o> ■ 2 7 17 A HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE-PLAYING AND PIANOFORTE-LITERATURE BY C, F. WEITZMANN. NEW YORK: G. SCHIRMER. 1897. Copyright, 1893, By G. SCHIRMER. A HISTORY OF PIANOFORTE-PLAYING PIANOFORTE-LITERATURE C. F. WEiTZMANN, WITH MUSICAL APPENDICES AND A SUPPLEMENT CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE ACCORDING TO THE LATEST RESEARCHES, AND SUITABLY ILLUSTRATED. WITH A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR, AND NOTES, BY OTTO LESSMANN. FROM THE SECOND AUGMENTED AND REVISED GERMAN EDITION, BY DR. TH. BAKER. o^ NEW YORK: C SCHIRMER. ^ ■ 1897. ?^ BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR. By Otto Lessmann. Carl Friedrich AVeitzmann departed this life soon after the ap- pearance of the second edition of his principal work ; on Nov. T, 1880, the keen eyes of the manful champion closed for ever, in the 73rd year of his age. "Weitzmann was ])orn on Ang. !(>, 1808, at Berlin, where he began, under the guidance of the violinist C. W. Henning and the composer Bernhard Klein, his practical and thereotical studies, which he finished in Cassel, from 1827 onward, under Ludwig Spohr and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1832 he entered the tlieati-e orchestra at Riga as violinist, being at the same time engaged as chorus-director. Together with Heinrich Dorn, tlien Kapellmeister at Riga, Weitzmann founded a Singing Society in that city, for which he composed a number of pieces for vocal chorus. In 1834 he relinquished his po- sition in Riga for that of Musikdirector in Reval, M'here some dramatic compositions by himself — ''Rauberliel)c'\ ''Walpurgisnacht", and "Lor- beerbaum und Bettelstab"— were brought out. Two years later Weitz- mann joined the orchesti-a of the Imperial Opera at St. Petersburg as first violinist, becoming at the same time Musikdirector in the \ Church of St. Anne. Here, too, he founded a German Liedertafel, / which he conducted until, on the expiration of an eleven years' ser- I vice as musician to the Russian Court, he left St. Petersburg, gene- rously pensioned, first making a concert-tour througli Finland witli the oboe virtuoso Henry Brod, and afterwards settling in Paris. Thei-e ' he applied himself assiduously to the study of the history and theory i of music, which he continued successfully after removing to London in 1847, where he was engaged as a violinist in the Italian Opera. ' During this same year he returned to Berlin, where he settled per- — Yl — mimentlv, enjoyiui;- u liigli reputation as a teacher of harmony and counterpoint, at lirst in Stern's Conservatory, and later in Tausig's "Schule des holieren Clavierspiels " (School for advanced Pianoforte- playing), and also as a private instructor. Armed with the panoply of the well-e(|uipped musical theoretician, Weitzmann, as a champion of the artistic conceptions of Liszt and Wagner, first entered the arena, in which was raging the battle waged for and against the justification of progress pioneered in music both in regard to harmony and form. In a number of writings he took Ids stand decidedly on the side of these two masters, and his " Har- moniesystem", to which a prize Avas awarded in 1860, established on a firm logical basis the practical acquisitions which, in the works of the "neo-German" school, were a stumbling-block to the theoreticians of the old school. While earlier writings, such as " The Augmented Triad " (1853), " The Diminished Chord of the Seventh " (1854) (publ. by Th, Chr. Fr. Enslin — Richard Schoetz— , Berlin), and the " History of the Ch. of the Seventh", had discovered Weitzmann's revolutionary tendencies in the field of music, his " Ilarmoniesystem " won him for good and all the reputation of being the thereotical henchman of the musical radicals. Weitzmann showed this to be his unmistakable wish in the sub-title of his " Ilarmoniesystem " by designating the latter as "An explanatory disquisition on and musico-theoretical justification of the transformation and evolution of Harmony through the recent creations of Art". His opponents, the champions of the musical " Zopf " (literally " pigtail", the obstinate prejudice of narrow- minded pedantry), who fell upon the work to tear it to pieces accord- ing to the rules of their worn-out musical grammar, were answered by Weitzmann in a second paper, " The New Science of Harmony versus the Old " (C. F. Kahnt, Leipzig, 1861). That he after all had the last word in the hotly contested battle, is proved by the revolu- tion of public opinion in regard to the masters Schumann, Liszt, and Wagner. His controversies concerning modern music did not hinder Weitz- mann from attentively studying antiquity ; the fruits of this study he garnered in a " History of Grecian Music " (Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin, Ber- lin, 1855). In 1863 was issued, as Part III of the Lebert-Stark Pianoforte School, the "History of Clavier-playing and Clavier-Lite- rature", pnblished later as a separate work, in a second edition aug- mented by a " History of tlie Pianoforte". — A number of meritorious ai-ti'-lcs liave appeared in various musical journals, among them a — YIl — warm encomium of Carl Tausig, "■ the last of the virtuosi''. Weitz- mann's contrapuntal skill was very considerable, as is sufficiently attested in his "Studies in Counterpoint" (Schuberth & Co., Leipzig,) "Musical Puzzles", Canons for 4 hands, 2 Books (same publ.) and his "1800 Preludes and Modulations", Book 1, classic; Book 2, romantic (Th. Chr. Fr. Enslin, Berlin); likewise an analytical treatise on the 2-part Fugue (autographed). As a composer Weitzmann did little to attract public attention. Besides the above mentioned dramatic compositions he published only a few books of songs and vocal works, and some pianoforte pieces for 2 and 4 hands, among the latter being a few " Yalses loobies " (Bote & Bock, Berlin), which are simple and natural in feeling and pleasing in effect. Weitzmann's character was upright and frank, and before long years of sickness had diminished his 2)owers he was animated by the liveliest interest for everything which concerned his art and his calling as a writer on art. His opinions, which he defended with circum- spection, readiness and tenacity, were for him the sole guide in all his actions ; for, as Tappert wrote after Weitzmann's death, " He need- ed neither office nor preferment, sought neither honors nor renown". May the memory of this able man live on as that of a well- deserving champion in the triumphal progress of our sublime art. Charlottenburg, October, 1887. Otto Lessmann. ^^^^' AUTHOR'S PREFACE and INTRODUCTION. Every thinking pianist, who would avoid the appearance of color- lessness and one-sidedness in his compositions and performances, will perceive the necessity of attaining familiarity not merely with the more important productions of the present day, but with the prom inent works in the earlier literature of his art as well. Hitherto, however, an orderly historical view, comprehending the entire field of cjajier-literature, and at the same time calling to mind the names of those masters to whose activity we owe the perfection and exten- sion of our art, has been wanting. It is the purpose of the present work to l)ridge over this sensible gap in writings devoted to the history of music. The author feels it incumbent upon him to give some explanation concerning the arrangement and grouping of the contents of his work. The earlier history of clavier-playing closes with the disappearance of the older keyboard instruments — the Clavichord, the coyly tremu- lous tone of which was produced by metallic pins or tangents, striking and setting in vibration the sti'ings when the keys were de- pressed ; and the sweejjing Harpsichord, the strings of which were twanged by quills; the authoi' regarded it as most practical to trace successively the earlier schools in Italy, England, France, and Ger- many down to the above period. The modern history of clavier- playing begins with the predominance of the Pianoforte, in which hammers, striking the strings gently or powerfully, admitted of the greatest variety in the shading of the tone, and gradually evolved the most manifold effects in pla^^ng and means of expression. And henceforward the creative masters follow each other at such short intervals, that the author considered it needful to point out the in- fiuence of each one, even down to his ])upils and imitators, before — IX — taking up any conteniporaiy eniinent in other ways, tliougli at the same time never losing sight of monientons meetings between cele- brated mnsicians and rivals in art. The earliest history of clavier-j^laying goes hand in hand with that of organ-playing ; not until the l)eginning of the 16th century do the cla\aer performances of noted organists sometimes find special mention. At that time the two chief species of claviers alluded to above were already in existence ; their compass, with the chromatic scale, embraced 3 octaves (A — a), and sometimes even 4 octaves (F — f), the succession of white and black keys being the same as at present.* In their tuning, the claviers were already tempered to ^iich an extent, that the diatonic ecclesiastical keys predominant down to about the 17th century, to which a chromatic tone was seldom added, and which also occurred transposed by a fifth lower (then in every case with one flat in the signature), might be employed with tolerable purity.** By the estal)lishment of the equal temperament, about ITOO, Sebastian Bach and his contemporaries were enabled to write com- positions in all the modern major and minor keys for the clavier; the ecclesiastical modes then vanished entirely as far as their peculiar and purely diatonic character is concerned, and the widest field was thrown open to modulation. In some manuscript specimens of counterpoint of the 13th century, the oldest which have as yet been discovered, the notes of vocal music for two or more parts are in some cases written one above the other on a single staff of 8, 9, 10, or 12 lines. In various more recent, though equally rare, specimens we find similar staves of 10 lines, the lowest of which is marked with a F (Gamma), the fourth with the F-clef, the sixth with the C-clef, the eighth with the G-clef, and the tenth with dd, the notes of the several parts thus standing in conjunction. For greater distinctness, the notes of the several parts ^vere sometimes distinguished by color or shape, the soprano and bass having square red notes, the alto triangular green notes, and the tenor round black notes. In still later similar attempts, music for the organ and clavier was written on 6 lines intended for the right hand and 8 for the left. Strange to say, besides these *See "Musica getutsclit iind aussgezogen diirch Sebastianum Yirduni,^", Basel, 1511. **See Toscanella in musica di niesser Piero Aron, Venice, l.")20, Bivisione del Monarcliordo per tuoni e semituoni, cap. XXXX ; and also De la partiei- patione et modo de accordare I'instrumento, cap. XLI. — X — and similar attempts made only by isolated composers, not a single actual score, either written or printed, of any vocal or instrumental composition in several parts of tlie loth, Ittth, 15th, or even of the tirst half of the 16tli century has been found, so that it almost looks as if the contrapuntists of that time wrote out all their compositions immediately in separate parts, without sketching them at first in score. Further, as the har did not appear until the second half of the 10th century, together with the score, it is evident, that previous to that time only the most skilful and thoroughly trained singers or players could successfully undertake the performance of a new com- position, especially when the composer himself was not present at rehearsals. Still greater difficulties were to be overcome by the or- ganist who either could or would not at all times follow simply the dictates of his own fancy. For as organ music, like all instrumental music of the period, was merely an echo of the vocal music, the organist was obliged, before attempting to play a piece intended for voices, to study the several parts, which were either printed sepa- rately or at best on opposite pages of the music-book in such wise, that the upper half of the left-hand page bore the highest part, the lower half the lowest part, while the two middle parts were similarly ordered on the right-hand page. Until toward the end of the 16th century it was the duty of church-organists in Italy to introduce the regular a cappella compositions by preludes and intonations, to con- nect the various divisions of the vocal mass by interludes, to answer certain vocal strains on the organ, and at times to perform the verses of hymns on the organ in alternation with the singers. The choir was but seldom supported by the organ, in the psalm tunes and cho- rales. The papal choir at Kome has retained pure vocal music ex- clusively down to the present day in full simplicity ; but about the year 1600, so important in the annals of music, there w^as initiated the so-called "seconda pratica di musica", the singers being thence- forward continually supported or accompanied by the organ or other instruments. Vocal music pure and simple thus disappeared entirely from the church, and the difliculties of the organist accompanying the various vocal and instrumental parts continually increased, till at length he was furnished with a continuous bass part to his accom- paniment, over the notes of wdiicli the harmonies of the other parts co-operating were indicated by figures. Such a bass part, supporting the whole harmonic structure, w^as styled a hasso continuo^ hasso per Vorgano, hasso princijpale^ or hasso generate. — xr — In Germany, on the other liand, where, as in otlier coniitries, tlie singers liad sung from notes since the appearance of tiie tirst contrapuntists, the instrumentalists employed from the very beginning of the 16tli century a kind of notation with letters, which Yii-dung mentions as early as 1511, with i-eference to which Martin Agricola, in his Musica instrumentalis (1529), gives instructions "for playing on the organ, harp, lute, violin, and all instruments and stringed instru- ments, according to the rightly established tabulature". In this German Tabulature, in accordance with a usage handed down to our time, the tones of the lowest octave were indicated by capital letters, those of the next octave by small letters, and the others in succession by small letters with lines drawn above them, being called the once- lined, twice-lined, thrice-lined octave, etc. CDEFGAH(B) cdefgah (b) c d e f g a li (b) c etc. and set one above the other in two, three, four, or more rows as required, in movements having several parts to be executed by the organist. The relative length of the tones was indicated by dots, hooks, or cross-lines over the letters in question, the rests being marked by other special signs. This organ tabulature, immediately after its invention, was also used for comi3ositions for the clavier, and down to 1650 was exclusively employed in Germany for keyboard instru- ments. The organists in Italy, on the contrary, never took to the alphabetic tabulature ; in that country, as said before, various kinds of note tabulatures were tried for giving the player a convenient view of the several parts of a composition, until finally he was pro- vided with a full score for the execution of pieces in several parts, such as obtains to-day. But the compression of all the parts of a movement in more than 2 parts on only two staves is not found, even in Italy, until after the appearance of the hcbsso continue or thorough- bass, i. e. not until the first half of the ITth century. The setting of separate parts of a composition on an ecpial number of staves one above the other was also brought into use in Germany about the middle of the 17th century, and there styled the '' Italian Tabulature" (intavolatura), or " Partitur" (partitura, score), though the German al- phabetic tabulature still found adherents and defenders down to the beginning of the 18th century. ^^^^^ TABLE OF CONTENTS, Page. Biographical Sketch of the Author V Author's Preface and Introduction VIII Clavichord, Harpsichord, and Pianoforte. Organ-playing and Clavier playing. Compass and Tuning of the earlier Claviers. Temperament. Oldest specimens of Counterpoint. Scores. Thorough-bass. German and Italian Tabulature. Table of Contents XIII Errata XIX EARLIER HISTORY. THE CLAVICHORD. I. The strict contrapuntal Organ-style and the freer Clavier-style. The Earlier Italian School of Clavier-playing 3 Venice. Celebrated organ-players from the 14th century on. Francesco Landini, Francesco da P6saro, Bernado di Stefanino Murer, — Adrian Willaert (1527) founder of the Venetian School of Music. Development of the Instru mental style. Jachet de Buus. Girolamo Parabosco. Instrumenti da penna. Spinet, Virginal, Monacord. — Chromatic music. Nicolo Vicentino, Cipriano de Rore, Gioseffo Zarlino. — Fantasia, Ricercare, Contrapunto. — Emancipa- tion of vocal music from the shackles of diatonics. — Claudio Merulo da Correggio (see Musical Appendix), Annibale Padovano, Andrea and Giovanni Gabrieli. — Toccata, Canzona, Sonata ; Fugue, Canon, Ricercata. Folk- songs. Canzoni villanesche. Gagliarda, Corrente, Ciacona, Giga. — Josquin's Theory of Counterpoint and Harmony. Organ and Clavier School of Girolamo Diruta (1593). Method of Fingering (1656). — Florence. Basso continue, Thorough-bass. Ludovico Viadana. — Rome. Girolamo Fresco- baldi (see Mus. App.) and his pupil J. J. Froberger. Bernardo Pasquini (see Mus. App.) and his pupil F. Gasparini. — Temperament of the clavier. The modern Major and Minor Scales. — Naples. Alessandro Scarlatti and his pupil Francesco Durante (see Mus. App.). The swifter and freer clavier- style of Scarlatti. The Sonata is one movement, with the fundamental outlines of its modern form. — Clavier-sonatas in two movements. Diverti- menti. Albertinian Bass. The two-part clavier-style. F. Durante, D. -^ Alberti, P. D. Paradies (see Mus. App.). The Earlier English School of Clavier-playing 24 John Dunstable. Thomas Tallis (see Mus. App.) and his pupil William Bird, 1575 (see Mus. App.) — Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book. — Giles, Farnaby, Dr. Bull. — Fantasia, Pavane, Galliarde, and Variations. — Orlando Gibbons (see Mus. App.) Henry Purcell, 1683 (see Mus. App.) Clavier- sonatas. -_ XIV — The Earlier French School of Clavier-playing 26 Development of a more elegant, rhythmically defined, and richly embel- lished clavier style. Andre Champion de Chambonnieres (1650) and his pupils, William Hardelle, J. H. d'Aiiglebert (see Mus. App.). The Couperin Family. Fran9ois Couperin le Grand (see Mus. App.). Harpsichord Method (L'art de toucher du Clavecin). Agrements (see Mus. App.), L. Marchand (see Mus. App.). Marchand and J. Seb. Bach. Marchand and Rameau. L. C. Daquin. Extension of the resources and effects of the Clavier. The Earlier German School of Clavier-playing. . . , 31 Celebrated organists from the 15th century on. Bernhard Murer (1445), Conrad Paulmann. Arnold Schlick, Paul Hofhaimer. German style of Composition. H. L. Hassler (1600), Ch. Erbach, H. Praetorius, A. Gumpeltz- haimer, M. Franck, S. Scheidt. The first German Clavier-virtuoso, S. J. Froberger (see Mus. App.) — Kerl, Pachelbel, Georg and Gottlieb Mufiat (see Mus App.). The French "Agrements" and Graces come to Germany. — Keys of the "New Music." Matthai, Werckmeister, Mattheson, Theoreti- cians. — Music-trade in the 17th Century.— Brilliant epoch of the earlier German Organ and Clavier-school. Buxtehude (1670), Zachau, Handel, Mattheson. — Clavier Suites and Free Variations. — Modern Editions of earlier Clavier Works. — ^Johann Sebastian Bach, the Perfecter of the Art of Counter- point. Reinken and Bruhn. J. .S. Bach's Sons: W^ilhelm Friedemann, Karl Philipp Emanuel, Johann Christoph Friedrich, and Johann Christian Bach. Frederick the Great and the Musikalisches Opfer. — The Fortepianos made by Silbermann and Friederici. All Major and Minor Keys employed for the first time in the "Well -tempered Clavichord." Bach's Works for Clavier. The Fugue as perfected. Bach's Fingering. ^"11. The Clavier Style resulting from the new System of Harmony. Karl Philipp Emanuel Bach and his Predecessors 48 Theory of Accompaniment, or System of Thorough-bass. J. P. Rameau. A more pleasing secular style replaces the severe and serious organ-style. Sonatas by J. Kuhnau and J. Mattheson, embracing from one up to eight movements. — Musical weekly and monthly Periodicals. — Forms of Art in the l8th century : Dances, Suites, Variations, Salon-music, Sonatas, and Fugues. — Two-part form of the clavier-works. — G. H. Stolzel's Enharmonic Clavier-sonata (see Mus. App.) — G. Benda. — Clavier-sonatas for 4 hands (1783 and 1784) by Ch. H. Muller and E. W. Wolf.— Reform in Clavier- playing and Clavier-compositions through K. Ph. E. Bach (see Mus. App.). Establishment of the Sonata-form in 3 movements. The Rondo as an inde- pendent composition. — Clavier-players in Berlin : Ch. Nichelmann (1745), Carl Fasch, F. W. Marpurg, J. P. Kirnberger, W. Friedemann Bach, and K. Ph. E. Bach. Clavier-works of the last-named. His School of Playing : Position of the hands. Fingering, Agr6ments, Rendering, Theory of Accom- paniment, and Free Fantasia. — Earlier German Clavier Methods by Maichel beck (1738), Marpurg, K. Ph. E. Bach, Lohlein, J. S. Petri, G. F. Wolf, Turk, and A. E. Muller (1804). — Duetto for 2 Claviers or 2 Fortepianos by J. G. Miithel (1771). — The Clavichord and the newer Forteoiano (1787). K. Ph. E. Bach's pupils : J. W. Hassler, N. J. Hullmandel (see Mus. App.), and Johann Christian Bach. First and Second Themes in the Sonatas of the last-named. Sonatas in 2 and 3 movements. — ^J. J. Fux, Gottlieb MuflFat, (see Mus. App ,1, G. Ch. Wagenseil, and J. Wanhal in Vienna. J- F Reichardt. — XV — The Earlier Dance-forms 65 Suite, Partita, Sonata da camera. — Allemande, Corrente, Sarabande, and Gigue. — Minuet, Alternativo, Trio, Double. — Entree. Marcji. — Loure, Gavotte, Bourree, Rigaudon, Passepied, Rondo, Branle, Canarie. — Pastorale, Villanella, Musette, Tambourin. — Ciacona (basso ostinato), Passacaglia. — Pa vane or Paduane, Gagliarda, Romanesca. Volta. Passamezzo, Furia. — Siciliano, Forlana. Saltarello, Tarantella. — Moresca. La Morisque. — Polonaise. — Murky, Murky-bass. — Schreit- and Schleiftiinze ; Sprin^iinze or Reihen. Waltz, Cosa rara (see Mozart, Don Giovanno, 2nd Finale, 2nd Tempo). — German Dances of the i6th century. Allemande (1551). MODERN HISTORY. THE FORTEPIANO. III. The Lyrical Clavier Style. Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart 75 Testimony concerning K. Ph. E. Bach. — Vienna. Joseph Haydn and his pupil Ignaz Pleyel. The fancifully humorous style. The Minuet, The euphonic clavier-style. Mozart adopts the Fortepiano for the performance of his compositions (1777). Schobert (see Mus. App.), J- G. Eckart, and G. A. Stein. J. von Beecke and Ch. F. D. Schubart. Abb6 Vogler, Abb6 Sterkel, and Abb6 Gelinek. L. Kozeluch and J. W. Hassler. Variations. Improvisation. Mozart's Sonatas with first and second themes. Mozart the creator of the modern Pianoforte Concerto. Sonatas for 4 hands by « Mozart, Onslow, Hummel, and Moscheles. Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin. Mozart's rivalry with Hassler and Clementi. Bolder harmonies and modulations. Viennese School of Playing. Muzio Clementi 93 Extension of the resources of the virtuoso. J. Field, A. Klengel, and L. Berger. Clementi's Studies for the Pianoforte : Gradus ad Parnassum, con- taining Canons and Fugues in freer style. Contemporaries of Em. Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi 96 Parasites. D. Steibelt. Tone-paintings, Battle-pieces, Bacchanales. The Fantasia with variations. — ^J. L. Dussek and Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia. Richer and fuller pianoforte setting. The Sonata in 4 move- ments : Allegro, Adagio, Scherzo, and Finale. — Joseph Wolfl. The Virtuoso period. — A. E. Miiller ; his Method for Clavichord and Fortepiano, and Instruction-books. — Wanhal, Kozeluch, Marie Therese Paradies, and A. Eberl of Vienna. — F. Kuhlau of Copenhagen. Clementi's Pupils 104 J. B. Cramer. Studies. Selection by H. von Biilow. Course of study from Beginner to Virtuoso. — Ludwig Berger and his pupils C. W. Greulich, H. Dorn, W. Taubert, A. Loschhorn, C. Eckert, F. Mendelssohn. — A. A. Klengel, Art of Canon and Fugue, Theory of Counterpoint. — ^John Field. The Nocturne. — Carl Meyer. Etudes and Salon-music, A Pupil of Mozart no J. N. Hummel. Perfection of the Lyrical Pianoforte Style. The Fantasia, Concerto, and the brilliant Rondos. Method for the Pianoforte. — ^J. Bene- dict. R. Willmers. E. Pauer. Historical Pianoforte Soirties. T- P- Pixis. — XVI — I IV. The Dramatic Pianoforte Style. Ludwig van Beethoven 115 Beethoven's Studies. Reform of the Theory of Modulation. Meetings with Himmel, Wolfl, and Steibelt. Development of momentous musical ideas from simple motives. Development of Melody. Enhancement of the means of expression. Beethoven's Sonatas form a dramatic Trilogy or Tetralogy. — Ferdinand Ries. Franz Schubert 124 Volksthiimliche German compositions. Songs. Pianoforte compositions. Sonatas, Marches, and Dances. V. The Brilliant Style. Germany and Italy 126 Arbitrariness and Formlessness. Legitimacy and general acceptance. New developments. Carl Czerny. Pianoforte Method and Studies. Disre- gard of distinctive characterization in the "brilliant" piano-pieces. Czerny's pupils : Madame de Belleville-Oury, Theodor Dohler, Theodor KuUak, Sigis- mund Thalberg. Leaders of the Viennese School of brilliant piano-playing. Concert-Fantasias, Salon-pieces, and Etudes. — Parish-Alvars. — G. F. Pollini's Pianoforte Method and Brilliant Compositions. A. Fumigalli. Tomaschek, Dionys Weber, and Proksch in Prague 132 Abb6 Vogler. Tomaschek's Eglogues and Rhapsodies. Conservatory of Music. Dionys Weber and his pupils : C. M. von Bocklet and S. Gold- schmidt. — Tomaschek's pupils : J. F. Kittl, J. Tedesco, J. SchulhofF, and A. Dreyschock. Solos for the left hand alone. Salon-pieces and Dances. — J. Procksch. L. Kohler. Studies and Methods. G. J. VoUweiler and A. Schmidt in Frankfort-on-the-Main 135 Carl VoUweiler. Studies and Bravura Pieces. Liszt's prima-vista playing. Aloys Schmidt and his pupils Jacob and G. A. Schmidt. Studies and Salon- pieces. Ignaz Moscheles 136 Bravura Pieces and Characteristic Studies. Employment of the Pedal. Greater force in and variety of Touch. His pupils Leopoldine Blahetka, H. Litolff, R. Radecke. Method of Methods by Moscheles and F6tis. — Moritz Hauptmann and George Onslow ; Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin. Carl Maria von Weber 139 Concertstuck. Further development of the animated dramatic pianoforte style. — L. Bohner. — The Court Kapellmeisters C. G. Reissiger, H. Marsch- ner, and L. Spohr. Duos, Trios, Quartets, and Quintets. Felix Mendelssohn 142 Attractive, brilliant, and artistic Compositions for Concert and Salon. Songs without Words. His pupils : Fanny Hensel, J. J. Verhulst, W. Stern- dale Bennett, Carl Reinecke, C. Luhrs. Adolf Henselt 146 Novel and characteristic pianoforte effects. Concert-6tudes. Pianoforte Concerto. I b. France 147 1 (, Rameau and his pupil Balbastre. Schobert (see Mus. App.) and Eckard. j , Fliigel, Clavichord, and Fortepiano. Foundation of the modern French \ — XVII — School of Pianoforte-playing by K. Ph. E. Bach's pupil IluUmandel. Opening of the Conservatory of Music at Paris in 1792. H. Jadin, a pupil of Hull- mandel, head of the department of piano-playing. L. E. Jadin writes M6langes and Potpourris. — L. Adam and his pupils. Regulation of the Fingering. L. B. Pradher (Pradfere) and his pupils. — F. Kalkbrenner, 6l6ve of the Conservatory. — Logier's Academy. The Chiroplast.— Moscheles and Kalkbrenner. Development of the left hand. Salon-music— Henri Herz. Enhancement of virtuosity. — Henri Bertini. Practical Exercises. — Henri Karr, the originator of musical factory-work, and his successors F. Hiinten, H. Rosellen, and various others. — Norbert Burgmuller. — The virtuosi A. von Kontsky and E. Prudent. — K. Wehle and W. Kruger. Attractive Salon- pieces. VI. The Romantic Style. Francois Frederic Chopin 156 Emotional compositions of novel conception and lofty poetic style. Con- certos and Sonatas. Preludes, Etudes, and Nocturnes. Polonaises and Mazurkas. Leader of the Romantic School. Robert Schumann 160 Vigorous defence of the new ideas of poetry in music, and battle against the "Philistines." Enrichment of Harmony and Rhythm. Clara Wieck. Abrupt contrasts. The Neo-Romantic School of Music. The partisans of Schumann, the Neo-German School, and the Classical Party. Schumann's Successors 165 W. Bargiel, more serious works. Th. Kirchner, ^^ JCleine Lust- unci Traiter- spiele." (J. Brahms.) C. Gradener, R. Volkmann. C. A. Franck. Trios and Salon-pieces. Ch. V. Alkan. Bizarrely romantic compositions. Contemporaries of Mendelssohn, Chopin, and Schumann 168 G. Fliigel. St. Heller. Attractive and melodious Etudes and Salon-music. J- Rosenhain. L. Lacombe. Stimmungsbilder . F. Bendel. Musical Review at the Present Time 170 Conservatories and Schools of Music. — Leipsic. — Cologne. — Berlin : Royal Hochschule ; Kullak ; Stern ; Xaver Scharwenka ; Karl Klindworth. — Dresden. — Hamburg. — Weimar. — Sondershausen. — Stuttgart. — Munich. — Wiirzburg. — Frankfort. — St. Petersburg. — Brussels. — Paris. — Pesth. — Hels- ingfors. — London. — Numerous Musicians not mentioned before. Franz Liszt 180 Review. Revolution in piano-playing, piano literature, and piano-making. Program-music. Paganini's influence. Liszt's deeply emotional original compositions and fantastic 6tudes. Brilliant Concert-tours. Establishment of the Weimar school. Effective Concert-pieces and Fantasias. Annees de pelerinage. Sonata. Transcriptions. Lofty Concertos. Rhapsodies hon- groises. Reform in Fingering and the Holding of the Hand. Multitude of novel pianoforte effects. Marvelous performances. Climax of virtuosity. Liszt's Pupils and Contemporaries 192 iHans von Bulow and Karl Tausig. Hans von Bronsart. Dionys Pruckner, Franz Bendel, Giovanni Sgambati, Moritz Rosenthal, Eugene d' Albert, Arthur Friedheim, Bernhard Stavenhagen, Alex, von Siloti, Martin Krause, Vera Timanoff, etc., etc. "Lady pupils" of Liszt. — XVIII — Raff, Brahms, and Rubinstein 198 Joachim Raff, Johannes Brahms, ^Vnton Rubinstein, composers and virtuosi. Grieg, Saint-Saens, and Tschaikowsky 203 Their compositions and their influence. — Remarks on the Sonata. The Concerto. Stimniungsbildcr. Pianoforte Methods. Earher Compositions. Folk-songs and Folk-dances. Popular editions and Editions de luxe. Theory of Counterpoint, Harmony, and Fugue. Virtuosity and Rendering. HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE. Preface 215 The Clavier, and the Earlier Instruments related to it 216 The separate parts of the various claviers. Different classes of claviers. Organs. Origin of the Clavichord 219 The Monochord. Division of the Strings. Origin of the Harpsichord 223 Psaltery and Cymbal. Accounts from the i6th and 17th centuries concerning claviers 226 Sebastian Virdung, 1511. Michael Praetorius, 1615. Tuning of the Clavier-strings 232 Equal and Unequal Temperament. The Pythagoreans and Aristoxenos. Piero Aron. Zarlino. Ammerbach. Werckmeister. Rameau. Helmholtz. Further Development of the Clavichord and Harpsichord 244 D. T. Faber. The Ruckers Family. Clavecins en peau de buffle. Changes in the construction of the instruments; novel stops and attachments; new inventions. The Piano-violins (Geigenwerke, Bogenfiugel), and Pantaleon 254 The Hurdy-gurdy. Johann Heiden of Nuremberg. Hohlfeld etc. The Dulcimer. Pantaleon Hebenstreit. The Hammer-clavier or Pianoforte 25S Cristofori. Marias. Silbermann. Schioeter. (Compare the Cuts on pp. 366-368), Harpsichord, Pianoforte, and Clavichord. Friederici. Spiith. J. A. Stein and Mozart. The German or Viennese Action. A. Streicher and Schiller. Pianoforte-making in England* 271 Tabel. Tschudi (Shudi) . Broadwood. Zumpe. Backers. Stodart. The English Action. Pianoforte-making in France 272 Sebastien Erard. The Brothers Erard. "Double echappement." J. Pleyel. H. Pape. Fianoforte-making in Germany etc 275 ) Berlin: Karl Bechstein. — Leipsic: Julius BUithner (Aliquot Grands; Janko keyboard). —Hamburg: Theodore Steinway. — Bruns.vick: Steiiuvay's Sue- i cessors, Helferich, Grotrian & Co. — Stuttgart: J. L. Schiedmayer & Sons. — \ Munich: A. Biber. — Vienna: L. Bosendorfer etc. — Zurich: Huni & Hubert. — Italy: Roeseler, Sievers etc. i — XIX — The Modern Pianoforte 277 Thom and Allen. Stodart. Material of strings. Erard action. Over- strung pattern. Overstriking action. Prolongation-pedal. Double Piano- fortes. "Chroma" Society. Herz, Pleyel, Kalkbrenncr, in Paris. Janko Keyboard. Automatic Notographs (Schmeil, Engramelle). Logier's Chiro- plast. Bohrer's Automatic Hand-guide. The Oratorio. The Pianoforte as an orchestral instrument. Liszt's Pianofortes. iiPPENDIX I. Clavier Compositions of the Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Cen- turies 287 Claudio Merulo. G. Frescobaldi. B. Pasquini. F. Durante. Pier Dom. Paradies.— Th. Tallis. W. Bird. O. Gibbons. H. Purcell.— J. H. d'Angle- bert. F. Couperin. L. Marchand. — ^J. J. Froberger. G. MufFat. H. Stolzel. Schobert. K. Ph. E. Bach. J. HuUmandel. — Agr6ments. APPENDIX II. Illustrations to the History of the Pianoforte 357 Precursors of the Clavier: Organ, Dulcimer, Cymbalum. — Claviers from the beginning of the l6th century: Clavichord, Harpsichord, Clavicitherium; Flugel of the year 1590. — The Hammer-action of the Pianoforte: Cristofori (1711), Marius (1716), Schroeter (1721, 1763); German Action, English Action. Index 369 • as the Rondeau or Rondo. The instrument was ERRATA. Page 6, line 3, for Vincentino read Viccntino. " 47» " 3 from below, for A^j^/ij^read i?///<'r. " 67, " 2 " " after 2 J «;;//^_j'c'(/ supply : " I33i " 9 " " ior KittelxQ'a.A Kittl. " 219, " 17, after mathematical accuracy supply therefore also called the Canon, as forming a ridf for the determination of the intervals." 221, foot-note, for Vicento read Vicentino. 231, last line, for Zente read Zenti. 238, line 2, for Werkmetster read Werckmeister. 250, " 2, for Oesterlin read Oesterlein. 251, " 12 from below, for C/iristofori read Cristofori. 252, "13 " " iox Lemmix&ad Lemmc. 254i " 5 " " for Risk read Risch. 267, " 8 " " for Spath read Spaeth. Z'jc), " 14 " " iov Cronia read Chroma. EARLIER HISTORY OF CLAVIER-PLAYING. Tlie Olavlcliord. ( ^1 L The strict contrapuntal Organ Style and the freer Clavier Style. The earlier Italian Clavier School. Among the Italian capitals, Kome took the lead in the culti- vation of sacred music, Naples in the refinement of popular, profane song, and Florence in the development of the homophonie style and the musical drama; while Venice devoted herself more particularly to the culture of instrumental music, and to a style of composition suited to the same and differing from that proper to vocal music. We therefore begin oui' historical researches with the last-named commercial republic, so powerful in the Middle Ages, whose victorious fleets wafted thither all the wealth of the Orient, and whose active intercourse with the most various people of the Old World caused the arts and sciences to flourish in early and marvelous perfection. From the 14th century on, Venice was famed for her eminent or- ganists, engaged at the cathedral of San Marco, and for co-operation with whom a there was appointed, in the latter half of the next century, a conductor (maestro di cappella) able to lend fresh impetus to the vigorous musical life of the city. The fame of these remarkable musicians attracted a great number of zealous students of art, who either remained as successors of their masters in Venice, or trans- planted the knowledge there acquired to other places. But even the distinguished artists of Italy, Germany, and the Netherlands visited the flourishing Island City, to seek positions in the same or to measure their strength with her renowned musicians. Thus appeared . in Venice, about 1364, the blind Florentine Francesco Landino, the I highly extolled poet and organist, during the brilliant festivities given ^1 by the Doge Lorenzo Celsi in honor of the King of Cyprus and the Archduke of Austria. At one of these solemnities, and in the per- 1* senee of the universally revered Petrarch, Landino was crowned as poet with the laurel wreath, though Francesco da Pesaro, appointed organist at San Marco in 1336, was his successful rival for the prize for organ-playing. Distinguished among the later successors of the latter was also Bernhard the German, to whom the invention of the organ-pedals is likewise ascribed, and who is entered on the records of the church as Bernardo di Stefanino Murer. From 1527 Adrian Willaert of Flanders, frequently called Maestro Adriano by the Ita- lians, was maestro di cappella at San Marco; he became the founder of the afterwards so famous Venetian School of music, and especially to him and his pupils do we owe the development of a more vi- gorous and artistic instrumental style. Willaert was the originator of compositions for two and three choruses, the harmony of each having to be complete in itself, and was distinguished as a composer of sacred masses and motets, as well as of profane madrigals and can^oni. In Venice first appeared those Fantasias and ''Ricercari", originated or suggested by him, which were originally intended for the voice, or else for the organ or other instruments, but whose per- formance was later abandoned to the organ alone. In 1541 the Fleming Jachet de Buus was appointed to the second organ in San Marco. He published in 1547 a book entitled "Ricercari da cantare e souare d'organo et altri stromenti" (Venice: Antonio Gardane), fol- lowed by a similar one in 1549. His ricercari are free fugal move- ments. One of the parts begins with the theme in the principal key; that following takes up the same transposed a fifth higher or a fourth lower, but without quitting the original key; the other parts on entering take up the subject and answer alternately in like manner. In most cases, the parts progress diatonically in the prin- cipal key, modulations occurring only transiently to the keys of the dominant or sub-dominant. The instrumental compositions of the period still lack a distinctive, positive character, and the flow of the melodies has too little of pleasing animation, to claim more than an historical interest. Buus leaving Venice in 1551, Willaert's pupil Girolamo Parabosco succeeded to his office in the cathedral. At this early date, the free fantasias and improvised "sonatas" of this excellent organist on the "Instrumento da penna" (harpsichord) found special commendation.* * S. Caffi, Storia della musica sacra etc. Venice 1854, Vol. I, pp. W and 113. — 5 — As in England the Virginal perhaps derived its name from the predilection of young damsels for this miniature clavichord, in Italy, too, the monacordo (clavicordo) was already the favorite insfrumeut of young girls. In the 16th century it was the custom there to educate the daughters of the wealthier classes in convents, where they received instruction in the arts and sciences, more particularly in music. We learn, that at the time of Adrian Willaert's labors in Venice, he himself and the organists at San Marco were likewise clavier-teachers in such convents, and that about 1529 Elena, daughter of the renowned poet and man of letters Pietro Bembo, begged her father to allow her to take part in this instruction. Bembo's written reply has been preserved for us; and the passage in his letter, wherein he speaks of the fondness for clavier-playing already be- coming universally prevalent, runs thus: "Touching thy request for leave to play the 'monacordo' I answer, that by reason of thy tender years thou canst not know, that playing is an art for vain and fri- volous (leggiera) women. And I would, that thou shouldst be the most amiable and the most chaste and modest maiden alive. Besides, if thou wert to play badly, thy plajang would cause thee little pleasure, and no little shame. But in order to play well, thou must needs give up ten or twelve years to this exercise, without even thinking of aught else. And how far this would befit thee, thou canst see for thyself, without my telling it. Should thy schoolmates desire thee to learn to play, for their pleasure, tell them that thou dost not care to have them laugh at thy mortification. And content thyself with the pursuit of the sciences and the practice of needle- work."* Willaert, beloved and honored by all his contemporaries, and above all revered by his numerous pupils, died at Venice in 1562. How liberal and comprehensive his teaching must have been is proved by the circumstance, that many of his pupils are mentioned as most zealous reformers during the total revolution in music which began shortly after his death. The eight Ecclesiastical Modes, distinguished from each other by the places of their semitones, were at that time still taught and employed in their full diatonic purity. But Willaert called attention to the fact, that each whole-tone interval can be di- vided into two semitones, and consequently the whole octave, as tlie Greeks had already taught, into twelve semitones quite equal in their • Caffi, Vol. 1, p. 95. _ 6 — mutual proportions. Although he himself may not have wished to draw practical conclusions from this theory, his distinguished pupils, Nicolo Vincentino and Cipriano de Rore, took a leading part in introducing and defending the newly appearing chromatic music, by which the diatonic was later to be superseded. Their fellow-pupil Gioseffo Zarlino also stands out as the most eminent and liberal theoretician of his period, his authority being recognized almost ex- clusively and universally until the appearance of Rameau in the 18th centuiy. Of. the compositions of Willaert and his pupils, bearing on our subject, the following were published by Ant. Gardane in Venice, 1549: "Fantasie o Rieercari dall' eccelentiss. Adr. Vuigliart e Cipr. Rore, suo discepolo, a 4 e 5 voci"; further, in 1559: "Fantasie, Rieer- cari, Contrapunti a tre voci di M. Adriano et altri autori, appropriati per cantare e sonare d'ogni sorte di stromenti".— The Fantasias and Rieercari are built up from motives of the composer's own invention; while in the Contrapunti the counterpoint is added to a selected sacred melody or a given canto fermo. The motives, generally short, enter in the several parts in fugue style, in the fifth above, the fourth below, or the octave, and the building up of the composition is often effected by imitations in the various parts. Besides the above-mentioned organists for the two organs in San Marco, Claudio Merulo da Correggio is deserving of special men- tion. He was born in Correggio in 1533, was a fellow -student of Cipriano de Rore under Willaert, and while still very young was appointed organist of the cathedral at Brescia. But when, at the decease of Parabosco in 1557, the position of second organist in the cathedral at Venice became vacant, Merulo was chosen therefor over the heads of nine distinguished rivals. He and his colleague Annibale Padovano now frequently performed simultaneously or in alternation upon the two organs at solemn celebrations; and after the death of the latter, Merulo was appointed to his position as first organist, while Andrea Gabrieli, afterwards so famous, undertook the control of the second organ. Merulo's friends and fellow -students, Cipriano de Rore and Gioseffo Zarlino, successively followed their master Willaert in office, and when Merulo left Venice in 1584, in response to his flattering appointment as Court Organist of the Duke of Parma, his position was given to Giovanni Gabrieli, a highly meritorious and influential composer and teacher, and nephew of the Andrea Gabrieli before spoken of. Now, all these artists were devoted _ 7 — to the liberal tendencies by which Willaert's teaching was marked; and to their co-operation do we owe, foremostly, the gradual eman- cipation of instrumental music from, the sJiacJcles of diatonics and the limitations of vocal style. Claudio Merulo worked in Parma for twenty years longer as an organist, composer, and music-teacher, marks of favor of all kinds being lavished upon him, and the Duke distinguish- ing him by the golden chain and the title of Cavaliere. He died in Parma in 1604. While his numerous 3 to 6-part Madrigals had the greatest influence on the development of a more animated style of profane song, his Toccate and Ricercari for the organ and other instruments, published in Eome and Venice, similarly promoted the evolution of the instrumental style proper, as distinguished from vocal style. They appeared under the title: "Toccate d'intavolatura d'organo di Claudio Merulo da Correggio, organista del sereniss. Sig. Duca di Parma e Piacenza. Libro secondo, 1604"; and further: "Ricercari d'intavolatura d'organo, lib. primo. In Venetia, 1567, 1605, and 1607; lib. secondo, 1608". The Toccata, with its broken chords, more rapid runs, and livelier figures, was originally intended for the quickly vanishing tone of the clavier, and later transferred to the organ. In Merulo's toccatas an inner coherency already shows more distinctly; the figurate runs are taken up, now in one part and now in another, and supported by sustained tones, and simple melodious periods likewise alternate with more animated passages in manifold variety. Like the Toccata through Claudio Merulo, the Canzone and Sonata attained to a more finished artistic form at the hands of the above-mentioned Andrea and his nephew Giovanni Gabrieli: — A. Gabrieli, "Canzoni alia francese per I'organo", Venezia, 1571 and 1605; "Senate a cinque per i stromenti", Venezia, 1586; and by G. Gabrieli, "Intonazioni d'organo", lib. 1, Venezia, 1593; "Ricercari per I'organo", lib. 2, 1595; lib. 3, 1595. In the Canzone (originally marked "per sonar" to distinguish it from the canzone for the voice) a principal melody appears, frequently changed in measure and rhythm when reappearing in the course of the piece; and like the sound (harmony) in the sonata, the melody in the canzone was the bearer of the motives aiid their imitations. In the canzoni by Giovanni Gabrieli we already meet with varied and interestingly turned forms; an essentially melodious idea is the theme of the composition; the pas- sages of the toccata are employed therein, rhythmical contrasts apjicar, and in the frequent imitations the subject and answer, regularly alternating with each other, are distinctly recognizable. The distinc- — 8 — tion between Sonatas and Cansoni is given by Michael Praetorius, in his Syntagma musicum, Tom. 3, P. 24, A, D, 1620, as follow . "Sonata a sonando is thus named, because it is not performed by human voices, but by instruments alone, like the Canzone; of which kind very beautiful ones may be found in Giov. Gabrieli's and other authors' Canzonibus and Sjniphoniis. But in my opinion there is this distinction: — That the Sonatas are written right seriously and rarely in motet-style, whereas the Canzoni speed along blithely and merrily with many black notes". The Preludes, Intonations, and Fantasias were compositions in- tended for organ as preludes, interludes, or pustludes, written in chord-style, and often interspersed with more axdmated runs. But the SijmpJionies of that period were not only for the organ; they were sometimes extended pieces for 4, 5, 6 or more independent instruments, which contained shorter imitations, and were set, in particular, in very full harmony. Fuga was originally the name of a composition for two, three, or more parts. One of these begins with a melody, which is exactly imitated by the other parts entering in succession, the part first entering continuing its melody to the close, regularly followed by all the rest in the same manner. Tinctoris (sic) therefore defines tlie Fugue, in his earliest musical dictionary, publislied about 1474, as a strict imitation of the parts of a song.* Sucli a fugue could be executed by the performers to whom it was entrusted from a single part, when the author set at the beginning a rule or "canon" ordering the successive entrance of the parts (whether after one or more measures, on the strong or weak beat, in augmentation or diminu- tion, etc.) Such directions were often given in enigmatical form. For instance, if there stood, above the one part intended for all per- formers, the words "Canon: Crescit in duplo", the contrapuntist meant, that the next part should follow in double augmentation; with "Canon: Qui se exaltat humiliabitui-" the direction was given, that the answer- ing part should ascend when the leading part descended, and vice versd. Tinctoris defines the word canon as a direction, which ob- scurely indicates the composer's pleasure** As early as 1558. when * Fuga est idemtitas partium cantus quo ad valorem, nomen, formam et interdnm quo ad locum notarum et pausarum suarum. ** Canon e.st regula voluntatetn coTDpom'toris sub nbscuxitate otiadam ostondrns. — 9 — Zarlino published Ms celebrated work "Le institution! harmoniche" in Venice, "some musicians of little understanding", as he disapprovingly says, called the strict fugue spoken of above a "canon". The Venetian contrapuntists, too, desired to distinguish their freer fugue from the strict one, the fuga legata, and therefore named it the fuga rieercafa (choice, well chosen). A composition so carefully wrought out might further be termed una Rieercafa or un Ricercare, terms never em- ployed by the scrupulously exact Zarlino, although he lived and labored for 23 years in the midst of his colleagues, the ricercari composers just mentioned. The practical theoretician G. M, Bononcini, in his "Musico prattico" (Bologna, 1688), discusses the Fuga sciolta b libera (free fugue), and also the Fuga legata overo ohligata (the "bound" or strict fugue), and various others, adding the remark (p. 78): "The strict fugue is the same as the canon". At the present time the word "canon" is used to denote a com- position constructed throughout in strict imitation, whereas under "fugue" we understand only the former, artistically wrought composi- tion whose independent parts progress with greater freedom. Our modern "strict fugue" should properly be developed organically only from motives of the subject and counter-subject; whereas our "free fugue" decorates its tissue, especially in the episodes, with fresh motives symmetrically repeated. All compositions as yet named were also written in - different forms by different composers. The contrapuntal movements also took at times an introduction and coda in chord-form, from the motives of which the imitations of the middle movement were worked up; or the several parts of a canzone or some other serious composition had various motives for modulatory work, in order to keep the hearer's interest continually alive by this or similar means. To these monotonous, academical works a novel and fructifying element was, however, added in the airs of the folk-songs and folk- dances, which, more sympathetic in melody and more symmetrical in rhythm, had found loving and fostering care at all times in Italy and in all other countries. Even before the beginning of the 16th century, learned composers had based their works, including masses and sacred motets, on such popular melodies, which they surrounded by ingenious counterpoint. Although such a cantus flrmus was ' usually set in the tenor, or most prominent part, it could nevertheless (« exercise no important influence on the character of the composition ( as a whole, as its melody and, in particular, its rhythm were quite — 10 — covered up by the otlicr parts. Not until writers began to set me- lodies of a popular cast in the naturally most prominent part, the soprano, and to develop the accompanying parts harmonically rather than contrapuntally, did these readily intelligible profane songs show a more pulsing animation. Instrumental music also adopted this improvement, and its can- zoni viUanesclie, napolitaue, and francesi, as well as the likewise homophonic dance-melodies of the Gagliaidi, Correnti, Ciacoue, etc. everywhere met with a most favorable reception. Later, several such serious or gay pieces written in the popular style of the folk-song would be put together, wrought out more artistically, furnished with an introduction and a lively Finale (often a Giga), and maintained unity amid this diversity by a principal key sustained throughout, and a similarity in the working out of the different movements. Cyclic compositions of this order were called Partite, Suites, or Parthien. The above-mentioned Bicercari da cantare e sonare by Buus, pub- lished in Venice, 1547, were the first contrapuntal works printed in Italy which were intended, besides for singing, for the organ and other instruments. They were followed by "Fantasie, Ricercari, Contra- punti a tre voci di M. Adriano (Willaert) et altri autori appropriati per cantare e sonare d'ogni sorti di stromenti. Venezia, A. Gardane, 1549." Two years later the same publisher issued: "Intabulatura nova di varie sorte di balli da sonare per Arpichordi, Clavicembali, Spi- nette c Manachordi, raccolti de diversi excelleutissimi Autori. Libro primo." In the Pass' e mezi, Gagliardi, a Pavane and a Saltarello contained therein, the soprano is supported by a very simple har- monic accompaniment. In the collections of such dances printed later in Venice and other places, the accompaniment to the soprano already exhibits a more interesting harmonic form.* From a chapter of the extremely rare book "Compendium mu- sices descriptum ab Adriano Petit Coclico, discipulo Josquini de Pros. Impressum Norimberga) 1552" it appears, that as early as the 16th century a distinction was made between the science of * Of most of the compositions hitherto named — the Ricercari, Canzoni, down to the last-mentioned dances — characteristic specimens may he found in the carefully edited and richly made-up book: "History of Instrumental Music in the XVI. Century", by W. J. von Wasielewsky Berlin, 1878, J. Gut ten- tag (D. Collini. — 11 — Counterpoint (employed in working out the Kiceroari and other scien- tifico-artistie compositions), and the science of Harmony, according; to • whose freer and more easily mastered rules the accompaniments to the greater part of the collections of dances just mentioned were set. This chapter begins on sheet L IP, or on page 84, if one choose to number the pages from the title-page. It not having been noticed hitherto, I quote so much of it as bears on our subject: "On tlie Bules of Composition, and on tlw Syncopation and Tying of the Notes." "Many have boasted of being composers, because, following the rules and consonances of composition (compositionis), although not in accordance with the existing usage of counterpoint, they have com- posed much. Dominus Josquinus despised such, and made sport of them, saying that they would fain fly without wings." "Thus the first thing required of a good composer is, that he should be able to sing an extemporized counterpoint (contrapunctum ex tempore canere); else he is none." "The second: That he should be drawn to composition by a great desire, by a certain natural impulse, so that neither food nor drink may tempt him before his song be finished. For in one hour he will do more, when driven by this natural impulse, than other- wise in a whole month. Incapable, therefore, are those composers, who lack this special impulse." "The third: That he should understand the employment of the perfect consonances (species perfectas, the Prime and the Fiftli, like- wise their doublings, the Octave and the Twelfth, etc.) and the imper- fect consonances (species imperfectas, the Thirds and Sixths, with their doublings) in the proper place, as is taught in rule of Counter- point For the rule of composition differs in a measure from the rule of counterpoint. The rule of composition is freer, and more is allowed in this than in counterpoint. For the had varieties (of inter- vals), i. e. the Second, the Fourth, and the higher octave of either, are very good in composition, wherever an Octave or a Sixth in one of the lower parts excuses them; and this is termed in French "faubordon" (faux bourdon)^ i. e. bad intervals with the highest part (e. g. g—c) are excused by Sixths or Octaves in the lowest pai-t ]Ce. £. e—sj—c^ or c—ja — ci." — — 12 — *'It is likewise allowed in composition, to ascend and descend with perfect consonances (cum speciehus perfectis) and to set fa against mi (f — h) by writing a [? before h (f—h\>)^ which is not per- mitted in counterpoint." "But in composition, too, one should take the greatest care not to let two perfect consonances [species perfectae) follow each other immediately, such as two Octaves, or two Fifths, or their higher positions; unless one part should ascend and the other descend (e. g. fxs)."- Coclius informs us in this chapter, that the compositions of the 16 til century were not always contrapuntal, but sometimes in a freer, homophonic style. This latter gave rise later to the epoch-making invention of the hasso continuo for the organist accom- panying a vocal piece, — this being a bass part, whose notes were soon provided with figures indicating the chords to be performed over the same. It was in Venice, too, that the first systematic Organ and Clavier Method, by P. Girolamo Diruta, appeared, bearing the title: "Prima parte del Transilvano, dialogo sopra il vero modo di sonar organi ed instrumenti da penna", which latter term included the harpsi- chord, spinet, and other instruments whose strings were made to sound by crow-quills. The dedication to theJPrince of Transylvania, with whom the author holds these dialogues, and to whom the work owes its title, bears the date of 1593. The second part, also printed in Venice, appeared in 1609. In the first part Diruta explains the keyboard, shows the position of the hands and the use of the fingers, explains the Intavolatura (Tabulature or Score), and then proves the truth and necessity of his rules by giving several Toccatas of his own, by Claudio Merulo and Andrea Gabrieli, whose compositions he praises very highly, and by others; calling special attention to the difference between organ-playing and clavier- (harpsichord) playing. The second part teaches how a melody is to be noted down, gives contrapuntal rules, and directions for improvization with examples from Luzzasco Luzzaschi, Gabriele Fattorini, and Adriano Banchieri — all celebrated organists of that period. He treats further of the ecclesiastical modes and their transposition, teaches how to accompany a chorale harmonically, and gives at the close short directions for singing. The numerous editions of both parts of this book, demanded ' in the beginning of the 17th century, bear trustworthy testimony Ik^^ ^ -M^ 13 — at the same time to its clearness, intelligibility, and practical utility. Concerning- the fingering of keyed instruments, even one hundred years later, we may draw information from a work whose fifth edition was issued in Antwerp, 1690, its first having been published in Bologna, 1656. It is entitled: "Li primi albori musicali", and the author, Lorenzo Penna, a distinguished organist of the time, gives therein the following general rules for the fingering (p. 195): In ascending, the fingers of the right hand move one after the other; first the middle finger, then the ring-finger, and then the middle finger again; thus they run on in alternation, whereby care must be taken that the fingers do not strike at the same time. But in des- cending, the middle finger moves first, then the forefinger, then the middle finger again, etc. The left hand observes the reverse order; i. e. in ascending it takes the middle finger first, then the fore- finger, etc., and in descending the middle finger first, then the ring- finger, etc. — The author gives the additional rule, that the hands must not lie lower than the fingers, but high, and that the fingers should be stretched out. Even in the following century the fingering was no more ra- tionally developed, as we see from a book with a very happy poetical introduction by Mattheson. It bears the title: "J. F. B. Caspar Majer's, Organistens bey St. Catharein in Schwabischen Hall, neueroffneten theoretisch- und praktischer Music-Saal" etc. (Newly opened Theo- retico-practical Music-Hail). Second edition, Nuremberg, Joh, Jae. Cremer, 1741. In the chapter "von denen Instrumentis Pulsatilibus, Oder die da geschlagen werden" (on the instruments of percussion, or such as are struck) we find the following remarks: The white keys are named e d e f g a h (b) o and so on through the four octaves of the clavier. "But the black keys, which stand between the white, though further back and higher than the latter, derive their names from the white keys, and the first black key from below is named cis (cj?), because derived from c, the second dis (cZj), because derived from d^ that following fis (/jj), the next gis {g^\ because it stands next the g. Only this must be noticed; that the black key following the a is named h (61?) through the four Octaves." On pages 64 and N 65 a view is given of the 24 musical modes. Here we find under \j N^S-major, for instance, the notes ab W c d\p e\;> f g ab, without , ','^jignature, yet provided with all the necessary chromatic signs; though under these notes there stand the names then in general use for the "/' 14 — same; ^ j h\> c cj (ZS f 9 df- ^"^ ^i^^ mai n?r we find under Dj|- minor the notes eb f gV a\? 'b\> c d el?, and below the same their names cZJJ /" /S 5'8 ^b c (? (Z^ OTzwor. i>»^ b^it42i=2t :l?P=^ 4 /* /"it .'^t &> ii'^"^'\ ring-finger and foref. er and thumb j j forefinger and little finger and thumb ' 'little f. and thumb right jref. > ;lef. I nb / We owe the first fingering for the clavier based on rational principles to Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, son of the great composer Sebastian Bach, whose "Versuch Uber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen" (Essay on the ti-ue Method of playing the Clavier) was published in Berlin, in the year 1753. On the first appearance in Italy, about 1580, together with Monody and recitative song, of a principal part not enveloped, as until then, by contrapuntal parts of equal importance, but merely supported harmonically by an appropriate instrument, like the lute or harpsichord, this principal part was furnished with a bass, to serve the player as a guide for the harmonies accompanying the former. Lodovico Viadana, in turn maestro di cappcJJa at several cathedrals in the States of Urbino, at Venice, and at last in Mantua, invented thereafter (about 1596, at which time he was in Rome) a new kind — 15 — of vocal compositions, which he called "concert i cccJcsiastici'\ and in which now one voice alone, and anon two, three, or four voices together would appear, an accompanying hass part for the organ, a basso continue, being added thereto. One hundred of the same were, however, first printed at Venice in 1602 as four separate voice- parts, together with a fifth: "il basso continuo per sonar nell' organo". In the preface he gives the organist the advice, to play only the voice-parts belonging to each movement, to look through these before the performance, and not to obscure the same by embellishments. But as yet the basso continuo of this first edition shows no figures over the notes, or any other sign indicating the harmonies to be taken therewith. Recitative and solo singing, which came into vogue in Florence^ together with the first attempts at a drama supported by music through- out, in the last decade of the 16 th century, and which was actively promoted by the Florentines Vincenzo Galilei and Jacopo Peri, .and the Romans Emilio del Cavaliere and Giulio Caccini then in Florence, had also made necessary a similar bass part for its accompaniment. The sacred musical drama, designed for the oratory, also took itg rise in that time of mental and vital activity. In such an Oratorio by the above-named Emilio del Cavaliere, "La rappresentazione di anima e di corpo", printed in 1600, and in the opera "Eurydice" by Giulio Caccini, published at Florence in the same year, likewise in Jacopo Peri's opera of the same name which appeared in Venice in 1608, the bass parts already have figures and chromatic signs over the notes; and the editor of the Oratorio, Alessandro Guidotti, already furnishes some observations on the meaning of this figuring in hi» accompanying "Avvertimenti particolari per chi cantera recitando e per chi sonera". Now, as Ludovico Viadana, in the second edition of his "Cento concert! ecclesiastici" (published in Venice, 1609, i. e. later than the work mentioned above), first added to the same a basso continuo with figuring, yet already provided it with detailed directions for playing, it is doubtful whether we owe the invention and introduction of thorough-bass to this composer, or to Emilio del Cavaliere, Caccini, or Peri. But, as the execution of such figured basses in profane compositions was usually entrusted, from that time onward, to a clavier-player, the latter was obliged, like the organist j who had to accompany sacred music in a similar manner, to be ' fi),miliar with thorough-bass playing; and the science of accompany- f ^ — 16 — ing formed henceforward an important part of the musical education of every clavier-player. The course of our observations has shown, how in Venice, firstly there were gradually developed from compositions intended for the voice those forms of art, which were adapted to the character of instrumental music in general and to that of keyed instruments in particular; and how thereafter, in Florence, the clavier was not as formerly used exclusively for the performance of works in contra- puntal style, but also for the freer harmonic support of dramatic solo singing, whereby its easily evoked harmonic fulness was brought out. We now turn to Rome, where Girolamo Frescobaidi and Bernardo Pasquini, two men prominent in the annals of ]\Iusic, at length treated the clavier, ivith its non-sustained, qiiicTdy vanishing tones, in a manner corresponding to its peculiarities, so that compositions written hoth artistically and in true clavier - style made their appearance. As "teachers of Frescobaidi are named the two excellent organists and composers Luzzasco Luzzaschi and Alexandre Milleville, both, like himself, natives of Ferrara. Luzzaschi was one of those artists, who undertook towards the end of the 16 th century to re- habilitate the three primary genera of the Greeks, and to adapt tthem to the practice of their own time; like Willaert's above-named pupils Vincentio and Zarlino, he therefore had a clavier built, on which the diatonic, chromatic, and enharmonic modes could be played — a fact which exercised most lasting influence upon the training of the pupils committed to his charge. Girolamo Frescobaidi was one of those highly gifted, epoch-making minds, of whom the history of an art can boast but few at any time. Unsurpassed as a virtuoso on the organ and clavier, and enthusiastically revered by all his con- temporaries, he also stands forth as a composer for these instruments of solid, acute, and in the highest degree inventive genius. Though few details of his career are known to us, the greater is the number of the compositions preserved; these exhibit throughout an artist familiar ■with the laws of his art, but standing high above them, receptive of everything new, and fearing no difficulty. He was born in Ferrara in 1587 or 1588, studied there under the above-named distinguished musicians and organists, then paid a visit of several years to the Netherlands, returned in 1608 from Antwerp to Milan, and went to Rome in 1614 with his teacher Milleville. Such brilliant renown already preceded him thither, that according to report his I first performance as an organ-player at St. Peter's attracted. "^ lind \ I 1 — 17 — audience of 30,000. As early as the following- year, from the title of one of his collections of Toccatas and Partitas for the clavier, be was installed as organisfa di San Pietro, which office he appears to have held until his death. His most celebrated pupil, Johann Jacob Frobepgep, was accounted a marvel as a child, sent to Rome by Kaiser Ferdinand HI., and returned thence after a stay of three years as the greatest German clavier-player and organ-player of his time. The numerous published works of Frescobaldi embrace Ricercari, Canzoni, Fantasie, Toccate, Capricci and Partite for the clavier and for the organ. Though in all these compositions we find mainly fugued movements, only the Ricercari show the strict and regular working-out of a distinct principal motive; whereas the fugal melodies of the Canzoni are sometimes introduced and interrupted by a few measures in chorale style. The leading melody of the Canzone, which already bears a distinct character, remains recognizable even at a change of time in the same. Before Frescobaldi, the Capriccio fre- quently consisted of a movement in binary (common) time, in which two different motives were worked out. This was followed by a short, animated movement in ternary time, like a dance air; and a new, fugued motive then closed the composition. The Capricci of Frescobaldi, on the contrary, are invariably founded on some strange motive, a bizarre subject; and more particularly in this does this composer reveal himself as a genius far outrivalling his contempo- raries through wealth of invention, and an easy, skilful mastery of his material. Thus we find, in his Capriccio di duresse, harmonic rough- nesses intentionally sought; in the Capriccio cromatico con ligature al contrario, passages chromatically worked out, with ascending resolu- tions of all ligatures occurring therein— then an unheard-of licence! Another of his compositions follows the compulsory rule (ohUigo) that none of its four parts shall progress by steps; and the player of another "four-part movement must sing to the same throughout a melody con- sisting of 8 tones. While in the fugues (Ricercari) of the elder and younger contemporaries of Frescobaldi, moreover, the ecclesiastical modes are still retained, in his own the endeavor is already often apparent, to approach our modern keys with the leading-note peculiar to the same. To this active spirit we likewise chiefly owe the in- troduction of a more perspicuous notation of compositions designed „\for keyed instruments. Thus in the works engraved on copper by AjVNicolo Borhoni at Rome in 1615, "Toccate e partite d'intavolatura di ^'Cenibalo di Girolamo Frescobaldi, organista di San Pietro in Roma , — 18 — as well as in several similar compositions published later, the notes for the right hand are written on six lines, and those for the left on eight. Of other compositions by him still extant we mention: II prime libro di Fantasie a 2, 3 e 4. In Milano, 1608; Ricercari et Canzoni francesi, fatti sopra diversi oblighi, in partitura. In Roma, 1615; II secondo libro di Toccate, Canzoni, Versi d'inni, Magnificat, Gagliarde, Correnti ed altre partite d'intavolatura di cembalo ed organo. In Roma, 1616; Capricci sopra diversi sogetti (with likeness of Fresco- baldi). In Roma, 1624; II primo libro di Capricci, Canzoni francesi € Ricercari, fatti sopra diversi sogetti et Arie : in Partitura. In Venetia, 1626; II primo libro delle Canzoni a 1, 2, 3, 4 voci, per sonare, o per cantare con ogni sorte di stromenti. In Roma, 1628 (in separate parts; later set in score by Frescobaldi's pupil Bartolomeo Grassi); Fiori musical! di Toccate, Kyrie, Canzoni, Capricci, e Ricercari in Partitura per sonatori con basso per organo. In Roma, 1635; Toc- cate d'intavolatura di Cembalo ed Organo, Partite di diverse Arie, Correnti, Balletti, Ciacone, Passacagli, etc. In Roma, 1637. While Frescobaldi was the greatest organist and clavierist of the first half of the 17 th century, in its second half the same rank was taken by a native of Tuscany, Bernardo Pasquini (b. 1637), a pupil of the noted composer of cantatas and operas Antonio Cesti. While yet a youth, Pasquini came to Rome, and was engaged as organist at the church of Santa Maria maggiore. But his remarkable perfor- mances soon rendered him so famous, that Kaiser Leopold entrusted the education of several pupils to his charge, and presented him his portrait hung on a gold chain. In Florence and Rome he was overwhelmed with honors, and also in Paris, where Cardinal Chigi presented him to Louis XIV.; and upon his monument at Rome in the church of S. Lorenzo in Lucina is inscribed the lofty title: "S. P. Q. R. organoedus". Organist to the Senate and the Roman Nation. In the year 1679 he wrote the opera "Dov' e amore e pieta" for the opening of the Capranica theatre, in which he was engaged as clavierist; the no less famous Corelli holding the position of leader of the violins. He died at Rome in 1710. One of his pupils was Francesco Gasparjni, later highly esteemed in Italy as a teacher and comi>oser, and the author of a text -book on thorough-bass for clavierists, "L'armonico prattico al cembalo, etc.", which ran through seven editions from its first appearance in Venice, 1683, to the year 1802. Of Pasquini's compositions but few have been printed; among these we find "Toccates et suites pour le Clavecin de MM. Pasquini I — 19 — Paglietti, et Gaspard Kerle. Amsterdam, Roger, 1704;" yet in them the endeavor is still more apparent than in Frescobaldi's, to abandon the earlier, strict style, and to substitute therefor one more free and pleasing, and better suited to the clavier. His Toccatas, therefore, no longer appear as pieceo contrapuntally elaborated for a regular number of parts, but he follows in the same the more buoyant flight of his fancy, now in broad, sweeping arpeggios, and again by strengthening through prolonged trills the unsustained clavier -tone; here one part appears alone, there two or more conjoined; flowing passages are now taken up in the right hand, now in the left; then one or several motives are fugued in a movement held more strictly in hand, the second division of which resumes the livelier runs of the first movement, and winds up the composition with the same. Our modern major and minor keys having supplanted, since the beginning of the 18 th century, the ancient modes, and the finally established equal temperament of the clavier permitting compositions to be written for the same in all these keys (whereby a new and wide field was opened for modulation as well), a genius was still wanting, who should be capable of employing the art- forms and effects developed by the masters .hitherto named not only for the sensuous enjoyment of the ear, but rather for the expression of inner feelings and emotional phases, and thus at length to inspire the com- positions intended for this instrument with a living spirit. The seed so abundantly strewn by the earlier composers required fecundation, the form so artistically constructed needed the inpiration of emotion, if compositions designed of the clavier should answer, like others, the higher ends of music, by giving intelligible expression to all feelings and moods of the soul. In Naples, where the melodious element, as best suited to the hot-blooded Italian temperament, had from the earliest times been specially fostered and cultivated, the great reformer and inspirer of the opera, Alessan dro Scarlatti, had labored since 1709 by word and deed; and the Neapolitan school, which finally united the pure Roman style with the freer form- development of the Venetian school, took precedence of all other schools in Italy, especially when its renowned representative Francesco Durante stood at its head. His son Domenico was in his time as active an inventor and refoimer, in the'*field of clavier-literature, as Alessandro Scarlatti in dramatic- matters, and his performances were received with the greatest enthusiasm not only by his own countrymen, but also by the German a* — 20 — musicians who met him, among others the equally eminent composer and clavier-player Johann Adolph Hasse (il Sassone, 1699—1783). Dommjco Scarlatti, born in Naples, 1683, began his musical studies under his father, and finished the same under the guidance of the above-mentioned Gasparini. In the year 1709 he met Handel in Venice, and accompanied this master, whom he deeply revered, to Rome, to benefit by longer study of his works and his performances as an organist and clavierist. The German school, then in full vigor, thus appears to have exercised thenceforward its beneficial influence on the Italian; so that the wearer of Scarlatti's mantle, Clementi, who was gifted with an equally glowing imagination, was enabled to take rank among the heads of the newer, universal school of clavier-playing. In 1715 Domiuico Scarlatti was appointed maestro di cappella to the Vatican at Rome, went in 1719 to London, to bring out one of his musical dramas in that city and to assume the position of harpsichord player at the Italian opera; thence he jour- neyed to Lisbon, where the king attached him to his court under the most flattering conditions. We again find him in 1726 at Naples, later at Rome, and finally (1729) at the Spanish court in Madrid, where he lived in the fullest prosperity, and died in 1757 as the greatest virtuoso of his time and most influential composer for his instrument. The personal influence exercised by this gifted master in the places enumerated was of lasting eff'ect, and his highly ar- tistic and effective compositions, of which Abbot Santini of Rome possessed 349 for organ and clavier alone, insure remembrance of his name in the history of music. They all reveal an extraordinary inventive talent, contain pleasing, though not long-breathed melodies, sti-iking rhythms, and flowing passages practicable in the swiftest tempo, in which the hands are frequently to be passed over each other. These are no longer the art-forms of the Netherlanders, pro- ducts of pure mental skill, but the heart-outpourings of an Italian inspired by his art. His compositions, whose worth has by no means been fully recognized, contain effects of style and tone not again ~ employed until long after, and then with immense success. Thas' we already find in his Sonatas (usually sound-pieces consisting of a single movement) running passages in thirds and sixths; the rapid repetition on one key of various fingers; leaps wider than an octave with one hand; broken chords for both hands in contrary motion; and other effects quite novel at that time. To be sure, his works commonly hold fast to a selected, characteristic principal motive; but at the — 21 - same time the accompanyin,? parts, especially the bass, are always interestingly and effectively worked out. A collection of his clavier- works has been published under the title of "(Euvi-es complettes de D. Scarlatti", Cah. 1—8, Vienna, chez Riedl; another, edited by Carl Czerny, bearing- the title "Siimmtliche Werke fur das Pianoforte (?) von D. Scarlatti", 15 Parts (120 pieces), Vienna, Haslinger; and published separately. Fugues, Paris, Janet et Cie.; Sonata con fiig-a, Vienna, Cappi. The term "for the Pianoforte" on the edition of his works edited by Czerny, is evidently erroneous. For althoug:h Bartoiomei Chri sjoforj bad built in Italy ,^ as early as 1711, claviers whose strings could be struck by hammers pimm or forte, we nevertheless "owe"tlie production of the first practically useful Pianofortes to the unremitting experiments and improvements of Gottfried Siibermann, begun in 1726; whose instruments, however, as the History of the Pianoforte at the end of this book shows, were not widely employed until after Scarlatti's death. In Scarlatti's compositions the first movement of the modern Sonata, i. e. the proper sonata-form, is already established in its fundamental outlines. These pieces usually consist of two parts, each of which is to be repeated. The first contains the exposition of the piece; it begins with the principal theme or motive in the principal key, effects a transition through the passages and runs fol- lowing to a related secondary key, and closes in the latter with an extended cadence. In major, the modulatory contrast usually chosen is the key of the dominant; in minor, either the relative major, or the minor or major key of the dominant. The second part then works up the material of the first, modulating back into the principal key; now takes up the beginning of the piece, or some later passage in the exposition, repeats the motives of the first part, this time in the principal key, and closes in the latter, generally with a cadence similar to that of the first part. Sometimes there enters, with the modulatory conti'ast of the first part, a thought essentially different from the principal motive — a most striking reminder of our modern sonata-form. In his rhythms and modulations Scarlatti is often bold and original. E. g. the fifth Sonata in the first number of Czerny's edition begins with a clear-cut musical thought of five measures in J.-major, which is repeated, and to which episodes are added, mo- dulating through Z)-minor and J.-minor to ^-minor, in which key the author dwells, and closes the first part. The second passes through — 22 — the jB-major triad to ^-major, touching D-major on the way, and a sustained tone, E^ leads us to J.-minor. In this key the motives of the first part are now repeated, and the Sonata closes in the same, as did the first part. The above-mentioned Francesco Durante is another of the com- posers, to whom we owe the expansion of the clavier-sonata through the combination of several movements outwardly different, but in- wardly in harmonious affinity. In his six "Sonate per Cembalo, divise in studii e divertimenti", published in Naples, each Studio — a lively, freely fugued movement, relieved by flowing passages and variously broken chords, wherein to two parts a third or fourth is occasionally added — is followed by a short Divertimento in the same key, con- sisting of two parts, and less artificially elaborated, but pleasingly animated. This uniting of two pieces of different character as one sonata was practiced thereafter by various influential Italian com- posers, and fully developed or completely transformed. Thus the "Vin Sonate per Cembalo, opera prime da Dominico Alberti" (be- fore me lies the edition printed by J, Walsh, London), at first disse- minated in MS, and later printed in London and Paris, were for a time much sought after and liked. Each consists of a rather long Allegro or Andante of two parts, in the sonata-form just described, followed by a more or less extended movement in the key of that preceding, and in the form of an Andante, Allegro, Minuet, Giga- Presto, Tempo di Minuetto with variations, or Presto assai. The principal theme and the other divisions of the Sonata are not, how- ever, accompanied by a contrapuntally independent bass, like the works previously discussed, but the bass serves here merely as a subordinate support to the leading highest part, and often breaks the full harmony of a chord in the following manner: Sonata "VI. Allegro moderato. I I For dilettanti, in particular, this style of accompaniment was more convenient than the contrapuntal bass-passages of Durante and other workmanlike wntera Tt was dubbed the "Alberti bass", and ■^m -^ f-mj^ t-^^ ^♦^ ■^■»-f- ■^♦H^ •^■•-#- -f^^-^ — 23 — the abuse of the same by later composers is the reason, that the development of the pianist's left hand is often less carefully attended to, than was formerly thought necessary. In 1737 Dominico Albcrti, then twenty years of ag-e, was among the suite of the Venetian am- bassador at Eome, and was in high estimation there on account of his musical gifts as a singer and clavier-player. The twelve "Senate di Gravicembalo da Pier Domenico Paradies, Napolitano", no longer show the fuguing style of earlier contrapuntists, but their working-up, both musically and technically, is by far more artistic than that of Alberti's, in which the strict style is also abandoned. Domenico Paradies was born in Naples about 1710, and finished his musical studies there. After several of his operas had been given in Lucca and Venice, he proceeded to London in 1747, brought out a new tragic opera of his own composing, and then settled down as a clavier- teacher in that city, which extends a friendly welcome to all foreign musicians of repute. In the year 1754 he published, through J. Blundell of London, the 12 Sonates before mentioned. Like Durante's Sonatas, those by Paradies consist of two movements alike in key but differing in tempo. The first and more extended movement has two parts, the first of which closes regularly in the dominant of the principal key. The tempo of the same is either allegro,, the second, shorter movement being a Vivace or Presto, sometimes a soft, melodious aria;— or the Sonata begins with an An- dante, followed by a grave Minuetto or a lively Giga. The two-part style, which was best adapted to the tone and touch of the clavi- chords, spinets, and virginals of the period, still forms the basis of these pieces, but is handled so boldly and brilliantly that they served as studies even for Clementi himself. Of the masters named as yet, the following works have been published by Bartholf Senff, Leipzig, in the collection entitled "Alte Claviermusik", edited by E. Pauer: Frescobaldi, Correute and Canzona; Alessandro Scarlatti, Fugue; Domenico Scarlatti, 3 Studii; Durante, Studio; Pietro Domenico Paradisi, Sonata. The correct name of the last is Pier Domenico Paradies. A similar, very carefully edited collection by H. M. Schletterer has been published by J. Rieter-Bieder- mann, Leipzig, with the following title: "Classische Claviercompositionen aus alterer Zeit" (classic Clavier Corap. of Earlier Times) containing 3 Studii e Divertimenti by F. Durante, and 18 Sonatas by Scarlatti, all in one movement. Breitkopf & Hartel have also issued 60 Sonatas by Scarlatti, either separate, in 6 Numbers, or in 1 Volume. — 24 — To judge of the music of earlier times impartially and justly, one should not set it in direct contrast witli that of to-day, and com- pare it with this latter, but regard it as a necessary intermediate link in the historical development of our art, at the same time going back in thought and feeling to the period which gave it birth and to the genius and bent of the people in whose midst it arose. The now frequent modernizing of earlier compositions by striking out certain apparent harshnesses in melody, harmony, or rhythm, by adding more full-sounding chords, more brilliant figuration, etc., robs the original work of its true character, clothes the worthy composer of the olden time in a garb unsuited to him and his age, and often disfigured, and is to be utterly eschewed under all circumstances. The earlier English Clavier School. As early as the 7 th century the Gregorian church-song was pro- pagated by papal singers in England; in the 15 th century lived John Dunstable (d. 1458), who won renown not only as a musician, but as an astronomer as well. Pie is often cited as a musical authority, together witli Binchoys and Dufay, by Tinctoris, Gaforius, and other earlier theoreticians, under the name of Dunstaple and Donstable.* Among the court musicians of Eduard VI. we find, besides the singers, lutists, harpers, flutists, rebec and bagpipe -players, trumpeters and drummers, three virginal players; and in 1575 Thomas Tahis and * Barney (History of Music, Vol. II, p. 339) mentions a treatise by Dun- stable "De mensurabile musica" as lost. Since then, however, it has been found, and is at present, an ancient paper manuscript written In Latin, in the British Museum, "Add. Mss. 10, 336", sheet 6 to 18, among various musical essays As the treatise has not yet been described, and can in any event be understood only by a musician v?ho is also familiar with paleo- graphy, I will state in brief the contents of this unique document. The author treats of the various kinds of notes, shows the black shapes of the maxima, longa, brevis, semibrevis, and minima, discusses their value under certain conditions, and gives seven rules for their length when any one of the same stands before, between, or after notes of a kind differing from itself. Further, he treats of the rests, prolation, perfection, of the dot beside a note, which may be either a punchis pcrfectionis or punctus divisionis; of the red and black, full and empty notes: lays down eight rules for the value of the figures in the ligatures, discusses the syncopes, and illustrates all points by numerous examples in notes. The very distinctly wi-itten signature is — 25 — Ids celebrated pupil, William Bird, were appointed organists to Queen Elizabeth. In a MS still extant, known to us under the name of "Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book", are preserved clavier-compositions of the two musicians just mentioned, and also by Giles, Farnaby, Dr. Bull, and others. Among these we find the Fancie or Fantasie, which imitates and fugues various motives following each other; further, the Pavane in common (binary) time, whose theme is repeated by a Galli^de following in triple (te.