IRLF B M lib Iflfl ! LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THI MMF ^ = 6 QJ/~^LD LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THI Q p Q Y OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA III OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA TREATISE ON THE MODERN SANITARY APPLIANCES FOR HEALTHY RESIDENCES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. FOR 7 HE USE OF STUDENTS. BY FREDERICK COLYER, M. INST. C.E., M. INST. M.E., F.S.I. J CIVIL ENGINEER ; AUTHOR OF 'BREWERIES AND MALTINGS: THEIR ARRANGEMENT, ETC. ; ' HYDRAULIC AND STEAM LIFTING MACHINERY ' ; ' MODERN STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS'; 'PUMPS AND PUMPING MACHINERY'; 'CONSTRUCTION OF GAS WORKS'; 'MANAGEMENT OF ENGINES AND BOILERS'; 'PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS, THEIR ENGINEERING AND OTHER APPLIANCES, ETC.' ; ' WATER SUPPLY, ETC., FOR RESIDENCES, ETC." Hontion: E. & F. N. SPON, 125, STRAND. SPON CHAMBERLAIN, 12, CORTLANDT STREET I8 9 2 ' PUBLIC HEALTH LIBRARY GIFT PUBLIC HEALTH LIBRARY PREFACE. I WAS asked a short time since by a member of the medical profession to write a text-book upon Sanitary Work as applied to Dwellings and Public Institutions, and it was intimated if it was written as free from technicalities as possible it would be of much service to students and enable them to easily acquire the fundamental principles of this most essential matter. With this object in view I have endeavoured to touch upon all the important considerations of the subject It has been some- what difficult to make an empirical division between matters that apply to the sanitation and hygienic state of dwellings, &c., and those that appertain more particularly to the ease and comfort of the inmates. To ensure that nothing of any consequence has been overlooked, some slight v PREFACE. divergencies from this plan have been made. I trust the information given is in such a form .as will commend itself to students, for whom the book is primarily intended. I shall be pleased at all times to render personal assistance in explaining matter that is not made clear, if readers will favour me by communicating in writing. FREDERICK COLYER, M.lNST.C.E., F.S.I., Civil Engineer. 1 8, GREAT GEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER, S.W. October 1892. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. Examination into principal matters, detailed Old residences, how treated Instructions as to details to be inquired into Drainage Apparatus and appliances, external and internal Water supply Pumping Storage tanks Pages 1-13 CHAPTER II. DRAINAGE. Best system for adoption Town and country residences, how treated Main drain pipes and sewers Disconnection from the sewer Inspection chambers Ventilation of drain pipes, &c. Fresh -air supply Discharge pipes from sinks, baths, lavatories, and w.c's. Rain water discharge and disposal Sewage disposal Sewage disposal of resi- dences, &c. Depositing tanks Deodorising sewage Cesspools, treatment of Dust and refuse disposal Pages 14-34 CHAPTER III. INTERNAL WORK. Main rules to be observed Sanitary apparatus Water- closets and method of construction Water supply to same Discharge of soil pipe Sinks for slops Lavatories and their waste outlets Bath rooms and apparatus Scullery and butlers' sinks House kitchens, and for hospitals, &c. Arrangement of apparatus Bakery, proper way of construction, &c. .. .. Pages 35-55 vi CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. WATER SUPPLY. Source of supply Water tanks and fittings Their position Supply divided Water-closet supply to be separate Hot-water supply Details of apparatus for baths, lava- tories, sinks, &c. Method of working Proper fitting up and safety appliances of same Points requiring attention in the boilers and pipes, &c. Rain water storage Atkins' process for softening water Filtration of water by Atkins Filter Co. and Silicated Carbon Filter Co. Necessity for boiling all drinking water .. .. .. Pages 56-67 CHAPTER V. HEATING APPARATUS FOR BUILDINGS. Various forms described High and low pressure Water Quantity of pipe required Safety arrangements Method of working Proportions of boilers Radiators and coil cases Hot-air system Steam heating Cost of heating Ventilation, necessity of Gas fires for heating rooms " George's Patent Calorigen " .. .. Pages 68-75 CHAPTER VI. SWIMMING BATHS. Construction Sanitary arrangements Turkish baths Water supply Drainage Ventilation Dairies Laun- dries Chambers for disinfecting linen, &c. Method of working for proper sanitation Stables Cow-houses, &c. Stuart's granolithic paving Drainage, &c. Ventilation of same Pages 76-84 CONTENTS. vii CHAPTER VII. SUNDRY SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS IN THE CONSTRUC- TION OF RESIDENCES. Site of a residence Treatment when on clay soil Drainage of site and surrounding ground of the house Foundations Construction of cellars Dry areas round houses Pro- tection of houses from wet weather Roofing system to be adopted Walls of rooms, how finished Gas fittings and necessary ventilation and arrangements for same Larders and Pantries Construction, position, ventilation, &c. Water-closets, position Ventilating shafts Room and ward ventilation Construction, details, and arrangements of public institutions ,. .. .. .. Pages 85-98 CHAPTER VIII. CLEANING DRAINS, ETC., AND THEIR APPLIANCES. Water-closets, and the necessity for better supervision Condition of baths and fittings Sinks and fat receivers, cleaning Water-tank cleaning Cesspools Cleaning and treatment of same Visitation of the cholera Pages 98-102 CHAPTER IX. ELECTRIC LIGHT IN RESIDENCES AND PUBLIC INSTI- TUTIONS, ADVANTAGES, ETC. Cost of electric light Saving of fire risk Advantage of appli- cation of electric power to lifts and sundry machines, &c. Fire mains Buckets Safety ladders and other appliances Instructions to attendants Labour-saving apparatus Speaking tubes Electric bells and telephones Sundry machinery, apparatus, &c. Lifting machinery Pas- sengers, food, &c. .. .. .. Pages 103-113 INDEX .. Pages 115-118 TREATISE ON THE MODERN SANITARY APPLIANCES FOR HEALTHY RESIDENCES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. IT is intended in this treatise to explain in simple language, avoiding technicalities whenever possible, the proper sanitary arrangements and appliances that are requisite to adopt, to ensure a healthy residence. As students are principally addressed, an outline description of all necessary apparatus and the reason for adopting the same will be given. The evils that arise from want of attention to such matters will be touched upon, the subject being treated from a practical point of view, without entering into theory. As it is now generally acknowledged, it is absolutely necessary for every one to be acquainted with leading principles as to the manner in which healthy homes may be secured, it is desired to deal with the subject in such a way that any person of intelligence B 2 INTRODUCTION AND may understand. As doctors have to treat illness that is frequently caused by the insanitary state of dwellings and public hospitals, schools, &c., it is advisable that those who are studying for the medical profession should make themselves well acquainted with the leading facts connected with the proper construction of all the apparatus employed. This work has been principally designed to help such students as well as others who may be en- quiring into the subject, and thus assist them to more readily discover some of the causes from which serious illness may arise. To secure healthy homes, it is necessary to give attention to the following matters : The water-closets and their apparatus. The sinks and lavatories with their waste- pipes and traps. The arrangements of the apparatus in a bath- room, including the water supply and discharge of waste water. The kitchen appliances. The drainage inside and outside the house, in- cluding cesspools or main sewers and their con- nections. The ventilation of drains, soil and other waste pipes. The cold and hot water supply. The heating of the place. The ventilation of rooms. The method of lighting. And in the case of large establishments : GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 3 The stable arrangements. The laundry ditto. The dairy ditto. The cow-house and piggery. The disinfecting house (in the case of hospitals, &c.). The sewage disposal. The above list comprises the chief headings of the most important matters, they will be dealt with in the order indicated. It will be first assumed that an old residence has to be examined to ascer- tain its general condition, in order to decide what matters have to be remedied before the place is in a fit and healthy state for habitation. New resi- dences will then be treated and recommendations given as to the sanitary arrangements necessary in order to ensure the health of the inmates. There are two main essential things to consider, viz. the drainage and the water supply ; it would be difficult to say which of the two is the most im- portant matter. Much sickness may be caused by the state of the water used for drinking and culinary purposes, special attention will therefore be directed to this, and hints given how to properly examine into it. With regard to the drainage severe illness may arise from the escape of sewer gas into the house, as well as from a want of proper ventilation of the rooms and other places. The medical man has in many cases very great difficulty in tracing the cause of an outbreak of illness ; it is hoped that this book may be some help to the profession, and B 2 4 INTRODUCTION AND enable them to make a personal enquiry into the matter, and thus at the outset find out the cause that produced the illness, so as to take immediate steps to ameliorate the state of affairs. With regard to the ventilation of all drains and the pipes leading to them, the necessity for this may be pointed out. All pipes taking away dirty or greasy water, as well as those discharging from water- closets, are of necessity fouled on their interior sur- faces. The foul matter discharged into the drains, as it ferments, forms deleterious gases, which naturally rise to the highest points of the drain and the con- necting pipes. It is of the greatest necessity to get rid of the poisonous vapours, and to purify the in- terior of the pipes and drains by the admission of fresh air at proper points. In the following pages this matter is considered in detail and the means described to carry out this most important thing. The trapping of waste pipes, &c., hereafter de- scribed, is for the purpose of forming a water seal between the apparatus in the house and the drain ; the seal is made sufficiently deep to prevent, by its weight, the gas flowing back from the drain pipes, and so into the house. It may here be noted, this most important matter has not received, until the last ten to twelve years, the attention it deserves, it is therefore necessary in making an examination into any system of drainage, to be very careful in seeing that thorough ventilation of all parts of the drain pipes and their connections has been carried out in a proper manner. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 5 In the course of the author's practice he has often found that the state of the drainage as well as in many instances the condition of the water supply is answerable for acute and serious illness, terminating, sad to say, even in death. Many people are lulled into a false feeling of security because no one has been ill in a residence for a long period and are thus led to the conclusion there can be nothing to hurt. It cannot be too urgently pointed out what a terrible mistake this is, as it is possible that the inmates of a house may not be in a condition to take some particular ailment, while others who may come in as visitors may lay the seeds of long and serious illness, that has in many cases puzzled the medical man to trace the cause. The author is aware the whole subject is often looked upon as a very unpleasant one, and much difficulty arises from this cause in inducing people to look into the matter, and learn for themselves what is the proper state for all sanitary appliances to be in. It is impossible to make such a subject pleasant reading, it is however hoped in this book it may be made instructive and be of help to all whom it concerns. OLD RESIDENCES AND INSTITUTIONS. In order to make a careful examination into the condition of the drainage and water supply and other sanitary matters of such places, the following course of procedure is recommended. 6 INTRODUCTION AND i. Examine the drainage both inside and outside of the house, have the flooring lifted if necessary in the basements to ensure that no drain pipe or sewer of any kind is under the floor inside the house. All old drains found under the house, whether con- structed of brickwork or stoneware pipes, must be entirely removed, the sodden earth under them taken out, lime must be put in, and then filled up with new gravel, or where a little extra expense is not objected to, the trench may be filled in with cement concrete. At any places where the drains have passed through the walls of the hoi.se they must be filled in with brickwork in cement, no part of the drains must be left in the ground under any circumstances. Old Cesspools. Examine the place closely, both under and near to the house, for any cesspool that may exist, and if found, have it cleared out and filled up with solid material, it must then be well rammed and Portland cement concrete laid over the top at least 12 inches thick. When the house is detached or even semi- detached no drain under \\. should ever be permitted. In the cases of town or terrace houses, where it may be impossible to avoid some drain pipes under the house, they should be of cast-iron socket pipes with well-made air-tight joints. See if the drain pipes are well ventilated, and the ventilating pipe carried at least 6 to 7 feet up above the top of the windows of the house. See also that fresh air inlet pipes are provided in suitable places, these GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 7 must never terminate near the top of any window, in case of an eddy of wind causing a rush of sewer air out of the valve which is fixed at the top of the fresh air inlet pipe. The ventilating pipes should always be placed at the highest point of the drain as the sewer gas naturally rises to this place. 2. Examine the soil discharge pipes from the water-closets ; these should always be made of thick lead pipe and placed outside the house, they should be ventilated at the top by carrying the pipe up the full size above the top of the roof, and pro- vided with a cowl to prevent down-draught. The ventilating pipe must never be carried up and termi- nate near any chimney, because the foul gas may be drawn down the flues into the rooms of the houses 3. Examine the lavatory basins and see where the waste water is discharged in each case, and that they are provided with a lead trap placed immediately under the basin, also that the water is carried away without any connection with any other pipe, and delivered on the o^ltside of the house directly over a trapped gulley, or in the case of the lavatories on the upper floors, over a pipe head. 4. Baths. Examine the waste pipes and see that they are discharged in the same mariner as described for the lavatories. 8 INTRODUCTION AND 5. Sinks on the upper floors. See that these are discharged in the same manner as before, and that a lead trap (or water seal) is placed immediately under the sink, and that the syphon is provided with a 2-inch diameter ventilating pipe and carried outside some distance above the heads of the windows. Examine the condition of the sink, to see if it is made of non-absorbent materials, and also if it is kept clean. 6. Sinks at the kitchen or scullery. These require careful examination, see if they are made of slate or other non-porous material. Stone sinks should not be allowed as on account of their absorbent character much deleterious matter soaks into them, and so causes them to be in a very insanitary con- dition. Examine the connection between the waste water discharge pipe, and be sure it is provided with a lead trap placed directly under the sink, and that it discharges into an intercepting chamber as described at p. 20, where it is entirely disconnected front the sewer and drain pipes. Ex- amine the state of the under side of the sink as well as the surrounding walls ; also the state of the paving, and what, if any, permanent means of ventilation and admission of fresh air is provided. This matter should be very carefully looked into, because a neglect of such a necessary thing has* often been the cause of serious illness. 7. Butler's pantry and housemaids' sinks. These GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 9 should be examined to see that the waste dis- charge pipes are carried out in the way before named, and also that they are properly ventilated. Also that the sinks are made of proper material, except that for the use of the butler which should be of wood lined with copper, the others should be of white glazed earthenware. 8. Urinals in water-closets, billiard and other rooms. These should be examined to learn in what manner the waste pipe is discharged, it must never be connected into a water-closet soil pipe or any pipe in connection with it, or in direct com- munication with any drain or sewer pipe. See if a lead trap is provided and placed directly under each basin and if a ventilating pipe is fixed at the top of the syphons. Also see that a copious supply of water is at hand to flush the basins, and that proper means are taken to carry away any liquid that may run over on to the floor. See if any venti- lator is provided in the outer walls of this room. 9. Drainage pipes, outside. The drains should be formed of stoneware or cast-iron pipes all closely jointed. Barrel brickwork drains should never be used for any dwelling. The size of the main drain pipes should not as a rule exceed 6 inches in diameter, except in large places, where the main pipe may be from 8 to 12 inches diameter. It must be remembered that sewer pipes larger than is necessary are to be avoided, and also that io INTRODUCTION AND no material should be used for them that cannot easily be flushed and cleansed. Examine all the connections between the house and the drain pipes, see that each is entirely disconnected from the drains. The bath, lavatory, and washing sink waste pipes should deliver over trapped gullies. The scullery sinks should discharge into a fat- receiver which should also be trapped by a water seal. The soil pipes should discharge into receivers disconnected by trapping, from the drain. See if ventilating pipes are fixed at the soil pipe (or water-closet) receiver, at the fat-receiver, and at the highest point of the drain. These pipes should be carried up above the roof of the house, and at least 6 to 7 feet above the heads of all windows or skylights. See that fresh air inlet pipes are attached near the ventilating pipes, and that they are carried up well above the heads of all windows, but to a less height than the ventilating pipes. Each discon- necting chamber should be provided with an air- tight locked (not loose) cover, also with ventilating and fresh air pipes. See if inspection chambers or boxes are provided at each junction with the main drain pipes, and also that they are fitted with air- tight locked covers as above. Be sure that the sewage is all taken away from the residence, and that none is allowed to soak into the foundations. io. Flushing tank. If the drain has only a GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. n small fall, see if an automatic flushing tank of about 50 gallons capacity has been provided to flush and clean the pipes at fixed periods. These apparatus should be set to discharge the water contained in them once or twice per day. 11. Cesspool, or main sewer. Examine the position of the cesspool if any exists, and be sure that it is placed some distance from the well (if any) which supplies the house. If the cesspool is placed a long distance from the house see if an extra disconnecting chamber is provided and fitted with ventilating and fresh air pipes. The cesspool should have an air-tight cover, and be also fitted with ventilating and air pipes as above. Examine the overflow pipe and ascertain whether the liquid sewage can readily get away. Also enquire when the cesspool was last cleaned out. 12. Remember that all discharge pipes from the house must be absolutely cut off from the drain, and must be freely ventilated. 