and raife trees from feeds, is too little
.felt : and yet planting is a very important
meafure, which ought immediately to have
its beginning, and then be always attended
to in future, for reftoring timber for all the
purpofes of agriculture. This bufmefs is
avoided by fome people, becaufe they can
not live to fee the plantation grown up into
timber: or if it might be expefted, yet
* there is enough to laft my time : let thofe
plant who come after me." Others delay
it from lefs blamable motives ; the auk-
wardnefs and doubt how to begin it, in
what method, where, &c. Let them, how
ever, begin it any how^ rather than continue
to hcfitate year after year.
There have been fpirited endeavours of
fome farmers in Kent county, Maryland,
to have fences requiring little or no timber.
They cut up turf, laid it on edge, and fill
ed in with earth fcooped up, fo as to form
a bank without a ditch. They faid, this
fence
FENCES. 237
fence is quicker made, than they could
make a common worm-fence from the tree j
which would require felling the trees, cut
ting into lengths, mauling into rails, carting
in from the woods, and putting up. But
this fort of bank fence was foon given up.
The pretty green fides of the banks were
cut down by the hoofs of horfes ; and in
fome inftances droughts penetrated the thin
ner mafles of earth, and killed the grafs
growing on one or both fides: then all
crumbled away, and the fence was foon
proftrate. Thefe farmers had merit in the
attempt to promote an improvement in
fences. Their next defign was to leflen con-
fumption of timber by ereding pofts with
rails, inftead of the common worm- fence.
It may fave fome timber. Tofts and rails
look well, and are not yet out of fafhion ;
though being chiefly of oak, the pofts Hand
only a few years, and the fence frequently
wants repairs. Fleafed with the appear
ance and the hope of faving timber, I
completed a few hundred yards of a poft
and rail fence ; when reflecting how foon
it
238 FENCES.
it would require to be renewed, and that
timber then would fcarcely be at command,
the mind reforted to the ufage of the old
countries in Europe, where want of timber
mult have long fince driven hufbandmen to
the experience of other modes. On inqui
ry, I clearly preferred their hedge and ditch
fence ; and gave up pofts and rails.
Various kinds of plants have been recom
mended for making live fences. Plants
having fmall leaves are preferred, and of
thefe fuch plants as have thorns and flubbed
rigid parts growing clofe, for refifting the
preflure of beafts.* In England are fences
made with hedges without ditches, as well
as with them. The laft are greatly prefer
red : and their better farmers fay, "A
hedge without a ditch is no fence."
Being perfuaded that pofts and rails muft
ere long give way to the more permanent
ditch and hedge, and that it is beft to take
to
* See Of Brambla Hedges, in mifcellany notes, pa.
FENCES. 239
to thefe at once, I loft no opportunity of
gaining information concerning them ; ef~
pecially it was a queftion how thorn plants
might be obtained in numbers requifite for
making all my fences. In the mean while
ditches were made, with intention to place
pofts on the banks, with two or three rails
inftead of five, as is ufual when there is no
ditch, until young thorns meant to be raifed
fhould be fit to plant on the banks. Hav
ing white thorn trees from Europe, a
quantity of their haws was fowed, not one
whereof grew. In different years and me
thods they were afterwards fown, as were
fweet briar feeds, to no purpofe. The late
General Cadwalader likewife fowed haws
of the country thorn without effeft, until he
was informed that young thorns were feen
to be grown through cow-dung dropt near
a road. From this hint he penned up a
number of cattle and fed them during win
ter with bran mixed with haws. The place
was then plowed up and the dung of the
cattle covered with earth. In the next fum-
mer the ground was there abounding in
young
240 FENCES.
young plants of the country haw or thorn
tree : but they were foon much injured by
grafs and weeds, for want of the ground
being previoufly fallowed or cleaned.
Afterwards, about the firft of March
1786, I procured a quantity of the frefheft
cow-dung to be put in a tub : warm wa
ter was poured on it, for reducing it to
the confidence and warmth as if in abeaft's
maw. Haws were then thrown in, and all
was ftirred up and placed near a conftant
fire, for keeping it warm as blood, but no
great exadnefs was obferved. It flood
thus three days ; and was at times re-
plenifhed with more warm water, for pre-
ferving its heat and confidence, and fre
quently ftirred. A clean well cultivated
piece of ground was then opened with a
hoe, and the whole contents of the tub
were drilled in the row and covered.
On the 26 March 1787, I firft noticed
that young thorn plants were grown up
from thofe haws in good numbers and in
great
FENCES. 241
great vigour. Had the feeds been fo pre
pared and drilled in the autumn 1785 when
they ripened, they probably would have
given the plants in the fpring 1786. With
the like preparation it is likely that poplar,
am, juniper, cedar, fweet brier and other
feeds would as readily fprout and grow.
The ground ought to be previoufly well pre
pared, that it may be clean and mellow for
receiving the feeds : which growing in rows
admits of the plants being perfectly and
eafily hoed.
It was intended to procure the hedges in
two ways : by fowing haws along near the
foot of the bank, next the ditch where the
foil is beft and deepeft, there to remain ;
and by tranfplanting quicks from a well cul
tivated nurfery. But it was prevented by
the failure of the feeds, as above : and I
removed from the farm before I could ap
ply the new difcovery, in growing haws.
To have good live fences there muft not
only be ditches with the hedges, but alfo
a clofe attention is to be obferved to weed
and
FENCES.
and keep the foil clean, and the hedge de
fended from cattle and fheep, efpecially
during the firft three or four years : and
the young plants are to be often vijited, and
may or not be trained to grow intwined
together ; but the branches are to be fhort-
ened from time to time, and in due time
the whole may be plafhed. Gaps on thefe
vifits are to be looked for, and flopped be
fore they become frequented by hogs, dogs
or boys.
My ditches were ^A feet wide at top,
10 inches at bottom, 3 to 3 A feet deep.
The common labourers of the farm, men
with fpades, women with dirt fhovels and
hoes, after a few days of auk ward work,
will rid off thefe ditches at a good rate ;
and make a permanent bank five or fix feet
high from the bottom of the ditch. Two
or three rails on this, whilft the hedge is
growing, make a temporary fence that no
thing will attempt to crofs. When the hedge
becomes full grown, there then is a perfed
live fence, without any cxpenfe of timber :
and
FENCES* 243
and it is liable neither to rot or to be eafily
pulled down.
It is a comfort to be aflured that when
defigning to have thorn fences, we can
readily procure any number of plants from,
haws. The nurfery mould be of good fize,
that the quicks may be very abundant, for
feleding from them the beft.
" It is a general practice (befides the law)
in Scotland, that if one proprietor of land
wilhes to make an inclofmg fence for his
own convenience, adjoining to his neigh
bour who will not join therein ; then the
firft erets the fence entirely at his own ex
penfe, without claiming any part of the
expenfe from the neighbour, until the
neighbour avails himfelf of it, by making
it a part of a fence for inclofing on his fide
alfo ; at which time he pays to his neigh
bour the half of the original expenfe in
making that fence, and is at half the ex
penfe of upholding it ever afterwards. This
is alfo a rule adhered to refpeding partition
, walls
244 FENCES.
walls that mutually belong to adjoining
buildings ; and appears to be confiftent
alike with the ftricteft equity and good
neighbourhood." And. Eff. Agr. 28.
I revere the memory of the hufbandman
who has left to travellers, the handfome
legacy on the main road near New-Caftle,
a view of an excellent tborn-bedge-fence, a
valuable pattern for their encouragement or
imitation ; and have wiflied to fee fome
fort of monument on the fpot, erected by
the country, for perpetuating the memory
of the man who fo early inftituted the im
portant leflbn. Rewarding thofe who in
troduce advantageous practices in hufband-
ry is good economy in nations ; as hufband-
ry is the moil general and moft neceflary
employment of their people.
Doctor Hart obferves that " The true
genius of animating agriculture muft refide
in thofe who hold the reins of government,
and in gentlemen of all denominations :
nor mould rewards be wanting, nor public
premiums
TREADING WHEAT. 245
premiums, nor marks of favour : for, as
agriculture is the moft ufeful fo was it the
firft employment of man."
TREADING WHEAT.
This is an univerfal practice within the
peninfula of Chefapeak : and in the early
ages was performed in the old countries by
oxen ; as it ftill is in Barbary and fome
other countries. In Britain, and in all the
American ftates northward of Maryland,
the flail is the common inftrument for
thrafhing out wheat : both modes are fixed
habits in the refpetive countries. Oxen
have been tried in Maryland, by a perfon
who had been ufed to tread with horfes ;
and he found them very exceptionable. I
have had wheat from Barbary, which was
extremely dirty.
Accounts of treading outfmall corns with
horfes may entertain perfons who are unac
quainted with the practice ; and the method
following may aflift farmers in general who
are
246 TREADING WHEAT.
are ufed to treading wheat, with fome par
ticulars for improving their practices. Un
til fome other as fpeedy a method fhall be
difcovered and introduced, treading cannot
be difpenfed with wherever the deftrudive
\vheat-moth-fly abounds.*
Prejudices againft treading wheat are
great, in thofe who are unacquainted with
the fuperior methods of performing it :
mine were fo whilft I was but beginning to
be a farmer in a country where the flail was
very little ufed, and when treading, as far
as I knew, was conducted in a flovenly
manner. Some farmers ftill fhift their
treading floors from field to field ; from
whence much rough-feeling dirty wheat goes
to market. Thofe who have a proper earth,
in a perpetual floor ufed for treading crops
of wheat, year after year, will have it
glofly, and the wheat from it will have no
more
* The thra/btng-mlU certainly gives this method ; and
in every refpeft is a fuperior inilrument for getting out
wheat from its draw. But it is not ufed in America that
I know of.
TREADING WHEAT. 247
more dirt than if thrafhed on plank with
flails ; provided they are attentive in taking
offthe horfe-dung diredly as it is dropped,
and let not the horfes flop, to ftale, until
each journey ends and they are led off, and
provided that as foon as the treading feafon
is over, they cover the floor thick with
ftraw or rubbifh, to remain till a week or
two before they are to tread in the next fea
fon. They may fodder cattle on it all win
ter, and thus improve the floor to be hard
er, more gloffy and perfect. When horfes
in halters are led in ranks, each rank kept
as far apart from the others as can be, time
is given for taking oflFdung dropt before the
next rank tramples on it : and in this detach
ed way of travelling the horfes are kept cool.
It is important that they do not clofe their
ranks.
I was always much hurt by the injury
done the horfes in my former aukward man
ner (the common practice of the country)
of driving them loofe ; and withal their
driving, kicking, and joftling each other,
helter-
248 TREADING WHEAT.
helter-fkelter ; but am now quite pleafed
with treading wheat, iince haltering and
leading them in ranks prove the labour or
injury is lefs than from ploughing them
half a day in a maize field. The above are
the only objections occurring to me againft
treading wheat with horfes. The advan
tages are an entire crop of wheat beat out
before the end of July, which perfectly
fecures it againft the moth-fly ; leaves but
little opportunity to pilferers, and is ready
for an early market, often the beft. To
hire thrafhers or put my labourers to thram
it out with flails, the time fpent would
give abundant opportunity for thieving,
which is avoided by the fpeedy method of
treading, when in about a fortnight three
thoufand bufhels may be fecured, inflead
of near a hundred days that flails would
require.
Treading floors are fixty to a hundred
feet diameter. Some are only forty feet ;
others again, a few, one hundred and
thirty or more. The larger the diameter
the
TREADING WHEAT. 249
the eafier to the horfes. I never knew a
horfe difordered on a large floor, but on a
floor fixty feet or under, it is not uncom
mon. The track or path, on which the
fheaves are laid and the horfes tread, is
twelve to twenty-four feet wide, or more.
In common, the floors are inclofed by fen
ces ; and the horfes are driven, between
them, promifcuoufly and loofe, each prefT-
ing to be foremoft to get frefh air, joftling,
biting, and kicking the others with bitter-
nefs. Their labour is thus in the extreme.
Small floors have a centre ftake, to which
hangs a rope, or a pole and fwivel, and
four or five horfes being fattened together,
travel round, upon the fheaves, abreaft.
I prefume not to offer inftruction to
farmers who are experienced in treading on
large permanent floors properly kept and
with horfes in regular ranks : but to the
lefs experienced and judicious, I fubmit
the method I have ufed of late, as the beft
within my knowledge. My floor is unin-
cumbered with any fence. A barn fixty
feet
TREADING WHEAT.
feet fquare is in the middle of it ; around
which the horfes travel, on the bed of
{heaves about twenty-five feet broad ; fo
that the diameter of the whole is one hun
dred and thirty-five feet.
Previous to laying down the (heaves of
wheat the prefent ftate of the air, and pro
bability of its continuing, during the day,
dry and fair, or its threatening a thunder
guft with rain, is confidered. If the con-
clufion be to tread, then the morning is
fuffered to pafs away till the dew is off the
ftacks and floor. A row of fheaves is firft
laid flat on the floor, with the heads and
butts in a line acrofs the track of it as a bol-
iter for receiving other fheaves with their
heads raifed on it ; and thefe Iheaves range
with the path and circle, the butts refting
on the floor. Other Iheaves are in like man
ner ranged, with the heads raifed on the for
mer fheaves, till the whole floor be filled,
and appears to be with nothing but heads of
wheat, Hoping a little upwards. The thick-
nefs of the bed of wheat depends partly on
the
TREADING WHEAT. 2JI
the length of the ftraw, and clofenefs and
high range of the {heaves on the bed. Upon
laying down the fheaves for the bed, their
bands are cut with a knife. It is wifhed
that the wind come from the weft ward,
when treading. From the eaftward it is
generally damp. It is preferred to place
the flacks eaftward of the floor, for giving
a free paflage to the better winds from the
weftward.
In my treading, twenty-four horfes are
formed at fome diftance from the floor into
four ranks j and when the floor is ready laid,
one of the ranks has the word given to ad
vance. For the fake of order and regular
work, the boy who is mounted on one of
the horfes advances in a walk with the
whole rank haltered or tied together, and
enters on the bed of wheat, walking the
horfes upon the track laid with wheat :
another rank is ordered to follow, as foon
as the firft is fuppofed to have obtained a
diftance equal to a fourth part of the cir
cumference of the bed : and fo of the other
ranks.
TREADING WHEAT.
ranks. They are forbid to go out of a
walk ; till having walked upon the bed five
or fix rounds, word is given to move on in
a fober, flow trot, and to keep the ranks at
their full diftance from each other, as the
four cardinal points of the compafs. Re
gularity and deliberate movements are ne-
ceffary, for preventing confufion. The
gentle trot is continued till the horfes have
travelled eight Or nine miles ; which is their
firft journey, and then they are led off to
be foddered, watered and refted, while the
trodden light ftraw is taken off as deep as
to where the fheaves ftill lie fomewhat clofs
and but partially bruifed : this is called the
firft ftraw or firft journey.
As foon as this firft ftraw is off, one-third
of the width of the bed is turned over on
the other two-thirds from the inner fide or
circle of the bed ; which narrows the track
of the next journey. The horfes are again
led on, and trot out their fecond journey,
till the ftraw be again light and clear of
wheat. It is then taken off, as deep as to
what
TREADING WHEAT. 253
what lies more clofe. The horfes are again
foddered, and allowed to reft whilft the
outer third of the bed is turned upon the
middle part of the bed. Then tread
the bed a third journey, till enough.
This ftraw being taken off the whole
remaining bed is turned up from the floor
and iliook out with forks and handles
of rakes. The horfes tread this well, which
finifh.es their journies ; unlefs it be to run
them a while on the chaff and wheat, the
better to feparate them. The whole be
ing now fhoved up from the floor, with
heads of rakes turned down, the wheat and
chaff are put up into heaps on the floor,
five or fix on my great floor : and thus is
finifhed the day's work ; in which moft
of the time is taken up in breaking the
ftacks, laying down the fheaves, carrying
off the ftraw, turning and fhaking the grain
out from amongft the ftraw : and laftly
collecting the chaff and grain into fecure
heaps on the floor, which is alfo fwept for
faving icattered grains in feparate parcels to
be
254 TREADING WHEAT.
be next day cleaned feparately from the ge
neral maffes of chaffand wheat.
The firft journey is the longeft and moft
laborious : but in the whole of the journies,
the horfes travel but about twenty-five
miles ; and that is foberly, with frequent
intervals of reft and refrefhrnent. The
heaps ought to be put up in a (harp conical
or fugar loaf form, with more care than
flovenly people allow them : the fides even
arid free from hollows : and fuffer none of
the fweepings to be thrown on the heaps*
If rain falls on them, the wet edges next the
floor ought to be (hoveled up and thrown
on the heap. It is better to clean and ftore
the wheat without thus expofing it to rain :
yet, through neceffity, I have had a great
heap of trodden wheat and chaff which
yielded near nine hundred buihels of clean
wheat, expofed in the open air above two
weeks without damage, notwithftanding
fome heavy rains fell on it. Now that
I have a houfe at the treading floor, the
wheat and chaff are fhoved together into it,
from
TREADING WHEAT. 2JJ
from being once fanned; and afterwards
the wheat is well cleaned. As long as the
weather was dry it was found beft to conti
nue treading till the whole crop was trod
out.
I know of but three or four farms having
houfes within the circle of treading floors.
Mr. Singleton s invention is quite new*
Four rows of flout locuft pofts deep in the
- ground, form three lengthy divifions j the
fpaces between them being ten feet. The
middle part receives the ftraw from the
treading floor : the other two are for win
tering cattle, which feed at pleafure on the
ftraw, through rails let into the pofts,
and which are moveable. The pitch is
eight feet ; and the whole building covered
with thatch, is thirty feet wide, one hun
dred and twenty long, befides circular ends,
according to the fhapeof the treading floor,
for holding chaff, &c. The width of the
track, round this building, is about fixteen
feet ; and the circumference of the floor or
track is about 440 feet ; of which 240 is
nearly
356 TREADING WHEAT.
nearly a ftraight courfe, and 200 circular
from rays of 30 feet. Some farmers have
a barn clofe to the eaft, the fouth or the
north fide of their treading floor. Two in-
ftances occur of treading under Jhelter : but
their owners earneftly wifh their wheat,
whilft treading, expofed to the fun.
A neighbour, viewing the treading of
wheat on my floor as above pradifed, faid
the method is admirably eafy to the horfes,
and that moft of the time is fpent in taking
off and carrying away the ftraw : but he
thought it would be a faving, if the outer
half of the bed ihould be trod till enough ;
and then fhift the horfes on the inner half
of the bed ; and whilft this is treading, the
ftraw to be carried off from the outer half,
firft trodden.
No. i. plate The common way of
driving horfes promifcuoufly, inclofed by
a fence ; and two boys on horfeback follow
ing and driving them ; in the prefent in-
ftance, along the outer part of the bed of
wheat.
TREADING WHEAT. 257
wheat. In this way, on a floor 90 feet
diameter, I drove upwards of3ohorfes.
No. 2. My new method ; with a barn in
the middle ; no fence, which would ob-
ftrucl: the wind in paffing to the horfes : the
horfes led on in ranks quietly and orderly ;
and then fteadily trotted round on the bed of
wheat ; at firft as in the plate, on the outer
half of the bed. Here my floor was 135
feet diameter ; and the work better per
formed with 26 horfes.
No. 3. A barn and treading floor, pro-
pofed, on the principles of Mr. Singleton's
barn or cattle houfe and floor, a a Rooms,
at the ends of the houfe, clofed on all fides,
and floored, for thrashing on, occasionally,
or for ftoring wheat, chaff, &c. 2. 2.
Stalls for cattle 3. Paflage between the
ftalls, to feed from. The pitch from the
ground, 8 feet A floor above to be 10 or
12 feet pitch, for holding ftraw, &c. The
dotted lines ihew the track or bed of wheat
in treading.
R A Method
258 EXPERIMENTS
A Method of Registering Experiments.
The following ftatements are made part
ly on previoujly defigned experiments ; and
partly from after thought on refults of
field hujbandry. This laft is an eafy way of
collecting experiments, without the tedi-
oufnefs common in conducting previoufly
defigned ones. The refults of well regifter-
ed procefs in cropping, often afford fuch
matter for ftatements ; efpecially when
there are comparative proceffes, For in-
ftance, you have juft now plowed in feed
wheat, in beds or ridges, and obferve the
ground is left rough : what, you fay, if it
was to be now harrowed ? But you deter
mine on harrowing only every other bed or
ridge, and obferve the difference at harveft :
and whilft the wheat is growing you will
obferve all particulars of it. You then re-
gifter the procefs, the refult, and ftate the
queftion and anfwer ; with what elfe oc
curs, in a note, thus :
Experiments
IN MARYLAND. 259
Experiments made In Maryland^ In 1785, 1786 :*
WHEAT SOWING.
No. I. ASHFIELD.
PROCESS September , 1785.
Sowed the fouth end on maize ground,
after it was harrowed fat, under furrow ;
which formed beds. The reft left gently
rounded by harrowing, was alfo fown un
der furrow ; and left in moderate ridges.
RESULT July 1786.
The beds gave plants equally flout from
the very edges, quite acrofs them. The
ridges gave plants inferior about the edges.
Queftion Are ridges or beds to be pre
ferred ? Beds are by this trial. (A)
R 2 (A) The
* This method of registering experiments I learned from
Mr. Marjhal. And the experiments here inferted are
from aftual proceedings on my farm at Wye in Mary
land.
260 EXPERIMENTS
(A) The maize had been thrice plowed
from the plants, twice to them; which left the
ground rather loweft near the maize, and
higheft in the intervals. A harrowing im
mediately before fowingdid not quite level
it. The wheat fown on this and plowed
in, and the water furrow or clofing furrow
being formed by a double mould-board
plow dipt deep, left the wheat on flat beds
of foil equally deep at the edges as in the
middle : and the water furrow between bed
and bed carried off redundant rain.- Other
part of this maize ground, was twice plow
ed from and twice to the plants. This alfo
laid the ground well, and the wheat grew
nearly as flout on thefe low ridges (nearly
beds) a very little raifed above the water
furrow, as on the above beds : except that
feme of the field, having the lands more
raifed, was formed into ridges which every
where mewed weak wheat at their edges.
My idea of beds and ridges is, where the
lands are rounded down on each Jide to no
thing at the water furrow, they are ridges :
water drowns the edges, and the foil is there
lhallow :
IN MARYLAND 261
fhallow: but where the edges are abrupt
(nearly upright like ftrawberry beds) whe
ther the lands are a little raifed in the mid
dle or are quite flat, they are beds, whofe
edges are raifed above the water in the fur
rows, with a foil more equal in depth from
edge acrofs to edge. The endeavour is to
have the beds quite flat. In reaping ridges^
on the right hand at entering, and on the
left at going out, the reapers drop many
heads of wheat, which are loft : in reaping
on beds, they cut evenly as the bed and
its wheat range.
WHEAT SOWING.
No II. MlDFIELD.
PROCESS September 1785.
Eight lands, each 250 yards long, 7
feet wide, were plowed into ridges, har
rowed, fowed and harrowed in : eight others
flowed in : thefe were alternately repeated
through feveral acres. The whole equally
and
262 EXPERIMENTS
and highly cultivated to 5 plowings, 3 har-
rowings, and a rolling.
RESULT July 1786.
All very fine : not the leaft difcoverable
difference, on repeated clofe infpedtion by
different people.
Queftion Is under furrow or over
furrow beft ? Equal in this clean, mellow,
ridgqd or raifed ground. (A)
(A) With great prejudices againft harrow-
ed-in wheat, I was agreeably furprifed to find
this harrowed-in equal to the plowed-in ;
or over furrow equal to under furrow. Har-
rowing-in, is not uncommon in the penin-
fula of Chefapeak (evidently ufed for dif-
patch): but their fallows, fo called, being
twice rather ilovenly plowed, are feeded
in fo foul and imperfed a ftate, that har
rowing in the feed proves greatly inferior
to careful plowing in ; from deficiency of
preparative culture, as it feems. Their
fallows ar-e generaUy full of tufts and hard
weeds,
IN MARYLAND, 263
weeds, which fcratchings with plow or
harrow cannot reduce. Even when fuch
ftrong weeds are turned in together with
the feed wheat, they keep the ground hol
low ; which is a difadvantageous ftate of
the ground to a good wheat crop there is
a want of firmnefs of compa&nefs in the
foil ; from whence it is that even the richeft
fand-land gives frnall crops of wheat. But
as rye yields well in light land, a clay foil
would be the better, for rye y fo kept hol
low by the ftrong weeds. My hope now
is, from this experiment, it will be found
in practice that clean, mellow, well tilled
land (no feed ought to be on other) har
rowing in will generally prove to be equal
to plowing in wheat. If it fhould.not, yet
I fhould feel deteftation in ufing that me
thod of covering wheat, merely for the
fake of a fhort cut. But it is faid, we. have
not time have not force far -plowing it in :
alas ! 'tis too trtie, whilft we feel not the
value of fpirited exertion on critical occafi-
ons, or aim more .at riddance than perfec
tion. That famenefs of motion we are
ufed
264 EXPERIMENTS
ufed to indulge in, is much againft ftout
crops.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. III. MlDFIELD.
PROCESS September 1785.
South end, fown in broad flat lands , and
in ridges 7 feet wide (including water fur
row) fingle and double. A north and fouth
direction. The whole five times plowed,
thrice harrowed and once rolled ; under
furrow.
RESULT July 1786.
The preference very ftriking : my over-
feer wondered at it, The ridges much
better than the broad lands.
Queftion Are broad flat lands, or
ridges preferable ? Ridges are in this in-
ftance of a very Igvel field. (A)
(A) The
IN MARYLAND.
(A) The foil, a good clay loam (wheat
]and) lying pretty dry and level. The fingle
raifed ridges were on a part of the field
which was rather lower than where the dou
ble ridges were : from w T hence, being wet
ter, the wheat in them was inferior to the
latter. By fingle and double ridges is meant
raifed fo often by the plo wings increafed
in height, not in breadth.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. IV. MlDFIELD.
PROCESS September, 1 785.
Six acres fown in ridges N. and S.
the reft with moft of Aihfield, fown in
ridges and beds, E. and W. Moft of the
ridges w r ere fingle : fbme double : a few
triple.
RESULT July* 1786.
The north fides of the E. and W. ridges
were univerfally inferior to the S. fides.
This difference was greater in the double
ridges
266 EXPERIMENTS
ridges than in the fingle; and very little
wheat or ftraw grew on the N. fide of the
triple ridges.
Queftion Are ridges in a N. and S. or
E. and W. direction preferable ? North and
fouth. (A)
(A) The beds fcarcely ftiewed any differ
ence between their N. and S. fides. In fome
fituations it may be neceffary to fow in an
E. andW. direction; and then beds; not
ridges fhould efpecially be made.
ROLLING.
No. V. SANFIELD.
PROCESS April^ 1786.
Fifteen acres in clover were rolled with
a heavy roller, early in the month in a moift
ftate of the ground. Rains in May pre
vented mowing it till June. Soil a clay-
loam.
RESULT
IN MARYLAND. 267
RESULT Augnjl^ 1786.
The growth from April continually in
ferior to clover in a near field, fown and
every way managed as this ; except its not
being rolled. The foils alike ; and till the
rolling, the growth of both was equal, and
equally promifmg.
Queftion- Is rolling clover in thefpring
advantageous ? It is difadvantageous, as
feems from this comparifon, on a moift
clay-loam.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. VI. MlDFIELD - ASHFIELD.
PROCESS September , 1 785.
Sown in ridges and beds, feven feet
wide, inftead of 5^- as heretofore : 200
acres.
RESULT
268 EXPERIMENTS
RESUL r July, 1786.
The 200 acres were reaped in 1 2 days
with 23 fickles; with as much eafe as the
fame hands and number of fickles were
ufed to reap them in 12 days on 5^ feet
ridges and beds.
Queftion Are fields fown in $ feet,
lands, or 7 feet lands preferable, for reap
ing wheat ? Equal, by this trial. (A)
(A) It was an agreeable furprife to find the
field in feven feet lands was reaped and fe-
cured in as fhort a time as formerly when
in 5 -|- feet lands ; thefe narrow lands being
efteemed beft with fingle reapers. But a
ftrong and a weak hand joining to cut down
the wheat of a broad land, performed it with
great eafe. Strong reapers cutting lands
feparately from weak ones, often flop for
them ; vvhilft the weak ones, hurrying
to get up to the ftrong, wafte wheat ;
but when they join to cut the fame land,
the ftrong reaper readily takes the greater
width
IN MARYLAND. 269
toidth of the land, and they keep toge
ther. By their more orderly proceeding,
and not over reaching, as fometimes on
fingle lands is the cafe, they avoid cutting
off heads without ftraw, where the fic-
kles enter or quit the fides of the ridges.
My wheat was now cut cleaner and better
faved, with lefs hurry than ufual on fingle
or narrow lands. The reapers were men,
women, boys and well grown girls. The
beft reaper and the worft took a land ;
a fecond beft and worft another land ; then
two middling hands a third land; from
whence a fteadinefs and evennefs of work
unufual.
WHEAT SOWING.
No. VII. EASTFIELD.
PROCESS September, 1786.
Sowed under furrow, rather wet ; the
foil left in clods. Every alternate four lands,
each 7 feet wide, was harrowed after plow
ing in the wheat ; the other four left un-
harrowed.
The
270 PRINCIPLES OF
The refult cannot be ftated till after the
harveft of next year, 1787. At prefent
November 1786, as in September and Oc
tober, what was harrowed after plowing in,
fhews wheat of much the beft appearance.
The great fallow harrow proved too coarfe :
the triangular maize harrow, with pointed
or nearly chizzle teeth, performed well in
two bouts to each ridge of feven feet width.
Thoughts on the Nature and Principles of
Vegetation.*
The earth preferves plants in their place :
and contains water combined with particles
of matter that promote their growth, and
which the water conveys to the plants, at
the fame time that itfelf is a diluent to them.
The earth and the atmofphere, even in the
drieft feafons, contain moifture, which in
cludes fuch matter, however minute the
parts and proportions. The foil, then, be-
fides
* The purport of anfwcrs I made to queries feletfed,
from a paper of the Board of Agriculture, in London,
and difperfed amongft my friends.
VEGETATION. 2.JI
fides fupporting plants in their vertical or
proper pofition, imparts water with its nu
tritive combinations to plants, as a food to
them. The earth and the atmofphere may
be confidered as magazines of the food of
plants. The one gives it immcdiatly to the
roots ; the other to the leaves.
Different kinds of foil fuit different
plants : to which hufbandmen and gar
deners are attentive, as a fact known from
experience.
I know of no foil incapable of producing
ufeful plants. We have a poor earth, a
whitifh clay, which though of a fine grain
and not hard appears remarkably dry, at
times when you would expect it fhould
fliew confiderable moiflure. Oaks and
chefnuts growing on it are all fcrubs ; but
pines grow to fome height and fize. The
pine tree has a noble tap root. There is al-
fo as bad an earth which contains much of
a rotten done or granules of an imperfect
ore; and another hungry looking foil, call
ed
272 PRINCIPLES O
ed black-jack land : it is fandy, gravelly,
or clayey, topt with a poor diminutive
grey mofs. On this grow chiefly fmall
fcrub oaks ; and in a foil fomething better,
grow oak bufhes four or five feet high,
loaded with acorns. Common clay I have
known to grow ftrong plants : in one in-
ftance dug up from two feet deep in the
autumn, it was in the next fpring fown
with melon feeds : in another in fiance, the
clay was turned out from four feet depth
in digging a cellar, and two years after
wards the hillocks, as formed in turning
the clay out of barrows, were fowed with
melon, cucumber and cimblin or fquafli
feeds. In both inftances, eighty miles
apart, the growth and duration of the plants
were excellent* Probably the food to thefe
plants, which have not much of a root, was
nearly altogether from the atmofphere.
When it is afked if there are any plants
which will grow perpetually in the fame
foil ; and what are they ? It may be an-
fwered, grafs will ; and that hemp feems
likely
VEGETATION. 373
likely to give perpetual, or at lead repeated
crops for many years on the fame ground a
little manured. It is on the contrary a pre
vailing opinion that flax cannot be continu
ed, crop after crop, on the fame ground,
with all the manure and culture that can be
given it. But who has experienced it ? I
grew hemp twelve years on the fame
ground, two acres, without manuring in
the time ; and the failure was very little.
The ground had been previoufly well ma
nured; and it had a few intervals of reft: on
ly a year at a time. Maize and tobacco im-
poverifh ground greatly : as it feems much
from a clean cultivation expofing the foil,
frefh and frefh, to a powerfully exhaling
fun with but little of made from April till
September. But I have known ground
cultivated conftantly in tobacco, many
years ; being frequently manured.
Some plants receive moft of their food at
their roots, from the earth ; and it may be
fome forts are received greedily by them,
whilft others are in part rejected. Other
S plants
274 PRINCIPLES OF
plants fucceeding thefe, receive it more at
the leaves from the atmofphere ; or take at
the roots, what was avoided by the former.
The peculiar nature and fitnefs of food
which different kinds of plants require,
muft be adapted to the abforbing faculties,
and the organization, or the mechanifm and
ftrudure of the veffels of plants, by which
they refpedively receive and aflimilate
their nourifhment. From whence it may
be expeded that foil tiring of fome fpecies
of plants, will produce and promote the
growth of fome others vigoroufly.
Soil is exhaufted by certain plants de
priving it of the vegetable food depofited in
it. Every crop in hufbandry takes fome :
and though the atmofphere fupplies the
ground with more, yet it is feldom equal
to what, in the fame time, the plants take
from the ground. Crops of grain often re
peated, efpecially caufe the impoverifhment
or exhauftion. Food of plants is gradually
reftored to the ground that has been ex
haufted by fevere cropping. Whilft the
ground
VEGETATION.
ground is fuffered to reft and fettle into
hardnefs, the acceflion is very flow: the
ground cannot readily drink in the moifture
lodged on it from the atmofphere. Depo-
fited on the hard ground it is foon evapora
ted. When the ground is not trod clofe
by animals pafturing on it, it will continue
fomewhat open and mellow, for readily
imbibing moifture with its nourifhing corn*
binations. But by long refting, ground
gradually fettles into a compadnefs, and
the tread of beads adds greatly to its confo-
lidation.
In the extenfive country of the peninfula
of Chefapeak, there is no appearance of
calcarious matter in the foil.* There in
deed are on fome of the banks of rivers,
Indian collections of oyfter ih-ells, clofely
confined to the edges of the banks. They
are very little applied to the, fields : and I
know of but one inftance of their being fo
S 2 applied.
* This is faid of its appearance, without any chemical
examination having been made of the foil.
276 PRINCIPLES OF
applied. The clays there, having the
appearance of marl, that I have feen, do
not effervefce with acids. A great deal
of gravelly and fandy poor land, is within
the peninfula: and there is much good
wheat land, which yields the moft perfed:
grain, preferred by millers for producing
fuperfine flour: and Englifh peas, fown
early in the garden way, are every where
a fure crop. I know lands in Mary
land which have been under crops, moft-
ly maize, upwards of an hundred years ;
and in the laft forty or fifty years in maize
and wheat, alternately, with one year of reft,
unfown : and though they fhew no appear
ance of any calcarious matter, yet they
yield perfect grain. Pool's Ifland I have
known above fifty years ; and it has been
mine above thirty : in all which time it has
been cultivated in two fields, alternately in
maize and wheat. Its former proprietor
who fold to me, and other old people have
aflured me that maize with one year of reft,
had been the conftant culture of it, till wheat
near fifty years ago took place of the lay or
years
VEGETATION. 277
years of reft ; which introduced the courfe
to be maize, and wheat ; fo that one field
was in maize, the other in wheat, without
any manure. All manure was applied to
lots of tobacco, till tobacco was dropt about
thirty years ago. The foil is a rich hazel
loam on a good clay. I believe it has been
cultivated above 120 years chiefly in maize
and tobacco : and ftill the prefent tenant
procures fure crops of perfect grain, much
above the medium of the country in quan
tity and quality. His crops are maize and
wheat alternately ; yet the foil mews no
appearance of calcarious matter.
Till lately I never heard that calcarious
foils are more favourable to clover than
other foils. At Wye in the peninfula of
Chefapeak, where there is no appearance
of calcarious matter in the ground, clover
thrives admirably well. I once fowed
there, on wheat which was fown on maize,
the ground having been many years culti
vated in corns, without being ever manur
ed, 70 acres with clover feed ; which gave
good
278 PRINCIPLES OF
good pafture : but war prevented its being
renewed. I had before been ufed to mow
good clover from lots of dunged ground,
on this Wye farm. It was intended to re
peat fowing clover feed, and extend it to
all fields of winter grain ; with the hope
that the clover being plowed in together
with the remains of the grain ftubble, year
after year, would gradually meliorate the
foil. Gypfuin did not anfwer as a manure
(the farm being nearly furrounded by a
fait water river). The fields were about
200 acres each : farm-yard manure not
much ; and a want of grafs was a want of
live-flock, and of every thing proportion
able to the fize and quality of the farm.
Well plowed foils in general, and all
mellow found foils retain moifture a due
time : but they fhould have the faculty of
readily imbibing moifture, rather than of
holding it long ftagnant : every frefli accef-
fion of moifture brings with it an acceffion
of the combinations of water, as a food to
plants : and it is better that the acceffion be
gradual
VEGETATION.
gradual and frequent, than feldom and in
gluts. Cleaning and pulverifmg foil are
means of its receiving and imbibing moi
fture from the air. Manures add to the
means : and fome are efpecially remarkable
for attracting moifture in the drieft times,
when mod wanted. Gypfum duft is noted
for having this property ; which therefore
to the lands in America, diftant from the
ocean, gives great fertility. But in Britain
furrounded by the ocean, and otherwife
abounding in moifture, it is faid to be of
little efficacy. Attentive obfervers fay,
where the gypfum duft is applied to plow
ed land, an actual moifture is to be feen in
the drieft times.
There are fandy foils in America, nearly
barren for want of texture. Water pafles
rapidly through them, and manures have
little to acl: on. Sandy foils are lefs adapted
to manures of the warm fermenting kinds,
than clay foils. Great rains long continu
ed are more injurious to maize growing on
fand fields, than on clay or loam. They
waih
280 PRINCIPLES OF
wafh and carry down all before them, and
the dilution is exceffive. Maize thrives
better on fandy foil in dry feafons than wet
feafons : provided the plowings or horfe-
hoings have been and are continued to be
inceflant in changing the furfaces of the foil,
till the taflel and ears fhoot out. Droppings
and remains of plants, as is experienced of
the Magothy-bay bean, alfo green dreffings
from plants plowed in, improve fandy foil.
When it is faid, dung finks in fandy foil,
it may be better faid that having but little
to at on, its effed is fcarcely feen. Give
the fand tenacity and body, by adding to
it a clay foil, and then dung it; even try
virgin clay and fand well dunged. I have
feen hemp grown very high on a mafs of
deep loofe fand, near a tobacco houfe ; and
doubt not but .that the richnefs in the fand
was in vegetable food accumulated chiefly
from tobacco fcraps ; which are greatly
adapted to drink in moifture from the air.
Tobacco abounds in vegetable falts. Ma
nures which ferment are belt for clofe foils.
Bung and clay foil meeting, effect much
good.
VEGETATION. 28r
good. Green dreffings from buckwheat,
clover and the like, are advantageous in
fandy foils, as well as in ftrong foils. It
therefore feems they not only ferment and
open the ground (beft in clay foils) but
alfo depofit their falts and other vegetable
matter, for attracting humidity from the
air, and gently ftimulating as well as actu
ally feeding the plants, in fand as well as
in clay foil.
Soil is in the beft ftate for receiving feeds
of plants, in fpring and autumn ; as being
feafons of temperate heat. The ground
being clean and well pulverifed, the feedf-
man is to follow and fow clofe after the
plow or harrow on the freih earth ; and
the feed is inftantly covered, clofe after the
feedfman : beft in the evening and morning.
A fermentation of manures in the ground,
at fome times, and lively foils when fud-
denly wanned after winter, at other times,
occafion the ground to fmoke, as it is call
ed. The fudden warmth dilates the ground
and gives a fpring to moifture, which af-
cends
282 PRINCIPLES OF
cends from the earth more vifibly than in
common. Rivers of ice and houfe tops
alfo emit fuch vapour at times of fudden
warmth and thaw.
The fun evaporates a part of the humi
dity lodged on ground expofed to it, before
the moifture can be foaked in. Shade de
fends it, againft the fun effe&ing a quick
evaporation. Shade therefore gives the
ground more time for drinking the moifture
in with its nourifhing contents derived
from the atmofphere : and low plants pro
bably emit an effluvium to the ground,
of an ameliorating nature.* Sheltering
ground, in fummer or winter, feems bet
ter than wholly expofing it to the fun in
fummer or to froft in winter. Temperate
heat is probably beft for the foil. I think
but
* Exceffive fhade, fuch as would {mother plants, or
deprive them altogethei of the fun, or of due light, or
power to emit their effluvia and extend an atmofphere
of their own, or receive gentle and invigorating air, are
not meant ; but only a due flicker and defence againft
injury from immoderate exhalation*
VEGETATION. 283
but little of froft as an improver of it. It
indeed breaks clods : but the attentive
farmer will not plow his ground too wet
to occafion them. Froft is cold, and fnow
is cold ; but fnow prevents fevere blafts
from fweeping off the genial warmth of
the ground, which with moifture naturally
afcends to the furface of the earth. Moi-
fture is chiefly evaporated by the heat of
the fun in fummer, and by keen winds in
frofty weather.* Even ice is reduced by
thefe winds. 'Pour water on the fteps of
the north fide of your houfe, in a time of
the fevereft freezing and windy weather:
it quickly is formed into a fheet of ice ;
which continually diminifhes afterwards,
and in fome days will be fwept off, accord
ing as the wind is more or lefs powerful.
I do not believe that froft or keen winter
winds improve foils by an introduction of
nitre. If fuch weather improves foils, how
rich ought to be the foils of the high lati
tudes !
* It is not meant but that the wind is alfo a powerful
mean of evaporation in fummer as well us winter.