-nary) time, and the Variations, v/hose air (usually that of a popular folk-song) is played throughout in one part, while the other parts accompany it with imitating runs and passages. For each hand a staff of six lines is employed. But even the seventy compositions found in this clavier -book which were written by Bird, whom the English praise so highly, are heavy and wanting in grace, though often ingeniously and artistically wi-ought out. Dr. Bull, on the other hand, already sets the clavier-player the most difficult tasks; in a suite of Variations he wi-ites, to a cantus firmns in the highest part, now two notes against three, and again gives the left hand comparatively rapid passages in thirds and sixths to play, etc. In Burney's History of Music, Vol. Ill, p. 89, 115, etc. are to be found various compositions taken from this Virginal Book of Queen Elizabeth. The first printed clavier-compositions appeared in England under her successor, James I. (1603 — 1625), bearing the following title: "Parthenia or The Maydenhead of the first musieke that euer was printed for the Virginalls composed by three famous Masters William Byrde, Dr. John Bull and Orlando Gibbons, Gentilmen of his Ma*^^^ most Illustrious Chappell. Ingrauen by William Hole". Although the most eminent English composers of the 17 th centmy, Orlando Gibbons (1583—1625), Pelham Humphry (1647—1674), and Henry Purcell (1658—1695), wrote mainly for the voice, the last- named being also an extremely admired opera-composer, compositions by them for the organ are still extant; and Henry Purcell had a collection of clavier sonatas printed in London, 1683. The characteristic expression of this earlier English clavier school is a wearisome mono- tony of melody, rhythm, and modulation; it has therefore had no in- fluence whatever on the further development of the art of clavier- playing, which latter could attain to a higher degree of perfection in England only under the fostering care of masters from abroad, who have ever met with flattering recognition in that country. In his collection of "Alte Claviermusik" E. Pauer gives the fol- lowing compositions of the earlier English masters here mentioned: — 26 — W. Bird, Prelude and The Carman's Whistle; Dr. John Bull. The King's Hunting- Jigg; 0. Gibbons, Prelude and Galliarde. The first collection of English Clavier-music cited above, the ''Parthenia". has been re-issued by the London Antiq. Mus. Soc, edited and furnished with an introduction on the earliest epoch of Clavier-playing by the musical scientist Edw. F. Rimbault. The latter is also the author of an excellent work (Robt. Cocks: London, 1860) entitled ''The History of the Pianoforte", which treats in detail of the origin, development, and construction of this instrument, contains notes on its precursors, such as the clavichord, virginal, spinet, and harpsichord, and to which specimens of the earlier clavier-pieces of the best masters are appended. The Earlier French Clavier School. A lasting influence was exercised on the perfecting of our art by an Organ and Clavier School which arose in France toward the middle of the 17 th century, more particularly through the evolution of a more elegant, rhythmically defined, and richly embellished clavier style. Its last distinguished eleve, Jean Phillipe Rameau, (d. 1764) was likewise the reformer of the French opera and the founder of a system of harmony still current in part to this day. Andre Champion (commonly called de Chambonnieres after an estate belonging to his wife), a highly esteemed court clavier-player to Louis XIV., is to be regarded as the head of this earlier French school. According to the report of a contemporary, Le Gallois, he is said to have drawn such an unusually full tone from the Clavecin (harpsichord) tbrouirh his peculiar style of touch, that only his pupil Hardelle was able partially to approach him in this art. Most distinguished amono- his pupils after the latter are the following: Buret, Gautier, le Begue d'Anglebert, Louis Couperin, and Fran^-ois Couperin. In the two books of clavier-pieces by Chambonnieres published in Paris, the first of which bears the date of his death, 1670, we already find the groundwork of that briglitly embellished clavier style, which con- tinued down to Rameau's time. F6tis, who had before him these compositions, now extant in but rare copies, finds their style naive and graceful, and their pure harmonic structure worthy of the closest attention. The above-named Jean Henry d'Anglebert was also a clavier- player at the court of Louis XIV., whose luxurious splendor and — 27 — punctilious etiquette is distinctly called to mind by the compositions of this old school still in existence. In the year 1689 he published a work under the following title: "Pieces de clavecin avec la mani^re de les jouer, diverses chaconnes, ouvertures, et autres airs de M. de Lully, mis sur cet instrument, quelques fugues pour I'orgue, et les principes de I'accompagnement Livre premier". Among the clavier pieces of this collection we find 22 Variations on the theme of "Folies d'Espagne", already treated in like manner by Corelli and later by Scarlatti; and the fugues for organ are strict and carefully wrought out. In the two Couperins also named as pupils of Chambonnieres we were introduced to a family, whose members upheld its renown as remarkable musicians down to the 19 th century. Louis Couperin, born in 1630 in Chaume, was, like his two younger brothers, gifted with eminent musical talent. In the flower of his youth he went to Paris, and obtained there the position of organist at the church of St. Gervais. Of his compositions, only three suites of clavier-pieces, in MS, have come down to us. FranQois Couperin was appointed, after his brother's death, to his office at the church of St. Gervais. He attained to high repute as a clavier-teacher; indeed, the strictness of the style of his organ compositions was reached by no other subsequent French composer. The youngest of the three, Charles Couperin, followed his brother as organist at the same church, retaining this position until his decease in 1669. The son of the latter, named, like his uncle, Frangois Couperin, not without reason received the surname of "le Grand". For by his fine playing on the organ and clavier, and also by his pleasing compositions, he surpassed by far the majority of his immediate rivals in these branches of music. In 1701 he became court clavier- player, and at the same time organist of the royal chapelle, and died at the age of 63 in the year 1733. By him are still extant four books of clavier-pieces published in Paris (1713 etc.); further "Les gouts reunies, ou nouveaux concerts, augmentes de I'apotheose de Corelli en Trio. Paris, 1717", and finally "L'apotheose de I'incomparable L(ully)". Besides these, Couperin published in Paris, 1717, a Harpsichord Method entitled: "L'art de toucher du clavecin", wherein, as Tiirk remarks in a similar work in 1789, "he appears as a pioneer, opening the way for others". Couperin retains, throughout the great number of his published works an individual, artistic, and brilliant style of composition. His clavier- pieces are mainly in two parts, seldom provided with a third or a — 28 — full chord; almost all are in contrapuntal style, but the highest part generally bears the principal melody, and this latter, like the inner parts and bass, is so overladen with appoggiaturas, trills, and' other graces, that the melody, often in itself really elegant and graceful, appears, as it were, like a high -frizzed beauty hidden by si, richly wrought lace veil. He modulates to the keys related to the tonic by the third and fifth; and in his works the peculiarity of that method is strongly prominent, through which greater fulness was lent to the weak tone of the harpsichord by keeping down the keys with all the fingers engaged even in the most variously broken chords, thus con- tinuing the vibration of the strings. As renowned an organist and clavier-player as Frangois Cou- perin, though by no means so estimable a composer, was his con- temporary Louis Marchand. He was born in Lyons in 1669, and received the appointment of organist at the cathedral of Nevers when not quite 14. He remained there ten years, went thence to Auxerre and then to Paris, where he was at first engaged as organist at the Jesuit church, but was later appointed to a like position at several other churches together. Subsequently the king made him court or- ganist at Versailles, and dubbed him knight of the Order of St. Michael. But with his growing fame also grew his pride and reckless- ness, and while revelling in pleasui'es of every kind, he often left his universally honored wife without the bare necessaries of life. The king, having gained intelligence of this, gave the order, that half of Marchand's salary should be withheld from him, and paid to his wife instead. Soon after this order went into effect, ]\Iarchand was to play the mass at Versailles before the entii-e court. In the Agnus Dei the organ suddenly stopped; Marchand left the church, and everybody supposed him to be taken seriously ill At the close of the seiTices, however, the king found him promenading in the best of health hard by the palace. On asking the reason of the foregoing disturbance of the holy office, Marchand answered: "Sire, as my wife draws half my salary, she may also play half the mass!" The king received this impertinent reply so ungraciously, that Marchand was banished for a considerable time from France. The meeting occurring thereafter between this organist, once so highly honored in France, with Sebastian Bach, is related by Marpurg according to Bach's own account as follows: "Marchand, during his banishment from France, came in 1717 to Dresden, played before the king of Poland vTith great applause, and was so fortunate as to have offered him a posi- -- 29 — tion in tlie royal service worth some thousands of thalers. To the orchestra of this prince was attached at the time a French leader by the name of Volumier, who either regarded his countryman's pro- spective good fortune with envious eyes, or had been incidentally aggrieved by him. He represented to the court musicians, how Marchand scoffed at all German clavierists, and held council with them, how the pride of this Goliath might be at least humbled in some measure, even should it not be possible to rid the court of his presence. Keceiving assurance that the "Kammer- und Hoforganist" at Weimar, Sebastian Bach, was a man at any rate a match for the French court organist, if not able to surpass him, Volumier immediately wrote to Weimar and invited Herr Bach to come to Dresden without delay, and break a lance with the celebrated M. Marchand. Bach came, and with the king's consent, without Marchand's knowledge, he was ad- mitted to the next court concert as an auditor. After Marchand had played, among other matters, a French air with numerous variations, and had been loudly applauded for the skill displayed in the varia- tions, and likewise for his neat and fiery execution, Bach, who was , standing near him, was invited to try the Harpsichord. He acceded to the request, beginning with a short though masterly prelude; then quite unexpectedly repeated the air played by Marchand, and added a dozen variations with new art in a style never heard before. Marchand, who till then had outrivalled all other organists, doubtless recognized the superiority of his present opponent; for when Bach took the liberty of inviting him to a friendly trial of skill on the organ, handing him to that end a theme, sketched on a sheet of paper, to be worked out at sight, and requesting a similar theme from him, Marchand never appeared on the appointed field of battle, but thought it more prudent to leave Dresden by extra -post." — Marchand returned to Paris, and soon succeeded in re-establishing his former fame, so that it became the fashion to take clavier lessons of him; indeed, to meet the wishes of pupils dwelling at a great distance from each other, he hired lodgings simultaneously in different ^quarters of the city, staying now in one, and now in another. Although Qj,t this time, as Marpurg relates, he had to give nine or ten lessons laily, the price of which had risen to a louisd'or, he was unable to iover his prodigal expenses with this income, and died in 1732 in tpxtreme poverty. Soon after his return from Germany, Marchand again assumed Jhe position of organist in several churches, and his remarkable play- — 30 — ing always attracted throngs of listeners. Even Ramjau, later so renowned as a theoretician and opera composer, came to Paris from his native city Dijon, to make the acquaintance of this feted organ- player. Marchand welcomed him in a friendly manner, gave him some lessons, and soon entrusted several of his places as organist to Ms charge. But after Eameau had shown his teacher some of his own artistically elaborated compositions, the jealousy of Marchand was thereby awakened so strongly, that he tried every means to get his then unknown and quite penniless pupil away from Paris. The post of organist at the church of St. Paul became vacant in 1727, and Rameau, together with Louis Claude Daquin, admired from his eighth year onward as a clavier-player, applied for the same. Marchand, being appointed umpire of the trial of skill ensuing, awarded the prize to Daquin for the reasons before alluded to; the latter held his office with honor, it is true, up to his 78th year, but as a com- poser was assuredly not the equal of his rival Rameau; for his very insignificant organ and clavier compositions cannot in the least bear comparison with the artistic works of Rameau. — Ballard of Paris published in 1705 a book of pieces for the clavecin, and in 1717 two similar collections dedicated to the king. Among Rameau's com- positions, on the other hand, we must mention: "Nouvelles suites de pieces de clavecin, avec des remarques sur les diflferens genres de musique." Furthermore, he published in Paris: Premier livre de pieces de clavecin, 1706; Deuxieme livre, 1721; Pieces de clavecin avee une table pour les agremens; and finally, "Trois concertos pour clavecin, violon et basse de viole", Paris 1741, Leclerc. His clavier style is freer, and often fuller, than that of his predecessors; for he more frequently employs three parts, and occasionally even supports his melodies by a series of chord-tones struck successively or together. The popular dance -airs were already used in France, as elsewhere, in clavier-pieces of strongly marked rhythm; and the desire, to lend the compositions a definite character, is shown in the titles given below as examples, such being frequently bestowed. Rameau, who died in Paris, 1764, was the last of the more eminent clavierists an( or"'anists of this earlier French school; and the sequel will show, tha Since that time the German school, which had meanwhile reached vigorous maturity, began to exercise a lasting influence in France aa well. There, too, true musicians both of native and foreign origir, were now confronted by the problem, constantly to extend and enhance — 31 — the resources and effects of the clavier, in order that it might give most truthful expression to all phases of emotion. In E. Pauer's "Alte Claviermusik" we find, among other things, an Allemande, Courante, and Sarabande by J. Champion de Chamboii- ni6res; also several clavier-pieces by Francois Couperin, e. g. "La tcndre Nanette" and "La Tenebreuse". The collection contains by J. P. Eameau: Deux Gigues en Rondeau, Le rappel des oiseaux, L(is tendres plaintes, and Deux Menuets. H. M. Schletterer gives, in his "Classic Clavier Compositions from earlier times", 12 pieces by Cou- perin, among which are three Preludes, an Allemande, Marche, Sara- bande (les Sentiments), and La Voluptueuse; further 12 pieces by Rameau, as Allemande, Gigue, Tambourin, Rigaudon, Sarabande, Me- nuet, and the humoresque "La Poule", in which the cry of a cackling hen is imitated and worked out. The Earlier German Clavier School. In Germany, as in Italy, England, and France, a more highly artistic clavier style was first developed from a cultivated organ style. The clavier merely reproduced the compositions intended for the organ in another and weaker color; not until these compositions had gained a more dignified form, could the clavier style attain to an independence corresponding to its character and resources. As early as the year 1445 we found Bernhard the German settled in Venice as the organist of San Marco, and in the same century Conrad Paulmann, blind from birth, created such a sensation by his playing on the organ and other instruments, that he was invited to the courts of various princes, and rewarded with rich presents. A manuscript of 1452, described and elucidated in Vol. 2 of Chrysander's "Jahrbiicher fur' musikalische Wissenschaft", bears the title: "Fundamentum organisandl' ]\Iagistri Conradi Paumann's (sic) ceci de Nurenberga", etc. The examples in notes therein begin with two-part contrapuntal exercises to a cantus firmus in the bass, which ascends and descends by steps, or by thirds, fourths, fifths, or sixths. Then follow two-part examples of closes in the diatonic keys of C-major, D-minor minus h'?^ £'-minor minus /"|;t, JP'-major minus 61?, G-major minus fj; in the signature, and J.-minor. Though the counterpoint is melodically flowing, these and the following three-part examples are tiresomely monotonous, and full of ill- sounding parallel fifths and octaves. Paulmann died in 1473 at Munich; in the parish church of Unsere liebe Frau (Our blessed — 32 — Lady) is found his tombstone, on whicli he is depicted playing: the organ, with the following inscription: "x4.nno MCCCCLXXIII an St. Paul Bekehrungs Abent, ist gestorben uud hie begraben der Kunstreichest aller Instrumenten und der Musika Maister Conrad Paulmann, Eitterbiirtig von Niirnberg und blinter geboren" etc.* According to this the name given in the title of the above-mentioned manuscript, Paiimann, is n slip of the pen, which has been copied by modern musical writers. The first printed work designed for instrumental music appeared in 1512 at Mayence (Peter Schoffer) with the title: "Tabulaturen etlicher lobgesaug vnd lidlein vif die orgeln vn lauten, ein theil mit zweien stimmen zu zwicken vii die drit dartzu singe, etlich on ge- sangk mit dreien, vo Arnold Schlicken, Pfaltzgrauischen Churftirst- lichem Organiste Tabulirt vn in den truck in d'urspriTglichen stat der truckerei zu Meintz wie hie nach volgt verordent" etc. In 1869 Kobert Eitner republished this work in the "Monatshefte fiir Musik- geschichte", Vol 1. It contains 14 organ-pieces in three parts, some- times with a fourth added, and a number of tabulatures for the lute. The several parts occasionally follow in imitation, the harmony is purer and more euphonious than with Paulmann; yet the highest aim of counterpoint at that period was correctness of progression. It did not take on life and warmth until the Italian vocal and instrumental music, developing in animation and emotion under Willaert and the two Gabrielis, began to exert a salutary influence upon German musical art. Arnold Schlick, in his book for the organ and lute, did not write counterpoint to original melodies, but, as the titles of the compositions indicate, always to sacred or profane melodies then in vogue. Neither did Paul Hofhaimep (d. 1537), who for 25 years was court organist to Kaiser Maximilian I., and who was lauded by his contemporaries as a most eminent composer, organist, and music teacher, leave any original compositions for the organ, but only a few vocal piecus, and several written in tabulature for the favoi-j^ instrument of the time, the lute. In the second half of the 16 th century, the clavier already outri- vals the lute. The clavier now assumes, beside the various house- organs, its rightful place as an instrument more easily constructed and managed; compositions even are published exclusively for the * S. Geri^er, N. Lex., under Paulmann. — 33 — clnvier. E. g. 1560 in Lyons, by S. Gorlier: "Premier livre de taljlature d'Espinette, Chansons, Madrig'ales et Galliardes". The books of Tabulatures published by Ammerbach in 1575 and B. Sehmid in 1577, are intended for "Organ and Instrument. But under the latter universal term was understood (in Germany) then, as at times to-day, a Clavier (now Pianoforte) in particular.* Ammerbach, organist at the church of St. Thomas at Leipzig, gives, in his "Orgel Oder Instrument Tabulatur", no compositions of his own, but chorales set in 4 parts, secular songs, and dance-tunes accompanied b}' chords. The German dances are in binary time, and repeat their melody in the following Afterdance "Proportio" in livelier ternary time. After several Galliardes, and southern Passamezzi and Saltarelli, we also come upon some 5-part songs arranged for keyed instruments. Neither do the "Zwei Biicher einer neuen ktinstlichen Tabulatur auff Orgel und Instrument" by Bernhard Sehmid, organist at Strassburg. contain auy original compositions, but "selected Motets and Pieces in 6, 5, and 4 Parts, taken from the (works of the) most artful and world- renowned Musicians and composers of this our time". Like his predecessor Ammerbach, Sehmid followed the theoretical rules then obtaining; their counterpoint is flowing and melodious, Avithout pre- tending to higher claims, and the German and foreign dance-airs arranged by both are supported by simple chords, and seldom orna- mented by passing notes. The German masters Heinrich Isaac and Ludwig Senfl had won renown, as early as the beginning of the 16th century, by their highly artistic vocal works, as rivals of the most eminent Dutch and Italian composers. Toward the end of the same century Germany, too, could show independent writers of instrumental music, the first of note being Hans Leo Hasler. He was born in 1564 in Nurem- berg, and displayed early such a marked talent for music, that his father, the Nuremberg town-musician Isaac Hasler. decided to send him, for the purpose of finishing the studies begun under himself, to Andrea Gabrieli of Venice, justly celebrated as an eminent teacher of music. The latter was able at the end of but one year to dis- miss his gifted pupil, who was immediately engaged as oriranist by * S. Prfetoriiis Syntagma Tom. H, of the year 1620, cap. 37, pag. 62. "A Symphony (and likewise a Clavicymbalum, Virginal, Spinett) is commonly named by most, without distinction, with the word Instrument (although very wrongly)." 3 — 34 — a member of tlie art -loving Fugger family of Augsburg. Here be remained till tlie year 1601, wben be went to Vienna, and entered tbe service of Kaiser Eudolf II. Easier won universal love and respect, and tbe Kaiser sought to confer a special mark of bis favor upon tbe admired artist by giving bim a patent of nobility. In 1608 be proceeded to tbe court of Saxony, and accompanied tbe Elector to Frankfort on tbe Main, wbere be died in tbe year 1612. Hans Leo Easier won enduring fame not only as an organist, but still more as a composer; for be may be regarded as tbe first to lay tbe foundation of tbe melodically and barmonically developed German style of composition, wbicb was to ripen to perfection in Sebastian Bacb. Of bis numerous compositions we mention "Lustgarten newer teutscber Gesang, Balletti, Gailliarden, vnd Intraden mit 4, 5, 6 vnd 8 Stimmen" (Pleasure -garden of new German Songs, Ballets, Gal- liardes, and Intradas in 4 — 8 Parts); Nuremberg, Kauffmann, 1601. Tbe first two parts of tbe following work by Jobann Woltz also contain several compositions by bim: "Nova Musices Organicse Tabv- latvra, das ist: Ein newe art teutscber Tabulatur", etc. Basel, Genatb, 1617. Tbe sti-iving to develop sucb a style, suited to tbe more serious temper and earnest spirit of tbe Germans, was likewise exhibited by tbe Augsburg organist Christian Erbach, tbe Hamburg organist Hleronymus Pratorius (Scliulz), tbe two distinguisbed com- posers Adam Gumpelzhaimer and Melchior Franck, and tbe ingenious composer and organist Samuel Scheldt (1587 — 1654) of Halle, — all wortby contemporaries of Hasler and sharers of bis renown. They flourished from about 1600 to tbe time wben the outbreak of tbe fateful 30-years' War (1618 — 1648) put a stop for long to tbe exercise of tbe liberal arts in Germany. Still, in tbe midst of this war, there appeared in 1624 tbe following work by one of the last- named masters in Hamburg: ''Tabulatura nova, contiuens variationes aliquot Psalmorum, Fantasiarum, Cantilenarum, Passamezzo et Canones aliquot. In gratiam Organ istarum adornata a Samuele Scheldt, Hallense, etc.; Pars secunda Tabulaturse, continens Fiigarum, Psal- morum, Cantionum et Echus, Toccatse, etc. Variationes varias et omnimodas. Pro quorumvis Organistarum captu et modulo." Soon after tbe re-establishment of peace in Germany, tbe Swedish ambassador passed through Halle, and was so moved by the clavier- playing and tbe singing of tbe young Johann Jakob Froberger, son of a cantor in that place, that be took the talented boy with him to Vienna, to present bim to Kaiser Ferdinand III. This prince took — 35 — him under his protection, and sent him to Rome, to be educated as a musician by the renowned Frescobaldi. In three years Froberger finished his studies with this distinguished master, and proceeded at first to Paris, where he played in public with brilliant success as the first German clavierist of eminence. Hence he turned to Dresden, played there before the court several of his Toccatas, Cappriccios, and Ricercare, and presented the manuscript of the same to the Elector, who sent him in recompense a rich golden chain and a letter to the Kaiser, to whom he then returned. The latter received his protege, now a finished master, with marks of favor of all kinds, and appointed him his Court Organist. Froberger, the most brilliant clavier -player and learned organist of his time, soon became famous throughout Europe, and in the year 1662 he deter- mined to win new laurels on further journeys. He therefore obtained leave of absence from the Kaiser, proposing to go to England via France. But in France, as he himself narrates, he was attacked by robbers, who plundered him so thoroughly that he saved but a few ducats which he carried next his skin, and reached Calais in rags, where he took ship for London. The gifted artist already laughed at his misadventure, when the ship on which he was a passenger, was attacked and seized by pirates not far from the English coast. To escape capture, Froberger threw himself desperately into the sea, and being a skilful swimmer, gained the land. Compassionate fisher- men received him here, and gave him a poor suit of clothing, in which he set out to London, begging on the way. A stranger and destitute he arrived there, and roved about seeking shelter. He thus came to Westminster Abbey, and entered the sublime cathedral to offer thanks to the Lord for his wonderful deliverance from all danger. The last organ -tones die away, and the forsaken one still kneels lost in prayer— until a harsh voice interrupts his devotions with the words: "Friend, it is time to leave!"— "You seem very unfortunate?" asked the old man engaged in closing the doors. "I am indeed no child of Fortune", answered Froberger; "robbers and pirates have brought me to such a pass, that I neither know where to find food nor to lay my head!" "Aye, if one might believe it!" replied the old man; "but listen to me. I am the organist of this church and to the court; if you will serve me as organ-blower, I will furnish you with food and clothing." Froberger, filled with joy- ful hopes, accepted the well-meant proposition, and while fulfilling his humble task awaited with impatience the moment, when, without 3* — 3b — forfeiting his patron's favor, he might again emerge from his obscurity. Now it happened, while King Charles II. was celebrating his nuptials with Catharine of Portugal, that Froberger went to the palace to perform his humiliating duty. But, dazzled by the splendor and magnificence outspread before him, and quite lost in reflection, he forgot to blow the organ, and the tones suddenly died away under the organist's fingers in the midst of his loftiest strains. The unex- pected pause occasioned general wonderment. The enraged organist (Christopher„G-ibbons) rushed upon Froberger, overwhelmed him with abuse, even striking him, and finally withdrew into a side-room. Froberger now seized a sudden resolve; he filled the bellows with wind, and then sat down at the organ, drawing the attention of all present by a few strikingly dissonant and boldly resolved harmonies. One of the court ladies, who had formerly been in Vienna, thought that she recognized the style of her former teacher, Froberger, in the playing of the new organist so unexpectedly appearing. He was immediately sent for, fell at the King's feet, and in a few words recounted his strange adventures. The King graciously commanded him to rise; a harpsichord was brought, and for over an hour the entire court listened to the fiery improvisations of the artist who appeared, in such miraculous wise, to add lustre to the festival. Charles IT. rewarded him with his own royal neck-chain; thencefor- ward he was the hero of the day and favorite of the grandees of the realm. Laden with costly gifts, Froberger at last left England to return to the Viennese court. But here, on account of his long absence and slanders of all kinds, he had fallen into such disgrace, that he was not permitted to approach the Emperor's throne. Dis- tressed and angered at this, he sought his dismissal, which was granted immediately, though couched in the most flattering terms. He then went to Mayence, where, though in outward prosperity, yet dissatisfied with himself and all the world, he led a sad life, and died in 1G95 at the age of sixty. Of his compositions, excepting a Fantasia for the harpsichord printed in Kircher's Musurgia (Rome, 1650, pag. 466 etc.) in four-part score, only the following have been published: "Diverse curiose e rarissime partite di toccate, ricercate capricci e fantasic dall' Eccellentissimo e Famosissimo organista Giovanni Giacomo Froberger, per gli amatori di Cimbali, Organi e Instrumenti". Mayence, Burgeat, 1695; and a second, similar collec- tion, same pul)l., 1714. Mattheson, in his Critica Musica, pag. 103, Note, gives the following account of the youthful humor of this first — 37 — German elavier-virtuoso: "I possess an Allemaude, bv the formerly celebrated Froberger, intended to depict Ms perilous voyage on the Rhine, Therein is represented, how one person hands the boatman his sword, and falls thereby into the water; there are 26 special notes, among" them being a casus Avliere the boatman gives the suflferer a shocking blow Avith his long pole, etc." Yet more eminent as an organist and composer appears Froberger's countryman and contemporary Johann Kaspar Kerl. He was also sent to Rome by Kaiser Ferdinand III., to be instructed in music by the excellent composer Giacomo Carissimi; and when the following Kaiser Leopold was to be crowned at Frankfort in 1658, he went thither to be presented to the new sovereign. The latter received him graciously, and sent him a theme, which be desired to hear worked out on the organ next day. Kerl declined it with the petition, that a theme should not be handed him until he was already seated before the organ. When the Kaiser and the illustrious guests at the coronation were gathered in the church at the time appointed. Kas- par Kerl began with a majestic prelude on the organ, then took up the given theme, worked it out in two parts, then in three and four, and finally with the pedal in five parts, adding thereto, to the great admiration of all hearers, a counter -subject, and closing the whole with a grand and masterly double -fugue. Following this, he had performed an artistically wrought Mass of his own composition, after which he received an ovation from the entire assemblage. The Kaiser ennobled him, and the Elector of Bavaria appointed him his Kapell- meister. He occupied this post in Munich for several years, until, disgusted at the continual cabals of the Italian singers engaged at the same court, he quitted the town, and accepted the jiosition of organist at the Church of St. Stephen in Vienna, 1(577, where he was also held in high estimation as a clavier -teacher. He returned to Munich later, and died there about 1690. His compositions, "Modulatio organica super jMagnificat, octo tonis ecclesiasticis respondens", Munich, 1686, and many others, although still based upon the ecclesiastical modes, exhibit all the characteristics of our modern tonalities, and approach more and more to the German style, as distinguished from the Italian, At the time of Kaspar Kerl's sojourn in Vienna, the talented Johann Pachelbel of Nuremberg, born in 1653, was the assistant organist at St. Stephen's. In his chief he had likewise such an ex- cellent model, that he also succeeded, through untiring zeal, in win- 303128 — 38 — ning an honorable name as a player on the clavier and organ. He was engaged successively as organist in Eisenach, Erfurt, Stuttgart, and Gotha, and finally in the church of St. Sehaldus at Nuremberg (1695). Here he died in 1706, attempting to sing in his last moments, with faltering breath, his favorite chorale "HeiT Jesu Christ, meines Lebens Licht". Of his published compositions we mention "Musika- lische Sterbens-Gedanken aus vier variirten Choralen bestehend" (Musi- cal Dying Thoughts, consisting of four Chorales with variations), Er- furt, 1683; "Chorale zum Praambuliren" (Chorales for Preluding), Nuremberg, 1693; and "Hexachordum ApoUinis, aus VI sechsmal vari- irten Arien" (Apollo's Hexachord, in 6 Arias with sixfold variation), Nuremberg, 1699. Pachelbel's name especially deserves to be linked with that of Froberger as a composts able to arouse and promote, in Germany, the universal love for the clavier by means of works more pleasing and better suited in style for this instrument, in parti- cular by his artistic variations. Most of his compositions, however, like those of his older and younger contemporaries, were never printed, but were spread far and wide, within and without Germany, in innumerable manuscript copies. Georg Muffat, Kapellmeister to the Prince of Passau, has still to be mentioned as an excellent organist, clavier-player, and com- poser toAvard the end of the 17th century. However, of his composi- tions relevant to our subject, but one has been printed — an "Appara- tus Musico-Organisticus" containing 12 Toccatas, in Augsburg, 1690, in which place he had played before Kaiser Leopold I. in the same year. In his youth he dwelt six years in Paris, in order to study the then epoch-making compositions of LuUy. There he could not fail to become acquainted with the works of the above-mentioned Couperin, and thus transplanted many of the agremens of the latter to Germany. Gottlieb Muffat, his highly gifted son, studied counter- point thoroughly in Vienna under J. J. Fux, became Court Organist to Kaiser Karl VI., and clavier teacher in the imperial family. There were published in Vienna, 1727, of his clavier compositions: "Com- ponimenti musicali per il Cembalo", and later LXXII Versettes and XII Toccatas. He left many equally valuable compositions in MS. Under the domination of the Chromaticists, which had been con- tinually gaining ground since the beginning of the 16th century, the pure diatonic Modes had been so altered and popularized by addea chromatic tones quite foreign to their serious character, that they were present in the works of the 17th century only in name, and — 39 — not in their essential power. Thus even theoreticians were finally forced to take note of the Keys of the "New Music", so entirely different from the old. And thus Dr. Conrad Matthai (in his paper published in 1652 "by favor of the honorable philosophical Faculty of the Electoral University at Konigsberg", and entitled "A brief, though detailed Eeport on the Modis musicis" etc.) declares the Ionian Mode, our modern key of (7-major, which until then had been termed merely an irregular key, to be the first and pre-eminent one. The organist Andreas Werckmeister of Halberstadt, a most deserving theoretician of this period, has a still more distinct conception of the tonality of his time. In his essay, printed at Aschersleben in 1698 (the edition before me is undated), on "Die nothwendigsten Anmerk- ungen und Eegelu, wie der Bassus continuus oder General-Bass wohl konne tractiret werden" (The most needful Eemarks and Eules for the Treatment of the Basso continuo or Thorough-bass) he observes (p. 50): "/w our present (style of) composition one could get along very well ivifJi two modes, if the same were applied to the tempered clavier, and then to each key were tuned one mode, namely major for all, and then to each another mode, namely minor for all; where- upon one would have 24 triades harmonicas, and the clavier could be played through the circle [of fourths or fifths]: as was observed above". — And by Mattheson, in his "Beschiitzten Orchestre" (Ham- burg, 1717), Solmisation was finally "carried to the grave, under distinguished escort of the twelve Grecian modorum, as respectable relatives and mourners". In the compositions of the now beginning brilliant epoch of this earlier German organ and clavier school, our modern keys therefore already display themselves clearly and distinctly, with their definite leading -note; these works still show the serious dignity of those founded on the ecclesiastical modes, but are now also able to lend animated expression to the more sensuous emotions of the heart and the more agitated moods, by the aid of their richer modulations and the prepared and free dissonances oftener occurring. Through the numerous pupils of the German masters already mentioned, and by their meritorious compositions, which always spread over the entire musical world in thousands of copies, our art, which at first had found its chief fosterers in the South, was in time trans- planted to the North of Germany as well. Here Dietrich Buxtehude, organist at the Marienkirche in Ltibeck from 1699 to his death in 1707, won so brilliant renown through his spirited and effective per- — 40 — formances, that Sebastian Bach, at nineteen (1704) organist in Am- stadt, felt impelled to journey several times to Liibeck on foot, to hear the masterly playing of Buxtehude and to study his ingeni'ius compositions for an extended period. For tliough the liberal arts, after the frightful devastation of the 30-years' war, again began to put forth glorious blooms in Germany, the general commercial depres- sion was especially felt in the music trade throughout the whole 17th century, so that extremely few of his many fine works, or of his contemporaries', became generally known through publication. Gerber, in his "Neues Lexikon der Tonkiiustler" (New Lexicon of Musicians), notes only the following works by Buxtehude pertinent to our subject: "Opera 1, a V., Viola da gamba e Cembalo", Ham- burg; "Opera 2", a similar Clavier Trio, Hamburg, 1696; and "VII Clavier Suites, w^herein the Nature and Properties of the 7 Plaae|s_ are depicted". When Buxtehude, toward the close of his life, pro- posed giving up his position as organist, the place was applied for by two young musicians and friends, Handel and Mattheson, who came to Liibeck for this purpose from the city of Hamburg near by. Now, although these already highly esteemed artists might assuredly have urged well-founded claims to this generously salaried ofiice, they nevertheless beat a hurried retreat upon learning that Buxtehude was willing to resign the same only in favor of a candidate, who should first agree to espouse a daughter of his, no longer in the first flush of youth. The above-mentioned George Frederick Handel (properly Georg Friedrich Handel), ^born in Halle, in 168_5 and educated as a musician by the notable organist Friedrich Willielm Zachau (d. 1712), not only lifted the protestant Oratorio to world-wide fame of yet undimmcd lustre, but was surpassed, both in his fiery organ- playing and in his artistic and elegnnt clavier compositions, by Sebastian Bach alone, the greatest of all masters of that classic epoch. Handel spent the last forty- seven years of his restlessly active life almost without interruption in London; he it was, therefore, who carried the German style of composition of that period to England, and there his memory is still celebrated with the greatest enthusiasm. He died in that commercial metropolis in 1759, and his eighteen organ Con- certos, which however do not stand in so high esteem as his other works, like his remaining organ and clavier compositions, were first published in England, and thereafter in France, Germany, and Switzer- land. Among the editions of the same issued latterly, the following — 41 — are specially noteworthy: "Handel's Clavierstticke" (Clavier Pieces) in No. 2, V. 1 of the Deutsche HandelsgeseUschaft, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1858; 16 Suites, 12 Fugues, and other compositions, in one volume or separate, H. Litolfif, Braunschweig (Brunswick); "Composi- tions de G. F, Handel, edit, nouvelle, revue et corrigee critiquement". 8 Parts, Leipzig, Peters. Handel's Clavier Suites sometimes contain, instead of the series of dance-forms usually found in similar compositions, other fugued and freer pieces, and so-called "galante" variations, in which the endeavor, to create pleasing and hrilliant pieces especially for the clavier, is distinctly apparent; yet in artistic workmanship, power, and loftier flights, they rank decidedly below the fine Suites by Sebastian Bach; and even in his pui'ely and fluently wrought Fugues he can hardly bear comparison, in this province, with his great rival in renown.^ Joliann IVIattheson, named together with Handel, chiefly owes his celebrity to his theoretical, critical, and musico-historical writings. Of his compositions were published: "XII Suites pour le Clavecin", London, 1714; a "Sonata per il Cembalo", Hamburg; and a volume of Fugues, in two Parts, entitled "Die Fiugersprache" (Finger-speech). We now come to the renowned contemporary of Handel, Do- minico Scarlatti, and Rameau, who in all future time will be deemed a model for the classic organ and clavier style and for most artistic composition — to the perfecter of the art of Counterpoint, Johann Sebastian Bach. He was born in Eisenach on May 16, 1685, lost his parents when but ten years of age, and therefore was taken in charge by his elder brother Johann Christoph, organist in OrdrufiF, to be instructed by him in clavier -playing. Herein he soon acquired such skill, that he begged to be allowed to study a book of music belonging to his brother, which contained written copies of a large number of clavier-pieces by Froberger, Kerl, and Pachelbel. But as his brother denied his urgent entreaty, he secretly carried the coveted treasure to his chamber at night, and not only copied the clavier pieces by moonlight in six months, but studied them with equal secrecy and untiring zeal. His brother, however, having once over- heard this secret practice to his no small astonishment, cruelly took awa}- the copies so laboriously made; nor were they restored until after the latter's death, which occurred shortly after. Sebastian Bach then went with a friend to Ltineburg, where both were placed as choir-boys in the church of St. Michael, likewise attending the gym- — 42 — nasium of tlie town. Hence Sebastian undertook frequent trips to Hamburg, to listen to the playing of the eminent organist Johann Adam Reinken (1623—1722). In his eighteenth year he obtained a position as violinist in the court band at Weimar, but exchanged it in the following year for the post of organist in Arnstadt, better suited to his taste. It was here that he entirely devoted himself to the theoretical and practical study of the compositions of Nieolaus Bruhn (1666 — 1697), Reinken, Buxtehude, and other German masters; his study and practice, continued with the utmost diligence, united with his most delicate native musical sensibility and inexhaustible inventive faculty, soon raised him to such a degree of mastership, that when he was appointed organist of the court at Weimar, in 1708, both his finished playing and ingenious compositions found universal recognition in that town. Innumerable organ pieces were called forth here by the art-loving court, and in the year 1714 the Duke ap- pointed the productive Sebastian Kapellmeister, as which he now had to write and to conduct the larger compositions intended for the church. Shortly after the victory already mentioned over the then so highly extolled French organist Marchand, in the year 1717, Bach was cal- led to Anhalt-Kothen as Court Kapellmeister. Here he stayed for six years, during which time he made a second trip to Hamburg to visit the organist Reinken, the model of his youthful ambition. Reinken, then in his hundredth year, accompanied Sebastian to the church of St. Catharine, to hear the playing of his disciple returning to him covered with glory. Bach seated himself at the organ, and impro- vised for nearly two hours on the favorite chorale of the aged master, "An Wasserfliissen Babylons, da sasscu wir und weinten", with such skill and feeling that the latter, deeply moved, cried out: "I had thought that this art would be buried with me, but now I hear that it will live on!" — In 1723 Bach was called to Leipzig as Cantor of the Thomasschule, and held this position till his death in 1750. Soon after his arrival at Leipzig, the Duke of Weissenfels bestowed upon him the title of Kapellmeister, the King of Saxony appointed him Court Composer, and the far-sounding name of this unexcelled musi- cian attracted many pupils and admirers to the town. Sebastian Bach was revered not only as an artist, but also as a true friend and faithful, affectionate husband. He left nine daughters, and eleven sons gifted with the happiest musical talent, among whom are to be named, as conspicuously eminent, first of all the eldest, Wilhelm Friedemann, also called the "Hallische Bach" (Bach of Halle, 171U — — 43 — 1784); likewise the second, Karl Philipp Emanuel, the Berlin or Hamburg Bach, (1714—1788); further, Johann Christoph Friedrich, Concertmeister at Buckeburg; and the youngest, Johann Christian the Milanese or London Bach. After his second son, Philipp Emanuel, had entered the service of Frederick the Great, the monarch repeat- edly expressed the wish to become personally acquainted with Sebas- tian, the father. The latter finally acceded to the urgent invitation of his son, and in the year 174Z_j^5^Z.®<^^ *^ Potsdam with his, most dearly loved eldest son Wilhelm Friedemann. The King had just arranged a concert in his palace, and was about to begin play- ing a composition for the flute, when an officer entered, and handed him a list of the strangers arrived at Potsdam. Scarcely had he «ast a glance over the list, when he turned to the assembled musi- cians, and cried: "Grentlemen, old Bach has come!" He laid the flute aside, and gave orders that the long looked-for master should be brought thither immediately. Sebastian, who had not been allowed time to doff his travelling dress, soon appeared, and the King affably requested him to try the lately invented Fortepiano, made by Silber- mann, in his concert room (the Berlin "Haude und Spener'sche Zei- tung" of May of that year styles it "the so-called Forte and Piano"). Bach improvised for some time on the same, and finally begged Frederick the Great for a fugue -theme, and wrought it out on the spot in such masterly fashion, that the musicians surrounding ap- plauded him most loudly. After his return to Leipzig, Bach dedicated to the King a work entitled "Musikalisches Opfer" (A Musical Offer- ing, Breitkopf & Hartel), in which he treats this theme by Frederick the Great in the most various styles, developing in a masterly manner most ingenious canons, a three -part fugue, a six-part ricercare, and a sonata for flute, violin, and basso continue, ^ach^^an enthusiast for everything grand and beautiful, was_not permilted to make the personal acquaintance of his illustrious contemporary Handel. On hearing that the latter had come from England to Halle, he im- mediately journeyed thither, but learned to his sorrow that Handel had already left his birth-place again on the same day. When he revisited Germany for the second time, Bach was sick in bed; in- deed, the trip to Potsdam was likewise his last excursion from Leipzig. Oft-continued night- work, coupled with the necessity of engraving his compositions himself on copper, aided by his son Friedemann, in order to secure their publication despite the lack of a publisher, told on his eyesight for several years, and finished by — 44 — totally blinding liim. This wonderful musician, who possessed in so high measure the gift of clothing his inexhaustible, profound thoughts at pleasure in the choicest and most artistic forms, died in the year 1750. With Sebastian Bach the classic organ and clavier style at- tained to its supreme height, and contrapuntal composition to its fullest perfection. The instruments already spoken of, made by Gottfried SilbeP- mann under the name of Fortepiano, were wing-shaped (in grand- piano form). C. E. Friederici of Gera, the first to employ the square form (1758), called his instrument, to distinguish it from that of Silber- mann, Fortebien. According to Gerber, in the old Lexikon der Ton- Jcilnstler (1792), Silbermann made two instruments during Bach's life- time, and the latter, having tried one of them, praised its tone, but found the treble too weak and the touch altogether too heavy. Silber- mann thereupon offered no more of these instruments for sale, and labored incessantly to improve the defects censured by Bach. Thus '•many years" passed by, without further news of the invention. At last, after manifold experiments, he so far improved the touch, that he was able to sell one of his instruments to the Prince of Schwarz- \\ burg-Eudolstadt, and a second in a short time to the King of Prussia. Silbermann now had one of these new, improved instruments tested by Bach, who then approved of the same in all respects. But all the clavier compositions of Sebastian Bach, most of which were not published till after his death, as well as those of his son Karl Philipp Emanuel, still belong to tJie literature of the Clavichord. In view of the totally different methods for tuning the clavier, after abandoning the ecclesiastical modes, our modern keys could not all be used with even measurably bearable purity. To attain this end, they were finally (from the beginning of the 18th century) founded on the system of equal temperament, which latter obtained full recognition more especially from the fact, that Sebastian Bach "v wrote a series of 24 Preludes and an equal number of Fugues, fol- lowed later by a second similar collection, for the first time in all our modern major and minor keys, and gave it the title of ''The Well-tempered Clavichord", although both parts were not printed for publication under the same until after his death. They were first announced in the year X.800_by N. Simrock of Bonn and G. Nageli of Zurich; according to the Leipzig "Handbuch der musikalischen Literatur" of 1817 they had up to that date been issued complete by the above publishers, and also by Peters in Leipzig and Sieber in — 45 — Paris (none of these editions mentioning, however, the manuscripts followed). Franz Kroll, well-known as an excellent and thoroughly educated musician, has rendered art the service of comparing all autographs and other contemporary manuscript copies still extant of the Well-tempered Clavichord, and likewise the earliest printed editions, and has published the result of his investigations in a critical edition of this highly important clavier-work (Leipzig, C. F. Peters). The same active firm has also published a "Gesammtausgabe" (Complete Edition) of the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, which contains the following clavier- works: Parts I and II, the Well-tem- pered Clavichord; III, Art of Fugue, with explanations by M. Haupt- mann; IV and IX, Preludes, Toccatas, Fantasias, and Fugues; V, six Clavier-exercises or Suites; Op 1; VI, Italian Concerto, French Over- ture, and Aria con 30 Variazioni; VII, The six French Suites, and other minor compositions; VIII, the six great English Suites; X, six Grand Sonatas for Clavier and Violin; XI and XIV, Concertos for three Claviers with accompaniment of String Quartet, in 2)-minor and C-major; XII and XIII, Concertos for two Claviers with String Quartet, in C-major and C-minor; XV, 16 Violin Concertos by A. Vi- valdi, arr. by Bach for Clavier; XIV, Concerto for Clavier and two Flutes with String Quartet, in i^- major; XVII to II, Clavier Con- certos with String Quartet, in G-minor, JF-minor, D- and J.-major, jE^ major, and D-minor; XXIII, Concerto for Clavier, Flute and Violin, with String Quartet. A "Collection of the Clavier Compositions of J, S. Bach" has also been issued, in four volumes, by L. Holle, Wolfen- btittel. The edition of the Bach-Gesellschaft (Breitkopf & Hartel) contains Clavier works by Bach in Vol. 3, 9, 13 (second Part), 14, 15, 17, and 21 (second Part). The same publishers have issued '•Clavier Works of J. S. Bach, furnished with Fingering and Marks of Expression, for Use in the Conservatory at Leipzig by Carl Eei- necke". 7 Volumes, boards, red. The "Collection Litolflf" contains Bach's Clavier Works in two volumes, or in 41 separate numbers. Bach's Concertos and Sonatas exhibit only in isolated cases the combination, at present in vogue, of a more fully developed movement in the "sonata-form" before described, with a calmer Andante following and a Finale in "rondo-form"; they are, on the contrary, either two, three, four, or even more distinct pieces, of which only the first, and occasionally the last, is worked out with broader development, but which are united to a greater Whole by similarity or relationship in key, by their mutual resemblance in mood — 46 — or style; so that the so-called Suites are distinguished from such Sonatas only through the circumstance, that in the same distinct dance-forms— though sometimes worked out in sonata-form— like the Allemande, Corrente, Sarabaude, Giga, etc., often preceded by way of introduction by an Overture, Prelude, or Capriccio, are united in a similar manner to form a whole. Thus the great "English Suites" by Bach possess no less musical worth than his "Sonatas for Clavier and Violin", developed with such consummate skill, or than his va- luable Clavier Concertos. Neither in the ti'uly monumental work: "Aria con 30 Variationi", nor in any of his compositions, does Bach appear merely as a most facile contrapuntist, by his employment of the varied principal theme for canons in all intervals and other fugal work, but also gives the player an opportunity of exhibiting his vir- tuosity in an extremely effective style. But it is the form of the fugue, more especially, which attained to highest and final perfection through Bach's master-hand. Their subjects always contain a distinctly outspoken musical idea, whose character is maintained throughout the entire composition. And not only in the ever-new melodic and rhythmic pregnancy of the themes, but in the diversified development of the same, does Bach display the full wealth of his astounding in- ventive genius. All his numerous fugues show, together with the strictest unity of conception, the greatest diversity in their modu- lations, episodes, developments, and stretti. The theme now appears in melodic contrary motion, now in augmentation, and enters in canon-form or the most amazing sti'etti in all parts carrying out the fugue. In the Well-tempered Clavichord we find fugues in 2, 3, 4, and 5 parts, among them several worked out as double or triple fugues. Bach was the first to develop the entire build of a fugue out of its subject and counter-subject and the motives derived from them, \ ( and produced thereby the fullest unity in its organic form. For the performance of his oftentimes very complicated works, whose individual parts preserve their entire independence, the fingering till then customary for keyed instruments no longer sufficed; he there- fore invented a new one, in which the hitherto quite neglected thumbs and little fingers of both hands could co-operate as required, and the key of a sustained tone was frequently held down not only by one finger, but by several in alternation. Bach executed the most difficult of his own compositions with the utmost ease and delicacy, and usually in very lively tempo; for practicing the same he often — 47 — worked during the night. His organ-playing was as finished as his clavier style, his feet even imitating any appoggiatura, mordent, or other grace played by the fingers; he actually executed long double trills on the pedals, while bot h hand s were also fully employed. He is said to have used and co mbine d the organ-registers, too, so in- geniously, that a very ordinary instrument, under his hands, could exercise a most potent influence over the hearers. But Sebastian Bach not only promoted, by his compositions and his performances at Hamburg, Weimar, Dresden, Anhalt-Kothen, Leipzig, and Berlin, the refmement and exaltation of his art, but transmitted his influence with the happiest results through his numerous pupils. Among these, besides his sons Wilhelm Friedemann and Karl Philipp Emanuel, we also find the following distinguished musicians: Johann Ludwig Krebs, Johann Christian Kittel, Johann Friedrich Agricola, and Johann Phi- lipp Kirnberger. Besides the later editions already mentioned of earlier German masters, the following, have been published by J. Eieter-Biedermann, Leipzig: Georg Muff at, two Suites and a Ciacona (Schletterer);— by Bartholf Senff, J. C. Kerl, Toccata; J. J. Froherger, Toccata; Gott- lieh Muffat, two Minuets and Courante; J. L. Krebs, Fugue in JF'-major (Pauer); — by Breitkopf & Hartel, J. L. Krebs, two Par- tite; Froberger, Toccata; G. Muffat, Gigue and Allegro spirituoso (Pauer); — by G. W. Korner in Erfurt, Complete Editions of the Organ and Clavier compositions of Pachelbel, JBuxtehude, J. L. Krebs, F. W. Zacliau, and Handel, all to be had in separate Parts; — by Peters in Leipzig, 14 Chorale-variations by D. JBuxtehude, edited by S. W. Dehn; — by Breitkopf & Hartel, Buxtehude, Organ compositions, Vol. 1 and 2, edited by Philipp Spitta. In this connection the following modern biographical works re- quire special mention: G. F. Handel, by F. Chrysander, Vol. 1 to 3, first half. Breitkopf & Hartel, 1867, etc. — Johann Sebastian Bach, by C. H. Bitter; Berlin, Ferd. Schneider, 1865, 2 Yols.— Johann Se- bastian Bach, by Philipp Spitta; Breitkopf & Hartel, Vol. 1 and 2, 1873 and 1878. — 48 — n. The Clavier Style resulting from the new System of Harmony. The Science of Accompaniment or Thorough-bass, which at first proposed only the harmonic support of the solo singer, or of certain polyphonic compositions, soon found so many friends and ad- herents everjn^vhere, that between the years 1620 and 1800 a great number of treatises on the same were published. The earliest of these appeared in Italy by G. Sabbatini and Gasparini; in Germany by Heini-ich Albert (in the 1st Part of his poetico-musical Lushvdld- lein), Werckmeister, Medt, Heinichen and Mattheson; in France by 3Iichel de Saint Lambert and J. F. Dandrieu; in England by Matthew Xiock, etc. A method of Harmony going more thoroughly into the derivation and progression of the chords did not, however, appear until 1722 in Paris, entitled: "Traite de I'Harmonie reduite k ses prin- cipes natui-els", by Rameau. This acute theoretician now first pre- :sented, together with the triads, the various chords of the seventh likewise, with their transpositions and inversions, as independent har- monic bodies, and classified the frequent progressions of the same in the works of practical musicians under distinct rules. This new science of harmony, which soon became the foundation of many similar works following, now often found practical application in the composition of clavier pieces; a bass part being set to a principal melody, and the above fuller chords being added in appropriate places as a filling. Thus the independence of the inner parts in such compositions quite disappeared; tJw strict and ecclesiastically serious contrapuntal organ style ivas abandoned in the same, and replaced by a freer and secu- larly more pleasing style, better suited to tlie character of the clavier. The first musician in Germany who attempted to free clavier compositions from the fetters of counterpoint, was Sebastian Bach's immediate predecessor as Cantor of the Thomasschule, Johann Kuhnaii (1667—1722), of whose compositions the following should be noted here. "Neue Clavierlibung" (New clavier-practice). Part. I, "consisting of seven Suites in the Ut, Re, Mi, or Tertia majore of each Mode", etc., Leipzig, 1689 and 1695; "Neue Clavierubung", Part. 11. "That is, seven Suites in the Re, Mi, Fa, or Tertia minore of each mode, to- gether with a Sonata in the JBi?" etc. Leipzig, 1695; "Frische Clavier- — 49 — friiclite" (Fresh Clavier-fruits) "or seven Sonatas of good Invention and Style, to be played on the Clavier", Leipzig, 1696; and '-Musi- kalische Vorstellun;;- einii;-ev biblischen Historien" (i\[usical Presen- tation of certain biblical Narrations) "in VI Sonatas, to be played on the Clavier" etc., Leipzig, J. Tietzen, 1700. In the Preface to the second Part of his Neuc ClavierUhung Kuhnau makes the following observations: "1 have also added a Sonata in I??, which will like- wise afford pleasure to amateurs. For why should one not be able to perform such pieces on the Clavier, as well as on other instru- ments? seeing that no instrument whatever could yet pretend to take precedence of the Clavier in point of perfection. I call it per- fect compared vdth others, but not in comparison with a Sonata or Concerto artistically written for many parts (different instruments); because one cannot always continue that, which has otherwise to be executed by many persons, in such a way as to drop no single part. Or, if it were desired to execute each single part strictly, much would appear constrained, and agreeabloness would often be sacrificed. For which reason I too, following celebrated masters, have sometimes intentionally shown myself somewhat negligent in the Allcmandes, Cou- rantes, and Sarabandes, here leaving out one part, or in another place adding a new one. But the fugues in four parts are strictly worked out." — In the Sonata in B9 here mentioned, especially interesting as one of the earliest attempts in this form, Kuhnau, despite his evident striving to create a lighter and more appropriate style for the Clavier, is unable to shake off the customary contrapuntal forms. An Allegro in 5b, whose monotonous rhythm in ^/^ time is kept up by an un- interrupted movement in eighth-notes, is followed by a free fiigiied movement in sixteenth-notes in the same key. A short Adagio in jE>, in "/^ time, then modulates to (7-major, immediately followed by an Allegi'o in the same measure, going over to and closing in J^j^-major. The direction "Da Capo" indicates, that the piece is tiicn to be re- peated again up to the Adagio. /Jhe entire Sonata shows as yet not one characteristic thought, but only separate phrases, motives, and passages, monotonously elaborated in Imitations and Sequences mclo- dically connected. In the FriscJw CJavierfruchte, however, seven So- natas of 1696^/ such an important advance is shown as compared with the earlier work, as to justify the conjecture that Kuhnau had in the meantime gained acquaintance with the better Italian compo- sitions in this field, although in his Preface he inveighs against the practice of estimating foreign productions above native ones; for in — 50 — GeiTnaiiy one might find almost as good musical fruits as those which grow in foreign climes, "not to mention, that Nature has blessed our fields with many fruits which foreigners lack". — These new Sonatas have either four or five movements in different tempi; the motives already oftener grow to intelligible melodies; sections in song-form, with a subordinate harmonic accompaniment, alternate with figurate passages more strictly developed; a Ciacona is built up upon a lasso ostinata, an interesting double-fugue is carried out; it is therefore easily explainable, tliat new editions of these Sonatas were issued in 1710 and 1724. In Kuhnau's Biblical Narratives of the year 1700, which were also reprinted in Leipzig in 1725, there are Sonatas having from three to eight movements, in which the Fugue, the figurate Chorale, Songs, Dances, and other free forms, alternate in motley succession. A Sonata in 6^-major by J. Mattheson, published in Hamburg in the year 1713, from the form and richer passages of which an acquaintance with the earlier-named contemporary Italians may be conjectured, still exhibits the conception of the Sonata in the general sense of "Sound-piece", as it consists of a single move- ment of considerable length; therefore this musician, who was un- commonly active as a theorist and critic, was quite justified in writ- ing as late as 1739. in his "Vollkommener Kapellmeister" (Complete Conductor), (page 233): ^-Some years ago they began writing Sonatas for the Clavier, with good success; hitherto the same have no proper form, and would be rather moved than moving, that is, they aim more at the motion of the fingers than the emotion of the heart." — "In the Sonatas," he remarks further (p. 137) "a certain complaisance must obtain, which adapts itself to all, and wherewith every hearer may be gratified. In the various changes of the Sonata a sad per- son will meet with something plaintive and sympathetic, an angry one somethuig vehement, a sensualist something exquisite, etc. The composer, too, must bear tliis aim in mind for his Adagio, Andante, Presto, etc.; then his work will find success." It is apparent from this, that Mattheson also strove to endow the Clavier Sonata with a more distinctively marked, pregnant meaning, together with a more generally ple.-ising form. The Silesia n campaigns of Frederick the Great, which held Germany in almost continual suspense and agitation from 1740 to 1763, necessarily retarded the growth of such "frische Clavierfriichte" not a little. Yet even in these stirring times attempts were made to keep alive the love for music, especially by means of weekly or — 51 — monthly Periodicals, which gave the leading composers an oppor- tunity to publish compositions of all descriptions, for which latter, under existing conditions, they could hardly have found any other publishers. Among the most noteworthy of these collections, in which clavier works were also included, or which were specially intended for the latter, the publication of the same continuing through the Seven Years' War until about 30 years thereafter, we name the fol- lowing: "Musikalisches Allerley" (Musical Salmagundi) by various Composers (its editor was F. W. Marpurg), Berlin, Birnstiel, 1760— 1763, nine collections; "Musikalisches Mancherley", (Musical Miscel- lany), four pieces, Berlin, Winter, 1762—1765; "Musikalisches Vieler- ley" (Musical Olio), edited by C. Ph. Em. Bach. Hamburg, Bock, 1770; "Blumenlese fur Clavierliebhaber" (Selected Clavier -pieces for Amateurs) 5 Vols., Spire, Bossier, 1782—1787; "Claviermagazin ftir Kenner und Liebhaber" ( — for Connoisseurs and Amateurs), edited by Rellstab, four collections, 1787—1788; "Neue miisik. Zeitschrift" (New Music Journal) "for Encouragement and Entertainment in Solitude at the Clavier for tlie Skilled and Unskilled", Halle, Hendel, 1792; further we should mention the "Sammlung vermischter Tonstucke" (Collection of miscellaneous Pieces) by various authors, in two Parts, Hanover, Schmidt, 1782 and 1783; the following collections, published by Breitkopf & Hartel of Leipzig: "Raccolta delle piii nuove com- posizioni di Clavicembalo, 2 Tomi", 1756 and 1757, edited by F. W. Marpurg; "Wochentlicher musikalischer Zeitvertreib" (Weekly musical Pastime), four Parts, 1760 and 1761; and "Musikalisches Magazin", eight pieces, 1763; and fmally, the excellent collection "QEuvres melees, contenant VI Senates pour le clavessin d'autant de plus celebres com- positeurs, ranges en ordre alphabetique", Nuremberg, J. U. Haffner, which contains 86 Clavier Sonatas in 12 Parts, and appears to have been issued from 1755 to 1765. The Forms of Art cultivated both in these Collections, and in the Clavier compositions published separately up to 1790, and not yet mentioned here, include Fugues, and other contrapuntally written pieces which gradually grow rarer and at last quite disappear; separate Marches, Polonaises, Minuets, etc., or Suites uniting several such dance-forms; so-called "galante Variationen" (free variations) or "Verituderungen" (Variations), calculated solely for outward effect, and affording little of interest besides; shorter Salon pieces in song- form or rondo-form; and Clavier Sonatas, of peculiar interest to us, and now appearing in ever-increasing numbers. The strict contra- 4* — 52 — puntal style of clavier composition having teen gradually given up, as remarked before, as the science of harmony or thorough-bass became known, most of these compositions are written in two parts; a predominant higher part is accompanied by a more or less interest- ing bass, sometimes in broken chords, at others with full harmonies. Occasionally fuller harmonies are written for both hands; but even in the rarer compositions written on the whole in three or four parts, the inner parts lack contrapuntal independence, being treated only as an harmonic filling. Among the authors of these compositions, the following are most prominent: Gottfried Heinrich Stolzel (1690—1749), Court Kapellmeister in Saxe-Gotha, by whom an original Enharmonic Clavier Sonata was printed, though not until after his death, in the "Musikalisches Aller- ley", 1761 p. 48. This consists of a Largo of arpeggio'd four -part chords in C- minor, */^ time, a three-part enharmonic Fugue in "/i time, whose episodes are at times strengthened by fuller chords, and a movement in ^/g time, in the two-part style described above, with the direction dolce, closing the interesting composition in C-minor with enharmonic plaintiveness. Its enharmonic form lies in transform- ing a chord, e. g. /"j|-a-c-eb, which is made to modulate by the suc- ceeding harmonies into g\>-h\?-d\p-e, the tone f^ being thus enharmoni- eally changed to ^1?, etc. Stolzel's successor in Gotha was Geopg Benda (1721 — 1795); by him were published in 1757 (Berlin, Winter): "Sei Sonate per il Cembalo solo"; further six collections of miscellaneous clavier-pieces and songs (Gotha, Ettinger, 1781); and "2 Concerti per il Cembalo", with accompaniment by string quartet (Leipzig, Schwickert, 1779). These clavier-works already reveal in the most gratifying manner the striving of the renowned creator of the Monodrama and Melodrama in Germany, to lend instrumental works distinctive and intelligible expression. Ernst Wilhelm Wolf (1735—1762), Court Kapellmeister in Saxc- Weimar, is likewise mentioned in Gerber's old "Tonkiinstlerlexikon" as one of our classic and most original composers; besides several Clavier Concertos, he published various numbers containing six Clavier Sonatas each at Leipzig, in the years 1774, 1775, and 1779; further, a "Sonatina and four effective Sonatas for the Clavier", Leipzig, 1785; and finally, one of the earliest Clavier Sonatas for four hands printed in Germany (Leipzig, 1784).— A year before, there appeared a volume of carefully and skilfully wrought compositions of the same kind, by — 53 — tlie CatLcdral Organist at Halberstaclt, Christian Heinrich Miillep, entitled "Three Sonatas for the Clavier as a double piece for two Persons with four hands (sic), Dessau, 1783". Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, the sou of the great Sebastian, must be regarded as tlie head of this earlier Clavier School, under whose influence all the more vigorous compositions during the period from 1750 to 1790 were produced, and whose thorough reform of Clavier -playing first opened the way for the development of a fine Clavier-style. He was born in Weimar in 1714, and his father him- self gave him early instruction in Clavier- playing and composition. Although gifted with a teeming fancy, and thoroughly imbued with these highly valuable teachings, he clearly perceived that in his father's works the art of counterpoint had reached the highest pitch of perfection, and that he himself must open a new path, above all lead the compositions intended for the clavier into new channels, in order to awaken fresh interest for the same. He therefore busied himself foremostly with the principles of "accompanying", according to which a leading melody, though harmonically supported, should not be surrounded by equally prominent independent parts; he in- vestigated the character of the swiftly vanishing tones of the Clavi- chord, and brings out, in his compositions of a style adapted to the same, melodies rhythmically and melodically agreeable, sounds chords broken or arpeggio'd in the most varied manner, pours out passages of effective though easy execution, reinforces the coy tone of the clavichord by frequent appoggiaturas, mordents, and trills; and strives above all things to influence the hearts of his hearers, botli by his compositions and his rendering. The form chiefly and most happily developed by him in his numerous clavier-works, which were in part published at his own expense, was the Sonata; and it was he, who by unwearying perseverance at length wrought it out into a com- position cocLsisting of three movements, the first of which, in the sonata-form already mentioned, makes the hearer the confidant of an emotional state warmly and vividly portrayed; — while the second, the Adagio or Andante, illumines this mood, in contrast to the other two movements, in a more tranquil frame of mind; and the third, the Finale or Kondo, expresses the same urgently and repeatedly with intensified impetus. One characteristic leading idea in the principal key is the subject of the first movement; but a contrasting second theme is not yet found in the same, a substitute being given therefor in the modulatory contrast, the more rapid passages in the — 54 — first part of the sonata passing over into the key of the dominant, or, in movements in minor, into the relative major, and closing in this new key; the second part, after a thematic development of the foregoing theme and after the repetition of the principal idea, ia then carried on in the same way as the first, but closes this time in the principal key. In like manner, Emanuel Bach gave to the Rondo, where the principal theme is repeated thrice or oftener in the prin- cipal key after various modulatory episodes, for the first time the breadth and independence of an intelligible movement complete in itself. We find such in his six collections of Clavier Sonatas, Rondos, and free Fantasias. Sometimes he employs a two-part movement, sometimes one in three or four parts, to carry out his ideas, occasion- ally supporting a principal melody by the bass alone, but often giving the clavier fuller and stronger chords for effective execution. At the court of Frederick 11. music was then extraordinarily valued and fostered, and the royal capital thus raised to a rallying- point for the most eminent native and foreign musicians. Emanuel Bach, too, proceeded to Berlin in the year 1738 as a finished artist; but not until two years later did he obtain an appointment as Kammernmsilus and Hof cembalist, in which capacity he also had to accompany the king's own performances on the flute. Although he reverently acknowledged the gi*eat qualities of the monarch, he never- theloss had no mind to submit to his dictates in artistic matters. As he expressed himself, an artist favored by Heaven is a freeman born, and needs to recognize no other laws than his own. Such views naturally came into frequent collision with those of a monarch go- verning according to other principles; yet the latter respected the extraordinaiy talent of his Kammervirtuos, whose ingenious compo- sitions, however, won no approbation whatever in Berlin at that time. In 1745 Christoph Nichelmann (1717—1762), a pupil of Se- bastian Bach and his son Friedemann, was engaged as a second Court Harpsichordist. Several of his compositions were printed in tlie '-Musikalischcs Allerley" of 1761 and 1762 in Berlin; also, 12 So- natas in two Parts, in Nuremberg. Upon his resigning this office in 1756, he was succeeded by Carl Fasch (1736—1800), later the founder of the Berlin SvigaJcademie, who proved a more compliant accompa- nist for the king's flute-practice, wherein the strictest tempo was not always observed, than Emanuel Bach. The meritorious composer of a sixteen-part Mass, Carl Fasch, was also one of the most tasteful flavier composers of that time, as is shown by the Sonatas jsinted — 55 — in the "i\rusikalisclies Vielerley" of 1770, and the "IMusikalisches Mancherley" of 1762, as well as in the four Sonatas published after his death by Rellstab (Berlin, 1805). The two Sonatas of 1770 al- ready have three movements, like those previously mentioned, and exhibit, together with a brilliant clavier-style, an attractive and in- telligible conception. — The distinguished theoretician and musical historian Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg also dwelt in Berlin from 1749 till his death in 1795; besides various contrapuntal works he also attempted freer clavier composition, though not with the happiest success. His published compositions are "Fughe e Capricci" for Cla- vier or Organ, Berlin, Hummel, 1777; "6 Senate per il Cembalo", Nuremberg, 1756; "Clavierstiicke fiir Anfanger und Geilbtere, mit einem praktischen Unterricht" (Clavier-pieces for Beginners and Ad- vanced Players, with a Practical Course), Berlin, Haude & Spener, 1762, in three Parts.— In the year 175S Johann Phih'pp Kirnberger (1721 — 1783), a pupil of Sebastian Bach, entered the service of Prin- cess Amalie of Prussia as Court Musician and Harpsichordist; in the collections mentioned we likewise find, by this celebrated theoretician, numerous Minuets, Polonaises, and similar dances, together with Va- riations, figurate Chorales, and other compositions designed for the clavier. However, contrapuntal work suited him better than the freer clavier style; among his compositions, therefore, only the "Four Col- lections of Clavier-exercises after Bach's Method of Fingering, ar- ranged in a Series from the easiest up to the most difficult Pieces" (Berlin, 1762 — 1764), are still of value, on account of the fingering given therein. — Finally, Sebastian's eldest son, Wilhelm Friedemann Bach (1710—1784), also came to Berlin, after living for twenty years in Halle as an organist. Emanuel extols him as the only organist on a par with his father in organ-playing; he must be named here, not only as a fine clavier-player, but also as a clavier composer of bold harmonic invention. In 1778 he dedicated to Princess Amalie Eight Fugues, which, like twelve of his Polonaises for Clavier, did not appear in print until lately (Peters, Leipzig). During his life- time extremely few of his compositions were published; "Senate pour le clavecin", Halle, 1739; and No. 1 of "Sei senate per il Cem- balo", Dresden, 1745; but the Eoyal Library at Berlin still possesses a great number of the same in manuscript. Friedemann Bach died in Berlin in extreme destitution; for his brother Emanuel had turned his back upon that city, in which he had labored for twenty-nine years and which so little recognized his high deserts, as early as — 56 — 1767, to accept a position as Music Director in Hamburg vacated by Telemaun's decease. Here the mentally vigorous artist labored for twenty-one years longer, dying in 1788. He was one of our most fruitful, inventive, and influential composers, leaving over 300 works for Clavier, including 52 Concertos, whose effect, however, seems to have been calculated for the general public, and but 9 of which have been published; among these the last, entitled: "Sei Concevti per 11 Cembalo concertato accompagnato da due Violini, Violetta e Basso; con due Corni e due Flauti per rinforza" etc., Hamburg, 1772^ at the author's expense. His first VI Sonatas, dedicated to the King of Prussia, were published in 1742 by Schmidt, Nuremberg; ''Sei Sonata per Cembalo, opera Ilda", dedicated to Duke Carl Eugen of Wiirttcm- berg, Nuremberg, 1744, at the expense of the Engraver, J. W. Winter; 10 Sonatas, in the above-mentioned CEuvres melees, Nuremberg, Haff- ner, 1755 et scq.; Six Sonatas for Clavier, with varied Bcprises, dedicated to Princess Amalie of Prussia, Winter, Berlin, 1759; Two Continuations to the same, 1761 and 1763; -Una Sonata per il Cem- balo solo" in C-minor, Breitkopf, Leipzig and Dresden, 1785; -'Sei Sonate per il Cembalo solo all' uso delle donne", Hartknoch, Riga, 1786; Six Collections of Clavier Sonatas, free Fantasias, and Rondos, •'for Connoisseurs and Amateurs", Author's subscription edition, Leipzig, 1779 — 1787. The second of these Collections (1781) bears the title; •'Clavier-Sonaten nebst einigen Rondos fiir's Fortepiano". His Clavier- compositions consist besides of Quartets, Trios, and Duos for Clavier and various other instruments, but only a small part has been printed; further, of Sonatas, Variations, and shorter Pieces, scattered among the Collections of the period. For example, Nos. 25, 26, and 27 of the Musikalisches Allerley for 1761 contain a "Claviersouate von Herrn Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach", which consists of an AUemande, Courante, Sarabande, Minuet with two Trios and a Gigue, thus forming a Suite which ranks with his most powerful compositions, and coiTespondingly develops the more free and flowing clavier style in- augurated by him, in contrast to the strict contrapuntal work of his father in pieces of like form. Fully as lasting as in Ms vigorous compositions was Emanuel's influence in his theoretico-practical work, published in 1753 in Berlin: "Versuch uber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen" (Essay on the true Method of playing the Clavier). In it he treats of the correct firtfjcring according to his father's principles, settles the execution of the many Agremens or Graces then in vogue, particularly as copied — 57 — from French masters, and closes with sagacious ohservations on a good rendering. First, he explains the proper iwsUion of the hands and fingers, advises training the left hand to equal skill with the right, and aims at attaining, through his systematic method, a finished, clear, natural, and singing style. He then recommends practice not only on the light action of the clayi chord, but also on the harpsi- cliord, with its heavier touch; treats the hitherto neglected thumb as the principal finger, which by reason of its shortness, however, like the little finger, should be used only "in case of necessity on the black keys intended for the longer middle fingers." Of the Appoggia- turas he says, amoug other things, that they must always be played stronger than the following note, and drawn up or hound to the latter; they usually occupy half the time of a following note con- sisting of two equal parts, but two thirds of such a note con- sisting of unequal parts. The short appoggiaturas take one or more tails, and are so executed, that the following note loses as little as possible in value. Occasionally, he proceeds, the long appoggiatura may for the sake of effect take more than half of the following note; the harmony, too, often decides the length of the appoggiaturas, f(»r the same must cause neither parallel fifths nor other discords. The Trlils, of which he mentions very many kinds, are all indicated by tr or a simple cross (dagger) f; but the regular trill, he re- marks, properly takes the sign of a short or long av mv. This latter always begins on the second above the main note which it em- bellishes. When the trill is "rather long", or followed by a leap, it always takes an after-beat (after-turn); only when the note having the trill falls by a second, does it take no after-beat. Even a fairly good ear, Emanuel observes, will in all cases perceive when an after-beat is required or not. Chromatic notes not indicated in the trill or its after-beat, must be divined from what follows, or from the modulation; in general, the interval of an augmented second must be formed neither in the trill nor the after-beat; thus a trill on the note /"If, in (?-minor, would not take eb in the after-beat, but e^, etc. /The following fingerings given by Bach for certain trills (p. 54 of the Third Edition, 1787) are peculiar: — When the higher tone of a trill falls on a black key (e. g. on eb), and the lower tone on a white one (e. g. on d), it is not wrong to play the trill, in the left hand, with the second finger on e^ and the thumb on d. "Some persons, for the sake of convenience, especially if the touch is heavy, have the habit of playing trills in the right hand with the third and fifth — 58 — fingers, or the second and fouitli." The Rendering, he says further on, consists in the delivery of musical ideas to the ear according to their true meaning and feeling; for through it, one and the same idea may he made to take on very various significance. An Adagio should therefore not he taken too fast, or an Allegro too slowly; all notes must have their due force, and the expression altogether must be clean, flowing, and clear. "But one should play from the heart, not like a trained bird", for a musician cannot move others unless he himself be moved, and he must himself feel all those emotions which he would awaken in his hearers. — A second Part of this work, published in Berlin, 1762, contains the Science of Accompaniment and of Free Improvisation. In the Introduction Emanuel remarks: "The taste of to-day has brought into vogue a style of harmony quite dif- ferent from that formerly in use. Our melodies, graces, and delivery therefore often demand unusual harmonies. These are now weak, now strong, and consequently the duties of an accompanist have far wider scope now-a-days (2nd Edition, 1797) than formerly, and the familiar Rules of Thorough-bass are no longer adequate, and undergo frequent modifications." Then in the sequel he gives the boldest re- solutions of dissonant chords, up to that time used occasionally only by himself; but treats neither these nor the consonant chords in their connection as a fundamental chord with its transpositions or inver- sions; he likewise still treats suspensions before triads or chords of the seventh as individual harmonic forms, under the names of "chords of the second and fifth, second and third, sixth and seventh, fourth and seventh", etc. The Free Improvisations, he observes further on, are either Preludes, which prepare for the subject of a following piece, and must therefore bear the character of the same, or pieces invented on the spur of the moment, containing no definite mensural divisions, in which modulations may be effected not only to related keys, but also to any others. By means of a thorough knowledge and bold employment of harmony, he remarks, one becomes master of all keys, and can then invent modulations, even in the free style, quite unknown before. The trained musician can then modulate in an agreeable and striking fashion whither he will, even in developed compositions; for " Wisdom, Science, and Courage put up with no such confined transi- tions as our forefathers laid doivn". The most notable and influential German Clavier Methods, and works treating of the Art of Clavier-playing, belonging to this earlier period, were issued as first editions in the following succession: — 59 — (Only the shorter titles are given in full in German). 