13. Water Supply. Examine the source of supply ; if taken from a well, see the position in relation to the drain and sewer pipes and the cesspool. See if the well is lined with brickwork, and built in cement to shut out all the surface water. If it is rather a shallow well enquire when it was last cleaned out ; see that there is no chance of leakage of any drainage from the 12 INTRODUCTION AND stables, cow-houses, laundry, or any other out- door building. Have the water analysed to make sure it is pure and fit for drinking and cooking, should it turn out to be indifferent it should be filtered before using. This is fully treated at p. 60. 14. Pumping. See the kind of pump used, examine as far as possible the condition of the suction pipe to ensure that no leakage of surface or other impure water can enter it. 15. Tanks for Storage. Examine and see if there are two entirely separate tanks, and that there are two independent sets of service pipes from the same, viz. one for the drinking, cooking, washing, and bath purposes, and one solely for the water-closets and urinals. Be sure that there is no connection of any kind between these two services. Examine the tanks carefully, they should be made of wrought or cast iron, no lead-lined tanks shotild be used for domestic purposes. See if the tanks are placed under cover and in a position where they can be easily inspected and cleaned out. Look at their condition and if there is any deposit in them, also enquire when they were last cleaned out. See if they are provided with the following fittings : A close-jointed wood cover. An overflow or warning pipe into the open air where it can be seen. A waste pipe and plug or valve for cleaning out, GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS. 13 with a pipe discharging into the open air either over a trapped gully, or over a pipe head which is discharged at the foot over a trapped gully. Examine the material the pipes are made of and their condition as to cleanliness. The above instructions will enable any one to make a preliminary examination of the principal points requiring special attention in a house or institution ; it will be noted that some of the matters named only apply to country and detached houses, &c. Details will now be given together with instruc- tions fully describing the proper system of drainage to be adopted. Also the system for the water supply and the sanitary appliances advisable to be used. To follow this out in a systematic manner the drain pipes and appliances outside the house will first be treated ; then the internal fittings and the sanitary apparatus, after this the water supply, hot-water system, heating and ventilation of the house. As before stated, theoretical matters will be very little alluded to, practical illustrations will be given of the applications of proper apparatus and appliances, and instructions in simple language to those who have had no training or previous teaching in such matters. Any one wishing to enquire into more technical details is referred to the author's two books on ' Water Supply and Drainage ' and 4 Engineering of Public Institutions/ Spon, London. 14 DRAINAGE. CHAPTER II. DRAINAGE. THE drainage of residences and public institutions is a very important matter and requires the greatest care, both in the design as well as in the execution of the work, to ensure the good health of the inmates. It is only within the last few years that people generally have become convinced of this ; hitherto it was thought by the public gene- rally that it was only a fad of doctors, engineers, and surveyors. The sewer or drain pipes should be formed either of stoneware pipes or of cast-iron socket pipes ; the size of the pipes must be proportioned to the dwelling, for all ordinary residences the diameter need not exceed 6 inches, it is advisable to make all rain-water pipe connections, also those from baths, lavatories, and washing sinks not less than 4 inches diameter, and those from the scullery or kitchen-sink 4 to 6 inches diameter. Brickwork drains should not be used, they cannot be kept properly cleansed owing to their roughness at the joints of the bricks. The ventilation of all systems of drainage must have the most careful attention, this has been already alluded to at p. 10. The DRAINAGE. 15 admission of fresh air is of equal importance, proper means of carrying out this must always be provided in conjunction with the ventilation pipes. The gas which is formed in the sewer pipes and cesspool, &c., by the putrefaction of decaying matter when in a state of fermentation is calculated to seriously infect the air of dwellings if it can enter into them. Careful means must be taken as hereafter detailed to secure the perfect carrying out of this most essential matter. Particular attention is called to the details hereinafter men- tioned in connection with this important part of any drainage system carried out in a proper manner. Main Town or City Sewers. In making an examination of residences in cities and large towns, where the sewage is discharged into the main sewers, it is only essential to know : That the sewers should be proportioned in size to the dis- trict to be drained ; That they should be laid with sufficient fall to keep them clean ; That suitable provisions should be made for efficiently flushing them, and that ample means for ventilation should be provided. The drain pipes from residences which discharge into the main sewers should be absolutely disconnected from it by a receiver with trapped outlet which will be here- after described in detail, the chamber must be well ventilated and provided with a fresh air inlet. With regard to the size of Main Sewers the 16 DRAINAGE. modern custom is to keep them much smaller than was originally the case ; when the drainage is taken by pipes they are made of stoneware and are used as large as 18 inches in diameter. As a rule town drainage is designed and laid down by competent sanitary engineers, and so the details of construc- tion beyond those named above do not require any further enquiry. In addition to the sewer drainage, it is important in suburban and country residences to see that the subsoil on which the place is built is also attended to, if the soil is damp a proper system of under drainage should be adopted, as upon the dryness of the site will much depend the comfort as well as the health of the inmates of a residence. This will be alluded to more especially in Chapter VII. System of Drainage. The proper plan to be adopted for the drainage of suburban and country houses, &c., and where they are either detached or semi-detached, is to divide it into the following separate systems : 1. The soil pipes from the water-closets and the greasy water from the scullery sink should be carried into this system, and taken thence to the main cesspool. 2. The bath, lavatory, and washing sink waste water into this system, and taken by pipes to a soak-away cesspool. DRAINAGE. 17 3. The discharge from all rain water pipes into a system of pipes connected with a well in the garden, to be used for garden purposes, sufficient rain water being taken to a tank within the house for domestic use. 4. The stable, cow-house, and other outdoor drainage into a system of pipes in connection with a separate cesspool as hereafter described. The reason for these separate systems is to reduce the quantity of liquid sewage as much as it is possible, because it is the bulk or volume of sewage that causes so much trouble in disposal, and that soapy water often gives much trouble and causes nuisance in the drain pipes and cess- pools. When discharged into a soak-away it is soon disposed of and deodorised by the earth. The following general rules must be observed : 1. All drain pipes must be kept outside the house. 2. All discharge or waste pipes of any kind must be made to deliver over trapped gullies and be absolutely disconnected from the drain and sewer pipes. 3. All drain pipes must be well ventilated by cast-iron or lead pipes not less than 3 inches dia- meter, and provided with fresh air inlet pipes in suitable positions, the tops of these pipes being provided with mica valves. 4. At all points of junction between the con- nections from the house and the main drain pipes C i8 TOWN HOUSES. inspection boxes must be provided, these must be fitted with air-tight covers and fastened by . a lock. 5. Disconnecting chambers should be provided at the grease-receiver, also at the soil pipes, and between the main drain pipe and the cesspool 6. Rain water pipes must be soundly jointed, provided with shoes at the base, and be made to deliver over trapped gullies and thus cut off from the drain pipe connections. 7. Water-tank waste or wash-out pipes must be treated in the same manner as rain water pipes. NOTE. They must never be connected into any drain pipe. TOWN HOUSES. The rules to be observed for these or Terrace Houses are the same as above in reference to Nos. 2 > 3> 4? 5> 6, and with regard to No. i, the drain pipes that must be laid under the house should be cast-iron pipes with joints made with gasket and caulked with lead, and suit- able means provided for inspection and cleaning at the junctions of the cross pipes, and also where any discharge takes place. In London and most Provincial Town Houses there is only one system of drain and sewer pipes, the greatest precaution is therefore necessary to ensure the absolute disconnection at each point of SUBURBAN HOUSES. 19 discharge between the house and the main drain pipe to the sewer. To keep the pipes clean and clear, a flushing tank should be employed and 40 or more gallons of water automatically discharged into them about twice per day. SUBURBAN HOUSES. Returning to these and other houses where the drain pipes can be placed outside the house, the details of the pipes, &c., are as follows : Main Drain Pipes. It is preferable to carry out all the drain pipes which are placed near the house in cast-iron socket pipes as described for town houses. The reason for this is that there are a less number of joints, and therefore less possible points of leakage, also that they are less liable to injury from weights passed over them. They should be 6 inches internal diameter, and be laid to a fall of at least 2 inches in 10 feet ; this is for the purpose of assuring their rapid discharge and keeping them clear. In order to procure an even and unyielding bed for the pipes to rest on and to preserve the joints from leakage, they should be laid upon a bed of Portland cement concrete not less than 9 to 12 inches thick, and 16 to 18 inches wide. At each junction of any cross pipe with the main pipe an inspection chamber or box must be provided, this may be formed in brickwork and either rendered in cement on the inside face, or built with glazed C 2 20 SUBURBAN HOUSES. bricks. In some instances a cast-iron box is used* In each case the chambers must be provided with an air-tight cover fastened with a lock, loose covers should not be permitted. The pipe connections for ivaste water may be 4 inches diameter. The con- nections to the rain water pipes may also be the same. All other pipes should be 6 inches diameter. In places where pipes have to pass through the walls of a residence, it is necessary to build in a cast-iron pipe of sufficient internal diameter to allow the supply or waste pipe to pass easily through it, and to fill in at each end to a depth of about 4 to 6 inches with cement. In the case of large pipes, a hole must be left in the wall and an arch turned over it, this prevents any pressure to the pipe by the wall in the case of any settlement taking place. In many cases it has been found that a settlement in a wall has caused a pipe passing through it to be cracked, and thus the sewage or other liquids to soak into the ground to the detriment of the health of the inmates. Disconnecting and Intercepting Chambers. These must be provided at all the soil pipe discharges, also at the fat-receiver, at the scullery, sink, and one should be provided in a suitable position between the House and the Cesspool, or the Main Town Sewer. They are for the purpose of ab- solutely cutting off any connection between the house and the sewer pipes. The chambers must SUBURBAN HOUSES. 21 be provided with ventilating pipes carried up at least 6 to 7 feet above the roof of the house, per- fectly clear of the heads of all windows, and some distance from any skylight or other opening in the roof. This is for the removal of any sewer gas that may form, and to prevent it from getting into the house. Fresh air inlet pipes must also be provided, they must be fitted at the top with an internal mica flap valve, this is to prevent the escape of any sewer gas, in the event of an eddy or violent wind. Take note that the height of this pipe must always be less than tJte vent pipe. In the case of mansions and other large residential places it is advisable to provide extra disconnecting chambers to cut off the sewer at certain points to minimise the danger of sewer gas rising, and in cases of hospitals, the communication of infected matter from the sick wards. The author calls special attention to this because it does not always receive the care it deserves. Inspection Chambers. These must also be pro- vided at about every 35 to 40 feet. When the main sewer pipe is long this is to provide easy facility for cleaning, and also to readily remove any obstruction that may take place in the pipes or chambers. The chambers must be covered with an air-tight hinged door which must be kept locked. Ventilating Pipes. It is most essential that 22 SUBURBAN HOUSES. every part of the drain pipes and their connections should be perfectly ventilated, and supplied with suitable fresh air inlets. The main ventilating pipe for the drain pipes should be placed at the highest point of the drain. Fresh air inlet pipes must be placed at the lowest point, the object is to drive out the sewer gas that forms in the drain pipes and connections, and to purify their interior. Soil pipes from the water-closets should be ventilated at the top and have a fresh air supply at the foot, this is carried out in the manner hereafter described. The details of ventilation of the drains and all apparatus is separately treated at p. 26. If any repetition takes place, the importance of the matter must be the excuse, and the reader, it is hoped, will pardon it. Ventilating pipes must be provided at the head of the drain, also at the soil pipes, which latter must be of lead, continued the full size of the pipe above the roof. The fresh air pipe must be placed at the lowest part of the drain. The ventilating pipes for other places should either be of lead or cast-iron socket pipes not less than 3 inches diameter, with the joints made with lead. Ventilating pipes must also be provided at the syphons and traps at each lavatory, bath or water sink, these may be of lead 2 inches diameter. Fresh Air Inlets must also be provided in suitable positions. The main inlet to supply air to the drain pipes must be placed at the lowest SUBURBAN HOUSES. 23 end, while the main ventilating pipe must be at the highest point. Particular attention must be given to the proper air supply. The large ven- tilating and fresh air pipes must be made as before stated, either of lead or heavy cast-iron socket pipes, and the joints carefully made with gasket and blue lead ; the fresh air pipes with closed boxes fitted with internal mica valves, to prevent any uptake of sewer gas. Discharge of Waste Water from Baths, Lava- tories, and Washing Sinks. The waste pipes should be carried through the walls of the house and delivered over a pipe head, provided with a shoe at the base and delivering over a cast-iron trapped gully. The joints of the pipe must be made with lead, and be well caulked as before described. No waste pipe of any kind should be without a good trap, that is, a proper water seal. Discharge from Soil Pipes of Water-closets. The soil pipe must be made of 10 Ib. lead and carried down outside the wall of the house, it should not be less than 3 to 3^ inches in diameter, and must be supported at every 5 feet by sheets of lead, at least 10 Ib. per superficial foot, soldered on ; these are called " tacks." The pipe must be carried as direct as possible without any more bends than are actually required, this is for ensuring its free discharge. It should be continued up the full size above the roof, and 24 SUBURBAN HOUSES. be terminated with a ventilating cowl. It is ad- visable to cover the pipe with felt, also with a wood casing to protect it from the sun as well as the frost It must discharge into a disconnecting chamber fitted with syphon trap, and fresh air pipes, &c., the connection from the water-closet must be made in an easy curve with a good fall to the pipe. Great care must be used in making the joint between the trap under the closet and the vertical soil pipe, that the inside is left perfectly free from solder or any obstruction, and that no " kink " or depression is left in the pipe; this is sometimes done by careless men, and often causes an obstruction and keeps it in a foul and dirty state. Note: Soil pipes must never be connected directly into a drain. All soil pipes should be disconnected at the foot, and should be provided with a fresh air supply. A very simple and effective receiver for this purpose is made by Messrs. Dent and Hellyer, as well as by Mr. G. Jennings. The soil should fall on to the water in the trap, a distance of 5 to 6 inches. The author often uses a cast-iron trap of his own design, made for him by Messrs. G. Waller & Co. In cases where no house window is near, the top of the trap may have an open grid and thus form the fresh air inlet, in other cases the top is closed and the air supplied by a pipe entering at the side of the trap, and carried up at the other end clear of all windows and provided with an internal mica valve. Discharge from Scullery Sinks. The discharge SUBURBAN HOUSES. 25 pipe must be of lead about 9 to 10 Ib. per foot, say 2 inches diameter, it must deliver into a special chamber or receiver to catch the fat, the outlet from this to the drain must be well trapped, the chamber may either be made of cast-iron, stone- ware, or of white glazed bricks built in cement. It must have a cast-iron air-tight hinged cover secured by a lock and be fitted with a vent and special air inlet pipe, also a pan to catch the fat, made convenient for easy removal at the periods stated at p. 101. NOTE. The waste pipe must always be trapped directly under the sink as well as at the grease trap, and the top of the first-named trap must be ventilated into the open air. Rain Water Pipe Discharge. The pipes for receiving and discharging rain water from the roofs must be carefully jointed and be provided with a shoe at the base, and must deliver over a trapped gully in the same manner as the waste water pipes. When, however, rain water is to be stored for domestic use a portion of the pipes should be carried to a tank placed close to the house or inside a building, which is preferable. The water should be filtered before use, as named at p. 60. It must be remembered that all drain or rain water pipes from the house should never be in direct connection with the cesspool or main sewer (in the case of towns), but should be absolutely disconnected by a chamber fitted as before de- scribed. This matter is again mentioned because it 26 VENTILATION OF PIPES. is of the greatest importance, and also as it is often overlooked by ignorant people and treated as- a matter of very little consequence. VENTILATION OF SEWERS AND DRAIN PIPES. As this is a matter demanding most careful at- tention, it has been thought better to treat it sepa- rately, it being most essential to carry it out on proper principles. It will be understood from what has been pre- viously stated, that the interior of all drain pipes and their ventilating and fresh air pipes must be perfectly clear, free from obstruction, and as smooth as possible inside, and that special attention must be given to the jointing, to ensure a clear and un- obstructed way for the drainage to pass, as well as to afford the easy passage of air through the entire system of drains as well as the ventilating pipes. It may .first be stated that every part of the sewer pipes and their connections must have thorough ventilation, and that fresh air inlets as well as foul air outlets must be provided, and proper means adopted to ensure perfect aeration at all points. Sharp angles must be avoided in all parts, and where a change in direction in the pipes takes place it must be done by easy curves. All junctions with the main pipe should be made by a curved Y pipe set in the direction of the outfall. Much dis- cussion has taken place as to the best materials for VENTILATION OF PIPES. 