284 PRINCIPLES OF
tudes ! There is it feems, at leaft in weather
free from ice, a continual afcent and defcent
of moifture with its combinations, vibrat
ing from the earth to the atmofphere, and
from this again to the earth. Does fevere
froft interrupt its rout or intercourfe ? What
then is the confequence ? When ground
flickered by a hollow fodder rick, during a
frofty winter, Odtober till April, proved
for years more productive than where
cattle were fed, in front of it, and there
dropt their dung and urine,* was it be-
caufe of particles of rich moifture rufhing
thither from all points, where being fhel-
tered from froft and wind they were con
centrated for future gradual diffufion to
plants? Here the ground, protected from
keen winds and left open and mellow, is
in condition for abforbing nutriment in
moifture from all directions, unobftruded
by froft, and unevaporated by fun and
wind. Or did effluvia from the fodder and
corn-hulks within the rick or fodder-
houfe,
* See of this, pa. 148.
VEGETATION. 385
houfe, effect the improvement of the foil?
Or was it from both ; at the fame time that
the tread of cattle hardened and unfilled
the foil which was unfheltered ?
The common air gives neceflary motion
to plants ; which with heat promotes di-
geftion, and a degree of circulation within
them conducive to their growth and per
fection. Earth is not the food of plants ;
but together with the atmofphere, it con
tains their food. Both are generally requi-
fite to the perfection of them. Soil receives
from the atmofphere, and it fee ms the at
mofphere from the foil, in a vibrating
mode, the nourifliment of plants ; a due
portion whereof, on its paflages, is caught
and conveyed to their roots and leaves.
Heat caufes evaporation, or promotes the
afcenfion of particles of moifture from the
earth to the atmofphere. This aicent of
moifture is moftly in the day ; as the de-
fcent of it is in the night, whilft the heat
of the air is diminifhed : and fo probably
are the times of afcent and defcent of the
juices
286 PRINCIPLES OF
juices of plants, in a kind of circulation
\vithin them. The air, which is never
quiefcent, glides along the furface of the
ground, and commits to it particles of wa
ter with its combinations nutritive to plants,
which it drinks in the readier and the
deeper for the ground being pulverifed and
mellow. If the ground is clofe and hard,
what of thefe are lodged on it are not rea
dily imbibed, but are foon evaporated. Of
this I have obferved inflances in fields of
maize. The well pulverifed and frequent*
ty ftirred maize field, fhews moifture on
the ground till late in the morning, and
never any drops or fpangles of dew. The
lefs ftirred ground ihews fuch fpangles
early in the morning ; but they are foon
evaporated' as the fun advances, fcarcely any
of the dew having funk into the ground.
I have viewed w r ith admiration, in the
drieft fummers, a clay-loanvwhich had been
incejjantly plowed and harrowed, turned up
by the plow with a fine colour, given it by
moifture. This earth had fome adhefion
of its particles and crumbled ; for it was
dry,
VEGETATION. , 387
dry, in a duft, only on the furface, a lit
tle way, and moift under that from dews
continually abforbed : and moreover, in
the drieft times, moifture afcends from the
interior of the earth to its furface, and then
to the atmofphere. On the drieft fpot o
earth, fcrape a place level ; and put a glafs
tumbler on it, bottom up. The glafs will
fhew moifture on its inner furface. Well
pulverifed foil will catch and abforb much
of the paffing moifture, for the benefit of
plants, which otherwife would proceed di-
redtly to the atmofphere.
Plants receiving a large portion of their
nouriftiment immediately from the air, ra
ther fertilize than impoverifh foil, where
they are not carried off from the ground,
or fuffered to run to feed. There are ftrong
marks of plants meliorating ground by their
leaves and other oftal dropt, and probably
from their perfpiration ; efpecially of the
pulfe kind. Grain and all feeds rob the
earth more than bulbous or tap rooted fruit
does.
Wheat
288- PRINCIPLES OF
Wheat ought to have antipathy to the
barberry bufh ; becaufe for fome diftance
round it wheat is ufually rufted, although
the reft of the field be free from it. The
barberry leaf and fruit are very .acid. Is
it an acid effluvium from the bufh that
corrodes the wheat plant ? If fo, is ruft or
blight 1 or mildew generally produced by
means of acid or fharp effluvia floating over
entire fields of grain from other acid plants;
or corroding fubftances ?
Under growing, chefnut trees, fcarcely
any plant thrives ; nor under the red-oak.
On the other hand the locuft tree is an im
prover. Every thing thrives under it : the
ground about it is better than what is not
near it, evidently to the eye. The black
walnut and the native black mulberry trees
meliorate the ground: but none equal the
locuft tree 5 the pods and leaves whereof
feem to have the effecl: that the humble an
nual plant called Magothy-bay bean has on
fandy foils. Ginfeng grows beft, and is
fcarcely if at all to be found growing but hi
ftiady
VEGETATION. 289
fhady grounds in clofe forefts : and this is
the cafe with many other plants. I never
faw any kind of fnake-root grow but in
the woods. Maiden-hair grows in fhade,
where the fun fcarcely ever {nines. The
mofles delight in fhade, under and on the
north fide of trees.
Plants on the fea coaft, when not great
ly expofed to bleak winds, thrive well. I
have feen great growths of maize there, on
very fandy foil : and on the banks of the
Chefapeak, a wide fea-water bay, the fields
are thought to bear cropping better, and
fooner recover, than lands diftant from the
bay. All the old cultivated lands mention
ed in page 276 are on the bay or falt-rivers.
Heat in'creafes faccharine matter in plants
and brings them to perfection. A fmall
field of maize was planted late. The Au-
guft following was very wet and cool.
There was little hope of the maize ripening.
I (hewed it to a fenfible farmer, who ad-
vifed me to let it grow merely for fodder.
But having read of the blades of fugar canes
T being
290 PRINCIPLES O
being fometimes ftripped off, in Antigua,
for maturing the canes in wet cool weather,
thefe maize plants were very early ftripped
of their blades, from the joint where the
ears were peeping out down to the ground,
for gaining more warmth from the fun to
the ground and plants. We were after
wards both furprifed at the ripening of a
good part of the corn. Maize-ftalks
abound in faccharine juice. Melafles and
fpirit have been produced from them, for
domeftic ufes.
The germ of many kinds of garden feeds
periflies when the feeds are fown in a hot
feafon on a hot ground, although raked in.
I alfo fufpect the germ of wheat is fome
times inj ured when fown early, as in Ma
ryland, and left fome time on the ground
before it is covered. Rut clover feed ftrew-
ed in March or April on fields of wheat,
or on barley fown in the preceding au
tumn, or in the fame March or April, ne
ver fails, although uncovered. I have ge
nerally fowed fo, in March ; and it is the
common
VEGETATION.
common pradice in February, March or
April. Thus lefs feed anfwers: all comes up:
none is fmothered under lumps of earth.
Farmers fay, plants grow moftly in the
night. They obferve it chiefly of maize ;
which at times has furprifing ftarts in
growth.
Manure promotes the growth of plants,
by its fermentation and warmth opening
the foil for readily admitting humidity from
the air with its nutritious contents ; and
for facilitating the extenfion of the tender
fhoots of roots : or by attracting moifture
with its combinations from the earth and
atmofphere : or by its depofiting matter,
that if not of itfelf nutritious to plants, at
leaft promotes the accefs of fuch as is nutri
tious to it. It is faid ground is fometimes
exhaufted by aftimulus from manures. The
plant is a more likely fubjeit of ftimulation,
as having life ; and a ftimulus to the plant
may be a mean of promoting its growth.
It alfo is faid, limeexhaufts land by its fti-
T 2 mulus.
292 PRINCIPLES OF
mulus. It indeed has injured ground when
applied in too great quantities ; which
tends to reduce foil, in fome degree, to a
mortar: and thecauftic quality of lime when
applied immoderately may, fo will fait,
deftroy plants, and alfo a part of their nu
trition depofited in the foil. But in fad, it
is nearly altogether repetitions of exhauft-
ing crops taken from the ground which ef-
fecl: the mifchief. The farmer gives once,
and takes for ever. If lime exhaufts ground
by deftroying the nutrition depofited there,
it muft be without having promoted any
growth in the plants. The injury done by
lime, is faid to be from ftimulating the
ground, and with a kind of violence forc
ing it ta yield great crops; whereby the
foil is exhaufted : and indeed at length it
is exhaufted by the crops not by the
manure. It is better to give the ground a
moderate portion of lime at a time, and
apply it more frequently. In England, it
is laid on to upwards of 300 bufhels an acre :
in Pennfylvania to ice, as meafured whilft
unflacked ; and ought to be renewed in
feven
VEGETATION. 293
feven or eight years. It fometimes hap
pens with lime and with gypfum, and even
with dung, that after having performed
wonders, they are fo much thought of and
fo long depended on that the foil is cropped
to death, and then it is faid, the manure,
though at firft fuccefsful, has by its ftimu-
lation exhaufted the ground and left it
fteril : when in fact the numerous and fe-
vere crops exhaufted it a common cafe.
A farm in Maryland, reputed a poor place,
was bought by a fpirited farmer, whom I
foon after vifited when his plows were
breaking up its old lay, deep. It fhewed
a good wheat foil. The hiftory of this
eftate is, that an Englifh fervant had pro
cured extraordinary crops from it for feven
years. His timeout, he went off; and it
was afterwards for many years cultivated by
the mafter and his family in their own way.
It then obtained the character of being a
poor place; for that Englim John had
worked its heart out by deep and much
plowing. But the farmer who now bought
it cheap, cultivated it boldly ; and there-
by
294 PRINCIPLES OF
by reftored it to the good name it had in
John's time.
Wheat ftraw trod fhort in getting out the
grain, proved to be fo confiderable a ma
nure, on my Wye farm, that wheat fov/n
after it, on the ground to which this ftraw
was given in April and inftantly plowed in
muck wet andyo//, gave much of ftraw with
inferior grain ; in fome meafure as if the
ground had been over-dunged. From
whence it feems that ftraw plowed in whiljl
muck wet from foaking rains that have foft-
ened it, and in a time of due warmth in the
air for fermentation is a confiderable ma
nure : \\hen if it be plowed in under lefs
favourable circumftances, it is fcarcely feen
to effect any good.
The turf dikes to folds, ufed in Scot
land, prove to be fuch excellent manure, as
to fuggeil the making trial of coarfe hay
and grafs mixed with good earth, and heap
ed up together like the dikes, and flickering
them from fun and rain, as for making
fait
VEGETATION. 295
fait petre; but leaving the fides open to
receive the rich humidity of the air.
Farmers plow the grounds of their or
chards ; and take from them crops of po
tatoes, clover, or corns. They think it ad
vantageous to the trees, to plow the ground
about them frequently,
The earth is more thoroughly pulverifed
by the plow than the fpade : provided
that it is in condition to crumble before the
mould- board.
The kinds of vermin and infecSs in foil,
which I have found hoftile to plants are
chiefly worms and ants ; and in the air,
flies and fmall beetles of various kinds.
Until about the year 1772, the moth-fly,
defcribed by Mr. Duhamel^ was extremely
numerous, common, and deftru&ive in eve
ry year, to wheat after it was reaped. They
did not affeh plants. Although the taking
notice of them in this place is foreign to
the queftion refpeding only vegetation or
plants,
296 PRINCIPLES OF
plants, yet the damage done by them to
wheat corn, was fo immenfe and fo con-
ftant for near twenty years, in Maryland,
whilft all attempts to avoid them were
made in vain, the defpondency fo great,
and the accidental difcovery of the means
of avoiding them fo important, that the
mentioning it, together with the following
circumftances cannot be here avoided. In
that year, encouragement was held out, for
the approaching new crop of wheat to be
fhipped immediately after harveft. The
farmers exerted their powers, and fooner
than till then was thought it could be done,
trod out, fold and delivered their wheat to
the {hippers, who were bold in this new
experiment ; which proved that wheat of
this country, keeps well in fhips, when
carried to Europe on being (hipped foon af
ter it is reaped : and this getting out wheat
immediately after harveft, has continually
proved to be a perfect fecurity againft the
moth-fly, from that time to this. From
the year 1773, I ufually trod out and fold
my crops of wheat in July or Auguft, of
the
VEGETATION. 297
the year when reaped. From 1785, in
every year, on the third day that my reap
ing commenced, I began to draw in the
wheat, and then alternately trod and drew
it in, every day during harveft. It was
about the 19 of June when the reaping
began : 24 horfes, fix in each of four equi-
diftant radii, gently trotting on the wheat
fheaves cut open, round a circle of near
400 feet, trod out near 200 bufhels a day,
medium. One day 416 bufhels ; the horf
es driven hard, on a wager of the overfeer.
Our wheat treads out eafieft in or foon af
ter harveft, before it has fweated : and the
feafon is ufually then very dry. This
moth-fly was fcarcely known, but in the
peninfula of Chefapeak, and the lower
country of Virginia and Carolina. The
HeJJian fly is a new comer. It depofits its
nits or its eggs in the plant clofe to the
ground, whilft growing. The young' are
there in the maggot ftate, for fome time fta-
tionary ; and feeding on the tender blanch
ed part of the (talk, wound and check the
growth of the plant. Nothing is known to
be
298 PRINCIPLES OF
be done, at prefent, better againft them
than to give a vigorous growth to the
plants, by manuring and cultivating the
ground well ; which 'admits of late fow-
ing : and this greatly checks their pro-
grefs. A few years ago they abound
ed in the country near Philadelphia;
excepting in the highly cultivated diftridt
of rich land below the city. There I could
not difcover the leaft fign of them in the
growing wheat of a number of fields j at
the fame time that on the fide of the city
towards Germantown, where the foil is
thinner and not fo well cultivated, few
plants were free from them in the only field
that I there examined. We have alfo num
bers of fmall infeds popularly called loufe,
flea, &c. which in autumn injure much of
the young plants of wheat ; like the fly on
turnip plants, chiefly in dry weather. I
never knew grafs hoppers do any notable
damage to wheat, but in one year ; when,
in Maryland, they ruined moft of the fields
of wheat, in autumn. It is ftill called the
grafshopper-year. I fovved fome ground
twice, and fome thrice over again. In
Maryland
VEGETATION. 299
Maryland is alfo a fly called, from its fmell,
chinch-bug; the fmell being fimilar to that
of the chinch or bed-bug : and I fufpecl:
that dropping its wings at times, it afliimes
fomething of the character of certain ants,
which are fometimes with wings, at other
times without them. The chinch-bug
chiefly injures maize plants, by wounding
them about the lower joints. It is not fo
generally mifchievous as the moth and HeC-
fian flies : but is it not nearly allied to the
latter, which alfo, in the autumn drops its
wings inhere it alights to depojit its eggs, as
1 am ajfured by a farmer of Ghefter county.
'
NECESSARIES :
Best Producl of Land : Best Staple of Commerce.
In the winter, 1769, under this title, I
wrote on the fcheme, then agitated, for in
troducing into general practice in the then
American colonies the culture of Jilk and
wine. It was fome time afterwards print
ed and difperfed among my friends.
The
300 BEST PRODUCT
The philofophers, rather than the poli
ticians of America, with the beft motives,
endeavoured to induce the country people
to apply their labour and attentions to the
culture of wine and Jllk ; as it feems, with
out confidering they might therein be ie-
condingthe wifhes of a jealous connexion,
that we fhould apply ourfelves to cultivat
ing thofe articles of luxury, rather than
continue to depend on and cultivate the
materials of bread ; in which we then
abounded as the firft ftaple of our com
merce, and the firft neceflary of life : and
it was thought to interfere with the Britiih
farmer, though groundlefsly ; as Britain
buys more bread than me fells, which has
fince been declared to the king of Great
Britain by his council.
The tobacco colonies were already more
dependent than the bread colonies : and it
was obfervable that as the culture of wheat ,
and the manufacturing it into jlour tra
velled fouthward, from county to county
through Maryland, the tobacco culture de
clined,
OF LAND.
clined, and the people became more happy,
and independent of the Britifh ftore keep
ers who had kept them in debt and de
pendent.
The perfons in America, who promot
ed the defign of introducing the wine and
filk culture, certainly did not confider it as
interfering with or tending to eat out the
better ftaple, bread : but it fo forcibly ftruck
me with having this very mifchievous ten
dency that I could not withhold my opi
nion of it ; efpecially as it was countenanc
ed by a number of inftances in hiftory ;
which I confidered as being fupported by
the then adual ftate of the wretched parts
of Europe compared with the more happy
countries of it the fouthern with the
northern the filk and wine countries with
the bread and beer countries.
It is a principle of found prudence that
whenever in matters of government, law,
and commerce, any material alteration i$
propofed, we fliould beware of latent con*
fequences.
302 BEST PRODUCT
fequences, and look forward and confider 5
however flattering appearances are, what
may be the mifchievous tendency of fuch
innovation when adopted. It is better to
drudge on in a temperate and middle ftate^
than to aim at too much ; and, " It is not
" eafy to determine upon theory the fuo
" cefs of political innovations."
The firft great effential of life is bread.
If America had adopted the fcherne, it may
be fuppofed that with her filk and wine fhe
alfo would have made fome bread : fo it is
with the poor peafants of fouth Europe ;
hut her labour and attention being diverted
more efpecially to raifing the luxuries, which
could neither properly feed or clothe her,
fhe has alas ! only aimed at growing a ican-
ty ftock of grain, barely for family con-
fumption, and falling fliort in that, becomes
miferably dependent on foreign countries
for a fupply from them.*
See
* Italy formerly exported corn ; but afterwards be
came dependent on other countries for its daily bread.
This is afcribed by the Roman authors to the negleft of
OF LAND* 363
See the condition of the fouthern coun
tries of Europe: all Italy, Spain, Portugal*
a great part of France, and till lately that
the cultivation of corn became the firft ob-
jedl of the attention of its government, the
whole of France, employing their chief
labour and care in cultivating wine or filk :
and though they are fine countries for
yielding wheat, and fome is cultivated in
them, yet not aiming at that article as a
Jlapk
tillage. Columal. Praef. Suaeton. Aug. C. 42. The
country about VolifTo, in the ifland of Chio or Sciros,
in the Archipelago, is very pleafant, fpacious and fruit
ful. The inhabitants raife 5000 weight of filk yearly ;
with which they pay their tribute. It is thought they lie
under a curfe of being always deftitute of bread." Thev.
Trav. The curfe is but the natural confequence of their
neglecting to cultivate a fruitful country in corn, for the
fake of raifmg the gew-gaw article filk. Had the tri
bute been referved in corn, their attention being thereby
drawn efpecially to that object, die curfe of wanting
bread would never have fallen on them.
" The Druzees, in Syria, do not grow corn enough
to fupport themfelves three months in the year. They
have no manufactures. All their exportations are con
fined to filk and cottons: the balance whereof exceeds
very little, the importation of eorn*" Vol. Syr. vol. ii.
304 BEST PRODUCT
Jlaple of commerce, how conftantly are
they in want of, and how dearly do they
pay ftrangers for bread.*
In the war of 1 744, France in the midft
of almoft uninterrupted victories and con-
quefts, whilft her labour and attention were
applied to the cultivation of wine and filk,
was compelled to make peace and relinquifh
her conquefts, merely from a want of corn ;
when her enemies had only the barren
ifland of Cape Breton to give in exchange.
Ever fince that fore-felt fcarcity, it has
been
* It may feem an odd pofition, fays Mr. Hume, that
the poverty of the common people of France, Spain, and
Italy is in fome meafure owing to the fuperior riches of
the foil and happinefs of the climate : and yet there want
not many reafons to juftify this paradox. The fine vine
yards of Champaign and Burgundy are cultivated by
peafants who have fcarce bread : but the farmers and
graziers are in better circumftances in thefe countries.
Hu. Ef
Connecticut b valuable for grain and pafture. Any
country is happy where the meaner people are plentifully
and wholefomely fed, and warmly and decently cloth
ed : thus it is in Connecticut. Dwgl. Sum.
OF LAND* 305
been her policy to encourage the cultiva
tion of corn y in preference to all other ar
ticles of land produce : feeing and feeling,
that however great and flourifhing they
may be in other refpets, bread being want-
ing, fubmiffion mufl follow. This is an
axiom applicable to individuals, as well as
to nations.*
It is reckoned, by Mr. Hume, bad poli
cy in Britain to obftrucl: the ufe of French
wines ; when they ought rather to be en
couraged in the application of their labour
U in
* After the battle of Blenheim, the French army want
ed a large fupply of recruits; and there being a great
fcarcity of bread in the country, the French king ordered
his public ftores of bread to be well taken care of. The
foldiers alone were well fed out of them, whilft the coun
try people were ftarving ; which occafloned them through
necejpty to flock to the army, and inlift in crowds. 2 Ha.
Huf. 338. Here then we have an inftance of the ap
plication of the axiom to private as the text is of a public
fubmiffion for want of bread. Mr. Hume fays, " There
" are many edicts of the French king, prohibiting the
" planting new vineyards, and ordering thofe lately
" planted to be grubbed up : fo fenfible are they of the
" fuperior value of corn over every other produ2"
306 BEST PRODUCT
in making more wines ^ by the free ufe of
them in England ; becaufe each new acre
of vineyard planted in France, for fupply-
ing Britain with wine, would make it re-
quifite for the French to take the produce
of a Britifh acre fown in wheat, in order
to fubfift themfelves : " and it is evident,
" he adds, we have thereby got the com-
c< mand of the better commodity"
Intimations have alfo been thrown out,
in America, encouraging the people with
flattering profpeds of great wealth to them,
would they employ their attentions in cul-
tivatingy?/^. So it was that the firft James
of England, attempted to infect the minds
of the people of England. But it is an em
ployment equally inconfiftent with the ge
nius of the Englifh, as of the American
people a feminine bufinefs at leaft.
raifed in France yielded fuch an
immenfe apparent profit, that king James
repeatedly recommended from his throne,
the raifing^/^ 'worms in England : but the
people
OF LAND. 3O7
people fell not into his fcheme, although
perhaps more earneftly preffed by him and
his fervants, than moft other matters
even by the Judges on ,the circuits, how
ever foreign to their office j and there could
be no doubt of the filk worm thriving and
working as well in England as in other
parts of Europe ; as appeared from many
experiments, befides what are recorded in
the tranfactions of their Philofophical So
ciety.
It was not many years ere that brilliant
bufmefs began to decline rapidly, in France;
where now it is quite trifling to what it
then was : for, the " profit being little elfe
than apparent^ was not realifed."
The people of England rejected the royal
fcheme for making them rich ; the employ
ment being fuitable only to effeminate, fpi-
ritlefs, flow nations : and it is obfervable
that, all the world over, the filk culture
flouriflies chiefly among people of that caft 5
who are every where in a ftate of mifer-
able oppreffion or flavery. The very nature
U 2 Of
308 BEST PRODUCT
of the employment tends to enervate that
hardinefs and vigor, which is a general ef
fect of manly labour and employment, and
to effeminate the nation that fliall ever
ftumble on it.*
But it is faid, Jilk would be 'women 's
xvork. Be it fo : yet if our wives and
daughters, were to raife as much^/?/ as
would purchafe all the clothing and food
wanted, the men, undoubtedly, would be
come idle and indifferent to other produce
in quantities. The lands would be but little,
if at all, cultivated or improved ; and the
women performing in a few weeks the bu-
finefs of raijing worms and reeling filk,
would become equally indolent for the reft
of the year. Both the men and the women
would, in time, become ignorant of huC-
bandry and houfewifery. Nor could the
* " A large Jill tvorl has lately failed in France.
" Experience convinces me of infinite difficulty in the
" fuccefs of fuch a manufactory. The/M and Jlench of
" the infect are alfo difgufling. f I abandon the fubject to
" its native climates ; for in houfes it is intolerable to tie
" meaneji peafantry" Letter to Mr. Young, in 1791.
17 An. 511.
OF LAND. 309
filk more readily purchafe what we fhould
want, than money would. If a mountain
of dollars was open to all the people, with
which they fhould purchafe what at prefent
they labour in the fields to produce, can
there be any difficulty in conceiving the
wretchednefs and dependency in which a
country of people, fo circumftanced, would
prefently be plunged ? How totally igno
rant the next generation, of agriculture,
commerce and the arts ! " The riches and
" fafety of a country confift in the number
<c of its inhabitants well employed"*
The people of Carolina, long ago, were
to be made rich from the culture of filkj
and they entered heartily on the bufinefs,
under every encouragement ; yet, in twen
ty-five years, they exported only 25 1 ft of
raw filk, from their worms; and in the
fame time imported 405 2 oft, wrought ;
befides what was mixed with other mate
rials :
A Table
* " Near Princeton New-Jerfey, Anno 1794, arc
" large plantations of the mulberry tree, for the culture
" of the/7/ worm. Some of the farmers greatly objeft
" to them, as interfering with more ufeful domeftic occu-
" pations and encouraging habits of idknrfi" Wanfey's
Journal, pa. 193.
310
BEST PRODUCT
A Table of Raw Silk exported from the Carolinas
to Britain, in 25 years ; from 1731 to 1755 :
and of Wrought Silk, alone, and mixt in Stiffs
of the Manufacture of Britain, imported from
thence into the Carolinas, within the fame years:
Total.
Medium'?
per ana. 5
Imports.
EXP(
3RTS.
YEARS.
V-orO
T 7 1 T
Raw ISilk.
tb.
Silk
wrought.
ft).
0*70
Silk with
worfted.
lb.
r< n.t-f
Silk with
Inkle.
ib.
Silk with
Grogram.
ttu
1 73 I
-r 1 f) f)
97
537
9n->
I /J 2
T T *?
.
T <"\ T r
oy 2
I 733
'734
T *7 9 f
943
T /I 8 T
I 34 I
937
R^^
I 735
T >7 o /C
T/>^O
004
CT /c
I 73
T *T /i *T
I22 J
Avf-J T
5 10
A 73/
T *7 -7 8
IT T T
79
IT f-r I-J
J /3
7 >7 i r\
797-2
177
877
1 739
T T A O
1 ^/J
T /I f /I
77
.
1 /4 U
1741
1742
T *7/l ">
18;
X 454
2798
J 57 6
T 1 'V
149^
2452
J 35
T ofal
440
144
T *? n
7
A 74o
1 *7 /I A
-
*47
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This
OF LAND. 311
This is taken from a flate of Carolina
published by Dodjley, in London, in 1761 ;
in which the author alfo fays" 1 cannot
" help exprefling my furprife and concern
" to find there are annually imported into
" this country (Carolina) considerable quan-
" titles of Flanders lace, the fmeft: Dutch
u linens and French cambricks, chintzes,
u hyfon tea, and other goods, filk, gold
" and filver lace, &c. by which means we
" are kept in low circumftances ; and
" though it may have the appearance of be-
" ing, for the prefent, beneficial to com-
" merce, yet it retards our increafe, both
" in people and wealth."
It cannot be thought I mean we (hould
be wholly employed in cultivating grain.
It is only wifhed that we Should not drop nor
at all relax from cultivating the articles of 'life ,
to thegreatejl extent ; that in a courfe of traf
fic we may make luxuries and delicacies Jub-
frevient to them ; and never let necejjaries de
pend on luxuries. In raifmg all the necefla-
ries, " tie better commodities" for (la pies of
trade,
312 BEST PRODUCT
trade, that we can, a fafe game is played ;
as we then have a moral certainty of our
real wants being ever fupplied ; and there
will always be a furplufage of the neceffa-
ries to fell or exchange with ftrangers for
their delicacies and luxuries, whereby our
imaginary or artificial wants would alfo be
gratified.
Nor need it be objected to the making
<wine^ by perfons who may be difpofed to
grow the grape and produce the wine for
family confumption ; but not at all for fale,
left it be extended to exportation. Indivi
duals will choofe forthemfelves, the appli
cation of their labor : but it is hoped that
legiJJators and men of influence will rather
difcountenance than encourage the cultiva
tion of articles of luxury, in quantities efpe-
cially.
It is not a great many years fince wheat
firft became a confiderable article of export
ation in Maryland, and then in Virginia,
Before which time, ads of the legiflatures
of
OF LAND. 3*3
of Maryland and Virginia, were not unfre-
quent for prohibiting exportation of Indian
corn^ becaufe of ^fcarcity of it for anfwer-
ing the neceflary wants of the country ; and
fo inconfiderable was the quantity of wheat
then fown, that the prohibitory ats fcarce-
ly, if at all, ever mentioned wheat. As
much Indian corn was cultivated as the
planter deemed fufficient for giving bread to
his family, and food to his horfes and hogs.
Some indeed aimed to raife it for exporta
tion. Wheat was fown in a lot or patch,
for giving puddings, pies, and wheat bread
on high days. Tobacco engaged the chief
attention. The planter always aiming at
making as much of it as he could. All
dung was given to the tobacco ground.
What of maize corn the planter could fpare
from family wants, was fold for rum : the
tobacco was partly configned, and the pro
duce laid out as well in luxuries as neceflfa-
ries ; fo that at the end of the year, if the
planter was not left in debt, which he of
ten was, he had little or nothing left but his
land.
It
314 BEST PRODUCT
It was a ftriking inftance of wheat being
the better commodity ', that as the cultivation
of it advanced into Maryland^ and then Vir
ginia^ proceeding from our northern neigh
bours, the demand and of courfe the price
increafed : and as the culture of wheat pro-
grefled fouthward, the, country people be
came more improved in their fentiments,
manner of living, and independency of
ftore keepers, dealers in merchandize.
Between tobacco and bemp^ how great the
contrail ! Tobacco a luxury ; hemp a necef-
fary in great demand. It is in every fenfe
the hufbandrnan and politician can confider
it, <c the better commodity* for private
and for public advantage.
It however may happen in another
century, that fine materials, and manufac
tured goods, will be articles of commerce
from the interior country, far from navi
gation, rather than bulky, cheap, and hea
vy articles, becaufe of long land carriage ;
whilft heavy, grofs, and cheap articles will
be from the countries near enough to navi
gation ;
OF LAND.
gation ; of which, grain is one as being too
heavy, for its price, to bear a diftant land
carriage, Let us then continue to cultivate
bulky neceffaries ', for the ftaple of com
merce. The more bulky the better ; becaufe
it employs more fliips. Wheat is therefore
better than filk, as alfo for the before men
tioned reafons. "Tobacco, although a luxu
ry, is better than the luxury fur : and rice
is every way better than indigo.
Probably, the chief export of produce in
the maritime country between Connecticut
and James River, will he four : of South
Carolina, Georgia, and the Floridas, rice:
North Carolina, naval ft ores and maize :
Maffachufetts and other parts of New Eng
land, jifh^ cattle and horfes : Mifliflippi,
lumber^ tron^ hemp ; in fhips built there,
and never returning are fold abroad.
It is laid that in all countries there are
fpots of land too poor for any other cultiva
tion than of the vine ; and that it is the cafe
in America. I know of no fuch foil in our
America :
316 BEST PRODUCT
America ; and believe there is no foil fuit-
able to the vine that would not produce fome
more ufeful plant. There are indeed dif-
trids of countries, abroad, poor and rocky,
which produce delicious wines. They are
in wine countries, where that culture has
been fomehow introduced, and then rivet-
ted on the miferable inhabitants, who moft-
ly want bread. There are other countries
equally portioned with rocks and poverty
of foil, in as good climates. Thefe pro
duce no delicious wine no wine at all, or
none for exportation : but they yield the
neceflaries of life, particularly bread^ abun
dantly ; and it is a requifite of comfort and
confolation.
Where of lands poor and rocky, only an
acre can be cultivated to advantage, of bet
ter land clear of rocks, an hundred acres
can be well cultivated, with lefs labor, in
fields of grain. In the former, grain
enough for a family cannot be obtained by
culture. The proprietor of it therefore
looks for a plant which will yield much of
fome-
OF LAND.
fomething from little land : and he pitch
es on the grape. But the vine requires
manure ; and the acre of grapes takes as
much labor and attention as the hundred
acres of wheat. If poor land is beft for the
vine, it is fo only with the additions of ma
nure and the higheft cultivation. Culti
vate poor land equally well, and look about
for a plant of more value, at leaft in point
of ufe ; hemp) flax^ cotton. But why the
vine ? If employment is wanted, feek the
better employment in the better land ; and
take example by the fufferings of a great
nation ! If however you are pofitively im
pelled to grow the vine and make wine,
yet be fo confiderate as not to lead others to
follow you in fuch barren foil, and fuch in
ferior employment and purfuit. Rather
advife them to beware of fuch an experi
ment ; that they may make all happy at
home in an abundance of wholefome food,
and decent cloathing, with the aid of their
placid wives and rofy children, cultivating
or manufacturing neceffaries within them-
felves ; and fparing to ftrangers the furpluf-
age
31 8 FAMILY SALT.
age of their grain , their wool, and their
hemp ; be/I commodities ! choiceft materials
of DOMESTIC AND NATIONAL EMPLOY
MENT !*
FAMILT SALT.
Many houfewives prefer Llown^ or fine
white fait for all purpofes ; even for curing
meat and fifh. But their meat and fifh are
cured lefs perfedtl y than what the Hollanders
and fome other people fait and barrel up.
In America, as far as I know, we make
no attempt to cle^nfe or refine the fait we
life : and our meat and fifh are rather dir
ty, and apt to become rancid and damaged.
The
* Bread and clothing, in ever fo great plenty, cannot
afTure a permanency of enjoyments, but with the means
of defence againft plundering nations. The efTential means
of defence are arms and ammunition : thefe alfo are necejfa-
rles : and exportation of fuch of them as are manufatfur-
ed in the nation, ought to be encouraged, till they be
come one of the ftaples of our commerce : for the more
there are exported, the more will our nation abound in
them ; and the fecurer will be our peace and independ
ence. Peace is beft preferred by being ready to rspeh
FAMILY SALT. 319
The people of England have been ufed
to refine the fait wherewith they cure meat :
but it is faid to be in an inferior degree.
The Dutch people it is faid, are fuperior to
all others in the purity of the fait they ufe ;
and that their method of refining it is a
fecret among themfelves. How beautifully
clean and well flavored is their meat and
their fifh in barrels ! They are it is faid
obliged, by laws well obferved y to purify
all the fait they apply to provifions intend
ed for exportation ; and fo are compelled
to reap an advantage, in a preference at
foreign markets ; as well as incidentally to
preferve fuch articles, in a fweeter^ whole-
fomer condition for home confumption.
The Dutch ufe &zy-falt from Spain,
Portugal, and France, after having made
it very pure. Salt is produced, generally,
by evaporating fea water : and this is by
means of the fun and wind, or by boiling
the water. The method by fun and wind
is JJow and regular ; which produces bay-
falt, (on the fides of bays or ponds) and
the
320 FAMILY SALT.
the fpirit of the fait is preferved in a high
degree. That by fire is quick , and gives
blown-t^ ; which lofes much of its fpirit
by a rapid evaporation in boiling the fea
water. This fpirit of the fait is eflential
for keeping provifions ; and when extract
ed and applied to pickle, gives an agreeable
flavor : fo that fey- fait, both as it has lefs
of the bad fubftances, and more of the
fpirit of the fait, which is an effential of it,
is preferable in its qualities to blown or boil
ed fait ; befides its greater weight in the
bufliel.*
Lord Dundonald*s method of refining
fea fait, (which he feems to have applied
only to Britifh blown fait) is fnnple and
cheap. An account of it will be acceptable
to the houfewives who are happily difpofed
to have things perfect, and who would feel
afhamed to be behind their moft adive
and ingenious neighbours in the perfecT:
neatnefs
* The fpirit of fea fa It, is of the nature of both the
vitriolic and the nitrous acid. Cava/lo.
FAMILY SALT. 32!
neatnefs and ufefulnefs of their productions.
With pleafure they will fee their fait puri
fied from the foreign mixtures, which tend
to foul) make rancid^ corrode and corrupt
meat. BefidesLord Dundonald's method,
for blown fait, given below, I venture to
propofe a trial of another mode, for coarfe
bay-falt, and for thole who have not a co
nic veflel and the means of conveying and
continuing the heat through a flue : though
it is doubtful whether for want of fuch
continued heat^ it will prove to be effectual
but with vaft lofs, with blown or fine grain
ed fait ; when mere wafhing may fuffice
for large grained bay-falt.
Lord Dundonald's Method of Refining Common
Salt.
A veflel of a conical figure, having a
hole in the fmall end, is placed near a fire :
the large end uppermoft. It is fixed fo
that it can be heated by a ftove, with a flue
round the veffel. It is filled with fait ; A
part whereof is taken out and diflblved in
water, juft fufficient to diffolve it, in an iron
X veflel.
322 FAMILY SALT,
veflel. This folution is made to boil, and
is then poured on the furface of the fait, in
the conic veflel. The hot folution being
already faturated, will diflblve no more
fea-falt ; but as it defcends and filtrates
through the fait in the veflel, will liquify
and diffolve the magnejiafalita and magnefia
uitriolata^ which drop out at the aperture
of the veflel, below. When it ceafes to
drop, take out another -A part of the fait in
the veflel, which diflblve, and proceed as
before : and repeat the like procefs with
frefli portions of fait taken out of the veflel,
until what fait remains be pure as Is requir
ed. Three wafhings as above, render Bri-
tljh made fait purer than <foy-falt.* Each
operation
* So that whatever dirty appearances foy-falt has,
more than Engliih fait, it is fo much purer from the cor-
rofive naufeous littern andjlact, that the Brit'ijh cleaner
looking fine fait requires three purifications, for rendering
it barely better than the ^-falt ; although each operati
on purifies at a four-fold rate. How very inferior, then,
is the blown fait for preferring meat, in the ftate we buy
and ufe it, without being refined. Had Lord Dundo-
nald any other fait refined, or in his view, than Britijh
bloiun-falt ? It feems as if barely waftiing lay -fait in water,
will refine it of its dirt, and make it fuperior to blown-fak
FAMILY SALT. 323
operation renders it 4- times purer than it
was before. Its purity will increafe in the
following progreffion : the firft operation
4^-: the fecond 20; the third 91 ; the
fourth 410; and the fifth 1 845 times. The
fuperior quality of the fait, thus freed from
the bitter ) naufeous^ corrofive falts and inju
rious Jlack) is he fays obvious to the tafte
as it is fuperior in its elegance and goodnefs
in preferving fifh, meat and butter. New-
caftle fait, he adds, contains T V of its
weight of thofe bitter, putrefcible falts,
which aid, inftead of preventing putrefafti-
on. Abufhel, 56tb, of </0<zw-falt contains
5^-ib of thofe bad falts and mixtures, f
Lord Dundonald refined 500 bufhels of
fait at a time, in one large conical hopper,
inverted.
X 2 Country
three or four times refined as above. To give fuperiority
to this bay-falt, after wafhing it from dirt, it needs only
one of Dundonald' s refinings. Then how fuperior would
it be on three fuch refinings ! yet I doubt of there being
any injurious fubftance attached to bay-falt than what is
external, on the furface of the grains. .
f See " Thoughts on the Manufa&ure and Trade of
Salt;" by Dundonald in a pamphlet.
324 FAMILY SALT.
Country families would find it advanta
geous to refine their fait for a year's purpo-
fes at a time. October is a leifure month,
and fait is then cheap : but Auguft might
be preferable for preferving heat to the fait
in the hopper* Thus would be always at
hand a confiderably pure fait for curing fifh,
beef, pork, and butter. When the fait is
refined and dried it is to be beat or ground
down t\\\fne, and kept clofe from duft.
When fait is applied in a powder, it in-
ftantly ftrikes into the meat, effects its pur-
pofe, and goes further than if it was coarfe.
Meat ought to be Jlruck with powdered
fait, in the moment when it becomes cool ;
and not left as is common, for hours long
er even in warm weather. Tendency to
putrefaction foon commences; and long
before it is difcernible. Salting fhould pre
cede this tendency, and fo prevent it ; for
fait cannot fo effectually ^o/) putrefaction,
as it can prevent its commencement.
i
A Method
FAMILY SALT. , 325
A Method propofedfor Refining Salt, in Country
Families, on Lord Dundonald's Principles.
Make a hopper of four fides, as for ex-
trafting ley. Of the quantity of fait put in
to it, diflblve a twentieth part, in as much
cold water as will juft diflblve it. The reft
of the fait, before it is put into the hopper,
fpread and make hot in a moderately heated
oven or pot. Whilft the oven is heating,
the folution of the twentieth of felt is made
to boil. Now place the hot fait in the hop
per ; and immediately pour the boiling fo
lution over it. For a fecond procefs on the
fame fait, take out of the hopper another
twentieth of the fait, about the time when
the drippings of the firft warning are nearly
ceafed ; and as before, after diflblving it in
cold water and boiling this folution, pour
it over the fait in the hopper : and, preferv-
ing the heat well as you can, repeat it till
enough refined.
All the fait procured from fea water, be
fore it is refined, contains a very acrid, cor-
rofive
FAMILY SALT.
rofive and extremely injurious fub fiance
called bittern ; fo active, hot and fearching
it is, that calks can fcarcely be made to hold
it ; and alfo a magnefial fubftance called
flack. They are fo connected with the pure
fait, and adhere to it with fuch firmnefs that
it is fuppofed they cannot be fufficiently re
moved by common wafhings in water : at
leaft not without lofs of a part of the pure
fait.
It feems that when common fait is flow-
ly cryftallizing, the grains are pure ; and
confift of little elfe than the muriatic acid,
a purging fait, and a trifle of magnefial
earth, with fixed air : but when the fait is
drawn out of the liquor where it w r as form
ed into grains there adheres to the furface
of every grain, an injurious portion of bit-
tern and of the magnefial earth called flack,
and much dirt. It alfo feemed to me that
wafhing off the extraneous fubftances,
would leave the fait confiderably purified.
In confequence of thefe reflections, I made
the following experiment.
A box,
FAMILY SALT. 327
A box, open at each end, 3 feet deep,
and i o inches fquare, had a ledge nailed on,
within it and near the lower end : on which
was placed a moveable frame covered with
doubled coarfe open canvafs, for keeping
the fait. The fait was put on this. Upon
the fait alike frame, covered with a fmgle
piece of coarfe open canvafs, was placed for
receiving and fpreading the fpring water,
which was then (lowly poured on the can
vafs ; the box being fufpended.
The quantity of fait was half a bufhel,
weighing 39^, in a moift ftate. The firft
portion of water was two gallons, a quart
pot full at a time ; which carried down with
it, dirt, bittern, &c. through the mafs of
fait and lower canvafs. The liquor fell into
a tub, under the box, and was very dirty.