1738. Franz Anton Maichelbeck, Music Director in Freiburg: "Die auf dem Clavier lehrende Cacilia" (Cecilia teaching at the Clavier) "giving good instruction, not only how to play from scores with three or four parts, but also how such pieces may be written out in score, and for inventing all kinds of runs. Likewise the rules of composi- tion both in counterpoint and in the Church and Theatre Styles at present in vogue, with the addition of many examples, including the eight Chorale Modes, provided with illustrative pieces, and divided into three parts, viz: I. de clavibus, mensuris et notarum valore; 11. de fundamentis partiturse; III. mit exemplis tonorum et versuum. op. II, Augsburg, Lotter." 1750. Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg, War Councillor and musi- cal writer of Berlin: "Die Kuust, das Clavier zu spielen" (The Art of playing the Clavier). First Part; Second Part, "On Thorough- bass", 1755, Berlin. Published "unter dem Namen des kritischen Musicus an der Spree". 1753. Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Kammervirtuose in Berlin: "Versuch iiber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spielen" (Essay on the ti-ue Method of playing the Clavier), "illustrated by Examples and eight Specimen Pieces in six Sonatas. First Part, Berlin; Second Part, treating of the Science of Accompaniment and of Free Improvisation. Berlin, Winter, 1762. 1755. Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg: "Method of Clavier-playing, devised in accordance with the elegant Practice of the Present Time". Berlin, Haude & Spener. 1765. Georg Simon Lohlein, Kapellmeister at Danzig: Clavier Method, or short and thorough Instruction in IMelody and Harmony, illustrated throughout with practical Examples." Leipzig; Vol. II, 1781. 1767. Johann Samuel Petri, Cantor at Bautzen: "Anleitung zur praktischen Musik" (Introduction to practical Music). Lauban, Wirthgen. Treats in lucid and thorough style of music in general, of Thorough-bass, of the Organ, of the Clavier and all other keyed instruments and their treatment, and of other instruments. 1789. Daniel Gottlob Tiirk, Music Director in Halle: "Clavier- schule Oder Anweisung zum Clavierspielen ftir Lehrer und Leruende" (Clavier Method, or Instructor in Clavier-playing for Teachers and Learners). Leipzig and Halle, at the Author's expense; sold on com- mission by Schwickert, Leipzig. The next work on the same subject, by A. E. MiJller (Jena, 18041, — 60 — already bears the title of '^Clavier aad Forfeptano MefJiod", But Tiirk, who was also acquainted with the Fortepiano, still gives de- cided piefereuce to the Claviehord, or Clavier proper, "for on no other keyed instrument can a delicate execution be so well acquired as on this. A good Clavichord", he observes, "must possess a strong, full, but at the same time pleasing and singing tone, which does not vanish instantly after the key is struck, but sounds on in the deepest and medium register for at least four to six eighth-notes in a moderately slow Adagio, letting the Bebung (balancement) be distinctly audible". — This Bebung, however, is a touch impracticable of execution on our modern Fortepiano* For in the Clavichord, a metallic pin (or similar tangent) was pressed against the string on striking the key, causing the string to sound, and not quitting tlie same until the finger was lifted from the key. Marpurg, in his "Art of playing the Clavier" (4th Edition, 1762) gives the sign .''TT% for the Bebung over a Half-note, and as an "effectus" he exhibits four separate eighth-notes on the same degree, with the same sign over them. This style of touch is somewhat more definitely explained by Georg Friedrich Woif, in his treatise: "Short but plain Instruction in Clavier-play- ing", Gottingen, 1783; — "The Behung (which is indicated by dots .... written over a half-note or whole note) is executed by ba- lancing the tone, so to speak, with the finger holding the same down; that this should be done gently, is self-evident". Perhaps the earliest composition, mentioning in its title the Fortepiano then coming slowly, step by step, into use, is the follow- ing: "Duetto fur zwey (two) Claviere, zwey Fortepiano oder zwey Fliigel", by Johann Gottfried Miithel; Riga, Hartknoch, 1771. The author of this work, a pupil of Sebastian Bach, was the organist of the First Church at Riga; he also published "3 Sonates et 2 Ariosi avec 12 Variations pour le Clavessin", (Nuremberg, Haffner), and "2 Concerti per il Cembalo" (Riga, 1767). In style Miithel somewhat resembles his friend Emanuel Bach, but wrote "less gently and more noisily". Burney found his works, though more difficult than those of Handel, Scarlatti, Schobert, and Emanuel Bach, so teeming with • On Pianofortes furnished "with a sensitive Erard action, not only the Bebung, but the still more delicate effect of a continued singing tone, can be brought out. To obtain this effect, the vibration of the key must be very short and rapid, the finger never leaving the key nor allowing the latter to rise quite to its usual level. In no style of touch is perfect looseness and yieldingness more requisite, than in this. Transl. Note. — 61 — new ideas, grace, and artistic skill, that he ranked them among the greatest productions of his time. To the day of his death, Emanuel Bach used a Silbermann clavichord. The Harpsichords then likewise very popular, with their rasping (ranschendcn) tone, he thought ill-suited for more delicate clavier-playing; and regarding the Fortepiano he makes, in the third edition of his "Versuch iiber die wahre Art das Clavier zu spiclen" (1787), the following observations: "The newer Fortepianos, when they are well and durably made, possess many advantages, although their management must be studied as a special art, and not without difficulty. They sound well cither when played alone, or with a not too powerful orchestra; but still I think that a good Clavichord, saving its weaker tone, -has all the beauties of the other, and has the further advantage of the Behnng and the sustained tone; because, after striking, I can press down on any note. The clavichord is therefore the instrument, on which one can most accurately test a clavierist." Emanuel Bach had to suffer many vexations from the critics of the period; they upbraided him on the score of a light, unscholarly style— though the same that such masters as Haydn and Mozart took as a model — and also the daring harmonies, which then were held to be harshnesses, and which oui' science of harmony and modulation later multiplied and extended. In 1773 Dr. Burney met him in Hamburg, and was of the opinion that even his enemies would have been reconciled with those freer compositions, could they have heard them executed by their author on his Silbermann Clavichord, with the tenderness and vivacity peculiar to himself. Emanuel himself said, that he had always striven to write melodiously ("smginglp") for the clavier, and to touch the heart by his delivery. At that time, the attacks alluded to no longer troubled him; for— be observes — since I was fifty I have given up all ambition, and wish to live in peace, as I do not know how near my end may be. The following musicians, who will find mention later, were among Emanuel's most distinguished pupils:— Johann Wilhelm Hassler (1747—1822), Nicolaus Joseph Hullmandel (1751—1823), and his younger brother Johann Christian Bach, the latter requiring special notice here. — He was born in Leipzig, 1735, and went after his father's death to his brother Emanuel in Berlin, to be taught by him in clavier -playing and composition. In the year 1754 he journeyed to Milan, where he became organist of the principal church, pro- ceeded thenee in 1759 to London, on receiving an appointment as — 62 — Director of Concerts, and died there in 1782. His clavier -works, which were printed in London, Berlin, Amsterdam, and Paris, em- brace 18 Clavier Concertos, 28 Clavier Trios, a Sonata for 2 Harpsi- chords, another for four hands, and 12 Sonatas for Clavier solo. To him Gerber chiefly ascribes, in 1790, the gi*eater increase of clavier amateurs of both sexes in his time; for "the naive play- fulness, the vivacious joyfulness, which mark all his clavier -works, have won him the favor of both sexes of every nationality, and one of his works was hardly out, when the hands of all the amateurs were busied with it". — An edition of his Sonatas lies before me without place of publication, entitled: "Six Sonates pour le Clavecin ou le Pianoforte, dediees a S. A. le Due Ernest de Mecklenbourg etc.. Major general des armees de S. M. Britan- nique; comp. par Jean Chretien Bach, maitre de musique de S. M. la reine d'Angleterre. OEuvi-e V." From the dedication, and also from the costly title-page, drawn by Cipriani and engraved by Bar- tolozzi (both these celebrated artists had lived in London since 1764), it is apparent that these Sonatas were published during his stay in London. They not only justify the favorable reception accorded to his compositions whenever published, but are, besides, remarkable for the fact, that here the first theme of the Sonatas is followed, per- haps for the first time, by a distinctly marked second theme. E. g. the second Sonata begins with an Allegro molto in D. The fii'st theme of four measures is repeated, and the bass then stands out in relief against a more animated accompaniment in the right hand, modulates through the dominant chord of the seventh B-d'^-f'^-a to JE'-major, forming an episode, after which the second theme, entirely different from the first, begins in J.-major; it ends in the same key after sixteen measures, and a distinctly marked coda of four mea- sures, which are repeated, closes the first division in the above- named key of the dominant. The short developments of the second division touch 5-minor in particular, and the first theme of the So- nata again appears after a modulation to the principal key; the se- cond theme and the coda are then repeated again, as in the firr^t division, but now in D-major. Immanuel Faisst, in his excellent "Beitrage zur Geschichte der Claviersonate" (Cacilia, Vol. 26, p. 21), mentions various composers of that time, in particular Emanuel Bach, in whose sonatas a second theme likewise seems to be recognizable at times; but in Johaun Christian Bach's sonatas this latter is intro- duced and brought to a close with such distinctness, that they already — G3 — exhibit precisely the form later consistently adopted by Mozart for the same. The comhinatioii of the movements in the Sonata still varies greatly in the "London Bach's" works; for instance, the first of the above sonatas consists of an Allegretto and a Tempo di 3Iinuetto, both in JB-major; the second, of an Allegro di molto in D-major, an Andante in G^-major, and a Minuetto in D-major; the third unites an Allegro in G^-major to an Allegretto with variations, in the same key;, the fourth gives an Allegro and a Rondo in £l?-major; the fifth, an Allegro assai in £'-major, an Adagio in Xmajor, and a Prestissimo in £'-major; and the sixth, a Grave, a fugued Allegro moderato, and an Allegretto in C-minor. We close the first Section, devoted to the Clavichord, of this historical sketch with a glance at that city, which was soon to rise to the position of a focus for all the musical life of Europe. Like Sebastian Bach and, in particular, his two sons Friedemaun and Emanuel in North Germany, there labored in Vienna the eminent theoretician, and composer for the church and opera, Johann Joseph Fux (1660 — 1741), whose teachings and Avorks systematized and propagated the Art of Counterpoint committed by the Netherlauders to the hands of the Italians, and further developed by the latter and the Germans. One of his most talented pupils was Gottlieb Muffat, whose "Componimenti musieali per il cembalo" (Vienna, 1727) and other Suites, Toccatas, and Fugues left in manuscript, are among the most valuable clavier-pieces of that period; and also Georg Christopli Wagenseil (1688 — 1779), then in high estimation, more especially on account of his "Sinfonien furs Clavier mit zwei Violinen und Bass", printed in Vienna as Op. 4, etc., who is said still to have' played on the clavichord with great fire when in his eighty-fourtk year, and to have still given lessons on the same. Besides the above works there were published by him "Suavis artificiose elaboratus ooncentus musicus, continens VI parthias selectas ad clavioymbalum compositas", Bamberg, about 1740; "VI Divertimenti da Cembalo", Op. 1, Vienna; similar pieces as Op. 2 and 3; and further, Six Clavier Sonatas with Violin, Op. 5, Paris, where several of his •Sinfonies" were also engraved. Johann Wanhal (1739 — 1813) also lived in Vienna at this time, and from about 1760 to 1780 was accounted one of the most favorite fashionable composers, as in his compositions he employed scales, broken chords, and other exercises, familiar even to mediocre players, for passages, which sounded brilliant and bold in the ears of dilettanti. His numerous compo- — 64 — sitions, among wliicli are found some contrapuntal works in clavier style and several text-books much prized at the time, include the following: 3 Caprices, Op. 14, Amsterdam, Hummel; ditto Op. 31, 35, etc., Vienna, publ. by Cappi, Artaria, and Steiner; 36 Progressive Clavier -pieces. Op. 41, Leipzig, Peters; 3 Congratulatory Sonatas, Bonn, Simrock; 12 Fugues, ditto; Sonate militaire, Offenbach, Andre; "Die Friedensfeier" (Celebration of Peace), characteristic Sonata, Bonn. Simrock; and some 70 books of Variations. His compositions issued after 1790, however, show at least in form, if not in spirit, the influence of the masters of the following period of clavier- playing. — The Sonatas and other clavier - pieces of the Prussian Kapellmeister Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1752 — 1814), celebrated for his compositions and musical writings, plainly exhibit the endeavor to endow the pieces with a definite character. Their style is pure, and suited to the clavier, and they already reach over, like those of the composers named above, into the later history of clavier-playing. New editions of clavier-works pertinent to our subject have been issued by the following publishers: Breitkopf & UAKTEU—Benda, G., Largo and Presto; Hdss- ler, J. W., Op. 13, 14, each having 3 Sonatas, Op. 17, Fantasia and Sonata in (r-minor; Easy Sonatas, books 1, 2 3, and 4, each having 3 Sonatas; Kvnibcrger, Fugue in two and three parts; Kulman, Joh., Sonata; Marpurg, Capriccio; Mattheson, Double Fugues with two and three subjects,— Bartholf S>knff:~ KiiJmati, Joh., Suite in E-mmov; Mattheson, Suite in ^-major. — Leuckart (Leipzig): — C. Fh. Em. Bach, 6 series of Clavier Sonatas, Rondos, and Free Fantasias for Connoisseurs and Amateurs. — Rieter-Biedermann: — Reichardt, J. Fricdr., 3 Sonatas, Rondo, "naiver Scherz", and Andantino. — Further we should mention the Collections "Classische Studien" (Fischhof, con- tinued by Zellner) publ. by Haslinger; "Alte Claviermusik" (Roitsch) publ. by Peters; and "Les maitres du clavecin" (Louis Kohler) in Collection Litolff, which contain valuable compositions by all the Masters hitherto named. C. H. Bitter, already mentioned as the author of a biographical work on Joh. Seb. Bach, had published by W. Miiller in Berlin, 1868: "Carl Philipp Emanuel und Wilhelm Friedemann Bach und deren Brtider", 2 Vols. As an Appendix to this first Section we now subjoin a brief account of the Dance-melodies in vogue during the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, several of which have been named already. The — 65 — observations on the character of these earlier folk-tunes apply to the primitive, original compositions, which were really danced to, and also occasionally sung. Later composers, who employed such forms for execution on the clavier or any other instrument, gave free rein to their imagination, lengthened out the short dance-tunes, lent them greater variety of rhythm, and thus changed their character to one no longer corresponding to the original. Wandering minstrels carried the ancient folk-songs from one land to another; but these airs were differently apprehended by different nations, and reproduced, when imitated or arranged, in a style which probably no longer showed the original features of the prototype. This circumstance explains the contradictions with which we meet in modern writings occupy- ing themselves with this topic; and at the same time furnishes an excuse for the divergence between later arrangements of such earlier forms. The earlier Dance-forms. In Germany, as in Italy and France, the first instrumental com- positions were mere echoes of sacred or secular vocal works. Folk- dances harmonically arranged, and designed for instrumental music alone, then followed, the melodies of which had long been familiar to the fiddlers of all countries, often reinforced by singing, especially when the dance tunes were founded on popular folk-songs. The compositions contained in the earliest collections of such harmonically accompanied dance -melodies were intended for playing as dance- tunes. In an extended form, however, they had found favor since the 17th century simply as instrumental pieces, and cultivated until toward the end of the 18th, particularly as choice combinations in the so-called Suites or Partite. The finest among the dance -forms occurring in them are characterized as follows by earlier writers: The Allemande portrays a contented mind; its harmonies are serious, well- chosen, and carefully developed; it has two reprises of nearly equal length, usually with an auftaJct of varying proportion, and its rhythm is a ^/^ measure in Tempo moderate. The Corrente or Courante, in % or moderate "/^ time, disports itself in pleasing and delicate runs, and its melody expresses hope, yearning, and desire; it consists of a shorter and a longer reprise, begins with a short anftaJct, and closes on the thesis. The Sarabande comes forward full of earnestness and grandesza, in ternary (triple) time, and has two divisions of eight measures each. Its melody always begins 5 — 66 — on the full measure, but as a rule closes on the third beat. Its short, expressive melody, with a range of but few tones, is well adapted for variations, to which end one old melody of this dance, ^•Folies d'Espagne", was later used, in particular, again and again, e. g. by Dominico Scarlatti. The French Gigue or Gique sometimes appears in ^/^ time, with an auftakt and following dotted quarter- note, or in ^/s ^^^^1 with an auftakt and following dotted eighth-note on the arsis. The Italian Giga, now beginning with the full measure, now with a short or long auftakt, has a well -sustained rhythm and rapid tempo, affecting the following times: ^s? ^^' ^Isi ^^ ^^k- "^^^^ dances here described formed, in the above or a similar succession, a so-called Suite. To these a Frehtde, an Overture, a Symphony (at that time an harmonic prelude), an Intrada, a Toccata, a Capriccio, or some other piece was subsequently prefixed as an Introduction, the choice of the dances being left to the pleasure of the composer, except the lively Giga, which usually formed the close. In this extended shape the Suites were also called Sonatas, or more de- finitely Senate da camera, to distinguish them from the more serious instrumental pieces called Sonate da chiesa. However, the several movements of a Suite or Partita showed not only an external con- nection, in that they all moved within one and the same key and exhibited, in their simple or more artistic working out, a certain mutual resemblance; they were likewise bound together in intelligible internal unity by a definite character assumed and maintained through- out, and by a tranquil, joyous, agitated, or passionate mood attaining to expression in all these various forms. Hereby the Suite was first raised to a siguificant work of art, finally developed by Sebastian Bach to perfect beauty. Other earlier Dances, sometimes appearing separately, sometimes in the Suites or Clavier- exercises, or even as elements of a Sonata for the Clavier, are the following: The Minuet. It was a dignified and refined movement in -74 time. The melody of the same, always beginning and closing on the metrical climax of the full measure (thesis), at first consisted of two reprises, each of four or eight measures, the four -measure grouping being strongly marked. The first division sometimes closed in the principal key, and was repeated after the second, which closed in a key related to the first. The principal melody was often followed by a second Minuet in a related key, after wliich the first was repeated. Sometimes a third Minuet in a related key followed, the principal theme then being finals 6n I repeated. Such secondary diAdsions were either termed Miniietto 2 and 3, or a single second minuet was named Alternativo, and in the latter half of the 18th century Trio as well, because, as many examples at hand prove, this movement was worked out strictly in three parts; a circumstance not always taken into account even then, despite which the second movement was called, as to-day, a Trio. Instead of Alternativo, Double was written, when the second theme formed merely a variation of the first, retaining the harmony of the same. Brossard observes: The orig:inal Minuet which came to us from Poitou, is a very rapid and merry dance in % or % time; it consisted of two parts that were repeated, and always closed on the first beat. — The term Tempo di Minuetto, however, meant the tran- quilly measured movement characteristic of the fii*st-mentioned dance of this name as performed in social festivities; whereas the instru- mental minuet afterwards introduced into the sonata, and not used in dancing, usually bore the gay character of the dance derived from Poitou. The Entree is a short introduction to the following dance. The March (la marche) should be given, according to its design, now with solemn gravity, now pointedly marked, rustically frolicsome, or lightly and rapidly, but never toyingly or frivolously. The Loure, beginning with an auftakt or on a dotted first note of a measure, is danced very seriously and slowly. The rhythm of the Gavotte, usually in alia hreve time (%), is to be distinctly marked in the moderate tempo. The melody begins on the second half of the measure, i. e. with two quarter-notes, and consists of a reprise, closing on the first beat in a related key, and a following reprise of eight measures, closing in the principal key. The Bourree, in ^/^ time and with two reprises, each of four measures, always begins with an auftakt of a quarter -note, usually followed by a rhythm of a quarter-note and two eighths sustained throughout. The Rigaudon (Riggadoon) is a merry or grotesque dance set in ^j^ time and be- ginning on the last quarter, having 3 or 4 reprises, whose shorter and most singular third part falls in as if by chance, often appear- ing in a lower register and without proper close, so that the more regular part following may have a more surprising effect. The Passe- pied (Paspy), in ^/g or ^/g time, generally begins with an eighth-note in the auftakt, and has three or four reprises in an even number of measures, the third, as in the Rigaudon, being short and toying or dallying. The form of the Ronde, a rustic round dance, is employed in binary or ternary measure in pieces for dancing, playing, or 5* — 68 — singing. Its lively principal theme ends in the principal key. This is followed by 2, 3, 4, or more "Couplets" in related keys, after each of which the first melody, which also closes the piece, is repeated as a refrain. Among other dances in this form is the Branle, a joyous, rural round dance, the short melody of which serves as a close to each of the succeeding different couplets. The Canarie, in ^/g time, is a Gigue of a very vivacious and skipping character, whose first measure-note is almost invariably dotted. The Pastorale in ^s time, and the Villanella, are jocimd rural dances with an airy, pleasing melody, as are likewise the Musette (bagpipe) and the Tambourin. The last two have the tonic, or else the tonic and dominant, as sustained toue(s) in the bass; but while the Musette runs on easily in ^/g time, the Tambourin (accompanied by the instrument of that name) is executed in very lively ^/^ time, with an auftakt of two quarter notes or two eighth - notes. The Ciacona or Chaconne is a longer dance-piece, almost always in major and in ^/^ time of moderate progression, in which a basso ohUigato usually consisting of four measures, and beginning the piece alone, is continually repeated as a basso ostinato, to which variations of all kinds are executed. The Passacaglia or Passecaille (Germ. Gassenhauer) is 9 similar dance oi" gentler character and slower movement, invariably in minor and in ^/^ time, which is likewise founded on a lasso ostinato, whose volksthiimliche* melody may, however, be taken up by the soprano or a middle part during the course of the piece. The Pavane or Paduane was a stately dance moving seriously and deliberately in alia breve time, often followed in sharp contrast by the Gagliarda or Gaillarde (formerly called Romanesca, ace. to Brossard and Eousseau) — romping, with dotted notes, and strongly marked, beginning with the full tripartite measure. The Volta was a sort of Gagliarda in ^^ time, and, like this latter, a very lively dance. The easy, tranquil strain of the Passa mezzo was frequently followed by the Furia, with fiery accentuation and sometimes 8hari)ly dissonant tones. The Siciliano, in ^s ^^^^ ^ith dotted initial measure -notes, displayed a rural, unaffected style; whereas the Venetian Forlana, having the same rhythm and similar dotted notes, was always performed in a brisk movement. The hot blood of Southern Italy is strikingly manifested in the native dances. ♦ A volksthumliches Lied is a product of art in the style of the folk-song. Transl. Note. (jy — The Saltarello in ^/^ time, with its reckless leaps, begins on the full measure, and progresses, with few exceptions, in the rhythm of a half- note followed by a quarter. The earlier examples in my pos- session were, however, probably performed in very quick tempo, so that their rhythm would be more plainly expressed by i* C I i* C ov hj p •/ f I J •? *• The wild Tarantella in minor, in % ^^^^ ^i*^ an auftakt of three eighth -notes, was danced by a youthful pair. It commences in agitated, yearning strains. But the movement grows more and more animated, increasing in rapidity toward the end until the dancers are quite exhausted. The effect of this dance is further enhanced by the sweeping accompaniment of the guitar (chitarra) and the booming, jingling tambourin. Sometimes the tarantella is also sung and danced in Italy by young girls, when its Bacchantie character is changed to youthful joyousness and mischievousness. An interesting example of the Moresca (Moorish dance) often alluded to in the 16 th century and later, is given by Kiesewetter ("Schicksale des weltlichen Gesanges", p. 104 of the Appendices); the same forms, as a dance -number, the close of the opera "Orfea" by Monteverde. The highest part takes the principal melody, while four accompanying parts support the same with simple chords: i :j^=3^ :* -t:-- -•-- t^ • — ^- — ^^ — - 41 The repeat indicated here is not, however, executed in unison, but in sequences. The melody is first repeated a fourth higher (d"— g" etc.), then a second higher than at first (b'— e" etc.), and finally a fifth higher than the piece began (e"— a" etc.), where- upon the entire piece is repeated. Quite different from this appears "La Morisqiie, basse danse" in the work by Tielmann Susato, printed at Antwerp in 1551: "Het derde musyck boexken daer inne begrepen alderhande danserye" etc. Here the melody runs: i=^^ n] <&i- :t=t: ::l: i sr 73" S^^^3^ -(C^- :±=t: m etc. — 70 — Tielman Susato's dauces are arranged in four parts, and the soprano is accompanied harmonically or "note against note" in just the same simple style as in most collections of dances of the 16 th and 17 th centuries. About the middle of the 18 th century, the Polonaises attained to high favor in Germany. The original dance-melodies of this kind always begin on the full measure in ^/^ time, often dot and accent the second quarter, progress with a strong, majestic movement, and form the close of each division, with rare exceptions, by an eighth- note and tAVO sixteenth-uotes, or four sixteenths and a marked quarter- note, which progresses as leading-note or second to the closing tonio then following: At nearly the same period, short pieces for clavier and voice, usually in ^/^ time, were transiently in vogue under the name of Murky. Their peculiarity resided in a persistent bass in broken octaves (16th-notes), which accompanied the whole insignificant trifle. The term "mui-ky bass" is still used to designate basses of a like sprawling progression. A. Czerwinski has an interesting chapter on the dances of the Germans in his "Greschichte der Tanzkunst" (History of the Art of Dancing), Leipzig, J. J, Weber, 1862. He describes the mediaeval Sclireittdnze or Schleiftdnze, whose slow steps were necessitated by the long trains then worn by the ladies, and the rustic Springtdnze or BeiJien, Avhereiu ihe dancers of both sexes sought to outvie each other in the height and length of their leaps. The author finds the origin of the waltz in the opera "Una cosa rara", by Vincenz Martin, performed at Vienna in 1787, in which four ladies executed a dance with such great applause, that it was speedily introduced into the higher social circles, and received the name of "cosa rara". Later it was called Langaus, Ldndler, Viennese Walts, or "Deutscher". The German dances contained in the earliest German "Orgel- und Instrument- TabulaturbUchern" (Tabulatur Books for Organ and Clavier) by Ammerbach (1571), B. Schmid (1577), and J. Paix (1583), viz, "Herzog Moritz Tans" (^/^), with a Naclitanz (Proportio, */J, "Hiipfauf" (^Z^), "Bruder Cunrad Tansmaass" (^1^) with NacJitans (7^), HoppcUanz, etc., seem to be merely isolated examples, and not to have come into general use. — 71 — The more serious Allemande, however, already appears in the above book by Tielman Susato (Amsterdam, 1551), and was elaborated with peculiar care in the Suites down to the middle of the 18 th cen- tury. The artistic Allemandes of Sebastian Bach and his contempo- raries, like all the dance-forms found in their Suites, had for a long time not been intended as accompaniments to actual dances, the proper destination of the dance-melodies of the 16th and 17th cen- turies, harmonized with simple chords. A specimen from Susato's coUeotion described aboye will illustrate this: VIII. Allemaigne. ^-jT-i J I ^ / >)-'^W-'i=^3= 33^ 1^^ j-^— ^^-^44=^ J l j J r~r ^ e> i* _ ^ ' & > The Germans have never been prominent as inventors or reformers in the field of dance -music; they had a higher mission. In like manner as the counterpoint of the Netherlanders and Italians was first suffused with life and warmth by the G-ermans, Sebastian Bach elevated it in his master-piece, the Fugue, to a height which will hardly be again attainable in future. Through the Germans the Sonata, too, first gained living expression, and attained to fullest perfection at the hands of Beethoven. In this Master's works, all phases of emotion find idealization and tranquilization; they make us forget the dark side of every- day life, and discover the bright regions of an ideal world filled with love, where longing is unknown — thus grasping the mission of Music in its fullest meaning, and affording the only satisfactory solution possible of the same. THE MODERN HISTORY OF CLAVIER-PLAYING. Tlxo Fortepiano. ni. The Lyrical Clavier Style. Joseph Haydn and Wolfgang Mozart. The Fugue, progressing according to strict rule and in mono- ehromatie seriousness, combining within itself the whole art of counter- point, was opposed, through the efforts of Emanuel Bach, the head of the Earlier German Clavier school, by the more brilliantly hued and freer form of the Sonata. With masterful energy he committed nearly 80 such compositions for the clavier alone to the press; and the peculiar mission of the masters following him consisted in devel- oping the Sonata-form— which was soon accepted for all compositions of larger scope, like the Symphony, the Concerto, the Quartet, etc. — to a form perfectly in accord with the universal laws of beauty, and thus to raise it to a master -piece of the freer style of composition. Like every reformer, Emanuel Bach did not escape vexatious attacks from his contemporaries, but in amends he had the satisfaction of numbering the most liberal-minded of the same among his intimate friends and admirers. For instance, the celebrated writer of musical history, Forkel, in his "Musikalischer Almanach" for 1783, notices the first three Collections of Clavier Sonatas for Connoisseurs and Amateurs by C. P. E. Bach as follows: "The author is noted as a man, cujus glorise neque profuit quisquam laudando, nee vituperando quisquam nocuit"; and in the following yearly volume (pp. 22—38) Forkel furnishes a profound paper on the JP-mlnor Sonata in the third of these Collections. Joseph Haydn, the musician whose work we next have to consider, also confesses: "Whatever I know, I owe to Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach!" — and Mozart, too, renders him his due in the words: "He is the father, we are the boys; whichever of us can do anything well, learned it of him!" When Emanuel Bach died at Hamburg in his 74 th year, his younger contemporaries Haydn, Mozart. — 76 — and Beethoven were 56, 32, and 18 years old respectively. The circumstance, that these three musicians, revered both in their time and ours, made Vienna their permanent residence— Haydn from 1740, Beethoven from 1770, and Mozart from 1781 — explains to us, how this capital, rendered so attractive by its art-loving nobility and the graceful ease of its society, and so favored by its agreeable situation, should have become the cradle of all the reforms of the following period in the history of our art. Joseph Haydn was born on March 31, 1732, at Eohrau in Lower Austria, and on account of his remarkable musical talent was already engaged as a choir-boy, in his eighth year, in the principal church at Vienna. Here he enjoyed thorough instruction in singing, and on the clavier and violin, besides which he learned, in his solitary chamber, the laws of counterpoint from Fux's Gracilis ad Tarnassum. The first clavier-works of importance with which he became acquainted, and which were likewise destined to give his exercises a new direction, were 6 sonatas by C. P. E. Bach. He played them unwearyingly again and again, and remarked later, that he had most zealously studied this master's style and striven to imitate it. In Vienna he was early occupied in giving music lessons, and the first clavier sonatas, which he wrote for his pupils, were soon spread abroad in innumerable copies, and were even published in print without his knowledge, an author's proprietorship then being protected in no way. But through these so favorably received com- positions he gained access as a teacher to the highest circles, and likewise, through the very numerous violin-quartets composed by him, which attracted no less attention, to the best musical societies of the capital. After 1760 his compositions also became known beyond the limits of Vienna; the freshness and vivacity of their naive style gave pleasure everywhere, though loud complaints were not wanting, that music was thereby debased to comic ti'ifling and that they contained many incorrectnesses and forbidden octaves (doublings of a melody, now long ago "permitted"). In the year 1773 Emanuel Bach ob- served, referring to the character of the then rising tide of new music, which even his liberality thought dangerous to the dignity of musical art: "Who does not know the time, at which music and its performance entered into a new phase and rose to a height which, as I feel it, was productive of harm. I hold, with many clear- sighted men", he cries, "that the comic feature now in such vogue bears most blame in this". It is also apparent, that we owe to our — 77 — Haydn the introduction of the fancifully humorous style, unknown before, from a characterization of this master in the ''Musikalisches Handbuch" for 1782, where we read, on pag. 19 etc.: Haydn, "Musical jester, but not, like Yorik (sic), for pathos, but for broad comedy; and this is desperately hard in music. — Even his Adagio's, where one should properly weep, often bear the stamp of broad comedy. Haydn once was chidden by the Berlinese for the incorrectnesses of his style; but these people must have forgotten — that one ought either not to laugh at all, or must needs often laugh in defiance of the rules of propriety, following the ebb and flow of the mood". In the year 1761 Haydn entered the service of Prince Nicolaus Joseph Esterhazy as Kapellmeister, and dwelt until 1790 at Eiseustadt, the seat of the latter, though sojourning yearly for some three winter months in Vienna. Down to 1789 he had already written 175 Sym- phonies for the private band of this prince, besides equally numerous clavier - pieces and other compositions. Concerning this important period of his life, Haydn himself speaks as follows: "My Prince was satisfied with all my works; I was applauded; as the master of an orchestra I could make experiments, observe what produces the effect and what weakens it, — could improve, add, strike out, venture; I was cut off from the world; no one near me could make me doubt my- self — thus I necessarily became original." In 1770 a countryman of his, Ignaz Pleyel (1757 — 1831) came to Vienna, to take lessons in clavier-playing of the already mentioned Wanhal. Pleyel's happy musical gifts occasioned Count Erdoedy to send him to live with Haydn, that he might study violin -playing and composition with the latter. He quickly became the master's favorite pupil, stayed in his house until 1777, then went to Naples, thence to Rome, and in 1783 was appointed music director at the cathedral of Strassburg. It was In this city, especially, that Pleyel composed a great number of String Quartets and Clavier- pieces, which attained to extraordinary favor at the time, although they reproduced in pale reflection only the popular features of Haydn's compositions, without the ideality of the same. They were printed at Paris, Loudon, Vienna, Berlin, Leipzig, etc.; of his Clavier-pieces we mention the following: 6 Gran- des Senates, Op. 15, Leipzig, Hofmeister; 3 Easy Clavier Sonatas, Nouvelles Sonatines progressives, and 4 Eondeaux favoris, Leipzig, Peters. Prince Esterhazy died in 1790, bequeathing to Haydn a life- pension of 1000 florins, which was increased by his son and successor — 78 — "by seniority to 1400 florins. Haydn now moved to Vienna, intending to live there in peace and free from care; but toward tlie end of the year 1790 he received a visit from Peter Salomon, a celebrated violinist of Bonn, then living in England, who was commissioned by the manager of the Haymarket Theatre in London to engage him under the most favorable terms as a composer for 12 concerts to be given there. Mozart, then living in Vienna on the most friendly footing with Haydn, said to him on this occasion: "Papa! you have had no education for the great 'world', and speak too few languages!" But Haydn answered: "0, my language is understood all over the world!" and the 15th of December was fixed as the day of departure for London. That day Mozart was constantly with him; and at the leave-taking, which filled the eyes of both with tears, he said: "This is probably our last farewell in this life!" — and not a year had passed when Haydn, who was still in London, received the tidings of the death of his friend, younger by 24 years than himself, and wrote to Vienna: "The world will not see such another talent in 100 years!" — Haydn was enthusiastically received in London, and his compositions met with extraordinary success in the concerts which he directed at the harpsichord. But a society of professional musicians, who were likewise about to give a series of concerts, strained every nerve to dim his lustre. Among other masters Muzio Clementi, then staying in London, composed a symphony for the Professional Concerts, which had a very flattering reception. In the second part of the soirde one of Haydn's earlier symphonies was then performed, with the intention of letting it serve as a foil to the brilliancy of the other. But the audience received it with such demonstrative applause, that Clementi never again cared to at- tempt a similar contest in this field. — In the summer of the same year Haydn journeyed to Oxford with Dr. Burney, to take the honorary degree of Doctor (of Music); after returning to London he remained there till the following year (1792), in order to bring out 12 new Symphonies in a series of as many concerts. The Society already named now stated publicly that Haydn was too old to write anything new, and that therefore his celebrated pupil, Ignaz Pleyel, had been called to Loudon to produce his fresher compositions in 12 Professional Concerts. Pleyel conducted himself so amiably in London toward his old master, that the latter wrote: "Pleyel behaved so modestly toward me on his arrival, that he has won my love anew. We are veiy often togetlier, which is an honor for him, and — 79 — he can .appreciate his father. We shall divide the honors between us, and each go home pleased." "Last year I found great appro- val, but at present still more. Pleyel's boldness is much criticized. Nevertheless I love him still. I never miss his concerts, and am the first to applaud him." Pleyel, however, shared the fate of all imita- tors barren of invention; on his decease at Paris in 1831 as a music publisher and pianoforte maker, his compositions, formerly in so hi^li favor, had long been consigned to oblivion, whereas Haydn's Oratorios and insti-umental works are still applauded as models of a healthy and unaffected style. In Germany Haydn's renown first began, as he himself often said, with his return from England. His compositions, among them a large number of clavier -pieces of all kinds, were printed at Vienna, Leipzig, Berlin, London, Paris, Amsterdam, etc., and were issued later in Complete Editions by Breitkopf & Hiirtcl of Leipzig, and L. HoUe of Wolfenbiittel. There were published: — A Concerto in D, Op. 37, Mainz. Schott; a second in G, Amsterdam^ Hummel; 2 Sonatas for 4 hands, Op. 81 and 86, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel; II maestro e lo scolare, Variations for 4 hands, same publ.; 34: Clavier Sonatas, ditto, also in Wolfenbiittel by L. Holle; 8 Sona- tas for Clavier and Violin, new edition in score, Breitkopf & Hartel; 31 Sonatas for Clavier, Violin, and Violincello, ditto; and various numbers of Variations, Caprices (Vienna, Artaria), and minor pieces. In 1794 Haydn once more went to London, brought back thence the text for liis Oratorio "The Creation", to Germany, had the same done into German at Vienna by Van Switen, and in 1799, already in his sixty-seventh year, he completed and brought out this admirable work in the latter place. In the year 1801 the venerable master finished his '-Seasons", a work of youthful freshness, and died in 1809. amid the tumult of the French war, as one of our most active and influ- ential composers, who, in all his compositions, preserved and lent most natural expression to the true German character of heartiness and easy good nature (GemiitMicMeit). Latterly the folloAving editions of Haydn's Clavier- works have n^l^eared: — AusgeivaJiJte Sonaten und Solostiiclie (Selected Sonatas and Solo Pieces). Edited, with the co-operation of J. Faisst and L. Lachner, by S. Lebert. 2 Vols. Stuttgart, J. G. Cotta. — Sonatas for the Pianoforte. 2 Vols. (Dorffel), Breitkopf & Esu'toi.— Sonatas, complete edition (Kohler). 4 Vols. Edition Peters. — All 34 Sonatas (Kohler & Winkler) 1 Vol., Collection Litolff. The following works should also be mentioned here:— "J. Hadya — 80 — in Loudon, 1791 and 1792", by Tli. G. Karajan. Vienna, Carl Gerold's Sohn, 1861.— '-Mozart and Haydn in London", by C. F. Pohl. 2 Parts. Vienna, same publ., 1867. — "Joseph Haydn", by C. F. Pohl. First half-volume. Breitkopf & Hitrtel, 1878. Haydn introduced the Minuet into his Symphonies, usually giving- it a gay and lively turn, whereby Beethoven was later occasioned to insert a similar Scherzo or Allegretto in the Clavier Sonata at times, ■ in which the mood of the entire composition is reviewed under as cheerful an aspect as possible. While Haydn was the first who had the faculty of stamping his compositions with humor and the most wanton mirthfulness, we must, on the other hand, concede to his younger contemporary and the sharer of his fame, Mozart, who was active not only as a composer, but also as a clavier virtuoso, that he gave his works, together with an expanded and more noble form, a more exhilarating beauty of tone, while lending to his performances the tenderest and warmest expression. The elder master first visited foreign lands at an advanced age, and therefore expressed his ami- able individuality foremostly in his genuinely German style of com- jposition. Mozart, on the conti-ary, during the professional tours of his childhood and youth, had already met the leading musicians in the capitals of Germany, France, England, Holland, and Italy; his youthful mind was impressed by the peculiarities of each, and his native wealth of imagination and exquisite sense of the Beautiful made it possible for him to become the creator of a universal style of composition finding equal favor everywhere. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born at Salzburg on January 27, 1756. His father, Leopold Mozart, noted as the author of the first thorough German violin method and of several practical compositions, gave early instruction in music to him and his sister Maria Anna, Ms senior by five years, and both soon displayed the happiest talents for this art. Nissen, in his biography of Mozart, gives several clavier- '])ieces already composed by Wolfgang in his sixth and seventh years. The happy father was encouraged thereby to undertake a Knnst- reise to Munich as early as 1762 with his children, and a second later to Vienna; in both places they were admitted to the highest circles, and their performances rewarded by unanimous applause. Even Emperor Francis L frequently invited the young virtuosi to his palace, sometimes put Wolfgang's musical abilities to the proof, and enjoyed his frank, child-like speeches. For instance, the latter was once to play before a h'-illiant assemblage at court. But before — 81 — bcgiuning, lie looked about biin, and cried: "Is not Herr Wagenseil here? He must come— be understands it!"— missing tbe tben bigbly esteemed clavier-player and composer. Tbe latter tbereupon approach- ing tbe harpsichord, Mozart said to bim: "I am to play one of youi* Concertos; you must turn over for me!" — Among tbe compositions which Wolfgang chose somewhat later for performance, were the Sonatas by Jobann Christian Bach already mentioned, and as studies the brother and sister used, among others, tbe Sonatas by Domenico Paradies and a Concerto by Andrea Luccbesi— a thoroughly trained musician appointed in 1771 Kapellmeister to the Elector at Bonn. In Vienna a little violin was presented to Wolfgang, who soon learned to play on it without instruction; in like manner, he needed only a suggestion as to the treatment of the pedal of the organ, to become fully familiar with this instrument. His great successes in Vienna encouraged bis father to venture on a longer trip in the year 1763, this time to Paris. On their way thither the children were everywhere admired, and in Frankfort they gave several successful concerts. Here Wolfgang played, according to an advertisement of August 30, 1763 (s. Jahn, Life of Mozart, Vol. I, pag. 45, etc.), not only Concertos on the clavecin or harpsichord, but also on the violin; he accompanied the symphonies on tbe harpsichord, and finally impro- vised "as long as one cared to listen" in any, even the most difficult keys that one could name, "from his bead". In Paris the brother and sister were introduced to Madame de Pompadour, played there- after before tbe royal family at Versailles, and finally gave two bril- liant concerts at Paris. The most eminent clavier -players tben in that city were Schobert of Strassburg and Jobann Gottfried Eckart of Augsburg. They both brought tbe children the engraved editions of their clavier-works, and Maria Mozart in particular, won, by her exact execution of these difficult compositions, tbe plaudits of all the musicians assembled at the concerts. Mozart the father now had four clavier- compositions with violin accompaniment, by Wolfgang, engraved in Paris as op. 1 and 2, whose dedication was most gra- ciously received by the ladies named on the title-pages: "II Senates pour le Clavecin qui peuvent se jouer avec I'accompagnement de Violon, dedi6es a Madame Victoire de France par J. G. Mozart de Salzbourg, ag6 de sept ans. GEuvre premier," The second work, with a similar title, was dedicated to the Comtesse de Tesse; Xissen gives a movement in 5t7-major from the same. In 1764 the family journeyed to England, where they met with such an extremely kind 6 "— 82 — reception that they remained there some fifteen months. Johann Christian Bach was at that time Director of Concerts, and took special delight in Wolfgang's rare musical gifts. The King, too, admired his playing on the organ and harpsichord, and set before him compositions by Wagenscil, Bach, Handel, Paradies, and the Chorus Master to the Queen, Carl Friedrich Abel, which he had to play prima vista. From this time onward the free improvisations on given themes, which later formed the climax of his concerts, find special commendation. In London, Wolfgang composed six more Sonatas for harpsichord with accompaniment of violin or flute, which he dedicated to Queen Charlotte; they may be found in Cah. XV of the edition of Mozart's Works, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hiirtel, as Sonatas 1 — 6. In England, too, he wrote his first Symphonies for orchestra, and altogether made such marvellous mental progress, that his father could write home: "Our high and mighty (grossmachtiger) Wolfgang knows everything in this, his eighth year, that one can require of a man of forty."— On his return to Salzburg, he continued his serious theoretical and practical studies, and wrote several Ora- torios, besides other compositions. Daring his twelfth year he also wrote at the Emperor's request, while in Vienna, his first Opera: *'La finta semplice", in three acts, which could not be brought out, however, on account of numberless cabals; although Hasse and Metastasio declared that thirty operas had been given in Vienna, not one of which was in any way equal to that of the boy, which they both admired greatly. To establish his son's renown still more firmly, and at the same time to insure a most diversified development of his musical talent, Leopold Mozart decided to go with him to Italy, the land of promise for all artists. Wolfgang's concerts were received with the liveliest enthusiasm in Verona, Mantua, Milan, Florence, Rome, and Naples, and on the way back to Germany the Pope conferred upon the youth- ful musician at Rome the Order of the Golden Spur. The program of a concert given at Mantua by Amadeo Mozart on Jan. 16, 1770, contains the following numbers: — A Symphony of his own composi- tion; a Clavier-concerto, which will be handed to him, and which he will immediately play prima vista; a Sonata handed him in like manner, which he will provide with variations, and afterwards repeat in another key; an Aria, the words for which will be handed to him, and which he will immediately set to music and sing himself, accompanying himself on the harpsichord; a Sonata for Clavichord — 83 — on a subject given liim by the leader of the violins; a Strict Fugue on a theme to be selected, which he will improvise on the harpsi- chord; a Trio, in which he will execute a violin-part alV improvviso; and finally, the latest Symphony composed by himself. — In that same year Wolfgang' composed the Opera "Mitridate", in three acts, for Milan; it was performed on December 26, 1770, under his direction, and was received with such extraordinary favor that it had to be repeated twenty times during that season. Wolfgang had heard the spirited delivery of the most eminent Italian singers, and the expressive melodies, by which the general public was chiefly roused to enthusiasm; he now endeavored to write himself in an equally vocal and universally appreciated style, and had ac- quired, through his constant practice in improvising entire compositions, the then so necessary art of writing, rehearsing, and bringing out an Italian opera "in a short month". The remarkable success of his first opera speedily brought him new commissions for similar compositions; and a Festspiel (serenata drammatica), written in 1771, and also the opera "Lucio Silla", written in 1772 for Milan, were received there with equal applause. With the Comic Opera "La finta giardiniera", which he wrote in 1775 for Munich, now begin his successful labors for his native country, which he does not again leave, excepting for a second short trip to Paris. In the year 1770 Archbishop Sigismund of Salz- burg, and later his successor Hieronymus, had appointed Mozart Concertmeister, at first without salary, and afterwards at 150 florins annually. The unworthy treatment experienced at the hands of the latter occasioned Mozart, however, to leave his service, and to under- take a new journey in 1777, to find a sphere of activity better adapted to his abilities. Provided with a great number of compositions which he had finished in Salzburg, he first went to Munich and thence to Augsburg, accompanied by his mother. In the latter town he immediately sought out the celebrated builder of organs and claviers, Georg Andreas Stein, and was so greatly delighted with his Pianofortes, on which the tone was easily and precisely produced and promptly dampened, and whose hammers played in brass sockets (a contrivance later called the "Viennese Action"), that he thenceforward adopted this instrument, with its more powerfid and fuller tone, for the performance of his clavier compositions. Thus he writes from Augsburg in October, 1771: "Here and in Munich I have already often played all my sonatas by heart the last, in D, comes out inimitably on the Stein pianoforte." 6* — 84 — After a concert, the returns from which were unhappily very scanty, Mozart proceeded to Mannheim, whence his mother wrote (Dec. 28, 1777): "Wolfgang stands in high estimation everywhere; hut he plays quite otherwise than when in Salzburg, for here there are only piano- fortes and these he can manage so inimitably, that the like was never heard before; in a word, everybody who hears him says, that his match is not to be found. Although both Beecke and Schubert* have been here, everyone says that he far surpasses them in beauty, and taste, and delicacy (Feinigkeit) ; and all are astounded, too, that he plays by heart, and whatever is put before him." The Abbe Georg Joseph Vogler (1749 — 1814), celebrated both as an organist and clavier-player and as a composer and theoretician, who had opened a Tonsclmle (music school) at Mannheim in 1776, also felt a lively interest in the gifted Mozart; but the latter could take no lik- ing to him, and wrote his father (Mannheim, Jan. 17, 1778): "Herr Voo-ler desires absohmient to become well acquainted with me, hav- ing often importuned me to visit him, and now he has finally put his pride in his pocket, and paid me the first visit. After dinner he had two of his claviers brought, which are tuned together, and also his tiresome er graved sonatas. I had to play them, he accom- panying me on the other clavier. At his urgent request, I likewise had to send for my sonatas. N.B. Before dinner he had — murdered my Concerto prima vista. The first movement went prestissimo , the Andante allegro, and the Rondo, prestissimo indeed. — You may easily imagine, that it was not to be borne, because I could not venture to say to him: Much too fast. Besides, it is far easier to play a piece fast than slowly; in passages one can leave some few notes in the lurch, without its being noticed by anyone; but is it well done? And wherein does the art lie, of reading prima vista? In this: To play the piece in the right tempo, as it ought to be, and to execute all the notes, appoggiaturas, etc., with proper expression and ta.ste, as they stand, so that the hearer may think that he who is pla}nng it composed it himself." The Abbe Johann Franz Xaver Sterkel (^;1750 — 1817), who attracted attention through several Clavier Con- ♦ Ignaz von Beecke (d. 1803), Major, and afterwards music director to the Prince of Getting- Wallerstein, was a clavier-player and composer highly esteemed at his time; the clavier performances of our popular poet Christian Friedrich Daniel Schubart (d. 1791) "in the Bach style", were also much praised at that period. — 85 — certos (Vienna, Artaria, and Offenbach, Andr6), Clavier Sonatas (Mainz, Scliott, and Offenbach, Andre), Sonatas for 4 hands (ditto), and other easily executed, "galante" pieces, was also staying in Mannheim at that time, and his clavier performances were likewise censured by Mozart: "He played so fast, that it was quite unintellig-ible, and not at all clearly or in time!" From these remarks, as well as from abundant contemporary testimony, it is evident that Mozart played, and wished to have his compositions performed, in a not too rapid tempo, but always with the warmest expression and most exquisite taste. He was also invariably "accurat in time, and nevertheless played expressively", and did not allow the regular course of the left hand to be disturbed even by a tempo ruhato in the right in an Adagio (see Nissen, pag. 318, etc.) In Mannheim Mozart played often, and always with success before the Electoral court, but his desire of an appointment there remained unfulfilled. He therefore proceeded in 1778 to Paris, where he had been so flatteringly re- ceived as a boy. Here, however, a most vehement strife was in pro- gress between the adherents of Oluck and their opponents, the admirers of Piccini; the entire interest of musical circles was con- centrated on the outcome of the musical dramas of these rival com- posers; thus little hope was left for Mozart of finding proper appre- ciation in Paris at such an agitated time. The death of his faithful mother having made Paris repugnant to him, he hastened back to Salzburg, in order to re-enter, at his father's desire, the service of the Archbishop so cordially detested by him, as Concertmeister and Hoforganist at a salary of 400 florins. He now composed, in parti- cular, several masses, and the opera "Zaide", which however was not performed. He at last received the flattering commission, to write a grand serious opera, "Idomeneo", for the Carnival of 1781 at Munich. The opera had extraordinary success, and Mozart reluctantly left Munich in response to the command of the Archbishop to follow him to Vienna. But here he was repeatedly treated by the latter in such an outrageous manner, that he finally felt compelled to break with him for good. At this time Leopold Kozeluch (1753—1814) was one of the most popular composers and fashionable clavier- teachers in Vienna, and had already written fifty Clavier Concertos, three Concertos for 4 hands, a Concerto for two pianofortes, and over sixty Sonatas for two and four hands, which have been published in part by Artaria of Vienna, Andre of Offenbach, Peters of Leipzig, and Schott of Mainz. The Archbishop now approached him, in order — 86 — to persuade him to accept the position in Salzburg given up by I\Iozart, offering him a salary of 1000 florins. But Kozeluch declined the offer, and remarked: ''If he lets such a man go, how would he act towards me!" In the year 1787 Gluck died, who, as Imperial Kammerkompo- nist (composer for the Emperor's private band), had drawn a salary of 2000 florins, and Mozart then entered the Emperor's service, but only as Kammermusikus, at a salary of but 800 florins. But Kozeluch, whose compositions now appear dry and quite unenjoyable to us, received the position of Kammerkomponist after Mozart's death with a salary of 1500 florins!— A year subsequent to his arrival in Vienna, Mozart married Constance Weber; and though he wrote from this time down to his death nine years later his finest musical dramas and other vocal and instrumental compositions, and celebrated the most brilliant triumphs as a pianoforte virtuoso, he was never able, despite untiring assiduity, to banish the cares attendant upon the support of his family. The cause of this was, that the theatre managers and music publishers, with few exceptions, paid compara- tively insignificant sums for his manuscripts; and further, that the receipts from his concerts did not always correspond to the applause which was showered upon his performances. The first Opera composed by Mozart during this period for Vienna, was "Belmonte und Constanze" (1782); it was given there, and in Prague, Leipzig, Hamburg, and other places, with great success. It was followed by the "Schauspieldirector" and "Le nozze di Figaro" (1786); the latter opera, which was written and composed within six weeks, met with extraordinary success, especially in Prague. Mozart, who gave concerts there in 1787, was greeted with enthusiasm, and after a free improvisation which he executed at the close, he was thrice recalled to the pianoforte. His Opera "Don Giovanni", written for Prague in 1787, was received with overwhelming applause from overture to close. But Mozart's pecuniary circumstances remained embarrassed. To improve them, he undertook a professional tour to Berlin in 1789, touching Dresden and Leipzig on the way. In Berlin he met with a most flattering reception, both at Court and in private circles, but abandoned the idea of giving a concert, as his friends considered it doubtful if the receipts would be sufficient. King Frederick William IL, with the benevolent intention of rescuing him from his petty cares, offered him an appointment as Kapellmeister with a salary of 3000 thalers; but Mozart felt bound to decline the — 87 — same, "as he did not wish quite to forsake his g-ood Kaiser". After his return to Vienna he acquainted the Kaiser with tliis brilliant oifer, but the latter was not moved thereby to increase his paltry income, though he commissioned him (in December, 1789) to write a new opera, "Cosi fan tutte". The same was brought out on January 26 of the following year; yet we do not learn that the Viennese noticed any difference between Mozart's master-works and the then fashion- able operas by Sarti, Salieri, Guglielmi, Cimarosa, Paisielli, Martin, and "Weigl. In 1790 he determined to make another journey to Frankfort, to the coronation of Kaiser Leopold II., and wrote thence to his "darling wifey" (Herzensweibchen): "Now I am firmly resolved to do my work here as well as possible, and then joyfully back to you. — What a magnificent life we shall lead, I will work— work, so that I may not again be placed in such a disagreeable position through unforeseen accidents." — In a concert given there, only com- positions of his own were performed; he played among other things the Piano Concerto in F, Op. 44, and the "Coronation Concerto" in D, Op. 46. The presence of the above-mentioned J. v. Beecke also induced him to perform a Pianoforte Concerto for 4 hands with his assistance. On the return trip he stopped at Mainz, Mannheim, and Munich, but he did not succeed in improving his pecuniary condition by this journey. Soon after his arrival at Vienna, Salomon also came thither, to engage his fatherly friend Haydn for London. To Mozart he also held out the prospect of going to London, after Haydn's return, under similar favorable terms. But we know, that Mozart was never again to behold the one contemporary, who seems to have fully recognized his greatness. In the Spring of 1791 the theatre manager Schikaneder entreated Mozart to set to music an opera, the Magic Flute, for which he himself h;id written the libretto, for per- formance in his theatre, hardly more than a mere wooden booth. Mozart, good-natured and ever ready to help, had not yet finished the same, when he received the honorable commission to write a festival opera for Prague, for the coronation of the Kaiser as King of Bohemia. In 18 days the opera intended for this purpose, "La clemenza di Tito", was finished, rehearsed, and performed in Prague, in spite of Mozart's continued indisposition. The success of the same did not answer his expectations; indeed, his happy star was not to rise until the last months of his life. The Magic Flute, given for the first time shortly after his return to Vienna, was then received with such unexampled applause, that it had to be repeated one — 88 — hundred times, with like tremendous ovations, from Sept. 30, 1791, the day of its first performance, up to Nov. 23 of the following year. Mozart, though suffering seriously both physically and mentally from unremitting work and various excitements, was still laboring zealously on his requiem, in defiance of growing indisposition, when stricken by death on December 5, 1791. Despite the almost miraculous ease and rapidity with which Mozart sketched and completed the majority of his compositions, he nevertheless endowed them all with the purest euphony, the most soulful meaning, and the most artistic form. To his earliest clavier compositions, which he performed at his concerts, belong the Varia- tions on a Minuet by Fischer, in C-major. In 1774 he had them sent him while in Munich, and also played them in 1778 in Paris. The theme, thoroughly appropriate to the graceful dance, appears in 4-measure rhythm. But the foui'th measure of the second strain is repeated, whereby a peculiar 5-measure phrase is formed, which Mozart retains in all twelve variations. These, like the variations on "Je suis Lindor", which he played in public at Leipzig and Vienna, are by far more flowing in their runs and passages than the earlier "galante" variations (Verandenmgen) by Emanuel Bach, Kirn- berger, and others; yet they offer no difficulty whatever to a modern pianist, and are intended, like all similar compositions of Mozart's, to affect the hearers mainly through the expressive delivery of their pleasing melodies. The "free improvisation", always greeted with demonstrative applause, consisted for the most part of such varia- tions, in which the audience was treated to familiar themes, now varied in melody, harmony, or rhythm, and now ornamented with pearling and brilliant figures and passages. One of the most prolific authors of this style of clavier pieces was the Abb6 Joseph Gelinek (1757—1825). When Mozart went to Prague in 1787 to bring out his Don Giovanni, he heard the Abbe extemporize on one of his melodies, and was so favorably impressed by this performance, that he recommended him to the family of Count Kinsky as Claviermeister. Gelinek soon after accompanied the family to Vienna, continued in most friendly relations with Mozart, and published his first variations on the theme from Don Giovanni "Reich mir die Hand, mein Leben" (Vienna, Artaria; Mainz, Schott, etc.), gradually followed by various similar ones on melodies by Mozart and others, which soon became so generally popular, that down to 1815 more than 125 Numbers had appeared,^ printed in — 89 — Vienna, Leipzig, Berlin, Mainz, Paris, London, etc. These Variations, like the similar fashionable pieces by his contemporaries J. Wanhal, F. J. Kirmair, D. Steibelt, J. W. Wilms, and others, can lay no claims to artistic value, but have only the aim, while easy of execution, of sounding brilliantly to the non- professional, and to set in motion, at best, the pupil's fingers. Far more valuable and original both in form and in the development of their melodies, are the Variations of the inconstant and original Johann Wilhelm Hassler (1747—1822), a pupil of the excellent organist J. Ch, Kittel of Erfurt. His "Fan- taisie et chanson russe variee, op. 19, gravee et imprimee chez Reinsdorp et Kaestner" (place not given), still strikes us as a piquant piano-piece. The Variations form a connected series, and the player is already confronted by passages in thirds and sixths for the right hand, chords stretching a tenth (e. g. f'^-c-e\>-a) for the left, and for both the rapid change of fingers on the same key, later so much employed. Hassler is said to have played the cla\'ier with genuine and animated expression, which he also maintained in prestissimo. He once gave a perfonnance on the organ in the Garnisonhirclie at Berlin, where he played, according to the testimony of a musician present, ''like an angel with his hands, and like a devil with his feet". Of his Clavier Sonatas were published: 3 Sonates, op. 13, 14, and 16, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel; Fantaisie et Sonate, op. 17, same publ.; 6 Easy Sonatas (ditto); Grande Sonate pour 3 mains sur un Pianoforte, Riga, Hartknoch, 1793; etc. In the year 1789 Mozart met Hassler in Dresden. But Mozart, in the musical match there contested, so far outrivalled his opponent, that even the latter could not withhold the full tribute of his admiration. With the same consistency shown by Emanuel Bach in clinging to the 3 movements of the Clavier Sonata, Mozart developed the first movement in the sonata-form still retained to-day, in which— as in similar compositions by Johann Christian Bach, with whom he became acquainted in his childhood in London and whose compositions he studied later — a first and second theme appear and are developed. Among Mozart's 31 Pianoforte Sonatas we notice especially that in ^-minor (CEuvres compl. de Mozart, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel; Cah. 1, No. 6), the Fantaisie and Sonate in 0-minor, and the Souate in F (Cah. 6, Nos. 1, 2, and 13). The Pianoforte Sonatas for 4 hands (Cah. 7, Nos. 1—4) also first received from Mozart a really interest- ing conception and an extended form; he sought to occupy both players in an equally interesting manner, and to his pattern- work — 90 — we owe the fine sonatas for 4 hands by G. Onslow (Op. 7 in JE'-minor and Op. 22 in F-minor), J. N. HmiMEL (Op. 92 in J.:? -minor), and I. MoscHELES (Op. 47 \rE:?). But in the Pianoforte Concertos, which he designed for his own performances, and of which he composed seventeen during his last stay in Vienna, Mozart so far surpasses his predecessors, that we have almost to regard him as the inventor of this species of composition. Through their interpretation he aimed at affecting his hearers not only as a virtuoso, but more, and rather, as a tone -poet and declaimer. His Concertos are Symphonies, in which the pianoforte takes a leading part in accordance with its character, and the orchestra has not merely a subordinate accom- paniment, but displays its full volume and splendor of tone indepen- dently, to form a due contrast to the harder tone and brilliantly animated passages of the pianoforte. Of these the Breitkopf & Hiirtel edition contains 20, among them one (No. 17) in jEJ|7 for two piano- fortes; an edition of the same in score has also been issued by Andre of Offenbach. "We call special attention to Xo. 5 of the Score Edi- tion in B\f^ of 1784; No. 2 in G, of same year; No. 3 in D-minor of the year 1785; No. 6 in (7-major, same year; No. 7 in C-minor, of 1786; No. 8 in C-major, ditto; and the ''Coronation Concerto" in D, of 1790 (No. 20 in Breitkopf & Hartel Edit.), which as Mozart reports made a "great stir" in Vienna, he having to repeat the Eondo as an encore. Among his other Pianoforte Works are to be noted the pleasing Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin (QEuvi*es, Breitkopf & Hartel; Cah. 4, 6 Sou.; Cah. 9, 5 Son.; Cah. 11, 5 Son.; Cah. 17, 4 Son.), for whose composition he in many instances showed peculiar fondness; fui-ther, 2 Quartets for Pianoforte, Violin, Viola, and Violin- cello, in G-minor and jEJ^-major (Cah. 13); and finally, a Quintet for Pianoforte, Oboe, Clarinette, Horn, and Bassoon in Ep (Cah. 14), in which he exhibits remarkable skill in the interesting and effective employment of the various qualities of tone, both individually and collectively, afforded by the several instruments. Two Trios, in Ji5j?-major and JF-major, for Pianoforte Violin, and Violoncello (Cah. 10, Nos. 1 and 3) are also markedly prominent among his compositions of a similar kind. A cheap edition of ^Mozart's Complete Pianoforte Works has been published by L. Holle of Wolfenbiittel. Mozart, like Emanuel Bach, was far in advance of the theore- ticians of his time as a haimonist. Both in his symphonies and piano- forte works are found harmonies, chord-progressions, and modulations sometimes considered of doubtful propriety even now. E. g. the — 91 — Fantasia set before the Sonata mentioned above (Op. 11) begins in an Adagio in ^/^ time with the melodically broken chord c-elf-f'^-fgj-a'r}^ resolving to the (r-ma-jor triad, and a following sequence leads in like manner through i\>-d\}-e-(f)-g to i^- major. The motive of the first measure is then developed in the harmonies given below, in uninter- rupted succession: — A\f-c-e\}-g\?, Z)|?-major; a-c-e\>-g\?, JE't?-major; J5-major, f^-a^-c^-e, A-c^-e-g, JP-minor, G-b-d-f, jE'!?-minor, etc. Further on, the i^Jf-major triad is followed by a more developed middle division in 2) -major, and the latter by an Allegro in ^- minor, whose middle division touches the following keys: F-major, F-minor, DI?-major, ^[?-major, C^-minor, etc. Now, after the chord of the do- minant seventh F-a-c-e\>^ there enters an Andantino in Ji5l7-major and ^/^ time, the more animated second half of which leads back to the Adagio of the beginning, in which tempo the so richly harmonized piece closes (C-minor). Chord -progressions, modulations, and enhar- monic transitions like those here described, were quite as harshly censured at that time as are to-day the similar licences of modern, free-thinking composers; and nevertheless they are the very things which led to a broadening of our science of harmony.* In 1781 Mozart was invited by the Kaiser to a contest of skill with the Roman Muzio Clementi, who was then in Vienna, and who had already caused a great sensation in London and Paris by his extra- ordinary virtuosity on the Fortepiano. At the meeting of the two artists arranged for this purpose Clementi played first, choosing hi» Sonata in 5[? -major, the first two measures of which resemble those in the Allegro of the Overture to the Magic Flute, composed later by Mozart. The latter thereupon performed variations, and both then improvised on two pianofortes on a theme given by the Kaiser. Regarding Mozart's playing, Clementi afterwards remarked: "Until then I had never heard anyone play with such spirit and grace. I was chiefly surprised by an Adagio and several of his extemporized variations, the theme of which had been chosen by the Kaiser, we having to vary the same, accompanying each other alternately." But Mozart, who had a decided aversion for all Italians, describes Clementi as a mere "Mechanicus", possessing great skill in passages of thirds, but for the rest not a Kreutzer's worth of feeling or taste. Sub- * A theoretical justification of these licences is contained in the follow- ing treatises by the Author: "Harmoniesystem", Leipzig, Kahnt, and "Die neue Harmonielehre im Streit mit der alten", same publ. — 92 — sequently, too, wlien discussing the passages in sixths and octaves in dementi's sonatas, he advises his sister not to take too much pains with them, so as not to spoil her quiet and steady hand, and thus to lose her natural lightness, suppleness, and flowing velocity. The German Opera -composer then preferred above all others in Vienna and Berlin, Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, gave the Kaiser, who had ennobled him and lavished all sorts of favors upon him, the follow- ing opinion on these two, the greatest pianoforte -players of the period: "In dementi's style, art (skill) alone prevails; but in Mozart's, art and taste." In the spiritualization and vivifying of the pianoforte style Mozart has rendered great services not only through his genial compositions and their spirited interpretation, but through direct teaching as well. Further on we shall notice, at greater length, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, who in his seventh year took lessons of and lived with Mozart. The general propagation and cultivation of pianoforte-playing first begins with Mozart's appearance, and under his influence arose, in Vienna, that Pianoforte School, whose eleves were distinguished for precision, taste, and warmth in their playing, and for engaging perspicuity and euphony in their compositions. We must regard Hum- mel, in particular, as the later leader of this school; and Beethoven as at once the perfecter and the reformer of the same. Latterly the following editions of Mozart's compositions have appeared: Mosarfs Worhs, Complete Edition, critically revised. Con- taining, in various series, all his Pianoforte Works. Breitkopf & Hartel. — Selected Sonatas, and other Pieces. Edited, with assistance of J. Faisst and J. Lachner, by S. Lebert. Vol. 1, 2, and 3, the latter for 4 hands. Stuttgart, J. G. Cotta. — Complete Sonatas (L. Kohler), Complete Variations (Winkler), 7 Concertos, Collection Litolff. — Com- plete Sonatas, Variations, and Concertos, Edition Peters, — On Mozart and his Works we have the following: 0. JaJin, "W. A. Mozart", 4 Vols., 1856—1859. New edition in 2 Vols. Breit- kopf & Hilrtel— G. N. von Nissen, "Mozart's Biography", 2 Vols, and Supplement, :'828, same publ. — C. F. PoJil, "Mozart and Haydn in London", first Part, Vienna, Carl Gerold's Sohn, 1867.— Z. v. Kocliel, "Chronologico- thematic List of all Compositions by W. A. Mozart". Breitkopf & Hartel, 1862. The enterprising pul)lishing house of Breitkopf & Hartel has also issued the following, by masters previously named: Wagenseil, Senate, op. 4 (alte Meister No. 19); Kozeluch, Symphonies pour Piano Nos. — 93 — 1 and 2; Ahhe Voghr, "Der eheliche Zwist" (Conjugal Dispute), Sonata for Pianoforte with 2 Violins, Viola, and Bass; Gelinek, 21 books of Variations; ScJwbert, Minuetto and Allegro molto (alte Meister No. 39).— Muzio ClementL Contemporaneously with the German School of Pianoforte -play- inir, the Italian School, at whose head Clement! had placed himself, had attained to a high degree of development in another direction. Vv'bile Mozart's playing and style of composition were chiefly instrumen- tal in introducing a warmer delivery, easier fluency, and a more perfect finish of the passages, dementi's services consisted mainly in greatly extending the resources of the virtuoso, and in facilitating the ac- quisition of the higher skill demanded thereby through excellent Studies. Muzio Clementi was born in Rome (1752), and educated as a musician. As early as his ninth year his unusual talents for this art procured him a position as organist in that city, and at the age of fourteen Ms clavier -playing so enchanted a wealthy Englishman by the name of Beckford, that the latter engaged to provide for him in future, and took him to England. We learn that he studied here the sonatas of the Neapolitans D. Scarlatti and P. D. Paradies, and at the same time became acquainted with the works of German masters, such as Handel and Bach, through whose salutary influence his own compositions were first endowed with enduring value. The Sonatas published by him as op. 2 (Offenbach, Audr6) created a general sensation; even the actual originator of this species of serious clavier-music, Emanuel Bach, did not withhold his praise. Soon after their publication he was appointed cembalist of the Italian Opera in London; in the year 1780 he began his professional tours to Paris, Strassburg, Munich, and Vienna, on which both his brilliant delivery and artistically wrought compositions everywhere aroused the greatest enthusiasm. In 1785 he again settled in England, where he was quickly surrounded by a throng of pupils, who revered in him a teacher full of vigorous and stimulating life. In 1800 he became partner in an extensive Pianoforte Manufactory, and did valuable work in improving the tone and touch of the insti'uments produced by the same. To his pupil Ludwig Berger he remarked later, that at a former period he had taken pleasure chiefly in powerful and brilliant execution, especially in the pa sages in doubled notes (thirds — 94 — sixths, etc.) not previously attempted, and in extemporized perfor- mances, not having until later acquired, by attentively listening to renowned singers, a more singing and chaste style of rendering, to which the gradual perfecting of the tone of the English grand piano- fortes added a highly important stimulus. In 1802 Clementi under- took, with his favorite pupil, John Field, another professional tour to Paris, where, in particular, the fine interpretation of Bach's and Handel's fugues by Field received high praise. Both then proceeded to Vienna, and later to St. Petersburg; in this latter place the re- ception accorded to Field was so cordial, that he decided to make it his permanent abode. Louis Spohr, who also visited St, Peters- burg at the time, describes Clementi as a man of a very jovial dis- position and engaging manners; Field, on the other hand, as a pale tall youth, whose romantically melancholy style of playing he found- peculiarly moving. In the years next -following Clementi continued his successful tours; in Dresden he was joined by Alexander Klengel, and in Berlin by Ludwig Berger, who desired to profit by his masterly teaching and his instructive performances. They accompanied him on his second journey to St. Petersburg in 1805, and found Field already the most popular teacher in the City of the Czars, and in the full tide of prosperity. His example determined both Klengel and Berger to take up their residence in Russia, far from the disturbances of war then beginning in Germany. Clementi after- wards made a protracted stay in Vienna, where his teaching and playing exercised a most salutary influence; as, to name one instance, on Kalkbrenner's pianoforte style. He then revisited Italy, and finally returned to England in 1810, where he closed his active life' in 1832 at the age of eighty, having edified but a few days before a gather- ing of his pupils and admirers — among whom J. B. Cramer and L Moscheles were also present — by his playing on the pianoforte. Clementi left more than 200 Sonatas for the Pianoforte, 35 of which are arranged with accompaniment of Violin or Flute, and 48 with accompaniment of Violin or Flute and the Violoncello; also a Duo for 2 Pianofortes; 6 Duos for 4 hands; "Caprices, Preludes et Point- d'orgue composes dans le gout de Haydn, Mozart, Kozelueh, Stcrkel, Wanhal et Clementi", Op. 19, Mainz, Schott; "Introduction a I'art de toucher le Pianoforte, avec 50 IcQons", Leipzig, Peters; several Fugues, Toccatas, Variations, etc.; and finally the volume of Studies, still indispensable to every pianist, entitled "Gradus ad Parnassum, Oder die Kunst des Pianofortespiels durch 100 Beispiele gelehrt". — 95 — 3 Parts. Wolfeiibiittel, Holle. — A Collection of his Pianoforte Works has been issued by Breitkopf & Hartel, Leipzig; a cheaper edition of the same, in 5 Vols., by L. Holle, Wolfenbiittcl. Of his Sonatas, which have in part a pedagogic aim, we note especially the one already alluded to in ^l?