27 ventilating pipes. The cost of carrying out the work has to be considered ; where this is not the case, the author would say without hesitation that lead or copper pipes are the most suitable, princi- pally because they present a smooth surface inside, and have few joints, thus permitting the air to travel through without friction. These pipes should, as before stated, be fitted at the top with a cowl, not only to prevent down draughts of air, but to induce an upward current in the pipe. The fresh air inlet pipe for the main drain pipe should not be more than 90 to 100 feet distant from the main ventilating pipe. The next best for use are cast-iron socket pipes closely jointed with gasket and blue lead. The interior of the pipes should be coated with Dr. Angus Smith's solution to prevent them from rusting. As a rule the main air inlet must be the same diameter as the main ventilating pipe. Soil-pipe Ventilators should always -be formed by the prolongation, in a vertical direction, of the lead soil pipe, and must be carried up the full diameter. This matter is treated at p. 23. Instructions are given in another place as to the details of fixing these pipes. Care must be taken to ventilate any part of the connections or drain pipes where sewer air can form. Remember bad air must never be allowed to remain in any part of the system of drains, but must have free means to get out, and that no part can be properly ventilated unless fresh air inlets are provided in suitable positions. 28 VENTILATION OF PIPES. Bad gases form inside the fat-receivers placed outside the kitchen, although they may be well trapped by a deep water seal from the main drain pipes. As the fat lies in the receiver it decomposes and generates gas, it is thus essential to ventilate the receiver and to provide a fresh air inlet. Pipes conveying soapy or greasy water also be- come very foul inside and generate injurious gas, it is therefore necessary to ventilate them at the highest point ; the fresh air in this case enters at the open end of the pipe where it discharges over a hopper head or trapped gully. To prevent gas forming in the discharge pipes and connections more than can be avoided, they should not be made of larger diameter than is necessary to procure a perfect and rapid discharge ; the proper sizes for all these pipes are given in each section relating to the various apparatus. It will be noted at p. 20, that perfect discon- nection from the cesspool or main sewer is advised, and that when there is any long length of sewer pipe between the disconnecting chamber near the house and the main sewer or cesspool, that it should be again disconnected and ventilated to get rid of any sewer gas that may be formed in it before it can by any chance get into the drain pipes of the house. It will be noted that at every point of connection between any discharge pipes from the house and the drain pipes and connections, that a trap or water- seal is provided, the depth of which varies from SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN COUNTRY. 29 if to 2j inches. The sewer gas cannot enter the house unless there is sufficient pressure in the drain pipes to force the seal ; it may occur by the momentum of a sudden discharge of water into the same pipe, especially when placed at a higher level, this is prevented by providing ventilation at the top of the trap. This is a matter too often misunder- stood and neglected by plumbers in fitting up lava- tories and sink discharges. All ventilating pipes, as before stated, must be carried above the top of the roof, at least 6 to 7 feet above the heads of all windows, and well clear of any skylights in the roof. They must not be taken up by the side of chimneys for the reason given at p. 7. SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS. In places where there are no town sewers to dis- charge the sewage into, it is necessary to provide a cesspool or receiver. The size of this will depend upon the capacity of the establishment and the number of the inmates, and also if the bath, lavatory, and washing, as well as the rain water, are taken to separate receivers or cesspools as described at p. 1 6. For ordinary sized houses, the cesspool should be about 7 to 8 feet in diameter, and 10 to 12 feet deep below the bottom of the drain pipe where it enters the side of the cesspool. If the ground in the locality where it is placed is porous and the cesspool is in a position where it can safely be 30 SEWAGE DISPOSAL IN COUNTRY. allowed to filter out at the sides and bottom, the brickwork lining may be laid dry, unless this is against the rules of the local authority. The top must be gathered over in brickwork and provided with an air-tight manhole cover. Ventilating and fresh-air inlet pipes must be fixed at the top of the cesspool. In Large Establishments and Asylums where the inmates are considerable in number, the sewage should be run into depositing tanks, where the solid matter should be taken out and be treated with lime to deodorise it, the effluent can then safely be run off into any convenient brook or river or it may be spread over the land. The quantity of lime required does not exceed 12 to 14 grains per 1000 gallons of sewage. Only milk of lime should be used. This is a large question and cannot be treated here except to generally point out the system advised to be pursued. The reader who requires any further detail is referred to the author's book before named upon " Public Institu- tions, &c." The author advises that only the simple system of depositing and deodorisation indicated should be adopted, and that none of the elaborate chemical systems put forth should be entertained. For emptying cesspools, he advises for use an apparatus consisting of a closed cylinder placed on wheels, and by means of a small air pump attached to it, a partial vacuum is created, and the liquid sewage rises into the vessel. A valve is attached to the back of the cylinder in DUST AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. 31 connection with a spreader, by which means it can be put on the land or garden ground as desired. No nuisance can arise from this system as in the case of ordinary pumping. The apparatus is not costly, it is made by Messrs. George Waller & Co., Southwark. This firm also make a very con- venient portable hand pump, it is set on wheels and is provided with a " wired " suction hose, and any length of delivery hose required. The sewage by this means may be pumped up from the cesspool and delivered on to the land without contact with the atmosphere, and so all nuisance to surrounding places is avoided. DUST AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. Much nuisance arises from the careless and improper treatment this matter receives, in too many cases in houses as well as in public institu- tions. The old domestic wood dust-bin is a miserable offender ; in many cases, even at the present day, it will be found near the window of the house, and also near the meat and food larder. Such monstrosities should be ruthlessly swept away, they cannot be condemned in too severe terms. Serious illness often arises from this cause, not only are they offensive to the senses but in- sanitary in a high degree. To remedy this state of things the following system should be carried out. In the case of town dwellings the dust and other refuse should be placed in cast-iron boxes fitted 32 DUST AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. with close tops, they should always be situated some distance from the house. Refuse, especially vegetable matter which is liable to decompose, should never be permitted to remain in any part of a house, it is convenient to have a pail or receiver fitted with a handle and closed top, for putting the refuse into. It should be removed from the house everyday. In country places the vegetable matter should either be burned or be put into a pit and buried. The dust-bin should contain dust and ashes only. The best form of dust-bin is made by Messrs. G. Waller & Co., it is of cast iron and so arranged that it can be easily discharged and cleansed. It is fitted with close cover and door and as no porous materials of any kind are used no nuisance can arise from it. In Hospitals and other Public Places, the dust and refuse from the upper floors should be put into closed iron receptacles and removed every day. Dust shoots from the upper or any floor should never be used, they are most dangerous things, as it is impossible to keep them clean and sweet. It is astounding to think, these have often been provided at hospitals and infirmaries, the horrible condition of the interiors, the foul air bred in them and drawn out into the wards and rooms can be readily imagined. In these large places where lifting apparatus is employed, the dust, ashes, &c., should be put into and removed by closely covered boxes, these should be hung on DUST AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. 33 three wheels, the front one being made to swivel, all the tires of the wheels should be fitted with indiarubber bands to prevent noise. The boxes are run on to the cages of the lifts and lowered to the ground floor or basement where they are run off and away from the building and discharged into a proper receptacle. As far as Private Houses in Towns are concerned it is to be hoped the day is not very far distant when the inhabitants will be compelled by the local authorities to have the dust removed once per day, according to the excellent custom of several well ordered provincial towns. Since the above was written the author has received from a doctor at a well-known and much frequented seaside place, particulars of the manner in which builders treat this matter. In several cases he quotes, the dust-bin is placed in the area, under the steps leading up to the house, and near, not only, to the living rooms, but also close to the food larder. The town authorities do not at this place pay proper attention to the clearing away of the house refuse, and so it is left and allowed to contaminate the air, and breed disease. The medical officer seems to be powerless in this and many other cases, as he is unfortunately acting under the Local Board or Sanitary Authorities who so sadly neglect their duty. The author ventures to remind these gentlemen, that any of the in- habitants appealing to the Local Government D 34 DUST AND REFUSE DISPOSAL. Board in London can get this state of affairs promptly remedied. He is glad to have his state- ments made in the book mentioned at p. 97 thus confirmed, as several people who read it were under the impression the state of affairs had been rather exaggerated. INTERNAL WORK. 35 CHAPTER III. INTERNAL WORK. THE apparatus inside the house will now be de- scribed and the way in which the connections are made between it and the outside pipes. The main objects to be kept in view are : 1. To cut off all direct connection of any kind between the house and the drain pipes or sewers. 2. To absolutely prevent the passage of sewer gas into the house. 3. To efficiently ventilate all drain and discharge pipes, and to provide a proper supply of fresh cold air to them. 4. To provide ample light and permanent venti- lation at all places within the house, especially where any sanitary appliance is fixed. 5. To afford every facility for keeping all the appliances perfectly clean and sweet. 6. To adopt the best and most approved appa- ratus, and not on any account to permit any indif- ferent work to be executed. 7. Lastly, that the health, and it may be life of the inmates, depends upon carefully carrying out the rules above named, together with those which preceded them. D 2 36 SANITARY APPARATUS. SANITARY APPARATUS. The various sanitary apparatus and appliances used inside a residence should have the most care- ful consideration, only the best and most approved types should be adopted. It does not always follow, because a thing is better designed for its purpose and more efficient in its action, that it is therefore more expensive, having regard to the first cost and the subsequent maintenance, than inferior apparatus. One thing is certain, the latter are a source of endless trouble, and many are insanitary and therefore unfit for use. The chief apparatus and fittings suitable for adoption will now be described, and sufficient detail given to enable any one to understand the chief points to be observed, and the reasons for carrying out work in the manner indicated. The matters under con- sideration did not receive the attention they de- served until the last fourteen to fifteen years, and it is even now difficult to insist on the necessity as to the careful fitting up of such things, and the attention they should hereafter receive to maintain them in a clean and perfectly sanitary condition, and thus ensure the health of the inmates of any dwelling-place. Water-closets. The greatest care should be observed in the selection of the apparatus, there are several types viz. valve closets, wash-out WATER-CLOSETS. 37 closets, and syphon closets. The best of their respective kinds are made by Messrs. Dent and Hellyer, George Jennings, and Tylor and Sons. The trap under the closet basin should be Dent and Hellyer's patent, having a water seal of at least 2j inches, these traps retain the water per- fectly, and cannot be syphoned out in the same manner as the ordinary round-shaped trap. Traps with balls or other mechanical contrivances should not be used, they cannot be kept clean, and are very liable to get out of order ; in a word, all appliances of this kind must be as simple as possible, and be so shaped and constructed that it is impossible for them to fail in action. Valve Closets. The apparatus should be enclosed in a mahogany framing, the seat should be hinged and provided with a flap or cover which should also be hinged. The front part, or the riser, should be made to open in the form of a door, and hung upon hinges. The apparatus should rest upon a lead safing or tray, of at least 6 Ib. per superficial foot, for the purpose of catching any overflow of water, it should cover the entire area under the seat and be turned up all round to a depth of 4 inches and the corners well soldered, it should be nailed by copper nails, at the front part to a rail of the same depth, and to the skirting at the other side and ends. The bottom should be set to a slight fall to one end, at which an overflow pipe \\ inch diameter should 38 WATER-CLOSETS. be provided and passed through the outer wall and fitted with a hinged copper flap, to prevent back draught, as well as stoppage by dirt. At the syphon a 2-inch diameter ventilating lead pipe should be provided to take away any sewer gas that may form at this point, and also to prevent the trap unsealing by a rush of water suddenly thrown into it, or by the discharge of an upper closet into the same soil pipe. The seat of the closet should not be placed too high, this is a most important thing, as it is considered by many medical men to be very injurious to the person using it. As this is a medical question it is only slightly alluded to for the purpose of drawing attention to it. The Water Supply pipe should be ij inch diameter to give a good flush ; bear in mind, this is for the purpose of obtaining a good quantity of water, and that the pressure is not thus increased. Absolute division, as before named, must be made between the supply of water to water-closet and the house supply. Closets must never be supplied by means of a service box placed in any tank from which water is drawn for other purposes. It is too often found that the air vent from these boxes is turned over at the top of the water in the tank. It does not alter the position of affairs if the tank is divided, because the air from the soil pipe is absorbed by the ivater which is thus contaminated WATER-CLOSETS. 39 and rendered unfit for domestic use. The quantity of water required to give a good flush to a water- closet is not less than three gallons, the amount allowed by the water companies is only two gallons, which is not sufficient. A Sheringham's ventilator should be fixed in the outer wall, and good light to the room must also be supplied. The size suitable for a water-closet room is 4 feet wide, 6 feet long, and 9 feet high. The walls should be lined with white or coloured glazed tiles with a dado of another colour to break the sight. The floor should also be tiled, and the roof either tiled or of Parian cement and painted. It will be seen, a closet fitted up in the way described can always be kept in a perfectly clean and sanitary state, it should be borne in mind that all parts of the closet apparatus require periodical attention to keep them in a healthy condition. When it is possible to do so, a lobby should be constructed between the water-closet room and the house, it should be freely ventilated. This is for the purpose of carrying off any effluvia that may arise before it can enter the house. NOTE. Closet apparatus of the Pan type and D-trap should never be allowed, they are most objectionable, can never be kept clean and are alto- gether insanitary, they retain much filth in the hopper as well as sewer gas which in this case rises into the room directly the handle is lifted. It is impossible to condemn them too strongly. 40 WATER-CLOSETS. The Position of the Closet, when it can be arranged, should always be next an outer wall, with a lobby between it and the house, as before described. The soil pipe should be taken immedi- ately outside the walls of the house. A Sheringham's ventilator should be provided in the outer wall, to afford permanent ventilation. Carbolic acid in powder or Condy's fluid should be freely used in closet pans, also in the drain pipes leading from them, as well as from all other connections. It is essential not only to see that the under part of the closet is finished in the way described, but also to ensure that the floor and walls are made good to shut the place completely off from any adjoining room, and so prevent effluvia from rising into it. A Urinal may be fitted in the water-closet room. The basins should be kept small and rather wide in proportion to their depth. They should be trapped in the inside by a dip plate formed in the basin, as well as by a lead trap placed directly under it. A ventilating pipe should be provided near the top of the trap. Water-closets for Servants. These should be placed outside the house whenever possible. The pedestal wash-out type of apparatus is the best to adopt, they are made in earthenware in one piece. A flushing cistern should be fixed overhead and a water pipe connected to the closet at least ij inch diameter. A ventilating pipe must be attached to WATER-CLOSETS. 41 the top of the syphon trap under the seat. The soil pipe should be of lead and made as before described, it should be discharged into a receiver as before, and disconnected by trapping from the drain pipes. Permanent ventilation should be pro- vided in these closets, and be so arranged that the ventilators cannot be closed ; this is the only way to ensure that they are properly ventilated. The water must be taken from the separate water-closet service pipe, no connection of any kind must be made with the service supplying the drinking and cooking water. See remarks upon this under the head of Water Supply. NOTE. Hopper Closets should never be allowed as it is impossible to keep them clean, much nuisance may arise from a dirty pan. The size of the closet rooms may be rather less than named for the others. The floors should be tiled with ordinary red and black tiles, and the walls ren- dered in cement and coloured, or if a little extra expense is not an object, they may be lined with glazed tiles, as this ensures perfect cleanliness, the outlay will not subsequently be regretted. The Hygienic Closet made by Messrs. Dent and Hellyer is a very efficient apparatus, and when one of the wash-out type is not adopted, it is suitable for use in servants' closets ; the small extra first cost will be amply repaid as far as any subsequent repairs are concerned. The basins of this type of closet keep absolutely clean with a less amount of water than any other closet known to the author. 42 SLOP SINKS. Slop and Housemaids' Sinks. As this apparatus is usually situated on the upper floors, and in large places on several of the floors, they should be fixed in tiers one over the other for the con- venience of attaching the water services to the same pipes as well as using other pipes common to the whole of the sinks. Particular attention is required to ensure their careful fitting up, and also that proper provisions are made to enable the attendants to keep them absolutely clean. The hot and cold water is usually drawn over a small separate sink, this should be made of glazed earthenware, fitted with a waste pipe in the corner, and provided with a patent lead trap made by Messrs. Dent and Hellyer, fitted with cleaning screw, and placed immediately under it. A venti- lating pipe must be attached at the top of the syphon ; this pipe should not rise directly vertically from the discharge pipe but by means of an easy curve. The hot and cold water service should be led to this sink and fitted with Trott's patent valves. At the side a slop sink or hopper should be provided, it should be trapped at the bottom, and a ventilating pipe attached at the top of the syphon. The waste pipe should deliver over a pipe head, as before described under the head of Drainage. The hot and cold water service must also be led to this hopper. The discharge pipe must never be connected either with the soil pipe from the water-closet or any other drain pipe, and whenever it is possible it LAVATORIES. 