Four hours afterwards, two more gallons
of fair water were poured on the upper can
vafs ; and the fait in the box was left all
night to drain. It was then very clean and
fair;
328 FAMILY SALT.
fair ; weighing in its moift ftate (after hav
ing been fo wafhed) 28lb
Dried in an oven 25^-
Moifture evaporated 2-|-
But it is more agreeable to confider it by
the bufhel. Then, a bufhel of this fait
would weigh, before it is wafhed, y8fe
when dried, in an oven, be
fore it is wafhed, 7 1
Moiflure evaporated ytb
A bufhel wafhed and left moift 56*. when
dry 5 1 tt> pure.
Inferior fait, from the
warnings, dry 15
66, for ufe.
dregs, dirt, bit tern and
flack; and thrown
away in fkimming 5
Total grofs dry fait yifo.
FAMILY SALT.
7 lib dry; grofs.
66 dry ; fit for ufe, after being wa(h-
. . ed: of which 15^ inferior.
5lb, loft in flamming, dregs, &c.
The I5lb of ordinary, and much inferior
fait, were recovered by boiling down the
water which drained through the mafs of
fait in the box, after it had flood to be
clear.*
An
* The box ufed for wafhing the fait, had been applied
to filtring malt-wort in brewing family beer. In one of
which procefles, not thinking of fuch an effect, I was
furprifed to fee, on pouring fair water on the fand in the
box, the day after wort had been ftrained through it, in
order to wafh the fand, that the wort, preffed on by the
column of water, ran off for a while quite pure; and then,
all of a fudden, the water followed, with fcarcely any
apparent mixture of the two fluids. The ufe of this
fandjiltre to wort, fuggefted the benefit that might be de
rived from fome fuch contrivance in purifying the ordi
nary water drunk in fbme parts of the country : and the
faft, of horfes running on fand iilands on the coaft of
Maryland and Virginia and fcooping holes in the beach
on the fea fide, when the tide falls, and thereby procur
ing frefli water, led me to defign a box of tubes vibrating
in a fpace of about fix feet fquare* fo as to admit of 50 or
60 feet of filtration through fand ; thereby I hoped that
frefh water might be obtained from fea- water poured in
to a refervoir, as a head, and paflmg 5^ feet down, then
as many up, and fo on to the end of the tubes ; fome-
330 FAMILY SALT.
An objection is made by country people
to&zy-falt, as being" too ftrong." Strong
of what ? too ftrong of fait ? If a bufhel of
foy-falt weighs 84^, and a bufhel of blown-
fait weighs but 56lb ; and a bufhel of the
&zy-falt is applied to the fame weight of
meat, for which they find a bufhel of the
blown is fufficient, the former muft then
fuperabound as 84 to 56 : and thus it is that
meat is fometimes " overfalted and harden
ed." If the large grained fait be ground
down to the fize of fmaller fait, meafure
for meafure will be nearer to an equality
of fubftance, in both kinds of fait; but
weight for weight will be ftill nearer.
Cents,
aob. of tay-falt at 84lb.= i68olb. at 80 c. p. 84lb. or a bufh. 1600
10 b. of /cw-falt, 561b.=iiao, at 80 c. p. 561b. or bufh. 1600
Difference 560, at 80 c. p. ditto 800
2400*
So
what like the afcent and defcent of water, in ebbing and
flowing of the tides, through the fand on the fea-fliore :
and if it fhould fail of procuring frefli water from fea-
water, yet it would be an excellent filtring machine, for
clarifying fpring-water. Several attempts have been
made by me to get fuch a box made ; as yet in vain.
* Two figures on the right hand, in any fum of cents,
being dotted off, all on the left are dollars.
FAMILY SALT. 33*
So that 80 cents worth of ^?j/-falt, per
forms as much as 1 20 cents worth of blown
fait ; and the latter, though it contains
more of the bad fubflances, cofts 50 per
cent more than the former, for making
pickle. For dry-falling the coft of grinding
would be a trifle; which in pickling is
faved.
It is faid by Lord Dundonald, that the
diflblved magnefial falts drop out : but
what comes of the -V of fait in the folution ?
Is this -A- attached to the general mafs of
fait, whilft the water of the folution carries
down the magnefial dregs 1 If it is fo at
tached, there is no wafte of the A of dif-
iblved fait. Chemifts countenance the fup-
pofition that the fait in the folution, attaches
to the mafs of undiflblved fait, whilft the
dregs continue united with the water, and
are carried off by it.
Although the common rule for making
pickle, that it fhould bear an egg, may
anfwer for fome purpofes, as where the
thing
332 FAMILY SALT.
thing pickled is for early ufe, yet for mak
ing a full and true pickle, fufficiently ftrong
for preferving meat, fifh and butter during
a long voyage, it is prefumable that the
folution ought to be boiled down till the
fait begins to cryftallize ; which is difcover-
ed by a fine fcum on the top of the liquid,
whilft it is ftill over the fire. The water is
then faturated with fait, and the pickle is
perfect.
Frefh butter in balls, placed in kegs of
brine bearing an egg, probably would not
keep long : but, a brine fo weak would
admit of the predominant water rendering
the butter rancid ; and might even admit
of maggots in it. But would this be the
cafe of a trutfult brine, when a little of the
fait cryflallizing, ihews it is at leaft equal
to the water ? If balls or prints of frefh but
ter were barreled up with fuch a pickle in
tight kegs, perfectly tight againft air, would
not the butter keep a long while ? And
would it be without imbibing the brine ?
It however is known that the Hollanders
practife
FAMILY SALT. 333
praftife a different method, with fuccefs.
A gentleman who formerly refided in Ma
deira, fometimes received from Amfter-
dam, prefents of butter, in very fmall
tight kegs filled in mafs ; but without any
fait or brine. Thefe little kegs were, each
one, contained in a keg of ftrong brine.
On opening the little kegs, the butter was
perfeUyyr<?/#, fine in colour, in tafte, and
in fmell: but if not foon ufed, it became
inferior ; as indeed would frefli butter made
on the fpot, on being expofed to air and
beat. This gentleman alfo received com
pliments in faked herrings of the coaft of
Norway, which were very fine. He ob-
ferved that large grains of fait abounded
among the herrings ; and fuppofes they
tend to preferve the fifli, from the cool
nature of fait : but it is probable they were
firft ftruck and cured with fine grained,
perhaps powdered fait.
Butter is the better for having never been,
in water ^ or at all wetted, even in clearing
it from butter-milk. If with Jlow motion
for
334 FAMILY SALT.
for mixing it with very pure fine fait ', and
flowly preffing out the butter-milk, the
butter be never touched with water, but
inftead of cooling it with water, ice be
placed round and under it, fo however as
not to wet it, and all this be done rather
on a cold marble table, the butter may be
expected to be greatly iuperior, in colour ,
in clofenefS) and in flavor. But it ought
not to be beat, nor even prefled or fqueez-
ed with a quick motion. Every motion
ought to bzJloW) in making butter. For
getting out the butter-milk, fprinkle it
with very fine fait, and after gently mix
ing it in, let it ftand awhile before the
fluid is to be difcharged. It is faid, there is
no making fine pafte, but on marble tables ;
which are c leaner , fleeter and cooler than
any wooden tables ; and that French paftry
cooks ufe marble. The reafons are as ftrong
for nice butter makers uiing marble. A flab
of poli/hed marble^ on a flout oaken frame,
may be firft made cold with ice ; and a
drawer clofe under the flab, filled with ice,
would
RICE - 335
would continue the cold, whilft the butter
is cleanfmg.
It would be a fortunate circumftance if
houfewives, butter-makers and falters, were
imprefled with a warm convidion of the
very important fuperiority of the Dutch re
fined fait) over our gt'ofs impure fait ^ and
even over the Britljh refined fait ! the effed
of which fuperiority is ftrikingly evident
in the fuperior condition of their barreled
fifh. I have compared Dutch falted her
rings with Britiih. The Britiih herrings
were fine and large : far fuperior to the
American ; and were clean and well pre-
ferved : but the fuperiority of the Dutch
herrings, though fmaller than the Britifh,
was great in the neatnefs, and efpecially in
the flavor Their fi(h, with the pickle,
were a perfume.
RICE.
The farmers in Jerfey, Pennfylvania,
and Maryland, have for fome years had
fuch
336 RICE.
fuch deftrudion in their crops of wheat,
from the Heffian-jly, that they now increafe
forne crops and look about for other articles
of crop to fupply their lofles in wheat.
Some increafe their maize culture j others
rye. They might alfo increafe or intro
duce barley, buckwheat, pulfe and hemp
crops. As far north as Sufquehanna rice
may be tried : perhaps further.
Sixty years ago, I experienced that rice
grew to perfection in the dry fandy foil of
Annapolis ; and a negro now living with
me, has been ufed to grow rice on the
loamy foil of South river, near Annapolis ;
the produce whereof was preferred by thofe
who bought of him by the quart, to the
beft imported rice. In 1781, in a clay
loam on upland, in Talbot, Maryland, I
grew a garden bed of it, drilled and hoed ;
the produce whereof was good in quality
and quantity.
Mr. Romans, in his Florida, fays rice
will grow in any foil ; though it loves wa
tery
RICE. 337
tery foil beft : and that the reafon of letting
water on it is chiefly to fupprefs weeds.
The time of planting, he fays, is from the
departure of froft till the tenth of June ;
and that an acre will yield 16 to i Sooib,
manufactured grain : a negro attending
three acres very completely.
If rice be fowed in rows, and horfehoed
between the rows, why may not a labourer
cultivate as many acres of rice as of wheat
in rows ? In rows the plants can be eafily
and effectually kept clean of weeds, and
the ground light and mellow. The ftalks
of rice whilft growing are fo clofe and hard
that the Heffian-fly could make no impref-
fion on them.
Befides rice, maize, and cotton, which
will be continued the principal ftaple pro
duce of the lands in Carolina and Georgia,
the climate there will admit of other pro-
duts which cannot be matured in the field
hufbandry of the northern ftates ; fuch as
will give frefh and dried exotic fruits, olives,
Y olive-oil,
338 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
olive-oil, angola-pinder or ground-nut oil,
(fuperior to olive-oil, from an experiment
I made in 1782) fefamum or benni-oil,
cotton, &c.
t
COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
Security againft fire and houfebreaking is
peculiarly deferving of attention in building
country habitations ; detached as they are
from the immediate affiftance of neighbours.
In the time of the revolution war I loft
two houfes by fire, from accidents ; and
living on a navigable river, the houfe in
which I then refided was befet in the night
by a number of armed men. Their num
bers could not be known, nor could they
be repelled from within, otherwife than by
firft opening the door. They were let in
upon terms. The houfe was badly con-
ftru&ed for defence ; and I always difliked
the common mode of building with com-
buftible materials without referve, efpecial-
ly in the roofs. The annexed drawing of
a plan
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 339
a plan and elevation may afford hints to
perfons who would build in the country.
It is not the intention to give a defign to be
particularly followed ; but principles only,
on which others may build to fuit them-
felves. The principles on which this plan
is formed, afford many conveniences and
much room j little being wafted in ufelefs
applications of the area, which divides, in
various ways, very advantageoufly. The
middle rooms muft be very comfortable in
fummer, from being defended on the E.
and W. fides from the fun fhining on and
heating the. walls, and being aired by open
ing the S. and N. windows, and the par
tition doors occafionally.
The floors of bafement ftories in dwell
ing houfes, are wholefomer and better when
folid and of the common earth naked or
laid with brick, ftone, or cement, than
floors laid upon joifts over cellars or near
the ground. Floors laid on joifts near the
ground or over cellars, confine a damp air
under them long enough for becoming an
Y a xmelaftic
34-O COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
imelaftic dead air ; which producing a
mouldinefs and fmell of vaults, is mixed
with the air of the rooms above, fo as to be
even fmelt in fome. Delicate people, ufed to
dry warm houfes of the towns, feldom
take a cold on fleeping in log pens or houfes
having damp earthen floors, when they
travel in the frontier of the country.
Court houfes and other llone or brick
buildings, having paved floors, and which
are not airy, when fhut up for fome time,
contain a fomewhat ftagnant unelaftic damp
air, which is alfo unwholefome: but this is
not at all the cafe of inhabited, much-fre
quented, or airy houfes with folid floors ;
when the air has fome degree of current,
and is all alive.
The floor of a bafement ftory may be of
brick or flag-done upon the ground, raifed
a foot above the common furface. The-
fecond or beft ftory to have its floor laid
with rough ftrong boards or planks, only
three or four inches wide, nailed down
acrofs
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 34 I
acrofs ftrong ftiff joifts, and covered with
a thick bed of a ftrong cement, the colour
whereof fhould yield to utility.* Carpets
may cover the whole. The wafh-boards
and furbafe may be of cut ftone or marble.
The floor of the third ftory to be laid with
thick narrow boards and cement as the firft ;
but the wafh-boards to be of cement
rounded off. Cellars to be under a detachr
ed building, or under the ftaircafe, or fome
one room of the principal houfe,
Wood is to be avoided as much as poffi-
ble. The door and window frames may be
of ftone or iron, and the doors faced or
lined with iron. The joifts and boards for
the platform roof and floors, alfo for the
ftaircafe if this fhould be of wood, are to
be defended from contact of fire by ce
ments. No outfide corniih i$ requifite to
a platform roof.
Many
* Pieces between the joifts ftiffen them ; and prevent
lateral weaknefs and cracking of the cement.
34-2 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
Many houfes of the ancient civilized
world had, and the Afiatic and African
houfes on the coaft of the Mediterranean
fea, ftill have platform roofs. The houfes
in Algiers are fo, and of one height; fo
that the ladies vifit from houle to houfe and
ftreet to ftreet, by walking on the roofs of
the houfes. Platform roofs are cheaper than
common ridge-roofs, fhingled ; and are
fafer againft lire infide and out, and againft
the preffure of wind. Moft houfes burnt
in country places take fire in the roofs
\vhilft the family is gone on vifits or to
church. Then it is that children or fervants
take candles or light-wood to rummage
clofets, cuddies, and cock-lofts, which ufu-
ally are lumbered with combuftibles : or
flakes of burning foot fall on the fhingled
toof.
A platform roof may be thus conftructed.
Joifts 12 or 13 inches deep at the big end,
are to reft on the middle wall, and from
thence Hope two-tenths of an inch per foot
to the fmaller end on the exterior wall.
Their
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 343
Their thicknefs 2-rVor three inches. The
diftance between them 12 or 14 inches,
from centre to centre. Or the joifts may
be equally deep from end to end ; and bat
tens which flope are to be fixed on them,
for forming the platform roof with the faid
degree of flope. Between the joifts, at every
five or fix feet, fix to them at right angles,
pieces of plank, nearly the depth of the
joifts. Thefe would add to their ftrength,
asfo many braces, preventing their weak-
nefs laterally.* Stout, rough, narrow
boards, 3 or 4 inches broad, and a full inch
thick, are nailed down acrofs the joifts with
large nails ; the better if ragged. The fun
is powerful in drawing nails. On the boards
lay a cement an inch or two thick, whilft
it is hot in flacking burnt powdered lime-
ftone one part, mixt with clean fand and
brick-duft two parts. No more at a time
is to be flacked than what the trowels can
mix
' The joifts of the floors are allb to be ftiffened or brac
ed ; for preventing their being fhaken, fo as to injure the
cement of the floors.
344 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
mix and work up whilft hot.* When the
cement is dry, in a hot funfhine day, with
a brufh lay upon it hot tar three or four
parts, and o^Jt/h-oil one part, well mixed
together over a gentle fire. This coat may
be repeated. Forbid walking on it for
months after. Fifh-oil corrects tar in its
faculty of letting water through it ; and the
mixture gives a clofe varnilh. After this,
lay upon the cement tar and fifh-oil boiled
down together till they become half-ftiiff,\
and fift very coarfe fand or fmall pebbles
over the whole. Over this lay more half-
fluff, now without oil, and more pebbles
without fand..t
The
* Doflle. In flacking no more water is ufed than what
will well wet through the heap of fand : then to this add
and mix up the unflacked burnt limeflone in powder ;
and be careful never to drown the mafs for a moment.
This fault would be incurable.
f What in Maryland are called ineh-planls^ are boards
in Pennfylvania. Tar, long boiled, produces pitch. When
tar is but half boiled down, to a medium thicknefs, be
tween tar and pitch, it is then called balf-ftujf.
\ It may be tried by making a led of fand and pellles
tfy, and then, levelling it, pour on hot tar (or the mix*
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 345
The method ufed for covering platform
roofs in New-England, called there com
pofition roofs, was lately given me ; and
is as follows. " Firft boil a compofition of
tar and pitch, of about half made fluff;
and let it boil well. Pay over the boards :
lay down the paper, beginning at the eaves
with a double courfe ; always paying over
the firft before the next is laid on. Then
lay the next courfe, about one-third to
the weather, the fame as fhingling ; and
lap each joint on upon the other, about
two inches ; and fo on till it is all papered
over.
ture tar and oil) barely to foak through the bed. So it
is, a gentleman of Carolina informed me he made beds
of a fandy foil, formed fomething higher than the com
mon level of the ground, for thraftiing out his rice crops.
With gourds were gradually poured upon one of thefe
beds, many barrels of hot tar. -After a while the beds
became like ftone. Above fifty years ago, I was ftiewn
the kitchen of a Captain Lux of Baltimore. It was a
houfe which had been ufed for ftoring barrels of tar.
The floor was now a compofition of tar and earth, and
appeared like ftone. I chiefly noticed the fire-place,
which allb was a compofition of tar and earth, appear
ing like ftone, and being quite inccmbuftible. So on
wharves are feen old fpots, where tar had been fpilt,
which cannot be burnt.
346 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
over. Then pay it all over. Now take
gravel, about the fize of peas, or a little
fmaller, perfectly clear of loam. Put the
gravel on about half an inch thick ; and
having flood two or three days, expofed to
the fun, in the cool of the day fweep what
will come off in a heap ; and then pay it
all over again, and put on gravel as before.
Then with a wooden roller three feet long
and twelve inches diameter, roll it well in
the heat of the day ; always adding gravel
as it may require. A ftrip of lead half an
inch broad is then nailed in the top of the
eaves over all, to keep the wind from raif-
ing the paper. The compofition is always
to be put on boiling. The roof to have
about two inches in three feet more nor lefs.
The joifts are not to be more than 18 or
20 inches from centre to centre. The
boards are to be well jointed, and the joints
well broke. When they are nailed down,
dub off the joints fair and fmooth."
Mr. Volney, in his Syria, fays that that
people make ufe of a cement thus : " whilft
the
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 347
the lime is boiling (according to the tranfla-
\\Qn-JIaeking I prefume) they mix with it
one-third part of fand, and another of afhes
and pounded brick-duft. With fuch a
compofition they form wells, citterns and
vaults, which water cannot pafs through."
I am informed this has been tried, from.
Mr. Volney's book, in the weftern coun
try ; and that it anfwers on a platform
roof there.
Mr. Latrobe permits me to give here the
compofition of a cement ufed by him, and
the manner of applying it to platform roofs.
*' The floor muft rife about two or three
inches in ten feet (two or three tenths of
an inch in a foot.) Firft, lay a floor upon
the rafters? of narrow well feafoned plank
cut
* On fuch a flat roof arc rafters requifite or not ? Joifts
without rafters may have the proper Jlope ; without tjie
aid of rafters for that purpofe. But are not rafters better
for receiving the unavoidable great weight or preffure of
fnow and ice ? They bear up againft the preflure, in
fome meafure as an arch would : and the feet of the ra
ters place it all direftly on the wall. Not fo of joifts re
ceiving the weight. Lengthy draught pieces of timber
348 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
cut into flips not wider than four inches,
adly. Lay down upon the floor with boil
ing tar, a coat otjheatbing paper > fuch as is
ufed for fheathing {hips. jdly. One buihel
pounded chalk, or unjlacked lime or lime
Jlacked in the air, or of water Jlacked lime dri
ed and pounded very fine. Two bufhels clean
coarfefand, and as much tar as is neceflary to
reduce it to a fubftance that will fpread
tough ly when hot. The tar muft be boiled
and the materials gradually mixed with them
till they are in a proper ftate to lay on the
paper. The ftratum may be three quarters
of an inch thick. Skxepu gravel, fo that the
largeft particles may be as big as large fized
peas, and none much lefs than fwan fhot.
Take a very hot day, when the compofition
is
lying horizontally, fwag with their own weight when they
reft with each end on a wall : and the great preflfure of
weight bearing on them from end to end or wall to wall,
is increased in proportion to their length or diftance from
the wall. Rafters are certainly requifite where the dif
tance is con/iderable and the beft iecurity is fought,
"if hey ought not to be avoided for the fake of fo little- coft
as they would occafion. Indeed with rafters, thejoifts
may be further apart, or a little fmuller.
-COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 349
is fomewhat foftened by the heat of the fun,
and with a garden roller, roll in as much
of this gravel as it will take. The floor
will then be a beautiful pavement, refem-
bling Scagliola, and may be worked in
mofaique. This covering is fo light, that
very little timber is required in the roof."
A refifter of water for fome purpofes, is
equal parts of rojin* turpentine^ and bees
wax ; which ftands any heat not more
than 140 degrees of Farenheit. Melt the
ingredients together in a pot. When all the
volatile oil, which caufes the mixture to rife
is diffi pared, apply it hot with a brufh.
But it wants body for a roof.
*
In travelling from Philadelphia to Read
ing there is much of an earth having the
caft of red iron-ore, and it occurred that it
might be the fame as the rejdfter of water call
ed Pozzolani : but I was not well enough to
examine or view it otherwife than as I pafled
on. A factitious Pozzolani has been pro
duced ; which is faid to anfwer the purpo
fes
350 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
fes of what is natural : and that it is cheap,
and keeps well. In one hundred parts it
contains 43 of Jillce^ 35 of iron, 1 7 of alum>
and a little of manganefe. Iron, flint, and
alum, the chief component parts of Pozzo-
lani, are all found in the earths of America.
When earth or clay on the fide of a bank
looks frofted or hoary, as a fait exuded
from the ground, if tailed, it fometimes
proves to be an aluminous fubftance, which
I have experienced on the banks of the Che-
fapeak.
Objections readily occur to new projects ;
and it is right that they fhould be well
weighed and confidered. It is faid platform-
roofs may anfwer in fouthern climates ; but
that in our more northern country, the
weight of fnow would be too great to be
borne. This objection has the lefs force
with me, who have had fome experience
on this head. I covered a houfe, thirty-
fix feet fquare, with a flat roof which fl op
ed about a quarter of an inch to a foot.
The joifts of poplar were two feet apart ;
nine
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. .351
nine inches deep at the upper end (the
ridge of the roof) and about fix and a half
inches at the fmall end, where they refted
on a wall. From the ridge to this wall
was ten feet, and the joifts from thence
continued tapering further eight feet, where
they refted on a plate fupported by brick
pillars. Pine fawed laths, inch thick, were
nailed acrofs the joifts. Common weak
oyfter-fhell mortar, from old Indian collec
tions of {hells, was laid on the laths, three-
fourths of an inch thick. Tiles fix quarters
of an inch thick were bedded in the mortar.
The joints were filled with tar and land ;
and the tiles and joints were covered and
filled with half-ftufF, on which fand was
ftrewed thick and rolled. A guft of wind
carried off moft of the fand. Then again
half-ftuffand fheathing paper were laid on ;
tnd upon the paper half-ftufF, fand and
pebbles. Gufts of wind blew moft of the
paper off; and rain pafled eafily through.
The paper remained on the roof over only
one of the rooms; which was tight, ex
cepting in one place, where rains poured
.through.
352 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
through, till a fingle thin coat of tar and
fifo-oil, laid on hot with a hair brufh, to
tally ftopt the leak, This roof bore the
fnows of near twenty winters, in Maryland,
without the leaft attempt made to fhovel
off the fnow. Mr. Latrobe's cement feems
the beft. It is tough, and cannot crack.
The leaking in this experiment was the
more exceffive, from the mortar being made
of rotten {hells ; which made an imperfect
cement : and moreover, too much was ex-
pedted from tar and pitch, as refifters of
water ; when in fact they let it through
rapidly ; until mixed with fifh-oil, which
proved to be a perfect corrector : neither
was the paper properly fixed ; for it could
not be nailed down. Though the joifts
were of a brittle wood, (lender and diftant
from each other, yet the fpan from wall to
wall was but about nine feet.
In the annexed plan is a main partition
wall, acrofs where the chimney is, from
whence the joifts extend 21 feet to the ex
terior
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 353
terior wall* The weight of extraordinary
quantities of fnow and fleet often repeated
in the courfe of a winter, is to be guarded
againft. If there was no chance of omiffion
to (hovel off the fnow every time it fhould
fall, lefs ftrength would be requifite : but
there probably would be neglecl: in this ;
or the houfe might happen to be uninhabit
ed during fome winter or other ; I would
therefore have the joifts ftrong and nu
merous, and the joifts immediately below
thofe of the roof, fhould be made to bear
fome portion of the weight, by planks be
tween the lower and upper joifts ; which
are to be two or three feet apart, the depth
of the fpace allowed for the external air to
pafs through and carry heat from under
the platform roof, fo as to cool the work
and chambers, and admit a perfon to go be-
Z tween
* In laying down joifts, if a {mall chip or cleat be nailed
on, near their ends, it would greatly (lengthen the walls ;
in holding them as a tie, and preventing their inclining
either inward or outward. Short fpurs of fcantling may
be fixed to the fide of the joifts next the wall, and extend
into the wall with chips near their ends, for holding the
fide walls.
354 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
tvveen the platform and ceiling and examine
defects.
Another objeUon is, that fudden changes
of the weather between great heats and tor
rents of cool rain, are very trying. But
it is pretty certain that attention in the
choice of the materials and laying on the
covering will be effectual in preventing
fuch injuries ; efpecially when relieved from
much heat by the vent between platform
and ceiling.
The flair cafes in the above defign may
be beft in the corner rooms, or the paflages.
To make thefe corner rooms otherwife than
fquare, would give them the appearance
of an old caftle, if rounded, and of a mo
dern fortrefs if the extreme angles were
made at all acute ; which is to be avoided.
It is in all things to fupport the character of
ahoufe, a mere habitation. Wood on flair
cafes may -be coated over with a cement*.
Preferving
* Nothing is faid of any ufe of \hejlanks, formed by the
recefles of the exterior walls : though holes in them would
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 355
Preferving the principles, and the form ;
the fize will be according to the ability and
difcreet views of the proprietor. In the
annexed plan, the
Feet. Feet.
2 Paflages are in the clear 2 1 by 9 -^ each 200, both 400
4 Rooms, the corners 12 by 12 114 576
2 Ditto, . . 20 by 2 1 420 840
Whole area 1816
The drawing is of an elevation and plan
fronting fouth. The entrance is at either
of the fides, eaft or weft : and thefe fides
need but little of window light. There
are objections to balconies: but if defired,
the eaft and weft fides of the houfe may be
preferred, for giving fliade ; in the morn
ing on the weft, and in the evening on the
eaft. The width may be 2 T V feet of the
recefs, and 5- r 5 - 3 - projecting; making 8 feet
the width of the balcony.
Z 2 Between
effect fome good in airing the rooms. Among a civilized
people, and in a country of laws, there ought to be no occa-
fion for any extraordinary application of them.
356 COUNTRY HABITATIONS*
Between the ceiling of the uppermoft
itory and the platform roof, is to be a clear
fpace of two or three feet in depth, with
holes through the oppofite walls. The hot
air will thus be carried off from the under
part of the platform, and there will be a
fpace for examining the flate of the under
part of the platform. The air holes in the
walls may be 8 or 10 inches diameter,
with wire or twine lattices well foaked in
the tar and oil compofition (in page 344),
for excluding birds j and during the winter,
infide clofe fhutters are to exclude fnow.
A baluftrade of plain bannifters fquaring
to 2 by 3 inches, thin fide outward, and
leaving clear intervals of 6 or 7 inches, will
admit of fnow being more freely blown off
as it falls : otherwife a handfome clofe para
pet of wall, would be preferable. Turned
bannifters would not be fo fimply neat, nor
admit of fo much freedom to the fnow be
ing blown off, as thefe plain bannifters.
Rope-netting or lattice would alfo admit of
fnow
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 357
fnow accumulating on the diagonal ropes
and their angles.
Height : Bafement elevation of the walls 9+1 = 10 feet.
Second ftory, . 12 + 1=13
Third ftory, . . 9 + 1 = 10
Ventfpace, . . 2 + 1= 3
Whole height 36
In proportion as the walls are high, they
fhould be thick and ftrong. The fbree-
Jlory houfe would have 36 feet of wall above
ground. A two-Jlory, 26 feet, and a one-
ftory houfe 15 feet. So that if one ftory
requires a wall i brick thick, two ftories
may have the bafement i^-, and three fto
ries 2 bricks thick : or fay \\, 2, 2-| bricks
thick, the bafement or firft ftories. The
foundation wall fhould be three feet in the
ground, for gaining firmnefs and to be out
of the reach of fevere froft.
It may be fufficient for fome families,
and beft fuit their purpofes to have but one
or two ftories of rooms. The lower the
walls the ftronger. It would be no great
358 COUNTRY HABITATIONS,
tafk to force water up, every evening in
fmnmer, for cooling the roof and other
purpofes. At Algiers, much of the wo
men's work is done on the roof, where
water is always at hand. They efpecially
wafri and dry their linen there. In Spain,
they have their cloacas on the platform
roof ; where alfo are two cifterns of water :
one for the ufe of the cook, the other for
more common purpofes, warning, &c.*
From this the pipes of the cloacas are fluic-
ed. At Cadiz, water is received into the
cifterns on the tops of the houfes, from
refervoirs or heads of water on the hills out
of the town. Water might be raifed to a
head at the top of Mr. Morris's quarry hill,
on the Schuylkill, for fupplying refervoirs
on the tops of the houfes in Philadelphia, f
Confult
* In Oporto the kitchens are ufually in the atlicjlory.
Murphy's Trav. So it is faid, the kitchens are on the tops
of many houfes in Spain : either on the platform roof ;
or more probably in the attic (lories.
f With a quadrant level, I find that the upper part of
the brick pcdeftal of Chrift church fteeple, is nearly level
with the top of this hill : the obfervation taken at a ftati-
on diftant from both objects : about two miles from the
fteeple.
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 359
Gonfult ingenious men. The tide falling
eight feet; and running 2 Aths miles in
an hour, at leaft equal to the walking of
horfes in mill-work, could not works be
fo coriftruded that the impetus of the wa
ter of that river fhould move a wheel (I
think a horizontal one) which would force
the water wanted up to a refervoir on the
top of that hill ? A horizontal wheel un
der water would for ever turn one and the
fame way, whether the water runs ebbing
or flowing ; as near thirty years ago I ex
perienced in a model.*
The
* From water forced up through pipes, every houfe
might have family baths near the bed-rooms, which would
be an important improvement for promoting the health
and comfort of families. You now rife from bed and
wafh face and hands your tip ends. Why not rife and
plunge into your wafh-bafon a bath adjacent to your
bedchamber, inftead of ufing a gallon vefTel of water, only
for hands and face ? Every family in this climate ought
to have its batk ; and proper bathing places fliould be pro
vided for fervants alfo.
Bathing moiftens, foaks, waihes, fupples and re-
frefhes the whole body. When the water is tepid, bathing
is always fafe, cleaning and refrefliing ; when cold, or
made more than blood warm, it is wholefome or not ac-
360 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
The bafement and fecond Jlories may be
divided according to the views of the build
er, rather than by the annexed plan. The
third ftory having the four fquare rooms, at
the corners of the plan, thrown into clofets
about 2 Aths feet deep, will admit of the
thin partition as above laid down, to be
omitted ; and then the whole area (clear of
the clofets propofed) will divide into four
roomy bed-chambers.
The
cording to the (late of health ; but is very beneficial in
many cafes, when well advifed to life the one or the other,
according to the ftate of health.
" Among the rules for preferving cleanlinefs and a
" found ftate of the fkin, an important one is to bathe
" once a week the whole year through, in tepid water : and
" it is wifhed fays Mr. Huftland, in Germany, that public
" baths were again erected, that poor people might enjoy
" this benefit and be rendered ftrong and found ; as was
" the cafe in former centuries ; when on every Sunday
" evening, people went in proceffion through the ftreets,
" beating on bafons, to remind the poorer clafles of bath-
f ing : and people who labored at dirty work, wafhed
" off in the bath the dirt which, undifturbed, would
" have adhered to them probably their whole lives, 51
2,
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 361
The middle wall crofting the paflages
and dividing the large rooms, will bear moft
of the weight on the roof, and muft there
fore be particularly ftrong. Th.e joifts of
the platform run from this wall north and
fouth to the exterior walls.
The receffes of the walls are fhallow as
may be ; i -V foot clear of wall will do.
If Jeep, they retain or concentrate heat,
and harbour mufketoes.
If the corner rooms be 10 feet fq, or 100 X 4=400 feet,
The middle rooms 18 by 20 ft. fq. or 360 X 2 = 720
The paffages. 7 f V by 25, or 187x2=374
Whole area '494
ConftrucYion of chimnies to the beft ad
vantage is very important ; yet, till lately,
the principles have been but little under-
ftood. Mr. Peale, of the Mufeum in Phi
ladelphia, has given me fome account of
the fine effects of his patent improvements,
and fays, that <c fire-places which were ufed
" to fmoke, on his principles are cured of
" fmoking ;
362 COUNTRY HABITATIONS.
44 fmoking ; and fiich entire command is
44 had of the draught of air, that with but
" little of attention to the ftate of the fire,
" as to its burning clear or not, by moving
" the fliding mantle downward for increaf-
44 ing the draught, then returning it for let-
" ting the heat into the room, and clofing
" the valve in the throat of the chimney,
44 juft far enough for carrying off the watery
44 particles of the fuel, only a fmall portion
44 of the heat is fuffered to efcape up the
44 chimney : confequently with very little
44 confumption of fuel, even large rooms
* 4 may be kept comfortable in the coldeft
44 feafons, as during the laft winter he con-
44 tinually experienced ; and the houfe is
" perfectly fecure from any fire left in the
44 fire-place at night." 1 have in the late
winter feen one of Mr. Peale's fire-places
in its improved ftate, where the room was
uncommonly large, 26 by 25 feet fquare
and 15 feet high. On inquiry, it was afcer-
tained to me that during the winter only
fmall fires were kept burning from the
morning about feven o'clock till nine or ten
at
COUNTRY HABITATIONS. 363
at night, when it was let go down, and the
family left the room to go to bed ; that it
preferred a warmth, not lefs than 48 of
Farenheit, in the room till the fire was re
newed next morning ; and this was the cafe
in the coldeft nights, when out of doors
the thermometer was at 10 degrees. That
in the day the heat was fteadily kept at 60
degrees. There is, next door to mine, a
fire-place very noted for fmoking. After
many vain attempts to cure it, it was clofed
up with brick- work, plaiftered over, andfo
remained till lately , when Mr. Peale direct
ed his improvements to be applied to it.
Now it is perfectly free from fmoking in the
very worft of winds and weather. What
further proved to me the due portion of
heat having been fteadily preferved in Mr.
Peale's above room, during the winter,
was the high perfection in which, in
March, I faw in it a collection of green
houfe-plants, oranges, &c. that had flood
there the winter through. The room had
two windows fronting wefterly, and two
foutherly, and I never faw green houfe-
plants more perfectly kept.
Ice
364 J CE HOUSES.
ICE HOUSES.
Ice is applicable to economical purpofes
in hot weather, efpecially in country fa
milies.*
In
* " I never was in better fpirits than here in this
" hot country (Sicily). 1 believe the quantities of ice
" we eat, in ices, contribute to it ; for I find, in a very
" violent heat there is no fuch cordial to the fpirits as
" ice, or a draught of iced water. Its cold braces the
" ftomach, and gives a new tone to the fibres. I knew an
" Englifh lady, at Nice, foon cured of a threatening
" confumption, by a free indulgence in the ufe of ices."
Probably attended with internal Heeding ; which it is
faid cucumbers, cold in their nature, have cured. " It
" is the common practice here, Sicily, to give quantities
" of ice waters to drink in inflammatory fevers." Bry-
done. But great caution is to be obferved that it be not
drunk, when you are nuarmsd at all by any kind of moti
on : much lefs when you are in a heat from exercife.
" The cuftom in Sicily and Italy of taking ice, is con-
" fidered as a powerful remedy in many difeafes. The
" phyficians of thcfe countries do not give many medi-
" cines ; but frequently prefcribe a fevere regimen ; and
" prevent the baneful effedls of various difeafes, by fuf-
" fering the fick, for feveral days, to take nothing but
" water cooled by iee, fweet oranges, and iced fruits."
Stolberg.
ICE HOUSES. 365
In 1771, I built an ice-houfe in the pe-
ninfula of Chefapeak, where the ground is
flat and the furface only feventeen feet
above the high water mark of a fait water
river, and So yards from it. It was con-
ftru&ed with great care to prevent entrance
of air, according to the then univerfal
practice j and it was filled with 1700 folid
feet of ice, the pit being 12 feet fquare
and i % feet deep : but it failed of keeping
the ice till fummer, becaufe of its moifture
and clofenefs. When the pit was dug it
fhewed fome appearance of moifture near
the bottom : the lead moifture is too much
for an ice-houfe. Moifture at the fides or
bottom of an ice-pit, is raifcd to the infide
furface of the dome by a heat which, in
the deeper! pits that can be dug, is much
above the freezing degree, and if the pit be
dole it recoils on the ice for want of a vent.
If the clofe pit is not frequently opened it
becomes very warm, and the ice is foft
and pappy at the top. The deepeft and
cooleft pits are about twenty degrees warm
er than the freezing point : fo that no
depth
366 ICE HOUSES.
depth of a pit can preferve ice from melt
ing. It is from a greedinefs for depth that
we too often meet with damp earth.
Some years afterwards, I made another
ice-houfe, 150 yards from the above men
tioned, on the principles and in the man
ner following : vent was an effential objecl: ;
and ' drynefs with coolnefs led me to the de-
fign of infulating the mafs with a bed of
ftraw furrounding a pen of logs which was
to contain the ice. The pit was dug on a
fpot open to wind and fun, for the fake
of drynefs. It was 9 feet deep. Within it
was the pen of logs, of that depth, and 9
feet fquare in the clear. It contained but
a little more than 700 folid feet only half
the quantity ftored in common ice-pits. A
houfe was over the whole ; rather for ex
cluding rain than air. The fides of the
houfe were 5 or 6 feet high. The eaves
were boarded up, but not clofe, and the
principal vent was at the top of a pavilion
roof.
Straw
ICE HOUSES. 367
Straw is a confiderable refifter or noncon
ductor of heat. Let it be clean, found and
dry. Tread it down clofe between the logs
and bank. Lay an abundance of it upon
the ice. The fmall mafs of ice ftored in
the above infulated pen, 700 feet, was dai
ly ufed of very freely, and lafted near as
long as double the quantity ftored in a clofe
ice-pit as commonly conftrucled, and
which is on the hill in Union ftreet, Phila
delphia; the earth, whereof is dry and
gravelly from near the furface down to the
bottom.
Below is a fedion, drawn of an infulated
ice-pit, differing from the one above men
tioned only in fize. The pen or cell infide
of the logs, is 1 2 feet fquare, i o feet deep,
and contains 1440 folid feet. The fpace
between the logs and the bank, at bottom
is one foot ; the fame at top is near three
feet. The fink for receiving water from
the melting ice need be only 5 or 6 inches
deep, and 7 or 8 feet fquare. Logs are
laid acrofs it. An ice-pit of 1 400 folid feet,
if
368 ICE HOUSES.
if iniulated as above would keep more ice
than any private family could want ; fup-
pofing the pit is not deeper than 10 feet,
and the ground is dry. A pit eleven feet
fquare and 10 deep contains 1200 feet. If
this fhould not be fufficient, in another year
heap on it a foot more in thicknefs : it will
then be 1320 folid feet. Another foot
makes 1440; and another foot; 1560.
Thefe additions are above ground. Ice, in
ice-houfes, melts more at the bottom and
fides than on the top ; unlefs it may be
otherwife in very clofe pits feldom opened.
A pen of 10 feet cube, and 3 feet height of
ice added at the top, gives 1300 folid or
cubic feet ; and the houfe over it need be
but 1 7 or 1 8 feet fquare.
The winds moft injurious to ice are from
thejbutb to the caft. The door being on
the north fide, needs no pafiage. Rats are
to be guarded againfr. The eaves are to
be clofed again ft them : but openings are
to be left on the north fide, at the eaves,
for admitting the fleam to pafs out, there
as
ICE HOUSES. 369
as well as at the common vent on the top
of the roof. Thefe openings may be from
lattice work in wood or wire : or a plank
may be projected below the opening, and
beyond the reach of rats.
All the building materials are to be on the
fpot, ready to be put up as foon as the pit
is dug, left rain damage the pit before the
houfe can be covered.
Beat the ice fmall, and prefer to ftore it
in keen weather. Infucb weather a neigh
bour darned water on the pounded ice, a
pailful or two to each cart load, as foon as it
was ftored and pounded, load by load : and
he informed me it anfwered well, in clofmg
and cementing the mafs.
V
Ice beat fmall and heaped on a floor of
rough logs on a dry fpot of ground doping
every way, to the amount of 1 200 folid feet,
and then well covered with dry ftravv, 6
or 8 feet thick over the ice, fo as to exclude
heat and rain from the ice- how would
A a it
370 ICE HOUSES.
it keep ? or how a mafs of ice half in
the ground, half above ground, in a pen of
logs built up and covered with ftraw ?*f
INTIMA-
f January 1797. Viewed the ice houfe at the tavern,
on Glofter point near Philadelphia. It is built within a
few fteps ort the north fide of the tavern, and near the
margin of a drained low meadow of fome miles extent,
and of the river Delaware ; but a few feet higher than
the meadow and river. It was dug 5 feet deep (feem-
ingly 3 feet too deep). Then filled up 1 feet with logs,
and ftraw upon them ; leaving 3 feet of ice under
ground ; and about 6 feet above ground, the ice inclofed
in ftraw ; which alfo is a lining to the houfe of flabs, co
vered with a flight roof of boards. It was then full of
ice, in pieces the fize of apples. Sixty -one loads of a
one horfe cart filled it. In the year preceding 27 fuch
loads fupplied the tavern with ice till fome time of Au-
guft.