-major, which is followed by a brilliant Toccata in the same key, to be executed prestissimo; also a plaintively agitated Sonata in 5- minor, Stuttgart, Hallberger, in the Edition de luxe of the Classics Beethoven, Clementi, Haydn, Mozart, No. 12; and "Trois Senates dediees a Cherubini", Op. 50, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel. — In these last compositions Clementi shows himself not only an able contrapuntist, but also a harmonist far surpassing those of the earlier Italian school. The third of the same, in G^-minor, bears the title "Didone abbandonata, Scena tragica"; it is peculiarly distinguished by its rich volume of tone and bold harmonic development, the expression of its passionate meaning being intensified by the stronger effects employed. dementi's most important pianoforte work, written with peculiar and loving care, is the Gradus ad Parnassum. The entire piano- forte technique of that period, so materially extended by himself, is represented therein by eminently practical Studies. The fingers are made independent of each other, their equalization in strength and endurance promoted, and both hands trained in runs of thirds and sixths, in rolling and undulating passages, in broken chords, and in octave-playing. In the Strai-aganza, Ex. 94, three notes against two are given; in the Bissarria, Ex. 95, the Quintuplet runs on through- out; the Canon affords au opportunity of occupying both hands in full equality; and by Fugues written in true pianoforte style the player's attention is fixed on the significance of the inner parts; the changing of fingers -for repeated notes, the crossing of the hands, the scales, triplets, appoggiaturas, turns and trills are all studied in the interest- ing compositions, several of which often form a connected Suite, and whose form sometimes even touches the dramatic as in the Scena patetica, Ex. 39. The movement at times occupies two, three, or four parts, at others the greatest possible number, and all of the hundred studies are distinguished by the most brilliant and natural pianoforte style of the skilfullest contrapuntist. Late editions of dementi's Pianoforte Works have been pub- lished by Breitlvopf S Hartel, 64 Sonatas in 3 Vols., boards, red; — J. G. Cotta, Sonatas and other works (Lebert), 2 Y oh.;— Collection Litolff contains 61 Sonatas in 3 Vols., and the Gradus ad Parnas- — 96 — sum I, n, III; — Edition Peters contains 4 Vols, of Sonatas, and the Grad. ad Parn. in 3 Vols.; — Carl Tausig has furnished selected Etudes from the Grad. ad Parn. with fingerings and Notes, which serve as an excellent preparation for modern demands on pianoforte virtuosity (publ. by T. Trautwein, Berlin). Among the pupils of Clementi finding special mention further on, J. B. Cramer and L. Berger chiefly propagated the solid virtuosity of their master; whereas A. A. Klengel cultivated almost exclusively the art of counterpoint, and John Field was wholly plunged in the deeps of emotional life. Contemporaries of Emanuel Bach, Haydn, Mozart, and Clementi. The brilliant performances of illustrious virtuosi, and the success- ful representations of the works of creative tone -poets, always call into being a swarm of parasites in every sense of the term. Such press in, in order to participate in the opulent banquets of the former, and to distribute thereafter to the numberless throng of dilettanti the stale and diluted scraps of their booty; not forgetting, however, to revile and disparage those mighty ones to whom they owe their existence. Such are they who disgustingly ape certain externalities and effects, forced out of their true connection, of eminent artists, and also the brainless scribblers who flood the market with their fashionable articles, in which they have stupidly set the stolen and dismembered gems. — But disciples and admirers also draw near, seeking to fathom the spirit capable of producing such imposing effects, to gain enlightenment from their master regarding revelations of art, and to spread the same further and further in his sense; — these are the only parasites of merit, the priests of the same divinity, who are called, in the primitive meaning of the term, to enjoy the feast of sacrifice together with the High Priest. The former kind, who produce their countless fabrications after certain easily handled patterns, have sometimes exercised a mischievous influence on the taste of the great mass of dilettanti during considerable periods, and can therefore be no more left out of this historical sketch than the latter class, who have often been the first to spread the more peculiar and original style of their models in composition, and to render the same intelligible, in wider circles, through their attractive perfor; manees and compositions. — 97 — One of the earliest of the voluminous spoilers of taste, whose witless "Fantasias and Variations, Storm and Battle Pieces, Pot- pourris, Eondeaux, and Bacchanales" encumbered all pianoforte racks for a season, was Daniel Steibelt. He was born about 1765 in Berlin, and had instruction from Kirnberger in clavier- playing and composition. After various professional trips undertaken through Germany from his fifteenth year, he settled down in Paris in 1790, where he behaved with the greatest arrogance, and vanquished as a virtuoso both the German clavierist Johann David Herrmann then living there, who enjoyed the special favor of the Queen Marie Antoinette, and Ignaz Pleyel, who had gained great popularity as a composer. In 1793 he composed in Paris the opera "Romeo et Juliette", the brilliant success of which made him the lion of the day. Ladies from the highest circles became his pupils, and often looked upon his extremely unbecoming behavior as eccentricity, until more serious faults obliged him to leave Paris in 1798. In London, where he then dwelt for a considerable time, he married a charm- ing Englishwoman, who now accompanied him on the tambourine to noisy pieces specially written for that purpose. Steibelt was, alto- gether, a hero of effect, as the following titles of bis clavier- pieces, for instance, testify: Combat naval, op. 41; Sonate martiale, op. 82; Bataille de Gemappc et de Ncerwinde; "The Destruction of Moscow", Leipzig, Peters; etc. etc. Of all these tone-paintings, "I'Orage, pre- cede d'un Rondeau pastorale" (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel), the Finale of his third Concerto, met with the greatest success, making the rounds through the hands of all dilettanti of the time. Steibelt later visited Hamburg, Dresden, Prague, Berlin, and Vienna, gave brilliant concerts everywhere, and always found as many admirers as con- demnors of his tactless and affected style and his shallow compositions. Gerber reports, that on his return to Germany he was ashamed of his mother-tongue, and acted sometimes the haughty Englishman, at others the arrogant Frenchman. One grand effect he sought to pro- duce with the but meagerly artistic and frequently employed tremo- lando in both hands, by which style of playing he could likewise conceal the weakness of his left hand. The form of the "Fantasia with Variations", which he brought especially into vogue, had been employed before, as we saw, by Hassler; it was at the same time the favorite style in the "free Fantasia". But he was the inventor of the prosaic "Bacchanales" just mentioned, to which his spouse beat the tambourine with her own hand, "most artistically and grace- — 98 — fully", in the concerts given at Prag-ue, Berlin, and Vienna, and of which 10 series, each containing- 6 of the same for Pianoforte and Tambourine, sometimes with Triangle as well, were published in Paris by Pleyel, Erard, and others, in Offenbach by Andre, and in Leipzig by Breitkopf & Hartel. In 1808 Steibelt became Kapell- meister of the French Opera at St. Petersburg, where he died in the year 1823. He left his family in very straightened circumstances; but a concert arranged for their relief yielded 40,000 rubels. This fact, together with the host of compositions for which he everywhere found generously paying publishers, testifies to the great popularity which he enjoyed during some twenty years, though hardly more than a talented naturalistic player and composer. He left 7 Piano- forte Concertos (among them a Grand Concerto militaire in £'-minor with accompaniment of tivo orchestras), of which Nos. 1 to 5 were published by Breitkopf & Hartel; also several Quintets, Quartets, and Trios, 65 Pianoforte Sonatas with Violin or Flute, 46 Sonatas for Pianoforte solo, and countless Fantasias, Piondos, Etudes, Dances, etc. Emanuel Bach was already 69 years of age, when the young, amiable, and versatile Johann Ludwig Dussek (b. 1760 in Czaslau, Bohemia) paid him a visit in Hamburg. The latter had previously found most flattering approval in Amsterdam, whither he had followed his eminent patron, and also at the Hague (where his first compo- sitions, "Trois Concertos pour le Pianoforte, deux Violons, Alto et Basse, Op. 1", were printed) by reason of the pleasing melodies, supported by rich harmonies, of his works, and likewise through his clean and melodious pianoforte style; nevertheless, he did not wish to pursue an artistic career without the approbation of the revered master named above. Emanuel Bach immediately recognized the eminent talent of the young virtuoso and composer, encouraged him to follow the path already entered on, and aided him with his advice and efficient recommendations. Dussek first proceeded to Berlin and thence to St. Petersburg, winning fullest applause as a virtuoso on the pianoforte and also on the "Glasharmonica" newly 'nvented by Hessel in that city. He then visited Paris and Milan with like favorable results, went to France for a second time in 1788, and settled in London in 1792. Here he contracted a friendship for Clcmenti, but unluckily became a partner in a music business, the failure of which necessitated his flight to Hamburg in 1800. In London he had published a Pianoforte Method, issued later both in Paris and Leipzig; also a Sonata belonging to the same period, "Les — 99 — adieux de Clemeuti", in Eip^ op. 44, and further, the earlier 6 Sonatas op. 9 and 10 (Leipzig:, Breitkopf & Plartel), and "3 Graudes Souates", op. 35 (Offenbach, Andre), all of which he ranked with his most successful works. At Magdeburg in 1802 he was presented to Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia (1772 — 1806), who induced him to accompany him as teacher and friend. The Prince was himself an excellent pianoforte virtuoso and composer. Beethoven, who met him at Berlin in 1796, lauded his playing, which, he said, was not at all princely, but that of a good musician. Louis Ferdinand's compo- sitions — among which the Quartet in i^- minor for Pianoforte, Violin, Viola, and Violoncello (op. 6, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel) deserves special mention on account of its heartfelt, mournfully elegiac expres- sion — are full of original touches and characteristic motives, though frequently disfigured by amateurish incorrectnesses of style. Dussek remained with the Prince until the heroic death of the latter on the ill-starred field of Saalfeld, in 1806. To his memory Dussek dedicated a valuable Sonata in I^j^-minor, entitled "Elegie harmonique sur la mort de Louis Ferdinand, Prince de Prusse", op. 61, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, and an Andante, extraordinarily popular at the time, in B\>, "La Consolation", op. 62, same publ. In the year 1808 he again visited Paris, where he now remained until his death in 1812. When he arrived there, the violinists Rode and Baillot, and the violoncellist Lamare, were giving brilliant concerts in the Odeon. But Dussek, who also gave performances in the same place, not only threw these famous artists into the shade by his brilliant playing, but celebrated triumphs outrivalling by far the successes of the piano- forte virtuosi Steibelt and Woelfl, who had played there shortly before. His 13 Pianoforte Concertos (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel), the tenth of which in JBl? is written for two pianofortes, and also his Sonatas (33 have been issued by same publ), Bondos, Fantasias, and Varia- tions, formed on their appearance the study of all ambitious piano- forte players. One of the most valuable and best-developed sonatas is op. 70, '"Le retour a Paris", in A\?. The pianoforte setting of the same is richer and fuller than that of any of his predecessors; chords in the compass of a ninth or tenth are frequently employed for either hand, and enhannonics are applied in various passages; e. g. after the first movement closing in J.l?-major, there begins an Adagio in jEJ- major, followed by a Scherzo — then in any event a rare intermezzo in the pianoforte sonata — which begins with the jp^-minor triad and ends in J.l?-major. In equally surprising fashion 7* — 100 — the Finale, shortly before the close, makes a sharp transition to J.-inajor, but retui'ns directly to the principal key J.l7-major through the chords a-c^-e and g-b\?-d\>-el>. Dussek's Pianoforte Works have been issued in 12 caJtiers by Breitkopf & Hartel; newer and cheaper editions are in Collection Litolff, Complete Sonatas and Sonatinas, 2 Vols. (Kohler & Winkler), and Edition Peters, Sonatas and Pieces, 1 Vol. Virtuosity was valued by this meritorious artist solely in so far as it is adapted to give to a peculiarly agitated and elevated mood a yet more animated expression by means extraordinarily enhanced. Another contemporary, however, Joseph Woelfl, eleven years his junior, chiefly calculated his compositions, in which a loftier vein was often lacking, to exhibit a technique acquired by untiring appli- cation in a style the more dazzling by contrast; but was able to awaken only a passing interest in exhibitions of ^'irtuosity otherwise quite empty. He was born in Salzburg in 1772, still early enough to enjoy the instruction of the aged Leopold Mozart, and of the excellent composer Michael Haydn, in clavier-playing and composition. In 1793 he commenced his professional tours to Warsaw and Vienna, stayed in the latter place until 1798, and journeyed then to Prague, Dresden, Leipzig, Berlin, and Hamburg, his brilliant performances being everywhere received with astonishment and admiration. He vanquished the greatest difficulties in his compositions with playful ease, and the "Leipziger musikalische Zeitung" relates as a specimen the following occurrence in Prague: "The orchestra had already assembled for the rehearsal of his concert, and the parts of a piano- forte concerto in C, written by himself, were already distributed; but his pianoforte had not yet come. At length the porters bring it, and behold! it is tuned a semitone too low. The tuner demands an hour for tuning it to pitch. — You don't mean it! — says Woelfl quite coolly; — please have the kindness to begin; I must transpose!— And he actually played, in Cji-major, one of the most difficult concertos that had ever been heard in Dresden, and that with an ease, readiness, accuracy, and precision, which astounded the entire or- chestra." — Woelfl having written but one Grand Concerto militaire in (7-major (Offenbach, Autlre), the same is probably identical with that so transposed by him. Woelfl was later received in London with the same enthusiasm as in the German capitals. But in Paris, where he arrived in 1801, he was unable to dim the memory of Steibelt, so celebrated there only a short time before, and could obtain only — 101 — a small, though highly appreciative audience for his performances. His evil star pursued him on his journey to Brussels; he therefore returned to London in 1805, hut could not succeed in regaining his former brilliant position there; and the virtuoso, who could measure himself with a Beethoven during his stay in Vienna, died in London so unnoticed, that even the year of his death (1811 or 1814) cannot be ascertained positively.— His published compositions include 6 Piano- forte Concertos (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, and Offenbach, Andre), 18 Trios, 35 Duos, and more than 40 Sonatas for Pianoforte solo, besides a great number of Fantasias, Fugues, Rondos, Variations. A work published by him under the title of "Methode de Piano, op. 56, 2 Parties" (Offenbach, Andre), contains 100 Exercises, among which are found valuable compositions with interesting technique and pianoforte effects. Of his Sonatas he seems, from their titles, to have considered the following as the boldest: "Le diable k quatre" (op. 50, Offenbach, Andre), and "Non plus ultra" (op. 41, Leipzig, Peters). The latter, in F- major, begins with a short Adagio in. ^/^ time, serving as an introduction to the following Allegro moderato in ^/^ time. This movement is founded on a prosaic, 6tude-like passage in thirds, performed by both hands alternately or together in octaves, and accompanied by a commonplace counter-theme. The second and equally insignificant theme is intertwined in the episodes by similar passages in thirds, and the coda is likewise formed in part by the same. Then follows an Andante in 0- major, in the simplest two-phrase song-form; and as a Finale appears a series of variations on "Life let us cherish". In these Woelfl evidently aimed at displaying his then unheard-of technique as brilliantly as possible; though they offer the modern pianist merely the following difficulties, hardly calculated to elicit applause:— In Var. 4 the right hand plays the theme to broken chords in the left, at the same time crossing over the latter several times in each measure to strike the funda- mental bass of the harmony; Var. 6 carries out octave passages, now in the right hand and now in the left; in Var. 7 each hand is required to execute a continuous trill, as it were, between bass and soprano; Var. 8 has the theme in the alto, from the tones of which continuous leaps are made in sixteenth-notes to the tonic or dominant sometimes two octaves higher. None of these Variations are provide with richer harmonies than the theme itself, and would therefore be of only historical interest to our modern concert -going public. — 102 — August Eberhard Miiller (b. 1767 in Nordheim) devoted his powers in another way, and with more quiet thoughtfulness, to de- veloping and popularizing genuine skill by various excellent text- books for the pianoforte. In his youth he travelled in North Ger- many, sojourned during 1792 in Berlin, and especially charmed his hearers by performances of Mozart's Pianoforte Concertos. This ap- probation induced him in 1797 to publish in Leipzig an "Anleituug zum genauen und richtigen Vortrage der Mozart'schen Clavierconcerte in Absicht riehtiger Applicatur" (Guide to the exact and correct Eendering of ]\Iozart's Pianoforte Concertos with a View to a correct Fingering). In 1804 he also published in Jena a "Clavier- und Forte- piano-Schule (Clavichord and Pianoforte Method) or a Guide to a correct and tasteful Execution on both Instruments, with an Appendix on Thoroughbass" (the Appendix is taken from the earlier Clavier- sciiiile by G. S. Lohlein), which in particular treats exhaustively, both theoretically and practically, of practical Fingering. From 1794 A. E. Miiller acted as organist of the two principal churches in Leipzig, went to Weimar as Hofkapellmeister in 1809, and died there in the year 1817. As a Supplement to his CJaviersclmle he published several cahiers of "Pieces instructives" and "Sonates progressives"; among his larger compositions, which are peculiarly euphonious and practically arranged, the following are prominent: Caprice, op. 4, Offenbach, Andre; Grands Caprices, op. 29, 31, 34, and 41, in 5 cahiers, Leipzig, Peters; and the posthumous work "Cadenzas to the eight finest Pianoforte Concertos of Mozart", same publ. We have already remarked that in Vienna, after Mozart had taken up his abode there, pianoforte-playing was cultivated with peculiar fondness. Two composers mentioned before, J. B. Wanhal (1739—1813) and L. Kozeluch (1753—1814), who survived him and whose later works clearly show the beneficial influence* of that "High Priest", were at the same time active teachers; and a pupil of the latter, Marie Therese Paradles (1759—1824), stricken with l)lindness in her third year, won a name not only in her native city, Vienna, but also in Paris, London, Berlin, etc., as a distinguished pianist, often moving the hearers to tears by her affecting interpre- tations. For her IMozart wrote one of his Pianoforte Concertos, and * Compare Wanhal, Sonata in F, opera tdtima, Leipzig, Hofmeister; and also Kozeluch, 3 Sonates, op. 51, Leipzig, Peters, with earlier similar Piano- forte works by these composers. — 103 — his heart-stirring style of phiying cannot but have had an influence on her o^Yn, and on that of her numerous pupils. The g'ifted Anton Eberl (1766 — 1807) of Vienna also early became enthusiastic for the art of music. As his wealthy parents liad, however, forced him to become a lawyer, he published his first attempts at composition — Pianoforte Variations on "Zu Steffen sprach im Traume", on the Sa- voy arde song "Ascoulta Jeannette", and on "Bei Mannern, welch e Liebe fiihlen" — in 1792, under the name of his late friend Mozart. In like manner one of his Sonatas in C-minor was published as Mozart's op. 47 at Vienna and Offenbach, and by Pleyel in Paris as the "Derniere grande Sonate de Mozart", not appearing- until 1798 under the name of its real author (Vienna, Artaria). Mozart would scarcely have consented to this exchange of names, for Eberl's piano- forte works, though displaying and striving toward definiteness and unity of conception, have by no means the inventive genius and purity of style of his model. His parents subsequently losing their property through unfortunate accidents, Eberl devoted himself exclu- sively to music; among his later compositions the following deserve mention: Grande Sonate char act eristiqiie in I^-minor dedicated to Haydn, op. 12, Peters, Leipzig; and his last work, written for Maria Pawlowna, Erhprinscssin of Weimar, who wished to possess a compo- sition in pathetic style by him, which was issued after his death as Grande Sonate op. 39, in Leipzig, Peters. The first Allegro appas- sionato of this composition closes on the full (r-minor ti*iad, and the following Adagio then modulates to jEZ-major in the harshest manner through the sustained tones B, Gi, E. The 7th measure of this se- cond movement has a held tone in the outer parts, such as we find again later in Beethoven's works, for example; in the 8th and 9th measures a sustained soprano accompanied by staccato chords ap- pears, a style later employed so effectively by C. M. von Weber and others. Generally speaking, Eberl's pianoforte style sometimes even attains to the full wealth of tone, but not to the purity and fresh elan, of his contemporary Dussek; whose works are wrongfully al- most forgotten, for they oftentimes develop an opulence of ideas not found in. equal measure in the compositions of Friedrich Kuhlau (b. 1786 in Litneburg), who is still in high favor in Denmark. This composer, also much esteemed in Germany for a time, died at Copen- hagen in 1832 as Hof kapellmeister. His numerous published com- positions afford, it is true, no fresh creative ideas, but are written throughout in a serious and elevated st}4e. We mention the fol- — 104 — lowing: Trois Sonates, op. 52, Leipzig, Kistner; Gr. Sonate hrUliante, op. 127; Trois Sonates faciles et brill, a 4 mains, op. Q6] Allegro pathetiqiie a 4 mains, op. 123; and a great number of Duos for Pianoforte with Violin or Flute, four-handed Sonatas, Rondos, and Variations, puhl. in Leipzig by Peters, Breitkopf & Hartel, and Hof- meister, Kuhlau's instructive Pianoforte Pieces have been issued in new, cheap editions:— Edition Peters, Sonatinas, 2 Vols.; Rondos and Va- riations, 1 Vol. — Collection Litolff, Sonatinas, 2 Vols; Rondos and Variations,. 1 Vol. — Breitkopf & Hartel, Sonatinas, boards, red. Clementrs Pupils. Before taking up a new period of Pianoforte-playing, we must more closely consider the influence of the pupils of Clementi and Mozart, who strove to maintain and develop the lyrical and contra- puntal pianoforte style foremostly cherished- by their masters. We first name Johann Baptist Cramer (1771—1858), dementi's most zealous pupil from 1783 to 1784. In London he became ac- quainted with Haydn, who afterwards received him very cordially in Vienna, where Cramer, as in several other German cities, gave successful concerts, distinguishing himself in particular ' by his tender and singing delivery of the adagio. He dwelt from 1832 to 1845 in Paris, though otherwise living chiefly in England, where he died ia the year 1858. Cramer left 105 Pianoforte Sonatas, 7 Concertos, 3 Duos for 4 hands, a Quintet and a Quartet (both for Pianoforte and strings), 2 numbers of Nocturnes, op. 32 and 54, and innumerable insignificant Fantasias, Rondos, etc. His once very popular Piano- forte Method was published in Offenbach (Andr6), and other places; but in greater detail as op. 98 in four parts, Berlin, Schlesinger. His excellent Text-books "Etude en 42 Exercices doigt^s", and also the "Suite de I'Etude en 42 Exercices", liave likewise been published in various places; in conception and form they belong to classic Pianoforte Literature, and form fitting companion pieces and supple- ments to the Studies of his teacher. Among the many editions of Cramer's text-books, one is of such pre-eminent importance, that teachers and students of the pianoforte will be grateful to me for calling their attention to it. It was published in Munich by Jos. Aibl, and bears the title: "50 ausge- wahlte Klavieretuden von J. B. Cramer" (50 Selected Pianoforte — 105 — Etudes by J. B. Cramer). "In systematic progression, with a thorougli critical revision of the fingering, and marks of expression, together with instructive Notes, for Use in the Pianoforte Classes of the Koyal Music School at Munich. Edited by Dr. Hans von Btilow." The Editor, equally pre-eminent as an interpreter of classic pianoforte works and as a maestro of the loftier pianoforte style, has furnished each of these Etudes with such classical annotations, that the latter alone are a sufficient inducement to begin and carry out the study of the Etudes as therein directed. For the benefit of my book I cannot deny myself the pleasure of quoting the general technical course of study approved by Billow in his practice as a teacher^ "It embraces all stages, from Beginner to Virtuoso." "After the first 'rudiments' have been conquered, to which end the first Part of the Lebert-Stark Pianoforte Method (Stuttgart, Cotta, new edition) is most reeommendable, as being to the best of our knowledge the most reliable aid, there may follow: '(I.) a. The Etudes by AIops Sclimitt, op. 16 (Bonn, Simrock), in connection with the 'Exercices preparatoires' introducing the first number— always to be practiced in all 12 keys. It is worthy of note, that the master Felix Mendelssohn- Bartholdy, also eminent as a pianist, laid with this work the foundation of his classical technique, b. To counteract Schmitt's- relative dryness, secondary em- ployment of Stephen Heller, op. 45. ■ • ^ - (11.) a. J. B. Cramer's Etudes. Perhaps at same time, as intro- duction to Bach's style, the latter'S/ Preludes and Inventions. b. St. Heller, op. 46, 47. c. G. Czerny, Daily Studies, with his collection ^ of Etudes, hitherto strangely not noticed according to desert, entitled 'The- School of the Legato and Staccato'. (in.) a. Clementi, Gradus ad Parnassum (selected and edited by Carl Tausig). b. Mosclieles, op. 70, 24 Etudes; a work better known in North than in South Germany, to which the epithet "clas- sical" applies unqualifiedly. (TV.) a. Henselt, Selected Etudes from op. 2 and 5. b. Together with and as preparation for the latter: Haherhier, "Etudes-po6sies" (Hamburg, Cranz), a sort of sequel to Stephen Heller. — 106 — c. Selected pieces by Mosclicles: "Charakteristische Etuden", op. 75. (V.) CJiopin, op. 10 and op. 25, in conjunction with the study of separate Preludes (special style of technique) in his op. 28. (VI.) Lis^t, 6 Etudes after Paganiui (Leipzig-, Breitkopf & Hitrtel); 3 Concert Etudes (Leipzig, Kistner); the 12 grand Etudes "d'execution transcendante" (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel). (VIL) Rubinstein, Selected Etudes and Preludes; V. G. AlJcan, 12 grandes Etudes (selected); Theodor KtiUaa's School of Octave- playing; and other useful specialties of a subordinate nature^ , for purely technical ends. J.B.Cramer's accomplished fellow-pupil Ludwig Berges' (1777 — 1839), whom we left in St, Petersburg, returned to his native land after the full restoration of peace, living from 1815 onward in Berlin as a tliorough and popular music teacher. He dedicated to Clementi a Grande Sonate pathefique in O-minor (op. 7, Leipzig, Peters); other of his well-written and full-sounding Pianoforte Works, published by Schlesinger of Berlin, are Alia turca, op. 8; Preludes et Fugues, op. 5; 3 Pieces caracteristiques , op. 24; by Hofmeister in Leipzig Air norvegien varie, Toccata in F, Concerto in G, J^ttides, op. 12, 22, 30, and 41; and Bagatelles, op. 39 and 40. It is mainly the following pupils of L. Berger who, taking him as their model, have adhered to the style of playing and composition of the Clementi school, and continued the same to the present day: Carl Wilhelm Greulich (1796—1837), the following- of whose compositions belong here: Grosse Sonate, op. 12 (Berlin, Schlesinger); Sonate, op. 21 (ditto). — Heinrich Dorn (b. 1804), among whose published composi- tions is an interesting- elementary work entitled "Surprise du jeune Pianiste, Romance a 4 mains", in which the first player touches only the black keys (Berlin, Jul. Weiss); also an original pianoforte piece, "The Sphmx", in ^^ time (Stuttgart, Hallberger).— Wilhelm Taubert (b. 1811) dedicated to his teacher Berger a thoughtfully written Sonate (op. 4, Leipzig, Hofmeister), and published among numerous other pianoforte compositions the often-played "Gampanella, jStude de Concert", (op. 41, Berlin, Schlesinger); the cleanly written and pleas- ing salon pieces Minnelieder olme Worte (op. 16 and 45, Berlin, Bote & Bock), Camera ohscura, 10 Bagatelles aux jeunes Sieves (op. 38, Berlin, Bahn), Silvana (op. 60, ditto), Tans der Meerfrdidein (Mermaids' Dance, op. 98, Berlin, Bote & Bock), Lied und Beigen — 107 — (op. 119, Stuttgart, Hallberger), Triibcr Mai, MondnacJif, Heimh'che Falirf, TJnter Rosen (op, 121, Leipzig, Siegel), and a Trio for Piauo- ,forte, Violin, and Violoncello (op. 32, Berlin, Bote & Bock). — Albert Loeschhorn (b. 1819), also a pupil of Berger, published a series of easily executable salon pieces, and the following very useful Etudes: 30 Etudes melodieuses, progressives et doigiees (op. 38 and 52, Leipzig, Peters), Etudes progressively arranged (op. 65, 66, and 67, Berlin, J. Weiss). His op. 25, La helle Amasone (Bote & Bock), was very popular for a time, like his brilliant Galop op. 50, Le diahJe a quatre. — The works of Felix Mendelssohn, who first-studied piano- forte playing under Berger and later under Moscheles, are specially mentioned further on. — The compositions of Greulich's talented pupil Carl Eckert (b. 1820) must still be noticed; a Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello in ^-minor, op. 18, and twelve CharaMer- stiicJce, op. 17, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel. August Alexander Klengel (1783—1852), who, as we have seen, accompanied his teacher Clementi to St, Petersburg, went in 1811 to Paris, later visiting Italy and England, and finally took up his per- manent abode in Dresden in 1816 as Hoforganist. Before this time he 'had published two Pianoforte Concertos, a Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, a Fantasia for 4 hands, a Hondo in J.[?, op. 5; further, Promenade sur mer, interrompue par une tempete (op. 19, Leipzig, Peters), and other salon pieces; but subsequently won an enduring name in the annafe of music, by carrying the art of the canon to a perfection unattained in the compositions of his most renowned predecessors. Among his finest contrapunta-l works may be mentioned Les Avant-Coureurs, exercices, contenant 24 canons dans tons les tons, calaiUs pour servir d' etude preparatoire au grand recueil de Canons et de Fugues. En deux Suites (Mainz, Schott). This principal work, however, on which he labored untiringly during the last decades of his life, did not appear until after his death, under the title "Canons et Fugues dans tons les tons majeurs et mineurs pour le Piano, en deux parties" (48 Canons and 48 Fugues), Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1854. The more rarely such strict contrapuntal works are published in our time, the greater are the thanks due to their authors. For since the Science of Chords has gained more and more ground, the Art of Counterpoint, being no longer regarded as absolutely essential for composing, and also as decidedly more difficult in practice, has no longer been generally taught and studied. But a composition which — 108 — merely appeals to the hearer's feeling, without calling- into play his mental faculties by contrapuntal imitations, developments, involutions and resolutions, cannot hold the attention for any length of time. Those theoreticians, during and after the time of Sebastian Bach and his pupils, who were foremost in the endeavor to spread the Science of Counterpoint through their writings and pupils, were J. J. Fux and J. G-. Albrechtsberger in Vienna, Marpurg (Trea- tise on the Fugue), Fetis (Traite de Contrepoint et de Fugue), and the Italians F. Gius. Paolucci and F. Glajmbattista Martini in their works on the subject, which are furnished with numerous ex- cellent examples. Latterly, counterpoint has been successfully taught, more particularly by oral instruction, by Moritz Hauptmann (1792—1868), first at Cassel and thereafter at Leipzig; S. W. Dehn (1799—1858) at Berlin; E. F. Eichter (1808—1879) at Leipzig; and Immaistjel Faisst (b. 1823) at Stuttgart. Friedrich Kiel (b. 1821) studied the freer style of counterpoint under S. W. Dehn, and published as op. 1 Fifteen Canons in Chamber- style, as op. 10 Four two-part Fugties (Breitkopf & Hartel); also, among many other compositions, a Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 24; 3 Trios, op. 65; and 13 Fantasiestiiclce, op. 8, 3 Parts (all issued by Bote & Bock). Under the influence of Moritz Hauptmann's strict method of counterpoint C. F. Weltzmann (1808—1880) published in Leipzig (J. Schu- berth & Co.) two numbers of a new species of Pianoforte Pieces, entitled "MusiJcaJiscJie Bdthsel" (Musical Puzzles), in which the freer forms of the Prelude, Cavatina, Rondo, etc., are performed in the shape of canons by two players executing the same part, beginning at different times. The "ContraimnJct-Studien" published later by the same firm, in 2 Parts, contain similar pieces set in score, likewise solve the most difficult problems of simple and double counterpoint, and give, besides canons and fugues of every description, examples of the latterly neglected hasso ostinato. John Field, born in Dublin 1782, who travelled with Clement! to Russia and lived from 1804 in St. Petersburg, went in 1822 to Moscow, where he remained till 1832, highly esteemed both as a virtuoso and a teacher. He then undertook a second professional journey to Paris; and his unpretentious, singing style, for exhibiting which he chose no concert grand, but only a simple pianoforte, again found waim appreciation. Field always played with remarkably quiet hands, and had adopted an original fingering, peculiarly favorable to — 109 — the binding of the tones, which he taught to his pupils. His further travels led him through Belgium and Switzerland to Italy. But here his simple, tender melodies were unappreciated. In 1835 he was found in Naples, sick and in the utmost destitution, by a Russian family, and taken back to Moscow, where he died in 1837. Among his pianoforte compositions were published, by Breitkopf & Hartel, Peters, and Kistner of Leipzig, and Sehlesinger of Berlin, 7 Concertos, including No. 5, VIncendi par Vorage in G; 4 Sonatas, various Exer- cises, JRomances, Bondeaux, Fantasias, Variations, and Dances. The Nocturnes, musico-lyrical poems of a style of composition created by him, and occupying the first place among his works, were published as follows: Nos. 1—6 by Kistner, 7—8 by Peters, 9—10 by Hof- meister, 11 by Sehlesinger, and 12 — 13 by Breitkopf & Hartel. J. Schuberth, Leipzig, has published a selection of the same, in an introduction to which Franz Liszt raised a highly poetic memorial to his fellow -artist. From it we quote the following, admirably cha- racterizing the artist and his works: "Field's Nocturnes retain their newness beside much long since grown antiquated; thirty years have passed since their first appearance, and still they exhale a balsamio freshness, a sweet fragrance. Where else do we find such perfection of inimitable naivete? No one else has succeeded in seizing these intangible harmonies of the Aeolian harp, these half- sighs floating away in air, gentle plaints dissolving in sweet pain. No one has dared — especially none of those who themselves have heard Field play or rather dream away his songs in moments when, quite lost in inspiration, he turned aside from the first sketch of the piece as it lived in his imagination, to invent new groups in unbroken succes- sion, winding them like flower- wreaths about his melodies, to which he added ever-new adornments by this shower of fragrant blossoms, yet always so choosing their garb, that their tremulous languor and charmful meanders should not be hidden, but only overspread with a transparent veil." — Liszt tells us further, that Field enchanted his auditors without either willing or knowing it. "The wellnigh motion- less attitude of his hands, and his expressionless mien, aroused no curiosity. — But just to this avoidance of all calculation of effect do we owe the first so fortunate endeavor to free the pianoforte style from the constraint exercised upon the same by the standard last, on which all pieces had regularly and prescriptively to be stretched. Formerly a composition had necessarily to be a Sonata, a Eondo, or something of the kind. Field was the first to introduce a style — 110 — deriving its orig-in from none of the existing- forms; in which feeling and melody exclusively -prevailed, liberated from the fetters and dross of an enforced form. He cleared the way for all subsequent efforts appearing under the names of "Songs without Words", "Impromptus", "Ballades", etc.; and up to him can be traced the origin of those pieces which are designed to express through tones particular phases of emotion and warm feeling". Carl Mayer (b. 1802, d. 1862), a gifted pupil of Field, who in his fii'st period distinguished himself by a Concerto sympJioniqite, op. 88, several brilliant Etudes like op. 61, and other serious compositions, preferred later to assume the function of a fashionable composer, and to write according to certain convenient formulas for the taste of the herd of dilettanti. He dwelt for a length of time in Dresden, and published over 300 pianoforte numbers, among which are found the following Exercises and Caprices: op. 31, 40, 55, 61, 62, 73, 85—87, 91—93, 97, 100, 119, 180, 200, 226 271, and 305. His remaining compositions include Fantasias, Variations, brilliant Dances, and shorter pieces, belonging to the lightest "entertaining reading for amateurs", and contained in the following Collections: Myrten, op. 106; Mosaique, op. 166; ImmorteUen, op. 140; Ueine Tonhilder, op. 172; FrulilingsUiXt'hen, op. 174; Schattenspiele, op. 198; and Bosen- hlUtJien, op. 202. The sterling school of Clement! was perhaps still recognizable in Carl Mayer's smooth and fluent playing, but no longer so in his later for the most part superficially wrought compositions. We now turn to Hummel, Mozart's most eminent pupil, to follow in like manner the course of the Vienna Pianoforte School down to the present time. A pupil of Mozart. Johann Nepomuk Hummel was born in Pressburg, in 1778, and educated as a musician. In 1785 his father became conductor of the orchestra in Schikaneder's theater at Vienna; and it was here that Mozart's interest was awakened for the rarely talented boy, whose finished clavier-playing already created a stir. Mozart took him to his home, in which the quick-vritted Nepomuk remained for two years, gaining instruction not only from the spirited performances of his teacher, but also having to play to the latter all novelties appearing in pianoforte literature. To such stimulating studies he — Ill — owed the precision of Ms touch later so much admired, the finish of his passages, his readiness in free improvisations and variations, and the clearness and grace of his compositions. In the year 1787 he gave his first concert as a pupil of Mozart at Dresden, perform- ing in the same the variations on "Lison dormait" and the Second Concerto in C by Mozart, to the admiration of all present. He then proceeded to Berlin where he also arranged a concert; while playing-, he suddenly perceived Mozart among the audience, and hardly had he finished the piece, when he hastened through the hall to his re- vered master, embracing him amid mutual heartfelt greetings. Thence he journeyed on to Edinburgh, where he published his first work, a set of Variations, which he dedicated to the Queen of England. During 1791 and 1792 he sojourned in London to be near Clemeuti; and the boy, endowed as he was with the most active receptivity, untiring endurance, and a teeming imagination, comprehended the weighty teachings of his two masters so thoroughly, and was able to combine and apply them so aptly, that in later years he attained to tlie high position of the perfecter of the euphonious, lyrical piano- forte style, both as a player and composer. After a brief stay in Holland he returned to Vienna. Here he studied, over and above the severest piano-practice, composition under Albrechtsberger and Salieri, and his first Mass was received by Haydn with approval. In Germany Hummel's compositions speedily found general appro- bation; in Paris, too, Cherubini had his great Fantasia in E(p (op. 18, Ofienbach, Andr6) perforaied at the coneours in the Conservatory, in 1806. Thenceforward his valuable pianoforte works were everywhere sought and studied by all earnest pianists. From 1811 to 1816 he was occupied in Vienna exclusively with pianoforte teaching and composing; he then became Kapellmeister to the King of Wlirttem- berg, and four years later accepted a similar position with the Grand- duke of Saxe-Weimar. Hummel remained in Weimar until his decease in 1837, though at various times employing extended leave of ab- sence for highly successful professional tours through Germany, Russia, Belgium, and France. In the inspired interpretation of his pianoforte concertos he showed himself a finished artist; his free improvisations also everywhere aroused the greatest enthusiasm. Whenever he stayed in a place for a time, he was immediately surrounded by numerous pupils, several of whom afterwards became distinguished both as players and composers. He left 7 Pianoforte Concertos, of which op. 85 in ^-minor, op. 89 in J5-minor, and op. 113 in J.|7-major — 112 — are especially noteworthy; furthermore, a grand Fantasia with or- chestral accompaniment, "Oberon's Zanherhorn", op. 116; and vario u brilliant Rondos for Pianoforte and Orchestra, the finest of which are op. 56 in J., op. 98 in jBi?, and op. 127 in F] a grand Sephior in D-minor for Pianoforte, Flute, Oboe, Horn, Alto, Violoncello, and Double Bass, later performed with brilliant effect by the eminent pianiste Marie Camiile Pleyel (1811 — 1875) on her concert tournSes; a Quintet, op. 87, for Pianoforte and Strings; a grand Septette mili- taire for Pianoforte, Flute, Violin, Clarinet, Trumpet, Violoncello, and Double Bass; 7 Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello; 5 So- natas for Pianoforte solo, including op. 81 in i^Jf-minor, and a grand Sonata in Ab, op. 92, for 4 hands, both specially noteworthy; the much-played Folacca ^'La hella Capricciosa" , op. 55; besides various Fantasias, Variations, Rondos, Caprices, Etudes, Amusements, and Bagatelles. Hummel was also the author of an extended Pianoforte Method (Vienna, Haslinger), which surpasses in completeness all earlier works of its class, and in which the fingering is ordered by definite laws. The work lacks, however, a practical arrangement; the author was neither capable of sifting the mass of material, nor of keeping the student's interest alive iu the least. In his compo- dtions, on the other hand. Hummel not only broadeneed the form of the Concerto, the concert and salon Rondo, and the Sonata, and furnished the same with new, difficult, yet still proper pianoforte passages according to his school, but always endowed them with an interesting meaning, and developed them in a style refined thi'oughout, sometimes even trespassing on the dramatic. Ferdinand Hiller (b. 1811 in Frankfort, d. 1885 in Cologne), Hummel's most distinguished pupil; although later, influenced by his intimate intercourse with Chopin and Liszt at Paris, he exchanged the chiefly lyrical style of his teacher for the romantic. His first in- structor in piano-playing and composition was Gr. J. Vollweiler, who will be mentioned further on; at thirteen years of age he entered Hummel's school at Weimar. In 1828, a thoroughly trained mu- sician, he went to Paris, finding here most remunerative appreciation and diversified educational stimulus in the circles of his fellow-artists. In concerts of his own given in 1830 and 1831 he received the warmest applause both as a virtuoso and composer; his fame was most firmly established, however, by his soirees arranged in company with the celebrated violinist Baillot in 1835, only earlier classical pieces being performed at the same. Hiller returned to Germany soon after, — 113 — and acted since 1853 as Director of tlie Conservatory of Music at Cologne. Among his Pianoforte Compositions tlie Caprices and Etudes are particularly noteworthy, e. g. the following: Trois Caprices on etudes caracUrisUques, op. 4, Bonn, Simrock, 2 livres; ditto op. 14 and 20, Leipzig, Hofmeister; 24 JStudes, op. 15, same publ.; Capriccio, op. 88, Breitkopf & Hartel; 6 Capriccetti, op. 35; 34 RJiythmiscJie Studien, op. 56, Berlin, Schlesinger; Caprice fanfastiqiie, op. 10. Liszt praises the 6 cahiers of the Etudes dedicated to Meyerbeer, op. 15, as follows: "These Etudes are vigorous sketches of finished design, reminding of those forest studies in which the landscapist has succeeded, with a single tree, a single twig, a single happily and exhaustively developed motif, in creating a charming poem of light and shade." Besides the above, Hiller published a Pianoforte Con- certo, op. 5; several Quartets and Trios for the Strings; a Sonata, op. 47; La danse des fees, op. 9, Leipzig, Hofmeister; La danse des fantomcs, Berlin, Schlesinger; 3 Ghaseles, op. 54, same publ.; Reveries, op. 17, 21, and 33; Impromptus, op. 30 and 40; Serenade, op. 11; and other salon pieces and dances. Julius Benedict (b. 1804 in Stuttgart, d. 1885 in London) became Hummel's pupil in 1819; but went to Dresden in the following year to study composition under C. M. von Weber. From 1839 he lived in London, where he became one of the most popular music teachers of that city. Among other things, he published the following piano- forte works: 3 Concertos, op. 13, 29, and 45; a Concertino, op. 18, Leipzig, Hofmeister; 3 Sonatas, op. 1, 2, and 3; Caprices, op. 33, Paris, Brandus; Souvenir de NapJes, op. 11; Souvenir d'Ecosse, op. 34; Reveries, op. 39; IdijJs, op. 41; and various Fantasias, Variations, Rondos, etc. — Hummel's pupil Rudolph Willmers (b. 1821 in Copen- hagen, d. 1878 in Vienna) also deserves mention as an esteemed virtuoso and a composer of brilliant salon pieces. In 1853 he settled in Vienna, and published, among many others, the following piano- forte pieces: Un jour d'ete en JSforvcge, op. 27; 3 l^tudes de Concert, La pompa di festa, and Banza delle Baccanti, op. 28; Maseppa Capriccio de concert, op. 97, all issued by Bote & Bock of Berlin Serenade pour la main gauche seule, op. 5, Leipzig, Hofmeister Kldnge der Minne, op. 57, same publ.; Lyrisclie Tonhilder, op. 88 Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel; WintermarcJien, op. 92, same publ. TriUerketten (Chains of Trills), Caprice-J^tude, op. 69, Leipzig, Kistner. — The "pianist and eminent teacher of the piano" Ernst Pauer 8 — 114 ^ (born 1826 in Vienna) was taught by Mozart's second son Wolf- gang Amadeus, and pursues the tendency of the Hummel school. The historical concerts originated by him in 1861 and given in London have materially furthered his renown; the same embraced a series of six performances, illustrating the foundation and development of pianoforte playing from about the year 1600 down to the present time. He is also well known as a lecturer on the composers for the harpsichord and pianoforte.— A further disciple of the Hummel school is Johann Peter Pixis (1788 — 1874), who labored at Mannheim, Munich, Vienna, and Paris, as a thorough teacher, and of whose numerous pianoforte works with or without accompaniment of other instruments we notice the following; Grandes Variations miJitaires pour 2 Pianos avec orchestre, op. 66, Leipzig, Kistner; Trios for Piano- forte, Violin and Violoncello, op. 75, 86, and 95. same publ.; Grosse Senate, op. 3, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hiirtel; Exercices en forme de raises, op. 80, Leipzig, Kistner; Les trois cJocJiettes, op. 120, Leipzig, Hofmeister; Scene popuJaire de Borne, op. 145, same publ. In 1829 Hummel undertook a last professional tour, its chief objective points being London and Paris. But his once so highly lauded performances now remained almost unnoticed. For Beethoven, on whose coffin Hummel had in 1827 laid the laurel at Vienna, had created in the pianoforte works of his last period— which, understood at first by but few, had gradually been comprehended everywhere in their full grandeur — a neiv, more vigorous, and moving style — the dramatic pianoforte style. Hummel and his epigones regarded this new style of composition, with its more powerful melodic, rhythmic, and harmonic resources of expression, better adapted for the orchestra than the pianoforte. But Beethoven's utterances, which found the truest expression for every phase of emotion, and soon were appre- hended, taken up, and fostered by the widest circles, likewise led to a complete reform of the earlier grammar — to a complete revolution in the style of pianoforte-playing. — 115 — I¥. The dramatic Pianoforte Style. Ludwig van Beethoven. This reformer of instrumental music was in all probability born on Dec. 16, 1770. His father, on the contrary, always gave 1772 as the birth-year of the son distinguished, like Mozart, by great musi- cal talent in his earliest youth. This circumstance explains many contradictions in the dates given for occurrences in Beethoven's earlier life and compositions. He received his first instruction in music from his father, who was a tenor singer in the Kapelle of the Archbishop of Cologne; from 1782 he studied under Christian Gott- lieb Neefe (1748 — 1798), then much esteemed as a piano composer and organist. In a short time the latter not only so developed the gifted boy, that he could perform the preludes and fu2:ues in Bach's Well - tempered Clavichord and similar works by Handel in the liveliest tempo, but also had published as early as 1783 his pupil's first attempts at composition, "9 Variationen iiher einen Marsoh" (one by E. Ch, Dressier), and 5 Claviersonaten (in E\f, J^-minor, and D), together with a few Songs, at Spire & Mannheim. Both the per- formances of the young- virtuoso and his first compositions soon created a sensation. He once played some variations of his own on Righini's theme "Vieni, amore" to the Vicar Sterkel, then in high standing as a musician, and as the latter expressed doubts as to his authorship of the same, he improvised to the connoisseur's astonish- ment an entire series of new variations on the same melody (comp. "24 Variations on 'Vieni, amore' in D, dedicated to the Countess of Hatzfeld", Bonn, Simrock). In the winter of 1786 Beethoven went to Vienna, to hear the playing of Mozart, whom he revered, and to show him a sample of his talent. At first Mozart bestowed rather cool praise on his playing; but when Beethoven requested a theme for free development, and began with its working-out, Mozart grew more and more interested, and in high excitement he exclaimed in a low voice to friends in the next room: "Take note of him! he will make a stir the world later!" This time Beethoven's stay in Vienna was of brief duration; not until 1793, after his father's death, did he choose that city as his permanent abode. He was so fortunate 8* — 116 — as to find an eminent protector in Mozart's pupil, Prince Liclinowsky, who not only took him into his house, but allowed him a pension of 600 florins. This assistance rendered it possible for him to begin serious studies in composition under Haydn, to continue them under Albrechtsberger, and to profit by the teachings of Salieri, who was well- versed in particular in the dramatic style. The unceasingly active disciple of art expressed his gratitude to the Prince by dedicating to him the Three Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello (in E\>, G\f, and C-minor; Vienna, Artaria) which he now marked op. 1. On their very first performance at a soiree given by the Prince, at which Haydn was also present, they made an extraordinary sensation. They were not printed until 1795, and when they reached London and were played at a gathering of musicians, J. B. Cramer, who executed the piano-part, exclaimed prophetically: "That is the man, who will console us for the loss of Mozart!" In 1796 Beethoven dedicated to his teacher Haydn, as op. 2: Trois Sonates pour le Clavecin ou Pianoforte (i^- minor. A, and C; Vienna, Artaria & Comp.); and to Kapellmeister Salieri, in 1799: Tre Sonate per il Clavicemhalo o Fortepiano con mi Violino, op. 12 (in D, A, and ^|;; same publ.). Beethoven studied counterpoint under Albrechtsberger con amore, with zeal, as proved by the Studien (not those published in 1832 by J. V. Seyfried, and falsified throughout) whicli he left, and shown convincingly by his numerous works. Familiar with all the rules of ancient counterpoint, he quickly recognized the enduring laws , as well as what was untenable, in the same. He ventured upon bolder progressions and modulations, and thus became the efiicient reformer of the science of modulation practiced until then. For it was he, who exhibited in his practical works that the affinity of keys is not to be determined according to degrees (e. g. C-major — G^-major — D-major, or C-major— F-major— 5[?-major) but must be sought in the connection of tlie tones of their fundamental chords; thus the key of O-major, for instance, is connected through the Third not only with yl-niinor and J?-minor, but also with ^4-major and i'-major, and likewise, through the mediation of the like-named key of C-minor, with ^[?-major and is^-major. Beethoven, now a musician complete in himself, went in 1796 to Berlin, where he played several times before King Frederick Wilhclm II. — a rare i»rotector of German music, and at the same time a good violoncello player. To him Beethoven dedicated ''Deux — 117 — grandes Sonates pour le Clavecin ou Pianoforte avec im VioJonceUe oblige", op. 5 (JP-major and 6r-ininor, Vienna, Artaria & Comp.), which lie played for the King with his first violoncellist, Duport. On his departure, a magnificent golden hox filled with louisd'ors was presented to him. In Berlin he met the Kapellmeister Friedrich Heinrich Himmel (1765 — 1814), a pianist and composer of the highest stand- ing, whose Sonatas for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, and Peters) were much played for a time. Beet- hoven having once improvised on the pianoforte in his presence, Himmel was also invited to extemporize. He immediately complied, and had played for a considerable time, when Beethoven turned to him with the question: "Are you not going to begin soon?" The offended Kapellmeister never forgave Beethoven this laconic cha- racterization of his improvisation; the latter afterwards said of him, that he possessed a very pretty talent and was an agreeable pianist, but that Prince Louis Ferdinand, whose acquaintance he also made at Berlin, excelled him in every way.— Beethoven likewise gave this latter eminent patron of art a signal token of his high consideration, by dedicating to him in 1805 the delightful Pianoforte Concerto in C-minor, op. 37 (Oifenbach, Andre, and Vienna, Haslinger). At Vienna Beethoven at first excited more attention by his spirited pianoforte -playing than by his compositions, although he already appears, in the Trios published as op. 1, as the head of the Vienna School of Music founded by Haydn and so grandly ex- tended by Mozart. Thus Seyfried tells us, that Beethoven, during the closing years of the last century, found in Woelfl "a rival fully his peer", (?) and that opinion was divided in Vienna regarding the excellences of the playing of these two masters. They sometimes met (1798) at the charmingly situated villa of Freiherr v. Wetzlar. "There", Seyfried relates, "the highly interesting rivalry of the two athletes not seldom supplied the numerous and very exclusive gather- ing with indescribable enjoyment of art; each performed the latest product of his Muse; now the one or the other ^vould give free, unchecked course to the sudden inspiration of his glowing imagina- tion; now both would sit down at two pianofortes, improvise alter- nately on themes mutually proposed, and thus produce many a four- hand Capriccio which, could it have been brought to paper at the instant of its birth, would surely have bade defiance to time and decay. — It would have been difficult, perhaps impossible, to award the palm of victory to either champion by preference for his mechanical — 118 — skill; Woelfl. indeed, had been the more kindly treated by ^Mother Nature, who had furnished him with a gigantic hand capable of stretching tenths as easily as other mortals take octaves, thus ena- bling him to execute with lightning-like rapidity continuous double note passages in the intervals named. — In improvisation Beethoven at that time already discovered his bent toward gloomy weirdness; once revelling in the illimitable world of tones, he was quite lost to earth; the soul had burst asunder all cramping fetters, thrown off the yoke of servitude, and soared, victoriously jubilant, into bright ethereal space; noAv the tones rushed onward like a wildly foaming cataract, the exorcist sometimes forcing his instrument to yield a power which the strongest build was hardly capable of obeying; now he sank back, exhausted, breathing low plaints, melting away in melancholy; — and anon the soul would rise up, triumphing over transient earthly woe, lifted on high in devotional harmonies, and finding tranquilizing consolation on the innocent breast of Nature".— Woelfl's compositions could in no respect bear comparison with those of Beethoven at that period; the partisans of the fomier could there- fore have been captivated only by his surprising virtuosity, and not by the profundity of his ideas. The incapacity of the Viennese amateurs to form a judgment was still more glaringly exposed, when they thought a favorite pianist who appeared somewhat later like- wise fit to enter the lists with Beethoven. This was Steibelt, who touched Vienna on his professional tour in 1800, and met Beethoven at a party given by the Count v. Fries. Besides Beethoven's Trio for pianoforte, violin, and violoncello in ^j?, op. 11, a Quintet by Steibelt for pianoforte, two violins, viola, and violoncello was per- formed. The latter being thereafter again urged to play, he em- ployed the tremolando breaking of the chords which he in particular had brought into vogue, winning loud applause thereby. Beethoven, however, could not be prevailed on to touch the pianoforte again that evening. A week later Steibelt surprised the same company, after a second of his i)ianoforte Quintets, with a series of brilliant variations on a theme (Pria ch'io I'impegno) which Beethoven had varied the week previous in the Finale of his J5[?-major Trio, and aroused unprecedented enthusiasm. Beethoven was now besieged by his friends to pick up the gauntlet thus thrown down; he immediately sat down at the pianoforte, reached for the bass part of Steibelt's quintet, set it up before him, and played the notes of the opening measures carelessly with one finger. But he then developed, from — iiy — the appareutly insignificant motive, a Fantasia so artistic and hoart- stirring, that Steibelt left the room before he had finished, and never again showed himself in at a party where Beethoven was expected. — We gain a clear' idea of this improvised master- piece from the later published Fifteen Variations with a Fugue* in -E]? (op, 35, Breitkopf & Hartel), dedicated to Count Moritz Lichnowsky. To the simple theme of the bass part are added, first one, then two, three, and more parts; the soprano now added to the bass is varied, and the whole finally ends with a brilliantly fugued movement, of which the original bass motive forms the foundation. The theme of these variations, with the added soi)rano, was also used by Beethoven for the ballet, first performed at Vienna in 1801, "D/e Gcschopfe des Prometheus", and in the Finale of his Sinfonia eroica, sketched in 1804. Thenceforward, indeed, Beethoven's peculiarity of beginning the exposition of a composition with the most simple motive, from which a momentous musical idea is only developed further on, ap- pears more and more markedly. Beethoven and Steibelt each gave a concert at Vienna in 1800, but the latter was only able to win the applause of dilettanti, whereas the former filled his authors with the highest admiration. Here Beethoven first played his second Con- certo in B\} (published in 1801, Leipzig, Peters), executed a free improvisation, and at the same time brought out his first Symphony, and the Septet in E\}^ op. 20. In the course of the year 1800 Ferdinand Ries came to Vienna; and he and Archduke Rudolf are to be noted as the only pupils trained by Beethoven. Ries, born at Bonn in 1784, was sent to Vienna by his father, a musician and Beethoven's friend, with a letter of recommendation to the latter. The talented youth remained four years under the guidance of his great master, then visited the Euro- pean capitals on various professional tours, his masterly playing and refined style of composition everywhere meeting warm approbation, lie then stayed for two years in Paris, and later for ten years in London, where he was an esteemed and popular teacher and com- poser. He died in the year 1838 in Frankfort. — Ries wrote 9 Piano- forte Concertos, among which the third in Cj?-minor (Bonn, Simrock) is especially noteworthy; also an agreeable Coneertstilc'k, ''Airs suedois * The Note, "On a theme from the Ballet, Die GescMpfe des Prometheus", is not found on the title-page of the original edition published in 1803, but U'as added later by certain publishers. — 120 — varies", op. 52, with orcliestral accompaniment, same piibl.; an Octet, a Septet, and several other large works in which the pianoforte figures; 50 Sonatas for Pianoforte solo and with accompaniment of other instruments, including op. 49, "Le songc.', and op. 160 for 4 hands, Leipzig, Kistner; also Polonaises, Variations, Eondos, and o+her salon pieces. His larger compositions are filled with earnest musicianly feeling, but are all modelled after Beethoven's masterful creations, without displaying new, original thoughts. Beethoven, on the contrary, who in the sonatas dedicated to Haydn, op. 2, still reminds us of the latter, then his teacher, and in some later works of Mozart, so deeply reverenced by him, already reveals originality in the Sonate pathetique, op. 13, the ^;-major Sonata, op. 26, the two Sonatas "quasi una fantasia" in JEp-major and Cjt-minor, op. 27, in the three Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin dedicated to Czar Alexander, op. 30; likewise in the D-minor Sonata in op. 31, the above-mentioned Variations, op. 35, the third Concerto in (7- minor, op. 37, the grand Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin de- dicated to R. Krrutzer, op. 47, the Sonata dedicated to Count Waldstein, op. 53, and still more in the Sonata appassionata in i^-minor, op. 57, in the Concertos in (j, op. 58, and ^i?, op. 73, and the two Trios in D and i>, op. 70. Through these works and those following, equally eminent both in conception and form, dis- playing the fullest wealth of invention and conceived in fiery inspi- ration, he ushered in another new period — that of dramatically animated pianoforte composition. His last, most pregnant creations, the Trio in B\>, op. 97, and the five Sonatas op. 101, 106, 109, 110, and 111, long remained uncomprehended; and as Sebastian Bach in the work "Aria con 30 Variazioni", had formerly displayed the full opulence of his contrapuntal art, Beethoven at the close of his career likewise once more exhibited his extraordinary faculty for develop- ing, from the simplest motives, the most artistic foims of most di- versified rhythm and harmony, in his 33 Variations on a waltz by Anton Djabelli (1781 — 1858), a considerable music-publisher and in- considerable composer in Vienna. Beethoven died in Vienna on March 26, 1827; with him fell the last pillar of that renowned School of music, wherein Vienna had elevated and illumined the entire mu- sical world. Beethoven, whom the loss of his hearing had caused wholly to withdraw from the outer world during the last twenty years of his life, possessed the faculty of portraying all the feelings and passions — 121 — of the human breast with the aptest touches. To this end, however, the resources of expression employed until then were inadequate, and his inventive genius often augmented the same to a height, which some- times even yet dizzies weak-iicrved critics. The works of his last period, in particular, abound in surprisingly new and characteristic rhythms and harmonic transitions. Whenever a criticism fell into his hands in which harsh liarmonies and grammatical faults in his com- positions were blamed, he laughed aloud, and cried out: "Yes, yes I they stare and lay their heads together, because they have never seen it in any book on thorough-bass!" Beethoven's longer compositions in some cases bring before us a complete drama, and his Sonatas form, as it were, a connected Trilogy or Tetralogy, in which latter the satyric drama, the Scherzo, likewise occupies a place, though usually not as final link, but in the middle. The exposition, the first part of the first nnovement, is clear and intelligible, and the various motives of the same soon excite our full interest. Here we distinctly recognize a first subject, fol- lowed by one or more episodes or subsidiary themes, which are con- nected with each other by passages or transitions organically de- veloped, and in perfect harmony with the mood of the whole. The episodes, or the middle and closing sections of the exposition, formerly always began in the key of the dominant, or with a minor key, in the relative major as w^ell; but Beethoven freely chose other related keys for modulatory contrasts. The second division begins with the intertwining, the struggle, or the development of the various elements of the first division; here Beethoven ventures upon the boldest mo- dulations, often touches the remotest keys, delaying the reprise of the first subject to excite the greater suspense. It then appears, well prepared or even quite unexpectedly, in the principal key, in which the several episodes of the first division are now gathered together. In an epilogue or conclusion, however, which once more restates the main features of the musical poem concisely and inten- sified, another striking modulation often enters suddenly, whereafter the final unraveling is the more satisfactorily brought about — Thus in his Sonata op. 53, whose principal key is C-major, Beethoven does not select the dominant for a modulatory contrast, but the key of E, related through the third; and while developing the various motives in the second division, he touches among others the keys of (r-minor, (7-minor, i^-minor, Ci^-major, and J.>-major; and, fuither on, i^-major, ^l?-major, -E'i?-minor, J5-minor, (7-minor, and (r-major After — 122 — the first subject in C, in the second division, tlie second subject be- gins in ^-major, then passing over into 0-major, and in the con- clusion the first subject suddenly recommences— this time in 2) i? major. In the course of the further modulations a new counter-theme starts up; the second subject again appears, but in C-major, and the fol- lowing suggestion of the first subject is succeeded by a short, animated passage, then winding up the composition. Like each and every one of Beethoven's works, this Sonata breathes an exhilarating natural fresliness, and its contrasts, melodically and rhythmically differing from each other, yet in harmonious agreement with the whole, keep our interest constantly on the alert. By unusual resolutions of dis- sonances and deceptive progressions Beethoven at times excites ex- pectation to the utmost, and the rhythms wherewith he conceals the measure also hold us in breathless suspense; but broad plains, mental resting-places, are likewise not wanting in his ofttimes rugged paint- ings; and never does the genial master weary or exhaust us, or make us provoked with his work, by too long-continued deceptions, by a constant hiding and holding back of v\'hat is expected. — Beethoven also devoted special care to the development of his melodies; they invariably contain a thought of distinct and finished character, given out in a form readily grasped, often popular, whereby they not only engage the interest of a wider circle of hearers, but enable the latter to follow the artistic evolution of the same. — With Beethoven the Adagio or Andante takes either the broader form of the sonata, having an episode repeated in the second division, or the song-form with one or more counter-themes appearing but once; or it forms merely an introduction to the following movement. — The gay or hu- morous movement, in livelier tempo or more striking colors, which had at an earlier time found room in the Sonata as the Minuet or Scherzo, was first fashioned by Beethoven to a form corresponding to the style of the whole piece; compare in this connection the various forms specially invented by him to this end, e. g. the march- like movement in the J.-major Sonata, op. 101, the Scherzo in the J5?-major Sonata op. 106, and the Allegro molto in tlie JL[7-major Sonata op. 110.— The Finale, in which the idea first finding expression is treated as the chief theme, is written either in Kondo-form— in which this chief theme appears three or four times, or even oftener, together with various episodes, interludes, and developments, — or fol- lows the Sonata-form of the first movement; the chief theme is some- times treated as a very free fugue, or worked out in the shape of — 123 — variations, whose mood, however, does not vary, hut is only diversely illumined, darkened, or elevated, as in op. 109 and op. 111. Beethoven gave no lessons in composition. When Eies came to Vienna, a lad of sixteen, he therefore commended him to the aged Albrechtsberger, hut taught him pianoforte-playing himself. Eies re- lates that Beethoven, contrary to his wont, was remarkably patient as a teacher. Occasionally he would have a passage repeated ten times or more, e. g. the Adagio molto forming the close of the Va- riations dedicated to Princess Odescalchi, op. 34*, because the ex- pression of the same, and the rendering of the short closing cadence, did not please him. '-When I", Rics relates, '"missed anything in a passage, or struck wrongly certain notes and leaps which he desired brougJit out prominently, he seldom said anything; but if I neglected any matter of expression, the creseendos, etc., or in the character of the piece, he was exasperated, because, as he said, the former was accidental, while the latter showed want of knowledge, feeling, or attention." Schindler, too, states that Beethoven laid most sti'ess on the musical declamation in the interpretation of his pianoforte worlcs. "For just as the poet", he observed, "carries on his monologue or dialogue in steadily progressing rhythm, while the declairaer, to insure intelligibility of the sense, must supply cesuras and pauses even in places where the poet cannot indicate them by punctuation, this style of declamation is applicable to music, and is modified only by the number of executants." With Beethoven, therefore, begins the endeavor, so peculiarly marked at the present time, first of all to fathom the character of the composition to be performed and to execute it accordingly furthermore, to render distinctly prominent the main features in the same, and to reproduce the entire work, free from the constraint of the metronome, with dramatic vividness, according to its true nature and meaning. The complete list of Beethoven's pianoforte works contains 5 Con- certos for Pianoforte and Orchestra and a sixth for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 56; 1 Fantasia with Chorus and Orchestra, op. 80; 1 Quintet for Pianoforte, Oboe, Clarinet, Horn and Bassoon, op. 16 in E?] 3 Quartets for Pianoforte, Violin, Viola, and Violon- *) T.'ieir theme is in the key of F; Var. 1, in D; Var. 2, in B^; Yar. jJ,^ G; Yar. 4, JEU; Var. 5, C-minor; Var. 6 and the closing Adagio, i^- major. Comp. abf've Beethoven's key-relationship by the third. — 124 — cello; 8 Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello; I Trio with Clarinet and Violoncello, op. 11 in J5[?; 14 Variations, op. 44, and also the Adagio, Hondo, and Variations, op. 121, with Violin and Violoncello; 10 Sonatas with Violin; 1 Rondo in G and 13 Variations in F, with Violin; 5 Sonatas with Violoncello; 3 books of Variations with Violoncello; 1 Sonata in F with Horn; 7 books of Variations with Flute or Violin; 1 Sonata, 3 Marclies, and 2 books of Variations for 4 hands; 88 Sonatas for Pianoforte solo; 21 sets of Variations for Pianoforte solo; and 20 books of Bagatelles, Bondos, Preludes, and Dances for Pianoforte. A handsomely got-up, uniform edition of Beethoven's Conq^lete WorJcs has been published by Breitkopf & Hartel, Leipzig; his Pianoforte Concertos, in score, by Peters, Leipzig; a cheap and correct edition of his Pianoforte Sonatas, revised by Franz Liszt, has been issued by Holle, Wolfenbiittel; and another, revised by Moscheles, by E. Hallberger, Stuttgart. Among late editions of Beethoven's works, the following may be mentioned: — J. G-. Cotta, Sonatas and other Works, 5 Vols. (Faisst & Lebert), the last two volumes being edited by Hans von Billow, who has furnished them with excellent introductions, analyses, and notes; — Collection Litolff, Complete Concertos, Sonatas, Varia- tions, Quartets, Trios, Duos, etc. ; — Edition Peters, contains cheap editions similar to those of Litolff. Franz Schubert. Separated from Beethoven by only one grave, lies the true German, warm-hearted song-writer Franz Schubert. He was born at Vienna in 1797, and survived Beethoven but one year. His compoi^itions display uncommon productive vigor, and extraordinary ease in developing the motives; and the same sympathetic reception immediately accorded in Germany, and beyond her borders, to his melodies sung to German poems, was also given to his Pianoforte Compositions, which breathe the same true-hearted tone. We mention here the 4 Inipronqjtits, op. 90, the Moments musicals, op. 94, and the 4 Impromptus, op. 142. Of more earnest and weight}- meaning is the Fantasia, op. 78, with the soul-stirring opening movement and the agitated Minuet. Of yet more pregnant significance is the grand Fantasia, op. 15, with the melancholy Wanderer melody of the Adagio, and the fugued, fiery Finale. It is wrong, that Schubert's Sonatas should l)e almost forgotten; for most of them have an — 125 — attractive, often dramatically iuteresting mcaiiini^ — for instance, the first in J.-niiuor, op. 42 — and will always, like all his compositions, aiford to musicians refined entertainment. Robert Schumann recom- mends the same with the following words: "Schubert will always be the favorite of youth; he displays what joiith. desires— an overflowing heart, bold thoughts, swift deeds; tells it what it most loves to hear — romantic tales, knights, maidens, and adventures; mingled with wit and humor, too, but not enough to interfere with the tenderer general mood". We have the following Pianoforte Compositions by him: — Grand Quintet for Pianoforte and Strings, op. 114; 2 grand Trios in B'q and E\^, op. 99 and 100, and also 1 Nocttirne, op. 148, for Piano- forte, Violin, and Violoncello; 1 Bondo brilliant in jB-minor, op. 70; and 3 Sonatinas, op. 137, for Pianoforte and Violin. Furthermore, for 4 hands: — Grand Sonata, op. 30; grand Duo, op. 140; Fantasia, op. 103; Lehensstilrme , op. 144; Fugue, op. 152; Marches, op. 27, 40, 51, 55, 66, 121; Divertissements, op. 54, 63, 84; Polonaises, op. 61, 75; Rondos, op. 107, 138; Variations, op. 10, 35, 82; and various Dances, op. 33. For pianoforte solo: —2 Fantasias, op. 15 and 78; 3 Impromptus, op. 90 and 142; Moments musicals, op. 94; Adagio and Bondo, op. 145; "5 Posthumous Pianoforte Pieces"; 7 Sonatas, op. 42, 53, 120, 122, 143, 147, 164; and finally 3 grand Sonatas, "Allerletzte Compositionen", in C-minor, yl-major, and B\}- major. — Among these we call special attention to the two Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello; the grand Fantasia in C, op. 15, which in Franz Liszt's arrangement has become a highly effective concert piece for Pianoforte and Orchestra; the second Fantasia in G, op. 78, consisting of an Andante, Minuet, and Allegro; the Duo for 4 hands, op. 140; the 3 Marches hero'iques, op. 27, for 4 hands; and the 5 grand Sonatas left by him. — A Collection of his Pianoforte Works has been published by Holle, Wolfenbiittel. — The greater number of his Songs were first made popular in Germany by Liszt, through his noble pianoforte transcriptions, which set the deep inten- sity of these tone-poems in the strongest light; and in similar arrange- ments, by the same master, of Schubert's cheery Dances in the "Soirees de Vienne" (Vieima» Spina, 9 books), the brightness, the gaiety, and the youthful joyousness of a Viennese Volhshall is smi- lingly portrayed. Late editions of Schubert's Pianoforte Works are ^^ Selected Sonatas and Solo Pieces", arranged by Franz Liszt, 2 Vols. (J. G. Cotta); — — 126 — ''Complete "Pianoforte Worls" (Breitkopf & Hartel); — "Pianoforte Compositions''^ complete or separately (Edition Peters and Collection Litolff). ¥. The brilliaiit Style. a. Germany and Italy. All epoch-making, creatire masters not only bring the prevailing tendency of their art to a close, hut also lay the foundation for the period immediately following them. Thus the shorter Suites, some of the "30 Variations", and other works of Sebastian Bach, although still maintaining with contrapuntal strictness the independence of all parts engaged, already contain the fundamental ti-aits of a lighter pianoforte style; and Emanuel Bach often plainly shows the endeavor, to endow his subjective mood with distinct expression. In like manner we already find, in the lyric writers Mozart, Clcmenti, Hummel, etc. following, transitions to the dramatic instrumental style brought to perfection by Beethoven; and Beethoven's last works already contain the groundwork for the romantico-fautastic style especially cultivated after him. At the beginning of a new period, two parties always form. The adherents of the one bend all their energies to keeping art within the limits of the foregoing period. Familiar only with the rules and forms of the earlier tendency, their slow comprehension sees only arbitrariness and formlessness in the creations of inventive minds. On the other hand, the party of progress battles with fresher youthful vigor for the legitimacy and general acceptance of the licences adopted by their models; and to their enduring energy alone do we owe the gradual expansion and enrichment of our science of harmony and form. When Beethoven sometimes ventures on his holdest modulations, until then untried, this is not to be viewed as arbiti'ariness, but as a deeper understanding of the natural affinities of a key. And only most arrogant ignorance can term his last grand compositions, in their visibly organic arrangement, '-formless". Only the still undeveloped, uninspired raw material, or the irrational and — 127 — uaconnectcd , unintelligible work of a brainless bungler, can appear "formless" to us. But Beethoven mastered and formed his material as did none of his predecessors. For the ideal intent of his thoughts he always found the outer form best suited to the same, and when instead of one episode in his instrumental dramas he sometimes employs several, these latter preserve throughout the necessary mutual inner connection; they often call forth the sharpest and most sur- prising contrasts, yet never efface the harmonious, characteristic grounding of his moving tone-pictures. It likewise happens, that the contemporaries of a g'reat master ruling his time do not dare follow on the path which he has con- structed to such dizzy heights; and it is left to later disciples of art, who have grown up with his works and gained full familiarity with them, to succeed him as epigones. His contemporaries then attempt the cultivation of some branch of art left unnoticed by him, to win favor for their works in another way. Thus Sebastian Bach's imme- diate successors forsook the strict contrapuntal style which he had brought to perfection, to bring into vogue a lighter and freer style of writing; and in Vienna, too, where Beethoven carried the school of ideal pianoforte -playing to final perfection, we note a transition of the latter into one striving to develop externals and technique only. The period of the brilliant pianoforte style so brought about already begins, therefore, in that preceding it, — a relation which is everywhere observable. As the most active head of the later Viennese Pianoforte School, in whose illustrious Aleves virtuosity was raised to its extreme height, Carl Czerny stands forth. He was born at Vienna in 1791, early devoted himself to music, and even began giving piano-lessons in his fourteenth year. He later became such a popular teacher that he often had to give more than twelve lessons daily; and to his ability testify the following pupils, to be spoken of further on: — Franz Liszt, Fraulein von Belleville (afterwards Madame Oury), Theodor Dohler, Theodor Kullak, etc. In teaching, his great facility in composing was an extraordinary aid to him; he invented on the spur of the moment the most suitable and helpful exercises for his various pupils, and was able to keep alive their interest in playing by pieces spe- cially calculated for their powers, and of elegant and brilliant effect. From 1810 he began to publish such compositions, and they soon attained to so general popularity that Czerny, besides giving his numerous lessons, found time up to his death in 1857 to bring out — 12^ — some 900 larger and smaller pianoforte works for two, four, and eight hands, with or without accompaniment by other instruments. Among them we find a set of shorter pieces for piano, for 6 hands, entitled: "Les trois socitrs", op. 609; furthermore, for 4 hands, be- sides many Bondos, Fantasias, Variations, and llarches, the follow- ing larger compositions: Presto caratteristico, op. 24; Grande Sonate hrillante, op. 10; Sonate milifaire, op. 119; Sonate sentimentaJe, op. 120; Sonate pastorale, op. 121. Prominent among his works for 2 hands as eminently practical, are the Text-books; e. g. the 100 Fro- (jressive Stndies, op. 139; the School of Velocity, op. 299, in 40 Exer- cises; the School of the Embellishments, op. 355, in 70 Studies; the School of the Left Hand, op. 399, in 10 Exercises; the School of the Virtuoso, op. 365; the "Kunst der FingerfertigJceif" (Art of Finger- rxpertness), op. 740, in 50 brilliant Studies; Miide in Thirds, op. 735, No. 1; 2 jStudes for the Left Hand alone, op. 735, No. 2; and many others. The "Complete theoretico - practical Pianoforte Jlethod, progressiA^ely arranged from the first Rudiments up to the highest Development", op. 500, in 3 Parts, contains a great number of interesting and practically selected exercises; but it labors under the disadvantage of the same disproportionate length and wearisome monotony as the similar work by Hummel, and has therefore found little favor. Czerny's Pianoforte works, and the school founded by him, aimed at effect through sound rather than sense, and sought to win applause and appreciation less for the composer than for the virtuoso. It was consequently the object of this later Viennese Pianoforte School, like the similar one in Paris mentioned further on, to write in the most brilliant pianoforte style possible, without regard to distinctive cha- racterization, to flatter the ear in the chief divisions and episodes, to embellish the melodious passages with bright figures and graces, and to flourish with pearling passages in the transitions and con- clusions. Thus outward shoAV, painted luxur}-, superseded warm- hearted simplicity and noble sincerity in composition, until the Romanticists following Beethoven again raised the inner meaning to the place of honor, and awarded the palm only to that virtuoso having the power of expressing the poetical idea of the composer most clearly and intelligently. Madame de Bellevilie-Oury (1808— 18S0), a finished and taste- ful piauiste, appeared in Vienna as a pupil of Czerny, and thereafter in other European capitals, with great success. — Theodor Dohler — I2y — (1814— ISoG), afier concluding his studies under Czevny, also under- took successful professional tours, and in 1839 his playing, though not always accurate and occasionally weak, even created a sensation in Holland. His elegant pianoforte compositions were quite in vogue for a time, e. g. the following: — Nocturne in D;, op. 24; Tarantelle in (r-minor, op. 39; J^tndes de Salon, op. 42; Bomnnces sans Paroles, op. 57; Promenade en gondole, op. 65; Veder Napoli, e poi morirf op, 74; and many others. — More tasteful in his salon pieces, and more thorough in works devoted to technique, was TheodoP Kullak (1818 — 1882). This distinguished pianoforte virtuoso began his musical studies with the deserving Albrecht Agthe in Posen, and finished the same at Vienna with Czerny in 1842, under the influence of the performances and compositions of two masters highly revered by him, Liszt and Hcnselt. From 1843 he lived in Berlin as a much- sought teacher, and Manager of the "Xeue Akaderaie der Tonkunst". In a vigorous Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello in iJ-minor (Leipzig, Peters, 1852), Kullak proves himself a master of broader forms, and his brilliant pianoforte compositions, everywhere favorites for playing, are animated by a grateful and attractive youthful fresh- ness. We note the following among many: — La danse des Sylpliides, op. 5 (Berlin, Schlesinger); La gaseJle, op. 22, (Berlin, Trautwein); Perles d'ccume, Fantaisie- etude, op. 37 (Dresden, Paul); d Salon pieces, op. 104 (Leipzig, Kistncr). Among his instruction books are: Kinderleben, short pieces, op. 62 and 81 (Berlin, Trautwein); Shche- remde, 6 petits morceaux, op. 78 (Leipzig, Peters); the Scliool of Finger -practice, op. 61 (Berlin, Schlesinger); the excellent School of Octave-playing , op. 8 (same publ.); and, as a Sequel to the same, op. 48 (same publ); and op. 59 (Leipzig, Pctors). As the leader of this Vienna school of brilliant pianoforte play- ing figures Sigismund Thalberg, whose aristocratically refined, clean, and sonorous style aroused the greatest enthusiasm in all the capitals of Europe. He was born at Geneva in 1812, early began his mu- sical education at Vienna under a Hofmusicus of that city, and in 1828 published there his first work. ''Melange sur des thimes d'Euryanthe"; also a ''Fantaisie sitr nn air ecossais", op. 2, and an "Impromptu stir des motifs du siege de Corinthe', op. 3. In 1834 he was appointed Imperial Hofpianist, and began in 1835 his pro- fessional tours to Paris, Brussels, London, St. Petersburg, and all the German capitals. His bravura pieces. Fantasias on melodies from "Moses" and "La Donna del lago" by Rossini, on motives from Bel- 9 — 130 — lini's "Nonna", and on Eussiaa folk-songs, gained extraordinary po- pularity through his own brilliant performance; but their themes are always ti-eated in one and the same fashion, and the ever-recurring grand effect is, to play the melody-notes in the middle octaves of the keyboard now with the thumb of the right hand, now with that of the left, the other fingers executing thereto arpeggios covering the entire range of the keyboard. But such stencil-work does not please even dilettanti for long; and while Thalberg was still winning great applause in America in 1857 and 1858, his once so popular compo- sitions were in Europe already consigned tp oblivion. Several of his richly ornamented, vigorous, and effective Studies have, however, justly remained in favor with pianists; among others the following: — Caprice No. 1, op. 15; No. 2, op. 19; 12 Etudes, op. 26 (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hiirtel); Grand Caprice sur la marclie de Vapotlicose de J3erlios, op. 58 (same publ.); La cadence, op. 36, No. 1; J^tude de perfection, op, 36, No. 2 (Berlin, Schlesinger). The style of playing alluded to, and so often used by Thalberg, of executing wide-spreading arpeggios to a melody of medium pitch, was first brought out in Germany, as it appears, by the pre-eminent harper Parish-Alvars (b. 1816 in London, d. 1839 in Vienna), who per- formed them most effectively on his instrument. According to Dehn, however, the inventor of the same was the Italian Giuseppe Francesco Poliini, an adherent of the Clementi school. Being in Paris in 1801, he published there three Sonatas for the Pianoforte (Erard), and a "Fan- taisie sur un th^me de Viotti" (Pleycl; also published later by Breit- kopf & Hartel). On returning to his native country he became ho- norary member of the Conservatory of ]\Iusic at ]\Iilan. where he wrote the instruction book '"Metodo per Clavicembalo" (Milan, G. Ri- cordi), which the professors of the above institute, at a general meeting on Nov. 16, 1811, extolled by saying, "that it is founded on definite, clear, and unshakable rules, and is wortliy to be used exclusively as the basis of pianoforte instruction in the Milan Conser- vatory, and in all other educational institutions of Italy". — This Piano- forte Method, of peculiar importance from such a recommendation, is dedicated to the Viceroy of Italy, "Eugenio Napoleone". In the first section it treats of the attitude of body and hands in piano- pkiying, and of the fingering of all the scales; gives exercises for making the fingers independent of each other, for skilfully passing the second, third, fourth, and fifth fingers over the thumb, and the latter under all the other fingers; treats theoretically and practically — 131 — of cbanging the fingers in rapid repetitions on one and the same key, of passages in broken thirds, sixths, and arpeggio'd full chords, and the various passages in octaves, thirds, and sixths. All exercises are first to be played with the right and left hand alone, then with both together, finally in melodic contrary motion of both hands and in different keys. The second section treats of the various appoggiaturas, turns, mordents, trills, double trills, and trills executed to melodious passages; he gives practical rules for the fingering in the legato style, and for varying the touch for the different marks of expression; and finally teaches the effective employment of the pedals. The third and last section contains exercises in full chords, scales, etc., carried out in sequences through all the keys. As diversions, Pollini recom- mends the Sonatinas by Ferrari, Steibelt, and Dussek, together with dementi's Waltzes in rondo-form. As a second Part to his Method, 3 Sonatas (op. 26, liv. 1 and 2) were published by Piiccordi, Milan. Of his remaining pianoforte compositions we mention the following: — Introduction et Rondeau pastoral a 4 mains (same publ.); 2 grand Sonatas (Vienna, Artaria); Fantasia on themes from Kossini's "Gazza ladra" (Berlin, Schlesingcr); Variations and Hondo (Zurich, Nageli); Capriccio, op. 28; Toccata, op. 31; Esercizj per Clavicemhalo, op. 42; Introduction et Toccato, op. 50 (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hiirtel); Sclterso^ Variations, and Fantasia in B (same publ.); and a Toccata noted on three staves, op. 56, (Milan, Ricordi). Pollini's compositions at times augment the difficulties of the Clemeuti school, and contain inter- esting modulations, figures, and pianoforte effects; but their influence, aside from the effect borrowed by Thalberg, has not reached beyond the borders of Italy, as they in great measure lacked the novel and generally attractive subjects necessary for a wider dissemination, and that alluring external elegance Avith which Thalberg later graced his compositions. — Adolf Fumagalli (born 1828 at Inzago, d. 1856 in Florence), who was trained by Angeleri in the Milan Conservatory according to Pollini's principles, undertook brilliant professional tours through Italy, France, and Belgium, as a pianoforte virtuoso, and excited great admiration, in particular, by his masterfully developed left hand. Besides many brilliant salon pieces, e. g. the LiiiseJJa Ta- rantella, the Nenna Tarantella, op. 29, 1 Serenade napolicainc, op. 50, 1 Nocturne, and 1 Sogno d'amore (all publ. by Schlesinger, Berlin), he published a fantastic Pianoforte Concerto "Les clochettes", op. 21 (Milan, Ricordi). 