43 should be taken away and be separately discharged over a pipe head when on the upper floors, and when on the ground floor over a trapped gully. The sinks should be placed at a window where free ventilation can be obtained, and a Shering- ham's ventilator should be fixed in the outer walls. The most careful attention should be given to this department to ensure the absolute cleanliness of all parts as well as their perfect ventilation. These apparatus have too often been the cause of illness, through the foul condition in which they are some- times kept, as well as by their imperfect trapping. Those miserable frauds " bell traps " should never be permitted, as when taken up, as they are often found to be, they allow the sewer gas from the drain to freely enter the house, they should rather be called death traps. The side walls at the sink and hopper should be lined with glazed tiles, both above as well as on the under side of the sink. The lower part of the sink should be left exposed to view. It is advisable to paint and varnish all the pipes and fittings so as to give facility for keeping them clean. Lavatories. These may be conveniently fixed in the bath-rooms or in the cloak-room, they should not be placed in water-closets. The best kind are made of glazed earthenware in one piece. Hot and cold water should be laid on. The discharge pipes should not be less than ij inches diameter and 8 Ibs. per foot, a Dent and 44 LAVATORIES. Hellyer's lead trap, as before described, should be fixed immediately under the basin, the pipes should not be connected to any other waste pipe but be made to deliver direct over a pipe head as before described. A ventilating pipe should be fitted at the top of the syphon to take away all foul gas arising in the pipe. It must be borne in mind that waste pipes used for soapy or greasy water may create much nuisance and may also be the cause of much illness in a house. The ventilating pipe also prevents the unsealing of the traps, which is sometimes caused when a bath or another lava- tory is suddenly discharged into the same pipe. It has become the custom lately to have the under part of the basin open so as to be able to see that it is clean and not made a receptacle for all sorts of dirt and lumber from which nuisance can arise. When the lavatory is placed in a separate room, the walls should be lined with glazed tiles, and the floor paved with coloured tiles. Ventilators at the top of the walls should always be provided. In large places where several lavatories are required, and on different floors, it is convenient to place them in tiers above each other, though it is preferable to discharge the waste pipes of each floor separately. When several lavatory basins are placed together at the same level in a line, the main waste pipe should be provided with a good fall towards the main outlet, and each basin should be fitted with an outlet of not less than I inch in diameter, and LAVATORIES. 45 with a Dent and Hellyer's patent lead trap giving a water seal of not less than ij to if inches. At each of the traps a ventilating pipe should be attached not less than ij inches in diameter, these pipes may be carried into the main ventilating pipe, which is a vertical elongation of the discharge pipe, except when other lavatories at a higher level are discharged into the same pipe, when the ventilating pipe from the basins must either be carried up a sufficient height to enter the main ventilating pipe above the highest point of discharge into it, or it must be taken up as a separate pipe and fitted with a cowl in the same manner as described for the main ventilating pipes. NOTE. The discharge pipes from the lavatories must always be distinct from the bath discharge. Lavatories may be left open at their lower part, in this case the basin and top portion are made in one piece of glazed earthenware, which is supported upon two cast-iron ornamental brackets or standards. All the ironwork as well as the pipes and traps should be painted and varnished. It will be seen by this system all parts are in sight and can be readily cleaned, added to which there is no place for dust or rubbish to accumulate under the basin. Any leak in the pipes or the fittings is at once discovered before any damage can be done to the floor or the ceilings under it. The valves to supply the hot and cold water should be Trott's patent, f inch diameter, these valves keep absolutely tight, both with cold as 46 BATH-ROOMS. well as hot water, they also possess this advantage, the valve door may be renewed by any unskilled person without shutting off or stopping the water supply pipe. Bath-rooms. The proper fitting and arrange- ments necessary for a good healthy bath-room is a matter demanding most careful attention, more especially the fresh water supply and the discharge of the waste water. The rooms should not be less than 8 feet by 10 feet and 9 feet 6 inches high, the walls should be lined with glazed tiles, these must be carried down under the bath inside the enclosure. A Sheringham ventilator should be provided in the outer wall. A bath should never be placed in a dressing-room, especially when it leads into a bed-room ; this is a blunder very often made in small houses, especially those built by speculative builders. The bath should be of copper, wrought iron, or fire-clay, 6 feet long by 2 feet wide, and I foot 10 inches deep inside. The copper baths are tinned inside, the thickness of metal should be at least 2 Ib. per superficial foot. Those of wrought iron should be at least -^ inch thick. The hot and cold water fittings should be I inch diameter, and made to deliver over the bath at the top ; supply pipes may be wrought iron. The waste pipe should be of lead, 2 inches diameter, and at least 9 to 10 Ib. per superficial foot. The discharge pipe is trapped directly under the outlet from the bath, and should BATH-ROOMS. 47 be carried direct through the outer wall of the house, and discharged over a pipe head ; if the discharge pipe is more than 5 or 6 feet in length it should be provided with a ventilating pipe which should be attached at the top of the trap. A lead safing or tray of at least 6 Ib. per super- ficial foot must be provided over the entire area under the bath, it must be turned up all round to not less than 4 inches in height, and be nailed to the skirting. A i^-inch overflow pipe must be provided at the lowest corner, and carried outside as before described for the water-closets. The wood enclosure may be in mahogany or deal painted and varnished, it should be I inch thick, panelled, and a door at each end provided to give easy access under the bath for the purpose of ex- amining the joints and cleaning all parts. The top frame should be polished mahogany, a hinged cover is not necessary. The hot water cistern is usually placed in the bath-room. A cupboard for drying linen and towels should be constructed. The bath cistern should be -fg inch thick and contain at least 50 gallons. A bell lever should be placed in a position con- venient to the hand of a bather for use in case of emergency. It is advisable to secure the door by a drop bolt, a cord from which should be conducted to a pull near the place where the bell is fixed, it would thus allow any one to enter the room without the bather getting out of the bath. The heat of 48 BATHS FOR HOSPITALS, ETC. the water for the bath should be about 175. The quantity of water required for each bather is about 30 gallons of hot and 10 gallons of cold. In preparing the bath, the 'cold water should be let in first, and then the hot water as required. This saves the enamel of the bath, which is apt to crack when hot water is suddenly let into it. Perfectly pure water should be used for bathing purposes, it should always be taken from the drinking water tank. NOTE. All pipes should be accessible and should be carried either on the face of the walls or in channels sunk therein, they should never on any account be bedded in the plaster. Baths for Hospitals and Asylums are constructed upon the general principle here described, but some of the special fittings are omitted. The bathers in this case should not have control of the water supply or waste. With regard to lunatic asylums there are several special regulations that have to be complied with. For the hot and cold supply of baths, Trott's patent valves may be used, one handle actuates the valves for the hot and cold water as well as the dis- charge of the waste water. They are specially to be recommended for use in public baths and other in- stitutions ; the amount of water, as well as the heat, in this case is regulated by the attendant from the outside of the room, and cannot be interfered with by the bather. The waste pipe of baths should SCULLERY SINK. 49 not be less than ij inch diameter, and should be enlarged at the bath, and be protected by a plate or grid having holes in it not more than J inch diameter. NOTE. The discharge pipes from baths should be separate from other pipes, and in the event of any bath from an upper level being discharged into the same pipe it should be provided with a ventilating pipe at the trap to prevent syphoning of the water, and breaking the water seal. Scullery Sink. This is a most important appara- tus both in a house as well as a public institution, from which more nuisance may arise than in any other place. The sink should not be made of stone on account of its absorbent character, it should be either of slate or glazed stoneware, and be fitted with a 2-inch diameter lead discharge pipe, 9 Ib. per foot, which should be fitted, directly under the sink, with a Dent and Hellyer patent lead trap, and provided with a cleaning screw ; the pipe should be carried through the wall and be delivered into a grease receiver, fitted with a deep trap and a movable receptacle for the fat. This has been described at p. 20. At one side of the sink a lavatory basin should be fixed, this must, however, be discharged sepa- rately from the sink pipe and in the manner before described. At the other side a draining board should be provided, this should be fluted to allow the water to drain, and be covered with sheet E 50 BUTLER'S SINK. copper or lead turned down at the end to form an apron. Hot and cold water, as well as rain water service pipes and cocks should be provided at the sink. The walls of the scullery should be lined with glazed tiles, and the floor paved with red and white tiles. Ample means of permanent ventilation should also be provided. Btitler's Sink. This should be lined with sheet- copper, and a fluted draining board provided, also covered with sheet-copper, should be attached at one side. The waste water pipe should be of lead, 9 Ib. per superficial foot, and a Dent and Hellyer patent trap must be placed immediately under the sink, and made to discharge outside the house over a trapped gully. If the waste pipe exceeds 6 feet in length it should be ventilated by a 2 inch diameter pipe placed at the top of the syphon. As a rule, the place under the sink may be left open. A lavatory basin should be provided at the side of the sink on the opposite side to the draining board. A Sheringham's ventilator should be fixed in the outer wall. The walls round the sink should be lined with glazed tiles, which should extend below the sink to the skirting. Mr. George Jennings makes a very good sink for this purpose. The sink should be provided with hot and cold and rain water, and underneath it is convenient also to provide water taps for drawing water into pails and cans when required. KITCHENS. 51 Bell traps should never be permitted in any sink or any waste pipe, nor should any movable grating be allowed on any pretence whatever. As to the bell traps, they are simply a delusion, they only depend, for a trap or water seal, upon the small amount of water contained in the cup in which the bell on the under side of the grating rests. As the grid and bell are always loose, it will be readily seen, when they are taken up, there is nothing to prevent the sewer gas from rushing into the house. The fire in the scullery or kitchen draws the gas into the room and disseminates it through the house. It is impossible to insist too strongly upon the absolute removal of all such abominations from the house. Several serious cases of illness in the author's experience have arisen from this cause, and in one instance he believes the death of two people resulted. The author does not offer any apology for dealing in such close detail with the subject of the sanitary condition of sinks and their appliances ; he is aware it is a disagreeable matter and supposed by some to be beneath the personal attention of professional men. It cannot be too urgently stated, that this is a most fallacious thing, and is mainly the cause of the existence of in- sanitary dwellings. Many clients think the care taken and the outlay made for them by their pro- fessional advisers in such things are simply amiable and harmless fads. The Kitchen. The sink and other washing o E 2 52 KITCHENS. places, whenever possible to avoid it, should never be placed in this room. A Sheringham's ventilator should be fixed in the outer walls. In the event of any gas cooking stove being used, it should be placed immediately under a hood of wrought iron with an iron chimney either taken directly outside the house, or carried into the main flue. It is of the greatest importance that the fumes of cooking as well as those from the combustion of the gas should be removed from the room, they are not only unpleasant as to smell, but are deleterious to health. The walls at the back of these stoves should be lined with glazed tiles, and the floor at this part paved with tiles. KITCHENS FOR SCHOOLS, HOSPITALS, AND OTHER PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. It is advisable to place the kitchen, in a large house or public institution in a position partly de- tached from the main building. The room should be at least 13 to 14 feet high to the plate of the roof, the walls should be built with white glazed bricks, the roof should be open timbered and pro- vided with a glazed lantern at the top, with swing sashes operated by gear from the floor line. The floors should be paved with tiles. Air-inlet valves should be fixed near the floor in the outside walls. The Cooking Apparatus should be placed round the room under sheet-iron hoods, the fumes being BAKERY. 53 taken off by tubes either communicating direct outside the building, or they may be taken into the main flue of the kitchen. Small special trapped gullies made of gun-metal should be placed under all draw-off cocks. No sink for washing any crockery, &c., should be allowed in this room. The scullery should be entirely dis- tinct It will be noted that all parts of the place constructed in the above manner can be easily cleansed, and that the materials of construction being non-absorbent, no dirt to any extent can rest in any part. Ample light as well as perfect ventilation should be provided. The fitting up of the apparatus and other tech- nical detail does not come within the province of this book, for any further information the reader is referred to the author's book named at p. 97. BAKERY. In large establishments this is a department usually necessary, and should have much care be- stowed upon it to ensure that it is constructed and worked in a manner conducive to health. When on a large scale, there should be two rooms, one for mixing and making the bread, and one for the baking. Good light and ventilation are a necessity. The building may be constructed in much the same manner as the kitchen described at p. 52. The floor should be paved with Stuart's patent Grano- 54 BAKERY. lithic concrete. The troughs for making the bread may be made of slate, each should be provided with a gun-metal plug for washing out. Cold water should be laid on to each trough, as well as in several parts of the room for the purpose of con- veniently washing down. From a hygienic point of view, machines for making bread should be employed, and Perkin's Patent Hot Water Ovens for baking, these are not only cleanly but effect much economy in fuel. If this system is objected to, gas-heated ovens can with confidence be recom- mended not only on account of their cleanliness but for the efficiency in performing the work, as well as economy in relation to coal-heated ovens. The system of ventilation of the rooms may be the same as that described for the kitchen. A store- room should be provided to place the bread in when baked, great care should be used to ensure that this room is placed where no vapour or bad air is likely to get in. Free ventilation direct from and into the outer air is absolutely necessary. Drainage. This mui'c be carefully carried out, the waste water from the troughs must be taken away by lead pipes and discharged over trapped gullies on the outside of the building as described for laundries. The floors of these rooms need not have any drainage provided for the reasons before named, and also because a large quantity of water is not necessary for washing down. Except that the most absolute cleanliness should be observed BAKERY. 55 in all the apparatus used, there is nothing further from a hygienic point of view, to which particular attention need be directed. This certainly is a subject that does not receive the attention it deserves, it is therefore all the more necessary to carefully enquire into and examine the condition of such places. 56 WATER SUPPLY. CHAPTER IV. WATER SUPPLY. THE absolutely pure condition of the water supply to a house or public institution is a matter requiring the most careful and earnest attention, as upon this to a great extent depends the health of the inmates, it is hardly less essential than the perfect sanitary state of the drainage and its appliances. It often occurs in a house or public establishment, that the water tanks are placed in a very unsuitable position, and that they are seldom or ever looked at or cleaned out. In the author's practice he has sometimes found in examining into this matter, that the drinking water-tank has not been cleaned out for years, and that it is often placed either in a scullery or kitchen where the effluvia arising is absorbed by the water, or in some minor cases over or near a water-closet. It is almost impossible to conceive such things could exist in 1892 but such is the case. It is most difficult to arouse people to the extreme danger to health that arises from inattention to such a very important matter. It is intended to indicate in the following pages, the main points that require attention, and also to show in detail the WATER SUPPLY, 57 proper construction and disposition of the whole apparatus, and the proper fittings that should be used in connection therewith. The Source of Supply. This is the first and most important consideration ; in the recommendations at p. II as to the way to examine into the leading features of this, the author indicated the chief points in order to make the matter clear, even at the risk of some small repetition ; he will go through in detail all that is necessary to be observed. If the water is obtained from a well, be sure that the supply is not in any way contaminated with surface or drainage water to ensure this, the depth of the well should be ascertained, and the strata from which the supply is derived. The lining of the well, if of brickwork or stone, must be entirely built in cement where it passes through sand, gravel or other open soil. The top of the well should be at least 12 inches above the level of the sur- rounding ground to ensure that no surface water can run into it. A close cover should be provided at the top, with a ventilating pipe. The water should be raised by pumps made with gun-metal barrels, these have to be sunk in the well when the level of the water is more than about 20 feet below the ground line. In other cases they may be placed inside the house in any convenient position ; the length of the suction pipe is not a matter of any moment if kept within reasonable limits. 