January 1798 I again faw this ice houfe ; and was af-
fured that the 61 loads kept through the fummer, and
that " fome loads of ice were in it when ice cam'e again."
The only way into it is by a fmall door, about 2-| feet
fqnare at the gable end into the roof.
INTIMATIONS. 37!
INTIMATIONS;
On Manufactures ; on the Fruits of Agricul
ture ; and on New Sources of Trade, inter
fering with Products of the United States of
America in Foreign Markets.
The countries of Europe abounding
in manufacturers and failors, and fupera-
boundingin foldiers and minifters of religi
on, buy bread from other countries ; chiefly
from Poland, America and Earbary ; and,
generally, the countries that fell fome, buy
more than they fell. The great bread
country, England^ buys more than flie
fells ; and, at the fame time, it is a happi-
nefs to her that fhe is fuperior in the num
ber and the excellency of her manufacturers;
who, with herfat'lors, are the more defira-
ble mere confumers of bread, giving fup-
port to a conftant good market, at home,
for the corn, the meat, the wool, and ge
nerally all the productions of her land ; fo
that England abounds in the neceffaries and
comforts of life, within herfelf, from a well
A a 2 pro-
372 INTIMATIONS.
proportioned employment of her farmers
and tradefmen, who mutually fupply each
other's wants : and fhe furnifhes foreign
countries with a prodigious overplus of the
fruits of her manufactories and commerce ;
which has rendered her rich, powerful, and
lefs dependent than other nations. The
fifty or fixty fhip loads of wheat which fhc
buys more than fhe fells, are inconfiderable
when compared with the great profits of
her immenfe commerce and manufactures.
The yearly buying more bread from abroad
than fhe fells, aflures to her hulbandmen
a conftant demand and full price for the corn
produced by their lands ; and this is a great
encouragement to a vigorous cultivation of
them; as it gives an income to the indu-
trious countryman, independent of uncer
tain demand by foreign countries.
A ftatute of the parliament of Great Bri
tain, of no long (landing, compels the moft
minute entry to be made in the Britifh cuf-
tom houfe, of every fort of corn, as well
what is imported as exported. The firft
report
INTIMATIONS. 373
report made to the parliament, under that
ftatute, was of the firft eight years after it
was in force ; by which it appears, on a
medium of the eight years, that there were
imported into England about 600,000 bu-
fhels of wheat, yearly, more than were ex
ported near 60 (hip loads.*
Poland and America import no bread.
For want of numerous manufacturers and
failors, the moft ufeful confumers of bread ,
who make none, they have not a demand
at home for one half of the produce of their
lands : they therefore export great quanti
ties ; America, efpecially, depending there
on for fupplies of clothing and other com
forts : which me might foon, in a great
meafure, manufacture within herfelf.
Ought
* This is here ftated from memory. It is hoped it is
not materially, if at all erroneous. That there is a defi
ciency of corn produced in the united nation of England
and Scotland, we are afTured by a fubfequent report of a
committee of the Lords of council to their king, on a
bill then before the Parliament ; in which it is declared,
that " Great Britain is not able to fupply itfelf with
bread, without aid from other countries."
374 INTIMATIONS.
Ought (lie not, therefore, to prefer it to a
dependence altogether on foreign coun
tries ?
Somewhat has been faid, in public, of
manufactories in America ; whether it be
advifable to promote them in this early
ftage of her political exiftence, or to de
pend on procuring them from other coun
tries, with the produce merely of her own
lands ? Have we not " room for looms and
the various arts ?" Why then fhould not this
nation, in its prefent youthful vigor, begin
to apportion her employment between huf-
bandry and manufactories ? which in expe
rience prove to be fo coincident, fo promo-
tive of wealth and independence, as to have
rendered Britain rich in all comforts, with
a purfe powerful in war ; but which fome
on both fides of the Atlantic think has un
warily admitted of a degree of pride in her,
that, according to what is common to that
vice, bodes an approaching reverfe in the
current of her affairs. Befides, in the
courfe of a great influx of emigrants to
America^
INTIMATIONS. 375
America^ many, if not the greater number,
are mechanics. When thefe land on the
fea coaft, and find little or no employment
for them in the way of their profeffion, will
they generally go to country labour ? Part
experience fays 'they will recrofs the Atlan
tic, or travel farther weftward, and fit down
on lands eafier obtained, and where they
can live on lefs labor than they could among
the old fettlements in the hither country.
But if manufactories were on foot among
us, it would be natural that they mould
generally prefer the employment they had
been ufed to ; and by fitting down to their
trades, they would gradually advance the
arts in America, whilft the more rapid in-
creafe of hufbandry would be the means of
fupplying them with bread in payment for
their goods, and leave an overplus to be ex
ported to foreign markets. " It however
is material to the vigor and worth of ma
nufactories, that they be not difperfed."
They are more or lefs advantageous, accor
ding as they are carried on in towns, or in
detached habitations in the country. In
general,
376 INTIMATIONS.
general, the manufacturer in the country
has his farm, or a lot of ground, which
divides his attention with that of his (hop,
whereby both crafts fuffer ; and certain it
is, fays Mr. 'Young, " their hufbandry is
always execrable the fhop and the field
are conducted with little fpirit : both are
mean in the quantity and the quality of the
productions ; and the living of \\\z farrner-
tradefman is according to it. But in towns
the trade is alone depended on, and the pro
ductions are more and better : fo of the
thorough -farmer, from whom he buys his
bread, and to whom he fells his goods."
When our employment fhall be duly ap
portioned between husbandry and manu-
faCtories, the comforts of life will be cer
tain ; as they will be procured within our
country, independent of the caprice of fo
reign countries : with the overplus of thefe
we are to obtain exotic delicacies, luxuries,
and bullion.
" From
INTIMATIONS. 377
a From a well chofen employment are
derived the riches, the ftrength, the inde
pendency, and the happinefs of nations."
If the employment be in things neceflary
and convenient, it is infinitely better than
when applied in producing luxuries,
With neceffaries plentifully produced at
home, we may be independent of other
nations. An abfolute independency, which
fhuts out commercial and in effecl: fo-
cial intercourfe, is not meant. Nations
do not all yield the fame productions ; and
few, if any, properly divide their employ
ment between hufbandry and manufacto
ries. Britain is the neareft to it. Even
where the beft proportion prevails, luxu
ries and trifles will have fome fhare of at
tention among the artifts, although com
mon fenfe direds that, efpecially for the
interefts of a young country, the firft and
principal application mould be to procure
necejjaries as well fctjlaples of commerce as
for domeftic ufes ; fuch as food, clothing,
ammunition, &c. Yet legiflators will not
over bufily warp employment againfl its
natural
378 INTIMATIONS.
natural bent. They may invite and gen
tly incline it ; avoiding dogmatical inhi
bition or command, unlefs it may be on
very extraordinary national occafions. Nor
will they eret monopolies, dire&ly or in-
diredtly, or give undue preferences. Tem
porary patent rights for inventions are not
meant.* To fet about making Jine goods
before we are full of neceffary comforts,
feems a beginning at the wrong end.
The manufactures wifhed to be firft pro
moted are efpecially of plain clothing and
blankets ', arms and ammunition. Manufac
tures of woollen goods are full in our view
In promoting thefe, we increafe the quan
tity of meat and (kins as well as wool.
They are not exotic ; but precious materi
als furnifhed by our hufbandmen. A
bounty on the exportation of arms and am
munition made within the nation^ would
foon
* Perhaps it were better to grant rewards proportioned
to the ufefulnefs of difcoveries or inventions, than cxclujlve
patent rights. There are confiderable objections to the
latter, in experience, however fair it ftands in theory ;
and infinite advantages would arife from an immediate
free ufe of the invention, at large.
INTIMATIONS. 379
foon caufe thofe effentials to abound in the
country for its neceflfary defence. Yet it is
in a fpirited and flourijhing hujbandry that
thefoundefl health and comfort of nations is
found. It is aplenty of food and clothing,
that are plain and good, rather than fine
things, which gives content and cheerful-
nefs to a people ; and it is the great mafs of
the people that are induftrious, rather than
the idle poor or the luxurious few, who
are principally confidered by legiflatures.
What if to the bread wanted by fome
countries, which is at prefent fupplied by
Poland, America and Barbary, one or
:wo great additional fources of i^fhould be
>pened ? How would the hufbandry and
income of our country be affefted by
? Would there not be then felt a want
>f manufacturers, confumers of bread who
make none, yet who would preferve the
value of the produce of our hufbandry by
fuch confumption, and furnifh other necef-
faries and comforts from their various oc
cupations ? There is reafon to believe that
yet
380 INTIMATIONS.
yet a little while, and the productions of
the countries on the Nieper and the Danube
will rufh through the Straits of Conftantino-
p/e'mto the Mediterranean, and thence in
to all Europe. The wheat of the Ukrain, hi
therto fhut up by the Turk, fells at if. to
if. fterling a bufhel. The countries fo fhut
up alfo abound in cattle, hemp, tobacco,
&c. which are to be conveyed through thefe
ftraits to a market new and important to
thofe countries ; which articles will greatly
interfere with and cheapen the produce of
our country. The Banat is faid to be by
far the cheapeft country in Europe, in all
neceiTary productions, meat, bread, wine,
fruits, &c. The culture of rice was intro
duced there by the late Emperor with great
and increafing fuccefs. Prices in the vici
nity -ofTybifaes river are in fterling, as fol
low :* wheat at ijd. an Englifti bufhel;
rye lid. barley 7^.^; hay in towns, lof.
a ton ;
* The Tybifcus, or Teifie, is a large river, which takes
its rife in the Carpathian mountains ; palTes by Tockay
through Hungary, and falls into the Danube above Bel
grade. The Banat is the country of Temefwaer.
INTIMATIONS. 381
a ton ; in the country, gf. a lean ox 40^ to
jo/T a cow 30/ to 45/1 (cattle are dearer
than grain, becaufe they are readily driven
to market : they are driven by thoufands
annually, from the Ukrain, through Poland
into Silefia and Germany) mutton, id. a lb.
beef, from id. to i</.^; pork, iJ.^j to id.
wine, 45 gallons new, in a good vintage,
jf. to 42/T according to quality ; rent, 2/6
to 4/T the Englifh acre ; and all this cheap-
nefs we prefume is owing to the want of a
pafTage through the ftraits of Conftantino-
ple, to foreign markets the very markets
hitherto fupplied by Poland, America and
Earbary.\ The Turk is to be forced by the
Czarina
f " The clogs to the exportation of the produce of
" Hungary , is an evil continually galling individuals.
" Wherever I went (fays Mr. Townfon} I was led into
" cellars full of wine, and into granaries full of corn y and
" I was fliewn paftures/// of cattle. If I felicitated the
" owners upon their rich ftores, I heard one common
" complaint the want of a market, want of buyers..
" Wine bought in Hungary for 133 cents, has an additi-
" onal expenfe on it of 177 cents, in all 310 cents when
" it reaches the port of Triejle ; and the corn bought for
" 44 cents, an expenfe of 133, both 177 cents at Trie/Is.
" The raw produce, unmanufactured, which Hungary,
382 INTIMATIONS.
Czarina and the Emperor to fuffer a paflage
through thofe ftraits : it already has been
of late nearly accomplifhed.
You fay the above events are problemati
cal, or at a great diftance of time : but there
is one of a different nature and very influen
tial in the argument which is more certain
and nearer at hand. With the improve
ments in government, which the philofo-
phicalfpirit of modern times is producing,
the condition of mankind will be bettered,
and in no circumftance will it be more per
ceptible than in their greater fkill in all the
arts, as well in agriculture as others. Then
will France be fully equal, to fupply her
own demands for wheat, and Spain and
Portugal vt\\\ be fo in no long time.
Another new fource may be in India.
Sugar has not become a common article
from
" exports, are cattle, hogs, fhcep, goats, metals, xnine-
" rals, flour, wheat, rye, oats, linen, woollen cloth,
" wine, wool, wax, potafli, iilk, ftoneware, tobacco,
" flax, hemp, feathers, fifh, fkins, leather, furs, tallow,
" foap." The above fums in cents, are the value of the
fterling money in the quoted paflage.
INTIMATIONS. 383
from that quarter till lately. When in
1792, it fold there i$f. or i8f. near four
Spanifh dollars a hundred, it was fold 50/1
to 6of. in London. A fudden and till then
unknown demand for fugars by Europe and
America occafioned an increafed price in
India : and the demand having continued
and increafed, has fHmulated the Indoftans
to increafe the culture of fugar canes with
great fpirit, for fupplying Europe and Ame
rica with fugar. The Calcutta gazettes are
full of the defigns of planting and cultiva
ting the fugar cane : and now we are aflur-
ed by fome of our countrymen, who have
been lately in India, that the wheat of that
country is very fine, and is fold at 1 1 d.
fterling for an Englifh bufhel. If then their
fugar makes a freight and a profit when car
ried to Europe, fo may their wheat ; pro
vided it fhould bear fo long a voyage. It
would fell at above 500 per cent, when
their fugars would fcarcely obtain 300. But
will the bulk and price of wheat admit of a
freight and profit fufficient for the adven
turer ? Mr. Law, in his fketckes of ar
rangements
384 INTIMATIONS.
rangements in Bengal, for the year 1789,
fays it would clear 50 per cent. " I faw,
he fays, much extended cultivation and
increafmg population through Bengal : but
there is fome apprehenfion of a want of
confumption ; grain felling in fome places
i ootb and upwards for i zd. fterling, (equal
to ^d. ~ a bufhel of 6otb.) Wheat might
certainly be exported from Bengal with
great fuccefs. It would be fhipped for 7/3
fterling, the Englifh quarter which is under
1 1 d. a bufhel. At 58/1 a quarter in Lon
don, it would yield 50 per cent, profit oa
coft and charges of freight," &c.
Although wheat from India fhould not
always bear the voyage, yet the flour of it,
which is very fine, might. Flour carried
from the Delaware to the Ganges, proved
perfectly good when returned from thence
to Philadelphia in a late voyage. But if
neither their wheat nor their flour could be
carried to Europe in good condition, yet
their nce^ the common bread of the coun
try, could. It ufually is very cheap ; and
whilil
INTIMATIONS. ^8c
I \j <j
whilft their labour is but id. a day, all the
fruits of that labour will continue to be
cheap.
Whether the great fources of the coun
tries on the Nieper and the Danube {hall
foon be opened or {hall not, there is at
prefent fuch an apparent probability of it
as may induce us farmers to confider in
time how we are to avert the threatened
ill effeds of a change that muft be as fud-
den as important. The farmer of flaihy
oftentation may efpecially think of re
trenching wafteful habits : and whilft legif-
lators may wifh that labour be apportioned
between hufbandry and manufactories, and
gently promote it, they will be cautious
how they favour the one at the expenfe of
the other.
In the Ukrain and Poland \ and on the
Danube, labour is cheap, whilft with us it
is the higheft in the world. When we
fhall have driven the Indians from their
country, what will be the condition of the
B b people
386 POTATO SPIRIT;
^people of the hither ftates, refpeding la
bour which already is fo much drained
from them by the ultramontane country ?
This will not immediately affect all the
flates ; but it foon may, and who can fay
how foon it will not,
POTATO SPIRIT j AND BEER.
What is called Irifh-potato, as if derived
from Ireland, was firft found in Peru;
and might therefore be more properly call
ed Peruvian-potato, according to Mr.
Romans : or globe-potato, from its fhape.
Dodtor Anderlon, of Scotland, gives
an account of an extraordinary fpirit which
he procured from this potato.
In February he boiled to a foft pulpy
ftate, a bufhel of them, weighing 72ft:
then bruifed and paffed them through a
ftraight riddle along with fpring water,
keeping the {kins back, in the riddle, and
throwing them away, Cold water was add
ed
AND BEER. 387
ed to the pulp, and mixed up till the whole
mixture was 20 gallons. It flood till cool
ed to the temperature ufual for applying
yeaft to wort. Yeaft was then mixed with
it as if it was malt wort.
In i o or i 2 hours a fermentation began,
and continued very brifkly 10 or 12 hours ;
and then began fenfibly to abate. It was
now bri/kly Jtirred, and the fermentation
was thereby renewed. The fame opera
tion, as often as the head fell, was renewed
every day ; and the fermentation continued
for two weeks. It then abated, and could
no how be further kept up. The liquor
had by this time obtained a kind of acid
flightly vinous tafte.
It was now diftilled with due caution :
care being taken toy?// it in the ftill, until
it began to boil^ before the head of the ftill
was put on ; and the fire was afterwards
kept up fo ftrong as to keep it boiling brifk
ly ^ till the whole was run over. This boil
ing prevented the thick matter from fubiid-
ing to the bottom, and being ft ill-burnt.
B b 2 " In
388 POTATO SPIRIT j
" In confequence of thefe precautions
" and due rectification I obtained, fays
<c Mr. Anderfon, an Englifh gallon of
<c pure fpirit, confiderably above proof,
" and about a quart more of a weaker
" kind, a good deal below proof. It was
" in every refped: the fineft and moft agree-
" able vinous fpirit I ever faw. It was
*' fpmewhat like very fine brandy : but was
" milder, and had a kind of coolnefs on
" the palate peculiar to itfelf. Its flavour
" was ftill more peculiar, and refembled
" brandy impregnated with the odour of
4C violets and rafpberries. A fingle glafs
" of it put into a bowl of rum-punch gave
" it a flavour of half rum, half brandy
" impregnated with rafpberries. There
" was no difference in the tafte of the very
<c weakeft of its fpirit, near the end of the
'* diftilling and that of the firft ; which is
" a great peculiarity."
The white pulp at the bottom of the
flill is, he fays, every way applicable to
domcftic ufes ; for the table or for live-
ftock,
AND BEER. 389
ftock, as the whole potato is, But might
it not, under fome circumftances, be better
applied in producing flarch ?
In the firft week of Augufl 1790, I made
an experiment, according to Mr. Ander-
fon, for procuring potato fpirit, from po
tatoes then gathered for the purpofe, from
vines not dead, but only beginning to be
yellowifh. But in feveral attempts could
never get the mafh to ferment. The fail
ure feemed owing to the potatoes being not
perfectly matured ; which is always an
eflential for obtaining a vinous fermentation.
There alfo feems to be another reafon for
the failure. Mr. Anderfon made his ex
periment in February; a fpring month,
when doubtlefs his potatoes were confider-
ably f fronted ; , and fo far were malted.
Grain is purpofely fprouted, prior to fer
menting it for making beer or for diftilla-
tion ; and in Maryland thefe potatoes
fpontaneoufly fprout and grow in February
and March : fo that had I in either of thefe
months chanced to have made the experi
ment,
POTATO SPIRIT;
ment, it would without doubt have fuc-
ceeded.
HI
Mr. Anderfon's candour and habits of
accuracy are eminent ; and leave no room
to doubt that as he actually procured the
fine fpirit in the way above ftated, the like
may be again produced, by the like atten
tions.
I cannot exprefs my fenfe of the ruinous
habits in a free ufe of drinks made from
diftilled fpirits ; which are feen to debafe
and deftroy very many men, and many
good men on whom the practice has flolen.
In country families they arc ufed with a
freedom aftonifhing to ftrangers, who have
been accuftomed to obferve a more tempe-,
rate conduct, and are in the habit of drink
ing mild beer. In our large towns beer is
taking place of diluted fpirits ; which is a
reaibn why there is more fobriety now ob-
ferved in the towns than formerly, when
Weft India rum abounded at a third of its
prefent price. Country people pretend
they
AND BEER. 39!
they know neither how to get malt or to
brew it. This is not generally true. Malt
is to be had at country malt-works, in the
more provident ftates; and maltfters can
eafily be drawn into the counties of other
ftates, if country gentlemen would in good
earneft hold out proper encouragement.
It is better to buy malt, or exchange
barley for malt, than to make it ; and not
every farmer has conveniency for making
it with eafe. The principal difficulty I
found, was in the beats of the malt whilft
growing. Finding no one to inftruft me,
in many attempts I failed from giving too
much heat : for, feeing it feeble in growth,
it was thrown into more heat, and thereby
ftopt in its power of further vegetating.
Till at length I fucceeded, on applying
the heats given by Mr. Mills in his Huf-
bandry.
In Mills's Hufbandry, vol. 5. are good
inftrudions for making malt, and beer.
The heats in the malt whilft on the floor,
were
392 POTATO SPIRIT ;
were all that I wanted of him. Thefe he
gives, thus: During the firft ten days
that the malt was on the floor, the heat in
it was between 50 and 60 degrees. During
the next three or four days, it was increaf-
ed from 60 to 65 and 67 degrees ; and
during the laft days of its lying there, to
80, 84 and 87, which laft was the degree
of heat when the malt was put on the
kiln.
In country families the good wife would
delight in brewing beer for her hufband,
to take place of the mad, mifchief- making
and, in the end, debilitating and ruinous
brandy or fpirit beverage. The truth is,
drinking beer is not a fafhion of the country.
Vile habits bear down all prudence and
every rational practice that is recommended
by the experienced fober friends of man
kind.
Whilft fpiritous liquors continue to be
ufed in drink, the mildeft and beft ought
to be preferred. Of thefe the potato fpirit
feems
AND BEER. 393
Teems the leaft cauflic of any of the home
made fpirits. By drawing the fpirit want
ed from potatoes, the culture of that root
is encouraged, grain is faved, and the belt
preparation of the foil for future crops is in-
creafed.
During moft of the revolution war, my
reapers had the choice of fmall beer or
water to drink, after an uninterrupted
long ufe of rum. The beer had body
enough to preferve their ftrength and a due
{hare of cheerfulnefs, without ever fetting
them wild, as had been not uncommon un
der the ufe of rum. At the end of harveft
there were no complaints of forenefs and
want of reft : but they continued cheerful
and eafy, and exprefled a preference in
favour of beer. This beer was brewed,
enough of it, juft before harveft. I never
met with a fervant, black or white, who
did not like it ; and for the moft part, ex
cepting confirmed fots, prefer it to rum.
Generally, when I have afked poor travel
lers and meflengers, whether they would
have
394 POTATO SPIRIT;
have a drink of beer or a dram of mm,
they preferred beer.
Our country is favourable to the produc
tion of hops : and they grow wild. It
would be a good article to cultivate for the
market, if labour was plenty for gathering
entire fields of them. Hops are beft cured
by fire, as is tobacco; and like tobacco,
when cured they become dry and friable,
or moift and tough, with the changes in
the atmofphere : as they pafs from the
moift ftate to the dry, a portion of their
aSive qualities is loft in evaporation : there
fore it is proper to pack them away, being
thoroughly cured, the firft time of their be
ing a in cafe," as tobacco planters would
call it : that is when they will bear prefling
in the hand, without being too dry or too
moift or high in cafe.
I am not recommending hops as an arti
cle of crop for market, generally. But
there are hufbandmen fo circumftanced that,
to them, it would be a profitable choice.
Every
AND BEER. 395
Every farmer, however, would do well
to cultivate 50 to 100 hills of hops, for
having at command an article fo eflential
to the making good beer, when may hap
he fhall wifli to introduce the moft excel
lent beverage in his family : an article con
ducive to fobriety, health, vigor and con
tentment. If however he meanly gives
way to an impulfe that fhall unfortunately
continue him in the ufe of an unwholefome,
debilitating mifchief-making choice of dif-
tilled fpirits in his drink, then his 50 to
i oo hills produce of hops would annually
put 15 to 20 dollars in his wife's pocket ;
who probably would have the care of thofe
few plants in her garden.
In England, great preference is given to
a kind called Farnham bop. It is there a
furer crop than other forts. The crop is
not only always greater, but is of a quality
that gains a considerably higher price than
other kinds. This hop was introduced into
Maryland by that pattern of manly virtues
the late Mr. Sharp, when he was governor
of
396 POTATO SPIRIT;
of Maryland. Some of the roots he gave
me ; and I planted of them 250 hills : and
at the fame time and place near 600 of a
much admired hop ; called the large white
hop. The foil, againft appearances , prov
ed to be extremely unfuitable. The white
hop in five or fix years fcarcely gave ten
pounds, weight, a year. The Farnham,
few as the plants were, gave five times as
much. The plants of the former were
always exceffively rufty or mildewed
thofe of the latter were much lefs fo, and
ripened the fruit twelve days fooner than
the former. For preferving the Farnham
hop, not having land in Pennfylvania,
when I removed to Philadelphia, Frede
rick Smyth, Efq. was fo obliging as to
plant a row of them at Roxborough for
me : but unluckily his fervant placed them
on the only poor ridge of foil in the inclo-
fure. Mr. Smyth will diftribute cuttings
from them. Afterwards I bought Como
and planted of them there; from whence
cuttings can be had on application for them.
The
AND BEER. 397
The following tripartite method of
brewing is compared with the old or com
mon method as follows.
A Tripartite Method of Brewing.*
1. Water is put into the kettle, divifion
A. and heated.
2. The malt is fpread in the divifion B.
3. The hot water is pumped or poured
over, from A. to C. where it fpreads over a
perforated bottom ; and falling every where
on the malt in B. wafhes out its fubflance,
through another perforated bottom into
A. The perforated bottoms are mov
able. This operation is repeated, with
now and then ftirring up the grains, and
then, without ftirring the grains, till the
liquor is clear. The liquor is then made
to boil brifldy, from hence it is let into
coolers.
* Tripartite, becaufe the kettle apparatus is worked
in three divifions. A Swedifh method of brewing in
' camp, afforded me the hint for this invention.
398 POTATO SPIRIT, &C.
The old Method of Brewing.
1. The kettle is filled with water;
which is then heated.
2. The mafh vat is charged with malt.
3. The hot water is removed from the
kettle to the mafh. It there remains fome
time, and then
4. The mafh is a long while ftirred up
with paddles : it ftands fome time after
wards, and then
5. The wort is let out very flowly into
the underback or vat : a lengthy operation.
^
6. It is again returned to the kettle and
boiled and thence into coolers.
Mr. M'Cauley, in Front ftreet, Phila
delphia, made my tripartite copper with a
pump ; which fee in plate fig.
DIET
DIET IN RURAL ECONOMY. 399
DIET IN RURAL ECONCJMr.
Count Rumford has made many experi
ments on diet ; and has written a book re
commending the beft choice for labourers.
His book is not now in my pofTeffion : but as
Dodor Lettfom has fince publifhed on the
fame fubjecl:, below are a number of mef-
fes, feleded from his book of <c Hints de-
figned to promote Beneficence, Temperance
and Medical Science ;" publifhed in 1 797,
Dodor Lettfom ebferves, in general,
that pies are more advantageous than roaft-
ing or boiling. This he illuftrates. Of
mutton, 64 ounces in a pie made with 24
ounces of wheat flour, and eaten with 8^
ounces of bread, in all 96^ ounces, dined
8 perfons fully ; whilft 60 ounces of mut
ton, roajled and eaten with 33 ounces of
bread, in all 93 ounces, dined only 5 of
the fame perfons.
i. Milk
4OO DIET INT
i. Milk pottage (thickened milk) he
fays, is more falutary than tea and bread
and butter ; and made thus, is preferable
to milk alone ; equal quantities of milk and
water, are boiled up with a little oatmeal ;
which breaks the vifcidity of the milk, and
probably is eafier digefted than milk alone.
Oatmeal is a warmer nourifhment than
wheat flour, and agrees with weak {lo
rn achs.
2. Of boiling potatoes he fays, in Ire
land and Lancafhire potatoes are boiled
to great perfection, and then are ufed in-
ftead of bread. The potatoes being good,
are to be nearly all of the fame Jize. The
large and the fmall to be boiled feparately.
Warn them clean, without paring or fcrap-
ing. Put them in a pot with cold water ;
not fo much as to cover them, becaufe
they will add to the water from their own
juices. If large, as foon as the boiling be
gins, throw in fome cold water, and occa-
fionally repeat it, till they are boiled
through to the centre : they will otherwife
crack
RURAL ECONOMY. 40!
crack and burft on the outfidc, whilft the
infide will not be enough. Whilft boiling
add a little fait. Thzjlower they are cook
ed the better. Pour off the water and place
them again over the fire, for evaporating
their moifture, that they may become dry
and mealy. Serve up with the fkins on.
Steaming them is very inferior to boiling
or ftewing in water, as above.
3. POTATO PUDDING. Lcttfom.
12 ounces of potatoes, boiled, fkinned
and maflied
i do fuet
i do milk, that is, 2 fpoonsful
i do cheefe. Mix all together
with boiling water to a due confiftence.
Bake it. Inftead of cheefe, there may be
an ounce of red-herring pounded fine in a
mortar.
\
4. POTATO BREAD. Parmeritier.
Crufh and bruife potatoes well, together
with prepared leaven (or yeaft) and the
C c whole
402 DIET IN
whole flour defigned ; ib that * be flour,
j potato. Knead all up with warm water
added. When the dough is enough pre
pared, place it in the oven lefs heated than
nfual nor font it up fo foon as is common ;
but leave it longer in the oven. Without
thefe precautions, the crujl 'will be hard and
fhort, while the injide will have too much
molfture, and not be foaked. When pota
toes are to be mixed with dough of flour,
they are to be made into a glutinous pafte ;
for giving tenacity to the flour of grain.
A fmall portion of ground rice anfwers,
and makes it eat fliorter.
5. Potato brea^ in England. A fkillet
of potatoes and c old water is hung at fome
diftance over the fire, that the water may
not boil till the potatoes become foft.
Then {kin, mafh and mix them with their
weight of wheat flour, and alfo with the
yeaft, fait and warm water wanted.
Knead all together. Lay the mafs a little
while before a fire, to rife ; then bake in a
very hot oven [Parmentier in the preced
ing
RURAL ECONOMY. 403
ing page is diredly contrary]. Flour of
rice or barley may be ufed inftead of that
from wheat.
6. Another Englifh mode fays : after
long boiling, peel, felefk the mod mealy,
and bruife the potatoes. To take off any
bitternefs of the yeaft, a little bran, milk
and fait are added ; and after (landing an
hour thefe are run through a hair fieve.
7. Another mode is given by the Board
of Agriculture. It direds, to feledt the
mofl mealy fort, and boil and fkin them.
Break and ftrain 1 2tt> potatoes through a
very coarfe fieve of hair, or a very line one
of wire, fo as to reduce the pulp as near as
poffible to a flour. Mix this well with sofb
of wheaten flour. Make and fet the dough
of this mixture exactly as if the whole were
wheat flour. This quantity makes 9
loaves of jib each, in dough; or when
baked about two hours, 42ib of excellent
bread.
c 2
Doctor
404 DIET IN
Dodor Father gill fays, if potato bread
is cut before it is a day old, it will not ap
pear enough baked ; becaufe of the potato
moifture [Parmentier'smode in the preced
ing page, cures this by baking flowly],
He adds, never flice potatoes with a knife,
raw or boiled ; but break and mafh with
the hand or a fpoon, otherwife they will
not be foft.
Doctor Lettfom next proceeds to give
the beft foups ; according to Mr. Juftice
Colquhoun.
I. POTATO SOUP. Colquboun.
Stew 5lfc coarfeft parts of beef or mutton,
in 10 quarts of water till half-done. Add a
quantity of potatoes, fkinned, and fome oni
ons, pepper and fait. Stir frequently and
boil enough. Bones of beef added would
increafe the foup in richnefs or quantity.
Eftimate.
RURAL ECONOMY. v 405
Cents.
Eftimate. $ib coarfebeef at 5 cents 25
Bones, to enrich it, 5
Potatoes 24^ or -| a bufhel 8
Onions, a bunch 6
Pepper and fait 6
5
It gives 10 quarts foup, meat and
potatoes: and dines 10 men, at 5 cents.
A red herring is fa id to be a good fubfti-
tute for onions, pepper and fait. But red
pepper may be added.*
II. BARLEY BROTH. Colquhoun.
It admits of a mixture of aim oft every
kind of garden vegetable and is never out
of
* An Englifh gentleman aflures me he often ate of
a plain pottage or foup in Switzerland, which was
very agreeable to him ; and that having it made at his
father's on his return to England, the family liked it fo
well that they often had it, though fo plain and fimple as
to be made only of potatoes fanned, boiled, majled up, and
thenfteived ivith fome butter and fait ; without any potherbs
or fpice : and yet thefe were opulent people, tiled to
good living. It is a good iubftitute for pea foup ; and
made of the fame confidence.
406 DIET itf
of feafon. Onions or leeks and parfley are
always a part of the ingredients : befides
which, cabbage or greens, turnips, carrots
and peas may be added. A tea-cup of bar
ley fuffices for a large family. Pearl barley
is dearer, yet not fo good as the common
hulked or Scotch drefied barley. Water 4
quarts, beef 4 pounds with bones, barley
4 ounces [Count Rumford fays barley-meal
is better than whole barley, for thickening
broth, and making it more nouriming].
Stew all together two hours. Then add
the herbs cut fmall, and fait. The whole
then boils till tender. Skim off the fat or
not, as you like it. Onions or leeks muft
not be omitted.
III. A plain good food, wifb very little
meat ; and as wbolefome as can be ob
tained from wheat or barley. Colquhoun*
- Cut half a pound of beef, mutton,
or pork, into fmall pieces : add half a pint
of peas, 3 fliced turnips, and 3 potatoes,
cut very final 1 : an onion or two, or leeks.
Put to them fcven pints of water, and boil
the
RURAL ECONOMY. 407
the whole, gently, over a flow fire for 2^
hours. Thicken with a quarter pound of
ground rice, and - pound of oat-meal (or
i}b of oat-meal or barley-meal without
rice). Boil hour after the thickening is
put in ; ftirring it all the time. Then fea-
fon with fait and pepper, or ground gin
ger. As only a pint will be loft in boiling,
it is a meal for 4 perfons ; and will coft 2
cents each perfon.
IV. Cut into very fmall bits, 2tb beef,
mutton, or pork out of the tub ; or hung
beef, frefhened in water ; and put them in
a pot with 6 quarts water. Boil Jlow
near three hours : or rather Jlew till tender.
Add ^ib carrots or parfnips, and fo tur
nips, all fliced fmall. Sometimes inftead
of them, a few potatoes fliced : alfo add
fome greens, cabbage, cellery, fpinach,
parfley, and two ounces onions or leeks.
Thicken with a pint of oat-meal (or a
quart, to make if very thick). Boil all
well together, and feafon with pepper, or
ground ginger and fait. It will ferve a
family
408 DIET IN
family of fix, for a day. Or it may be
thickened with any kind of meal ; or bar
ley, beans, peas or rice.
V. Take 4ib beef, onions -|ib turnips 2 ft
rice i^-lb. Parfley, favory, thyme of each
a large handful ; pepper and fait : water
17 quarts. Cut the beef into flices, and
after boiling it fome time, mince it fmall.
The turnips and onions infufed and fweet
herbs, may be minced before they go to
the pot. Boil the whole gently together,
about 3 hours on a flow fire. Scarcely two
quarts will be wafted in boiling. The reft
will ferve i 8 perfons for one meal
Where fuel is fcarce, the materials in the
three above receipts, may be ftewed in a
pot, all night in an oven ; and will next day
require but a quarter hour boiling.
VI. Bake in an earthen pot, a fhank of
beef in fix quarts of water, with a pint of
peas, a leek, and four or five turnips flked.
I. POTTAGES,
RURAL ECONOMY. 409
i. POTTAGES, by Col. Paynter.
Three pounds of the flicking piece of
beef, or a part of a ihin, or any coarfe
piece. Boil it in eleven quarts of water,
two hours. Then add a pound Scotch
barley, and boil it four hours more, in
which time add potatoes fix pounds, oni
ons half a pound, and fome parfley, thyme
or favory, pepper and fait; with other
vegetables, and half a pound of bacon may
be added, the bacon cut into fmall bits.
It gives three gallons of pottage. Boil it
over ^Jlow fire, to be thick. It fatisfied
twenty foldiers, without bread ; the nature
of the food not requiring any. Col. Payn
ter adds that the men in the barracks liked
it very much ; and the officers introduced
it into their mefs, and found it excellent.
Its coft would be 30 cents ; or i|- cent a
man.
2. A
4IO DIET IN
.
2. A preparative for Pottages. Paynter.
It may be applied as above, or be eaten
inmefs: an excellent dim. A pound of
Scotch barley is boiled, and draining the
water from it, is fet to cool in an earthen
pan. A pound of bacon is boiled in two
quarts of water. A few minutes before
it is taken off the fire, put in the boiled
barley, when it will immediately fall to
pieces, being a jelly whilft cold, and will
fuck up all the juices, of the bacon, nearly.
The remaining water is then poured off.
A few onions or leeks mould be boiled
with the bacon and herbs. Seafon with
pepper and fait. A pound of Scotch barley
boiled four hours, and cooled in a pan, be
comes a fort of jelly ; which being put in
to boiling water, inftantly falls to pieces.
When the poun4, of barley is boiled, cool
ed, and coagulated, the coagulum weighs
four pounds. This is an excellent nourifh-
ing food, feafoned with fugar ; or made
into a pottage.
Mr.
RURAL ECONOMY. 41 I
Mr. Lettfom then gives, from Doftor
Johnfon of Haflar hofpital, a number of
chofen mefles; the refult of experiments
on diet, made at the inftance of Admiral
Waldgrave, in 1795.
I. A MESS, according to Dr. Johnfon.
Beef ifb, potatoes 2lb, Scotch barley
onions -|-ib, pepper and fait. Bacon 3
ounces. Coft 10 cents. This, fays Doc
tor Johnfon, would be a dinner andfupper
for three men ; better than the common
merles of fat bacon and cabbage, with
which bread and beer are required. If one
fuch man eats a pound of bacon at nine
pence fterling for his dinner and fupper,
that article alone is equal to what might
fupport three men ; independent of bread
and beer.
II. MESS. Johnfon.
u */
A (heep's head, barley |lb, potatoes
3ft>, onions |ib, pepper and fait, cabbage,
turnips,
412. DIET IN
turnips, carrots. Water 1 1 pints. Goft
1 6 cents. Produce 6 quarts. This was
preferred to the other, in richnefs for flavor
and tafte ; owing to the bones in the head,
which were broken fmall before they were
put in the ftewpan. It makes a moft com
fortable dinner for four men.
III. MESS. Jobnfon.
Bacon -|tb, barley ^-ib, onions, pepper
and fait. Coft 9 cents. A dinner for
three men, needing no bread.
IV. MESS. John/on.
An ox cheek, barley ift>, potatoes
6ft>, pepper and fait, onions ift. Cabbage,
turnips, carrots. Water 23 pints. Coft
30 cents. Produce 3 gallons.
Thiscofts 30 cents, without bacon ; and
gives three gallons of very excellent pot
tage, for 8 men at dinner and fupper
(perhaps even for 10 men). It was rich,
and
RURAL ECONOMY. 413
and better than my other pottages. Ox
cheek feems to have the preference to the
coarfe pieces of beef commonly chofen.
8^" In all the above cookery^ fays Mr. John-
fon, a very clofe Jlew-fan was ufed, which
em\tedjbarce/y any evaporation : a material
circumftance. He adds : Thefe dimes
are not meant to be continual ; but to be
three or four days in the week.
V. MESS. Johnfon.
A fhinof beef, barley lib, onions life,
potatoes 6lb. Cabbage, carrots, turnips,
fait and pepper. Water 1 1 quarts. Colt
28 cents. Produce three gallons. Din
ner for 7 men.
VI. MESS. Johnjon.
Ox's head . barley -fib, onions fft,
potatoes 3tb Cabbage, carrots, turnips.
Salt and pepper. Water 5^ quarts. Pro
duce 6 quarts. Coft 16 cents. A rich
and
414 DI ^ T IN
and high flavored pottage. In the laft two
above trials, the doctor omitted the ba
con; becaufe the flavor of it, in ibme
other inftances, was too predominant;
and it is a needlefs expenfe. On the whole
of his trials, he found that ox cheek or
fhin beef are preferable to any pieces that
are without bones.
POMPION DIET. Doctor Lcttfom.
4
The fort common at the tables of the
people of Maflachufetts, are diftinguiQied
by the name of " the winter ', or long neck
ed fquajh" They weigh 10 to ijtb. This
fquafh is boiled about half an hour : then
maflied up with flour or dough. They
make " bread, puddings, and moft excel
lent pancakes; by mixing certain pro
portions of this vegetable, previoufly boil
ed, with flour. But moft commonly,
they are eaten ftewed, the fldn being firft
taken off, and the entrails taken out. It
is almoft a ftanding difh at their tables ;
even amongft the moft opulent.
General
RURAL ECONOMY. 415
General Cautions in Country Cookery.
Soups are never to be filled up or have
even a drop of water, hot nor cold, added :
and are never to boil brifkly. They are to
be long, long over the fa^Jimmering rather
than boiling. And all foups having roots
or herbs, are to have the meat laid on the
bottom of the pan, with a good lump of
butter. The herbs and roots being cut ftnall
are laid on the meat. It is then covered
clofc and fet on a very flow fire. This
draws out all the virtue of the roots and
herbs, and turns out a good gravy ^ with
a fine flavour^ from what it would be if
the water was put in at firft. When the
gravy is almoft dried up, then' fill the pan
with water : and wheri it begins to boil,
take off the fat. Never &?// fifh ; but only
Jimmer^ till enough. Beef quick boiled, is
thereby hardened : Jimmer or flow boil it,
in not too much water. Veal and poultry
are to be d lifted with flour, and put into
the kettle in cold water. Cover and boil
JJow
416 DIET IN
Jlow as poffibk, (kimming the water clean.
It is the worft of faults, to boil any meat
faft. In baking pies, a quick oven well
clofed, prevents falling of the cruft.
Wafteful or indolent people overlook
calculation ; and too many may think but
little of the wholefome and nourifhing
qualities of food. But here are well in
formed and moft actively good men, re
commending to the world the refults of
much inquiry and experience therein.
However lightly may be thought of a cent
on a fingle meal of victuals, when the
fum of a year's meals is calculated, for a
perfon, a family, and a nation, it becomes
ftr iking and important. A cent for a meal,
amounts to three cents a day.
Dol.
One perfon, at 3 cents a day, faves
in the year . 1 1
One .family of 5 perfon s . 55
A nation of 5 millions of people 55,000,000
The
GYPSUM MANURE* 417
The cent thus faved by the good houfe-
wife, on every plentiful meal of the whole-
fomeft food, would be fufficient for main
taining the moft defperate war by the
freemen of America, in defence of their
country, againft the WILES and the VIO
LENCES of the great enlightened world !
GTPSUM MANURE.
Mr. Peters wrote circular letters to
leveral experienced farmers of Pennfylvania^
containing queflions on gypfum : to which
they gave him anfwers : An epitome where
of, follows.*
Queftion ift. How long have you ufed the
plafter ?
.
Anfvver, by Mr. Weft i 1 years
Hannum \ 2
D d Price
* Mr. Cijl has the pamphlet at large, for fale ; in which
the anfwers are fully given, together with Mr. Pelers's
obfervations. And I have their permiflion to publifli
lis epitome.
418 GYPSUM MANURE.
Price
6
Hand
10
Curwen
IO
Sellers
8
DuffieU
Roberts
Peters
'3
7
25
Queftion ad. In what ftate was your land
when you began the ufe of it ?
Anfwer, by Mr. Weft : tired down.
Hannum: Virgin foil and old
land ; good bad and indifferent.
Price : Worn out ; but had been
limed.
Hand: Exhaufted.
Curwen : Had been limed and
.dunged, after being exhaufted.
Sellers: Poor.
Duffield: Had been in poor ti
mothy,
Peters : Worn out.
Queftion
GYPSUM MANURE. 419
Queftion 3d. What quantity per acre have
you generally ufed ?
Anfwer, by Mr. Weft : 4^ to 3 bufhel <
Hannum: i to 5
Price : I to 2.
Hand: 3 to 4
Curwen: i began with 6 and
funk to i .
Sellers: i\ began with 4 or 5
Duffield: 3 to 5 if fandy 3. If
loamy more.
Roberts : \\ to 4
Peters: 3.
Queftion 4th. What foils are the moil pro
per for this manure ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft : Warm, kind, loamy.
Hannum : High ground, and fandy foils.
Price: High, warm, dry, gravelly or
loamy.
v Curwen : Dry loam ; better on hilly
than level land.
D d 2 Sellers:
420 GYPSUM MANURE.
Sellers : Too light and fandy or clay
are unfavourable : loam is beft.
Duffield : Sandy or light loam.
Roberts : The fame ; and watered mea
dows. (Sloping is meant,)
Peters : Light dry and fandy or loamy.
Queftion 5th. Have you repeated the appli
cation of it with or without plowing ?
At what intervals, and with what effeft ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft. They have a good ef-
fe&v It follows lime equal to any
manure.
Hannum. With and without plowing,
with very good effet.
Price. The like anfwer, with many
inftances of good effects.
Hand. With good effed: ; though with
lefs at the laft.
Gurwen. On meadow and clover every
other year, with good effeft.
Sellers. Sufpe&s the good effeds will
be lefs on a frequent application, as
of any other manure often repeated.
Improvement
GYPSUM MANURE. 421
Improvement of land may be fimilar
to that of animal improvement,
which is better promoted by a change
of nutriment, than by being con
fined to any one kind.
Duffield. Good on grafs every 3d or
4th year, without plowing : on
maize with plowing.
Peters. Good with and without plow
ing.
:
Queftion 6th. In confequence do you find
that it renders the earth fteril after its
ufeful effeds are gone ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft. Something of fterility
it creates in five or fix years by
mowing.*
Hannum. Its ufeful effeds have not
ceafed ^applying one bufhcl a year.
Price.
* Not the Mopwyfjuftthe many crops taken ofE, weaken
the foil ; and the four or five years of lay, give the foil
time to fettle, become hardened and untilled : and more
over, fibrous rooted plants take place and add to the
mifchief.
422 GYPSUM MANURE.
Price. Never any bad effects ; and
the good ceafes not.
Hand, Quite contrary to fterility.
Curwen. Quite the reverfe of fterili
ty. No kind of manure gives fterility.
Sellers. Have not obferved any fterility.
Duffield. Not in the leaft degree.
Peters. No greater degree of fterility
after plafter than after dung.
Queftion yth. To what products can it be
beft applied ? grain and what kinds ?
grafles and what kinds ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft. It is beft adapted to
grafs and every kind of fummer grain.
Hannum. Beneficially to the producti
on of w r heat, rye, barley, Indian-
corn, buckwheat, peas, potatoes,
cabbage, clover, and all other grafles
common amongft us.
Price. I have found it more benefici
ally applied to Indian corn than any
other grain, having never failed, ex
cept in two inftances : one was in a
field
GYPSUM MANURE. 423
field a third part whereof had buck
wheat in the year before. A row
of corn was left unplaftered, which
run acrofs the frefh broken up land
and the buckwheat ground. In the
latter no effeft whatever was percep
tible that .the plafter had on it. In
the frefh broken up land the crop
was very good ; more than double
the quantity where it was plaftered
than in the row that was not The
other inftance was in a fine mellow
rich piece of land that had been well
manured the year before ; from
which had been taken a good crop
of potatoes and pompions. Three
rows were left unplaftered : but no
difference could be feen between
them and the others, where had
been fown two bufhels per acre.
The piece was fown the fpring fol
lowing with barley and clover feed,
and the plafter that had been put
upon the corn without any advan
tage, had a great efFedt upon the
clover,
424 GYPSUM MANURE.
clover, which was much better than
where the three rows- were omitted.
The effeds of the .platter here, as
well as in many other inftances
where- it has been applied to Indian
corn in- mellow land without efTet, is,
he fays, myfterious in its operations.
It has never had any effed (when
rirft applied) on any other grain ex
cept buckwheat, when lowed on
fre.fb broken up land.*
Hand. Oats and maize feed wetted
and dufted with it before fown, is
very good. With lime equal to 3
or 4 times the quantity put on the
corn after it is up.
Curwen.
* Mellow foils moft readily imbibe and retain moijlure ;
and therefore' have left need of the attraction of moifture
by the acid- and calcarious matter of gypfum. There is
humidity in the driell common air that comes in contact
with the foil \_ and this air is never quiefcent. The cultiva
tion given to maize cleans and mellows the foil. Buck
wheat is- fown on ground fcratched over or very imper
fectly tilkd, and fo the ground is not mellow ; and there
the gypfum is ufeful in collecting and retaining moifure^
which the fcratched half tilled ground cannot, alone.
GYPSUM MANURE. 425
Curwen. Beft on red clover, and is
good on white clover and mixt
grafles. It enlarges the plant of
maize more than the product of the
corn. Is very trifling on wheat and
rye.|
Sellers. All grafles, efpecially the clo
vers.
Duffield. Grafles of all kinds and
maize, immediate. All other grain
the next year.
Peters. Leguminous plants, buck
wheat, flax, hemp, rape and other
plants producing oil. Garden plants,
fruit trees, maize, turnips : oats and
barley feed wetted and covered with
plafter duft. Beft on red clover.
Winter grain, oats and barley are
not benefited by top drefling with
plafter duft.
Queftion
f If it enlarges the plant, it fo far promotes its condi
tion for yielding much corn : but untimely plowing and
breaking the roots, and great drought or exceflive rains
afterwards would fhorten the crop.
GYPSUM MANURE.
Queftion 8th. When is the beft time to
fcatter it ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft. The fpring when
vegetation is abroad.
H annum: I ft March if free from
froft, to the ift of May.
Price: Soon after clover comes up,
and repeat it foon as vegetation takes
place. On Indian corn inftantly af
ter the firll harrowing and moulding.
Hand: In April, or June on mowing
the firft crop.
Curwen : At any feafon : beft when
vegetation approaches rapidly in the
fpring ; or foon after mowing the
firft crop.
Sellers: The various times in which it
r
was fcattered, proved equally good.
Duffie/d : Clover being fown with oats
or barley, ftrew it as thefe grains are
taken off; which gives a good
growth to the clover before winter
fets in. On- a fward, ftrew it at any
time; and on Indian corn as foon
as
GYPSUM MANURE. 427
as it is up ; giving three or four bu-
fhels an acre, over the whole ground.
Peters: If ftrewed in the fall, and
a dry frofty winter fucceeds, much
of the plafter is blown away. He
found it anfwer well fown from be
ginning of February to the middle
of April, in mifty weather.
Queftibn 9th. What is the greateft pro-
dud: of grafs per acre, you have known
by means of plafter ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft : Equal to any ever feen.
Would feed as many cattle as acres.
Hannttm : Three tons from land really
poor.
Price : Land manured and afterwards
plaftered two crops (cuttings) gave
of clover 4^- tons an acre : and poor
unmanured land not likely to give
half a ton, frequently gave I ~ or 2
tons.
Hand:
GYPSUM MANURE.
Hand: Three and fix-tenths tons, and
3-j tons frequently : never lefs than
1^ tons,
Curwen : The firft crop 3 tons ; the
fecond crop, nearly one ton ; the
third referved for feed. Without
plafter this ground would not yield
-j of the whole quantity.
Sellers: Before the ufe of plafter,
little of pafture was given fcarcely
enough to fatten cattle for the family
ufe, But for feveral years back
(with the plafter applied) 40 to 50
are fattened annually ; befides mow
ing from the fields, hay enough for
a team, family horfes, and 20 cattle.
Duffield: Three tons of hay.
Peters : Five tons an acre, at two
cuttings.
Queftion loth. Have you ever ufed it
with other manure, and what ? and the
effedls if any fuperior to the plafter
alone ?
Anil
GYPSUM MANURE. 439
Anf. by Mr. Weft : Never ufed of it with
other manure.
Hannum : Yes : the land will in lefs
time be much more productive. I
have not found my land in good
heart, in lefs than three years with
plafter only.*
Price : I have put it on after lime and
dung frequently, and have always
found the greateft difference in the
eflFecl:, where it has been put on en
tirely alone, both on clover and In
dian corn. Where tbe manure has
been put the crop has been the grcatejt^
but their operations are entirely in
dependent of each other.*
* , Hand:
* A manuring with dung and a manuring with phfler,
are as two to one ; two manunngt. Whether the plafter
alone will give good heart to the land in one or in three
years will depend on the quantity and the quality of the
plafter ; and probably, other circumftances.
* Do dung and plafter improve each other's powers ?
How does this appear ? They indeed ajfjl the foil, as two
to one ; and plafter -f dung -J- lime = 3 manurings.
430 GYPSUM MANURE.
Hand : No more grafs is produced
from his lands previoufly manured
for other crops, than from thofe
which were not fo manured, al
though an equal proportion of plaf-
ter and grafs feed were fown on each :
except in one inftance, where afhes
were fown on the plafter a few days
after it.
Curwen : He never mixed it with
manure previous to putting it on the
ground, but generally ufed it on
ground limed or dunged or both not
long before, and found its effects in
a great degree proportionate to the
manure in the ground ; though on
ground exhaufted and never manur
ed, the effect was confiderable.*
Peters : lands limed frefh and fome ex
haufted are all plaftered, and there is
no difference unfavourable to the
limed.
Queftion
* When it don't follow dung or lime or other manure,
it adts alone an unit, without addition or aid. When
gypfum follows them, then the manurmgs are tri
pled.
GYPSUM MANURE. 431
Queftion nth. Is there any difference
between the European and the Ameri
can plafter ?
Anf. by Mr. Hannum : No difference.
Price : None in the effeds upon grafs
or grain : but the European is eafieft
rnanufa&ured, and the American is
found to make the ftrongeft cement.
Sellers : The American is beft.
Duffield ' : Can difcover no difference.
Peters : The European generally bed :
but has ufed of the Nova Scotia
plafter to equal advantage.
Queftion 1 2th. Its duration ?
Anf. by Mr. Weft : The product for five
years, mowed twice a year, and the
third plaftered, is more than can be
produced from dung.
Hand: In one inftance he mowed the
fame ground four years fucceffively
after four bufhels of plafter per acre
had been applied ; but found that the
blue graft generally begins to appear
the
432 GYPSUM MANURE.
the third year : therefore he wifhes
to mow or pafture two years only,
and then plough again,
Curwen: With him it has not been
uniform. Whether it depends on
the quantity applied, the nature of
the foil, the difference in feafons,
or the goodnefs of the plafter, he
cannot fay : but it fometimes fails the *
fecond year ; fometimes lafts four or
five, and where put on the hills of
Indian corn and afterwards mixt with
the foil by plowing, the effects have
been vifible for fix years, and con
tinue the fame length of time on an
exhaufted foil never manured.
Duffield: Its effeds are perceivable
for four or five years.
Peters: Has had benefit from one
drefling of three or four bufhels to
the acre, for five or fix years, gra
dually decreafing in its powers. Has
heard of fome who fowed it fre
quently, and in fmall quantities,
and
GYPSUM MANURE. 433
and obtained good crops of grafs for
twelve years and upwards.
.
Foi; fome years of gypfum being firft ufed
as a manure in America, it was ground
down to meafure only about 20 bufhels a
ton. It now is made to meafure twenty-
four or twenty-five bufhels ; which Mr.
Peters's experience condemns. He fays
20 bufliels a ton is to be preferred by the
farmer ; for that when too fine, it flies
away in ftrewing, and is not fo durable as
the coarfer. The miller who fells plafter
gains by its being made very fine.
We have, fays Mr. Peters, a fimple
mode of trying the quality of plafter. A
quantity of the powder, when heated in a
dry pot over a fire, emits a fulphureous
fmell. If the ebullition is confiderable, it
is good: ifitbefmall, it is indifferent : if
it remains an inert mafs, like fand, it is
worthlefs.
E e A Propo/al
434 A STATE SOCIETY
A Propofal for a State Society, for promoting
Agriculture : and that the Education ofTouth
Jhould direcl them to a Knowledge of the Art^
at the time they are acquiring other ufeful
Knowledge ', fuitable to agricultural Citizens.
At a Special Meeting of the Philadelphia
Society for promoting Agriculture, on
the 2,1 of January, 1794.
AGREED, That Mr. Bordtey, Mr.
Clymer, Mr. Peters and Mr. Pickering,
be a Committee to prepare Outlines of a
Plan for efiablifhing a State Society for the
Promotion of Agriculture ; connecting with
it the Education of Youth in the Knowledge
of that moft important Art, while they are
acquiring other ufeful Knowledge fuitable
for the agricultural Citizens of the State :
And a Petition to the Legiflature, with
a view to obtain an Aft of Incorporation.
At
OF AGRICULTURE. 435
At a Special Meeting of the Society, Jan.
28, 1794.
The Committee appointed at the lafl
Meeting to- prepare Outlines of a Plan for
eilablifhing a State Society for the Promo
tion of Agriculture, and a Petition to the
Legiflature for an At of Incorporation,
made report. The Report was adopted.
The fame Committee are now requefted to
fign the Petition, prefent it to the Legifla
ture, and attend the Committee thereof
which may be appointed to confer with
them on the fubjed:.
To the Senate and Houfe of Reprefen-
tatives of the Commonwealth of Pennfyl-
vania.
The Philadelphia Society for Promoting
Agriculture, beg leave to represent :
THAT finding the important objet of
their aflbciation not to be fufficiently at-
E e 2 tained
436 A STATE SOCIETY
taincd on the limited plan, and by the
means hitherto purfued, they are defirous
of promoting an eftablifhment on a broad
and permanent bafis, which may afford
more certain profpecls of advancing the in-
terefts of agriculture. They alfo conceive
that the acquiring a knowledge of it may
be combined with the education which is
practicable and moft ufeful for the great
body of citizens.
To mew what in their opinion may, in
procefs of time, be accomplifhed, they take
the liberty of prefenting to the view of the
legiflature, the annexed Outlines of a Plan
for eftabliihing a State Society of Agricul
ture in Pennfyhania, which fhall embrace
the aforementioned objects.
They pray that a committee of the legif
lature may be appointed to confer with a
committee of the Society on the fubject ;
and, as the neceflary means of conducting
the execution of the plan, that an act of
incorporation may be granted to the per-
fons
OF AGRICULTURE. 437
fons whofe names fhall be prefented for
that purpofe.
The above, with the Outlines, was
prefented to the legiflature, and a confer
ence was held as propofed : but the pro
ceedings were laid on the table, and no
thing more was done.
OUTLINES OF A PLAN
For Es tab lift ing a State Society of Agriculture in
Pennfyfoania.*
i. The legiflature to be applied to for an
ad of incorporation of the fociety, which
is to confift of citizens of the ftate, as ge
nerally difperfed throughout the fame as
poflible. In the firft inftance, the fociety
to be compofed of fuch perfons as may be
named, and thefe to be vefted with au
thority to make rules for admiflion of other
members, and by-laws for the government
of the fociety, as ufual in fnnilar cafes.
Honorary
* Brought into the committee by Mr. Peters.
438 A STATE SOCIETY
Honorary members to be admitted accord
ing to rules to be eftablifhed, and thefe
may be of any ftate or country.
2. The organization of the fociety fliall
be fo formed, that the bufmefs thereof
may be done by a few, who will be re-
fponfible to the body of the fociety, in
fuch manner as their by-laws fhall dired.
3. The governor of the ftate, the fpeak-
ers of thehoufes of the legiflature, and the
chief juftice for the time being, to be the
vifkors of the corporation. The tranfadi-
ons of the adive members, i. e. thofe en-
trufted with the monies and affairs of the
fociety, by whatever name or defcription
they may be defigriated, and all by-laws
and regulations, to be fubmitted to the
vifitors ; to the end that the fame may be
fo conduded and eftablifhed as not to pre
judice the interefts of the corporation, or
interfere with or oppofe the conftitution
and laws of the ftate. The vifitors will alfo
judge of the objeds of the fociety, and
perceive
OF AGRICULTURE. 439
perceive whether or not they are calculated
to promote the ends of its inftitution. Re
ports may by them be made annually to
the legiflature. Thefe will be ufeful, as
they will exhibit, in a comprehenfive view,
the ftate of agriculture throughout the
commonwealth, and give an opportunity
to the legiflature of being informed on a
fubjet fo important to the profperity of
the country, both as it relates to' political
oeconomy and the individual happinefs of
the people. The legiflature will perceive,
from their reports, when and in what man
ner they may lend their afliftance to for
ward this primary object : Whether by en
dowing profeflbrfhips, to be annexed to
the univerfity of Pennfylvania and the
college of Carlifle, and other feminaries of
learning, for the purpofe of teaching the
chemical, philofophical and elementary
parts of the theory of agriculture : Or by
adding to the funds of the fociety, increafe
their ability to propagate a knowledge of
the fubjet, and ftimulate, by premiums
and other incentives, the exertions of the
agricultural
440 A STATE SOCIETY
agricultural citizens : Or whether by a
combination of thefe means the welfare of
the ftate may be more effectually promoted.
4. Though it will be moft convenient
to make the repofitory of the information
of the fociety, and the office or place of
tranfating its bufmefs, at Philadelphia ;
yet it is intended that the fociety ihall be
rendered active in every part of the ftate.
To effect this, there mould be county fo-
cieties eftablifhed, organized as each mall
think proper. In union with, or as parts
thereof, there may be agricultural meetings
or eftablifhments, at the will of thofe who
compofe them, in one or more townfhips
of a county. Thefe may correfpond with
the county focieties, and the latter may an
nually inform the fociety of the ftate (of
which the lefs focieties may be confidered
as branches) of all the material tranfadtions
of their refpedive focieties. Societies al
ready formed may remain as they are.
They may, at their option, correfpond
diredly with the ftate fociety, or through
the
OF AGRICULTURE. 44!
the fociety of the county in which they
meet, as fhall be found moft convenient
and agreeable to them. This will bind
up together all the information and bufi-
nefs relating to the fubjeft. It will give an
opportunity to the fociety of the ftate, to
fee where their affiftance is moft neceffary,
and afford a facility of diffufing agricultu
ral knowledge. The premiums, books
and other articles, at the difpofal of the fo
ciety, may pafs through the hands of the
county or other focieties, for many purpof-
es ; and they can judge on the fpot, of
the pretenfions of the claimants. The
county fchoolmafters may be the fecretaries
of the county focieties; and the fchool
houfes the places of meeting and the repofi-
tories of their tranfadions, models, &c.
The legiflature may enjoin on thefe fchool
mafters, the combination of the fubjed of
agriculture with the other parts of education.
This may be eafily effeded, by introduc
ing, as fchoolbooks, thofe ofi this fubjed ;
and thereby making it familiar to their pu-
pils. Thefe will be gaining a knowledge
of
442 A STATE SOCIETY
of the bufinefs they are deftined to follow,
while they are taught the elementary parts
of their education. Books thus profitable
to them in the common affairs of life, may
be fubftituted for fome of thofe now ufed ;
and they can eafily be obtained. Selecti
ons from the beft writers on hufbandry may
be made by the fociety. The effays of our
own experimentalifts or theorifts, and the
proceedings of the fociety, will alfo afford
information; and as many of thefe will, no
doubt, be good models of compofition,
they may form a part of the feleclion for
the life of the county fchools. Arid thus
the youth in our country will effectually,
and at a cheap rate, be grounded in the
knowledge of this important fubjecT:. They
will be eafily infpired with a thirft for in
quiry and experiment, and either never
acquire, or foon baniih, attachments to
bad fy items, originating in the ignorance
and bigotry of their forefathers, which in
all countries have been the bane of good
hufbandry. It will alfo be the bufinefs of
the fociety to recommend the collection of
ufeful
OF AGRICULTURE. 443
ufeful books on agriculture and rural affairs
in every county. The citizens of the
country fhould be drawn into a fpirit of
inquiry by the eftablifhment of fmall, but
well chofen libraries, on various fubjefts.
This would not only promote the interefts
of agriculture, but it would diffufe know
ledge among the people and affift good go
vernment, which is never in danger while
a free people are well informed.
5. The general meetings of this fociety,
confifting of fuch members as may choofe
to attend, and particularly thofe charged
with communications or information from
the county and other focieties, fhould be
held at Philadelphia, at a time, in the
winter feffions of the legiflature, when citi
zens who may be members thereof, or have
other bufmefs, can with moft convenience
attend. At thefe meetings, the general
bufmefs of the fociety can be arranged, its
funds and tranfadHons examined, and its
laws and rules reported, difcufled and ren
dered
444 A STATE SOCIETY
dered generally ferviceable and agreeable
to the whole.
6. It will be neceflary that a contribu
tion be made by each member, annually,
for a fund. But this fhould be fmall, that
it may not be too heavy a tax on members.
The funds will, no doubt, be increafed by
donations from individuals ; and if the
ftate fhould find the inftitution as ufeful as
it is contemplated to be, the patriotifm of
the members of the government will be ex-
ercifed, by affording afliftance out of the
monies of the ftate. They will perceive
that it is vain to give facilities to tranfporta-
tion, unlefs the products of the country
are increafed by good hufbandry : and
though thefe facilities are important to the
objects of this fociety, yet an increafed
knowledge of agriculture is the foundation
of their extenfive utility. The fubjeds of
both are intimately connected, and mutu
ally depend on each other.
i
. When
OF AGRICULTURE.
7. When the funds of the fociety in-
creafe fuffieiently to embrace the objeft, it
will perfect all its efforts by eftablifhing
pattern farms, in different and convenient
parts of the ftate. Let the beginning of this
plan be with one eftablifhment,, under the
direction of the fociety, and committed to
the care of a complete farmer and garden
er. In this, all foreign and do'meftic trees,
fhrubs, plants, feeds or grains may be cul
tivated, and if approved as ufeful, diffemi-
nated, with directions for their culture,
through the ftate. The moft approved
implements may be ufed on this farm, and
either improved by additions, or fimplified
to advantage. Inventions may be brought
to trial, and the beft feleded. Models
thereof may be made and tranfmitted to
the county and other focieties. Thofe who
are fent to, or occafionally vifit the farm,
will gain more knowledge, in all its opera
tions, from a Ihort infpedion, than can be
acquired, in a long time, by reading on
the ufe and conftrudion of inftruments, or
the modes of cultivation. The cheapeft,
beft
446 A STATE SOCIETY.
beft and moft commodious ftyle of rural
architecture the moft proper and perma
nent live-fences improvements in the
breed of horfes, cattle and fheep reme
dies for occafional and unforefeen vifitati-
ons of vermin the times and feafons for
fowing particular crops the adapting fo
reign produ&s to our climate and pre
ventives againft ail the evils attendant on
our local fituation, or arifing from acciden
tal caufes may here be practically intro
duced. The thoughts and fuggeftions of
ingenious men may here be put in practice ;
and being brought to the teft of experi
ment, their utility may be proved, or their
fallacy detected. This farm need not be
large. On it the beft fyftems now known
may be carried through, and farther expe
riments made ; promifing youths may be
fent from different parts of the ftate, to
learn practically the arts of hufbandry.
Manures and the beft mode of collecting
them, may be tried ; native manures
mould be fought after, and premiums given
for their difcovery. Their efficacy may be
proved
OF AGRICULTURE. 447
proved by fmall experiments on this farm,
which fhould, in epitome, embrace the
whole circle of practical hufbandry. Simi
lar farms may be added, as the funds in-
creafe ; and thus practical agricultural
fchools be inftituted throughout the ftate.
8. When the pecuniary affairs of the
fociety become adequate, it will highly
contribute to the intereft of agriculture, if,
at the expenfe of the fociety, fome ingeni
ous perfon or perfons were fent to Europe,
for the purpofes of agricultural inquiries.
It would be well too, if a few young per
fons, of promifing abilities, were fent
thither,, to be inftruted in the arts of huf
bandry, the breeding of cattle, &c. and to
gain a practical knowledge on all fubjects
connected with this interefting, delightful
and important bufinefs, on which the ex-
iftence, wealth and permanent profperity
of our country fo materially depend. //,:
9. Although it would feem that a great
portion of this plan has reference to the
older
448 A STATE SOCIETY
older fettlements of the ftate, yet in fadfc,
many of its mo ft ufeful arrangements will
apply to new fettlements, in an eminent
degree. Thefe fettlements are, for the moft
part, firft eftablifhed by people little ac
quainted with a good ftyle of hufbandry.
The earth, in its prime, throws up abun
dant vegetation, and for a fhort period re
wards the moft carelefs hufbandman. Fer
tility is antecedent to his efforts ; and he
has it not to recreate by artificial means.
But he is ignorant of the moft beneficial
modes whereby he can take advantage of
this youthful vigour, with which his foil
is bleflfed. He waftes its ftrength, and
fufters its riches to flee away. A bad ftyle
of cropping increafes the tendency of frefh
lands to throw up weeds and other noxious
herbage ; and that luxuriance, which with
care and fyftem might be perpetuated, is
indulged in its own deftru&ion. It is dif-
covered, when it is too late, that what was
the foundation of the fupport and wealth
of the improvident pofleffor, has been, by
his ignorance and negleft, like the patri
mony
OF AGRICULTURE. 449
mony of a fpendthrift, permitted, and
even ftimulated, rapidly to pafs from him
in wild extravagance.
The produces of nature, in our new
countries, feldom have been turned to ac
count. The timber is deemed an incum-
brance, and at prefent is perhaps too much
fo. The labour and expenfe of preparing
for tillage are enormous; and, when the
fole objecl: is that of cultivation, very dif-
couraging. European books give us no
leflbns in thefe operations. But when the
experience of our people is aided and
brought to a point, by an union of fa&s
and the ingenuity of intelligent men, now
too much difperfed to be drawn into fyftem,
it is to be expected, with the fureft pro-
fpeds of fuccefs, that our difficulties on
this head will be abated, if not overcome.
The manufacture of potafh, and the pro-
'dudsofthe fugar-maple, may be objects
of the attention of the fociety. More pro
fitable modes of apply ing labour will hereby
be promoted, and returns for expenfe in
F f the
450 A STATE SOCIETY, &C.
the preparation for culture, be obtained.
Facilities for clearing lands may be difco-
vered. Minerals, earths and foffils now
unknown or negleded, may be brought
into ufe, or become objeds of commerce.
In fine, no adequate calculation can be
formed of the effeds which may be produc
ed by a confolidation of the efforts, and
even fpeculations, of our citizens, whofe
interefts will ftimulate them to exertion.
Channels of communication will be efta-
blifhed, and the whole will receive the
benefits arifing from a collection of the
thoughts and labours of individuals, whofe
minds will be turned to a fubjed fo engag
ing and profitable, as well to themfelves as
to their country.
The application was rejeded ; by huf-
bandmen who were principally to be bene-
fitted.
NOTES
NOTES AND INTIMATIONS. 45 1
NOTES AND INTIMATIONS.
" The inhabitants af the inland country have
" more integrity, ftmplicity, and generofity ;
<c and In all r effects have more amiable man-
" tiers, than thofe of the fea coast. The latter
ec have contracted a trafficking keen f pint ^ na-
" turally inimical to the virtues founded on
" moderation and difintcrestednefs" Vol. Syr.
VEALS.
'
In felling veals to batchers their haggling
was extremely difagreeable ; and to avoid
it I fometimes either at once broke off, or
gave up to their offers. At length, after
weighing veals killed for my family, I fix
ed on a price by live weight ; at which to
fell. The butchers at firft refufed to be
fixed at any rate ; they afterwards came
to, and agreed at 3d. live weight.
A veal alive weighed
The four quarters 70
which is within 3ft of half the live weight :
F f 2 At
NOTES AND
At 3^. live weight, this veal would coft
them 367^ 6d. : but, for fuch, they ufed
to give me 32^ to 33^ on the foot. The
firft fold by live weight were 4 veals ; me
dium live weight 133^-, which averaged
33yC 2d. a veal. They ufually fold at jj.
fcarcely any part under 6d. fometimes 7^
and 8J. Their gain was above 40 per
cent. Lord Kaims fays, butchers gain but
5 per cent in Scotland. They difliked the
method by live weight ; becaufe of the
certainty reducing ufual profits, gained from
their fuperior ikill in eftimating the weight
and value of veals.
HAMS.
ib.
iy$8. Dec. 2 20 of my family hams,
trimmed, weighed green, 321 or each
1789. June 30 They weighed, when
full fmoked, 256
Evaporation 65
The lofs of weight 2o| p. center about fth.
Dec
INTIMATIONS.
Dec. 22. A tenant's hams ; 2 weighed,
green and trimmed 3 1
Aug. 1 1. The fame when fmoked ' 26
453
Evaporation
5 or 1 6 p. cent.
The tenant's were not fo much fmoked
or dried, as he cured them for fale arid to
weigh.
FAMILY PICKLED BEEF.
" Two pounds brown fugar are mixed with
a quarter pound of fait petre pounded v t ery
fine. One half of it is rubbed together with
a little fmzfalt over the beef. Four gallons
of brine, bearing an egg, are boiled and
fkimmed ; and when cold, the remainder
of the/ugar and, nit re is added. The beef
is then funk in the pickle, and kept down
with a weight/'
FAMILY DRIED BEEF.
" Rub the Beef with a mixture of I
|tb offa/t-petre and a little////. The nitre,
efpecially
454 NOTES 4N1}
efpecially, in a very fine powder. The
beef is to remain 3 days in a tub ; and is then
again rubbed with a little more of the fame
ingredients. The beef, returned to the tub,
is to lay two or three days more ; and is
then hung up to dry. It feems as if this is
meant to be dried without fmoke : but others
fmoke it very lightly, and then hang it, ex-
pofed to wind and air, in a dry room.
Cellars and all damp places are improper for
keeping meat, either fait or frefli."
WATER BISCUIT.
The great eflential neceflary, is to avoid
ever oace drowning the flour. Give water,
a little and little at a time. The mafs of
dough is to be worked up very dry, under
the hand : fo that when all is done that can
be by the hands, towards gathering the ma
terials together in a firm mafs, it ftill is in
parts dry and in cracks with flour here and
there un taken up. The rude mafs is then
committed to a brake (or heavy beater)
with which it is worked a great deal, until
it
INTIMATIONS. 455
it becomes fmooth and folid, without any
further addition of water. If the flour is
once drowned, the damage cannot well be
repaired by any addition of flour ; and the
oven is heated to bake quick as may be with
out burning. Thefe points obferved, pre~
vent flintinefs.
VINEGAR.
" Ten gallons of cyder new from the
prefs, are fuffered to fermenf, fully : which
may be in about two weeks. Add then 8
gallons of like cyder, that is new ; for pro
ducing a fecond fermentation. In two
weeks more, add another like new quantity,
for producing a third fermentation. This
third fermentation is material. Now flop
the bunghole with an empty bottle, or flafk,
the neck down. Expofe it to the fun for
fome time. When the vinegar is come,
draw off one half into a vinegar cafk, and
fet it in a cool place, above ground, for ufe
when clear. With the other half in the
firft calk, proceed to make more vinegar in
the
456 NOTES AND
the fame method. Thus always one cafk
is to make in ; and another to ufe from.
In preparing malt w r ort for making vine
gar, it is neither boiled nor hopped ; but
only fermented and fet by the fire or in the
fun.- A few days produce it, fays farmer
Ellis. Suppofe it managed as the apple
juice, above, for producing the three fer
mentations?"
The plant Tarragon, called by the
French, Eftragon, gives to vinegar the moft
excellent flavor, without difcolouring it.
It is propagated by the plants, and it would
be well to introduce it into our gardens from
Europe.
Tarragon juft as it is about to bloom, is
ftript of its leaves, and a gallon of beft
vinegar is put to every pound of Tarragon
leaves, in a ftone jug or demi-john, and
left to ferment 14 days. It is then run
through a flannel bag. To every four gal
lons of the vinegar put half an ounce of
ifinglafs
INTIMATIONS. 457
ifinglafs diflblved in cyder : mix all well
and put it into bottles to ftand a month to
fine : then rack it off, and bottle it for life.
LOAF-BREAD.
A fimple and much approved method of
making good white bread, is given by Mr.
Doffie, thus :
lt>. oz.
Fine flour 6 :
Water 2\ pints, or 2 : 8
Yeaft, liquid, o : 4 or 8 fpoonsful
Salt o : 2*
8 : 14
The water is warm, not hot.* A part
of it is put to the yeaft, and well mixed by
beating them together with a whifk. The
fait is put to the other part of the warm
water
* A neighbour, nice in bread, obferving the fine
bread in my family made of dry or cake yeaft, was pre-
ferited with a bottle of the yeaft ; but afterwards com
plained the dough could not be made to rife. Shzfcalded
the yeaft.
NOTES AND
water, and fti-rred till diffolved. Th-ca
put both the quantities of the fluid, gradu
ally to the flour; and knead the mafs well',,
till the whole is perfectly mixed. The
dough thus made, ftands four or five hours :
that is till the critical moment of its being
fully rifen> yet before it falls any or more
than juft to be perceived. It is now form
ed into loaves, and immediately fet in the
oven. Baking it properly is a difficulty, to
thofe not welLpradiied : for this, the oven
is to be made hot as may be without burn
ing the cruft. If a green vegetable turns
black when put in, the oven will burn the
bread ; and it r? then to Hand open till the
heat has fo me what abated. The next care
is to keep the mouth of the oven well clofed
till the bread has riien to its full' height.
The' time for this may be two or three
hours. After which, and not before, the
oven may be opened for viewing the bread,
at pleafure, to fee that it is baked without
being burnt or too crufty. If the mouth
of the oven be not very clofely ftopt at the
frjt putting in the bread, and/0 kept till
the
INTIMATIONS. 459
the bread is fully rifen, it will flatten and
not be fo light, as otherwife it would be.
When the bread is baked enough, the above
ingredients will have loft about i /, 2 ox.
fays Mr. Doffie ; which leaves 7 16 9 12 oz.
of well baked bread." A French author
(Delifle's Arithmetic) fays bread ought to
be ^ more than the flour alone ; and he ap
pears accurate. But do the French bake
fo brown and dry as the Englifh, who fome-
times burn and chip the cruft.
SHEEP.
Sheep do not fuflfer by being tied up ; but
fatten extremely well on peas,, oats, oil-cake
(flaxfeed jelly and maize meal). The ewes
have pea-ftraw and even oats, when they,
lamb ; fays Mr. Toofey. For foiling and
Jt all-fee ding Jheep, fee Annals 1 1 vol. 30 ;
in Germany. Pa. 37, in Suffolk; and 12
vol. 234; 14 vol 133; in Canady 17
vol., 2 8 7.
MANURE.
460 NOTES AND
M ANUR^E.
f - Fixed air, fays Mr. Amos, is abundant in
calcarious and alkaline earths and falts ; from
i to ~ of their whole fubftance": from
whence it is that they are manures ; and
they attract this air from the atmofpherc.
That it is fo is evident from the abundance
of it that vegetables yield in putrefaction.
This fixed air confifts of earth, water,
acids, and pblogijion. A tun of caujlic
lime attracts ten to 15 hundred pounds
of it. Limeftone, 100 parts, crude, con
tains about 40 ofjixed air* 55 of calcarious
matter, and T 4<r of water. Calcining it,
muft difcharge the water, and moft of the
fixed air which is fo important to the mafs,
as a manure. But are, not thefe again re-
ftored to the lime, in flacking or after it is
flacked ? He fays further, that quicklime.
unites the watery and oily parts of foil, juft
as it forms foap. " It is, he continues,
alfb in favour of lime, that, eXpofed to the
air it fooner or later acquires its original
weight : fo that the foil on which quick
lime
INTIMATIONS. 461
lime is fpread, acquires a great increafe of
matter ; the virtue of the lime conflfting
chiefly In its power of attraftion" Am.
Drill. Hufb. 26. 44. 4^. It is faid in
America, that 6 or 8 bufhels raw powder
^of lime ftone, manures an acre of land,
well. I am but now informed of this ;
when I can no longer make experiments
of the kind.
C A L VE'S.
Calves running with the cows till 6 or 9
months old, get a good growth. But the
beft dairy method is this : -the calves fuck
a week or two, according to their ftrength :
new milk in the pail is then given them, a
few meals : then new and Jkimmed milk,
mixt, a few meals : thenj&zm milk alone ;
or porridge made with milk, water \ mea/of
oats, &c. until cheefe-making begins : af
ter which whey porridge ; orjweef *whey in
the field ; being careful to houfe them at
night, till warm weather is fettled. Marfh.
Midland Counties, 338. Soft fweet hay
462 NOTES AND
and cut grafs may be laid in their way ;
with a mafs of fait clay, as a lick.
BUGS, CALLED CHINCHES.
" The French fay, take rectified ^>/>/> of
wine lib, fpirit of turpentine lib, camphor
I oz. Diflblve, entirely, the camphor in the
mixt liquor ; and rub over bedfteads, &c.
1 6 An. 425. But, a clear flrong lime water ^
it is faid, anfwers perfectly well ; is neat
er, and is even harmlefs to died filks.
BRINE OR PICKLE.
The rule of brine bearing an egg, may
do for things to be foon ufed. But ought
not a true full pickle, for keeping meat^
fjh and butter, to be boiled down till the fait
begins to cryftallize ? a flight fcum on the
top (hews this, whilft the pickle is yet
over the fire."
ICE AND ICE-CREAMS.
" Two pewter bafons, one large the other
fmall: the fmall one to have a clofe cover ;
in
INTIMATIONS. 463
in this baton the cream is put and mixt with
ftrawberries, &c. to give flavour and co
lour:, fweeten it. Cover it clofe and fet
the fmall bafon in the large on. Fill this
with ice and a handful of/?//, to ftand f of
an hour : then uncover andy?/V the crearn
well together : cover it clofe again, to ftand
i an hour longer ; and then it may be
turned into a plate. Tin or copper veflels
may do."
Ice-houfes are to be left open fome time,
till dry, before filling them with ice. When
the houfe is to be charged with ice, firft
\xy f mall faggots on the grate ; and on thefe
feeds ) rather than ftraw as is common.
Perhaps clean corn-ftalks without the roots,
where reeds are not to be got. The thin
ner the ice, the eafier it is broken to powder ;
and the fmaller it is broken, the better it
will unite into one mafs. Ram the ice clofe
as poflible in its place.
FISH
464 NOTES AND
FISH, CURED IN THE SUN.
" Soon as pofiible, after caught,^//V down
the back, fpread them open and flat gut
and wafh out the blood drain them hang
ing by the tails, in the cool of the evening
or in a cool place ftrew fait on the bot
tom of the tub fprinkle them well with
clean^ fine fait place them belly to belly
in the tub, to lay there 12 hours then
waft off the fait, in the pickle again hang
by the tails, to drain \ an hour lay them
to dry, onjiones or fweet wood, inclining
to thzfun never leave them out when the
fun is off nor lay them out in the morn
ing till the dew is off and the fun Jhines a
week of fine weather, or lefs, cures them.
When cured hang them up, belly to belly,
in a very dry place."
HOUSE-CISTERNS.
They are becoming more common in
Europe. A roof of a houfe, gives a fuffi-
cient fupply of water. Rain-water, when
confined
INTIMATIONS. 46$
confined under ground, becomes very pure,
palatable^ and cool even in fummer. The
ciilern is in a yard or infide or outfide of
the kitchen, in fome corner near the door.
The deeper the better the water will be kept.
Where the ground is not fo bad as to re
quire a round form to a ciftern, a cube is
a good figure : a double cube muft be bet
ter, as it gains depth and coolnefs. A ci
ftern of 6 cubic feet, holds 1 6 hhds. of 100
gal. each ; or 26 wine hhds. But the dou
ble cube of 5 feet feems better, and would
hold above 18 rum hhds. of 100 gal. or
near 30 wine hhds. ; and would be 10 feet
deep, and cool and fweet in proportion.
The pit fhould be dug exadtly by fquare
and plum, for carrying up the wall to ad
vantage. On the face of the pit, lay the
clay plafterwife with a trowel, coat over
coat (as it dries and cracks) two or three
inches thick in all. Againft this firm even
face of plafter, raife the brick or ftone
work. Bed the bottom 3 or 4 inches thick
with ftrong clay, beat into a fmooth, even
wax-like fubflance. The clay is moderate-
G g ly
466 NOTES AND
ly wetted and beaten with Twitches, withs,
fmall hoop-poles : not with any thing
heavy, or having a broad furface. On
this clay floor, lay a double bed of brick;
and on the margin of this carry up the fide
walls, half brick thick, laying them in
terras. Cover the ciftern over, clofe as may
be. A fmall pump, of wood or lead, or
better of iron : the pump to be two feet
from the bottom : or a roller and bucket
raifes the water. Upon thefe principles,
but not exactly like this mode in all parti
culars, for clay fupplied the place of terras,
a ciftern was built for me fix years fince,
in Philadelphia, which has continued per
fect from the beginning. In many places
in Europe, rain water faved in cifterns is
the only water drunk. And Stolberg's
Travels fay rain water in cifterns, is
efteemed according to its age, as it is more
pure. He drank of fome near Naples,
three years old ; and it was excellent. How
fuperior would ciftern water be to the peo
ple on the flat coafts of America; and
wherever
INTIMATIONS. 467
wherever elfe the water is not the pureft
from fprings and wells.
WATERING-PONDS.
The i ft Bath Letters, and 6th and 8th
Annals, fpeak of the practice in making
thefe ponds in dry fields and yards. Dry
lime is fifted a or 3 inches thick on the
bottom of the place fcooped out for the
pond, for obftrucYmg worms and beetles.
On this lay clay, moift (fcarcely w r et) well
fwitched and beaten, 6 or 7 inches thick.
On this lay gravel, 6 inches thick. A pond
20 yards diameter, is dug out one foot deep,
and then deepened, floping like a bowl,
to the centre ; where it is 4^ or 5 feet
deep.
HERRINGS, SALTED AND CURED.
Lord Dundonald, in his book on fait,
gives the Dutch method of falling herrings
and then of curing them ; a diftincl
operation from falting. SALTING : imme
diately as taken, gut the herrings, by the
G g 2 finger
468 NOTES AND
finger and thumb tearing away the gills,
liver and ftomach; the long gut, to which
a fat membrane adheres, is drawn fo far out
as to be left pendent. Soon as gutted, fait
the fifh, and flow them clofe^ in the bar
rel ; laying each layer in a contrary direc
tion to the one below. The barrel is
coopered clofe up, foon as full. Be careful
to have none but perfectly tight barrels.
The herrings remain thus, to pine in this
firft fait or brine, 14 days with fmallfalt^
or 3 or 4 weeks with large fait. CURING :
This prevents a tendency, which the bloody
liquor or brine has to putrify. A proper
curing depends on a procefs whereby the
oily contained in the prepared liquor or
brine, by being rendered mifclble with <wa-
ter y and reduced to a faponaceous ftate, is
preferved from the ation of the air and
turning rancid. After the herrings have
been a fufficient time in fait to pine or throw
their liquor (part with their juices), empty
the barrels of them upon a large dreffer
having a ledge round it, and inclining one
way for the liquor to run off into a veffel.
Boil
INTIMATIONS. 469
Boil the brine in an iron veflel : {kim and
draw it into a wooden receiver; letting it
cool ; take the -melts of thirty male herrings
for every barrel. Bruife or triturate them
in a mortar : add of the liquor, as you tri
turate ; and when well diflblved to the
ftate of a rich emulfion or faponaceous li
quor, add it to the boiled liquor in the
wooden veflel. Then lay the herrings in
the barrels, and a layer of fait between the
rows, as in the firft faking. Cooper
(clofe) the barrels, and fill them with pre
pared liquor, at the bung or head.
CANDLES.
" Diflblve 25it> of beef tallow and 15 of
mutton tallow^ in a copper or brafs veflel,
with ifc of boiling wafer to each pound of
tallow. Mix therein i^ quart of brandy ',
when the tallow is melted, and 5 ounces
fait of tartar, 5 ounces^// a mmoniac, 5 ounc
es cream of tartar, and 2 ounces dry, clean
potajh. Boil all together \ hour. Cool it.
Next day take out the cake, cut it into
flices,
470 NOTES AND
flices, and cx.pofe to the deiv m& air, till
they become a fine white and hard almofl
as wax. Make the wicks of befl cotton,
fpun very fine and very evcn y and clean.
Steep the wicks in fpirits of wine ; and
harden them under a coat of wax. Then
pour the tallow on them, in moulds,"
POKE MELT.
Green cucumbers, middle fized, are put
into a jar or calk. Upon each layer of
them, add a layer of white oak leaves, and
black currant leaves. Over every layer
fprinkle dill feeds, muftard feed, horfe-ra-
difh and garlic : and to every twenty cu
cumbers, one bell of pepper. Make a
brine of fait and water, not quite fo ftrong
as to bear an egg : to every gallon whereof
add a quart of good white wine vinegar;
and fill the jar or cafk with the pickle, cold,
after it has been boiled and fkimmed. A
gentleman from Ruffia, gave this account,
to fome friends in Philadelphia. He faid
the pickled cucumbers, according to the
above,
INTIMATIONS. 471
above, are ufed in Ruffia ; and that it is
faid there, the Emprefs had a cafk of them
for every day in the year. Mr. Swinton,
the traveller, gives another way of making
pokemely; which is this: A layer of
oak leaves is firft put into the bottom of a
cafk which is beft of oak : then a layer of
cucumbers ; and fo alternately till the calk
is filled. A pickle is made, as is common,
with fait and water ; not too ftrong : and it
is poured over the cucumbers in the cafk.
The cafk is kept in a cool cellar. The
cucumber is foon fit for ufe, and keeps good
a year or more. He imagines if fome vi
negar was added, it would be wholefome,
efpecially to Ruffians whofe great ufe of
fait mefles renders them very fcorbutic,
The gentleman who gave the firft above
receipt faid, the pickle was but to be acidu
lated fo that the tafte of vinegar fliould be
very flight. He directed alfothat the cafk
be of oak, and the cucumbers be rather full
grown, and put in whole. I have eat of
them as made in the firft above method,
alfo
472 KCTES AND
alfo foine fplit into four lengths. It is a
much admired pickle, mild and winning.
I faw a lady nearly make her dinner of
them : for they are ferved up in plates-full ;
and are in a ftile different from, and milder
than other pickles.
RE NNE T.
Mr. Marfhal, in his Rural Economy
of Norfolk, gives the following as the befl
way of faving rennet (kins, Throwing
away the curd, the ftomach of the calf
is walhed clean, and faked thoroughly,
infide and out, (with fine pounded fait,
it is prefumed ; for he adds) leaving a
white coat of fait over every part of it.
It is then placed in an earthen (better
if ftone) jar, for 3 or 4 days. It is then
hung up, 2 or 3 days ; and refalted and
placed again in the jar, covered tight down
with a paper pierced with a large pin ;
where it remains till wanted, for ufe. It
ought to remain fo 1 2 months, to be ftrong :
but
INTIMATIONS. 473
but may be ufed a few days after the fecond
falting.
RENNET LIQUOR.
A handful of the leaves offweet briar,
another of the dog rofe, and another of the
bramble, are boiled together in a gallon of
water, with three or four handsful of fait,
for a quarter of an hour. Strain off the
liquor, and when quite cool, put it into an
earthen or ftone veflel, and add the prepar
ed maw or ftomach fkin. Then add a found
lemon, ftuck round with ~ ounce of cloves.
The longer it is in the liquor the ftronger
is the rennet. When ftrong enough, take
out the (kin. Hang it up two or three
days to drain. Refalt it : put it again in
the jar ; and thus continue to treat it, till
its virtues are exhaufted, which will not be
till ufed feveral times. MarfhaL
CURD.
The warmer the milk, the fooner it co
agulates : but if too warm, the curd is
tough
474 NOTES AND
tough and harfh. The cooler the milk and
longer in coagulating, the more tender and
delicate the curd. The length of time be-
tween the felting the milk and the coming
of the curd, may be regulated by the warmth
of the milk when fet ; or by the warmth in
which it is kept whilft it is coagulating ; or
by the Jlrengtb and quantity of the rennet.
-Perhaps it is not the heat when fet, but
the heat when it comes, which gives the
quality of the curd. The curd fhould be
covered to make it come together: it may
otherwife be hard at the bottom, half an
hour before it comes at the top. Milk
immediately from the cow is 95 of heat
From a number of experiments Mr. Mar-
fhal concludes that curd of a good quality,
is obtained from milk heated from 87 to
103 of Farenheit; provided that the ren
net be fo proportioned that the time of co
agulation be from ^ to ^\ hours ; and pro
vided that the milk be properly covered^
during the procefs of coagulation But
from thefe and numbers of other obfervati-
ons, it rather feems to him, at prefent,
that
INTIMATIONS. 475
that from 85 to 90 are the proper degrees
of heat : that from one to two hours is the
proper time of coagulation , and for keep
ing the milk covered ; fo as to lofe in the
procefs about 5 of its original heat. Mar-
fhal.
BEER.
It is faid Sir John Dalrymple propofes
that beer be brewed with wort-cake and
hop-cake, combined with yeqft-powder :
which may be with cold water. One
pound of the cake is to make a gallon of
table beer : and it is thought it would an-
fwer well at fea, and fave ftowage. I have,
by fmearing tubs, cured yea ft in cakes by
gentle evaporation in the made : and fo it
feems wort is to be reduced. My dried
cakes of yeall were broke fmall, and kept
in bottles, perfectly dry and well corked.
EGGS.
Into a tub put a bufhel quicklime, 2R>
fait, ift of cream of tartar, mixt in water
to
47^ NOTES AND
to bear an egg with its top juft above wa
ter. Keep eggs in this ; which may be
two years, fays Repert. 177.
L E V EL.
r \\\zjp an -level is always ufed by irriga-
tors of meadows in Pennfylvania. The
bifliop of Landiff (Dodor Shipley) it is
faid was fo pleafed with it that he prevailed
with Mr. E. a Pennfylvania farmer to di-
ret the making them for him. The Re
pertory of arts has given an account and
drawing of one. It is, fays the Repertory,
thus ufed in levelling ground : At the level
of the water, where you begin, drive a
pin into the ground ; on which one leg of
the level can reft ; then bring the other leg
round, till it touches the ground on a level
with the top of that pin : there drive in
another pin ; and having adjufted the level
perfeftly^ make ufe of this laft pin as a reft
for one foot, turn the other about till you
find the level in the fame way ; and fo pro
ceed on. Thus at once you difcover the
precifc
INTIMATIONS. 477
precife directions that the water courfe
fhould hold, without digging through
heights or filling up hollows. This is to
conduct water perfectly level. If declivity
is to be given \ ~ inch or more in every
12 feet (the fpan of the level), inftead of
wooden pins, make ufe of one pin of fad,
having inches, halves^ and quarters, mark
ed on the fides, from the fquare top down
wards; and have a number of 'wooden pins ,
cut nearly at the top quite fquare. After
fixing the iron pin quite level with the firfr,
drive a wooden pin into the ground clofe
by it, making its head go ~ or inch lower
than the top of the iron pin. Then pulling
out the iron pin, and employing the wood
en one as a reft for one of the legs, put the
iron pin in again for the other leg v and
driving another wooden pin into the
ground, a quarter inch lower, proceed for
ward in this manner, and the canal will have
the fame uniform degree of flope, throughout
its whole extent. Thus the fall can be regu
lated to any aflignable degree. One of thefe
levels I ufed at Como, in Chefter county,
with
478 NOTES AND
with great fatisfadion, for directing water
in irrigating the land.
WILLOWS.
There are low, broken, fwampy lands in
America, little fuitable for meadow, which
may be profitably planted with willows.
A Mr. Lowe, in England, improved fiich
ground ; by laying it out from 3 to 4 yards
wide, with a ditch on each fide, 3 feet at
top, I foot at bottom, i feet deep; but
the ditch is to be deep and wide, according
to the condition of the ground, for giving
near a yard of earth above the level of the
water; towards which purpofe, the earth
dug out of the ditches, is thrown on the
land. Then dig the ground two fpades
depth, unlefs it be very boggy. The
plants are to be kept perfectly clean, efpe-
cially the firft year. The fets or trunche
ons are cut 20 to 24 inches ; avoiding to
bruife the bark in cutting or planting : they
are therefore cut in the hand, not on a
block. The ground is opened with a crow
bar,
INTIMATIONS. 479
bar, 14 to 20 inches and 4 to 6 inches are
left above ground. The cuttings were
from poles of three years growth ; and
placed 3 feet apart, quincunx. One, two,
or three fhoots were left to grow. At 8
years old he fold offnear 500 dollars worth
on an acre. Where the plants are puny
and weak, dig in manure to their roots.
The poles fo fold, at 8 years old, were 33
to 36 feet high, enough for three rails, 2
at bottom and one at top. But their great
ufe was in making hurdles, gates and imple
ments of hufbandry. The time for plant
ing is from January to the end of March ;
and the fets are to be cut from December to
the end of February, wbil/i the fap is down.
Rep. It is with caution that the yellow
willow mould be planted near fprings and
wells of water. 1 have heard of thefe be
ing damaged greatly, by the willow roots,
and of a fpring being ftopt entirely. On
a farm which I lately bought in Chefter
county, water was carried under ground,
near 300 yards, from a fpring; which had
been choaked, as the tenant thought mif-
chievoufly,
480 NOTES AND
chievoufly, by twigs of the yellow willow
being cut and put into the tube at the fpring.
They drifted and lodged at different parts
of the tube, and there threw out maffes of
roots, very fmall, fponge-like, and clofe,
fo that the water was, in a while, totally
ftopt from paffing through. The whole of
the tubes 1 have caufed to be taken up and
replaced ; and a ftone houfe built, and
locked up, over the fpring. See, of
Swamps : next paragraph.
S W A M P S.
I have read of a fwamp on an eftate, of
which meadow could not be made ; and,
being a difagreeable object, large deep
ditches were dug, and the earth thrown
up into little iflands ; which were planted
\vith willows, and formed beautiful clumps
of trees, here and there; fo that nothing
was feen but thefe trees, and various peeps
of water. The ditches anfwered for fifh-
ponds. See of willows; the preceding
article.
Mr.
INTIMATIONS. 481
Mr. Young fpeaks of fifh-ponds ; and of
four ponds, an acre each, one above an
other, on a ftream, which turned a mill
below the ponds. 19 An. 400.
DISTILLATION.
The Dutch method of preparing wall),
for malt fpirit, faves much trouble and pro
cures a large quantity of fpirit. It is the
moft profitable method, and reduces the
two operations of brewing and fermenting
into one. It is this : In proportion to
lolb malt in a fine meal, and 3& of com
mon wheat meal, they add 2 gallons cold
water, flirring all well together : then add
5 gallons of water boiling hot ; and again
ftir all together. When this is cold they
add 2 ounces of folid yeaft ; and ferment
it in a warm place, loofely covered. In
England, by drawing and mafhing for
fpirit, as they do for beer ; pumping into
coolers, and running it into fermenting
backs, and fermenting it, they have twice
the labour, and lofe much fpirit, by leav-
H h ing
482 NOTES AND
ing the grofs bottoms out of the ftill, for
fear of burning. Sibley's Hift. MifceL
pa. 352.
POWER DRAUGHT.
The 1 6 An. 562, fays, cars with one
horfe are preferred; and that they carry
1 60 large bricks, of 14^, equal 102240*.
Thefe cars are about 5 feet fquare, and i
foot deep. The wheels two feet diameter,
run under the car, as in Ireland.*
The 1 8 An. 179, fays, one-horfe carts
prove much preferable for all works ofhuf-
bandry : and the form of one, with an ox
in thills and gears, and bridled, is given.
This
* I dire&ed a cart to be made on the principles of
Sharp's waggons on rollers. The wheels of this cart,
or rather rollers, were two feet diameter, and 1 6 inches
tread, fawed out of oak. They performed admirably,
except when running over old cornhills : they then jump
ed continually. With 4 oxen it carried 1 20 bufhels of
wheat, eafily The rollers were under the body ; and
this was nearly fquare with equal fides.
INTIMATIONS. 483
This cart is 5 feet long: 3 A broad: 2
deep ; equal to 36 cubic feet.
The ftrength of a common man, walking
horizontally, with his body inclining for
wards, is faid to be equal to sylfc. If he
walks backwards the force is faid to be
greater ; at leaft in rowing, when the man
fetches his oar from before backward : and
it is faid to be known that a horfe draws
horizontally as much as feven men ; and
that confequently his ftrength is equal to
iSgtb, when drawing horizontally. Yet in
afcending, three men laden with loolb, each,
will go up a pretty fteep hill with more
eafe and expedition, than a horfe laden
with 3Ooft.
I have often feen about a tun weight
drawn, and fometimes up a trying hill, as
from Market ftreet wharf, Philadelphia to
Front ftreet, by one horfe in a dray, having
wheels of three feet diameter. On level
ground, with fuch low wheels, his whole
power is exerted to advantage ; upward^
H h 2 from
484 NOTES AND
from the centre of the axis which is below
his point of draught. Horizontal draught,
has but 1 89ft of power to be added to fome
portion of the horfe' s weight. But in draw
ing upward it is with an increafed power.
Contrary to common reafoning, a horfe
draws more in a dray having three feet
wheels than in a cart having five feet wheels,
or elfe 1 miift ftrangely be miftaken in my
judgment of what I have feen and con
cluded were fadls. The line of draught,
.from the axis of a three feet wheel, is ele
vated; which gives the horfe a lifting pur-
chafe, with the aid of his legs, and better
foothold preffing more diredly on the
ground : but when the wheel is five feet
high, the draft is in a line nearly horizon
tal, and the horfe pulls to difadvantage
with a horizontal exertion of the foot lock ;
which is very inferior to the power exerted
by the foot and ieg^ when drawing upward
they prefs more direflly on the ground.
'
SHEEP.
INTIMATIONS. 485
SHEEP.
The univerfal food for iheep in England,
is, mjummer, common grafs and clover ;
in winter, turnips, and from turnips to
vetches in the fpring : hay, only when tur
nips fail. Of flock fheep, 100 require 5
acres of turnips, and 15 acres of clover.
Good inclofed pafture will carry fix flieep
to an acre, 19 An. 295. 298. A tun of
hay a day was eaten by 700 fheep ; which
gave to each 3 Aft a day, and was rather
fcanty. Cabbages are better for (heep than
turnips two to one After they are a little
accuftomed to their ftalls, they thrive well.
They are there fed 3 or 4 times a day, and
have clean litter. 1 8 An. 105. 1 1 1 . The
dry climate, and hot air of America is lefs
adapted for cabbages, than Britain. Plant
a cabbage in the ftep, between every two
hills of maize, the partial made may be fa
vorable to them. Thus they are raifed with
out labour ; for the maize muft be horfe-
hoed.
FRESH-
486 NOTES AND
FRESHENING SALT PROVISIONS.
In my paffages on the Chefapeak, I ob-
ferved my {kipper would fometimes flice
falted barrel pork, and in a few minutes
firemen the flices in a frying pan ; and then
boil them for his dinner. The pork flices
were put in frefh, cold water, in a frying
pan, and held over a fire till the water be
gan to Jimrner (never fuffering it to boil in
the leaft). This water was then thrown
away, and other cold frefh water was put
in a pot together with the flices of pork.
They were then boiled till enough. This
was applied, in my family, to frefhening
fait fifh ; efpecially cod founds ; and it an-
fwered admirably. Sometimes they were
fo over frefhened, that it was neceflary to
cat fait with them.
7 URNIP S.
In Kent's Hints, page 128, is the fol
lowing, on turnips. In crops, they an-
fwer three great purpofes: to clean the
ground;
INTIMATIONS. 487
ground: to Jupport live flock , a vaft deal :
and to prepare for other crops ; particularly
for barley and clover, or grafs- feeds. The
turnip crop is the Norfolkman's flieet an
chor; and he fpares it no pains. The
ftubble of wheat, barley, or oats, is pre
ferred for bringing on turnips. They plow
very {hallow ; fo as to fkim off the rough
furface only, fome time before Chriftmas.
In the following March, it is well harrow
ed (their foil is a fandy loam) and then is
crofs plowed to its full depth. In May, it
is plowed again, the fame depth : and if
dry weather and the foil ftiff, immediately
harrow after this plowing. By the firft of
June, it ought to be perfectly clean. Now,
i o good cart loads of manure are laid on an
acre, regularly fpread, and plowed in quite
frejh, half the depth of the other plowing.
It thus is left till about the 2iy? of June;
and then is well harrowed^ to blend the foil
and manure together. It is then plowed^
its full depth, and harrowed, once only,
the way it is plowed. The feed is then
immediately fown, on \htfrejb earth ; not
even
488 NOTES AND
even waiting for the plowing ajecond ridge.
A quart of feed an acre is fown. The feed
is harrowed in, only twice, the fame way
as the ground is plowed. The harrow is
fhort tined, and the lighter the better.
The nicer! part of the turnip hufbandry
now remains to be obferved : It is hoing ;
without which all the former labour is
thrown away. When the plants cover
three inches in diameter, hoe them with a
10 inch hoe; and fet them at 15 inches
apart ; without regard to the apparent
health in the choice of thofe left. About
i o or at moft 14 days after the firft hoing,
the ground is hoed a fecond time, fo as to
Jtir the mould effectually between the plants,
and to check weeds. About 14 to 20 days
after the 2Qth September, the turnips are
fit for confumption, and fo to April, unlefs
the froft injures them* Where the land is
wet the whole are drawn, and fed in cribs.
On light dry land, every other ridge is
drawn.
He
INTIMATIONS. 489
He adds that 20 acres of a good crop of
turnips, fatten 15 or 1 6 bullocks, andyj/p-
port 10 followers or ftore cattle, for 25
weeks; or of fheep, as 8 to one bullock.
But the greateft advantage is in cleaning^
meliorating and preparing the foil for other
crops.
To fave turnips in the field, they fink
fome beds in the ground where they grew,
about two feet deep, of a confiderable
width, and lay 5 or 6 layers of turnips
in them, one upon another, with a little
frejh earth between each layer ; and cover
the top over with ftraw, to keep out
the froft. Or pile them up in fmall ftacks,
with the greens outward, and a little clean
ftraw between each layer ; and laftly cover
or Ikreen them with wattles lined with
ftraw.*
TREADING
* At Wye, with intention to try a new mode, my
turnips were fown in broad-caft, thick. A plow having
a narrow fin was run through the young plants, carefully,
for leaving them on narrow flips of earth. Handhoes fol
lowed, working acrofs the rows, and cutting near a foot
width of the plants quite up ; the hoers (looping occafion-
ally to thin the cluflers of turnips left by the hoes. Ad-
490 NOTES AND
TREADING WHEAT.
A Houfe in the middle of a treading
floor, gives fome fhade to the track on
which
vantageous as this proved, I could not procure it to be
obferved more than once more, a few years afterwards.
Overfeers are as fixt to old habits as the negroes under
them; and I was much abroad on other bufmefs. I have
indeed always found the negroes better difpofed to exe~
cute my defigns, than the overfeers, who invariably are
attentive and ingenious in taking fhort cuts for flurring
over all work, to foon get rid of it. I ufually fowed
near the end of July though I felt difpofed to break
through the practice ; and fow a little later, for faving
them before they were old in growth when they incline
to be open and fpongy, and therefore do not keep fo well
as younger turnips, clofe and in full vigor. In that coun
try turnips are but little hoed and that flovenly : and to
thin the plants the country people think would be deftroy-
ing what they had done. They count the turnips by the
number of plants, rather than by the quantity of the roots.
Turnips in rows, leaving 12 or 14 inch intervals.
Every other row taken up and faved, would leave inter
vals 24 to 28 inches wide. Cover the remaining turnips
with long dung : then, in middle of November, dip deep
a double mould board plow, and heave the earth on the
turnips, to ftand the winter. Make the experiment.
Such a plow is highly valuable on many occafions. It
efpecially faves 2 or 3 bouts in clearing out, when
plowing maize.
INTIMATIONS. 49!
which the wheat is fpread, to be trod out ;
which is difadvantageous. The treader of
wheat dreads Jhade ; and invites the greateft
heat of * the fun , as being eflential for tread
ing to advantage. A houfe on \\\efouth or
north of the floor, with one end near the
periphery of the track, is as much prefera
ble to a houfe in the middle of the circle,
as this laft is to a houfe covering the
whole circle, where the horfes are more
worried whilft treading under cover, the
wheat alfo being {haded, than if they trod
altogether in the hotteft fun. The hotter
the fun, the {horter the work, and more
perfectly fmifhed. The houfe being on
the north of the circle, cafts no {hade. The
floor and the wheat are fully expofed to the
fun ; which is the firft wifh of experienced
treaders : and for all purpofes this houfe is
here as well placed as if it was within the
circle. In my defign of a farm yard plate
the treading floor and barn are fo fitu-
ated.
MANURING
492 NOTES AND
MANURING ORCHARDS.
When a boy, I obferved that hogs were
much in orchards ; and then apple trees in
orchards bore better, and appeared much
larger and more perfect than at this time.
Hogs feed on potatoes. If orchards were
planted irregularly with potatoes or Jerufa-
lem artichokes, and hogs turned on them
when ripe, two valuable purpofes might
be anfwered : their dung fecured, and the
ground Jlirred ; the turning over whereof
buries and fecures the dung to the foil.
PORK KEPT FRESH A TEAR.
A Mr. Poultney, of Philadelphia, dined
on board a SpanHh {hip of war, at the Ha-
vanna, and ate of boiled frelh pork which
appeared as if juft killed. He was told it
was killed and put up near a year before,
at La Vera Cruz. The bones were taken
out, and without any fait, the pieces were
covered with Spanifh brown (a red ochre).
It
INTIMATIONS. 493
It was then packed in bags, for the officers.
They fhewed him fome in bags, where
they were fmothered in red ochre : which
is wafhed off with warm water, previous
to boiling it. I prefume any other pure,
impalpable, and dry aftringent clay would
anfwer as well. Some clays fo far partake
of alum, as to {hew it exuded, like a
white mould. Such I have feen and tafi>
ed on the banks of the Chefapeak. Does
the Spanilh brown contain alum ?
BARRELED BEEF.
Being at an inconvenient diftance from
market, and feldom able to fell my beeves,
I found it advifable to depend rather on
barreling up from the grafs, than on fell
ing on the foot. From ignorance of a pro
per mode of performing the bufmefs, part
of my beef in the firft attempt fpoiled. On
four years experience, I prefer the follow
ing ; which procured a good character to
my beef, at market. I killed between 24
and
494 NOTES AND
and 30 beeves, yearly, the laft week in
October, from the grafs.
The beeves may be kept up from food
and drink, two days : the better if clofe
and dark, and then flaughtered ; and by
fo fafting are found to bleed better^ are
handled lighter and cleaner , and every way
look better. Previous to this praftice, I
found that upon the firft faking and the
meat lying in open barrels, four days,
there has been drawn out by the fait, 8
gallons of bloody juices from 432lb of beef.
This is of the nature of pining of herrings,
by the Dutch. Compare that with this
method of fait ing and curing.
The barrels are to be ready, fweet and
well trimmed ; and the fait previoufly
wafhed or refined, and ground fmall, be
fore the beeves are to be flaughtered. I
killed 14 beeves as to-day, and falted them
to-morrow morning. Delay in faking is in
jurious : fo is expofure to the air, even af
ter it is faked. The pieces are therefore
packed
INTIMATIONS. 495
packed into the tight barrels piece by piece
as they are falted ; inftead of bulking them
on a frame or drefler to drain, as had been
the practice : and inftead of remaining two
weeks to drain, expofed to the air, they are
now 6 or 8 days left to drain, in clofe
barrels, headed up tight.
Having thus fecured the firft day's beef,
in barrels, to drain (or pine) ; on the
third day, other 14 beeves were killed,
and managed in the fame manner.
Coarfe fait, wafaed but not ground, hav
ing alfo been previoufly ready, is diflblved
in fair cold water till no more can be dif-
folved on ftirring. Let it fettle a day or
two : fkim off the top : pour off all but
the dregs. When perfectly cool and clean ,
it is ready to be poured on the repacked
beef.
The meat is to be taken out of the bar
rels ; refcltcd^ and clofely repacked in the
fame barrels. Immediately head them up
perfectly
NOTES AND
perfectly clofe; and they remain fo. In a
few days afterwards, bore a hole in one of
the heads, or the bulge, of each barrel, and
fill up the barrels with the prepared and
boiled juices of the meat, faved from the
firft faking and barreling, as under menti
oned. Every time of filling, the barrels be
ing rolled leaves room for more liquor.
When there is no more of the prepared
juices, the barrels are next to be repeatedly
filled with the plain ftrong brine, made as
above, from the wafhed coarfe fait, till
they can take no more after ftanding a
while.
I believe the juices of meat cured with
fait, and then boiled, are of an excellent
mellowing quality. All that can be faved,
is therefore to be fo boiled, and poured
cold and clear on the meat in the barrels.
When animals faft long, the blood and
juices retire from the extremities to the
large blood veflels in the centre of the
body, in proportion as replenifhment is
withheld and the animal is weakened.
Hence
INTIMATIONS. 497
Heace it is that the animal bleeds fo much
freer, and more plentifully, after long
fading. Here as in preferving fifli in bar
rels, the operations are diftindly, to fait,
and to cure. (See the Dutch mode of bar
reling herrings, page 467) and the boiled
juices^ from the falted meat, muft ferve to
beef what the pickle of fifh cured is to the
herrings. On boiling the blood and juices
with the pickle, the firmer parts fettle in
a mafs on (landing, and the liquor pours
off clear.
Let not the barrels of meat be expofed
to the fun, as is often the cafe, by rolling
them out of doors and leaving them there
longer than need be. Damp, is bad for
fait meat as well as for frefh ; therefore
-
ftore the barrels in a dry place, the coo left
to be found, ^niv/ * r
.dguoi ibi gW te/Iv;
FW^L OW S.
Mr. Forbes has a good chapter on fal
lows : and the Bath Letters fpeak of a com-
I i parative
498 NOTES AND
parative experiment between fallow left
rough from the plow, through winter, and
fome that was harrowed after the plow.
This laft proved much the beft in a
barley crop fowed the following fpring.
In an entire field of wheat, a part of
the feed was plowed and then raked in ;
another part bandhoed after being plow
ed in, as ufual when fown amongft maize
plants ; and a part left rough after being
plowed in. This laft was fo fuperior
that (and from other particulars and inftan-
ces of fmooth drefled ground compared
with a part in its rough ftate as left by plow
ing in the grain) I afterwards generally left
my wheat untouched by rake, harrow,
hoe, or roller. On the other hand it
proved on an experiment I made, that a
part fallowed and then harrowed fmooth
and fo left through a winter, was prefer
able to what was left rough. Such, fo far
as thefe experiments were made, is the dif
ference between fallow and fown ground
being fmoothed or left rough : the foil a
clay-loam.
LETT-
INTIMATIONS. 499
LETTSOM'S TEAST.
Dodor Lettfom in his Hints for pro
moting Beneficence, fays " Thicken a
quarts of water, with 4 ounces fine flour :
boil it half an hour. Sweeten it with 3
ounces Mufcovado fugar. When almoft
cold, pour it on 4 fpoonsful of yeaft into an
earthen or ftone jar, deep enough to allow
the yeaft to rife : (hake it well together,
and place it a day near a fire : then pour off
the thin liquor at top : (hake the remain
der, and clofe it up for ufe. It is to be
ftrained through a fieve. Keep it in a cool
cellar, or hang it fome depth in a well.
Some of it is to be kept, always, for re
newing or making the next quantity want
ed."
I had a German brewer, in my family,
who ufed to keep family yeaft in a cafe
bottle ; and he poured half a gill of brandy,
very gently, to float on the top of the
yeaft, in a cafe bottle containing about two
I i 2 quarts,
5 00 NOTES AND
quarts, for excluding the air. Whenever
he found his yeaft was inclined to be flat,
he mixt in it half a gill to a gill of brandy,
according to the quantity of yeaft left in
the bottle ; and letting it ftand a while,
fhook it up again and then ufed it. The
beft brewers Jirong beer yeqfl, I prefume
fhould be begun with : and then a good bo
died rich yeaft may be kept up, by renewals.
j J r r> j
POTATO-TEAST, by Kirby.
t
The principles in this, are allied to thofe
preparative for producing Anderfon's pota
to fpirit. .Kirby recommends the mealy fort
to be boiled till thoroughly foft ; mafhed
till very fmooth ; with hot water put to
the mafh, till of the confiftcncy of beer
yeaft, and not thicken To every pound
of potatoes add two ounces of coarfe fugar
or melafles. When but juft warm, for
every pound of potatoes, ftir in two fpoons-
ful of yeaft, and keep it gently warm till
done fermenting. He fays, a pound of
potatoes yields near a quart of yeaft, to
keep
INTIMATIONS. 501
keep three months : and he directs that the
dough lie eight hours before it be put to
the oven. This (hews that the ferment,
however fure, is flow. I would have the
potatoes to be both thoroughly ripe, and
well fprouted ; for the reafons mentioned
under the head of potato fpirit.
<;[)f orb
BUTTER POTTED.
rr.i : , v 1 ,
1 he method is recommended, and is pro-
mifing without my knowing of it being
pradifed :
Beft common fait two parts
Sugar one part
Salt petre one part : beat them together,
blending them completely. One ounce of
the mixture, for every pound of butter,
is mixed and well worked into the butter ;
which is then put up clofe for ufe. It is
faid, a comparative experiment has been
made of it, with butter only faked ; and
its fuperiority was vaft : That, cured with
the mixture being of a rich marrowy con-
fiftence, and fine colour, never having a
brittle hardnefs, nor tafte of fait : and at
three
502 NOTES AND
three years old it is found perfe&ly fweeu
It is to ftand 3 or 4 weeks before it is
ripe for ufe : the falts will not be fooner
blended, i Rep.
CASTOR OIL.
Though this mild family purgative is
produced in quantities in fome of the iflands
in the Weft Indies, yet it is fometimes
hardly to be got in the (hops, in the United
States, or is very ftale. It is produced
from the feeds of the Palma Cbrifti plant,
common in our gardens.
Strip the nuts of their hufks. Boil them
in water ; and as the oil rifes {kim it off.
When it yields no more to the water, prefs
the grounds wrapped, loofely, in a coarfe
cloth. This oil is fweet, without bad tafte
or fmell, and as clear as olive oil. P. Labat.
TURNIP-FLT.
It is faid to be a fuccefsful method of
avoiding damage to young turnip plants by
flies, to mix every two pounds of feed with
a quarter
INTIMATIONS.
a quarter pound of fulphur in fine powder,
to ftand ten or twelve hours ; and then
fow the feed. Quere : would wheat, when
the feed has been fo treated with fulphur,
avoid the Heffian-fly ?
CHEESE.
*
Mr. Twamley was many years a great
dealer in cheefe, annually vifited the dairies
of Glofterlhire, Wiltfhire, &c. and bought
the cheefes of entire choice dairies. He
made obfervations on the practices of the
cheefemakers ; and fays that the principal
faults in the cheefes of thofe countries,
made in inferior dairies, were their being
hove, fpongy or full of eyes, whey-fprings,
fhakes, fplits, loofe or made of unfettled
curd, rank or ftrong, flying out or bulged
at the edges, dry-crackt or hufky coated,
bliftered coats, blue pared or decayed,
fweet or funky, ill-fmelling from tainted
maw-fkins.
A very great fault is the baflily breaking
and gathering the curd, and in the fetting
504 NOTES AND
it ; each of which requires minute atten
tion %&A full time.
.
Driving cows far, or carrying milk far,
retards the coming of the curd ; fo much
fo that inftead of an hour or two, it will
require three, four, or five hours ; and
even then the curd is in fo imperfect a ftate
as to occafion the cheefe heaving, puffing
up or fplitting : and it will not anfwer to
add more rennet for quickening the coming
of curd that is too flow.
The proper \varmth of milk when re
ceiving rennet is only milk warm ; or per
haps rather about 85 or 90 degrees of Fa-
renheit. If it is too cool, add fome warmed
milk, but let it not boil in warming. If it
becomes too cold after the rennet is put to
it, add hot water when the curd is nearly
come ; which will give a due firmnefs to the
curd. But it is of importance that, before
the rennet is put to the milk, there be
thrown into it at the rate of two handsfu!
cf fait to the milk of ten or twelve cows ;
which
INTIMATIONS. 505
which will tend to make the rennet work
quick, prevent fweet or funky cheefe, make
the cheefe all alike fait, and prevent flip
curd, by occafioning the curd to be firm
and fink readily and equally. Mr. Mar-
Jhall fays, for making the curd come all at
the fame time, cover the milk with a cloth
whilft the rennet is in it.
The great fault, continues Mr. Twam!ey>
is in diflurbing the milk too foon, before
the curd is perfect. It is firft a weak foft
curd called flip curd ; in which ftate it is
unfit for making good cheefe : when it
ftands fufficiently long after this ftate, it be
comes a firm perfect curd fit for cheefe. In
whatever ftate it is when it is firft broke or
ftirred, in that ftate it will continue ; and
can never be made better by adding rennet
or other means.
Neglect not to puty// to the milk when
the rennet is about to be applied ; and in-
ftead of an hour let the curd be undifturbed
during one and an half or two hours, or
more
506 NOTES AND
more if requifite for obtaining a full, firm,
and perfect curd ; and fink the curd with
a fifter rather than break it. For finking
it, a long wooden or lath knife is to cut
the curd from top to bottom, croffing it
many times : then with a fieve prefs it
down : when having fettled it well down,
let it reft a quarter hour. The whey being
laded out, the curd lies folid : then cut in
Jllces^ and work it into the vat with as little
breaking it as polfible. Breaking it fmall
in the tub and into the vat reduces the cheefe
in quality and alfo in quantity ; for the fat
is thereby fqueezed out.
There are he fays, perfons making good
cheefes, who might make better and more,
if they did not fquee%e out fo much of the
fat in breaking. The whey that firft comes
is the thinneft. If that thin whey was firft
ffparated before breaking the curd^ it would
leave the cream in the cheefe, with the lofs
of but very little fqueezed out in putting it
in the vat : but when broke fmall amongft
the whey the rich parts are fqueezed and
wafhed
INTIMATIONS, 507
wafhed out among the thin whey. Where
there are bits of flip curd floating on the
whey, they are taken off and carried away
with the whey, as they would damage the
cheefe. The beft cheefemakers let the
curd ftand two hours inftead of one and an
half; by which the curd becomes fo firm
and perfect that it needs no more than to be
cut and fliced, put in the vat clofe packed,
and then to the prefs. A good whey is
greenifli : if white, all is wrong. It is
reckoned on, that the milk requifite for
making one pound of butter, will yield
two pounds of cheefe.
RICH CHEESE.
New milk makes the fine cheefes for
market, without any addition of cream :
but a rich cheefe for high days, may be
thus made: " a meal extraordinary of
" cream is added to new milk. Care muft
" be obferved that the curd fhould not be
" funk in lefs than two hours : two and an
" half or three hours may be better."
5L/P-
508 NOTES AND
SLIP-CURD CHEESE.
<c To fix quarts of new milk hot from
the cow, the ftrokings beft, put two
fpoonsful of rennet, to ftand three quarters
of an hour, or until the milk forms a fuffi-
cient flip-curd. With a fpoon lay it in the
vat, without breaking it, and place a
trencher or flat board on it. Prefs it with
a four pound weight ; or if it inclines to
be hard, a lighter weight, turning it with
a dry cloth once an hour ; and when ftirT
fhift it daily into frefh grafs or rulhes. It
may be cut in ten or fourteen days. Its
beft condition is to have it run or diffblve
into a creamy confiftence." Nothing but
weak half formed curd called flip-curd will
produce it. It is the cream cheefe of rhi-
ladelphia.
'
RENNET-BAG OR MAW-SKIN.
'
u Rennet is the produce of the ftomach
of a calf that has fed on milk only ; and the
calf
I N T I M A T 1 N S . 509
calf killed before the digeftion is perfected.
Though this rennet readily coagulates milk,
yet if put to milk already coagulated, it then
diflblves it.
" Soon as the maw, taken from the calf,
is cold, fwill it a little in water : then. ..rub
it well with fine powdered fait; next fill
and cover it with fait. Some cut the fto-
machs open and fpread them in fait, in
layers one over another, and let them lie
in the brine they produce ; fqmetimes turn
ing them, four, fix, or nine months :
then they dry them ftretched out on fticks.
When dry, ufe them. They are.beft to
be a year old when ufed. Keep them dif-
tant from fire, for avoiding rancidity/*
Twamley. A dry cool place is beft.
RENNET-LIQUOR.
" Take two (kins to a gallon of pure,
fpring water : the water having been boiled
and made into a brine that will ftrongly
bear an egg. When the brine is made
blood
510 NOTES AND
blood warm, cut the {kins into pieces, and
fteep them in the brine twenty-four hours.
It may then be ufed ; about a tea-cup full
to the milk of ten cows : but obferve that
ajuft quantity be applied: for if too much
the cheefe becomes ftrong and liable to
heave ; if too little the cheefe will be mild,
but the curd will be a long while before
it can be properly broke or funk, and may
become damaged before it is committed to
the prefs. The liquor is kept cool in jars
or bottles. The Bath Letters fay, in the
brine boil fwect briar leaves, rofe leaves
and flowers, cinnamon, mace, cloves and
other aromatics, brifkly till a fourth is re
duced : pour it milk warm on the maw and
flice a lemon into it. Then Handing a
day or two, it is drained and bottled clofe."
Twamley.
MANURE.
The headlands of arable fields, along the
fides of fences, accumulate foil from the
fields on every bout of the plows. This
accretion
INTIMATIONS. JII
accretion of foil confines water on the fields
fo as to chill them, and damage growing
crops. For reducing this mifchief and in-
creating manure, plow up a portion of the
headland and then pen cattle on it, till it
becomes very rich with dung and, urine.
Then having another portion recently plow
ed, pen the cattle on this in like manner;
and the former portion is again plowed for
covering the dung and mixing it with the
earth ; which is then either immediately
carried away, and as a manure laid on
other ground, or heaped up high and co
vered from the fun, to remain fo till wanted
for manuring ground. During the; fum-
mer, and till cold weather forbids, other
portions of the headlands are to be plowed
and penned with cattle in the fame manner
in fucceflion.
BUTTER.
The following method of making butter
has been recommended, from the practice
of a butter maker; though the exact parti
culars
512 NOTES AND
culars are not all certainly remembered.
The churning was in the evening ; and
when the butter was come, the milk was
drained off; and then the mafs of butter
was put in a wooden tray or bowl ; and a
good quantity of fine fait was thrown over
it, to remain undifturbed in a cool place
till morning. In the morning it was again
drained, and dafhed with cold water for
wafhing off the remaining fait and milk.
It may be next dried by a foft cloth ab-
forbing the remaining moifture ; and with
out ever wetting it again, flowly work it,
and put it up for ufe. The beft butter I
ever faw, had never at all been wet with
water ; as I was fatisfa&orily affured.
G R A S S,
Is \htjine qua non of LIVE-STOCK !
the eflfential of DUNG ! and therefore the
nurfery of CORN, and of all FARMING
PRODUCTS !