9* — 132 -- Tomaschek, Dionys Weber, and Proksch in Prague. In Prague, where Mozart first fouud just appreciation of his higli importance as a composer and pianoforte virtuoso, pianoforte- playing was taken up with remarkable zeal and zest after the stimulus afiforded by his presence. Simultaneously with Czerny in Vienna, gi-eat services were rendered in thorouglily teaching and further spreading this art by Tomaschek and Dionys Weber, seconded later by Joseph Proksch. From the beginning of the yep* 1801 till 1803 Abbe Vogler, a man of high merit, was also engaged at the University of Prague to deliver public lectures on the theory of music. The beneficial influence of such an advanced musician on musical matters in that city was soon felt, although he complains bitterly, in the Preface to a JManual of Harmony published there in 1802, of the spiteful attacks to which his writings and even his person were subjected at that period. Johann Wenzel Tomaschek, born in 1774 at Skutsch in Bohemia, had by untiring industry educated himself according to Turk's then much-esteemed Clavier Method to be an able player. Though he completed a law course at Prague in 1799, he devoted himself wholly to music when his pupil, Count Georg Bouquoy, hospitably invited him to his house and at the same time allowed him a regular salary. Thenceforward down to his death in 1850 he was unweariedly oc- cupied as a teacher of composition and pianoforte-playing; and to the thoroughness vrith which he fulfilled his duties, a succession of distinguished pupils testifies. Tomaschek's compositions found such favor upon their appearance, that he was lauded in his native country as "the Schiller of mu^ic".* Concerning his 12 Eclogues and 12 Rhap- sodies, published in 1812 by Klihnel (later by Peters, Leipzig), E. L. Gerber remarked in 1814: "The former sweet, naive, with tbe spellful charm of Gessner's Muse; the latter the most daring flight of a fiery fancy, bold in leading and captivating in vividness". Of the Eclogues 4 books of 6 each were published by Peters in Leipzig as op. 35, 39, 47, and 51, and their continuation by Hofmeister in Leipzig as op. 63, 66, and 83, the last "en forme de danses pasto- rales". The first book of 6 Rhapsodies was published by Haas in * See "Hesperus" for the year 1811, ace. to Gerber in the new Ton- kiinstler-Lexikon . — 133 — Vienna, op. 40; the second by Petevs, op. 41; the third by Hof- meister. op. 110; also 1 grand Sonata in G, op. 15, Peters; Sonata in A, op. 48, Hofmeister; Sonata in C, op. 14, Ztirich, Nageli; Sonata in F, op. 21, Vienna, Steincr; Sonata in Ij\? and Bonclo in G, Ztirich. Nai^eli; Gr. Eondeau, op. 11, Bonn, Simvocic; and 6 Allegri ca- pHcciosi di hravura, op. 52 and 84, Hofmeister. On the foundation of a Conservatory of Music at Prague in 1810 the then highly esteemed theoretician Dyonis Weber (1771—1842) was appointed Director of the same; and under his management a large number of fine musicians were trained in this institute, which later attained to high standing, though pianoforte-playing and organ- playing were not cultivated at the same. Of his private pupils, too, several won distinction as pianists and composers, among them Iguaz Moscheles. Carl Maria von Booklet, Sigismund Goldschmidt, and others. The first of these three will find special mention elsewhere. Car! Maria von Booklet (b. 1801 in Prague, d. 1881 in Vienna), finished his studies under Dionys Weber, went to Vienna in 1821, created a great stir there through his interesting free fantasias on the piano- forte, and became one of the most popular music teachers. His fellow-pupil Sigismund Goldschmidt (b. 1815) was styled while so- journing in Paris ''le roi des sixtes", and has won a good name not only as a virtuoso, but also as the composer of the following works: J^tudes de concert, op. 4 and op. 13, dedicated to Clara Schumann and Moscheles; 3 Sonatas, op. 5 and op. 8; Bevcrie au hord de Ja mer, op. 10; Nocturne, op. 18; all publ. by J. Schuberth & Co. of Leipzig. A lasting influence on the welfare of musical matters in Prague was also exerted by Carl Maria von Weber, who at the beginning of his artistic career was chiefly admired as a spirited pianist, and from 1813 to 1816 acted as Kapellmeister at the City Theatre in Prague.— After the death of Dionys Weber in 1842, Johann Friedrich Kittel (1809—1868) a pupil of Tomaschek, became Director of the Prague Conservatory, and attracted favorable notice by the publica- tion of several pleasing pianoforte compositions. Among them we notice the following: Grand Septet for Pianoforte, Flute, Oboe, Cla- rinet, Horn, Bassoon, and Double Bass, op. 25, (Leipzig, Kistuer); and various sets of lyrical Impromptus — op. 17 (Berlin, Schlesinger), op. 26 (Leipzig, Peters), op. 18 and op. 30 (Leipzig, Hofmeister). His rarely gifted fellow-pupil Alexander Dreyschock (1818—1869) shone in extended professional tours more particularly by his bril- — 134 — liant execution with the left hand alone — Variations pour la main gauclie seule, op. 22, Leipzig, Hofmeister — and with the bravura piece •'La campanella" , op. 10; but likewise proved himself a player of true worth iii his rendering; of Mendelssohn's (?- minor Concerto and other serious compositions. His numerous "drawing-room" pieces include, among others, Bhapsodies, op. 37, 38, and 39 (Leipzig, Kistner); op. 40 (Berlin, Bote & Bock); op. 98 (Breitkopf & Hartel); and the descriptive pieces ''Le naufrage", op. 68, and "Le festin de noces venitiens", op. 69. — Among Tomaschek's remaining pupils, Ignaz Tedesco (1817—1882), the "Hannibal of Octaves", and Julius Schulhoff (born 1825), became favorites more especially in ladies' circles through their elegant execution and the publication of various graceful dances and other charming trifles. Schulhoff made himself known, among other things, by Two FolJcas, op. 4; Valse brilliante, op. 6; 3 Masurhas, op. 9; 12 J^tudes, op. 13; and Idyls, op. 23, 27, and 36; — Tedesco by the following pieces: Bohemian National Songs, op. 22; Caprice de concert sur des airs de CsiJcos, op. 24; Rasilose Liehe, oj). 34; In einsamen Stunden, op. 98; etc. In the year 1831 Joseph Proksch (1794—1864), blind since his seventeenth year, but of keen mental vision, opened a Music Institute in Prague, which speedily attracted general interest, and for which he elaborated the following extremely practical works: Attempt at a Rational Method of teaching Pianoforte-playing, in 6 Parts; Variations on Mozart's Spring-song, for 4 Pianofortes, each taking 4 hands; The Art of the Ensemble in Pianoforte -playing, 12 books. — As a thoughtful and stimulating teacher we still have to name Louis Kohler (1820—1886), a pupil of C. M. v. Booklet. He settled in Konigsberg in 1847, and has attracted favorable attention by the publication of a work which exhaustively presents its subject: —"A Systematic Method for teaching Pianoforte-playing and Music", in 2 Parts (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel); also Mechanical and Techni- cal Pianoforte Studies, op. 70 (same publ.); Studies in TJiirds, Sixths, and Octaves, op. 60; Folk -songs of all Peoples, (Braunschweig, Litolff); "Festgaben, den Kindern zur Freude am Clavierspiel dar- geboten" (Festival Gifts for the Children's delight in playing the Pianoforte), op. 24; and many other instruction books. — 135 — G. J. Vollweiler and A. Schmitt in Frankfort on the Main. G. J. Vollweiler (1770—1847) ia Heidelberg-, and of Aloys Schmitt (1788 — 1866) in Frankfort, had like success as able pianists and thorough teachers as Tomaschek, D. Weber, and Proksch in Prague. The son and pupil of the former, Carl Voll- weihp (1813 — 1848), a highly gifted virtuoso and composer, settled in 1835, after several tours through Denmark, Sweden, and Eussia, in St. Petersburg, rose to be one of the most respected piano-teachers, and published a series of compositions distinguished both by their pleasing melodies and refined harmonies, and also by their good pianoforte style. Of these we note especially a Prize Sonata; Six j£tudes meJodiques, op. 4; J^tudes lyriques, op. 9 and op. 10, romanti- cally inspired, delightful counterparts to Mendelssohn's Songs without Words; a Tarantelle in G^-minor, wherein all the effects of the tam- bourine accompanyinng this fiery dance are reproduced by interest- ing pianoforte touches; — all publ. by J. Schuberth & Co., Leipzig; 3 Pensees fugitives, op. 16, Leipzig, Hofmeister; 3 Impromptus, op. 18, same publ.; Nocturne, Barcarolle, and Gigue, op. 12, 22, 23, Leipzig, Kistner; and 1 Grand Caprice sur des motifs dc Russian ef Ludmilla, J. Schuberth & Co. — a bravura piece performed by Franz Liszt in his concerts at St. Petersburg. Vollweiler brought the ma- nuscript of this last, which was difficult to decipher on account of being written in small notes and with pale ink, to Liszt with the request that he would try it at his leisure. But Liszt immediately placed it upon the piano, played it at sight to the composer's asto- nishment in the proper tempo and Avith the most fiery delivery, from time to time letting fall pertinent remarks on the original melodic turns and daring harmonies of the brilliant Capriccio, without inter- rupting his performance. By giving music-lessons, Vollweiler had amassed a considerable property, and in 1847 departed from St. Peters- burg to surprise his aged father in Germany by an unexpected re- turn, full of joyful plans for the future. On arriving at Leipzig, he takes up a Frankfort newspaper, and reads therein — the notice of his father's death. Leaving all his effects at the hotel, he hastens on to Heidelberg by post, to his sister, in whose arms he expires. Aloys Schmitt labored as a teacher, chiefly in Frankfort, from 1816, and published a series of compositions resembling in form — 136 — and substance those of the Clementi school. Among them we find 6 Pianoforte Concertos (Offenbach, Andre, and Vienna, Artaria); several Sonatas, with and without accompaniment of other instru- menfs, for 2 and 4 hands; and various books of extremely practical Studies for Pianoforte, e. g. J^tudes en deitx parties, op. 16, Bonn, Simrock; NouveJles £tudes, dediees a J. B. Cramer, 2 Livi\ op. 55, Leipzig, Kistner; Bliapsodies in 2 books, op. 62, and 18 Studies, op. 67, Leipzig, Hofmeister; 8 i^tudes, liv. 12, Leipzig, Peters; and as op. 114, Method of Pianoforte-playing, a systematically arranged Collection of Pieces for progressively developing the Fingers and the Taste. His younger brother and pupil, Jacob Schmitt (1803—1853) likewise published a complete practical School of Pianoforte-playing, op. 301, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; and, together with many unimportant dilettantish pieces, several well-sounding Studies, e. g. 4 Etudes hrillianies, op. 271, and 4 J^ttides de concert, op. 330, same publisher. — Aloys Schmitt also trained his son Georg Aloys Schmitt (b. 1828) as an able musician and finislied pianist, who published among other things 3 Pianoforte Pieces, Caprice, Impromptu, and Nocturne, op. 10. The first to endow the Studies, as well as the Concert and Salon Pieces with subjects more spiritually animated, was Ignaz Moscheles, who combined the dramatic with the brilliant instrumental style, and through his signally successful concert tours likewise rendering endur- ing services in the ennoblement and propagation of his art. Ignaz Moscheles, born in Prague on May 30, 1794, studied from his tenth year on- ward, under the guidance of Dionys Weber, the works %i Seb. Bach, Handel, Mozart, and Clementi, and as early as 1801 published a Fantasia for Pianoforte on the Jewish funeral lament "Potem mitzwo!" In 1808 his fine pianoforte performances were received with the loudest applause at a concert given by him in his native city; en- couraged by this, he resolved to go to Vienna, tlien the capital of the musical world, with the special aim of completing his studies in composition under Albrechtsberger, the teacher of Beethoven. In Vienna, too, his audacious and brilliant playing found universal favor. Here he made the acquaintance of J. Meyerbeer, at that period also celebrated as a pianist; after uninterrupted, zealous study, — 137 — lie iu 1816 began his professional travels through Germany, and was everywhere received with the greatest enthusiasm not simply as a finished virtuoso, but as an original composer as well. In 1820 he also created a general sensation at Paris, and his masterly playing met with no less favor in London, where he sojourned for a con- siderable time as the worthiest representative of the meritorious Clementi, to whom, a septuagenarian then living in retirement, though still robust, Moscheles paid his respects. From London Moschcles again visited the German capitals in 1823 and 1824, Brussels in 1835, and Paris in 1839, and displayed his lofty mastership foremostly in the interpretation of his (r-minor Concerto op. 58, a work of chastest conception, and in the sparkling Brainra Variations on the Alexander March, op. 32; likewise in the performance of free fantasias, the choice of whose motives he left to his audience. In the year 1846 he followed a call to Leipzig, where he worked as one of the most revered professors in the Conservatory of Music. Among his numerous Pianoforte compositions, eight masterly and effective Concertos are prominent, •f which that already mentioned, in G-minor, and the Concerto fantastiqtie , op. 90, are peculiarly esteemed; furthermore. Souvenirs d'Irlande with orchestral accompaniment, op. 69; 1 Sextet for Pianoforte, Violin, Flute, 2 Horns, and Violoncello, op. 35; 1 Sonata for 4 hands in ^|?, op. 47, 1 Sonate symplioniqiie, op. 112, and Les Contrastes, op. 115, also for 4 hands; Hommage a IIa)uhl, op. 92, a grand Duo for 2 pianofortes; Hiimoristic Variations, Scherzo, and Festival March, op. 128; and Cadenzas to Beethoven's Piano- forte Concertos. To his finest works, and supplied with a wealth of novel figures and pianoforte effects, also belong the "Studies for the higher finish of already advanced pianists, consisting of 24 character- istic compositions in the various major and minor keys, provided with fingering, and with explanatory notes on the aim and perfor- mance of the same", op. 70, Leipzig, Kistner; also New Charac- teristic Studies for the Pianoforte, op. 95, and Quatre grandes £tndes de concert pour Piano, op. Ill, same publ. The last two works reveal, through titles like Zorn, Widerspruch, Versohnung, Kinder- mar chen, VoJTisscenen, etc., the striving of the composer to imbue his creations with distinct meaning; and in this he really met with hap- pier success than any of his predecessors in the same field. In like manner Moscheles attained, by the frequent but well-calculated use of the pedal (which Hummel quite neglected), and by the greater strength and diversity of his touch, effects unknown to the master — 138 — just named and so much resembling him. We must therefore regard him as one of the niost influential amplifiers of the art of Pianoforte- plaving. He died at Leipzig, universally mourned, in the year 1870. To the most distinguished of the many pupils trained by Moscheles belong the following: Leopoldine Blahetka (b. 1811); her first teachers of music were Frau von Cibbini, nee Kozeluch, and Joseph Czerny; she early exhibited uncommon talent for this art, and from her eighth year attracted much notice in Viennese musical circles by her neat pianoforte -playing. Under Moscheles' tuition her talent later devel- oped so rapidly, that her concert tours through Germany, Holland, France, and England were attended by most flattering success. From 18^0 she resided at Boulogne as an esteemed teacher. As the pupil of Simon Sechter she also became known through the following compositions: — Souvenir d'AngJeferre, with orchestral accompaniment, op. 38, Leipzig, Hofmeister; 3 Bondcaux elegants (Amour a la Bou- teille, Hommage a I'Amour, and Rage de Danse), op. 37, same publ. — Also Henry Litolff (b. Loudon, 1818); in 1846 he settled in Bruns- wick, moved to Paris in 1860, and is noted as a pianist of the first rank. Of his compositions we name 6 J^tiides de concert, op. 18; Tarantelle infernale, op. 79; Grand Caprice de concert, op. 37, Berlin, Bote &Bock; — and call special attention to his 5 Sijmphonic Concertos, the second of which. Concert o-Sinfonie pour Piano et Orchestre in .B-minor, op. 22, has been published in Berlin by Schlesinger. — Robert Radecke (b. 1830), also a pupil of Moscheles, settled in Berlin in 1854, where he became a popular pianoforte teacher, and was appointed in 1863 to the office of Kapellmeister of the Eoyal Opera, which he held until 1887. Moscheles and Fetis published (Berlin, Schlesinger) a "Method of Metliods" bearing the following title: "The most Complete School, or the Art of Pianoforte -playing", resulting from a searching exa- mination of the best works of this kind, more particularly the Text- books of Bach, Marpurg, Ttirk, Miiller, Dussek, Clementi, Schmitt, Adam, Czerny, Hummel, and Kalkbrenner. The second and third parts of the same contain Rudimentary Exercises, Progressive Etudes, and Studies for the higher development, by Cramer, Czerny, Moscheles, Mendelssohn, Henselt, Chopin, Liszt, etc. A fellow-worker of Moscheles in the Leipzig Conservatory of Music was the acute theoretician and contrapuntist Moritz Hauptmann, whose six fine Sonatas for the Pianoforte and Violin, op. 5 and op. 23, Leipzig, Peters, by reason of their thoughtful conception and finished form, will remain — 139 — of enduring value in musical literature. — Among the similar works of the sterling composer George Onslow (1784 — 1853), two ex- tremely valuable Grand Duos for Pianoforte and Violin, op. 29, in JE, and op. 31 in (?-minor, are deserving of special mention. Carl Maria von Weber. The development of modern pianoforte technique, the wider ex- tension of the chords, and the more sonorous passages, we owe after Moscheles in no small degree to Carl Maria von Weber, whose soulful compositions immediately won the sympathies of his nation and made him its favorite. He was horn on Dec. 18, 1786, at Eutin in Holstein, busied himself at an early age with music, and was taken by his father for education in this art to Michael Haydn, then already sixty years old, in Salzburg. The fruits of his study were six FuglieUas, which were published in 1798. He then proceeded with his father to Munich, where he continued his theoretical work under the organist Kalcher, and had printed 6 Variations in C, No. 1, for Pianoforte. In 1803 he visited Vienna, and became acquainted there with the Abb6 Vogler, who stood in high estimation alike as a theoretician and as an organist and pianist, and whose more rational principles of harmony decided him to devote two further years to theoretical study under the Abb6's guidance, while also training himself to virtuosity on the pianoforte. In response to an invitation from Duke Eugene of Wiirttemberg he visited this patron of art in Silesia (1806), where he composed, besides other pieces, his first Pianoforte Concerto in C, op. 11, Offenbach, Andre. Two years later he gave at Leipzig, and in 1810 at Munich and Berlin, concerts universally well received; once more returned to the Abbe Vogler, and lived in intimate friendship with his fellow-pnpil Meyer- beer until called to Prague in 1813 as Music Director, in which city he remained till 1816. These were the stirring times of Germany's uprising against the foreign conqueror; and Weber, too, was inspired by them to pen the songs of freedom soon echoing throughout the land. We may consider his Concertstuch in F, so important for the further development of the animated dramatic pianoforte st^'le, as an echo of that glorious period; it was issued as op. 79 by Peters, Leipzig. The orchestra begins in the same with a Larghetto in i^-minor full of anxious expectancy, whose sustained melody is then taken up by the pianoforte and accompanied by evanescent harmo- — 140 — nies. In the succeeding: Allegro passionofo the mood becomes more unquiet and agitated; a consoling ray of hope— the middle movement in ^[7— breaks through, but dark clouds soon gather densely and rapidly, and the movement is brought to a close in passionate agita- tion. Now there sounds, as from a distance, a march gently intoned by the wind instruments. The pianoforte strikes boldly in, and the grand tutti of the orchestra finally brings it out as an energetically marked march of triumph. Now the pianoforte again begins, softly and tentativeh"; its passages grow stronger and faster, until, after constantly rising intensification, it storms in full ecstacy into the last movement. Presto assai, in i^-major. The glowing, brilliant passages express most fervent rapture and jubilation, and stamp this Concert- stucJi altogether as the most effective and powerful of all composi- tions of its class issued up to that time. Prominent among the other pianoforte works of Weber are also several books of easy Pieces a 4 mains, op. 3, 10, and 60; four grand Sonatas, op. 24, 39, 49, and 70; Memento capriccioso, op. 12; Aufforderung zum Tans, op. 65; Polonaise in jEj?, op. 21; Variations on ''Vien qua, Dorina bella", op. 12; and a Polacca hrillante in E\^, op. 72, Berlin, Schlesinger, also issued by the latter in a brilliant arrangement for Piano and Orchesti-a by Liszt. Weber, from 1817 Hof kapellmeister of the Ger- man opera at Dresden, wrote "Der Frcischutz" for Berlin in 1821, "Euryanthe" for Vienna in 1823, and "Oberon" for London in 1826, in which latter city he succumbed to a disease of the lungs, soon after the opera had been successfully brought out. But his naively fresh melodies still live among his countrymen, and the combination of dramatic animation with brilliant effect in the pianoforte style, so powerfully employed both by him and Moscheles, found countless imitators; — the most gifted of whom, able at the same time ingeni- ously to apprehend and elaborate the rarest features in the epochs preceding him, was Felix Mendelssohn. As a pianoforte virtuoso, Weber had the Crescendo, swelling from the softest _pmwo through all degrees of intensification up to the mightiest forte, so completely at command, that he always exerted an electrifying effect therewith upon his hearers. In his written works this effect is most clearly illustrated in the Concert stiicTc already described, measure 68 — 84, where it leads up powerfully to the stormy Allegro passionato. The following late editions of his Pianoforte Works must be mentioned: — Sonatas and Salon Pieces, arr. by Franz Liszt, 2 Vols. — 141 — (J. G. Coita); Fianoforte Worlcs, com pi., Reinecke (Breitkopf & Hilrtel); Complete Compositions, 3 Vols. (Edition Peters); the same, 1 Vol. (Collection Litolff). The following- works on his life and labors are well worthy of notice — "Carl Maria von Wcher. Ein Lebensbild von Max Maria von Weber." 3 Vols., Leipzig, Keil, 1864. — "C. M. v. Weber in seinen Werken." A chronological thematic list of his complete compo- sitions, by F. W. Jiihns. Berlin, 1871, Schlesinger (Robt. Lienau). The pianist and composer Ludwig Bohner (1817—1861), in his last period quite run wild, was an original character, whom E. T. A. Hoifmann portrayed in so interesting a manner, in his FantasiestitcJce, as "Johannes Kreisler". From 1808 to 1820 he travelled about Grer- many giving concerts, playing his own compositions, but afterwards led a nomadic life in his native province of Thuringia, in very re- stricted circumstances. Among other things he had printed 5 Piano- forte Concertos, op. 7, 8, 11, 13, and 14, and 1 Sonata, op. 15; 1 Capriccio in A, and a great number of Dances (principally in Leipzig, Hofmeister or Breitkopf & Hilrtel); and his assertion that C. M. V. Weber had taken the loveliest passages of his "Freischiitz" from his pianoforte concerto in D, op. 8, created a great sensation for a time. One sees, however, on closer examination, that this pre- tended theft concerns only two measures, which occur in the above opera in the part sung by Agathe, to the words: ^^Suss entziicJct cntge " (N. B. only to the first note of this syllable), and consist of the tones of a broken triad embellished with turns. But Weber frequently begins his most popular melodies with the broken tones of a triad, which even occur without melodic embellishment; e. g. in the following: "Was gliinzt dort vom Walde im Sonnenschein" ; "Ein- sam bin ich nicht alleine"; the middle theme of the Preciosa overture, etc.; so til at the term theft no more applies to this case than to the mo- tive mentioned before, first employed by Clementi, from the ovei-ture to the Magic Flute. Weber's successor to the post of Hofkapellmeister at Dresden, and at the same time his warm admirer, was Carl Gottlieb Reissigep (1798—1859). He produced a series of elegant and easily executed Pianoforte Compositions, which are distinguished rather by the na- tural flow of their melodies than through profundity. Special favorites for a time were his Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, of which he published 22, and which belong to the better class of entertaining musical literature. We notice the following: the 2 Trios, — 142 — op. 164 and op. 175, "faciles et brillants", Berlin, Sclilesinger; also the larger Trios, op. 25 in D -minor, op. 77 in jEV, op. 85 in E. op. 125 in ^-minor, and op. 192 in D, the last one in full soore, all published by Peters in Leipzig-. Heinrich Marschner, too (1705—1861), Hofkapellmeister at Ha- nover, and renowned from his true Gemian operas conceived in Weber's spirit, left a few interesting Pianoforte Compositions of the same class, among which the following are to be specially recom- mended: — 2 Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 29 in J[-minor, Leipzig, Kistner, and op. Ill in (r-minor, Leipzig, Hof- meister; also 1 Quartet for Pianoforte, Violin, Viola, and Violoncello in jB?, op. 36, same publisher. Finally we should not neglect to notice the following compositions by Hofkapellmeister Louis Spohp of Cassel (1784— 1859): — ^mw^e^; for Pianoforte, 2 Violins, Viola, and Violoncello in B, op. 130, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; 5 Trios concertants for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 119 in .E- minor, op. 123 in F, op. 124 in J.-minor, op. 133 in JB\}^ and op. 142 in G^-minor, all editions in score, same publ.; 3 Duos concertants for Pianoforte and Violin, op. 113 in £'!?, op. 114 in E\>^ and op. 115 in J.?, same publ. — In these the pianoforte part appears as original as is this admirable writer's style of composition throughout; and in these works, wrought with loving care, Spohr likewise charms his many admirers with noble and well-chosen melodies and harmonies. Felix Mendelssohn. Mendelssohn, inspired by the beauties of Beethoven, Bach, and Mozart, and in his youth a witness of Carl Maria von Weber's epoeli- making triumphs, sought to combine the warmth and outward bril- liancy of the latter with the more artistic work of the earlier masters; and to this endeavor we owe a series of pianoforte works, whose appearance was joyfully greeted by all pianists, and in which, though lacking the spirit of originality, the well-schooled and impressionable musician is always recognizable. Felix IVIendelssohn-BarthoIdy, a grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, was born in Hamburg on February 3, 1809, but in his fourth year removed with his parents to Berlin, where he early received instruction in piano-playing from Ludwig Berger. In his tenth year the talented boy already played the Concert miUtaire — 143 — by Dussek with applause in public; iu the theory of music he quickly became the favorite pupil of Zelter, then Director of the Berlin Sing-akademie. The latter presented him in 1821 to his friend Goethe at Weimar, in which town Mendelssohn had an opportunity of listening to Hummel's fine playing, and in particular to his much-lauded free fantasias. Felix, then twelve, had already finished his first Quartet for Pianoforte, violin, viola, and violoncello, played by heart fugues by Seb. Bach and sonatas by Beethoven, and won the hearts of all by his frank and merry temper. In 1825 his father took him to Paris, to hear Cherubini's opinion on the intention of the youthful Felix, to devote himself wholly to music. The Master tested him, and expressed an extremely favorable judgment on his abilities. Moscheles, too, who at that time paid several visits to Berlin on the tours undertaken by him from London, took great delight in the gifted young artist, becoming not only a helpful teacher, but a faith- ful and appreciative friend until his untimely death. Mendelssohn visited him in 1829 at London, where he won great applause as a composer and pianist. In the following year Felix journeyed by way of Weimar, Munich, and Vienna to Italy, and in that country com- posed the counterpart of the above-described ConcertsUicJc by Weber, his Capriccio ivitli orcJwstra in B. During an extended stay in Rome he wrote, in 1831, the first book of his Songs without Words, a series of melodically attractive pieces of a simpler form, with au often finely elaborated harmonic accompaniment, which found sucii general favor that he gradually composed, at the desire of tlie publisher (Simrock of Bonn), seven books of six numbers each. la the year 1832 he once more travelled to London via Paris, meeting with a most cordial reception in both places. In the following year he was appointed Music Director at Diisseldorf, and in 1835 Con- ductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts at Leipzig, in which latter place he now settled permanently, till called away by death in 1847. His first Quartet for pianoforte, violin, viola, and violoncello in i'-minor, op. 1, is dedicated to Prince Anton of Radziwill, appearing in 1824; the second, op. 2, in JP-minor, is dedicated to Zelter, the third, op. 3, in ^-minor, to Goethe. Of his other Pianoforte Works the following- require special mention: — Concerto in (9-minor, op. 25, Leipzig, Breit- kopf & Hartel, 1833; Concerto in D-minor, op. 30, same publ., 1836; Capriccio hriUant with Orchestra, op, 22, same publ.; 2 Trios for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 49 and op. QQ, same publ; Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin, in A^, op. 4, Leipzig, Hofmeister, — 144 — 1825; 2 Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violoncello, op. 45 and op. 58, Leipzig, Kistner; Songs without Words, op. 19, 30, 38, 53, 62, 67, 87, Bonn, Simrock; Capriccio in i^iJ-minor, op, 5, Berlin, Sclilesiuger ; 5 Capriccios in J.-miuor, JE'-major, and B7-minor, op. 33, Breitkopf 6 Hartel; 6 Etudes and six Fugues, op. 35, same publ.; Sonata in E, op. 6, Leipzig, Hofineister; Fantasias, op. 14 and 15, Vienna, Mechetti: Fantasia in i^j^-minor, op. 28, Bonn, Simroek; Bondeau hrillant in E?^ op. 29, same publ.; Serenade and Allegro giocoso, op. 43, same publ.; Variations in D for Piano and Violoncello, op. 17, Vienna, Mechetti; Variations serieuses in F, op. 54, same publ.; and with Moscheles' collaboration, Duo and Variations on a tlieme from Pre- ciosa, for 2 Pianofortes with Orchestra. A critical Edition of Mendelssohn's Complete Works (folio), whose several Parts are also purchasable separately, has been published by Breitkopf & Hartel; also the Pianoforte Works in cheap editions.— Edition Peters and Collection Litolif likewise contain the pianoforte works complete or separately. Information concerning his life and labors is given by August Pteissmann, "Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy". Berlin, Guttentag, 1867. — Highly interestino- and instructive are Mendelssohn's own "Eeise- briefe" of the years 1830 to 1832; also of the years 1833 to 1847 (Leipzig, H. Mendelssohn, 1864).— The Letters (Reisebriefe) have been publ. in English by Longmans & Co., London. Some other biogra- phical works are: — Benedict. "A Sketch of the Life and Works of the late Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy". 2nd ed. London, 1853; — Lampadius. "F. M. B., ein Denkmal", Engl, editions New York 1866, Loudon 1878; — Killer. '-Mendelssohn, Letters and Becollections", etc., Loudon, 1874, Macmillan & Co.;— Devrient. "Meine Erinnerungen an F. M. B.", English ed. Loudon, 1869; and many others. — A study (Essay) on Mendelssohn's pianoforte style, which Hans von Biilow prefixed to his edition of Mendelssohn's Ptondo capriccioso op. 14 as a Preface, is also of the highest interest. Mendelssohn shares with Moscheles and Weber the merit of having given a more ideal tendency to Concert and Salon Music, earlier calculated merely for outward effect, by endowing his attrac- tive compositions, written in the purest pianoforte style, tvith a depth of meaning tvhich everywhere reveals tlie amiable and tvell- schooled musician. We have to name, as musicians educated directly through his teachings and intercourse with him, his sister Fanny Hensel, nee — 145 — Meudelssolin-Bartlioldy, whose published pianoforte compositions in- clude the following: — 3 books of Songs ivitlioiit Words, op. 2 and 6, Berlin, Bote & Bock; op. 8, Breitkopf & Hilrtel; and 2 books of Melodies pour le Ficino, op. 4 and 5, Berlin, Schlesinger. Also J. J. H. Verhulst (b. 1816), a talented Dutchman, down to 188G Hofmusikdirector at the Hague;— and the Englishman William Stern- daie Bennett (1816 — 1875), who began his musical studies in London under Moscheles. Having become acquainted there with Mendelssohn, he followed the latter to Germany, and until his death remained his faithful pupil and friend. He lived in London as a piano teacher in the highest circles, and in 1841 published a Pianoforte 3Iethod under the following title: "Classical Practice for Pianoforte Stiulents." Of his Pianoforte Compositions, all of which show refined taste, may be mentioned Four Concertos, Leipzig, Kistner; Fantasia with Orchestra, op. 22, same publ; Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violon- cello, op. 36, London, Cramer, Beale & Co.; Sonata in jP- minor, same publ.— Car! Reinecke (b. 1824) was engaged in 1851 as piano teacher at the Conservatory at Cologne, went in 1854 to Barmen as Musik director, in 1859 to Breslau, and in 1860 was appointed Kapellmeister of the Gewandhaus Concerts, and at the same time teacher at the Conservatory. "He is an excellent conductor, an emi- nent composer, and an extremely fine pianist; as a Mozart player he hardly has a rival; his pianistic individuality is quietness, clearness, cleanness; he always meets with a most enthusiastic welcome on his almost yearly concert tours, especially in Scandinavia, England, the Netherlands, and Switzerland Of his many pianoforte pupih we need mention only Louis Maas, J. Quast, A. Winding, K. Joseffy, Dora Schirmaeher, and Jeanne Becker. Eeinecke's pianoforte com- positions reveal throughout the refined pianist; he has published 4 Pianoforte Concertos, 1 Quintet, 1 Quartet, 6 Trios, 2 'Cello Sona- tas, 4 Violin Sonatas, 1 Fantasia for Pianoforte and Violin (op. 160), 1 Flute Sonata (op. 167), 1 Pianoforte Sonata for 4 hands, several Sonatas and Sonatinas, together with many minor piano works". [RiEMANN, Musik-Lexikon].— Carl Liihrs (1824—1882) who likewise profited by Mendelssohn's instruction, has published (Berlin, Traut- wein) very graceful "Miirchen", little pieces for the pianoforte, op. 2, in two books, dedicated to the distinguished pianiste Wilhelmlne Clauss-Szarvady (b. 1833). 10 — 14G — Adolf Henselt. As a composer nearly related to Mendelssolm, yet pursuing his own path, we must name Adolf Henselt, likewise noted as a highly accomplished pianoforte virtuoso. He was born at Schwabach on May 12, 1814, and received his first teaching in music from Gelieim- rdtJiin von Flad in Munich, she having been a fellow-pupil of Weber's under the Abbe Vogler. In his seventeenth year King Ludwig of Bavaria sent him to Weimar, to continue his studies under Hummel's eye; with this master he remained, however, but eight months, travelling in 1832 to Vienna, where he studied com- position under Sechter, at the same time training himself to finished virtuosity through the most assiduous practice. In 1836 at Berlin, and later at Dresden and Weimar, he awakened the admiration of his hearers in private circles, and is said to have played Weber's sonatas, in particular, with wonderful chann. In the year 1837 he played a few times in public at Berlin, Leipzig, and Dresden, ard then journeyed to St. Petersburg, where he has resided since 1838 as a teacher of high standing and Court pianist. Among his care- fully elaborated compositions, which are teeming with novel and characteristic pianoforte effects, the following are prominent: — two books of euphonious and melodious Concert Etudes, op. 2, Leipzig, Hofmeister, including the oft-played "Wenn ich ein Voglein war" in Fi; 12 J^tudes de Salon, op. 5, Breitkopf & Hartel; Poeme d' amour, op. 3, Berlin, Schlesinger; Bliapsodie, op. 4; 2 Nocturnes, op. 6; Fcnstc fugitive, and Scherzo, op. 8 and 9, Breitkopf & Hartel; Bo- manee, op. 10, same publ.; Variations de concert, op. 11, same publ.; FruTilingslied, op. 15; Tahlcau musical, op. 16; 2 Impromptus, op. 7 and 17; Romances sans paroles, op. 18; Toccatina, op. 25; false, op. 30; Ballade, Nocturne, and Chant sans paroles, op. 31, 32, 33; 1 Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 24; and a grandly developed, impassioned Concerto in F-minor, op. 16, Breitkopf & Hartel, which must be regarded as belonging to the most valuable works of pianoforte literature. We must also notice his Excrcices preparatoires, Berlin, Schlesinger: Illusion perdue, op. 34, same publ.; Valse melan- colique, op. 36, Breslau, Hainaucr; Souvenir de Vorsovie, Valse bril lante, Leipzig, Hofmeister; Chant sans paroles, Leipzig, Stoll; Liillahy {G^\ Vienna, Mechetti. — 147 — b. France. The last eminent clavier-player and organist of the earlier French seliool was the distinguished theoretician J. P. Rameau (b. 1685 in Dijon, d. 1764 in Paris). Under his pupil Claude Balbastre (1729 to 1799) the former serious clavier style degenerated into complete shallowness. The compositions published by the latter at Paris — Pieces de clavecin; Quatre suites de Noels avec variations et Quatuors l)Our le clavecin avec accompagnement de deux violons, une basse et deux cors ad libitum — are full of incorrect and trashy phrases. But his organ-playing, in particular the Noels, Christmas pieces with all manner of variations, always drew such crowds to St. Eoch, and later to the cathedral of Paris, at which churches he was engaged as organist, that the Archbishop was several times obliged (1762 — 1766) to prohibit his performing the midniglit masses. When Mozart and his sister visited Paris in the year 1763, the two most prominent clavier-players there were Schobert (1720 — 1768) and Eckard (1734 — 1809). The former, a native of Strassburg, in 1760 entered the service of the Prince of Conti at Paris as harpsi- chordist. In France, Holland, and England he was extolled as the most original composer of his time; he is said, in particular, to have been the first to endow the orchestral accompaniment of his Concertos with a peculiar charm, and also to have introduced a style of clavier- playing quite different from that before in vogue. Schobert, whose given name canuot now be ascertained (on the title-pages of his works only the family name is to be found), seems to have been little known in Germany, although it must be said in praise of his com- positions- that they were supplied with the most graceful melodies, and that their expression reveals now romantic melancholy, and now animated and attractive brilliancy. He left 17 Sonatas for Clavier and Violin; 11 Sonatas for Clavier, Violin, and Violoncello; 3 Quar- tets for Clavier, 2 Violins, and Violoncello; 6 Symplionies for Clavier with Violin and 2 Horns; 6 Clavier Concertos; and 4 books of Sonatas for Clavier Solo; they were printed as op. 1 to 18, first at Paris, then at Amsterdam by Hummel, and in London after his death. One of the clavier sonatas was published by Haffner in Nuremberg in the (Euvres melees, Partie XH. — His contemporary Johann Gott- fried Eckard was born of poor parents at Augsburg, and early dis- played a great fondness for music. Without instruction from a in* — 148 — teacher, he fitted himself through unremitting industry to execute the most difficult pieces in Bach's Well-tempered Clavichord. The talented Eckard was induced by a friend, the organ and clavier- maker Johann Andreas Stein of later celebrity, to bear him com- pany on a journey to Paris in 1758. Eckard, who was also a skill- ful draughtsman, earned his living there at first by portrait-painting, and employed the nighttime for the prosecution of his musical studies. This untiring zeal did not fail of reward; his clavier -playing soon found such favor that he decided upon remaining permanently in Paris. Andreas Stein returned to Augsburg; his pianoforte was sub- sequently (1777) preferred by Mozart to all other instruments of its class. Eckard published in Paris 6 Clavier Sonatas (1765), also tsvo Sonatas, op. 2, and "Menuet d'Exaudet, varie pour le clavecin", and died there in 1809 as one of the first clavier- players of his time. Schubart, in his "Ideen zu eiuer Aesthetik der Tonkunst", devotes an extended article to him, writing among other things: "Eckard does not write with the fire of a Schobert, but makes amends for this by greater profundity. Rousseau, the profound thinker and musician, ranks Eckard with the foremost clavier-players of the world. — The way in which Eckard attained perfection is well deserving of notice. He first selected a harpsichord, in order to practice the simple con- tours and to strengthen his hand: for the hand tires much sooner on a fortepiano or clavichord. Only after some years did Eckard play on a fortepiano, and finally on the clavichord, in order to endow his sketch with body, tone, and life. Thus Eckard has become the great man, whom France and Germany admire in him." The modern French Pianoforte school, however, which teaches according to a fixed method, and in which a certain style in compositions and interpretations is set up as a traditionary model, owes its origin to a pupil of C. Ph. E. Bach, its founder being Nicolaus Joseph Hiillmandel (b. in Strassburg, 1751, d. in London, 1823), an artist, like the preceding, but little known in Germany. After travels in Italy, this distinguished clavier-player, who is like- wise described as an extremely amiable person, came in 1776 to Paris, where the way was paved for his favorable reception by several compositions of his, already published there (6 Sonatas pour Clavecin, Violon, et Basse, op. 1, 17G0). In a short time he rose to be ovuP of the leading and most popular clavier-teachers; he was in- vited into the highest circles, published several clavier- works (op. 1 to 11, Boycr-Nadermann & Sieber; Petits airs faciles et progressifs, — 149 — op, 5, Oirenbach, Anclvc), aud in 1787 married a wealthy heiress, who prevailed upon him to withdraw completely from the world of artists. The Conservatory of Music at Paris was opened in the year 1792, and one of the finest of the pupils trained by Hullmandel, Hyacinthe Jadin (b. 1769 at Versailles), was chosen as head of the department of piano -playing. Among his compositions some Fiano- forte Concertos (Paris, i\lichel Ozy, Erard & Pleyel) were very popu- lar at the time; but they were already written under the influence of Ignaz Pleyel's works, which made an unprecedented sensation from 1785 to 1795. Hyacinthe Jadin died in 1802, and in the same year his brother and pupil Louis Emanuel Jadin entered the Con- servatory as professor. This latter, the composer of 39 operas and other considerable works, was also the first to bring into vogue those abominable botches, the Melanges and Potpourris, wherein "favorite melodies" are senselessly linked together by some few inane measures for the purpose of tickling the ears of dilettanti. The pianoforte school of the Paris Conservatory received its most important impetus from Louis Adam. He was born near Strass- burg in 1758, early developed himself to an able pianist through the study of the works of Sebastian and Emanuel Bach, Scarlatti, and Schobert, and came to Paris in 1775 as a music teacher. Here he also became familiar with Mozart's and dementi's compositions, and exercised a highly beneficial influence in developing the taste of his numerous pupils by his preference for the substantial works of the above masters. In 1797 he was appointed professor of the Con- servatory, where he turned out a goodly number of noted pianists, among whom F. Kalkbrenner, F. Chaulieu, Henri Le Moine, and H6rold are especially prominent. After a service of forty-five years he was pensioned in 1843, and died in 1848 at the age of 90. Of his compositions, the variations on "Le Eoi Dagobert" vrere for some time a special favorite with pianists. Adam rendered a great service through a more definite regulation of the fingering, by a work written with L. W. Lachnith's co-operation: "Methode ou principe generale du doigte pour le Forte -piano, suivie d'une collection complete de tons les traits possibles avec le doigte", Paris, Sieber, 1798, and his "Mcthode nouvelle pour le Piano a I'usage des eleves du conserva- toire" proved of such practical utility, that from 1802 to 1831 it ran through five editions in Paris. To fill the position of a pianoforte teacher at the Paris Conscv- — 150 — vatoiy, made vacant by the decease of Hyacinthe Jadin in 1802, a competition (concours) was arranged, for which Cherubini, then one of tlie Inspectors, composed several fugues. Louis Barthelemi Pradher (^Pradere) (b. 1781 in Paris, d. 1843 in Gray) was so fortunate as to obtain the position, as he nut only played the above difficult com- positions fluently at sight, but also proved himself a thorough virtuoso by performing a concerto by Dussek. After laboring 25 years at the Conservatory, he went to Toulouse, where he became Director of a similar musical institute. Among the pupils trained by him in Paris, the brothers Henri and Jacques Herz, Dubois, Eosellen, and Hunten must be mentioned as most distinguished. The eleve of the Conservatory already alluded to, Friedrich Kalkbrenner, was destined to spread throughout musical Europe the fame of the French Pianoforte School, which during its brief existence had attained to such encouraging results. He was born at Cassel in 1784, and received his first musical insti-uction from his father. The latter assumed the post of chorus-master of the grand opera at Paris in 1798, the son then continuing his studies at the Conservatory. In pianoforte-playing he was taught by Adam, in composition somewhat later by Cattel, and made so decided progress under both, that he won the first prize aAvarded for the two branches named as early as 1801. In 1803 his father sent him to Vienna, that his development might be promoted by the brilliant performances of Clementi, then sojourning in that place; on his return to Paris in 1806 the brilliant distinction of his playing rendered him one of the most highly esteemed teachers. The presence of Dussek, who was engaged in Paris from 1808 to 1812 as master of concerts to the Prince of Talleyrand, and whose sonorous pianoforte works found great ap- plause, had an extremely happy influence on the further perfecting of Kalbrenner's style of playing and composing, and on the prosperity of the French pianoforte school as a whole. From 1814 to 1823 Kalkbrenner dwelt in England. His finished performances were re- ceived there with demonstrative applause, and the numerous brilliant (compositions afterwards published by him were eagerly sought for and much played. At that time the so-called chiroplast or hand- gujde, an apparatus* invented by Johann Bernhard Logier to aid * Two parallel rails attached in front of the keyboard, between which the hands were free to move to the right and left, but were constrained to remain at a proper distance from the keys. — 151 — in gainini:: a correct position of the hands in piano -pla}'ing;, was in great YOgue in London, and in the year 1817 Logier united with Samuel Webbe and Kalkbrenner to found an Academy in which, besides piano-playing, the theory of music was also taught according to an easily comprehended method. Here, in various classes, all pupils possessed of an equal degree of skill were taught simulta- neously. This method was brought to Germany by Dr. Franz Stopel, and taught since then in the institute of Adele Dorn at Bei-lin, and in that of Louis Wandelt at Breslau, although not without many changes and improvements. Li 1821 Moscheles had also settled in London, and his powerful and finished style did not remain without influence on Kalkbrenner's performances. The latter, however, bent all his energies to the greatest possible perfection of his technical skill, and calculated his compositions purely for placing the same in the best light; whereas Moscheles continually strove to render the subjects of his compositions interesting, and through his virtuosity to lend them the most living expression. In 1823 and 1824 Kalkbrenner gave concerts in Frank- fort, Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin, Prague, and Vienna, and was received everywhere with loud applause, even beside Moscheles, then making- like professional tours. He then returned to Paris, where he became a partner in Pleyel's Fortepiano Factory, while at the same time ranking as the head of the modern French pianoforte school, whose foremost merit is the precept, to avoid all exertion of the arm in liil ailing, and to concentrate tJie entire strength in the fingers, wldch arr. to he equally developed in hoth hands. Kalkbrenner not only required passages in thirds and sixths to be executed by the right or left hand, but added to the same the higher octave of the lower tone; he introduced effective double and triple trills, and was the first to write extended compositions for the left hand alone, which he played with finished ease. His op. 42 is 1 Sonate pour la main gauche principale (T^eipzig, Kistner); we also find a four -part fugue in his Methode pour apprendre le Piano a I' aide du Guide-mains; contenant les principes de la musique; un systeme complet de doigte; des regies sur I'expression, etc., op. 108, dedicated to all conservatories of music in Europe (same publ.). Among his pupils Madame Pleyel, in particular, is distinguished as the finest French jj/ams^e. On the very pinnacle of virtuosity, Kalkbrenner aroused the greatest enthu- siasm in the years 1833, 1834, and 1836 on his trips to Hamburg, Berlin, Brussels, and other places. But with his compositions, the — 152 — majority of which are devoted solely to outward effect, begin the series of those meaningless salon pieces, v.hich blunt the taste for loftier music, and whose titles unhappily yet fill most pages in the catalogues of certain publishing houses. Kalkbrenner died in Enghien near Paris in 1849. Of his four Pianoforte Concertos, op. 61, 85, 107, and 127, the first, in D-minor, has found most favor. Among his other works we note Grand Concerto pour 2 Pianos in C, op. 125; Gage d'amitie, op. 66; Les cJiarmes de Berlin, op. 70, also op. 101 and 102; Bondeaux hriJJants with orchestral accompaniment; Fan- tasias and Variations with Orchestra, op. 72, 83, 90, and 113; Sona- tas for Pianoforte solo, op. 1, dedicated to L. Adam; op. 28, to J. B. Cramer; op. 48, Cherubini; also op. 4, 13, 35, and 56; 1 Grande Sonate for 4 hands, op. 79; Grand Duo for 2 Pianos, op. 128; J^tudes, Caprices, Fugues, etc., op. 20, 54, 88, 104, 125; a large number of pieces with accompaniment of one or more instruments, and numerous Fantasias and Variations for Pianoforte solo. The decay oi' this later French school of brilliant Pianoforte- playing begins with the compositions of the above-mentioned pupils of Pradher (Herz, Kosellen, and Hiinten), which are for the most part characterless, being calculnted merely for the most striking pianoforte effects attainable, or for shallow prettiness, and which remained for a time in vogue. These three fashionable composers and their imi- tators at first tickled the already blase palates of the pianists with novel and piquant difficulties, and then contented themselves with setting the sweetest tidbits before the musical gourmands, finally quite giving up the ghost at the birth of the Romantic School, on the appearance of Chopin's soul-stirring tone-poems. The first-named, Heinrich Herz, was born at Vienna in 1806, came early to Coblenz, took his first piano -lessons there from the organist Daniel Hiinten, and in his eighth year already executed Ilummel's Variations op. 8 ("sopra una canzonetta nationale austriaca") with applause at a public concert. His father sent liim in 1816 to the Conservatory at Paris, where he soon became Pradher's favorite pupil. In the very next examinations Herz was to shine as a pianist, when an attack of the measles supervened. But four days before the concours he gathered up his strength, began his practicing afresh, and carried off the first prize at the competition by his brilliant per- formance of the 12th Concerto by Dussek and an Etude by Clemen ti. In the year 1818 he issued his first compositions: Air tyrolien varie, and Eondcaii alia Cosacca, which were at once favorably received. — 153 A great influence on his later pianoforte works, and also on the finishing of his style of playing, was exerted by the concerts given by Moscheles at Paris in 1820 and crowned with triumphant success. Thenceforward it was Hcrz's ambition to surpass that master, if possible, in virtuosity, and to lend more grace and brilliancy to his own compositions; while Moscheles after that time evidentl}^ strove to endow his compositions and performances with greater dignity and deeper meaning. Herz's Pianoforte Compositions, for which the pub- lishers paid unheard-of prices, were the reigning favorites during some 15 years; and his concerts, too, especially those undertaken in company with the eminent violin virtuoso Lafont in Germany (1831), were attended by the liveliest applause. To the co-operation of these two virtuosi the pleasing composition "Duo et Variations con- certans pour Piano et Violon sur la romance C'est une larme, par Lafont et Henri Herz", owes its origin. In 1834 Herz visited London, Dublin and Edinburgh, his easy and elegant style of playing earning him ovations, particularly in. the last two cities. One of his most effective pieces at the time was the Variations dc bravoure sur la romance de Joseph in C, op. 20, in which among other things the theme is executed in leaps, the extremes of which are two octaves apart. In the year 1824 he took an interest in the pianoforte factory of Klepfer of Paris, and subsequently established one of his own, which has since then turned out excellent concert grands. His earlier compositions, like the three grand Concertos, op. 34, 74, and 87, also the Bondeau briUant dedicated to Moscheles, op. 11, often afford the player interesting and fiery passages and effective difficul- ties; whereas the later ones — excepting the J^tudes, op. 100 (from his Methodc de Piano), 119, 151, 152, and 153 — consist of meagre Fantasias, Variations, and other worthless amateur-pieces. Henri Bertini (b. 1798 in London), who made Paris his perma- nent residence from 1821, followed a loftier tendency in his com- positions. He appears in the same as a weak reflection of Hummel; but his numerous instruction books, in iinrticulax^— Etudes progressives, clementaires et de perfection, arranged in the Berlin edition of Schle- singer progressively according to difficulty, as op. 84, 100, 101, 86, 97, 29, 32, 66, and 94 — have permanent value as practice-pieces and for a time were preferred to all others by thorough teachers. Bertini died in 1876. The pianoforte works published by Hiinten & Rosellen, the above- mentioned fellow-pupils of Herz, under their name, sank to the merest — 154 — factory work, although when issued they went off so rapidly that the puhlishers paid higher prices for single sheets of the same, than the complete larger works of Beethoven had brought. The inventor of such trash in Paris seems to have been Henri Karr (b. 1784), the father of the noted writer Alphonse Karr. N. I'Etendart, regarded as the best eleve of the organist Balbatre earlier alluded to, gave Henri Karr instruction in music and recommended him to the Brothers Erard, the celebrated pianoforte makers, as a skilful player for show- ing off the instruments in their ware-rooms. He was engaged by them for 2000 francs, and in the publishing house of the same firm appeared his first and better compositions {Sonate pour Piano, op. 1, etc.). These having gained a certain vogue, however, he gave up his position, and now supplied to order, after given patterns and specified melodies, over 200 Fantasias, Divertissements, Bondeaux, JBagatelles, and similar stuff, which were eagerly taken by dilettanti in the decade from 1811 to 1821. After that time, however, a rival arose in the person of Franz Kilnten (b. 1793 in Coblenz, died there in 1878), who entered the Paris Conservatory in 1819, and whose Variations militaires a 4 mains, op. 12, a childish imitation of Moscheles' variations on the Alexander March, had such extraordi- nary success, that in the course of time the publishers fairly besieged him with orders for similar divertissenients , which, though easy to play, sounded brilliant in the ears of amateurs. With the great demand, the price of the article also rose; and Hiinten finally re- ceived for a book of 8 or 10 printed pages the outrageous price of 1500 to 2000 francs. From 1835 he lived in Coblenz on his in- come, and his fellow-pupil Henri Rosellen (b. 1811 in Paris) then continued the same lucrative business, for which, however, several competitors had come forward, such as J. Ascher, Friedrich Burg- miiller, H. Ravina, Henri Cramer, and Charles Voss, whose works are even surpassed in worthlessncss by the Fantasias and Potpourris of Ferdinand Beyer, C. T. Brunner, J. B. Duvernoy, H. Martin, Theo- dor Oesten, etc. The occupation with such brainless productions of fashion dulls the sense of the pupil for all more serious and valuable work, without furthering his technical skill in any way whatever; an able and conscientious teacher will therefore not require the pupils committed to his charge to kill their time with the same. Moritz Hauptmann's talented pupil Norbert Burgmiiller (1810 — 1836) must not be confounded with the above-mentioned Friedrich Burgmiiller; but few of the inspired compositions of the former have — 155 — been published. Among liis pianoforte works, op. 1, Concerto with orchestra in Fj}-minor, and op. 16, Polonaise, were issued by Fried. Kistner, Leipzig; — op. 8, Sonata in i^- minor, a Romance from the same, with portrait, and Bhapsodie, op. 13, by Fr. Hofmeister. The number of those pianoforte amateui-s who seek and esteem only brilliant compositions for their instrument, which promise to ex- hibit their skill in the strongest light, is very considerable. The way marked out by Henri Herz and Sigismund Thalberg, lying wholly within the domain of virtuosity, has therefore been trodden by many, among whom may be named Antoine de Kontski (b. 1817 in Cracow), well known as a brilliant player through his professional tours throughout Europe, whose pianoforte works, of a most conceited and affected style, have reached the number of 200, among them Le reveil da lion, op. 115; Le trille du diahJe, op 53; Fleurs melodiqiies, op. 77; Feuilles volantes, op. 139; fui'thermore Emile Prudent (1820 — 1863), whose smooth and clean playing was much praised in Paris, and who published among other things the salon pieces Le reveil des fees, op. 41; Les najades, op. 45; Etudes de genre, op. 16. The compositions of Karl Wehle (b. 1825, d. 1883), a talented pupil of J. Proksch, who lived for the most part in Paris, are of a pleasing and unassuming character, and are favorites on account of their elegant and easily mastered pianoforte style; we note Foeme d' amour, op. 6; Ballade, op. 11; Serenade napolitaine, op. 31; Marclie cosaque, op. 37.— Wilhelm Kriiger (b. 1823 in Stuttgart, d. 1883 in that city) also held for several years a distinguished position in Paris as a pianist and composer for his instrument; of his larger pianoforte works we mention the Concerto in G, op. 42, dedicated to the King of Wiirttemberg; a grand Sonata in G, op. 100, dedicated to Duke Ernest of Coburg-Grotha; and the interesting salon pieces La gazelle, op. 14; La harpe eolienne, op. 25; CJianson du gondolier, op. 40; Menuet symplioniqiie, op. 56; Presto impromptu, op. 57; Marclie noc- turne, op. 96; Zigeuner mar sell, op. 104; La coupe d'or, op. 110; and many others. He likewise edited a Complete Edition of the Clavier Works of G. F. Handel for the publishing house of Cotta, Stuttgart. 156 — ¥1. The romantic Style. Francois Frederic Chopin. Toward the close of the year 1831, when the Polish revolution had excited all minds to feverish agitation, and the wanton carnival of the authors of the dazzling, but meaningless virtuoso -pieces just described was at its height, Chopin, then twentj^-one, entered the gay and brilliant salons of Paris, pale and ethereal as an apparition from another world. Here, invited to try one of those Pleyel piano- fortes which he later preferred to all others on account of "their veiled, silvery tone", he drew from it, in the pathetic crystal tones of the harmonica, songs of the sufferings, the stifled complaints, the high-soaring hopes of his people. In the hall reigned the silence of death. None dared breathe freely. Not till the last tones of his soul-stirring elegies died away, was he greeted with a burst of en- thusiasm, which was decisive for the future position of the young Pole in Paris. He was immediately welcomed into the circles of the many high Polish families then in the French capital, and his numer- ous lady pupils were as extravagantly fond of their so amiable in- structor as of his romantico -poetical tone-poems, that opened a new field of music. Franz Liszt, who after Chopin's untimely death de- dicated such an exquisite tribute* to his memory, was one of the first to recognize his high significance for musical art. For this reason Chopin loved him in particular, choosing this friend, so congenial to him in art and by nature, before all others as the interpreter of his characteristic compositions. The leaders in art and literature did him homage, and Liszt once found assembled in his room, dimly lighted only by the candles on the piano, the spirituelle Mme. George Sand, the saddest of all humorists, Heine, the head of the romantic school of painting, the daring Eugene Delacroix, and the venerable Memcewicz, together with Meyerbeer, Bellini, Adolphe Nourrit, Hiller, and the hitter's best pupil and fast friend Gutmaun, all intent upon listening to his marvellous playing. Chopin played unwillingly, and * F. Chopin par Liszt. Paris, M. Escudier; nouvelle Edition, 1877, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel. I — 157 — therefore but seldom, in public concerts; but in the salon his playing had an indescribable charm. He phrased and accented his composi- tions in the freest manner, and in the earlier works often indicated this by „tempo rubato". The rhythm then wavered, sinking and rising "like a flame agitated by the breath". He was unwearying in the endeavor to transmit his peculiar style of rendering to his pupils — ladies, for the most part — and expected that the player of the pieces published later would in himself be able to feel and apply "the rule of this irregularity of measure" even without that indication. Frangois Frederic Chopin, whose family was of French origin, was born on March 1, 1809, in Zelazowa near "Warsaw. At the age of nine the boy, from childhood nervously, weak and infirm, began his musical studies under an old Bohemian musician named Zwiny, who admired Sebastian Bach's works above all others. Prince Anton Radziwill later took the talented youth under his protection, and cared for the completion of his training; his tender, emotional play- ing rendered him a welcome guest in the first Polish families. The theory of music was taught him by Eisner, the Director of the Con- servatory at Wareaw; through short excursions to Berlin, Dresden, and Prague he profited by hearing practical virtuosi, until he went to Vienna in 1831, where he made his d^but in concerts of his own. The correspondent of the Leipzig "Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung" (No. 46, Nov. 18, 1829) then already regarded him as one of the most remarkable meteors in the musical heavens, and emphasized as traits of true genius his masterly skill, his delicate touch, and the melancholy tinge of his finely shaded interpretations. On account of the Polish revolution breaking out meantime, he prolonged his stay in Vienna, giving his farewell concert in 1831, after which he pro- posed to make a brief visit to Paris, proceeding thence to London. But in Paris his playing and compositions met with such favor, that he resolved to remain there, and dwelt in that city, with but short interruptions, until his death. In the year 1837 he showed such alarming symptoms of lung- disease, that physicians advised an ex- tended sojourn beneath softer skies. He therefore betook himself to Majorca, accompanied by George Sand, at that time his fondest admirer. He returned refreshed to Paris, but as early as 1840 the symptoms reappeared, and the disease took a highly dangerous turn in 1846 and 1847. Nevertheless, after the Paris revolution of 1848, he decided upon a trip to London, where he appeared in public — 158 — Beveral times, and arranged a final concert for the assistance of the Poles. On his return to Paris in the same year he once more played in a concert; on the 17th of October, 1849, he died there, soothed by the tones of a psalm by Marcello, sung at the request of the dying man by his favorite pupil the Countess Delphine Potocka, so distinguished for her wit, talent, and beauty. Chopin published one Pianoforte Concerto in £"- minor, op. 11, and another in F-minor, op. 21; the latter, the Adagio of which he was especially fond of and often played, is dedicated to the Countess Potocka just mentioned. His otlier compositions, in which, foremostly, the romantic tone -poet struck chords stirring the inmost soul, thus opening the way for a new style of music filled with a living spirit, are the following: 5 Sonatas for Pianoforte solo, op. 4, 35, and 58 (the movement in the second entitled "JMarche Funebre" was per- formed at his funeral); 1 Sonata, op. 65, and 1 Polonaise, op. 3, for Pianoforte and Violoncello; 1 Trio for Pianoforte, Violin and Violon- cello, op. 8; 1 grand Polonaise, interrupted by a Mamrha, in J^'j^-minor; Polonaises, op. 22, 26, 40, 53, and 61; 3 Bondeaux, op. 1, 5, and 16; 4 Ballades, op. 23, 38, 47, and 52; eight books of Nocturnes, op. 9, 15, 27, 32, 37, 48, 55, and 62, which in all probability owe their origin to the earlier mentioned compositions of the same class by Field, this inventor of the same being in Paris at the very time when Chopin arrived there; a set of 24 Preludes — precious gems, in which the whole poetic nature of Chopin shines and sparkles in most diverse iridescence; two equally importnnt series of fantastic jStudes, op. 10 and 25; Fantasia on Polish melo- dies, with orchestral accompaniment, op. 13; Kral-oviah with Orches- tra, op. 14; Bolero, op. 19; 3 Scherzi, op. 20, 31, and 39; Impromp- tus, op. 29 and 36; Tarantella, op. 43; Allegro de Concert, op. 46 and 51; Fantasia, op. 49; Valses, op. 18, 31, 34, 42, and 64; Varia- tions, op. 2 and 12; and finally 11 scries of Mamrl-as, op. 6, 7, 17, 24, 30, 33, 41, 50, 56, 59, and 63. — Chopin's Works have been published in a critically revised Complete Edition (folio) in 14 Volu- mes, which are also sold separately, by Breitkopf & Hiirtel. Tlie same firm has also published his Pianoforte Compositions in 10 cheap octavo volumes, stiff paper covers, red. [Since the year 1879, on the last day of which the copyright in Chopin's works exj^ired, a great number of complete and selected .editions have appeared. As both the best and earliest of these must be mentioned the Complete Edition edited by Carl Klindworth (first published in Russia and — 159 — afterwards by Bote & Bock of Berlin), in which, through a careful revision and comparison of the French, German, and Polish editions, together with the aid of Liszt's personal recollections, a wellnigh perfect text, and most excellent directions for phrasing and fingering, are supplied. Other editions have appeared, edited by Hermann Scholtz (Peters), Th. KuUak, Mertke, and others. 0. L.] The first Polonaises to portray in colors both attractive and true to nature the character of that people, to whom they owe their name, were composed by Count Michael Kleophas Oginski; the most cele- brated of the same, the so-called Death Polonaise in F,* was written in 1793. These pieces created such a general sensation, that in 1820 Oginski published a collection of the same for the benefit of the Poor-house in Wilna, which netted the sum of 10,000 rubles. A Selection of 14 of these Polonaises has been issued in Collection Litolff (L. Kohler). The Koscms^Jco Polonaise, the peer of the Marseillaise in its exciting effect (Hamburg, Boehme), was composed in 1794 during the uprising led by that hero. Equally characteristic with these, Chopin's Polonaises also breathe, now a profound, elegiac mournfulness, a smile effacing in melancholy, and now an inflexible pride, an indomitable courage- Chopin, however, left us the most faithful and animated pictures of his nation in the Mazurkas, which form finished master-pieces of ilicir class. Here he stands forth in his full originality as the head of the romantic school of music; in them his novel and alluring melodic and harmonic progressions are even more surprising than in his larger compositions. They are strikingly described by Liszt as follows: "►Some portray foolhardy gaiety in the sultry and oppressive air of a ball on the eve of a battle; one hears the low sighs of parting, whose sobs are stifled by sharp rhythms of the dance; others betray the grief of the sorely anxious soul amid the festivities, whose tumult is unable to drown the profound woe of the heart; others again show the fears, premonitions, and struggles of a broken heart devoured by jealousy, sorrowing over its loss, but repressing the curse. Now we are surrounded by a swirling frenzy, pierced by an ever-recurring, palpitating melody like the anxious beating of a rejected and break- ing heart; and anon distant trumpet-calls resound, like dim memories of by-gone fame". * The first of the "Four Xational Polonaises" by Oginski, Berlin, Schlesino-er. — 160 — A spirited portrait of the gifted composer is given by Moritz Karasowski in the work: Friedrieh Chopin. Sein Leben, seine Werke uud Briefe. 2 Vols., 1877. Dresden, Ries. Robert Schumann. In France, Franz Liszt had come forward as the enthusiastic champion, both by word and deed, of the neo-romantie music which was to seal the doom of the loftily affected pianoforte literature then holding sway. In Germany, this fresh and luxuriant growth, exhibit- ing at once the freer form corresponding to its novel conception, and unprecedentedly bold harmonies and modulations, found an enthu- siastic admirer and defender in Robert Schumann. In the year 1834 he founded, in company with Friedrieh Wieck, Ludwig Schunke, and Julius Knorr, the "Neue Zeitschrift flir Musik" in Leipzig, and deter- mined to take the field most energetically against the constantly spreading FJiilisfertJmm (narrow and prosaic pedantry), and to reins- tate the dethroned poetry of art. Through this periodical, which speedily found general favor, and was edited from 1835 to 1845 by himself, Schumann was the first to call the attention of Germany to the compositions of Chopin, to whom he felt irresistibly drawn; and under the names of Eusebius, Florestan, and Meister Raro he scourged the earlier and more recent insipid pattern -work, while elucidating the inspired compositions of the older masters and their ambitious followers in forceful phrase appropriate to the matter under dis- cussion, Schumann was born at Zwickau on June 8, 1810, and showed from earliest youth a decided inclination to and talent for music. At the desire of his parents he studied law at Leipzig in 1828, and at Heidelberg in 1829, but in the ensuing year already resolved to devote himself entirely to music. He proceeded to Leipzig in order to profit by the instruction of the excellent pianoforte teacher Frie- drieh Wieck (1785 — 1873); the latter took him into his home, and Schumann thus became the daily companion of the then eleven-year old daughter of the house, Clara Wieck (b. 1819 in Leipzig). At the same time he began his studies in composition under Heinricli Dorn, then likewise dwelling in Leipzig, to which he soon turned his exclusive attention, an experiment to which he had subjected his left hand, in order to widen the stretch of the same, having resulted so unfortunately, that it was crippled and rendered incapable of further — 1(31 — piano-playing. His first compositions. Tlihme sur le vom Ahegg varie pour le Pianoforte, op. 1. (Leipzig, Kistner), and Fapillons pour le Pianoforte, op. 2 (ditto), were written in Heidelberg; -after tliese, Fr. Hofmeister of Leipzig piiblislied Studies for the Pianoforte after Caprices by Paganini, op. 3; Intermcszi per il Pianoforte, op. 4, and somewhat later Impromptus on a tlieme by Clara Wieck, op. 5. In 1833 Schumann contracted an intimate friendship with the distin- guished pianist Ludwig Schunke (b. 1810 at Cassel), who came to Leipzig from Stuttgart, among whose published works for the piano- forte we note an Allegro passionate , op. 6, and 1 Pondo hrillant, op. 11, and to whom Schumann dedicated 1 Toccata in C (Leipzig, Hofmeister). But in the very next year the unhappy end of this friend, who threw himself out of a window in Paris, caused him the sharpest grief. Schumann had styled the like-minded co-workers on his critical sheet the "Davidsblindler;" this name he also gave to his op. 6, at first issued as the work of "Florestan and Eusebius", but in later editions under his own name (publ. by J. Schuberth & Co., Leipzig). The humoristic pieces also belonging to this period, entitled Carne- val, Scenes Mignonnes sur 4 notes, op. 9 (Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hiirtel), have as a Finale the playfully mocking "March of the Davidshiindler against the Philistines", written in "/^ time. The notes given beneath the title, a es (c'l?) c h (h), and as («[;) c h (&), spell the name of the birthplace (Asch) of his first youthful flame, to whom he dedi- cated his op. 8, Allegro pour Ic Pianoforte in i>- minor (Leipzig, Rob. Friese). In his earlier compositions Schumann had followed the ingenuously warm-hearted tone of Weber and Mendelssohn; but in the pianoforte works published from 1835 to 1840 an original vein is struck. His themes become more serious and pregnant, their development fuller and more exciting. Beethoven and Schubert had proposed a new- theory of modulation, and Chopin, by a peculiar employment of chro- matic intervals and the greatest diversity of suspensions and retarda- tions, had called into being means of expression not yet r.ssimilated in the theory of thorough-bass. Impressionable for all extensions in the theory of his art, Schumann not only used the freedom w^on by his predecessors, but himself added new harmonies, modulations, and rhythms to the common stock of harmony and metre. In the full flower of youth, his heart aglow with love for his Clara, he pro- duced the followins: momentous Pianoforte Compositions: Three grand — : 62 — Sonatas, op. 11 in -Pj-miuor, op. 14 in JP-minor, and op. 22 in G-minor, which he dedicated to Clara Wieck, Moscheles, and Henriette Vogt, a gifted pupil of Ludwig Berger; the first publ. by Kistner, the second by J. Schubevth & Co., and the third by Breitkopf & Hiirtel of Leipzig-; FantasiestncJce, op. 12, Breitkopf & Hartel; Etudes en forme de Variations, op. 13, a fine work dedicated to Sterndale Bennett, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; Kreisleriana , op. 16, Leipzig 1839, G. Heinze — adventurous scenes of sonl- stirring pathos, dedi- cated to Chopin, and revealing the full depth of our composer's emotional life; Fantasie, op. 17, Breitkopf & Hartel — dedicated to Franz Liszt, and instinct with an irresistible romantic attraction and hot -glowing passion; Novclletfcn, op. 21, Breitkopf & Hartel; Nacht- stilcJx, op. 23, Vienna, Spina; FascMngsscliwanlc, op. 26, ditto, ani- mated scenes and situations, ingeniously and delicately wrought out in the most manifold colors and motliest succession. Finally there still belong to this period the Kindersccnen, easy pieces for the piano- forte, op. 15, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, which was the first of his compositions to be understood and appreciated in wider circles. Clara Wieck made her first professional tours through Germany in 1836 to 1838, and her spirited playing everywhere received the most flattering applause. The degree of Doctor of Philosophy hav- ing been bestowed on Schumann in 1840, she became his wife, and in 1844 they undertook a journey to St. Petersburg and Moscow, in which cities both the wife's playing and the husband's compositions met with a most favorable reception. On returning to Leipzig, Schu- mann entrusted the editorship of the Neue Zeitschrift ftir Musik to Franz Brendel's hands; it had fulfilled its mission, "it had set a dam in the way of mechanical imitation and easy frivolit}^, and pioneered the way for a poetically spiritualized, earnestly striving tendency of art; Schumann had no further reason for wielding his shining critical weai)ons against Philistines or fools". (A. W. Ambros). From 1839 to 1849 he produced the following compositions, to be numbered among his chief works: Quintet for Pianoforte, 2 Vio- lins, Viola, and Violoncello, in E\}^ op. 44, Breitkopf & Hartel, dedi- cated to Clara Schumann; Andante and Variations for 2 Pianofortes, in J>>, op. 46, ditto; Quartet for Pianoforte, Violin, Viola, and Violon- cello, op. 47, in £"[?; Studies and Sketches for the Pedal-Pianoforte in canon- form, op. 56 and 58, Leipzig, F. Whistling; 6 Fugues on the name of Bach, op. 60, Leipzig, Gustav Heinze; Trio for Piano- forte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 63 in />-minor, Breitkopf & Hartel; — 163 — Album fur die Jugend, 55 Piano-pieces for Small or Grown Players, op. 68, Leipzig-, J. Scliubertli & Co.; Adagio and Allegro for Piano- forte and Horn, op. 70, Leipzig, Kistner; 4 Fugues, dedicated to Carl Reinecke, op. 72, Leipzig, Whistling; Fanfasiesfi'icJce for Piano- forte and Clarinet, op. 73, Cassel, Luckhard; and fonr Marclics dated 1849, op. 76, Leipzig, Whistling, which are eminently noteworthy as fiery, forceful, and sonorous pianoforte pieces. In the year 1843 the Conservatory of Music at Leipzig was founded, and the direction of the same entrusted to Mendelssohn. At the instance of the latter, his friend Schumann accepted a position in that institution as teacher; but on Mendelssohn's departure for Berlin in the ensuing year, Schumann also left Leipzig, settling at first in Dresden, and making a professional journey in 1847 to Prague and Vienna. The post of Tow^n Music Director at Diisseldorf, which he assumed in 1850, was given up by him in 1853, he then mak- ing a journey to Holland with his Clara, where they "were wel- comed with joy, yes, with honors", and he "saw with surprise, that his music was almost better known in Holland than in the Father- land". From 1854 symptoms, sometimes noticeable even earlier, of a disease affecting his brain, grew more and more alarming; on the 29 th of July, 1856, death put an end to the sufferings caused by the disorder. He rests in the cemetery outside the Sternthor of Bonn. Ferdinand Hiller said of him: "With a golden sceptre thou reignedst over a lordly realm of harmonies, and wroughtst therein mth a strong and free hand. And many of the best follow^ed thee, gave themselves up to thee, inspired thee by their enthusiasm, and rewarded thee by faithful love". To his last period belong the following Pianoforte Works: Trio for Pianofoite, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 80 in F, Leipzig, J. Scliu- bertli & Co.; Waldscenen, 9 Piano-pieces, op. 82, Leipzig, Seulf; 12 Piano-pieces for 4 hands, for great and small children, op. 85, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; FantasiestiicTce for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 88, Leipzig, Kistner; ConcertstiicJc with acconip. of Orchestra, Introduction and Allegro appassionato, op. 92, Brcit- kopf & Hartel; Bunte Blatter, 14 Pieces for the Pianoforte, op. 99, Elberfeld, F. W. Arnold; two grand Sonatas for Pianoforte and Violin, op. 105 and 121, Leipzig, Hofmeister, also Breitkopf & Hartel; Ballscenen, 9 characteristic Pieces for 4 hands, op. 109, J. Schuberth & Co.; third Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, in (r-miuor, op. 110, Breitkopf & Hartel; 3 Fantasiestiicle, op. Ill, Leipzig, Peters; II* - 164 - MdrchvnhiJdcr, 4 Pieces for Pianoforte, and Violin dedicated to his subsequent biographer J. v. Wasielewski, op. 113, Cassel, Luck ha d; 5 Claviersonaten fur die Jugend, op. 118, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; AlbiimUdtter, 20 Piano-pieces, op. 124, Elberfekl, Arnold; 7 Piano- pieces in fughetta-form, op. 126, ditto; Kindcrhall, 6 Easy Dance- pieces for 4 hands, Breitkoi)f & Hartel; Mdrclienerzdhhmgcyi, 4 Pieces for Clarinet, Viola, and Pianoforte, op. 132, ditto; Gcsdnge der Friilie, 5 Pieces for Pianoforte, dedicated to the lofty poetess Bettina, op. 133, Elberfekl, Arnold; and finally Concert -Allegro with Introduction, for Pianoforte with orchestral accomp., in D-rainor, dedicated to Johannes Brahms, op. 134, Leipzig, B. Senflf. After the expiration of the legal thirty-years' term of copyright, a Complete Edition of Robert Schumann's works Avas published by Breitkopf & Hartel, under the supervision of the deceased composer's wife, Frau Dr. Clara Schumann. Earlier issues of the Pianoforte Works had been edited by Nicolas Rubinstein (Moscow, Jurgensen), this one being quite useless on account of incorrect readings; also by Dr. Hans Bischoff (Hanover, Steingraber) , and Dr. 0, Neitzel (Cologne, P. Tonger). While Frau Schumann has carried the reve- rence for her dead husband's name so far, as to leave standing mistakes evidently overseen hj Schumann or erroneous corrections by "Des" (Fr. Wieck), Bischoff and Neitzel, by bringing to bear all their philological acumen and noteworthy pedagogical experiQ.nce, have done in part faultless work both in critical revision and for the study of the works in technical and iesthetical regard. In Schumann's character were blended seriousness and humor, profundity and naivete, roughness and good nature, in a striking manner. His compositions, so teeming with sharp contrasts, did not therefore become more generally understood and appreciated until after his death, even in Germany, whereas they can hardly ever find favor in France and Italy. Moreover, Schumann often requires for the execution of his pieces the entire skill of a virtuoso, without setting that skill in a brilliant light. The Virtuoso should not find his reward as such, but as the interpreter of the art-work to which he gives life. Schumann's pianoforte stj^le is consequently more akin to Beethoven's last great pianoforte works, than to the salon and concert compositions produced by the school of Hummel or Moscheles. The more intimately we become acquainted with such a richly gifted nature, the more attractive do we find intercourse with it; but the imita- tors of such a peculiar style, so closely knit with the inmost fibres of its — 1G5 — author, fail to move us, whereas epigones like Mendelssohn, wlio follow no untried path, but rather one already trodden smooth, mav command our respect, or even our love. Respecting his life and labors we have the following: Robert ►Schumann, A Biography, by J. W. V. Wasielewski. Dresden. Kuntze, 1858. — Robert Schumann, Life and Works, by AUGUST Reissmann. Berlin, Guttentag, 1865. — Collections of Letters, and also a work entitled "Davidsbimdler", by Jansen, have recently been published by Breitkopf & Hilrtel. After Schumann's death a party formed, which designated him as the climax of the "neo-romautic music", and disallowed all further progress in this direction. The disciples of the "neo -German school" on the contrary, who chose Franz Liszt as their leader, held any and every innovation and reformation of musical art-forms for justi- fiable. A third, the so-called "classical party", despised all music claiming originality subsequent to Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, and sought, like Chinese reformers, to push us back into 'the good old times". But in the realm of the liberal arts the rule of a one-sided and narrow law-giver can never be of long duration, and in music, too, the parties so struggling for sole mastery have long since been rightly consigned to oblivion. For the unprejudiced musician, acquainted with the beginnings and the growth of his art, regards with due respect not only the illustrious masters of earlier and more recent times, but likewise those of to-day, who are striving by word and deed to extend the boundaries of their art, and thus to promote its theoretical progress. Schumann's Successors. We find, advancing on the paths opened by Schumann, several meritorious composers, who sought foremostly to assimilate his style of developing given motives of an interesting type. Among these is Woldemar Bargiel (b. 1828), since 1874 teacher of compo- sition at the Royal HocJischuJe fur Musili at Berlin, who has published a number of serious and dignified pianoforte works, including the following: Fantasia for Pianoforte, dedicated to his sister Clara Schumann, op. 5, Elberfeld, Arnold; Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, dedicated to Robert Schumann, op. 6, Breslau, Leu- ckart; Suite for Pianoforte, for 4 hands, op. 7, Breitkopf & Hiirtel; — 166 — 16 Pianoforte Pieces, op. 34, and op. 41 (ditto); Third Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello, op. 37 (ditto); Fantasia, dedicated to Joliannes Bralims, op. 19, Breslau, Leuckart. — Theodop Kirchner (b. 1824) g-reets us breezily and spiritedly in his compositions for the pianoforte, which, though for the most part set in the smaller forms, are always refreshingly attractive in their unconstrained naivete. In Leipzig there have been published by J. Rieter-Biedermann: op. 9, two books of Preludes; op. 13, Songs tvitJiout Words; op. 14, Fan- tasicstiichc, 3 books; op. 24, Still und heicegt, Piano-pieces, 2 books; op. 33, Ideale; — by Fr. Hofmeister: op. 32, Aus triihen Tagen, 2 books; op. 26, Album; op, 27, Caprices, 2 books; op. 28, Notturnos; op. 29, Aus meinem SMzsoibuche, 2 books; op. 30, Studies and Pieces, 4 books; op. 31, Im Zivieliclit, Songs and Dances, 4 books; — by Bartholf Senff: op. 5, Gruss an nieine Freunde; op. 16, Kleine Lust- imd Trauerspiele , 3 books.— Johannes Brahms, the most eminent of those following Schumann's track, has risen step by step to be one of the first composers of the present day, and will be separately noticed hereafter. Below we add a few composers, who endeavor to keep their pianoforte works free from commonplaces, and who have often suc- ceeded in developing their subjects in a stimulating and entertaining manner. Carl Gradener (1812 — 1883) dedicated to Hans v. Bttlow a Trio in E for Pianoforte, Violin and Violoncello (Hamburg, Fritz Schubeith), which has everywhere met with a favorable reception; his brilliantly colored character pieces ^'Fliegende Pliittchen" for the Pianoforte (op. 24, 27, 31, 33, and 43, same publ.) also enjoy great popularity, especially in his residence, Hamburg. — Friedrich Robert Volkmann (1815 — 1883), also first attracted attention by a Trio for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello in jBi;-minor, op. 5, which, though l)lanned in Schumann's spirit, immediately stamped him as an original composer of teeming fancy. His Pianoforte WorJcs without accom- l)animent are also full of inspired touches, as, among many others, the Buck der Lieder, op. 17, three books (Spina in Vienna); Cava- tina and Barcarole, op. 19; 12 musical poems in "Visegrad", op. 21; Ungarische Sldszen, op. 24; and above all the ^'■Musihalisches Bilder- bucJi", op. 11, 2 books (Fr. Kistner, Leipzig), and the "Tages^citen", op. 39, both works for 4 hands.— Finally, the Belgian Cesar Augusta Franck (b. 1822), who was trained in the Paris Conservatory of Music, came forward in his op. 1 with 3 Pianoforte Trios in i^jf, ^1?, and i?- minor (Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co., in score and parts), — 107 — folUiwed by a fourth in i?-major as op. 2 (ditto), all of which exhibit such an individual and attractive color it, that they made a stir not only in Paris— where their author established himself as a highly esteemed teacher, being at present organist of the church of St. Clothilde — but in Germany as well, and despite their difficulty have been much played and discussed. These are compositions born of hours of self- consecration and true inspiration, for which we could only desire the finishing touch of the master-hand. Then followed, for Pianoforte solo, op. 3, ^gloguc; op. 4, Duo for 4 hands on "God save the King"; op. 7, Souvenir d' Aix-la-Chapelle (Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.); and 1 Sonata (Paris chez I'auteur). Charles Valentin Alkan, born at Paris in 1813, and known there under the name of Alkan Vahie, was taught, like the musician last mentioned, by the meritorious teacher of the pianoforte and com- position P. J. W. Zimmermann (1785—1853) in the Conservatory at Paris, and is more at home in his study than in the world of fashion. He has written a series of Pianoforte Works, whose originality and wealth of invention is as surprising as the boldness of their harmonies and modulations. Of his romantic compositions, which "have not yet met with the attention on the part of pianoforte virtuosi which they merit", and which he himself performs in a peculiarly free style, we note the following: 35 PreUides, op. 31 (Berlin, Schlesinger), which, from their comparatively easy style, their diversified and interesting conception, and even their astounding parallel fifths and octaves are especially suited for gaining acquaintance with this gifted composer; further, op. 32, VAmitie; op. 26, Fantasietta alia Moresca; op. 31, Preludes, 3 books; and op. 46, Minuctto alia tedesca, all publ. by Schlesinger;— i5 Etudes in all major keys, 2 suites, Bote & Bock;— op. 17, Le Prcux, Etude de Concert; op. 27, Le cliemin de fer; op. 29, Bourn'e d'Auvergne; op. 22, Nocturne; and op. 23, Saltarelle, publ. by B. Schott's Sohne of Mainz; — op. 15, Trois grandes jSfudes dans le genre pathetique; op. 16, Six morceaux caracteristiques, 2 FugJie di camera, Jean qui rit et Jean qui pleure; and Trois grandes £tudes pour la main gauche seule, pour la main droite seule, et pour deux mains, publ. by Fr. Hofmeister, Leipzig. 168 Contemporaries of Mendelssohn, Chopin, and Schumann. While the above successors of Schumann presented us chiefly wth long and serious works, often pervaded with WeltscJimers (sple- netic melancholy), other gifted composers, like Theodor Kirchner, followed in the more flowery paths taken by Chopin and Mendels- sohn, and brought us offerings of cheerful character -pieces and Novellettes, whose worth should by no means be underrated in com- parison with grander compositions. The published pianoforte works of Gustav Fliigel (b. 1812, since 1857 ScMossorganist at Stettin) are full of romantically poetical, thoughtful musical motives, and are therefore well worthy of notice. We mention op. 25, 4 Fantasie- stiicJce (Schlesinger); op, 17, Tagf alter, and op. 14 and 24, Nacht- f alter (Fr. Hofmeister); op. 18, Mondscheinbilder ; op. 40, Volhspoesien; op, 44, HmnoresJce; and the Sonatas No. 2 and No. 5 (Breitkopf & Hartel).— Stephen Heller (b. 1815 in Pesth, d. 1888), who lived from 1838 in Paris, wrote a great number of works in the purest piano- forte style, which have justly attained to universal favor thi-ough their graceful melodic flow and ingenious technique. Liszt first called the attention of the musical world to this richly endowed composer, by performing in public his ballade-like, brilliant piece -'La chasse" (op. 29, Schlesinger). Other of Heller's pianoforte works published by the same are: J^tudes progressives, op. 47, 46, 45; Bliimen-,. Friccht- und DornenstucJce, op. 82, in 3 Parts, peculiarly distinguished by their poetical conception and their exquisite work- manship; — op. 79, Traumhilder, and op. 92, three books of Eglogen (Bote & Bock); — op. 78, Spaziergange eines Einsamen, 5 books; op. 96, Grande £tnde; and op. 119, AlbumUdtter ; —by B. Schott's Sohne, 4 Fantasiestucke, op, 99, in 2 books; 3 Bergeries, op. 106; 4 Ldndler.^ op, 107; Sclterzo, op. 108; Herhsthldtter, op. 109; JBallet- stiicke, op. Ill; Caprice Immoristique , op, 112; Fantaisie- Caprice, op. 113; Preludes, Scenes d'enfants and Presto scJierzoso, op. 114; Trois Ballades, op. 115; IJeux Etudes, op. 116; Trois Preludes^ op. 117; and Varictes, Boutade, Feuillet d' Album et Air de Ballet, op. 118.— The eminent pianoforte virtuoso Jacob Rosenhain (b, 1813 at Mannheim) has become widely Imown and popular through various pianoforte works. Among these there have been published, by B. Schott's Sohne: Grand Trio pour Piano, Violon et Violoncelle, — 169 — op. 33, and another, op. 50; Grand Caprice hrillant, op. 23; Ro- mances sans paroles, op. 25, 31, and 37; Polha de concert, op. 36; CJiaractcrstiicJce (Spanish, Polish, Oriental, etc.), op. 25, 31, and 37; Variations Immoresqiies sur le Carneval de Venise, op. 46;— by Fr. [lofmeister: 12 Mudes caracteristiqiies, op. 17, and 1 Concertino avee quatuor, op. 30; — by Peters: Sonata, op. 44, and 2 Morceaux de Goncours, op. 39. — Louis Trouillon-Lacombe (b. 1818 in Bourges, d. 1884 in St. Vaast-la-Hongue) was much esteemed in Paris as a pianist and composer of pleasing piano-pieces, such as the jStude en Octaves, op. 40, B. Sehott's S6lm^\ Chorale, grande Etude de concert, op. 45 (ditto); also Les Harmonies de la Nature, Deux Nocturnes, Marclie turqiie, etc. [Among his compositions a Pianoforte Quintet n-iid two Trios deserve special mention. 0. L.] John Field was perhaps the fii-st to present us, in his Nocturnes, with Stimnmngsbilder (mood -pictures) of the smaller kind, whose atti'active naturalness delighted even the Parisians, blase though they were with the then epoch-making virtuosity. Frederic Chopin heard him in Paris in 1832, and to these simple pieces we owe in great part the latter's six books of Nocturnes, with their more diversified character and livelier colors. The Mazurkas, too, that mirror his nation in all their sufferings and joys, and also many of his Preludes, belong to the heart-felt and therefore warmly sympathetic Stimmungs- hilder. The purely lyrical Songs without Words of his contemporary Mendelssohn followed the Fantasiestticke, Novelletten, and Nacht- stticke of Sehumann, which are apt to trespass, however, upon the epic and dramatic field of art. Besides the composers already named in this section, Franz Liszt, in particular, has poured out from his glowing heart lyric and epic poems in his Annees de pelerinage, the Apparitions, Consolations, Harmonies poetiques, and RJiapsodies hon- groises. But this unexcelled master not only ushered in the present brilliant era of pianoforte -playing through his original compositions and intei-pretations; he also was enabled to spread and maintain the same through numerous pupils. Of these we will mention here Franz Bendel (1833 — 1874) as the author of several pregnant Stimmungs- hilder. A few of these are accompanied by short programs, a feature frequently decried by many writers. But when after expunging such programs, which attribute definite ideas or definite feelings to the tones, intelligible music is left behind, as in this case, the latter can lose none of its value through the progi-am. Any truly significant music whatever is interpreted by each listener in a — 170 — manner most conformable to his character, his memories, hopes, and fears; in its tones he hears the mystic revelations and prophecies of an inspired singer. In 4 books of "Sclnvei^er Bilder", op. 137 (Berlin, Carl Paez), and 6 books "Am Gcnfer See", op. 139, Bendel portrays the impressions of his journeyings in the fresh air of the yalleys and heights of Switzerland; and in the '^ Seeks deufsche MdrcJmih'ldcr' (op. 135, Hamburg, Hugo Pohle), illustrated with more striking colors, the dream -like, weird, and bizarre scenes of these Fantasiestuclxe pass before our inner vision with dramatic animation. Musical Review at the Present Time. We begin with a survey of the most prominent Conservatories and Schools of IVIusic in which special attention is paid to piano- forte-playing. The flourishing Royal Conservatory of Music at Leipzig was founded in 1843 by Mendelssohn; in this institution pianoforte- plajing and composition have been fostered from the start. The former branch is at present represented by Carl Eeinecke, noted as an eminent virtuoso and composer; S. Jadassohn, pianist and com- poser; Oscar Paul, author of a noteworthy History of the Pianoforte and many other musical works; E. C. Papperitz; C. Piutti, organ virtuoso and composer; A. Richter; and several other pianists.''' The Leipzig Conservatory adheres to its traditional methods, and has by consequence fallen in the scale of musical importance, or at least not risen. The exclusive tendency observable at this institution, represented as following the artistic traditions of Mendelssohn, but which is in fact unfriendly to the spirit of modern pianoforte-playing and to the modern development of music altogether, has notably strained the earlier relations of this once justly renowned school to tlie general musical life of the world, and in many cases quite dis- solved them. Of the old Masters, to whose co-operation the former fame of the conservatory was due, but few are left. E. F. Wenzel, born on Jan. 25, 1808, at Walddorf in Saxony, died Aug. 16, 1880, in Bad Kosen; Louis Plaidy, born Nov. 28, 1810, at Hubertusburg, died on March 3, 1874, in Grimma; Ignaz Moscheles, born May 30, 1794, at Prague, died March 10, 1870, in Leipzig; Moritz Haurtt- * The remainder of this survey of the Music-schools is by the editor of he second German edition, Herr Otto Lessmann. Transl. Note. — 171 — maun, bora Oct. 13, 1792 at Dresden, died on Jan. 3, 1868, in Leipzig; and altliongh their places as teachers of pianoforte-playing have been taken by younger men, the latter are nevertheless obliged to accommodate themselves to the prevailing conservative spirit. That the regular academical course is still conscientiously taught, is proved by the annual examinations (Frufungen) and hereby the Conservatory fulfils its mission to a certain extent. But whether it is right to narrow the intellectual horizon of the pupils in opposition to the spirit of the times, is a question hardly requiring serious consideration. — In essential points, like praise and like blame are to be bestowed upon a much younger institution, the Berlin Boijal Hoclischdc fiir ausiihende TonJcunst. The blind hatred with which prominent re- presentatives of this institution denounce the entire modern develop- ment of music and its promotors and abettors, is but ill-suited to a school of art founded and maintained by the State. Happily, no monopoly in art can be enduringly upheld, neither can any institute, however richly endowed, check the steady march of events. In this academy the chief teachers of the pianoforte are Profs. Ernst Rudorff and Heinrich Barth. — The Conservatory at Cologne, since the decease of its former Director Ferdinand von Hiller (b. Oct. 24, 1811, at Frankfort, d. May 11, 1885, at Cologne), has prospered markedly under the management of Franz Wtillner (b. Jan. 28, 1832, at Miinster in Westphalia). Instruction in pianoforte-playing has hitherto been in the hands of men like Prof. Ignaz Seiss, Prof. E. Mertke, Dr. Otto Neitzel, etc. — The Neiie Akademie der Tonhinst (New Acad, of Music) was founded in 1855 by Th. Kullak (b. Sept. 12, 1818 at Krotoschin in Posen, d. March 1, 1882, in Berlin), and celebrated its 25th anniversary in 1880 with 100 teachers and 1000 pupils; since its founder's death it has been carried on by his son Franz. — The Conservatory founded in 18^0 by Julius Stern is continued since his death (1883) under the artistic direction of Prof. Robt. Radecke; Profs. Heinrich Ehrlich and Ernst Franck are engaged as first teachers of the pianoforte, a position held by Prof. Franz Mannstadt until his removal to "Wiesbaden. — The soil of Berlin has proved peculiarly favorable to the growth of music-schools; whether real service is rendered to art by such wholesale fabrication of pianists, is a thesis hard to maintain. — Among the numerous pianoforte schools opened in Berlin during the last decade, only two can lay claim to artistic significance in a wider sense. These are the Conservatory of Music of Prof. Xaver Scharwenka (b, Jan. 6, 1850, at Samter in Posen, — 172 — and a pupil of Kullak and Wiierst), and the "Classes in advanced Pianoforte -pJayinf^" led by Karl Klind worth (b. Sept. 25, 1830, in Hanover, a pupil of Liszt). Klindwortli has won a name less through public pianoforte recitals and orig-inal compositions (as Pianoforte Concerto, Pieces, and Songs), than by his editions of Chopin's Piano- forte Works, Beethoven's Sonatas, and the masterly Pianoforte Arrangements of "Wagner's Nibelungen-Tetralogie, and also by his eminent talent as a conductor. From 1854 to 1868 Klindvrorth lived as teacher, pianist, and conductor in London, 1868 — 1884 in Moscow, in which latter year he came to Berlin, taught at first in Kullak's Academy, and in the year 1885 opened his pianoforte classes, which were led by Moritz Moszkowski in the winter of 1887/88, during Klindworth's absence in America. — Amoug the Xorth German Conservatories of good repute we mention that at Dresden (Dir. Pudor died Oct. 9, 1887), at Hamburg (Dir. v. Bernuth), at Dresden likewise the Bollfuss Academy for Ladies, also the Grand- dueal MiisiJcscliide at Weimar (Dir, Prof. Miiller-Hartung), and the Conservatory at Sondersliausen (Dir. Ad. Schulze). In South Germany there are flourishing at present the Conservatory at Stuttgart, which has, to be sure, lost two of its most eminent teachers, Siegmund Lebert (Levy), b. Dec. 12, 1822, in Ludwigsburg, d. Dec. 8, 1884, in Stuttgart,— and Ludwig Stark, b. June 19, 1831, d. March 22. 1884; the Boyal MitsiJcscJmle at Municli, established by Hans v. Billow at the instance of King Ludwig IL; the Boyal MusiTisclnde at WiXrsljurg under the management of Dr. Kliebert; Dr. Hoch's Conservatory at FranJcfort (Dir. Prof. Bernhard Scholz), first instruc- tress of the pianoforte Fran Clara Schumann; also in the last-named city the Baff Conservatory, at whose head stands, as first teacher of the pianoforte, Max Schwarz (a pupil of Bendel and Billow), and in which Hans v. Billow himself, as honorary President, gives courses in rendering during one month in each year. Among non-German institutions, the Conservatory of the Gesell- scJiaft der Musihfreunde and the HoraJc Claviersclmle at Vienna enjoy a high reputation; in St. Pctershurg we find the Imperial Conserva- tory, whose management since Davidoff's retirement has been resumed by Anton Rubinstein, its founder; in Brussels the Conservatory under Dupont's direction; in Paris the long-renowned Conservatory; in Pesth the National Music Academy, whose president was Franz Liszt, and the Conservatory; in Helsingfors the Musihschide (Dir. Wegelius), serving as a point d'appui for German music in Finland. — In London — 173 — flourishes the Royal Academy of Music, for which in honor of Liszt's last visit to London a Liszt scholarship was founded, affording to talented and industrious students means for a stay of several years in Germany and other countries. (For American Conservatories see Appendix.) The above institutions all owe their establishment to the praise- worthy endeavor to provide places for the earnest cultivation of art, and so long as this aim is kept in view, well-founded arguments can hardly be brought forward against their continuance. But opinion on the value of music schools undergoes a change when one perceives, that the moving cause for opening such is in great part only base speculation on the ignorance of the great public, which unhappily follows the fashionable craze for playing the piano regardless of concomitant circumstances. Pianoforte-playing, once the hard-won art of musically gifted individuals, has become a public calamity — indeed, it is openly and aptly termed the piano-nuisance — and a large proportion of the blame for the mischief must be laid at the door of those music schools, which are conducted by mediocre or yet worse musidans and teachers, and in which too frequently wretched bunglers give cheap instruction, thus doing their best to lower the level of pianoforte -playing in particular and of artistic taste in general. In must be admitted, on the other hand, that piaaoforte-playing, as a really artistic manifestation, has on the whole won a far broader basis than formerly. Dilettanti of true artistic taste are no longer a rarity, and the demands of the public upon pianists now appearing have decidedly risen. Mere virtuosity now leads but a sorry life, since public taste has begun to require of artists to provide programs containing works of intellectual worth, for whose inter- pretation mental power, and not mere external finger- technique, is needed. The most astounding programs have been furnished by the two Past Masters of Pianoforte -playing, Hans v. Billow and Anton Rubinstein, the former having first confronted the public with the five last Sonatas by Beethoven, while the latter, in a cyclus embracing seven evenings, gave a review, though a hasty one, of the historical evolution of pianoforte-playing. Biilow then followed with cycles of four evenings, in which, by a series of sonatas, variations, and other works, he reproduced the development of Beethoven's pianoforte style before the astonished audience. Hans v. Bulow has embalmed the fruits of his art -studies and experience in an edition of the — 174 — Sonatas, Variations, and other Pianoforte Works by Beethoven from op. 53 on (Stuttgart, Cotta), which according to Liszt's dictum excel, by reason of their extraordinary wealth of pedagogical and aesthetical material, a dozen conservatories in instructiveness; furthermore, in a series of pianoforte works by Bach, Scarlatti, Haydn, Field, Handel, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Weber, Mozart, and Beethoven again (earlier Sonatas op. 27, II; op. 20; op. 13; op. 31, IE; 32 Variations in C- minor) published in Munich by Aibl under the general title of "Aus den Concertprogrammen von Hans v. JBiUotv"; a Selection by Billow of Chopin's and above all Ci-amer's Etudes also merits mention here on account of its high pedagogic value. Besides the Music Schools already noticed, others are found in nearly all considerable German towns, and the teachers engaged in the same are everywhere supplemented by pianists and composers whose name is legion. The following list of musicians still living, who are composers for or players on the pianoforte, therefore lays no claim to completeness. — Prominent among the Berlin musicians not yet named are Heinrich Ehrlich, a distinguished pianist, teacher, writer, and the composer of a characteristic Concertstuck in Unga- risclier Wcise, op. 1, and various salon pieces (all publ. by Bote & Bock); — F. E. Wilsing, the composer of 4 grand Sonatas, 1 Fantasia in i^jt- minor, and 1 Humorcske in canon-form (ditto); — C. Hering, composer of 1 Zigeuner- Serenade for 4 hands (Rieter-Biedermann), 1 Sonata (ditto), and other piano pieces; — J. Hopfe, author of Ein Friililingsmarclien, Quartet for Pianoforte and Strings, op. 48; Ein Pfingstfest auf dem Lande, HumoresJce for 4 hands, op. 37; 3 Piano- forte Trios, op. 40, 41, and 43; 2 Easy Trios, op. 46 and 49 (C. A. Cliallier & Co., Berlin);— Philipp Scharwenka has published a great number of tasteful pianoforte pieces varying in difficulty, among them 1 Cavatina with 'Cello, op. 22, and Three Concert stiiche with Violin, op. 17, 3 books; special gratitude is due to him for his short, melodious and finely finished pieces for instruction, such as the Albionhldtter, op. 27 (Breitkopf & Hartel); In hunter ReilWy op. 32; Aus der Jugendseit, op. 34, 2 books; FestMdnge fur die Jugcnd, op. 45 (Praeger & Meier); Divertimenti, 10 short piano-pieces, op. 55, 3 books (Ad. FUrstner); Kinderspiele, Series I — II, op. 64 and op. 68 (Breslau, Hainauer). In all these, and in others as well, is found material of instruction both stimulating and formative for the taste; — his younger brother Xaver Scharwenka played and had published 1 Concerto with Orchestra in 51?-minor, op. 32, which has met with — 175 — much favor; a second Pianoforte Concerto with Orchestra, op. 56, C-miiior; and for Pianoforte without accomp. the Wanderlieder, op. 23, 2 books; Bilder aus Ungarn, op. 26. 2 books (all publ. by Praeger & Meier, Bremen); also, besides various salon pieces, 3 Sonatas, op. 6 in Cjf-minor and op. 36 in ^[?-major; Theme and Variations, op. 48, D-minor, etc.; — C. Biirgel has issued the well-received works Sonata in £'[?, op. 15; 2 Nocturnes, op. 17 (Bote & Bock); Mimosen, lyric poems, 6 books, op. 24 (Fr. Hofmeister); Waher-Capricen, op. 11 (Bartholf Senflf), and other pieces; — Philippe Bartholome Biifer (b. 1844 in Liege, since 1871 in Berlin) manifests an opulent musical nature in his Violin Sonata, op. 1, a brilliant Trio, 2 Suites for Pianoforte and 'Cello, op. 8 and 13, and various piano-pieces. In- ventive originality, genuine passion, and a highly artistic style, mark his compositions. Kilfer is at present a teacher in Klindworth's Pianoforte School; — Moritz Moszkowski (b. 1854 in Breslau), a dis tinguished virtuoso, has published a large number of tastefully and ingeniously wrought salon pieces for his instrument, taking Chopin as his model. These have been issued for the most part by Hainauer, Breslau. Dresden. — Here we find the excellent pianoforte virtuoso A. Blass- mann; — the pianist and composer J. E. Leonhard (d. 1883); — the celebrated concert pianiste Marie Wieck; — Marie Krebs, who has played in England, France, and America with equal success; — and the gifted Laura Karer-Rappoldy. In Dresden also dwell the pianist and music -historian J. Pttihlmann; — Doring, noted as a teacher and composer of practical pianoforte Etudes; — and Fritz Spindler, a composer of easily playable and elegant Salon Pieces, among them Sonatinas, 6 books, op. 136 (J. Rieter-Biedermann); 3 little Trios, op. 305 (S. W. Siegel, Leipzig); Im Wald, op. 75, 6 books; Wan- derlieder, op. 100, 6 books; 3 FantasiestilcJce , op. 199; Elegante Tanzweisen, op. 294, 6 books; — Hermann Scholz has published the following interesting pianoforte works: Sonata in G^-minor, op. 44 (F. E. C. Leuckart, Leipzig) ; Geistertans, op. 21 ; Traumhilder, 4 books, op. 22; Ilumoreslie, op. 23; Saltarello and Tarantella, 2 books, op. 24; 8 Minnelieder, op. 25; and others; — as popular pianoforte teachers in Dresden we note Bertrand Roth, a pupil of Liszt, a fine, impres- sionable pianist; and Jean Louis Nicode (b. 1853 at Jerczik in Posen), a pupil of Kullak, Wiierst, and Kiel Nicode is a most talented pianist of brilliant powers of development; besides a number of original orchestral works, he has arranged Chopin's Concert' — 176 — Allegro, op. 46 for public performance witli Pianoforte and Orchestra, and has published various tasteful and interesting pianoforte works, as Variations and Fugue on an original theme. Sonata in i^- minor, 3 £,tudes, and 1 Sonata in G for Pianoforte and Violin. His chief orchestral work, Symplionic Variations, has appeared in an arrange- ment for Pianoforte for 4 hands (Breitkopf & Hartel). — Felix Drae- seke, for 2 years a teacher of theory in the Dresden Conservatory, has also written a brilliant Pianoforte Concerto in E^ (Leipzig, F. Kistuer). — Emil Sauer, one of the most eminent among the younger pianists of the Liszt school, has also settled in Dresden. Adolf Jensen (b. 1837 in Konigsberg, d. 1879 in Baden-Baden) was a fruitful author of attractive, cleanly written, and technically "convenient" piano -pieces, all of which manifest the poetic vein of the genial composer. We name the following: Sonata in jPJ;|- minor, op. 25 (Bartholf Senff); Innere Stimmen, 5 pieces, op, 2; Fantasie- stucke, 2 books, op. 7; BomantiseJie Studien, 2 Parts, op. 8; 3 Piano- forte Pieces for 4 hands, op. 18; and Alia Marcia, Canzonetta, Scherzo, 0^. 42 (Fritz Schuberth, Hamburg); Jagdsceiten, op. 15; Trois Valses- Caprices, 3 books, op. 31; Lieder und Tdnse, 20 little piano-pieces, op. 33 (Fr. Kistner, Leipzig); 2 Nocturnes, op. 38 (Robt. Forberg, Leipzig); Wanderhilder, 2 books, op. 17; Etudes, 3 books, op. 32; and Erinnerungen , op. 48 (C. F. Peters); Idyllen, op. 43; Hoclizeitsmusih for 4 hands, op. 45; Ldndler aus BcrcJitcsgaden, op. 46; Abendnmsih for 4 hands, op. 59; Lehenshilder for 4 hands, 2 books, op. 60; and Silhouettes, 6 piano-pieces for 4 hands (Julius Hainauer, Breslau).— Jacob Rosenhain (b. 1813), an excellent pianist of the old school, and a composer whose talent was praised by Robert Schumann, is still living at Baden-Baden; he has written 3 Pianoforte Trios, 1 Pianoforte Concerto, 3 Sonatas for Pianoforte, 1 Sonata for 'Cello and Pianoforte, and many salon pieces. Louis Ehlert (1825—1884) numbers among his delicately wrought compositions Pianoforte Pieces for 4 hands, op. 18 and 19; Lieder und Studien, op. 20 (Berlin, Schlesinger). As able teachers, virtuosi, and composers we may also mention Mortier de Fontaine (b. 1816 in Wisniewiec, d. 1883 in London), who was the first that ventured to perform in public one of Beethoven's last great Sonatas, op. 106, —and Julius Schaffer (b. 1823) of Breslau, whose poetically musical compositions, as the FantasiestiicJcc , op. 1, Fantasie-Variationen, op. 2, and Polonaise, op. 4, are well worthy of notice.— Alfred Jaell (1832—1882), a pianoforte virtuoso distinguished for his fine touch — 177 — and delicate 2iia)tissiiiio, as well as for his large repertory, under- took very successful concert-tours. His published pianoforte pieces are effectively written, and display their composer's refined taste; we note Caprices, op. 104 and 105; Nocturne sentimental, op. 125 (Leipzig, Kistner); Trois morceaux de salon, op. 106 (Leipzig, Siegel); La SylpJdde, op. 116 (B. Senff); La Fontaine, op. 117 (Leipzig, Leuckart); Valse caprice, op. 161 (Leipzig, R. Forberg). — Leopold von Meyer (b. 1816 in Vienna, d. 1883 in Dresden) extended his travels to America, where his appearance excited a furore; but neither his programs nor compositions are equal in quality to Jaell's. — Two highly talented pianistes, Anna Mehlig of Stuttgart and Sophie Menter- Popper of Munich, win applause and laurel wreaths wherever they go. The latter was for some years a piano teacher in the St. Petersburg Conservatory, but resigned this position in 1887, after Anton Rubinstein assumed the management of this institution and instituted energetic reforms. — Ignaz Briill (b. 1846) is not only a favorite opera composer, but is also well-known as a pianist and composer of valuable pianoforte works. Of these latter we note the following: First Concerto with Orchestra in F, op. 10, and Second Concerto in C, op. 24 (Bote & Bock); Three Fiano- pieces (Vienna, Spina); 7 Fantasiestuclce , 3 books, op. 8 (Fr. Kistner). — At IMunich the highly gifted composer Rich. Strauss (b. there June 11, 1864) is at present engaged as third HofJcapellmcister; 1 'Cello Sonata, 1 Piano- forte Sonata in 5-minor, op. 5, a number of smaller, characteristic pieces, and above all a i)rize Pianoforte Quartet, reveal an unusual inventiA e fficulty, and a confidence of style remarkable in view of the composer's youth. Outside of Germany Jul. Carl Eschmann of Zurich (1825—1882) is to be mentioned. His Album fur Pianoforte, op. 17 (Berlin and Leipzig, Luckhardt), contains 12 strongly characteristic, cleanly written FantasiestilcJce of a serious or cheerful nature; his numerous piano-pieces written for the young, like the 28 German Folk-songs, op. 51, The 16 German FolJc-songs for 4 hands, etc., are interesting for the teacher and stimulating for the pupil. Among these we may also mention op. 60, For the First Pianoforte Year, and op. 61, For the Second and Third Pianoforte Years, and many instructive works issued by the same publisher. — Auguste Dupont (b. 1828) is engaged in the Conservatory of Music at Brussels, and is highly esteemed as a teacher and composer; among his published works we fmd the following brilliant pianoforte pieces: Le Staccato perpetuel, 12 — 178 — ^ande Etude de concert, op. 31 (Bieitkopf & Hartel); Fluic de Mai, Etude de trilles, op. 2; Contes dn foyer, 6 morceaux caracteristiques, op. 12; Danse des Almecs, Etude fantastique, op. 25; Fantaisie et fugue pour la main droite, op. 41; Bonion en dix pages, op. 48, dix cahiers (all pul)l. by Scliott's Sohne, Mainz). Dupont also published with the collaboration of Gustave Sandre an J^coJe de Piano du Con- servatoire royal de Bruxelles (Breitkopf & Hartel), a collection of early and recent classical master-works, provided for the i)urpose of instruction with tingeriugs, phrasing, notes on the rendering, etc. — The finished pianoforte virtuoso Louis Brassin (b. 1840, d. 1884) was in turn teacher in the Stern Conservatory at Berlin, the Brussels Conservatory, and the Conservatory at St. Petersburg; his published works include, besides many concert pieces, the Grand Galop fan- tastique, op. 5; Valse-Caprice, op. 6; Le Ruisseau, morceau de salon, op. 8; Graudes i^tudes de concert, op. 12, en 4 suites; 6 Morceaux de fantaisie, op. 21, 3 suites (all publ. by Schott's Sohne, Mainz). A pupil of Brassin, Franz Eummel (b. 1853 in London) an eminent pianist, lives at Berlin. — Fritz Gernsheira (b. 1839), the Director of the Conservatory at Rotterdam, is noted as a fine pianist, and has written valuable pianoforte works, among them being 1 Quartet for Pianoforte, Violin, Viola, and Violoncello, op. 6, in E^^ (Breitkopf & Hartel); Suite in 4 movements, op. 8; Variations in C-minor, op. 22; Fantaisies, op. 26, 27 (Mainz, Schott's Sohne). — In his native city, Copenhagen, dwelt and died the renowned composer Niels W. Gade (b. 1817, d. 1890), whose pianoforte works are written cleanly and in the peculiar northern style; of these there have been issued by Breitkopf & Hartel, Sonata in A with Violin, op. 6, and another in D-minor, op. 21; Fruldingsfantasie, Concert piece for 4 solo voices. Orchestra, and Pianoforte, op. 23; ArahesJcc, op. 27; Sonata in E- minor, op. 28; Vollcstiinse, Fantasiestiiche, op. 31; Trio with ^'iolin and Violoncello in F, op. 42; — by Fr. Kistner, Aqiiarellen, op. 19; der Kinder Christalend, little piano-i)ieces; op. 41, Fantasiesiilcke; — by Piieter-Bicdermann, Idyllen; — and by C. F. Peters, Marches for 4 hands, and SJcandinaviscJie Vollcslieder. — Among the northern com- posers Edvard Hugcrup Grieg, born on June 15, 1843, at Bergen in Norway, occupies a prominent place. In his Pianoforte Concerto, op. 16, JL-minor, for 2 Pianofortes, Violin Sonatas, op. 8, i^-major, and op. 13, G-major, 1 Sonata for Pianoforte and 'Cello, op. 36, and in a number of piano-pieces and songs, Grieg displays strong original talent, and a poetic vein happily influenced b}^ the folk-songs of his native land — 179 — — Ludwi.2: Normann (b. 1831 at Stockholm, d. there ia 1885) deserves mention as a gifted composer. Besides many pieces for 2 and 4 hands, his published works include 1 Violin Sonata, 1 Pianoforte Trio, 1 Pianoforte Quartet, etc. — Emil Hartmann the younger is a remarkably gifted musician (b. at Copenhagen in 1836), who has written among other things 1 Pianoforte Trio, 1 Serenade for Piano- forte, 'Cello, and Clarinet, and salon pieces for Pianoforte, wherein he, however, does not reach as high a plane as his father and teacher, E. Hartmann the elder (b. 1805), who is one of the first of northern composers, having written, besides operas, symphonies, overtures, cantatas, etc., some very original piano-pieces — Novelletten. — We also note the original Swedish composer Franz Berwald of Stockholm (1796 — 1868), the early and self-sustained writer of the following neo-romantic Pianoforte Works: Two Quintets for Pianoforte and Strings; 5 Trios with Violin and 'Cello; and 1 Duo with 'Cello (Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.) — Joseph Nowakowski, the Pole (b, 1805, d. 1865), likewise deserves mention as the composer of national Masurhas, op. 10, 19, and 26, and his Polonaises, op. 13 and 14 (Breitkopf & Hartel). — Anton Dvorak (b. 1841 at JMiihlhausen near Kralup in Bohemia) also occupies a high place among non- German composers for the pianoforte. His ^'Slavic Dances" for 4 hands, 1 Pianoforte Concerto, op. 35, and other piano -pieces and larger works, reveal a distinguished talent, which is, to be sure, almost exclusively devoted to the national tendency. Slavic rhythms and melody-forms characterize his works wellnigh throughout. Theodor Leschetizki (b. 1840 in Vienna), a pianist of high standing, was from 1864 to 1878 a teacher in the St. Petersburg Con- servatory, and is now living with his spouse and former pupil Annette Essipoff in Vienna as a private insti'uctor. His Pianoforte Works published by Schlesinger (Berlin) include Bomance, op.; 14; Les Clochettes, op. 16; Six Meditations, op. 19; Perpetuum mohile, op. 20; £tude for the left hand, op. 13; — by Spina (Vienna), Gruss an die NacJit, op. 1; Valse cromatique, op. 22;— by Leuckart (Leipzig), 6 books of Improvisations^ op. 11. — His renowned pupil, Annette Essipoff (b. 1850) everywhere wins enthusiastic and well-earned applause on her frequent professional tours.— Nicolas Rubinstein (b. 1845 at Mos- cow, d. 1881 in Paris), a brother of Anton, founded a Conservatory of IMusic at Moscow; as a pianoforte virtuoso he knew no difficulties. Turning to London, we find Arabella Goddard, "the most dis- tinguished of English pianoforte-players" (b. 1838), a pupil of Kalk- 12* — 180 — brenuer, Thalberg, and finally of J. W. Davison (d. 1885), tlie feared and famous musical critic of the Times, whom she married in 1860. As a classical player, especially of Beethoven's Sonatas, she is greeted with enthusiasm not only in England, but also on the continent of Europe (Leipzig, Gewandhaus, 1855), America, Australia, and India; —Charles Halle (b. 1819) also enjoys a high reputation both in Eng- land and France. In 1836 he left Germany, his native country, for Paris, where his spirited performances, and in particular his charac- teristic interpretation of classical compositions, speedily gained him numerous friends and pupils. In 1848 he proceeded to London, and created a sensation there by his fine reuderings of Beethoven's works. Since 1857 he has been about equally occupied in Manchester and London. Of his published compositions we note 4 Romances, op. 1 (Schlesinger); 4 Esquisses, op. 2, Scherbo, op. 4, and JSIificeUavies, op. 5 (London, Cramer, Beale & Co.). — Rudolph Schachner is the eomposer of several pianoforte Concertos and minor salon pieces, such as La chosse, op. 12 (Schlesinger), and Souvenir de Deepclcne (Kistner).— G. A. Osborne, W. Kuhe, and J. Blumenthal also dwell in London, and have published a series of "easy and entertaining piano- forte pieces for amateurs". Among Parisian pianists Saint- Saens still takes the lead as a musician (comp. page 205); beside him shone or still shine the artists from the school of Marmontel, as Francis Plante, Th. Turner, Georges Bizet (1838—1875), Henri Ketten (1828—1883), Louis Diemer, Victor Alphons Duvernoy, Lavignac, Lack, Galeotti, Delafosse, and others. Franz Liszt. In the course of our survey we have seen how in Italy, during the 16 th century, the instrumental style was developed under the influence of the Netherlander Adrian Willaert out of contrapuntally wrought vocal music, beginning with the stricter organ style. Further on, this instrumental style showed greater animation and flexiltility in the works of Merulo and the ingenious Frescobaldi, until in the 17 th century, foremostly through Pasquini's interesting performances a freer secular clavier style was created, which reached its climax during the 18th century in the brilliant sonata movements of Do- minico Scarlatti. Contemporary with this Italian school there arose, in France, another cultivating more graceful measures and motlier — 181 — embellishments, which flourished from ChamYjion (d. 1670) down to Couperin le Grand (d. 1733); while in Germany the more serious contrapuntal compositions, gradually disappearing from Italy and France, found their proper abiding-place. To Hans Leo Hasler (d. 1612), who was trained in Venice under the guidance of the meritorious Andrea Gabrieli, and to his contemporaries and successors, we owe the groundwork of an intellectually inspired German organ style, which attained to perfection in the master-fugues of Seb. Bach (d. 1750), His impressionable son Emanuel Bach then succeeded in establishing the art-form of the Sonata, wi'itten especially for the clavier and consisting of three movements, which Mozart later endowed with expressive lyrical inspiration, and Clementi with more diversitied and brilliant colors. Beethoven thereafter raised the Sonata to a heart- stirring musical drama, gave it the unity necessary to every work of art by his ingenious and exhaustive working-out of its various motives, and likewise contrived the most interesting contrasts by means of spirited episodes and unexpected modulations. And while the follow- ing pure virtuoso pieces of Herz and Thalberg, calculated solely for external effect, quite gave over special characterization, Chopin and Schumann poured into their romantic compositions the inspiration of an enthusiastic, lofty poetry. This language of souls lifted so far above the common herd, was still understood by but a narrow circle of sympathetic friends, and Schumann was still hurlirg his sharp arrows at the dull-witted opponents of the rising flood of R manticism, when Franz Liszt appeared in the arena, recalling to life the ancient myths of the spellful charm of music. Wherever he appeared, he won irresistibly the adherence of all parties, and celebrated triumphs whose like had been granted to no other conqueror in this field. His indescribably vigorous and powerful playing caused a complete revolution in piano- forte-playing, pianoforte literature, and pianoforte construction; he elevated virtuosity to a dizzy height, and has seemingly exhausted the means of expression of his instrument so far, that a further en- hancement would seem hardly imaginable. He was born on Oct. 22, 1811, in Raiding near Pcsth, received pianoforte lessons from his father from 1817, and was able only three years later to play in public, at Oedenburg, Ries' Concerto in E\> and a free fantasia. Prince Esterhazy, of whose estates his father was the overseer, attended the concert, and was much delighted at the boy's playing, rewarding him with a costly present. Soon after, his father took him to Press- — 182 — burg, and liere too his playing met with so favorable a reception, that Counts Amaden and Zapaiy were induced to allow him an a,nnual stipend of 6 00 florins for six years, for his further education. The happy parents thereupon moved to Vienna, where Franz began regular music lessons under Carl Czerny. He found dementi's sonatas uninteresting, but grasped the works of Hummel and Beethoven with such fiery zeal that the aged Salieri, having once heard him play, likewise felt drawn to him, and offered to give him his first instruc- tion in composition. On his visits to the music shops, the compo- sitions shown him never promised sufficient difficulty. But once he happened to meet several musicians engaged in the examination of Hummel's pianoforte concerto in ^-minor, then fresh from the press, and was asked by them, whether this work would not put his skill to the test. The youthful Liszt placed the concerto on the piano, and played it at sight, to the astonishment of all present. In the year 1822, after the unbroken, assiduous study of 18 months, he gave his first concert in Vienna before a brilliant asseml)lage; after the concert was ended, the otherwise morose master, Beethoven, approached him with friendly mien, and with a kiss pressed the seal of consecration on his forehead. In the following year his father accompanied him to Paris, and the remarkable performances of the inspired romanticist, then scarce twelve years old, created a sensation even at that early day at the elegant soirees of the metro- polis. In England during 1824 he found no scantier favor, and a gi-and concert arranged on his return to Paris called forth the live- liest enthusiasm. His strict father, however, insisted upon his con- tinuing regular practice; among other matters he had daily to play several of Bach's fugues to his father, and to transpose them imme- diately into various keys. From 1826 he resumed theoretical studies under Beicha, but at this period fell into a state of gloomy religious exaltation, which took such full possession of him, that his father occasioned him to make a concert-tour through France, and in the following year sojourned for a considerable time in Switzerland and England. To invigorate his unstrung nervous system, his father took him in 1827 to the ocean resort Boulogne, but died shortly after, and Liszt returned to Paris, resolved to occupy himself there in teaching music. His chief intercourse at this time was with the able and original musician Christian Urhan, who was at once violinist in the Grand Opera and organist of St. Vincent de Paule, and whose liberal views on theoretical questions, together with pianoforte works — 183 — corresponding'ly composed, had gained Liszt's liking. Of Urlian's little-known compositions, tlie following were published at Pads by liichault: Elle et moi, Duo romantique a 4 mains, op. 1; Deuxienie Duo romantique; La salutation angeliqiie, Duo a 4 mains; Les regrets and Les Jettres, two pieces for pianoforte solo. In the year 1828 Hector Berlioz, the gifted originator of our modern Program Music, brought out his Overtures to WaverJey and the Francs-j'uges, and, in the year succeeding, the grand Symphonic pliantastique, ''Episode de la vie d'un artiste". Liszt instantly recog- nized the extraordinary creative genius of this composer— still rightly appreciated by but a few unprejudiced musicians — and exhibited for the first time, in the Partition de Piano of the latter work, through what hitherto unknown means of expression (effect) the pianoforte is able to take the place of an entire orchestra in its volume and its manifold effects of tone. This pianoforte transcription, which only Liszt himself could then play, aroused the admiration of all pianists, and induced him later to undertake similar, though less difficult, arrangements, of the following instrumental works: Cinqtiieme et Sixieme Sympliouic de Beethoven, Partition de Piano, Leipzig, Breit- kopf & Hartel; Septieme SympJwnie de Beethoven, Vienna, Hasliugerl JSfintJi Symphony by Beethoven, arr. for two pianofortes, Mainz, Schott; Grand Scptuor de Beethoven, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; Marche fiinehre de la Sinfonia eroica de Beethoven, Vienna, Mechetti; Harold, Symphonic de Berlioz; Weber's Overtures to "Der FreiscM'ds" and "Oheron", and the Jnhelouverture , Berlin, Schlesinger; Overture to William Tell, by Rossini, Mainz, Schott; Overture to the Francs-juges and to Roi Lear, by Berlioz (ditto); Overture to Tannhduser, by Wagner; KirchUche Fest-Ouverture, by Nicolai, Leipzig, Hofmcister. A sharp contrast to these bold transcriptions of orchestral works is formed by the deeply emotional tone -poems in which Liszt gave himself up to })ious contemplation, whereby he was frequently led to keep his room for weeks together. To such original compo- sitions belong: Harmonies poetiques et religieuses, 7 books, Leipzig, Kistner; Apparitions, Berlin, Schlesinger; and Consolations, Breit- kopf & Hartel. Paganini, the mighty master of the violin, appeared in Paris in 1831 and threw all former virtuosi into the shade by the irre- sistible attraction of his concerts. He not only executed the most incredible difficulties with perfect finish, but such difficulties also seem- ed like essential means for expressing special moods, for the mani- — 184 — festation of tlie keenest pain or wantonest humor. By these perfor- mances Liszt was stirred to his inmost soul; he reached the conviction, that a great assemblage could be thrown into such unexampled enthusiasm only through novel and unusual means; — that, the piano- forte could be made to produce musical and emotional effects rival- ling in expressiveness those of the violin; and resolved to become the Paganini of the pianoforte. — For a long time nothing more w^as heard of Liszt; he vanished almost utterly from public notice, and people were reminded of him only through his Grandes Etudes de Paganini, transcrites pour le piano, 2 books (the first contains La Campanella), which appeared at that time (Breitkopf & Hartel). These Studies were supplemented later by the following original works: Etudes d'execution transcendante, 2 books (same publ.), including Mazeppa, £roica, Feux foJJets, etc; Trots grandes i^tudes de Concert, Leipzig, Kistner; and Ab-Irato, Etude de per- fectionnement, Berlin, Schlesinger. Meantime he had quitted Paris, was heard from as staying by the Ehine and in Switzerland, and not until five years after the first Paganini concerts in Paris did he suddenly reappear on the scene of his earlier successes, with the announcement of a concert. But now he was no longer "le petit Liszt" who formerly enraptured the beau monde of the salons; he was the finished master, whom thenceforward no rival dared oppose. Under his hands the pianoforte was transformed, now to a thrilling organ, now to a soothing ^olian harp; anon his unheard-of, demonic harmonies swept on like a stormwind, and again he charmed the ear with dulcet, flute -like tones and wierd melodies, around which marvellous passages wound like arabesques twined of bright flowers and pearls. The years from 1836 to 1848 show an unbroken scries of the brilliant triumphs of this creator of the modern art of pianoforte- playing, which combines all fine traits of the earlier schools. He first proceeded to Vienna and Hungar}^ in 1837, then travelled through Italy as far as Naples, appeared in 1840 at Leipzig, in 1842 at Berlin, visited Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Portugal in turn, and in 1847 played even at Constantinople. In Pesth he was presented with a splendid sword, in Konigsberg he was created Doctor; the Emperor of Austria conferred the order of knighthood upon him. the Pope honored him with the order of the Golden Spur, and the Grand- duke of Weimar, who had made him his Hof kapell- meister in 1848, appointed him his cliaml)erlain. No artist has — 185 — been so loaded with honors as Liszt, but as a man no one has proved himself worthier of them. Wherever help was needed to support a great undertaking, to raise a monument to the memory of a cele- brated man, to encourage an ardent talent, or to succor the sorely distressed, he always showed his greatheartedness by word and deed. The original compositions performed at his concerts and pub- lished later, were at first held for impracticable by all other pianists. But Liszt gathered about him in Weimar a circle of pupils of both sexes, familiarized them with his new manner of holding the hand, his fingering, and style of playing, repeating emphatically, that to be effective the style must be full of soul and character, and that the artist "should not appear before the audience like the accused before his judges, but as a witness to eternal truth and beauty". To Liszt's most effective Concert Compositions belong the following Fantasias on motives from various operas: Grande Fan- taisie dramatiqiie sur des themes de I'opera Les Huguenots, Berlin, Schlesinger; Reminiscences de JRohert le diahle, ditto; Heminiscences de la Juive, ditto; Reminiscences de Don Juan, ditto; Fantaisie sur des motifs de I'opera La Sonnambtda, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; Reminiscences de Norma, Mainz, Schott; Reminiscences des Puritains, ditto; / Puritani, Introduction and Polonaise, ditto; Fantaisie sur la Tyrolienne de I'opera La Fiancee, Vienna, Mechetti; Reminiscences de L/iicrcsia Borgia, 2 books, ditto; Reminiscences de Lucia di Lam- mcrmoor, Leipzig, Hofmeister; Marche et Cavatine de Lucia, Mainz, Schott; Illustrations du Prophete de Meyerbeer, 3 books, Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hiirtel; 2 pieces from Wagner's Tannhduser and Lohen- grin, ditto; 3 pieces from Lohengrin, ditto; Andante and March from the opera Alfred by J. Raff, Magdeburg, Heinrichshofen; Deux Motifs de Benvenuto Cellini de Berlioz, Brunswick, Meyer; 4 Concert Paraphrases on "God save the Queen", Ernani, Rigoletto, and II Tro- vatore by Verdi, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; Hochseitsmarsch und Elfenreigen from the Sommernachtstraum, Breitkopf & Hartel; Marche fimebre de Don Sebastian, Vienna, Mechetti; Valse de bravoure on Motives from Gounod's Faust, Berlin, Bote & Bock. — To these may be added the following effective Salon Pieces: Tarantella di bra- vura, Vienna, Mechetti; Gaudeamus igitur, Breslau, Hainauer; Hus- sitenlicd, Leipzig, Hofmeister; Leier und Schwert, after C. M. v. Weber, Berlin, Schlesinger; Capriccio alia turca, Vienna, Mechetti; Unga- rischer Sturmmarsch, Berlin, Schlesinger; Venecia e Napoli, Mainz, Schott; Zwei Balladen, Leipzig, Kistner; Scherbo und 3Iarsch, Bruns- — 186 — wick, Meyer; Drei Caprices -Valses , Vienna, Haslinger; HeroiscJier MarscJi in Hungarian style, Berlin, Schlesinger; Goethe- Festmarsch, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co.; 2 characteristic Polonaises and a bril- liant Mazur'k.a, Leipzig, Senff; a seductive Valsc- Impromptu, Leipzig, J. Sehubertli & Co.; and finally 1 Galop chromatique (Leipzig, Hof- meister), sweeping onward with demonic wantonness, and executed by Liszt in an incredibly rapid tempo. The original compositions in the Annees de pelerinage, suites de compositions pour le Piano, 1® annee, Suisse; 2^ annee, Italic (Mainz, Schott) breathe now the most ardent devotion, now the deepest me- lancholy of a youthful, impressionable nature lost in wrapt survey of the natural beauties of those countries; while a grand Concert Solo in ^-minor (Breitkopf & Hartel), and still more a Sonata in 5-minor dedicated to Robert Schumann (ditto), rank with Liszt's grandest and most original works by reason of their peculiar form, fantastic spi- rit, and venturesome modulutions. A species of music-piece invented by Liszt are the Transcrip- tions for the Pianoforte, in which not only the melodies treated take on a wann, living colorit conformable to their character, but the poems, too, on which they are founded are charmingly and spirit- edly illustrated by music closely following the thread of the story. Franz Schubert's songs, in particular, first became generally known and popular in Germany through Liszt's spirited transcriptions for piano. Of these there have been published: Tivelve Songs by Franz Schubert, tran- scribed for the Pianoforte, Vienna, Spina; ScJiivanengesang, 14 Num- bers, Vienna, Haslinger; the Winterreise, 10 Numbers, ditto; Die Bose and Lob der Thrdnen, ditto; the 3Iiillerlieder, transcribed for piano- forte in easier style, 3 books, Vienna, Spina; Six Melodies, Berlin, Schlesinger; the Sacred Songs, Leipzig, J. Schuberth & Co. — To the same class belong Beethoven's Songs for the Pianoforte, 12 Numbers publ. by Breitkopf & Hartel and 6 Numbers by J. Schuberth & Co.; Songs hy Mendelssohn, 7 Numbers publ. by Breitkopf & Hartel and 2 Numbers by Kistner in Leipzig; Songs hy Robert Franz, 3 books, Breitkopf & Hartel; Liebeslied by Schumann, Schlummerlied by C. M. V. Weber, and "0 du, mein holder Abendstern" from Tannhauser, Leipzig, Kistner; Buch der Lieder by Liszt, four Pianoforte soli, Berlin, Schlesinger; Polish Melodies by Chopin, ditto; Soirees de Ros- sini, 14 Numbers, Mainz, Schott; National Melodies from the Ukraine and Poland, Leipzig, Kistner; Soirees de Mercadante, 6 Numbers; Soirees de Donizetti, 3 Numbers, Mainz, Schott; National Melodies — 187 — from Russia, Hamburg, Cranz; ditto from B^arn, 2 Numbers, Mainz^ Schott.— A similar species of transcriptions is formed by tlie Vahes- Caprices cVopres F. Schubert (Vienna, Spina), overflowing witli fun and frolic, wit and humor; and finally, the effective transcriptions of Seb. Bach's 6 Tr eludes and Fugues for the Organ (Fed. and Man.) Leipzig, Peters. — Novel in form and exciting in development are the following original compositions: Episodes from Lenau's Faust; Nlicht- licher Zug and Mr.phisto -Wdlser (J. Schuberth & Co.); the Elegies and the Legends (C. F. Kalmt); Ave Maria, Waldesrausc1ie» , and Gnomenreigen in the Lebert-Stark Pianoforte Method (J. Gr. Cotta). In sensitive, glowing colors appear the following works arranged by Liszt for Pianoforte and Orchestra: Weber's Polonaise in E, Berlin, Schlesinger; Schubert's Fantasia m C, Vienna, Spina; Capriccio alia turca on. motives from Beethoven's Ruins of Athens; Hungarian Bhapsodg in ^-minor; and also two grand Pianoforte Concertos, pro- ducts of most ardent inspiration, in E't? (Vienna, Haslinger), and in A (Mainz, Schott), which, by reason of their lofty and intensely effect- ive spirit and their supremely beautiful form, must be reckoned among the grandest, most powerful, and brilliant works in Pianoforte Literature. As Chopin glorified his own nation in his moving Polonaises and Mazurkas, Liszt most faithfully portrayed and sang the nature and doings, the life and love of the Gypsies of his native land, in a series of attractive musical poems issued under the title of Bhapso- dies hongroiscs. We unfortunately possess no complete edition of the same; for Nos. 1 and 2 were published by Senff, Leipzig, Nos. 3 to 10 by Haslinger of Vienna, and Nos. 11 to 15 by Schlesinger of Berlin. Liszt lived at various times for consideral)le periods among the Gypsies in Hungary; and these untamed children of Nature, too, were carried away by the might of his music, and admired and revered him wholly. His studies on their character are found in the book: Des Bohemiens et de leur nmsique en Hongrie, Paris, Bourdil- liat et Cie. (German by Peter Cornelius, Pesth, Heckenast). This interesting work forms a commentary, so to speak, on his Hungarian Rhapsodies, as he himself suggests in its course as follows: "The charm which the music of the Gypsies has exercised upon us since childhood, familiarity with its peculiar sound and sense, comparable to no other kind, this gradual penetration into the secret of its life- springs, the ever- deeper insight into the nature of its form and the necessity of its perseverance in an eccentricity, any abatement of — 188 — which would mean a renunciation of its character, a denial of its individuality, naturally led us very early to adapt many of its frag- ments for the pianoforte. And leisure hours soon amassed a goodly number of such adaptations, yet quite without an ulterior aim. But very far from satisfying our penchant or noting a diminution of our interest, we grew more and more absorbed in the work, and felt an ever-growing desire to transfer to our instrument the eloquent ad- monitions, the wierd effusions, the reveries, revels, and extravagances of this coy Muse. But with each step forward the task waxed im- measurably; at last no stopping-place, no bounds could be found. A crushing load of material weighed us down. Then arose the need of comparing, choosing, polishing, setting off! And amidst these endeavors the conviction strengthened within us, that these frag- mentary, scattered melodies were the wandering, floating, nebulous parts of a great Whole, that they fully answered the conditions for the production of an harmonious unity, which would comprehend the very flower of their essential properties, their most unique beauties, and which, on the strength of the internal confirmation attempted by us at the beginning of these pages, might be regarded as a kind of national epic, sung by this people, who in all their ways follow an unwonted, unusual course, in an unwonted and unusual form and speech. From this new point of view we soon perforce became aware, that the wellnigh innumerably different forms of the Gypsy music, such as odes, dithyrambs, elegies, ballads, idyls, gazels, distiches, hymns of war, burial songs, love-songs, and drinking-rimes, might be united to one homogeneous body, to a complete work, its divisions to be so arranged that each song would form at once a whole and a part, which might be severed from the rest and be examined and enjoyed by and for itself, but which would none the less belong to the whole through the close affinity of subject-matter, the similarity of its inner nature, and unity in development. The isolated fragments of Gypsy music already published by us were subjected to renewed scrutiny; they were modified, blended, com- bined, conformably to our design of a Whole, which thus presented in its structure a work approximately realizing our idea of a Gypsy Epic, such as our fancy had portrayed". Liszt's earlier-mentioned reform In the holding of the hand in piano-playing is propagated by his numerous pupils; his peculiar fingering, aiming foremostly at a more vigorous touch and a more even execution of passages, we often find indicated where — 189 — necessary in his pianoforte compositions. The earliest style of holding the hand was such that the player, whose elbows when quietly seated before the keyboard were below the level of the keys, was fairly obliged to draw the latter down with the fingers; a coin laid upon the back of the hand would therefore have slid off into the player's lap, or to the floor. Much the same posture we see, for example, on the title-page of the Theoricum opus musicse disciplinse, (second edit, 1492), by Franchino Gafori, this celebrated musician being seated at the organ. In the earliest clavier works, which down to Frescobaldi resembled the scores for four-part vocal music, the fingering followed as best it might the progression of the four independent parts, and the black keys, whose tones sounded tolerably pure only in certain keys on account of the prevailing system of unequal temperament, were therefore used but seldom. The fingering did not become more difficult until compositions intended for the clavier began to be written with livelier runs and passages, and when, after Seb. Bach's appearance, the introduction of the equal temperament made it possible to use the black keys like the others. Before Bach's time, the thumb was employed only in wide stretches; it was therefore allowed to hang down, so as not to impede the stiffly outstretched fingers. For the clavier works of Baeh, however, which were written in all keys, the thumb was "suddenly elevated from its former inactivity to the position of chief finger". (Essay on the true Method of playing the Clavier). In Germany, C. Ph. E. Bach was the first who attempted to reduce his father's fingering to rule. In the work just alluded to (third edition, 1787) he says: The hands should be held suspended above the keyboard in a horizontal posi- tion. One should play with bent fingers, without nervous straining; the commoner this fault, the more heed should be given to it. For whoever plays with straight fingers and tense nerves removes the other fingers, by reason of their length, too far from the thumb, which on the contrary ought constantly to keep as close as may be to the hand; they thus quite prevent this chief finger from doing its duty. The black keys are shorter and lie higher than the white, and therefore naturally belong to the three longest fingers. "Hence arises the first principal rule, that the little finger should touch the black keys seldom, and the thumb do this only in case of necessity." Where the fingers do not suffice, the thumb is tui-ned under, being naturally designed thereto by its flexibility and shortness. "Passing over is effected by the other fingers, and is facilitated by passing a -- 190 — longer finger over a shorter one or over the thumb, when the fingers come to an end, as it were. — The passing of the thumb under the little finger, of the second finger over the- third, of the third over the second, the fourth over the fifth, or of the little finger over the thumb, is reprehensible." According to dementi's method a silver dollar laid on the back of the hand should not fall off while playing. Francesco Pollini taught, on the contrary, in his Clavier Method (1811) mentioned earlier, that the hand should be held in a horizontal position, but arched (rotondata). And finally, Liszt did not hold his hand hori- zontally, but with the wrist higher than the front part, so that a coin laid on the back would slide down to the keyboard. If the fingers then rise to the height of the wrist, they gain all the more sti'ength for the dowa-stroke upon the keys. Liszt sometimes played a strongly marked series of tones with the more powerful second finger alone, and a similar octave passage with the thumb and the third or fourth fingers; for a sustained or loud trill he used not only two adjoining finger, but pairs separated by others, such as fii'st and third, or third and fifth; the right hand executed such trills in suitable places even with the following fingering: 1-4 2-3, 1-4 2-3, etc. He likewise produced a sharp trill in sixths or thirds by playing the main notes with the right hand, and the subsidiary notes with the left, with equal power. For a passage regularly repeated in different octaves, he chose the most convenient fingering in one octave and repeated the same in the following octaves, when it frequently oc- curs, in opposition to earlier rules, that the thumb is passed under the fifth finger, or the latter over the thumb. In his compositions, besides, we meet with chords whooj width or full harmony seems to require the co-operation of both hands, whereas one of the latter is at the same time occupied in another way. In this case they are to be executed as broken or arpeggio'd chords by an accelerated crossing of the hands. He brings out two motives, at first treated separately, together further on; and, finally, sometimes performs a melody in three or fourfold octave unisons, while interweaving the same with the most brilliant passages, taking up the whole range of the keyboard, or accompanied by fullest-toned harmonies. The full harmony of the chords written by Liszt is produced especially by the favorable acoustic setting of their parts, in which the tone-waves formed can propagate in freest vibration all accompanying overtones and tones of combination. Each of Liszt's pianoforte compositions — 191 — also proffers us new combinations and striking effects of tone, many of wMch years since became the common pvopcity of all pianists. But no «jne can form a definite conception of his marvellous perfor- mances except those, who have themselves heard him; Robert Schu- mann, alter hearing him in 1840 at Leipzig, pointedly writes in a long article on his playing: "The instrument glows and flames under its master — it is no longer pianoforte -playing of this or that kind, but the veriest manifestation of a dauntless character, to whom, for ruling and conquering, Fate for once allotted instead of dangerous implements the peaceful ones of Art." [Liszt lived out his life of nearly 75 years fully and wholly, creating, teaching, and helping to his last breath. In the churchyard at Bayreuth there stands, since Oct. 22, 1887 (his 77th birthday), a mausoleum over the grave of the artist whose name and fame filled the world, and are written in indelible characters in the book of the history of Art. Among the works left by Liszt is a method of study in three volumes, which has been issued under Alex. Winterberger's supervision by J. Schuberth in Hamburg. Difficulties with the pu1> lisher prevented the intended earlier publication of the work, already prepared for the press; Liszt's pleasure in the work was spoiled, and thus a final revision of the same by the master himself was not undertaken. Furthermore, a Pianoforte Concerto in ^-minor with string orchestra has been found, which Liszt presumably composed during his stay in Switzerland (1835 — 1840). This work, named by himself '^MaUdiction", appears to have been left unfinished, as the score is not completed for full orchestra, and the pianoforte part shows a great number of alterations and variants in Liszt's hand. In form it resembles the ^-major Concerto, and contains many beauti- ful, poetical touches. Liszt's pregnant writings, done into German by L. Eamann, have been publislied in six volumes by Breitkopf & Hartel, and mirror the wide knowledge, the rich experience in art, the lofty artistic standpoint, and the noble heart of this unmatched genius, so worthy of reverence both as an artist and as a man, in a truly dazzling light. A minute and intelligently wiitten biosrraphy of Liszt, by Lina Ramann, has been published by Breitkopf & Hartel in 2 volumes. O. L.l — 192 Liszt's Pupils and Contemporaries. Among the pupils of tlie universally revered master, Franz Liszt, the one most nearly approaching him in truth and clearness of con- ception, in nobility and finish of execution, is Hans von Biilow, born at Dresden in the year 1830. He has also published a succes- sion of brilliant salon pieces and more serious characteristic works, which exhibit him, in this aspect as well, as a thoroughly trained musician with an exquisite sense of the Beautiful, We mention: MarcJie hongroise, op. 3^i(Mainz, Schott); Reverie fantastiqiie, op. 7 (Breslaii, Leuckart); Ballade, op. 11 (Mainz, Schott); Au sortir du hal, op. 24 (Bote & Bock); I Carnivale de Milano, op. 21 (Barth. Senff); and a charmfuUy sparkling, flower- scented, deftly and airily flitting "Elfenjagd" (Leipzig, G. Heinze). Further, in his paraphrase of Wagner's ''Tristan and Isolde", Biilow has produced a master-piece in pianoforte arrangement. Not only are the various orchestral effects reproduced in piano-style with a wealth of brilliant colors, but not one of the often inti'icately interwoven melodies of this overflowing score is slighted. All virtuosi preceding him had celebrated their most signal triumphs by the performance of their own original works; but he, familiar with both early and recent clavier literature, gifted with an astounding memory and a surprising keenness of conception, re- solved to win renown through the vivid interpretation of masterworks of the past and present. And he became the miraculous resuscitator of the creations of the venerable Sebastian Bach, the profoundest expounder of Beethoven's last revelations, the most fiery declaimer of the fantastic tone -poems of Franz Liszt. As the latter had de- livered all his performances free from memory, Biilow in like manner so assimilates the compositions of the masters of his choice, that he plays them as if improvising in inspired moments. He reproduces the Preludes, Fugues, and Suites of Bach and Handel with the full vigor and independence of the parts; interprets Emanuel Bach and Mozart in all their freshness and amiability; reveals the depth and sublimity of the gloomful Beethoven; attracts us sympathetically through Chopin's soulful poems, leads us with Schubert's charming melodies into the swirl of the brilliant ball-room, and arouses our warmest enthusiasm by the dazzling tone-colors and storm-swept passages of Liszt's Fantasias. In the rich and choice programs — 193 — of his pianoforte recitals Biilow sets himself the loftiest tasks, and in his execution of the same excels all his predecessors in this field. We have heard him play, besides Liszt's Etudes, concert para- phrases, and Hungarian Rhapsodies, the pathetic Sonata in ^-minor from memory, faithfully and in finished beauty. He has also played Beethoven's 33 Variations op. 120, and even the same master's last five Sonatas op. 101, 106, 109, 110 and 111 in a concert given at Berlin in 1878, in such a fashion that the large audience followed the thrilling delivery of these romantically dramatic poems with ever-growing excitement. Billow, who besides his high pianistic attainments is also an eminent conductor, having among other things brought the art of conducting without score into vogue, has held in turn the position of Kapellmeister at Munich, Hanover, Meiningen, St. Petersburg, and Berlin; his own pianoforte recitals, beginning with a concert -tour through Germany and Austria in 1853, have won him world-wide renown. Among his pupils, several are distinguished as virtuosi or teachers, above all Frits Hartvigson in London, Max Schwarz in Frankfort, Mr. Hatton, Heiurich Barth in Berlin, Frederic Lammond in Glasgow, Miss Anna Haasters in Cologne, and others. His fellow-pupil „ . ^ Karl Tausig (1841 — 1871), whose career ended just as he had reached the pin- nacle of virtuosity, was original in another way. Hardly any other pianist will ever exhibit even the will to reach the same perfection. In strength, endurance, and precision he surpassed all his rivals. The tasks which he set himself were always accomplished in a wonderful manner. He relieved the romantically sentimental Chopin of his Welfsclmier^ , and showed him in his pristine creative vigor and wealth of imagination. He led his hearers into the awful depths of Beethoven's works, laid bare new veins of precious metals in their gloomy shafts, and displayed the treasures so found in the most brilliant fire and magical splendor of color. Tausig's Nouvelles Soirees de Vienne, published in Vienna and dedicated to his teacher Franz Liszt, are full of the most astonishing flashes of fancy; they pursue with wanton humor the Strauss waltzes on which they are built up, bombarding them with most graceful banterings, piquant passages, and striking harmonies.* In 1866 Tausig founded in Berlin a '^SchuU des Hoheren Clavierspiels" , in which at the outset Franz * Comp. "Der letzte Virtuoso", by C. F. Weitzmann. Leipzig, C. F. Kahnt. 13 — 194 — Bendel, and later Adolf Jensen, Louis Ehleit, Carl Bial, Franz Kroll, and Otto Lessmann were engaged as teachers. The most distin- guished pupils issuing- from this school were Rafaell Joseffy (b. 1852 at Pressburg, now living in New York), Max Pinner (b. 1851 at New York, d. 1887 in Davos), Oskar Paif (Berlin), Oskar Beringcr (London), Vera Timanoff (St. Petersburg), Gustav Weber (d. 1887 in Zurich, published a valuable Pianoforte Quartet), and others. Other of Liszt's most eminent pupils are Hans von Bronsart (b. 1830 in Berlin), whose Trio in G-minor for Pianoforte, Violin, and Violoncello shows the thoroughly trained musician, and whose Pianoforte Concerto in J^Jj-minor is also valuable musically;— Dionys Pruckner, who may be termed the classicist among more recent pianists, in that he combines faultless accuracy of execution, uncom- mon fullness of tone, and complete technical mastership with measured repose in the clear and organically contrasted exposition of the musical contents of the work in hand. These refinements have won for his playing not only most gratifying recognition from the narrower circles of thorough musicians, but likewise most brilliant successes in his public performances at Vienna, Pesth, Munich, Stuttgart, and other places; — Franz Bendel, who, both by his inspired performances and several attractive and genial compositions, has won a good reputation. To the works already mentioned may be added an extremely interesting JBdllade (op. 31, Berlin, Challier), and among his posthumous works, published by the same house, a very melodious Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin in i^-rainor, and an animated Trio with Violin and 'Cello. To this list may be added, ns worthy fellow-pupils, Franz Kroll (1826—1877), who has also published various attractive pianoforte works, the (already mentioned) composers and pianists Salomon Jadas- sohn, Xaver Scharwenka, and Tlieodor Patzenberger, together with the artists Karl Klindworth and William Mason; and finally the lat- terly very prominent artist Giovanni Sgambati (b. 1843 in Rome), who has written 1 Pianoforte Quartet, 2 Quintets, F-minor, op. 7, ^l?-niajor, op. 5, 1 Pianoforte Concerto in 6r-minor, op. 15, and many solo pieces; in all these Sgambati proves himself a highly gifted and ingenious composer, formed no less under the influence of the neo German tendency, than under that of the German classics. A Pre- lude and FiKjue have been issued by Schott, Mainz. Among the younger masters of pianoforte-playing, a long list of fine pupils of Liszt's later years have won distinction First of all we must name. — 195 — I\roritz RoscMitlial. Despite Anton Rubinstein's dictum (in "Art and Artists") that the age of the great virtuosi came to a final end with Tausig's death, the question involuntarily arises on hearing Rosenthal, whether such perfect finish and mastery of every technical nuance and shade of expression could ever have been surpassed. Rosenthal was born at Lemberg in 18G2; at the age of 8 years his natural bent for pianoforte-playing was so strongly developed, as to attract tlie attention and secure the aid of Mikuli, the Director of the Lemberg Conservatory. Two years later, Raphael Joselfy ini- tiated him into Tausig's advanced method, and at the age of 14 Rosenthal gave a concert in Vienna, playing brilliant compositions by Weber, Beethoven, Chopin, and Liszt. On a concert- tour to Rdumania he earned the title of Royal Pianist to the Roumanian Court. From 1878 onward, Liszt took the leading part in his pia- nistic education; Rosenthal followed the master on his yearly migra- tions to Weimar, Pesth, Vienna, and Rome, a faithful companion until Liszt's death in 1886. Thus he is both one of the last and youngest of Liszt's disciples in art. In 1887 he made his first con- cert tournee in America, and has since then created a furore in various European musical capitals. He throws into the shade all other competitors in the field of pianoforte virtuosity, whether as regards the boldness, the fairly astounding accuracy, or the over- whelming power of his technical performance. But he commands, besides, the entire scale of charming effects in touch and tone, and in the fullness of contrast found in modern romanticism no living contemporary is his rival. Eug6ne d'Al])crt (b. at Glasgow on April 10, 1864) is the son of a French musician, a teacher of music and dancing in England, and of a German mother; he received his first musical instruction from his father, then becoming a pupil of Ernst Pauer in London. In the year 1880 Hans Richter took the highly talented youth to Vienna and introduced him to Liszt, under whose guidance the unusual gifts of the young artist developed with astonishing rapidity. d'Albert's first concerts at Vienna and Berlin justly created a sensation, for the effect of the youthful virtuoso's brilliant technique was enhanced by the intellectual maturity of his interpretations — an infallible sign of one of those few chosen from among many that are called. 1 Suite in five movements for Pianoforte, op. 1 (Bote & Bock), and 1 Pianoforte Concerto in 5-minor, Songs, Piano-pieces, 2 Overtures, etc., reveal the fine creative faculty of the young artist, — 196 — who iu the course of a few years has won European renown. In 1886 cV Albert settled in Eisenach. (It may be of interest to note, in view of his exuberant vigor and great powers of endurance, that d'Albert is a strict vegetarian). Among Liszt's younger pupils we name further Arthur Fried- heim (b. Oct. 26, 1859 at St. Petersburg), who for many years pro- fitted by his master's instruction in Weimar, Eome, and Pesth, and in regard to brilliancy and precision of technique has few rivals. He is in the main a Liszt player, and with reference to the latter's works is a reliable maintainer of the direct tradition. — Bernhard Staveuhageu, too (b, 1862 at Greiz), after finishing his course of study in the HocltsclmJe at Berlin, and masterfully developing his artistic individuality from 1885 under Liszt's influence, speedily gained a high reputation in Germany and England. Stavenhagcn's style is distinguished for brilliant technique paired with great warmth of expression, which advantages he shares with Emil Sauer, at present living in Dresden. The latter, like another Liszt pupil of the younger generation, Alexander von Siloti, had previously studied under the guidance of Nicolas Kubinstein at Moscow. Other concert players of note are Alfred Keisenauer of Konigsberg, Conrad Ansorge of Weimar (b. 1862 in Lichen), Max van de Sandt, Carl Schuler, Ber- trand Roth of Dresden, Carl Pohlig, Jules de Zarembski (b. 1854 in Schitomir, Eussia, d. Sept. 15, 1885 in Brussels as the successor of Louis Brassin at the Conservatory). As well known as these, though in a different field, is Martin Krause of Leipzig, whose celebrity as a teacher of the pianoforte is due mainly to his faithful and scientifically exact maintainance of the Liszt tradition. — Martin Krause was born at Lobstedt near Leipzig in 1853, of a musical family; under the strict instruction of his father, a cantor, he was able at the age of 8 to play the organ in church and transpose chorales at sight, and on Sundays bore a part in quartets with his brothers and sisters. When 13 years old he went to Borna, attending the seminary there from his 15tli to I9th year, and graduating as the first in his class both in music and letters. Here he obtained, from the piano-teacher Fuchs, the first ideas of his present technique. Coming to Leipzig, he attended the University down to his 22ud year, liearing lectures on musical and scientific subjects; he also entered the Conservatory in 1873, having instruction from Reinecke and Wenzel, to the former of whom he owes his initiation into the "art of a singing execution", and to the latter — 197 — the theory of "the loose wrist". Undecided whether to devote him- self to music or to letters, the opinion expressed by Eeinecke after thoroughly testing Krause's powers, "that it had never before been so easy for him to give advice in such a matter", finally turned the scale in favor of art. Six months' teaching in an institute at Mon- treux, Switzerland, and a prolonged stay at Detmold as private tutor in a family, where he had a chance to practise from 8 to 11 hours daily, so far ripened his powers, that in 1878 we find him making a concert-tour in various towns of Holland and Germany, meeting everywhere with great success. In the Spring of 1880 he returned to Leipzig, played in Bliithner's hall, but then broke down from the strain of over-practice, and was nervously prostrated for two years. He made Liszt's acquaintance in 1882, and played before him for the first time in 1883. Thenceforward he was often, sometimes for a month at a time, in Weimar, in constant communication with the master and his pupils, eagerly observant of the minutest technical and artistic details, and taking infinite pains to learn from the older pupils — those of the time when Liszt still gave careful instruc- tion in the minutiae of technique — all details which could throw light on the master's marvelous facility. Krause, whose own spe- cialty as a player was Beethoven, lays peculiar stress on Liszt's wonderful faculty for recognizing and bringing out each pupil's strong point and special capacity. In 1885 Krause, the Russian Siloti, Frau Moran-Olden, and others gave two grand concerts in Leipzig, at which Liszt was present, and which led to the foundation that same year of the famous "Lisztverein" (Liszt Society), of which Krause was the chief promoter and is still the chairman and manager. Since that year he has been settled in Leipzig as a teacher and writer, and in both these branches his thorough scientific and practical education in letters and art afford a firm foundation for a growing^ reputation. A work now in preparation by Krause on '"Phrasing" will be eagerly awaited by all knowing his views on this highly important subject — a subject which the abstruse would-be scientific treatment frequently accorded it only tends to render confusing and disheartening to the average student-mind. In recognition of Krause's distinguished services to the cause of art, the Duke of Anhalt bestow- ed on him, in June, 1892, the title of Professor. Among Liszt's lady pupils we name Vera Tiraanoff" in St. Petersburg and Martha Remmert in Weimar, who have won recognition as virtuosi in concerts given at home and abroad. Emma Grosscurth of Cassel. — 198 — aud Emma Koch of Municli, both of whom finished their studies under the supervision of Liszt and Biilow, hare in numerous concerts proved themselves thoughtful pianistes of good musical taste. Concerning the ladies, the term "pupils of Liszt" unhappily took on a somewhat unpleasant aftertaste during the last years of the master's life, a large number of immature or mediocrely endowed ladies having walked through the salon of the growingly indulgent artist, in order thereafter to give themselves out in highly inflated puffs not only for pupils, but for '-favorite pupils", of Liszt. Thus it is too easily explainable, that critics and public alike finally became suspicious of the once so honorable title; still, enough genuine pupils of either sex uphold their master's memory, through the striving to serve true art in his spirit with seriousness and honest zeal. Raff, Brahms, and Rubinstein. These three masters elevated themselves to the culminating point of their productivity', not by pianoforte works alone, but also in par- ticular by larger sacred, dramatic, and symphonic compositions. These larger works are among the finest of modern times; a selection from their pianoforte compositions has for a considerable period adorned the racks of our foremost pianists. Joachim Raff (b. on May 27, 1822, in Lachen on the Lake of Zurich, d. June 24/25, 1882, at Frankfort) made no name as a pianoforte virtuoso, yet his works in this category always show the most convenient piano -style, and all display a teeming imagination and thorough musical science, intelli- gently employed in a free and unconstrained way. For a time he dwelt near Liszt in Weimar, then settled in Wiesbaden, and in 1877 was appointed to tlie directorship of the Hoch Conservatory at Frank- fort-on-the-Main. His diversified piano-pieces are for the most part, both in regard to conception and execution, accessible not merely to the grasp and powers of a virtuoso, but to any piauist of ability. Attractive grace and freshness are exhaled, for example, by Raff's "Friihlingshoten", 12 piano -pieces, op. 55 (Leipzig, J. Schu- berth & Co.). The first piece, Wintcrruhe, bears us to the sociable hearth of a cozy room, where we listen to the tender converse of a happy couple. In the second piece Spring is ushered in with all his songful messengers and fragrant flower-bells, repeating more and more urgently the cry: "Die Fenster auf, die Herzen auf!" (The — 199 — windows ope, your hearts ope wide). In No. 3 we hear an earnest chorale in the Doric mode; then follows a warmer, livelier movement, wherein the theme of "the Oath" hears a warning part as canto fermo. No. 4, with its animated rhythms and exciting suspensions and deceptive progressions, constantly increases our feeling of "Un- rest"; in No. 5 a sweetly caressing melody seeks to bring about a "Reconciliation" between the resentful lovers, but No. 6 renews the quarrel, gathering up its threads in a lively fugue. Like happily and artistically treated character-pieces are also found in the second half of the work, which contains very interesting figuration. With equally loving care are also wrought tlie piano-pieces of the follow- ing collections: Album lyriqite, op. 17 (J. Schuberth & Co.); Schiveizer- tveisen, op. 60 in 9 books (ditto); 12 Fiomances en forme d'Etudes, op. 8, Breitkopf & Hilrtel; Angelens Ictzter Tag ini Klostcr, a cycle of epico-lyric fragments for Pianoforte, op. 27, Leipzig, Kistner. Of his other pianoforte works we mention several books of finely wrought Suites, published in Winterthur by Rieter-Biedermann, and in Leipzig by Peters; Scherzo, op. 3, Breitkopf & Hartel; 4 Galops hrillants, op. 5 ditto; Morceau mstrnctif, Fantaisie et Variations brillantes, op. 6, ditto; Impromptu, op. 9, ditto; Capricietto, op. 40, Kistner; Romance, op. 41, ditto. The works following require the skill of a virtuoso: Hommago au Neoromantisme, grand Capriccio, op. 10, Breit- kopf & Hartel; Sonate arec fugue in JS't?-miuor, op. 14, ditto; Capriccio, op. 64; Three pianoforte soli. Ballade, Scherzo, and Metamorphoses, op. 74 (dedicated to Hans v. Biilow)77. Schuberth & Co.; and Chant de VOndm, grande Etude de I'Arpeggio-Tremolando, op. 83, Leipzig, Peters; — whereas the charming 13 Fiano- pieces of the set op. 75 (Leipzig, Kistner), are dedicated "to little hands". Raff shows him- self a master of the broader forms in his five grand Sonatas with Violin, op. 59, 73, 78, 128, and 129; also in the Trio, op. 102, and the Quintet with Strings, op. 107 (all publ. by J. Schuberth & Co.), and in the two Quartets with Strings, op. 202, two books (Leipzig, Siegel). We must also mention the 12 Morceaux a 4 mains, op. 82, separate or in 2 sets; 8 SonatHJen, op. 99; Beuno Caprices de concert, op. Ill (all Leipzig, J. Schubertli & Co.); Erinnerung an Vcnedig, op. 187, 6 books; Beisehildcr for 4 hands, op. 160, 10 books (botli publ. by Siegel, Leipzig); Vom Bhein, op. 134 (Fr. Kistner); Am Giesshach, op. 88; La Git ana, op. 110 (Rieter-Biedermann); Polka de la Bcinc, op. 35 (C. F. Peters), Orientales, op. 175, 8 books (Leipzig, Rob. Forberg). — Most of the earlier works here named have — 200 — been revised and polished by Eaff himself, so that we now possess them in carefully finished form. [As a composer Eaff developed un- common activity, which even among his opponents earned him the name of a copious writer. While it cannot be denied, that among his works many are found (especially among the minor ones for pianoforte) which hardly awakened, far less survived a passing inter- est, we must on the other hand take note of the fact, that Raff created many more works of enduring value, in which he ranks with the foremost composers of our time. To these belong many of his 11 SympJionies and his Overtures. For Pianoforte and Orchestra he wrote 1 Concerto in C- minor, op. 185, 1 Suite in £]?, op. 200, and the Ode au Printemps, op. 76, the Tagesseitcn for Pianoforte, Chorus, and Orchestra, op. 209. Of his later works we note 1 'Cello Sonata, op. 183, 1 CJiaconne^ op. 150, and 1 Fantasia, op. 207 a for 2 Piano- fortes. 0. L.] Johannes Brahms (b. March 7, 1833 at Altona), at the instance of Eobert Schumann, who instantly recognized in him the "musician by the grace of God", came forward in his very first compositions as one of the boldest neo-Eomanticists. His initial work, the Sonata in C (Breitkopf & Hartel) is marked by exuberant, glowing flights of fancy, and wild, still unchecked youthful vigor. Only by degrees has he ordered the contents of his pianoforte works more intelligibly, discarded the harsh modulations and progressions found therein, and moulded their outward form to one more practicable for the player. This improvement already begins in the i^j;|-minor Sonata, op. 2 (ditto), and the Sclterzo in ^^?-niinor, op. 4 (ditto), and shows still more in the Variations ivith a Fugue on a theme by Handel, op. 24 (ditto). In the Waltzes for 4 hands, op. 39 (Eieter-Biedermann) and also in the Lieheslieder, Waltzes for 4 hands with mixed chorus, op. 52 (Berlin, Simrock), he already presents himself in his full amiability as a German composer; and in the two books of Studies, Variations on a theme by Paganini, op. 35 (Eieter-Biedermann) he proffers the player a bright display of })rilliant pyrotechnic passages, many-colored figuration, and surprising effects of tone. Of his larger compositions not yet named there have been published, by Breit- kopf & Hartel, Trio with Violin and 'Cello, in B, op. 8; Variations on a theme by Eobert Schumann, op. 9; Ballades, op. 10; — by B. Senff, Sonata in i^-minor, op. 5; — by Eieter-Biedermann, Concerto with Orchestra in 7)-minor, op. 15; Variations for 4 hands, op. 23; Quintet with Strings in i^-minor, op. 34;— by Simrock in Bonn, Quartet — 201 — with Violin, Viola, and 'Cello in G- minor, op. 25; a second in A, op. 26; and a third in C-minor, op. 60. — Brahms has also published a second Pianoforte Concerto in JB[?, op. 83; the Bliapsodies, op. 79; 1 Violin Sonata, op. 78; lAebeslieder in 4 vocal parts with piano- forte accompaniment for 4 hands; Hungarian Dances for 4 hands (4 hooks); and more recently 1 Violin Sonata, 1 'Cello Sonata, and 1 Pianoforte Trio — perhaps the most clarified of all his works as yet published. Concise, though finished in form, they are marked by a wealth of melody and strong natural feeling. — For the introduction of Brahms to wider circles of musicians and the public, Hans von Billow has rendered services, both as a conductor and a pianist, which can hardly find a parallel. As a pianist, Brahms always strives to set the merits of the composition in hand, rather than his own virtuosity, in the best light; nor does he deign to lend to the products of his own fancy a dazz- ling outward brilliancy; for solely through their earnestly and warmly uttered poetical thoughts should they seek to win the sympathies of the hearers, and will therefore always find more favor in the intimate and congenial circles of friends than before larger and less homo- geneous audiences. Thoughtful and artistic in his compositions, bold and vigorous in his pianoforte performances— such is the character of Anton Rubin- stein (b. Nov. 30, 1830, at Weehwotynetz near Jassy). Furnished by Nature with all the gifts that distinguish the master-musician, he so developed them through untiring industry even in early childhood, that in his tenth yeai- he was already prepared to undertake a pro- fessional journey to Paris with his teacher, Alexander Villoing. Here he met with a friendly reception, and also with warm interest on the part of the hero of the day, Franz Liszt, whose advice and instruction were of the utmost advantage to him during a stay in Paris of a year and a half. Since 1848 he has lived chiefly in St. Petersburg, where as previously mentioned, he founded the Conservatory of Music, and whence he undertakes frequent tours,* partly for the rehearsal of his operas and other large works, partly to appear in successful soirees, or to arrange the publication of new manuscripts. In 1872 he travelled through America, and a year later we find him in Italy on a concert-tour, everywhere winning new laurels. Rubinstein * Anton Rubinstein has given up public performances as a pianist, and at present devotes Ms energies to the management of the St. Petersburg Con- servatory. 0. L. — 202 — moves wherever he goes in the highest circles of society, a circum- stance which affords a clew to the subjects of many of his works. The larger and more important of the same bear the character of the self-confident favorite of the aristocracy, mastering and illuminat- ing his surroundings by intellectual flashes — of the potentate often shaken by violent storms, but always escaping unscathed and trium- phant. On the other hand, the Albums dedicated to the fair sex — the Portraits, Barcarolles, and Ball -scenes — exhibit the gallant, engaging, and refined artist, now toying and chatting, again touching more serious topics, but always in a winning manner. In his con- certs he plays by preference his own compositions, the larger of which, accompanied by the orchestra, often upsurge in thundering billows, then suddenly hold the hearers spell-bound by a wierd, volJcs- tJmmlicJie melody, finally dragging them again into the wildest swirl, or leading them triumphantly into the haven ardently sought. Rubinstein has published 5 Pianoforte Concertos, the first in E (C. F. Peters), the second in F (Vienna, Spina), the third in G (Bote & Bock), the fourth, a special favorite with pianists, in D-minor (B. Senff), and the fifth, perhaps the grandest of them all, in E\^ (ditto). Of forceful grandeur are the Fantasie mit OrcJiester in C, op. 84 (B, Senflf), the Fantasie for two pianofortes in F, op. 73 (ditto), and the Sonata for 4 hands in D, op. 89 (ditto). — The first of the Sonatas for Pianoforte solo, in F, was issued, by C. F. Peters; the second in C-minor, and also the third very noteworthy one in F, by Breitkopf & Hartel. — The Sonata with Violin in C was published by Peters, that in ^- minor by Breitkopf & Hartel. — 1 Sonata with Viola in F- minor, and two with 'Cello, have been issued by the latter firm. — Trois morceaux de salon with Violin, ditto with Viola, and still others with 'Cello, were issued by J. Schuberth & Co. — Trios with Violin and 'Cello have been published, by Fr. Hofmeister, B. Senff, and by Lewy in Vienna; — 1 Quintet with wind instruments by J. Schuberth & Co., and another with Strings by B. Senff; — and an Octet with strings and wind, by C. F. Peters. Of the numerous salon pieces for Pianoforte solo, op. 1, Ondine, an Etude from Rubinstein's childhood, is published by Schlesinger in ViGYWn^— Album de PcterJiof, 12 morceaux, op. 75; Fantaisie in J?-minor, op. 77; the very interesting MisccJl antes, 9 books, op. 93, the last book containing the charming and easily executable 12 Miniatures; and also the £tude in false notes in C, and the Valsc-Caprice in E\^^ by B. Senff; — Spina in Vienna has published Russische Fantasien, — 203 — op. 2; the mucli- played Deux Melodies, op. 3; the Polish Dcnices,. op. 5; the Acrostic Laura, op. 37, and several other piano-pieces. — Bote & Bock have published the very popular Album de dauscs popuJaircs, op. 82, in a new edition revised by the composer; also Le JBal, en 10 Num^ros; the attractive fourth Barcarole in G, and Six J^tudes. — SchoWs Sohne of ]\Iainz have issued Album de 24 Tor- traits en 3 cahiers; 1 Suite en 10 cahiers, op. 38; and Points d'orgue pour les concerts de Beethoven, op. 15, 19, 37, and 58; — Breit- kopf & Hartel, 2 Sonatas, 3 Caprices, and 3 Serenades in one volume in stiff covers, red; — Kistncr in Leipzig, Deux Ilarclws funebres, op. 29, and Barcarole with Appassionato, op. 30; — C. F.^Kahnt in Leipzig-, Characterhilder for 4 hands, op, 50, equally interesting and attractive for player and listeners; Soirees a St. Petersboiirg , six morceaux, op. 44, likewise warmly to be recommended;— C. F. Peters, Preludes et Fugues en stile libre, op. 53; and a new edition of the jStudes, op. 23 and 24; — K6zsav61gye & Co. in Pesth, Fantaisie sur des melodies hongroises. Of the composers mentioned in this Section, Raff perhaps ap- proaches him in fertility, but is an unimpassioned classic compared with Rubinstein, the most fiery of Romanticists. Among the younger pianists, only Hans von Billow is his peer as an infallible virtuoso; but the latter quite sinks himself in an objective reproduction of the master as a faithful interpreter, lending through his own virtuos- ity merely the most animated coloring and characteristic illumination; whereas Rubinstein is always subjective, though his own personality irradiates in such manifold and charmful colors, that his imposing artistic skill everywhere appears as the soul of the character- piece chosen for interpretation. In any event we must recognize in these two masters of independent originality the most gifted and active pianists now living. Grieg, Saint-Saens, and Tschaikowsky. Three artists still remain for mention who are in the full ilower of productive activity, and an estimate of whose true value must therefore be left to the future. They are not of German parentage, but their compositions in part already lie before us in print, and are well calculated to invite closer scrutiny and to awaken a desire to know more of their most promising authors. Edvard Hagerup Grieg — 204 — is a Norwegian (b. at Bergen June 15, 1843); Camille Saint-Saens a Frenchman (b. at Paris Oct. 9, 1835); and Peter Tschaikowsky a Eussian (b. April 25, 1840, at Wotkinsk in tlie government of Wiatka, Ural District). The influence of each on the musical life of his native land will doubtless be important; but it cannot as yet be deter- mined, whether this influence will make itself felt abroad. Grieg is not a pianoforte virtuoso of prominence, neither do his pianoforte works aff'ord special difficulty to the player. The Concerto in J.-minor with Orchestra, op. 16 (Leipzig, E. W. Fritzsch) is written in a cheerful vein and with brilliant passages; but harmonic harsh- nesses and sharp cross-relations are sometimes disturbing. The first movement closes in ^-minor, and the following short Adagio begins, quite without connection, with the Db -major chord. Even if the hearer conceives this latter as the Cjji- major chord, the affinity be- tween the two harmonies must first be constructed very sophistically through J.-minor-J.- major, and Cff-minor-Cj|-major. The final Allegro is intelligibly and pleasingly written, but the oft-repeated and deci- dedly worn commencement of its principal theme makes an ill im- pression. In his easily executable LyriscJie StuclrJien for Piano- forte, op. 12 (Edit, Peters) — and also in the second and third sets or books of the same, op. 38 and 43 — Grieg employs, as in many of his other compositions, Norwegian motives interesting both in melody and rhythm; but in them, too, the ear is often unpleasantly grated by striking, though unlovely, incorrectnesses; e. g. in the ^-minor Walt^ the major sixth /"ft frequently occurs instead of the minor sixth f proper to this key. The Ballade in the form of Varia- tions on a Norwegian melody, op. 24 (same publ.), exhibits in both parts of the theme ill-sounding parallel fifths, which, even if written purposely, prove a lack of friendly counsel and aid. Of his other Pianoforte Works there have been published, by Breitkopf & Hiirtel, Sonata in £'-minor, op. 7, and Sonata with Violin in G, op. 13; — by Rieter-Biedermann, Fantasia for 4 hands, op. 11; — in Edition Peters we find Foetische Tonhilder, op. 3; Eimioresken, op. 6; Nordische Tdnze und Vollcsweisen, op. 17; Aus dem Volhslelen, op. 19; 1 Sonata with Violin, op. 8; and Symplionische Siuclie for 4 hands. —Other works are op. 35, Norwegian Dances for 2 or 4 hands; op. 36, Sonata for Pianoforte and 'Cello; op. 37, Waher-Capricen for 2 or 4 hands; "Aus Eollerg's Zeit", Pianoforte Suite; op. 41, Fianoforte Transcriptions of his own songs; op, 45, Third Sonata for Pianoforte and Violin, in C-minor. (Comp. p. 178, foot,) — 205 — Camiile Saint-Saens, who from early youth played Bach's "Well- tempered Clavichord" by heart, who accompanied prima vista from the score a Scena just wi'itten by Richard Wagner for a lady singer, at whose wish he transposed it into a lower key, is also recognizable in his own works as a thoroughly trained musician. His Premier Concerto pour Piano in D, op. 17 (Paris, Durand, Schonewerk et Cie., Successeurs), of a majestically dignified character, develops a design sketched by a master -hand. Its modulations are unconstrained, the development flowing and artistic, and the piano-part, independent throughout, now enters into strenuous rivalry with the orchestra, and anon alternates peacefully with it. The Andante in G- minor is followed by a Finale con fuoco, in which the principal subject of the first movement finally resounds once more in triumphant jubilation. For the performance of this piece the skill of a virtuoso is not requisite, but all the more the delicate touch of a thoughtful and poetically impressionable pianist, who is able in the proper place vigorously to stem the tide of the full orchestra, and to show him- self its master. The Troisihne Concerto in E^ (same publ.) begins with high-surging pianoforte arpeggios, gradually joined by the orchestral instruments taking up the main motive one by one, and developing and illuminating it melodically and harmonically. At length the pianoforte takes it up, strongly and sonorously empha- sizing it as the foundational motive of a work quite as grandly designed and wrought out as the concerto first described. The ingenious and well-skilled artist is likewise discernible in his smaller published salon pieces. The attractive piano-piece, op. 34, MarcTie hero'ique, is bold and striking in progression and modulation; and the Gavotte, op. 23, flows on unconstrainedly in the ancient style, though taking advantage of modern technique. These pieces also do not demand the skill of a virtuoso, and, like op. 40, the Danse macahre, have been published in Paris by the above firm. — [Saint- Saens, who was made a knight of the Legion d'honneur in 1867, and an officer of the same in 1884, is always the same incomparable pianist .... such receptions as he has received in the Conservatoire, in Russia, in Leipzig, and in London prove him to be one of the most remarkable and earnest pianoforte players of the day. — Other of his works are two further Pianoforte Concertos in (3^ -minor and C-minor; Quintet for Pianoforte, 2 Violins, Viola, and 'Cello; 1 TriOj and 1 Quartet for Pianoforte and Strings; 1 Suite for Pianoforte and 'Cello; Sonata for Pianoforte and 'Cello; Berceuse for Pianoforte and — 206 — Violin; Allegro appassionato for Pianoforte and 'Cello; Bomance for ditto; Septet for Pianoforte, 5 strings, and ti'umpet ohhligato; — and for Pianoforte solo: — Op. 3; 11 {Duettino in G, 4 hands); 21 (first MazurTca); 24 (second Mazurka); 35 {Variations sur un thdme de Beethoven, for 2 pianofortes — a gem); 52 (Etudes); 56 (Menuet et Valse); b9 {Ballade, 4 hands); besides several transcriptions of classical or popular airs and 12 transcriptions from Bach's cantatas and sonatas. Grove.] The gifted Russian, Peter Tschaikowsky, has painted, in his Concerto in Ji5l7-minor, a gigantic canvass of his people's period of storm and stress. In conception, form, and technique, it seems like a confident challenge to his competitors. It is dedicated to Hans von Billow, who was the first to recognize his eminent and artistically- developed creative vigor. It can still be had only of the publisher Jiirgenson of Moscow, and in an edition wherein the orchestra, as in many similar recent works, is represented by a second pianoforte. After a promising Andante in D\^ {^j^ time), the animated principal movement in ^1?, Allegro con spirito, begins {^j^ time). This is fol- lowed by a more tranquil Andantino semplice in D!? (^/^ time); and the close is formed by an Allegro con fuoco, which surpasses the concerto -finales of all his predecessors in the fervid glow of the pianoforte passages and the orchestral colors. His earlier .pianoforte compositions are by no means of such a heaven-storming nature, but quite as original. Only his first work, the Scherzo a la russe, still shows the specifically Slavonic temperament; even in the Sclierzo, the second number in op. 2, he exhibits a strong individuality imitating none of his predecessors. Of the remaining piano-pieces we name the passionate Bomance in i^-minor, op, 5; the wantonly teasing Eumoresqiie , op. 19; the Souvenir de Hapsal, op. 2, including as No. 1, Buines du cMtcau; Valse-Caprice, op. 4; VaJse-Sclierzo, op. 7; Capriccio, op. 8; Trois morceaux, op. 9; Nocturne and Humoresque, op. 10; and Six morceaux, the last number of which is the Theme original et Variations (all published by Piobert Forberg, Leipzig). All these neatly wi-ought salon pieces are peculiar in their progressions, intelligible and attractive in conception, and convenient in piano style; they justify the highest expectations with regard to the future works of this original composer. [A second pianoforte Concerto by Tschaikowsky in G, op. 44, and a Pianoforte Fantasia with orchestra in 6r-minor, op. 56, are on a level with the first Concerto in their freshness and inventive origi- — 207 — nality, tliougli both works win less applause for the soloist than this latter. We also note a Pianoforte Trio in ^-minor, op. 50; a Piano- forte Sonata, op. 37; many books of solo pieces, pieces for Pianoforte and Violin, Variations for Pianoforte and 'Cello. Tschaikowsky has an astonishing productive faculty; contemporary with him a neo- Eussian school of composition has arisen, including really distin- guished talents. Alexander Borodin (1834—1887), Cesar Cui (b. 1835), Anatole Liadoff, Nicolaus Rimsky- Korsakoff (b. 1844), Balakirew (b. 1836, an eminent pianist, who in 1862 founded a "Free Music- school" together with Lamakin, composed an Oriental Fantasia, "Slamey", for pianoforte, many piano -pieces, etc.), Alexander Dargo- mirski (1813 — 1869, distinguished pianist), Modest Mussorgskl (1839 to 1881, wrote besides operas many pieces for pianoforte and for the voice — Danse macabre, Scenes cTenfants, etc.); all of whom enthu- siastically joined the neo-German movement headed by Liszt- Wagner- Berlioz, and were followed by younger musicians of talent, as K Stcherbatcheff, Alexander Glazounow, and others. To the Russian school also belongs the Bohemian Eduard Naprawnik (b. 1839), who in 1869 became first Conductor of the Russian opera at St. Peters- burg, and has composed a large number of Pianoforte Works— Trios, Quartets, a Fantasia for Pianoforte and Orchestra, op. 39, etc. 0. L.] Down to our day Beethoven has remained, in his symphonies, string -quartets, piano -trios, sonatas, and other extended works, the ideal of all unbiassed musicians. His pianoforte sonatas, manifolded in countless editions, have not been pushed aside by later composers, and all attempts at writing such compositions in the more brilliant style suited to the present standpoint of virtuosity, have proved repugnant to the genius of the sonata. To produce a work rivalling Beethoven's sonatas, would be possible only to an equally profound thinker, keen-sighted knower of the heart, and thoroughly equipped musician of universal and versatile talent, as was Beethoven himself — who, though sketching his ideas in moments of inspiration, devel- oped and matured them afterwards in seasons of quiet contem- plation and inexorable self-searching. Our most popular composers, on the contrary, are ready witli their pens at any instant, and straightway consign, to their prejudice, their pieces in an unfinished state to the publisher. Moreover, they often spin out their melodies to infinity, whereas now, at this very day, the characteristic melody ought to be reinstated in its rightful place. • 208 — The Concerto, which employs the manifold colors of the orchestra, aad portrays the more agitated moods, fiercer struggles, and violent passions, may call the full artistic skill of the performer into play, in order to attune the hearer's mood to deep melancholy or glad jubilation by animated or pathetic runs and passages suited to the subject of the work. The most illustrious composers now living have presented us with admirable works of this class, which would be brought out oftener by the younger pianists did the demands on the virtuosity of the performer not frequently overpass his ability. The Character-pieces, Siimmungshilder , and NoveJlettes reveal progress in the striving toward truth of expression. They choose a more diversified and unusual subject, and clothe it in conformity with its spirit in a form as new, characteristic, and attractive as possible. Humor in music, in particular, has been duly reinstated, as is shown by the humorous and piquant Humoresques and Scherzi recently issued. The Pianoforte MetJiods of to-day are better calculated for a many-sided training of the pupil, the Etudes and exercises are more practically and tastefully written, and great masters have provided friendly gifts for little hands as well. [To the Pianoforte Methods an exceedingly valuable addition has latterly been made by Lina Ramann. Her broadly planned School of Pianoforte Technique has been published by Breitkopf & Hartel; its logical development of the entire material of instruction from the beginning caused Liszt to award preference to this work above all others. As fresh material of instruction this School introduces the Hungarian Scale — extracted from Liszt's Khapsodies hongroises — with minor third, augmented fourth, and minor sixth. O. L.] We notice with pleasure, that since the first edition of this book more attention has been paid to the earlier clavier literature, as proved by the Collections of the compositions of celebrated old masters published since its appearance. But much precious ore yet remains to be dug out and brought to light; in this connection we again urgently advise that such compositions should not be falsified by means of any "arrangements" whatever. This remark holds good in the case of Folk-songs and Folk-dances of various nations still to be published, which, if given unperverted, form a well-spring of new melodies and rhythms. Low-priced Topular Editions of recent valuable pianoforte com- positions are now issued by almost every considerable publishing — 209 — house; the critically revised, larger J^ditions de luxe of the Complete or Selected Works of Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, and other masters, have found enterprising publishers, as we have regu- larly noted in the proper place. [To the Popular Editions of the pianoforte works of Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, and Mendelssolm have lately been added those of Bach, Chopin, and Schumann. The Chopin Edition by Klindworth (Berlin, Bote & Bock), and the Schu- mann Editions by Dr. Hans Bischoff (Hanover, Steingraber) and Dr. Otto Neitzel (Cologne, Tonger), which meet all requirements in regard to critical revision of the works and practicalness of the explanatory notes, together with the admirable Beethoven Edition by Billow, have already been mentioned. An excellent edition of Beet- hoven's Sonatas, by Klindworth, has also been issued by Bote & Bock of Berlin. Bach's Clavier "Works have been published by Steiugi-aber of Hanover in an admirable critical Teacher's Edition by Dr. Hans Bischoff; the same editor has also recently issued through the same firm the tirst three Pianoforte Concertos by Mozart in an instructive and critically revised edition. The editions of Mozart's and Beet- hoven's Sonatas by Dr. Hugo Riemann haxe created a stir, for the reason that the Editor's Theory of Phrasing is practically and consistently adhered to in them. The movement in this hitherto almost ne- glected department of tuition has doubtless already brought forth good fruits, although it cannot be denied, that the supporters of the movement themselves embarrass their meritorious work in a measure by minutiae and singularities. O. L] The Science of Counterpoint and Fugue, in its strict purity and with its mysterious convolutions, is apparently in its decadence, being now practised by but a few able masters. The Science of Harmony, on the other hand, at least as applied by unbiassed composers, now recognizes the formerly unnoticed distinction between "chord" and "key". That is, each separate chord may naturally (diatonically) belong to seven different keys; it represents one definite Jcey only when brought into combination with its two dominant chords. Only thus do the chord-progressions now looked upon as irregular licences find logical justification. Virtuosity has attained through Liszt, who forced it to follow his most fiery pulses, a height, the transcending of which would endanger the player's accuracy, and leave to good luck the success of the desperate ventures expected at his hands. The virtuoso of to- day has at his command all nuances in the tone of his instrument. — 210 — which under his fingers must never cease to sing, from the softest piano up to the strongest forte. For him difficulties ought no longer to exist in the composition chosen, and he should he so profoundly immersed in the poetry of his music, that he can interpret it free from all rhythmic fetters. Like an inspired improvisatore he is up- borne by the feeling, that he captivates and irresistibly carries away his hearers by the potency of his heartfelt delivery. '^♦®*" HISTORY OF THE PIANOFORTE by C. F. WEITZMANN. Supplement to the History of Pianoforte - playing and Pianoforte Literature. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page Preface 215 N^he Clavier and the earKer instruments related to it 216 Origin of the Clavichord. The Monochord 219 v^Origin of the Harpsichord. Psaltery and Cymbal 223 Notes on the Claviers of the 16 th and 17 th centuries 226 Tuning of the Clavier-strings. Equal and unequal Temperament . . . 232 'Further development of the Clavichord and Harpsichord 244 The "G^igenwerke" or "Piano-violins", and the Pantaleon 254 * and 6'1?- After this, however, there were added more semitonia according to the genere chromatico, the compass being extended from F, G, G^ up to f, f% But now, he observes, all Symphonies and Clavichordia begin below with C and end on a", c", d", or even /"'. For him, the foundation of all keyboard instruments is the Clavi- chordium, neither does it give so much trouble with the quilling and the tuning. Clavichordia are often met with, he proceeds, which stand in tune for years. In all Clavichords 2, 3, or even 4 keys (which propter dissonantiam must not be touched at the same time) are always used for one unison of strings. Concerning the other claviers of his period Prsetorius gives th« following account: — 231 — A SynipJiony , and likewise a Clacicynibalum, Virginal or Spinet y are designated in common parlance indiscriminately by the term ''instrument" (though quite wrongly). Spinetta is a small square instrument, which is tuned an octave or a fifth higher than the right pitch, and which is usually placed on or in the large instruments. Both the large and the small square ones are named in Italy Spinetto, in England Virginal, and in France Espinctte. Clavicymhalum or Gravecymhaluni is a long (longer than broad) instrument, called by some a Fliigel (wing) because of its shape, by others, sed male, a Schweinshopf (swine's-head), because its end forms a point like a wild boar's head. It has a strong, bright, and almost more pleasing resonance and tone than the others, on account of the double, threefold, or even fourfold strings; and I have seen one with 2 unisons and a fifth and octave as empty (eitcl) strings, all of which sounded together most pleasingly and charmingly. I have seen at Prague, Prjietorius reports further on, at Herr Carl Luyton's (the organist), a Clavicymbel (Clavieymbalum universale seu perfectum), which was made accurately and carefully in Vienna thirty years ago (i. e. about 1589), in which not only all the semi- tonia, as 1)7, cjt, d'^, f^, g'^, etc. were doubled, but also an extra semi- or semitonium was added between e and f, which must have been necessary in the gencre enharmonico, so that it had, in the four oc- taves from C to three-lined c"', 77 claves all told.* Among the illustrations given by Prsetorius in his Theatruni in- strumentarum we find claviers with four, five, and six sides, including a Clavicymbal "a fourth lower than choir-pitch", in wing-shape; fui'- thermore, an Octave-Spinet and an Octave-Clavichord of a small size corresponding to their compass of but 3 octaves, and also an oblong "gcmein (common) Clavichord" of 4 octaves (from E to three-lined e") and strings of equal length. Regarding the status of claviers in Italy, we gain some infor- mation from a work issued in Perugia in 1695, by G. A. A. Bontempi, Historia musica, p. 47. Here we learn, that Girolamo Zente had * More than 30 years before, similar chromatico-enliarnionic instruments had already been constructed, and then described by Nicola Vicentino in his previously mentioned book published in Rome, 1555: "L'antica musica, ridotta alia moderna prattica"; and also b^'' Zarlino in a book likewise already referred to, published in Venice, 1358: "Istitutione harmoniche", p. 140. We find an illustration of such a wing-shaped clavier in this latter, p. 141. — 232 — invented the newest Clavicembali. Their form was nearly that of an isoceles triangle; they had 2 keyboards and from 2 to 3 draw-stops, took up little room, and yet sounded fully as loud as the long Clavi- cembali. Bontempi remarks further, that the keyboards of the new instruments were capable of being shifted to the right or to the left by a tone higher or lower, which arrangement, however, was aimless so long as the claviers possessed only 13 strings to the octave of 13 keys. But after two strings without keys had been added to the octave of 13 keys, giving the tones between d^ and e, and between g^ and a, which could be struck by one or the other key on shifting the keyboard, these instruments had likewise "attained the highest pitch of perfection". The intermediate tones mentioned by Bontempi were actually necessary, in order to present with tolerable purity the tone-relations in the new keys arising from the shifting of the keyboard, as the tuning of all the claviers hitherto discussed still lacked the modern equal temperament. The Tuning of the Clavier-strings. Equal and Unequal Temperament. The impossibility of establishing an absolutely pure system of harmony is a well-known fact mathematically proved. Even in the following series of pure fifths (2:3) a? e\^ b\} \ f c g d a e b \ f'Jt c^ g^ the tones a\? and g'^ (aside from the inequality of the thirds, sixths, and other intervals arising therefrom) form no pure octave; for the tone gS is by 74/73 higher than ab. And should one continue the series of pure fifths to infinity, no tone would ever be reached which would stand to a preceding tone in the proportion of a pui*e oc- tave (1:2). But just in the octave the ear cannot bear the slightest deviation — a fact recognized even by the two opposing theoreticians of antiquity, Pythagoras and Aristoxenos, together with their adherents. The Pythagoreans, in establishing an harmonic system, insisted upon the purity of the fourths (3:4) and fifths (2:3). Fourths: B E A D G C F. Fifths: F C G D A E B. — 233 — From these established tones they formed the diatonic tetraehord: B C B E and also the united tetrachords B G B E F G A to which was subsequently added a whole tone (8:9) at the lower end A, BGBEFOA.,,., In this "pure diatonic system of harmony" the fourths, fifths, and oc- taves obtained their natural proportions, but not the major thirds (4:5), the minor thirds (5:6), and their inversions, the minor and major sixths. Aristoxenos recognized, as an umpire in musical matters, not only the reflective faculty, which judges merely by figures, but gave preference to the ear. This theoretician (about 320 B. C.) sought to adjust the Pythagorean system to the practical needs of musicians by dividing the tetraehord into thirty equal parts, giving to each semitone 6, and to each whole tone 12, of these parts. Diatonic: B C B E Chromatic: B G B^ E When, as shown above, the tetrachords were extended to an octave, the latter was divided according to Aristoxenos' plan into 12 semitones of precisely equal value. The fifths, however, were at the same time diminished by ^/^g of a diatonic comma;* for only by this means could the pure octave be obtained in the harmonic system now comprising twelve steps. Aristoxenos was thus the first theoretician to establish in music an "equally tempered system of harmony", although it did not find general practical application until more than two thousand years later, after many hardly-contested battles. Since the 11th century, and more particularly by Guido d'Arezzo and the succeeding theoreticians, attempts were resumed to institute a system which should at least establish sufficient purity in the har- monic relations of the diatonic ecclesiastical modes then exclusively * Twelve successive fifths overstep the octave of their starting-point by a "comma". Each of these fifths must therefore be diminished or tempered by 1/12 of this narrow interval, in order finally to reach the pure octave. — 234 — employed. The various ways of dividing the monocliord, which were proposed to this end by Guido d'Arezzo, take no account, however, of pure tliirds and sixths, because in the 11th century and a long time thereafter these intervals were held to be dissonant.* But wlien, after the 15th century, the harmonic construction of the compositions became more pleasing and intelligible, tlie tuning in pure fifths and fourths without regard to the quality of the thirds and sixths no longer sufficed, even when using the ecclesiastical modes almost universally in vogue until towards 1700. Even the theoreticians were obliged to allow the singers to raise or lower chromatically certain notes in their parts, in order to avoid harsh melodic progressions, such as the tritone f-h or the so-called "false" fifth h-f, or to reach the leading-note (subsemitonium modi) in "per- fect closes", as the composers did not yet venture to sully the pui-ity of their diatonic measures with chromatic signs. Toward the middle of the 16 th century the "chromaticists" (Zar- lino, 1st. harmon., parte 3, cap. 80) grew continually bolder, and the need became felt to tune cla-saers and other keyed instruments already arranged chromatically in such a manner, that the thirds and sixths would also obtain their due share of purity, they having been finally admitted by the theoreticians to the station of ''imperfect consonances". The clavier-tuners, at that time the clavier-players themselves, had already attempted to come at a satisfactorily pure temperament by ear. Now, however, the theoreticians also began the search after suitable and stable rules for temperament. The Florentine Piero Aron, whose clearly and carefully written work Toscanello in Musica ran through five editions** from 1523 to 15G2, gives the division of the clavier, which he styles Monachordo, into tones and natural and accidental semitones, treats in Chapter XLI * The first theoretician to recognize the consonant character of the thirds was Franco of Cologne, in the 13th century (?). As perfect consonances he names the unison and octave, as medium the fifth and the fourth, and as "imperfect" the major and minor third. In the 14th century, de Muris still reckons the major and minor thirds to the imperfect consonances, but adds to these the major sixth. Philippe de Vitry, a contemporary of de Muris, finally designates both the major and minor third and the major and minor sixth as "imperfect consonances". ** I quote from the Venetian edition of 1529, Cap. XL: Divisione del Monachordo per tuoni, et semituoni natural! et accidentali; also Cap. XLI: De la participatione et modo d'accordare I'instrumento. — 235 — of the temperament (participatione) of this "instrument", and gives directions for tuning tlie same. He remarks, that every thing formerly written on this topic was hard to understand, even for the learned, and gives, to hegin with, a description of the clavier of his time, as follows: In the "instrumento orgauico" there were, as usually arranged^ 29 natural tones, called according to general custom "white keys", and 18 accidental tones called "black keys or semitones". The com- pass of the instrument was 4 octaves with all tones in chromatic succession from low F of the male voices upward, in wliich only the two black keys for low Fl^ and G^ were wanting. Aron gives the following directions for tuning the clavier: First tune the tone G at a pitch taken at pleasure (con quella intonatione che a te piacera), then the higher pure octave of this tone, and also its pure major third E\ after this the fifth G-G rather lower than quite pure, as also the fifth G-B; now the octave of the last tone, and the fifths B-A, A-E, and E-B, though all a trifle narrower than pure, i. e. somewhat too low and not quite perfect. Now take the fifth F below the tone C, but tune it, in contrast to the others, rather higher than pure in order to "attain the right and pure temperament and tune". Then tune the fifths B\} below F, and ^? below B?, in the same way as the fifth F-G; the remaining semitones, (black keys) however, as thirds; the tone C^ in like manner, striking A and E, and F^ tuned to B and A, etc.; until finally the remaining octaves are tuned, and one thus attains the true temperament. Zarlino, the astutest theoretician of his period, and an authority in all branches of music during two centuries, also gives in the above-named work instructions for the temperament of keyboard in- struments, based on the division of the string of the monochord. In the organs, Clavocembali, Arpichordi, Monochordi, and other modern instruments, he says, the consonances are not met with in in their natural and pure proportions, but in tuning the same are tempered by musicians, i. e. augmented or diminished according to necessity, but not so as to hurt the ear. This process of temperament, latterly called "participatione", is employed in order that the intervals of the major and minor third, which were earlier not reckoned among the consonances, may also sound as such. Zarlino's first direction for obtaining the purest temperament possible for the tones of the diatonic genus, runs as follows: By tuning the fourths B-e, e-a, a-d\ in their true proportion (3:4), then the pure — 236 — minor third (5:6) B-d, the tones d-d' will not form a pure octave, the proportion of which is 1:2 — The difference between d and d! is a comma; this is divided into 7 parts, which are so distributed among: the 7 intervals of the 8 tones forming the octave, that finally the two tones of different sound, d and d' , blend to a single tone. The octave, Zarlino teaches, must invariably be pure. It consists of a fifth and a fourth; the former is to be diminished by ^Z, of the comma, the latter augmented by the same amount. The pure fifth consists of one major and one minor third; each of these is dimini- shed by */,, and consequently each major and minor sixth augmented by the same. The major third consists of one greater semitone and one greater whole tone; the former is augmented by */,, the latter diminished by */,. Zarlino also mentions, that to the best of his knowledge he was the first to treat of temperament, and to lay down rules therefor. Further on in the aforesaid work he gives instructions for the construction of a clavicembalo on which not only the diatonic genus, but also the chromatic and enharmonic genera, could be played. In the year 1548 Zarlino had a "Clavocembalo" made in Venice by the admirable builder of such instruments, Dominico Pesarese, a picture of which he gives on p. 141.* It exhibits the modern wing- shape, and has a compass of two octaves of the male voice from A in the great octave up. The lower white keys are arranged as in our pianofortes; but between the tones & -and c, and likewise between e and f, there also lies a white upper key, and between the remaining tones are found two upper (short) keys, one of which is always black and the other white; so that within the space of each octave there lie, not 12 keys as at present, but 19 different tones. But, our theoretician observes, had one cared to add even more tones, one would nevertheless never have achieved perfect purity of all the in- tervals, nor have been able to produce more pleasing harmonies with the same than those hitherto known. We have already remarked that both in Italy and Germany various attempts were made to construct such "Arcicembali" and * Beside the cut we find the following quotation: "Difficile est, nisi docto homini tot tendere chordas". — 237 — "Universaliastrumente", througli the aid of whose chromatic and en- harmonic keys the puiest temperament possihle should be obtained. The Florentine F. Nigetti was perhaps the last to manufacture such an instrument, called "cembalo onnicordo" or "Proteus", about 1650, which was provided with five keyboards arranged stepwise, together with numerous draw-stops. It is said that on this instrument one could distinguish the enharmonic tones, and play in all keys without being disturbed by improper dissonances. The uupracticalness of the difficult make and tuning of these in- struments always quickly relegated them to the background; but their chief aim — the production of the various keys in as nearly equal purity as possible — was striven after in other ways. Since the 16th century, particularly in Germany, many schemes were brought forward for rendering tolerable the tuning of keyboard instruments furnished with 12 different tones to the octave. Thus, among others, the organist E. N. Ammerbach of Leipzig, in his "Orgel- oder Instrument-Tab ulatur"* published there in 1571, gives in Chap. V directions for the pui*e tuning of claviers. First, he tunes to the great F a pure octave F-f, followed by the fifth f-c' , the fifth c-g\ and the minor third a below c ; then the octave a-a , from the last tone downward the fifth a'-d', and in like manner the fifth d'-g, the minor third g'-e, and the major third g-h of the small octave. — One may, he remarks, begin either in the treble or the bass, tuning the other octaves according to the tones established. The tones still missing, c^, f^, g^, are added as major thirds, and the tones 6l? and d^ (el?) as minor thirds, to the tones already tuned, forming the respective intervals. Now, if one octave be tuned after another, the clavier will, in his opinion, be very well tuned. It soon was apparent, that with Ammerbach's pure tuning of the fifths it was impossible that the other intervals should likewise be natural and pure. During the 17th century there consequently appeared numerous schemes for unequal temperament, which, while producing certain intervals in perfect purity, gave others in a decid- edly tempered form. But not until the 18 th century was a system of equal temperament established and inti-oduced, in which, although only the octaves were perfectly pure, the remaining intervals deviated but slightly from mathematical exactness. * Described in detail by C. F. Becker in "Die Hausmusik in Deutschland", Leipzig, 1810, p. 20 et seq. — 238 — Two highly meritorious writers on the temperament of keyboard instruments were Andreas Werkmeister (1645 — 1706), organist at Halberstadt, and Joh. Georg Neidhardt (d. Jan. 1, 1739), Kapell- meister at Konigsberg. Werkmeister was also one of the lirst who battled successfully against the employment of the ecclesiastical modes, which had for a long time not been applied in their original purity. In his work (Aschersleben, 1698) on "The necessary observations and rules for the proper treatment of the Bassus continuus, so that anyone having some slight knowledge of music and the clavier can learn it by himself, he remarks on p. 50: "In modem composition, too, one could get along very well with two modes, if they were applied to the tempered clavier, and if there were erected on each key the one mode, that commonly called major, and thereupon the other, that called minor; then we should have 24 triaclcs harmonicas, and could play through the circle on the clavier". — "The two modes must, however, (thus he writes further on) retain their accuracy in the amhifu, reper- cussion, clausidis formalihus, etc. (i. e. sound well in tune throughout the repetitions and modulations of the fugued movement) according to modern style, that no disharmony may creep in". — "In their way, the old musicians already had their digressiones , and nevertheless they regarded as sacred the order maintained in music by the modes; and although modern musicians are still hardier in their digressions, they nevertheless keep to a certain mode as a norm or guide, so that they can remain in order, and not make confusion worse con- founded". — "All digressions or modulations must have a rational motive; thus the beginner should follow approved authorities, not scribbling at random whatever may come into his goose's-head(!), and mutilate, spoil, and bring into discredit the noble art of music; such are as- suredly degenerate children and changelings, as the late Dr. Martin Luther terms the abusers of music. Indeed, every thing not ordered according to the laws of Nature, is monstrous and inapt. In brief, as confusion reigns throughout the world, such is at present the case with music: What- ever sounds well and finely is flouted, what soimds bad and wi-oug is esteemed. Confused heads love confused music, and bewilder and mad- den the minds of the hearers: as divers sage and learned men confirm". After these angry attacks upon the unnatural innovations and daring ventures in the music of Ids time, such as we find repeated at all times by the most eminent theoreticians, Werkmeister gives on p. 64 brief instructions for tuning and well tempering a clavichord, wliich follow in concise form below. — 239 — Anyone wishing to tune the clavichord according to the diatonic chromatic genus, which is most employed now-a-days, to temper twelve keys in an octave, and to regulate the whole clavier accordingly, may take as starting-point the small c either in chorus pitch or chamJjcr pitch.^ Tune to this the pure octave c^, and then the fifth g, which must be held a trifle lower than its true pitch to c. To this g tune its fifth d^, likewise holding it a trifle lower than pure to g. Now the lower octave of cZ\ quite pure; to this d its iifth a, also held a trifle low; to a its fifth e\ held a very little lower than true. Now compare this e^ with c^ or c; should this third be tolerable, and not altogether too high, this first trial results satisfactorily, for all major thirds must be held somewhat high when struck with their fundamental. But should the tone e^ be too sharp or high, the fifths must be corrected and let down a little, until it becomes tolerably sharp. Then tune to this e^ its lower octave pure, then the fifth e-h as before a trifle low, then h as the major third of g as above, testing it with g-b-d^, and taking this third g-h as the second proof of correct tuning. Then tune h-f^'i, holding it decidedly low, and to this f^jt its pure lower octave. Now the thirds d-f'i and d^-f^'^ can be tested, the major third /"J having to be somewhat too high. To /"it then tune c^Jj as a fiftli held a trifle too low; to c^8 its lower third a, which like all major thirds must be held somewhat high to its fundamental. Tune to c^Jj its pure lower octave eft, and then the fifth g^, almost pure. As a test, take the major third below. This ^ft is usually rather sharp to e, but in view of its function as a\f it cannot be otherwise (f-a'9-c^). To ^rjt the fifth d^^ is tuned, which may be held a very little high, so as to form a fair consonance in the major thirds l-d^^ and d^{e^)-g. Then tune to d'^^ its pure lower octave d% and the fifth (^S(e|?)-&[7, which may also be held a trifle high, in order that the major third h\}-d^ may be tolerable. Then tune f^ to 61?, again a trifle high, or even pure, according as the lower octave f may sound with c* or in the triad f-a-c^ as a final test. Should one or another fifth appear too high or too low, it must always be corrected. The remaining tones of the clavier are finally tuned as pure octaves of tones previously tuned. This topic is grasped more definitely and scientifically by the above-mentioned Neidhardt. His first work on the subject bears the * The chorus pitch was that of the organs of the period, being a whole tone higher than the chamber pitch of secular music. — 240 — followiug title, explaiuiDg tlie contents of the book: The best and easiest temperament of the monocliordi, by means of which the gemis diatonico-cJiromaticum employed now-a-days is so regulated, that all intervals agree in proper proportion and uniform vibration, and there- fore the modi regulares can be transposed into each and every key in agreeable uniformity; preceded by a treatise on the origin of musical ratios, on the generibus musicis, their faults, and the short- comings of other improvements. The whole wi'it doAvn thoroughly, orderly, plainly, and briefly, according to mathematical principles, in academical leisure hours. Jena, 1706. This treatise the author followed up with several others, each improving on that preceding, and all aiming at establishing an equal temperament. Mattheson also recommends an equal temperament for claviers in his book "Das beschiifzte Orchester" (The Protected Orchestra), Hamburg, 1717, p. 85, and condenses his opinion on the subject in his "Vollkommeuer Capellmeister", (Hamburg, 1739, p. 55) as follows: "Temperament is such a regulation of the intervals on the cla- viers, that the one is somewhat lowered, the other somewhat raised, from its true pitch, in order that all may agree in as full concord as possible. The tempering of the clavier is therefore a matter of necessity, because no moderation (alteration of the intervals) can be effected on this instrument either with the breath or with the fingers; which is, on the contrary, easily done with the human voice and all other sounding instruments". —"Only the claviers and harps, being divided and measured-off instruments, are subject to this difficulty, that in tuning them one must have recourse to tempering, concerning which such a stir is made in many books as if the welfare of the whole world were bound up in the clavier alone. For the human voice, or wind and bowed instruments, require this makeshift so little, that they can hit the right pitch by the aid of the breath, the fingers, or other natural agencies. Thus we may easily imagine, that any tuner of the clavier, organ, or harp will regulate this temperament as his ear is accustomed, and after his own ideas; for but few of these people are capable of giving a reason why, or explaining how, they do anything. The commonest manner of tempering which, in vulgar parlance, will do, depends on the following three principles: 1. The octaves, minor sixths, and minor tJiirds, must always be pure. 2. To the major sixths and the fourths a trifle is added. 3. From the fifths and major thirds, however, a trifle is taken. But how much — 241 — or how little this trifle shall be is another question, which very few instrument-tuners know anything about". "But, regarding- a more exact temperament, we have works tho- roughly and painstakingly written by Andreas Werkmeister, Johann Georg Neidhardt, Johann Arnold Vockerodt, Christoph Albert Sinn, etc., of which amateurs may take counsel on occasion — the second is more especially to be recommended". A pioneer in the theory of music, the author and composer J. P. Kameau of Paris, was the first practically to perfect the subject in hand, his method soon being universally adopted in Germany as well. His fii'St theoretical work appeared at Paris in 1722 under the title: Traite de I'harmonie r^duite a ses principes naturels. A plain ex- planation and simplification of the same, "Elements de musique theo- rique et pratique suivant les principes de M. Rameau", by M. d'Alem- bert, followed in the year 1752, and secured for this theoretician, previously appreciated by but few, the recognition which he merited. In this book (Part I, Ch. VII, § 72) we find the follovidng directions for tempering keyboard instruments, which surpass all earlier methods in the uniform vibration of the intervals, and which are still followed in the main by piano-tuners. Take (so teaches Rameau-d'Alembert) any key of the piano, for instance C, tune its fifth (r, at first quite pure, then lowering it imperceptibly; tune to this G its pure fifth Z), and then lower it likewise a trifle; continue in like manner with all fifths ascending in succession. On arriving at tlie last fifths aji — ejf and ei| — i|$, the last tone, &II, must exactly coincide with the initial tone c, that is, fonii its pure octave. If this be so, one may be sure that the clavier is well tuned. But if the last fifth ejf- &| (f — c) is too flat, the pre- ceding fifths, or some of them, have been too far diminished; if, on the other hand, the last fifth is too sharp, the preceding fifths have not been sufficiently diminished, and one must go back to make this error good, until all 12 tones of the octave are correctly tuned by this method. One has then merely to tune the octaves of these tones exactly true, in order to have a well-tuned clavier. Friedr. "Wilhelm Marpurg, who published d'Alemhert's work in German (1757), says on p. 35, in a note concerning Piameau's temperament : Although one finds fewer altered thirds in the temperament usual in Germany than in that of M. Rameau, the fifths are, on the contrary, all the worse in the former, and likewise many thirds, so 16 ~ 242 — that on a clavier tuned in this way there will be five or six intolerable keys in which nothing can be played. In J\r. Rameau's temperament, on the other hand, all the keys are equally good.* In his epoch-making work, "The Theory of the Sensations of Tone", (Fourth Ed., Brunswick, 1877), Helmholtz has written in a erudite and liberal spirit on the advantages and disadvantages of the tempered tuning of keyboard instruments (pp. 508 — 533, Appen- dix XVIII). From his theories, which are always the outcome of personal experiment and experience, I quote the following (4th ed., p. 506): "Starting from C, as shown before, we pass through a series of pure fifths to J^, which differs from C by only about one-half a semi- tone, namely by the interval of 74/73. Descending from C through 12 successive fifths we reach c?bb, which is as much lower than C as &| is higher. Taking c-b'i[- d\?\>^ and dividing the slight deviation of 74/73 equally among all twelve fifths of each circle, each fifth will be about 1/60 of a semitone impure, which is, indeed, a very slight deviation; Thus all differences between the degrees within an octaVe are derived from the 12 degrees, as we have them in our modern keyboard instruments". — "The thirds and sixths in equal tempera- ment are more nearly pure than the Pythagorean intervals". "There can be no question", Helmholtz observes further on, "that the system of equal temperament, on acount of its simplicity, pos- sesses extraordinary advantages for instrumental music; that any other system would require a far more complicated mechanism of the in- struments and render them far more difficult to manage, and in con- * Contributions to the literature of Temperament are contained in Ad- lung's "Anlagen zur mus. Gelalirtheit", 2nd ed., pp. 318 — 337, and in "Mus. mech. organoedi", U, 22, same author. In the systematic chronological view of musical literature by C. F. Becker (2 Parts, Leipzig, 1836 and 1838), in- cluding the similar work by Forkel, we find over 85 treatises dating from 1688 to 1838 on the division of the monochord, and on the tuning and tempe- rament of keyboard instruments. This list contains the works of Werkmeister, Neidhardt, Kirnberger, the Abbe Vogler, Marpurg, Turk, and Scheibler. The invention of the latter, the establishment of equal temperament by means of vibrations, was first made known and intelligible through the essay by Dr Lohr, "On the Invention of Scheibler" (tjber die Scheibler'sche Erfin- dung). The "Catalogue de la bibliotheque de F. J. Fetis", issued at Brussels in 1877, also contains 39 treatises on our topic in German, French, English, and Italian. M. Hauptmaun published a valuable essay on Temperament in the "Jahrbiicher fiir mus. Wissenschaft", 1863. — 243 -- sequence, that the high deyelopment of modem instrumental music was possible only under the domination of the tempered system of tuning. But one must not think that the difference between the tempered and natural systems is a mathematical subtility of no prac- tical value. Actual observation at a suitably tuned instrument imme- diately shows, that this difference is striking enough to be noticed by persons of very ordinary musical talent. Moreover, we see directly that the same thing was felt by earlier musicians who were still accustomed to the pure intervals of vocal music then veiy carefully studied, when we cast a glance over musical treatises of the second half of the 17th and first half of the 18th centuries, at which time the introduction of various systems of equal tempera- ment was the subject of warm controversy, when methods on methods were invented and rejected, aiming at conquering the difficulty, and most ingenious styles of instruments were contrived for the practical realization of the enharmonic differences between the degrees". A mathematically pure musical system can neither be worked out theoretically nor carried out practically. True, in the diatonic system of Pythagoras the fifths and fourths, and likewise the octaves, are all fixed in exact and pure proportions; but the thirds and sixths form- ed of the tones F C G D A E B deviate more, as we have learn- ed before, from their natural purity, than those of our equal temper- ament. When musically gifted vocalists sing without accompaniment, they always stiike pure intervals only; but with a melodic series of tones, or a succession of chords executed with exact purity, they are unable to maintain the pitch at which they began. Even the following short example proves that a singer taking its intervals with mathematical purity will, on reaching the fifth tone, no longer be in unison with the tone of the same name on which he began, but must have flatted by a comma (81 : 80). 80 96 72 108 81 r\ WJ. \J ^^ ^^m ^^ /v f/^k /V ^ |(^ %) 5:6 4:3 2:3 4:3 Here the lower figures give the pure proportions of the inter- vals, and the upper ones the corresponding division of a string. When the singers, however, are supported by a trained orchestra, they not only execute the melodies and full chords in naturally pure intervals, but also hold the pitch established by the orchestra. For 16* — 244 — the orchestral instruments, wielded by human hands, are able like the singers to reinforce the pure fifths and octaves by pure thirds and sixths, or to sharp or flat these latter slightly in case of necessity. But when so-called "enharmonic transitions" are executed with harsh impurity by singers and insti'umentalists , this is always the fault of the composer, who has placed two keys side by side on an equal footing which stand in no rational degree of relationship one to the other. Only the well-tempered pianoforte, with its fixed tones, can easily and intelligibly reproduce such enharmonic modulations, be- cause the hearer does not perceive the change of key, but follows up the harmony first heard, which, it is true, ought finally to lead to a satisfactory close, this being unhappily often not the case. While it is impossible for the unaccompanied singer to maintain perfect purity in the intervals, without at the same time leaving the original pitch, the pianoforte, on the other hand, can never attain perfect purity of tuning by a multiplication of its tones and keys. Equal temperament, however, avoids both these dangerous reefs, and deviates so imperceptibly from absolute purity that our most eminent composers have always given preference to the well-tempered piano- forte, and have dedicated to it their most pregnant works. *** Further Development of the Clavichord and Harpsichord. Far from being content with "the highest pitch of perfection in the clavier" lauded by Lusciuius in 1536 and Bontempi in 1695, endeavors were continually making in Germany, France, Italy and England to render the instrument more practical and agreeable in regard to compass, tone, and touch. Thus the strings were sometimes of brass, sometimes of steel or gut; the soundboard was variously adjusted and enlarged, each tone was furnished with 2, 3, or even 4 like-tuned strings (unisons), which were set in vibration by tangents of metal, whale- bone, or leather. Furthermore, these instruments were frequently provided with several keyboards, one often being in the relation of an octave to the other, and capable of employment either separately or "coupled". Finally, they were also fui-nished with stops, combi- nations, and registers, which damped or reinforced the tone, or united the keyboard with an organ, or even with bells, cymbals, or drums* — 245 — During the 17tli century harpsichords were often imported from France into Germany, where the clavichord was peculiarly affected; about the year 1680 the clavichord-maker Mietcke of Charlottenburg near Berlin was one of the first to succeed, after many attempts, in building harpsichords of equally good quality. He palmed off his first successful harpsichord as a French instrument, and received for it the sum of 300 thalers. But when it became known that he him- self was the maker of these instruments, their price fell so that, al- though generally admitted to be excellent, only from 60 to 80 thalers were paid for them, Mietcke's contemporary Mattheson, who records this fact in the copy of the "Neu-Eroffneten Orehester" now in my possession, calls attention to it on page 213 of this work by the following censure: "In almost all matters a shameful state of things prevails here at home — that we perversely choose to favor everything coming from abroad, not invariably because it is fine and good, but simply because it is foreign, above our native persons and thiugs, not because the latter are bad or common, but simply and solely because they are home products; to favor and honor creatures, who are often not worth powder and shot, and who worm themselves in by intrigue and plots (if they are only foreigners); and on the contrary to despise and slight much that may be found in our own country, in our town, our house, even though on careful examination it may excel." Further on in the above work, which was published in 1713, Mattheson remarks (p. 262) that the full-toned (vollstimmigen) claviers surpass all other instruments, and that the two brothers Eticker (Kuckers?) of Brabant had done good work and gained a reputation as the makers of square and wingshaped harpsichords; also that the fine and workmanlike clavichords of von Brock en, Middleburg, and Fleischer, with their strong and clear resonance, were held in high esteem. He says, moreover, that the harpsichord, with its great versatility (Universite), furnished an almost indispensable foundation in accompanying sacred, theatre, and chamber music, but that pieces with modern and showy technique (Hand- und Gdlantcrie-Sachen) could be brought out best and cleanest on a good claAdchord, as the latter produced the singing tone far more plainly, sustained and softened, than the harpsichord or spinet, with their even resonance of tone. "Whoever would hear a delicate hand (fist!) and clean technique (so he exclaims), must seat his candidate at a well-made clavichord; for on a great harpsichord, provided with 3 or 4 stops — 246 — or registers, much slurring will escape the ear, and one will hardly hear the graces distinctly". In the clavichords, as remarked before, the tangents or pins of 3 or 4 neighboring keys struck one and the same string in different places, and therefore produced, on striking, just so many diiferent tones. Now these tones could be sti-uek in succession, but never played together. All works touching on our topic name D. T. Faber as the inventor, who first made (about 1732) a hundfreies Clavier, in which each key had one string or one set of unisons allotted to it. This item, however, is taken in all eases from Walther's "Musika- lisches Lexicon", issued in 1732. But the article in question reads literally: Faber (Daniel Tobias), organist at Craylsheim, "has invent- ed a clavichord which is Bundfreij throughout, and can be modified by various adjustments in three ways so as to sound (1) like a lute, (2) like one, in which the resonance is undamped, and (3) like a muffled GJocJcenspiel (set of small bells). See Extract from the Co- burgiscJie Zeitung of April, 1725, p. 78". Should this last-named source not enter more into detail, Faber's invention would seem to consist either only in the clavichord built btindfrei "throughout", or even simply in the lute-stop and bell-stop added to the same. For it is highly probable that attempts were made even previous to the date of this extract to obviate the diffi- eulty complained of. Even in those clavichords which were hundfrei throughout the keys were still fashioned in the strangest curves, to enable the tan- gents to strike their proper strings. The organist K. Lemme, living at Brunswick about 1780, was the first to succeed in giving the keys a straight action, and consequently a lighter touch. In the year 1771 he and his father also invented the pressed soundboard so firmly united that it could not be torn apart. Lemme also built clavichords of a pleasing, oval-round form, with a fine sti-ong tone. The pedal, invented for his instrument* by Beruhard Murer (called Bernadino), organist at Venice in 1445, in order to lend greater power to the bass tones of the organ through the additon of lower octaves, was early added to the clavichord and hai-psichord as well, both of which doubtless profited by such a reinforcement. As we have seen, Virdung mentions the same as early as 1511, and Adlung describes the pedals of the clavichord in detail in both of his works given above. * See Caffi, Storia della musica sacra, Venezia, 1855, Vol. II, p. 14. — 247 — The stops or registers sometimes Jiddecl to the claA'iehords were conti-oUed hy the player's bands or feet, and were intended to soften or reinforce the tone of the instrument. For instance, tlie in any event mild tone of the clavichord was still further damped by shaping its metallic tangents somewhat broader than usual, and then covering one half of each with leather or cloth. The celestina or lute-stop would bring this softer half to bear on the strings, whereas a pantaleon or harp-stop made sharper pins or metallic jacks strike the latter. In Germany continuous efforts were made to perfect the cla- vichord there in general use, the harpsichord being employed almost exclusively as a support for vocal choruses, and seldom as a solo instrument accompanied by the orchestra. C. Ph. E. Bach published, among other pieces, Concertos for harpsichord in 1745 and 1752. In France the clavecins, and their smaller size, the epinettes, were preferred to the clavichords, and the Parisian instrument-makers were mainly occupied in their improvement, also finding frequent sale for them abroad. At first the harpsichords had but one keyboard, like the spinets. Later they were provided with two, lying stepwise one above the other, and then two unisons were added. Sometimes each of these two strings had a separate jack. In this case, when the upper key- board was played on, only one string would be plucked, while the lower keyboard coupled the upper, thus setting both strings in vibra- tion and giving the harpsichord a redoubled tone, especially when, as often happened, the upper keyboard was tuned an octave higher than the lower. One of the oldest and most renowned clavier manufactories, that of the Kuckers family at Antwerp, is often mentioned with praise by the earlier writers in Germany, the Netherlands, France, and England.* Hans Kuckers, the first master in tliis family, built harpsichords and spinets as early as the latter half of the 16 th century, which, according to detailed accounts by Hiillmandel, the celebrated pupil * Compare W. de Burbure, Recherches sur les factevirs de clavecins et lea luthiers d'Aiivers. Bnixelles, Hayez, 1863. — Fetis, Biogr. des mLis., VII, 246. — E. van der Straeten, la Mus. aux Pays-bas. Bruxelles, Muquardt, 1867, p. 65 etc. — Encycl. metli., Musique, Paris, 1791, p. 286. — Chouquet, Le niiis6e du con- servat., Paris, Didot, 1875, p. 46. — Burney, Tlie present state of mus. in Ger- macy. London, 1755, I. — Cramer, Magaz. I, 392. — 248 — of Em. Bacli, excelled all former instruments of this kind. He gave the harpsichords a stronger, fuller, and more brilliant tone by adding to each pair of strings tuned in unison a third string, shorter and of finer wire, tuned to their higher octave. For the low tones he used copper strings, for the higher ones steel strings, and extended the compass of the harpsichords by four tones, by giving them four full octaves, from contra-C to three-lined &". Ruckers added a second keyboard to his harpsichords, one keyboard sounding all three strings, and the other but one string. He paid most careful attention to the broader or narrower grain of the soundboard, and also to its thickness, in order to obtain a tone of the gi-eatest "carrying" power, and altogether brought the low and high tones into an harmonious relation unknown in the older harpsichords. His claviers were well-known and sought for not only in the Netherlands, but were also shipped in considerable numbers to France, Germany, and England. Of the make of this Hans Ruckers "le vieux" the museum of the Paris Conservatory possesses, as No. 221, a harpsichord (clavecin) of the year 1590, with two keyboards. No. 222 is a similar instru- ment, made by Hans Ruckers "le jeune", the under side of the cover and the finger-board being ornamented with admirable paintings by masters of that period. F6tis owned a spinet, by Ruckers the Elder, with two keyboards (6pinette double), the upper being tuned an octave higher than the lower; they could be played either separately or together "with the finest eifect". The instrument bore the in- scription: Hans Ruckers me fecit Antverpiae, 1610. Three sons of the aforesaid firm kept alive their father's brilliant renown. They were named Francis (b. 1576), Hans "le jeune" (b. 1578), and Andre (bapt. 1579), who later assumed the to-name of "le vieux" to distinguish him from his son, Andre Ruckers le jeune. The instruments of this last master are said even to have surpassed those of his predecessors in fullness of tone and excellent workman- ship. The best artists of Antwerp, more particularly the painter of flowers and animals, Franck, adorned them with neatly executed paintings, for which reason they often brought 3000 francs. These adornments, however, were later frequently the cause of the demo- lition of the instruments, being detached from them and turned to account as independent paintings. The clavecins made in Antwerp still enjoyed high favor till toward the end of the 18 th century. In 1750 a manufactory was established there by J. D. Dulcken, a Hessian by birth, whose clave- — 249 — cins raDked among the best of that period. From his workshops came J. P. Bull, whose harpsichords sold for 100 ducats, and were highly extolled, especially by Burney. The latter terms them "double harpsichords", which simply means a harpsichord having two key- boards. The Museum of Antiquities at Antwei'p possesses one of these with the inscription: Joannes Petrus Bull me fecit Antvei-piae anno 1779. To avoid, or at least to simplify, the tedious and expensive "quilling" of the harpsichords, many experiments were made during the 18th century in Germany, France, and Italy. Thus the instru- ment-maker Wiclef of Anspach, about 1740, used small brass ad- justments instead of quills. To his harpsichords he also added bells, tuned true by turning. Of wider influence, however, were the "clavecins a buffles" or "en peau de buffles", invented by the Netherlander Pascal Taskin at Paris in the year 1768. He employed, for one register or stop of his trichord clavecin, bits of ox-leather instead of quills, and the French recorder of the invention praises it by saying: "II ne pince plus, mais il caresse le corde" (it no longer plucks, but caresses, the string), and adds, its sweet, velvety-soft tone swells at pleasure under the pressure of the player's hand. By means of various stops, go- verned by the pressure of the knee and later of the foot, either the quills or the leather tangents could be made to act separately or together, and the strings sounded softly or loudly at will. A German eye-witness. Kapellmeister Vogler of Paris, writes concerning the new invention: "They are harpsichords of the finest make. Each has 2 keyboards with three strings, the third tuned in the octave, with the lute-stop. Herein they do not differ from other harpsichords. The new invention, however, adds to the above another row of a so-called "jeu de buffle", through which the ])ass obtains a magnificent double-bass effect hitherto unknown". — The price was from 1500 to 3000 livi-es.* From the following accounts of German and Italian clavicembali, reaching well into the sera of the pianoforte, it is evident that Taskin's invention was both known and speedily imitated outside of France. * See La Borde, Essai sur la mus., 1780, I, 346 et seq.— Cramer, Magazin der Music, 1783, I, 209.— J. H. Mees, Abr6g6 Mst. sur la mus. moderne etc., Bruxelles, 1828, p. 60. — 250 — The harpsichords built subsequently to 1773 by the instrument- maker Joh. Chr. Oesterlin of Berlin were eagerly sought for and widely disseminated. The harpsichords which he furnished with a newly invented kind of leathern tangents were special favorites. The cembalo angelico, invented at Rome about 1778, also had tangents of leather, which were covered besides with velvet, in order to obtain \ as soft a tone as possible. In the year 1775 J. G. Wagner of Dresden advertised a newly invented "clavecin royal", which, though built in clavichord-form, was said to have the full tone of a harpsichord. It had 4 pedals, which swelled or diminished the tone at will, and which were intended to imitate the harp, lute, pantaleon and pianoforte. His co-worker and surviving younger brother, Ch. Sal. Wagner, is said to have obtained the forte and piano effects in his harpsichords "by means of the cover"*, and besides this to have added 3 combinations without pipes, yet "imitating to illusion" the flute, clavichord, and bassoon. How far this illusion went may be gathered from the fact, that the bassoon-stop, for instance, let down a narrow roll of paper upon the lower strings, the latter then giving out a jarring tone when struck. Up to 1796 he had built no less than 772 harpsichords, the finest of which cost some 600 thalers. The shifting of the keyboard was known as early as the begin- ning of the 17th century. Praetorius, in his Syntagma musicum (1614), mentions a clavicembalo whose key C could be shifted by a stop to come under Cj?, Dj?, D, E^, D^, and E, thus affording a convenient method of transposing within this compass, and also, by reason of the enharmonic tones present, of playing in nearly perfect tune. Adlung, in his Mus. mech, organoedi, gives a detailed description of such a "transposing clavicembalo", praising it especially because one could play both in the chorus-pitch and, by shifting the keyboard, in the true chamber-pitch l^j^ tones lower as well. We have no exact description of the "cimbali piegatori" of Gioseppe Mendini in the 17th century, but can get a notion of them from the "clavecins brises" which the instrument-maker Marius * This was probably the adjustment also called, when occurring later, the "crescendo", in which the cover above the strings was similar to the sound- board. This cover consisted of several thin, narrow layers of wood, which could be spread apart or brought close together like a fan by means of a pedal stop, the resonance of the strings thus issuing loudly, or being stifled, by the apparently closed cover. — 251 — ''invented" in 1700, and which probably resembled them not only in name but also in arrangement. Of these latter a specimen is still extant in the Museum of the Paris Conservatory, as No. 224. Its three parts, Avhen placed one above another, find room in a small trunk. The inventor, according to his advertisement, even stowed the instrument in a wig-box, and states its weight at only from 10 to 12 pounds. The longest of the strings, which were set in vibration by metallic tangents, was but two feet in length, though having, as he says, the tone of clavichords 7 feet long. Marius, in 1716, laid before the Paris Academy 4 models of hammer-claviers^ (clavecins a maillets), to which we shall return further on. Altogether, during the 18th century, so many "new inventions'^ were advertised, which were intended to reinforce the tone of the cla- vichord, soften that of the harpsichord, improve tone and touch of the recent hammer-clavier, and perfect all tliese instruments by "new combinations", registers, and stops, that the musical periodicals had standing headings devoted to the topic. Striking names were bestowed upon the claviers provided by their inventors with innumerable con- trivances, in order to attract purchasers, and the foremost clavier- makers of the time held it to be a point of honor to add something new and peculiar to their instruments. "The gentlemen are so fond of inventing, even though it be naught but new names!" cries Cra- mer in 1783 in his Magazin der Music, replete with such striking advertisements. The plainly perceptible endeavor to give the clavichords and harpsichords a fuller and more singing tone was, at the same time, a struggle for existence on the part of these instruments. The hammer- clavier invented before 1711 by Christofori, and since then incessatly more effectively developed, crowned the aforesaid endeavor with success, while bringing the two other instruments alluded to, until then universally esteemed, into desuetude. A History of the Clavier cannot pass by unnoticed the eflforts made to keep alive the interest in the earlier claviers by means of improvement and alterations. The most striking of these "inventions" will find brief mention below, although they were in great part soon forgotten again, while but few of them were of use to the new pianoforte. Joh. Christoph Fleischer, an instrument-maker living at Hambui'g about 1718, in praise of whom Mattheson is quoted above, was the — 252 — inventor of tlie so-called Tlieorhen-Flugel* with 16-foot tone, i. e. pitched an octave lower than the ordinary claviers with 8-foot tone. This contra-harpsichord was furnished with 3 registers, one sounding the gut strings and the other the metal strings. Moreover, he made "Lautenclaviere" (lute-claviers) of ordinary compass, having gut strings tuned in pairs, and took from 60 to 1000 thalers for his insruments. Franz Jacoh Spath of Katisbon presented to the Elector at Bonn in 1751 a "Tangenten-Fltigel" without quills, having 30 combinations, and in 1770 even made one with 50 combinations, having a piano- stop, forte, echo, gut-string, barp, and other stops. Forkel mentions, in his Musihalisclie Bihliothek^ I, 298, that the clavier-teacher M. de Virb6s of Paris invented in 1771 a '• lavecin acoustique", which could imitate 18 different instruments, and this merely with the ordinary strings of the harpsichord. This imitation was said to be so exact, that a symphony could be played with the same effect as if executed by a great orchestra; except that the nature of the instrument caused all sounds to be heard as "pinc^s". About 1777 de Virb6s again announced a new instrument under the name of the "clavecin harmonieux et celeste", having much the same character, imitating 14 instruments, such as the lute, harp, flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, celestine, hai-monica, etc., and producing the tones either pianissimo, crescendo, or fortissimo. Among the instrument-makers who strove to add new inventions to their already excellent work, we also find J. G. Jiirgensen, who flourished in Schleswig about 1783. He built clavichords "ranking in singing tone and power with those of Friederici, Kramer, Lemmi, and of Moller in Copenhagen." He also invented a "clavecin royal", which, as he announced, aftorded 12 changes or combinations imitating the sound of the harpsichord, fortepiano, harp, lute, and other instru- ments at the player's discretion, by means of 2 draw-stops and as many pedals, and produced a more powerful forte by opening the cover above the strings. The instrument was in clavichord-form, lY^ ells long by a scant ell broad, and cost 60 ducats. Besides this instru- ment, Jtirgensen also exhibited a "belsona real" having 5 draw-stops, which were said to produce over 48 changes by their various com- bination. Forkel reports, in the MusiJcaliscJie MUiotheTi for 1779, that the instrument-maker Hofmann of Gotha had contrived a "double olave- * The gi-eat bass-lute was named "Theorbo". — 253 — ciu". On either side of the same were two keyboards, to be played by two executants together, or, when coupled, by one player. Joh. Andi'cas Stein, who will receive special mention in the Histoiy of the Pianoforte, also invented at Augsburg a double harpsichord, which he named a "vis-a-vis". On occasion of a journey to Paris in 1758 he conti'ived a concert instrument combining the harpsichord still most in favor there with the pianoforte, and in such fashion, that each of these instruments had its strings and soundboard inde- pendent of the other. J. P. Milchmeyer, mechanician, clavier-teacher, and author of a pianoforte method, invented about 1781 a "mechanical fliigel", with three keyboards and no less then 250 combinations, said to be pro- duced by combining the several stops, which were nearly always alike in all the "new inventions" so portentously puffed. The me- chanician Mercia of London alone succeeded, in 1783, in producing a harpsichord with really new effects, having hit upon the device of titillating his hearers' ears by "delusively imitated trumpets" and real drums. Despite all these noises happily not heard, but only read of, we have nevertheless not yet reached the summit of the Parnassus of wonder-instruments. For upon that height there shines a work of art, which must needs be described at length, left unfinished by a bell- founder of Prague, and finished by the Doctor of Philosophy and Medicine Vincenz von Blaha, Professor in the University at Prague. The latter not only finished the said instrument, which combined a hammer-clavier (with which we need not occupy ourselves here) with various other instruments, in the year 1795, but likewise furnished it with original and doubtless highly important additions. The in- strument was in the ordinary shape of a harpsichord, beneath which, behind green curtains, the entire apparatus for Turkish music, such as a drum, triangle, etc., was placed, and set in motion by a pedal. HeiT von Blaha, when showing off this work of art himself, would also sound the drums and fifes alone, singing to the same, or playing "a real bassoon" -accompaniment thereto hj the aid of a little tube in his mouth. Above the keys of the hammer-clavier was set, besides, a separate keyboard controlling two rows of organ-pipes, and a pedal worked the bellows providing these pipes with life-giving wind. For amateurs our doctor also let loose the droning bagpipe and rattling castanets. But all this was surpassed by the suddenly in-rushing, howling stormwind, the plashing sleet, and the rolling thunder with — 254 — fearful thunder-cla])s, to which he sang a lovely descriptive aria, until the war of elements was tranquilized. But this silence was truly refreshing, as he naively remarks. — To incredulous readers I commend the source quoted by Gerber: Literarischer Anseiger, 1798, No. LI, p. 531. The Piano-violins, and the Pantaleon. The attempts to contrive a keyboard instrument which could produce tones more sustained than those of the clavichord and harp- sichord, began early in the 17th century. As a prototype, although a very imperfect one, of the class, we might name the hurdy-gurdy (veille), which was known from the 9 th century onward in Germany, France, and Italy.* It bore the form of a small lute or viola, strung with 3 or 4 gut strings. Over the strings was a wooden cover, on one side of which were fixed 8 or 10 keys whose tangents, like those of the clavichord, "stopped" one of the strings at various points, thus shortening it. By means of a projecting crank the right hand turned a wheel which, being rosined, set all the strings in vibration. When touched by the left hand, the keys could then produce a me- lody within a range of 8 to 12 successive diatonic tones, with a running accompaniment by the doubled or simple tonic and dominant. However, the Piano-violin (Geigenwerk) contrived by the organist Joh. Heiden of Nuremberg, about 1600, might be regarded as a really new invention; in it the keys when touched pressed their corre- sponding wire strings against small rosined wheels. These wheels were kept revolving by a pedal, sounding the strings touched as in a bowed instrument. Later imitations of this instrument do not appear to have met with much favor. The "Gambenwerke" made toward the middle of the 18 th century by G. M. Kish of Ilmenau had better success. His improvement of the "Nuremberg Geigenwerke" is found chiefly in the simple substitution of gut strings, like those of bowed instruments, for the wire strings. He undertook professional tours with his Gam- benwerke, and sought purchasers for them on the way. * In different countries this instrument was also known under the names of lira tedesca, viola da who, Drehleier, Bauernleier, and Latinized to lyra rustica or pagana; etc. — 255 — In 1754 Joliaun Hohlfekl exhibited to King Frederick II at Ber- lin a piano-violin (Bogenflligel) strung with gut strings, beneath which was a bow furnished with horsehair. On pressing the keys the strings were drawn by little hooks against the bow, the slow or rapid move- ment of which the player controlled by a pedal-stop, in order to sound the string in proportionally weak or powerful sustained tones. This instrument of Hohlfeld's was materially improved and per- fected 15 years later by J. G. Greiner of Wetzlar. At the desire of the Abbe Vogler he added to it an ordinary pianoforte, which was set upon the piano-violin strung with gut strings, and could be coupled or connected with it. The length of this pair of oblong in- struments, which found room on a table, was 3 feet 8 inches, the breadth 1 foot 8 inches, and the height 1 foot. Greiner named the instrument the "Bogenhammerclavier", and sold it in Copenhagen for 600 thalers. In 1794 C. A. von Meyer, at Knonow, conceived that he could improve the Bogenfliigel, by providing for each of its gut strings a separate horsehair bow. The frame holding these bows was moved up and down by a pedal, and each key pressed the bow allotted to it against the string to be sounded, which remained in position. The renown and description of such claviers with a sustained tone penetrated to Moscow, where the instrument-maker J, Ch. Htibner invented a "clavecin harmonique" about 1801, which accurately re- produced the sound of a string quartet. His fellow-workman Pouleau gave the name of "Orchestrine" to a still further improved Bogen- flugel of full and powerful tone, and gave performances on it at Paria- in 1808, and later in Brussels, with extraordinary applause. To the class of these bowed instruments also belong the Cele- stino of Walker, the Sostenute-Piano of Mott in London, and the Orphica or. Xanorphica of Rollig in Vienna. None of the instruments described have proved practically and permanently useful. The oft-required renewal and tuning of the sti-ings was as expensive and tedious as the regulation and repairing of the bows and of the wheels setting them in motion. In the course of the 19 th century attempts at their improvement were consequently discontinued. The Dulcimer is another of those instruments, the power of whose tone is controlled by tlie player's hand. Upon being furnished with keys, as narrated above, which plucked the strings through the medium of quills, the instrument was transformed into the clavicem- — 256 — balo, on which, however, to the regret of musicians, the music pro- duced was always of a rough and grating quality. The earlier mode of playing the dulcimer with hammers was therefore resumed, its resonance being bettered to begin with, softer sounding gut strings taken instead of the sharp-set wires, and the hammer-heads covered with soft leather, thus enabling the player to shade his perfor- mances in an artistic manner. The dulcimer, when thus improved, surpassed, as we are assured, both the clavichord and clavicembalo in fullness of tone and capacity of shading, and from this very cir- cumstance is said to have given direct occasion for the invention of the pianoforte. For soon after the brilliant appearance of the new dulcimer, the new invention of the pianoforte appeared almost simul- taneously in Italy, France, and Germany. The following account will enable the reader to judge for himself of the probability of a ti-an- sition from the perfected dulcimer into the— at first — very primitive hammer-clavier. Pantaleon Hebenstreit, born in Eisleben, is first heard of at Leipsic, where he gave lessons on the clavichord and in dancing. Being deeply in debt, he escaped his importunate creditors by flight, concealing himself in the house of an intimate friend, a country par- son in the Merseburg district, whose children he instructed in clavi- chord playing. In the village inn he often heard the dulcimer played, made one in the improved style described above, and attained to such extraordinary virtuosity on the instrument that he journeyed in 1705 to Paris, to give public performances on it. He won great applause when playing before Louis XIV, who was so enchanted by his masterly performances, enhanced by the most diversified tone- colors, that he loaded him with marks of favor, and gave the in- strument its inventor's baptismal name Pantaleon (Pantalon), under which it became more and more widely known. Hebenstreit made an equally favorable impression when performing on the Pantaleon before Ninon de Lenclos. The Abbe Chateauneuf, who was present, describes the instrument in his 'Dialogue sur la musique des anciens', and is full of praises of the artist's extraordinary performances «,nd brilliant mental powers. In the year 1706 we find Hebenstreit as Kapellmeister, soloist on the Pantaleon, and Court Dancing-master at Eisenach; and when our celebrated composer Telemann was engaged there in 1708 as Coucertmeister (first violin), Hebenstreit induced him to play with him concert pieces for two violins composed by the latter. Of these Telemann writes in his Autobiography that he al — 257 — ways had to prepare and refresh hunsclf for several days, that lie might in some measure approach in strength the "not sufficiently to be praised Herr Pantaleon Hebeustreit" in such contests. However, this universal genius soon relinquished to Telemann his position as Kapellmeister, and repaired with his favorite instrument, the Panta^ leon, to Vienna. Here he played on it before the imperial court, and was rewarded with a gold chain, on which the Emperor's por- trait hung. He now proceeded to Dresden, and after the king had heard him, a concert was arranged at the court, in which all the Ger- man and Italian Kammervirtnosi took part. "As soon as Herr He- beustreit began," recounts Forkel. "and performed only a short pre= lude, the whole court was astounded at this new and admirable music, and even the jealous foreigners had to confess that they had never heard anything grander or more perfect on a single instrument. Herr Hebenstreit bad the art of bringing out full-scored music ("voile Musik") on his instrument as expressively as if 20 different instruments Avere playing. Augustus immediately engaged Herr Heben- streit as royal Kammermusicus; paid all his debts; made liim besides a munificent present in ready money; and allowed him an annual salary of 2000 thalers". As finally perfected the Pantaleon appeared thus: It was 4 timet as large as the ordinary dulcimer, and oblong in shape. It had 2 soundboards, as of two instruments standing close together, was strung on one side with steel and brass wires, on the other with gut strings, and the 2 wooden mallets in the player's hands were some- times used with the softer side, sometimes with the harder. After Hebenstreit's death in 1750 at Dresden his instrument, which was hard to keep in order on account of its 185 strings, difidcult to tune, and still more difficult to play successfully, was practised by only a few of his pupils. But it can be asserted only with probability, and never with certainty, that Hebenstreit's incontestably brilliant success on his ' wonderful instrument, together with the wide-spread fame of the latte , actually instigated experiments in substituting wooden hammers acted on by keys for the hand-hammers of the Pantaleon, and thus bring- ing about the invention of a keyboard instrument to be played piano e forte. 17 — 258 — -— * The Hammer-clavier or Pianoforte. In Germany, France, and Italy the celebrated organ-builder Gott- fried Silbermann was generally held to be the inventor of the piano- forte, until the also highly esteemed organist and theoretician Ch, G. Schroeter in 1763 claimed for himself the honor of this invention — 10 years, to be sure, after Silbermann's death — and tried to establish his claim by documents and drawings. This, however, could not rob Silbermann of the merit of havingjnaterially improved the pianoforte, .and thus being the first to effect its further popularization. But extracts have recently been published from Italian and French archives, which for the first time set Schroeter's and Silber- mann's participatioD in this invention in its true light, by enumerating the names of the inventors of the pianoforte as they appeared in quick succession, and establishing ^^ith diplomatic accuracy the year in which the invention was publicly announced. We owe this impor- tant information — which, taken together with the resurrected pianofortes of that period, calls for a complete re-writing of all his- tories of the pianoforte previously published — more particularly to an Association in Florence, which decided to arrange a celebration, on May 7, 1874, in honor of Cristofori, the first and wholly inde- pendent inventor of the "clavicembalo with the piano and fortfe". This instrument, known since the }ear 1711, was styled "pianoforte" after the designation bestowed on it by its inventor, which name has been retained outside of Italy as well. For a long time after his death the inventor was only cursorily mentioned as Christofani, Cristofari, Cristofali. etc. His true name, however, now lies before us in a certified facsimile, in the work published by Leto Puliti, ^'Cenni storici della vita del serenissimo Ferdinando dei Medici, gran- principe di Toscana etc. Esti-atto dagli Atti dell' Accademia del R- fstituto musicale di Firenze, 1874, pag. 108". The original of this is to "J found in the list of insti-uments belonging to the inheritance of the above- named Prince, and witnesses to their surrender to the custodian by the fol- lowing signature of Sept. 23, 1716: "lo Bartolomeo Cristofori 6 ricevuto in Consegno tutti li sopradetti Strumenti et in fede mano propria". Among these instruments, which were confided to Ciistofori's keeping l)efore the Prince's death, were Antwerp harpsichords, French clave- e^ins Irises, and also a large number of Italian clavicembali and smaller and larger spinets, many of which were ornamented with — 259 — costly painting and gilding-. The makers of these claviers were, with few exceptions, the then most celebrated Italian masters — Domenico da Pesaro, Girolamo Zenti, Cortona di Roma, Guiseppe Mondini, and Bartolomeo Cristofori. According to recent researches, Cristofori was born at Padua on May 4, 1653. Here he attained to such great renown as a clavier- maker, that Prince Ferdinando dei Medici, a patron of art and espe- cially well-versed in music, induced him to come to Florence, and enter his service as Court Clavier-maker and custodian of his collection of instruments. Now, in a publication* issued at Venice in the year 1711, was noticed the invention, hitherto regarded as an impossibility, of a grave- cembalo col piano e forte, happily achieved by Bartolomeo Cristofali (sic)^ the salaried cembalist of the Prince of Toscana, of which he had already made three equally good, and of the ordi nary size of other^ harpsichiixds. A point mentioned with special commendation was, that in this new instrument it depended upon the degree of strength with which the player touched the keys, whether the tone should be soft or loud, in all possible gradations. Many musicians, continues the reporter, Marehese Scipione Maffei di Verona, withhold the praise due to the invention, because the tone is too soft and dull, although one easily becomes accustomed to it, and soon even pr^ers it to that of other harpsichords. The chief objection, however, made to the new instrument is, that one must first habituate oneself to its touch, even if already a practised player on other keyboard instru- ments. But this being, in point of fact, a new instrument, says Maf- fei, its characteristics must first be studied in order to bring out its peculiarities with skill and taste. / The construction of these harpsichords shows, Maffei remarks further, instead of the usual jacks plucking the strings with quills, a row of little hammers striking the strings from heloiv. According to the description and accompanying drawing, the hammer-heads are small wooden cubes like dice, covered on top with "buckskin", and penetrated by the shanks of the hammers. All the hammers are placed above and independent of the key-levers, on a wooden frame. The lower end of the hammer-shank is connected with a round disk. * Giornale dei letterati d'ltalia. Tomo quinto sotto la protezione del serenissimo principe di Toscana. In Venezia MDCCXI, appresso Gio. Gabriello Ertz, Articolo IX. 17* — 260 — by whose aid the liammer can play easily, and on pressing the key a hopper drives the hammer with more or less force against the string. Instead of the escapement of our newer pianofortes, a spring of brass wire on the hopper permits the drop of the hammer to a position of rest instantly after the stroke; and instead of the check likewise added later, the hammer here falls upon two cross-threads of silk. A cloth-covered damper rests on the string, not letting it vibrate freely until the key is pressed. Maffei describes this instrument at great length; and specimens still extant, of the years 1720 and 1726, which were exhibited on the occasion of the Cristofori celebration, one being accurately de- scribed by Puliti and both later by Ponsicchi*, prove that its inventor continually sti'ove to improve it. The first of these two shows on the finger-board the following engraved words: Bartholomaeus de Cristoforis patavinus inventor faciebat Florentiae MDCCXX, but it appears to have been remodelled at a later period, the form of the hammer-heads, for instance, strikingly resembling the modern ones. The pianoforte of 1726, on the contrary, evidently contains only improvements made by Cristofori himself. In it the hammer- heads consist of small hollow pasteboard cylinders covered with leather, and the whole hammer is no longer held in position and at rest by silk threads, but by a contrivance resembling our modern check. Cristofori retained until his death in 1731 his position as custodian of the aforesaid collection; in May, 1876, the committee in charge of the festivities in his honor erected a memorial stone to the inventor of the pianoforte, in the convent of Santa Croce at Florence. At that time, however, the pianoforte seems to have been dis- seminated no further, either in Italy or beyond its boundaries, for we possess no accounts of attempts at improving Cristofori's invention. The chief reason for this is probably to be sought in the objection raised by the clavier -players, that its manipulation was decidedly more inconvenient than that of the harpsichords then in vogue in Italy, and its tone much less penetrating. Marius, the maker of the clavecins above alluded to, is the second, and in all probability equally independent, inventor of a hammer-clavier. In 1716 he laid before the Eoyal Academy of Paris the drawings and descriptions of four different models of claviers in * H Pianoforte, sua origine e sviluppo (con tavole) etc. Firenze, Gr. Gr. Guidi, 1876. — 261 — which ■wooden hammers were substituted for the quilled jacks.* By this means, says the report of the Academy, he avoids the constant repairing of the ordinary harpsichord, obtains a finer and more powerful toue, and by graduating the force or lightness of the touch lends to the instrument an expressiveness hitherto wanting to it. Further, M. Marius has also invented a keyboard with hammers (clavier a maillets) for the harpsichords hitherto used, which can be put into or taken out of the latter without necessitating any alteration. ]\1. Marius also employs two other simpler and more practical devices to replace the jacks by hammers. "Tout cela a paru tres bien pens6". With these words closes the brief report of the Paris Academy. However, in the published Proceedings of the Academy concern- ing reports on machines and inventions, we find a more detailed description and 4 illustrations of the "clavecin h maillets invente par M. Marius" in the year 1716.** The drawings are supposed to represent the mechanism of four different kinds of hammer-claviers, but appear to be mere rough experimental suggestions, which might have led to the result proposed by the "inventor" after successive successful improvements. The drawing of the first model, in con- junction with that of the second, exhibits the key, consisting of a long, narrow strip of wood, and playing in a fork on the front ba- lance-rail, as the lever of a wooden hammer adjusted above it on a rail. Like the key, this hammer consists of a long, narrow slip of wood bearing on its end an upright cube of wood, which strikes the proper string, when the key is depressed, like the metal pin on the key of the clavichord. It is thought, says the reporter, that with keyboards of this make the power of the tone can be modified by skilfully graduating the touch. According to this theory (so closes the description of the first model), the hammers have been adjusted in various manners and positions. — The second model was intended to show how the hammers could strike the keys from above or below, two rows of a trichord adjustment of the strings being employed. The third model proposes an improvement of the first, the string being struck from * See Histoire de I'academie royale des sciences, Annee MDCCXVI, k Paris de rimprimerie royale MDCCXVIII, p. 77. (Compare L. Puliti as above.) ** See Machines et inventions approuvees par Taccademie royale des sciences. Tome troisifeme, depuis 1713 jusqu'en 1719. A Paris MDCCXXXV, pag. 83. 1716. No. 172. With dramngs of the 4 models by Marius. — 262 — below by a rouud wooden peg instead of a hammer, the trouble- some quilling of the harpsichord being thus avoided. The fourth model is intended to show that both the hammer adjustment and the former quill adjustment could be put into one and the same harpsichord, and played upon either separately or simultaneously. All four models are explained at great length,* but their un- practical character is so glaringly apparent that probably no attempt was ever made to apply them in practice. The entire invention was soon forgotten, and even Fetis did not consider the inventor worthy of a separate article in either edition of his Biographie des musiciens. WaUher, in his Musikalisches Lexicon published at Leipsio in 1732, mentions neither a pianoforte nor any hammer-clavier whatever, nor does a similar work published at Chemnitz in 1749 yet notice instruments of this class. Not until 1767 does the Court Composer Job. Friedr. Agricola of Berlin write, in his annotations to Adlung's Musica mech. organoedi (Vol. I. p. 212): — "Hr. Gottfried Silbermann is celebrated on account of his fine fliigel and clavichords, the inven- tion of the Cimbal d'Amour,** and the improvement of the Piano forte. True, the first attempt at this piano forte was devised and carried out in Italy; but Hr. Silbermann has improved it so greatly that he himself is hardly less than its inventor". Silbermann, of whose highly influential labors we shall speak at length directly, died in 1753, and in 1763 the above-mentioned or- ganist Ch. G. Schroeter of Nordhausen published, in Marpurg's "Kri- tische Briefe", the "Circumstanial description of a newly invented keyboard instrument, on which one can play loudly aud softly in different degrees, together with two drawings, 1763". He professes to have been chiefly impelled to this "new invention" by the Pan- taleon of the "world-renowned virtuoso Hebenstreit", having made attempts as early as 1717 to contrive a keyed instrument which should set the strings in vibration by means of mallets or hammers instead of the metal pins or quills hitherto used. He recounts further, that in 1721 he laid two models before the Dresden court. In one the hammers struck from below, in the other from above. Both were furnished with dampers, and on either the strings could be sounded loudly or softly. The models met with the king's approval, and he * Both the models and the French description of them are given in full in the work by L. Puliti mentioned above. ** A description of this instrument is given further on. — 2G3 — ordered fliat a working model should be made of the under-striking kind. The order remained unexecuted, and when Schroeter was about to leave Dresden he failed, despite all his attemps, to get his models back again. He asserted, that they became known in Germany without his knowledge and consent, were clumsily imitated, and styled "pianoforte". Even if we give full credence to Schroeter's statements, we must, on the strength of documents now accessible, regard his claim to the invention of the pianoforte as wholly baseless. For Cristofori had made a complete pianoforte as early as 1711, and Marius had ex- hibited four models of like instruments in 1716, while Schroeter, as he himself asserts, first attempted to build a clavier playing loudly and softly in 1717. Neither could Silbermann have made any use of Schroeter's model-drawings, these not being published till 10 years after Silbermann's death. A glance at the latter's active life will suffice to convince us, that to his persevering labors we owe the production of an instrument which, by reason of its practical use- fulness and convenient management, soon attained to the widest popularity. Gottfried Silbermann, born at Frauenstein in Saxony in the year 1683, was the second son of a reputable carpenter. Despit* his early fondness for music it was decided that he should follow his father's trade. But his lively diposition soon bore him away from carpentering, neither could the workshops of other masters, in which he was subsequently placed, confine him for any length of time. Mischievous pranks even brought him into jail, whence he escaped, however, overnight, to flee from an awarded punishment. He fled to a relative in Bohmisch-Einsiedel, who provided him with means to travel to Strassburg, the adopted home of his elder brother Andreas, the celebrated builder of the organ in the Minster at Strassburg, who gave him a friendly reception. In his flourishing establishment he taught him the art of organ-building, and after 3 years spent here by Gottfried in zealous work, his brother entrusted the thoroughly trained young master with the principal work on an organ in the church of a convent near by, Gottfried labored industriously at his task, and during this time made the acquaintance of a young, lively French lady, who had been forced to take the veil, and yearned to regain her freedom. Ardent mutual love ripened their decision to attempt a bold escape. One moonlight night she had even climbed the wall, and he had already thrown her a rope-ladder, — 264 — when her absence was remarked in the conyent, and she was forci- bly carried back into the garden. He himself escaped from the hands of a servant of the convent only after a prolonged struggle, and took refuge in the drying-loft of a cabinet-maker, his friend. As soon as he deemed himself safe from any ill consequences of his adventure, he journeyed back to his native town. In Frauenstein he now completed the fu'st organ built wholly by himself, which met with so favorable a reception that he was commissioned to build an organ for the cathedral at Freiburg. The extremely successful construction of this organ won him the name of the foremost organ- builder in Saxony, which was thoroughly well deserved, as the nume- rous organs made by him testify. The long sojourn with his serious and strict elder brother had brought Gottfried's earlier levity within the proper limits, and lent to his restlessly aspiring mind an energy and perseverance which no obstacles could daunt, and which never relaxed until the goal aimed at was gained. These traits are also plainly apparent in his experi- ments in constructing a pianoforte as perfect as possible. "With him everything had to be good and genuine; he never worked for looks, and defective work, even finished pianofortes, he would batter to pieces with an axe".* Agricola, whom we quoted above concerning Silbermann's influ- ence, gives the following additional information for the History of the Pianoforte in Vol. 2 of the work alluded to (S. 116): "Hr. Gottfr. Silbermann had at first built two of these insti-u- ments. One of them was seen and played on by the late Kapell- meister Hr. Joh. Seb. Bach. He praised, and was even filled with admiration at, their tone, but raised the objection, that it was too weak high up, and far too hard to play. Herr Silbermann, who could bear no faultfinding with his work, took this extremely ill. For a long time therefore, he felt resentful towards Herr Bach. And neverthe- less his conscience told him, that Herr Bach was right. There- fore — to his great credit be it said — he thought it best to turn out no more of these instruments; but, on the other hand, to bestow the more careful attention to bettering the defects noticed by Herr Bach. On this he labored many years. And I doubt the less, that this was the true cause of the delay, because I have heard Herr * See tlie Sketch by Ludwig Mooser, based on cbvircb and official docu- ments: "Das Briiderpaar die Orgelbaumeister Andreas und Gottfried Silber- mann". Strassburg, printed by Gustav Silbermann, 1861. — 265 — Silbermaun liimself admit it. Finally, Herr Silbermann having really invented many improvements, especially in the matter of touch, he again sold one to the court of the Prince of Rudolstadt. — Shortly after- ward H. M. the King of Prussia ordered one of these instruments, and on its meeting with his Majesty's approval, several more were ordered of Herr Silbermann.* Anyone — especially one who, like myself, had seen either of the two instruments — could see and hear very readily from all these how industriously Herr Silbermann must have worked to improve then. Herr Silbermann likewise was moved by a laudable ambition to show one of these instruments, his newer work, to Herr Kapellmeister Bach, that he might test it; from whom it now received unqualified approval". From this report by Agricola, who knew Silbermann personally, it would seem to be beyond doubt that we owe the construction of pianofortes for practical use, and their wide popularization, solely to the tireless energy of the Saxon Silbermann. Silbermann earned the high esteem of all musical circles not only by his admirable organs, neatly and durably constructed clavichords, harpsichords and pianofortes, but also by the invention of the Cim- bal d'amour. On this last instrument the tone of the clavichord, to whose class it belonged, was brought out more fully and sustainedly. Its strings were twice as long as in the ordinary clavichord, and the tangents on the keys struck exactly in the middle of the strings, thus sounding the octave of the whole string on both its halves. The tone thus gained in mellowness and fullness; indeed, this invention, now quite forgotten, might perhaps be resuscitated to advantage in our modern Instruments for the low and medium tones by the addition of a flageolet-stop lightly touching the middle of the strings. The greatest musicians of their times, Sebastian Bach at 1737, and Mozart at 1777, recognized the value of the invention of the pianoforte; nevertheless it was long before it could take its due rank among the other keyboard instruments. As in the history of music throughout, we see in this case, too, the battle of progress against the conservative element, the resistance of usage to innovation. Thus the anonymous author of the Musikalisches Handbuch, issued at "Alethinopel" (Leipsic) simultanously with Forkel's Musikalischer Almanach by Schwickert, does not yet yield the preference to the * Frederick 11 paid 700 thalerj for each of these pianofortes. Silber- mann usually sold the less elegantly finished instruments of this kind for 300 thalers. — 266 — pianoforte. Firstly, he justly censures the usage of composers in writing on the title-page of their works: "Sonatas for the Clavier", without naming the special instrument intended, although each of these has its peculiar character. On the harpsichord, he observes, the heart can not speak, one can not paint, not lay on light and shade, but only produce a plain, well-defined sketch. It is suitable for checking or hurrying the flow of the music — in a word, for accompanying. The Fortepiano, he continues, ranks higher, especi- ally when it is one made by Friederici or Stein. On it the heart can speak, and express manifold emotions, can paint, and diffuse light and shade. But is lacks the medium tints and minute beauties, being thus on the whole the instrument for concertos and quartets. — The clavichord, however, ranks highest of all. Though excluded by its character from public concerts, it is all more the confidant of solitude. On it I can express the emotion of my heart, and shade, tone, disperse, and blend the tones through all their undulations. To become acquainted with a virtuoso (so he closes his observations) one must hear him at the clavichord — not at the fortepiano, and still less at the harpsichord. Forkel, in the above Almanach for 1782, also ranks the clavi- chord above all other kinds of claviers, though giving prominent mention to the delicacy of execution and diversity of shading possi- ble on the Spath pianofortes. Chr. Fr. Daniel Schubart, highly esteemed both as a poet and musician, also writes at length on the claviers of his period in his "Ideen zu einer Aesthetik der Tonkunst" (Ideas on the ^Esthetics of Musical Art), penned during his imprisonment at Hohenasberg and announced in 1785, although not published by his son until 1806. From this we give a few quotations as a supplementary characte- rization. The harpsichord twangs the strings either with crow-quills, or, though more expensively, with golden points. It exercises the hand in accurate musical delineation, therefore the beginner should first practise on the harpsichord. The admirable fortepiano, he exclaims, is — Heil wis! — another invention of the Germans. Silbermann pondered over means for lending expressiveness to the harpsichord, and he and his successor contrived the instrument which yields forte and piano to the pressure of the handwithout stops. The management of the fortepiano is very differ- ent from that of the quilled harpsichord. The latter requires merely — 267 — a light touch, while the keys of the fortepiano must he touched with a spring or glide. The musical colorit^ however, can by no mean* be given in all its nuances on the latter. The clavichord, that lonely, melancholy, unspeakably sweet in- strument, is, if made by a master, preferable to the harpsichord and the fortepiano. The swelling and dying away of the tones, the mellow trill expiring under the fingers, the portamento^ in a word, all shades of feeling can be definitely expressed by the finger-pressure, the vibration and trembling (Beben) of the strings, by the lighter or more powerful touch of the hand. The clavichords, (thus Schubart closes his remarks), have at the pi-esent day almost reached their climax; they embrace from 5 to 6 octaves, are gebunden and unge- bunden (having several keys to a string, or but one), with or without lute-stops, and for a player of feeling it would hardly seem possible to add a perfection to this instrument. We perceive, that even while the pianoforte was coming into more general use, the clavichord was preferred for a long time^ Should a skilful instrument-maker undertake to resuscitate this for- merly much lauded instrument, we are convinced, therefore, that a gifted artist employing it in his performances beside those on the concert-grand, would create a great effect even to-day. Of course, the compositions selected would have to be adapted to the romantic chiaro-oscuro of the clavichord tone. Masters of composition and practising pupils would likewise find it pleasant to possess an instru- ment whose tone does not carry far, which takes up little room, can be easily transported, and might be bought for a very moderate price. Silbermann's fortepianos at first all appear to have been in grand- piano form, for it is narrated of Ch. E. Friederici of Gera (d. 1779), one of the earliest makers of such instruments, that he constructed them in clavichord form, and styled them Forthien to distinguish them from the others. On account of their admirable workmanship they spread, as we are told, over half the world. The Fortepianos, too, which Joh, Adam Spath (d. 1796) of Eatisbou constructed in grand form and sold for 40 ducats, were held in high estimation in Germany. They were especially praised because the dampers lay upon (on top of) the strings, being lifted from the latter as long as the player pressed the keys. The instruments of this meritorious master were later surpassed by the pianofortes of Johann Andreas Stein (d. 1792) of Augsburg. Mozart, on becoming acquainted with these latter, chose them principally for his performances, whereby — 268 — this instrument was first brought into general notice and vogue. The following account of Stein's instruments is given in a letter written by Mozart at the age of 21 to his father (Augsburg, 1777): ''Now, to begin with, I must tell you about the Stein pianoforte. Before seeing any of Stein's make, I liked Spath's claviers the best, but now must give the preference to Stein's; for they damp far better than even those from Eatisbon. When I strike the keys hard, whether I let my fingers lie or lift them, the tone ceases in the same instant that I sound it. However I may touch the keys, the tone will always be the same, it will not 'block' (scheppern), it will not go easier at one time and harder the next, or even fail alto- gether; in a word, everything is even. To be sure, he does not sell such a pianoforte under 300 florins; but the trouble and pains he takes are beyond price. His instruments have the special advantage above others that they are made with an escapement, which not one in a hundred troubles his head with; but without an escapement the pianoforte will inevitably block and continue to sound. When one touches the keys, the hammers drop at the instant they spring against the strings, whether the key be held down or released. When he has finished such a pianoforte (so he himself tells me), he first sits down to it and tries all sorts of passages, runs, and leaps, and scrapes and works until the action will do anything; for he works only for the good of music, and not simply for his own benefit, else he would be done directly. He often says: 'If I myself were not such an ardent admirer of music, and could not perform a little on the pianoforte, I should long ago have lost patience with my work; but as it is I am an admirer of instruments which do not bother the player, and are durable'. And his pianofortes are really durable. He guarantees, that the soundboards will neither crack nor burst. After he has made a soundboard for a pianoforte he exposes it to the air, rain, snow, sun-heat, and all devils (sic)^ that it may crack, and then glues shavings into the cracks to make the soundboard sti-ong and very firm. He is really glad when it cracks; for then one may be sure that nothing else will happen to it. He often even cuts into it himself, and then glues it up, and strengthens it thoroughly. He has 3 such finished pianofortes, and I have just played on them again to-day. — The machine (knee-pedal) which one presses with the knee is also better made by him than by others. I barely need to touch it, to make it work; and as soon as one withdraws the knee a little, not the least after-resonance is heard". — 269 — Job. Andreas Stein, the master thus praised, by Mozart, was born in 1728, went through his training in Silbermann's workshops, and later made a name by several inventions of new instruments of the organ and clavier class. But the most valuable service rendered by him to art was the invention of a new hammer-mechanism for the pianoforte. In Cristofori's Italian action the hammers were adjusted independently of the Jieys upon a separate wooden rail; whereas in Stein's "German action" the hammers were set on the heys themselves. In the latter there stands on the tail of the key a metal pin bent backwards, on which is fastened a brass cap. The bill-shaped shank of the hammer, with its spindles, is accurately fitted into this cap, but can readily play within the latter. On depressing the key, the butt of the hammer-shank is caught in a spring-catch which is ad- justed behind the key, lifts the hammer up to strike the string, and instantly lets it di'op again to a position of repose. A check received it and held it in the right position, and the leathering of the hammer was so practical that the player could graduate the power of the tone by a gentler or stronger touch of the key. When Stein's chil- dren Andreas and Nanette removed the business of their deceased father to Vienna in 1794, where it was successfully continued, the aforesaid mechanism in the pianoforte was styled the "Viennese action". A material influence was exerted on the flourishing business of the Stein family in Vienna by their acquaintance with Andreas Streicher. He was born in indigent circumstances at Stuttgart in 1761, and a pronounced talent decided him to devote himself to music. In his twenty-first year he had scraped together a small sum by teaching, which he considered sufficient for a journey to Ham- burg, in order thoroughly to learn the true method of playing the clavier under the guidance of the renowned C. Ph. E. Bach. However, before carrying out this decision, a copy of Schiller's "Rauber", first printed in 1781, fell into his hands, which so moved him that he became eager to make the personal acquaintance of its author, who was at that time regimental physician under the austere Duke Karl of Wtirttemberg. Andreas, with his ardent veneration for the gifted poet, and Schiller, attracted by the faithful, impressionable, warm- hearted Swabian, speedily became intimate friends. This friendship was soon put to the proof, as Schiller, incensed at the Duke's harsh command to forbear from writing, fled from Stuttgart, aided and ac- companied by Andreas. After prolonged wanderings, often on foot, — 270 — the money of both was exhausted, and Andreas was forced, as be said, "to forsake Germany's noblest poet alone and in misfortune". The journey to Emanuel Bach had to be given up, and Streicher went to Mannheim, to earn a living by giving clavier-lessons. He had unexpected success, and both here and in Munich, whither he re- paired after a time, he was loved and honored as a virtuoso, teacher, and composer. On repeated business trips to Augsburg he made the acquaintance of Nanette (Marie Anna), the daughter of J. A. Stein. Since earliest childhood she had learned to give her father's piano- fortes the finishing touches, and was also highly esteemed as an ex- pressive pianoforte player. Streicher's bearing, frank and inviting- confidence, won her love, and their union was a source of unalloyed happiness to both. At Streicher's desire his wife and her brother removed the business to Vienna in 1794. Here Streicher's musical gifts also found general favor, and the pianoforte manufactory, con- ducted on the principles of the elder Stein, became so flouiishing that Streicher found it necessary to aid personally in carrying it on. From 1802 onward the business was conducted by the two equally esteemed firms of "Geschwister Stein" and "Nanette Streicher, nee Stein", to which latter "and Son" was later added. Sti-eicher, grown more familiar with the make of the pianoforte, invented the mecha- nism in which the hammer strikes the string from above, which was likewise practically employed as improved by Pape, in Paris. Strei- cher's house in Vienna was a rallying point for the most eminent artists, foreign and native, and Nanette was the soul of the company. Held in estimation as an excellent pianoforte player, as a lady of high mental cultivation, and as a wife and mother, she was likewise the faithful friend of Beethoven when he was most difficult of access, and untiring in her care for the household of the great master. She died in January, 1833, universally mourned, and followed only four months later by her equally honored spouse. Their son Johann Baptist maintained the renown of the firm, and Liszt, Thalberg, Clara Wieck, and Dreyschock chose their concert grands at Vienna in preference from this factory, which to-day still sustains its high rank under the grandson of Andreas, Emil Streicher. ^ It is a remarkable fact that we owe just to Schiller the perfec- tion of the modern concert grand which Andreas Streicher was es- pecially active in bringing about. For had Andreas journeyed to Hamburg to be trained as a virtuoso by Emanuel Bach, instead of throwing in his lot with Schiller, he would propably never have — 271 — known and married Nanette, who induced him to take an active part in pianoforte making. And on the other hand, without Streieher's watchful care and friendship, Schiller might easily have met the fate of the unfortunate Daniel Schubart, whom he greatly rejoiced by a visit during his ten years' captivity in Hohenasperg. Pianoforte-making in England. In the year 1680 the instrument-maker Tabel, who had been trained in the celebrated workshops of the Brothers Ruckers at Ant- werp, came to London, and founded there the first noteworthy fac- tory for claviers. The Swiss Burkhardt Tschudi (later always called Shudi) worked in Tabel's Factory, and founded in 1732 a very lu- crative business of his own in London * John Broadwood, a Scotch- man, entered Shudi's manufactory about 1763, and so distinguished himself by fine workmanship and ingenious inventions that Shudi gave him his daughter in marriage. Shudi subsequently made over his large and prosperous business to Broadwood, who had already con- ducted it for a considerable time. About 1766 a German, Johann Zumpe, brought over "'Silbermann's invention", the pianoforte, to London. This instrument, in his very neat and workmanlike make, immediately found great favor theref and soon won such renown that its services were even impressed to enhance the brilliancy of a "benefit" performance. On a theatre-bill of May 16, 1767, is found the announcement: "End of Act I Miss Brickler will sing a favourite song from Judith, accompanied by Mr.- Dibdin, on a new instrument call'd Piano Forte." A year later the- "London Bach" (Johann Christian) played the pianoforte in public for the first tune in a concert. Great influence was exerted on the popularization and perfecting of the pianoforte by the fact that in the year 1775 Muzio Clementi not only employed one in a concert at London with brilliant success, but thenceforward also adapted his brilliant compositions to this effec- tive instrument, for which the Saxon Ambassador at London, Graf Bruhl, devised the blued steel strings in 1774, of fuller tone and less liable to rust than the ordinary ones. * Kirkman (Kirchmann) , likewise a clavier-maker of repvite, was also trained to independence in Tabel's workshops. — 272 — The foremost clavier manufacturers of London strove to improve the newly invented instrument more and more, constructing it both in Square and Grand form. The Silbermann action, in which the hammers were independent of the keys and rested on a separate rail above the latter, were so essentially improved, especially by Backers, Stodart, and Broadwood, that it became known and widely employed as a new invention under the name of the "English action". On depressing the key it impels by means of its jack, which at the same time acts as an escapement (hopper), the hammer against the key, through an aperture in the soundboard, and lets it drop instantly back into its former position. In 1808 the last-named manufactory assumed the firm-name of Broadwood and Sons, and the pianofortes since turned out by them attained such world-wide renown that as early as 1856 their workshops were the most extensive of all then existing. Some 500 employees were then working at their tasks, "from the first saw-cut of the rough log up to the finest work on the finished pianoforte." From a descriptive pamphlet written for the "International Inventions Exhibition" at Loudon in 1885, and kindly furnished by the firm to the Editor, the following list is taken. Number of Pianofortes of all kinds made by the Broadwood Firm from 1780 to 1885. Full Grands 1780 to 1885 22,093 Short Grands, including separate series of Semi, Bi chorda. Boudoir, and short Drawing Room Grands 1831 to 1885 17,875 Cottages 1819 to 1885 62,857 Old Upright, or Vertical Grands . . . . 1799 to 1831 940 Cabinets 1812 to 1856 8,963 Squares 1780 to 1864 64.161 176,889 To which add Harpsichords, 1732 to 1793 (approximately) 1,200 Grand total 178,089 Pianoforte-making in France. In Germany the clavichord was preferred, as remarked before, to the pianoforte even long after the invention and popularization of the latter, while in England marked favor was shown to the piano- forte immediately after its first appearance there in 1766. The French — 273 — liad grown so exclusively accustomed to the tone and action of the hai-psichords in wingshape (clavecins) and square form (^pinettes), that the pianoforte did not find acceptance and favor in France until long after its full naturalization in Germany and England. La Rorde relates in 1780 that the few pianofortes coming from London to Paris, although ])leasing in the upper register, were hard and dull in the lower. He remarks, besides, that their square shape (illustrated in his work, I, 346) could not he transformed into the French wing- shape, and that they were frightfully dear as well. In the year 1768 Sebastien Erhard (later he always wrote his name Erard) came from Strassburg to Paris. Here he entered the workshop of a clavier-maker, and proved to be such a judicious, en- terprising, and persevering workman that his name was soon kno^vn in all Paris. Being a clever mathematician and mechanician, he invented in 1776 the "clavecin mecanique", a harpsichord with stops shifting the stroke from quilled jacks to jacks "en peau de buffle". The instrument also had two pedals, one of vrhich stopped the strings in the middle, thus raising the pitch hy an octave, while the other combined the above changes. At the request of an influential patroness, the Comtesse de Villeroy, he constructed Lis first pianoforte in 1777, which met with great favor in her soirees. About this time Jean Baptiste Erard cnnie to Paris, and participated thenceforward in his brother's work. Their establishment in Paris soon became well-known and patronized. The inexhaustible inventor Sebastien constructed for Queen Marie Antoinette a "piano organise" with two keyboards, one of which played a pianoforte, and the other an organ, a "jeu d'expression" being attached to the latter. A se- cond stop transposed the instrument as much as 3 semitones higher or lower. Space is wanting to name all the inventions contrived by him for the pianoforte, and likewise for the harp, which he com- pletely transformed (double-action harp with fork mechanism); for his active mind was incessantly occupied with plans for perfecting both instruments. The terrors of the outbreaking Revolution drove Sebastien to London, and the harp and pianoforte manufactory established there soon became as flourishing as that in Paris, continued meantime by his brother. In 1796 he returned to France, and there constructed the first grand pianoforte after the improved English system. Its touch being considered too heavy, he made renewed attempts to better the action. Dussek, equally admired as a composer and vir- 18 — 274 — tuoso, played on one of his concert grands in 1808 with brilliant success; and Choron, in the Supplement to his Diet, hist, des inusieicns, reports in 1817 on a new grand pianoforte of the brothers Erard: "It has a compass of 6 octaves, and under the hands of the player its tone appears either full and mellow, or loud and brilliant". — Erard has won lasting fame in the history of pianoforte-making by his invention in 1823 of the hammer-action "a double mouvement" or "a double ^chappement", which thenceforward was used in all concert grands with the English action. In this action, when the liammer has struck the string, it may again be thrown upward by the slightest pressure of the finger by the aid of a second lever (hopper) with similar escapement, thus yielding most conveniently the pianissimo, crescendo, and extreme forte to the player's will. — Se- bastien Erard, the eminent promoter of pianoforte-making, died in 1831 at his castle 'La Muette', whither he had withdrawn from active life some years before. His nephew Pierre was already the manager of the London factory. After the decease of his uncle, who made 1dm his heir, he came to Paris, and conducted both the extensive factories with energy and success until his death in 1855. Schafer «)f Paris then continued the business. The world- renowned Erard factory, established in 1780, has reached a grand total of 89.000 in- sti-uments (down to end of 1890), namely 19,000 Grands, 61,000 Uprights and 9,000 Squares. In the year 1890 there were made 400 Grands and 1300 Uprights, or 1700 in all. Here, too, the Squares seem to have gone quite out of favor. The Erard establishment em- ploys about 500 hands on an average. After successful tours through Germany, Italy, and England, the celebrated composer Ignaz Pleyel settled in 1795 in Paris, where his -easily executed symphonies, string-quartets, and clavier-sonatas were received with such unusual enthusiasm that he decided to publish them on his own account. In addition to his music shop he opened, in 1807, a pianoforte manufactory, thus laying the foundation of the business later raised to the highest pitch of prosperity by his son Camille Pleyel in particular, even rivalling that of the Erards. The instruments of Pleyel's make are distinguished by a sympathetic tone, and stimulate the performer by admitting of the most delicate shading of a composition. Chopin characterized the instruments of these two equally meritorious firms in the words: "Quand je suis mal dispose, je joue sur un Piano d'Erard et j'y trouve facilement un son fait. Mais quand je me sens en verve et assez fort, pour trouver — 275 — mon propre son a moi, il me faiit un Piano de Pleyel".* August Wolf (d. 1877) conducted the business with circumspection after Ca- mille Pleyel's death, and has been quick to adopt all new improve- ments of the instrument. The skilful Swabian pianoforte-maker Heinrich Pape (b. 1789 at Sorstedt, d. 1875 at Paris) came to Paris in 1811, where he orga- nized and managed for some years the pianoforte factory of Pleyel. In 1815 he set up for himself, and his factory was soon in a con- dition to compete with the two firms mentioned above. Thinking that the strings of the pianoforte would yield a clearer tone if the soundboard beneath them were enclosed on all sides — i. e. if the aperture through which the hammers struck the strings were done away with— he readopted the action already employed by Streicher, in which the hammers struck the strings from above. This action proved peculiarly advantageous for square pianos and "cottages", and was therefore soon generally adopted in the latter, as well as in the "pianinos" (cabinets) afterwards taking their place. Pape introduced the felted hammer instead of the leather -covered one, and also de- vised the overstrung pattern. Pianoforte-making in Germany etc. The names of the pianoforte-makers, and of the inventors and improvers of separate parts, are legion, and their number is swelling year by year. In the following resume, therefore, only a few of the most prominent firms will be mentioned. The instruments of Bechstein in Berlin enjoy a world-wide re- putation. The founder of the factory, Karl Bechstein, was born at Gotha in 1826; after working in various German piano factories he acted from 1848 to 1852 as foreman for Peran of Berlin, then made a tour of observation to London and Paris, where he worked for Pape and Kriigelstein, and established himself with modest means at Berlin in 1856. Within a short time the factory attained to such prosperity, that the greatest masters of pianoforte-playing began to take an interest in Bechstein's make, so that he was enabled more and more to turn his attention to the construction of large concert grands. Business gradually increased to such an extent, that Bech- * Karasowski, Friedrich Chopin. Dresden, Eies, 1877. II, 96. — 276 — stein now employs several hundred workmen, and turns out over a thousand finished instruments annually. Herr Bechstein, whose in- struments enjoy a wide European reputation, has manufactured down to Oct., 1891. 26,900 in all; the number made in 1890 was 2600, of which 1100 were grands and 1500 pianinos. From 500 to 550 workmen are regularly employed by him. Bechstein's chief competitor in Germany is Julius Bliithner of Leipsic, born in 1824 at Falkenhain near Merseburg. He founded his factory at Leipsic in 1853 in 1856 took out a pa- tent for improvements in the construction of the pianoforte, and speed- ily raised his establishment to high reputation. The "Aliquotfliigel" are a specialty of Bliithner's, their tone being reinforced by an oc- tave-sti-ing stretched above the unisons belonging to eacli tone, which octave-string is not touched by the hammer, but vibrates in sympathy with the tone given out by the sti-ings below it. Bliithner's instru- ments have repeatedly received the highest awards (Paris 1867, Vienna 1873, Philadelphia 1876, Sydney 1880, etc.). It would appear that the factor}'" of Commercienrath Bliithner is at present the leading leading establishment of its class on the continent of Europe. Down to the end of 1890 the total number of instruments made was in round numbers 35,000, about 20,000 of these being Grands, and 15,000 Pianinos. For some 20 years no more Squares have been manufactured, and only about 500 in all down to the time of their discontinuance. Of the famous '-Aliquot" Grands nearly 7,500 have been finished; of Pianinos with the Janko keyboard, some 50. In the year 1890 there were made altogether 2500 instruments. Grands and Pianinos in equal numbers. 600 workmen are regularly em- ployed. Sufficient proof of the interest excited in musical circles by the Jankd keyboard is found in tlie fact, that it has been introduced among the instruments regularly taught at the Leipzig Conservatory, with a special instructor, Herr Hofpianist Weudling. The latter, him- self a virtuoso on his instrument, has also had good success in teaching its peculiar technique, as was shown by the highly successful debut of one of his lady pupils at an Ahendunterhaltimg on Oct. 30 tb, 1891. The instrument used, from Bliithner's factory, exhibits great improvements in regard to both action and tone. Theodore Sttiuway of New York has established a branch fac- tory at Hamburg, in which the several parts of the instruments, sent in a finished condition from New York, are put together. — In Bruns- wick the factory still flourishes which Heinrich Steinway, on his — 277 — removal to New York, made over to his eldest son Theodor; the latter carried it on till 1865, in which year he also went to America; the present firm is Theodor Steinway's Successors, Helferich, Grotrian and Co. In South Germany the instruments made by J. L. Schiedmayer and Sohne of Stuttgart have won a well-earned and wide reputation, being distinguished by excellent workmanship, a fine tone, and facile touch. The pianos of A. Biber in Munich enjoy equal popularity by reason of their durability and simple, readily answering action. — The renown of the Viennese pianoforte factories is maintained in our day, among many others, by the following makers: Carl Stein, Ernst Streicher (both descendants of the masters previously mentioned), Conrad Graf, Ludwig Bosendorfer, and M. Schweighofers Wittwe. The factory of Herr L. Bosendorfer is at present tbe largest in Au- stria; it was founded by the father of the present owner in 1828, and carried on by him till 1859, down to which time the instruments were not numbered. Since 1859, 12,430 pianofortes have been made, but hardly 1"/^ of this total were pianinos, all the rest being grands. The Bosendorfer grands are the only make used by virtuosi in Austria. In Switzerland the Huni and Hubert Pianofortes of Zurich are in great demand; while in Italy, the native country of the instrument, Cristofori's invention long remained utterly neglected, Germany under- taking the perfection and popularization of the same. As a conse- quence, all the leading Italian manufacturers construct their pianos on the "Prussian" system, as Eoeseler of Turin, Colomba e Grimm of Milan, Maltarello of Vicenza, Niccola Lacchin of Padua, Sievers* oj Naples, etc. — The Modern Pianoforte. Although the instruments of the makers named above fulfil the requirements of modern pianoforte virtuosi in their extraordinary per- formances, carried up to a dizzy height by the fiery inspiration of the unrivalled champion, Franz Liszt, the pianoforte-makers of Germany, * G. F. Sievers has likewise published a very complete Handbook of Pianoforte construction entitled "II Pianoforte, guida pratica etc". Napoli, Benedetto Pelerano, 1868. With numerous drawings, and an Atlas in folio, containing illustrations of the English, Streicher, Pleyel, Erard, and Steinway actions in their natural size. — 278 — France, England and America strive incessantly to perfect the con- struction of the separate parts of the instrument. The unheard-of force exerted by Liszt and his numerous pupils occasioned the instrument-makers to construct the wrestplank with the tuning-pins of the strings, and the string-plate, in the best possible manner, to obviate getting out of tune as far as might be. To this end both supports of the ends of the strings were screwed fast to iron plates, and held at a proper distance apart by cross-bars. A patent taken out in 1820 by Thorn and Allen for such an arrange- ment was first practically applied later by Stodart in London; and a still more practical invention was a cast-iron frame combining the said iron plates and cross-bars in a single piece of metal of the same kind. The strings of the concert grand, which formerly sometimes snapped under Liszt's titanic grasp, withstood it after being made of the toughest material, cast steel. The English strings of Webster in Manchester, formerly universally employed, were later surpassed in tension-power by those of Miller in Vienna. Furthermore, the tone of the pianoforte has lost all sharpness and gained in fullness, since the hammers have been covered with specially prepared felt instead of leather. Ingenious as was the Erard action with double escapement, its manufacture and repairing have always been attended by great diffi- culties. Modern piano -makers therefore spare no pains to simplify this hammer-action, or at least to render it as durable as possible, without sacrificing its lightness of touch. Besides the great Concert Grands, with a compass frequently exceeding seven octaves. Parlor Grands and Semi-Grands are also made; and the Square Piano, still a favorite in England and America, has in Germany been almost entirely superseded by the Pianino or Upright Piano. This latter instrument, evolved from the upright grands or "cottages", has an overstriking action, the hammers of which are centred on a separate wooden rail, the strings being overstrung as in the grands. The overstrung pattern of Steinway and Sons in New York has now been almost universally adopted as the most practical one for Grands, Squares, and Uprights. A recent invention for the pianoforte deserves more attention than it has hitherto received, for it will become indispensable to all pia- nists whenever gifted composers shall recognize it as an effective means of expression, and apply it in their compositions. This is the — 279 — *pedale de prolongement" (prolongation pedal) practically employed in 1860 by Debain of Paris, in 1862 by Montal of London. It was simplified and improved by Stcinway of New York in 1874. By its aid a tone or full chord, when struck, can he sustained even while both hands of the player are executing suitable runs nnd passages, and while the soft and loud pedals arc used at pleasure. The sustained tone or chord continues singing until the foot releases the pedal by which it was taken. Other recent contrivances for the improvement of the pianoforte have been, in part, attempted earlier without finding favor, or were too complicated in construction to remain permanently in serviceable condition, and were consequently slighted as worthless or unpractical from the beginning. The double pianofortes, on which two persons can play at once, each on a separate keyboard, appear from time to time, though without meeting with success. One of the latest pianos with two keyboards is the "Piano Mangeot" (a deux claviers renverses), played on in 1879 by Jules de Zarembski at the Paris Exposition. Whereas in the fonner double -keyboard grands the keyboards ran parallel like the organ manuals, and could also be coupled, the keyboards of the Piano ^langeot, though lying stepwise one above the other, are in opposition, the tones of the lower ascending as usual from left to right, while those of the upper ascend from right to left, so that a scale, for instance, played in contrary motion sounds in pa- rallel motion or even in unison. The attempt to give the same color to all keys having the same name, e. g. all C-keys blue, all D-keys red, etc. has probably found no imitators. The Society "Croma", which has tried for years to introduce a so-called chromatic keyboard having six white keys in regular alternation with six black ones, likewise appears to remain "exclusive". On the other hand, Eduard Zachariae's "Kunstpedal", which by means of various combinations lifts the dampers from lower, medium, or higher groups of strings, thus allowing them to sound on, has found some little practical application. Henri Herz of Paris, like the composers and virtuosi Pleyel and Kalkbrenner, established a pianoforte factory, and in 1851 publicly exhibited a "Piano eolicn", whose tones could be sustained and swelled by means of a current of air directed against the strings by a bellows worked by a pedal. The piano-maker Schnell, 62 years earlier, showed a similar instrument, at first in Paris and later in — 280 — Germany, which won him ^eat applause; but neither this "Animo- corde", nor Kalkbrenner's "pneumatisches Saiteninstrument", became popular, despite their wondrously affecting tone. The reason for this can be sought only in the great difficulty of constructing them, and the frequent need of repairs. An arrangement of the keyboard which has latterly atti*acted much attention, and which stands in distant relationship to the chro- matic" keyboard before alluded to, is the invention of Paul von Jank6. On this keyboard the scale of C-major no longer occupies the lower row of keys exclusively, as in the ordinary succession C, JD , E, F, G, A^ B, c, etc. The first three of these tones are pre- sented by white keys, and the other three by black keys on a level with the white. The black keys answering to C< and I)^ lie slightly elevated between C-D and B-E] between the white key for E and the first black key for F lies, also elevated, the white key for F\ and in like manner, between the black keys F-G-A, the white keys for Gj} and A'^ while between the black A-kej and the white c-key is found the (elevated) white ^-key. Taking capitals for the white keys, and small letters for the black ones, the following arrangement would show the grouping of the octave. Upper row of keys: c^ d^ F G A B Lower row of keys: C B E f^ g^ a^ c Thus, to play this octave chromatically, the keys in two rows lying one above the other have to be touched alternately. The entire keyboard, however, consists of a triple series of keyboards paired in the above manner, and presenting to the eye six different and apparently inde])eudent rows of keys ascending stepwise, as shown in the accompanying cut, which exhibits a section of the keyboard embracing about two octaves. — 281 — Eaeh tone of the old keyboard is given. three times on the Jank6 keyboard, as it can be struck by means of the same key-lever at three different places lying; one above the other, as the unattached keys on either side of the cut show. This construction, it is con- tended, accommodates itself better to the shape and natural position of the hand than the ordinary keyboard, because in any given case one can choose that key, of the three sounding each tone, which is most convenient for the hand at the given instant. The inventor commends, as a peculiar advantage of his keyboard, the point that only one fingering is needed for all the scales, and that the stretched hand commands a wider compass than on the ordinary keyboard, the playing of music in full harmonies or polyphonic style being this materially facilitated. The width of an octave on the ordinary keyboard corresponds exactly to that of a tenth on this; on the latter large hands can conveniently stretch a thirteenth, or even a four- teenth (c' — a" 1$). Despite its very apparent advantages for transcendant execution, it remains to be seen whether the new keyboard will win general popularity; at any rate the invention is an extremely in- genious one, and the attention paid to it by various manufacturers is deserving of commendation. The first grands with the Jank6 keyboard were made by R. W. Kurka of Vienna, who was followed by R. Ibach Sohn of Barmen, Duysen of Berlin, J. G. Vogel and Sohn of Plauen, Kaps of Dresden, and others. The latter took pains to lighten the touch, which was too heavy in the pianos first turned out, by means of technical improvements. O. L.] The numerous devices for noting down the tones of perform- ance on the pianoforte, by the aid of a revolving drum or an ad- vancing strip of paper, in the form of dots and lines of varying length, which signs could then be written out in notes of correspond- ing height (pitch) and length — have failed on account of their complicated form and liability to get out of order. The first note- writing machine of this kind was theoretically described, though never made to work in practice, by a London clergyman named Creed, in the Philosophical Transations for 1747. The mechanician Hohlfeld of Berlin was the first to construct one, which he delivered to the Berlin Academy for trial in 1852. He was followed at inter- vals by Englishmen, Germans, and Frenchmen with similar inventions, bearing the names of Piano stenographe, Melograph, Pianographe, etc. Most of them were loudly praised on their appearance, but have nevertheless not won general favor. Even the celebrated "Notograph" — 282 — of Sclimeil, a teacher in ^Magdeburg, has met the same fate as the rest. The electric "Melograph", in which the depression of the piano- keys closes a circuit, causing the music to be recorded on a strip of paper in much the same way as a message is taken by a Morse telegraphic apparatus, is perhaps the most successful of all these inventions; the music so noted down can be transferred to a stiff sheet of cardboard, and then reproduced in the "Melotrope". The Augustiuian friar Engramelle of Paris probably did not think, when he published his work on "La tonotechnie ou I'art de noter les cylindres etc." (The art of registering the cylinders of barrel- organs) in 1775, of ever employing it for noting a piano perfor- mance. It happened that a friend of his, a musician named Baptiste, once praised the compositions of an Italian pianist, and regretted his refusal to make them public. Engramelle requested that the Italian might be introduced to him, and on this occasion the virtuoso executed his celebrated compositions. During a second visit from the two musicians Engramelle exhibited a little hand-organ (Serinette or bird- organ), which startled the Italian by reproducing with astonishing accuracy the compositions he had so jealously withheld. Engramelle, as it proved, had fastened underneath his piano the cylinder of a barrel-organ, covered with white paper, and so connected with the keyboard that the tones produced by depressing the keys were noted on the cylinder. At each revolution, the cylinder advanced by a line, to present a blank surface for the next series of note-signs. These signs were then filled out with little pegs and ridges of wire, and the cylinder thus prepared was placed in the box containing the pipes and the crank-action, on turning which latter the music would imme- diately be reproduced. Here another invention must be mentioned, which, though having no influence on the construction of the pianoforte, has from time to time been thought important in teaching pianoforte-playing. This is the Chiro])last or Hand- guide invented by Logier in England about 1814. Two smooth wooden rails, adjusted in front of and higher than the keys, held the hands, when the latter were passed between them, at the proper distance from the keys, while a pair of open gloves kept the fingers in the most correct position. In spite of many opponents, the Chiroplast won the approval of eminent piano- teachers in London. Kalkbrenner joined Logier later, and made in- numerable partisans for the hand-guide, but in the sequel perceived its deficiencies; for the two rails between which the hands moved — 283 — did not even admit the passing under of the thumb or the passing over of any finger. He therefore discarded the upper part of the arrangement, and then recommended the improved Chiroplast under the name of "guide-main". Liszt proposed that it should be more appropriately named "guide-ane", thus dealing a death-blow to the invention. Nevertheless similar appliances, altered and improved, reappear now and then, and but a short time ago an "automatic piano hand- guide" constructed by W. Bohrer of Montreal, intended to constrain the pupil to hold the arm and hand correctly while playing, found the approbation of noteworthy teachers. In our opinion such mechanical aids ought never to come into general use, but be chosen only in special cases when the pupil's individuality demands them, and employed for a longer or shorter period. As soon as the earlier clavichords and harpsichords became capable of sounding full chords distinctly, they were used by com- posers, by reason of their easier management and more pleasing tone, in preference to the zithers and lutes previously predominant. The clavichord, on account of its weaker tone, was to be found only in private apartments, whereas the more brilliant harpsichord appeared in public soon after it had assumed a presentable shape. Early in the year 1600, when one of the first dramas in the recitative style provided throughout with music, Jacopo Peri's "Euri- dice", was given at Florence, the composer thought the clavicembalo already sufficiently important to reinforce the accompanying orchestra. In the same year a sacred musical drama composed by Emilio de' Cavalieri, "La rappresentazione di auima e di corpo", was brought out at Rome in the oratory — hence the general name of such musical works. Oratorio — of the church della vallicella, in dramatic style and interspersed with dances, on a stage furnished with deco- rations. The accompanying instruments were stationed behind the scenes, reinforced as in the opera mentioned above by a clavicembalo, together with lutes of various kinds, violins, and flutes. Even in the 17th century, after the bass-viols, viols, and violins had taken the leading place in the orchestra, a cemballist was still specially engaged in the theatres for executing the harmonic accompaniment to the opera recitatives. In the 18th century the pianoforte was sometimes substituted for the harpsichord; in this century the original Russian composer Glinka introduced it into the orchestra as a solo instru- ment in his romantic opera "Russian and Ludmilla." — 284 — The pianoforte has such a peculiar tone, that even in the opera it might well suggest new shadings, incisive arpeggi, and effective combinations with the other orchestral instruments, as the pianoforte concertos of our classic masters convincingly prove. In the music -rooms of composers of all nationalities we find the pianoforte, which can audibly reproduce the pictures of their fancy, thus providing a sketch for the future painting. In the Museum of the Paris Conservatory of Music are several such insti-uments once belonging to celebrated composers; for instance No. 231, in which Meyerbeer inscribed the fact that at this piano, placed at his disposal by his friend Peter Pixis (1835 at Baden), he composed a great part of his opera "The Huguenots". Franz Liszt, to whom we owe not merely the present high pitch of pianoforte-playing, but in consequence of it the great development of the modern concert grand as well, kindly wrote me a letter, con- cerning his own instruments, which possesses permanent value on account of its mentioning the most admirable pianofortes of his time, at the head of which there stands, since 1873, a magnificent Steinway grand. Its reproduction therefore forms a fitting close to my History of the Pianoforte. To C. F. Weitzmann, Berlin. Weimar, Aug. 14, 1861. In reply to your question touching the Beethoven pianoforte and the Mozart spinet, I can give you the following infor- mation. The Beethoven pianoforte (from C to C) was selected for the great man by Ries, Cramer, Knyvett, Moscheles, and Kalkbrenner in London at Broadwood's, and furnished with the signatures of these gentlemen and a Latin inscription by Broad wood. Schindler, in his for the most part repulsive biography of Beethoven, mentions this present, which gave B. gi-eat pleasure, and always served in his room as a show-piano, although people in Vienna averred that He generally used it untuned, and without having the snapped strings restrung. After his death it was bought by Herr Spina, with whom I grew to be on friendly terms through my editorial connection with the publishing house of Diabelli (whose main stay he was) — and in 1845 Spina presented me with this art-relic at Vienna. The Mozart spinet is of far less value. I cannot now remember just how many octaves it has — probably not quite 5. — Nine years — 285 — ago it was announced for sale in the music-journals, and presented to me by the Princess of Wittgenstein through the agency of Bar- tholf Senff of Leipzig (aboutl 852 or '53 at latest). Mozart being, as you are aware, more of a traveler than Beethoven, a larger number of pianos and spinets used by Him are extant. The one you saw a short time since at the Altenburg came from Salzburg to Leipzig and "Weimar, accompanied by several authenticating documents. In Salzburg and other places there are similar pieces of furniture of Mozart's, the most appropriate place for which would seem to be the Germanic Museum at Nuremberg. Finally, honored friend, with reference to pianos of my own, there are the following at the Altenburg: — 1 Erard in the reception- room in the first story — 1 Bechstein in the little parlor adjoining — 1 Boisselot (Marseilles) in my study or workroom. N. B. Louis Boisselot was a friend of mine, and accompanied me on the whole trip through Spain and Portugal ('45 to '47). He died soon after — I kept this piano, which besides underwent some other remarkable vicissitudes of fortune which I will relate to you when occasion serves. In the state it has been in for several years it can hardly be played on by any one else, yet I can neither make up my mind to put it aside, nor even to place another beside it in my study. In the so-called Musik-Salon (2nd story) there stand two Vienna grands made by Streicher and Bosendorfer, and in the other room a Hungarian grand made by Beregszazy — Tostscriptum. Weimar, May 24, 1878. To the above, written in 1861, I may add, that in my present domicile at Weimar ("Hofgartnerei") there shines every year a Bech- stein grand, and during my winter sojourn in Pesth one or two Bosendorfer grands (as my apartments there have room for several pianofortes). Chickering's grand, which I used in Rome, now stands in state in Hungary, and that made by Steinway frequently appears here in concerts. j^ lAszt -t>®H^^^ APPENDIX I. CLAVIER COMPOSITIONS OF THE SIXTEENTH, SEVEllTEENTH, AND EIGHTEENTH CENTORIEa. TABLE OP CONTENTS. Pag« I. Claudio Merulo, Toccata 291 n. Girolamo Frescobaldi, Canzona 293 m. Bernardo Pasquini, Sonata 298 rV". Franscesco Durante, Sonata 304 V. Pier Domenico Paradies, Sonata 308 VI. Thomas Tallis, Lesson 314 Vn. William Bird, The Carman's WMstle 317 VTTT. Orlando Gribbons, The Queene's Commtuid 321 IX. Henry Purcell, Riggadoon 323 X. Jean Henry d'Anglebert, AUemande 324 XI. Fran9ois Couperin, Pr61ude 326 Xn. Lotiis Marchand, Gavotte 328 XIII. Johann Jacob Frobberger, Phantasia 330 XrV. Gottlieb Muffat, Sarabande and Fugue 336 XV. Heinrich Stolzel, Enharmonic Sonata 338 XVI. Schobert, Andante 340 XVn. Carl PhUipp Emanuel Bach, Sonate 342 XVni. Joseph Hiillmandel, Divertissement 346 XIX. Agrements 351 19 291 I. Claudio Merulo. 1532-1604, Toccata. 292 ^-pf^^ ^ ^^^^ Toccate iPintavolatura d'<)re:aiio. lil*. I. Rom, 159S. F. J. F«'tis, Traite complet de la Theorie et de la Prati^: J J ^ J .. i s 4 J J J Jj4 ^ » "r frrr ^r r ci^r r r f^ ^ ^ JTIJ J J 294 ii i. ^^ ^ ^ i r ^ r & i^^OMm ^^ i^ ^ ^=?]^fffr-^ ^^^^^^^^ d=^ 33: tr l^fi^^f^^ S ili^ii-^ 1^ AJ ^^-FTfTf ^& ^ ^4 i J ^^^ r rr r crrr ^ l > pp^l> ^ ^jz±g^ ^ o-^ — 5 ^ ^ fr=f 13^^ 295 - /J J.J ^ ^ £ P Ji ^ij J J J r t J J J^ J ^^ =8i a i i^ ^ _ji ji J ^jiij i ^ ^ ^^^ la °, fJ i NvJ :l7 ^ ?prp I J. E^^ g ^J. KJ J J te^ i J^ ' J r- ""rr"r ^ -e- ^ ^^ ^•i)JJ^J 3t: A frjrwi ^ i frff^ « » — g 1 i E 296 ^ i¥ h^^ftrf S ii J: ii ( rWt ^ # j g g ^j W j^ r ^ i 33: ^^ ^ ^ ^^ * P B ? ¥ ^j r\f m o g « t4 ^ F^ f i^^ S^i ^JT^J i j ^ I^ ff fr r=^ ^ u ^^ g ^ ^^ ^ W ^T^ J. s ^ DT ^ 297 m ±=M r .>: - ^^JjjJ s ffjff' jg—-^ S m iz =^=^ i J^J^ Ji I f^trrrf' f 2Z -1©- ^T^ P ^i^ P ^ 4^ P^ T ^ 4:*-8r^z± p ^ffpr=^t^ 4 J. mmm i? i ** r r -1^ tm' ^ - — "^ ^L Tn ^ ^ ' T ^ Y~ -TL.,,^^__^.ff ■z^.mft: i i i f=w^ ^^ nii^ 7-*'- II primo libro di Caprieoi, Cauzon fr;iiire.- ^ p fe ^ ^^^ 4 ' • 'd ?cP 1 5^^^ ^ ^ fe^ F* s ^s cj r r -t g ^ ■s »~<~» fe3 f f^ J=^ 4^ i^LL^c^r yor r ^=^M ^/ V.^ 1 f 302 ^m 5iE^ m m F S=^ ^"r A.^ ^ i/71i ^ ^ a ^ K r^; ;; ^ ^^ r[3^ i 7^ trlJ^ i s r a F m ^ y ^^■^i zz: i i » a » ^ i p s i ^^^^^ % ^ f^^^ ^ i J iiJ ; ''^"'^>££r£^^' ^^ 4 f |^Af^^/mi^^^^§ Q ~j=^ ' A. P ^ 303 4 m i M -g^ . p. r- 1^ ^ ^m^^m ^=^=mi ^7. ^ r w^ W § i^ r #* J < l yi»^iiF JL^JL ^ ^ ^ Of ' - i i^ ' I ' H^ g ^tr;-'^ J -4 ^p=f^^\r:i r ^^^^=^ ^ ^ M ^m^ s ^ w wm -e- ^** it^ TT Majiu-friiit (»f th(- yt'ar 173ii iu tlie Hriti,~li Muspum at Lontloii. 304 IV. Francesco Durante. 1684-1755. Sonata. 1. Adagio. ^jl^'l'iu J — ^ m w^^^ ^f^^^^ ^^ Jot: ^ ^ J J J _ J J . j _ m — ^m ]■ ^ ^ — — h 9- ? ^^f 3SEB g^^SSB B3g^B I23C f ^t^^tTtV^ ^ ^ P^ ^ s ^m ^ J J J U^a a L ^ ^^f^ I &^ ^ S ^ t^^ P ^ r r ^'D^crr #^ gt^^ f 5i L--J ^. L.JJ-- J ( 305 ^^^ J,., i Ji^ > J"Jj"j^r "p ■CliS cs 4^^^: ^ ^■^T-JD :^ P^^ c rl't/^r pT" 'ipJ m w Lr-r^-C^^^ ' ^^s^.rir^ M b-^ ^ m *^q*'' *b*» •'Jt zi:^k|B_y "q* * J J J J v^^i' t/ r 1 ^ ^ L>f~r^ ^r^]fta :^^^ ^ # «LA 1 WW ^S mv J ^i '>^|- CJ r u^ru-^Lj"- ^ ■ i^J^ EBESSn P O ta ^ i»-^ e^ 306 3. Gi^a ^i^i^ J? ^^ ^ff Wf-^ .\> mm i m^r * ^s ^E=B=^ | ^X %^-^Fr mi ^^fj Ux-i \ ^ I m jmm i^g s s ^ m VZJl^ ^ mT' 0m0- fe ^ ^^f^^ ^ ^^ ^ f m E^ M-LO-.* ^ P S? P PP Pi w^ B»^ ' br^ fe ft ^^^#f^.-^^ ^ ^f- m . gi^f-^ #f-# . m^f- m pf- m . #^i»- # #-f- # ZSZZZZZZ ZSiiEBI_ lEiBSZIiBiiZZ _]■ s^ ftE ^ W^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^^ m^ m eM^ ^i^- ^ ^ i i^^ 307 ^^^'^ m EE^^ #^T# k f i ^ ^ # _* ^P ^ i ^ s ^ ^^ ^ ? ^ ^ ^^ ^^ m 0^ — # B tr' — w m ^0 w ^ ^ ^ ^ 5fe r> f n T te 5t Miinuscript of the year 1732 in the Biiti^^h Museum at Lfunlon. 308 V. Pier Domenico Paradies. 1746. Sonata. Andante. m line. ^ ^, t- ^m f-cr ( Tf^7 \P 4 I P^ ^ ^ ^ ^m N nffl ^^m ^ ■T B^-^^ . i ^ ffl S i> [yl^t;^^ ^ fm ^^ vv -> — 0~ S^ ^ WM ^ ^^^^^^ j>i)y ^ ilSji^^ tg^ ^ ^e r i > j-^tf^^ ^^ ^ fc I? 'f=rf^ ^- m ^1^ i r r ^r-Paj^ g I ¥ c::^^^ ^ ^ r>^'' ^ r^ 1 CT^-TOJ^ ^^ p >> J, p tip tip i>p j^ ^ ^ r i f''?^j_ji% ---t i J5-=j ^ r fe ifEi: a ^ -# — ^ ^^J 310 ^^^^ m ^^^ : ^^^^ffl r=^ P^^^=mm vS 311 ^3s= M ll. w if - MM ^ T9 jn ffl-M : ! 2. w^^ '^^ 9n:^~:33f p ^im^!«y p^ i o 312 Miniietto. ^ i ^3 ^ g> P ^^h^ ^ r ^^^ i lF=¥^f^3 ^ fij^j I ^ fj;! ^^ ^ ^ ^ -^ i n^ ^ s y>^ m 9^3^ .^ ^ Oi w i -♦(5-i- *• r-fi 4"=t = 3: ^ fe ^ ^^ r ^ P f r ^^^ 313 p ^ J' ^ ^ g ^ 4 tr t ^. ^ aiS I ^'tS^ t=^ ^ ^ ^^ ^v mj ' HA ^ j^^:^ i &fe ^ *• n: ^ ^3 ^ ^^ §^^ ^ r ^ — i *• g Sonate di C]avic»'mbalo da Pier iWinicnibTt Paradifs Napolitano. London, J. Blundell (1746-1747.) Ttic above two movements form the fourth of the 12 l^onatas in this i)art. 314 VI. Thomas Tallis. d. 1525. Lesson, two partes in one. ^%# ^ -.^U- W^^^ f ^ ^ g iJl i \mfmmt ^ J n J n *f# ^ ^ i^ 315 i 1 I w^^ jt±: J- rJ J j^ *i=^ =^^ ^ '> - V Frr ^ ^ i- i^L^ ^ e ^uttuu ^ ^s i J. J=J: m ^ ^^ ^=f ^ rrrr^ l iTr3^f.rrlrrrr ^ ^ ^^^ f iEEi 4V ■■ s i s ^ ^ ^ g i::n rr "ST ^^S :^ Tt^ ^ m f mi • P . # * 316 i s i f -gj^ f ^ fp-] fTTi- t 1Z. ^ f ^ — ^ ^l?T-f??^ ^^ f F- P^N ^ p ■=«: i»=P i ^ r=rT ^ f ^ m SE Musira aiitiqwa, by John Htafforfl S'mitli.VoI. I. p. 70. Loudon, Prp.'^ton. Som*i notes of the soprano, in tin* first measures of tliis 'i-part canon, are marked with trill- signs, which are,iiowever, of no importance, as they do not oc( ur further on. 317 VII. William Bird. 1538-1523. The Carmaris Whistle, Na58 in'^Queen Elizabeth's Virginal book'.' i ^ ■ ^ A ^^i ^ w^m -&■' V ^ — p- P ^ i ^ ^ ^^ * ^ : rv p ^ ^ f ifr- ^• I J^O *• -«^ # tt ~*~^- sfr- 4 ^^ d ? ^ -:77 1 U ^-^ r 1^: r nr >2z: 318 Var. 5, fi m ¥ S 7f-^#f^ zdczzzMz:^ #^^#f f ' ^ p J i g m ^ ^ tt ^^ <; j_j ji;^ -«^ s i ^ i /JTJ^ ., P ^ ^ ^ ^ fflXJ ^ ; ' f r ^ f f \ ii Var. « . *• i Xs:* i # *"# g £^ J: ^- ^^^ ^SP: -r 319 r ' 0S 'JL I J 1 m t 1- j^ r r rf^ f ^ i tr i^ ^ 9^9 ^iS ? Oil f ? 9E^ ^ i ^ Var. 7. ^ rJ ' # ~w ^ rr ^ f J^-J | JJ -J J r 6V f ^ ^^^ r ^ ^ ^ ^ J^^ji^ ; ? ^ i ^ * ^*#a ^ 1 t t : 6 ^,J i fL J- f- ^ i g » rz^ >• g ^ *p: r 330 $ ^ ^ j J -I ♦ J ^ i ?[ J ^ . --^^ f ip S*^ fl: ^^ i J P ^ ^ ^i:;rfr:;r ^ f E r -^ i ^ m m ^^ r f- r ^^^ r P i i ^ 3: r r J #-*- ^ E^ ^ (^ i^ s cxxJ r ^r n s p^ P p i i i /O "£?r w tTTTj^ p d: :^ mm i Liirr ^SEEE^ • /O r r Ch. Kurney, (ii'iieral History of Music, Vol. Ill, S9. 321 VIII. Orlando Giblons. 1583-1525. The Queene's Commaud, 20t^Les.«!0ll, from Tarthenia, or the Maydenhead of thu first musicke that ♦'ner was printed for the Virginalls, London, 1655. i (#) '■ [^r r ^ F ( 9 ^ rWTrr ^ f^ i=^^=^=F?^ 6 fe f' i Var. 1. r i ^ 3 f 4^ 1^— ^ f r T^f r f r P'r r Tf ^ J r ^m f- pr 1^ r ^ J: ^ p . » a . f . m r r i ^ ^ f f i r r 322 Var. 5. s ^^^^^ m ^^ f r ^^^^^^^^^ ^U^ J. ^t. Smitli, Musi'Ji antitiua, Vdl. I, 75. 323 IX. Henry Purcell. 1558-1695. Riggadoon from Musick's Hand-maid by Playford, 1689. (*i ^ t=P=iK -g j ^ ^9-* # ? Tyrr ^^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ # ^ * p 3r ^ ^^ ^ il ■^^ 1 4 ^ fr ^ t ^ ^^ r m zzx ^ ^ ^r^ ii iLi_^ 4^ ^^ ^ r r ^ p r f p f f ir F i^ jCi: ^ ^ ^^ ii:ii ^ ^^ J. Ht. Smith, Musica antiqua,Vol. II, 185. 334 X. Jean Henry d'Anglebert. 1689. Allemande. ^sS ^^^=^ s^ m ^ ff-v^^ i i * ^ bS y^^ ^^ S ^^^^^m fcj. *^^a ^ i *: ^^^ te~^^ J^^F==it^ ^ S ^ i^n ^ s ^S; ? ■^"^ ^N- f^ i^^ ga^ £.9 r &=g y^fr^ j^-^^^ — ^ 325 Piece's de Clavessin etc. liv. I. Paris, 1689. ^^--^ — -^f The agremeuts of the ahove Allemande have been written out in modern notation. 326 XI. Francois Couperin. 1668-1733. Prelude. teb4^^^^ P BJJ J- J' TOf y* '^^ ^ r s-^ "'^T^-fe tel^r. r^^-f P^ ^^ ? ^^S ? -# — #- V- b k W 7 1^^ feEEi \>Jr- f :2ZZ ^ ^J^Ju ^ ^ ^ ^Tr i fct ^^ i^s § i*= L ip ^ •h ^i^- w^ m 327 ^^ 5, 5 4 6 4 5 3 ^ m w c£f p ff--ur~^ f-w i ±^ P fe^ it=^ f^ r ^EE^ P^WU, --)^^\]^-^~P^ -6^ ^ ^ -^ j» TlJ t ^ 3&^ P^^^ Hf M' " r i s ^ 'LJ-=P^\J ^ * a pi F^^ g^'-ggg ^ ^ F ^#^r^ ^ i P^ffi^ * )' I f — \ m _ zz: i^ ^ P^^^ f i ■MM - T " «» br^ rr? ^ •~* — 3 ^ ^JJTJJ J ^ -V 7j L'art df touf-lier le chiveein jiar Morisieur rouptTin, dedie a ya Majeste. J'ari-<, 1717. I'a^. 54. 328 XII. Louis Marchand. 1669 -1732. Gavotte. i^ 's^ p* • >*v ^ i.: ^sVv ^^ ^^ rr-^ g-r rr.rrT |ii c j.J rrifFrm ^ ^ #=Fa?: * m ^» ^ a ^^ •^ -♦Iv ^E^ /o -i9- /"///f^. ^^ H r r . i ~w-:sr9 ^^ § ^giiin 329 ■tCLgjiS ± ^ l^A.^ m i» — ^ r^ ^ r | 4 ^Jr;rjf7 -)»Pf f^ p :JCr I *^ ^ *• i- *• i ^ ii^ F P^ S m m lA.^ h^ ^^=^ ^ m^ f P J ^ZjB— ,» I ipTF ^ *• « ^ ..^fc.^ J-i ^=t^ § # ?^^ f ^T^f A History of Musif, liy Thoniiis Hu>liy, (itrniaii transliition hy (h.F. Mif hat-lis. Band II. Leijizisj 182'i, Bauniiriiiitnr. 330 XIII. Johann Jacob Froberger. 1635-1695. Phantasia supra ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, Clavicymbalis accommodata. ;i w s ^^ -e- 'SSL -o- ^e^ o- ^^ o =g= ^ f r ^ l* H -©- fffTff^^ -il- ia: ^^^ k=A-l--^ ii O " t& — =—7 — " «* -—I -h ff 13 ^^^ 331 tf " V^ r^ r- F o i i jce r=T ^^=^ XT" _Q JQL ^j|y~ p ^ m ^ 1. t i 3a: r-** r ^%.m f j P r ^- ^ -ii^— i J J ^ M^tf f jQl -e- -e^ ^ ^ TT I I # o *> o " ^=^ ^3^ ^ ^s'e- y- o *^ — = ^^ ^ n m lij i ^^^ — -r f^ ^^ U'- [S ja: ^^^fe ffr^^"^ j^J^/:j-JiJJ g ^ J J J ^ ^ 332 Jjj J77]j ■ • g ^^ rrr r r r- p Mi J i f ^ i ^r prr.r^rrT ^ffj ^ ^pf ^JE :^J^-i^J^ ^ ^rrcj- ^ f r ['• ^-f p s ^1= ^^^ ^ nfrf^ ^ § -o- r=Tf CQT^ m ^j J^AJm m ^ r-r nr -»- ^fe BSEB ^^ ^ ^^;p i i ?'^ra.i ^^ . ^ S ^f^^^ii ^ W ,^ ^ r r ^^^^^^ ^ ^ ^ffiSjp^iWj^;??^ 334 i ^ ^ ^^^^^^ N g^=^ j ^J?? ;f> p- ^p I r f ^3 4 ^ im * S ■--U- ^ ^^ ^ s !* ^ ^ 337 -^ i ^E^ S : ♦Iv ^ *i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ Jl. ii ^ ^ te S j ^ ^ ^ 1> J J^ V = r ^ ^m MM A. i_i i aM '1 £ n ^ f vo' Compoiiimenti musfcall j»er il cembalo di Theofild Muffat. Wien, 1727. Fuga. i Wff ^ /^' '^ i^ ^ ft^ ^*=^ ^ r J. ^^ ^ i ?^ ^^^ ^ m ^^ ^ ^ /o *>: ^ dolve ^^p M # #^ > l ^. /> /P .//> 1 fP .- ^ # ;z: ^ g^ As 'spptipC I p fe/i. ^ffi ^^ te ^^ f I » ? i m r^ ^ # ^ l l^" ttgErffgr^ ^^ r=^ ^ » ^ r E»f ^ Miisikalisches Vielerley. Edited by C.Ph.Em.Bacli.Hamhurg-, 1770. 21.Stuck. 346 XVIII. N. Joseph Hiillmandel. 1751 -1823. IV? Divertissement. Un poco Adaj^io. [^^f ^ ^M ^^ nun — - s rm rm ^ rrfsc. ^ ^ JEH ^ ^g-l a ^ m A m P P\ 9 m P * P ffi rTT p !Tf fT>Z7 ^ ^ H^ ^ ^w ^s fi /^ i f # — # p. r i / ^ ^f^ i ^ ^ smorz. ^ ^ i Minuetjo con motp. i ^S ^ ^ p F# :^ i> ^ ./ s e fyjw ^ P £ *->^ ^ r ^ cresc. y ?=^ ^ 347 i p5^ f^^ fe^ JtSM # » # »# ^ i a.- ^ ^ -#-i-# B ^ • P |ir i i^ i fifir^rr^f i /rftjfrrirrffe /vV/ ^ M i' u 3& jt« « I ^ # te Plt*-N. f>yp>» gfr i fflmf r r^ i t m cresc. ^ * j*^ ^ ^ S ^ ^ I.L. ■ jlff j ^g - f ffj* 1 ^Jl 4V ff ^ riiif. ^ r m g 7> S ^ -t fflS w ^ #y.# ^S fe m 5? ^ i i P^=!='t=*=t s. Zi. €7 i ^ p , p ^^^ ^ E^3 o^^ LI ^ leze: ^ m M. 348 Un poco Adagio, 3. ^^^ J ^bJ ^ T2 m ^' " ; rr ^ ^^ ^ rrn Wf=¥=i m cresc. m ^ ^F-H- \ mf\^K\k ^ tt tW^ ^ M^ fT^^ ^ .m s ^1 £ fe f^ ^ iS m # — # f s ^ w ^^ k a (L^^ ^^ J J 1 ' fl " a r^P^^n i J ' J ■ i T~ ■ ■ ■ - ■ ■ - 'J -^ 349 i m )iif ~ ±5: ^ i .MIMZm s € # # • g iz^Szt: ^ It P E i^ ^^'CTT^ KIM rnk: ♦— # # * 1 4V irzzzg -^ !i jEIZ P e A ll * P I Si ^^ ^ «*f //> T^r^- E^m g=^ //> JEE^3 S^ ♦—J # I mm - ^ s i ft!F^ •^^ ^:? * T ^ S ^? ^^H t ^ B f -«^=: ^5 ^ f ^ e ^ #- (► i^ ^ ^ ?==# :&=a ■*^ ^*^ crJsr^ ^m p -* -.^ m 350 ^ AM. f^fi ±^f: ^ ^ i p* * # ^TO s w m J m ^ I * * i ^^ rfe-w i ^ MZK ^ ^5 /^y I i #— (► pzz £ g IBZIEZBIIi: /;b ^ If ^^ ,-gn pfe^^ '■ ^r n mi g ^ ^ * p ^^ #— J — # Six Divertissements pour le Pianoforte ou le Clavecin, Oeuvre VII. Paris, Saunler. XIX. Agrements 351 in earlier Clavier Compositions, and their execution according to the following authors. J. H. d'Angiebert, 1689. Sie:ii iif the At^re'meiit. EXffuted. -^ ^ i\%\ (w^ Trill. Tr. appuye. Cadciiee. Trill. i mn^ Pi II re. Mordeut. Pirioe. Tremblement et piiice ^m finite ou port ile voix montant, (U-.^ceuflant. ApiKig-iS^iatiiras. W=i- fL-mJL P CJ " P [J i i ge xzz j^ ¥^ Chutt^ et piiice. ^ Coule. Slide. m Coule. i Coule. Coule. ^ ^P 352 Coiilf^. ^^m Chute. M Arpege . ^ t i Arpege. ^ Arpege. Acciaecatura. E. Loulie, 1696.(j. G. Walther, 1732.) or or i> m -^f ^ I a p ^ r — r Port dw voix. Port de voix. I Martellemeiit .simple. Mordent- M txn ' ~o v,v vvv F. Couperin,1718. '^ rz. M. double. M. triple. Pince. Piuce. Mordent or Bei^^ser. ^^ ^ W^ Tremhlement. Trill. P P0P W ^ A" W Jr F W. Marpurg, 1762. ^ -»!♦' ^ Tierce coulee ^ Port de voix. Appoggiatura Apjioggiatura. Vorschlafz;. f=^?^ Piuce. Mordent . S ^ g • ♦ m m-^M. 353 Pi ne'e remerse, Iiiv. Mordent. * Trf-mblenieiit Trill. Atciaeeatura. Double. Turn. Zusammen- schlaf^.| ,5> ^ g^g ^ JJ^i-^^ f $ J. S. Petri, 1782. **r m "f ^^ *^ Doppelschlag Turn. Turn with Trill. Getrillerter Doppelschla^. Trill. ^H ^) G. F. Wolf 1783. _cwJ ^ ^=^ ? a: Double Trill with, After- slide. Nachschlae:. * m Double Trill with Fore-sliilf arid After- lide. Apppett() Appofc^. HmallXotf^s tWiM m m m ^m «^ j^' J. G.Walther, 1732, and others. f f\f m V m ^ f9-*- ^ f Small Note.s. (38.) Ai^plration. N.de S. Lambert, 1697. Suspension . F. Couperin. 1713. w ^t" i r i^-pr I i ^ I s ras.sing shake ,Callcott,1817, (Clavirhonl.) Balancenient. Turn. Turn from below. Springins: Nac'hsehlag. WWi^ ^ iiUnm m i ^ Milchmeyer, 1799. ? Sliilf- e ^ ^ *• i ^ a — 355 — The value of the notes determmes the duration of the Trills, Inverted Mordents, and Mordents (the number of the beats or vibrations of the same). (Couperin.) The note with which a Vorschlag (fore-grace, appoggiatura) is performed, whether it be long or short, legato or staccato, ascending or descending, must always fall on the beat of its main note. (Marpurg.) Not the main note, but the subsidiary note above it, always begins the Trill. (Petri.) To the first note of those forming an agrement, all the other parts must be struck together. — All appoggiaturas are struck more strongly than the follow- ing note, and drawn up (bound) to the latter. — At times the harmony deter- mines the value of the appoggiaturas (^lore-graces). — A Trill upon a note of some length always takes an after-turn. Even with shorter notes, staccato notes, or notes progressing by seconds, the after-turn is played, and executed with the same rapidity as the triU. — Triplets, and descending short notes, take by preference the Trill without after-turn. (0. Ph. E. Bach.) -U^hQ^- «3» APPENDIX IL ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE History of the Pianoforte TABLE OF CONTENTS. » 2. n 3. Fi^. . 4. 11 5. n 6. » 7. Fig, , 8. » 9. V 10. n 11. 12. The Preeupsors cf the Clavier. After illustrations from the beginning of the 16th century. p^^g^ Fig. 1. The Organ 361 The Psaltery or Dulcimer 362 The Cymbalum 362 Claviers from the beginning of the 16th century. The Clavichord 363 The Harpsichord 364 The Clavicitherium 364 riiigel of the year 1590 365 The Hammer-aetion of the Pianoforte. Cristofori, 1711 366 Marius, 1716 367 Schroter, 1721. (1763) 367 German action 868 English action * 868 The Precursors of the Pianoforte. After illustrations fiom the beginning of the 16th eeiitnry. Fi O s. rt o fl -f >» 00 ja m ti c S3 K .2 "> "S eS eg ej o P4 ** «^ o o ,a c CI. CQ o o eg a © P5 0) 'W ffi IPg .2 « O O (S -o -« «=^ Co).. a C^ cj < K w & ?-o -a C3 ^ •r" CD A