58 WATER SUPPLY. The water should be pumped into wrought-iron tanks placed under the roof, at a sufficient height to command all the floors of the house. Machinery for Working Pumps. When some quantity of water is to be raised, and there is no ordinary steam boiler and engine in the place, a gas engine may be employed, or one of Davey's Patent Steam Motors, the advantage of these latter is, they are perfectly safe, work with the greatest economy, and do not require any skilled person to work them. It may be noted here, they are very useful engines for use in a hospital laboratory and dispensary, for performing various work, and by their means much labour is saved. Two tanks should be provided, quite separate from each other, and two absolutely distinct services of pipes, one for the drinking, cooking, bath, and washing purposes, one for the sole supply of the water-closets. No connection of any kind must exist at any point between the pipes. The tanks must be placed in such a position that they can be convenie itly inspected and cleaned out, they must be provided with close jointed wood covers. Overflow or warning pipes ij inch dia- meter must be taken from the side of the tank near the top, and carried direct, outside the walls of the house, they must deliver into the open air where they can be seen, and must not be connected into any waste pipe or drain. WATER SUPPLY. 59 Wash-out pipes and valves must be provided at the bottom of the tanks, for the convenience of cleaning out when necessary. It is advisable not to use trumpet waste pipes, in case they should be discharged into any drain pipe. It may at once be pointed out this is a very fruitful source of danger, as in many instances the author has found, this waste trumpet (which is attached to a hollow plug) has been connected into the drain pipes, and in several instances even into the soil pipe from the water-closet, and has thus conducted the sewer gas into the drinking water, and con- taminated and rendered it quite unfit for drinking purposes. The system named above absolutely prevents this, as no communication can be opened until the valve, which is worked by a screwed rod, is raised. The service pipes should be at the bottom of the tank, and should be carried up at least 3 inches above it, so as to ensure that no sediment of any kind is carried down. A " rose " should be pro- vided over each pipe ; the supply pipes should be taken down inside the house, either on the wall, or in a channel, they must on no account be embedded in the plaster of the walls. The rising main should be carried up inside the house and be well pro- tected at every part from frost, it should be fitted with an equilibrium ball valve at the tank. The contents of the tank should not exceed \\ day's supply, in order to ensure perfectly fresh water for use. All the drinking and cooking water should 60 WATER SUPPLY. be filtered by means of a "Silicated Carbon Company's Filter," the method of attaching which- is described at p. 67. All drinking and cooking water, when the supply is derived from a water company or corporation giving constant pressure, should be drawn off the rising main at the basement, it should be passed through a filter made by the Silicated Carbon Filter Company, Battersea, the size being proportionate to the resi- dence. It is also recommended that small filters of like kind should be provided at the butler's and housemaid's pantries, and that all the water used should pass through these minor filters. Perfectly pure water for consumption can thus be ensured, No connection with the service pipes or tanks should be made between the drinking-water tank and the water-closet's supply on any account whatever. Lead-lined tanks should be abolished on account of the risk of lead poisoning caused by some waters ; it may be mentioned that waters con- taining salt do not attack lead, but that distilled or rain water causes lead to become oxidised when in contact with the air. It is considered that no harm is done by the circulation of water in lead pipes, because the interiors are not exposed to the air. It is recommended that lead-lined tanks should never be used because of the liability to the risk of injuring the water in a greater or lesser degree. It is not intended beyond mere outline to enter into any chemical or purely scientific dis- WATER SUPPLY. 61 cussion of this matter, as there are many books ably treating on it. The object is to point out the practical objection to the use of such apparatus for storing water for domestic purposes. For tanks at or near the ground level slate is a suitable material, the slabs must be rubbed smooth both inside and outside, they should not be less than i inch thick, and when of large size ij to 2 inches. All tanks should be covered and pro- tected from the atmosphere, proper ventilation must, however, always be afforded. Water-closet Supply. The tank should be fitted up in all respects in the same manner as that described above. The supply or service pipes must, however, be kept absolutely separate. They should not be less than ij to ij inch diameter, in order to give a good quantity of water at each discharge. These tanks should be placed at least 7 to 10 feet above the highest water-closet. Where pedestal closets are used, as described at p. 40, a separate small flush tank is provided containing at least 3 gallons of water, the whole of which is discharged each time the handle is pulled. The Outdoor Closets should be provided with a separate tank and it should be placed under their roof; when the water has to be pumped up much labour is thus saved. In large establishments this is an important consideration and is well worthy of attention. 62 WATER SUPPLY. HOT-WATER SUPPLY FOR BATHS, LAVATORIES, SINKS, ETC. This is a very important arrangement in a house, it is essential that the water used in the apparatus should be pure, and that it should be worked in such a manner as to ensure its per- fect safety. To enable the reader to understand the operation of the apparatus and so give him the power to examine thoroughly into the matter, the author gives below a detailed description of the proper way of fixing it, and the system on which it works. It is an appliance that adds very much to the comfort as well as the health of the inmates of a dwelling, and so comes well within the scope of the book. The water for this must be taken from the drinking-water tank, by a separate wrought- iron service pipe, not less than ij inch dia- meter, preferably the size should be i^ inch diameter, it should enter by a syphon pipe on the under side of the hot water circulating tank, or when a cylinder is used near the boiler, it should enter near the bottom of it. The water is heated in a wrought-iron boiler placed at the back of the kitchen range. It may be useful to explain that as the water is heated in the boiler it becomes of less gravity, and is thus forced up to the top of the ascending pipe by the superior gravity or weight of the column of the colder water in the descending pipe. The heated water rises in the pipe, which should be wrought iron, and i| inch diameter, into WATER SUPPLY. 63 the hot-water circulating tank, containing 50 to 60 gallons, which is entirely closed ; this is called the " flow " pipe, it stands up a short distance above the bottom of the tank, at the top of it a pipe of the same size is provided called the " expansion pipe," which is carried up much higher than the level of the water of the tank which supplies the inlet cold water, this acts as a safety pipe, in which the water rises if it gets too hot, and thus prevents undue pres- sure inside the boiler. The " return pipe " is taken from the bottom of the hot-water tank, the pipe being made perfectly flush with the bottom plate, and re-enters the boiler at the lowest part. It will be seen that the total pressure per square inch in the interior of the boiler is that due to a column of water equal to the height, from the level in the cold-water tank to the bottom of the boiler, and as this pressure is equal to I Ib. per square inch for every 2^ feet in height, the pressure is found by dividing the height of the supply pipe by 2*3. All the hot water supplies to the basins, baths, lavoratories, sinks, &c., are taken off the "flow" pipe. Both the " flow " and " return " pipes should be carried in a channel separate from the cold- water pipes, and should be covered with non-con- ducting composition, this is for the purpose of keeping them hot. If the hot-water pipes are carried in the same channel as the cold-water pipes, the water in the latter becomes heated and rendered unpleasant both for drinking and washing purposes. A cock should be provided to shut off 64 WATER SUPPLY. the cold-water supply, this should be placed near to the under side of the cold-water tank, and is for use when repairs are necessary. A cock should also be placed at the boiler, to run off all the water when required. The boiler and hot-water apparatus should be well washed out either once per month or once in six weeks, and the covers removed each six or nine months, and the deposit taken out, both from the boilers and the tanks. In districts where the water is hard and chalky, much deposit is formed both on the inside of the boiler and tank as well as in the pipes ; the defects of a proper supply as well as the accidents that sometimes take place are usually owing to the corrosion at the mouth of the pipes, as well as the hard scale upon the surface of the plates at the interior of the boiler. It must be borne in mind that the existence of this scale on the boiler plates increases the amount of fuel required to heat the water. There is no danger from this apparatus when properly fitted up, and when the above simple precautions are adopted. The accidents that occasionally take place are almost entirely due to the imperfect design as well as the inferior execution of the work. Rain-water Storage. This is a most important matter and fairly comes within an enquiry into the sanitary and hygienic matters in connection with habitations. It is too often neglected and much valuable water is allowed to run to waste. WATER SUPPLY. 65 Rain water should be stored in suitable tanks of a capacity equal to the size of the building. In country houses and public institutions where the washing of linen, &c., is done on the premises it is especially advantageous to store this water. In these cases, underground tanks made of concrete or brickwork should be provided and the water pumped up hence into small tanks made of wrought iron placed where required. Not only is much saving effected by the use of soft water for washing linen and other fabrics, in the quantity of soap used, but greater cleanliness can be obtained, which is an important sanitary consideration. The author commends this matter to the careful con- sideration of every one whom it concerns, especially as it is a thing too often entirely 'neglected. The rain water should be filtered before use by passing through a Silicated Carbon Filter, these are made in various sizes by the Filter Company at Battersea. Rain water in the case of towns usually runs over dirty roofs, and is not in a fit and sanitary condition for use without being filtered. Softening Water. When the water for use is very hard, and sufficient rain water cannot be obtained, it is advisable to soften all or part of the water by the " Porter-Clarke " or the Atkins Filter Company's process, the cost does not exceed id. per 1000 gallons. It is of the greatest service for laundry purposes where rain water cannot be obtained. Also for use in the hot water as well as F 66 WATER SUPPLY. heating apparatus, as by this means no deposit of any moment takes place in the boilers or circulating tanks, an economy is thus effected in the fuel used in heating the water. It is also a great advantage in cooking to have soft water both for meat and vegetables, and also for making tea, in large institu- tions this is a matter of some consideration. For hot water for baths and lavatories it is also to be commended, as it is much easier to wash clean and also because less soap is used. If the latter item is looked into it will be found that in such places the saving alone effected is material and worthy of careful attention. Much more might be said upon this subject, it would however be beyond the scope of this work to give more than an outline of the system pointing out the advantage gained by adopting it. Filtration of Water. When there is reason to suppose the only available water for domestic use is or may be contaminated from any local cause, it is necessary to filter all that is used. There are several simple and effective apparatus than can be procured for the purpose. The Atkins Filter Company are very successful in accomplishing this, it can be carried out at a moderate cost. The filters consist of cylinders perforated on the exterior, the interior being filled with charcoal. The whole of the water is passed directly through the filter cylinder and passes out through the holes in the casing to the water tank. For hospital and other WATER SUPPLY. 67 public places on a large scale there are several systems for carrying out this important thing. Lime and iron, as well as charcoal, are sometimes employed with much advantage. The "Silicated Carbon Filter Company" also make very good filters, they are placed either under the water tanks or at each of the draw- off cocks. They purify the water perfectly, and are made as to cost from 3/. to 55/., the latter being for 3-inch diameter pipes for large establishments, in this case the filters are fixed horizontally under the water tank, an extra tank being provided to receive and store the pure filtered water. These are most useful apparatus to adopt, especially in country districts where the quality of the water is doubtful. In order to obtain absolutely pure water for potable purposes, it is advisable after it has been passed through the filters above named, to boil it ; by this means all forms of life, if any exist, are destroyed. After it has been boiled it should be placed in shallow pans in the open air, but in posi- tions where it is protected from dirt and dust and where it cannot be contaminated by any noxious vapours. The water by this means is aerated and rendered more agreeable for drinking. Mr. Baldwin Latham, M. Inst. C.E., was the first to point out this, and to impress upon people the necessity of boiling all water intended to be used for drinking purposes. F 2 68 HEATING APPARATUS. CHAPTER V. HEATING APPARATUS. IN both large and small houses, as well as in public institutions, it is a great convenience to have the corridors and staircases, as well as some of the rooms heated by hot-water pipes. It adds not only to the comfort but to the health of delicate people. The apparatus for this purpose is preferably made separate from the ordinary hot-water supply. There are two systems, viz. " High" and "Low Pressure," in both cases hot water is circulated in iron pipes and is carried to any part of a building, the former system will be first described. High-pressure System. This is usually called after the inventor " the Perkins System," it consists of a coil of pipes heated in a furnace with "flow " pipes rising from the top of same supplying coils where required, and then descending by " return " pipes to the bottom of the coil placed within a fur- nace, the pipes are f-inch bore and are hermeti- cally sealed. At the highest point an "expansion chamber" is provided equal to about ^th of the total contents of the pipes and coils. The entire system of coils and pipes are filled up with water HEATING APPARATUS. 69 level with the bottom of this chamber, the pipes are then closed and as the water is heated in the coil within the furnace it rises in the " flow " pipe and descends when colder by gravity in the "return" pipes. No waste of water takes place. The pipes are of wrought iron J inch diameter in the bore and i^ inch diameter on the outside, they are capable of bearing a pressure of 300 Ib. per square inch and upwards. The quantity or length of the coil in the furnace is about 10 feet for every 100 feet run of -J-inch diameter pipe heated. The water contained is about I gallon for each 40 feet run of the pipes. The pipes are joined together by sockets 2\ inches long, with right and left hand screws, the end of one pipe is turned a V shape, it is bedded against a flat surface on the other pipe to which it is attached. They are very convenient for con- ducting about houses and other places, as from their small diameter they can be readily bent to pass round corners, and are also handy because they take up so little room, either when applied to coils contained in a case or when placed behind the skirting of a room. The quantity of pipe required to heat a room to 65 F. for every 54 cubic feet of space is one foot run, but where the rooms are subject to cold draughts of air and where the windows are numerous and large, about -j^th should be added to the above amount. It is essential to provide both cold-air inlets near the floors as well as ventilators at the top of the rooms. The object aimed at, is to supply a con- 70 HEATING APPARATUS. tinuous stream of fresh air heated to the tempe- rature required and to get rid of the vitiated air at the top of the room. It will be noted the sanitary condition of the rooms, &c., depends upon the careful attention to this simple fact, which is too often overlooked from want of knowledge. Low-pressure System. This system consists of a boiler, usually of the " Saddle " type, set in a furnace with 2, 3, or 4 inches diameter cast- iron socket pipes rising from the top of it. This is the " flow " pipe and must be taken in a continuous rise without any dip in it, supplying all the coils in cases, or the radiators, up to the highest coil, &c., required in the house, and returning to the bottom of the boiler by a " return " pipe. At the highest point an " expansion " or relief pipe is provided, these are open at the top, air valves are also fixed in suitable places to dispel the air in the pipes. It may be here noted to secure a perfect circulation in the pipes it is necessary to fix them on a gentle nsefrom the top of the boiler and falling equally to the bottom of it. The boilers are proportioned in size according to the diameter and the length of pipe to be heated. The most suitable size of pipes for a house is 2 or 3 inches diameter, and for large public places 4 inches diameter, the first-named size may be fitted up with wrought-iron pipes screwed together, the latter with cast-iron socket pipes. There is no pressure upon any part of the apparatus except HEATING APPARATUS. 71 that due to the small column of water between the top flow pipe and the bottom of the boiler. The same remarks as to the ventilation and the sanitary condition of the rooms equally apply in this system as in that of the high pressure previously described. The thing to be arrived at, is the perfect circula- tion of hot water through a system of pipes to the highest point where any place or room is to be heated, and the return of the colder water to the bottom of the boiler. The pipes are fitted with valves to regulate the heat at any required point, or to shut it off entirely. A small feed cistern is necessary, this should be placed slightly above the highest point of the pipes to -make good the waste of water, this how- ever is but small in quantity. The author prefers to heat all rooms and corridors by coils placed in cases, or by vertical radiators, and does not approve of pipes sunk under the floors. This is principally from a hygienic point of view, when pipes are placed in channels, dirt as well as dust is likely to collect on them, which becoming heated, causes both an unpleasant as well as unhealthy effluvia to arise in the rooms, contaminating the air and rendering it quite unfit for breathing. This is entirely got rid of by using coils in cases or radi- ators, fresh air may be admitted by a valve at the back of the coils or radiators, and to prevent the air of the room being made too dry, small pans of water may be placed at the top of each, the 72 HEATING APPARATUS. evaporation of which will impart a pleasant moisture to the air. It is not needful in this treatise to enter into any detail as to the construction of this apparatus, as they are usually carried out by firms specially skilled in such work. As a guide, however, it may be stated, the quantity of pipe 4 inches diameter to heat rooms to a temperature of 60 Fahr. for every 1000 cubic feet in the room, is about 12 feet run ; for 3 inches diameter pipes add -Jrd, and for 2 inches diameter double the quantity for 4 inches. It may be noted, the position of the building, the aspect, and other local circumstances must be taken into account, more especially the area of the windows in the rooms, and if exposed to a cold and unpro- tected aspect, in this instance about T Vth should be added to the above-named quantities. The Hot-air System. This cannot be recom- mended unless it is combined with the hot-water pipe system, it dries the air in a very unpleasant manner, and as it usually has to be introduced under the floor, the same if not a greater objection arises as in the cases of hot-water pipes when they are placed in trenches. The air and dust are not only dried but the latter is burned, stirred up, and driven into the room, and thus causes much unplea- sant irritation in the throat, it may be somewhat modified by placing small pans of water in certain parts of the room, by which means the air is moist- ened, the dust is prevented from rising, and the HEATING APPARATUS. 