HEAT
INTIMATIONS. 513
HEAT ICE.
When we entered the Seminary at
Syracufe, fays Count Stolberg, the heat was
not extreme; but when in lefs than an
hour we returned, it met us hot as if it
came out of an oven, we being then in the
open air, unprotected by {hade. It con
tinued thus hot about three hours. We
were advifed tojhut up our windows, leav
ing only light to read by, jfa&'Jfoirifk our
rooms with water. The air in . the houfe
thus became fupportable. Farenheit's ther
mometer afcended from 8i-|to lOif de
grees. We durft not leave the houfe all
the afternoon ; but cooled ourfelves with
ice ; and ftrengthened ourfelves with wine.
The practice of taking ice, in Italy and Si
cily, is confidered as an indifpenfible re-
frefhment ; and as a powerful remedy in
many difeafes. The phyficians of thefe
countries do not give many medicines ;
but frequently direct a fevere regimen : and
prevent the ill effects of various difeafes by
fuffering the fick, for feveral days, to take
K k nothing
514 NOTES AND
nothing but water cooled with ice, fweet
oranges, and iced fruits. Iced milk^ fruits^
chocolate, and other iced viands, are found
in moft of their towns. They prefery//o?e>,
as it is more eafily preferved than ice. The
fnow is clofely packed together, and cover
ed with ftraw.
POT TERT.
The earthen ware made in America, is
glazed with lead: and it is laid on very fav-
ingly, thin and flight : fo that it is not only
worn away by vegetables and every thing
acidulous, but is apt to fcale off, and be
fwallowed with meat, greens, and drinks.
It is pure leaa> and confequently a ftrong
poifon. The effet of lead on the health of
glaziers and houfe painters, is daily feen.
A journeyman or working painter may
live, continually dying, fix or eight years
as a large allowance. The matter who fees
that the work is done, and works but little,
lives longer. All are groaning and pining,
under colicks, gripes, cramps, rheumatifms,
aches
INTIMATIONS.
aches and pains, who continue to fnuff up
and inhale the vapours of lead for fomc
time ; or who gradually fwallow fmall por
tions of it with their milk, greens, cider
and drinks, diffufed from the glazing made
of lead. The people of New-England,
drink much cider, and ufe much vinegar,
in country families ; and there have been
inflances of whole families afflided as
above.*
Lead requiring but little fuel to melt it,
is the cheapeft or eafieft material for pro
ducing common glazing. It is therefore
impofed on the inattentive people of the
K k 2 country,
* Doclor Fothergill fays, Wis aftyptic, injurious to
the nerves, and thence fupprefles the natural inteftine dif-
charges ; produces obftinate cofti'venefi, and a peculiar co-
lick with palfy of the extremities : occafions alfo palenefs,
contraction and wafting of the muffles, numbnefs, tremors,
languors, convulfwns, cpilep/y and death. Sometimes it oc-
cafions only a.J!o<w, lingering tndlfpojition, for foms years.
It thus ads like the flow poifons of the ancients New
rum, he adds, is unwholefome from the lead of the worm,
which is corroded : but in old fpirit, the lead has chiefly
depofited,
516 NOTES AND
country, who buy the ware without know
ing its fault, or without caring for it : and
this lead is imported from foreign countries ;
whilft the country abounds in materials
for producing the moft perfect, durable,
and wholefome glazing. Thefe materials
are wood-afhes and fand. On converfing
with a potter in Philadelphia, his objection
to the ufe of thefe materials was their re
quiring more labour and fuel ; but if I
would prepare them for glazing any pieces
I might want, he would lay them on, and
find a place in his kiln, for giving a good
glazing. If legiflators were duly fenfible
of all this, their energy might find means-
for caufing the change from lead to fand,
for glazing earthen ware ; and of courfe,
for protecting the health of the people.
A young man of the name of Cook, a
brickmaker, in the time of the revolution
war, informed me he would erect an earth
en ware manufactory, if he knew how
to glaze the ware. Having a fmall air
furnace, for my amufement, he ground
feme
INTIMATIONS. 517
fome fand* and made fmall clay cakes*
The glazing materials were prepared, and
laid on the dry cakes : and being fluxed
in the furnace, the glazing was very fatis-
fa&ory to him. He then got fome fine
potters clay out of my bank, and made a
number of little cakes of it, mixt with va
rious proportions of ground fand. Thefe
were burnt In the furnace ; and one eipeci-
ally was a fpecimen of a very excellent
ftoneware : which is vaftly preferable, in its
qualities, to earthen ware ; and is greatly
wanted in America. The heavy freight
paid on fo bulky and cheap an article of im
ported merchandise, renders ftoneware
fcarce : and gives an inviting opening to
induftrious manufacturers of ftoneware, in
America.
SEASONING WOOD.
Wood feafoned by the air is left in the
fame ftate as if feafoned by water ; which
is with the lofs of its fap or juices, being
wafhed or evaporated away. It is fooner
effected by water than by air. The woo<jl,
then,
518 NOTES AND
then, only confifts of its fibrous and folid
parts ; which are confiderably concentrated
by being dried : yet the mafs is not with
out numerous interfaces, from whence the
fap had been expelled by the air or the wa
ter. In dry weather thefe only contain
dry air : but in moift weather they become
charged with humidity from the atmof-
phere, to fuch a degree, at times, as to
fwell and even burft boards fo feafoned.
Shrinking and fwelling of boards happen
according as moifture is abfent or prefent.
If feafoned wood can be defended from the
impreffions of water, it never will fwell. I
effected this when painting a landfcape at
my fire fide on feafoned poplar, which
warped or became ftraight according as
were the changes in the ftate of the atmof-
phere, I covered the back the fides and
the ends well, with painters drying oil, at
a time when the board was ftraight, and
it never afterwards warped.*
Wood
* " Equal parts of rofm, turpentine, and bees wax
were melted together, well Hummed, and with a brufh
INTIMATIONS.
Wood feafoned by fre with quicknefs
whi/fl full offap, does not imbibe water,
as air and water feafoned wood ; becaufe,
as it feems, the fap is infpiflated by the
fudden heat fo as to fill or moftly fill up the
interfaces; and being fo fixed and hard,
it excludes water. The fap is thus cured,
and prevented from fermenting and rotting
the infide of the wood, and from flying off
in vapour.
A pair of cart wheels, foon as made were
tarred over thick and fet up refting on the
fide of a houfe a year or two. When put
to ufe the fellows broke, ' and fhewed a
found external furface, and the reft was a
dark, rotten, coarfe powder. Here the un-
feajoned wood being coated over fo as to ob-
ftrut the fap from evaporating, the fap
fermented, it is prefumed, and rotted the
infide of the folid parts of the timber : the
{hell
laid boiling hot on a board 6 feet long, 1 8 inches wide ;
which was kept in water 1 9 months, without having im
bibed any water, or having its coat of cement damag
ed." 2. Rep.
NOTES ANP
fhell or outfide of the timber having been
feafoned, dr loft its fap, before the tar was
applied. In forefls, I have ftept on the
bodies of profctte trees, which appeared
fount! to the eye r but have broke through
the feafoneJ craft to a tnafs of rotten pow
der,
On the other hand ; fleeping in the room
of a hip-roof, of a one ftory brick houfe
then lately built by a Doctor Wharfield, of
Elkridge, Maryland; in the morning I ad
mired the wainfcoting and ceiling of the
roonv which were made of poplar boards j
in which the joints could not be eafily dif-
covered. The work was not painted, -I
fuppofed the boards had been many years
feafoning in a tobacco houfe. The doftor
pointed to two lengthy pits, on the fide of
a hill ; and faid the trees were fell, and cut
off iuro logs, which were immediately
hauled to the pits, over one of which a log
at a time was fawed into boards or planks,
and immediately, whilfty/v// of fap, a fire
wafe made and kept burning under the flock
till
INTIMATIONS. 521
till the boards were cured ; and that fome
of the wainfcot was put up within two
weeks of its having been in the growing
tree. The pits were alternately applied to
the flocks to be fawed, and the flocks to be
fired.
Recommending to a fhip carpenter, the
trimming timber roughly in the woods,
and there feafoning the pieces by fire, he
objeded it would render the timber hard to
cut and dub. Perhaps too fome might
think it would render the timber too dura
ble. It may be proper to contract for its
being fo feafoned : efpecially for national
ihips.
Me/affes* and Afufcovado Sugar Clean fed.
Weight, 24 melaffes; 24 water; 6
charcoal thoroughly charred. Bruife the
charcoal grofsly. Mix the three articles
in
* A fyrup of the confiftence and fweetnefs of honey ;
and produced by the labor of affes in grinding fugar
canes : thence melaiTes from ra7and q/itms.
522 NOTES AND
in a caldron ; letting the mixture boil,
gently on a clear wood fire, half an hour.
Then pour it through a ftraining bag; and
place it again on the fire, for evaporating
the fuperfluous water, till the melafles is
brought to its original confidence. The
lofs is fcarcely any. 2. Rep.
'
SALTING AND CURING MEAT.
\
According to 14 An. pa. 267. meat for
family ufe, in England receives I ft of fait
and i oz. nitre to every 1 4ft of meat. The
fait and nitre to be beat fne. Rub them
well 'into the meat. Lay the pieces on each
other, during a month, and turn them
once a week. Then drain, and fhake bran
[perhaps impalpable clay or ochre] over
them, for abforbing the moifture. Hang
the pieces in a kitchen. If the quantity is
large, then in a room having a ftove and
flue round it. It is a month in drying
then keep it in an airy, dry room. For
voyages and hot countries, foon as dried
pack it vbfaw-duft) ftove dried. Moijlure
is
INTIMATIONS. 523
is more to be apprehended than heat. In
common the longer meat is kept in brine
the falter it is ; but in this method it never
varies.- Salting forjbip ufe the fait is lib to
8lb of meat ; befides \ inch thick of fait in
packing. See p. 453. and of Pork cured in
ochre page 492.
MAIZE.
Farmer Sbephard, of New Jerfey, in
formed the Burlington fociety of agricul
ture, that in autumn 1786 he collected,
for feed to his next year's crop, a quantity
of corn produced on Jlalks which produced
two ears. The crop from that feed, was
increafed much beyond what he had been
accuftomed to, even to 10 bufhels an acre;
and by following the fame rule in faving
feed, his crops increafed to 60 bufhels an
acre ; with three or four ears upon a ftalk,
WASH, FOR BOARDS OR STONE WORK.
In Nova Scotia they waih rough boards,
the rougher the better, with a mixture of
ftone
524 NOTES AND
ftone lime flacked with boiling water,,
whiting, alum, common falf. The alum
is an excellent article for binding ; fait alfo
would be unexceptionable, but that it
attracts moifture and gives; as it is called.
The above proinifes to be a good wbife-^a/h.
A Black-wajfoy which I have experienc
ed effectually refills water, is made of tar
three or four parts, and fifh oil one part,
intimately mixed in a pot over a flow fire ;
which is laid on hot with a brufh. Such
brumes, bound with iron rings, are to be
got at fhops for flapping.
;
A gray-waft may be produced, by adding
more or lefs of the black-wafli with the
whitewafh : but I would omit the fait, as
doubtful; and the alum, as unnecefTary,
where fo binding a varniih as the black-
wafh is admitted.
I have feen a fimple, cheap varnifh of
turpentine, ufed in (hips : but know not
how it is made. Perhaps, as that of tar,
with
INTIMATIONS. 525
with fifh oil. This vamifh mixt with
the white-wa(h, it feems would produce
a waih excellent in. quality, and of a cream
colour-
P A U P E R S.
As a forerunner to promoting employ
ment, be bold in amending the exifting re
gulations refpeding the poor. Principally
provide checks on the magijlrates and over-
feers ; who through levity, weaknefs, or
other caufe, fuffer their country to be fhame-
fully abufed, in at leaft fome of the United
States : and involve in their lax govern
ment a marked encouragement of fome of
the greateft evils that can enfeeble nations
or affiecT; mankind Idlenefs and debauchery,
with their concomitant wretcbednefs : for,
John will be at eafe will be idle will be
&fot ; becaufe John can whine himfelf into
the foctety of public paupers, and there be
provided for, as a drone, at the expenfe of
the indufirious and fober citizens. The
law T s provide for the poor, not for the
whining
526 NOTES AND
whining impoftor : and it is defirable that
they be provided for ; but they fhould alfo
be kept to fome employment. Paupers ca
pable of but whittling a flick, may be in
duced to pafs their time in producing toys
for other people, as the Germans in Europe
are ufed to fupply our babies, little and
big.
A fteadinefs in work, of any fort, accord
ing to the abilities of the refpe&ive paupers,
would greatly leflen the public burthen ;
both by the income gained from it, and
from impoftors ftirinking from a compul-
five woik under confinement, when they
can, unconfined, find work at large.
Want of a right criterion for admitting
applicants, to be provided for at the public
expenfe, is the principal caufe of a great
number of them being in reafon, in huma
nity, policy and in juftice, improperly re
ceived. That a man is poor is not alone
fufficient caufe fo the fervants of the public
to provide for him at the coft of the indu-
ftrious
INTIMATIONS* 527
ftrious atid fober part of the community:
befides his being in a ftate of indigence, he
muft be incapable of working fomehow^
fufficiently to fupport himfelf in necejfaries ;
and alfo he muft be without any connexion
capable and compellable by law to provide
for him. Indulging a whining drone, ca
pable of procuring common neceflaries by
labour, or in any way of employment, is
encouraging the vices above enumerated ;
and in effect multiplies paupers^ vice$ and
wretchednefs \
SOLID FEET REDUCED 70 BUSHELS.
The foot contains 1728 inches. The
bufliel in #/i? 2 1 83 inches. For the farmer's
eftimates and grofs purpofes, it will be near
enough though not quite exact, to reckon
for ftruck meafure. The feet X *8
How many bufhels of wheat will a room
of 1000 folid feet hold ?
8
800*0 Boo bufhels :
which is but about one per cent fhort.
A cart
NOTES AND
A cart body containing 40 feet
8
32*0 buftiels,
ftruck meafure.
M A D D E R.
Madder and water-rotted green hemp
would be agreeable, as well as profitable
crops, for retired cits to amufe themfelves
with cultivating them on their fmall retreats,
if they fhould wifh for more than grafs to
employ their attentions. Mr. Arbuthnot in
England, cultivates the amazing quantity of
80 acres in madder, on his farm of lefs than
300 acres. In my garden at Wye, I was
much pleafed with the growth and produce
of a bed of Mr. Arbuthnot's choiceft kind
of madder ; and wifhed to fpread the cul
ture of it amongft country families, who
appeared the moft concerned in little
domeftic manufacturing. But, alas ! only
one family defired to have of it ; and plant
ed fome roots, in their garden.
CELLARS.
INTIMATIONS.
529
CELL A RS.
It is a general practice, in America, in
building habitations to have many win
dows ; and to leave them open in hot wea
ther for letting in the air. When in hot
weather there happens to be a breeze, fome
benefit is received by the few who can fit
clofe to the window. But as the air from
without is full 20 degrees hotter than with
in doors, the air looked for brings with it
that increafed degree of actual heat, when
the fun (hines : yet concentrated in a ftream
as it rufhes through the windows it relieves
perfons on whom it ftrikes, with fenfations
of coolnefs. But if the houfe is fiut up
during the hot fun-fhining part of the day,
the family feels more coolnefs and comfort
than when the windows are open for letting
in the wind which is actually hot and
how is it in a time of calm ? The having
only a few apertures^ in habit at ions ^ is ad
vantageous both againjl cold and heat.
L 1
Cellar
530 NOTES AND
Cellar windows are improperly left open
during the whole time of the hot feafon,
for letting in cool air : when in fad: the
air let in is heated above 20 degrees more
than the nearly quiefcent air in the cellar.
The following attentions would be pre
ferable to the common pradice. Shuttht
cellar up during the hot feafon, from May,
till October, night and day: or open the
windows after fetting of the fun, and dofe
them by fun rife, if it be a wet cellar. The
firft of Odober the windows may be left
open, day and night, till the end of No
vember, or threatening of a fpell of freez
ing weather: then again .dofe tbem r till
about 2oth of March or early April ;
when the windows are left open, till May,
as above. Yet, during winter, a few
fmall air holes may be left open immecji-
ately under the joifts of the firft floor, for
preferving fome degree of motion, as the
life of air, and for a paflage to mufty va
pours of the cellar. The lefs the cellar,
under habitations, the more healthful the
family.
INTIMATIONS. 53!
family. For a few purpofcs a fmall cellar
may be here. For other purpofes have
them under fome detached building.*
S E S.
" There are two forts in Arabia : the
finaller or lazy afs, as little efteemed there
as in Europe; and a large and high fpirited
L 1 2 breed>
* In five fucceffive days of June and July, I found the
medium mid-day heat of char days was 21 ~ more out
of doors, ten yards north of my houfe and 5 feet above
the ground, than in a recefs in a N. and S. paflage run
ning through the houfe. When cloudy, the heat out of
doors, as above, was only 3 to 5^ more than .in the
paflage. But, thefe experiments having been made in
a thick built town, are lefs fatisfactory than if they had
been of heat in the country, where its effects are much
more extenfively felt, by hufbandmen, labourers and
travellers. In fuch a nitch or other (haded part within
doors of a houfe in the country, obferve the degrees of
heat; and alfo at five feet above the ground ( the ther
mometer hanging clear of what might add to its heat)
of an open^/i/ or main road.
In July, when in-doors the heat was 80 in the back
yard north of the houfe it was i oo at five feet above the
ground, and at the fouth door 106 nine feet above the
ftreet.
532 NOTES AND
breed, which are greatly valued, and fold
at a full price. I thought them fitter than
horfes are." 2 Neibuhr's Trav. in Arab.
34-
PEAS AND BEANS.
Of all the kinds of Indian or Negro peas,
the cream coloured fmall round fort, the fize
of large briftol or duck fhot, called lady
pea, I prefer and chiefly cultivated. They
make excellent foup, bear well on dwarfs.
If fown, in Maryland the loth to the
middle of July, they ripen nearly altoge
ther; otherwife not. They were in rows
1 8 inches apart, and the clufters 10 inches
apart in the rows. The intervals, were
fhimmed two or three times : and the
plants handweeded and hoed once in the
rows. The fmall white dwarf or bum
bean^ proved the beft of the beans : but I
meant to try the large white runnnig bean.
G ATES.
INTIMATIONS. 533
GATES.
The beft gate-ways on my farms, were
thus conftru&ed. The pofts were fawed
fquare off at the tops ; and were but 4 feet
6 or 8 inches high from the ground. The
top of each poft inclined 4 inches inward
toward each other. Their diftance on the
ground was 9 feet, of courfe the diftance at
top was but 8 feet 4 inches : and this in
clination feemed to influence oxen and
horfes, in carts, to take more to the middle
of the paffage. Gluts of wood, large and
ftout, were trunnelled to the pofts and let
into the ground ; which ferved as fenders
and braces. Thefe fenders alfo tended to
direct beafts to the middle of the way.
Gate pofts ought never to be higher, if
fo high as the cart wheels; that plain frames
holding hay or ftraw may pafs over the
pofts.
When pofts are thus inclining to each
other at the tops, the gates will be narrow-
534 NOTES AND
er, by 8 inches, at top than the bottom ;
and of courfe lighter than if of the fquare
of 9 feet, as at the bottom ; and as they
are opened they rife gradually from no
thing to 4 inches ; and then let go, gently
fall to their ftaticn at the port.
My gates had been widened from 10 to
i i feet, by an honed Hibernian much my
friend, that the carts might be fure to pafs
through without ftriking the ports : but
alas ! the drivers became more carelefs,
and the cattle were left to their own bias.
Thefe ports 1 1 feet apart were more cut
than thofe of 10 feet as the 10 feet were
more than the 9 feet. Thefe laft were in
deed fcarcely touched the fenders, &c.
preventing it.
PLOWS.
A habitual fondnefs for 'wheels has great
ly lumbered and depreciated the plows of
England* Ingenioufly built Norfolk wheel
plows have been imported into America ;
but
INTIMATIONS. 535
but were very foon laid afide. In oppofi-
tion to this huge complex machine, the
Englifh Rotheran patent plow is every
thing : a fimple, chip, fwing-plow with a
clean but full bow mould board. The
(hare and mould board are fuperior for
cutting and turning old lay or grafsland :
but in horfehoing it is inferior to the com
mon bar plows of Maryland and Pennfyl-
vania, as it requires more ufe of the plow
man's hands. The common fault in the
American plows is moftly in the mould
board. Almoft any mould board, would
be preferable to the hollow fine fhaped board
which the fancy of fome delight in ; as in
judicious watermen prefer the fharp en
trance and hollow forepart of the bottoms
of failing veflels. The plow and the boat
have to force their way through refitting
mediums. For gaining this, fharpnefs of
entrance is all in all with heedlefs fancy.
But what avails this firft clear entrance,
if oppofition in a more abrupt and direct
manner, a little further aft is the confe-
quence ?
536 NOTES
qucnce ? View the hollow mo.uld board of
a (harp fair looking plow, after it has been
worked a while, or whilft working, what
a glut of fridion or oppofitipn it has ex
perienced, juft in the hollow, and how it
labours through accumulated maffes of
earth unthrown off forward. On the other
hand fee the mould board having a fair
eafy entrance and full bow in a gradual
fwell as it rifes, how it turns off the earth
and rids itfelf or avoids accumulated refift-
ance, juft as a well formed boat does the
water ; and this with the leaft poflible fric
tion or wearing of the mould board ! II-
luftration : defigning to fpend a winter
in Philadelphia, it was propofed that Mr.
Singleton, of Talbot, mould procure to be
made a double plow to carry two furrows
at a time, and that I mould have one made
at Philadelphia, where, in Arch ftreet,
was an ingenious plowmaker. On com
paring Mr. Singleton's with mine, the
weight of mine ready for work was 96fb,
wood and all: his 43 to 45 lb. His had
the admired fine light hollow mould board j
mine
INTIMATIONS. 537
mine the comparatively heavy looking full
bowed mould board. My plowmen, were
horfehoing maize, when I ordered the two
beft to try the double plows with two
horfes to each. Seeing them at work for
foine time, they were ordered to change
plows. After working thefe awhile, they
were afked feparately, their work being
fixty yards apart, which they liked beft.
It was curious how they for fome time
looked at one and then at the other plow,
before they anfwered. Their conclufion,
refpedively, was that the large plow was
beft : but that it was heavy in fwinging
round. It did not appear to them or to
me that the horfes exerted more power, or
were more worried, in carrying the large
than the fmall plow. The plowmen
were obliged conftantly to prefs on the ftilts
of the fmall plow, but not of the large one :
and whilft we were talking the horfes went
off with the large plow, which followed
them fteadily and without deviation as if
the plowman had hold of the ftilts and
leading line, for 70 or 80 yards. Both
were
NOTES AND
were bar fwing-plbws, for we fee no ufe
in wheels to plows : but the Philadelphia
plow had a longer tread. The Talbot
plow was fhorter than common which with
the bollownefs of the mould board deprived
it of fteadinefs and a due balance. Neither
Mr. Singleton or myfelf gave any direc
tion in making the mould boards.
Having worked mine one feafon, with ap
probation and fome admiration, a new
overfeer would improve my large plow, by
cutting away the fivell of the mould board
and leave it ko//ow 9 that it might pafs eafier
through the ground. It was done; and
the plow performed very indifferently : it
was worked thus a few days and laid
afide.
A promifmg mould board, formed on
mathematical principles, is lately invented
by Mr, Jefferfon ; of which an account is
given in the fourth volume of American
Philofophical Tranfadions, now in the
prefs.
TURNIPS.
INTIMATIONS.
TURNIPS.
539
Mr. Amos fays, " on poor foils 10
* c inches are the beft diftance : on rich foils
" 1 2 inches, and one inch the beft depth.
" When they ftand at a greater diftance,
" they grow too large for keeping long.
" The fmaller the turnips the longer they
" refift the feverity of winter." Too early
fown or planted turnips or cabbages do
not ftand the winter well : they are over
ripe, fpongy, and fufceptible of froft ; hav
ing lefs of the vis <vit<z of their nature :
their vigor is fpent, which would with-
ftand froft. But the more hardy Swedifh
turnip, called ruta-baga^ is fown in May,
for giving the full grown bulb in autumn :
yet, fown in June or early July may be
better for {landing the winter, in the
ground.
C A R R T S,
In Mr. Young's Agriculture of Suffolk^
it is faid the moft approved method is to
leave
NOTES AND
leave a barley ftubble, which has followed
roots, through the winter ; and about 25
March to plow by a double furrow as deep
as may be ; and to harrow in about 5^ of
feed an acre. About Whitfuntide hoe the
firft time ; and thrice in all, at 4 dollars an
acre. The produce on good land, 400 to
500 btifhels : fometimes 800. On poor
foils as low as 200 bufhels. The carrots are
commonly left in the ground during winter;
and taken up as wanted: but in fome winters
they are frofted and rot. The feed is 80 bu
fhels a week to 6 horfes, with chaff, but
no corn ; and when fo fed very little hay is
eaten. Yet it is beft to take the carrots up
in autumn and pack them in a barn. There
they acquire the withered Jlate ; in which
they yield moft nourtfhment ; and late feed
ing is better than early in the feafon when
they abound in water. Carrots put horfes
in better condition than corn iiithbay ; and
they leave oats for carrots. Feed with
them from Chriftmas till a full bite of grafs
in May. One bufhel with chaff, is enough
for a horfe a day, without corn, and faves
half
INTIMATIONS. 541
half the hay. The preparation they give
for a fubfequent crop, fully pays for them.
Mr, Amos propofes drilling carrot feeds.
Two pounds of feed, fteeped in rain water
24 hours, then laid on a floor till it fprouts,
with three pecks of dry faw duft, and three
pecks of fine dry mould, all well mixed
together, are drilled, one inch deep and
1 4 inches between the rows. Thus fteeped
xa&fprouted whenfown, the plants begin
to appear in 8 or 10 days. After drilling,
harrow once, with light harrows ; and then
roll, if the ground is not moift. As foon
as the carrots are about 2 or 3 inches above
ground, fays Mr. Amos, they fhould be
harrowed, the horfes walking in the fur
rows, for avoiding to tread the land and
plants. In two or three weeks after harrow
ing \hzfeeond hoing is given to clear away
weeds, and the plants are thinned* In 3
weeks again horfehoe the intervals, and
handhoe the rows, as well as finifh the
thinning. Every other row may betaken
up:
542 NOTES AND
up : the reft covered with a double mould
board plow, and long dung.
MODES OF SOWING WHEAT.
1. Broadcajl : the moft firnple and moft
common.
2. Drilling^ in continued rows ; like gar
den peas.
3. Drilling clufters ; in rows.
4. Dibbling: dropping feed in holes.
Broadcaft can fcarcely be hoed at all : nor
is it done in crops. Harrowing might an-
fwer.
Drilled \ like garden pcas^ it is borfehced
between the rows ; and yields more than
broadcaft. Drilled in clufters, it is horfehoed,
and may alfo be handhoed. It thus yields
ftill more than the drilled in a continued
line*
Dibbled, with a number of feeds in each
hole, is probably the moft productive:
dropping
INTIMATIONS.
543
dropping not lefs than eight or ten grains
of wheat to each clufter.
Mr. Amos made a number of compara
tive experiments, as well of feeds fowed
broadcaft as drilled: the refult whereof
(hews, that drilled and botfeboed grain is
fuperior to broadcajl harrowed and hand-
hoed, by 1 3 per cent; befides cheapnefs
in the work, and the ground left in better
condition. Drilled turnips, horfehoed,
fuperior to handhoed 1 7 per cent ; and the
work cheaper, with the ground left in bet
ter condition. Drilled fo/a/oes, horfehoed,
fuperior to handhoed 1 6 per cent ; the
work cheaper and the ground left better.
.
In the above experiments, broadcaft
wheat was handhoed, which it fcarcely ever
is in entire fields of it. If, in the experi
ment, it had not been handhoed, the fupe-
riority of the drilled wheat might have been
greater.
From
544 NOTES AND
From experiments made by me at Wye,
I eftimate wheat growing in clufters to be
15 per cent better then drilled wheat in
continued rows, both being hoed, &c.
alike; which would be i or 33 per cent
better than broadcaft wheat not hoed : and
the growing crops of clujlered wheat, arc
the moft beautiful, the work eafy, and the
produces the moft abundant and perfect !
R T A T 10 NS.
Mr. Amos 's are :
I. II. in.
Oats Turnips, rot. Potatoes 1 2 1. dung
Cole feed, limed dung lol. Barley
with 144 bufh. Barley Clover
Barley Clover Wheat
Beans Wheat
Wheat
The lime ought to enrich greatly : for
colefeed is faid to be very impoverifhing, and
beans are the only mild crop in No. I. So
the dung muft be rich, and the ground pre-
vioufly in good heart, in No. II. as 10 loads
are rather a fmall allowance to an acre. The
like
INTIMATIONS. 545
like; of No. Ill: but then No. II and III
have two mild crops, rather ameliorating,'
to two exhaufters.
-h ni
DRINKING WATER.
/[j'J'J
" j 'Tn low flat countries, and efven in fome
dtftrids of higher : country, the water of
rprihgs and wells is bad rafted a!nd ; bad in
quality. What in fprings is not flufh but
fluggifh and nearly ftagnant, aboiinds in
putrid remains of vegetables and infefts ;
and fome are Continually 'muddy or milky,
as it is called. ' What are deerfied fprings of
good, clear, -and' Tweet water, in thefe coun
tries, are ftill but comparatively fo. They
want the brilliancy and the fpirit of rock
Mteter, fuchP^ : the highlands afford.
'
If filtering the water ufed in drink was
praclifed, it would render what is fo infe
rior at leaft bright and palatable ; arid pro
bably perfectly wholefome; efpecially if
charcoal fhould be applied to it as below.
. Mm Of
546 ttOTES AND 7
Of this , and filtering, it may be bbferved
that, ,,: ,r
.'r,j
Purifying water may be performed in ei-
therofthe following modes. According
to Dodor Lind, a fmall cafk open at both
ends, is placed within a larger calk want
ing a head. Clean fand and .gravel is; put,
into bptlji, Jfo that the Je ve;l of the land with
in the inner cafk (room being left to poirr jn.
water) be higher than the; bed of fand in the
interniediate fpace betwixt the two caiks.
A cock t is fixed in the putq; ,ca%, abpve
the fand, at a level fomewhat dower tliaii
the furface of the materials in the inner caiiu
The water poured in at.tpp; pf the inner
cafk, finks through the mafs;qf fand ; : an$
paffing alfo 'through that in the outer caik,
afcends and is difcharged at the cock, when
wanted As- the furface of the fand hr > (the
inner cafk becomes loaded with impurities,
remove it, and add frem clean fand.
According to Mr. Lowitz, three half
ounces of charcoal powder, and twenty-
four
547
four drops of oil of vitriol fuffice to purify
three and an half pints of corrupted water,
without giving it acidity. If the vitriol is
omitted, it requires thrice the quantity of
charcoal or nine half ounces. The vitriol
is firft mixed with the water : then the Coal.
Spring water having an unpleafent hepa
tic flavour, is improved by filtering it
Mbwttgb a bag half full of charcoal pow
der. Dry this charcoal, and powder it
over again ; it then will anfwer a fecond
time : and if made red hot in a cloft veflel,
the coal will immediately recover its power
of purifying, after having before loft it by
ufe. Mr. Hufeland fays, reduce burnt
charcoal to a fine powder : mix a fpoonful
of rt in a pint of ftagnant, bid, or putrid
Water s ftir it tVelf and let it ftand a &\*r
minutes: theti Vun it flowly through filter
ing j3aper. The fame powder will anfwer
again. To travellers k is recommended that
they dry the powder and keep it corked
clofe up in a vial ; and for families in
bottles.
M m 2 To
548 NOTES AND
To purify water in a way I am., about
to make experiment of, for procuring
frefh water from fea water, the water is
to be filtered through a clean fea fend in
tubes, near five feet down and as many up,
till the water has pafled through fifty or
fixty feet of land,, and, is fo far filtered.
The cafe is ,of wood, and takes up the
room of about fix feet fquare, and only
about eight inches thicknefs, the tubes being
four by five inches fquare, in the clear.
If it fails of frefhening fea water, it ftill
will anfwer for filtering fpring rain or run
ning water to a great perfection. The
hint for {training fea water thus through
fand, I take from the practice of horfes
running on fand iflands, upon the coaft of
Virginia and Maryland, where they have
no other means of procuring , wate,r to
drink than by fcraping holes in the., beach
on : falling of the tides; from whence they
get good water: and very fweet water is
obtained at old Point Comfort, in the
Chefapeak, from finking a cafk or two in
the beach.
Rain
INTIMATIONS. 549
Rain water is faved in cifterns under
ground in many places of Europe, efpecially
in Holland, Spain, Italy and Sicily ; and
according to travellers, there is no fweeter
or .purer water. It is efteemed according
to its age, which gives it its remarkable
purity. I think it is Mr. Stolberg who fays
rain water three years old was recommend
ed to him, and he found it very excellent.
See before, page 466, of Houfe Cifterns.
H EM P.
It is faid that both the dreffing and fpin-
ning of hemp are beft performed in a damp
place. It is inclined to twift too much in
fpinning. Alfo that it is a lefs injury to the
hemp to pull the plants before they are ripe
enough, than, to leave them too long ftand-
ing : and it is a lefs injury, in foaking hemp,
to leave it too long in the water than to
take it out before it is fufficiently foaked
(live or running * water is meant and fpoken
of). And it is aflerted, that putting the
clufters
'
55Q NOTES AND
cluftefs containing the hemp feed, to fweat
J *-- -tj caijfes many feeds to ripen.
The above obfervations on hemp are
taken from a publication in London, in
1 790 : in which the reader may be alarm
ed a.t the boldnefs of the affurance refpeU
ing hemp being long left in water : but a,
diftindion is to be taken between wter
lagn&nti where it would rotj and water
running or alive ', in which it cannot rot.
FIRST IMPRESSIONS.
Science is but little regarded by hufband-
rnen. Yet an education which tends to
promote the focial virtues and manners, ia
invaluable in all ftations of life. But the
virtues with happy manners^ can only be
aflured to the rifing generation by the very
earlieft attentions to children by the pious
good mother and nurje ; beginning with
the firft lifp : for childern reafon and under-
fhmd, though not ftrongly, yet long before
they can articulate.
Neverthelefs,
INTIMATIONS. 55!
Neverthelefs, how negle&ed and how
little underftood is education, as well in
the town as the country. Parents at as if
all that is neeeflary is to fend children to
fchool : but how mifplaced is book learn
ing without firft impreffing them at home
with good intentions, good principles ; and
leading them to a defire of improving as
well their manners as their minds.
Attentions are mifapplied in the educa
tion of children which early burthen their
memories with catechifms. Religion, mo
rals and manners are contained in the Gof-
pel of Jefus Chrift ; which confifts of a
few plain principles that are invaluable f
but thefe are nearly loft in a cloud of forced
and unnatural expofition and fantafy. To
imprefs the minds of children with the ge
neral belief of their fubordination to a
Supreme Being* who is perfefl goodnefs,
without attempting thus early to explain
more of the Deity, is it not enough !
" Amongft
NOTES 'AND-
" Amongft the ancient' Romans, parents
" anxioufly attended to the education of
" their children; .beginning it from their
44 birth. They committed them to the
4C care of fome well known prudent matron
" of character (or the motner performed it j
" whofe bufmefs it was to form their fir/1
44 habits of acting and fpeaking ; to watch
" their growing paffions, and 'din ft them
" to the proper objeds ; to fuper intend
" their fports, and fuffer nothing indecent
<c or improper to come from them : that
"the. mind preferred in \\sinnoccnce, nor
depraved by a tafte of delufive pleafure,
might be free to purfue things laudable,
and apply its whole ftrength to the pro-
*' feffion in which it is difpofed to excel.
" No time of improvement was loft; and
4< literary injlruffion kept pace with the
" moral. They were accuftomed to hear at
" home the pureft language and fentiment,
" from their nurfts^ their fai 'hers ', and their
** mothers, accompanied with attentions,
" gentle manners and addrefs towards all
'* their fellow creatures."
RAW
INTIMATIONS.
RAW. LIMESTONE AND GTPSUM
MANURES.
Mr. Chancellor Livingston of New York,
has made a number of valuable experiments,
which are publifhed by the agricultural
fociety there, and from which the follow
ing are fele&ed. In Auguft 1790, on a
rood of ftiff clay ground lying very flat,
he fpread one bufhel of pulverifed Itme/fone.
In the next fummer, the effects of it were
difcernible to an inch, both in the verdure
and luxuriancy 5 of the grafs. The differ
ence between it and the parts adjoining
were in its favour, as he judged on
counting the cocks, as feven to four : from
whence he infers that, on clay ground,
eight bufhels of pulverifed limeftone are at
leaft equal to fix of gypfum. This is
very important teftimony. Many places
are fcarce of fuel for burning limeftone :
and if ever fo plenty, hufbandmen can find
means for pulverifing eight bufhels of the
ftone, at a cheaper and more advantageous
rate than they can break up and reduce 100
bufhels
554 NOTES AND
btifliels of ftone, cut the wood, cart in the
ftorte and wood, charge the kiln, and at
tend feveral day's and nights to feed it :
befides the difference of carrying it put and
ftrewing it on the fields. At the fame time
the Chancellor tried the effects of .pulverif-
ed .lime/lone, at the rate often bufhels to
th$ #cre on a fandy loam ; and this acquir
ed the fame verdue as the part that had
been dreffed with gypfttm. On the 20 May
1791,- the Chancellor viewed a piece of
flax* fown very injudicioufly by a poor
tenant, on a dry Jan dy declivity. It looked
extremely fickly, and the tenant thought
of plowing it up : but the Chancellor pre-
fcribed for it, three bufhels of gypfum to be
applied the next morning whilft the dew
fhould be yet on the ground. It was ac-
cordiiagly applied, and the benevolent
Chancellor exprefies his fati&faction in hav
ing feen the tenant gather, more JZax from
this Lalf acre y in an uncommon dry fum-
me^ than any acre in the neighbourhood
afforded. In many cafes of experience,
the principle I hold of gypfum fhe wing its
extraordinary
INTIMATIONS. 555
extraordinary power in promoting vegeta
tion moftly in dryfeafons* is corrobprated :
for it is principally in dry feafons and fitu-
ations that gypfum fhews its importance in
pufhing vegetation forward ; undoubtedly
by its fuperior virtue in inviting or attract
ing particles of moifture, to itfelf and
plants near it.
Mr. Chancellor Livingfton from his
eighteen experiments on gypfum, lime-
ftone, raw ; and oyfterfhells, pulverifed j
draws, the following inferences :
1. That gypfum in fmall quantities has
no vifible effect, on wbeaf or rye.
2. That it is uniformly beneficial to
Indian corn ; unlefs it be in very rich or
very wet foils,
3. That it is beneficial to fax on dry
poor ftndy land.
A. That
556 NOTES AND
4, "'That it is peculiarly adapted to the
growth of clover in all dry foils, or even
in wet 'foils in a dry fealbn.
5. That lime/lone yulvenkA, has fimilar
effects withgypftim: but whether it is bet
ter adapted to' wet foils, he could not : as yet
determine.
6.-' "Another fad, he fays, feems to be
v efy 1 well : eftabli fhed, though he could fay
ii6thirig of it from his own experience, that
its effects as a manure are hardly perceiva
ble in the vicinity of the fea.
RUST OF WHE A T.
' c Mr. Ifaac Young, of Georgia, mixed
rye amongft his feed wheat, and thus
efcaped theblaft of his wheat. It was {re
peatedly tried, till he was convinced of its
efficacy : and then he fowed five acres with
wheat, furrounded with a lift of 25 feet
breadth of rye : and this alfo fucceeded ;
and
INTIMATIONS.
and beipg repeated, is found a
fecurity to the wheat" Rom.
! ,.; .
I have alfo heard ana English ;
that rye fpwn mixt with vybeat vv i
the wheat from being blighted, in
!' .
^ Stuffing for [Leathery itiifthoes an
''.-' , I /;< . -,;,{ {>
The New-England fifer
benefit from : ferving. ^their bo'ots
following , compofition ; which
water,- : ai>d preierves boots and*
The fame advantages are applicable
(hoes of hufbandmen. My fhoes have
been ferved with it conftantly for feven
years; and in no inftance have let in any wa
ter or dampnefs through ( the leather; nor
dqes it harden qr ftiffea the thinned :cajf fa
ther. One pint of boiled linficd oil ; half a
pound of, mutton fuet ; fix ounces clean
bees-*wax ; four ounces rojin: melt and mix
well over a flow fire;. Shoes or. boots when
quite new and clean, are a.littje wanned;
and then are ferved with the -fluffing; alfo
warmed,
NOTES AND
warmed,bu t fo as not to fcald, as much as
the outfide of the leather, upper and' foal,
can receive ; and efpecially the feams and
joining of the foal and upper leather are to
be well fluffed ; taking care the tack-
holes are plugged up ; and that all is per
fectly dry. The leather will want no re
newal of the fluffing : at lead my fhoes
never have. I ufe a painter's brufh for
laying on the fluff. This fluffing fills the
pores of the leather and excludes water, as
the fap of greeti wood when infpiffated
by fire fills the pores of wood and excludes
water.
BRAMBLE 1 FENCES.
,
The intelligent Doctor Anderfon, of
Scotland; gives an interefling account of
the bramble ; and recommends it as far pre
ferable to the fweet briar in a fence.
Its character is, that it referribles the
rafpberry in the manner of its growth ;
and they differ from all other plants. But
the
INTIMATIONS.:
rhe bramble lias a peculiarity, I difteriag
from .'the irafpberry in L this; it alone .pof*
feffe^ thg faculty tb ftrike- out foots ;<#
the point of sach ihoonbf ia year's grpwuV)
and'iio^theripait of die fienxcan bebi?ougt&
to ftrike-rGOt, even if laid in the ground
So liteit -tOiT-prevent brambles from ram
bling and fouling the ground, aot-hing
more is neceffary than to. >alk round ^ the
bramble^feace, * and- whip off the
which dangle towatdb the, ground.
recommends every Jluguft for this \york.