73 air made somewhat more pleasant to breathe. This remedy is only proposed to get over some of the difficulties which arise from the use of the hot-air system, when it has already been provided in a building. Steam Heating System. This is only applicable for hospitals, hotels, or other large public institutions. The steam is obtained from one of the boilers used for other purposes of the establishment. A steam pipe of a size proportioned to the number and size of the coils or radiators to be heated is taken to the various levels and floors where they are to be placed. It is advisable to use radiators for this purpose, they do not require casing (except in lunatic asylums), the steam passes through each heater and then back from their base to a main pipe leading to the boiler. The pipes must not be rigidly held at any part, when placed horizontally they should rest on small rollers carried on cast- iron chairs. At suitable points expansion joints should be provided ; where the direction of the pipe is changed, copper bends may be employed. As a rule the steam supply main is not required larger than 2 inches diameter, except in the case of very large places. When they do not exceed the above size, wrought-iron steam tube may be em- ployed, they should be fixed in long lengths so as to avoid joints, which are possible points of leakage. When the main pipe exceeds the above size it should be made of solid drawn copper and 74 HEATING APPARATUS. flanged together. To allow expansion to take place in the pipes, sliding joints of gun-metal may be used, or disc or balloon-shaped joints made of copper. In all cases the pipes must be kept quite clear of water, to ensure this they should be covered with non-conducting composition. Par- ticular attention must be paid to the ventilation of the corridors and staircases, as well as the rooms which are to be heated. Cold air may be ad- mitted behind the radiators rather above the floor level, and at or near the ceiling ample ventilation must be afforded. The necessity for ventilation is greater in the case of steam heating than in any other system. It is a very agreeable heat when properly carried out and the ventilation well at- tended to. As to the cost of heating, there is very little difference between this and the hot-water system, on the whole it may be considered cheaper. Only low-pressure steam is required. Water pans may be provided at some of the radiators if the air seems too dry, this difficulty does not, however, often take place with heating on this system. Heating Rooms by Gas Fires. This cannot be recommended from a hygienic point of view, even when the room is well supplied with fresh air and ample top ventilation the atmosphere is rendered very impure for breathing. When only a small amount of warmth is required at night for a bed- room, a small hot water circulating apparatus can HEATING APPARATUS. 75 be heated by gas in another room and the pipes conducted from and to the small boiler. The room in which the boiler is placed must be amply ventilated. To obtain a gentle heat in a small room George's " Calorigen," made by Messrs. Farwig & Co., London, will be found efficient. This apparatus is arranged in such a manner that none of the fumes of combustion from the gas can get into the room, the supply of air for the gas is taken direct from the outside of the house and the fumes from the gas are also taken direct to the outside. Cold air flows in from the outside, passing through a copper coil which is surrounded by the heat from the gas, and is then discharged into the room as pure air gently heated. 76 SWIMMING BATHS. CHAPTER VI. VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS AND DETACHED BUILDINGS. SWIMMING BATHS. THESE are usually only required in large public schools and like institutions, and in other instances are provided by Corporations or other public bodies. The leading points to consider in reference to these will be the means of ensuring that they are in a perfectly sanitary condition. Of late years some fine places of this kind have been constructed where these matters have as a rule received care- ful attention. A bath suitable for a large establish- ment should contain from 40,000 to 60,000 gallons of water, and should vary from I foot 6 inches deep at one end to 6 to 6 feet 6 inches at the other. It should be lined with white glazed bricks set in cement, both at the side and end walls as well as the bottom. It should be heated by hot water circulating pipes, which should be capable of raising the temperature to at least 65 Fahr., the water should be allowed to flow out in a fixed quantity at one end, fresh water being admitted at the other. The outlet for the waste water must be SWIMMING BATHS. 77 well trapped and absolutely disconnected from any drain pipe. The walls of the building should be lined with white glazed bricks set in cement, the roof should be left open to the slate boards. A glazed lantern ventilator should be provided, run- ning the whole length of the bath to afford good light, and also for the purpose of top ventilation, part of the sashes of the lantern should be made to swing, and be operated from the floor level by simultaneous opening and closing gear. Fresh- air inlets must be provided in the side walls near the floor. The principals of the roof should be wrought iron, and all the timbers should either be stained and varnished, or painted and varnished. Suitable dressing rooms should be provided round the bath, the floors of which may be paved with tiles, and either wood grids or india-rubber mats, provided for the bathers to stand on. The water-closets, &c., should be placed in an adjoining building, and ventilated separately. A lobby should separate them from the bath. Arrangements should be made for entirely emptying the bath when re- quired. The quantity of fresh water to be ad- mitted, and the corresponding amount to be run off, must be regulated by the number of people using the bath. The times for running out all the water will also mainly depend upon this. This of necessity requires adjustment to suit the particular case. As regards the apparatus for heating the water, information will be found in the author's 78 DAIRIES. book named at p. 97. It will be noted that the materials and construction of the room as well as the bath itself readily admits of easy cleaning. This is a most essential thing, and must have regular and careful attention. It may be men- tioned, that although the place requires proper and ample ventilation, all draughts should be carefully avoided. Turkish Baths are of such a special character, and being very seldom attached to an ordinary dwelling or recent public institution, it has not been thought essential to enter into the matter. It may, however, be stated, that perfect sanitary condition may be assured by constructing the rooms in the manner described for other depart- ments, and attending to the ventilation, drainage, and the disposal of waste water as detailed. DAIRIES AND LAUNDRIES. These departments are usually only attached to large establishments ; there are many points to which attention should be directed to ensure their healthy construction and perfect sanitary condition. Dairies. The walls should be lined with glazed tiles, the floor may be paved with coloured tiles, the shelves should be fitted up with slate slabs. Ample means of washing down with water should LAUNDRIES. 79 be provided. It is preferable that no gully should be placed inside the house in case of any effluvia arising from it from want of attention to its clean- liness. Fresh-air inlets should be provided near the floor and ventilators near the ceiling, all of which should be capable of adjustment. The position of these places should be carefully chosen as regards their aspect, also that they are placed where no impure air can get into the rooms and so contaminate the milk and butter, &c. The churning and butter-making department should be in a separate room, hot and cold water should be laid on in each room ; the former may be heated in a small boiler placed outside the house. The milk-cans and other vessels used should be washed outside in an open shed. Laundries. These are provided in most country houses of any size, as well as at public institutions. They will be dealt with in regard to their proper sanitary arrangements as to ventilation, drainage, &c. The building should be placed away from the house, and in a position where free ventilation can be obtained without the risk of any injurious vapours or bad air entering the rooms. The laundry should contain two rooms, and should preferably have an open roof provided with a lantern light and ventilator. The walls may be built with glazed bricks, or in stock bricks covered with glazed tiles. The roof should be boarded, and all the timbers stained and varnished. The 8o LAUNDRIES. floor should be paved with Stuart's Patent Grano- lithic Concrete, it should be laid to proper falls -to channels to take off the waste water. The author does not, as a rule, advise gullies to be placed in the washing room, for the reason before stated. Wood grids should be provided at the front of the washing troughs for the washers to stand on and so enable them to keep their feet dry. The troughs should be made of deal, lined with copper, and fitted with waste plugs and pipes, they should be provided with a patent lead syphon or trap placed directly under each trough. Each discharge pipe should be 2 inches diameter, and connected into one waste pipe, and this should be carried through the wall and discharged over trapped gullies from which the waste water should be conveyed in stone- ware pipes to a soak-away as before described. Each trough should be fitted with hot and cold water pipes and cocks. If possible, rain water should be laid on as well as the ordinary cold sup- ply. In large laundries, when the troughs are used solely for cold water they are made of slate slabs I inch thick fitted up in the same manner as be- fore, except that only the cold-water service must be attached to them. Fresh-air inlets must be provided and placed rather above the floor, as well as ventilators near the roof, or when there is a lantern as before named, it can be used for this purpose. It will be noted, there is nothing in this room constructed with any porous material, and so all DISINFECTING CLOTHES. 81 parts can be readily washed with water and the vapour got rid of. The Drying and Ironing Room. This may be constructed as regards the walls and roof as before, the flooring should be of oak boards grooved and tongued. In large laundries a steam drying cup- board or stove is provided. The ventilation of the room may be the same as before. No large amount of water is required for cleaning this room. The Machinery and Apparatus are not touched upon here, as only sanitary matters are dealt with. Any one requiring detailed information of the apparatus, should refer to the author's books named at p. 97 where he will find the fullest technical detail suitable both for small as well as large establish- ments. DISINFECTING CLOTHES, LINEN, ETC., AT HOSPITALS, ASYLUMS, ETC. In connection with the laundry, but entirely separated from it, isolated rooms should be pro- vided where this necessary sanitary process can be safely carried out. Two rooms are required, one to receive the foul linen and one for that purified, these rooms must be kept absolutely distinct. The linen, &c., to be disinfected should be placed in an iron truck closely covered in, and run G 82 DISINFECTING CLOTHES. into the first chamber, where it is placed in a specially made apparatus, and treated with steam. One end of this apparatus projects through the wall into the purified linen and clothes room, it is provided with air-tight covers at both ends, when the process is complete, the cover at the end before named is removed and the clean linen, or clothes, &c., taken out. This plan ensures the avoidance of all danger of infection between the foul and the purified materials. The process occupies about i to \\ hour. The truck or van for the purpose of taking away the disinfected things must be entirely separate from the one which brings the foul things, and as a provision to ensure that they are never in contact, the truck and vans should be stored, when not in use, in entirely separate sheds. The foul linen truck, &c., should be purified every time it has been used, before it receives any other goods. The interior of the building should be lined with glazed bricks, and the floor laid with ashphalte or other impervious material. The roof should be provided with ample means of ventilation. Fresh-air inlets should also be provided near the floor level. The window sashes should be of iron and glazed with Hartley's thick rough plate. Hot and cold water should be laid on, part of the water should be made to run into a small tank containing disinfectants, and from this a supply may be taken as required. The bedding, mattresses, blankets and other things infected may also be purified here, special arrange- ments are made in the apparatus for this purpose. STABLE DRAINAGE. 83 The process, as before named, is carried out by steam of high pressure of about 40 Ib. per square inch, it has been found that this is a most perfect disin- fectant, a moist heat of 250 to 260 Fahr. is ob- tained, which effectually destroys all the germs of disease and does not in any way injure the goods operated on. Clothing, rugs, carpets, &c., at asylums can also be disinfected, and cleansed in this apparatus, without doing them any injury. The most particular attention is directed to this important apparatus, as upon its careful working may depend the health of the inmates of the place. It is unfortunately in some instances left to careless workmen, who when not properly supervised, often carry out the work of disinfecting things in a very negligent manner. In the author's book on " Public Institutions," before named, full technical details as to construc- tion and as to the apparatus will be found. STABLE, COW-HOUSE, AND PIGGERY DRAINAGE. With regard to the drainage of these places, which are generally connected with large houses and public institutions, it should, as before stated at p. 17, be kept entirely separate and be run into a separate cesspool or receiver. This should be a brickwork construction, rendered with cement upon the inside, and of sufficient capacity to take G 2 84 STABLE DRAINAGE. about six weeks' sewage. It should be provided with ventilating and fresh-air pipes, and the liquid should be pumped out about once in two weeks and the solid matter removed as may be found necessary. The drains from the stable, &c., should be well trapped and disconnected from the main- drain pipe, outside their respective buildings. It need hardly be added, the contents of this cesspool is a very valuable manure for the land. Bear in mind drainage from any of these places should never be connected either with any of the drains from the house or with its cesspool. Internal Arrangements of the above places. The flooring, walls, and ventilation of these places require attention in order to keep them in a perfectly healthy and sanitary state. The floor of each stall should be laid to a good fall and be paved with Stuart's Patent Granolithic Paving, this forms an impervious and dry floor and is easily cleaned. The gullies to take off water, &c., should be well trapped, and be fitted with loose grids under the grating to receive the dirt and straw. The author uses a special trap of his own design. Fresh-air inlets should be provided near the floor, and ventilator at the top of the walls near the ceilings. This applies to all the places named, it often happens that little or no ventilation is provided, and no care taken to render these places healthy for the animals or the people who have to attend them. SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 8; CHAPTER VII. SUNDRY SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENCES, ETC. THE Site of a house when it can be chosen should be on high ground compared with the surrounding place, if this cannot be obtained, the boards of the lower floor should be placed not less than 1 2 to 24 inches above the ground line. The walls, especially when built on clay soils, or gravel overlying clay, should rest on Portland cement concrete at least 24 inches thick, the whole of the area under the house should be levelled and covered with concrete either the same thickness or at least 1 6 to 18 inches thick. A damp-proof course should be provided all round the walls to prevent any damp rising from the ground. Drain pipes should be laid all round the house, outside the concrete foundation, to carry away all water. When these means are adopted a perfectly dry house can be ensured, it must be remembered that wet soil near the site or under the house is very injurious to health, and that water underlying on a clay or other impervious soil, when the top is gravel or other open soil, is also most injurious and dangerous to health. When the house must have cellars constructed under it, 86 SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. the outer part of the walls that are sunk in the earth, must be protected by a dry area all round them, this should not be less than 9 inches thick and be built in cement and well ventilated, prefer- ably the space between the area walls and those of the house should not be less than 12 to 14 inches. At the top of the area wall it may be covered by open iron gratings to admit the air freely, a portion of them should be made to open to give facility for cleaning out when necessary. In the case of Old Buildings an examination should be made to see if a dry area has been pro- vided, and also to discover if the entire area under the house has been properly concreted, much illness may arise in a dwelling from damp and vapour rising from the foundation and the surrounding earth. Particular attention is directed to this most important matter. Surface Water should be conveyed away from the house, and care taken to ensure it does not sink into the foundations. In the case of wet soils, a system of under drainage should be carried out, as described at p. 85. Rain water should not be stored in tanks under the house, there is, however, no objection to under- ground tanks placed some distance from the house provided they are made perfectly tight, and are properly ventilated. For the system for storage of rain water, see p. 64. SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 87 Cellars. The ground under the floors should be sealed with fine cement concrete at least 12 inches thick and be covered with impervious paving. It is desirable to cellar the whole of the under part of a house when possible to do so. No drain pipes must be placed in the cellars and no opening must be made in the side walls for the outlet of water. Ventilators must be provided near the ceiling. The walls should be rendered in cement and lime- whited. The ceilings should be lathed and plastered in the usual manner. No outer walls in any part of a house should be less than 14 inches or \\ brick thick, as it is im- possible otherwise to ensure dry and healthy rooms. All portions of the walls below the ground line should be built in Portland cement, it is advisable to render the exterior faces at this portion with cement, and thus shut out moisture. When the house is located in a very exposed situation, espe- cially if open to the south and south-west winds, the exterior of the walls above the foundation should also be cemented to ensure dry rooms, as with heavy winds the rain is often driven through the walls. The Roofing of Residences. This is a matter that does not in many cases receive proper attention, it is most essential to ensure a warm and weather- tight house that the roof should be constructed in the following manner. The roof frames or trusses should be provided with boards not less than 88 SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. I inch thick, grooved and tongued, these should be securely nailed to the rafters of the roof. On the boards, inodorous roofing felt should be laid, it must be well lapped at the joints, and nailed to them by copper nails. The covering should be slates, laid with a good lap, and each slate secured by two copper nails, the ridge should be a slateoroll and saddle-back, and the hips the same. When a lantern or dormer of any description is provided, great care should be used in fixing proper seatings, aprons, and flashing to keep out the weather, and properly carry the water away. The Walls of the Rooms should be finished in Ke'en's or Parian cement, which gives a hard and polished surface, and being impervious, prevents the absorption of damp and vapour. Where expense is not an object they should be afterwards painted, they are thus rendered non-absorbent and no dirt can lodge on them. Preferably the plastering of walls of all living rooms should be painted. As, however, it is a favourite practice to cover them with paper, it is essential that all the old papers (if any) should be absolutely removed from the walls, and that the plastershould.be made good where required, and clearcoled and properly prepared before putting on the paper. The author has several times removed as many as seven or eight papers from the walls of a room before he arrived at the face of the plastering It need hardly be stated the rooms were not in a SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 89 proper condition for habitation. In the case of houses of a small class it is usually found that there is a large collection of vermin between the papers. The paste should be freshly made and perfectly sweet ; this requires carefully looking into, to ensure that it is properly carried out, as it must be borne in mind, that paste in a decomposed condition is most injurious to the health of the inmates of a residence. In the case of nurseries or invalids' rooms, if the walls are covered with paper, it is ad- visable to varnish them with two coats, and paint the ceiling so that the whole may be easily and ex- peditiously cleaned, at least once or twice per year. Green coloured papers should, as a rule, be avoided on account of the arsenic on their surface, it need hardly be said this is very poisonous, in many cases the arsenic on the surface of the paper is blown off into the room. Paper should never be hung on canvas, as dirt and dust are harboured under it. In the case of Infirmaries and Hospitals, very few if any mouldings either in the plaster work or in the joinery should be permitted, as the germs of disease are, in the opinion of many, liable to lodge in them and so extend it to new patients. The floors of these institutions should be of oak battens grooved and tongued and closely jointed. The Floors. To ensure a perfectly clean and sanitary floor, it should either be laid with oak 90 SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. wainscot (in narrow boards), and be well caulked at the joints, or a good yellow deal floor may be laid, and then covered with thin oak parquet. Carpets should not entirely cover the room, but should be laid clear of all heavy furniture so as to be readily taken up to beat and cleanse them. If parquet is not used, oilcloth is the next best thing to cover the floor with, as this is easily cleaned, and does not absorb the dirt. Joinery, &c. The mouldings and all parts of the woodwork as well as the furniture should be well studied to prevent as much as possible, the lodge- ment of dust and dirt, bear in mind this leads to disease, and every means should be taken to avoid it. It is advisable, to ensure perfect cleanliness, that all painted or stained woodwork should be varnished at least two coats. A II Partitions between the rooms and passages, &c., should be constructed of brickwork, either 9 or 4j inches thick, the latter is the most used in dwellings of ordinary size, it is called " brick nogging " and is constructed with a skeleton timber framing 4^ inches thick filled on with brickwork set in cement. Partitions formed of woodwork and lath and plaster should not be allowed, it is almost im- possible to keep a house in a perfectly sanitary con- dition when this style of construction is employed, dust and dirt as well as vermin are harboured. Any SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 91 one building a new house should insist upon the before-named construction being carried out. Larders and Pantries. The position of these should be carefully chosen to ensure that they are not placed where any deleterious smell can arise, or where impure air of any kind can enter the windows and so taint the food. The neglect which this essential matter receives from the ordinary builder is almost inconceivable in these enlightened times. The health of the inmates of a house, &c., may be seriously affected by the insanitary state of these places. Their proper ventilation should have attention. Air inlets as well as outlets should be provided, the walls should be lined with glazed tiles, the roof or ceiling may be covered in the same manner, or it may be built with glazed bricks. The slabs or shelves should be made of slate, which is also a suitable material, being impervious, to pave the floors with, the slabs being set in cement. Water-closets. The position of these should have careful consideration in designing a house, some details have been already alluded to, but at the risk of some repetition, further discussion of this matter may be of some advantage. In de- signing a new residence, water-closets should be provided on the ground floor, and on one of the upper floors, in each case they must be placed 92 SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. next an outer wall and be arranged one above the other, using one soil pipe common to all of them, or they may be separately discharged into a pipe attached to each. A lobby should be provided between the water-closet room and the house, this must be permanently ventilated, and is for the purpose of preventing any effluvia (should it arise) from the closet from getting into the house. Good light as well as ventilation direct from the outer air must always be provided, a partially dark room or one placed where it cannot be directly lighted from the outside of the house, should not on any account be permitted. The top of the window should be placed near to the ceiling, it should be of good size and afford ample light. The fresh-air inlet should also be near the door. Tobin's patent tubes may be used for this purpose. Bear in mind, that in addition to the window a permanent ventilator must be provided, a small current of fresh air should always be passing through a' water-closet, it is thus kept in a sweet and perfectly sanitary state. Servants' Water-closets should always be placed outside the house and in a position where no nuisance can arise by effluvia getting into any window of the house, especially the larder or any place where food is stored. The Water-closets for Hospitals and other Public Institutions are usually arranged one above the SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 93 other in a block by themselves, communication being made by short corridors or lobbies as above described. The number to be provided in propor- tion to the inmates, is settled in the case of Lunatic Asylums, by the Commissioners of Lunacy. Underground Rooms should be avoided when- ever possible, and bed-rooms in this position should never be permitted as in such a position they are not fit for habitation. Bath Rooms, Lavatories, &c. The best position and arrangements for these have been fully dis- cussed under their respective heads. Ventilating Shafts. In many cases it is necessary to provide these, which should be carried up with the building, they must be smoothly plastered in- side, and must not be built at any part with sharp angles. Easy bends and curves are absolutely necessary where the direction of the shaft has to be altered. Bear in mind, air, gas, or vapour will not readily pass unless an easy passage is provided. If the shaft is square in shape the corners must be rounded to ensure a smooth and even passage for the air, &c. The ventilation of all rooms, especially wards, &c., named before should have careful attention ; they should be provided with fresh-air inlets, which in towns should be taken from a point about 1 5 to 20 feet above the ground line, and filtered through 94 SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. fine copper- wire gauze and 'wool before it is allowed to enter the room. Ventilators should be provided at or near the ceiling, either communicating with an extract shaft, or when possible direct with the open air. Each staircase should be provided with top ventilation, in some instances it is advisable to keep a small jet of gas burning at the base of the outlet shaft, in order to induce a slight vacuum and create an upward draught. Bed-rooms should always be provided with a fire-place to afford a constant means of ventilation. The Ventilation of a Residence. It is most im- portant that this should be carried out in a proper systematic manner, from a hygienic point of view, as well as for the comfort of the inmates. It is quite possible to obtain good ventilation without being troubled with draughts, which are very dis- tressing, especially to invalids. In cases within the author's knowledge this has been successfully carried out in private houses by very simple means, and as it has proved successful in working, a description of the system is here given by the courtesy of Mr. W. Schonheyder, C.E., the designer. It may be first stated the houses are heated by hot-water apparatus, open fires are not used in any part except in the kitchen. A gas stove could be employed here instead of a coal fire if desired. Cold fresh air is taken from the outside of the house, a tube should be carried up at least 6 feet SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 95 above the ground for the purpose of obtaining clean and pure air, which should be filtered through copper gauze strainers and then through wool, in order to take out all the dirt and other impure matter. Each of these intakes of fresh air is con- nected with a chamber under the ground floor in which are placed hot water heating pipes. At a suitable spot an inlet valve, capable of adjustment is provided in the floor, the fresh air thus comes into the room warmed to any desired temperature. The warm air ascends to the top of the room because it is lighter than the colder air of the room, the outlet for the foul air from the room is either by means of the chimney (where there is a fire-place) or by a tube in connection with an extract flue, the mouth or opening of this tube should be placed near the floor level. The air is warmed at the entrance hall and rises from the ground floor up the staircase and into the upper rooms of the house, passing out at the chimneys in the rooms or by means of extract flues. The heating coils may be repeated under any room in the upper floor which requires heating. It is simple in operation, very easy to manage, and is most effective in warming and ventilating a house. The system can be applied to wards of hospitals and other public rooms. No cold draughts of air are felt at any part of the resi- dence. Of course large establishments have to be treated specially, the outline here given is only intended to show its suitability for warming and 96 SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. ventilating ordinary residences. It need hardly be pointed out much trouble is saved in looking after fires and much deposition of dirt is prevented, and also labour in lighting fires and cleaning up the place, and the visits of thes weep are dispensed with. It is specially adapted for heating the waiting, con- sulting and operating rooms for dentists or surgeons, as well as any place where people have to wait and require a well ventilated as well as a warm room. The system works automatically in each room or place and does not require the services of an attendant to look after any part beyond the furnace of the heating apparatus, which requires very little attention. It commends itself to many on account of the economy it effects in fuel in heating places in the winter. In this system the residence is heated by night as well as by day. Gas Fittings. Rooms and other places to be lighted should be provided with ventilating tubes carried between the ceiling and the upper floor and taken through the outer walls into the open air. Cowls or valves should be fitted to prevent any back draught It is not intended to enter into technical detail in reference to the proper system of gas fitting as it would be beyond the scope of this book. It may, however, be stated that for large rooms and wards of hospitals, &c., it is advisable to light them with Sugg's patent sun- lights placed near the ceiling, as by this means not only is an efficient light obtained, but the rooms SANITARY ARRANGEMENTS. 97 are thus properly ventilated. Any one requiring further technical information on this subject should refer to the author's books on ' Water Supply and Drainage/ and ( The Engineering and Sanitary Appliances of Public Institutions.' * The Construction of a House, to sum up, should be so arranged as to secure perfect dryness of the foundations, walls, and roofing. The condition of the basement should have the greatest attention as from the cellars a good portion of the air of the residence is often drawn. Good light, with win- dows of ample size, is of the greatest importance. Whenever possible the living rooms as well as the bed-rooms should face a warm and cheerful aspect, sheltered, however, from heavy winds and tempestuous weather. The great essentials to remember to secure a healthy residence, are perfect dryness, good air and thorough ventilation, ample light, a cheerful and well protected situation, a good water supply, and carefully designed drainage, with perfect sanitary appliances, situated and constructed in the manner detailed in preceding chapters. ' Water Supply and Drainage,' by F. Colyer, M. Inst. C.E. E. and F. N. Spon, London. ' The Engineering of Public Institutions,' by F. Colyer, M. Inst. C.E. E. and F. N. Spon, London. H 98 ARRANGEMENT OF INSTITUTIONS. CONSTRUCTIVE ARRANGEMENTS OF PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. This is too large a matter to treat, and is also beyond the scope of the book. Most of the details noted for residences are applicable to small hospitals and institutions also. To examine into the condi- tion of large establishments, the services of special skilled professional men are necessary. Most if not all of the chief points are entered into in the author's book named at p. 97, to which the reader requiring any further information is referred. CLEANSING OF DRAINS. 99 CHAPTER VIII CLEANSING OF DRAINS, RECEIVERS, AND OTHER SANITARY MATTERS OF A RESIDENCE, ETC. THE sanitary condition of residences very largely depends upon proper attention to, and cleansing all the apparatus and appliances, as well as peri- odical examination into the state of the drain pipes. Instructions will now be given as to the best manner of carrying out this essential work. Water-closet Apparatus^ &c. The author ad- vises that all these should be examined and cleansed especially on the under side, where they are not exposed to view, at least once per month, if oftener so much the better. When they are fitted up in the manner described at p. 36, this is a very easy thing and not at all troublesome. It ensures that they are in a perfectly sanitary state and that no evil can arise from dirt and effluvia out of sight, although nearly always apparent to the sense of smell. When slops are aHowed to be poured down the water-closets it often happens that part of it runs over into the lead safing or tray under the closet, from which, if it does not get away freely, much nuisance may arise as well as injury to health. H 2 ioo CLEANSING OF DRAINS. Oiitside Water-closets. These should be exam- ined and well washed out, this is a department too often neglected, principally because it usually has very little supervision from superiors about a place, and so very often suffers from the terrible neglect of those whose duty it is to attend to them. As these closets are generally used by those who are in attendance in the house, they may not only be seized with illness, but may also communicate it to the household generally. If even they escape, the bad air generated in them may get carried through the windows into the house and so dreadful mis- chief may ensue. The Under Side of Baths and their Fittings should also receive attention. An overflow of water, soapy or otherwise, may have taken place and not have been carried away by the waste pipe at the lead safing or tray. Added to this, the dust that is sure to gather and adhere to all parts out of sight, should be removed. It must be remembered that a bath room and its apparatus should always be kept in a perfectly sanitary condition, and that otherwise it may prove a very dangerous appliance in a house or public institution, rather than a means of ensuring good health. All Sinks, whether for slops, or receivers, and drains, where water is drawn, as well as those at the scullery, housemaid's and butler's rooms, should have particular attention paid them. The traps CLEANSING OF DRAINS. 101 and discharge pipes should be well flushed out and cleansed, and all parts of the sinks on the upper as well as the lower parts kept absolutely clean. Disinfecting fluid should be run through all the sinks, receivers, and pipes, at least once per week. The Under Side of Lavatories, as well as their waste pipes, should also have attention in the same manner as described above. Exterior Drain and Sewer Pipes, and Dis- connecting Traps, &c. The fat receiver at the scullery should be opened and cleaned out once per week at least, the trap and the mouth of the outlet pipe into the drain pipes should be cleared by means of the inspection pipe, or "sweeping eye." The soil pipe receiver and disconnecting chamber should be cleaned twice per month. The Inspection Boxes should be opened about every six to eight weeks, examined and washed out, and the cleaning tools passed up each way say four to six times per year ; unless experience proves in special cases that it should be done oftener. Cesspool. If the sewage from the soil pipes and the scullery or kitchen sinks is taken into a cess- pool, the cover should be opened say once per month to see what condition it is in. If no suit- able overflow can be obtained, it should be pumped out each two weeks and spread over the land or 102 CLEANSING OF DRAINS. garden ground, the latter being prepared to receive it. It should be run into trenches, and covered over with mould. When the cesspools are large, they should be pumped into a receiver on wheels, which is hermetically sealed, this is described at p. 30. Water Tanks. All tanks, together with their waste and overflow pipes, should be cleaned out every four or five weeks. They should be exa- mined from time to time to see if any deposit has taken place. At the same time the pipes, valves, and other fittings should be examined and cleaned. NOTE that the under part of the wood cover should always be cleaned at the same time. Since going to press, London and elsewhere has been threatened with a serious outbreak of cholera. As it has been clearly proved that this dreadful scourge is principally caused by dirt and the in- sanitary condition of drainage and the appliances connected therewith, as well as the imperfect state of the water supply, too much stress cannot be laid upon the absolute necessity of careful and in- telligent attention to the recommendations con- tained in this book, and more especially the remarks in this chapter as to the cleansing and examination, also as to the proper condition of all sanitary appliances, as well as the absolutely pure condition of the water supply. ELECTRIC LIGHT. 