It will want no othei* -clipping, Shortening,
or
Like the rafpberry, the bramble yearly
lends out many (hoots from the bottom
(the ground), which pirftv out to the whole
length : they ever attain, during the firft
year. -Thefe Ihoots, in this feafon, con-
fift ofc Jingle /ferns which never branch, tin-
lefs where by accident they have been cut
over, when they became forked* In the
next feafeo thefey?<WAr: fet out many fruit*
heaving branches, along their whole length,
which
560 NOTES AND
which flower and perfect their feeds, while
a new fet ofjlems are puihing from the
bottom to become feed-bearers next feafon.
After perfecting their feeds the whole ft em
that bore them, with all its branches, dies.
This is the unvarying progreffion obferved
in the growth of the bramble plant : fo that
a hedge of it, will at .all times contain three
dijlintl kinds of /hoots, intermixed with
and croffing each other in all directions : i .
the dead fooots ; 2. d\Q fruit Jboots ; 3. the
roots pujhing forward \^ their lengthy growth.
They are all covered with ftrong fpines,
and form an impenetrable matting, when
confined within proper bounds.
A good fence of bank and bramble may
be reared in moft fituations, fays Mr.
Anderfon, at zd to:3^fterling a yard (3 to
5 cents ;) for a facing is required only on
one fide.
Sweet briar he obferves is not equal to
the bramble : for unlefs it be often cut over
by the roots, it gets naked below, rugged,
and
INTIMATIONS. 561
and unfightly, if without fupport from
other plants; and if other plants be near
them, they grow poorly. In expofed fitu-
ations too the wind gets hold of the tops
and by afting on them as a lever, is apt to
pull down the bank.
The bramble is liable to none of thefe
objections ; and it feems to be, he adds, the
very plant fitted by nature for forming that
clofe, netted prickly coping, alike wanted
to prevent animals from tearing down the
bank, and to preferve it from the levelling
power of the wind, and other external in
juries. The bramble efpecially excels
other plants on upland thin ground.
Bramble fences ', which are equally appli
cable in foft good foils and thofe that are
harder in rocky and hilly countries, may
be thus conftrucled :
A bank is raifed on the inner fide of a
ditch, where it can be dug and faced with
ftones, of a good binding quality ; or if the
N n ftones
562 NOTES AND
ftones are fmall or roundifh, or fewer
than wanted, they may be laid in alternate
rows with fods. Where no ftones are to
be had, the facing may be entirely of fod.
The backing to be made of earth, dug ei
ther from the ditch, if on a level, or fcraped
from without, if upon a flope ; or taken
from behind where it is eafieft had ; fo as
to raife the wall with its ditch four to five
feet high. Upon the top of this bank and
about one foot backwards from its edge, plant
a row of bramble plants, at about fix inches
apart all around. If taken from the com
mons be fure they are all young plants near
ly grown and well rooted : for it is of the
utmoft confequence that the hedge fhould
come forward equally in all its parts ; fo
as not to leave a fingle gap in any place.
To infure this, plants reared from feeds are
beft and the cheapeft. The plants are to
be examined t\\z Jirft feafon after planting ;
and fupplied with what are wanting : with
out which attention, the hedge can never
afterwards be made equal and uniform
throughout. I am induced, fays Mr. An-
derfon,
INTIMATIONS. 563
derfon, to take notice of the circumflaiice
thus pointedly from obferving a culpable
carelefsnefs refpeding it, which is the chief
caufe of the raggednefsm hedges that every
where prevails. If a dead fence of thorns
and brufhwood be placed on the top of the
fence at the time when the brambles are
planted, thefe live plants may be intermix
ed with the dead fence, to advantage rather
than detriment. Care is to be taken of
fheep, that they have not accefs to injure
the bank.
If the hedge has been planted with care, it
will come forward with great luxuriance, in
{hoots which rifmg upwards and fpreading
out on both fides form a clofe matted coping
offpring plants all over, which will effectu
ally prevent intrufion of men or animals.
The people of Kent County, Maryland,
who made naked bank fences, mentioned
in page 236, wanted only to know the
above ufes of bramble plants for them to
have completed their defign. They made
N n 2 banks.
564 NOTES AND
banks, and fodded them very perfe&ly.
Brambles upon thefe banks would have
properly fhaded the banks and preferved
the grafs, and with dead wood for the firft
feafon or two, among the brambles would
have kept off beafts from cutting down the
fods, and always afterwards.
IMPROVEMENT OF THE MIND FOR
RURAL LIFE.
" Of fcientifical purfuits, the moft libe
ral, the moft honorable, the happieft, and
what probably will be the moft fuccefsful
employment for a man in eafy circumftan-
ces, (particularly in country life,) is the
Jludy of nature, including natural hiftory and
natural philofophy ; and therefore to this
important object a principal attention mould
be given in educating youth who have the
means of applying to thefe inftructive and
comfortable purfuits, when it may be with
out interfering with the means neceflary to
his fupport. Every man finds vacant mo
ments from his ordinary bufinefs, which
cannot
INTIMATIONS. 565
cannot be better filled than by fuch attenti
ons as lead to the improvement of his un-
derftanding and elevate his mind to admire,
more and more, the aftoniihing works of the
Creator; and thus is real religion befriended.
" All the arts, from whence is derived
all that tends to the fecurity and comfort
of mankind, depend upon the knowledge
of the powers of nature wherewith we be
come converfant ; and the only poflible
way of afluring and increafmg the con-
veniencies and comforts of life, of guard
ing againft inconveniencies and vexations,
to which all are fubjecT:, and of enlarging
the powers of man, is through a further
acquaintance with the powers of nature!"
From Doctor Prieftly, a very little altered.
Some inftruftion in geometry and mechanics
would alfo be advantageous in country life.
Farmers who do not lay the hand
to the plow, often want they know not
what: time hangs heavy on them: They
feel duTatisfied, reftlefs : a void furrounds
them.
566 NOTES AND
them. Employment of any fort would give
them relief. But they mount the horfe, and
leave their family and the inviting calls of
an improvable landed eftate or farm, to feek
amufement in riding to and fro ; fome-
times unwarily popping into taverns. But,
though time is thus pafled away, they gain
no folid or permanent fatisfadtion, much
lefs any improvement of the mind : and
to be fure the farm is not improved ; nor
its work well done. Were thefe matters
of farms fortunately led by their parents to
tafte the fweets of fuch an education as
Dr. Prieftly recommends, thejludy of nature^
they would never want foothing and nou-
riihing food to the mind ; and from their
being employed in inquiries concerning the
wonderful works of the Supreme Being,
a found and rational piety would be increaf-
ed and confirmed in them. The book of
nature far furpafles books of clumfy art ;
whilft the wordy works of mifled and mif-
leading inftrudors convey no profitable
knoxvledge, and are infignificant to com
mon fenfe, and to good minds wifhing to
be
INTIMATIONS. 567
be impreffed with the knowledge of plain
truths, and improved in whatever is amia
ble and promotive of good. The comforts
held out by the gofpel of Chrift, confirm
the hope derived from contemplations on
nature : and there is a perfect agreement
between the pure principles of the go/pel,
and the laws of nature.
ORCHARDS.
It feems, in England as in America, or
chards have been confiderably neglected ;
and the knowledge of proper modes of
managing them was not generally well
known in the moment when a well-timed
and generous interference, of a Mr. Buck-
nall> effe&ed fuch a current in favour of
them, as that they are again becoming a
great confideration in England. Befides
Mr. Bucknall's perfonal attention to his
own, his neighbours, and friends orchards,
and very actively diffufmg a knowledge of
the new principles in converfations, he ad-
drefled the London fociety for the encou
ragement
568 NOTES AND
ragement of arts, laid before them his prin
ciples of orcharding, as he calls it, obtained
firft their filver medal, and on a further
communication their gold medal with their
thanks. The certificates accompanying
his communications are very ftrong in
their favour; and his practice is warmly
adopted, and in a courfe of being generally
purfued by the Englifli farmers. An ex
perienced and intelligent farmer, from New-
England, alfo affures me that for the cor-
reclnefs of Mr. Bucknall's principle on
clofe-pruning, he can vouch, from his own
practice twenty-five years ago. A pam
phlet on Mr. Bucknall's principles and
practice is publiflied in London, entitled
The Orchardift ; from which the following
notes are taken.
The management of orchards is capable
of being reduced to a fyftem, under a few
general heads concentrated in the principle
of making every tree in orchards, healthy
) large ^ and beautiful.
Due
INTIMATIONS. 569
Due pruning would greatly prevent the
fpeckkd and ftunted fruits occafioned by the
trees being overloaded with wood ; which
obftruds the rays of the fun, and caufes a
vapour ', the cold whereof ftunts the fruit
in its firft growth.
The bark of trees confifts of the outer^
rough; the middle ', foft and fpongy;
the inner, a whitifh rind which joins the
bark to the wood, and is fuppofed to
contain the liquid fap.
When the ftem grows too faft for the
bark, it caufes blotches and lacerations;
which is avoided by fcoring the bark with
a (harp knife, fo as not to cut through the
whitifh rind.
CLOSE-PRUNING, AND MEDICATING
FRUIT-TREES.
Pruning with judgment brings trees to
bear fooner ; and continue in vigour nearly
double their common age. Mr. Bucknall
gives no attention to fruit branches and
wood
57 NOTES AND
wood branches in the prefent inftance.*
No branch is evef to be JJoortened ; unlefs
for the figure of the tree, and then clofe at
the feparation.
The more the range of the branches
{hoot circularly, a little inclining upward,
the more equally the fap will be diftribut-
ed, and the better will the tree bear.
Let not the ranges of branches be too
near each other ; as all the fruit and leaves
fhould have their full fhare of the fun.
Where it fuits, let the middle of the tree be
free from wood; fo that no branch crofles
another, but all the extreme ends point
outwards.
A neighbour faying, your trees are
bandfome but too thin of wood, is a high
compliment ;
* The expreffion " In the prefent Inftance" muft mean,
in general, refpefting his prefent fubjeft of pruning :
gives no attention to fruit branches and wood branches,
in pruning fruit trees fuffered to run greatly into wood :
but thins them to be airy t and to give Jbape and regular
branches.
INTIMATIONS. 57!
compliment ; for they will gain the beft
price for the fruit at market, a fure teft of
perfection.
A young orchard was planted in a rich
foil and it throve greatly. Such vigorous
growth occafioned an early decay of the
trees, from the wind fplitting them down ;
and the wood being foft many caufes con
curred to injure them. The injudicious
manner in which the lacerations were taken
off added to the evil ; for generally a gum
follows from a wound, and this becomes
filled with vermin, which obftrucl: the
healing by their eating and fretting the
bark. Mr. Bucknall is here fpeaking of an
orchard of both apple and cherry trees ;
the latter yield gum.
He found the branches fo intermixed
and entangled together as to cut each other
and caufe wounds and blotches; which
on the return of the fap in the fpring,
affecls the leaves by inclining them to
curl.
In
572 NOTES AND
In this ftate of the orchard, in the No
vember following, Mr. Bucknall under
took to improve it ; and found that the
branches could not be cut true enough with
a bill, to take them off, without leaving a
(lump or improper wound, as it is effential
tha]t every branch fhould be cut perfectly
clofe and fmootb. He therefore ufedy^mr,
and afterwards fmootbed with a knife. Im
mediately on this the wounds, with medi
cated tar on a brufh, were fmeared over.
As the bark can never grow over a ftump,
he always cuts a little within the wood.
The rule is to cut quick^ chfe, and fmooth*
Mr. Bucknall and his affiftants kept to
gether, and firft walked round the tree.
He then pointed out every branch that
came near the ground or had received ma
terial injury, or where the leaves were
much curled (which are accompanied with
fpecky fruit ;) and every branch having
the leaft tendency to crofs the tree or run
inwards, was taken off. Then he attend
ed
INTIMATIONS. 573
cd to the beauty of the bea^ leaving all
the branches as nearly equidiftant as poffi-
ble. Next they examined .if there were
any remaining blotches ; and opened and
fcored them with the knife; and where
the bark was ragged from laceration, pared
it gently down till they came to the live
wood. Each of thefe were then touched
over with the medicated tar. The mofs
fhould then be rubbed off and the trees
fcored.
In cutting they went to the quick, but
avoided making the wound larger than ne-
ceffary.
In doubting whether a particular branch
fhould be taken off, they confidered if it
will be in the way three years hence. If
it will, the fooner it is off the better.
When trees are much trimmed they throw
out many (hoots in the fpring. It is neeef-
fary that thefe be rubbed off, not cut ; for
cutting increafes them.
The
574 NOTES AND
The MEDICATED TAR is compofed of
one half ounce of corrofive fublimate ^ reduc
ed to a fine powder by beating it with a
wooden hammer : then put it into a three-
pint earthen pipkin, with a glafs full of gin
or other fpirit ftirred well together, and
the fublimate thus diflblved. The pipkin
is then filled by degrees with common tar,
and conftantly ftirred, till the mixture is
blended, intimately as poffible. This
quantity is fufficient for 200 trees.
Corrofive fublimate is a violent poifon ;
and to prevent mifchief, it is to be inftant-
ly mixed in the tar, foon as bought. Mr.
Bucknal finds the fublimate diflblves better
when united with the fame quantity of fpi
rit of hartfhorn or of fal ammoniac.
Farmers fearing to meddle with corrofive
fublimate may get their apothecary to mix
the ingredients ; the tar being fent to him.
Or let them try the following as an experi
ment. Mix filh oil one part with tar
two or three parts, by flirring them well
over
INTIMATIONS.
575
over a gentle fire, that the mixture may be
perfect Apply it when cold. Would
you add things bitter or acrid ; as aloes, or
red pepper ?
For giving more body or confidence to
this mixture, add fine powder of fullers
earth or clay ; or according to Lord New-
powdered chalk.
Do not attempt to force a tree to grow
higher than it is difpofed to grow : but
keep the branches out of the reach of cat
tle : then let them follow their natural
growth.
In general prune trees foon as the fruit is
vjfl that the wounds may tend towards
healing before the froil: comes on.
The fubftantial form of the tree is the
fame before and after pruning. It is of the
fame fize, and the extreme moots are all
kept at the fame diftance. But too often
the
576 NOTES AND
the heads of trees are mutilated and the tree
is left in a more decaying ftate.
The year before the trees are to be plant
ed out, choofe and prune them in the nurfery;
taking off perfectly c/ofe, all rambling and
unfightly branches, leaving the beads to
three or four good leading moots. From
pruning thus in the nurjery the year pre
ceding the planting out the trees, it will
not be requifite to prune for fome time j
and the wounds being healed, will acce
lerate their growth. Plant none galled,
fretted or cankered. Take them up to be
planted, with roots long as is convenient,
prepare ftakes before the day of planting,
and flake them immediately.
Shelter, by trees, is requifite on the cold
blowing fides of the orchard, north-weft
to north-eaft.
Plant not the trees too deep ; many ills
arife from it.
Mr.
INTIMATIONS. 577
Mr. Bucknall's tools are ; two pruning
knives ; a faw ; two chifels ; a mallet ; a
fpoke fhave, and a painter's brufh. With
the chifels and fpoke ihave work upwards,
or the bark will fhiver. The faw muft be
coarfe fet ; all the other tools iliarp and
fmooth.
He prefers the blade-bone of a doe, for
rubbing off rotten bark, mofs, &c.
When the trees are planted, a queftion
arifes what ufe is to be made of the ground ?
To plow it is dangerous ; as the injuries
received by young trees from imple
ments in hufbandry are great ; and if any
kind of corn is grown, the land is irn-
poverifhed, and then the trees are ftunted
and run to mofs. Hops do well for fome
years, and then let the ground be grazed :
and the ground is never to be plowed deep
directly over the roots of a young planted
fruit tree.
O o Manure
578 NOTES AND
Manure is neceflary to an orchard ; and
hog's dung is the beft. Watering orchards
in dry weather is important which may be
accomplifhed if a ftream can be led
through it.
Prevent young trees bearing much fruit ;
pluck it off foon as feen, except half a
dozen to mow the quality. Graze and
manure. Hogs are beft to run in orchards.
Although no leading branches are to be
fhortened^ yet whilft in the nurfery^ the heads
muft be cut down to give ftrength and
fymmetry to the ftem ; and alfo moft of the
grafts muft be fhortened, or the wind will
blow them out ; and whilft in the infant
ftate, fhortening the plant helps to fvvell
out the buds. Shortening is only forbid
when the plant becomes a tree.
Mofs is the refult of poverty and
and refleds difcredit on the owner. In a
whet day, a ftrong man with a birch-
broom can do great good on mofs. He is
to
INTIMATIONS. 579
to rub all the branches, fpring and autumn,
with a hand-brufri and foap-fuds. They
may then be oiled or not, as you like.
The beft orchard foil is a deep loam. No
one for profit would plant on a ftrong clay
or a cold (harp gravel. But where it is
neceflary to plant on thefe foils, never dig
into the under-ftrata ; which would be
planting in well-holes: rather plant the
trees above ground, raifmg over them a
little mound of good mould, and fow on
it white clover.
In pruning, never omit the medication ;
as the mercury is found ftrongly operative
in removing the effects of canker, giving
a fmoothnefs of the bark, and a freenefs
of growth.
The fyftem of clofe-pruning and medica
tion here follows, that it may be feen
at once : Take off every flump, the
decayed or blighted branches^ with all
that crofs the tree, or w r here the leaves
O o 2 curl,
580 NOTES AND
curl, clofe^ fmooth, and even. Pare the
gum down clofe to the bark, and even a
little within, but not to deftroy the rough
coat : open the fiffures from whence the
gum oozes, to the bottom : cut away the
blotches and pare down the canker : then
anoint all the wounds with the medication,
fmearing a little over the canker not large
enough to be cut : warn and fcore the tree,
rubbing off the mofs ; but do not fhorten
a fingle branch.
A tree under fuch care muft, with its
remaining free {hoots, run large ; which
requiring a great flow of fap will keep the
roots in conflant employ, and from that
very fource neceflarily eftablifh permanent
health.
Canker, he fays, arifes much from ani
malcule ; and if the only object is to re
move the canker, he finds hog's-lard prefer
able to tar ; but where wet is to be guarded
againft, tar is iuperlatively better. Ergo :
tar and oil, as above.
Mr.
INTIMATIONS. 581
Mr. Morjhead pradifed chfe-pruning and
medication ^ according to Mr. Bucknall, on
a great variety of fruit trees of all ages ;
which fucceeded beyond his expectations.
Twamkfs principles on pruning or
chards accord with Mr. Bucknall's, as far
as he touches on it.
PEACH TREES.
A farmer in New-Jerfey has publifhed
in the news-papers, an account of peach
trees ; in which he fays, on the fecond of
jfune 1795 his peach trees were in a very,
fickly ftate : that he applied the remedy
below mentioned ; in confequence whereof
by the middle of July they had recovered
their full verdure and health ; and that in
1799 they ftill continued in full health.
His remedy was in laying bare the fterns
of the trees and the roots near to the ftems,
by taking the earth away. There then ap
peared in the trees a number of holes the fize
of
582 NOTES AND
of gimblet holes. On probing them hairy
worms were brought out, of a whitifh
colour, except that the head was brown
with a {harp nofe ; and it was an inch long
and had a boring motion. Burdock leaves
were dipped in whale oil (currier's fifh oil)
and wrapped about the part of the trees af-
feded ; and then the earth taken off was
thrown on them. Six quarts of oil ferved
twenty trees. Three of his trees had bees,
in hives, under them. Fearing to difturb
the bees with the fmell of the oil, the ftems
and roots were only laid bare as above ;
and thefe trees alfo recovered.
He thinks the effluvium of the oil foon
killed the worms in the firft inftance ; and
that from their being very porous, the air
entering the pores killed them in the laft
inftance : and he adds as his opinion that if
the trees are laid bare as above in the fpring
and covered before winter fets in, it may
anfwer the defired effecT:, with taking off
the fungus or gum on the body of the tree
under which the worms breed. A num
ber
INTIMATIONS. 583
her of them were taken from within a
lump of gum, and they all " diffolved" in
the air. The old worm on having a drop
of oil put on its head, drew up in a ball and
inftantly died.
He fays, a large peach orchard, in Jer-
fey, was on a loofe fand, called the fand
hills ; which he thinks was " an old or
chard in 1738,'* when he knew it, and
he thinks it was in being in 1776 when he
rode over thofe hills, fo that it continued
more than 40 years. He thereon infers
that fandy foil is beft for peach trees.
I have known peach trees give fruit
many years in the fandy lands of Severn
River, in the country about Annapolis;
and alfo on clay loams in the peninfula of
Chefapeak ; where they were in old fields,
or free from fpade or plow breaking the
'ground near them. An apricot tree flood
a number of years in a garden where the
ground was yearly dug about it ; the fruit
always dropt off before it could ripen.
That
584 NOTES AND
That part of the garden being turned out,
the ground fettled and remained clofe all
about the tree : from which time it matured
its fruit.
The winter 1783-4 was extremely fe-
vere. Its froft killed many noble oaks and
other trees, but not one of many peach
trees in my orchard and garden. The
garden peach trees annually fuffered by the
worm above defcribed, but never thofe in
the orchard where the ground remained
unftirred. In the fpring 1784 many feed-
ling peach trees being hove up by the froft,
feemed to fland on their main roots which
were left above ground without being injur
ed. Thefe proofs of the hardinefs of peach
trees induced me to dig the earth from the
garden peach trees late in November, and
return it in April. In feveral years of this
being pradlifed, I recoiled no inftance of
the worm in thofe trees.
DIET
INTIMATIONS.
585
DIET FOR PRISONERS:
- Iffued to the prifoners in the gaol of Phila
delphia in 1798 ; for 230 men and women.
BREAKFAST AND SUPPER :
Indian-meal 29^- gals. 5tb. a gal. 147}^. at C. M.
2c. I T V aib. ..... 314 6
MelafTes 4^ gals, at 60 c. . . . . 270 o
Salt 3 qts ........ 66
Water 96 gals, in Muft 384 qts. of which, .
For breakfaft, at i 3 (more exadt
1.285) eac h perfon,
For fupper, do.
DINNER
Beef 5olb. at 6 6 . . ,
Shins 4 ....
Potatoes i|- bufh.
Meal, for thickning, 12 qts.
Onions, herbs, pepper, fait .
Water 56 gals, Soup 224 qts.
591 2
330 o
53 3
75 o
43 3
20 O
c. m
Dinner, 224 ?r. foup, coil 521 6 or each 2 2 (more
exadly 2 C.-J&)
Breakfaft, each perfon, . ,. -13
Supper, do. . . . 13
Three meals 4 8 a day.
The fums of the account kept are in j. S. D. here reduced to Cents
and Mills; 10 Mills a Cent; 100 Cents a Dollar.
THRASHING
586 NOTES AND
THRASHING MILLS.
In 1782 Colonel Anderfon then of Phi
ladelphia, now refiding on the Sufquehan-
na, near Lancafter, invented a mill moved
by horfes, for thrafhing wheat and other
fmall grain out from its ftraw : and took
the hint from feeing a cotton machine at
work. In 1791 he built one of full fize ;
which I Xaw work to advantage, though
as Colonel Anderfon well obferved, it was
capable of confiderable improvement. But
having fince invented a thrafhing mill,
on different principles, a model of which I
faw work admirably well, he probably has
not further attended to the firft ; and I
wait to hear of his ordinary bufinefs ad
mitting him to build one of full fize, on
his new invention of rubbing, inftead of
finking out the grain. If this kind of mill
fhallbe equal to the former when both are
worked with horfes, it will have the further-
advantage of admitting to be reduced in
fize and then worked by one or two men at
a winch or two fuitable to fmall farms : fo
that
INTIMATIONS. 587
that farms of all fizes might introduce it,
in place of flail and treading.
About the time that Colonel Anderfon
invented his mill, a thrafliing mill, on the
very fame principles, was invented in Scot
land.
Colonel Dundas, in the 1 5 Annal gives
an account of a thrafliing mill built for him
by Mr. Raftrick in Scotland. It had then
been worked for the greateft part of two
crops ; and the Colonel fays the mill is in
a barn ; an odagon fhed built on the out-
fide was only neceflary to be added for co
vering the wheel and horfe-path.
The mill coft, flerling 45^*.
equal to Dollars 200
A cover of boards, with "J
wire platform under
the beaters 3. 3. ^ 67
The flied, to cover the
wheel and horfes 1 2. o. J
267
The
588 NOTES AND
The wire platform begins under the
canvafs, or floping board, and extends as
far as any grain falls, and has openings to
allow the grain to pafs. A woman and
boy with a rake can clear the machine of
ftraw, whilil the grain falls through the
wire in a ftate for being fanned.
It thrafhes 1 80 bufhels of wheat in ten
hours, very clean. Barley is thrafhed
with flails, after it comes from the mill for
breaking off the awns or beards.
One horfe will work the machine: rather
hard work. He uies two horfes. If a
diligent perfon drives the horfes, all perfons
about the mill muft be bufy*
The hands neceflary are the driver, a
boy ; the feeder, a careful attentive perfon ;
a perfon to rake, and two to bundle the
ftraw. He confiders it work for three men
and two boys.
Mr.
INTIMATIONS. 589
Mr. Mowbray, of Durham, fays his
thrafhing mill, built by Mr. Raftrick, has
given him great fatisfa&ion. He ufes two
horfes, a boy, a man, and two women.
It had thrafhed out i 2800 bufhels of wheat ;
6400 bufhels of oats, and 6400 bufhels of
barley : in all 15600 bufhels of grain ; and
had coft him nothing in repairs ; and there
is no difficulty in working it.
Mr. Wilkie fays his thrafhing mill is fo
fimple that repairs can be feldom wanting.
It is a moft valuable machine.
Mr. Boys's mill is in a barn, and a pro-
jecfting building contains the great wheel ;
which is 12 feet diameter, has 120 cogs
working into 12: the cogs at the end of
the fhaft are 87, which work into 14.
The under, of the two cylinders, for draw
ing the corn through, is of wood, the up
per of caft iron : a wheel of i 5 cogs works
into 33 for turning them. The beating or
flail wheel (barrel), is 5 feet long, and
590 NOTES AND
3|- feet diameter to outfide beaters : has 4
beaters, battens or flails fixed to it, and
ftrikes, upwards 1000 ftrokes a minute.
Others ftrike downwards, which do not
clear away the ftraw equally well. The
ftraw is carried overihe beating wheel, and
falls on a latticed floor, for the fhort fluff to
fall through. Four horfes work the mill.
A boy drives: a man throws up the
fheaves : a boy fupplies : one man to
fpread them on the inclined plane ; and
two men to fork away the ftraw. The
whole 4 men, 2 boys, 4 horfes. It thrafh-
ed 360 bufhels of oats in 10 hours. For
clearing away the ftraw, as it ponies from
the mill, a wheel turns in a direction con
trary to the beating wheel, and clears it
completely. 15 An. 481. 20 An. 248.
504. Mr. Meikle built a mill for Mr.
Adams, worked with four horfes, which
thrafhes out 640 bufhels oats in 10 hours.
Length of the barrel 4^- feet, diameter 3^
feet, treble motion. Wheels, caft iron.
There are many mills for thrafhing, of
different
INTIMATIONS.
591
different conftrudion, in England and
Scotland.
(C
'The Spirit of Commerce renders mett
" avaricious : and a People demoralized
" ought to be brought back to AGRICULTURE:
" for, Commerce feeds the P affiant ; Agri-
" culture calms them."
FINIS.
-K-
-^-^^3E33^-' -
.
Plate. H.
Fi
20,f.
Fig 2.
%
Explanation of the Cuts.
PLATE I.
A Farm-yard, homeftead and buildings ;
explained in the work.
PLATE II.
Fig. I. A family laboratory ; explained in the
work, n The tripartite brewing kettle, o
A boiler, p Fire-place : from whence
fmoke to the meat above, q Beams fuf-
pending meat, in fmoking it. 5 A regifter,
open when the fmoke is to pafs through
the chimney ; fhut when to be thrown in
to the room, amongft the meat. 6 An
aperture through which fmoke pafles among
the meat, when 5 is fhut clofe ; and fhut
when the fmoke is to pafs through the
chimney at the top. In this houfe, meat
may be cut up, faked and fmoked : lard
and tallow tried: candles and foap, made:
wafhing, ironing, fpinning, carding, dying,
P p brewing,
2 EXPLANATION
brewing, purifying fait, fcalding milk uten-
fils with water paffmg through the wall
from the boiler, &c. be performed. Green
hiccory gives the fweeteft and beft fmoke :
fuperior to dry hiccory or locuft, am, oak ;
and to corn ftalks j all having been tried
by me in drying malt.
Fig. II. Ground-floor of a Fennfylvania barn,
as defigned by a Chefter county farmer.
a, Horfe ftable, having one fmall and two
larger doors. It is 14 by 35 feet. 1>
Store cattle, in ftalls : fize 60 by 13 feet,
with two doors. c Beef-cattle. This
fide of the houfe, if at a bank cut down,
has only one end-door. The fize of the
fhelter 44 by 17 feet. d Chaff room ;
having a cheft for horfe-feed; another with
cattle meal. e A long paflage to feed
from, 60 by 5 feet, has a box to chop po
tatoes in. f Short paffage 35 by 5^
feet, with a trough for mixing food; and
a fmall door at the furthermoft end. g
Dung and litter yard. b A gate.
/ Door into potato vault ; under the bridge
which
OF THE CUTS. 3
which pafles up to the thrafliing and grain
floor. This fide of the houfe when againft
a cutdown bank, has one only door for the
beeves to pafs, at one end of the houfe ;
and the width of their apartment is there
fore wider than for the ftore cattle.
Fig. III. Ground floor of a propofed barn,
fize of fig. II. The flails 6 feet wide ;
each holding two grown cattle. It has five
fide doors, 4 feet wide, on each front ;
which gives one door to 4 cattle or 2 Halls.
The paflage is here wider than needs be,
being 9 feet. The ftalls are 13 feet deep.
In a roomy paflage roots are cut, meal
ftored, &c. befides having the racks, and
feeding from thence. a b Area of the
bridge, if there is no bank ; and it is beft
to give it great breadth, for admitting of a
large vault, and alluring fafety to the teams.
This vault is 15 by 35 feet. c Door in
to the vault. Roots are let down, into it,
through a funnel at the top of the
bridge.
Fig. IV.
4 EXPLANATION
Fig. IV. Elevation over fig. 3.
Fig. V. An ice-houfe. The pit, of logs, 1 3 feet
fquare clear. Under ground 4 feet, above
ground 4 feet; containing a mafsof 1352 fo-
lid feet of ice. The fides of the pen of logs
are to be lined with clean, found ftraw, and
the top of the ice thickly covered. A fmall
door is juft above the pen of logs or mafs
of ice. The houfe covering the whole may
be 1 3 feet fquare. But if the pen is to be
infulated with ftraw between it and the
bank, the houfe is to be 16 or 17 feet
fquare. Yet, where the ice is fo little un
der ground "as 4 feet, it may not be
necefiary. If however the pit is 8 or 10
feet deep, my experience ftrongly re
commends that the pen be infulated with
ftraw, between it and the bank.
PLATE III.
Fig. I. II. Brewing veflel, 40 inches long:
20 broad: 24 deep. a Divifion 13
inches deep: b 9 inches : c 2 inches. The
dotted
OF THE CUTS. 5
dotted lines are where the perforated
moveable bottoms are placed. In a is the
water or worf : b contains the malt : and
into c the warm water is pumped up from
a and pafles through ; and often returned
on the malt wafhes out its fubftance.
The liquor is then boiled in a. a A
final! pump, mine is of metal. Mr.
M'Cauley, Front-ftreet Philadelphia, made
my brewing veflel of copper; the fhape
of fig. 2. Saying that copper meets can
not be bent angularly. At the bottom is
a cock, in one fide of the veflel.
Fig. III. A root fteamer. a Brick ftove, hav
ing a pot or kettle fixed in it. Over the
pot is a hogshead, butt or cajk ; or an half
of either, open at top, with the bottom
full of inch holes, for letting the fteam up
amongft the roots. Potatoes, &c. are to
be wafhed clean in balkets, or otherwife,
before fteaming them.
Fig. IV. Clover ripple. Wheels 16 inches
diameter : box 1 8 inches deep : handles 3
feet
6 EXPLANATION
feet long, 22 inches apart : ripple i 3 inches
long.
Fig. V. Bottom of the clover-feed box, men
tioned page 1 02, with its diagonal holes and
divifions.
Fig. VI. A fhim blade or hoe, for ftony
land, a a 22 inches long b b 14 inches
wide, with mortifes for fide pieces, and a
large one for a flieet or ftanchion. A ftrip
of iron or board is occafionally fixed on each
fide, for edging up a little earth to the
plants. The middle mortife is to be long,
for receiving a broad and ftrong fheet or
ftanchion that will carry the blade without
aid from the fide pieces, when occafion.
Fig. VIL A fhim blade: fuch as I ufed in
ground clear of done and gravel ; gently
convex to give it ftrength, befides that it
was fubftantial at its back. Its fide pieces
were of iron, welded to the blade.
Fig. VIII.
2V.
OF THE CUTS. 7
Fig. VIII. Beds of wheat quite flat, as they
appear on fowing and covering wheat,
whilft maize is on the fame ground, ripen
ing. Alfo ridges of wheat fown, as in com
mon, after cutting off the tops of the maize
plants.
Fig. 8. Treading floor ; with horfes running,
promifcuoufly.
9. Improved floor; with barn in the
middle.
10. Mr. Singleton's floor, and houfe in the
middle.
11. Cattle flails. N B. according to Mr.
Bakewell. N S. according to Mr. S.
a Yorkfhire gentleman.
PLATE IV.
Plan and Elevation of a country habit
ation, according to page 338, of the work.
INDEX.
A PAGE.
GRICULTURE-Society . . 434
Afs . . . . .531
American crops .... 36
Apportionment . . .229
Arms and ammunition . . . 318, 378
Apricot ... . ' 5 8 3
B
Barns . . . . . 158* 95
Bacon . . . 453
Bramble fence . . . 55 &
Blades of Maize . . . 1 26, 290
Beans . . . .50, 52, 115, 532
Beer . . . . .85, 386, 475
Beef, pickled .... 453
dried ..... ibid.
barreled . . 493
Bread . 457
Breed of (lock . . . 211
croffing the ftrain ... 3
Beds of wheat . . . . 104, 117
Brewing . . . 397
Bifcuit . . 454
Brine .... 33 2 > 4 6z
Boots water-tight . 557
Bugs .... 462, 299
Bulliel . ... 5 2 7
Buckwheat . . .42, 54> 6l J 35
Butter . ... 5* 5 11
from Chinefe cows . . .196
Englifli cows . . '99
~ to clean from milk ,v;. 333
frefh in kegs
INDEX.
PACE.
Cattle ... 168
kinds . . . . .19!
kept . . 70
fattened . . . ibid.
houfed 64, 142, 144, 153
kept warm . . . 164, 186
foiled, paftured; kept or fattened . 168
paftured and" foiling compared . .172
fweated . . ,. . 188
Cheefe .... 503, 507, 508
Cellars ..... 529
Cement floors . . . . . 341
Chinches ..... 462
Chinch bug . . . 299
Ciftern ..... 464
Chimnies . . . . .361
Courfe of crops defined ... 2
Crops .... 58, 65, 82, 61
courfes in England . . . 22
America , . 36
exhaufting and ameliorating . . 24
i often returning . . . 3 1
with little plowing ... 48
- cabbage or roots between maize . ibid.
coft apportioned . . .229
Clover .... 98
on buckwheat . ... 9
fowed without covering . . 12, 107
often repeated . . . 28, 34, 76
to ftand one year . . . 32
improvement of foil . . 77, 38, 278
ripple gatherer . ., . 100
feed box , . . . . 102
with chopt ftraw . . . 146, 179
Curd . . . . . -473
Curing provifions . . . . 522
Cyder ...... 85
Calves . . . . . 460
Candies ..... 469
Caftor-oil . . . . .502
Carrots . . . . . -539
Change of fpecies and feed . . . 29, 3 1
INDE X.
fAGI.
Clay-manure . . - . . .65
CrofTmg the ftrain . . . . 30
Cows . . . . . *55
Chinefe . . . . 196
Commerce . . . . .371
Draught of beafts . . ' . 482
Drank . . . 73, 144,' 146, 147
Dairy . . . . ; 156
Diet ...... 339, 585
Diftillation . . . . . 481
Ditch fence . . . : . 242
Dung . * 73, 159, 170, 218, 75, 74
Experiments . . . \ 104, 124, 258
Eggs . .- 475
Education . . . . 437, 550, 564
Engliih crops . . . . . 22
Employment . . . . - 376
Farm-yard 84, 139, and offices . .65, 84
Fallows . . . 497, 24, 27, 227
Farms, near cities . 5
Farm, divifion . . . . .58
Flaxfeed-jelly . . . . 190
Fences "... 235, 558, 243
Frefhening provifions . . 486
Frefti-meat a year . . . . 492
Fifh . . . 4 6 4 46?
Food to live ftock . . . 70, 72
of plants . . 270, 273
Fly on turnips . .502
Heflian . 67, 297, 299
Grafs rotations . * 3, 9, n, 20
Grafs . . .512
IN BE X.
PAGE,
Grain rotations . . . 22, 57
Gates 533
Green dreffing . . . 54, 59, 281
Ground untilled . . . 148, 170
Gypfum manure . . . 417, 553
its ftrength tried . . . 433
H
Habitations . . ., . 338
Hams . . . . . 453
Herrings . . . . ..467
Haws ..... 239
Hemp . . . . 127, 549
Heat . . . . . 513
Heffian fly . . . 67, 297, 299
Hedges ..... 558
Hills how to plow . . . .27
Hogs { . . ... 223
Horfe-hoing . . . . . 39
Homeftead . . , . . 85
Horfe . . . . 154, 163
Hops . . . . . . 395
Ice-houfes . . . . 88, 364
Ice-creams and ice . . 364, 462, 513
Intimations on trade . . . .371
and notes . . . 45 1
Income of a farm . . . .78
Improvements in agriculture : . 234
Land, impoveriftied .. . .76
reftored , , . 75, 77
Level . . , . . 476
Limeftone manure . . 553
Liveftock, houfed ' . . . . 91
Litter . . . . .151, 149
Linfeed-jelly . . . . .190
Lime-manure . . . 291
INDEX.
M
Manure ... , 139, 417, 460, 510, 553
in rotation . . . . .11,65
Aquamaque bean . . -54
green dreffing . . . ibid.
frequent and moderate . . . 67
- to orchards . . . * 492
how laid on the fields . . .64
flraw . . . . 294
Lime . . . .291
Turf-dykes . . . 294
how aiding to vegetation . . 291
Maize .... 1 1 6, 227, 523
- a valuable corn . . .41
cut up and piled . . . 49, 123
ftalks, a litter . . . 150
Madder . . . . .528
Manufactures . . . 371, 374
Malt . . . . . . 391
Meadow '.' . . 57, 65, 38
Meat, frefh a year . . . . 492
faking . . . 522
Mills, to tlirafli wheat . . . . 586
Milk . . . . .196, 197, 201
Melafles . . . . . . 521
N
Notes and intimations . . - . ! 5 '-
Neceifaries . . . . 299, 377
O
Orchards . . . - . 85, 492, 567
Oxen, expenfe and 'income . . 15, 57
, in harnefs . . . TJ5
Orchard-grafs . . . . 15? -57
Paupers . *
Platform roof . . . ?4t
INDEX.
Patent right . . . 377
Peas . . . . . 52, 532
Peach trees . . . . 581
Prifon diet . . . . 585
Potatoes . N . . . 227, 59, 147, 230
Ponds ..... 467
Pokemely . . . . . 470
Power of beafts . . . .482
Pottery . . . . . 514
Poor ..... 525
Plows . . . 534, 121, 122
double mouldboard . . 121, 122
Products . * . . . 69, 78
Plowing from and to maize . . 119, 124
Poaching ground ... . . 148
Provifions to cure . . . .522
Pruning . . . . 569
Pafluring and foiling compared . . 172
R
Rennet . . . . 472, 508
Rice . . . . . 335
Ridges . . . . .104
Rotations . i, 2, 9, 65, 544, n, 32, 65, 81
Roots . . . . . 59
Rolling . . . . .266
Ruft of wheat .... 556
Ruta-baga . . . . 30
Rye -hay ..... 8
Stalls ..... 165
Salt ..... 318, 205
refined . x . 320, 325, 330
wafhed ..... 327
lick . . 94, 189
Salting provifions . . . .522
Swamps ..... 480
Shade .... 53, 144, 148
Stacking in fields . 144
Sandy foil .... 279
Sheep . . 73, 145, 178, 207, 459, 485
INDEX.
.
bpecies, change of ... . 29
Seed changed . . . . . ibid.
box i 99, 102
made to grow . . . 239
Steers ...... 154
Steaming potatoes . . '. . I4 y
Spirit from potatoes . . . .386
Shim . . . . . ri
Swill ... !4 4
Silk 300
Shoes water-tight . . . 557
Soiling . 143, 147, !68, 176, 172, 179
Sows and pigs . . . . .156
Soil improved . . . 75, 77, 278
impovejifhed . . 273, 292, 184
Sugar . . . . f . 6, 521
Stuffing for leather , . . . -557
Sugar maple .... 5
Stubble, chopt for litter . . 149
Syftems in bufmefs . . i, 12
Thrafhing mills . . . . 586
Treading out grain . . .98, 245, 490
Trench-plowing . . . 63, 65
Treading ground clofe . . 148, 218
Timothy grafs . . . 13, 14, 1 6, 57
Timber .... 235, 236
Tobacco . . . . 128, 135, 184
Thorn feedlings . . . . 240
Turnips . . . 30, 486, 502, 539
W
Watering ponds .... 467
Wafh for wood or ftone . . .523
Water to drink 545
Wafh, a food to cows . . .144
Wheat on clover 107. In clufters . in
Wheat . . H6, 542, 114, 259, 269, 296
top dreffed and rolled . . 67
Macro's fowing . .108
Willow
I N D E X.
FACE.
Willow .... 4.78
IV*
W me ...... 300
Wood to feafon . . .
Vegetation . . . .. 270
Veais . . . . . 451
Vetch . . . -53
Vinegar . . ... . 455
Ycaft ..... 499, 500