103 CHAPTER IX. ELECTRIC LIGHT, LABOUR-SAVING APPLIANCES, FIRE APPLIANCES, SPEAKING TUBES, ETC. IN this book nearly all the principal matters have been treated that in any way concern either medical men or any student, as far as regards the hygienic and sanitary arrangements and condition of resi- dences, &c. The other general fittings and appli- ances have not been entered into in detail, because they do not strictly come within the scope of the book. At the same time there are a few things that much contribute to the comfort as well as the health of the inmates, amongst which the following may be with advantage named. THE ELECTRIC LIGHT. In laying out a new place it is well worth con- sideration if this valuable means of illumination cannot be employed with advantage. Great faci- lities are now given in London and other large cities and towns by the Electric Supply Corporations for obtaining the power from the cables laid in the public footways. The amount of electricity used 104 ELECTRIC LIGHT. is measured by a meter, and so no more is paid for than is actually taken. The great advantage, as far as the health of the inmates of a residence is concerned, in the use of the electric light is, that the air of the room or place lighted is not in any way contaminated or heated by it a better, more suitable, and also a more steady light for reading is assured. There is also great convenience in lighting up any part, as well as perfect safety on account of not requiring matches, or other lights. It is much more cleanly, as no dirt or deposit takes place in any part of the room. The fire risk is materially reduced as there is neither danger from explosion or from any linen or other fabric that may come into contact with it. In the event of a lamp breaking the light immediately goes out. There is absolutely no danger from the wires or any other part of the apparatus, as every possible provision is taken to avoid it. In speaking of this light and the advantage gained by its use, the hygienic gain has only been treated. The question of cost does not enter into the present con- sideration, it may, however, be stated that this does not exceed that of the same amount of light de- rived from gas at about 4^. to 4s. ^d. per 1000 cubic feet. Electric Light in Piiblic Institutions. There is no doubt from a sanitary point of view as well as con- venience and economy, that the application of this ELECTRIC POWER. 105 light to the above places is of the greatest possible advantage. This is especially apparent in the lighting of large wards, meeting rooms, chapels, &c., because it can be instantly lighted and extinguished, and in the event of a fire taking place, it does not help to increase it in the way that gas would do. It must also be remembered there is much less difficulty in ensuring the proper ventilation of the rooms, which is a great desideratum as far as the health and the comfort of the visitors are concerned, this absence of heat and noxious vapours is of the greatest advantage. Incandescent lamps are the most suitable for internal lighting, arc lamps of moderate power may be used for the exterior lighting. Unless an Electric Lighting Co.'s cable is sufficiently near to supply the power at a moderate cost, in the large establishments under consideration it is usual and is generally found more economical to provide the necessary machinery for producing the electric current. Electric Power may be employed with much advantage in residences and public institutions, and much saving of labour effected in driving the following machines, viz. : sewing machines for tailors, boot-makers, &c. ; boot cleaning, bottle washing, grinding up drugs in mortars ; laundry machinery, bakery machines, and many other purposes. It may also be applied for heating irons for laundry work, boiling water, and doing 106 FIRE SAFETY APPLIANCES. light cooking, such as the warming of food, or milk at night, when no fire is available. It can be applied as power to drive pumps for small water supplies, as well as for attaching to cranes and other like apparatus for raising heavy loads. Enough has been said as to the main purposes to which this valuable power can be applied, further detail cannot be entered into. Ventilation, &c., by Electric Power. Fans may be driven for extracting the foul air from rooms, wards, and other places, and to create a current of air in them, these may be driven by electric power. There are many other purposes to which the power may also be applied not only with great advantage but with economy. This matter is treated in technical detail in the author's books before named. FIRE SAFETY APPLIANCES. This is a most important thing, and should have the greatest possible attention, as the lives of the inmates of a large place may depend upon the careful manner in which this has been devised, an outline will be given of a system suitable either to a large residence or a public institution. Fire Mains should be provided in suitable posi- tions in the building, they must be fitted with valves or hydrants, screwed at the nose to take the 2j inches diameter standard fire brigade thread FIRE SAFETY APPLIANCES. 107 union hose pipes, and copper nozzle pipes should be hung upon a board and placed near these. The ;^ water should be obtained from a separate tank, whenever it is possible to provide one. For large rooms, perforated pipes or " sprinklers " may be provided, in the event of a fire breaking out the place may be deluged with water at once, by simply turning on a cock. Buckets of Water should be placed at every land- ing on the staircase, as well as in some of the rooms. In order to ensure that these are kept fully charged, and that the water is clean, the author advises the adoption of the following. 1. To hang the buckets at about 5 feet 6 inches from the floor, to give facility for inspection, as at this height the hand can be dipped into them, and the level of the water ascertained. 2. To have the water changed at the end of every week, this ensures attention to the quantity in the buckets, and that the water is fresh, and in a perfectly sanitary condition. 3. To unfold all the hose, fix it on the respective hydrants and pass water through it, once every three or four weeks, this also gives an opportunity to have a fire drill of the attendants. In all large well ordered establishments it is now usual to instruct a certain portion of the attendants for the purpose of extinguishing an outbreak of fire that may take place, in several instances more serious damage has thus been prevented. Messrs. Shand, Mason, & Co. supply a very loS FIRE SAFETY APPLIANCES. neat arrangement for hose, &c. It consists of a bracket attached to the wall of a building on which by means of turned pins, a cradle of wrought iron swings. The hose is folded up longitudinally and rests on this cradle, the bottom portion being attached to the fire-cock which is placed a short distance above it ; the last portion has the nozzle attached. In the event of fire, the bracket is swung out, and the hose pulled out as required. A hand brigade portable pump, made by Messrs. Shand, Mason, & Co., may also be placed in the halls or corridors of large residences or institutions, this may be put near the buckets before named. These machines have often rendered very good service, when they have been used at the first out- break of a fire, and thus a serious conflagration has often been prevented. The firm above named deserve every commendation for the very valuable fire appliances they have introduced. A full detailed description of their Steam Fire Engines will be found in the author's book on ' Pumping.'* In the case of large establishments, a hose cart, or reel, mounted on wheels, which is also made by the above firm, is found a very useful appliance. Tanks for use in case of Fire, When the build- ings of a public institution are not of sufficient height to give a proper pressure on the fire hose, a tank should be erected on iron framing in a * 'Pumps and Pumping,' by F. Colyer, M. Inst. C.E. E. & F. N. Spon, London. FIRE SAFETY APPLIANCES. 109 sufficiently elevated position to afford an adequate pressure for reaching the highest parts of the place. Hose pipe often fails to extinguish even a small outbreak of fire because there is not sufficient force to give the necessary stream of water. Iron Stairs, &c. These should be provided outside the walls of the house, they should be made entirely of iron, the treads should be at least 3 feet 3 inches wide and the risers not more than 6 to 7 inches high. A hand-rail of iron should be pro- vided, it should stand 3 feet 8 inches above the treads of the stairs. These stairs should be con- structed in stages, to avoid any very long lengths, as in the event of any one slipping they would be caught at the next stage and so prevented from falling down any considerable height. Fire Escapes. These should be provided also at certain parts of the place, they are an efficient means for removing invalids or injured people who could not use the outside iron stairs. There are several very efficient apparatus in use constructed by the leading fire-engine firms, to which no detailed allusion is necessary. THE HIGH-PRESSURE FIRE-MAIN COMPANY, LIMITED. Since the above remarks upon fire ap- pliances were written, this Company have been exhi- biting their apparatus. The author was present at the Firemen's Exhibition, when a 25 gallon portable i io FIRE SAFETY APPLIANCES. machine was tested to deliver at 50 Ib. pressure through a T 3 g-inch nozzle, horizontally 60 feet, verti- cally 35 feet. It appears to be most efficient and reliable in its action, and well suited for the purpose for which it is designed. The apparatus may be placed in or outside the building, as structural or architectural reasons may necessitate, and has already been applied at the Army and Navy Stores, Victoria Street, as well as the Science and Art Department, South Kensington, where the air reservoirs, fourteen in number, have remained ab- solutely tight and free from leakage at 350 Ib. per square inch for 13 months. It is constructed as follows. Water is stored in a cylinder of a capacity equal to the requirements of the particular case, two or more air vessels or chambers are provided, containing air under pressure of about 250 or 300 Ib. per square inch ; the air passes through a stop valve which retains the pressure until such time as the apparatus is needed, and by means of a very ingenious valve, 300 Ib. is reduced to any desired pressure. The object of the invention is to deal effectively and promptly with fire in its initial stages. The apparatus is recharged with air by por- table cylinders easily attached and the water flows in from the existing mains. An apparatus con- taining 100 gallons can be recharged with air and water in about 5 to 6 minutes. ' Fire extinguishing apparatus of this kind could be with much advantage applied to hospitals, asylums, and other public institutions, where in the ELECTRIC BELLS, ETC. in event of fire taking place, such means at hand for instant use would enable the attendants to extinguish it at once before any great damage was done. SPEAKING TUBES, ELECTRIC BELLS, AND TELEPHONES. These are very useful appliances and save much labour, and are in case of sudden emergency of the greatest use in quickly giving an order, and by the immediate reply to know it has the attention of the proper people. These apparatus cannot be too highly commended for use, and may certainly be added from a hygienic point of view, saving as they do much exhausting labour, especially in running up and down stairs. LABOUR-SAVING APPLIANCES. All unnecessary bodily labour should be avoided wherever possible, as much that has to be performed in large establishments is often of an exhausting character, it, without doubt, not only adds to the comfort, but to the healthy condition and safety of the inmates, attendants, and others, when the following appliances are provided. These will only be alluded to in outline, as the subject is too large to enter into much detail, besides which it would be beyond the scope of the book. ii2 LIFTS. Lifting Machinery. This kind of apparatus is of the greatest value in economising labour, and also adds materially to the comfort and in the saving of suffering and fatigue to the inmates. This specially applies to a hospital or infirmary. Machines of this kind may certainly be looked upon as hygienic arrangements. They also greatly facilitate the easy working of the place, as well as preserving the good temper of the attendants and others. The food as well as the coals should be raised to the different floors by means of lifts, they should all be worked either by steam, hydraulic, or electric power. The latter is the most modern application of power to this purpose, and can be very advan- tageously adopted in hospitals and schools, espe- cially in cases where neither steam nor hydraulic power can with convenience be applied. It is not intended to enter into any detail with regard to 'the construction or machinery of this kind of apparatus, as this is fully treated in the author's book before named. In the preceding pages the author has en- deavoured to point out all leading matter in any way connected with the hygienic or sanitary state of residences and all their appliances, as well as some matters which materially add to the comfort of the inmates as well as the attendants, and so have a direct bearing upon the health of all. It has been somewhat difficult to exclude all technical matter, as in some instances it was almost CONCLUSION. 113 impossible to avoid it. While the book may be written in too simple and rudimentary a manner to suit any one technically acquainted with the subject, it is hoped the author has made himself clearly understood by those for whom the book has been specially written. It can readily be understood how very difficult it has been to treat all the subjects named in this book in a condensed form, giving at the same time all the information necessary to enable the reader to understand the matter treated. The author may say in conclusion, he will at all times be ready to reply to any one who may do him the favour to communicate with him upon any detail they have not succeeded in mastering. He will also be glad to receive any suggestions for additions and improvement for a subsequent edition. INDEX. A. Apparatus, bath, 7,16, 23, 46 , cooking, 52 , disinfecting, 81 , heating, 68 , hot water, 62 , kitchen, 52 , lavatory, 7, 23 , sink, 8, 23 , water-closet, 36 Area, dry, for houses, 86 Arrangements of public institu- tions, 98 Attendants, saving of labour, in Automatic flush tanks, 10, 19 B. Bakery, 53 Bath water, 7, 16, 23, 46 Baths, 46 Baths, swimming, 76 , Turkish, 78 Bell traps, 51 Boilers, kitchen, 62 , heating apparatus, 62 Boot-cleaning machines, 105 Bread making, 54 Buckets for fire, 107 Butlers' sinks, 50 Cesspools, 6, n, 15, 17 Chambers, disconnecting, 20 , inspection, 21 , intercepting, 20 Cleansing drains, &c., 99 Closet apparatus, 36 Clothes disinfection, 81 Condition of residences, 5 Cooking apparatus, 52 water, 58 Cost of electric light, 105 Cow-house drainage, 17, 83 D. D traps, 39 Dairies, 78 Dent and Hellyer's closets, 37 Dimensions of pipes and sewers, H Discharge of waste water, 7, 1 7, 23, 42, 43, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50 Disinfecting chambers for linen, &c., 81 rooms, &c., 81 sewage, 30 Disposal of refuse, 31 of rain water, 1 7, 64 of sewage, 30 Drain cleaning, 99 Drainage, cow-house, 17 of laundries, 80 INDEX, Drainage of piggeries, 83 , stable, 83 Draining boards, 49 Drinking water, 56, 58 Dry areas of houses, 86 E. Electric light, 104 bells, 1 1 1 machinery, 105 power, 105 Examination of drains, &c., 5> 9> n, 99-101 of houses, 5 Exhaustive labour saved, III F. Fat receivers, 20, 25 Filtration of water, 66 Fire appliances, 106 Fittings of bath rooms, 46 of lavatories, 43 of water-closets, 37 Flushing tanks, 10 Food lifts, 112 Fresh-air inlets, 27 G. Gas lighting, 96 General observations, 97 rules, 5, 16 Glazed brick receivers, 20 walls, 52 H. Head of water in boiler, &c., 63 Health of people, 1 1 1 Heating appliances, 68 Hopper closets, 39 Hospital baths, 48 Hot-air system, 72 Hot-water appliances, 62 Housemaid's and butler's sinks, 42, 50 Houses, condition, 5 I. Inlets for fresh air, 10, 27 Insanitary bell traps, 51 Inside drainage, 18 Inspection chambers, 21 Intercepting chambers, 20 Internal work, 35 Introduction, I Iron stairs, 109 Jennings' closets, 37 Joints of sewer pipes, 19 - ventilating pipes, 26 - water-closets, 37 K. Kitchen appliances, 52 boilers, 62 construction, 52 for schools, &c., 52 L. Labour-saving appliances, in Laundries, 79 Lavatories, 7, 16, 23, 43, 49, 58 Linen disinfection, 81 Low-pressure heating appliances, 70 INDEX. 117 M. Machinery, bread-making, 54 , lifting, 112 Main drains, 15, 20 Makers of sanitary appliances, 37, 41, 42, 43, 45, 49, 50, 54 Material for lining sinks, 50 for drain pipes, 19 Mica valves for ventilating pipes, 24 N. Number of closets, 92 of soil pipes, 92 O. Old residences, 5 Outlet for bad air, 21, 22 for baths, 16, 46 for lavatories, 7, 23, 44 for sinks, 8, 23, 25, 42, 49, 50, 51 Outside drainage, 6, 9, 10, n, 12, 14, 16, 26 Ovens for bread, 54 P. Pans, closet, 39 Pipes, heating, 68 , pantries, 42, 50 , piggeries, 83 , purity of water, 58 , sewer, 6, 9, 14, 17, 19, 21 , soil, 7, 16, 23, 27 , steam, 73 , ventilating, 7, 8, 9, 10, II, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 38, 40, 42, 44, d "5, 4-7, 49, 50 Pipes, warming, 68 , waste, 7, 8, 12, 16, 17, 23, 25, 42, 43. 44 46, 48, 49, 5 , water, 58, 59, 62 Q. Quality of appliances, 36 Quantity of hot-water pipes, 69, 72 R. Rain-water tanks, 64 disposal, 17, 25, 64 Receivers for soil pipes, 20, 24 for fat, 20, 25, 49 Refuse disposal, 29 Residences, old, 5, 86 Roofing of houses, 87 Rooms, disinfecting, 81 Rules to be observed, 2, 5-13, 16, 17, 1 8, 97 S. Sanitary appliances, 36 Saving of labour, 1 1 1 Servants' water-closets, 40 Sewage disposal, n, 16, 29, 83 Sheringham's ventilators, 39, 44-46 Silicated Carbon Filter, 65, 67 Sinks, butlers', 50 for slops, 42 , housemaids', 42, 50 Sinks, scullery, &c., 49 Size of drain pipes, 14 of sewers, 15 Soil pipes, 7, 16, 23, 27 Source of water supply, 11, 12, 56 Speaking tubes, 1 1 1 Stable drainage, 83 n8 INDEX. Steam heating, 73 Storage water tanks, 58 Sugg's sun-burners, 96 Swimming baths, 76 System of drainage, 5-11, 16-18 System of water supply, 58 T. Tanks for storage, 58 , flushing, automatic, 10 Telephones, in Town and terrace houses, 18 Trap, patent lead, 37, 42, 44, 45, 49, 50 , "Bell," 51 , water-closet, 37, 39, 41 Tubes for speaking, 1 1 1 U. Use of baths, 48 of closets, 38 of sundry materials, 36, 39, 40 V. Ventilating pipes, 7-11, 17, 21, 22, 2 4, 25, 27, 38, 40, 42, 44, 45, 47, 49, 5 Ventilation of bath rooms, 46 of fat traps, 21, 25 of sculleries, &c., 50 of soil pipes, 7, 17, 23, 27 of staircases, 94 of waste-water pipes, 38, 40, 44,47 of water-closets, 40 Ventilators, Sheringham's, 39, 44, 46 W. Walls of rooms, 88 Warning pipes for tanks, 58 Washing sinks, 42, 43, 50, 51 Waste pipe, bath and lavatory, 43, 46, 49 Water-closet discharge, 7, 16, 20, 23, 40, 41 Water supply, cold, 58 , hot, 62 Water, softening, 65 filtration, 66 , purity of, 56 source of supply, n, 12, 56 Water for baths, 7, 16, 23, 46 for cooking, 58 for lavatories, 58 for water-closet supply, 38, 58 hot supply, 62 LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Public Institutions. Public Institutions, their Engineer- ing, Sanitary, and other Appliances, with the Construction of Special Departments. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E. 8vo, cloth, ioj. 6d. Steam Engine. A Treatise on Modern Steam Engines and Boilers, including Land Locomotive and Marine Engines and Boilers, for the use of Students. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. With 46 plates, 4to, cloth. Reduced to 12s. 6d. Steam Engine Management. A Treatise on the Working and Management of Steam Boilers and Engines. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E., Author of 'Breweries and Mailings, their Arrangement and Construction, &c.,' ' Hy- draulic, Steam, and Hand-power Lifting and Pressing Machinery,' 'Pumps and Pumping,' 'Gas Works Construction,' &c. l8mo, cloth, 2s. Water Supply. Treatise on Water Supply, Drainage, and Sanitary Appliances of Residences, including Lifting Machinery Lighting, and Cooking Apparatus. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E. Crown 8vo, cloth, 5^. Hydraulic Machines. Hydraulic, Steam, and Hand- power Lifting and Pressing Machinery. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. Second edition, revised and greatly enlarged, with large folding plates, imperial 8vo, cloth. Pumps. Pumps and Pumping Machinery. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. Second Edition, Part I., revised and greatly enlarged, with 53 large folding plates, 8vo, cloth, 28^. Gas Apparatus. The Apparatus and Fittings for Gas Works, with folding plates. By F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. 8vo, cloth, reduced to 12s. 6d. Brewing and Malting. Breweries and Makings, their Arrangement, Construction, Machinery, and Plant. By G. SCAMMELL, F.R.I.B.A., F.G.S. Second edition, revised, enlarged, and partly re-written, by F. COLYER, M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. M.E. Plates, 8vo, cloth, reduced to 12s. 6d. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THF IINIVFRXITY DP HAMFJ1B UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY Return to desk from which borrowed. This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. olIV V. APR 6 1950 i MAR 27 19$ MAY 2*1991 PEC. PUBi. ' LD 21-95m-ll,'50(2877sl6)476 irnn RY OF THE UN1VIRSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY S V v v - ^0 RY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY