OUR COUNTRY ftND ITS RESOURCES r SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SERIES- "THE HEART OF THE NATION' OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WHAT WE OUGHT TO*kNOW ABOUT AGRICULTURE -FISHERIES FORESTS- PANAMA CANAL-RAILROADS-MANUFACTURES AUTOMOBILES - INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS - THE NEW NAVY-THE ARMY-CUR MONEY-AERO- NAUTICS-MOTION PICTURES-THE WEATHER - ASTRONOMY - THE NATION'S CAPITAL-THE PRESIDENT-CONGRESS ALL ABOUT THE GOVERNMENT BY ALBERT A. HOPKINS Member of the American Statistical 'Association Editor of the Scientific American Reference Book Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas, etc. With 800 Illustrations SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SERIES NEW YORK MUNN & CO., INC. SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN OFFICE 1918 Copyright 1916 by Munn & Co., Inc. Copyright 1917 by Munn & Co., Inc. This book is protected by ninety copy- rights and all persons are warned against any use of text or illustrative material. The right of translation into all languages, including the Scandinavian, is reserved. Printed in the United States of Amer PREFACE / T" S HE "Wave of Prosperity" which has raised our coun- A try to an unparalleled position need not ever recede if we take measure of our resources and their development at the present time and act wisely upon the information obtained. It is the object of this modest volume to present such facts as can be obtained from official sources, in a readable and withal likable form, so that we may have a more wholesome respect for what Uncle Sam is doing for us. The "Stars and Stripes" are protected by Acts of Congress and State laws; the American Eagle cannot be kept in captivity (except in a zoological garden), but the power of the law has never been invoked to protect that symbol of our Federal Government "Uncle Sam." This kindly old gentleman with his fuzzy beaver hat, his striped trousers and his parti-colored coat of the period of 1830, is used dozens of times daily in cartoons, but always in a respectful sense as we use it here as a symbol of national esteem. There is no more fascinating story in the world than how we are governed by means of often invisible threads that seem to begin nowhere, but always end somewhere to our profit and often pleasure. Who shall tell this wonderful story of achievement? How five blades of grass are made to grow where two should be found; how fish that have been left high and dry on land after a- flood are put back in water to prevent "air drowning;" how forests are conserved at a profit; how reclamation makes the desert smile ; how national parks can be run for both profit and pleasure; how good roads decrease the cost of living; how the three great Government Surveys carry on their ceaseless work to exploit our resources, or chart the fairways of commerce; how the Coast Guard is always on the lookout to protect life and property at sea; how the Patent Office has succeeded in making us a nation of 2032349 inventors and quadrupling our national wealth; how commercial and industrial preparedness have changed the gears on the car of industrial progress all these and many more remain to be told. Who shall tell the story? Why not "let Uncle Sam do it" ? He is patient, kind, amiable, and exceedingly accurate in his information. This is what has been done here. Uncle Sam tells his complex story in his own way with the pen of high Government officials cabinet officers, heads of the great governmental manufacturing plants and bureaus under Government auspices, down the list until all of the Government activities are accounted for. Unfortunately, the names cannot always be published, owing to depart- mental regulations, but enough names have been printed throughout the book to stamp this as a very authentic, and make it practically a semi-official guide to Govern- ment activities. In the section known as ' 'Uncle Sam's Autobiography" every chapter has been submitted to either the Secretary of the Department, or to some responsible officer for revision. This has required an almost endless correspondence, but the Editor has the satisfaction of knowing that the information is as nearly right as it is possible to get it. Besides Government officials, named and unnamed, special thanks are due to Mr. C. F. Talman, Librarian of .the U. S. Weather Bureau; Dr. F. L. Hoffman, Statis- tician of the Prudential Insurance Company; Dr. Richard Rathbun of the Smithsonian Institution; Mr. Louis Annin Ames, an authority on flags, and a number of others who have given their kind assistance. Adequate pictorial treatment heightens the interest of this fascinat- ing subject, and the whole country has been canvassed for interesting pictures; thus, for the chapter on Agriculture, over 35,000 photographs were examined to select the significant ones. It is hoped that this book will be a real contribution to literature on true preparedness preparedness for the arts of peace, as well as the arts of war. TABLE OF CONTENTS II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. Part One UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS PAOH Geographical Discovery : : : : : : 1 Population :::::::: 19 Agriculture : : :::::: 37 The Fish We Eat : : : : : : : 67 75 87 95 103 109 119 135 147 161 173 177 199 211 223 231 245 255 263 281 Forests and Forestry : : : Reclamation Service ::: Our National Parks ::: Good Roads and Bad ::: The Panama Canal ::: The Three Great Government Surveys Government Protection of Life and Property at Sea Railroads of the United States : : The Postal Service : : : Our Natural Resources and How They are The Mineral Industry of the United States The Patent Office and Inventions Since 1845 Manufactures : : : : The Automobile Industry : : The Recent Development of American Commerce Commercial and Industrial Preparedness Education : : : : : The New Navy : : : : The Army : : : : : Uncle Sam's Money Part I. The Treasury : Part II. Bureau of Engraving and Printing Part III. The Assay Office :' Part IV. How Coins are Minted Developed 293 299 309 313 CHAPTER XXV. XXVI. How Uncle Sam Protects His Revenue Uncle Sam's Non-Contiguous Possessions Part Two PAGE 321 327 OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE I. The American Flag : : II. Aeronautics : : : : III. Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony IV. Motion Pictures in the Making V. The Realm of the Air : : VI. The Heavens Above : : Part Three UNCLE SAM'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY I. Washington The Nation's City II. The Legislative Hal's III. The President The IV. The Cabinet : : V. Department of State VI. Department of the Treasury VII. Department of War VIII. Department of Justice IX. Post Office Department X. Department of the Navy XI. Department of the Interior XII. Department of Agriculture XIII. Department of Commerce XIV. Department of Labor XV. The Smithsonian Institution XVI. Miscellaneous Activities of the XVII. Pan American Union 347 363 383 399 411 423 s City 447 455 tive 465 477 479 y 493 507 521 525 526 539 547 561 572 I 575 theG ovem ment 582 : 59 i " ' WHAT UNCLE SAM'S "0, K." LOOKS LIKE. iiiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiinniiniiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii Copyright by United Newspapers, London; Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. ONE OF THE MEMBERS OF THE AMUNDSEN SOUTH POLE EXPEDITION STANDING AT THE POLE Taken fcy Captain Amundsen Himself Copyright by Underwood & Underwood CAPT. ROALD AMUNDSEN, WHO DIS- COVERED THE SOUTH POLE ON DECEMBER 14, 1911. Copyright by Underwood & Underwood CAPT. SCOTT, WHO ALSO FOUND THE SOUTH POLE AFTER AMUNDSEN, ON JANUARY 18, 1912, AND PERISHED, PART I. UNCLE SAM'S ACTIVITIES AND INTERESTS CHAPTEK I. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY By CYRUS C. ADAMS THE greatest era of geograph- ical discovery dawned when Christopher Columbus, with three small vessels, carrying 88 men, sailed into the Unsnown from Palos, Spain, on August 3, 1492. The sig- nificance of thie voyage was not only that it brought to light the Western World, but that it also dis- closed the sea a? the great highway of men by which they soon learned to reach all the vast islands (con- tinents) and the lesser islands of the globe. Europe, for example, had a very misty idea of China and India till sea routes placed her in touch with them. Sea routes hugged the coasts of Europe and Africa for thousands of miles; but Columbus added cross sea sailing to the coast routes and thus brought in the day of worldwide exploration. The Vikings of Norway in the ninth-tenth centuries A. D. had dis- covered Iceland, Greenland and the northeast coast of North America ; but these daring sea rovers were far from European centers; and as it was thought that Greenland was a part of Europe, their work was not at all appreciated, and, in fact, was very little known. Columbus's four voyages, 1492- 1503, brought to light the larger and many of the smaller islands of the West Indies. He saw South America from the island of Trinidad and noted the freshness of the Gulf of Paria's waters which come from the Orinoco. He skirted the eastern shores of Central America from Guanaja Island, around Cape Gra- cias a Dios, paused at Beln on the Isthmus of Panama, thence on to Puerto Bello, the most southern point he reached. His field of dis- covery embraced the area between about 9 to 24 degrees North Latitude and 60 to 87 degrees West Longitude. At St. Ann's Bay, on the north coast of Jamaica, he ended his great work about thirteen years after he began it. Immediate effects of his achieve- ment were apparent. Ten days less than a year after Columbus started on his third voyage to America, Vasco da Gama, after rounding the Cape of Good Hope, landed at Cali- cut, the first European navigator to reach India. This was the begin- ning of the great sea-trade between Europe and the East Indies. Thirteen years and 3 months after Columbus died, Magellan started on his journey around the world (1519- Copyright by Muno & Co., Inc. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERT 21), was the first to pass through the Straits of Magellan, gave to the Pacific the flattering name it bears and his expedition circumnavigated the world though its leader perished in the Philippines. Among the other most notable circumnavigations were those of Sir Francis Drake (1577- 80), during which he sailed along the Pacific coast of America from Magellan Straits nearly to Puget Sound, seeking in vain for a water- way into the Atlantic ; Admiral Spil- berg, who led a small Dutch fleet around the world (1614-17), inci- dentally defeating a Spanish fleet off Chile; and Captain James Cook, whose memorable voyages (1768-79) placed him first among British mari- time discoverers. It was early in the 16th century that Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian adventurer, claimed that he had made four voyages to America, though not as the commander of any expedition. The dates he gave were 1497, 1499, 1501 and 1503. From the time that his writings were criti- cally examined by Alexander von Humboldt, the prevalent opinion has been that he had no part whatever in the first discovery of continental America. Professor Martin Wald- seemiiller of Lorraine unfortunately gave full credence to Vespucci's claims, wrote a book in 1507 in which he said the newly discovered continent should be called Air erica because "Americus discovered it," and published the first map on which the name America appeared. It was the blunder of a scholar that at- tached the name America instead of "Columbia" to the Western World. When John Cabot reached the northeastern coast of North America (1497) and landed on Cape Breton Island at the entrance to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, he believed he had reached the eastern shores of Asia. He returned home to announce the news and, the following year, went back to follow the whole coast and locate Japan in the south. This journey extended from Greenland nearly as far south as the latitude of Philadelphia, but as he found no signs of civilization and his supplies were running short, he returned to England. V. Y. Pinson, who was helpful to Columbus on his first voyage, dis- covered in 1500 the estuary of the Amazon, the largest river in the world. This was about 17 years after Diego Cam found the mouth of the Congo, the second greatest river. About this time the idea began to weaken that the shores which ex- plorers had been visiting were coasts of Asia. The population was too scanty and none of it was civilized ; but still, no explorer was instructed to find what these new lands were worth and how they might be util- ized. The main idea, for a long time, was to hunt for waterways through the new lands by which the spices of the East Indies and other coveted Asian commodities might be brought to the Atlantic countries of Europe without doubling the Cape of Good Hope. It was while hunting for such a passage, and by reason of stress of weather, that Pedro Alvarez Cabral, in 1500, sighted the coast of Brazil, and took possession of it in the name of Portugal. In a half cen- tury, the whole Brazilian coast was studded with Portuguese settle- ments. The policy of appropriation and development was under way. The avowed regime of the .Portu- guese was to win new lands, if pos- sible, by preaching the Gospel to the natives; if this failed, to sub- jugate them by the sword. The romantic episode in coastal discovery was the voyage of Ponce de Leon, of Spain, in 1512, author- ized by his government to search for and settle the fabulous island of "Bimini," on which was reputed to be a wonderful fountain that re- newed the youth and strength of old men who bathed in it. He failed to find the fountain of youth, but his toil was not in vain, for he skirted a long coast covered with flowers OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES and he therefore called the land Florida and said he believed it was a great island. In 1513, Vasco Nunez de Balboa heard from an Indian chief that, south of the Isthmus of Panama, was another great ocean. Climbing to the summit of the Isthmian range, Balboa saw the Pacific; and arriving at the shore on September 29, he proclaimed the "Great South Sea" to be a possession of the Span- ish king. He was planning to under- take the conquest of the Peruvians for the Spanish crown when the jealous governor of the Darien col- ony put him to death on a trumped up charge of disloyalty. The fate of Balboa, one of the ablest men in the Spanish service, was a pa- thetic incident in the early history of American discovery. These data briefly summarize the leading events in discovery and early exploration along the eastern coasts of the Americas. Then fol- lowed the era of the penetration of the lands (16th-19th centuries). In North America, the gigantic task of studying the vast interior to the north of the Rio Grande was the work mainly of English and French explorers and European immigrants who followed in their wake. But many Spanish enterprises took root in the present Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California. The Spanish over-ran the whole of Central and South America, excepting Brazil, seeking gold rather than orderly ex- ploration and economic development, imposing upon the natives also the most cruel subjugation. But this eager quest for treasure so prodded exploratory zeal that South America was better known and mapped than North America towards the end of the 18th century. In 1516, De Solis discovered and ascended the River Plata and was killed by Indians at the delta of the Parana, near where Buenos Aires stands. In 1519-21, while Magellan was sailing around the world, Cor- tez, a military genius and a monster of cruelty, conquered Mexico and ex- plored the Peninsula of Lower Cal- ifornia. Among the great geograph- ical results of the advancing Spanish conquest was the descent of the Amazon River from the Andes to the Atlantic by Orellana. In one of his wars with Indians, women fought beside the men of their tribe, which originated the name Amazons applied to female warriors. While the main river has been known for 300 years from the Andes to the sea, much of its basin between the main tributaries of the trunk stream still awaits detailed study. The incentive to North American exploration was long the desire to find a northwest waterway leading to the Pacific. Jacques Cartier (1536) discovered the St. Lawrence River and ascended it to the site of Montreal. He saw the Ottawa from the top of Mount Royal, which gave Montreal its name. Cham- plain (1603-17), the greatest of Canadian explorers, founded the town of Quebec, traced the St. Lawrence to its source in Lake On- tario and reached Lake Huron. He was hoping all the time to find a waterway to China. Henry Hudson (1609) sailed into New York Bay and up the Hudson River to the site of Albany before he decided that the route would not lead to the Pacific. While on the same quest in Hudson Bay (IGlO), he and some of hi r men were set adrift by mut- inous comrades and were not heard of again. About 1660 the exploration of the continental interior- without thought of reaching the Orient, became more prominent. It has often required a number of explorers to establish a geographical fact. Thus French ex- plorers, chiefly missionaries, as Joli- et and Marquette. revealed the Mis- sissippi between its affluents, the Wisconsin and the Arkansas, within 700 miles of the Gulf of Mexico (1660-73). Father Hennepin (1680) traced the upper Mississippi between the mouth of the Illinois River and PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY the site of Minneapolis. Its lower course had been followed by Ferdi- nand de Soto (1541). De Soto has often been called the discoverer of the Mississippi, out the river was first sighted by Aionzo de Pineda in 1519. Its extreme sources and upper course were discovered and studied by later explorers, chiefly School- craft (1832), Nicollet (1836), and Brower (1889). The exploration of the Great Lakes was distributed over many years. The pioneers who chopped their way through the forests from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, or opened farms in spite of Indian foes, in Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio, the trappers and hunters spread over the western plains, the gold diggers who rushed to California, all added immensely to early knowledge of the United States. In regions that have had from early time, comparatively dense pop- ulation and rapid growth in civi- lization, we hear little of such re- search as that, for example, which has gridironed Africa with explor- ers' routes. Communities, such as Greece, Rome, China and Japan, as they grew in intellectual power, be- came intense students of their own habitat ; and their armies, invading less fortunate lands, were the chief instrument of pioneer discovery. No large events in exploration have been possible in Europe within the Columbian era. Among the. most important discoveries in Asia have been these : Deshnev rounded the East Cape (Cape Deshnev) in 1645, and thus made known the most east- ern extension of the continent. Rus- sia began the scientific exploration of Siberia in 1725 and, in the next twenty years, the northern coasts were fairly well determined and a foundation was laid for the detailed study of the land surface, fauna flora and inhabitants. Bering (1725- 41) showed the relation between the northeast coast of Asia and the northwest coast of America. In the past fifty years, the great plains and forests have been studied, the Lena, Yenesei and Ob, three of the largest rivers in the world, have been ex- plored and the Yenesei and Ob have irregular steamship connections with European ports. One result of the study of Siberia is that over 20,000,000 acres are now under the plow. Tibet, so long a terra incognita, has been largely revealed, chiefly since 1863, by many explorers. The Himalayas have long been in pro- cess of detailed study by the Indian Survey, and India has been min- utely mapped. Australia was probably first seen about 1540 by French sailors, but it was early in the next century that the Dutch brought the first authen- tic accounts of parts of the west coast Capt. James Cook's voyage (1769-70), when he surveyed the whole east coast, made the first great contribution to knowledge of the continent. Inland exploration did not begin till the early part of the 19th century. Attempts to pene- trate the dry or desert regions of the interior with horses involved a number of tragedies, including the disappearance of the second Leich- ardt expedition (1847). Leichardt set out to cross the continent from east to west and was never heard from after he entered the desert. Not even in polar lands was explora- tion so hazardous as in Australia till the camel was introduced about 1865; then exploration advanced more rapidly and Australia is now known in all its chief configurations and conditions. The attempt to reveal the whole of Africa did not begin till Dr. David Livingstone (1841-73) completed his great work. The exploration of the continent was greatly retarded by the difficulties of getting into it, owing to the lack of indentations, the high coasts, rivers reaching the sea by cataracts and rapids, the un- favorable climate and a host of hos- tile native tribes. The modern era of African exploration began when OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ROCKY MT9-. Mt. Logan. 19.539 Greenwich 0* Meridiah^ It* ifvu 30 THE/^NDES ML.Sorata Mts.of Braz Samoa Is. Tuamotu Arch. PX C/F/ C OCEAN ^A _ ^^^ ATLANTIC OCEAN Along Different Parallels of latitude Eound the Globe Vertical Scale Exaggerated 260 Times PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERT preenwiehO' Meridian rdanger Field lt i<: S Ural Mts. Stanovoi Mi p ' V^ J<.lo fAIMOMJ Xr Ne* - A '" h m o5 X Hebrides- ar INDIAN OCEAN Lo-6" c?_f>AC. OCEAN Southern Alps, 10. oop FATHOMS) FE " 45 SEA LEVEL k Greenwich 0" Merid Alony Different Parallels of Latitude Round the Glob Horizontal Scale 1:150,000,000 PROFILE OF LAND AND SEA OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Mungo Park made his journeys in the basin of the Niger River (1795- 1806). During the next forty years, a few explorers crossed the Sahara and studied the western and central Sudan; and finally Dr. Livingstone gave thirty years of his life to many journeys of exploration in south- central Africa. He did not live to see the great effect of his work ; but soon after his death (1873) the greatest exploratory movement ever seen began in Africa. Scores of ex- peditions carried on field studies that finally extended over nearly all of Africa south of the Sahara ; and sev- en European nations Great Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Spain and Portugal were finally in possession of the whole of Africa excepting Abyssinia and Liberia. Intensive studies of. the various col- onies began in the last years of the 19th century and continued till the war of 1914, when the entire work of development practically ceased. Africa, the last continent to be largely explored, has thus made far greater progress, in the short period of a generation, than any of its sis- ter continents when they were in the same low stage of development. Polar exploration began with the development of the whaling and fishing industries and the hunt for walrus, seal, etc., in the cold regions. Nearly 58,000 Greenland whales were killed in Spitzbergen waters in a little over a century, beginning in 1670. The search for the North- west Passage to Asia also led into the Arctic as, for example, Davis's voyage up Baffin Bay. Then the quest for the North Pole engaged expeditions for many years; and finally, not a few parties were specially equipped to seek for facts about polar phenomena. Thus many polar lands have been discovered, depths of the polar seas have been ascertained in wide areas, the Arctic natives have been studied and the art of living and traveling in the frigid zones has been far advanced. The investigation of the position of the north and south magnetic poles appears to show that they are not fixed points but move in areas of considerable extent. The attainment of the geographical North Pole was made by Peary on April 6, 1900; and of the South Pole by Amund- sen on December 14, 1911, and by Scott on January 18, 1912. The most notable discovery in many years is the fact that a high continent surrounds the South Pole. The area of the land surface is ap- proximately 5,460,000 square miles, or nearly one and a half times the Copyright by Harris & Ewing REAR ADMIRAL PEARY, DISCOVERER OF THE NORTH POLE size of Europe. It is computed that its mean height is 6,500 feet, or nearly seven times the mean eleva- tion of Europe. The great world sea has been so well explored that probably few isl- ands have escaped attention except, it may be, in the polar areas. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 11 THE PROGRESS OP DISCOVERY Date Explorer and Nationality. Discovery or Exploration 140O-1250 ? 1350 1000 Egyptians Greeks Phoenicians Invasions of Habesh, Arabia, Phoenicia. Syria. Argonautic expedition to Colchis. Voyages to Ophir, Gades, Britain. 750 Greeks Extension of Colonies in the Mediterranean and Pontus Euxinus. 700 Samians Spain (Tartessus) discovered for the Greeks. 600 Phoenicians Circumnavigation of Africa by order of Necho. 500 Himilco (Carthag.) .... Atlantic coasts of Europe. Sargasso Sea. Said to have visited Britain. 500 Anaximander (of Mil- / etus) \ Makes the first maps. 500 470 Hecatseus (of Miletus).. Hanno (Carthag.) Writes the first geography. West Africa as far as Cape Palmas. 330 Pytheas of Massilia .... ? Thule, North Sea, Scandinavia. 330 Nearchus (Macedon.) . . Sails from the Indus to Red Sea. 339-323 290 Alexander the Great. . . Egyptians Expedition to Iran, Turan, and India. Navigate the East coast of Africa. 218 Carthaginian Hannibal crosses the Alps. about 120 61-58 Eudoxus of Cyzicus .... Romans Attempts circumnavigation of Africa. Julius Csesar in Gaul, Germany, and Britain. since 30 Romans Extension of geographical knowledge and com- merce as far as Central Asia. 20 Strabo (Greek) Describes Roman Empire and first mentioned Thule and Ireland. 15 Romans Tiberius discovers the Lake of Constance; Drusus, the Brenner Pass. A. D. 84 150 Romans Claudius Ptolemy \ (Egypt.) / Agricola circumnavigates Britain. Constructs his Geography and Atlas. 618-21 Hoei-sing (Chinese) .... Visits Pamirs and Punjab. 671-95 I-tsing (Chinese) Visits Java, Sumatra, and India. 861 Norsemen Faroe Islands. North Cape of Europe rounded. 865 Naddod (Norse) Discovers Iceland. Visited by Irish monks about 876 Gunnbjorn (Norse) .... 795. Greenland coast. Rediscovered by Erik the Red 985 Erik the Red (Norse) . . (983). Colonizes Greenland. ? 1000 Lyef Eiikson (son of \ Erik the Red) / Discovers Newfoundland (Helluland), Nova Sco- tia (Markland), and coast of New England (Vinland) [?]. 1154 EdrisI (Sicily) Geographer to King of Sicily, produces his geog- about 1200 Arabs Trading merchants discover Siberia. 1253 Ruysbroek Reaches Karakorum, the ancient seat of the Mongol Empire. 1271-95 Marco Polo (Venet.) . . . Travels in Central Asia, China, India, Persia. 1290 Genoese .... Canaries, Azores, etc. 1325-52 IbnBatuta (Arab.) Travels through the whole Mohammedan World, N. Africa, E. Africa, 8. Russia, Arabia. India and China. 1327 Sir John Mandeville \ (Eng ) / ? Travels in India. 1415-60 Prince Henry (Port.).. . Gives an impetus to Portuguese voyages of dis- covery. 1419-20 J. Gonzales and Mar- \ tin Vaz (Port.). ... / Porto Santo and Madeira discovered. 1442 ? 1460 Nuno Tristao (Port.).. . Cintra and Costa (Port.) Cape Verde, etc. Coast of Guinea reached. 1474 Toscanelli (Ital.) Sends Columbus his map showing the western route to Cathay (China). 1485 Diego Cam (Port.) Mouth of the Congo reached. 1487 Bartholomew Diaz \ (Port.) / Rounds Cape of Good Hope. 1492-98 Columbus (Gen.) America, West Indies, Trinidad, Cuba, etc. 1497-98 John Cabot (Anglo- 1 Sails along E. coast of America from Labrador a* Ven ) . / far as Florida. 1498 Vasco da Gama (Port.). Route to India by Cape of Good Hope. EGYPT AND BRITISH EAST AFRICA NEW ZEALAND .*>.! FALKLAND IS. BAHAMAS BONG-KONG AND WEI HAI-WEI BRITISH GUIANA \ If WEST INDIES TASMANIA BRITISH HONDURAS > JAMAICA GAMBIA ASHANT1 BRITISH FIJI ISLANDS SOLOMON BRITISH SIERRA LEONE GOLD NEW GUINEA ISLANDS NORTH BORNEO COAST Great Britain and its Possessions, UNITED STATES PHILIPPINE IS. ALASKA O* Hawaiian DUTCH DUTCH EAST INDIES FRENCH WEST INDIES PORTUGUESE GOA Cape Verde b. PORTUGDESE EAST AFRICA GERMAN POSSESSIONS Prior to the Great War GERMANY KAISER WILHELM GERMAN S W. AFRICA GERMAN EAST AFRICA Samoa b. .? KJAO-CHAU V. NEW CALEDONIA Reunion FR, INDO-CHINA FR. GUIANA MADAGASCAR Other Countries and their Possessions. 14 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration Amerigo Vespucci (Ital.) Pinzon, V. Y. (Span.).. Caspar Corte Real 1 (Port.) / Alvarez Cabral (Port.) . Columbus (Gen.) Ponce de Leon (Span.) . Portuguese Balboa (Span.) De Solis (Span.) Sebastian Cabot (Eng.) Cortez (Span.) Magellan (Span.) Pizarro (Span.) Diego d'Almagro(Span. Jacques Cartier (Fr.).. . e Ulloa \ (Span.) ] French Pizarro and Orellana \ (Span.) / Antonio de Mota Ruy Lopez de Villa- 1 lobos (Span.) / Pinto (Port.) SirH. Willoughby (Eng.) Frobisher (Eng.). . . Sir F. Drake (Eng.) . J. Davis (Eng.) Barents (Dut.) Mendana (Span.) .... Quiros (Span.) Torres (Span.) Champlain (French) . H. Hudson CEng.). . . Spilbergen (Dut.) W. Baffin (Eng.) .... LeMaire and Schou- ten (Dut.) Dirk Hartog (Dut.} . . G. Thompson (Eng. merchant. ) Abel Tasman (Dut.) . Vries (Dut.) lev (Cossack) . . French Maiquette and Joliet 1 (Fr.) j Russians Bering (Dan.) and 1 Tishirikov (Rus.). . j Byron (Eng.) Claimed to have discovered Venezuela (which Columbus had already seen from the island of Trinidad). His testimony as to his three al- leged voyages is regarded as untrustworthy. Discovered mouth of R. Amazon and Cape St. Roque. Reaches entrance of Hudson Strait, called by him Strait of Anian. Rediscovered Greenland. Brazil (named by him Ilha da Vera Cruz, being S. part of Bahia State). Central America on his fourth voyage. Florida. Reach the Moluccas. Crosses Isthmus of Panama and discovers Pacific Ocean. Reaches La Plata. Hudson Strait. Conquest of Mexico. First to circumnavigate the globe. Passes through the Strait of Magellan, crosses the Pacific, and discovers the Philippines. Completes the Conquest of Peru. Conquers Chili. Gulf of St. Lawrence. Ascends river to Hoche- laga (Montreal). Explores Gulf of California. Continent of Australia seen by French sailors. Amazon River. First reaches Japan. Discovers Pelew Islands, and takes possession of Philippine Islands for Spain. Visits Japan. Novaya Zemlia. Labrador and Baffin Land. Second circumnavigation of the globe, and first saw Cape Horn. Explored W. coast of N. America nearly as far as Vancouver Archi- pelago. Davis Strait. Spitzbergen, Bear Islands, etc. Discovers Marquesas Islands. Tahiti (Sagittaria) and other South Sea Islands, Torres Strait. Dutch reach Australia. Discovers Lake Ontario. Hudson Bay and discoveries in N. America. Circumnavigation of the globe. Enters Baffin Bay. Round Cape Horn. West coast of Australia. Sails up Gambia. Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania) and New Zealand. Explores E. coast Japan, Saghalien, and Kurile Is. Rounds East Cape of Asia fi om the Kolyma to the Anadyr. Lake region of the St. Lawrence discovered. Exploration of the Mississippi from the north. Exploration of the coasts of Siberia. Bering Strait and the NW. coast of America. Circumnavigation of the globe. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERT 15 THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration 1768-79 Capt. Cook (Eng.) Voyages round the world. Hydrographical sur- veys of the Society Islands, Sandwich Islands, E. coast of Australia, Cook Strait in New Zea- land, Antarctic Ocean, N.W. coast of America, etc. 1770 James Bruce (Scot.) . . . Sources of the Blue Nile. 1770 Liakhov (Russian) Discovers New Siberian Islands. 1785-88 La Perouse (French) . . . North of Japan, Saghalien, etc. 1789 1792 A. Mackenzie (Scot.).. . Vancouver (Eng.) Exploration of the Mackenzie River. Vancouver Island circumnavigated. Discovered by Perez, 1774. Exploration of NW. coast of America. 1795-1806 1799-1858 Mungo Park (Scot.) . . . Alex, von Humboldt \ (Ger.) / Journeys and explorations in the Niger district. Explorations in South America and publication of " Kosmos." 1801-1804 1803-6 Flinders (Eng.) Krusenstern (Rus.) .... Southern coasts of Australia. Surveys in Sea of Japan and Sea of Okhotsch, Saghalien, etc. 1805-9 Salt (Eng ) Visit to Abyssinia. 1807-8 1819 1819 Klaproth (Ger.) Sir E. Parry (Eng.) .... Sir J. Franklin Exploration of the Caucasus. Parry Archipelago. 1825 Richardson and Back Coppermine and Mackenzie Rivers explored. 1819 1819 (Eng.) j Long (U. S.) Wm. Smith (Eng.) Exploration of Rocky Mountains. South Orkney Islands and South Shetlands. Vis- ited by Weddell in 1822. 1819-20 Bellingshausen Discovered new Antarctic Islands. 1821 Capt. King Explorations in Western Australia. 1823 Wrangel (Rus.) Discovers Wrangel Island. 1823 Denham and Clap- \ perton (Eng.) / Lake Chad. 1823 1825-26 James Weddell (Brit.).. A. G. Laing (Scot.) Explored Weddell Sea. Reached Timbuktu from Tripoli. 1827-8 Rene Caillie (French) . . Journey from Kakundi to Timbuktu and Mo- rocco. 1829 Sturt (Eng.) Descends the Murrumbidgee and discovers the Murray River. 1830-32 1830 Biscoe (Eng.) Enderby Land and Graham Land. Royal Geographical Society founded in London. 1831 1832 sir J. C. Ross (Eng.). '. . Laird and Old field i (Scot.) J Magnetic North Pole. Exploration of the Niger and Benu6. 1833-35 Sir G. Back (Eng.) .... Great Fish River, Canada. 1835 SirM.R.Schomburgk \ (Ger.) / Explorations hi Guiana. 1837 Wood (Eng.) Discovered a source of the Oxus. 1837-40 1839 John d'Urville (French) J. Balleny (Eng.) Adelie Land. Reached 66 30' S. lat. - Balleny Islands, 66 44' S. lat. 1839-40 Eyre (Eng.) Discovers Lake Torrens, S. Australia, and in 1841 journeys from Adelaids to King George's Sound. 1839^0 Lieut. Charles Wilkes 1 (US) / Discovery of the Antarctic Continent. 1840 Triimmer Remains of ancient Nineveh. 1841 Sir James C. Ross(EngJ Victoria Land, with volcanoes Erebus and Terror. 1841-73 1844-48 D. Livingstone (Scot.).. Leichhardt (Ger.) Thirty years' travel in Central South Africa. Crosses Australia, Moreton Bay to Port Essing- ton. 1845 1848 Sir John Franklin (Eng.) RebmannandKrapf ( Ger ) Sails on his last voyage never to return. Mt. Kilima Njaro. Sighted Mt. Kenia. 1849-55 Richardson and Bartli t (Eng.-Ger.) / Western Sudan and Sahara. 1850 Sir R. M'Clure (Irish).. Northwest Passage. 1852-4,1861 Sir C. R. Markham i (Eng.) / Explorations hi Peru. 1855-59 1863-65 (DU Chaillu (French) . . Basin of OgowS River, W. Africa. 1858 Sir R. Burton (Scot.)... Lake Tanganyika. 1858 Speke and Grant (Brit.) Victoria Nyanza. 16 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE PKOGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration Sir S. Baker (Eng.) .... Burke and Wills M'Douall Stuart (Scot.) W. G. Palgrave (Eng.). A. E. Nordenskiold \ (Swedish) / G. Rohlfs (Ger.) Richthofen (Ger.) G. Schweinfurth (Ger.). G. Nachtigal (Ger.) .... Prejevalsky (Rus.) .... Payer and Weyprecht (Austrian) "Challenger" Expedi- tion (Brit.) Ernest Giles Warburton (Irish) .... Lieut. Cameron (Eng.) De Breeze (French) . . . H. M. Stanley (Eng.) . Sir Geo. Nares and A. H. Markham (Eng.) Doughty and Blunt (Brit.) Nordenskjold (Swed.) . Thomson (Scot.) ...... Major Serpa Pinto \ (Port.) / Emin Pasha (Ger.) Moustier and Zweifel \ (Swiss) / Lieut. Schwatka (U. S.) Leigh Smith Greely (U. S.) Wissmann (Ger.) Junker (Rus.-Ger.) Peary (U. S.) . Capt. Younghusband \ (Eng.) / Hans Meyer (Ger.) .... F. Foureau (French) . . . Col. P. F. Monteil \ (French) j Baron Toll (Russ.) N ansen (Norw.) Jackson (Scot.) . . . Sven Hedin (Swed.)... . Pr. Henri d' Orleans. . . . Capt. Marchand Andree (Swed.) D. Carnegie De Gerlache (Belgian). . Donaldson Smith \ (U. S.) / Capt. Otto Sverdrup i (Swedish) / Major Gibbons Explores Upper Nile. Discovers Albert Nyanza, Crossed Australia. Crossed Australia. Journeys in Central and Eastern Arabia. Spitzbergen. Journeys in W. Sudan by Ghadames, Murzuk, and Wadai to R. Niger. Extensive travel and exploration in China. Exploration of the Jur, Niam-Niam, and Mon- buttu countries in Africa. Explorations in Lake Chad region and Central Sudan States. Journeys in Mongolia, Tibet, etc. Discovered Franz Josef Land. Explores the depths of the oceans. Traverses Northwest Australia. Crosses Western Australia from East to West. Crosses Equatorial Africa. Explorations in the Ogowe and Gabun region. Congo Basin ; Mt. Ruwenzori ; Forests on the Aru- wimi, etc. Grant Land. Penetrated as far N. as 83 20'. Explorations in Northern Arabia. Northeast passage. Journeys through Masai Land, British South Africa, Sokoto, Morocco, etc. Twice crosses Africa. Travels and Surveys in Equatorial Africa. Dis- covery qf Semliki River, etc. Sources of the Niger. Recovered Franklin relics. Explored S. coast of Franz Josef Land. Grinnell Land and NW. coast of Greenland. Across Africa from West coast, Congo Basin. Welle-Mobangi, etc. Six expeditions of exploration and North Pole at- tained on April 6, 1909. Travels from Pekin to Kashmir. Exploration of Mount Kilimanjaro. Explorations in the Sahara, Researches in the Sudan and Sahara. Explorations in the Lena R. Hviotenland, etc.; reached his "Farthest North" in lat. 86 13' 6" N. Surveys and explorations in Franz Josef Land. Explorations in North Central Asia. Travels in Tonkin and China. Travels from Upper Mobangi to Fashoda. Attempt to cross over the North Pole in a balloon, with fatal results. Crosses Western Australia from S. to N. "Belgica, 1 first ship to winter within Antarctic circle. Explorations in Abyssinia and Brit. E. Africa. Found new islands W. of Parry Islands. Explorations in Congo and Zambezi headwaters. PROGRESS OF GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERY 17 THE PROGRESS OF DISCOVERY Continued Date Explorer and Nationality Discovery or Exploration 1900 Borchgrevink (Brit. Ex.) Reached lat. 78 50' S. via Victoria Land. 1900 Duke of Abruzzi (Ital.) Reached lat. 86 33' N. via Franz Josef Land. 1900-02 SvenHedin (Swed.).. . . Explorations in Tibet. 1902-04 Anglo-Fr. and Anglo- 1 Ger. Comms / Surveys and discoveries in Bornu and Kamerun. 1901-04 Com. R. F. Scott (Brit.) Explorations in Ross Sea and interior of Antarctic Continent. 1902-03 Prof. E. von Drygal- \ ski (Ger.) / Discovered Gaussberg on Antarctic Continent. 1903-04 1904 and 1908-10 Dr. W. S. Bruce (Brit.). /Dr. J. B. Charcot 1 (French) Discovery of Coats Land in Weddell Sea. Explorations along Graham Land Coast and W. of it. 1906 Duke of the Abruzzi (Ital.) First ascent of Mt. Ruwenzori. 1906-08 Sven Hedin (Swedish). Tibet. Discovered main source of Brahmaputra. 1908-09 1910-11 Lieut. Shackleton (Brit.) Amundsen (Nor.) Sledge journey towards the South Pole. Reached South Pole, Dec. 14, 1911. 1910-12 Capt. R. F. Scott (Brit.) Reached South Pole, Jan. 18, 1912 and perished on return journey. 1911-12 Filchner (Ger.) Discovered Prince Regent Leopold Land, Jan., 1912, on Antarctic Continent, Weddell Sea. 1913 Stefansson (Can ) Discovered new land N. W. of Prince Patrick Island, Parry Islands. 1906-07 Mylius Erichsen Completed maps of Greenland Coasts. 1909-12 Einar Mikkelsen Explorations in Greenland Sea and East Green- land. 1912 Knud Rasmussen Crossed North Greenland. 1913 J. P. Koch Crossed Middle Greenland. 1913 Capt. B. A. Vilkitski.. . Discovered Nicholas II Land in the Arctic. 1913-14 Capt. Vilkitski Made the second Northeast Passage. 1915 Sir Ernest Shackleton. . Discovered Caird Coast of the Antarctic Con- tinent. Copyright United Newspapers; Underwood & Underwood, N. T. LOOKING DOWN ON THE ANTARCTIC PLATEAU Copyright Edwin Levick "IT SHINES FOE ALL" How the Statue of Liberty appears to the Allen. (Thl light itself, but a picture of the sun, take Is not a photograph of th at 6 P. M., from a steamship.) CHAPTER II. POPULATION THE Thirteenth Census of the United States was taken by the Bureau of the Census as of April 15, 1910. The total area of enumeration included the United States, the territories of Alaska and Hawaii and Porto Rico. The enu- meration also included persons sta- tioned abroad in the military and naval service of the Government. the outlying possessions of the Unit- ed States. Including the population of the Philippines and other posses- sions, the total population living under the American flag is approxi- mately as given below. It has been estimated by tk~ United States Census Bureau that the population of the United States and possessions on July 1, 1914, POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES Territory Enumerated: 1910 Gross area (land and water) in square miles Population United States (with outlying possessions) 3,627,557 93,402,151 3 026 789 91 972 266 Outlying possessions 600,768 1,429,885 Alaska 590884 64 356 Hawaii Porto Rico Military and naval service abroad 6,449 3,435 191,909 1.118,012 55,608 The population returned for the total area of enumeration was 93,- 402,151, an increase, from 1900 to 1910, of 20.9 per cent for the total area of enumeration and 21 per cent for the United States, exclusive of outlying possessions. It should be noted that the area of enumeration does not cover all was 109,021,992, and that the popu- lation of the United States on July 1, 1915, was 100,399,318. AREA At the close of the First Census, in 1790, the United States comprised substantially the territory between the Atlantic Ocean and the Missis- TOTAL POPULATION UNDER THE AMERICAN FLAG, 1910 Population of the United States and possessions 101,100,100 Enumerated at the census of 1910. Philippine Islands, 1903 Guam, estimated Samoa, estimated Panama Canal Zone, estimated. . . . 93.402,151 7,635,426 9,000 6.100 60,000 Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES sippi River except Florida, repre- senting a gross area (land and wa- ter surface) of 892,135 square miles. The United States, with its outlying possessions, now comprises a gross area of 3,743,306 square miles, or more than four times the area in 1790. The successive accessions of territory were as given below. DENSITY OF POPULATION According to the Census of 1910, there were in the United States, on the average, 30.9 inhabitants to each Alaska had an average density of only 0.1 per square mile; Hawaii, 29.8; and Porto Rico, 325.5, or greater than that of any State of the United States except Rhode Island, Massachusetts and New Jersey. CENTER OF POPULATION The center of population is often understood to be the point of inter- section of a north and south line which divides the population equal- ly, with an east and west line which Gross area Gross area Accession m square miles Accession in square miles United States 3 026 789 716 517 Area of U. 8 in. 1790* .... Alaska, 1867 892 135 590 884 Louisiana Purchase, 1803 827.987 Hawaii, 1898 6,449 Florida, 1819 Territory gained through treaty with Spain, 1819 58,666 13,435 Philippine Islands, 1899 Porto Kico 1899 115,026 8,435 210 Guam, 1899 Texas, 1845 389,166 Samoa, 1900 77 Oregon, 1846 286,541 Panama Canal Zone. 1904 436 Mexican Cession, 1848 529,189 Gadsden Purchase, 1853 29,670 Includes the drainage basin of the Red River of the North, not a part of any acquisi- tion, but previously considered a part of the Louisiana Purchase. square mile of land area. The rela- tive density of population of each State of the United States in 1910 is best exhibited by the map on page 22. Aside from the District of Colum- bia there were ten States in which there was in 1910 a population per square mile of more than 100, as follows: Rhode Island, 508.5 inhabi- tants per square mile; Massachu- setts, 418.8; New Jersey, 337.7; Connecticut, 231.3; New York, 191.2; Pennsylvania, 171.0; Mary- land, 130.3; Ohio, 117.0; Delaware, 103.0; Illinois, 100.6. There were 16 States which had, on the average, less than 18 inhabitants to the square mile. Nevada, with 0.7 per- son per square mile, or 7 persons to 10 square miles, had the lowest density. Among the outlying possessions likewise divides it equally. This point of intersection is, in a certain sense, a center of population; it is, however, designated by the Bureau of the Census as the median point to distinguish it from the point tech- nically defined as the center. The character of these two points may be made clear through a physi- cal analogy. If the surface of the United States be considered as i rigid plane without weight capable of sustaining the population distri- buted thereon, individuals being as- sumed to be of equal weight, and each, therefore, to exert a pressure on any supporting pivotal point di- rectly proportional to his distance from the point, the pivotal point on which the plane balances would, of course, be its center of gravity ; and this is the point referred to by the term "center of population." In de- POPULATION 21 COMPARATIVE ABEA OF THE UNITED STATES Am) FOREIGN COUNTRIES TOTTED STATES, ORIGINAL AREA AND ACQUISITIONS OF TEKBITOBY, 1780 TO 1910 22 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE, BY STATES termining the median point, distance is not taken into account, and the location of the units of population is considered only in relation to the intersecting median lines as being north or south of the median paral- lel and east and west of the median meridian. Extensive changes in the geographic distribution of the popu- lation may take place without affect- ing the median point, whereas the center of population responds to the slightest population change in any section of the country. CENTEB OF POPULATION At the time of the First Census, the center of population was 23 miles east of Baltimore, Maryland, since which time it has moved stead- ily westward. In 1800 it was 18 miles west of Baltimore; in 1810, 40 miles northwest by west from Washington, D. C. ; in 1S20, 16 miles north of Woodstock, Va. ; in 1830, 19 miles west-southwest of Moore- field, W. Va. ; in 1840, 16 miles south of Clarksburg, W. Va.; in 1850, 23 miles southwest of Parkersburg, W. Va. ; in I860, 20 miles south of Chil- licothe, O. ; in 1870, 48 miles east by north of Cincinnati, O. ; in 1880, 8 miles west by south of Cincinnati, O. ; in 1890, 20 miles east of Colum- bus, Ind. ; in 1900, 6 miles southeast of Columbus, Ind., and finally, in 1910, in the city of Bloomington, Ind. During the 120 years between the First and Thirteenth Census, the center of population has moved over 550 miles westward, or in other words, from west latitude 76 degrees 11 minutes 12 seconds to west lati- tude 86 degrees 32 minutes 20 sec- onds. MEDIAN POINT As in the case of the center of population, the median point has also oeen moving westward, but not quite so rapidly. The exact location of the median point in 1880 was 16 miles nearly due west of Spring- field, O. ; in 1890, 5 miles southwest of Greenville, O. ; in 1900, in Spar- tanburg, Ind., and finally, in 1910, 3 miles south of Winchester, Ind. URBAN AND RURAL POPULATION The Census Bureau classifies as urban population that residing in cities and other incorporated places of 2,500 inhabitants or more, includ- 24 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ing New England towns of that size. All other population is con- sidered as rural. In 1880, of a total population in the United States of 50,155,783, there were in municipalities 14,772,- 438, or 29.5 per cent of the popu- lation. In 1890, this element had grown to 22,720,223, or 36.1 per cent of the total population; in 1900, it was 30,797,185, or 40.5 per cent ; and in 1910, 42,623,383, or 46.3 per cent of the total population of the United States. From 1900 to 1910 the rate of in- crease for the population of urban areas was over three times that for the population living in rural ter- ritory, the rates of increase being 34.8 and 11.2 per cent respectively. There were 14 States in 1910 in which more than half the population was living in territory classed as urban. The greatest per cent urban in any State was Rhode Island, which had 96.7 per cent, while North Dakota, with 11 per cent, had the smallest proportion of its people in urban communities. There was in every State between 1900 and 1910 an increase in urban population, but in six States New Hampshire, Vermont, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa and Missouri there was a de- crease in rural population. In all but two States Montana and Wyo- ming the urban population in- creased faster than the rural popu- lation, and generally at a much more rapid rate. COLOR OR RACE, NATIVITY AND PARENTAGE Of the population of the United States in 1910, 81,731,957, or 88.9 per cent, were whites; 9,827,763, or 10.7 per cent, were negroes; and 412,546, or four-tenths of one per cent, were other colored races, in- cluding Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Hindus, Koreans, and others. Of the total population, 78,456,380, or 85.3 per cent, were native and 13,515,886, or 14.7 per cent, foreign born, the latter consisting chiefly of whites. The native white population num- bered 68,386,412, and constituted 83.7 per cent of the white popula- tion and 74.4 per cent of the total population of the country. The 13,- 345,545 foreign-born whites consti- NUMBER OF FAMILIES PER SQUARE MILE 26 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tuted 16.3 per cent of the white population and 14.5 per cent of the total population. Native whites of native paren- tage in 1910 numbered 49,488,575, constituting 60.5 per cent of the white population and 53.8 per cent of the total population. Native whites of foreign parentage formed 15.8 per cent of the white popula- tion and those of mixed parentage 7.3 per cent, the corresponding per- centages based on the total popula- tion being 14 and 6.5, respectively. crease of the white population. The native white population increased 20.8 per cent and the foreign-born white 30.7 per cent. The increase of negroes and Indians, since their numbers is only slightly affected by immigration, or emigration, is essen- tially a natural increase. BLACK AND MULATTO POPULATION Of the 9,827,763 negroes enumer- ated in 1910, 7,777,077 were returned as black and 2,050,686 as mulatto, or 20.9 per cent. In 1850 the per- PER CENT OF NEGEOES IN TOTAL POPULATION, BY STATES Of the total increase of 15,977,691 In the population of the country be- tween 1900 and 1910, the whites con- tributed 14,922,761, the negroes 993,- 769, - and other races 61,161. The increase in the native population was 12,803,081, and that in the for- eign-born, 3,174,610, or about one- fifth of the total increase. The percentage of increase for the whites, 22.3, was a little less than twice as high as that for the negroes, 11.2. This difference is partly due, however, to the direct or indirect effect of immigration upon the in- centage of mulattoes was 11.2. It had advanced but little in 1870, be- ing only 12 per cent, but since 1870 the proportion of mulattoes in the total negro population appears to have increased materially, reaching 15.2 per cent in 1890, and, as given above, 20.9 per cent in 1910. INDIAN, CHINESE AND JAPANESE POPULATION Since 1890, the first census to in- clude an enumeration of Indians in Indian territory and on Indian reser- vations, the Indian population has 28 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES B58 20,000 to 30,000 HUD 30,000 and over. The heavy Una ( ; show geggtifblc Ji?fs!on, DISTRIBUTION OF THE INDIAN POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, BY STATES increased slightly, being 248,253 in 1890 and 265,683 in 1910. During the same period the Chinese popu- lation decreased from 107,488 in 1890 to 71,531 in 1910, while the Japanese population increased from 2,039 in 1890 to 72,157 in 1910. There were also enumerated in 1910 other non-white races, consisting, for the greater part, of Hindus and Kore- ans, to the number of 3,175. PRINCIPAL CITIES It may be of interest to consider the population of principal cities with respect to color, nativity and parentage. In only fourteen of the fifty cities having a population of over 100,000 did native whites of native parentage constitute as much as one-half of the total population. The proportion exceeded three-fifths in only fout cities, Indianapolis, 64.5 per cent; Columbus, 64.4 per cent; Dayton, 62 per cent, and Kan- sas City, 61.9 per cent. On the other hand, in twenty-two of the cities of this class, less than one-third of the population were native whites of native parentage, over two-thirds in all but one of these cities consisting of foreign-born whites and their children. In Fall River only 13.3 per cent of the population were native whites of native parentage. In 10 cities of 100,000 inhabitants, or over, the population was more than one-third foreign-born white, namely, Fall River, 42.6 per cent; Lowell, 40.9 per cent; New York, 40.4 per cent; Paterson, 36.1 per- cent; Boston, 35.9 per cent; Chi- cago, 35.7 per cent ; Bridgeport, 35.5 per cent; Cleveland, 34.9 per cent; Providence, 34 per cent; and De- troit, 33.6 per cent. The proportion of foreign-born whites was low in all of the south- ern cities. Among the northern cities it was lowest in Indianapolis (8.5 per cent) and Columbus (9 per cent). In many of the fifty cities having a population of over 100,000 the proportion of native whites of foreign or mixed parentage was nearly the same as the proportion of foreign-born whites. The native whites of foreign or mixed parentage were relatively most numerous in Milwaukee (48.8 per cent) and Fall River (43.7 per cent). During the decade 1900-1910 the POPULATION POPULATION OP CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES Census of 1910 Cities of over 100,000 population Albany, N. T Atlanta, Ga Baltimore, Mrl Birmingham, Ala... Boston Mass 100,253 154,839 558,485 132,685 670,585 102,054 423,715 104,839 2,185,283 364,463 560,663 181,548 116,577 213,381 465,760 119,295 112,571 Cities of .. 69,067 Indianapolis, Ind.... Jersey Citv, N. J... Kansas City, Mo.... Los Angeles, Cal.... Louisville, Ky Lowell, Mass Memphis, Tenn Milwaukee, Wis Minneapolis, Minn.. Nashville, Tenn Newark, N. .7 New Haven, Conn... New Orleans, Ln New York, N. Y....' Oakland, Cal Omaha Neb 233,650 207,779 248,381 319,198 223,928 106,294 131,105 373,857 301,408 110,364 347,469 133,605 339,075 1,706,883 150,174 124,09 125,600 30,000 p< .. 31,140 .. 86,368 .. 38,494 . . 78 466 Philadelphia, Pa....l, Pittsburgh, Pa Portland Ore 549,008 533,905 207,214 224,328 127,028 218,149 087,029 214,744 410,912 129,807 237,194 104,402 137,249 168,497 331,009 145,986 . 82,331 . 25,908 . 36,346 . 30,417 . 47,227 . 31,229 Providence, R. I.... Richmond, Va Rochester, N. Y St. Louis, Mo St. Paul, Minn San Francisco, Cal.. Scranton, Pa Seattle, Wash Spokane, Wash Syracuse, N. Y Toledo, Ohio Washington, D. C... Worcester, Mass.... >pulation Kansas City, Knns... Kingston, N. Y Knoxville, Tenn La Crosse, Wis Lancaster, Pa Lansing, Mich Bridgeport, Conn Buffalo, N. Y Cambridge, Mass.... Chicago, 111 Cincinnati, Ohio Cleveland, Ohio Columbus, Ohio Dayton, Ohio Denver, Colo Detroit, Mich Fall River, Mass.... Grand Kapids, Mich. AJiron, Ohio Paterson, N. J from 25,000 to K Decntur, 111 DCS Monies, Iowa... Dubuque, Iowa Duluth, Minn Allentown, Pa Altoona, Pa .. 51,913 .. 52,127 Amsterdam, N. Y... Atlantic City, N. J Auburn, N. Y Augusta, Ga , Aurora 111 . .. 31,267 ,.. 46,150 .. 34,668 ... 41,040 ?n SOT Easton Pa 8 523 East Orange, N. J.. East St. Louis, 111.. El Paso, Tex Elgin, 111 Elizabeth, N. J Elmira, N. Y Erie, Pa Evansvillc, Ind Everett, Mass Fitchburg, Mass Flint Mich .. 34,371 .. 58,547 .. 39,279 .. 25,970 .. 73,409 .. 37,176 .. 60,525 .. 09,647 .. 33,484 .. 37,826 38 550 Lawrence, Mass Lewiston Me . 85,892 . 26,247 . 35,099 30 508 Austin, Tex 29,860 Battle Creek, Mich.... 25,267 Bay City, Mich 45,166 Bayonne, N. J 55.545 Berkeley, Cal 40,434 Binghamton, N. Y.... 48,443 Bloomington, 111 25,768 Brockton, Mass 56,878 Brooklinc, Mass 27,792 Butte, Mont 30,165 Camden, N. J 94,538 Canton, Ohio 50,217 Cedar Rapids, Iowa... 32,811 Charleston, S. C 58,833 Charlotte, N. C 34,014 Chattanooga, Tenn.... 44,604 Chelsea, Mass 32,452 Chester, Pa 38,537 , Chicopee, Mass 25,401 Clinton, Iowa 25,577 Colorado Springs, Colo 29,078 Columbia, 8. C 26,319 Council Bluffs, Iowa.. 29,292 Covlngton, Ky 53,270 Dallas, Tex 92,104 Danville, 111 27,871 Davenport, Iowa 43,028 Lexington, Ky Lima Ohio Lincoln, Neb Little Rock, Ark Lorain, Ohio Lynchburg, Va Lvnn, Mass . 43,973 . 45,941 . 28,883 . 29,494 89 336 40 005 Fort Wayne, Ind Fort Worth, Tex.... Galveston, Tex Green Bay, Wis Hamilton, Ohio Harrisburg, Pa Hartford, Conn Haverhill, Mass Hazleton, Pa Hoboken, N. J Holyoke, Mass Houston, Tex Huntington. W. Va. Jackson, Mich Jacksonville, Fla.... Jamestown, N. Y... Johnstown, Pa .Toliot, 111 Joplin, Mo Kalamazoo, Mich.... .. 03,933 .. 73,312 .. 30,981 .. 25,236 .. 35,279 .. 04,18(1 .. 98,915 .. 44,115 .. 25,452 .. 70,324 .. 5,, 730 .. 7b,800 .. 31,161 .. 31,*33 .. 57,699 .. 31,297 .. 55.482 .. 34,670 .. 32,071 .. 39,437 McKeesport. Pa Madison, Wis . 42,694 . 25,531 Maiden, Mass Manchester, N. H.... Meriden, Conn Mobile Ala . 44,404 . 70,063 . 27,205 51 521 Montgomery, Ala Mount Vernon, N. Y. Muskogee, Okla Nashua N H . 38,136 . 30,919 . 25,278 0(5 005 Newark, Ohio New Bedford, Mass.. New Britain, Conn... Newburgh, N. Y Newcastle, Pa Newport, Ky Newport, R. I New Rochelle, N. Y.. Newton, Mass Niagara Falls, N. Y. . 25,404 . 90,652 . 43,916 . 27,805 . 36,280 . 30,309 . 27,149 . 28,867 . 39,806 . 30,445 .'50 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Norfolk, Va 67,452 Norristown, Pa 27,875 Ogden, Utah 25,580 Oklahoma City, Okla.. (54,205 Orange, N. J 29,630 Oshkosh, Wls 33,062 Pasadena, Cal 30,291 Passaic, N. J 54,773 Pawtucket, R. 1 51,622 Peoria, 111 66,950 Perth Amboy, N. J.... 32,121 Pittsfield, Mass 32,121 Portland, Me 58,571 Portsmouth, Va 33,190 Poughkeepsie, N. Y... 27,936 Pueblo, Colo 44,395 Qulncy, 111 36,587 Quincy, Mass 32,642 Racine, Wis 38,002 Reading, Pa 96,071 Roanoke, Va 34,874 Rockford, 111 45,401 Sacramento, Cal 44, ((96 Saginaw, Mich 50,510 St. Joseph, Mo Salem, Mass Salt Lake City, Utah. San Antonio, Tex San Diego, Cal San Jose, Cal Savannah, Ga Schenectady, N. Y.... Sheboygan, Wis ShenandoRh, Pa Shreveport, La Sioux City, Iowa Somerville, Mass South Bend, Ind South Omaha, Neb.... Springfield, 111 Springfield, Mass Springfield, Mo Springfield, Ohio Stamford, Conn Superior, Wis Tacoma, Wash Tampa, Fla Taunton, Mass 77,403 43,697 92,777 96,614 30,578 28,94(5 65,064 25,774 28,015 47,828 77,236 53,684 26,259 51,678 35,201 46,921 25,138 40,384 83,743 37,782 34,259 Terre Haute, Ind Topeka, Kans Trenton, N. J Troy, N. Y Utica, N. Y Waco, Tex Waltham, Mass Warwick, R. I Waterbury, Conn Waterloo, Iowa Watertown, N. Y West Hobokon, N. J.. Wheeling, W. Va Wichita, Kans Wilkes-Barre, Pa Williamsport, Pa Wilmington, Del Wilmington, N. C Woonsocket, R. I Yonkers, N. Y York, Pa Youngstown, Ohio Zanesville, Ohio 58,157 43,684 96,815 76,813 74,419 26,425 27,834 26,629 73,141 26,730 35,403 41,641 52,450 67,105 87,411 25,748 38,12j 79,803 44,750 79,066 foreign-born white population in New York City advanced from 1,- 260,918 to 1,927,703, ait increase of 666,785, while native volutes of na- tive parentage increased only 183,- 841. In 1910 only 19.3 per cent of the city's population consisted of native whites of native parentage. Of the total population of the United States approximately one-twentieth is domiciled in New York City; of the native whites of native paren- tage, one-fiftieth ; of the native whites of foreign or mixed paren- tage, one-tenth ; and of the foreign- born, one-seventh. Among the larger cities the pro- portion of negroes in 1910 was high- est in Memphis, 40 per cent, followed by Birmingham, with 39.4 per cent; Richmond, 36.6 per cent; Atlanta, 33.5 per cent; Nashville, 33.1 per cent; Washington, 28.5 per cent; New Orleans, 26.3 per cent; Louis- I.c-.s than 6 per cent* 5 to 10 per cent. 10 lo 15 per Cent. 15 to 20 per cent. 20 per cent and over. The heavy lines ( ) ihow geographic dl PROPORTION OF MAXES TO FEMALES IN THE TOTAL POPVLATION, BY STATES o I i OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ville, 18.1 per cent ; and Baltimore, 15.2 per cent. In no other city of over 100,000 inhabitants did the ne- gro element amount to one-tenth of the population. Classified according to numbers, the following cities re- turned more than 50,000 negroes in 1910: Washington, 94.446; New- York, 91,709; New Orleans, 89,262; Baltimore, 84,749; Philadelphia, 84,- 459; Memphis, 52,441; Birmingham, 52,305; and Atlanta, 51,902. CLASSIFICATION OF POPULATION BY SEX There were in the United States in 1910, 47,332,277 males and 44,- 639,989 females, or 106 males to each 100 females. The excess of males in the United States is partly due to extensive im- migration, a much larger proportion of the immigrants being males than females. In the native white popu- lation of the United States, how- ever, there is also an excess of males over females, the ratio in 1910 being 102.7 males to each 100 females. POPULATION 21 YEABS OF AGE AND OVEB Persons 21 years of age and over have certain special legal rights with reference to property, the elec- tive franchise, and other matters. This class of the population is fur- ther significant from the social and economic standpoint, in that it in- cludes the great majority of bread- winners and also the great majority of married men and women. From the political standpoint particular interest attaches to statistics regard- ing males 21 years of age and over, although in several States women of that age also now have the right to vote at all elections. For the United States, exclusive of Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, and other outlying possessions, the total population 21 years of age and over in 1910 was 51,554,905, representing 56.1 per cent of the total popula- tion of all ages. Of this number. 26,999,151, or 29.4 per cent of the total population, were males, and 24,555,754 were females. MALES OF MILITIA AGE Men' from 18 to 44 years of age, inclusive, are subject to militia duty under the laws of most States, and Courtesy Literary Digest WOMAN'S SUFFRAGE DISTRIBUTION OF VOTERS White indie* tei Suffrage; dotted, limited Suffrage, and black, male Suffrage only POPULATION represent substantially the theoreti- cal fighting strength of the country in case of war. The total number of males from 18 to 44 years of age in 1910 was 20,473,684, representing 22.3 per cent of the total population of the country and 43.3 per cent of the total male population. IMMIGRATION Immigration into the United States has experienced a marked reduction as a result of the Euro- pean war, dropping from a total of 1,218,480 for the year ended June 30, 1914, to 326,700, and 298,826 for the years ended June 30, 1915 and 1916, respectively. This falling off is not of a temporary nature, but is certain to continue for many years, even after the close of the war. Oi] the 298,826 immigrant aliens admitted during the year ended June 30, 1916, 9,795 had been en- gaged in the professions, 45,528 were skilled laborers, 138,737 had been engaged in miscellaneous occupa- tions, and 104,766 (including the women and children) reported no occupation. Of the 129,765 emigrant aliens departed, 2,097 had been engaged in the professions, 13,874 were skilled laborers, 96,405 had been engaged in miscellaneous occu- pations and 17,389 (including the women and children) reported no occupation. Eighteen thousand eight hundred and sixty-seven persons were de- barred during the year. Of this number, 10,383 were debarred as being likely to become public charges, 1,153 as having a loathsome or dangerous contagious disease, 1,657 as of mental defects (other than idiots, imbeciles and insane) and 2,080 as being contract laborers. There -were 2,906 persons deported after landing, of which number 1,081 were deported because of the possi- bility of becoming public charges, 282 for insanity, 360 for having en- tered without inspection, 114 as criminals and 100 for loathsome or dangerous diseases. 34 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES OCCUPATIONS total population and 53.3 per cent At the Thirteenth Census there of the population ten years of age were 38,756,223 persons ten years and over. In the male population of age and over engaged in gainful the gainful workers numbered 30,- occupations in the United States, in- 091,564, which was 81.3 per cent of IMMIGRATION INTO THE UNITED STATES, 1910-1916 Races Years Ended June 30 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 African (black) Armenian Bohemian and Moravian Bulgarian, Serbian, Montenegrin Chinese 4,966 5,508 8,462 15,130 1,770 39,562 3,331 4,911 13,012 1,782 53,498 15,736 21,107 71,380 39,135 84,260 38,382 30,780 192,673 2,798 19 22,714 27,302 17,760 61 128,348 7,657 14,199 17,294 27,907 52,037 24,612 32,416 5,837 900 6,317 1,283 2,244 1,150 3,330 6,721 3,092 9,223 10,222 1,307 18,982 3,914 4,400 13,862 517 57,258 9,779 18,132 66,471 37,021 91,223 40,246 30,312 159,638 4,575 8 17,027 19,996 18,784 12 71,446 7,469 5,311 18,721 17,724 45,859 25,625 21,415 8,068 1,153 5,444 918 2,248 1,141 3,323 6,759 5,222 8,439 10,657 1,608 24,366 3,155 3,672 10,935 165 49,689 6,641 18,382 65,343 31,566 80,595 33,922 26,443 135,830 6,172 33 14,078 23,599 22,001 3 85,163 9,403 8,329 22,558 21,965 31,601 20,293 25,281 9,070 1,342 5,525 1,336 2,239 1,132 3,660 6,634 9,353 11,091 9,087 2,022 42,499 3,099 4,520 14,507 188 55,522 12,756 20,652 80,865 38,644 101,330 37,023 42,534 231,613 8,302 64 24,647 30,610 10,954 11 174,365 13,566 13,451 51,472 30,588 38,737 21,293 27,234 9,042 1,363 9,210 2,015 2,820 1.171 3,038 8,447 7,785 9,928 15,084 2,354 37,284 3,539 5,149 12,566 172 51,746 12,805 18,166 79,871 45,881 138,051 33,898 44,802 251,612 8,941 152 21,584 44,538 13,089 1 122,657 9,647 24,070 44,957 36,727 36,053 18,997 25,819 11,064 1,544 9,023 2,693 2,558 1.396 3,830 5,660 932 1,651 3,506 2,469 1,942 3,402 305 6,675 82 38,662 3,472 12,636 20,729 15,187 26,497 23,503 10,660 46,557 8,609 146 2,638 3,604 10,993 6 9,065 4,376 1,200 4,459 2,933 24,263 14,310 2,069 5,705 1,667 1,767 273 1,390 823 1,877 4,576 964 642 3,146 2,239 791 3,442 114 6,443 80 36,168 5,649 19,518 11,555 26,792 15,108 20,636 4,905 33,909 8,711 x 154 599 981 17,198 5 4,502 12,208 953 4,858 1,365 19,172 13,515 577 9.259 1,881 676 216 983 948 3,388 Croatian and Slovenian. Cuban Dalmatian, Bosnian, Herzegovinian Dutch and Flemish East Indian English Finnish French German Greek Hebrew Irish Italian (north) Italian (south) Japanese Korean Lithuanian Mexican Pacific Islander. . . Polish Roumanian Russian Ruthenian (Russniak) . . Scandinavian Slovak Spanish Spanish American Turkish Welsh West Indian (except Cuban) Other peoples Total.. . 1.041.570 878.587 838.172 1,197,892 1,218,480 326,700 298,826 eluding Alaska, Hawaii, I'orto Rico, and the military and naval stations abroad. The gainful workers thus formed 41.5 per cent of the total population. In continental United States the gainful workers numbered 38,167,- 336, which was 41.5 per cent of the the males ten years of age an.d over. In the female population the gainful workers numbered 8,075,772, which was 23.4 per cent of all females ten years of age and over. Thus, in the population ten years of age and over, more than one-half of all persons, over four-fifths of t&e males, but POPULATION Photo by Irving Underbill ELLIS ISLAND, AMERICA'S GREATEST GATEWAY less than one-fourth of the females, were gainfully occupied. In the States the proportion of the population ten years of age and over engaged in gainful occupations in 1910 ranged from 46.9 per cent in Iowa to 68 per cent in Mississippi. The States having the smallest pro- portions were : Iowa, 46.9 per cent ; Kansas, 47 per cent; Nebraska, 47.7 per cent; Utah, 47.9 per cent; and Indiana 48 per cent. The States having the largest proportion were North Carolina, 60 per cent; Geor- gia, 61.5 per cent ; Wyoming, 62.6 per cent ; Nevada, 64.3 .per cent ; Alabama, 64.7 per cent ; South Caro- lina, 67.6 per cent; and Mississippi, 68.7 per cent. Except in three States Arizona, Montana and North Da- kota 'there was an increase, from 1900 to 1910, in the proportion of the population ten years of age and over engaged in gainful occupations. The States showing the largest in- creases were Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, Nevada, North Carolina, South Carolina and Texas. DEATHS IN REGISTRATION AREA The total number of deaths re- turned from the registration area of the United States for the year 1914 was 898,059. The estimated mid- NUMBER AND PROPORTION OF PERSONS IN GENERAL DIVISIONS OF OCCUPATIONS Per Cent of Occupation Total Gainful Workers All occupations 38,167,336 100.0 Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry Extraction of minerals (mining and quarrying) Manufacturing and mechanical industries Transportation 12,619,203 964,824 10,658,881 2,637,671 33.2 2.5 27.9 6.9 Trade 3,614,670 9.5 Public Service 459,291 1.2 Professional Service Domestic and Personal Service 1,663,569 3,772,174 4.4 9.9 Clerical Occupations 1,737,053 4.6 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES year population of this area was 65,989,295, or 66.8 per cent of the total population of the United States. The death rate for the year was 13.6 per one thousand popula- tion, the lowest on record since the establishment of the registration area in 1880, being 19.8 in 1880, 19.6 in 1890, 17.G in 1900, 16.0 in 1905, 15.0 in 1910 and 14.1 in 1913. The deaths among the white pop- ulation numbered 824,319, or 917.9 for every thousand deaths. Of this number, 605,349 were native born ; 327,696 had both parents native; 203,189 had one or both parents for- eign born ; and 74,464 of unknown parentage. Other deaths among the white population were 207,272 for- eign born, and 11,698 unknown. The deaths among the colored population, numbering 73,740, or 82.1 for every thousand deaths, were divided as follows: Negro, 70,429; Chinese, 1,018; Japanese, 904; Indian, 1,369; and other colored, 20. Of the total number of deaths 491,416 were males, and 406,643 were females. The total number of deaths among children less than one year of age was 155,075; of those from one to five years of age, 58,045 ; from five to twenty-five, 86,355; from twenty-five to fifty, 196,08*7; from fifty to seventy-five, 217,207; over seventy-five, 123,963, of which 467 were one hundred years of age or over ; and of ages unknown, 1,327. Out of every thousand deaths 172.7 occurred before the end of the first year of life ; 96.2 between the ages of five and twenty-five; 218.5 between the ages of twenty- five and fifty; 307.6 between the ages of fifty and seventy -five; and 138.0 over seventy-five years of age. The number of deaths in the regis- tration area during 1914 from vari- ous causes were as follows: Ty- phoid fever, 10,188; malaria, 1,477; smallpox, 212; measles, 4,461; scar- let fever, 4,340; whooping cough, 6,816; diphtheria and croup, 11,786; influenza, 6,014; other epidemic dis- eases, 6,125; tuberculosis, 96,903; cancer, 52,420; diabetes, 10,666; diseases of the nervous system and organs of special sense, 87,614 ; dis- eases of the circulatory system, 123,- 901 ; diseases of the respiratory sys- tem, 104,086; diseases of the diges- tive system, 99,673; non-venereal diseases of the genito-urinary sys- tem, 78,023; suicide, 10,933; homi- cide, 4,847; and other external causes, 51,770. The death rate per 100,000 of pop- ulation for the more important causes was as follows: Typhoid fever, 15.4 ; malaria, 2.2 ; measles, 6.8; scarlet fever, 6.6; whooping cough, 10.3 ; diphtheria and croup, 17.9 ; influenza, 9.1 ; tuberculosis, 146.8; cancer, 79.4; diabetes, 16.2; diseases of the nervous system and organs of special sense, 132.8; dis- eases of the circulatory system, 187.8; diseases of the respiratory system, 157.7; diseases of the di- gestive system, 151.0; non- venereal diseases of the genito-urinary sys- tem, 118.2; suicide, 16.6; homicide, 7.3, and other external violence, 78.5. CHAPTEK III. AGRICULTURE By C. H. CLATJDY THE unthinkable number is one which conveys no idea to the inind a number so large that one twice as large or half as large makes the same impression. Such a number measures the dol- lars which value the agricultural production of the United States in a year. To say that the total esti- mated value of all crops and animal products for the year ending June enough, working every minute of every day and every night, to make out deposit slips to put it in a bank in a year's time. It represents a hundred dollars for every man, woman and child in the country. If the cost of the Panama Canal is $500,000,000, one year's crops would build twenty such canals ! If it costs Europe $20,000,000 a day ' to have a war, then we could finance SCENE ALONG THE BRANDYWINE. SHOWING TYPICAL CHESTER COUNTY (PA.) TOPOGRAPHY 30, 1915, is $10,501,686,375 conveys small impression of its real worth. If a man could keep awake twenty-four hours in a day, and could live for a hundred years under such conditions, he would have to SIKMH! during every waking minute of his life something more than $199 to dispose of this sum in .the hun- dred years. If the sum were handed him in $5,000 lots, he could not write fast it for them for seventeen months with the agricultural products of one year. AGRICULTURAL INFORMATION It is, of course, an impossibility to do more than indicate the extent of agriculture or its immense im- portance not only to the United States but to the world. Those who wish particular facts of any special subject can obtain Volume V. of the Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Census of 1910, which gives figures for 1909 in 927 closely printed pages, many tables and graphic drawings, or the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture, which has a number of "graphs" as well as 174 pages of finely printed statistics. Best of all, however, for the man interested in some one special phase of this question is the opportunity afforded him by correspondence with the De- partment of Agriculture. Inquiries on any subject connected with agri- culture receive prompt attention in Uncle Sam's greatest department and information to answer any in- quiry is either on hand or will be obtained for any inquirer. GENERAL STATISTICS The total area of the United States is 1,903,269,000 acres. Of this 46.2 per cent is productive land ; that is, land which is capable of being turned into farm, grazing or tillable area, exclusive of any possible fu- ture engineering developments in the reclamation field which may make vast areas, now arid, agricul- tural possibilities. Of this 46.2 per cent of productive land, 293,794,000 acres (1910 census figures, latest available), represent- ing 15.4 per cent of the total area, are under cultivation. Thirty-six of the principal agri- cultural countries of the world have 30.5 per cent of their total area possibly productive and but 8.7 of their total area under production. With a ratio of approximately one to four for tke world, then, the United States has approximately one to three (one-third) of its agri- cultural possibilities developed. FUTURE OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES The United States, in spite of its showing in area and its leadership of the world in the world's principal crops, can by no means be considered to have even begun to realize its agricultural possibilities. It can triple its area under cultivation with the same methods and the same productiveness and still fall far behind the averages of other countries which have been compelled to make intensive agriculture a INCREASE IN VALUE OP FARM PRODUCTS (BASED ON PRICES AT THE FARM) Year Total, gross Crops Animals and animal products Value Percent- age of total Value Percent- age of total 1879 (census) 1889 (census) 1897 $2,212,540,927 2,460,107,454 3,960,821,685 4,338,945,829 4,717,069,973 5,009,595,006 5,302,120,039 5,594,645,072 5,887.170,104 6,121,778,001 6,273,997,362 6 764 210 423 $2,519,082,592 2,759,569,547 2,998,704,412 3,191,941,763 3,385,179,114 3,578,416,465 3,771,653,816 3,981,675,866 4,012,652,758 4,263,134,353 4,761,111,839 5,098,292,549 5,487,161,223 5,486,373,550 5,562,058,150 5,842,220,449 6,132,758,962 6,111,684,020 6,652,288,634 63.6 63.6 63.6 63.7 63.8 64.0 64.1 65.0 64.0 63.0 63.6 64.6 64.1 60.7 63.1 62.5 2.3 Dl.8 63.3 $1,441,739,093 1,579,376,282 1,718,365,561 1,817,653,243 1,916,940,925 2,016,228,607 2,115,516,288 2,140,102,135 2,261,344,604 2,501,076,070 2,726,876,783 2,792,332,973 3,071,000,000 3,551,017,194 3,257,116,809 3,500,569,700 3,716,753,549 3,783,276,511 3,849,397,741 36.4 36.4 36.4 36.3 36.2 36.0 35.9 35.0 36.0 37.0 36.4 35.4 35.9 39.3 36.9 37.5 37.7 38.2 36.7 1898 1899 (census) 1900. . . 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907. . 7,487,988,622 7,890,625,522 8,558,161,223 9,037,390,744 8,819,174,959 9,342,790,149 9,849,512,511 9,894,960,531 10,501,686,375 1908 1909 (census) 1910 1911 1912. . 1913 1914 1915 estimate) .... 40 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES study, from the potato field to the orchard, the grazing field to the wheat field. The 1910 census gave 10,582,000 males as actively engaged in agri- culture in the United States, 35.2 per cent of males engaged in all occupations. Females engaged in agriculture to the number of 1,806,- 584, 22.4 per cent of all women en- gaged in all occupations. This makes a total of 12,388,623 people engaged in agriculture, or 32.5 per cent of the people engaged in all occupations. Compare with the fol- lowing countries (percentages from most recent figures obtainable) : Of the total population there are engaged in agriculture in Argentina 23.6 per cent, Australia 25.6 per cent, Austria-Hungary (pre-war) 63 per cent, British India 67.1 per cent, Canada 39.9 per cent, France (pre- war) 42.4 per cent, Germany (pre- war) 34.6 per cent, Italy (pre-war) 58.8 per cent, the Philippines 41.3 per cent, Spain 56.9 per cent, Sweden 52.8 per cent, Union of South Africa 65.1 per cent, United Kingdom 12.4 per cent. ARGENTINA AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA-HUNGARY BRITISH INDIES CANADA With these figures in mind, and not forgetting the possibilities of intensive cultivation, which, as shown in the following statistics for several commodities, is practiced abroad so effectively as greatly to increase the yield per acre over United States figures, it is obvious that the limit of agricultural devel- opment in this country is so far distant that no man can foresee it. Eliminating all possibilities of in- crease of tillable area through irri- gation, and all possibilities of in- crease of yield through modern scientific development, not this nor many future generations will see the ability of this land ' to support its population from an agricultural standpoint reached or passed. GROWTH The more than double doubling of farm products within one generation is a sure indication of the wonderful growth of the United States. Pages might be written about it, but could do no more than show what the table on page 38 expresses so vividly. GERMAN YI"*-') ITALY (pre-woH ( PHILIPPINES SPAIN SWEDEN UNION OF S AFRICA UNITED KINGDOM UNITED STATES PEB CENT OF POPULATION ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURAL PURSUIT* M f 42 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES EFFECT OF THE WAB The war has had a tremendous effect upon production of United States staples and their export. The wheat production 1915 was the record for the United States, greater than any previous year by 128,000,- 000 bushels. Exports of wheat and wheat flour jumped from $142,000,- 000 in 1914 to $428,000,000 in 1915, a proportion which is considerably less than the jump in corn, which with corn meal was from $7,000,000 to over $39,000,000. Neither crop, however, compares in its export jump with oats. In 1914 the United States exported $1,000,000 worth and in 1915 $57,000,000 worth. It is hardly necessary to chronicle, be- cause every one knows that the im- mense increase in exports of food stuffs as well as manufactures changed the status of the balance of trade for this country. It is also well known how the export of cotton decreased, the figures being from $610,000,000 to $376,000,000 in a year. But in spite of the loss in cotton the war has had on the whole a very beneficial effect upon American agriculture. Exports of wheat and wheat flour represented over 37 per cent of the 1914 crop, while the usual exportation is less than 20 per cent. Farmers received an average of 79 cents per bushel for the 1913 wheat crop and $1.01 for the crop of 1914, an increase of 32 cents per bushel or an aggregate gain of approxi- mately $196,000,000. PRODUCTION OF SPECIAL CROPS Because of the vastness of the subject it is impossible to do more than indicate here the value and extent of a few of the principal crops of the United States. Unless otherwise stated, statistics given are for 1915 and prices are values at the farm. Because the United States pro- duces more wheat than any other country, and a great deal more than we use, many people think wheat is our principal crop. Such is not the case, corn being the principal crop of the United States. Corn, One hundred and eight million three hundred and twenty-one thou- sand acres in the United States are under cultivation for the corn crop of 3,054,535,000 bushels. As the production for all of North America, including Canada, United States and Mexico; Argentina, Chile and Uru- guay in South America ; Austria- Hungary, Bulgaria, France, Italy, Portugal and Roumania, Russia, Servia, Spain, India (both British and native states), Japan, the Philip- pine Islands, Algeria, Egypt and Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, was but 3,864,- 279,000 bushels in 1914, it is easily understood why the United States is the greatest corn producing coun- try in the world. Argentina, with 10,386,000 acres under corn cultiva- tion, is next in productive ability, but her total crop for 1915 was but 338,000,235 bushels. PRODUCTION OP CORN IN THE UNITED STATES 1849-1910 Year Acreage Average yield per acre Production Average farm price per bushel Farm Value 1849. . . Acres Bush. Bushels 592 071 000 Cents Dollars 1869 838 793 000 1869 1879 1889 1899 .... '62,369',666 72,088,000 94,914,000 28'. i 29.4 28.1 760,945,000 1.754,592,000 2,122,328,000 2,666 324 000 '. '. '. 1909 1915 98,383,000 108,321,000 25.9 28.2 2,552,190,000 3,054,535,000 67.9 57.6 1 477,223,000 1 755,859,000 AGRICULTURE Wheat World production of wheat is 4,216,806,000 bushels. Of this the United States produces 1,011,505,000 bushels, more than is grown even in Russia, the yield of which is esti- mated to be 833,965,000 bushels. In the United States 59,898,000 acres are under cultivation for wheat, an increase of over 9,000,000 acres in the past two years. A remarkable fact in connection with the world's wheat production is that Germany, which produces but 160,000,000 bush- els of wheat in a year, has, by an average of statistics for ten years, a yield of 30.7 bushels to the acre, whereas the average for the same period in the United States is but 14.8 bushels. Hungary has an aver- age of 18.1 bushels, France 20.1 and the United Kingdom 33.4 bushels. Either land abroad is more produc- tive or methods of farming are more intensive ; nevertheless the United States easily leads the world in pro- ducing the raw material for the staff of life. On a basis of prices as on Decem- TAKING ON A CAEGO OF WHEAT ber 1st, the value of this wheat crop is $930,302,000. Wheat is produced in every State in the Union, although Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Florida and Louisiana produce but little. North Dakota is the greatest wheat producing Sate, yielding 151,970,000 bushels, followed by Kansas with 106,538,000 bushels. It is interesting to note that the average yield per acre in bushels WORLD'S WHEAT PRODUCING AREAS 44 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF RICE & OATS increased in 1915 to 16.9 bushels per acre, which is considerably greater than the smallest year (1911) yield average of I2y 2 bush- els per acre. The 1915 yield per acre was almost 2 bushels an acre greater than the average for the 10 years from 1906 to 1916, which was exactly 15 bushels to the acre for the whole United States. It is also interesting and a little puzzling to learn that the greatest yield of wheat per acre comes from Vermont, not known as a wheat producing State, but the few wheat farms of which give an average of 30 bushels to the acre. The poorest wheat pro- ducing State in yield per acre is Tennessee with 10%, followed by South Carolina with 10.8 bushels per acre. Oats Forty million seven hundred and eighty thousand acres of farm l?nd are under cultivation for oats, pro- ducing 1,540,362,000 bushels. The world's production is estimated to be in excess of 4,700,000,000 bushels. Russia produces the second largest amount with 1,006,983,000 bushels, followed by Germany with 650,000.- 000 bushels. The United States falls far below other countries in the average yield of oats per acre. The average yield in the United States from 1905 to 1914 was 29.5 bushels per acre. In the same period Ger- many produced 54, Hungary 31.5, France 31.1 and the United Kingdom 43.5 bushels of oats per acre. The total value of the oats produced in the United States in 1915 was $555,- 569,000. Barley Unspectacular, because compara- tively little known, is the barley crop, yet the United States has 7,395,000 acres devoted to its pro- duction, resulting in 237,009,000 bushels. Barley is much more largely grown and highly thought of abroad than here. World produc- tion is 1,542,972,000 bushels, of which Russia produces 475,109,000 bushels, almost double that of the United States. The value of the AGRICULTURE United States barley crop is $122,- 499,000. Rye Forty-nine million one hundred and ninety thousand bushels of rye, valued at $41,295,000, grew on 2,856,000 acres, a small fraction of the world's production of 1,711,158,- 000 bushels. Any farm product in the United States worth less than $50,000,000 for the year is to be con- sidered among the comparatively unimportant products. Buckwheat Similarly buckwheat, of which 806,000 acres produce 15,769,000 bushels at a value of $12,408,000, comes among the unimportant crops, yet buckwheat, used as it is largely for a breakfast food, is increasing in popularity in the United States. The value of the product ten years ago was but $8,565,000; twenty years ago it was $6,936,000. Potatoes Although corn and wheat lead the agricultural products of the United States, potatoes are among the most commercially important. They af- ford one of the most nutritious and one of the cheapest foods for the table of rich and poor alike. A failure in the potato crop means dis- aster. Three million seven hundred and sixty-one thousand acres are devoted in the United States exclu- sively to the production of potatoes. The production is 359,103,000 bush- els, a large increase in the past ten years, the 1905 figures being 260,- 741,000 bushels. The average farm price per bushel is 61.6 cents, or a total value for the whole crop of $221,104,000. Potatoes are among the most universally grown crops in the United States, every State pro- ducing enough to make a variation in the statistics if omitted. Even little Rhode Island has over 5,000 acres devoted to the production of the popular "spud," growing 550,000 bushels. Maine and New York are the two largest producers of pota- toes, both accounting for 22,010,000 bushels. The value of the New York crop is about $3,000,000 greater than WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF MAIZE A BARLEY OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES that of the Maine crop, although Maine produces its crop from 142,000 acres, whereas New York has 355,- 000 acres engaged in potato produc- tion. The production of potatoes abroad makes a curious comparison with that of the United States. The world production is 5,714,188,000 bushels (1913 figures). Of this enormous total Austria-Hungary alone pro- duced 627,728,000, one third more bushels than produced and used by the United States in 1915. Germany by it he sustains his working tools, the farm animals, and feeds the stock, which is in itself a crop. In the United States 50,872,000 acres produce hay with an average yield of 1.68 tons per acre. This makes the total production 85,225,000 tons, a weight as impossible to realize as it is to grasp the fact that it is valued at $912,320,000. The com- bined navies of the world have not a tonnage equal to the United States hay crop. A fleet of two thousand boats, each the size and dimensions WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF POTATOES & SAGO produces 1,674,377,000 bushels of po- tatoes, whereas the total for Euro- pean Russia is 1,269,696,000 bush- els. It is amusing to note that of the 279,121,000 bushels produced by the United Kingdom in 1914, Scot- land grew 40,270,000, Wales 5,445,- 000, England 104,504,000 and Ire- land the balance of 128,642,000 bushels of Irish "praties." Hay To the farmer few crops are of more importance than hay, because of the ill-fated "Lusitania," would not weigh as much, nor are there wheeled vehicles enough in the United States, outside of railroad equipment, to load a year's crop upon it and haul it to market in one day's time. New York and Pennsyl- vania are the two leading States, the former growing 5,850,000 tons on 4,500,000 acres, valued at $91,- 845,000, and the latter growing 4,340,000 tons on 3,100,000 acres, valued at $67,704,000. Rhode Island produced the least amount of hay, AGRICULTURE 47 getting 71,000 tons from 57,000 acres. Cotton No crops are more important to manufacturing than cotton. Most agricultural products either feed the world or the animals which, work- ing for farmers, assist in feeding the world. Cotton and wool, however, are agricultural products which are used for clothing, and cotton, much more than wool, is of enormous im- portance in the arts. The war con- ditions hurt the cotton industry in this country to a very large extent, but a recovery is now under way, and even though the war continues it will in time grow nearly to nor- mal. Under usual conditions over 65 per cent of the cotton crop of the United States is exported, 53 per cent of our total agricultural ex- ports consisting of cotton. Conse- quently anything which hurts its ex- portation strikes a blow at the whole cotton industry of the United States, much as if over half of our wheat crop or half of our farm animals should suddenly be wiped out of existence. On the 1st of August, 1914, cotton sold at an average of 12.4 cents a pound. By November it had declined to 6.3 cents a pound, a reduction of nearly one half. The whole cotton crop of 1913 averaged to its pro- ducers 12*4 cents per pound, where- as that of 1914 averaged but 7.3 cents, a decline of over 40 per cent. In other words, over $283,000,000, or one-third of the estimated value of the cotton crop, was lost on ac- count of the war, and this in spite of the fact that production in 1914 was almost 2,000,000 bales greater than in 1913. It is difficult for the uninitiated to appreciate the extent to which the South depends upon its cotton product. Cotton and cotton seed represent almost two thirds of the value of all crops produced in Georgia and Mississippi. Cotton represents 63 per cent of the value of aL crops produced in Texas, 60 per cent of those produced in Ala- bama and 53 per cent of those pro- duced in Arkansas. The industrial depression caused by the shrinkage in cotton values was severe, but by June, 1915, the total shipments for the year were within 8 per cent of the preceding year. Nevertheless the value has shrunk, in spite of crop recovery, over 38 per cent. As a result of this, plus the foreign demand for grain, the acreage under cultivation for wheat, barley, oats and other cereals needed abroad has greatly increased, while cotton planters now plant a much smaller acreage than in pre- war times. The estimate for the cotton crop for the fiscal year is MECHANICAL COTTON PICKER less than 11,000,000 bales, which, compared with the production of 16,134,000 bales in 1914 and with an average yearly production in the preceding five years of 13,033,000 bales, is rather small. The decrease results from a reduction of about 15 per cent in the acreage planted in cotton and a 20 per cent poorer yield. Few countries give official statis- tics for the production of cotton, so that to state any figure and call it the world's production of cotton is impossible with any degree of accu- racy. British India produced I 1-' < "f (t 50 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 4,238,494 bales of cotton in 1914 against over 16,000,000 for the United States for the same year. The total for Russia in 1914 was 1,177,995 bales and Egypt is credited with 1,450,000 bales during the same period. Statistics of 1910 give the world's production of 22,433,269 bales of cotton, but are frankly in- accurate and are only for those com- paratively few countries from which figures are available. Normally the United States has under cultivation in the neighborhood of 36,000,000 acres of cotton and could normally expect this year to produce a much larger quantity than will be picked under the abnormal conditions. Texas is the largest producer of cotton among the States, accounting for 3,175,000 bales of 500 pounds each. Georgia is next with 1,900,- 000 bales, followed by South Caro- lina with 1,160,000 bales. Virginia has the smallest cotton crop, mar- keting but 16,000 bales. Tobacco In the year 1849 the United States produced 199,753,000 pounds of tobacco. In 1915 our production was 1,060,587,000 pounds, a crop valued at $96,041,000 at the farms of 1,368,- 400 acres which produced it. Ken- tucky is the leading tobacco State, with 356,400,000 pounds yearly, fol- lowed by North Carolina with 198,- 400,000 and Virgina with 144,375,- 000 pounds. Tobacco is one of the agricul- tural products which we both export and import, the imports, however, falling far short of the exports. In 1914 our exports were 348,346,091 pounds (more than 40 per cent of the crop) and our imports 45,764,- 728 pounds. The reason for any im- ports, of course, is the fact that there are so many varieties of tobacco, and not all kinds grow well, or in sufficient quantity, in the cli- mate of our Southern States. Both exports and imports given above are of the unmanufactured tobacco. World figures for tobacco production are not available with any degree of accuracy since 1911, when the total was 2,566,202,000 pounds, not quite three times the production of the United States alone in that year. Flax One million three hundred and sixty-seven thousand acres produce 13,845,000 bushels of flax and flax seed, of which the average farm price per bushel is $1.739. The total value is thus $24,080,000. North Dakota leads all flax producing States with an acreage of 660,000 and a production of 6,534,000 bush- els, and as the value of this North Dakota flax was over $11,000,000 this one State has nearly half the flax industry of the United States. Rice Rice is not one of the great crops of the United States and yet an acreage of 803,000 is devoted to its growing. Twenty-eight million nine hundred and forty-seven bushels of rice, with a value of $26,212,000, is the rice industry's contribution to our agricultural wealth. For com- parison with statistics of other coun- tries it is necessary to express pro- duction in pounds. In 1914 we grew 656,917,000 pounds, while Italy pro- duced 741,263,000 pounds and British India 62.638.912,000 pounds. Japan grew 17,827,247,000 pounds and our own Philippine Islands 1,403,516,000 pounds. Just what a small propor- tion of the total rice crop of the world is ours is shown by the world's figures for 1913, 100,700,000,- 000 pounds of rice. Apples Apples are among the important fruit crops of the United States. Of three bushel barrels there were 76,670,000 grown, at an average price of 74.6 cents per bushel at the farm. The principal apple pro- ducing State is New York, with 8,528,000 barrels, followed by Mis- souri with 6,287,000 barrels and Pennsylvania with 5,085,000 barrels. There are more than 35 varieties of apples extensively grown in the United States, of which the most 54 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF WINE popular is the Baldwin, with 13.4 per cent of the total crop; followed by Ben Davis, 13.3 per cent ; North- ern Spy, 6.1 per cent; Winesap, 5.1 per cent; Rhode Island Greening, 4.7 per cent, and Jonathan, with 3.6 per cent of the total crop. The total production of apples in the United States was considerably less in 1915 than in 1914, the difference being over 8,000,000 barrels, which is al- most exactly the difference between the production in 1914 and 1915 in New York State. Peaches United States orchards produce 64,218,000 bushels of peaches. The farm price per bushel averages 81.1 cents, making the total peach crop of the United States $52,080,798 in value. California leads in the peach production with 9,768,000 bushels, followed by Arkansas with 5,940,000 and Georgia with 5,330,000 bushels. Hops According to 1913 statistics the principal hop producing countries of the world grew 173,937,000 pounds of hops. Of this quantity the United States produced 62,898,000 pounds. The following year, 1914, the hop production in the United States dropped to 43,415,000 pounds. As might be expected, Germany, if not the leader, is very close to the front in the production of this herb, be- ing responsible (1914) for 55,227,- 000 pounds. The United Kingdom produced 1,500,000 pounds more than TOMATO PLANTS TRAINED ON TWINE TKELLISES OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Germany. No 1915 figures for hops are as yet available. Beans Beans, a universal food, are grown all over the world. The world's bean crop is enormous, but available statistics are too scattering, even in the largest bean producing countries, to have any great degree of accu- racy. The United States has no official figures for beans later than 1912, which were issued by the cen- sus office. In that year 11,145,000 bushels of beans were grown. Aus- tria-Hungary beats this production by almost 50 per cent, growing 20,- 445,000 bushels ; France produces 9,354,000 bushels (1914), Italy 16,- 997,000 (1914) and European Rus- sia 12,717,000 (1913) bushels. The price of beans in the United States in 1915 fluctuated between $2.15 and $6.40 per bushel. Peas One million three hundred and two thousand acres in 1912 was the area devoted to the production of peas in the United States. There are no later official figures. The 1912 production was 7,110,000 bush- FIELD OF SUGAR BEETS els, comparing not at all with Euro- pean Russia, which in the same year produced 32,128,000 bushels, or even with Spain, which produced 9,885,- 000 bushels, although the Spanish figures for peas include chick peas, lentils and vetches. SOUTHDOWNS IN PASTURE OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Sugar Sugar beets and sugar cane form a very important industry in the United States, there being 67 fac- tories engaged in the production of beet sugar from beets. These fac- tories produce 862,800 short tons of sugar, chiefly refined. Six hundred and twenty-four thousand acres are devoted to the production of sugar beets, each acre yielding an aver- age of 10.4 short tons of beets, so sugar beets, whereas in nil Europe the total devoted to beets was 5,502,200 acres (1913). It is, there- fore, not surprising to note that Europe's production of sugar from beets in 1913 was 61,774,400 tons against the five and one half million of the United States. Louisiana is the cane sugar center. In 1914, the last year for which statistics are available, 149 factories produced 242,700 short tons of sugar from SMUDGE POTS that 6,462,000 tons were utilized. Sugar beets average $5.54 per ton. The principal refineries are located in California (11), Colorado (14), Idaho (4), Michigan (15), Ohio (4) and Utah (8). The United States is by no means the world leader in beet sugar, Aus- tria-Hungary producing over 1,700,- 000 and Germany 2,755,750 short tons. In the United States, accord- ing to 1914 figures, a total of Is:;,- 400 acres were devoted to growing 3,199,000 short tons of sugar cane. The average yield of cane per acre in Louisiana was 15 tons, a loss of two tons from the unusually luxuri- ant production in 1913, 17 tons to the acre. The Hawaiian Islands have 46 factories, which average 183 days operation in the year. In 1914 the Hawaiian factories produced 612,OuO short tons of sugar from the harvest of 112,700 acres. The average yield per acre was 43 short tons, a total AGRICULTURE 68 WORLD'S CATTLE RAISING REGIONS WORLD'S SHEEP RAISING REGIONS 60 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CATTLE STATISTICS Jan. 1 Milch Cows Other Cattle Number Price per head Jan. 1 Farm value Jan. 1 Number Price per head Jan. 1 Farm value Jan. 1 1867 . . . 1876.. . 1886. . . 1896 . . . 1906. . . 1916. . . 8,349,000 11,085,000 14,235,000 16,138,000 19,794,000 21,988,000 $28 . 74 25.61 27.40 22.55 29.44 53.90 $239,947,000 283,879,000 389,98(1,000 363,950,000 582,789,000 1,185,119,000 11.731.000 16,785,000 31,275,000 32,085,000 47,068,000 39,453,000 $15.79 17. OO 21.17 15.86 15.85 33.49 $185,254,000 285,387.000 661,95(1,000 508,928.000 746,172.000 1,321,135,000 CHURNING BUTTER IN A CO-OPERATIVE CREAMERY INSERT SHOWS A MODERN MILK-MAID production of 4,900,000 short tons of cane. The Hawaiian cane is ex- tremely rich, requiring but a single short ton of cane to produce 250 pounds of sugar, an average yield of 10,861 pounds of sugar per acre of cane. LIVE STOCK Horses and Mules Increase in numbers of horses and mules on United States farms has fully kept pace with the increase in population. The census of 1870 showed 7,145,370 horses and 1,125,- il 62 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 415 mules in the United States. The estimated number for 1916, based on the best available statistics, is 21,- 166,000 horses and 4,565,000 mules. The average value of a farm horse in 1S70 was $67.43. To-day it is $101.60. The average price of a For instance, the average price per head for horses in the Chicago Horse Market in 1914 was $208 for a drafter, $483 for a carriage team, $169 for drivers, $160 for general horses, $184 for saddle horses, and so on. These figures represent a con- FARM PRODUCT CARRIED AS FREIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES, 1912-1914 Product Year ending June 30 1912 1913 1914 Animal matter: Short tons 14,147,000 Short tons 15,042,000 Shout tons 14,811,000 Packing-house products 2,346,000 1,139.000 2,300,000 2,407,000 1,121,000 2,345,000 2,283,000 1,081,000 2,375,000 Hides (including leather) Other packing-house products Total packing-house products.'. .... Poultry (including game and fish) Wool. Other animal matter 5,845,000 5,873,000 5,739,000 768,000 407,000 3,807,000 847,000 398,000 4,286,000 915,000 409,000 5,264,000 24,974,000 26,446,000 27,138,000 Vegetable matter: Cotton Fruits and vegetables Grain and grain products- Grain 4,953,000 12,880,000 3,942,000 16,099,000 4,141,000 16,795,000 39,299,000 8,629,000 7,081,000 50,945,000 9,523,000 7,830,000 46,015,000 9,697,000 7,824,000 Grain products Flour Other grain products Total grain and grain products Hay Sugar 55,009,000 68,298,000 63,536,000 6,828,000 3,233,000 982,000 10,125,000 7,145,000 3,599,000 1,091,000 9,493,000 7,319,000 3,926,000 1,071,000 9,338,000 Tobacco Other vegetable matter Total -egetable matter Total farm products 94,010,000 109,667,000 106,126,000 118,984,000 136,113,000 133,264,000 farm mule in 1870 was $90.42. To- day it is $113.87. The total valuo of all horses in 1870 was $556.251.- 000. To-day it is $2. 1.10. Kix.oon. Mules were valued in 1870 at $106,- 654,000. To-day their value runs in excess of $519,820,000. The average price of any com- modity for the whole United States is seldom equal to the market price as paid in any of the great markets. siderable increase in recent years, Chicago prices for 1901 being $157 for drafters, $400 for carriage team, $137 for drivers, $102 for horses for general work and $147 for saddle horses. Iowa farms possess more horses than any other State, having 1,584,- 000. Illinois comes next with 1,452,- 000, then Texas with 1,180,000, with Kansas, Montana and Nebraska OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES WORLD'S PRODUCTIONS OF HIDES AND SKINS WORLD'S DAIRY PRODUCTION AGRICULTURE next, all having more than 1,000,000. Texas easily leads in the possession of mules with 753,000. Montana fol- lows with 329,000 and Georgia has 309,000. Texas, of course, is the great cat- tle State. Nineteen sixteen figures give the Lone Star ranges 1,119,000 milch cows and 5,428,000 other cat- tle. Iowa follows with 1,391,000 milch cows and 2,737,000 other cat- tle. Illinois, Wisconsin aud Minne- sota are all among the greatest cattle States, the stock on farms out- numbering even the great herds in more strictly cattle States, such as Oklahoma is popularly supposed to be with its 1,638,000 head. Sheep Sheep, like cattle, are valued not only for their meat but for wool and hide. United States sheep total 49,162,000. The average price per head is $5.17, making the total farm value $254,348,000 for all the sheep in the United States. Wyoming, the great sheep State, leads with a herd of 4,338,000, followed by Montana with 3,941.000, New Mexico with 3,440,000, Idaho with 3,102,000 and Ohio with 3,067,000. While this enormous herd roams the Western -plains and Eastern farms 36,000,698 fleeces are marketed, the average weight of which is 6.78 pounds, the total product in the raw state being 228,777,000 pounds of wool. Swine Farms of the United States pos- sess a herd of 68,047,000 swine, the average price of which is $8.40 per head, or a total farm value of $571,- 890,000 for pork alone. Iowa is the great pork State of the Union, av- eraging in 1916, 9,069,000 hogs and pigs of all kinds, followed by Mis- souri, Illinois, Nebraska and Indiana, all over 4,000,000 each. BSUM The space at hand forbids an ex- tension of this brief survey of a part of the agricultural wealth of the United States. Perhaps no one set of figures can show in more suc- cinct manner the extent of the farm- .ing activities of this country than the table on page 62 of our agricul- tural products carried on railroads and therefore marketed. CHAPTER IV. THE FISH WE EAT By RALSTON MOOR I] THE last report of the United States Census dealing with the fishing industries of the United States is that of 1908. The next report will be in 1918. The 1908 figures, given below, are therefore only authoritative in giving a com- parison between the various pisca- torial products of our waters and cannot be accepted too literally even there, as the past eight years have seen many changes in some of the industries. ture, but detailed figures of certain other fish industries are available through the work of the Bureau of Fisheries. The greatest fishing industry of the Atlantic Coast is conducted by the fleets centering at Boston and Gloucester. Three hundred and ninety-three vessels were in these fleets in 1914, including sail, gaso- line and steam vessels. There were 7,598 trips made by these vessels, landing at both ports FROZEN HALIBUT IN STOKE AT SEATTLE CLEANING THE FISH ON A STEAM HALIBUT FISHERMAN The most important sea food in- dustry in the United States is un- questionably the oyster industry. No product of the water has a greater nutritive value and none is more readily caught and sold than this shell fish. No statistics, how- ever, later than those of the census of 1908 are available for oyster cul- 162,589,220 pounds of fish, valued at $4,395,030. This shows a decrease in the number of trips from the pre- vious year of 1,231, an increase in the catch of 372,434 pounds, but a decrease in the value of $587,987. HADDOCK In 1914, 57,754,128 pounds of had- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. i OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES PRODUCTS OF THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES: 1908. Species. Pounds. Black bass Bluefish 3,313,000 7 647 000 4 7:is ooo Buffalo fish Butterfish 16,7L".i.OOO 6.855,000 42 763 000 Catfish 17 817 000 Cod 109 4JV! ooo 8 143 000 Cusk Drum, fresh-water 6,3-44.000 0,5:',L'.oiM) 4 57U (HID Eels Flounders Haddock 3,358,000 23.31ti.ooO 59 9.S7 001) Hake 34 340 000 Halibut Herring Herring (lake) Mackerel Menhaden Mullet Perch, white Perch, yellow Pike and Pickerel Pike perc 1 Pollock Pompar <: Rockfiji Salmon 34,441,000 125,050,000 41,118,000 12,103,000 394,776,000 33,703,000 2,412,000 7,898,000 2,959,000 15,247,000 29,462,000 570,000 2,454,000 90,417,000 8 414 000 6 352 000 Shad ... Smelt 27,641,000 43.10000 13 498 000 Spanish mackerel Squeteaeue Striped bass 3,806,000 49,869,000 3,657,000 "> 07'' ooo Suckers 8,555,000 2 714 000 1 ? 024 000 Whitefish 7,722,000 15 279 000 Shrimp . . . -. Clams, hard 14,374,000 7,805,000 8 654 000 Oysters Mussel shells 233,309,000 81,869,000 Tprranin 368 000 Turtles. .'. .' 1,088,000 S 622 000 372,000 Mink skins. 22,000 149 000 Otter skins Whalebone Scallops 7,600 63,000 2 414 000 Oil, sperm Oil, whale Irish moss. . . 3,391,000 573,000 772,000 Dollars. 589,000 255,000 506,000 120,000 498,000 237,000 1,135,000 785,000 2,903,COO 226,000 105,000 154,000 164,000 203,000 588,000 1,308,000 464,000 1,562,000 796,000 989,000 848,000 893,000 908,000 137,000 258,000 174,000 580,000 402,000 71,000 66,000 3,347,000 290,000 284,000 2,113,000 174,000 636,000 194,000 1,776,000 314,000 157,000 215,000 198,000 800,000 524,000 1,931,000 390,000 1,317,000 553,000 15,713,000 392,000 300,000 80,000 40,000 545,000 61,000 89,000 136,000 30,000 215,000 317,000 252,000 30,000 26.000 The total quantity and value of the products of the fisheries of the United States including the items mentioned above and all other fish products was 1,893,454,000 pounds, valued at $54,031,000. No later figures are available at time of publication. In many cases there $54,031,000. No later figures are available was an increase, in other cases a decrease. FISH EGG CAE OF THE BUREAU OF FISHERIES INTERIOR QF FISH COMMISSION CAR, WITH BERTH LET DOWN OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES dock were landed, valued at $1,381,- 156. This was an increase in the number of pounds landed during the previous year by over four million, but a decrease of $100,000 in value. POLLOCK Pollock fish, which are caught with purse seines, yielded a less number of pounds and value in 1914- than 1913, the 1914 catch being 12,- 454,723 pounds, valued at $199,736. SWORDFISH Swordfish were less plentiful in 1914 than several years previously. American fishing vessels landed at Boston and Gloucester in 1914 1,499,844 pounds of fresh swordfish, valued at $177,669. COD Cod is among the most important fish; it is marketed both fresh and salt, and as cod and scrod, the latter being from one to two and one half pounds in weight. The total catch of all kinds landed at Boston and Gloucester was, in 1914, fresh cod, 36,079,873 pounds, valued at $917,- 908; salted cod, 11,449,757 pounds, valued at $411,508. Newfoundland herring landed at Boston, Gloucester and other New England ports during the season of 1914 and the first part of 1915 amounted approximately to 2,570,- 352 pounds of fresh frozen fish, and 49.166 barrels, amounting to 11,071,- 584 pounds, of salted herring. HALIBUT Halibut valued at $246,000 for 3,063,000 pounds, and salted halibut to the amount of 316,000 pounds, valued at $30,000, was packed dur- ing the year. CUSK Cusk yielded 5,747,053 pounds KOUGH MORNING ON THE HALIBUT BANKS. LANDING A SMALL CATCH TITE FISH WE EAT 71 fresh, valued at $99,000, aud salted, 111.087 pounds, valued at $3,200. HAKE Hake was caught to the amount of 7,404.335 pounds, valued at $146,- 030, and salted to the amount of 222,033 pounds, valued at $4,218. LOBSTERS Lobsters are caught from Lewes, Del., to the tip of Maine, and pro- vide 12,267,017 pounds of sea food annually (1913), valued at $2,394,- 822 for 8,832,281 lobsters. The in- dustry shows the peculiar and anomalous condition of a steadily decreasing output and a steadily in- creasing profit to those engaged. In twenty-four years' time the yearly catch has decreased by more than 18.000,000 pounds, or 00 per cent, while the fisherman's receipts have increased by a million and a half dollars, or 178 per cent. In 1880 the lobster brought an average of .024 cents a pound. In 1913 lobsters averaged .191 cents per pound, nearly ten times as much as in 1880 and two and a half times as much as in 1900. ALASKAN The 1914 season saw the Alaska fishing industry at its height of value. It afforded employment to 21,200 persons and included the in- vestment of $37,000,000. The total value of the products of the Alaskan fishers is estimated at $21,2<*3,OuO, an advance of over $5,500,OuO over 1913, due largely to an unusual abundance of red salmon and the higher prices commanded by canned salmon. SEAL The fur seal service reports from the Pribilof Islands a satisfactory FISH CULTURAL STATION, BOZEMAN, MONTANA 72 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES condition of the seal herd. A com- plete census of the seals shows 294,- 687, an increase of nearly 27,000 animals over the year 1913. The 1915 census has not yet been com- pleted but indicates an increase of 60,000 animals over 1914. MUSSEL The Bureau of Fisheries has been conducting a general canvass of fresh-water mussel fishing, which has been in progress for several with supervision of propagation and distribution of food and game fishes and scientific investigations into all matters pertaining to fish. In 1914 the enormous quantity of 4,288,757,- 800 fish and ova were distributed. The greater proportion of this, of course, was egg and not fish, but fingerling. yearling and adult fish numbered over 58,000,000, an in- crease of 150 per cent over 1914. Of this number, salmon, trout and bass contributed the larger part. SPAWNING TROUT AT NEOSHO, MO.. HATCHERY FISH CULTURAL STATION, WYTHE- VILLE, VA. years on the streams inland. The canvass covered in 1914 included tributaries to the Great Lakes and the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Three thousand nine hundred and fifty-two persons were engaged in taking mussels in the streams under consideration and in preparing them for the market. The mussel fisher- ies had an output of 23,317 tons of shells, valued at $382,210, and yield- ed pearls worth $164,261. The shells are used in the manufacture of pearl buttons. BUREAU OF FISHERIES The Bureau of Fisheries of the Department of Commerce is charged Perhaps nothing in the work of the bureau is more spectacular than its development of a new fish indus- try the catching and marketing of tile fish. This edible and nutritive fish was practically unknown in the market prior to October of 1915. Beginning with November, 1915, and up to August, 1916, 6,938,000 pounds of tile fish have been taken and mar- keted for $255,000. So rapidly did the fish impress consumers with its value that the July, 1916, catch was over 1400 per cent greater than that of the previous November. Fish cultural work was conducted in thirty-two States and the terri- tory of Alaska. Distributions oc- THE FISH WE EAT curred in every State and Territory of the Union. The greater part of the output is planted in public waters, either on the initiative of the Fish Commission or on the recommendation of State authority, although fishes adapted for ponds, small lakes and minor interioj* waters are usually consigned on in- dividual application. Fish cultural operations were con- ducted during the year at fifty permanent hatcheries and seventy- six sub-hatcheries, auxiliaries and egg-collecting stations. These va- rious stations and sub-stations are located along the Atlantic rivers for salmons, trout, white perch and yellow perch ; the Pacific rivers for .salmons and steelhead trout ; on the Great Lakes for whitefish, Cisco, lake trout and pike perch; on various interior waters for bass, sunfish, carpies, trout, and on the Atlantic Coast for cod, haddock, pol- lock, flounder and lobster. An important branch of the Bu- reau of Fisheries operations is in the rescue of young food fishes from lakes and bayous formed by the overflow of the Mississippi and Illi- nois Rivers and their tributaries. During 1915 operations of this char- acter yielded 8,357,000 fish, which is approximately 90 per cent of the food fishes which would otherwise have perished through drought or "air drowning" when the overflow dried up, or from cold later in the year if not rescued. The Bureau of Fisheries has six railroad cars especially arranged for the transportation of live fish During the year ending June 30, 1915, the distribution of fish, eggs, etc., by the bureau amounted to 536,260,143 eggs, 3,694,281,699 fry and 58,215,692 fingerlings, yearlings and adults. These went to Fish Commissions in twenty-eight differ- ent States, to waters needing stock, from the controllers of which re- quests had been made to the bureau, and to private persons asking for fish for streams, lakes or ponds. While in special instances some fish or eggs are sent by special messen- ger, by far the greater part was sent out by means of the bureau's special fish and egg transportation cars. The Bureau of Fisheries has been investigating and encouraging wher- ever possible the establishment of the home fish ponds and in every way possible places its accumulated experience at the disposal of per- sons interested in the establishment THESE MEN WITH MILK CANS ACT SUSPICIOUSLY. BUT THEY ARE ONLY DEPOSITING FISH IN A STREAM of fish ponds for the purpose of supplying fish for the table. It is impossible, adequately, to convey an idea of the scope of operations of the Bureau of Fisheries in the short space available here Those inter- ested should communicate with the Commissioner of Fisheries, Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Com- merce, Washington, D. O, FOREST RANGEE AT HIS FIRE LOOKOUT STATION IN THE TOP OF A YELLOW PINE. MT. SHASTA IN THE BACKGROUND. A TELEPHONE AT THE FOOT OF THE TREE CONNECTS WITH THE SUPERVISOR'S OFFICE CHAPTER V. FORESTS AND FORESTRY TIMBER SUPPLY By RICHARDSON DAVENPORT TIMBER standing in the United States amounts to nearly 2,JXX),000,000,000 board feet, of which three fourths (about 2,200,- 000,000,000 board feet) is privately owned and 21 per cent (600,000,- 000,(K)0) is conserved in national forests. The remaining 4 per cent is otherwise publicly owned by States or municipalities. Fire accounts for the annual de- struction of 12,000,000,000 board the original stand of timber in the I'nited States is calculated to have been 5,200,000,000,000 feet, covering 800,000,000 acres. Nearly half the country's timber is in the Pacific Northwest, a fourth of it is in the Southern Pine region, and the bal- ance in the Lake region and scat- tered in the Eastern States. Most of the national forests are in the mountains of the West, fol- lowing in general the Rocky Mous- The Trees of Future Forests THE GOVERNMENT HAS 34,000.000 LITTLE TREES WHICH WILL BE USED TO PLANT DENUDED AREAS ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS feet, and waste as much more. Many saws waste as much as they cut, and stumps, slashing and slabs account for a tremendous loss. It is probable, although not computable accurately, that fires and waste use more lumber than is cut yearly. a statement borne out by the fad (hat tains and Pacific Coast ranges from Washington, Idaho and Montana to southern California, Arizona and New Mexico. A few are in Arkan- sas. Florida, Nebraska. Michigan, Minnesota, Alaska and Porto Rico. States which have set aside forest reserves of their own are California, li.v Muiin & Co., Inc. 76 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Connecticut, Indiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minne- sota, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, South Da- kota, Vermont and Wisconsin. SHIFT IN LUMBER PRODUCTION A careful comparison of computed production for 1915 as against re- ported production for 1914 reveals changes which lumber cutting is 1915 LUMBER CUT BY SPECIES, WITH VALUE KIND OF WOOD Probable Total Board Feet Value, per M Board Feet Yellow Pine 14,700,000,000 4 431 249 000 $12.50 10 50 Oak White pine 2,970,000,000 2 700 000 000 19.00 18 00 Hemlock Spruce 2,275,000,000 1,400,000,000 1 293 985 000 13.00 16.50 14 50 Cypress Maple 1,100,000,000 900 000 000 20.00 15 00 Red gum Chestnut Yellow poplar Redwood 655,000,000 490,000,000 464,000,000 420,294,000 420000 000 12.50 16.00 22.50 13.50 15 50 Birch 415,000,000 375000000 16.50 11 00 Beech Basswood 360,000,000 260,000,000 210000000 14.00 19.00 17 00 Ash 190,000,000 180000000 22.50 17 50 Tupelo White flr Sugar pine Balsam flr 170,000,000 125,048,000 117,701,000 100,000,000 12.00 11.00 17.50 to 18.50 14.00 Hickory 100000OOO 23 50 Walnut 90,000,000 Lodgepole pine 26,486,000 25000000 13.00 14 00 All other kinds 49,531,000 Total 37,013,294,000 ANNUAL CUT Reliable but not absolutely accu- rate figures of lumber production are furnished by the Forest Service of the United States government. Based on the reports from 16,428 lumber mills, the 1915 cut is esti- mated to have been 37,013,294,000 board feet, with a possible maximum of 38,000,000,000 board feet. A "board foot" is 12 by 12 by 1 inch. Forty per cent of the cut was South- ern yellow pine, three times the amount of Douglas fir, second in quantity cut. But three other woods, oak, white pine and fir, were cut in excess of 2,000,000,000 feet. ON THE FIRING LINE, FIGHTING GROUND FIRE FORESTS AND FORESTRY 77 1015 AND 1914 PRODUCTION OF LUMBER BY STATES REPORTED BY MILLS CUTTING 50,000 AND OVER STATES Increase or Decrease Per Cent 1915 Computed Total Production M ft. 1914 Reported Production* Mft. Washington Louisiana Mississippi North Carolina Arkansas Texas - Oregon Alabama Virginia Wisconsin California (incl. Nev.) Florida + .1 - 1.4 + .8 - 6.2 + .2 +12.6 - 7.0 + .4 + .8 -13.0 -14.3 + 3.4 3,950,000 3,900,000 2,300,000 2,090,000 1,800,000 1,750,000 1,690,000 1,500,000 1,500,000 1,210,000 1,130,000 1,110,000 3,946,189 3,956,434 2,280,966 2,227,854 1,796.780 1.554,005 1,817,875 1,494,732 1.488,070 1,391,001 1,318,065 1 073,821 Michigan - 9.4 -16 2 1,100,000 1 100 000 1,214,435 1 312 230 West Virginia - 1.7 1,100,000 1 1 18,480 Maine Georgia + .7 - 2 6 1,000.000 1 000 000 992,594 1 026 191 Pennsylvania South Carolina + 9.9 + 14.0 - 9 6 950,000 800,000 800 OOO 864,710 701,540 885 035 Idaho Kentucky New Hampshire New York Ohio . . . + 1.8 - 6.1 + 3.6 - 2.3 +39 8 777,000 560,000 500.00O 475,000 400000 763,508 596,392 482,744 486,195 286063 Missouri 5 6 350000 370 571 Indiana Montana Vermont Massachusetts Oklahoma Maryland +17.2 + 3.2 + 4.2 +74.7 +14.7 + 1.9 350,000 328,000 260,000 250,000 230,000 165,000 298.571 317,842 249.608 143,094 200,594 162,097 Illinois Connecticut Colorado Arizona New Mexico New Jersey Iowa Delaware South Dakota Wyoming Rhode Island Utah Kansas and Nebraska +66.1 + 9.9 -22.1 - 3.5 +15.1 -17.9 +205.9 - 2.0 +27.0 +46.8 - 5.7 +25.5 110,000 90,000 79,500 75,915 65,787 40,000 35,000 25,000 23,000 17.400 15,000 10,892 66,227 81,883 102,117 78,667 57,167 18,748 11,443 25.517 18,744 11,852 15,902 8,680 790 Totals 9 37,013 294 37 346 023 * Quinquennia] census of manufacturer ** Mills reporting cut less than 50,000 each itom mills excluded producing in the location of prin- cipal supplies. During the year Washington rose from second place to first in lumber production. Louisi- ana dropped from first to second [ilai-e. Oregon fell from fifth place to seventh. Florida climbed from fifteenth place to twelfth and Minne- sota dropped from eleventh place to fourteenth. LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES The principal varieties of lumber and the States in which they grow are listed on page 80, the order of the names of States being according to their rank in growing the particular variety of lumber under which they are classified. LATHS AND SHINGLES From the reports of mills and the 5 1 FORESTS AND FOKKSTUY total number of mills and their capacity, a comparatively accurate figure of total cut can be obtained. But it is not possible accurately to estimate what proportion of the out- put of unreporting mills may be in lath and shingles. Hence the fol- lowing figures are confined strictly to reports and are not estimates. As the lath cut increased slightly and the shingle cut decreased de- cidedly since 1912, the last previous year for which lath and shingle figures are available, they are given for comparison. In 1915 mills reporting showed a lath cut of 2.794,301,000 as against 2.719,163,000 in 1912. In 1915 mills reporting showed a shingle cut of 8,483,579,000 against 12,037,685,000 in 1912. Louisiana produced most laths in 1915. with 4.TU 76,01 K). forging ahead of Washington, leader in 1912. Washington produced most shingles 1915 TIMBJOR CUT BY SPECIES BILLIONS BOARD The private lands REGULATED VS. UNREGULATED CUTTING ire stripped, while the adjoining government forests are conserved OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in 1915, with a cut of 6,313,335,000, more than fifteen times as many as any other State, but dropping by a billion and a half under its figures for 1912. BOX MANUFACTURE The largest users of lumber in the United States, excluding builders and millwrights utilizing lumber for products used in construction work, are the box manufacturers. Statis- tics for 1912 are the most recent ones available. Ac-cording to these, 4,547,973,180 board feet are used annually in the production of boxes, and machines, growers of fruit, ber- ries and vegetables. Crates are used in large quantities by shippers of furniture, hardware, machinery and stone ; also for fruit. CROSSTIES Railroads made a tremendous de- mand on the lumber market for crossties and poles. No more recent statistics than those of 1910 are available as to crossties, but in that year nearly 149,000,000 ties were used. Because a tie must be selected for durability, spike-holding power, resistance to mechanical wear and LOCALITIES OF VARIOUS SPECIES suites Listed in Order of Rank Yellow pine Douglas fir White pine Oak Hemlock Western pine Spruce Cypress Maple Redwood Red gum Larch and tamarack Yellow poplar Cedar Birch Sugar pine . . Basswood. . . Beech Elm Cottonwood . Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, North Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Virginia, Georgia, South Carolina, Oklahoma Washington, Oregon, California, Idaho, Montana Minnesota, Idaho, Maine, New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Mass- achusetts. Michigan West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Virginia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, Missouri, Mississippi, Indiana, Louisiana Wisconsin. Michigan, Washington, Pennsylvania, West Vir- ginia, New York, Maine, Oregon California, Idaho, Oregon, Washington, Montana, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada Maine, Washington, New Hampshire, West Virginia, Vermont, Oregon, New York, Minnesota, Massachusetts Louisiana, Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Arkansas, Mis- sissippi, Missouri Michigan, Wisconsin California Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana, South Carolina, Missouri, Tennessee, North Carolina, Kentucky Montana, Idaho, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Wash- ington, Oregon West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, Ohio Washington, Idaho, California, Oregon Wisconsin, Michigan California Wisconsin, Michigan Michigan, Indiana Wisconsin, Michigan Arkansas, Mississippi, Louisiana crates and other containers. Sixty- nine per cent of this amount is soft wood and 31 hardwood. The total amount in 1912 was 1% per cent of the total cut. Leading box consumers are manu- facturers of oil, packing-house prod- ucts, canned goods, groceries and tobacco, clothing and dry goods, the manufacturers of hardware, tinware reasonableness of price, there are but few woods which are chosen by railroads. The principal ones and their popularity by both steam and electric roads are shown in the table on page 82. POLES Railroads, trolley lines, telephone and telegraph companies consume large quantities of lumber yearly in FORESTS AND FORESTRY si ^' NATURAL FOREST REGIONS OF NORTH AMERICA OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CROSSTIES PURCHASED, BY CLASSES OP RAILROADS PURCHASING, AND KINDS OF WOOD WOOD Total Purchased by steam railroads Purchased by electric railroads All kinds 148 231 000 139 596 000 8 635 000 Oak Southern pine Douglas flr Chestnut Cedar Cypress Tamarack Western pine Hemlock Redwood Gum All other (18,382,000 26,264,000 11,629,000 7,760,000 7,305,000 5,396,000 5,163,000 4,612,000 3,468,000 2,165,000 1,621,000 4,466,000 65,095,000 25,096,000 10,919,000 6,219,000 6,637,000 5,187,000 4,960,000 4,527,000 3,442,000 1,501,000 1,621,000 4,392,000 3,287,000 1,168,000 710,000 1,541,000 668,000 209,000 20)5,000 85,000 26,000 664,000 74,666 O 5 10 IS 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 7C n SOUTHERN PINE ^^^^^^^^^^1 DOUGLAS FIR | nsa 1 CHESTNUT | !! CEDAR 1 1 Ill CYPRESS | III TAMARACK | II WESTERN PINE | II HEMLOCK | 1 REDWOOD | GUM | ALL OTHERS 1_ KINDS OF WOODS USED FOR RAILROAD CROSSTIES purchase and use of poles. In 1911, the most recent year for which pole statistics have been gathered, 3,418,- 020 poles were bought by companies needing them for immediate use. Of this quantity cedar poles were the most popular accounting for over two million, with chestnut, oak, pine and cypress following in the order named. Poles under twenty feet long were bought to the number of 404,728 (largely for rural telegraph and telephone lines) ; poles between twenty and thirty feet, the most popular size, accounted for 1,861,816 of the total ; between thirty and forty feet, 862,219: between forty ami lifty feet, 217,000, and over fifty feet, 72,257. WOOD PRESERVATION The art of preserving wood has advanced rapidly in recent years and the long threatened wood famine FORESTS AND FORESTRY and the consequent higher prices have led many large users of wood exposed to weather and decay, not- ably railroads and telegraph and telephone companies, to experiment seriously with processes which would cut down expense by preven- tion of decay. According to statis- tics of the American Wood Pre- servers' Association, gathered in co- <>I>eration with the Forest Service, in 1915, 102 wood preserving plants treated 141,858.963 cubic feet of ma- terial. The 1914 statistics on wood preservation were based on reports from ninety-four plants and showed a total of 159,582,639 cubic feet treated. Although the figures -for 1915 are based on the output of eight more plants than are those for 1!H4. the amount of wood treated in 1915 was less by 17,723,676 cubic feet, or 10 per cent. A notable increase, amounting to 1.'.isi;.i>i; cubic feet, was recorded in the amount of construction timber treated during the year. The num- ber of crossties subjected to treat- ment in 1915 was 37,085,585, a re- duction from 1914 figures of 6,761,- 402, while the quantity of paving material was increased by over 300,- 000 square yards, or 11 per cent. Less than half as many cross-arms were treated in 1915 as in the pre- vious year, and the quantity of piling and miscellaneous timbers treated fell below that reported in 1914 by 1,766,618 and 200,825 cubic feet, re- spectively, a decrease of 21 per cent and 14 per cent. For the treatment of the 141,858,- 963 cubic feet of material reported in 1915 33,269,604 pounds of zinc chloride and 80,859,442 gallons of creosote were required. In addition 3.205,563 gallons of paving oil and 1,693,544 gallons of miscellaneous liquid preservatives were consumed. In 1914 paving oil was reported separately for the first time and amounted to 9.429.444 gallons. In 1915 the treating plants reported only 3,205,563 gallons of this heavier LOCATING THE FIRE A Forest Hanger is using bis compass and map to find out where the fire U OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES oil, or considerably less than half the 1914 consumption. NATIONAL FORESTS The United States holds as na- tional forests 155 separate areas in the United States, aggregating 184,- 505,602 acres of land, which includes, preservation of the forests. Wood is cut and sold, mines are worked, water power is developed, sheep and cattle are grazed on these lands as on any others, the difference being that in the national forests all ac- tivities are under permits and the forests therefore under protection. RANGER ON FIRE PATROL DUTY ON THE HIGHEST RIDGE OF THE CABINET NATIONAL FOREST, MONTANA however, 21,732,332 acres of pri- vately owned land within national forest borders. The net amount owned by the United States govern- ment is thus 162,773,280 acres of land. Contrary to the general impres- sion, this acreage is not a "reserve" indeed, the name "forest reserve" gave way to "national forest" to correct that impression. The na- tional forests are protected from fire, from over-cutting, from exploitation indeed, but they are made to serve as large a population as possible by permitting their use in every possible way consistent with the CAUSES OF FOREST FIRES FORESTS AND FORESTRY The most recent reiK>rt of the for- ester shows that the regular appro- priation for 1914 for the Forest Service of $5,662,094.13 was not suf- ficient, and an emergency appropria- tion had to be made largely on ac- count of a very dry year and the increased necessity for fire protec- tion and lire fighting. The national forests, however, returned to the United States Treasury during the fiscal year the sum of '$2,481,469.35. foregone to sell certain lumber at cost; certain free grazing privileges were worth in excess of $120,000, and other privileges are believed to have a market value of $100,000 a year. During the year 1,093,589,000 board feet of timber was sold. Forty thousand and fifteen free-use timber- cut permits were issued and 30,610 permits given for stock grazing. One million six hundred and twenty- WATER POWER ON THE NATIONAL FORESTS, JUNE 30, 1915 Power Estimated PERMITS Transmis- sion lines Projects, reservoirs, conduits, average output of stream and power at minimum houses discharge Permits in force on June 30, 1915: Rental permits Preliminary Final . .. 19 462,039 Free permits Total .... Constructed or operating on June :iO. 1915: Rental permits. . . 84 Free permits. . . Total 97 _ . oTfl Under construction June 30, 1915- Rental permits Free permits .... 1 15 94,313 Total Construction not started on June 30, 1915- Rental permits Free permits 1 7 3 26 34 14 95,639 761,184 63,461 Total Applications received July 1, 1914, to 10 48 824,645 June 30, 1915- Rental permits Preliminary Final ... Free permits 2 13 Total 20 47 These receipts came from timber, $1,175,133.95 ; grazing, $1,130,495, and special uses, $175,840.40. A much larger showing could be made were it not for the generous policy of the Government which per- mits certain privileges free of charge. During the year over $200,- 0(X) worth of timber was given away free to settlers ; $33,000 of profit was seven thousand three hundred and twenty-one cattle, 96,933 horses, 2,792 hogs, 7,232,276 sheep and 51,- 409 goats were fed in national for- ests during the year. Predatory animals, including bears, coyotes, mountain lions, lynxes, wildcats, wolves and wolf pups were destroyed to the number of 3,843, the number indicating only the kill by forest OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES oflicers in connection with their work. Water power permits are shown in the table on page 85. FIRES Fires in national forests are guarded against with every possible care, but during the year 6,605 fires occurred. Of these, 3,253 burned less than a quarter of an acre be- fore being extinguished, 1,807 burned less than ten acres, 988 burned less than $100 worth though more than ten acres in extent, 458 fires did damage from $100 to $1,000 and 99 did damage in excess of ten acres and $1,000. A strict census of fire causes shows 16.8 per cent caused by rail- roads, 30.77 per cent by lightning, 7.12 per cent by incendiarism, 9.02 per cent by badly controlled brush- burning, 17.05 per cent by careless campers, 1.35 per cent by stationary steam engines sawmills, donkey en- gines, etc. and the balance of 17.89 per cent miscellaneous and unknown causes. The fires burned in 1914 225,979 timber acres. The open area affect- ed was 153,686 acres, accounting for a loss of timber burned or damaged of 339,430,000 board feet. The loss of money is estimated to be $307,303 for the destroyed timber ; reproduc- tion destroyed, $192,408, and forage loss, $2,803. The service expended in fire fighting, outside of salaries of regular officers, $685,790. NOTE. It is impossible to give here minute details of all the activi- ties of the Forest Service. Seekers for more detailed information can readily obtain it by writing to the Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. CHAPTEK VI. RECLAMATION SERVICE By CLAUDE WASHINGTON IT is not generally understood that the Reclamation Service of the United States is primarily a home making" service, nor that it does not compete with private enter- prise. Such, nevertheless, are the facts. Early irrigation in this coun- try was entirely a matter, of co- operative effort or the result of in- vestment by private or corporate capital, and early laws to encourage irrigation of arid lands all contem- plated construction financed by other than governmental money. The increasing difficulty of carry- ing out large projects led to the passage of the reclamation act, which enlists national funds for the development of projects not feasible by private or State enterprise. The projects undertaken involved expensive storage works, high diver- sion dams, difficult tunnels, or long, expensive canal work upon side hills, where large investment was neces- sary before any water was brought to the land. Many projects dis- cussed in the early days of reclama- tion work were rejected by the Reclamation Service because deemed within the reach of private invest- ment. Some of those same projects were later taken up by the Govern- ment after years of unsuccessful effort to enlist private capital in their construction. Practically all of the projects undertaken by the Reclamation Service had been aban- doned after unsuccessful attempts to finance them as private projects, or else were new projects too difficult to attract the attention of promoters. Remarkable progress, since its be- ginning in 1902, has been made by the service, and at the present time about 1,500,000 acres are under ditches and crops are being produced yearly on more than a million acres. 1909 Same Spot 1914 UMATILLA IRRIGATION PROJECT, OREGON Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The .average gross return per acre from these lauds annually is about $25. More than 30,000 families have been established in homes of their own. Cities, towns and villages have sprung up in these agricul- tural communities. Railroads have extended their branches, and a vast region which a few years ago was uninhabited and a desert has been transformed into a prosperous farm- ing country. The table below shows the extent of the work and the rate of progress during a recent year. 82 miles of railroad, 2.554 miles of telephone lines, 42!) miles of power transmission lines, and 1,068 build- ings, such as power houses, pumping stations, offices, residences, barns and storehouses. The excavations of rock and earth in all the work amount to 130,149,368 cubic yards. The projects now under way or completed embrace approximately 3,000,000 acres of irrigable land, divided into 60,000 farms of from 10 to 160 acres each. During the year 1915 water was available from Government ditches for 1,450,407 ITEMS To June 30, 1915 To June 30, 1914 Increase Acres Farms Acres Farms Acres Farms Estimated area 29 projects on com- pletion 3,118,011 1,450,407 461,632 626,371 60,603 29,017 10,122 13,008 2,921,165 1,343,193 416,644 566,843 58,323 27,115 8,559 12,416 196,846 107,214 44,988 59,528 2,280 1.902 1,563 592 Estimated area to which service was Under contract Water rights Rental contracts, etc Total 1,088,003 23,130 983,487 20,975 104,516 2,155 Reservoir capacity available, acre- feet 6,500,360 5,460,510 1,039,850 A summation of the work to the beginning of the present fiscal year shows that the service has dug 9,592 miles of canals and ditches, and ex- cavated 89 tunnels with an aggre- gate length of more than 25 miles. Masonry, earth, crib and rock-filled dams have been erected with a total volume of 12,200,000 cubic yards, including the two highest dams in the world. The available reservoir capacity resulting is approximately 6.500,000 acre feet, or sufficient water to cover the States of New Jersey and Delaware to a depth of 12 inches. The service has built 4,622 bridges with a total length of 19 miles. Its culverts number 5,714 and are 36 miles in length. There are now in operation 298 miles of pipe line and 85 miles of flumes. The service has built 784 miles of wagon road, much of it in what was before inaccessible waountain regions ; acres on 29,017 farms, and the Gov- ernment was under contract to sup- ply water to 1,088,003 acres. RESULTS OF BECLAMATION The object of reclamation is home making on arid lands the conver- INTERSTATE CANAL, NORTH PLATTE PROJECT, 160 MILES LONG RECLAMATION SERVICE IS AN APACHE AND HARD WORKMAN neering problems involved are those of settlement and successful utiliza- tion of the irrigation system and water supply by the farmers. With- out successful agricultural develop- ment a project may be a failure, regardless of the perfection of the engineering work. The sufficiency of the water supply and successful operation of the irrigation system are only incidental to the ultimate object sought by the Government as well as the irrigator and the success of the undertaking is inseparably connected with that of the water user. IRRIGATION AND CROP RESULTS ON GOVERNMENT RECLAMATION PROJECTS, 1914* Value of Crops PROJECT Irrigable acreage Irrigated acreage Cropped acreage Per acre Total cropped Salt River 187,112 173,030 169.719 $4,039,079 $23 . 80 Yuma 60 OOO 25 207 22 568 709 409 31 43 Orland 14,300 7,354 6,540 1761331 26^99 Uncompahgre Valley 52,338 33,873 33,091 870,381 26.30 Boise 207,000 Farms reported 64,767 58,064 'i,033', 447 ii'.so Farms not reported Minidoka ' 1*17.696 18,823 16,868 300,140 17.80 Gravity unit '45,736 '3*9.1 38 661', 796 16 91 South side pumping unit. . Huntley 28', 808 35,788 17,068 33,512 17,068 558,059 454,583 16.65 26.63 Milk River 13,440 2,201 2,163 34,618 16 00 Sun River , ... 16,346 6,613 6,561 106,594 16.26 Lower Yellowstone 36,250 5,743 5,621 96,707 17. 2C North Platte 91,504 60,532 59,536 890,202 14.95 Truckee-Carson 52,039 39,516 39,285 441,018 11.23 Carlsbad 20.261 12,690 10,731 237,663 22.15 Hondo 1,224 1,172 21,458 18.31 Rio Grande 40^000 28,442 27,302 1,160.720 42.51 North Dakota pumping . . . Umaulla 12,239 17,000 1,056 5,102 1,045 3,013 36,440 88,614 - 34.87 29.41 Klamath 38.000 24,440 24,440 347,344 14.22 Belle Fourche 68,852 37,454 36,709 461,188 12.56 Okanogan Yakima: 10,099 7,740 3,180 104,575 32.88 58 02 Sunnyside unit Tieton unit 8l',867 34,000 64,052 20,600 49,273 15,920 2,858,845 472.480 29.60 15.01 Shoshone 41,166 22,226 20,905 313,826 Total 1,240,875 761,271 703,424 16.475.517 23.50 Exclusive of projects constructed for the Indian Service. sion of desert tracts into self-sup- porting agricultural communities. This object is not obtained by the construction of irrigation works alone, however elaborate or efficient these may be in design and opera- tion. More difficult than the engi- To show progress in reclamation work it is necessary to show the re- sults obtained by the farmer as well as those of the engineer. Reclama- tion is measured not in engineering units, but in homes and agricultural values. OFR COUNTRY AND ITS RKSOrKCKS NUMBER AND SIZE OF FARMS AVAILABLE FOR ENTRY, AUGUST 1, 19K STATE Project No. of farms Size of farms Water right Idaho Minidoka 26 40 to 80 acres $30 per acre Montana Montana Nebraska-Wyoming . South Dakota Huntley Sun River North Platte Belle Fourche 29 26 40 19 59 40 acres 40 acres 40 to 80 acres 40 to 80 acres 40 to 80 acres $45 per acre* $60 per acre* $36 per acre $55 per acra $40 per aero Wyoming Nevada Shoshone Truckee-C arson 56 112 40 to 80 acres 40 to 80 acres ff 50, $51 and \$52 per acre $60 per acre For lands under the Huntley project there is an additional charge of $4 00 i er acre for the land, of which $1.00 is payable at the time of entry and the remainder in four equal annual instalments. For information concerning those projects and method of obtaining land under them, or any additional statistics not covered in t his brief chapter write to Statistician, Reclamation Service, Interior Department, Washington D C The table on page 89, therefore, is even more illuminative of the suc- cess of the work than any engineer- ing statistics alone can possibly be. By no means all available lands embraced in the various projects is taken up, and every effort is being made by the service to see that they are properly and successfully set- tled. The table above shows the number of farms available for entry, August 1, 1916, the size of the farm units and the cost of water right. FARM HOUSES ON THE SALT RIVER PROJECT. SHOWING IRRIGATING DITCH FLOODING ALFALFA RECLAMATION SERVICE POWER DEVELOPMENT In connection with the construc- tion of irrigation work, particularly of dams on the larger rivers, it has been necessary to develop power. Power plants are operated princi- pally for pumping water for irriga- tion; incidentally for other purposes, the excess power heing sold for do- mestic or industrial uses, such as lighting, heating, cooking and opera- tion of machinery. Pumping forms the principal use of the electric power development, and there were installed 10,432 horse-power in ier- 1 1 ours is 66,199,624, and the cost per kilowatt hour ranges from 3.82 cents at the North Dakota Williston plant down to 0.111 cent at the Minidoka plant. The developed power not needed for irrigation pumping is sold to customers for construction, for camp lights and for drainage work and results in a gross income of $249,174 from power sales, which is almost 10 per cent on cost of installation. But all these figures fade into in- significance when consideration is had of the accompanying table show- UNDEVELOPED HORSE-POWER PROJECT Name of plant Head, Feet Horse power Arizona-California, Yuma Arizona-California, Yuma California Colorado, Grand Valley Colorado, U ncompahgre Drop, California Canal Araz 'Main Canal 9 25 27 44 1,000 7,700 483 3,600 10,000 Idaho, Boise Idaho, Boise Idaho-Minidoka Arrowrock Dam Drops in canals Minidoka Dam 63-180 20-90 46 17.00O 4,800 10.OOO Montana, Flathead (Indian) Montana, Flathead (Indian) Montana, Huntley Montana-North Dakota, Lower Yel- Flathead River Revais Creek Main Canal Drop Lateral KK drop 60 1,000 34 3f.0,000 26,000 314 29O Xevada, Truckee-Carson Nevada, Truckee-Carson New Mexico-Texas, Rio Grande. . . . Oregon-California, Klamath Oregon, Umatilla Utah, Strawberry Valley Washington, Okanogan Washington, Yakima, Sunnvside Unit Lahontan 26-foot drop Elephant Butte Dam Various sites Drainage outfall Spanish Fork Salmon Creek 120 26 60-190 22-88 28 125 441 20-88 5,000 2,000 12,000 9,700 145 1,900 2,800 1 800 Washington, Yakima, Tieton Unit . . Washington, Wapato Total . . . 3,250 .9,000 488.782 nianent pumping plants used in 1914, in addition to numerous small drainage installations semi-portable and intermittently used. The cost of raising 1 acre-foot 1 foot ranges from 0..368 cent to 2.10 cents. The capacity of all the power plants operated by the service was, in 1914, 27,1:54 kilowatts from 37 units. The water head ranges from 226 feet at the Roosevelt plant to 21 feet at the Arizona Falls plant. The total cost of all the plants was $2,542,159. The output in kilowatt ing available horse-power subject to development but not yet developed. FINANCES At the beginning of a recent fiscal year the service had $1,401,714.67 cash on hand. During the year this amount was augmented by receipts from various sources to a grand total of $16,- 446.794.66. Of the twenty millions authorized by the act of June 25, 1910, eight and one half millions were trans- ferred to the reclamation fund. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES BOISE IRRIGATION PROJECT, IDAHO. HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD, 351 FEET FROM BED ROCK TO PARAPET, 1,060 FEET LONG ON TOP Cash expenditures during the fiscal year were $14,213,172.90. Town-site receipts transferred to the credit of projects were $18,- 436.28. The balance on hand at the close of the fiscal year amounted to $2,215,185.48. By the processes of the General Land Office and the Treasury DP partment the receipts from sales of public lands are held in the Treas- ury from six to nine months before they are placed to the credit of the reclamation fund. Estimated re- ceipts from the sale of public lands ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED WORK OX ALL PROJECTS DURING FISCAL YEAR, 1916 Examination and surveys .............. ' Storage systems Pumping for irrigation Canal systems Lateral systems Drainage systems Flood protection Power systems Farm units Permanent improvements and lands Telephone systems Operation and maintenance: $151,680 . 45 1 ,695,052 . 95 7,500.00 2,548,004 . 33 1 ,900,991 . 73 938,624 . 50 286,175.00 77,072 . 15 59,046. 10 155,683 . 40 29,137 . 00 During construction Under public notice $1,053,973.41 838,405 . 00 1,892,378.41 692,100.00 680.456.65 Total $11,113,902.67 Stores and other operations. . Unallotted to features RECLAMATION SERVICE in the hands of the Treasury Depart- ment on June 30, 1915, which had not been credited to the reclamation fund amounted to approximately $1,670,000. The reclamation fund, which com- prises the moneys received from the sale of public lands, has now reached the total of $85,914,493.36, and from the sale of town-sites, $280,723.94. Transfer vouchers, adjusting ac- counts between the projects for the transfer of the value of services and equipment, amounted to $615,- 657.58 during the fiscal year 1915. Since the beginning of the service the value of the transfers of sup- plies, materials, equipment and services between projects has amounted to $5,006,759.37. This system of transfers between projects enables the service to utilize equip- ment, materials, supplies, etc., to their fullest extent where needed and to charge the cost where the benefit accrues. ESTIMATED COST OF CONTEMPLATED It is estimated that during 1916 the sum of $11,113,902.67 will be ex- pended. The table on page 92 gives the tentative distribution of this amount to the various functional features of all projects, including the Blackfeet, Flathead and Fort Peck Indian projects. KOOSEVELT DAM, ARIZONA I Fountain Geyser Haynes Photo Giant Geyser Old Faithful Upper Geyser Basin Ihi.vii.'s 1'lioto IN THE YELLOWSTONE CHAPTER VII. OUR NATIONAL PARKS HOW many Americans can say offhand how many national parks we have? How many can name the national monuments, or explain the difference between a national park and a national monu- ment? Very few I And such almost wholesale ignorance is one of many reasons why a Bureau of National Parks, as a part of the Interior De- partment, has for many years been a vital necessity and why every loyal American, whether he ever sees a national park or not, should re- joice that Congress has finally pass- ed the National Parks Service Bill. This bill, far reaching in import, reads in part as follows : "Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Con- gress assembled, That there is here- by created in the Department of the Interior a service to be called the National Park Service, which shall be under the charge of a director, who shall be appointed by "the Sec- retary. . . . The service thus es- tablished shall promote and regu- late the use of the Federal areas known as national parks, monuments and reservations, which purpose is to conserve the scenery and the nat- ural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the en- joyment of future generations." As yet the service is but a name, for the Sixty-fourth Congress lias not yet provided an appropriation to form the service. But everything is ready and as soon as the money is available our numerous parks and monuments will have the service of their own they have so long needed. There are sixteen national parks at present in existence, the first of Photo by Lindley Eddy SEQUOIA "GENERAL SHERMAN' Oldest Tree iu the World Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES NATIONAL PARKS 'IN ORDER OF CREATION Location Area in square miles Distinctive Characteristics Hot Springs, 1832 Middle Arkansas IH 46 hot springs possessing curative prop- erties. Many hotels and boarding houses. 20 bath houses under public control. Yellowstone, 1872 North- 3,348 More geysers than rest of the world. western Boiling springs. Mud volcanoes. Wyoming Petrified forests. Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, remarkable for gor- geous coloring. Large lakes. Many large streams and waterfalls. Vast wilderness inhabited by deer, elk. bison, moose, antelope, bear, moun- tain sheep, beaver, etc., constituting greatest wild bird and animal pre- serve in world. Altitude 6,000 to 11,000 feet. Exceptional trout fish- Yosemite, 1890 Middle- 1,125 ing. Valley of world-famed Beauty. Lofty eastern cliffs. Waterfalls of extraordinary California height. 3 groves of big trees. High Sierra. Large areas of snowy peaks. Waterwheel falls. Good trout fish- ing. Sequoia, 1890 Middle- 237 The Big Tree national park. 12,000 eastern sequoia trees over 10 feet in diameter. California some 25 to 36 feet in diameter. Tow- ering mountain ranges. Startling precipices. Fine trout fishing. General Grant, 1890 Middle- 4 Created to preserve the celebrated eastern General Grant tree, 35 feet in diam- California eter. 6 miles from Sequoia National Park and under same management. Casa Grande Ruin, 1892. Arizona K Prehistoric Indian ruin. Mount Rainier, 1899. . . . West- 324 Largest accessible single peak glacier central system. 28 glaciers, some of large Washington size, fifty to five hundred feet thick. Wonderful sub-alpine wild flower fields. Crater Lake, 1902 South- 77 Lake of extraordinary blue in crater of western extinct volcano, no inlet, no outlet. Oregon Sides 1,000 feet high. Interesting lava formations. Fine trout fishing. Wind Cave. 1903 South 16^-jj Large natural cavern. Dakota Sullys Hill. 1904 North 6 Ji Wooded hilly tract on Devil's Lake. Dakota Mesa Verde, 1906 South- western 77 Most notable and best preserved pre- historic cliff dwellings in United Colorado States, if not in the world. Platt. 1906 Southern IJi Many sulphur and other springs pos- Oklahoma sessing medicinal value, under Gov- ernment regulation. Glacier. 1910 North- western 1,534 Rugged mountain region of Alpine character. 250 glacier-fed lakes. 60 Montana small glaciers. Peaks of unusual shape. Precipices thousands of feet deep. Scenery of marked Individ- uality. Fine trout fishing. Rocky Mountain, 1915.. North 358 Heart of the Rockies. Snowy range, middle- peaks ll.OOO to 14,250 feet altitude. Colorado Remarkable records of glacial period. Hawaiian, 1916 Hawaiian 56 Three volcanoes. Lake of blazing lava. Islands Tropical forests. Lassen, 1916 California 106 Volcano only one in United States potentially active. NATIONAL PARKS which was Hot Springs, In Arkansas, created in 1832; the most recent, Hawaii National Park and Lassen National Park, being creations of the Sixty-fourth Congress, the bills for the two parks being approved August 1 and 9, 1916, respectively. The first purposes of the parks are the preservation of scenic beauty and natural wonders for educational and recreation purposes. They make wonders of certain regions free to all the country; indeed, to all the world. Though Hot Springs w r as the first of all the parks, it was the creation of the Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, Montana and Idaho, by the act of March 1, 1872, which really marked the beginning of a policy on the part of Congress of setting aside tracts of land as recre- ation grounds for all the people. More and more are we coming to know what wo possess in those parku and the war abroad taught us afresh that Europe has nothing in scenery more worth seeing than what we have at home. In the Yellowstone National Park there were 20,250 vis- itors in 1914, and in 1915 two and one-half times as many, 51,895. Yosemite National Park in Cali- fornia had 33,452 visitors during the 1915 season, whereas in 1914 only 15,145 persons visited the park. Again, in Mount Rainier National Park, Washington, there has been an increase in the number of visitors of over 100 per cent 35,166 in 1915 as against 15,038 in 1914. But it has been discovered that national parks have a distinct com- mercial value, as well as an educa- tional and recreative one. The parks produce an ever increasing revenue from tourist traffic, one of the most satisfactory means of revenue a na- tion can have. The tourist leaves large sums of money but takes away nothing which makes the nation poorer. He goes away with im- proved health, with a recollection of enjoyment of unequaled wonders of mountain, forest, stream and sky, of vitalizing ozone and stimulating companionship with nature; but of the natural wealth he takes nothing. The commercial potentialities of tourist traffic are startling. It is estimated that in time of peace Switzerland's annual revenue from tourists is $150,000,000, that of France $600,000,000; little Italy's, $100,000,000. It is claimed that Amer- icans have spent $500,000,000 a year in travel abroad. The pine woods of Maine are estimated to bring a rev- enue of $40,000,000 each year on ac- count of the visitors they attract, and the orange blossoms of Florida are worth more to her than the products of her soil. Every dollar, therefore, which is spent by the na- tion on national parks may De con- sidered an investment which is like- ly to bring in a very satisfactory re- turn upon the money invested. VISITORS TO NATIONAL PARKS, 1908 TO 1915 NAMF. or PARK 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 Yellowstone National 19,542 32,545 19,575 23,054 22,970 24,929 20,250 51,895 Yosemite National 8,850 13,182 13,619 12,530 10.884 13,735 15,145 33,452 Sequoia National General Grant National 1,251 1,773 854 798 2,407 1,178 3,114 2,160 2,923 2,240 3,823 2,756 4,667 3,735 7,647 10,523 Mount Rainier National 3,511 5,968 8,000 10,306 8,946 13,501 15,038 35,166 Mesa Verde National 80 165 250 206 230 280 502 663 Crater Lake National 5,275 4,171 5.000 4,500 5,235 6,253 7,096 11,371 Wind Cave National 3,171 3,216 3,387 3,887 3,199 3,988 3,592 2,817 Platt National 26,000 25,000 25,000 30,000 31,000 35,000 30,000 20,000 Sullys Hill National 250 190 190 200 200 300 500 1,000 Hot Springs Reservation 120,000 130,000 135,000 135.000 125,000 115,000 Glacier National 4,000 6,257 12,138 14,168 14 265 Rooky Mountain National . . . 31.000 a NATIONAL THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF TOURIST TRAVEL TO NATIONAL PARKS PARK Number of visitors (seasons) Estimated gross receipts by concession- aires (seasons) Federal appropriations (fiscal years) Revenues (fiscal years) Yellowstone: 1912 1913 1914 22,970 24,929 20 250 $1,067,161.34 1,186,811.36 848 688 44 $8,500.00 8,500.00 8 500 00 $16,476.38 21,980.10 15 439 23 1915 Yosemite: 1912 51,895 10 884 2,003,072.35 311 444 32 8.5OO.OO 50 000 00 20,307.40 23 855 77 1913 1914 1915 13,735 15,145 33 45^ 359,481.45 334,914.32 (j<>9 999 31 80,000.00 136,000.00 100 000 00 19,495.83 23,406.14 37 019 20 Mount Rainier: 1912 1913 8,946 13 501 56,735.92 66 942 76 5,400.00 20 OOO 00 5,370.36 7 301 62 1914 1915 Glacier: 1912 1913 1914 1915 15,038 35,166 6,257 12,138 14,168 14,265 61,078.08 138,120.23 ' "l6l',5i6!87 155,716.14 276,611.54 23,400.00 51,000.00 69,200.00 75,000.00 100,000.00 75,000.00 9,040.10 12,893.29 1.490.94 4,652.14 4,010.71 4,218.51 That this is not a mere specula- lion is shown in the table above, totaling the economic value of tour- ist travel to Yellowstone. Yosemite, Glacier and Mount Rainier national parks during the past four years, together with the revenues. The national parks cover an area of more than 4,700,000 acres. If all were put together it would mean an area of more than 7,300 square miles, practically as large as New Jersey. The Yellowstone National Park, con- taining more than 3.300 square miles, is as big as many of the independent European principalities that warred with each other for centuries before the genius of Bismarck united them into a great empire. Such a group of scenic areas, de- veloped and handled after the fash- ion of Switzerland, would constitute a national economic asset of incal- culable value. It is not for their educational, re- creative, or economic value alone, however, that the national parks must be regarded. The conservation of wild life is a feature not to be despised. Free as most of the parks are from public lumbering and pri- vate grazing enterprises, and pro- tected from hunting of any kind, they have the conditions essential for the protection and propagation of wild animal life. Eventually they will become great public nature schools to which teachers and stu- dents of animal life will repair yearly for investigation and study. The enormous increase of wild animals in the Yellowstone since it became a national park in 1872 points the way. Deer, elk, moose, bison and antelope here abound in greater numbers, no doubt, than be- fore the days of the white man ; and many of them have become al- most as fearless of man as. animals in captivity. From here many State, county and city parks have been supplied, under proper restrictions, with surplus animals for propaga- tion purposes. When interfering private holdings are extinguished in other national parks, and United Stairs laws made to supersede State laws (a condition the newly author- ized Park Service will strive to bring about), these, too, will become cen- ters of animal preservation as effec- tive as the Yellowstone. By an act approved June 8, 1906, entitled "An act for the preserva- tion of American antiquities," the President of the United States is KX) OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES VALLEY OF ENCHANTMENT, NEAR THE CREST OF THE SIERRA NEVADAS, YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK NATIONAL PARES 101 authorized, "in his discretion, to de- clare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other objects of his- toric or scientific interest, that are situated upon the lands owned or controlled by the Government of the United States, to be national monu- ments." There are now thirty such national monuments, two which' did exist hav- ing been eliminated with the crea- tion of Lassen National Park. NATIONAL MONUMENTS ADMINISTERED BY INTERIOR DEPARTMENT NAME State Date Area Acres Devil's Tower Wyoming Sept 24 1906 1 152 Montezuma Castle Arizona Dec. 8, 1906 '160 El Morro New Mexico Dec. 8, 1906 160 Chaco Canyon Muir Woods New Mexico California Mar. 11, 1907 Jan. 9, 1908 20,629 295 Pinnacles California Jan. 16, 1908 2,00 Tumacacori Arizona Sept. 15, 1908 10 Mukuntuweap Utah July 31. 1909 15,840 Shoshone Cavern Natural Bridges Wyoming Utah Sept. 21, 1909 Sept. 25, 1909 210 2,740 Gran Quivira New Mexico Nov. 1, 1909 160 Sitka Alaska Mar. 23, 1910 57 Rainbow Bridge Utah May 30, 1910 160 Lewis and Clark Cavern Montana May 16. 1911 160 Colorado Colorado May 24, 1911 13,883 Petrified Forest Arizona July 31, 1911 25,625 Navajo Arizona Mar. 14, 1912 360 Papago Saguaro Arizona Jan. 31, 1914 2,050 Dinosaur Utah Oct. 4. 1915 80 Sieur de Monts Maine July 8, 1916 5,000 ADMINISTERED BY AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT NAME State Date Area Acres Gila Cliff Dwellings Tonto New Mexico Arizona Nov. 16, 1907 Dec. 19, 1907 160 640 Grand Canyon Arizona Jan. 11, 1908 806,400 Jewel Caves South Dakota Feb. 7, J908 1,280 Wheeler Colorado Dec. 7. 1908 300 Oregon Caves Devil Postpile Mount Olympus Oregon California Washington July 12, 1909 July 6, 1911 April 17, 1912 480 800 299,370 ADMINISTERED BY WAR DEPARTMENT N A V E State Date Area Big Hole Battle Field Cabrillo Montana California June 23, 1910 Oct. 14, 1913 Acres 5 1 Great Falls of the Yellowstone Cleopatra Terrace Golden Gate Eagle Best Rock SOME OF THE SPLENDORS OF OTJR NATIOwAt, PARKS CHAPTER VIII. GOOD ROADS AND BAD THERE are 2,273,131 miles of public roads in the United States. Of these, 10.9 per cent (a total of 247,490 miles) are sur- faced roads roads other and pre- next with 51.7, followed by Indiana, 42.3, Ohio 33.8, New Jersey 30.3 and New York 27.9 per cent. Nebraska is at the foot of the list with a percentage of 0.3, rep- THE SLOUGH OF DESPOND LIFE AND PLEASURE IN GOOD ROADS sumably better than mere cuttings in the dirt. Rhode Island leads all the Union in ood roads, with a percentage of r.s.s per cent. Massachusetts comes resenting 250 miles of surfaced roads out of a total of 80,338. Other back- ward States are Nevada, 0.5 per cent, Montana 0.4 per cent, and Kansas 1 per cent. THE BURDEN OF BAD ROADS EASY HAULAGE Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 104 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES POOK ROADS-FARM TO RAILROAD- GOOD ROADS-FARM TO RAILROAD- COSTLY WAY CHEAP WAY Ohio has the greatest good road mileage, with 28,312, Nevada the least, with 65 miles. Texas has the greatest total mileage with 128,971, Rhode Island the least with 2,121. During the past twenty years State governments have been active in a constantly increasing measure in behalf of road improvement. To January 1, 1915, expenditures aggre- gating $211,859,163 had been made from the appropriations by the legis- latures of 39 States. With these funds improved roads to the extent of 35,477 miles have been construct- ed during this period of twenty years at an average expenditure of $5,970 per mile. Yet we have not good roads and we are paying the price. We pay in money, in lives, in ignorance, in labor, in taxes, and in high cost of living. Considering only a few phases of the subject, the investigator is struck with the universal effect of good roads. Data obtained from the Twelfth Census, compared with the road statistics, show clearly the relation- ship between illiteracy and bad roads. Many factors contribute to produce illiteracy, but it is signifi- cant that where one is found, there is usually the other. In Arkansas, Missouri, Mississippi and North Carolina, where less than 2 per cent of the roads are improved, there were 374,788 native born white il- literates in 1900, out of a total pop- ulation of 7,800,000, whereas in Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey and Rhode Island, where 30 per cent of the roads are improved, there were only 20,500 native born BOAD BEFORE IMPROVEMENT THE SAME ROAD AFTER IMPROVE- MENT-CLAY AND GRAVEL CONSTRUCTION GOOD ROADS AND BAD 105 LIMIT OF TWO-HORSE TEAM OVER TWELVE BAD ROAD-TWO BALES OF COTTON BALES OF COTTON MACADAM ROAD ESTIMATED 1915 COST OP MARKETING SIX OF THE MORE IMPORTANT CROPS Pro- U.S. Wt. por- Tonnage Aver- Cost , Total Crop Production 1915 per unit Production tion over over Roads age haul Ton Mileage T P M. Hauling Cost roads Bus. LhB. Tons Tons Miles Ton Miles Com 3,054,535,000 70 106,908.690 .144 15,394,851 7.4 113,921,897 .19 $21,645,159 Wheat.... 1,011,505,000 60 30,345.150 1.00 30,345,150 9.4 285,244,410 .19 54,196,438 Oats i,5-io.:5tiL'.imo 35 26,956,335 .28 7,547.774 7.3 55,098,749 .19 10,468,762 Potatoes... 433,398,000 60 13.001,940 .75 9,751,455 8.2 79,961,931 .22 17.591,625 Cotton. . . . Hay 11,161,000 85,225,000 1,500 2,000 8,370,750 85,225,000 1.00 .17 8,370,750 14,488,250 11.1 8.3 92,915,325 120,252,475 .28 .19 26,016,291 22,847,969 Totals... 270,807,865 85,898,230 747,394,787 $152,766,244 white illiterates in 1900, out of a total population of 6,025,000. The cost of poor roads is a ter- rific item in high cost of living. It costs more to ship a ton of 'cotton from farm to railroad than from New York to London, as is plainly shown for six great shippings in the table above. Of the 3,114,300 autos in the world this country possesses 2,400,000 more than one for every mile of road. In 1916, 1,200,000 more will be manufactured. Imagine the cost SMALL ROAD TAX-NO SAVING FAIR ROAD TAX-NO LOSSES GOOD ROADS AND BAD 107 POOR ROAD TIME IS MONEY A DELAY GOOD ROAD TIME IS MONEY THEY GOT THERE in depreciation of these cars due to poor roads. If the cars average $500 each in value, and bad roads cost 10 per cent depreciation, these scrapped cars, due to poor roads, cost the United States $120,000,000 per year, more than half what has been spent on good roads in twenty years ! Now the Federal Government has taken hold of the problem and the sum of $85,000,000 of Federal funds was made available for constructing rural roads by the Federal Aid Road Bill, which became a law July 11, 1916. For the construction of rural post roads under co-operative ar- rangements with the highway departments of the various States, $75,000,000 is to be spent, the re- maining $10,000,000 being for roads and trails within National forests. The Federal Government's share in co-operation with the States is to be 50 per cent of the cost. Five million dollars is available for expenditure before June 30, 1917 Appropriations increase at the rate of five millions a year until 1921, when twenty-five millions is provid- ed, making a total of seventy-five millions. One million dollars a year for ten years is for the development of roads and trails within National forests. The class of roads to be built and the method of construction are to be mutually agreed upon by the Secretary of Agriculture and the State highway departments. The Act provides that the Secre- tary of Agriculture shall apportion the appropriation in the following manner: One-third in the ratio the area of each State bears to the total area of all the States; SCHOOL CHILDREN ON BAD ROAD THE KIND OF SCHOOL AND ROAD EVERY BOY AND GIRL IS ENTITLED TO 108 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES One-third in the ratio the popula- tion of each State bears to the total population of all the States; One-third in the ratio the mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in each State bears to the total mileage of rural delivery routes and star routes in all the States. States securing Federal aid must make needed repairs and maintain a reasonably smooth surface, but are not obliged to make extraordinary repairs or undertake reconstruction. A TRACTOR ROAD GRADER The Secretary of Agriculture, July 21, 1916, certified to the Sec- retary of the Treasury and the gov- ernors and State highway depart- ments of the several States the ap- portionment of the first $5,000,000. In accordance with the Act, 3 per cent, or $150,000, needed for ad- ministration was deducted. The several States are eligible for the following amounts : Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee . . . $104,148.90 68,513 82,689 151,063 Utah Vermont Virginia "Washington . . . West Virginia . Wisconsin Wyoming Total... 31,090 8,184 55,976 134,329 60.463 220,926 135,747 146,175 143,207 97,471 67,474 48,451 44,047 73,850 145,783 142,394 88,905 169,720 98,287 106,770 64,398 59,212 78,737 250,720 114,381 76,143 186,905 115,139 78,687 230,644 11,665 71,807 114,153 291,927 56,950 22,844 71,884 53,270 128,361 61,196 $4,850,000.00 HAULING 22^ YARDS OF CRUSHED ROCK CHAPTER IX. THE PANAMA CANAL ON May 4, 1904, the United States took possession of a narrow strip of land ten miles wide, crossing the Isthmus of Pan- ama, called the Canal Zone. On August 15, 1914, the Panama Canal was opened to commerce. Between these two dates lie all the wonder of the construction of the greatest engineering feat of all time. But that story has been told and retold. What concerns us now is what the canal accomplishes, how it does its work, what it costs what it is worth. DISTANCES The distance by water around South America is 10,500 nautical miles from Colon (Atlantic) to Bal- boa (Pacific). By canal the dis- tance between the same two points is 44 miles. The difference in length of these routes, 10,456 miles, represents the maximum distance that can be saved to a vessel by use of the canal. So far in the use of the canal, over 40 per cent of the vessels which have passed through it have been engaged in the coastwise trade of the United States each of them sav- ing about 7,800 miles on each trip. If their average speed be taken at ten knots, they have averaged a saving of over a month at sea on each voyage from coast to coast. Where formerly the round trip of a ten-knot vessel required about fifty-five days' actual steam- ing, the time at sea for the same trip for the same vessel is now reduced to about twenty-two days. The transit of the canal requires about 10 hours, of which approxi- mately 3 hours are spent in the locks. In the sea-level channels and Gaillard (formerly "Culebra") Cut, speed is limited to 6 knots ; through Gatun Lake they may make 10, 12, Photo Underwood & Underwood STEAMSHIP "ALLIANCE," FIRST OCEAN- GOING VESSEL TO PASS THROUGH THE PANAMA CANAL, JUNE 8, 19U Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. no OI'R ror.XTHY AM) ITS RESOURCES and 15 knots, according to the width of the channel. Handling a vessel through the canal is essentially the same as in any charted channel. The canal channel is accurately charted, fully equipped with aids to navigation, and governed hy rules which the pilot, one of whom must be on any vessel going through, enforces. LOCKING THROUGH As a vessel approaches the locks, the operator at the control house indicates by an electrically operated .signal if the vessel shall enter the locks, on which side, or if it shall keep back, or moor alongside the ap- proach wall. If everything is ready for the transit of the locks, the vessel approaches the center ap- proach wall, a pier extending a thousand feet, and connections are made with the electric towing loco- motive. The vessel then moves forward slowly until it is in the entrance chamber, when lines are thrown out on the other side and connections are made with towing locomotives on the side wall, six for the larger vessels, three on each wall of the lock chamber. Two keep forward of the vessel, holding her head to the center of the chamber ; two aft, holding the vessel in check ; and two slightly forward of amidships, which do most of the towing. The loco- motives are secured against slip- Photo Underwood & Underwood BLOWING UP A DIKE ON THE PANAMA CANAL ping by cogs in a rack. They are equipped with a towing windlass, which allows the prompt paying out and taking in of hawser. The water within the lock cham- ber proper, beyond the entrance chamber, is brought to the level of that in the approach, the gates to- ward the vessel are opened, a fender chain is lowered, and the locomo- tives maneuver the vessel into the chamber. The gates are closed, the water raised or lowered to the level of the next chamber, the gates at the other end are opened, and the ves- sel moved forward. Three such steps are made at Gatun, two at Miraflores, and one at Pedro Miguel. STEAM SHOVELS AT WORK ON THE PANAMA CANAL CULEBRA CUT MAY 20, 1913 Ocean-going vessels to the number of 787 passed through. the canal from July 1, 1915, to June 30, 1916. Their aggregate net tonnage was 2.470,701. Cargo carried through the canal on thesi> ships amounted to .'U4(MM. tons, and the ships paid in tolls $2,389,830.42. The canal was closed in Septem- ber, 1915, and remained closed, ex- cept for the transit of small ves- sels which had waited at the en- trances for passage, until the mid- .1 ? DPERATION OF nU '. ENTERING UPPER- 5.S. "CRISTOBAL" IN PEDRO MIGUEL LOOTS ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH CANAL, 112 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RKSOURCKS die of April. The operations were thus normal for slightly less than half the year. The number of ships which passed through the canal during the pre- ceding fiscal year was 1,088, aggre- gate net tonnage 3,843,035, cargo carried through 4,969,792 tons. Their tolls amounted to $4,343,383.69, after all refunds had been made. Traffic in two years is shown be- low : TOLLS Canal tolls are as follows: Merchant vessels, passengers or cargo, per net ton (each 100 cubic feet) of actual earning capacity, $1.20. Vessels in ballast, no passengers or cargo, per ton 75 cents. Naval vessels, other than trans- ports, colliers, hospital ships, and supply ships, per displacement ton, 50 cents. ITEM Fiscal year 1915 Fiscal year 1916 Per cent 1916 of 1915 No. of vessels Net tonnage Tons of cargo Tolls 1,088 3,843,035 4,969,792 $4,343,383.69 787 2,479,761 3,140,046 $2,399,830.42 72.3 64.5 63.4 55.3 On June 30, 1916, the total re- ceipts of tolls from vessels passing through the canal were $2.399,830.42. The total amount expended on ac- count of the operation and mainte- nance of the canal was $6,999,750.15. leaving a deficit to the amount of $4,599,919.73. For every dollar the Government spent for operation and maintenance it received back in tolls 34.28 cents. It spent practically three times as much to maintain and operate the canal as it received in tolls. During the preceding fiscal year the tolls had exceeded the expenses by $276,656.38, which represented a profit of 0.67 per cent on the ex- penditure for operation and main- tenance alone, not counting anything for interest on the money invested or for depreciation of plant. COASTWISE TRADE Tolls on vessels in the United States coastwise trade amounted to 18.36 per cent of all tolls collected in 1916. During the preceding fis- cal year, coastwise traffic yielded over 36 per cent of the total, or practically double the proportion which existed during the fiscal year 1916. Army and Navy transports, col Hers, hospital ships, and supply ships, measured as merchant vessels, per net ton, $1.20. To the uninitiated, to whom these charges may seem heavy, the follow- ing example is given to show their justice and the saving effected by the canal. The American Hawaiian Company A CANAL LOCK AT NIGHT has a liner called the "Arizona n." On a basis of a speed of 12 knots. the canal saves the "Arizonan" about 26.8 days at sea on each voy- age from coast to coast. The "Ari- zonan" is a relatively large vessel, 470 feet long by 57.2 feet in the . MIRAFLORES LOCKS GENERAL VIEW, LOOKING NORTH FROM TOP 114 OT'ft COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES COLLECTION BY MONTHS AND DIRECTIONS MONTH Vessels entering from Pacific Vessels entering from Atlantic Total 1915 July August September October $308,264 . 32 268,397 . 23 168,450.30 $265,101.35 228,394 . 80 181,048.00 $573,365.67 496,792.03 349,498.30 December 1916 January February March April May J une 93.60 18.00 832.80 268.80 97,779.29 197,000.83 213,103.11 10,732.40 636.39 1.20 150.00 137,839.15 171,022.96 150,695.89 10,826.00 654.39 834 . 00 418.80 235,018.44 368,023 . 79 363,799.00 Total $1,254,208.28 $1,145,622.14 $2,399,830.42 beam, and has carried as much as 11,780 tons of cargo through the canal on one of her voyages. The canal tolls levied on each passage are $7,891.20. The cost of operating the "Arizonan" at sea may be taken at $450 a day. For 26 days this means $11,700, from which the sub- traction of the tolls leaves a net saving of approximately $3,808 per voyage. Partly because of the many slides and the cost of their removal, part- ly because of the fact that they closed the canal for six months in a year and partly because of the war, the tolls do not by any means pay expenses. PANAMA CANAL TRAFFIC f.B. "CRISTOBAL'- IN CU1EBHA OUT AT PAEAISO ON RETURN TRIP THROUGH CANAL-LOOKING NORTH FROM TOP OF CERRO LUI8A, AUGUST 4, 1014 U.8.B. "OHIO" PASSING CUCARACHA SLIDE-LOOKING NORTH, JULY 16, 1816 116 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CHANGE IN TOLLS CHARGES During the first months tolls were levied on the basis of the net ton- nage of ships determined by special- ly formulated rules for measurement for the Panama Canal, in which the net tonnage was the space available for carrying cargo, reckoned in tons of 100 cubic feet. Following an in- terpretation of the Panama Canal Act by the Attorney General, the amount of tolls collectable has been governed also by the net tonnage as determined by the rules for registry in the United States, it having been decided that the tolls should not ex- ceed $1.25 per net ton on this basis. The result of this system has been a loss in revenue. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916, the tolls collected amounted to $2,395,928.77. If the original Panama Canal rules had been adhered to, collections would have amounted to $2,786,- 642.82, a difference of $390,714.05, 14.05 per cent of the hypothetical earnings under the original system, and 16.3 per cent of the amount act- ually collected. CHARACTER OF FREIGHT. Twenty principal commodities to- gether made up 67 per cent of all cargo carried through the canal, be- ing 2,009,897 tons out of a grand total of 3,140,046 tons. The miscel- laneous articles other than the twelve principal commodities aggre- gated 1,130,149 tons. Nitrates amounted to 894,139 tons ; refined petroleum to 271,041 ; coal, 243,216; sugar, 128,544; lumber, 96,685; manufactured goods of iron and steel, 87,375; crude oil, 69,812; railroad material, 57,829; iron ore, 52,250; canned goods, 41,300; barley, 38,006; and copper, 36,700 tons. CANAL FORCE Many people have an idea that be- cause the canal is finished and open for business therefore the Isthmus is depopulated. How far wrong this ; / / \ 1 \ / V i \ / \ / i \ / \ / \ ! 1 " . \ ' " / s j ^ t \ . ^ / / \ // \ / ~~~~ i /" '\ /' / \ A '/ ^ A / ^,V' // \ / vA / / / > '/ \ / 1 / ,' V X, \ / ' / - -*" "\ / v' s ^~~=r / / /// / \ / *X / ttt Cono Corg Ccina Corg ' nS [ Atlantic to Pacific o TonsJ ][ 0rlS } Fbcific to Atlantic o Tons) if'/ 2 ? 1 Aug Sept Oct Nov. Dec Jon Ftb Mar Apr May June Julu Aug Sept. 1914 1915 CEOSS TRAFFIC IN THE CANAL THE PANAMA CANAL 117 is may be seen by the following statement of the working force actu- ally engaged during the last week of July, 1916: The occupants of Government quarters numbered 6,772 Americans, DEPARTMENT OR DIVISION Operation and Maintenance: Locks and office Terminal construction .... Building Electrical Municipal Engineering . . . Dredging Mechanical Marine Fortification General Construction Total . 713 752 2,243 572 2,826 2,692 2,550 277 388 59 13,072 Su 1,976 ly: commissary Subsistence Quartermaster 2,103 Accounting 213 Health 1,019 Executive 466 Panama Railroad 4,690 Contractors 198 Grand Total . . 24,121 of whom 3,747 were men, 1,454 wo- men, and 1,571 children; and 10,925 West Indians, of whom 5,880 were men, 2,188 women, and 2,857 chil- dren. RECENT IMPROVEMENTS The new 1,000-foot dry dock at Balboa was put in active commercial service the last of August, 1916. The first use of the dock was on June 27, with the docking of the dredge "CorozaV and since that time other canal vessels have been docked. The first privately owned vessel to make use of it was the 81-ton auxiliary schooner "Chiriqui," registered in Panama, which en- tered the dock on Tuesday, August' 22. The first commercial use of the new coaling plant at the Atlantic terminus of the canal was made in the morning of Wednesday, August 30, when the steamship "Otaki" was taken alongside the reloader wharf to receive 550 tons of coal. GAILLARD CUT CULEBRA LOOKING NORTH FROM CONTRACTOR'S HILL, SHOWING BARRIER ACROSS CANAL FORMED BY SLIDES FROM EAST AND WEST BANKS, NOVEMBER 18, 1915 11.8 orn COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES SLIDES So mxich has been said of the closing of, or interference of the operation of, the canal by slides, that most people have a confused idea that the mountains on each side of the canal are gradually slid- ing into it, and some have even come to believe that the canal will one day be known as a gigantic en- gineering failure. Space forbids going into the sub- ject. But for the comfort of those who are anxious lest we have spent our money and time for nothing, the following quotation from Major General George \V. Goethals' paper on "Slides at Panama, "published Jan. 5, 1916, may well be printed here: "It is certain the slides are due to the failure of underlying strata, because these were unable to bear the weight that the banks brought upon them. "Under the circumstances it is difficult to understand the im- pression .that has gained credence in some quarters that a sea-level canal would have avoided the dif- ficulties encountered, since the cut- ting would have been through the same material, but at least SO feet deeper. "It is also certain that nothing can stop the movements until the angle of repose is reached for the materials under the conditions that exist, and that this can be reached only by removing the excess amount of material. If experience counts tor aught, then that gained in the handling of the slides and the breaks that have occurred along the line of the canal leaves no doubt that the means adopted and now in use will effect a cure; furthermore, that when cured no further troubles need be anticipated from slides in this locality." Copyright Harr COL. GOETHALS, U.S.A., THE PANAMA CANAL BUILDER CHAPTER X. THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS GEOLOGICAL, COAST AND GEODETIC AND HYDROGRAPHIC THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY VITAL to the proper develop- ment of our great natural re- sources is an accurate knowl- edge of those resources. It is with these that the Geological Survey is concerned, with their investigation, their development and their proper exploitation. and the area topographically mapped by the topographers was more than 35,000 square miles. The land classification work of the Geological Survey last year resulted in the classification of about 36,000 square miles in the public land States. In the collection of statistics of mineral ACCURATE MEASUREMENT WORK IN THE FIELD. GEODETIC SURVEY Spending $1,620,520 in the last fiscal year for which a report is available (to June 30, 1915) the Geological Survey's work can hardly be summed up in a sentence. Dur- ing the year geological investiga- tions were made in 47 States and Alaska; topographic surveys were made in 30 States, Alaska and Ha- waii, and stream measurements were made in 41 States and Hawaii. Tho total area covered by geologists in reconnaissance and detailed surveys was more than 76,000 square miles production the Geological Survey co- operated with the State geologists of 16 States and carried on correspond- ence with 90,000 producers, as well as answering over 50,000 letters of inquiry. The bureau divides its activities into the Geologic, Topographic, Water Resources, Land Classifica- tion, Publication and Administrative branches. Geological Branch The original duties of the geologic Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 121 branch were the classification of the public lands and the examination of the geological structure, mineral re- sources and products of the national domain. These duties were at first construed to apply only to the public land States. Later, however, in order that all parts of the country might share alike in the benefits of its work, the survey was specifically authorized "to continue the prepara- tion of a geological map. of the United States," the scope of its the earth's crust and its mineral constituents. The survey is a source of geologic information regarding not only the geology of the United States and its possessions, but also that of Mexico, Central America and even South America. By corre- spondence it is asked for .data re- garding the geology and mineral de- posits of all parts of the world. The geologic branch has the double task of geologic surveying, includ- ing the investigation, description MAP OF THE UNITED STATES SHOWING AREAS COVERED BY TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS PRIOR TO JULY 1, 1915 operations being thus made nation- wide. Since that time (1882) the investigations necessary to the ful- fillment of the survey's obligations to the public have become as varied as the aspects of geology itself. The geologic branch is the effective agency of the survey in investiga- tions in all parts of the United States and Alaska and also the great geologic information bureau to which the American public, from Key West to Point Barrow and from San Diego to Eastport, applies for knowledge of every sort concerning and mapping of the geology and mineral deposits of all parts of the country; the classification of the public lands and the publication of the results of its work, and furnish- ing to the public miscellaneous geo- logic information derived from all sources. But it is not to the general public only that its services are rendered direct. Probably no one bureau of the Government co-operates with so many others in their work as does this survey. The survey co-operates with the 122 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Bureau of Mines in the metallo- graphic study of ores, in the investi- gation of the invasion of California oil wells by salt water, in studies of the application of geology to en- gineering problems of mining and construction and in the examination of placers and placer mining in the United States. The survey is en- gaged with the Bureau of Standards, the Bureau of Mines and the Office Justice in connection with suits re- garding public lands ; to the Navy Department in regard to oil and water supplies; to the Office of In- dian Affairs in the classification of Indian lands ; to the War Depart- ment with reference to water sup- plies in its reservations, and to the General Land Office in the classifica- tion of withdrawn coal, oil and phosphate lands. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEYS of Public Roads in a systematic study of building stones. It co- operated informally with the Smith- sonian Institution, Bureau of Fish- eries, Forest Service, Navy Depart- ment, War Department and Light- house Service, as well as with insti- tutions of learning, including the Geophysical Laboratory and Marine Biological Station of the Carnegie Institution. Services are rendered to the Department of Agriculture in the examination of lands in the na- tional forests ; to the Department of Topographic Work The general public is perhaps more familiar with the work of the topo- graphic branch of the survey than with any other, since most people at one time or another have use for accurate maps of the country in which they live or intend to visit. Carried on in co-operation with the States, the work of mapping the whole country has made great prog- ress, 40.2 per cent of the entire area and that the most important, economically considered h a v i n g THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 123 I. Plane Table Work. 2. Lad Signaling Hoadman to Move. 3. Reading Microscopically in Precise Measurement Work in the Field. 4. Erecting a Signal Over a Recovered Triangulation Point THE GEODETIC SURVEYORS AT WORK 124 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES PRESENT CONDITION OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS OF THE UNITED STATES AND NEW AREAS SURVEYED JULY 1, 1914 TO JUNE 30, 1915 Percentage of Area mapped to total area of June 30, 1915 State mapped to June 30, 1915 Alabama Sq. Miles 19,192 37 Arizona 68,996 61 Arkansas 21,380 40 California 114,708 72 Colorado 48,783 47 Connecticut 4,965 100 Delaware 1,202 51 District of Columbia 70 100 Florida 2,339 4 Georgia 17,337 29 Idaho 26,185 31 Illinois 14,551 26 Indiana ' 3,441 9 Iowa 11,652 21 Kansas 64,159 78 Kentucky 17,973 44 Louisiana 8,319 17 Maine 9,361 28 Maryland 12,327 100 Massachusetts 8,266 100 Michigan 6,018 10 Minnesota 6,541 8 Mississippi Missouri 2,126 36,710 4 53 Montana 57,163 39 Nebraska 26,524 34 Nevada 51,115 46 New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico 3,380 8,224 37,247 36 100 30 New York 43,553 89 North Carolina 18,390 35 North Dakota 9,716 14 Ohio 40,018 97 Oklahoma 39 851 57 Oregon 23,406 24 Pennsylvania 24,908 55 Rhode Island 1,248 100 South Carolina 5,640 18 South Dakota 18,594 24 Tennessee 21 153 50 Texas 67,782 25 Utah 68,797 81 Vermont 4 190 44 Virginia Washington 29,980 26,033 West Virginia .... 24,170 100 Wisconsin 12,203 21 Wyoming 28,404 29 Total 1,218,290 40.2 Hawaii 1,393 22 126 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES TRIANGULATION SURVEY been surveyed and published. The table on page 124 gives the data for each State. These maps, most beautifully en- graved and printed, can be obtained at a nominal price. A key map, showing just what portions of each State are available, should be se- cured first by application to the sur- vey, from which selections can be made as desired. The maps are in color and accurate with the accu- racy of the highest degree of engi- neering skill. Water Resources Land Classification Immensely important though they are, space forbids any extensive re- port of the work of the water re- sources branch. Full information in regard to the water work in forty- one States and Hawaii, of which twenty-six have co-operated, as have the Reclamation, Indian and Public Health Service and many army en- gineers, can be had on application to the survey. Similarly the land classification, and the withdrawal and restoration of public lauds with relation to their oil, coal and mineral deposits, is a subject too big for extended notice here and too special for a popular report. More than 36,000 square miles of land were classified in the year just passed. Publications The work of the Geological Sur- vey is largely made available to the public by distribution of printed re- ports and maps. The publications of a year consisted of 1 annual report, 1 monograph, 5 professional papers, 10 separate chapters from 2 professional papers, 35 bulletins, 30 separate chapters from 5 bulletins, 33 water supply papers, 18 separate chapters from 4 water supply papers, THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 12T 1 annual report on mineral resources for 1913 (published also in 62 ad- vance chapters, 15 delivered in 1913- 14 and 47 in 1914-15), 5 advance chapters from the annual report on mineral resources for 1914, 3 geo- logic folios, 2 lists of publications, 1 list of topographic maps and folios, pamphlets entitled "Topographic In- structions of the United States Geo- logical Survey, 1915," and "Service Bulletin, 1914," leaflets entitled "Na- ture and Uses of Topographic Maps," PRECISE LEVELING "The Production of Copper in 1914" and "The Production of Spelter in 1914," 3 circulars concerning geo- logic folios, 22 index map circulars, 55 press bulletins and 10 monthly lists of new publications. A complete list of all Geological Survey publications, with their cost price, can be obtained from the Su- I>erintendent of Public Documents. Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. C., to whom application should be made by those desiring to obtain such publications. Maps, however, are obtainable from the survey direct, as stated above. COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY A bureau of the Department of Commerce, the Coast Survey per- forms work seldom heard of by the general public, of the most vital importance not only to the scientific world but the public itself. Every coast chart, on which the vessels of the navy and the mari- time world in general depend for safety of both life and property, is made by the Coast Survey. Its charts are models for all the world for both accuracy and beauty. The books of tide tables, on which all mariners depend for tide condi- tions in harbors and along the coasts, are published by the Coast Survey. Most remarkable of books, these enormous summaries of calcu- lations are not the work of human hands and brains but the result of the labor of the most wonderful cal- culating machine in the world the tide predicting engine. A huge af- fair of wheels and shafts, occupying a mahogany and glass case which fills a room of the bureau, this most accurate and intricate of machines does the work of a hundred com- puters and more accurately than any human being could do it. In addition to the preparation and printing and issuing of coast charts, the survey conducts triangulation work which will in time gridiron the whole United States, determines latitudes, investigates magnetic phe- nomena, conducts precise leveling, makes special surveys and performs a host of special duties, such as sup- plying experts for duty on Interna- tional Boundary Commissions, In- ternational Geodetic Association, Board of Life Saving Appliances, Mississippi River Commission, co- operation with Alaskan Engineering Commission, etc. Its hydrographic work for coast charts is of the highest importance and its development of .what is known as the "wire drag" has revo- lutionized all such work. No mat- ter how closely soundings may be made of a harbor, for instance, it is impossible to be certain that all sunken rocks, wrecks, shoals or other obstructions to navigation have been discovered. But with a submerged wire drag of a known depth, dragged through the water between two widely separate vessels, a positive result is obtained resulting in a security beyond price to the mariner. In its work the Coast Survey sends out numerous parties which work along the coasts, or, if trian- gulatioa or leveling is being done, OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in the interior. Many vessels are used for coast work, including the steamers "Bache," "Endeavor" (now sold), "Hydrographer," "Isis," "Ex- plorer," "G e d n e y," "McArthur," "Patterson," "Taku" and "Yukon" and the schooner "Matchless." In the Philippine Islands five ves- sels aid the work of the survey, re- porting to the suboffice at Manila. This work is prosecuted partly with funds of the survey and partly with funds from the Philippine Govern- PLANE TABLE WORK IN THE WATER IN THE PHILIPPINES ment, which also furnishes four of the five vessels engaged. The ships are the "Pathfinder," "Marinduque," "Romblon," "Fathomer" and "Re- search." It is difficult, if not impossible, to cover in a few words the extensive and varied work of a bureau which requires a closely printed report of 156 pages to show a year's activi* ties. But in spite of the fact that the determination of astronomic latitudes, the determination of gravity intensity, the prosecution of triangulation, the wire-drag hydro- graphic work which last year dis- covered and charted hundreds of shoals and obstructions to naviga- tion, the coast pilot work, the tidal determination and publications, the assistance rendered vessels and mar- iners in distress, the precise level- ing, the special surveys and special services rendered by the bureau, the determination of magnetic elements, dip, declination and horizontal in- tensity made in 31 States, are all highly important, it is after all the coast charting and the printing and distribution of these charts which are the most indispensable features of this highly important scientific bureau. During the year there were printed : Lithographic charts 62,036 Engraved charts 53,611 Miscellaneous lithographic prints 22,417 Miscellaneous engraved prints. . . 25 Total 138,039 a total of 304,799 impressions from the press. The charts issued during the year were 119,387, an increase of 1,895 over the previous year. Thirty-nine thousand one hundred and twenty- four of these charts were issued to the Hydrographic Office for navy use and 52,853 supplied the mer- chant marine through sales agents. Coast pilots were issued to the num- ber of 6,291, and tide tables for the Atlantic Coast 2,050, Pacific Coast 10,775, General 2,206. The appropriation for 1915 was $1,039,730. For 1916 it was $1,365,- 620, most of the increase being for two new and badly needed vessels. The money is expended as follows: For field expenses $355,400 Repairs and maintenance of vessels -10,000 Officers and men, vessels 252200 Pay of field officers 174,600 Pay of office force 204 420 Office expenses 500,000 Two new vessels 289,000 The urgent need of the Coast and Geodetic Survey is for new quar- ters. Occupying several old build- THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 129 Ings, none of them built for the pur- pose (one was once a hotel, another a private house!) much time, money and efficiency is wasted from lack of proper facilities. Already in the first rank in naval and maritime im- portance, this Government bureau will, when allowed to expand and work under proper conditions, take its place in popular estimation with other better known but no more im- portant bureaus of the Government which, because of their popular ap- peal, fare so much better at the hands of Congress. The Hydrographic Office also pub- lishes sailing directions and manuals for the safe navigation of vessels based on the original surveys and reports, or upon similar publications or information received from for- eign hydrographic offices. The Hydrographic Office also is- sues a number of publications. The Weekly Notice for Mariners is a publication for which the demand increases greatly from year to year. During the fiscal year ending 1915, 277,420 whole weekly notices and 241,748 extracts therefrom were pub- I MTKH STATES I HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS HYDROGRAPHIC OFFICE The Hydrographic Office of the United States Navy supplements the work of the Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey in chartmaking by providing both for the United States naval vessels, and for all mariners who have use for them, charts of the coasts of all the world. lished. The information given in this journal is in regard to the cor- rection of existing charts, sailing directions necessary and essential to safe navigation, such as changes in lights, buoys, beacons, wrecks and shoals. The Daily Memorandum comprises publication of information affecting 130 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the immediate safe navigation of vessels, which include the presence of icebergs, field ice, derelicts, wrecks, missing buoys, etc. This in- formation, in addition to being pub- lished in the Daily Memorandum, is telephoned or telegraphed to the various radio stations and sent broadcast to all shipping four times a day. The Hydrographic Bulletin, which is issued weekly, totaled for the past year 247,468 copies. It contains the vessels of the navy. It furnishes free of cost to all other Government vessels such charts and publications as are requested, and the same ma- terial is sold at the cost of printing and paper to the merchant marine or the public in general. By international agreement the United States receives from all for- eign hydrographic offices two copies of all charts issued by them, and supplies to them two copies of all charts issued by it. Of all foreign WIRE DRAG FOR SURVEYING THE SURFACE OF THE BOTTOM many items of interest to seafaring people and is an important member of the publication family of this office. One hundred and twenty-four book publications are issued by the Hydrographic Office, which are ne- cessary to the maritime public. They include such volumes as Amer- ican Practical Navigator, List of Lights, International Code of Sig- nals, Line of Position Tables, Africa Pilot, British Island Pilot, Mediter- ranean Pilot, etc. The Hydrographic Office supplies all charts and navigational publica- tions, whatever their character, to hydrographic offices the British Ad- miralty is, of course, the largest and most efficient. The United States has had to depend very largely upon charts issued by the British Admi- ralty, not only for information but for the actual charts themselves, so that the number pui'chased in the past year was 19,222. Altogether at the end of the fiscal year the United States depended upon the British Admiralty for 1,494 indi- vidual charts of various parts of the world. These, however, are rapidly being reproduced by the Hydro- graphic Office by a photolithographic process on zinc plates. The result THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEYS 131 A GEEAT BRASS BHAIN THE WONDEBFUL TIDE PREDICTOB, 132 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES of this reproduction will be both to save the purchase price of such charts from a foreign government and to make the United States inde- pendent of any foreign government for the supplying of world charts to its own navy. Navigational charts to the number of- 123,158 and pilot charts to the number of 205,226 were published on a large scale and covering the approaches to the Panama Canal, has been issued. Pilot charts are in great demand, showing, as they do, tracks of just past storms, prevail- ing wind directions, compass varia- tion and other maritime information, making them extremely valuable even to a vessel well supplied with regulation charts. CHART OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN by the Hydrographic Office during the past year. At the end of the year the Hydrographic Office had on issue the following charts: Hydrograpliic Office charts 2,281 Coast and Geodetic Survey charts 664 British Admiralty charts 1,494 Total 4,43!) The pilot charts are published monthly for the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Indian Oceans and quarterly for the South Atlan- tic and South Pacific Oceans. In addition to these a new pilot chart of Central American waters, printed Sixteen branch Hydrographic Of- fices are maintained, located as fol- lows: Boston, New York, Philadel- phia, Baltimore, Norfolk, Savannah, New Orleans, Galveston, San Fran- cisco, Portland, Ore., Seattle, Du- luth, Sault Sainte Marie, Chicago, Cleveland and Buffalo. In addition to these there are 52 agents in the United States, located in 37 cities and towns, and 12 agents in foreign countries for the sale of Hydrographic Office publications. The branch Hydrographic Offices are engaged in collecting and dis- THE THREE GREAT GOVERNMENT SURVEY'S 133 TAKING UP SAMPLES OF BOTTOM WITH HAND REEL tributing bydrographic information. They endeavor to give assistance to officers and men of merchant vessels both as to data pertaining to the seas traveled and personal instruc- tions in navigation. The popularity of the work of assistance rendered by these branch offices is shown by the large number of ship captains, agents, pilots and other seafaring men who visited the several branch offices during the year. In 1915 there was a total of 40,646 visitors and over 26,000 telephone calls, relative to correct chronometer time and other items of nautical informa- tion were answered. A large supply of all charts issued by the office is kept on file in the main office in Washington. Sending these out on demand is a very im- portant work of the Hydrographic Office, since to issue a chart not up to date in any and every particular might cost many lives and the loss of much property. Thus no chart is sent out until it has been corrected to date and by hand with all alterations .made necessary by changes in lights, new information in regard to depth, the presence of wrecks or other obstruc- tions to navigation, etc. As an in- dication of the size of this work it may be mentioned that during the fiscal year there were transferred from old to new copies of charts some 18,000 corrections, and handled by requisition or for plotting and reference about 9,000 charts. In- cluding new issues the total number of copies of charts printed during the year was 328,484. COAST GUABD BUHNIWG A OOSTON LIGHT CHAPTER XL GOVERNMENT PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY AT SEA BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES. HAVING the greatest Coast- line in the world, the United States also occupies the proud position of having the largest, finest and most competent lighthouse es- tablishment in the world. Not yet has it reached the full flower of I>erfection which will obtain when the ideal of the service is realized lighthouses so numerous and so well placed that it will be impossible for a coastwise vessel to sail out of the radiance of one without coming into view of the next. But great prog- ress has been made toward this end, and the building, both of structures and of traditions, of apparatus and of the service itself, has been so well and carefully done that the service is a permanent asset not only to all our own shipping, but to the ship- ping of the world. Moreover, to the credit of the country be it said, there are no "light dues" which any foreign or domestic vessel must pay. Uncle Sam lights his coasts and says in ef- fect to all who go down to the sea in ships, "The light I give you for your safety is emblematic of this land it is free." Just how big the establishment must be is realized more easily by considering the enormous size of coast line than in any other way. Measured in steps of thirty miles it is huge; measured in steps of three miles, which go into and out of a multitude of bays, coves, shelters, inlets, etc., it is enormous. The table on page 136 shows just how big it really is. To protect such a coast line re- quires an infinite variety of warn- ing devices, and a great number of each. There are 1,662 lights other than the 2,837 so-called minor lights, 53 stations on which are maintained light vessels, commonly called light- ships, 479 gas buoys, and 124 float lights, a total of 5,155 lighted aids to navigation. The unlighted aids to navigation are scarcely less important and even greater in number. Five hundred and twenty-seven fog signals blare raucously in fog and mist, 50 sub- marine signals give their peculiar warnings, 86 unlighted whistling buoys and 237 unlighted bell buoys give their mournful notes, 2,001 day- beacons show the way and 6,488 other buoys mark channels and shoals, a total of 9,389 unlighted aids to navigation and a grand total of 14,544 aids to navigation of all kinds. These and other ' statistics here given are as of June 30, 1915. It is evident that the lighthouse establishment of the United States must require considerable money to conduct and the able efforts of a fair army of people. The appropria- tion for the maintenance of the ser- vice for 1916 was $5,164,030, which included $250,000 for new lighthouse tenders. Of the balance, $2,775,000 will go for general expenses and the rest for salaries and pay. The service is divided into nine- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 136 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES TOTAL StfACOAST LINE UNDER JURISDICTION OP THE UNITED STATES Detailed General coast line coast or channel line in steps of in steps of 30 miles 3 miles Statute miles Statute miles Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States Pacific coast of the United States 3,480 1,404 9,732 3,294 Porto Rico, adjacent United States islands, and Guantanamo Great Lakes and connecting waters, United States portion.. 374 2,520 449 4,020 Alaska 7,300 22,654 Hawaiian Islands and Midway Islands 788 1,018 Guam 86 92 American Samoan Islands 76 91 Total coast line under United States Lighthouse Service Coastal rivers on which aids to navigation are maintained by the United States Lighthouse Service (Atlantic and 16,028 41,350 Gulf coasts, 1,374 miles; Pacific coast, 242 miles) 1,616 Interior rivers on which aids to navigation are maintained by the United States Lighthouse Service (Mississippi River, 1,920 miles; Ohio River, 967 miles; Missouri River. 390 miles : other rivers, 949 miles) 4,226 Total coast line and rivers under United States Light- house Service 47,192 Philippine Islands (lighted by Philippine Government) 4,080 11,571 Panama Canal Zone (coast line only) 17 40 Total seacoast line under the jurisdiction of the United States (not including Great Lakes and rivers) 17,605 48,881 teen districts, each with its own in- spector and force. In the Bureau at Washington and the nineteen dis- tricts, there are 123 inspectors, en- gineers, draftsmen, mechanicians, etc., 145 clerks, messengers, janitors and office laborers, 71 depot keep- ers and assistants, 1,471 light keep- ers and assistants, 226 laborers in charge of minor lights, 1,556 labor- ers in charge of post lights and buoys, 12 custodians of reservations, 1,605 officers and crews on tenders and light vessels, 278 employees of the field force for construction and repair (registered) and 305 of the same unregistered, a total of 5,792 employees. Forty-four depots are maintained in the various districts for storage and distribution of supplies, rcpsiirs to apparatus, scraping and painting of buoys, and similar purposes. Forty-six lighthouse tenders carry supplies to and from the various de- pots, supply lighthouses which can- not otherwise be reached with food, coal, fuel oil and supplies, put down and take up buoys, attend beacon and fog signals, and in general keep the aids to navigation where they belong and performing their duties. During the year these forty-six ves- sels steamed a total of 469,000 nau- tical miles. The fifty-three light vessel sta- tions are kept supplied with ships from the total fleet of 66 light ves- sels. Thirty-five of these are steam- ers, 29 are sailing vessels. The service is one of warning and of aid to navigation, yet its crews have always co-operated with the Life Saving Service (now incorpor- ated in the Coast Guard) or taken the initiative where necessary in the saving of life and property. It is merely incidental but none the less worthy of note that during the year on 143 occasions, services were ren- dered in the saving of life or prop- erty by employees of the service. CAPE HATTERAS LIGHT STATION CAPE CHARLES LIGHT STATION, VA. MINOT'S LEDGE LIGHT STATION, MASS. POINT REYES LIGHT STATION, CALIF. THE PROTECTORS OF THE FAIRWAYS OF COMMERCE PROTECTION AT SEA 139 The service publishes a great many different booklets, which in- clude six light lists for the various coasts and rivers, buoy lists for each of its nineteen districts, a weekly "Notice to Mariners," of which al- most 200,000 copies are distributed yearly, a monthly lighthouse ser- vice bulletin, for employees, etc. The ideals and esprit de corps of the service are of the highest, and the efficiency of the various crews, their pride in their work, and their determination to "keep the light burning" make of the service one which is literally the standard of the world. THE COAST GUARD On January 28, 1915, the Coast Guard Act was passed, merging into one , great service two which had previ- ously served the maritime world together, but un- der separate administration. The Revenue Cutter Service was originally established in 1790, at the second session of the First Congress, upon the recommendation of the first Secretary of the Treasury, as the re- sult of the need for the services of a coast patrol for the enforcement of the customs laws and an organized armed force for the protection of the sea coast, there being at that time no naval establishment. The Life Saving Service was not the creation of a single legislative act, but the result of a series of en- actments dating back to 1848, which had in view the preservation of life and property from shipwreck. In 1871 a definite life-saving system was inaugurated and administered in conjunction with the Revenue Cutter Service until June 18, 1878, when Congress established the Life Saving Service as a separate organi- zation. As the Life Saving Service was maintained for the purpose of sav- ing life and property along the coast, and as one of the principal functions of the Revenue Cutter Service in time of peace was to perform simi- lar duties on the seas, the two ser- vices necessarily co-operated with and supplemented each other to a considerable extent in this work of conservation. It became apparent that closer co-ordination and increas- GETTING READY A SUBMARINE MINE WITH DRY GUN COTTON ed efficiency would result from the union of both services in one or- ganization. The result is the pres- ent Coast Guard. The duties of the Coast Guard are so many and various that its own most condensed report "requires three hundred and ten closely print- ed pages. It saves life at sea and assists wrecked persons. It cares for mariners in distress and boards ships and examines papers for viola- tions of law. It seizes vessels violat- ing the law or makes report of such violation, patrols regattas, removes derelicts, saves property, enforces neutrality, patrols for ice and pro- tects seals. It warns vessels of dan- ger, recovers and buries bodies cast up, fights forest fires, and fires in wharves and shipping. It helps maintain public order, apprehends law breakers and prevents suicides. It recovers stolen property, restores 140 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES CUTTERS PUMPING OUT A WATERLOGGED BARK STRANDED AT LOST HARBOR. ALASKA lost children to parents, furnishes transportation to other branches of the public service and acts as pilot in cases of emergency. So active is this splendid service that during the year just passed there were but five days when some unit of the ser- vice was not actively engaged in wreck or rescue work and the aver- age day's work was the rendering of assistance of some variety in more than six cases. All that a marine police patrol can do, the Coast Guard does ; all that a Life Saving Service can do, the Coast Guard does. The Coast Guard possesses 24 cruising cutters, 18 harbor cutters, and 279 coast stations. The activ- ities of the year resulted in the sav- ing of 1,507 lives, and the saving of vessels and cargoes valued at $11,- 088,730, as well as 556 cases of as- sistance rendered not catalogable as of either life or property. The total expenditures for both branches of the Coast Guard totaled $5,027,752.71. Other Government de- partments and Bureaus occasionally return a surplus to the Treasury the Post Office has done so and the Patent Office does so regularly. But A STANDARD SURF BOAT LAUNCHED THROUGH BREAKERS A COAST GUARD STATION AND LIFE BOAT AT SftUAN BEACH, IT. J. 142 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES no matter how valuable in money the saving effected by other Governmen- tal activities may be, few if any bureaus can point to so clean cut a record as this actual rescue work of property, otherwise a total loss, val- ued at more than twice the cost of the whole service, and throw in the lives saved of the population of a small town for good measure ! It is the business of a Coast Guard cutter to get rid of derelicts whenever they are encountered, and frequently their duty to hunt up violations, involving fines totaling $220,500. Thirty-seven race courses were patrolled, for the protection of life and property. The fur seal patrol in the North Pacific and Ber- ing Sea is in the hands of the Coast Guard, which keeps three vessels on duty during the summer months, and two do ice patrol duty to locate ice- bergs and field ice in the Atlantic steamship lines, to give warnings to trans-Atlantic vessels and prevent loss of life and property. The Coast Guard has its own BLOWING UP SUNKEN MENACE TO NAVIGATION BY MEANS OF SUBMARINE MINES derelicts reported. Last year 26 were either blown up or towed to port and turned over to their own- ers, involving the saving of $161,000 in property and saving who knows what lives or property in preventing these obstructions to navigation from doing damage. The enforcement of the navigation Jaws led to the boarding and exami- nation of 24,817 vessels during the year, resulting in 772 reports for law academy, located at New London, Connecticut, where, after severe competitive examinations, young men owners Appropriations for 1915, including repairs to- cutters and establishing stations : Revenue-Cutter Service $2,536,716.25 Life-Savins Service 2,550,525 . 36 Net expenditure for maintenance for 1915: Revenue Cutter Service Life-Saving Service $2,530.371.17 2,497,381.54 1.507 10,952 813 24.817 772 $220.500.00 37 1.504 556 26 $10.927.730.00 $161.000.00 $5,089,241.81 Total for Coast Guard $5,027.782.71 APPKENTICES ENGAGED IN EXAMINING A LOCOMOTIVE UNDER COMPETENT INSTRUCTION AN AIR BRAKE INSTRUCTION CAR CHAPTER XII. RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES WITH the exception of the ag- ricultural and manufactur- ing industries, the railroads ol the United States occupy the at- tention of a larger number of people and give employment to more men than any other industry. To consider so vast a subject in a short space it is necessary to sep- arate it into only its most important divisions. This chapter, therefore, will deal with the railroads of the mon consent of all railroad men, into three classes. Class I. includes the 183 railroads which have operating revenues in excess of one million dol- lars, Class II. includes the 285 rail- roads which have operating revenues less than one million dollars, but more than one hundred thousand dollars, and Class III. includes the 431 railroads which have operating revenues of less than one hundred thousand dollars. Copyright. 1912. by Irving rnrlprliill THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE PENNSYLVANIA TERMINAL AT NEW YORK IS MOST IMPRESSIVE United States under headings of 'Thysical Aspects." "Financial," "Public Service," "Human Rela- tions," closing with a short refer- ence to the street railways of the various cities of the country. There are altogether in the United States 899 railroad companies. These are divided, both by the Interstate Commerce Commission and by com- The majority of the statistics dis- cussed in this chapter are of roads of Class I. only. These Class I. roads, however, are vastly in the ma- jority as far as mileage and im- portance are concerned. Of the ap- proximately 266,000 miles of track, 229,000 of it is operated by Class I., 20,000 by Class II., and from 16,000 to 17,000 by Class III. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 140 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Statistics for this chapter have been gathered from many sources, the principal ones being the reports of the Interstate Commerce Commis- sion, the reports of the Bureau of Railway Economics, and the reports of the Bureau of Railway News and Statistics. Inasmuch as these three statistical gathering organizations frequently cover the same subject by statistics from a dissimilar number of sources, they do not always agree in detail, but, in the main, they agree in almost every particular. PHYSICAL ASPECTS Track Four hundred and forty-eight op- erating companies, including all of Class I. and almost all of Class II., render reports covering 247,312 miles of track, of which 1,913 miles go through Canada and 52 miles into Mexico. Of this mileage 11,000 miles were operated under trackage rights, leaving 236,600 miles as the real physical mileage of the country. On a basis of the 1914 reported pop- ulation of 98,372,266 this means that for every 390 people in the United States there is a railroad mile of line. Railroad construction in this coun- try is on the decrease rather than the increase. Eight hmidred and ninety-eight miles were built in 1915 against 1,531 miles in 1914. These figures are for main line tracks. In- cluding auxiliary tracks, sidings, etc., 1,319 miles were built .in 1915 as against 2,120 built in 1914. This new construction was the smallest within half a century and reflects in a most comprehensive manner the ef- fect of the industrial depression re- sulting from the European War on this country in 1915. Since the panic of 1893, the largest railway mileage was built in 1902, when over 6,000 miles of new track was constructed. The total track constructed since 1893, including 1915, is 81,529 miles. 360 x\ x 7 / S! 8 ^ / ^ / / / ^/ H c 0> c 250 CD / ^ ' ^ / ^ X r ^- -- ^ x ^ x / / ^ 1 390 1895 1900 1905 igjp " 191 KAILWAY MILEAGE OF THE UNITED STATES The apparent decrease in 1915 is due to the use of figures from private source*, official figures not being available. See page 147 RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES 147 The most recent official figures are those of the Interstate Commerce Commission for 1914, which gives for tne whole country a total of all tracks of 387,208 miles. This in- cludes yard tracks, sidings, fourth, third, second and single track as well as main line mileage. The 1915 statistics, gathered by private sources make the total for the coun- try 379,344 miles, including the same tracks as are given in the In- terstate Commerce Commission fig- ures. tives there are 301 electric locomo- tives operating upon steam roads in the United States. These are of all sizes, but it is of interest to note that the world's largest and must powerful freight locomotive is driven by electricity. It is used to haul trains over the Rockies from Mon- tana into Idano and the electricity used is generated by water power. The length of the locomotive is 1121/2 feet and it weighs 284 tons. Compare this to the average weight in tons of the steam locomotives of THE SAFETY FIRST TRAIN OF THE B. & Shows the possibility of the railroad for exhibition LOCOMOTIVES Upon these miles of tracks there are running to-day upward of 65,000 locomotives. These engines possess tractive power of 2,004,321,000 pounds, a weight so inconceivable that only a comparison can make it evident. If it were possible to hang at the end of a long rope, passing over a pulley, as many huge ships as would balance the pull in pounds of these locomotives it icould require more than tircntii-onc vessels each the size ami displacement of the ill- fated "Luxittinid" to c bauxite, while Georgia, Alabama and Tennessee contributed the remainder. The consumption of aluminium in the United States in 1915 amounted to 99,- 806,000 pounds. The demand exceeded THE MINERAL INDUSTRY 183 WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF IRON WORLD'S COAL PRODUCTION 184 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the supply, which, together with the curtailment of imports, caused the price to be much higher than in former years. About sixty years ago aluminium was considered a chemical curiosity, valued at $90 per pound. The total amount produced in 1883 was 83 pounds. In 1889 the total production in the United States was 75 pounds per day, valued at $4.50 per pound. In 1914 aluminium was available in large quantities at 19 to 22 cents a pound, but with the in- creased demand due to unsettled con- ditions in 1915 the price rose from 19 cents in January to 57.75 cents per pound in November. The increase in the consumption of metallic aluminium has largely been due to its lightness. The specific gravity of aluminium is 2.7, whereas brass is 3 times as great, steel 2.S times and cop- per 3.3 times. Aluminium also resists the action of acids and is an important metal in the manufacture of high ex- plosives, sulphuric and nitric acids. Aluminium has no substitute, but it is available as a substitute for copper as a conductor of electricity. The manu- facture of aluminium is an expensive process, inasmuch as it requires large electrical installations. An abundance of cheap water power is one of the pre- requisites for the successful production of this valuable metal. The deposits of bauxite are far from being exhausted, while all clays contain from 10 to 40 per cent of aluminium oxide, which may be recovered by methods yet to be dis- covered. Chromic Iron Ore The production of chromic iron ore in the United States in 1915 amounted to 3,281 long tons, valued at $36,744, as compared with 591 long tons, valued at $8,715, in 1914. The domestic demand for chromic iron ore increased largely as a result of conditions abroad, whereby it was impossible to import this class of ore. California is the largest producer, while a small amount has been mined near Grant's Pass, Ore. The average production of chromic iron ore from 1901 to 1913, inclusive, was only 250 tons, while the imports during the same period averaged 39,000 tons per year, mainlj from Rhodesia and Turkey. The principal foreign de- posits are in Rhodesia, New Caledonia, Russia and Turkey. Chromium finds its principal use in the manufacture of high grade tool steel. Tool steel containing small amounts of tungsten and chromium surpasses any other known alloy as an efficient agent in machine shop practice. Miscellaneous Metallic Products Antimony. The production of anti- mony ores in the United States in 1915 was 5,000 tons, containing 2,000 tons of antimony, valued at $325,000. The price of antimony in 1915 was the high- est known since the metal became a regular article of commerce. The aver- age monthly price for 1914 was between 5.44 cents and 7.11 cents per pound. The price of antimony rose rapidly in 1915 until it reached 40 cents per pound. Bismuth.- Bismuth is saved as a by- product in the electrolytic refining of lead. The production in 1914 was 220,- 000 pounds, valued at $426,000. The imports for 1914 were valued at $165,- 208. The price of bismuth in 1915 varied from $2.75 to $4 per pound. Manganese. Only a small amount of manganese ore was mined in 1914 in the United States, 2,635 long tons, val- ued at $27,377. The average price at the mine was $10.37 per ton. The im- ports of manganese ore amounted to 283,294 tons, valued at $2,024,120. In addition to the manganese ore there was mined iron ore containing manganese to the amount of 98,205 long tons, valued at $218,497. Nickel. The amount of metallic nickel and nickel salts recovered from smelting plants in the United States in 1914 was 845,334 pounds, valued at $313,000. Practically all of this was saved as a by-product in the electric refining of copper. The imports of nickel amounted to $5,028,818 in 1914. Strictly speak- ing, nickeliferous ores are not mined in the United States. Quicksilver.- The production of quick- silver in 1915 was 20,681 flasks, as com- pared with 10,548 flasks in 1914. The larger part of this production is from California and Texas. The normal price of quicksilver in 1914 was $;?S per flask. The average price for 1915 was $87 per flask. Radium. The production of radium in 1915 was 6 grammes, as compared with 22.3 grammes in 1914. The United States has the largest known radium deposits in the world, but the principal market for radium is in Europe and on account of the war the demand ceased and hence the production was curtailed. Radium occurs in minute quantities in pitchblende and caruotite. Radium as metal has been isolated but few times. It is ordinarily recovered as a hydrous sulphate, chloride or bromide. Its prin- Photographs from U. S. Geological Survey Some California Wells Hafney's Gas Well in Winter Some Beaumont, Texas, Wells Oil Derricks, Beaumont, Tezag OIL WELLS OF THE WEST 186 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES cipal use is in medicine as a remedy for cancer. Scrap Metals. The amount of second- ary metals recovered from scrap, sweep- ings, etc., in 1915, was $114,304,930. Tin. Only a small amount of tin ore (155 short tons in 1914) is produced in the United States. The majority of this production is from Alaska and contains about 60 per cent metallic tin. Titanium. The production of titanium ore (rutile and ilmenite) in the United States for 1915 was 250 tons, valued at $25,000 and $30,000. Rutile and ilmenite are used in the manufacture of ferro- titanium, employed in making steel and cast iron. Tungsten. The production of tung- sten in the United States in 1915 was the largest on record, being about 2,165 short tons, containing 60 per cent of tungsten trioxide, valued at slightly more than $2,000,000. The production dur- ing the first six months of 1916 was in excess of 3,000 tons. The price of tung- sten ore the latter part of 1914 was $9 per unit. In the fall of 1915 the price had advanced to $48 per unit. The price of metallic tungsten rose from $1 a pound early in the year to $8 a pound in December. The principal sources of production are California, Colorado and Arizona. Its principal use is in the manufacture of tungsten high speed tool steels. Uranium and Vanadium. The carno- tite ores produced 23.4 tons of uranium oxide and 635 tons of vanadium oxide in 1915, as compared with 87.2 tons of uranium in 1914 and 435 tons of vana- dium in 1914. FUELS Coal The production of coal in the United States in 1915 amounted to 531,619,487 short tons, an increase of 3.5 per cent over the amount produced in 1914. Of the total production 442,624,426 short tons, valued at $502,037,688, was bitu- minous coal and lignite, and 88,995,061 short tons, valued at $184,653,498, was Pennsylvania anthracite. Pennsylvania ranks first as a coal producing State, followed by West Virginia, Illinois, Ohio and Kentucky. The total number of men employed in the coal mining industry in 1915 was 734,008, employed on an average 209 days. The United States ranks first in the world's production of coal, followed by Great Britain ranking second, with Ger- many third. Much of the mining in the last fifty years has been carelessly done and enormous quantities of coal have been left in the ground and in such condition that it is doubtful whether it may ever be recovered. During each year for every 500,000,000 tons produced there is wasted or left underground at least 250,000,000 tons, thus representing an average recovery of only 66 per cent. Under the best current practice with im- proved mining methods many of the mines are now recovering 85 to 90 per cent. Of the total amount of energy in coal not over 11 per cent is effectively utilized. The available coal supplies of the United States are estimated as 4,231,- 352,000,000 short tons, and represent about 51 per cent of the known deposits of the world. Estimates have been made, varying from 100 to 4,000 years, as to when our coal supplies will become ex- hausted, but it is safe to say that im- proved mining methods and more efficient utilization of the heat units in the coal will do much toward extending the period of depletion until some other source of heat and energy will be found. Coke. About two thirds of our coke is made by the bee hive process, which wastes enormous quantities of gas, tar, ammonia, benzol and other products. The installation of by-product ovens has increased rapidly and is turning into profits and dividends large quantities of the by-products wasted in the bee hive process. The recovery of the coal by- products places at the disposal of chem- ists and manufacturers a quantity of material from which dyes and explosives may be manufactured. The production of coke in the United States in 1915 .was 41,581,150 short tons, an increase of 7,025,236 tons (20 per cent) as compared with 1914. The number of bee hive ovens in operation in 1915 was 48,766 and the number of by-product ovens was 6,346. There were a large number of by-product ovens brought into use and all ovens were operated nearer full capacity (303 days) than in the previous year (286 days). The number of men employed at coke ovens in 1915 was 31,060. Coke Oven By-products. The value of coke oven by-products was $29,824,579 in 1915, as compared with $17,500,000 in 1914. The increase in benzol products 12 15 188 OT'R rOT'NTHY AND ITS RESOT'RCES was the most interesting feature of the year in the coke industry. The value of this product rose from less than $1,000,000 in 1914 to more than $7,760,- 000 in 1915. In 1914 there were four- teen benzol plants, controlled by one company. In 1915 sixteen additional coke plants were equipped with benzol apparatus. The benzol products, includ- ing toluol, in 1915 amounted to 16,600,- 657 gallons. The amount of toluol pro- duced in 1915 was 623,506 gallons, val- ued at $2.45 per gallon. The amount of tar obtained from coke ovens in 1915 was 138,414,601 gallons, valued at $3,568,384. The total value of ammo- nia obtained and sold was $9,867,475. Petroleum The total quantity of crude petroleum placed on the world's marKet in 1915 amounted to 426,892,673 barrels, or 7 per cent more than in 1914, making the production in 1915 the greatest on rec- ord. Of the total amount produced, the United States leads with 281,104,104 barrels, or 65.85 per cent of the world's production. Russia follows with 16.06 per cent, with Mexico third with 7.71 per cent. Petroleum was first produced in this country commercially in 1859. The im- ports of petroleum and petroleum prod- ucts for consumption in the United States were practically negligible until 1911. The total value of crude petrol- eum products and ozokerite imported for consumption in the United States in 1914 was $12,300,000, of which 17,200,000 barrels was crude petroleum from Mexico, valued at $11,500,000, or 93 per cent of all imported petroleum products. The total exports of crude petroleum and liquid products of petrol- eum amounted in 1914 to 53,334,134 barrels, valued at $140,000,000. The growth of the petroleum industry in the United States has been rapid and has resulted in the invention of new processes and devices whereby it has been possible to increase the quantity and reduce the price of many of the petroleum by-products. The Bureau of Mines has been instrumental in the de- velopment of processes whereby the pro- duction of gasoline from crude oil may be almost doubled, and the same bureau is also devising methods for the preven- tion of waste in drilling for petroleum and its storage in tanks. At the present rate of consumption of 250,000,000 barrels per year, the now available supplies will be practically ex- hausted within a quarter of a century. However, the increasing price of petrol- eum, more efficient utilization and the prevention of such large waste as is now noticeable will tend to prolong the life of the fields many years beyond the above estimate. Oil shale deposits in Colorado and Utah furnish 10 to 60 gal- lons per ton of rock and may become an important source of petroleum as the present supplies become depleted. Natural Gas The production of natural gas in 1914 was about 592,000,000,000 cubic feet, valued at more than $94,000,000. In 1885 the value of natural gas utilized in the United States was $4,857,000. Of all of the fuels produced in the United States probably the greatest waste and loss is in natural gas. As a fuel it is easy to handle ; is clean, and where available is replacing all other fuels. The waste in its use, however, has been excessive, while the waste in its production is even still greater. It is estimated that in one State alone more than 250,000,000 cubic feet of gas is wasted daily, while in another field at least 400,000,000 cubic feet of gas Is turned into the atmosphere each day. Investigations by the U. S. Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines are being conducted for the conservation of this valuable fuel both in its production and in its method of use. NON-METALLIC PRODUCTS Barytcs The production of barytes in the United States in 1915 was 108,547 short tons, valued at $381,032, as compared with 1914, when the production was 52,747 short tons, valued at $155,647. The increased production in 1915 was largely due to imports from Germany being cut off. The principal States pro- ducing barytes follow in order of pro- duction : Missouri, Georgia, Tennessee OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES and Kentucky. The deposits in these States are sufficient for domestic needs. The mineral, however, is not as pure as the imported product, so that the best utilization of these deposits will result from improved methods of bleaching and purifying the raw material. Cement In 1880 there were produced in the United States 85,000 barrels of Portland cement, while in 1915 the production was 86,891,681 barrels, valued at $74,- 756,674. The average price at the fac- tory has decreased from $3 per barrel in 1880 to 86 cents per barrel in 1915. The wonderful development of the cement industry in the United States dates from the introduction of the rotary kiln fired with powdered coal in 1895. The United States imports comparatively little hydraulic cement, amounting to less than 100,000 barrels a year. Twenty years ago the imports of cement were more than 33 per cent of the domestic product, whereas in recent years they are less than 0.1 per cent. There is little or no need to import any ordinary cement, for all parts of the country are well supplied with the raw material and are not de- pendent upon any foreign source. The annual exports of hydraulic cement slightly exceed 4,000,000 barrels, or nearly 5 per cent of the production. Clay and Clay Products Clay. The United States possesses immense quantities of clay, which are both suitable and available for the man- ufacture of clay products. In 1914 the production of raw clay (not included in the pottery or brick and tile business) in the United States was valued at $3,756,568. The closing of imports of clay from Europe on account of the war has resulted in an increased demand for high grade fire clay to replace the im- ported material. While many of the American clays contain a small percent- age of iron, a process of eliminating the excess iron has been devised and suc- cessfully used in making some of the undeveloped clays available for higher uses. The great achievements of the clay working industries in the last half century are due to the use of American- made machines ; the establishment of ceramic schools ; the advertising cam- paigns carried on by the manufacturers of clay products, and the improvement in the quality of wares. Pottery Products. The value of the pottery products produced in the United States in 1915 was $37,289,456, as com- pared with $35,398,161 in 1914, an in- crease of 5 per cent. With the excep- tion of white china, all of the pottery products increased in value in 1915 as compared with the previous year. Ohio is the leading pottery State, its principal product being white ware, the output of which in 1915 was valued at $10,184,834, or nearly two thirds of the State's production, which was $15,894,- 597, or almost one half the total white ware production of the United States. New Jersey ranks second in the value of pottery products, West Virginia third, New York fourth, Indiana fifth and Pennsylvania sixth. The value of the imports of pottery was $6,628,086, or $1,770,507 less than in 1914. The decrease in the imports was largely due to commercial condi- tions in Europe. The exports from do- mestic production amounted to $563,452 and re-exports from foreign imports $94,705. Brick and Tile. The brick and tilo industry forms about 78 per cent of the clay products and in 1914 amounted to $129,588,822, as compared with $143,- 296,757 in 1913. Ohio, as in the pot- tery business, leads in this industry with $21,815,392, followed by $20,100,495 for Pennsylvania. Other important States in order of production are Illinois, New Jersey, New York, Missouri and Cali- fornia. Fluorspar The production of fluorspar in the United States in 1915 was the largest on record with a total of 136,941 short tons, valued at $764,475. In 1883 the production was only 4,000 tons. In 1915 there were imported into the United States 7,167 tons, valued at $22,878, compared with 10,205 short tons, valued at $38,943, in 1914. The principal im- ports are from England. The increased production of fluorspar in 1915 was taken care of by the great demand for its use in the manufacture of steel. 192 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The American deposits occur in Illi- nois, Kentucky, New Mexico, Colorado, New Hampshire and Arizona, and are ample to supply domestic requirements in case of emergency. The American product is of much higher grade than the imported material. There is need for an improvement in mining methods and processes for its preparation for market. Gypsum The amount of gypsum produced in the United States in 1915 was 2,447,611 short tons, valued at $6,596,893. Prac- tically one fourth of this production is from New York, with Iowa, Michigan and Ohio following next .in order. The gypsum beds in these States are large, while many of the Western States con- tain immense beds that have not been worked. There were 77 active quarries and 69 calcining plants in operation in 1915. Phosphate Rock The production of phosphate rock in the United States in 1915 amounted to 1,835,667 long tons, valued at $5,413,- 444. "The 1915 production showed a de- crease of 898,376 long tons as compared with the production in 1914. The de- creased production was the result of conditions in Europe, whereby exports were not as large as in previous years. Shipments to Germany, which hitherto has been a large consumer, have prac- tically ceased. As a result mining oper- ations were either curtailed or suspended entirely. The principal States producing phosphate rock are Florida, Tennessee and South Carolina. While the progress toward more effi- cient mining and milling methods has been great in recent years, yet the waste is much greater than it should be. The phosphate deposits are large in the South Atlantic States and in the far West, especially Idaho, Utah, Wyoming and Montana. They are in close prox- imity to smelting centers where there is an abundance of raw material for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, which is so essential in converting the insoluble rock to a soluble salt. Phosphate rock finds its principal use in the manufac- ture of fertilizer and for this reason it is of vital importance to everybody. It has no mineral substitute, hence the de- posits should be conserved by their efficient utilization. Potash The production of potash salts in the United States in 1915 was valued at $342,000, which, while small, indicates the possibility of establishing a domes- tic potash industry. The imports of refined potash salts in 1915 amounted to 170,555,450 pounds, valued at $3,765,- 224, or slightly more than 25 per cent of those in 1913. Taking all potash salts together, the quantity imported in 1915 was about one tenth of that under 55,000 BARREL OIL TANK STRUCK BY LIGHTNING AT TITLSA, OKLA. normal conditions, when the total im- ports amount to about $15,000,000 annu- ally. The imports of potash salts are almost exclusively from Germany. Ex- perimental work on potash salts from different sources was active during the year and Government bureaus are using every effort to discover new sources of these valuable salts and methods for their production. The following possible sources are being investigated: (a) 1. Photographing Length of Flame. 2. Ballistic Pendulum of Explosive. 3. Gas and Dust Gallery. 4. Explosion in Dust Explosion Gallery. 5. Long Combustion Chamber. 6. Calorimeter for Determining the Heating Quality of Coal INTERESTING TESTS OF THT BUEEAU OF MINES 194 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Saline residues; (6) natural and arti- ficial bitterns; (c) alunite and similar minerals; (d) potash bearing feldspars; (e) greensand marls, and (/) organic sources, as seaweed, molasses residues, etc. Salt, Bromine and Calcium Chloride The amount of salt marketed in 1915 was 38,231,496 barrels, valued at $11,- 747,686, an increase in quantity of 9.8 per cent and in value 15.2 per cent as compared with 1914. In 1915 the United States produced 99.2 per cent of the salt used, hence no need for importing this staple commodity. Bromine is produced in connection with the manufacture of salt in Michi- gan, Ohio and West Virginia. The total amount produced in 1915 was 855,857 pounds, valued at $856,307. The high price of bromine in 1915 was due in part to the larger demand from abroad, where it is reported to be used in making asphyxiating gas. Calcium chloride is one of the by- products of the natural brines of the Ohio Valley. A large amount of this salt is being wasted at present and no doubt new uses will be found which will stimulate its recovery. Sulphur and Sulphuric Acid Sulphur. The principal production of sulphur in the United States is from the sulphur wells of Louisiana and Texas. The production of sulphur in 1914 was 327,634 long tons, valued at $5,954,236. The United States produces sufficient sulphur for domestic consump- tion and is now able to compete with Italy, which ranks second. In 1909 the exports of sulphur amounted to 37,000 long tons, while in 1914 98,153 long tons were exported, valued at $1,807,- 334. In 1914 26,135 tons were imported. The mining of sulphur in Louisiana is by the Frasch process, whereby super- heated water is forced into the sulphur beds. The hot Abater melts the sulphur, so that it is pumped to the surface in a molten condition. Sulphuric Acid. The most important chemical manufactured in the United States is sulphuric acid, the raw ma- terial for which is abundant in the form of native sulphur, pyrite and sulphur fumes from metallurgical plants. The production of sulphuric acid in the United States in 1915 was 3,868,152 short tons, valued at $29,869,080. Sul- phuric acid is an important item in the fertilizer industry and in the manufac- ture of explosives. The manufacture of sulphuric acid is now becoming one of the important by-product processes in connection with the metallurgy of cop- per, whereby the sulphur fumes from the sulphide ores may be collected and converted into acid. This is being done on a large scale in Tennessee, and there are a number of important copper smelters in the West where thousands Photo Underwood & Underwood HYDRAULIC MINING of tons of sulphur are wasted each day, all of which could be converted into sul- phuric acid and become a source of profit, instead of being a detriment to growing vegetation, as is the case at present. Miscellaneous Non-metallic Products Arsenic. White arsenic is recovered as a by-product from some of the copper smelters. The total production in 1914 was 4,670 short tons, valued at $313,147. Aftbestos. The production of asbestos in the United States in 1915 amounted to 1,731 short tons, valued at $70,952. This represents an increase of 39 per cent in quantity and 306 per cent in value as compared with 1S)14. The asbestos deposits in the United States are not extensive and for this reason practically all of the asbestos used in the country is imported, largely from Canada. Arizona, Idaho, Georgia, Call- THE MINERAL INDUSTRY 195 fornia and Wyoming contain promising deposits of asbestos. Asphalt. The production of natural asphalt from mines and quarries in the United States in 1915 amounted to 75,- 751 short tons, valued at $526,490. The total production was about 5 per cent less than in 1914. The quantity of manufactured asphalt produced from domestic petroleum in 1915 was 664,503 short tons, valued at $4,715,583, used principally for road building, and 388,- 318 short tons from Mexican petroleum, valued at $3,730,436. Georgia, Massachusetts and Texas. Flor- ida produced about 75 per cent. Garnet. Practically all of the garnet in the United States is used for abrasive purposes. The production in 1914 was 4,231 tons, valued at $145,510. Qems and Precious Stones. The -pro- duction of gems and precious stones in the United States is insignificant as compared with the imports. The total production in 1914 was $124,651, as com- pared with imports valued at $19.211,- 084 in 1914 and $45,431,998 in 1913. Graphite. The 1915 production was LABOR AND ACCIDENT STATISTICS FOR THE MINING INDUSTRY (Compiled from reports of the U. S. Bureau of Mines) Numbe r killed Number injured Total Per 1,000 employed Total Per 1,000 employed Number employed Metal Mines: 1911 695 4.19 26,577 160.12 165,979 1912 661 3.91 30,734 181.65 169,199 1913 683 3.57 32,971 172.37 191,276 1914 559 3.54 30,216 191.10 158,115 1915 553 3.64 35,295 232.02 152,118 Smelters: 1913 47 2.29 4,247 206.53 20,564 1914 33 1.19 5,673 203.12 27,879 1915 38 1.21 5,718 182.53 31,327 Ore Dressing Plants: 1913 16 1.07 1,977 131.93 14,985 1914 23 1.52 1,434 96.71 15,128 1915 30 1.62 2,095 112.85 18,564 Quarries: 1911 188 1.69 5,390 48.58 110,954 1912 213 1.88 6,562 57.93 113,105 1913 183 1.72 7,739 72.83 106,278 1914 180 2.05 7,836 89.11 87,936 1915 148 1.47 9,671 96.30 100,740 Coal Mines: 1911 2,656 3.65 * 728.348 1912 2,419 3.35 * 722,662 1913 2,785 3.73 * 747,644 1914 2,454 3.22 * 763,185 1915 2,269 3.09 # 734,008 Coke Ovens: 1913 46 1.89 2,514 103.27 24,345 1914 45 2 02 2 189 98 10 22313 1915 38 1.22 2,852 91.82 31,060 * Not available. Borax. The production of borax in 1914 amounted to 62,400 short tons, valued at $1,464,400. The larger part of the borax production was from south- ern California. Feldspar. The amount of feldspar produced in the United States in 1915 was 113,769 short tons, valued at $629,- 316, representing a reduction of about 16 per cent in the amount produced. Fuller's Earth. The production of fuller's earth in 1915 in the United States was 47,901 tons, valued at $489,- 219. Six States reported production as follows: Arkansas, California, Florida, 4,718 short tons, valued at $429,631. Lime. The production of lime in the United States in 1915 amounted to 3,589,679 short tons, valued at $14,336,- 756, an increase of 6.2 per cent in quantity and 8 per cent in value over the figures for 1914. The number of plants in operation decreased from 954 in 1914 to 905 in 1915. Magnesite. The majority of crude magnesite comes from California. The production in 1914 was 11,293 short tons, valued at $124,223. The imports of magnesia and magnesite amounted to $1,453,508. 19G OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Mica. The value of the mica produced In the United States in 1915 was $428,- 769. The average price of sheet mica was 68 cents a pound, as compared with 50 cents in 1914 and 21 cents in 1913. North Carolina produced more than one half of the total production, followed by New Hampshire, Idaho and South Dakota. Mineral Paints. The production of mineral paint in 1914, including lead and zinc pigments, amounted to 173,557 short tons, valued at $10,451,746. Sand and Gravel. The production of glass sand in 1914 amounted to 1,619,- 649 short tons, valued at $1,568,030. The production of sand and gravel for moulding, building and other purposes was 77,662,086 short tons, valued at $22,278,969. Slate. The production of slate in 1915 in the United States was valued at $4,958,515, a decrease of 13 per cent as compared with 1914. Pennsylvania and Vermont produced more than 86 per cent of the total roofing slate, the re- mainder coming largely from Maryland, Virginia and New York. Exports of slate in 1915 were $46,137, as compared with $139.125 in 1914. The exports were the lowest since 1895. The imports amounted to $2,768 in 1915, as compared with $4,855 in 1914. Talc and Soapstone. The amount of talc and soapstone produced in 1915 was 186,891 tons, valued at $1,891,582. QUABBY INDUSTRY The value of the quarry products in the United States, including granite, basalt, trap rock, limestone, sandstone and marble used for build- ing, monumental, paving and other purposes, amounted to $77,412,292 in 1914. The granite production was valued at $20,028,019, 30 per cent of which was used in building, 23 per cent in monumental work, 14 per cent in paving and 19 per cent as crushed rock. The limestone indus- try is the largest, amounting to $33,- 894,155, of which 10 per cent is used in building and nearly 60 per cent as crushed stones, the remainder being used for paving, curbing, flagging and riprap. The marble industry is the third in size, amounting to $8,- 121,412, of which sixty per cent is used in building and thirty per cent for monumental purposes. Sand- stone amounted to $7,501,808, while basalt and traprock amounted to $7,865,998. ELECTBICALLY-OPEHATED GANTRY CRANE SERVING BLOCK PILE THE MINERAL INDUSTRY 197 WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF COPPER, TIN & LEAD WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF DIAMONDS AND PRECIOUS STONES 108 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Copyright Munn & Co. THE GREATEST INVENTOR OF THE AGE CHAPTEE XVI. THE PATENT OFFICE AND INVENTION SINCE 1845 HOW THE GOVERNMENT HAS KEPT PACE WITH THE INVENTOR By WILLIAM I. WYMAN IN 1845, the birth year of the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, the present patent system was nine years old. In 1836 the I'atent Office was placed on a distinct basis, the system re- organized and the examination or American method of searching pat- ents inaugurated. THOMAS JEFFERSON WAS THE FIBST COMMISSIONER OF PATENTS The American patent system was founded under the act of 1790. Un- der this act the Secretary of State, the Secretary of War and the At- torney General constituted a board to consider all applications for pat- ents". Thomas Jefferson, the first Secretary of State, was in effect the first Commissioner of Patents and the first Examiner. It is said that he personally examined into and de- termined the patentability of every application filed during his first years in office as head of the State Department The grant of a patent then was not only a procedure of exceeding dignity, being signed by the President, the Secretary of State and the Attorney General, but was issued with some reluctance. Only three patents were permitted to see the light of day in 1790. From this modest beginning, the business of the patent system grew slowly, but steadily. From 1790 to 1802 it required but one State De- partment clerk to perform all the clerical work pertaining to the Pat- ent Office, the entire records of which were contained in a dozen pigeon- holes. Up to 1836, about 10,000 pat- INCBEASR OF POPULATION. TOTAL WEALT VALUE OP PKODUCTS AND ANNUAL ISSUE OF PATENTS FROM 1850 TO 1910. ents were granted. In that year, the Patent Office became an indepen- dent bureau, headed by a commis- sioner, assisted by one examiner and six other subordinate clerks and em- ployees. While the reorganization gave the Office a dignity and stand- ing it did not have before, still the force provided to cope with the pressing demands of inventors does not now appear to be excessively Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 200 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES large. And yet critics, whose sense of economy was more acute than were their gifts of imagination, de- cried the sheer waste entailed by an organization so extravagant in men. But applications came pouring in, and in the following year the ex- Thc United States of America. To all <:, vlu.m tlitfe l.i> r.itent Ihill com,.- AN EARLY PATENT One of the first patents signed by President Washington in possession of Munn & Co. a mining corps had to be doubled by the appointment of an additional ex- aminer, and in 1839 the position of two assistant examiners was cre- ated to keep pace with the growing business. The act of 1793 was the only one which provided for the grant of a patent without examination. In 1836 the modern examination sys- tem was instituted, by which a search through patents and publica- tions was made to determine the question of novelty. This act also for the first time made a positive requirement for the inclusion of a claim in the specification in the fol- lowing terms : "He [the inventor] shall positively specify and point out the part, improve- ment or combination which he claims as his own invention or discovery." THE EARLY DAYS OF THE PRESENT PATENT OFFICE In 1836 the erection of the Patent Office was begun ; the building was finished in 1840. This original struc- ture forms the F Street wing of the present building. In 1845 the pat- ent system was well on its way and the Office properly housed, with an official force of one commissioner, two examiners, and two assistant ex- aminers. In that year, 1,246 new applications were filed, besides many Caveats, and the work was becoming too heavy for this limited force to handle effectively. This condition became and continues to be chronic. Even as early as 1850, only five years after the .founding of the "Scientific American" and but four- teen years after the reorganization of the Patent Office, American inven- tions were numbered among the most notable produced. In 1857, this country issued over one-third more patents than Great Britain, which at that time had a substantial- ly greater population. In that year, Patents, Total Is- sued to that year Total Wealth Per Capita Popula- tion Value of products 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. 1900. 1910. 7,000 27,000 98,000 223,000 419,000 640,000 945,000 7 Billion 16 27* 43 65 88 ]4 125* $308 514 750* 870 1,036 1,165 1,400* 23 - Million 31.4 38.5 ' 50 62.6 ' 76 92 1 Billion 1.885 3.400 5.3 9.4 13 20.6 * Estimated. s 202 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES HOW THE NUMBER OF PATENTS HAS INCREASED YEAR BY YEAR the United States with a population of 23,000,000 issued 2,910 patents, Prussia with almost 17,000,000 is- sued 48, while Russia, with 70,- 000,000 population, issued 24 patents. Commissioner Holt, in his annual report for that year, in reviewing the statistics, grows eloquent and philosophizes thus : "As the light of liberty waxes dim- mer, so does the inventive genius flag and dull apace, until finally, amid the darkness of the political night which broods over Eastern lands, it is utterly extinguished." THE ANTE-BELLUM PERIOD OF AMERI- CAN INVENTION During this decade, the one im- mediately preceding the Civil war, the stimulating influence of inven- tion upon industry became notice- ably apparent. Southern New Eng- land was tending to become a gigan- tic workshop and the character of entire sections of New York and Pennsylvania and Ohio radically changed from agricultural to indus- trial communities. The invention of the sewing machine the greatest labor-saving device of the ages (was of itself a tremendous stimulus, and the opening up of the West through the railroad meant activity in iron production and the basic engineering industries. The reaper and the thresher made the opening up of the West profitable and the inventions in firearms, machine tools, locks and ELIAS HOWE, JR. or of the Sewing Machine Born July 9, 1819 Died October 3, 1867 THE PATENT OFFICE 203 MONUMENT TO THE THREE HOWES AT SPENCER, MASS. labor-saving devices and textile ma- chinery initiated new industries and accelerated the growth of the coun- try by leaps and bounds. By the time the Civil war broke upon the country, only a quarter of a century after the inauguration of the pres- ent patent system, and in spite of the pre-eminently agricultural char- acter of her pursuits, this country gave every evidence that she was to be among the first of the industrial nations. AFTER THE CIVIL WAR The distracting period of the Civil war over, activity in enterprise in- creased energetically, and in the year after the Civil war closed there were filed in the office' over three times as many applications as were filed in 1861. During the war, the Bessemer process was developing, and the influence of this most stimu- lating of inventions, which inaugur- ated the age of steel and our present intensive industrial era, became felt not long after its close. Then began a period of true national expansion the further developing of the West, with strenuous enterprise in reaching out with new railroads, building of steel mills and locomo- tive works marking an inflation of energy, industry and finance, which culminated in the severe panic of 1873. The country paused for a little while and took account of stock at the great Centennial Ex- position in 1876. The wonders of our material advance, practically all of which were induced by invention, such as the Corliss engine, the tex- tile machines, woodworking tools, machine tools, the sewing machine, hydraulic machinery and various kinds of automatic appliances, were there spread out for inspection to demonstrate the ingenuity of the American inventor and the intimate relation existing between him and what was making American devel- opment. A. B. WILSON Sewing Machine Invents 204 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The period from 1865 to 1880 gave inkling of the dawn of a radically new era. The electrical age was prognosticated in the dynamos of Gramme, Siemens and Brush, the Bell telephone and the arc lamp. But they left no impression upon in- dustry or the social life of the time THE MOST FERTILE FIELDS OF IX- VENTION. Patents. Carriages and Wagons.. 37,7->8 8, Buckles, Buttons Harvesters Plows Mills Machine Elements Builders' Hardware <:auies and Tovs Locks and Latches Mills, G tiding, etc Ka'lway Rolliii Seeder; Wat, Maim and F Couplings, etc Woodworking Washing Machi: es and Other Laundry Appll- nd Planters!'..'.' nd Pipes,' Cocks 1.J.77-J 15,006 ..'."'7 i i^oea 15.826 1-2,164 11,930 18,803 11.347 1S.4H-2 11,059 SOME OF THE MOST PRO- LIFIC INVENTORS. Patents. F.dison 977 Elihu Thomson Francis H. Richards Edward Westmi Charles E. Srrihner George Wentinghouse.... DIAGRAM SHOWING RATIO OF IN- CREASE OF UNITED STATES PATENTS FOR FIVE YEARS until the next period got into swing. From 1867 to 1879, the annual num- ber of applications filed remained stationary and averaged around 20,000 per year, but about the time specie payments were resumed, the country appeared to take on a new lease of life. In 1867, 21,276 appli- cations were filed, and in 1879, 20,- 059; in the next year (1880) the number increased to 23,012, and in 1889 reached 40,575, more than dou- ble the number filed ten years before. In that decade the country literally jumped forward and inventive in- genuity reached the golden age of its activity. THE ADVENT OF THE HIRED INVENTOR The larger concerns have in con- nection with their patent depart- ments or in association with them research laboratories with a corps of highly trained engineers and tech- nical and scientific assistants. Ev- ery improvement of a patentable na- ture, if of proved utility or possible merit, becomes the subject matter of an application, not only for the mon- opoly that a patent may bring, but also as a protection in its manufac- ture and as a matter of record. The patent department advises the tech- nicians whether a proposed device may be patented or whether it in- fringes an existing patent, and also appraises the validity and value of patents offered to the company for sale. The experimental department will try out new ideas or develop them to some conclusion. Many of the big things now come through these organizations, for frequently in the evolution of an art, an instru- mentality may be so complex, re- quire the expenditure of so much skill and money to develop and dem- onstrate, that only a company with large resources is able to handle the proposition. Thus, the General Elec- tric Company took several years, plus an expenditure of a few mil- lion dollars, to develop the Curtis turbine. It is by no means uncom- mon for a promoter to spend over $100,000 to develop a process or ap- THE PATENT OFFICE 205 JOHN ERICSSON Inventor of the "Monitor" paratus so it will be marketable. Edison, who, if not incorporated, is a host in himself, frequently spent thousands upon thousands in inves- tigations and has made experiments by the hundreds before he was in a position to announce results. There are some devices which are so in- tricate in design, notably type set- ting and casting machines, that any- where from a quartec to one million dollars may be expended in construc- tion and improvement, in trials and changes, only to prove eventually, what could not possibly be deter- mined in advance, that it could not meet the various requirements de- manded in commercial practice. Mark Twain sank his personal for- tune of several hundred thousands in a typesetting device, probably the most intricate bit of mechanism ever devised, because, while the ma- chine did everything it was designed to do, it was too intricate to be understood by the ordinary me- chanic. Then again, the device may be simple enough, its merits sufficiently obvious, but it may require more business acumen, push and advertis- ing to introduce it than would be re- quired to market an article of staple and competitive character, or some- times no character at all. A well- known instance of this inertia on the part of the public is the case of a certain safety razor, which re- quired prodigious efforts on the part of its promoters to eventually get the public to use what appeared to be a self-evident filling of a long- felt want. No inventor can afford to create without the protection of the patent laws, because the labor and expense he is placed under pre- liminary to establishing the utility of his invention becomes a fixed charge and the very means to handi- cap him against a piratical competi- tor, who can start without such a burden. THE INFINITE POSSIBILITIES THAT LIE IN INVENTION In 1844, Commissioner Ellsworth, contemplating the 13,500 patents CAPTAIN JAMES B. EADS 200 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES granted up to that year, over 500 of which were issued in the year 1843, and apprehending a cessation of all endeavors in the field of in- vention, uttered this prediction in his official report : "The advance- ment of the arts, from year to year, taxes our credulity and seems to presage the arrival of that period when human improvement must end." The commissioner could well marvel at the astounding advances made in labor-saving devices during his own lifetime, but what would have been his mental state could he have been endowed with prophetic vision and have foreseen but a frac- tion of the inventive activity which has taken place in a man's lifetime from the date of his utterance? The number of patents now is over a million, the annual issue is more than three times the number of all the patents granted up to his day, and the examining corps has in- creased from four to almost four hundred without being able to keep pace with the ever growing tide of E. J. GATLING Inventor of the Gatling Gun $300,000 FOR A PATENT THE AUTOGRAPHIC KODAK THE DEVICE THE PRODUCT THE INVENTOR THE MATERIAL REWARD new work. It is estimated that the value of American manufactures at- tributable directly or indirectly to patentable inventions amounts to the enormous total of more than twenty billion dollars, which is about four times the value of all taxable property in the United States at the time Commissioner Ellsworth made his report. It has been said that the single invention of producing steel by the Bessemer process doubled, directly or through its influence, the world's wealth in the third of a century af- ter its introduction. More astounding are the figures relating to the electrical industries, including telephony, central station lighting and power, and electric rail- ways, the latest figures available showing an investment in the United States alone of seven billion dol- lars, annual gross revenue or sale. 1 THE PATENT OFFICE 207 DAGUERRE From an original Daguerreotype of over a billion, in which three quarters of a million men were en- gaged, at an annual pay-roll of over three hundred and fifty million dol- lars. These industries were either non-existent in 1880 or in their in- cipient stage at that time. Their origins and every advance therein were directly founded on inventions, every one of which is patented and of record in the Patent Office. THE TREND OF INVENTION The activity of the different classes in the Patent Office from time to time reflects accurately the changes which constantly pass in the world of industry and the applied arts. The basic pursuit in this coun- try always being the tilling of the soil, patents for agricultural imple- ments have occupied a prominent po- sition, both in numbers and import- ance throughout its history. The invention of the sewing machine in- itiated a period of great activity in a new art, while the telephone let loose a flood of inventions for adap- tations and improvements. The new electro-chemical industry came into being about the middle of the eight- ies and patent activity with rela- tion thereto was high at the same time. The incandescent lamp start- ed the electric age, in whose vortex we still are, and patent concern in all things electrical is still inten- sive. The rise and fall of the bicy- cle, the wave" of interest in auto- matic car couplings, the first surg- ings of activity in aeroplane inven- tion, and the deep concern of the great ingenious to solve the urgent non-refillable bottle problem all these movements have been reflected in the filing of applications in the Patent Office. In recent years the automobile is establishing records, the arts relating to internal com- bustion motors, carbureters, gear- ings, self-starters, accessories, alloy steels and heat treatment of steels being specially active. . The United States has by far the proudest record In the field of in- vention; whether reckoning by the number of pioneer products, their ingenuity, or their far-reaching ef- GEORGE WESTINGHOUSE Inventor of the Air Brake, etc. 208 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Photo by Hoppe SIS HIRAM MAXIM fects in the greatest diversity of fields, she easily stands in first place. Particularly in labor-saving devices does she stand foremost. No one in all history has worked so hard to save labor as the Yankee. The greatest of all labor-saving de- vices, the sewing machine, is his, and outside of textile machinery, practically all the great advances in this department have been of his invention, as witness the cotton gin, the reaper, shoe machinery, type- writer and typesetting machines. In the field of electricity the Amer- ican shares pre-eminence with Eu- ropeans, and yet the three most sig- nal advances in electrical applica- tion are to his credit the telegraph, telephone, and the incandescent lamp. Since 1880 (the typewriter was invented a few years previous- ly) no revolutionary mechanical in- ventions comparable to those which signaled American ingenuity previ- ously, was devised except the type- setting machine, but in the field of electricity (incandescent lamp, trol- ley car, electric welding), optics (kinetoscope, transparent film) and air navigation (an absolutely new art) he did not remain inactive. SOME PROLIFIC INVENTORS Between 1872 and 1900, Thomas Edison had received 742 patents; F. H. Richards, 619; Elihu Thomson, 444; Charles E. Scribuer, 374; L. C. Crowell, 293; Edward Weston, 280; R. M. Hunter, 276; Charles J. Tan Depoele, 245 ; and George West- inghouse, 239. Up to 1910 Edison secured 905 patents, of which 713 were electrical. Considering all the patents that are probably pending or in course of preparation, it is estimated that the number of his inventions is greater than 2,000. It is safe to assert that he is the most prolific inventor of all time. Although Great Britain has more pioneer inventions to her credit in- volving fundamental operations that underlie all industry, than any other country, the only innovations of pio- neer character she has contributed Copyright, Harris & Ewlng ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL THE PATENT OFFICE 200 in the last one half century are the basic process for making steel, the steam turbine, and the cyanide pro- cess. But the steam engine, the greatest invention of all ages, is hers, and so is the Bessemer process, DR. DIESEL Inventor of the Diesel Engine which inaugurated our present in- tensive industrial era. Germany before 1871 was an al- most negligible factor in the field of applied science, although she had previously to that date given ample evidence of her vigor in pure science. The adoption of a patent system based upon that of the United States was an extreme stimulus to iflven- tion, and the impetus given to inven- tiveness is shown by the large num- ber of very important contributions she has devised in the last 35 years, and the increasing number of patents she has taken out in this country in recent years, now exceeding those applied for by any other foreign na- tion. To her sons is due the gas engine, the gasoline motor ; the crude oil engine (Diesel motor) ; the auto- mobile; the Welsbach lamp; the tungsten lamp ; the X-ray machine ; the utilization of blast furnace gases for operation of gas engines; the superheating of steam in loco- motive practice; the synthesis of in- digo; the contact method of making sulphuric acid ; the Goldschmidt thermit process, and the innumer- able and radical innovations in dye making, drugs, and chemicals. An interesting confirmation of the changing character of our population may be made by comparing the names of inventors prominent in the earlier periods of the country's his- tory with those which are found frequently scattered through the later additions of the Official Ga- zette. Fulton, Whittemore, Bigelow, Blanchard, Hoe, Campbell, Ames, Fairbanks, Howe, Colt, McCormick, etc., testify to the complete Anglo- Saxon predominance of former times, while such names as Betten- dorf, Mergenthaler, Pupin,. Tesla, Christensen, Doherty, Frasch, Gal- lagher, Conner, Monnot, Krakau, Mesta, Steinmetz, Sauveur, and Lin- denthal, which are abundantly sprinkled among the names listed in recent Official Gazettes, offer proof of the leavening that is going on in all departments of American life. CHAPTER XVII. MANUFACTURES THE extent of manufacturing operations in the United States is perhaps best under- stood by considering that during the year 1914 there were 8,265,426 per- sons engaged in manufacturing or 29.4 per cent of all workers engaged in gainful occupations. Of this num- ber, 264,872 were proprietors and firm membei-s, 964,217 were salaried employees and 7,036,337 were wage earners. With the exception of the agricultural industry, the manufac- turing establishments of the United States employ more men than any other industry. With respect to the value of the products produced, manufactures rank first, the total value of the products turned out during the year 1914 being $24,246,323,000. This amount represents the selling value or prices at the plants of the prod- ucts turned out and does not neces- sarily have any relation to the amount of sales for the year. The cost of materials used was $14,- 368,089,000, leaving $9,878,234,000 as the value added by manufacture. The salaries and wages paid out for the year amounted to $5,367,- 249,000, of which amount, $1.287.- 917,000 was paid to. the 964.217 sal- aried employees and $4,079,332,000 to the 7,036,337 wage earners. It is impossible in the short space allotted to this subject to more than indicate, in a general way, the ex- tent of manufacturing operations in the United States. For convenience the industries are treated under the following headings: Manufactured Food Products, Textiles, Iron and Steel Manufactures, Transportation, the Electrical Industry, the Leather Industry, Paper and Printing and Publishing, Chemicals and Allied Products and Miscellaneous Indus- tries. Detailed information relative to particular industries may be had by addressing the Bureau of the Census, Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C. Unless otherwise stated the statistics given are for the census of manufactures for 1914. INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS Tabulating inventory of manufacturing plants Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 212 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES MANUFACTURED FOOD PRODUCTS SLAUGHTERING AND MEAT PACKING There were slaughtered for food in wholesale establishments during the year 1914, 7.149,042 beeves, 2,019,004 calves, 15,951.860 sheep and lambs and goats and kids and 34,441.913 hogs. The total products were valued at $1,- 651,765.424. The fresh meat aggregated 6,656,031,002 pounds, valued at $769.- 383 846, comprising: 3,658,333.660 pounds of beef, valued at $421,296,794; 194,698,880 pounds of veal, valued at $26,299,446 ; 629,232,690 pounds of mut- ton and lamb, including some goat meat, valued at $74.675.627 ; 1.877.099,071 pounds of pork, valued at $226,535,734 ; and 296,666,701 pounds of edible offal, dressed poultry, goat meat, and game, valued at $20.576,245. Cured meat, consisting of dry salt, pickled and smoked beef and pork, exclusive of canned meat, sausage and meat pud- dings, aggregated 3,020,881.494 pounds, valued at $408,000,916, and comprised 91,571.573 pounds of beef, valued at $14,395,316, and 2,929,309.741 pounds of pork, valued at $393,605,600. Canned goods, consisting of beef, pork, meat products, and other canned goods, ex- clusive of sausage, represented 160,- 798,955 pounds, valued at $26.417.624. The output of sausage was 509,151,311 pounds, valued at $68,195,522, including 74,004.380 pounds of canned sausage, valued at $9,845,669, and also some sausage in paper cartons for which fig- ures are not available. These figures, however, do not include the output of establishments engaged primarily in the manufacture of sausage. Of lard com- prising prime steam, pure leaf kettle- rendered, leaf, refined and neutral 1.119,188,675 pounds, valued at $120,- 414,007, was rendered. The production of compound lard and lard substitutes was 396,397,950 pounds, valued at $33,- 037,467 ; of oil comprising oleo, lard, neat's-foot, and cooking oil 23,217,082 gallons, valued at $15,935.434 ; of raw and rendered tallow and oleo stock, 209,614,135 pounds, valued at $13,732,- 756; of oleo and lard stearin, 30,091,- 991 pounds, valued at $2,752,421 ; and of oleomargarine, 60,387,881 pounds, valued at $8,818,557. CANNING AND PRESERVING There were 538 establishments en- gaged in canning and preserving fish and oysters in the United States during the year 1914, the products of which were valued at $55,283,404. The total value of fish and oysters canned was $41,321,593, of which amount clams were valued at $670.363 ; oysters. $2,676,951 ; salmon, $27,633,284; sardines, $6.238,- 933 ; shrimp, $1,725,621 ; tuna, $1,638,- 675 ; and other fish, $737.766. The pro- duction of smoked or dried fish was 28,713,806 pounds, valued at $2,759,341 and was made up as follows : Finnan haddie, 4,095,693 pounds, valued at $327,877 ; halibut, 509.288 pounds, valued at $62.546; herring. 11,504,126 pounds, valued at $719,640 ; salmon, 4,248,896 pounds, valued at $638.975 ; sturgeon, 511,196 pounds, valued at $150,614; all other smoked or dried fish, 7,844,607 pounds, valued at $859,689. The out- put of salt or pickled fish was 156,153,- 589 pounds, valued at $9,200.162 as follows: Cod. 83.502.295 pounds, val- ued at $5,561.770; haddock, 4.947.286 pounds, valued at $218,359 ; herring, 22,150.974 pounds, valued at $668.838; mackerel, 6,224.313 pounds, valued at $519,727 ; all other salted or pickled fish, 39,328,721 pounds, valued at $2,- 231.468. There were 3,199 establishments en- gaged in the canning and drying of fruits and vegetables, the products of which were valued at $158,015.893. The value of canned and dried fruits and vegetables packed during the year was as follows : Canned vegetables. $84,- 413.667; canned fruits, $24,897,174; dried fruits, $34,771,912; canned soups, $7,877,057 ; other products were valued at $6,056,083. FLOUR AND GRIST MILL PRODUCTS The products of the 10,787 establish- ments, which did merchant grinding during the year 1914, were valued at $875,496,013. The consumption of wheat by flour mills and grist mills was 543.970,038 bushels ; rye, 12,748,135 bushels ; corn, 180,115,704 bushels; buckwheat. 5,- 478,045 bushels ; barley, 20,288,396 bushels ; oats, 50,227,050 bushels ; other grain, 4,277,864 bushels; alfalfa, 87.884 tons : and other material, 121,965 tons. The output for the year 1914 was as follows: Wheat flour, 116,045,090 bar- rels, valued at $542,051.752 ; rye flour and rye Graham, 1,926,795 barrels, val- ued at $7,801,413; buckwheat flour, 125,622.189 pounds, valued at $3,754,- 857 ; barley meal, 14,000,789 pounds, valued at $212.343 ; corn meal and corn flour, 16,327,993 barrels, valued at $54,- 963.301 ; hominy and grits, 870.364.453 pounds, valued at $13,767,561 ; oatmeal, 30.451.581 pounds, valued at $757,804; bran and middlings, 4.648.930 tons, val- ued at $104,350.655 ; feed and offal, 4,753,280 tons, valued at $137,067,959; corn oil, 301,949 gallons, valued at $152,208 ; breakfast foods, rolled oats, etc., 92,676,085 pounds, valued at $2,- 932,238 ; all other cereal products were valued at $2,091,922 and all other prod- ucts at $5,562,000. RICE, CLEANING AND POLISHING The total quantity of rough rice milled during the year 1914 was 1,036,587,825 pounds, or 23,035,285 bushels (of 45 pounds). Of this quantity 1,025,628,075 pounds was of domestic production, and 10,959,750 pounds of foreign. MANUFACTURES 213 The amount of clean rice obtained was 674,872.108 pounds, valued at $21,- 655,105. This was 65.1 per cent, by weight, of the rough rice milled. There were 31,053,118 pounds of polish, valued at $352,271, produced from rice during the year ; 99,403.200 pounds of bran, valued at $772,275 ; all other products were valued at $259,643. Thus the total value of all products derived from the cleansing and polishing of rice for the year 1914 amounted to $23,039,294. BUTTER, CHEESE AND CONDENSED MILK During the year 1914 there were 7,982 establishments engaged in the but- ter, cheese and condensed milk indus- try, whose products were valued at $370,818,729. The quantity of milk con- sumed by these factories was 8,431,632,- 860 pounds, costing $114,314,929. The quantity of cream consumed was 2,383,- 828.265 pounds, costing $160,916.828. The products, valued at $370,818,729, were divided as follows: 786,013.489 pounds of butter, valued at $223,179,- 254; 377,506,109 pounds of cheese, val- ued at $50.931,925; 884.646,761 pounds of condensed and evaporated milk, val- ued at $59,374.948; 21,987,911 pounds of powdered milk, valued at $2,081,607 ; 4.051,320 pounds of sugar, valued at $400,613; and other products valued at $34,850,382. TEXTILES CORDAGE AND TWINE AND JDTE AND LINEN GOODS The total value of the cordage and twine and jute and linen goods produced during the year 1914 amounted to $83,- 228,424. There were produced during the year, 487,443,356 pounds of rope and binder twine, valued at $.43,085,517; 13,244,198 pounds of cotton rope, valued at $2,539.906; 105,249,677 pounds of twine, other than binder, valued at $13,996,522; 75.875.322 pounds of yarn, valued at $8.320,186; 5,707,668 pounds of linen thread, valued at $3.409,136; 131.827,658 square yards of bags and bagging, valued at $6,440,594; 3,326,302 square yards of jute carpets and rugs, valued at $816.845; and other products valued at $4,619,718. PELT GOODS The cost of all material required in the .production of felt goods during the year 1914 was $6,824,537. The total value of the products manufactured in the establishments engaged in this in- dustry was $13,692.765. There were produced in that year, 3.941,795 pounds of endless felt belts, valued at $4,164,- 186 ; 3,028.286 pounds of boot and shoe linings, valued at $1.512,783 ; 7.431,152 square yards of trimming and lining felts, valued at $1,048.583: 2.291.662 pounds of saddle felts, valued at $973,- 353. The remaining products, including table and piano covers, felt cloth, etc., were valued at $5,993,860. HATS, FUR-FELT AND WOOL-FELT The output of finished fur-felt hats in 1914 was 2.118,634 dozen, valued at $33.603.531. The total value of the products of the fur-felt industry was $37.349,744. The total value of the products of the wool-felt hat industry in 1914 was $1,944,484, of which amount, $1,777,225 represented the value of the 381,044 dozen wool-felt hats produced. HOSIERY AND KNIT GOODS During the year 1914 there were 1,- 647 establishments engaged in the man- ufacture of hosiery and knit goods, the products of which were valued at $263,- 925,855. There were 75,227,704 dozen pairs of hosiery produced, valued at $98.136,265; 21,758,775 dozen shirts and drawers, valued at $57,523,051 ; 6,283.360 dozen combination suits, valued at $35,630.464; 2.249,142 dozen sweaters, valued at $26,195,002; 2,470,- 183 dozen pairs of gloves and mittens, valued at $10,519,613; 987,178 dozen hoods, scarfs, etc., valued at $3,456,326 ; 274,544 dozen bathing suits, valued at $2,033.889; 63,264 dozen shawls, valued at $713,545, and 74,901 dozen pairs of leggings valued at $313.952. In the production of hosiery and knit goods there were 3,076 sets of cards used ; 852.250 spindles ; 65.328 sewing machines and 142,240 knitting machines of all classes. COTTON GOODS The quantity of raw cotton consumed in the 1,324 establishments engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods, dur- ing the year 1914, was 2,523,500,837 pounds, costing $330,315,223. The other materials consumed were classified as follows: Cotton waste, 54,116,105 pounds, costing $3,542,631 ; -cotton yarns, 139,482,027 pounds, costing $39,- 793.131 ; yarns, other than cotton, 3,- 309,277 pounds, costing $4,793,221, and fibers, other than cotton, 4,276,476 pounds, costing $3,203.262. .The total value of the cotton goods produced from these materials was $701.152,268, divided as follows: 6,815,- 645,683 square yards of woven goods, valued at $488,728.054; 497.986,999 pounds of yarns, valued at $127.363.952 ; 26,507.023 pounds of thread, valued at $22.917,099, and 13,284,875 pounds of cordage and rope, valued at $2,792,125. There were 317,360,019 pounds of cot- ton waste, valued at $14,421,929, on hand at the end of the year. All other products were valued at $44.037,886. The woven goods manufactured were classified as follows: 248,539,379 square yards of ducks, valued at $47,- 921,989; 489,661,133 square yards of 214 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ginghams, valued at $36.706,542 ; 1,422,- 787,368 square yards of fancy weaves, valued at $131,813,609; 263,862,227 square yards of napped fabrics, valued at $24,352,020; 29.128,703 square yards of velvets, corduroys, plushes, etc., val- ued at $8,540,143; 75,732,241 square yards of toweling and terry weaves, valued at $9,805,232; 97,981,783 square yards of mosquito netting and similar fabrics, valued at $2,820.524; 129,357,- 002 square yards of bags and bagging valued at $9',705,616 ; 10.137,710 square yards of tapestries, valued at $5,411,592 ; and 4,048,458,137 square yards of other woven goods, valued at $211,650,787. OILCLOTH AND LINOLEUM The total value of the oilcloth and linoleum produced by the establishments engaged in this industry in 1914 was $25,598,361. There was a decrease of 58.9 per cent in the manufacture of oilcloth during the year 1914, over the year 1909, the last census year, but this was more than compensated for by the increase of 90.1 per cent in the amount of linoleum manufactured. The oilcloth produced was divided as fol- lows : 7,536.379 square yards of floor oilcloth, valued at $1,483,731; 18,357,- 097 square yards of enameled oilcloth, valued at $2,495,255; and 59.358,872 square yards of table, wall, shelf and stair oilcloth, valued at $6.025,348. The linoleum produced during the same peri- od was divided as follows: 33,306,669 square yards of plain linoleum, valued at $10,043,436, and 8,479,202 square yards of inlaid linoleum, valued at $4,- 725,837. All other products were val- ued at $824,754. SILK AND SILK GOODS During the year 1914 there were 900 establishments engaged in the manufac- ture of silk and silk goods, in which the following materials were consumed : 22,506,759 pounds of raw silk, costing $86,586,878 ; 3,080,750 pounds of spun silk, costing $7,940,156; 1.902.974 ?ounds of artificial silk, costing $3,440,- 54 ; 4,328,536 pounds of fringe and floss, including waste, noils, etc., cost- ing $3,066,297; 3,852,399 pounds of organzine and tram, costing $16.687,346 ; 16,869,511 pounds of cotton yarn, cost- ing $6,163.,240; 1,464,299 pounds of mercerized cotton yarn, costing $1,078,- 337; 1,987,918 pounds of woolen jimi woisted yarn, costing $2.087804; *,- 645,055 pounds of mohair yarn, costing $1,604,362 ; and 291,672 pounds of other yarns, costing $438,944. The total value of the finished prod- ucts was $253,764.170, the various prod- ucts being classified as follows : 216,- 033.696 yards of broad silks, valued at $137,719,564; 142,713,359 yards, valued at $96.689.801, consisting of all-silk goods and 73,320,337 yards, valued at $41.- 029,763, consisting of mixed silk goods ; 16,318,135 yards of velvets, valued at $8,570,022; 9,114,992 yards of plushes, valued at $10.135,842; 477,69!) yards of upholsteries and tapestries, valued at WORLD'S SILK PRODUCTION MANUFACTURES $840,126 ; ribbons to the value of $38,- 201,293 ; laces, nets, veils, etc., to the value of $1.328,933 ; embroideries to the value of $33,500 ; fringes and gimps to the value of $1,025,188; braids and bindings to the value of $3,073.648; tailors' trimmings to the value of $210,- 741 ; military trimmings to the v.alue of $431,422 ; 659,540 pounds of machine twist silk, valued at $4,036,807 ; 744,- 708 pounds of sewing and embroidery Bilks, valued at $5,046.452; 157.791 pounds of fringe and floss silks, valued at $598.354 ; 1,492.999 pounds of organ- zine, valued at $6,325,291 ; 2.577.402 pounds of tram, valued at. $9,698,637, and 1,607,416 pounds of spun silk, val- ued at $4,577.058. Other products were valued at $13,516,248. There were in use, during the year, a total of 2,794,971 spindles, 85.058 looms of all kinds, and 6,826 jacquard ma- c nines. WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS The total value of all the products of the 795 establishments engaged in the manufacture of woolen and worsted goods, during the year 1914, was $379,- 484,379 as follows : 90,950.381 square yards of all-wool woolen fabrics, valued at $55.660,503; 222.327.115 square yards of all-wool worsted fabrics, valued at $141,778,035 ; 47.398,289 square yards of cotton-warp woolen fabrics, valued at $13.598,007; 54.067,018 square yards of cotton-warp worsted fabrics, valued at $14,897,757; 31,400,082 square yards of cotton-mixed fabrics, valued at $11,710,- 610; 2,176,264 square yards of all-wool flannels for underwear, valued at $880,- 494 ; 4,995,575 square yards of cotton mixed flannels for underwear, valued at $1,089,661; 16,092,266 square yards of domett flannels and shirtings, valued at $2,814,054; 36,196.243 square yards of linings, Italian cloth and lastings, valued at $9,804,661 ; 8,415,079 square yards of satinets and llnseys, valued at $1.- 535,291 ; 30,400,973 square yards of blankets, valued at $9,264.768; 8,164,- 672 square yards of horse blankets, val- ued at $2,017,782 ; 514,226 square yards of carriage cloth, valued at $443,223 ; 1,658,865 square yards of carriage robes, valued at $1,233,555 ; 121,213 square yards of woven shawls, valued at $66,- 365; 1,351,262 square yards of uphol- stery goods, valued at $1,539,381, and 3,569,709 square yards of all other woven goods, valued at $1,219,382. Woolen, worsted, merino, mohair and cotton yarns, noils and wool waste and tops and stubbing made for sale were valued at $101,137.599; all other prod- ucts were valued at $5,356,615. The amount received for contract work was $5.436,636. There were In operation during the year 4,220 sets of woolen cards, 2.348.- 722 mule spinning spindles, 1,531.862 frame spinning spindles, 841.449 doub- ling and twisting spindles, 56,392 broad looms, 19.415 narrow looms, 13 hand looms, 2,294 wool-combing machines, 1,- 201 pickers and 165 garnet machines. IRON AND STEEL MANUFACTURES BLAST FURNACES During the year 1914 there were 284 active pig-iron blast furnaces in opera- tion. The pig-iron products of the 160 establishments operating these furnaces aggregated 23,269,731 tons, valued at $312,639.706, and the value of other products amounted to $4.919.347, making a total of $317,559,053. The' amount of Iron ore used was 43,362,817 tons, costing $150.975,741. The consumption of mill cinder, scale, scrap, etc., was 2,168,092 tons, costing $6,651,055 ; flux- ing material, 11,499.685 tons, costing $11,184,378; coke, the chief fuel for smelting, 26.883,382 tons, costing $83,- 499.448; charcoal, 29,083,978 bushels, costing $1,683,075; and coal, both an- thracite aad bituminous, 99,251 tons, costing $254,007. The smelting fuels consumed cost $85.436.530. Of the total production of 23.269,731 tons of pig-iron, 15,495.004 tons were for the use of the producers and 7,- 774,747 tons for sale. The pig-iron prod- uct by grades for the year 1914 was as follows : Basic, 9.465,853 tons ; Bes- semer and low phosphorus, 7,883.530 tons ; foundry, 4,325,100 tons ; mallea- ble, 730.910 tons; forge or mill, 488,172' tons ; white, mottled and miscellaneous, 32,202 tons ; direct castings, 14,384 tons and ferro-alloys, 329,580 tons, STEEL WORKS AND ROLLING MILLS The consumption of pig-iron and ferro- alloys by the 436 establishments pro- ducing steel and hot-rolled Iron and steel manufactures as their chief prod- ucts amounted to 17,060,940 tons In 1914, the cost of these materials being $248,393.208. The plants consumed ap- proximately 10,645.000 tons of scrap, of which amount 5.065,090 tons were pur- chased at a cost of $59.301.614, and 5,579.422 tons were produced In the works where consumed. The consump- tion of Iron ore amounted to 999.459 tons, costing $4,252.087. In addition, 6,440.742 tons of steel Ingots, rails for rerolling and partly finished rolled products, such as blooms, billets, slabs, muck and scrap bar, sheet and tin- plate bars, etc., produced In certain mills, were purchased by others at a cost of $131,967,265. PRODUCTS The total products of the steel works and rolling mills for the year 1914 were valued at $919.527,244. The rolled, forged and other classified iron and steel products aggregated 25,586,715 tons, 210 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES TAKING ON A CARGO OF PIG IRON BY MEANS OF ELECTRIC LIFTING MAGNETS. NOTE HOW THE PIGS FLY TO THE MAGNET valued at $802,976,516, comprising 18,- 526.342 tons of finished rolled products and forgings, valued at $(.24,754,421 ; 3,408,030 tons of partly finished rolled products blooms, billets, slabs, sheet bars, tin-plate bars, muck bar, and scrap bar valued at $130,674.009, and 652,- 343 tons of unrolled steel in the form of ingots and castings, valued at $47,- 547.136. The finished rolled products and forg- Ings produced during the year 1914 were classified as follows: Rails, 1.842,041 tons, valued at $54,009,918 ; rerolled or renewed rails, 63.671 tons, valued at $1,438.237 ; rail fastenings (splice bars, tie-plates, fish-plates, etc.), 348.947 tons, valued at $11.526,956 ; structural shapes (not including plates used for making girders), 2,083.440 tons, valued at $57.475.366 ; bars for reinforced con- crete, 269.966 tons, valued at $7,751,- 549 ; merchant bars, 2.474,677 tons, val- ued at $84.407,700 ; spike and chain rods, bolt and nut rods, horseshoe bars, strips, etc., 536.575 tons, valued at $18.343,812 ; wire rods, 2.377,691 tons, valued at $61,- 578.145; plates and sheets. 3,699.249 tons, valued at $129,785,963; black plates, 1,011.938 tons, valued at $43.- 147.041 ; hoops, bands and cotton ties, 603,940 tons, valued at $19,945,078; skelp, flue and pipe, 1,960,844 tons, valued at $52,443.303; nail and tack plate, 50,302 tons, valued at $2,008,308 ; axles, rolled and forged, 89,418 tons, valued at $3.311,202 ; armor plates, gun forgings, and ordnance. 38,669 tons, valued at $19.947.893 ; car and locomo- tive wheels, rolled or forged, 137,895 tons, valued at 7.435.798; all other rolled products, 481,779 tons, valued at $29.689,872; and all' other forged products, 411,402 tons, valued at $19,- 165,900. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS The total products of the 772 estab- lishments engaged in the manufacture of agricultural implements during the year 1914 were valued at $168.120.632. The various agricultural implements manufactured comprised 3,318,176 Im- plements of cultivation, valued at $39,- 632,903; 634,926 planters and seeders, valued at $12.268,156; 1,102,389 har- vesting implements, valued at $40,561.- 472; and 140,803 seed separators, val- ued at $13.986,184. All other products, including parts for all classes of agri- cultural implements, were valued at $60,- 211,327. The amount received for rf pair work was $1,460,590. WIRE The total products of wire drawing establishments in 1914 were valued at $172,600,587, of which amount $166,- 999,888 represented the value of wire and manufactures of wire, $2.581,000 represented the value of finished prod- ucts other than wire and wire products and $3.019.699 represented the value of all other products, including scrap, copperas, etc. The total quantity of steel and iron wire drawn in 1914 was 2,465,383 tons, valued at $116,215,503, and included 459.909 tons of plain wire, valued at $22,316,778; 374.478 tons of coated wire, valued at $15.949.531 ; 12,886.634 tons of wire nails and spikes, valued at $23,368,633; 33,335 tons of wire brads, tacks and staples, valued at $1,324,948 ; 343,693 tons of barbed wire, valued at $13,764,367; 52,735 tons of wire rope and strand, valud at $7.973,537; 411.- 460 tons of woven-wire fence and poul- try netting, valued at $19,795,812; 22,- 721 tons of other woven-wire products, valued at $2,822,689; and 122,720 tons of other fabricated iron and steel wire products, valued at $8,899,208. The total quantity of copper wire drawn was i:i"i.4:"!7 to'ns. valued at $42.928.550, and included 84.921 tons of bare wire, valued at $26,206,024; 48.386 tons of insulated wire, valued at $15,709,244; and 2.130 tons of woven and other fabricated copper-wire prod- ucts, valued at $1,013.282. There were also produced 39,614,500 pounds of brass wire and wire products, valued at $6,366,342; 749,224 pounds of German-silver wire, valued at $238,- 078; and wire of other metals and al- MANUFACTURES 217 loys brdmze, zinc, nickel and nickel alloys, and copper-clad steel to the val- ue of $1,251,415. TIN AND TER.NE PLATE There were 31 establishments engaged in the tin and terne plate industry in 1914 whose output of coated plates amounted to 2,039.566,144 pounds, val- ued at $66,270,345, comprising 1,901,- 331.895 pounds of tin plate, valued at $60,258.024. and 138,234,249 pounds of terne plate (steel or iron plates or sheets coated with an alloy of tin and lead, known as terne mixture), valued at $6,- 012,321. The tin-plate product com- prised 1.855,892.526 pounds of coke plate, valued at $58,450,853. and 45.439.- 369 pounds of charcoal plate (steel and iron), valued at $1,807,171. The value of all other products was $2,072.617, making a total of $68,342,962 for the value of all products in 1914. CAST IRON IMI'E The cast-iron pipe product of 1914 comprised 1,092,208 net tons, valued at $25.391,714, consisting of 880,556 tons of gas and water pipe and fittings, val- ued at $19.218,006. and 211,652 tons of sofi and plumbers' pipe and fittings, valued at $6,173,708. The gas and water-pipe output was made up of 802.- 967 tons of bell and spigot pipe, valued at $16,228,587 ; 25.192 tons of flanged pipe, valued at $645.707 ; 12,011 tons of culvert pipe, valued at $246.527 ; and 40.386 tons of fittings, valued at $2,- 097,185. In addition, there were pro- duced 26,199 tons of castings other than pipe and fittings, valued at $741.- 381, and products other than castings, valued at $1,441,678. TRANSPORT ATI ON STEAM AND ELECTRIC IUILROAD CARS During the ymr 1914 there were 138,178 steam and electric cars, valued at $165.071.427, built in the United States. Of this number, 3,558 were steam-passenger cars, valued at $45,- 027.083 and 131.799 were freight and other cars, valued at $110,002.456. The number of electric cars manufactured was 2.821, and their value was $10,- 041.888. For more detailed information relative to the construction of railroad cars, locomotives, etc.. the reader is referred to the special chapter on "Rail- roads of the United States." CARRIAGES AND WAOOXS AND MATERIALS The total value of the carriages and wagons and materials manufactured in 1914 was $135.792.357. There were 1.187.002 vehicles of all classes, valued at $72,283.989, including 558.402 car- riages, valued at $34.193.518; 572,613 wagons, valued at $36.533.152 ; 1.287 public conveyances, valued at $325.269 ; and 54.700 sleighs and sleds, valued at $1.231.959. Other products, parts, re- pairs, etc., were valued at $63.508.459. There was a decrease of 25.1 per cent in the production of vehicles during 1914 over 1909. due to the inroad of the automobile into the carriage and wagon industry. This has been greater with respect to pleasure vehicles than to those used for business purposes. SHIPBni.DINO During the year 1914 there were 1,- 145 establishments engaged in the ship- building and boatbuilding industry, whose products that is, construction and repair work done during the year, were valued at $88,682.071. The value of work done on new vessels of five gross tons and over was $42,545,445, of which amount $36,295,758 represented the val- ue of work done on iron and steam ves- sels and $6.249,687 the value of work done on wooden vessels. The value of work done on boats of less than five gross tons was $3.788.689. The value of repairs made in 1914 was $32,835,212. All other products were valued at $9,- 512,725. The total number of vessels of five gross tons and over launched during 1914 was 1,113 with a gross tonnage of 424.660. There were launched 126 iron and steel vessels with a gross tonnage of 242.559 ; and 987 wooden vessels with a gross tonnage of 182.101. Classified according to power, there were launched 140 steam vessels, gross tonnage 234,- 636 ; 427 motor-driven boats, gross ton- nage 13.220 ; 40 sailing vessels, gross tonnage 2.224, and 506 unrigged vessels, fross tonnage 174.580. There were 3,- 06 power boats of less than five gross tons launched during the year. MOTORCYCLES, BICYCLES AND PARTS The total value of the motorcycles, bicycles and parts manufactured during 1914 was $25.486,942. There were man- ufactured 62,793 motorcycles, valued at $12.306,447, an increase in number of 237.1 per cent over the year 1909, and 398,899 bicycles, valued at $5,361,229. AUTOMOBILES A special chapter on "Automobiles" is given as under Chapter XVI 1 1. THE ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY ELECTRICAL MACHINERY, APPARATUS AND SUPPLIES There were 1,121 establishments en- gaged in the manufacture of electrical- machinery apparatus, during the year 1914, whose products, for the year, were valued at $359,412,676. The output of dynamos, including parts and supplies, in 1914 was valued at $23,233,437. This includes dynamo- 218 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tors, motor-generators, boosters, rotary converters, double-current generators, etc., 8,393 in number, with an aggregate capacity of 780,009 kilowatts and val- ued at $5.367,895; 208,548 small direct- current dynamos and automobile self- starters, valued at $5,933.273 ; 9,633 direct-current dynamos, including gen- erators for direct connection to steam turbines, with an aggregate capacity of 221,221 kilowatts and valued at $2,- 967,467; 2,512 alternating current dy- namos, including generators for direct connection to steam turbines, with an aggregate capacity of 1,188,005 kilo- watts and a value of $7.437,445. The transformers manufactured in 1914 ag- gregated 115,843 in number, with 2.- 644,794 kilowatts capacity, and were valued at $13,120,065. There were 110,- 177 machines of less than 50-kilowatt capacity, valued at $7,316,615 ; 4.857 speed-controlling devices, feeder-poten- tial regulators, reactances, voltage regu- lators, and rectifying apparatus to the value of $9,936,343; light and power switchboards, panel boards and cut-out cabinets, valued at $8,989,111 ; batter- ies, storage aud primaries, and parts and supplies, $23,402,455 ; lamps, $17,350.- 385 ; arc lamps, searchlights, projectors and focusing lamps, $2,823,687 ; tele- phones, telephone switchboards, and parts and supplies, $22,815,640; tele- graph apparatus, including wireless, switchboards, and parts and supplies. $2,248,375 ; electric heating apparatus, including air heaters, cooking devices, flat-irons, and welding apparatus, $4,- 034.436 ; electric measuring instruments. $8,786,506; electrical therapeutic ap- paratus, $2,653.098 ; insulated wires and cables, $69,505,573 ; electric conduits, underground and interior, $4,874,709 ; Edison dynamo of 1883 THE FIRST CENTRAL POWER STATION IN THE UNITED STATES of from 50 to 500-kilowatt capacity, valued at $2,625,414; and 809 of 500 kilowatts and over, valued at $3,178,036. The output of motors, including parts and supplies, was valued at $44,176,235. This includes 417,992 motors for in- dustrial power and for railway use, with an aggregate capacity of 2.882.795 horse- power, and a value of $32:286,149 ; 11,- 880 motors for automobiles, having an aggregate horse-power of 36,858 and valued at $1,351,442; motors for fans ' to the value of $4,835,850 and miscel- laneous motors valued at $1,190,564. Other products were : Rheostats, re- sistances, controllers, motor-starting and' magneto-ignition npparatus, spark plugs, coils, etc., $22,260,847 ; electric switches, signals and attachments. $6,393.551 ; carbons for furnace, lighting, brushes, battery, etc., $3,602,741 ; annunciators. $263,806 ; electric clocks and time mechanisms, $410.774; and various other kinds of electric equipment, in- chiding sockets, receptacles and bases, some electric lighting fixtures, lightning arresters, fuses, circuit fittings, and un- classified electric machinery, apparatus and supplies, $44.907,658. The last item includes electric locomotives, mine and railway, of which t^ere were 900, valued at $3,720,914. MANTFAC'ITRKS 219 THE LEATHER INDUSTRY Tnere were tanned during the year 1914, 138,547.692 hides and skins, as follows : 17,457,591 cattle hides, costing $148,751,002. 16.067,793 calf and kip skins, costing $33,117,713; 37.755.867 goat and kid skins, costing $23.916,965 ; 40,090,198 sheep and lamb skins, cost- ing $19.247.682, and 1.250,245 horse- hides, 1.095.360 kangaroo skins, 233,180 colt skins and a number of hog, pig, deer, buck, seal, dog, alligator, shark, elk, moose and other skins, costing 18,414,129. The leather products, valued at $348,- 956.S72, were divided as follows: 18,- 097.005 sides of sole leather, valued at $116,347,196; 973,591 belting butts, valued at $12.876.554; 2.943.720 sides of harness leather, valued at $21.745,- 808 ; upholstery automobile, furniture and carriage leather to the value of $14.328,358 ; bookbinders' leather to the value of $1.362,673; 8.245.964 sides of cattle side upper leather, valued at $32.939,139 ; 965.350 sides of horse leather, valued at $2,881,924 : glove leather to the value of $3,286,352; rough leather to the value of $4,511.251 ; 66,368,840 skins of upper leather, valued at $85,051,550; 7,698,452 skins of patent leather, va.lued at $15,- 590.812; 7,486.260 skins of fancy leather; valued at $8,775,968; 1,004,581 sides of case, bag and strap leather, valued at $5.383,255; 1.948.533 skins of chamois, valued at $925.492; and all other leather lace, collar, saddlery, suspender, piano action leather, etc. to the value of $21,249,116. LEATHER GLOVES AND MITTENS During the year 1914, there were 352 establishments engaged in the leather glove and mitten industry with products valued at $21.614,109. There were pro- duced 3,082,376 dozen pairs of gloves, mittens and gauntlets, valued at $20,- 296.55S. and other products to the value of $20,296,558. The production of men's gloves, mit- tens and gauntlets was 2,367,263 dozen pairs, valued at $15,334,605, of which 1,571,649 dozen pairs, valued at $11.- 286,861, were unlined ; 594,880 dozen pairs, valued at $3,584,118, were lined; and 200.734 dozen pairs, valued at $463,- 626, were part leather and part fabric. Of the 425,501 dozen pairs of women's and children's gloves, mittens and gaunt- lets, 325,530 dozen pairs, valued at $3,- 196,761, were unlined. and 99,971 dozen pairs, valued at $766,409, were lined. Of the 289.612 dozen pairs of boys' gloves, mittens and gauntlets, 51,797 dozen pairs, valued at $199,630 were un- lined, and 237.815 dozen pairs, valued at $799,153, were lined. FOOTWEAR The 1,355 establishments engaged in the manufacture of footwear, during 1914, produced a total of 292.666.468 pairs of footwear, valued at $501,707.937. The total output of boots and shoes amounted to 252,516,603 pairs, of which 98,031,144 pairs were for men ; 22.895.- 719 pairs for boys and youths ; 80.916.- 239 pairs for women, and 48,322,395 pairs for misses and children. There were produced 2,351,106 pairs of fiber shoes of all classes. The output of slippers, not including infants' slippers and slippers made from felt or other fiber, amounted to 17.733,689 pairs. Of Ibis number, 3,666.972 pairs were for men, boys and youths and 14,066,717 pairs were for women, misses and chil- dren. The output of infants' shoes and slippers was 15,476,763 pairs. The out- put of all other footwear, including ath- letic, sporting, logging and mining shoes, sandals, and felt and other fiber slip- pers, was 6,939,413 pairs. PAPER, PRINTING AND PUBLISHING PAPER AND WOOD PULP The production of wood pulp in 1914 amounted to 2,894,650 tons. In addi- tion to the domestic production there were used 534.395 tons of imported pulp. Other materials used were as fol- lows : 371,346 tons of rags, 1,577,845 tons of waste paper, 121.230 tons of rope, jute, bagging, threads, etc., and 309.345 tons of straw. The total value of the paper produced in 1914 was $294,355.875 and was di- vided as follows : 1.313.284 tons of news paper, valued at $52,942.774 ; 786,- 626 tons of plain book paper, valued at $58.496,626 ; 117.342 tons of coated book paper, valued at $11.605.584 ; 9.332 tons of plate, lithograph, map. wood cut book paper, valued at $588,332 ; 21,- 679 tons of book cover paper, valued at $2,809,377; 83,010 tons of cardboard, bristol board, card middles, tickets, etc.. valued at $5,376,434; 247.728 tons of fine paper, valued at $34,054,918. in- cluding 195.351 tons of writing paper, valued at $28.637,257; 881.799 tons of wrapping paper, valued at $49,372.753 ; 1,288,527 tons of wood pulp, straw, news and binders' board, and all other board, valued at $41,870.947; 121.598 tons of tissue paper, valued at $11,535.- 720 ; 14.157 tons of blotting paper, val- ued at $1.457,897 ; 243,908 tons of build- ing (roofing, asbestos and sheathing) paper, valued at $9.475,733 ; 96,527 tons of hanging papers, valued at $4,488,910; and 130,459 tons of miscellaneous pa- per, valued at $9.890.641. All other products manufactured for sale were valued at $40,558,708. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES PRINTING AND PUBLISHING During the year 1914 there were 31,612 establishments engaged in print- ing and publishing, of which number 12,115 were engaged chiefly in the print- ing and publishing of books and pamph- lets, or in job printing, 180 in the printing and publishing of music and 19,317 in the printing and publishing of newspapers and periodicals. The total value of products for 1914, of establishments printing and publish- ing newspapers and periodicals, was $495.905,984. The revenues of the news- paper establishments comprised news- paper subscriptions and sales, $99,541,- 860 ; newspaper advertising, $184,047,- 106 ; subscriptions and sales of periodi- cals other than newspapers, $64.035,- 230 ; and advertising in such periodicals, $71.906,976. The value of products of establish- ments engaged chiefly in boo'i and job work of all kinds aggregated $307,330,- 861. The total receipts for job print- ing, for the entire printing and pub- lishing industry, were $249,730,932; for books and pamphlets, $87,316,348; for bookbinding and blank books, $15,097,- 109 ; for electrotyping, engraving, litho- graphing, etc., $9,698,641 ; for machine composition for others, $5,682,098 ; for ready prints (patent insides and out- sides), $1,965,210; and for all other products, $13,860,525. The receipts from music printing and publishing for the entire industry were $7,626,076. During the year 1914 there were 22,- 745 newspapers and periodicals pub- lished. There were 2,580 daily news- papers with an aggregate circulation of 28.436,030 ; 570 Sunday papers, with a circulation of 16,445,820; 84 triweekly newspapers, with a circulation of 549,- 495 ; 583 semiweekly newspapers, with a circulation of 2.483,629 ; 15,166 week- ly newspapers, with a circulation of 50,- 454,738 ; 2,820 monthly publications, with a circulation of 79.190,838; 500 quarterly publications, with a circula- tion of 18.852,401 ; and 442 other pub- lications, with a circulation of 8,946,567. CHEMICAL AND ALLIED PRODUCTS CHEMICALS The value of the chemical products produced in 1914 was as follows : Acids, $30,001,364 ; alums, $3,467,969 ; bleach- ing materials, 94.964.403; cyanides, $2,- 398,674 ; plastics, $13,895.784 ; sodas, $22,616.696; sodium products, $8,280,- 572 ; compressed or liquefied gases, $8,- 097,720 ; chemicals produced with the aid of electricity, $29,661.649 ; potash and potassium salts, $4,094,927 ; coal- tar products, $8,839,506 ; fine chemicals that is, chemicals sold in the trade as chemically pure, such as ether, chloro- form, etc. $10,316.519, and general chemical products, $47,796,271. In addition to the allied products which are treated below in some detail, there were produced essential oils to the value of $2,565,361 ; refined petroleum to the value of $396,361,405 and prod- ucts of wood distillation to the value of $10,236,332. DYESTUFFS AND EXTRACTS The total products of the dyestuff and extract industry in 1914 were valued at $21,341,122 and included dyestuffs valued at $7.118,528, tanning materials valued at $7,840,057, mordants, assis- tants, and sizes valued at $5,044,225, and other products to the value of $1,- 338,312. EXPLOSIVES The total production of explosives, excluding exports, in the United States during 1915 was 460.900,796 pounds, as follows : Black blasting powder, 197,- 722,300 pounds ; "high" explosives, 235,- 828,587 pounds ; and permissible ex- plosives, 27,349,909 pounds. FERTILIZERS The output of fertilizers in 1914 ag- fregated 8,414,959 net tons, valued at 152,815,786, consisting of 4,488.565 tons of complete fertilizers, valued at $97,046,825 ; 1,116,739 tons of ammoni- ated fertilizers, valued at $24,344,271 ; 1,760.290 tons of superphosphates, acid phosphates, and concentrated phos- phates, valued at $16,145,659 ; and 1,- 049,365 tons of other fertilizers, valued at $15,279,031. In addition, there were manufactured for sale other products to the value of $15,572,619, including oil, glue, grease, bone black, sulphuric acid, chemicals, etc. PAINTS AND VARNISHES The principal materials used by the 855 establishments engaged in the manu- facture of paints and varnishes in 1914 were as follows : 149.968 tons (2,000 pounds each) of pig lead, costing $11,- 424.544 ; 887,273 gallons of grain al- cohol, costing $360.737 ; 919.581 gallons of wood alcohol, costing $387.539 ; 24,- 025,502 gallons of linseed oil, costing $11,843,236; and 48.113,516 pounds of gum, costing 4.662,972. The total value of the products from these materials was $149,049,820 and in- cluded colors or pigments, valued at $17,407,955 ; oil paints, valued at $70,- 582,461 ; water paints and kalsomine, valued at $2,202,281 ; varnishes and japans, valued at $36,061,203 : fillers, including putty, valued at $3,239,174; bleached shellac, valued at $1,806,802 ; and other products valued at $17,- 749.944. The production of white lead was 247,971,503 pounds, of which 71,643,812 MANUFACTURES pounds, valued at $3,697.702, was mar- keted (try, and 199,726,280 pounds was made into and marketed in the form of paint. The total production of lead was 61,335,290 pounds, of which 58,- 642,588 pounds, valued at $3,281,716, was sold as lead oxides. TURPENTINE AND ROSIN The total output of the 1,392 tur- pentine distilleries in operation in 1914 was valued at $20,968,684 and consisted of 26,980,981 gallons of spirits of tur- pentine, valued at $10.510,407 : 2,885.- 077 barrels of rosin, valued at $10,332,- 700; and dross, valued at $125,577. SOAP The products of the 513 establish- ments engaged in the manufacture of soap during 1914 were valued at $135,- 340,499. The soap products were valued at $107,030,620 and other products, in- cluding glycerine, at $29,142,533. The production of hard soaps was 2,064.- 228,000 pounds, valued at $104,500,542 and comprised 938.447,000 pounds of tallow soap, 42.524,000 pounds of olein soap, 111,063,000 pounds of foot soap, 169,926,000 pounds of toilet soap, 367.- 744,000 pounds of powdered soap, 97,- 746.000 pounds of soap chips, and 336.- 778,000 pounds of other kinds of hard soap. The production of soft soap was 57,002,000 pounds, valued at $1.697,424. In addition, there were special soap articles, such as soaps for technical purposes, and liquid soap, to the value of $832,654. MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES During the year 1914 there were 347 establishments engaged in the manufac- ture of glass, the products of which were valued at $122,964,792. The value of building glass produced was $36,794,869. as follows : 400.998.893 square feet of window glass, valued at $17,466,756 ; 43,040,079 square feet of obscured glass, Including cathedral and skylight glass, valued at $2,417,253; 60,515,008 square feet of plate glass, valued at $14.799,646 ; 15,688,844 square feet of wire glass, valued at $1,590,934; and all other building glass, to the value of $520,280. The pressed and blown glass produced was valued at $30,130.077 ; bottles, jars, etc., $51,425,022; and all other prod- ucts, $4,614,824. THE GAS INDUSTRY The consumption of gas-making fuels by the 1,284 gas companies in 1914 com- prised 6.116,672 tons of coal, costing $20.872.517; 716.619,357 gallons of oil, costing $24.934.184 ; 964,851 tons of coke, costing $4.706,602; and 31,749,491 pounds of calcium carbide, costing $778,- 037. There was also purchased by the gas companies 28,351.074.000 cubic feet of gas, at a cost of $8,883.016, a por- tion of which was enriched and sold, and the remainder sold as purchased. The gas products comprise 203.- 730,191,000 cubic feet of gas, val- ued at $175,065,930, consisting of 10,509,946,000 cubic feet of straight coal gas, valued at $10,726,514 ; 90.017,- 725,000 cubic feet of carbureted water gas. valued at $74.516.534; 86,281,- 339,000 cubic feet of mixed coal and water gas, valued at $72.012.021 ; 16.- 601,805.000 cubic feet of oil gas, valued at $15,044,509 ; 137.964.000 cubic feet of acetylene, valued at $2,511.634; and 181,412,000 cubic feet of other gas, chiefly if not entirely gasoline gas, val- ued at $254.718. In addition, the gas plants ^produced for sale 114.091.753 bushels of coke, valued at $8,719,910; 125,938.607 gallons of tar, valued at $3,252,756 ; and ammonia liquors, am- monium sulphate, and hydrocarbons, valued at $1.405,540. They also sold "other products" consisting largely of gas purchased for sale to the value of $20.815.871. Receipts from rents and sales of lamps and appliances aggre- gated $10,977,774. ARTIFICIAL ICE The total cost of ammonia used in 'the manufacture of ice in 1914 was $1,- 529.775. There were 5,405,917 pounds of anhydrous ammonia used, costing $1,- 4?2.196 and 1.927.664 pounds of aqua ammonia, costing $107,579. The total value of all products for the year was $60.352.236. There were produced 17,086.400 tons of can ico, valued at $52,116,457, and 1,179.092 tons of plate ice, valued at $3,107,839. Other products were valued at $5,- 127,940. RUBBER GOODS The products of the 331 establish- ments engaged in the manufacture of rubber goods during the year 1914 were valued at $300.251,827. The production of rubber tires was valued at $146,411,- 692 and formed 48.8 per cent of the total value of all kinds of rubber manu- factured. There were manufactured 8,020,815 automobile tires or casings, valued at $105,671,223; 7.906,993 auto- mobile inner tubes, valued at $20,098,- 936 ; solid tires for motor and other vehicles to the value of $13.735,681 ; and 3,728.138 motorcycle, bicycle and Aeroplane tires, valued at $6.905.852. There were manufactured during the year 4.024.486 pairs of boots, valued at $12,647.934, and 57.211.728 pairs of shoes, valued at $37.858,222. The value of rubber clothing produced was $6.396.- 810 : of garden, fire, and other hose, $16.853.693 ; of rubber belting, $7.989.- 405 ; of rubber packing, $3,507.651 ; of druggists' and stationers' sundries, $7,- 222 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 527,755 ; and of miscellaneous manu- factures of rubber, $39,983,969. STEAM LAUNDRIES > In the year 1914 there were 6,097 steam laundries in the United States, with 149,100 persons engaged in the industry. The capital invested was $98.055,001. The cost of materials was $26,919,200 and of services, $71.764,059. The amount received for work done, which is regarded as the product of the industry, was $142,503,253. GLUCOSE AND STARCH The principal materials used in the manufacture of glucose and starch are corn, potatoes and wheat flour, the con- sumption of these materials in 1914 being 2,488.792.4(15 pounds, 169,878,784 pounds, and 14.198. <>49 pounds, respec- tively. The total value of the manu- factured products was $51,676.653. Tho principal products were 620.764.347 pounds of starch, valued at $15.783,- 781: 847.1SO.96S pounds of glucose, in- cluding all sirups, valued at $18,541.- 429; 174.368,818 pounds of grape sugar, valued 'at $3,765.515; 8.S61.57!) gallons of corn oil, valued at $3,693,163 ; and 143.001.065 pounds of corn-oil cake and meal, valued at $1,829,305. Stock feed was valued at $6.690.412, and all other products at $1,373,048. PIANOS AND ORGANS AND MATERIALS The total value of the pianos, organs and materials manufactured in 1914 was $68,769,476. The number of* pianos manufactured was 325,893, valued at $56,266,362. There were 227,556 up- right pianos without player attach- ments, valued at $31,385.881 ; 87.808 upright pianos for (or with) player attachments, valued at $20.265,514 ; 9,698 grand pianos without player at- tachments, valued at $4,201.302 ; and 831 grand pianos for (or with) player attachments, valued at $413,665. There were 6,493 separate player attachments manufactured with a value of $854.774. The number of organs manufactured was 42,806, valued at $6,378.312. There were 2.273 pipe organs, valued at $4,- 660.301, and 40,533 reed organs, valued at $1,718.011. The value of perforated music rolls manufactured was $833,357 ; piano parts, materials and supplies, $2,792,942 ; and all other products, $1,643,729. PHONOGRAPHS, GRAPHOPHONES AND TALKING MACHINES The number of phonographs, grapho- phones and talking machines, including office-dictating instruments, manufac- tured during 1914, amounted to 515,154 machines, with a value of $15,290,491. The 27,221,290 records and blanks pro- duced were valued at $11,111,418. Parts, materials and supplies were valued at $356.935 and other products at $357,072. CHAPTER XVIII. THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY NOTHING in modern invention, in the progress of labor-saving devices, in the application of invention to every-day life, can show a parallel with the remarkable de- velopment of the automobile. Everyone whose memory goes back ten or fifteen years can see to some extent the effects of this de- velopment, but only figures can give an adequate idea of the wonderful growth of the industry from nothing to its present huge proportions. In 1914 there were three hundred establishments devoted to the manu- facture of automobiles exclusively, producing 573,114 ears. A total of 91,997 people were employed, of which 60 were firm members or pro- prietors, 12,630 salaried employees, and 79,307 wage earners. The capi- tal employed in the industry aggre- gated $312,876,000, and a total of $84,901,000 was disbursed in pay- ment for services, $66,935,000 for wages, and the balance, $17,966,000, for -salaries. Materials to the value of $292,- 598,000 were purchased for the man- ufacture of automobiles. The manu- facturing process added $210,632,000 to this, giving a value of automo- biles made in 1914 as $503,230,000. These figures, of course, represent only a part of the automobile in- dustry, and, indeed, so rapid is its progress that 1916 figures, if they were obtainable, would show a large increase over those given. The manufacture of automobile bodies and parts is in itself an enonnous industry, sprung, almost overnight, with the demand for more automobile members than the mak- ers of the machine themselves could supply. In addition, in 1914, 33 establish- ments primarily engaged in other lines of manufacture, produced auto- mobiles to the value of $6,636,920, and 434 establishments of this char- acter manufactured automobile bod- ies and parts to the value of $10,- 515,070. Nine hundred and seventy-one es- tablishments, employing a total of 53,954 people, made automobile parts and bodies in 1914. Seven hundred were firm members or proprietors, 5,469 salaried employees, and 47,785 wage earners. Capital was invested in the industry to the amount of $94,- 854,000, and $54,552,000 was paid out for services rendered, $19,560,000 for salaries, and $34,992,000 for wages. Materials valued at $63,610,000 were worked into products valued at $129,- 601,000, the process thus adding $65,- 991,000 to the worth of the raw ma- terial. At the 1909 census, 315 establish- ments engaged in the manufacture of automobiles either as a primary or as a subsidiary product ; and their output was 127,287 machines, valued at $165,099,404. During the five years, 1909-1914, there has been an increase of 350.3 per cent in the number of automobiles manufac- tured, and of 181.7 per cent in their total value. Of the automobiles manufactured during 1914, those operated by gaso- line or steam power numbered 568,- Copyright b.v Munn & Co., Inc. 224 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 399, and those operated by electri- city, 4,715, as compared with 123,- 452 operated by gasoline or steam, and 3,835 by electric power, manu- factured in 1909. The increase dur- ing the five years in the number of gasoline and steam machines manu- factured is thus 360.4 per cent, and in the number of electrics, 22.9%. Touring cars formed the principal type manufactured during both cen- sus years. In 1914 the output of this class of machines was 454,876, valued at $351,585.518, compared with 76,189, valued at $113,510,575 in 1909. Of the total products for 1914, the number designed for pleas- ure or family use was 544,255, com- pared with 119,190 in 1909. For bus- iness purposes and for use as public cabs, omnibuses, ambulances, patrol wagons, fire-fighting machines, and for other business purposes, 24,144 machines were manufactured in 1914, compared with 4,262 in 1909. The output of delivery wagons and trucks was 22,753 in 1914, compared with 2,771 in 1909. HORSE-POWER The production of vehicles of less than 10 horse-power amounted to only 391 in 1914; of from 10 to 19 horse-power, to 45,116; of from 20 to 29 horse-power, to 346,399; of from 30 to 49 horse-power, to 163,- 468 ; and of 50 horse-power or more, to 13,025. It is interesting to note that 104,983 horse-power is devel- oped in the automobile manufactur- ing plants and 68,701 in the plants making bodies and parts. A GLOBIOTTS VIEW FROM THE PIKE'S PEAK AUTO HIGHWAY THE OLD AND THE NEW TRANSPORTATION 226 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES COMPABISON 1909-14 The following table, listing the totals of automobile manufacturers and makers of bodies and parts, shows in a graphic way the growth of the industry. It is not, however, only in the statistics of the industry that its effects are to be shown, An auto- State of New York in 1901 and amounted to only $954. Other States gradually took up the registration of motor vehicles, chauffeurs, and oper- ators, but for several years revenue from these sources was negligible. The total amount collected by the various States in 1905 amounted to only $62,500. The increase in sub- TABLE SHOWING GROWTH OF THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY ./ 1909 1914 Percent of increase 1909-1914 Number of establishments Machines manufactured Persons engaged in manufacture: Proprietors and firm members Salaried employees 743 127,287 85,359 405 9,233 75 721 1,271 573,114 145,951 760 18,099 127 092 71.0 350.3 71.0 87.7 96.0 67 8 Primary horsepower Capital Services Salaries 75,550 $173,837,000 58,173,000 9,479,000 48 694 000 173,684 $407,730,000 139,453,000 37,526,000 101 927 000 129.9 134.5 139.7 295.9 109 3 Materials Value of products Value added by manufacture (value of prod- ucts less cost of materials) 131,646,000 249,202,000 117,556.000 356,208,000 632,831,000 276,623,000 170.6 153.9 135.3 mobile is not like a pair of shoes, bought, used up and discarded in a year to make room for a new pair. The automobile is bought and kept for several seasons, so that only a part of the new output is absorbed by the experienced owner. The re- sult is that the automobile wealth or money invested in machines which yet have a tangible and tremendous value is almost beyond computa- tion. NUMBER OF CABS Only the registration of automo- biles (in the absence of a census) can give any adequate idea of how many machines are actually in use. During the past ten years the State registration of motor cars, in- cluding commereial vehicles, has in- creased 5,000 per cent, or from about 48,000 in 1906, to 2,445,664 in 1915. The first revenue derived by the State governments from automobile registration was collected in the sequent years has been almost phe- nomenal, and during 1915 the total gross revenues derived from the reg- istration of motor vehicles and the licensing of operators, chauffeurs, dealers, etc., amounted to $18,245,- 713. Motor vehicles registered under the general designation of automo- biles, motor trucks, and commercial vehicles in continental United States during 1915 amounted to 2,445,664. The road mileage of the United States outside of incorporated towns and cities is approximately 2,375,000 miles. There is, therefore, an aver- age of slightly more than one car for each mile of rural public road. The distribution among the several States, however, is far from uni- form. There is only one motor for every six miles of road in Nevada, while in New Jersey there are nearly six motor cars per mile of road. With an average of one motor car for every 44 persons in the United Good Roads and Auto Buses Add Greatly to Our Pleasures The Modern Land Houseboat Is Like a Gipsy Caravan A Modern "Jitney" Bus SOME COLLECTIVE MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION 228 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES States, in Iowa there is one for ev- ery 16 persons, but only one for every 200 persons in Alabama. AUTOMOBILE ACCIDENTS That more just laws, an apprecia- tion of the other fellow's rights and a standard of good driving, set by familiarity and public opinion, are having their effect upon "Safety First" is unquestionable. From 1909 to 1914 the number of automobiles increased more than twice as rapidly as the number of area in 1914; and the increase from 1913 to 1914, for the registration area as constituted in 1913, then containing 65 per cent of the popu- lation of the country, was from 2,488 to 2,795. Thus a five-year increase of 775 per cent in number of machines has been accompanied by an increase of 315 per cent in automobile fatalities ; and a one-year increase of 38 per cent in number of machines has been accompanied, by an increase of 12 per cent in fatalities. WRECKING TRUCK FOR ENGINEER CORPS SERVICE AUTOMOBILE GENERAL REPAIR SHOP FOR ENGINEERING CORPS SERVICE fatalities caused by them. Accord- ing to figures of the National Auto- mobile Chamber of Commerce, the number of automobiles in use in the United States was in 1904 approxi- mately 200,000 ; by the close of 1913 it had risen to 1,270,000 ; at the end of 1914, to 1,750,000. The number of deaths due to auto- mobile accidents, and injuries, in- creased from 632 in the death-regis- tration area in 1909 (containing 56 per cent of the population of the United States) to 2,623 in the same A more reliable comparison can be made between the increase in number of automobiles and the in- crease in the rate per 100,000 popu- lation for deaths caused by them. On this basis, a five-year increase of 775 per cent in number of machines has been accompanied by an increase of 258 per cent in the death rate re- sulting from automobile fatalities. Similarly, a one-year increase of 38% in number of automobiles has taken place along with an increase of only 10% in the death rate. Views on the Columbia River Highway WHAT THE ENGINEER HAS DONE FOR THE ATITOMOBILIST J CHAPTER XIX. THE RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE By SECRETARY OF COMMERCE WILLIAM C. REDFIELD TT^OREIGN trade has in less than tl three years become one of the most important factors in the industrial life of our nation. The change has been so sudden that its significance is not fully understood even by all those directly inter- ested. It is not merely that we have become, almost over night, the world's greatest trading nation. For a great many years we have ranked near the top, especially in exports. It is rather that our whole attitude toward foreign markets has changed. Our attitude now is one of enthu- siasm, where formerly we were indifferent or only casually inter- ested. Once upon a time our foreign trading consisted of selling abroad our raw agricultural and mineral products and buying in turn such manufactured products as we need- ed. This sort of commerce can be carried on with little effort. As a matter of fact it never required much effort on our part and it never brought us in very close contact with the problems of world trade. We did not have an international point of view. It was many years before Amer- ican manufacturers found them- selves in a position to export their products. From the start the home market was a rich one and one with which we kept pace only with diffi- culty. The first foreign shipments of any consequence were largely the result of "hard times" at home, which in the past have been almost periodical with us. The shipments abroad were an effort to keep the wheels in motion while the demand at home was slack. Considerable temporary success attended this de- parture, although the practice of supplying customers with products one year and disappointing them the next is not one that makes for cor- dial trade relations. Experience in foreign trade methods was gained, however, in this way and more than one manufacturer was led to estab- lish permanent export departments. Some put their export business on a sound basis, while others began a sort of permanent "dumping" busi- ness abroad aimed to reduce over- head charges per unit on all goods manufactured. In the latter case the American consumer, however, derived no benefit from the in- creased efficiency resulting from the nearer approach to maximum capa- city output, and the manufacturers themselves felt no real enthusiasm for foreign trade. It was not the proper way to win the place in world trade to which we are en- titled by reason of our unparalleled resources, our capacity for indus- trial organization, and our intelli- gent and industrious workmen. That the development of Amer- ican commerce may be easily traced, a table is inserted here which shows the total exports and imports for a long period of years, and also the traae of our principal commercial rivals, the United Kingdom, Ger- many and France. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES IMPORTS AND EXPORTS AND TOTAL FOREIGN TRADE OP THE UNITED STATES, THE UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY, AND FRANCE FROM 1870 TO LATEST AVAILABLE YEAR Year* United States ' United Kingdom Imports 2 Exports Total ex- ports and imports Net imports Domestic exports Total ex- ports and imports 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollarc 1,000 dollazs 1,000 dollazs 1870 435,958 392,772 828,730 ,259,270 971,285 2,230,555 1871 520.224 442,820 963,044 1,316,417 1,085,551 2,401,968 1872 626,595 444,178 1,070,773 ,442,250 1,247,075 2,689,325 1873 642,136 522,480 1,164,616 ,535,123 1,241,760 2,776,883 1874 567,406 586,283 1,153,689 ,518,304 1,165,809 2,684,113 1875 533,005 513,443 1,046,448 1,536,811 1,087,497 2,624,308 1876 460,741 540,385 1,001,126 1,552,501 976,410 2,528,911 1877 451,323 602,475 1,053,798 1,659,316 967,913 2,627,229 1878 437,052 694,866 1,131,918 1,538,476 938,500 2,476,976 1879.... 445,778 710,439 1,156,217 1,487,884 932,090 2,419,974 1880 667,955 835,639 1,503,594 1,692,939 1,085,521 2,778,460 1881 642,665 902,377 1,545,042 1,625,227 1,138,873 2,764,100 1882 724,640 750,542 1,475,182 1,692,695 1,175,099 2,867,794 1883 723,181 823,839 1,547,020 1,758,043 1,166,982 2,925,025 1884.... 667,698 740,514 1,408,212 1,591,720 1,134,016 2,725,736 1885 577,527 742,190 1,319,717 1,521,312 1,037,124 2,558,436 1886.... 635,436 679,525 1,314,961 1,428,945 1,035,226 2,464,171 1887 692,320 716,183 1,408,503 1,473,961 1,079,944 2,553,905 1888 723,957 695,955 1,419,912 1,574,766 1,141,365 2,716,131 1889 745,132 742,401 1,487,533 1,756,714 1,211,442 2,968,156 1890 789,310 857,829 1,647,139 1,732,331 1,282,472 3,014,803 1891.... 844,916 884,481 1,729,397 1,817,943 1,203,170 3,021,113 1892 827,403 1,030,278 1,857,681 1,748,875 1,105,749 2,854,624 1893.... 866,401 847,665 1,714,066 1,682,882 1,062,161 2,745,043 1894 654,995 892,141 1,547,136 1,706,023 1,051,191 2,757,214 1895 731,970 807,538 1,539,508 I,7.j7,270 1,100,453 2,837,723 1896 779,725 882,607 1,662,332 1,876,402 1,168,669 3,045,071 1897 764,730 1,050,994 1,815,724 1,903,165 1,139,830 3,042,995 1898 616,050 1,231,482 1,847,532 1,994,730 1,135,643 3,130,373 1899 697,149 1,227,023 1,924,172 2,043,897 1,287,151 3,331,048 1900 849,941 1,394,483 2,244,424 2,238,071 1,417,086 3,655,157 1901 823,172 1,487,765 2,310,937 2,210,112 1,362,729 3,572,841 1902 903,321 1,381,719 2,285,040 2,251,128 1,379,283 3,630,411 1903 1,025,719 1,420,142 2,445,801 2,301,985 1,415,179 3,717,164 1904 991,088 1,460,827 2,451,915 2,339,493 1,463,410 3,802,903 1905.... 1,117,513 1,518,562 2,636,075 2,346,821 1,605,052 3,951,873 1906 1,226,562 1,743,865 2,970,427 2,544,138 1,827,737 4,371,875 1907 1,434,422 1,880,851 3,315,273 2,695,388 2,073,300 4,768,688 1908 1,194,342 1,860,773 3,055,115 2,498,119 1,835,176 4,333,295 1909 1,311,920 1,663,011 2,974,931 2,595,597 1,840,415 4,436,012 1910.... 1,556,947 1,744,985 3,301,932 2,795,785 2,094,467 4,890,252 1911 1,527,226 2,049,320 3,576,546 2,809,909 2,209,972 5,019,881 1912.... 1,653,265 2,204,322 3,857,587 3,080,022 2,371,073 5,451,095 1913 1,813,008 2,465,884 4,278,892 3,207,800 2,556,106 5,763,906 1914 1,893,926 2,364,579 4,258,505 2,925,550 2,096,105 5,021,655 1915.... 1,674,170 2,768,589 4,442,759 3,674,009 1,871,886 5,545,895 1916 2,197,884 4,333,659 6,531,543 "Figures for the United States are for the fiscal years ended June 30; for the other countries they are for the calendar years. ^General imports. DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 233 IMPORTS AND BXPORTS AND TOTAL FOREIGN TRADE OP THE UNITED STATES, THE UNITED KINGDOM, GERMANY, AND FRANCE FROM 1870 TO LATEST AVAILABLE YEAR Germany France Year Total ex- Total ex- Imports Exports ports and Imports Exports ports and imports imports 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1,000 dollars 1870. . . 553,400 540,800 1,094,200 1871.... 688,400 554,400 1,242,800 1872 775, i 28' ssi'.eis' ' 'i, 316', 746' 689,100 726,000 1,415,100 1873 893,176 542,085 1,435,261 686,100 730,900 1,417,000 1874 856,662 557,491 1,414,153 677,000 714,300 1,391,300 1875 839,590 593,052 1,432,642 682,600 747,400 1,430,000 1876.... 903,977 605,886 1,509,863 769,800 690,100 1,459,900 1877 896,972 656,982 1,553,954 708,300 663,200 1,371,500 1878 834,487 686,671 1,521,158 806,000 613,700 1,419,700 1879 896,618 660,352 1,556,970 886.900 623,600 1,510,500 1880 670,945 688,500 1,359,445 971,400 669,300 1,640,700 1881 705,013 707,978 1,412,991 938,600 687,400 1,626,000 1882 744,552 758,817 1,503,369 930,600 689,900 1,620,500 1883 776,476 778,257 1,554,733 927,200 666,200 1,593,400 1884 775,904 762,432 1,538,336 838,300 623,900 1.462,200 1885 699,067 680,551 1,379,618 789,100 596,000 1,385,100 1886 684,765 710,186 1,394,951 812,200 627,000 1,439,200 1887 740,511 745,896 1,486,407 777,000 626,600 1,403,600 1888 778,434 762,444 1,540,878 792.700 626,600 1,419,300 1889 949,520 753,222 1,702,742 833,200 714,900 1,548,100 1890 990,023 791,717 1,781,740 856,300 724,400 1,580,700 1891 987,890 755,771 1,743,661 920,200 689,000 1,609,200 1892 956,415 703,078 1,659,493 808,300 667,900 1,476,200 1893 942,894 735,886 1,678,780 743,800 624,600 1,368,400 1894 937,304 704,826 1,642,130 743,100 594,000 1,337,100 1895 980,719 789,660 1,770,379 717,900 651,100 1,369,000 1896 1,025,105 838,981 1,864,086 733,126 656,400 1,389,526 1897.... 1,114,006 865.124 1,979,130 763,508 694,405 1,467,913 1898 1,209,194 894,063 2,103,257 863,193 677,604 1,540,797 1899 1,304,977 1,001,273 2,306,255 872,032 801,459 1,673,491 1900.... 1,372,216 1,097,509 2,469,725 906,675 792,979 1,699,654 1901 1,290,254 1,054,685 2,344,939 843,256 774,498 1,617,754 1902 1.340,178 1,113,313 2,453,491 848,046 820,671 1,668,717 1903 1,428,640 1,193,483 2,622,123 926,632 820,685 1,747,317 1904 1,512,328 1,243,029 2,755,357 868,946 859,034 1,727,980 1905. . . 1,696,660 1,364.131 3,060,791 922,329 939,305 1,861,634 1906 1,907,210 1,713,449 3,452,659 1,086,059 1,016,240 2,102,299 1907 2,081,066 1,629,163 3,710.229 1,201,031 1,080,047 2,281,078 1908.... 1.824,037 1,522,860 3,346,897 1,088,619 974,791 2,063,410 1909 2,027,790 1,568,954 3,596,744 1,205,500 1,103,584 2,309,084 1910 2,126,322 1,778.969 3,905,291 1,384,453 1,203,124 2,587,577 1911 2,309,947 1,929,243 4,239,190 1,556,705 1,172,834 2,729,539 1912 2,544,637 2,131,718 4,676,355 1,588,553 1,295,528 2,884,081 1913 2,563,331 2,402,967 4,966,298 1,642,117 1,326,950 2,969,067 1914 1,235,619 939,685 2,175,304 1915 1916 Special trade. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The decreasing relative impor- tance of raw materials in our ex- ports is shown in the following ta- bles, the second of which sets forth in some detail the recent develop- ment : is temporary and what part of it may be retained if we determine to retain it and determine to give our best efforts to retaining it. In a table given below it will be seen that our exports to certain of the AVERAGE ANNUAL DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE PROPORTION OF RAW AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS, 1870 TO 1914 Period Total Value Foodstuffs Raw Materials Manufactures Value Per Cent of Total Value Per Cent of Total Value Per Cent of Total 1870-1879. 1880-1889. 1890-1899. 1900-1909. 1910-1914. $530,155,600 748,011,563 953,635,567 1,555,067,656 2,130,428,647 $208,959,362 335,463,721 419,604,241 499,351.477 421,413,854 39.41 44.85 44.00 32.11 19.78 $211,010,501 259,012,052 286,653,935 460,922,051 705,287,325 39.80 34.63 30.06 29.64 33.11 $170,863,847 150,055,277 241,221,398 585,713,271 995,831,058 20.35 20.06 25.29 37.66 46.74 DOMESTIC EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES, CLASSIFIED BY GREAT GROUPS ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE, DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914, AND 1916 1914 1916 Great Groups Value Per Cent Value Per Cent Crude materials for use in manu- facturing Foodstuffs in crude condition and food animals Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu- factured Manufactures for further use in manufacturing Manufactures ready for consump- tion $792,716,109 137,495,121 293,218,336 374,224,210 724 908 000 34.03 5.90 12.59 16.06 31 11 $536,189,752 380,799.902 596,071,882 662,549,838 1 996 367 492 12.55 8.91 13.95 15.51 46 73 Miscellaneous 7,122.249 .31 100,418,908 2.35 Total $2 329 684 025 100 OO $4 272 397 774 100 00 The most important point in the foregoing tables is the fact that dur- ing the last two years we have shipped abroad a much smaller pro- portion of raw materials than for- merly, and hence a greater propor- tion of manufactured goods. It is only natural that such a tendency should be viewed with the greatest satisfaction by Americans. The destination of our exports during the last two years is a mat- ter of the greatest importance, for it indicates to a certain extent what proportion of our newly found trade belligerent European countries have increased enormously since the war started, and of course much of this increase can fairly be attributed to munitions of war and to such sup- plies as are needed indirectly to maintain armies in the field. This includes explosives, shells, guns, and a percentage of the clothes, shoes, and so on that are now being shipped abroad in unprecedented quantities. Fortunately for all man- kind, the demand for such material cannot go on forever, and when peace is finally made there will be DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 235 a falling off in such shipments, frithough not so suddenly perhaps as has been generally predicted. The proportion of temporary busi- ness in our European exports has been exaggerated, however. It is erroneous to suppose, for instance, that the demand for pork and wheat and corn sold to England and France at this time is a temporary one brought about by the war. We have always sold such supplies in Europe, and it is no.t likely that the per capita consumption of foodstuffs in a country at war, outside of the army, is greater than it is in times of peace. Indeed it is very prob- able that in a war requiring great sacrifices on the part of the general population their per capita consump- tion may be decreased. It is not likely that the men actually at the front consume more food than they did before the war started. Shoes and other articles of wearing ap- parel are of course worn out more rapidly at the front than in ordi- nary walks of life, although there is a strong tendency on the part of the civilians at home to make such articles "go further" than ordinarily. In considering our war time com- merce with Europe and attempting to reach some conclusion as to the changes that will take place when I>eace is restored, it is well to bear in mind the fact that to counter- balance some of the inevitable losses there will be a greatly increased trade for some years with the na- tions that are now wholly or partly shut off from our markets. We or- dinarily do a great business with the Central Powers, but after the war we shall be called upon to replenish depleted stocks in addition. This applies to Allied countries as well and perhaps to some of the neu- trals. There will also be consider- able reconstruction work in which the United States is well prepared, to take part. A table is given here to show what proportion of our war time exports is made up of military supplies. Our exports may be divided into three groups : ( 1 ) Exports of actual muni- tions of war, including cartridges, loaded projectiles, gunpowder, nitro- toluol, and other high explosives, cannon, rifles, etc. ; (2) exports of what may be called secondary army supplies, including horses and mules, automobile trucks and aeroplanes, horseshoes, barbed wire, harness and saddles, men's boots and shoes, wool clothing and blankets, and brass, copper, lead, and zinc in pigs, bars and other manufactures; (3) exports of other products that have no direct relation to the war, in- cluding breadstuff's, meat and dairy products, cotton and its manufac- tures, agricultural and other manu- factures of iron and steel, leather, mineral and vegetable oils, tobacco, lumber and other manufactures of wood, and other agricultural, min- ing and factory products that we sell abroad during normal times. The total increase in the articles included in the third class, which are normally exported in times of peace, forms practically one-half of the increase in our total exports. This fact is clearly brought out in the detailed figures in tables on pages 236 and 237. Our trade with Europe, then, has recently developed to enormous pro- portions and there is a certainty that in some items there will be a falling off when munitions of war are no longer required ; but there is also every reason to believe that in other lines there will be 'only a gradual decrease or no decrease at all. In some lines, as lumber and agricultural implements, an increase may be expected. Our exporters and manufacturers have not failed to realize that an unprecedented opportunity for in- creased trade has existed for some time in countries outside of Europe, and the result is that to-day we are doing a larger business with South America, Asia, Africa and Australia than ever before. A larger share of our new business is with these countries than is generally supposed and it is a business to which too OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES MO iflffltO M0T4 CM O^-^f OINb- t^lMr^ WOO CIO OSMIN Mr*O> * lOO i-ii-i M>ON * ^ ~ 5U5 OTJH t^t^O O5O 5>O OO> OOOIN U5CO ?!: >O COM -<1-05 WO rHl . o SS OO5 C5COt>- O^*C-^ t^NlO ^t^t^ ^TfO CCC5O OU5 M35C C005-* O^iO 005}N 05^J (N^C eeoN ^"O'N oo'oso t-"o" odoo't co rC r-c O ^N O Nrt o ^co Mt^co"^"" S2SS i-l CO O )^O i^^l*^ tOX*H rj< c* soqw ooqeo_ "O ON fiO^f ^^to" O*"-" W^ O5 t^Xt^ O5CO^ C5t~ 00 to K. t-00 NO * NN" I flfcdUHUw 238 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES much importance can hardly be at- tached. If the war had ended in six months it is probable that many dealers in South America, for in- stance, would have returned to their old European connections, and while some may eventually return, no mat- ter how long the war lasts, others have indicated that they are satis- fied with their new American con- nections and will make no further changes. Some of our best lines of goods have now been on trial for some two years where previously they were practically unknown and they have established themselves permanently. The best American methods have also come to be under- stood where previously they were misunderstood. There are, unfor- tunately, a few American firms who have not realized their responsi- bility and have rushed in to take undue advantage of the necessities of foreign concerns. The trade done by such firms will not be retained when the war is over, but the bulk of our new business is not so done and can be retained if the proper enterprise is shown. The surplus capital that has re- sulted from the sudden increase in our foreign business will, or should, prove the most effective factor in making the new business perma- nent. Formerly it was rare to have gold flow steadily to this side of the Atlantic, but recently it has not only flowed consistently in this di- rection, but in quantities that were never approached before in other countries. Wisely, much of this new capital has been invested in the newer and more undeveloped coun- tries of the world. This will insure our having a hand in building rail- roads, establishing industries, con- structing lighting and power plants, and so forth, and this in turn will make it certain that our manufac- turers will share in the business of furnishing equipment for such un- dertakings. This is a new departure for American capital. It is a step that has long been recognized as necessary if we are to find good for- eign markets for our most impor- tant products. Coming at the time when our exports to such countries are growing so rapidly, it can be taken as an indication that a large .share of our new business is to be permanent. A table is given here to show as simply as possible how our trade to the various corners of the earth has increased recently. It will be seen at once how important a share of our exports go to regions far removed from the war zone. The growth of our trade with South America has appealed to the popular imagination more than that with any other district outside of Europe, and the assurance that a much larger business can be built TOTAL VALUES OF EXPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES TO DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30. 1914. 1915, AND 1916 Country 1914 1915 1916 Relative per cent of 1916 to 1914 Belligerent Europe . . . Other Europe Canada Other North America. South America Asia Australia and Oceania Africa Total $1,299,808,448 186,690,281 344,716,981 183,927,981 124,539,909 113,425,616 83,568,417 27,901,515 $1,565,980,315 405,454,372 300,686,812 176,388,915 99,323,957 114,470,493 77,764,725 28,519,751 $2,646,037,657 353,145,772 466,884,415 266,005,613 180,356,555 278,470,228 99,241,555 43.517,070 203.6 189.1 135.4 144.6 144.8 245.5 118.7 155.9 $2,364,579,148 $2,768,589,340 $4,333,658,865 183.3 DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE up with our nearest neighbors and can be retained has not only con- centrated the attention of manufac- turers and exporters on South Amer- ican markets and the problems connected with entering them to advantage, but has, for the first time in our history, aroused an am- bition in many young men to learn the language and customs of the countries that lie to the south of us. There are hundreds of young men now preparing for .careers in foreign trade where formerly there was one, and South America more than any other section has been the lodestone. If this sudden interest does nothing more than prepare young Americans for the export trade it will have been worth while. The trade with the individual South American countries in 1916 as compared with 1914, the year preceding the war, deserves careful study. This country sold Argentina $65,993,611 worth of goods in 1916, whereas in 1914 our total sales amounted to only $45,179,089. Im- ports from Argentina increased even more rapidly, for in 1916 we pur- chased $112,512,420 worth as com- pared with $45,123,988 worth in 1914. The imports were as usual raw materials. Exports to Bolivia showed only a slight gain from $1,145,555 to $1,367,891 while our imports from that country amounted to $204,904 as compared to practi- cally nothing before the war. Ex- ports to Brazil show an increase from $29,963,914 to $41,202,277, an encouraging development that holds much promise for the future. Our purchases from Brazil increase^ from $101,329.073 in 1914 to $132,- 663.984 in 1916. Chile bought $17,- 432,392 worth of goods from the United States in 1914, but in 1916 the amount spent with us had in- creased to $24.289,652. We in turn greatly increased our purchases in Chile, the figures being $25,722,128 in 1914 and no less than $64,154,859 in 1916. Our exports to Colombia increased from $6,786.153 to $11,- 125,232 and our purchases increased from $16,051,120 to $21,458,029. Sales to Ecuador, while not so important as they ought to be, increased from $2,967,759 in 1914 to $3,462,040, and purchases rose from $3,595,456 to $5,848,290 in 1916. Paraguay is the one country with which business, both import and export, has fallen off. Our exports to that country amounted to only $173,191 in 1914, but in 1916 they had fallen off to a mere $73,452. Similarly, our im- ports fell from $64,651 in 1914 to $53,337 in 1916. Exports to Peru increased from $7,141,252 to $10,- 173,176 and imports from that coun- try increased from $12,175,723 to $24,326,689. Our trade with Uru- guay has resembled that of Peru so far as quantity goes, our exports in 1914 amounting to $5,641,266 and in 1916 to $10,274,426, whereas our imports increased from $7,715,144 to $14,475,478. Figures for Venezuela are also somewhat similar, our ex- ports to that country increasing from $5,401,386 in 1914 to $8,999,272 in 1916, and our purchases showing a jump from $9,763,069 to $14,912,448. The foregoing figures are signifi- cant not only in showing that our exports to South American countries have increased in a satisfactory manner in the last two years, but also in calling attention to the fact that these countries are now selling a greater quantity of goods in this country. Our purchases consist of such essential raw materials as cof- fee, rubber, tin ore, nitrates and hides, which we need in large quan- tities. Before the war much of the rubber, all of the tin, and some of the hides went to Europe, there to be manufactured and shipped across the Atlantic again to the United States. Probably when the war is over the European countries will im- port all the raw materials they need direct from South America, but it is very unlikely that they will ever again supply us extensively with goods manufactured from South American materials. This condition not only makes for greater inde- pendence on our part, but brings us 240 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES into much better relation to the South American countries. The growth in our export trade has been more rapid than the growth in our imports and is a sub- ject that is much more interesting to most Americans. It is quite nat- ural to dwell at greater length upon what we succeed in selling than upon what we have to buy. Never- theless the recent great growth in our purchases abroad is significant and deserves the most careful study. In 1914 we purchased abroad $1,- 893,925,657 worth of goods, which is not far from normal, but in 1916 we spent no less than $2,197,883,510 for foreign products. The table that follows shows the purchases made by the United States since 1904, by continents. It will be seen that imports have fallen off from Europe only. It has been impossible for the manufactur- ers in the belligerent countries to concentrate on their foreign trade as they did before the war; so, in spite of the fact that we have had more money to spend than ever be- fore, our purchases of manufactured goods from Europe have fallen off. In many quarters this fact is looked upon as a favorable one, inasmuch as it has resulted in a tendency to rely more on our own industries. Certainly our American ingenuity has had plenty of opportunity of proving itself. We are now success- fully manufacturing many lines of goods that were formerly exclusive- ly imported. From other parts of the world, however, we are making heavier pur- chases than ever before, but such purchases, as in the case of South American countries already men- tioned, have been very largely raw materials, which formerly we im- ported indirectly in an unmanufac- tured state through European mid- dlemen or were manufactured for us by European manufacturers. This establishment of direct relations with the newer and more undevel- oped countries of the world will be most helpful, not only in saving freight charges and in doing our own work in our own factories, but in effecting closer trade relations with the producing countries. An idea of the part played by raw ma- terials and manufactured goods in our import trade since 1870 may be had from the two tables on page 241 , the second table showing in some detail the changes that have taken place in the last two years. It will be seen that the recent trend of our import trade does not threaten American interests. We are making more and more of the manufactured goods we need, and importing more and more of the raw materials that formerly were PURCHASES MADE BY THE UNITED STATES, 1904-1916 Fiscal Years Ending June 30 Imports Europe North America South America Asia and Oceania Africa Total 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 Dollars 498,697,379 540,773,092 633,292,184 747,291,253 608,014,147 654,322,918 806,270,280 768,167,760 819,585,326 892,866,384 895,602,868 614,354,645 612,252,709 Dollars 198,778,952 227,229,145 235,353,322 263,576,349 238,815,898 253,999,920 306,767,486 305,496,793 334,072,039 361,943,659 427,399,354 473,079,796 591,895,543 Dollars 120,364,113 150,795,800 140,422,876 160,165,537 124,998,590 163,878,724 196,164,786 182,623,750 215,089,316 217,734,629 222,677,075 261,489,563 391,562.018 Dollars 163,820,151 187,371,412 204,865,329 242,260,820 206,222,482 224,610,035 230,255,139 243,724,182 261,932,365 314,038,218 329,096,884 300,292,655 533,407,455 Dollars 9,426,776 11,343,622 12,628,735 21,127,466 16,290,675 15,108,627 17,489,739 27,213,620 22,585,888 26,425,344 19,149,476 24,953,081 64,765,745 Dollars 991,087,371 1,117,513,071 1,226,562,446 1,434,421,425 1,194,341,792 1,311,920,224 1,556,947,430 1,527,226,105 1,653,264,934 1,813,008,234 !.N!::, 025,657 1,674,169,740 2,197,883,510 DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMERCE 241 manufactured for us by other coun- tries. For the most part the raw materials imported are such as we can not produce at home or can not produce in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. Another development of the last two years is our transition from a debtor to a creditor nation. At least it can safely be said that we are now a creditor nation so far as cur- rent accounts go. This has been the result, of course, of shipping abroad here at home, but much of it has been invested in foreign securities, as already mentioned. Just how much has been so invested can only be estimated, but about the middle of 1916 the figure was put at nearly a billion and a half of known in- vestments, with many other pro- posed loans under consideration. The largest loans have been made to the belligerent countries, but a steadily increasing amount is going into the more undeveloped countries AVERAGE ANNUAL IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES AND THE PROPORTION OF RAW MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS, 1870 TO 1914 Period 1870-1879. 1880-1889. 1890-1899. 1900-1909. 1910-1914. Total Value Foodstuffs Raw Materials Manufactures Value Per Cent of Total Value Per Cent of Total Value Per Cent of Total $512,021.878 680,050,955 757,264,781 1,087,799,986 1,688,874,472 8189,618.034 224,892,472 261,688,223 266,573,229 397,517,016 37.03 33.07 34.56 24.51 23.54 $74,245,895 132,740,135 185,512,723 357,425,263 580,339,002 14.50 19.52 24.50 32.86 34.36 $238,691,827 311,078,907 303,883,180 456,177,165 696,400,401 46.62 45.74 40.01 41.94 41.23 IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED STATES, CLASSIFIED BY GREAT GROUPS ACCORDING TO USE AND DEGREE OF MANUFACTURE, DURING THE FISCAL YEARS ENDED JUNE 30, 1914 AND 1916 1914 1916 Great Groups Value Per Cent Value Per Cent Crude materials for use in manu- facturing Foodstuffs in crude condition and food animals : Foodstuffs partly or wholly manu- factured Manufactures for further use in manufacturing Manufactures ready for consump- tion Miscellaneous $632,865.860 247,947,621 227,644,329 319,275,488 449,318,214 16,874,145 33.42 13.09 12.02 16.86 23.72 .89 $944,105,228 251,833,794 309,708,717 359,441,501 315.353,634 17,440,636 42.96 .11.46 14.09 16.35 14.35 .79 Total $1,893,925,657 100.00 $2,197,883,510 100.00 so much more than we have been importing, which has enabled us to establish credit abroad, to buy up American securities held in Euro- pean countries, and to import un- precedented quantities of gold. Much of this newly acquired capital has been used for development purposes for development purposes. The pur- chase of American securities held abroad has proceeded rapidly during the last two years and it is safe to say that the total amount of paper so repurchased reaches well over a billion dollars. Some estimates have put it as high as two billions. 242 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES More accurate statistics are to be had on the imports of gold. The net inward gold movement aggregated $456,032,344 for the twelve months ended September 30, 1916. For the year previous the total was $205.- 440,751, showing that the net inward movement has doubled within a year. More gold has been added to our store in two years than has ever been added to the supply of any nation before in the same length of time, and despite all pessimistic pre- dictions it seems only reasonable to suppose that this vast accumulation will be a powerful factor in enabling the country to hold its own in the world's commerce no matter what circumstances may arise. It will enable us to maintain ourselves in foreign markets on a much better footing than ever before and will enable us to meet without embar- rassment any foreign demands for gold. Mention has already been made of the fact that we have been deal- ing more directly with some of the producing countries. A few special instances will be of interest in this connection. For a great many years previous to the war the world's furs were sold through London and Leip- sic. Our furs, which are mostly seal, were sent all the way to London to be sold, and not until they had been auctioned off and dressed and dyed did we see them again, greatly enhanced in price as the result of two trips across the Atlantic, duties, and foreign labor. Furs trapped in Northwestern Can- ada likewise were shipped across the continent, across the Atlantic, and back again to us. The war gave us the opportunity of organizing fur sales in this country, with the as- sistance of the Government, and we have learned to dress and dye our furs quite as well as anybody ever did it for us. We now buy the fur skins direct from the countries in which they are trapped, and very likely we shall continue to do so when the war is over. We are buying more rubber direct now than we ever did before, and there seems to be no reason why we should go back to European mid- dlemen in the future. One of the most important developments in the way of direct buying has been the puivhnse of tin ore from Bolivia. We mine no tin in this country and have always been content to have England and Germany get the ore from the Straits Settlements and Bolivia and refine it for us. As a result of the difficulties encountered in getting tin in this manner under war time conditions, a company was organized in this country to buy ore direct from Bolivia and smelt it in this country. Fifteen tons of the refined metal a day are now pro- duced here, and it is tin of the very best quality. This direct dealing with Bolivia can not help stimu- lating commercial relations between the two countries. In short, it may be said that this country will never in the future be wholly satisfied with indirect buying arrangements. Another interesting phase of our new position in world's trade is the increasing tendency to substitute dollar exchange for sterling ex- change. Perhaps it is premature to say that the substitution is or is not going to be permanent, but it is safe to say that the experiment, even if merely tentative, has had the effect of bringing our merchants into much closer touch with the merchants of other nations than ever before. The establishment of branch banks .in South America is another important step that has been taken recently in an effort to put our dealings with our South American neighbors on a more satis- factory basis. In conclusion it might be said that the pre-eminent position which the United States has come to oc- cupy in the last two years has then been of inestimable benefit in stimu- lating the industries of the country, in giving us an international point of view, and in making it possible to get into closer touch than ever before with the manufacturers, ex- DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN COMMKKCK 248 Itorters, merchants, importers and bankers of other countries, and it is highly desirable that we do not let slip the advantages we have gained. It is not desirable, of course, that we go on exporting twice as much as we import, for international trade can not be con- ducted on any such basis for an in- definite period, but it will be greatly to our advantage to remain the first commercial nation and to retain the best of the great business so recently acquired. It can be done if Amer- ican business men determine that it must be done, if they realize fully the importance of foreign trade. They can not do it if they return to the indifferent methods that pre- vailed when the home market was looked upon as all-sufficient. The necessity of foreign trade need not be dwelt on in an article of this kind. Even the layman has had the opportunity in the last two years of seeing what wonders a thriving foreign business can accom- plish. The fact that our sales abroad do not comprise more than 1 to 5 per cent of our sales at home does not mean that the foreign sales are of trifling importance, as was once commonly assumed. The point is that the sales to outsiders are large enough to mean .the difference between stagnation and prosperity. They are so important that our man- ufacturers cannot afford to let them fall off, and it is my opinion that they will not allow any but the most temporary part of our new business to get away from them. EACINE REEF LIGHTHOUSE IN WINTEE GAEB MODERN METHODS OF ORE HANDLING IN THE HOLD OF A SHIP CHAPTER XX. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS By Dr. EDWARD EWING PRATT CHIEF OP THE BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WE are indebted to the great European war for the slogan "Preparedness." The word was in the dictionary before hostil- ities began, but it lacked any real vitality. Americans had always as- sumed that they were pretty well prepared for almost any eventuality, as individuals and as a community. If we needed to fight we had a pop- ulation of a hundred million to fall back on ; if we ever came to a pass where we needed more foreign trade, we could go out and get it; if we needed to make things that others had always made for us, all we had to do was make them. We were living in a fool's paradise. \\V know now that we were not adequately prepared to do anything but drift and muddle along rather prosperously by virtue of immense resources, favorable geographical situation, and a native ingenuity and resourcefulness which we had inherited from our pioneer ances- tors. What we have learned about the necessity of military prepared- ness will not be discussed here. This article will be concerned with pre- paredness for the commercial strug- gle which will come when peace is declared and with the preparations we are making and must make to achieve industrial independence of the older manufacturing nations of Europe. As has been said many times, we have become the leading commercial nation of the world. This is not only true, but is becoming increas- ingly evident with the passing of each month. In August and Sep- tember, 1916, our exports exceeded half a billion dollars, which is not only a higher figure than we ever reached before, but is much larger than any nation ever achieved be- fore. Our imports have also grown rapidly, but the balance of trade in our favor has attained enormous proportions and our industrial pros- perity is so pronounced and so real that the most carping critics no longer question it. The question is, can this great trade and this great prosperity survive the war? It is certain that we cannot retain all of the present trade and 'it is not at all certain that we can continue as prosperous as we have been throughout 1916. But it is certain, I think, that we need not suffer so serious a disturbance when peace is declared as has been pictured in some quarters. We have acquired much new business that can be retained if we make the proper efforts to re- tain it, and as the war goes on our opportunities for acquiring more business of that sort increase. We need a thorough appreciation of the necessity of keeping our hold on as much of our newly acquired trade Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 24G OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES as possible when the war is over. We 011 this side of the Atlantic are under the necessity of holding our own in foreign markets if we are to avoid difficulties when the war orders cease, and it is well to bear in mind that the belligerent nations will be under the necessity of winning back their old markets if they are to meet the obligations they have incurred in the war. It will be a bitter fight, with no quarter asked and no quarter given. Our competitors will not only try to oust us from our foreign markets, but undoubtedly will carry the fight right into our home markets. In planning to meet this struggle we must consider conditions that will arise immediately upon the ces- sation of hostilities and also the more permanent conditions resulting from the war. A number of our important industries will be disar- ranged when peace is made. Manu- facturers of munitions and other supplies needed by the armies are well aware of this fact, but there are two classes of manufacturers who are not facing the facts. One class is manufacturing the materials that go into the munitions and the other is turning out goods that are not munitions, but which are re- quired for military purposes. Such manufacturers should determine just how much their business has been stimulated by the war, and they should carefully charge enlarge- ments of plant and equipment against present profits. It will be necessary also to keep in mind the fact that soon after peace is made there will be decided changes in the trade routes of the world. There will be important readjustments in the principal markets. It will be an important matter for us to have a large influence in determining these changes. The permanent effects of the war are of equal importance to us. The European nations will be compelled to seek foreign markets as they THE CZAR OF RUSSIA AND MILITARY OFFICERS WITH AMERICAN BUILT RED CROSS AMBULANCE IN THE FOREGROUND COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 247 never sought them before. But let us consider carefully under what condi- tions they will be obliged to seek them. Will they be as formidable after the war as they were before? There has been a wide difference of opinion among economists as to how the cost of production in Europe after the war will compare with what it was before the war, but the longer the war continues the bet- ter agreed are the authorities that costs as a whole will be higher. There has been a tremendous loss of men, of labor power. Millions have been killed and other millions incapaci- tated. In almost all the belligerent countries there has been a rapid and steady diminution of capital. It has been used up in destruction instead of production. Taxes are certain to be excessive for years to come, for immense debts have accumulat- ed. Fiscal affairs will be disorgan- ized. These facts are given here to show that the increased cost of production in our country should not be considered an insurmountable handicap in the coming struggle. The point is that we are confronted with no insurmountable difficulties. There is no circumstance which definitely debars us from holding our own when the test comes. The problems in foreign trade which we must work out are dif- ficult ones, however, and deserve our most careful attention, for the sta- bility of our prosperity will "depend almost entirely upon our success in such trade. It was our foreign trade which was interrupted when the war broke out, and it was this interruption which threatened the most serious economic consequences. The war taught us that our domes- tic prosperity is most vitally con- cerned with the prosperity of our foreign trade, and it is for success in this foreign trade that we must carefully plan. Let us consider a number of important factors that will have a bearing upon our success in such trade. First of all comes the question of men properly prepared to carry on our business with and in foreign countries. We have never had an adequate supply of such men. The young American has never seriously considered preparing himself for such work. Other fields have ap- peared more attractive to him. Where we have had one capable man for such work the English and Germans have had dozens or per- haps hundreds. We must set about painting the advantages of the for- eign field in their proper colors and we must at once concern ourselves with training men in a practical, efficient manner. We must have men who know business, who know their own particular business, who know foreign languages, who know how to sell goods, and, above all, men who can go into foreign mar- kets with a sympathetic point of view. For the foreign field we need men who are diplomats as well as drummers. We must also pay more attention to financing foreign trade. We must familiarize ourselves not only with the extension of credits, the estab- lishment of branch banks, the dis- counting of paper, but with the whole mechanism of foreign ex- change and the investment of Ameri- can capital in foreign countries. Of such things most of us have known very little. We must be willing and able to provide funds for the con- struction of public utilities,- factor- ies, mining plants, warehouses, and other public improvements. The establishment of a convention- al tariff system :s another factor that will be necessary in our cam- paign for foreign trade. Many na- tions are able, by reason of their tariff systems, not only to prohibit the sale of or to handicap the im- portation of commodities from econ- omically unfriendly nations, but they are also able to encourage the exportation of their own commodi- ties by advantageous bargains with countries which are economically friendly. A conventional tariff sys- 248 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tern is simply a tariff system with an international point of view. It is also important that we pre- pare to become the market place of the world for certain staple com- modities. In the past we have been content to purchase our rubber, tin, wool, furs and so on through Eng- land and Germany. It is necessary that we handle some of these sup- plies ourselves. We must prepare the machinery for handling them economically the facilities for grad- ing the articles, for buying and sell- ing, for settling disputes, and so on. We have already made ,some satis- factory progress in this direction, and there is no good reason why we should ever go back to the old way of buying through European middle- men. One of the most important factors in our campaign will be our mer- chant marine. We are turning out new tonnage more rapidly now than any ether nation, and we should continue to do so. Large accessions to our merchant fleet have resulted from the Ship Registry Act. We have heard many opinions to the effect that our navigation laws are antiquated and operate to the dis- advantage of American boats, yet there is no important difference be- tween our laws and those of other important maritime countries, and there will be fewer differences as time goes on and certain European countries have an opportunity to carry out plans formulated a short time before the war started. So much for some of the important factors we must bear in mind in making our preparations. Now let us consider some of the steps al- ready taken. Thanks to the Federal Reserve Act our financial resources are for the first time in our history mobil- ized for foreign trade. J To the Federal Trade Commission we can look for guidance in the mat- ter of co-operating in foreign trade. This commission will also see to it that we are protected from unfair competition in our own markets on the part of foreign manufacturers. A Tariff Commission has been authorized by Congress. The bene- fits that will come from a scientific, non-partisan commission of this sort are too numerous to mention. In forming this commission we have taken one of the most important steps in the direction of commercial preparedness. A Shipping Board has also been brought into being. For the first time in our history we now have an efficient instrument for shaping the growth and policies of our merchant marine. Definite and constructive work in advancing our trade frontiers is be- ing done by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, of the De- partment of Commerce. This bur- eau collects information about for- eign markets for American goods. The sources are the consuls, the newly appointed commercial at- tachCs, and a corps of traveling special agents. The office at Wash- ington is the warehouse, and the staff there and at the district offices is engaged in selling the information for action. Action is the price and results are the object of our work. The Bureau is rapidly improving in efficiency. Private corporations have been organized for financing foreign en- terprises and large sums of Ameri- can capital have been made avail- able for use in countries that form- erly depended entirely upon Euro- pean financiers. Nothing will sta- bilize our newly acquired foreign trade quite so effectively as the ap- pearance of American gold. The lumber manufacturers of the West have organized an export sales company to assist in the sale of Douglas fir in foreign markets. This company will undertake the grading of lumber for export, the proper seasoning of such lumber, and an extensive propaganda. It is one of the most intelligent steps that any American industry has taken in this COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 249 direction. It should be studied care- fully by every other industry de- sirous of taking steps to insure it- self against disaster when the war is over. There is much that remains to be done before we can look forward with complete assurance that when the war is ended we shall be able to hold the trade we have recently acquired in the world's markets. We are still in the midst of busy preparations for the future, or should be. We cannot prepare too carefully, because failure will mean a depression from which it may take years to recover. There is another phase of indus- trial preparedness quite distinct from that concerned with hold- ing our own in foreign markets. I mean preparedness to produce here at home all articles that are essential to our well being. We must make ourselves independent of the manufacturers of foreign coun- tries. That does not mean that we must sever all relations with foreign manufacturers, but it does mean that we should be in a position to get along without them if need be if there should be another great war between the important manufactur- ing countries of Europe or if we should get into such a war ourselves. In a large measure we are al- ready independent. If intercourse with every other nation in the world were cut off. we could manage to get along. We could produce suf- ficient food for everyone and suf- ficient clothing and fuel. Our iron and steel industry is practically self- contained. Building materials we have in plenty. There would be no suffering for lack of real necessi- ties. Inconvenience and annoyance there would be though, and, if we were involved in a great war our- selves, perhaps a serious shortage of some materials essential for the manufacture of munitions. We de- pend upon other countries for many lines that we would sorely miss. We know it now, for we have missed them during the last two years. Are we going to be in the same position some time in the future? We have made considerable pro- gress in establishing new industries to supply goods formerly made for us by Europe and in expanding old industries to meet the war-time de- mand for such goods. These new industries have resulted either be- cause certain lines of goods former- ly received from the Central Powers and Belgium have been cut off alto- gether or because accustomed sup- plies from the Allies have been great- ly reduced by the shortage of ships. In either case we are learning to manufacture goods that we previ- ously purchased abroad and this ex- perience will undoubtedly, in the long run, be of more real benefit to the country than the temporary mu- nitions business. Our principal purchases from Ger- many, in the order of their value, have been hides and furs, cotton manufactures, dyes and chemicals, machinery and other manufactures of iron and steel, potash, pottery, silk and silk manufactures, toys, glac6 leather and glace'-leather gloves, rubber, paper and paper manufactures, and salt. Germany had a practical monopoly of several of these classes such as dyes and certain chemicals, potash and toys. It seems hardly necessary to say that the cutting off of these lines was a serious matter for us. We soon realized that we must make a serious effort to manufacture our own coal-tar products and at least a certain amount of our own potash. How well we have succeeded with the coal-tar dyes is pretty generally known. Not every user of dyed goods is wholly satisfied that the quality of our dyes is yet all that it should be, but it should be borne in mind that the demand on the hur- riedly built plants was enormous and that in some cases it was in- evitable that quantity rather than quality should be given first con- sideration. Improvement in quality 250 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES has taken place steadily, however, and it is not likely that much more fault will be found in that direction. We are now producing about half the ordinary requirement of some 29,000 tons annually and the differ- ence has been partly made up by the use of natural dyes. Congress has accorded protection to the new industry in the shape of additional tariff and the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce has supplied a detailed census of the dyes we im- ported in normal times. This census is aimed to assist manufacturers in determining how much of each color is actually needed by the dye users of the country. Previous to the publi- cation of this work only our dyestuff importers had any such knowledge of the market. One Buffalo manu- facturer has stated that the census has saved him a million dollars and years of wasted effort. There are a number of other coal- tar products for which we formerly depended upon foreign manufactur- ers, including carbolic acid, aspirin, acetanilid, photographic developers, salicylic acid, saccharin, creosote and benzoic acid. These are all manu- factured at home now, although not in the quantity that might be wished. Prices are very high. But we have demonstrated our ability to manu- facture them and it is not likely that we shall allow the experience to go for naught. The lack of potash has been a sore point. The German deposits caa be worked so cheaply that in the past there has been no incentive to recover the material from kelp, alunite or other sources, but when the German supply was cut off there began an eager searching of our own resources. The result has been that we have made considerable progress in recovering potash from kelp, alu- nite, the brine of certain alkaline lakes, tobacco stems, mica and in the manufacture of Portland cement. The supply has been barely sufficient for industrial use, however, and our fields have had to do without it. But our children have not been obliged to do without toys. Ameri- can ingenuity stepped in quickly when the supply of German toys was cut off and so far as novelty AGRICULTURAL FAIE AT JOHANNESBURG, SOUTH AFRICA, SHOWING AMERICAN MOTOR CARS AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 251 goods are concerned we are better supplied now than ever. Good progress has also been made in imi- tating typical German products, and it is not at all likely that Santa Glaus will ever again import heavily from abroad to fill our stockings. As a matter of fact we are doing some foreign business in this line ourselves and satisfactory relations have already been established with dealers in England, Australia and South America. We are now importing tin ore from Bolivia and doing our own smelting. Formerly we depended almost entirely upon England and Germany for our refined tin. These countries bought their sup- plies of ore and partly refined tin from the Straits Settlements and Bolivia and did the work of completing the refining for us. The war interfered with getting the supply in this manner and a firm was organized to import the ore from Bolivia and smelt it in this country. The new plant is now turning out fifteen tons of the finest tin a day. We need about 45,000 tons a year. An attempt is being made to es- tablish an all-American linen in- dustry. For years before the war started the United States was the greatest consumer of linen goods in the world and practically all such goods were purchased abroad. The war has greatly interfered with these imports, for Russia is by far the greatest producer of the raw flax fiber required by the Irish, Bel- gian and French mills. In this coun- try flax has been raised almost en- tirely for the seed, which is used to manufacture linseed oil, and the Department of Agriculture has esti- mated that in 1915 there were some 3,000,000 acres devoted to this crop. Of this great total only 2,000 acres were planted in flax for fiber, the yield for this purpose being esti- mated at only 4,000,000 pounds. It should be kept in mind that flax growing for seed aud flax growing for fiber are two separate and dis- tinct industries. To some extent flax is grown for both seed and fiber, but the farmer must decide which is to be the main product and which the by-product, just as the sheep raiser must decide whether wool or mutton is to be the main consideration when he selects the stock he is to raise. In Russia the flax grower not only raises the flax but prepares the fiber for the mills, and this is a disagreeable and in- sanitary process and one that de- pends upon very cheap labor. The problem in this country was to find a satisfactory chemical process of preparing the fiber that could be carried on in a factory. Such a process has apparently been worked out, for several important concerns are now buying flax on a large scale in the West. They are also assist- ing the farmers in a financial way. The manufacture of the coarser goods from this straw is now being carried on successfully and in time the high-grade linens will be made also, in spite of the reputation of foreign makes. In the past our foreign linen bill has been some- where between 25 and 30 million dollars annually. The manufacture of certain lines of Cotton goods has expanded in a surprising manner since the war started. There has been a marked increase in the production of fine count and novelty fabrics and manu- facturers have demonstrated their ability in designing and finishing such goods. Embroidery cotton, both mercerized and plain finished, heretofore produced almost exclu- sively abroad, is being made satis- factorily by domestic spinners. There has also been an increase in the manufacture of brass bobbin yarn for lace manufacturers. The large demand for all fine counts, combed, gassed and mercerized yarns has forced a considerable increase in production. Scrubbing, wiping and allied cloths produced with yarns spun from cotton waste, and hereto- 252 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES fore imported largely from Germany and Austria, are now made in this country. The shutting off of the supply of full-fashioned hosiery formerly im- ported from the Chemnitz district in Germany has greatly stimulated the production of such hosiery in this country, as well as some grades of fine-gaged seamless hosiery. The shortage of dyes has been the only obstacle in the way of completely meeting the demand for the best grades of hosiery. The only large artificial-silk plant in this country has doubled its ca- pacity since the war started and it is said that sevei-al other such plants are to be started. Several firms that previous to the war imported loopers ami flat bar knitting machines have started the manufacture of these articles. Before the war this country de- pended almost as a matter of course upon German and Austrian sources for sugar-beet seed with which to keep going our flourishing young beet-sugar industry. Ordinarily the consumption of such seed in this country is about 135,000 bags, or approximately 15,000,000 pounds, and this is almost exactly the amount of seed we imported in 1913. It is estimated that the production of seed in 1916 was 60,000 bags and that in 1917 we shall have a yield of 85,000 bags. The present pro- ducers assert that they are going right ahead until it is no longer necessary to depend upon outside sources. An American industry with a mil- lion dollar market has come into existence as a result of cutting off the imports of petroleum from Rus- sia. By the end of 1914 at least a score of American refiners were ex- perimenting in the new field and at least ten sources of domestic white oil for medicinal purposes were de- veloped. These new American prod- ucts are quite the equal of the Rus- sian product and will probably hold the market permanently. The war found us unprepared to manufacture enough lanolin, or re- fined wool grease, to meet the de- mand. Ordinarily we import about 12,000,000 pounds of crude wool grease and 2,500,000 pounds of .lan- olin. The domestic production of crude grease is about 6.000,000 pounds, but very little lanolin has ever been made at home. We have always used the crude grease in tan- neries, cordage factories, etc., and left to others the work of prepar- ing the refined wool fat, so valuable in salves, ointments and emulsions. Now we are at work doing our own refining. A well-known St. Louis firm is dressing and dyeing 10,000 sealskins by a process formerly used only in England. The plant is being ex- panded. In the past we sent the skins to London for dressing and dyeing, in spite of the fact that we are the largest producers of seal- skins in the world and the largest consumer. The first sale of fully dressed and dyed sealskins wholly "made in America" ever held in this country took place in October. 1916. We shall never go back to the old way of carrying on this business. Within the last two years there has been introduced into this coun- try the chemical porcelain industry, with the help of the Bureau of Standards. Only a short time ago there was not an American manu- facturer who believed chemical porcelain could be made from Amer- ican materials in American factor- ies. Now two establishments are making the best type of modern chemical porcelain. In the past much of the clay used in this country in the manufacture of porcelain came from England, that for the manufacture of cruci- bles and other high refractories from Germany, and that required for other fine products from France. Experts in the Department of Com- merce have pointed out that clays for all these purposes may be ob- tained in the United States and by COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL PREPAREDNESS 253 proper treatment be made equal and in many cases superior to the ma- terial heretofore supplied by Europe. Many of these clays are found in the South and are now being used commercially. Before the war all naphtha and gasoline safety lamps were pur- Chased in Europe. Since the war started some of the foreign patents have expired and several American lamps of this type have been placed on the market. With the help of the Bureau of Mines there have also been developed several types of per- missible electric safety lamps, which are now in the market in competi- tion with foreign makes. The war has had a very stimu- lating effect on the production of crude and calcined magnesite in California. In times past these de- posits have been used very sparing- ly, and principally in connection with the paper industry. In 1913 the imports amounted to approximately 168,000 tons, while the domestic pro- duction did not reach 10,000 tons. The imported material was largely used in the manufacture of refrac- tory furnace lining and in the man- ufacture of paper from wood pulp. No exact data as to the present out- put of the American companies are available, but it is thought that the domestic production in 1916 was about equal to the former imports. Eastern users, however, are. urging greater production. There has been a striking increase in the production of cutlery and related articles. The old American preference for imported articles h;is kept alive in this country a thriving business in such articles. Barber shears, razors^ butcher knives, cleavers, boning knives, and so on, are now supplied by American man- ufacturers in sufficient quantities to meet the demand. All these articles needed was a fair trial. As a result of restriction placed upon the shipments of asbestos from Canada, which is the world's chief source of supply, we are now pay- ing attention to our own deposits. In 1915 there was a great increase in the production of high-grade as- bestos in Arizona. The lower-grade asbestos produced in this country comes mainly from Georgia. De- posits are now reported from the Caspar Mountain and other regions in Wyoming. The Geological Sur- vey is of the opinion that the pres- ent output can be greatly increased. The list could be greatly extended, but the foregoing should be sufficient to prove the point that when Ameri- cans are forced by necessity they can manufacture practically any line of goods. We have it in us to make ourselves industrially inde- pendent of all other nations in case of necessity, and we are rapidly making progress in that direction. From the evidence in the case, therefore, it appears that it is pos- sible to make preparations that will save us from disaster in foreign trade when our old competitors re- enter the field. We haven't made all the necessary preparations at this writing, but we are doing well and there is a great deal of vitality in the movement now where at first there was only talk. And we are proving that we never again will have to depend upon others for im- portant products. "Preparedness" has a real and vital meaning for Americans to-day. Copyright by B. G. Mitchell THE WOOLWOHTH BUILDING The Tmlleit Commercial Structure Ever Erected. Home of the "Scientific American.'* CHAPTEK XXI. EDUCATION FROM DATA FURNISHED BY THE U. S. BUREAU OF EDUCATION I. SUMMARY OF STATISTICS THERE are nearly 22,500,000 enrolled in educational insti- tutions in the United States. Of these, 19,500,000 are in elemen- tary schools; 1,450,000 in secondary schools, both public and private, and 216,000 in colleges and universities. Close to a hundred thousand are in normal schools preparing to be teachers; 67,000 are in law, medical and other professional schools, and the remaining million or more are in various types of educational in- stitutions. There are 706,000 teach- ers, of whom 580,000 are in public schools. Annual expenditures for education aggregate $800,000,000. The following table summarizes the latest school and college enroll- ment figures.* SCHOOL AND COLLEGE ENROLLMENT IN THE UNITED STATES Public Private Total Elementary (kindergarten, primary and grammar) Secondary (high schools and academies) Secondary (preparatory departments of higher institutions) Universities and colleges Professional schools 17,934,982 1,218,804 22,414 87,820 12,289 1,626,310 154,857 63,324 128,673 54,777 19,561,292 1,373,661 85,738 216,493 67,066 Normal schools 89,537 5,749 95,286 Total for the above 19 365 846 2 033 690 21 399 536 610 966 610966 Business schools Reform schools ' 54 798 168,063 168,063 54,798 Schools for the deaf 13 370 489 13 859 Schools for the blind 4,971 4,971 Schools for the feeble-minded Government Indian schools Schools in Alaska supported by the Govern- ment Other public schools in Alaska 15,253 32,718 3.666 3 100 687 15,940 32,718 3,666 3 100 Orphan asylums and other benevolent institu- tions (estimated) Private kindergartens (individually reported) Miscellaneous (art, music, etc.) (estimated) . . 20,000 74,725 60,000 20,000 74,725 60,000 Total for special schools 738,842 323,964 1,062,806 Total for all schools in the United States 20.104,688 2,357,654 22.462,342 From Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education, 1916. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 256 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES coo 0>2} 09 ~8 >& II. ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES Education in the United States has developed as a State rather than a national matter. All the States provide elementary educa- tion, ranging from seven to nine years, and secondary education of one or more years, and in practically every State higher educational op- portunities are available without cost for tuition to both sexes. Re- cently provision has been made in some States for adequate vocational, commercial and professional educa- tion at public expense, but only a small number of States have as yet created State systems of vocational education. Support of schools is from State and local sources, the proportion ranging from Massachu- setts, where 96.8 per cent of the funds come from local taxation, to Alabama, where only 24 per cent of the funds for school purposes come from local taxation and 69.4 per cent from the State. The Federal Government early in its history made important grants of land for general educational purposes; it gives financial aid to agricultural and mechanical colleges and experi- ment stations in all States, and has recently begun to support extension education for agriculture and home making. It has also maintained, since 1867, a Federal Bureau of Ed- ucation which serves as a clearing house of information on educatior for the benefit of all the States Control of public schools, originally centered in the local community, has lately become transferred in large measure to the county and to the State, as State aid and responsibil- ity for education have broadened. Conditions still vary, however, from almost complete State domination in a few States to nearly complete lo- cal autonomy in others. The National Government exerts no control over education in the States other than that involved in the administration of certain land grant funds and ap- propriations for extension educa- tion. The function of the Federal EDUCATION 257 Bureau of Education is advisory rather than administrative. III. COMPULSORY EDUCATION Education is compulsory, to a greater or less degree, in all the States except one Mississippi. Massachusetts adopted a compul- sory education law in 1852. Ver- mont followed in 1867; Michigan, New Hampshire and Washington in 1871; Connecticut and New Mexico In 1872 ; Nevada in 1873 ; California, Kansas, New York, New Jersey, Maine, Ohio, Wyoming and Wiscon- sin between 1874 and 1880. The more recent adoptions have been in the Southern States: Alabama, Florida, South Carolina and Texas in 1915 and Georgia in 1916. The laws vary widely in scope and ef- fectiveness. In some States they are operative only after acceptance by counties and local communities; in others they are effective for only part of the territory of the State, large areas being exempted. The upper age limit for compulsory at- tendance ranges from age 12 in Georgia, Kentucky, North Carolina and Virginia, to age 16 in sixteen of the States, and 18, under certain conditions, in one (Idaho). The more usual compulsory period is 8 to 14 years of age, or "until com- pletion of the eighth grade." The minimum attendance in any one year varies from twelve weeks in Nebraska and Virginia to the "full school year" in twenty-nine States. Compulsory education laws have usually been fortified by State child labor acts and more recently (1916) by a Federal child labor law. IV. ILLITEBACY Illiteracy in the United States is 7.7 per cent as compared with 1 per cent in Great Britain, 4.3 per cent in France and 0.05 per cent in Germany. According to the census of 1910 there were five and a half million illiterates in the United States over 10 years of age. This is over a million more than the combined total population of Mon- tana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Ne- vada and California (4,447,507) ; or of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts and Rhode Island (5,438,945) ; or of South Carolina, Georgia and Florida (4,877,140). A State made up of these illiterates would be nearly as large as Illinois (5,638,591). There were more il- literates in 1910 than comprised the entire population of the United States in 1800 (5,403,383), or the equivalent of the entire combined metropolitan population bf Phila- delphia, St Louis, Boston, Cleve- land, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Detroit, and Buffalo. The percentage of il- literacy in the United States was lowered between 1890 and 1910 from 13.3 per cent in 1890 to 10.7 per cent in 1900, and 7.7 per cent in 1910 ; but the number of illiterates decreased less than 15 per cent and the num- ber of foreign born illiterates in- creased 43 per cent. More than two-thirds of all illiterates are country-dwellers ; the rural illiteracy (10.1 per cent) is nearly twice that in the cities (5.1 per cent). Exist- ing illiteracy is therefore ascribed to foreign immigration and lack of school facilities in country districts. The State and national governments are aiding city evening schools to eliminate illiteracy among the for- eign born, and several States Ken- tucky, Alabama, North Carolina have created State illiteracy commis- sions to deal with the problem in rural communities. V. TYPES OF SCHOOLS Elementary. Elementary educa- tion in the United States has become almost exclusively a public function. Of the 1,626,310 pupils reported in private elementary schools, 1,429,859 are in parish schools of the Catholic Church. Private kindergartens and special schools account for a large part of the remaining number. Secondary. The high school is the most typical American educa- tional institution. There are 11,674 public high schools, of which 8,440 258 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES have four-year courses. Secondary education has become more and more a public function; 89 per cent of the secondary students are in public high schools. It is estimated by the United States Bureau of Edu- cation that 25 out of every 100 children who enter school reach the high school, and that 10 out of every 100 graduate from high school. The most important recent change in sec- ondary education is the gradual in- troduction of the so-called "six-and- and 468 under private control; 327 are controlled by religious denomi- nations ; 140 are for men only ; 83 for women only ; and 340 are coedu- cational. There are 152,307 men students and 84,861 women students.* The number of men students has tripled and the number of women students has more than quadrupled since 1890. The following table shows the dis- tribution of school enrollment in the elementary and higher grades: DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOL ENROLLMENT ACCORDING TO ESTIMATED PERCENTAGES Grades Estimated per cent. Estimated enrollment in grades First grade Second grade Third grade 23.50 14.79 13 91 4,596,904 2,893,115 2 720 976 Fourth grade Fifth grade 13.28 11.28 9 25 2,597,739 2,206,514 1 809 419 Seventh grade Eighth grade 7.63 6 36 1,492,527 1 244 098 Total elementary 100.00 19,561,292 First year high school 40.14 26 75 585,803 390 389 Third year high school Fourth year high school 18.84 14.27 274,951 208,256 Total high school 100.00 1,459,399 Higher institutions 378,845 Grand total 21 399 536 'These are later figures than appear in the general summary at the beginning of this chapter. six" plan of organization, whereby six years are assigned to elementary education and six to secondary, the latter period being divided into "junior" and "senior" high schools of three years each. A hundred and fifty cities had taken steps toward adopting this form of organization in 1915. Higher Education. Of the 563 colleges and universities listed by the United States Bureau of Edu- cation, 95 are public institutions VI. TEACHERS Of the 706,152 teachers employed in the United States, 169,029 are men and 537,123 women. The num- ber of teachers nearly doubled in the thirty years between 1885 and 1915. Nearly five-sixths of the teachers in public elementary schools are wo- men, and of the 57,909 public high school teachers, 32,862 are women. The colleges and universities have 5,293 women instructors and- 19,447 men, The following table summar- EDUCATION 259 Izes the number of teachers in vari- ous types of schools. VII. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Six States Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, In- diana and Wisconsin have regular- ly established systems of vocational or industrial education. Two others been pointed out that prior to the outbreak of the European war more trade workers were being trained at public expense in the city of Munich than in all the larger cities of the United States combined. VIII. COST OF EDUCATION The estimated cost of education TEACHERS IN THE UNITED STATES Teachers in Men Women Total 89 615 432 534 522 149 Public high schools Private elementary schools (estimated) 25,047 8,060 5820 32,862 39,354 8070 57,909 47,414 13 890 Universities and colleges: Preparatory departments Collegiate departments. . . , 2,484 16,963 1,493 3.800 3,977 20,763 Professional schools: 1 516 1 516 Law 1 471 1 471 Medicine Dentistry 6,955 1,532 744 6,955 1,532 744 Veterinary medicine Normal schools, public: Normal department 364 1,636 605 2,904 981 364 4,540 1 586 Normal schools, private: 136 223 359 Other departments 132 131 263 Commercial and business schools 2,019 1 175 1,731 2 728 3,750 3 903 Indian and Alaskan schools 1,255 1,638 2,893 Kindergartens and miscellaneous (estimated) . 1,500 8,674 10,174 Total 169 029 537 123 706 152 California and Connecticut maintain State-aided vocational schools, and some form of vocational or industrial education is provided by eight other States, while in the States which do not provide State aid for vocational education separate municipalities have established sev- eral types of vocational education at public expense. The need for indus- trial training for the youth of the nation has been urged by organiza- tions of business men, labor-union workers, and schoolmen within the past few years as a measure of national conservation and prepared- ness. European nations especially Germany have been ahead of the United States in this regard. It has in the United States for 1914, the latest year for which statistics are available, was $794,459,968. The table over leaf shows the distribu- tion of this expenditure and the per capita Cost for different types of schools. IX. GIFTS AX BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION In the forty-four years, 1871 to 1914, private philanthropy added $584,418,082 to the available funds of colleges and other educational in- stitutions in the United States. The bulk of these funds goes to colleges and universities. Of the $31,357,398 given in 1914, $26.670,017 was for universities and colleges, $1,558,281 for schools of theology, $203,067 for 200 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES SCHOOL ENROLLMENT AND ESTIMATED COST Classification Enrollment, 1914 Estimated per capita cost Estimated total cost Public elementary schools Public high schools 17,934,982 1,218,804 1 626 310 $27.11 56.54 32 00 $486,165,968 68,911,178 52 04 1 920 Private high schools Other public and private secondary schools . . Universities, colleges and professional schools Normal schools Commercial and business schools Keform schools 154,857 85,738 283,559 95,286 168,063 54,798 94.10 157.47 335 . 57 158.34 50.00 157 92 14,572,044 13,501,163 95,153,894 15,087,585 8,403,150 8 653 7OO Schools for the deaf Schools for the blind 13,859 4 971 300.80 498 34 4,168,787 2 477 248 Schools for the feeble-minded Government Indian schools Schools in Alaska supported by the Federal Government Other public schools in Alaska Orphan asylums, etc Private kindergartens 15,940 32,718 3,666 3,100 20,000 74,725 60000 555.42 116.69 56.13 50.00 200.00 32.00 .100 00 8,753,495 3,817,863 205,773 155,000 4,000.000 2,391,200 6 000 000 Total 21,851,376 $36 36 $794 459 968 law schools, $1,495,773 for medical schools, $607,431 for public normal schools, $116,283 for private normal schools, and $706.546 for private sec- ondary schools. The following table shows the annual amount of gifts and bequests to education since 1894 : GIFTS AND BEQUESTS TO EDUCATION, 1894-1914 1894 $10.855,36i 1895 1896 1897 1900 1901 .................... 1902 1903 1904 1905 .................... 1906 1907 volumes is an increase of 20,000,000 since 1908. 1908 .................... 19:763,42 1909 1910 1911 1913 1914 31,357,398 X. LIBRARIES There were over 18,000 regularly established libraries in the United States in 1913, containing more than 75,000,000 volumes. The number of 21. 192.450 24.755.663 27.634,029 30.061.310 29.651.879 READING BOOM, OONSKESSIONAX UBftABT EDUCATION 261 Of the 2,849 libraries containing 5,000 volumes or over, 1,844 are classified as "public and society li- braries," and 1,005 are school and college libraries. Public and society libraries have an aggregate of over fifty million volumes, with seven million borrowers' cards in force; 1,446 of these libraries were entire- ly free to the public. Libraries reporting from 1,000 to 5,000 volumes numbered 5,453, of which 2,188 were public and society libraries, and 3,265 school libraries. These libraries contained 11,689,942 volumes. Another group of libraries, comprising those that reported from 300 to 1,000 volumes, increased the total by 2,961,007 volumes. Of the 1,844 public and society libraries with over 5,000 volumes reported for the entire United States, more than half were in the North Atlantic States, and they contained 24,627,921 volumes out of the total of fifty millions; and of the three million volumes added to library collections for the year 1913, almost one-half were for the same section. New York State had 7,842,621 volumes in her 213 libraries ; Massachusetts, 7,380,024 in 288 libraries; Pennsylvania, 3,- 728,070; and Illinois, 3,168,765 volumes. Four-fifths of the bor- rowers' cards in use were in the North Atlantic and North Central States. Photo Harris & Ewing ENTRANCE HALL, LIBBABY 01 CONGRESS CHAPTER XXII. THE NEW NAVY THE NAVAL PROGRAMME OF 1916. ON August 29, 1916, President Wilson signed the Naval Ap- propriation Bill, authorizing a three-year building programme, of greater size and importance than this nation has ever previously con- templated. To get a perspective on this bill and what it means, consider INCREASE OF NAVY SINCE 1903 YEAR Appropriation Amount for increase navy Building programme 1906 1907 1908 $102,091.670.27 98.958,507 . 5O 122 663 885 47 $33,475,829.00 23,713,915.00 30 307 962 00 1 first-class battleship 3 torpedo-boat destroyers 8 submarines 1 first-class battleship 2 torpedo-boat destroyers 2 first-class battleships 1909 1910 1911 136,935,199.05 131.350,854.38 126 478 338 24 38.819,595.00 33.770,346.00 26 005 547 67 5 colliers 10 torpedo-boat destroyers 8 submarines 2 first-class battleships 1 collier 8 destroyers (3 sub-surface) 4 submarines 2 first-class battleships 2 colliers 6 torpedo-boat destroyers 4 submarines 2 first-class battleships 1912 1913 1914 123,225.007.76 140.800,643.52 144 868 716 61 20,569,373.48 35,325.695 . 00 41 091 734 00 2 colliers 1 river gunboat 1 gunboat 2 tugs 4 submarines 1 submarine tender 8 torpedo-boat destroyers 1 battleship, first line 2 fuel ships 6 destroyers 1 destroyer tender 8 submarines 1 submarine tender 1 battleship 1 transport 1 supply ship 6 destroyers 4 submarines 3 battleships 1915 149,661,864.88 46.853,801.00 6 destroyers 8 (or more) submarines 2 battleships 6 destroyers 2 seagoing submarines 16 coast-defense submarines 1 oil fuel ship Copyright by Munn & Co.. Inc. 264 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES that, at the time, it was hailed as the greatest step forward America had ever taken in Naval matters, and then compare with the present unheard of activities and expendi- tures, which are fitting the Ameri- can first line of defense to play a part in the world war commensur- ate with the necessity and Ameri- can traditions. The Navy Department has had to reverse its peace time policy of giving information, almost com- pletely. In normal times it is suf- ficiently easy to gain statistics of the Navy in war time almost im- possible. Thus, according to the official reports there were upon the Navy list 399 vessels June 30, 191.% listed as follows : Battleships, 41 ; submarines, 57 ; fuel ships, 24 ; tugs, 48 ; yachts, 16 ; cruisers, 24 ; gunboats, 31 ; destroyers, 69 ; tor- pedo boats, 20 ; transports, 6 ; tenders, 9 ; monitors, 9 ; special types, 8 ; supply ships, 5 ; hospital ships, 2 ; armored cruisers, 10, and ships of all kinds in an unservice- able condition, 20. In addition to this list of ships there are author- ized by the Naval Act of March 3, 1915, battleships Nos. 43 and 44, destroyers Nos. 69 to 84, inclusive, and submarines Nos. 60 to 77, in- clusive. Appropriations for the beginning of the construction of these vessels were made available July 1, 1915. It was expected that on July 1, 1917, there would be in active com- mission the following vessels: Battleships 22 Armored cruisers 5 Cruisers 12 Destroyers 52 Gunboats 26 Submarines fifi Destroyer tenders 4 Submarine tenders 6 Transports 2 Repair ships 2 Fleet tugs/ 6 Hospital ship 1 ^leet colliers (manned by naval crews) 4 Mining ships 2 Supply ships 3 Ammunition ship 1 And in reserve with 40 per cent complements : Battleships over 15 years old 17 Armored cruisers 5 Cruisers 11 Destroyers 16 Old torpedo boats 19 Destroyer tender ("Dixie," 194) 1 Submarine tender ("Iris," 86) 1 Supply ship (100) 1 Transport (100) 1 These figures are requoted from the former edition of this book to give an adequate idea of what the United States Navy is when on a peace basis, and to afford a com- parison to the statement that the Navy has now in service nearly three times as many vessels as on April 6, 1917. The war-construction program of the United States Navy now com- prises 787 vessels, including all types from super-dreadnoughts to submarine-chasers. Some of these have been completed in the past few weeks and are now in service. The rest .of the program is being pushed to completion. The total cost is estimated at $1,150,400,000. The first war budget carried ap- propriations for various naval needs as follows, Ordnance and ordnance stores, Navy, $16,905,336. Ammunition for vessels, $68,664,- 858. New batteries for ships of the Navy, $22,333,000. Batteries for auxiliaries and merchantmen, $19,988,800. Reserve and miscellaneous ord- nance supplies, $29,260,000. Pay of the Navy, $75,508,672.42. Provisions, Navy, $31,740,992.45. Fuel and transportation, Navy, $19,362,420. Construction and repair of ves- sels, $57,327,340. Quartermaster's Department, Ma- rine Corps, $20,408,161. The second had an item of $100,- 000,000 for Naval emergency. The Navy has authorizations for $86,- 145,000 in contracts to be paid by 266 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES future Congresses. The Yards and Docks program calls for a hundred millions. New construction is being entered into as fast as the ways can be provided, and the results are amazing. For instance, $350,000,000 is being spent on new destroyers. Of this program. Secretary of the Navy Daniels has said : "These destroyers will be built by five companies which have had ex- perience in .building this type the Fore River Shipbuilding Corpora- tion, Boston; the New York Ship- building Corporation, Camden, N. J. ; Cramps' Shipyard, Philadelphia ; the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Co., Newport News, Va., and the Union Iron Works, San Francisco. "This is the biggest project we have ever undertaken. Three months ago it looked as if it could not be done. Orders had already been given for all the destroyers the yards could build, and almost as many as the new program calls for are now under construction or contract. To build rapidly the ad- ditional destroyers requires a great extension of shipbuilding facilities and the erection of new plants for building engines. The companies were unwilling to invest millions in these additions so the Government must build and will own the new plants and extensions which will be used by the builders. "We are putting every energy and facility behind this project. Some of the new destroyers are promised for delivery in nine months, all within eighteen months. These ves- sels will be of the latest and largest improved type, which has just been tried in our service and found to be unsurpassed by any destroyers in the world. The plans are all ready and the adoption of a uni- form type will enable us to reduce the number of types." More for its historical value than for any purposes of present infor- mation, a summary of what the United States Navy might have been, under peace program activi- ties, is included here. Very ob- viously, no one can say what the 1922 Navy will be, since we know neither what will be then built nor what, by then, destroyed by the enemy. The quotation is from the original edition of this work, NAVY OF THE FUTURE In its 1915 departmental report the Navy Department lists those ships of the present fleet, afloat and building, which will be serviceable in 1922. To this list must now be added the authorized ships in the most recent Navy bill, in order to gain an idea of what our present and projected Navy will amount to when the present stupendous pro- gram is completed. Of course, the present plans are to complete the program prior to 1922, and unquestionably further additions will be made to the Navy in future Congresses, but the following list, which is compiled from the Navy Department figures plus those of the new bill, should indicate the ap- Copyright American Press Association SUBMAHINE "D-l" 268 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES proximate strength of the Navy in usable, fightable ships at a date of approximately 1920 to 1922, as far as present knowledge can project it : SHIPS OF THE FLEET SERVICEABLE IN 1920-1922 Dreadnoughts, first line 27 Pre-dreadnoughts, second line 13 Superannuated pre-dreadnoughts, third line 9 Battle cruisers 6 Scouts 31 Destroyers 108 Fleet submarines 12 Coast submarines 120 Fuel ships 16 Repair ships 3 Supply ships 4 Transports 5 Hospital ships 2 Mine ships 3 Destroyer tenders 4 Fleet submarine tenders 2 Ammunition ships 2 Harbor defense monitors 6 Harbor defense battleships 3 Gunboats 26 COST OF NAVY The total cost of all the ships upon the Navy list to the date men- tioned, and excluding the new work authorized in the Naval Act of March 3, 1915, or the ships author- ized in the tremendous 1916 bill, is $459,686,551.32. It must not, however, be supposed that adding together the cost of battleships and the cost of naval establishments gives any idea of the cost of the entire Navy since it was first began. The total expenditures for the Navy from 1794 to 1915, in- clusive, totals the unthinkable sum of $3,214,339,051.10. This, of course, includes ships, establishments, pay, materials and all expenses in con- nection with the Navy Department. With the new appropriations which have been made, and those which must be made during the continuance of the war the remark- able fact is evident that within the space of from one to three years, the United States will spend upon its naval establishment, a sum eqiial to that which has been spent upon it since the modern Navy idea first came into existence ! HOW NAVY APPROPRIATIONS ARE SPENT The Bureau of Supplies and Ac- counts of the United States Navy requires a closely printed statistical report of 294 pages to summarize the financial operations of the Navy. Nothing, therefore, but the most comprehensive and inclusive statis- tics can be given in the short space here available. The table on the next page will be found interesting as showing the principal items of expenditures in connection with the Navy on a peace basis. NAVY YABDS, STATIONS, POSSESSIONS To'the average man the Navy con- sists of the vessels which float in the water and such property as may be upon them. To the naval man, however, the property ashore neces- sary to maintain the ships at sea is every whit as important as the ves- sels themselves, and, as will be seen in a moment, is no inconspicuous part of the expenditures necessary to make or maintain the Navy. The United States possesses eleven navy yards in the United States, located at Portsmouth, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Washington, Norfolk, Mare Island, Puget Sound, Charleston, Pensacola and New Or- leans. Across the water it has navy yards in Hawaii, Cavite and Olon- gapo. It possseses naval stations at Port Royal and Key West, and abroad at Guantanamo, San Juan, Guam and Tutuila. It possesses training stations at Newport, San Francisco and the Great Lakes; coaling stations at Frenchman's Bay and Melville, and in addition has property at Sitka, Alaska ; New London, Conn. ; Yokohama, Japan ; the Naval Academy at Annapolis, the naval proving ground at Indian Head, a naval hospital at Las Animas, a naval base at Culebra and a torpedo station at Newport, R. I. The investment in these naval estab- lishments totals $196,059,926 since the beginning of the modern idea of the Navy in 1800, when the Ports- THE NEW NAVY 269 PRINCIPAL ITEMS Amount appropriated by Congress for the fiscal year 1915 $145,616,241.9 Total expenditures during 1915 142,959,092.11 Expenditures for maintaining ships in commission : Operation $46,890,893.90 Repairs to ships 4,931,279.89 Changes 3,071,837.55 Repairs to equipage 430,757.34 Total : $55,324,768.68 Expenditures for construction of vessels : Battleships $20,029,890.37 Gunboats and fuel ships 1,913,950.53 Destroyers 5,475,285.52 Submarines 3,636,416.40 Tenders and tugs 935,121.34 Total (at navy yards, $4,540,152.65; under contract, $27,450,- 511.57) ............:... .. $31,990,664.22 Expenditures for pay and allowances of officers and men : Navy $41,185,445.10 Marine Corps 3,920,563.99 Total $45,106,009.09 Cost of subsisting the enlisted men of the Navy and Marines afloat. $5,897,181.54 Average cost of subsisting one man for one day .36 Cost of maintenance of navy yards 16,275,490.63 Cost of all work done at industrial yards : Labor $17,843,767.56 Material 14,958,449.00 Indirect expense 4,277,083.91 Total $37,079,300.47 Value of materials received into store (including ordnance material) . $112,118,294.44 Value of materials issued from store (including ordnance material. . 105,482,564.30 Property investment of naval establishment: Ships $459,686,551.32 Stations 206,635,104.59 Stores 192,070,228.67 Total $858,391,884.58 Expenditures for naval militia $905,226.07 Present value of clothing and small-stores fund : Stock '. $3,57,075.04 Money 1,517,347.50 Total $5,104,422.54 mouth, Boston, Washington and of the shore establishment. For Norfolk navy yards were first estab- instance, naval training stations lished. have mushroomed almost overnight, How these shore establishments to take care of the immense in- are increasing in size and scope crease in personnel required by the under the stimulus of war and war. Ten thousand men are being almost unlimited money is difficult trained at the new naval training to grasp, even were inclusive figures camp at Hampton Roads, which in- available. Obviously the Navy De- eludes four hundred acres and one partment is not publishing all the hundred ana fifty buildings. And it details of its increase of yard and is only one of many, on which a docking facilities. But certain tremendous job of rush work has things are known of the activities been done so quietly that little ap- 270 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES preciation of it lias been manifest in public, particularly when the army cantonment construction work has somewhat overshadowed it in magnitude. Yet the Navy training camp and cantonment work has been anything but small. The Hampton Roads camp repre- sented an investment of over $2,000,- 000. On July 15 the camp site on the grounds of the Jamestown Ex- position of 1907 was largely covered with brambles and scrub pine. Four thousand laborers were set to work and in a few weeks roads had been cleared, marshes drained, and 90 buildings, including barracks and mess halls, erected. The site was scraped, levelled and drained, 150 large frame buildings erected ; sewerage, lighting and waterworks provided and details rapidly com- pleted. Three former exposition buildings of brick and concrete construction are used for perma- nent administration and school purposes, the largest being the former main exposition hall. The Great Lakes Naval Training Station near Chicago, is also prac- tically completed. More than 12,000 men are in training at Great Lakes. The full quota will be 17,000. Great Lakes, the largest naval can- tonment, consists of six camps built around the central permanent es- tablishment on the Lake Michigan shore Camps Dewey, Perry, De- catur, Paul Jones,- Farragut and Ross. Work on these was started June 15th, and in four months the facilities of a modern city have been provided at an outlay of a million dollars a month. Large drill halls have been b\iilt to pro- vide for dTills during the winter. Fifteen other camps for Naval re- cruits already are complete. The one at Pelham, N. Y., at the head of Long Island Sound, accommo- dates 5,000 men and was opened October 1, work having begun July 10. The camp at the Philadelphia Navy Yard for 5,000 men was finished August 30 after a hundred days of work. Quarters for 5,000 were erected at Newport in 30 days, having been completed several months ago. At Mare Island, Cali- fornia, site-clearing began May 8 and barracks for 5,000 men were ready July 14. The Puget Sound cantonment for 5,000 is nearing completion. In Brooklyn, a camp for 3,000 was erected in a city park between July 1 and August 1 ; at Charleston, S. C., quarters for 1,000 were built in twenty days, and 4,000 others in five weeks. Other camps are located at Hing- ham, Massachusetts ; Portsmouth, New Hampshire ; Cape May, New Jersey; Norfolk, Virginia; Key West, Florida; Pensacola, Florida; New Orleans, Louisiana, and San Francisco, California. Work is proceeding on the new camps at Gulfport, Mississippi and San Diego, California, extensive ex- position grounds at both places having been taken over by the Navy Department and converted into training camps. ENLISTED PERSONNEL Having a certain number of fight- ing ships and the required naval stations, bases and navy yards to keep them in condition, a navy would nevertheless be helpless were it not for its personnel, regarded by Navy men as equally important with material and equipment, and gener- ally all too much disregarded by the apporpriating power, unfortunately a non-technical body of men. The total enlisted force in the United States Navy was, on June 30, 1915, 52,561 men, of which 47,505 were native born and 5,056 were foreign born. Of these, 48,908 were white, the balance being negro, Chi- nese, Japanese, Filipino, Samoan, Hawaiian, American Indian and Porto Rican. Fifteen States of the United States furnish 65 per cent of 272 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the enlisted force. New York fur- nishes the largest number of native born American seamen in the Amer- ican Navy, 6,719, and Alaska the smallest number with 6. Contrary to the general opinion the United States Navy does not have difficulty in obtaining men for enlistment. Its troiible comes in the high standard which makes the ma- jority of applications result in re- jections. For instance, during the year 1915 there were 102,561 appli- cations for enlistment. Of these only 17,704 were enlisted and 6,291 of this number were re-enlistments. Over 61,000 of the rejections were on account of disability and 17,000 for other causes. Contrast thesj figures with those of the present day. Obviously three times as many shirs need three times as many men, but in addition a surplus of trained men must be available in case of naval disasters, to take the places of those who may fall in battle. So it is not sur- prising to learn that, in the train- ing stations and already trained, the Navy has a total force of more than a quarter of a million men, in- clusive of the Marine Corps. On April 6 there were 64,680 en- listed men in the regular navy ; now there are 143.726, an increase of 79,046. The Naval Reserve Force has increased from about 10,000 to 49,000; 14,500 naval militia are in the Federal service ; the Coast Guard, with its force of 5,000, has been transferred to the Navy for the duration of the war ; the Hos- pital Corps has been increased from 2,000 to 6,500. The Marine Corps has increased from 13,266 enlisted men on April 6 to an enlisted strength, with reserves, of 32,348. There are about 12,000 officers in the Navy and 1,122 in the Marine Corps. It hardly needs pointing out that, merely because we are at war, we cannot station every naval man at a gun and bid him shoot at a Ger- man. It is as essential to keep the establishment in working order now as in peace times, and to that end a certain proportion of our naval forces must be distributed in peace- ful occupations. No figures are available now as to just where our forces are, but the table for a recent peace year will show their approxi- mate peace distribution. While many will have been called in for more strenuous duty, by no means a small proportion of men engaged as shown will remain in these same stations throughout the war. SCHOOLS In order to supply men qualified for certain ratings in the Navy, the following schools are maintained : Electric schools at New York and Mare Island. Machinists' school at Charleston, S. 0. Torpedo school at Newport, R. I. Coppersmith school at Philadel- phia. Fuel oil school at Philadelphia. Artificer school at Norfolk. Yeoman schools at Newport and San Francisco. Commission schools at Newport and San Francisco. Hospital attendant schools at Newport and San Francisco. Musician schools at Norfolk and San Francisco. Mess attendant school at Norfolk. During the last fiscal year 2,278 men were pursuing courser, at these various schools. Of these, '1,302 completed their course and were detailed 'to active duty. A new class of enlisted men at the Pensacola Aviation School is formed every three months. Some of these men are taught and exor- cised in the principles of flight, and all are trained in the mechanics of aviation. Recently a school for the care and handling of gasoline engines was added to the School for Ma- chinists' Mates at Charleston. It 274 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES embraces a three months' course, in which the men learn to handle motor boats and vessels which use this type of small engine. The radio courses at the Electric Schools at New York and Mare Island have been extended to in- clude, besides the Continental Morse Code, the American Morse Code, so that all the men who qualify at these schools may be competent to talk to any commercial shore sta- tions as well as the naval stations. The need for these schools has quadrupled with the war, and their activities are being- rapidly extend- ed. Not only has the Navy entered a building program such as the United States has never seen, but has taken over hundreds of vessels for special purposes, all of which must be manned. Hundreds of yachts and fast motorboats have been transformed into patrol boats, submarine chasers, mine sweepers and the various types needed for anti-submarine warfare, coast defense and other purposes. The Atlantic Fleet comprises twice as many vessels as in peace times. Every battleship and cruiser that was in reserve has been fully manned and commissioned. Every warship is now a training school for the instruction of men in gun- nery and engineering, and notable results have been achieved, es- pecially in target practice with guns of the smaller calibres used in fighting submarines. DESERTIONS One of the troubles of all navies is found in the practice of deser- tion. Many men cannot stand dis- cipline, others become dissatisfied for one reason or another, and, fail- ing to understand the seriousness of the offense or being willing to take the chance of punishment if detect- ed, absent themselves from the Navy without permission and thus become deserters. Two thousand three hun- dred and twenty men thus deserted during 1915, a decrease of several hundred under 19-14 and a still larger decrease from 1913 and 1912, the figures for which are respect- ively 3,237 and 3,055. Of the 1915 deserters, 480 voluntarily returned to service, and 413 absentees were apprehended and delivered. In 1907 a finger print identifica- tion system was installed in the identification office which now con- tains the finger prints of 133,214 men, including, of course, all those who have enlisted in the Navy since the establishment of this system. The result of the finger print sys- tem is to prevent re-enlistment under assumed names of men who have deserted from the Army and Navy or Marine Corps or who have been discharged for various reasons which would prevent them from re- entering the service under their own names. The finger print identification system has a new ramification in the providing of every enlisted man and every officer with a finger print identification tag in metal. This tag is made of a material which will not melt even at a very high temperature and which is not af- fected by sea water. It is etched in acid after the inked finger print of the right forefinger has been rolled upon it, and bears on the reverse the name and rank of the officer or name and enlistment date of the man who wears it. This system is a complete tie-up of a man's name with his physique, always supposing that in any ac- cident in which he may be killed or injured, his hand is not destroyed. This system, had it been then in use, would have served to identify the unknown dead of the ill fated Maine. PEACE SEBVICES Of the functions of the Navy in time of peace much could be writ- ten, but space forbids. 'Perhaps nothing sums its labors up better THE NEW NAVY 275 DISTRIBUTION OF ENLISTED MEN OCTOBEB 1, 1915 Vessels afloat (including 305 insular force) . . 41,593 Four training stations, including those under instruction, instructors and necessary details 4,494 Fifteen trade schools, including those under instruction, instructors and necessary details 1,376 Total 5,870 Sixteen hospitals : Hospital attendants 398 Patients 1,179 Total 1,577 Recruiting stations : Thirty-five main stations ; eighty-three substations 407 Radio stations 31tt Aeronautic station 134 Vessels under construction 283 Shore duty at navy yard, naval stations' and special duty: Special duty 120 Seamen branch, yeomen, artificers, hospital corps, messmen and bandsmen 760 Insular force 153 Total 913 Not available : Insane asylums 18 Prisoners 1,105 Traveling, leave, unavailable 300 Total 1,423 Grand total 52,636 Insular force (included in above table) : Cavite 178 Olongapo 177 Guam Tutuila 65 Total 453 than the words of Mr. Daniels in crease in its personnel and in their transmitting his report to President training 1 , the improvement in the .Wilson. He states that during 1915 morale of officers and men, and the "our ships have charted islands in perfection of its organization tell the Caribbean and in Alaskan the story of a year of effort crowned waters. They have been privileged with most gratifying advance, to carry thousands of non-com- "The Navy is strong. It must be batants from the war zone to places stronger to justify the confidence of refuge. They have protected the country reposes in it ... Americans and American interests as the first arm of defense of our on the coasts of war-torn Mexico, shores and the protection of the They have afforded a patrol of our liberties of our people." coasts to preserve neutrality. They have carried aid to flood sufferers WAB SERVICES in China and given succor to the Since early in May, a month after starving in Samoa. They have war was declared, United States transported marines to preserve destroyers have been operating with peace in the revolutionary period in the naval forces of OUT allies in Haiti and have acted as protector European waters in the campaign and custodian of the interests of against the submarines. Practically that island in the days of its travail. all our merchant ships are now Maneuvers, war games, target prac- convoyed by naval vessels, tice, reviews, have given evidence of The Navy has organized, manned its readiness and fitness. The in- and is operating the transport 276 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES service and convoys the vessels carrying American armies to Europe. Not a transport has been sunk or a soldier lost in transporta- tion across the Atlantic. At present, we accept this fact without wonderment. When the truth is finally known, as to the numbers of troops transported and the numbers of ships which have been taken through the submarine hunting grounds without accident, not only this country but the whole world will marvel at the efficiency of the Navy. Close followers of the news in the daily papers, inaccurate though it often is, will have noted the un- doubted facts that submarine activ- ities are on the wane. Inasmuch as there is nothing a submarine fears so much as it does a destroyer, and the aeroplane, and inasmuch as we have both very much on duty with parts of the allied fleets, the inference should be a point of pride to every American. In this connection it should be said that the Navy has not been backward in aviation. A new aero- plane station at Cape May was authorized by the last Congress, and a million dollar factory is being finished in Philadelphia. But, as in the case ol the Army, nothing is being said as to numbers of ma- chines, aviators or types. The prevention of submarine ac- tivities, and the safety of merchant vessels by convoy, or otherwise, is of course a naval problem, even if one in which many civilian activi- ties are engaged looking for a greater success. The Naval Con- sulting Board, the Ship Protecting Committee, the National Research Council, and a large number of private concerns, either comman- deered by or volunteered to the Government, are working on many ideas for the elimination of the submarine menace. Of those which are scientific and instrumental such as for instance, devices for de- tection of submarines through sound or otherwise it would not be patriotic here to speak. But the most obvious remedy the building of ships faster than the submarine can sink them while not strictly a naval activity is so intimately re- lated to the Navy as to need men- tion here. Unquestionably, outside of de- fense of the home coast line, and perhaps a co-operation with the allied navies in blockade, the great- est function of the United States fleet in the Atlantic will be convoy work. And it seems as if the Navy would have plenty to do in that respect and very shortly. The United States has today 458 ships of over 1,500 deadweight tons with an aggregate tonnage of 2,871,359, either engaged in or capa- ble of participating in foreign trade. The United States Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation has commandeered 403 steel ships of more than 2,800,000 tons which are being completed or under con- tract for construction in American yards. Figures show that the United States will have near the end of 1918 a merchant fleet of more than 1,600 ships aggregating 9,200,000 tons to carry its foreign commerce, as compared with an overseas marine of 1,614,222 tons on June 30, 1914, scarcely a month before the European War began. These figures are not inclusive of the work of the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corpora- tion, which is now building a total of 1,039 ships. Of these, 353 with a total dead- weight tonnage of 1,253.900. are wooden ships; 58, with a total dead- weight tonnage of 207,000 are com- posite ; 225 with a total dead- weight tonnage of 1,663,800, are steel. The total deadweight ton- nage under construction at the present time is 5,924.700 tons. In addition to this, there is in- cluded in the recently enacted THE NEW NAVY 277 Urgent Deficiencies Appropriation a provision and authorization for the construction of further vessels whose total deadweight capacity will be approximately 5,000,000 tons. Thus, the Shipping Board has under construction and contempla- tion a total tonnage of nearly 11,000,000 deadweight capacity. The total authorization for this work is. approximately $1,799,000,- 000 for the Shipping Board and the Emergency Fleet Corporation. Of this amount the appropriation is $1,085,000,000, including the amount carried in the recent Act. The authorization will carry the Emer- gency Fleet Corporation's building program well into the year 1919, but a very large part of the 1,039 vessels now under construction will bo completed during the calendar year 1918. In addition to the tonnage being constructed by the Emergency Fleet Corporation, there have been taken over 103 German interned vessels with a total tonnage of 611,799 deadweight tons. All of these ex- cept 20, with a tonnage of 120,500 tons have been repaired and are now in the service of the Army or Navy, or the Allied Government. The remaining 20 are still in pro- cess of repair and will be similarly employed when the work upon them is completed. In addition, 14 Austrian interned ships have been acquired for the use of the United States and our Allies. Their tonnage aggregates 88,505 tons. Whether Germany continues her submarine campaign or depends upon sea raiders upon the surface, it is obvious that she will make every effort to nullify this tre- tremendous building program. A United States Army in France is of no military value without con- stant accretions of men, a steady flow of munitions, a constant sup- ply of food. Neither men, muni- tions nor provisions can be, had in Europe everything General Persh- ing needs must come from America. It can only come in ships. The ships can only come in safety when properly guarded by the Navy. Nothing that the Navy has done or can do will tax its personnel, its ships, its efficiency, its patriotism to a greater degree than this, and if, as every American firmly be- lieves, it measures up to its re- sponsibilities and its opportunity, the inglorious duty of acting as policeman of the seas, and convoy- ing merchant vessels instead of fighting brilliant battles, may have a greater effect in winning the war than any naval engagement of the past has had in settling interna- tional difficulties. A FOURTEEN INCH 50-CA1IBER GUN 278 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES LEGEND FOR NAVY MAP MISCELLANEOUS 1 Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. 2 Naval Coal Depot, Newport, R. I. 3 Naval Home, Philadelphia, Pa. 4 Naval Hospital, Las Animas, Colo. 5 Naval Hospital, Washington, D. C. 6 Naval Proving Grounds, Indian Head, Md. NAVY YARDS 18 Boston, Mass. 19 Charleston, S. C. 14 Mare Island, Cal. 15 Brooklyn, N. Y. 13 Norfolk, Va. 17 Pensacola, Fla. 3 Philadelphia, Pa. 20 Portsmouth, N. H. 21 Puget Sound, Wash. 5 Washington, D. C. NAVAL STATIONS 7 Key West, Fla. 8 Narragansett Bay, R. I. 9 New London, Conn. 10 New Orleans, La. 11 Port Royal, S. C. TORPEDO STATION 2 Newport, R. I. 17 Pensacola, Fla. 7 Key West, Fla. 14 Mare Island, Cal. 21 Puget Sound, Wash. 26 Hingham, Mass. 10 New Orleans, La. 24 San Diego, Cal. 12 Great Lakes, 111. 15 Brooklyn, N. Y. 15 Pelham, N. Y. 27 Gulf port, Miss. 29 Hampton Roads Naval Operating base. MARINE CORPS TRAINING STATIONS 5 Washington, D. C. 11 Port Royal, S. C. 14 Mare Island, Cal. 3 Philadelphia Navy Yard, Pa. (Temporary.) 28 Quantico, Va. COAST GUARD ACADEMY 9 New London, Conn. NAVAL AVIATION STATIONS 30 Bay Shore, Long Island. 17 Pensacola, Fla. SUBMARINE BASE 9 New London, Conn. NAVAL TRAINING STATIONS 12 Great Lakes, 111. 2 Newport, R. I. 13 Norfolk, Va. 14 San Francisco, Cal. NAVAL TRADE SCHOOLS 13 Norfolk, Va. 2 Newport, R. I. 14 San Francisco, Cal. 15 Brooklyn, N. Y. 14 Mare Island, Cal. 17 Pensacola, Fla. NEW NAVAL TRAINING CAMPS 3 Philadelphia, Pa. 2 Newport, R. I. 25 Cape May, N. J. 19 Charleston, S. C. NAVAL DISTRICT HEADQUARTERS 18 First Naval District, Boston, Mass. 2 Second Naval District, Newport, R. I 15 Third Naval District, New York, N. Y. 3 Fourth Naval District, Philadelphia, Pa. 13 Fifth Naval District, Norfolk, Va. 19 Sixth Naval District, Charleston, S. C. 7 Seventh Naval District, Key West, Fla. 10 Eighth, Naval District, New Or- leans, La. 12 Ninth Naval District, Great Lakes. 111. 14 Twelfth Naval District. San Fran- cisco, Cal. 21 Thirteenth Naval District, Puget Sound, Wash. Fourteenth Naval District, Hono- lulu, T. H. 5 Washington, D. C. CHAPTER XXIII. THE ARMY BY C. H. CLAUDY IT is almost impossible to put anything on paper about the United States Army which will not be out of date before it is printed, because the progress of the Nation towards an efficient war footing is so surprisingly rapid. Without the perspective of time, it is difficult to estimate the eco- nomic effect of the selective draft law. Before its operation, our Army was 175,000 men. Today we have a million men under arms or in train- ing, and have secured them by a process of law, an elimination of the unfit and the most gigantic lottery ever held, with hardly a ripple upon the surface of the body politic. Prior to the war, the organization of the United States Army was as follows: The General Officers, General Staff Corps, Adjutant General's De- partment, Inspector General's De- partment, Judge Advocate General's Department, Quartermaster Corps. Medical Department. Medical Re- serve Corps. Dental Corps, Contract Surgeons. Corps of Engineers, Ord- nance Department. Signal Corps, Bureau of Insular Affairs, Chap- lains and Military Academy. Commands in the field are organ- i/ed as Cavalry. Field Artillery, Coast Artillery, Infantry and Phil- ippine Scouts. On September 20, 1916, there, were authorized 11 Major Generals and 30 Brigadier Generals, 244 Colonels, 231 Lieutenant Colonels, 658 Majors, 2,099 Captains, 2,562 First Lieuten- ants, 1,369 Second Lieutenants and 85 Chaplains as officers, a total of 7 : 289 for a total authorized strength of 117,038 enlisted men. Creating a national army by selective draft is a sufficient prob- lem, but nothing to that oi finding officers for it after it is created. A capable officer can train men to be soldiers in a few months. But to train men to be officers in a few months seemed an impossible task. Nevertheless, to some extent the problem has been solved, and is still in process of solution. Prior to the war the Officers Re- serve Corps was created by act of Congress to secure a Reserve of of- ficers available for service in the Army, as officers of the Quarter- master Corps and other staff corps and departments, as officers for re- cruit rendezvous and depots, and as officers of volunteers. Members of the. Officers' Reserve Corps are not subject to call for service in time of peace. The President is authorized to appoint and commission as Reserve officers in all grades up to and in- cluding that of major, such citizens as are found qualified to hold such commissions. Many civilians sought and ob- Copyright by Munn & Co., In<;. 282 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tained commissions under this law, subsequent to its passage and be- fore the war came to America. Some had prior military training, others were officers in the National Guard and still others, by virtue of their special knowledge and civilian accomplishments had services to offer the Government which were of value sufficient to win them Re- serve commissions. But there were by "no means enough to officer the new army. Hence one of the first steps of the Adjutant General's office, following the declaration of war, was the establishment of sixteen training camps, following the Plattsburg idea, for the training of young men who could get appointments thereto, to be officers. Such young men had to have flawless health and physique, educa- tion, special military knowledge or qualifications which would specially fit them for a commission after training. Twenty-seven thousand young officers were trained in the first three months camp, and have been commissioned. Note that many more received partial training and were eliminated as unfit during the progress of the training. A second course is now in progress, and a third will be started shortly. At the present time we have about 80,000 officers as against 20,000 when war broke out. But we have not yet enough. Hundreds of officers are civilian experts in khaki and commission, doing mag- nificent work in their lines, but not equipped to lead or train troops. Those who can both lead and train are what the training camp tries to produce and this kind of officer which must be produced, if, when the national army gets to France, it is not to fail as Russia's army has failed, from lack of proper com- manding material. Not content with training men to be officers, a vocational and edu- cation statistical enumeration of men in training camps is being carried on by the War Department, in order to make each man count for the most that is in him, by assigning him, where practical, to the kind of work he is best fitted to do. Just what this and other war measures dealing with personnel may mean is best seen in the mail records of the Adjutant General's office, in charge of records and cor- respondence of the War Depart- ment. In pre-war days three thous- and pieces made a good day's mail. Today 75,000 pieces is below rather than above the average. THE CANTONMENTS The historian of the future will assign a greater place to the bring- ing into being of the training camps for the national army than they have in the public mind today. Events have moved too rapidly for the reading public to give such con- structive efforts their true value. ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ENTIRE MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT JUNE 30, 1916 Branches of Service Officers Enlisted Men Total General officers Staff corps and departments Engineers 25 1,012 207 778 "lb',896' 1,948 14 646 25 11,908 2,155 15424 Field Artillery 262 5 664 5 926 Coast Artillery Corps 728 1 604 19,185 36 123 19,913 37 727 Miscellaneous 7,303 7.303 Total regular army Philippine scouts 4,616 182 95,765 5,430 100,381 5,612 Aggregate 4,798 101,195 105,993 THE ARMY 283 Yet the building 1 of sixteen can- tonment cities, housing half a million men, by the expenditure of $150,000,000 in less than three month's time was a feat which for magnitude and daring, for emer- gency, efficiency and for American ingenuity, surpassed the building of the Panama Canal, even as the money spent in three months was nearly three times as great as the money spent on the canal in any one year. With all credit to the Army of- ficers who all but gave their lives to this engineering feat, civilian co- operation must receive a large share of praise for what is accomplished. Profits were cut to a minimum. The firms selected to do the con- struction work were asked to build as they went along, with plans con- stantly changing, with a labor situ- ation which was sometimes acute and a material situation which was abnormal. Yet, for all practical purposes, sixteen cities capable of holding forty thousand men each of dining them, housing them, training them, taking care of them, supplying them, with all that a soldier needs, were built, including water, sewer, telephone and light systems, streets, roads and rail- roads, within less than ninety days. When America called her young men to the colors, she had a place to which they could go. Great quantities of raw material have been used in the work. Within sixty days 190 mills, in all parts of the country shipped to the several cantonment sites more than 500,- 000,000 feet of lumber. Approxi- mately 24,000 freight cars were used for transportation of this lumber. From 5,000 to 10,000 men have worked upon each of the emer- gency cities. Each cantonment contractor has handled about 5,000 carloads of material. Weekly pay- rolls have run as high as $150,000. Some wonderment has been ex- pressed that some of the canton- ments cost much more than others. The difference, sometimes as much as a million dollars, is easily under- stood when it is said that where large cities were nearby, so that water supply and sewerage were easy problems to solve, the cost was less where, because of special fit- ness of location, a cantonment has been placed far from a large city, a complete water and sewage sys- tem has had to be installed and a water system satisfactory to the Medical Department cost money, as did the sewage system. But the United States has always had the reputation of having the best soldiers in the world largely be- cause they are well cared for, and pure water and sanitary camps were essential, regardless of cost. A carload of roofing tacks alone was required to nail down the 6,000,000 square feet of paper roof- ing for the protection of the can- tonment buildings. Altogether 93,- 000 kegs of nails have been driven and there have been installed 140,- 000 doors, 686,000 sashes, more than 3,000,000 square feet of screens, 139,000 rolls of sheathing paper and 29,250,000 square feet of wall boarding. To light the army cities 250 street lamps and 20,000 inside lamps have been used at ea.ch site. All of this material was transported during a period of traffic conges- tion on the railroads. The equipment of these canton- ments was an enormous job. Half a million men require over 12,000,- 000 separate articles of clothing and bedding alone. Yet they have been supplied as the following table shows: Bedsacks 422.346 Blankets 1,402,390 Cotton breeches 436,749 Woolen breeches 259,80'i Cotton coats 267,579 Woolen coats 204.72S Summer drawers 912,272 Winter drawers 1.047.990 284 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Hats 007.374 Leggins 459,310 Overcoats 289,713 Flannel shirts 797,997 Cotton stockings 1,000,532 Light wool stockings 1,276,023 Heavy wool stockings... 12,975 Cotton undershirts 1,019,801 Woolen undershirts 1.023.093 Shoes 937,734 Grand Total all articles 12,974,111 It has been appreciated that the cantonments are to be dwelling places for men not accustomed to military life but to all the con- veniences of the average American home. Both from the viewpoint of hygiene, comfort and attractive- ness the War Department has en- deavored to make each cantonment a model city where the environment will be conducive to military ef- ficiency and contentment. A comparison of pre-war and anti-war conditions in enlistment and volunteering, and the status of the Army today with its increments by selective, draft brings out some astonishing figures. NUMERICAL STRENGTH So rapidly does the military es- tablishment change today that there is no such thing as a final, or even a very accurate figure. But on September 1, 1917, there were 943,- 141 men in the armed forces of the United States who were purely volunteers. Over 1,300,000 volun- teers have offered since the declar- ation of war, of which, of course, only a small percentage has been acceptable material. Almost 200,- 000 have been accepted in the Regular Army since April 1 and 137,000 in the National Guard. The total volunteer land forces are as follows : Officers Regular Army 6,700 National Guard 11,000 Reserve Corps 10,500 " (from training camps) 27,341 Total 55,541 Enlisted Men Regular Army 298,090 National Guard 300,000 Reserve Corps 55,487 Total Total land forces 710,024 DISTRIBUTION Prior to the Spanish War the United States kept its Army at home, with the exception of a few officers and men opening up com- munication in Alaska and in foreign diplomatic service. How becoming a world power affects Army life is well shown in the accompanying table. These, of course, are pre-war figures. Absolutely no figures are available for the distribution of the Army at present. We know that Pershing has an army in France, but how large it is only GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ARMY Geographical Distribution Officers Enlisted Men Total In the United States In Alaska 3,502 23 64,756 747 68,258 770 In the Philippine Islands: Regular army 455 182 12,454 5 430 12,909 5 612 In China In Porto Rico 45 37 1,361 670 1,406 707 In Hawaii In the Isthmian Canal zone Troops en route and officers at other for- eign stations 322 192 40 9,199 6,15l 427 9,521 6,343 467 Total 4,798 101,195 105,993 THE AKMY 285 the War Department knows, and it is not saying a word. But of course the national army, roughly spoken of as at present consisting- of 687,000 men, is de- signed for service abroad, and it seems highly probable that a second draft from the ten million regis- tered young men between twenty- one and thirty will take place be- fore long, probably filling the can- tonments again when the present army shall leave them, trained, for final training and then service in the front line trenches. Making bricks without straw is a problem comparatively easy, when laid side by side with compiling a statistical report without statistics. Yet statistics are the one thing the War Department is determined not to give, for good and sufficient mili- tary reasons. Even in the case of dollars it is difficult to get figures which will be final. The pre-war expenses of our mili- tary establishment are shown in the accompanying table : APPROPRIATION The expenditures by the War De- partment for all purposes during the fiscal year 1915 amounted to $166,355,172.99. Of this amount, $9,518,227.02 was for the civil es- tablishment, that is, maintenance of the War Department as an Ex- ecutive Department, buildings and grounds in and around Washington, national and military parks, monu- ments, national cemeteries, support of national homes for disabled soldiers and sailors, miscellaneous public works, etc.; $45,092,760.02 for rivers and harbors, and the balance, $111,744,185.95, for military pur- poses, including the support of the Army, Military Academy, militia, fortifications, arsenals, military posts and miscellaneous items. How this compares with the present rate of expenditure is shown EXPENDITURES FOR 1915 AND APPROPRIATION FOR 1916 Expenditures for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915 Appropriations for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1916 Civil establishment (War Department proper). Salaries, contingent expenses, etc. (including office of public buildings and grounds) ....... Civil public works and miscellaneous (exclusive of rivers and harbors) : Military and national parks. . Buildings and grounds in and around Washington National cemeteries .* $1,897,151.91 587,560.14 373,950.81 328,912.21 955 170 07 $1,925,598.00 407,060.00 314,490.00 312,070.00 379 760 00 National home for disabled volunteer soldiers. . . Miscellaneous relief acts, etc 4,193,665.65 1,181,816.23 4,931,009.50 1,973,471.20 Total civil establishment $9 518 227 02 $10 243 458 70 Military establishment: Support of the army $98 076 645 78 $96 519 195 87 Military academy Militia 996,035.84 5 007 814 98 1,069,813.37 5 440 000 00 Fortifications 6 300 355 59 6 060 216 90 Arsenals 481,096.19 882 237 57 653,600.00 570 924 99 Total military establishment $111,744,185.95 45 092 760 02 $110,313,751.13 33 ggg gii 64 Grand total $166 355 172 99 $154 547 021 47 OUK COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES by recalling the cost of the can- tonments a sum equal to the sup- port of the entire military estab- lishment for 1916. Congress has been anything but niggardly with the Army. It has ap- propriated lavishly sensibly, with due forethought and careful con- sideration, but without stint. The first general deficiency bill after the declaration of war carried $100,000,000 for the President to spend in national security and de- fense. The army and military bills, with some sundry civil bills, failing in the 64th Congress, were swiftly passed after the declaration of war, totaling nearly four hundred and twenty-five millions. 'Then came the first great war budget which gave $3,281,000,000 to Army and Navy together for war expenses, shortly followed by $640,000,000 for an aviation service and aeroplanes. To cap the climax came the second great war budget appropriating $5,356,666,016.92 for war purposes. Going a little into detail, it may be mentioned that the Army appro- priations for 1918, set aside for the military establishment the regular appropriations which would have been authorized even if the Nation had not gone to war. It carried $273,046,322.50, as compared with $267,596,530.10 for the fiscal year ending in June, 1917. In the first war budget were the following major items: Expenses of the Signal Service, $47,267,766. Pay of officers of the line, $42,- 096,626.09. Pay of enlisted men of all grades, $226,882,560. Pay of enlisted men in the Quartermaster Corps, $29,990.128. Pay of enlisted men in the Medical Department, $18,848,960. Subsistence of the Army, $133,- 000,000. Regular supplies, Quartermaster Corps, $101,800,114.23. Transportation of the Army and its supplies, $221,963,745.42. Water and sewers at military posts, $10,546,169. Clothing and camp and garrison equipage, $231,538,548.64. Horses for Cavalry, Artillery, and Engineers, $25,000,000. Barracks and headquarters, $47,- 603,314.20. Medical and hospital department, $29,780,000. Engineer equipment of troops, $35,876,000. Engineer operations in the field, $94,500,000. Ordnance stores, ammunition, $131,048,000. Small-arms target practice, $17,- 500,000. Manufacture of arms, $55,349.000. Ordnance stores and supplies, $106,550,000. Automatic machine rifles, $65,- 900,000. Mountain, field, and siege can- non, $155,000,000. Ammunition for mountain, field, and siege cannon, $367,000,000. Seacoast cannon and ammuni- tion, 25,305,000. Alteration and maintenance of mobile artillery, $25,000,000. The second, or five billion dollar war budget, after some appropria- tions for emergency shipping and a hundred millions for naval emer- gency, devoted most of its total to the Army, as follows : Subsistence of the Army, $250,- 000,000. Regular supplies, Quartermaster Corps, $125,000,000. Transportation of the Army and its supplies, $375,000,000. Clothing and camp and garrison equipage, $350,000,000. Medical and hospital department, $100,000,000. Engineer operations in the field, $186,000,000. Ordnance stores and supplies, $480,047,000. THE ARMY 287 Mountain, field, and siege can- non, $695,100,000. Ammunition for mountain, field, and siege cannon, $1,440,182,750. Alteration and maintenance of mobile artillery, $158,334,000. Not the least of the problems America has had to face has been the spending 1 of this money. It takes an organization to spend large sums of money wisely. It takes expert knowledge and much economic wisdom, not to defeat the ends of economy by price inflation, while at the same speeding up pro- duction and utilizing competition to foster efficiency without allowing it to make waste possible. In this work the Council of National Defense has done a won- derful service as well as in the mobilization of the country's re- sources and in the expansion of industry to meet new conditions. It has mobilized 262,000 miles of railroad, mobilized the country's means of communication by wire, made an inventory of American in- dustry and instituted a systematic scheme of purchases which has re- sulted in great economies. As a single instance of the work ir. price economy, it can be said that the council procured 450,000,- 000 pounds of copper for Govern- ment use at a considerable reduc- tion under market price and brought about advantageous con- tracts on steel, zinc and aluminum. It has broTight together the greatest corps of civilian, engineer- ing, professional, technical and scientific experts ever assembled and put their services at the disposal of the Government. It has met and solved problems which there was no Government machinery to solve, such as the question of priority in filling orders, preven- tion of inter-government bidding, drawing the state councils of de- fense together and making them serve as cogs in the United States' great war machine, acting as an advisory board on purchases of raw materials and supplies for both America and her allies, etc. It is absolutely impossible to summarize its activities in a paragraph, save to say that if money is the main- spring which makes the war gov- ernment go, the Council of National Defense is the hair spring by which its movements are regulated. AERONAUTICS It is impossible in a short sketch of this kind to take up and epi- tomize the work of all the various arms of the service. The Army or- ganization is too vast a machine and its activities too great to per- mit brief treatment. Its own yearly reports require three large volumes of a thousand pages each, not to mention the thousands of docu- ments and orders continually issued, and this of course, refers to pre- war conditions. But, while a dozen branches of the service might well occupy pages, as far as their intrinsic in- terest is concerned, it is aviation which is the most spectacular. For there is no blinking the fact that up to the present the United States, the cradle of aviation, has been most laggard in Army development of flying, and this in spite of the fact that it was the Signal Corps trials of 1908 and 1909 which es- tablished the heavier-than-air ma- chine as a factor in warfare. Now we have an appropriation of $640,000,000 for an aviation service, and the strong probability that it will be increased by as much more in the not far distant future. And the story of the build- ing of this service, when it is told, will be a real American romance. The home of aviation was, within a few months, absolutely destitute of anything pertaining to the art, at least as far as war preparations were concerned. No factories, no aviators, no workmen, no engines, no industry to start with the OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Signal Corps was given a real problem when Congress handed it a huge sum and told it to go ahead and build some twenty thousand air planes, train enough aviators, observers, mechanics, balloonists, photographers, bomb droppers, etc., to man the planes and in effect, go and put out Germany's eyes. But the thing is being done. A huge building in Washington houses most of the offices where the plans are laid and carried on. Factories have been developed. Men are being trained. Planes are being manufactured the money ig being spent and something is being received for it. The types of airplanes now in process of manufacture cover the entire range of training machines, light highspeed fighting machines and powerful battle and bombing planes of the heaviest design. Our contracts call for an ample number of training machines and embrace as well giant battle planes capable of the work of the Caproni, the Handley Page and similar types. Every measure of insurance has been taken that the American forces in France shall be amply equipped with aircraft. The work of the Aviation Section has been thoroughly systemized. The train- ing of aviators, the building of motors and the construction of wings is proceeding unifomrly each keeping pace with the other and with general war plans. The comprehensive plan is that, when motors are ready, there shall be ready also the planes necessary; and, when the motors and planes are ready, aviators and machine guns shall be available. Co-ordina- tion has been developed in every branch of the Aviation Section. Unfortunately for the American public, which does so appreciate being told when the country is doing anything stupendous, the necessity for military secrecy in the matter of aeronautics is greater than in almost any other military branch. Censorship is rigid, and particulars, even when known, are not published. It is impossible to say more of the actual progress made than to state that contracts have been let and work is in prog- ress on practically the entire num- ber of airplanes and motors for which provision was made in the $640,000,000 aviation bill passed by Congress in July. Nor have we had to do this, to use new and strange work alone. More than thirty of the air service experts of the Allied nations have come to Washington and are on regular duty with the officers of the Army and Navy air services and with the members of the Aircraft Production Board. The best men of the air services of the Allied countries have been loaned to this Government and were sent here to aid in getting our aviation pro- gram under way with the fewest, possible mistakes and the greatest economy in time. Of course, production in quantity is biit one step in the program. Aeroplanes without accessories- cameras, bomb droppers, barom- eters, field glasses, maps, the thousand and one things which make up an aviator's equipment would be of little use. These, too, are being cared for, and production speeded to the necessary point. So is the production of aviators. This country has an unlimited sup- ply of young men possessing cour- age, self-reliance, good judgment and decision the things required in the air service. This service, appealing to both the imagination and patriotism of such young men, is today fitting thousands of Ameri- cans for flying. The ground schools conducted by several of our great universities are turning out cadets steadily. Twenty-four flying schools have been authorized and construction work is up to schedule. Allied THE ARMY 289 countries accept our cadet students for final training upon foreign soil. These men are being 1 trained in our uniforms and will be turned over as finished aviators to the fighting forces in France. American avia- tors are today in training in all the Allied countries. They are now- undergoing intensive training be- hind several of the battle fronts. The sending of great numbers of American aviators abroad and the rapidity of training preparations at the flying schools in the United States such as the one near Day- ton indicate the scope of the work of the aviation section since funds were made available for an army of aviators. No account of the new aviation work could be considered complete which did not at least mention the Liberty Motor. And mention is about all it can get, for no details in the whole chest of War Depart- ment secrets have been more closely guarded than these. Absolutely nothing is known of the motor, except that it is the first aviation motor which can be put com- mercially "in production" that is, made in quantity by standardized methods, instead of slowly and by hand finishing, as all other good aviation motors have been made. Standards.' It is the result of the labors of America's foremost engine experts, and is said to be not only satis- factory as a motor, but to have a greater horsepower per poundage than even the best foreign type. Of it, Secretary of War Baker has said: "The 'United States Aviation Engine' has passed its final tests. They were successful and gratify- ing. The new motor, designated by the Signal Service as the 'Liberty Motor,' is now the main reliance of the United States in the rapid pro- duction in large numbers of high- powered battle planes for service in the war. In power, speed, serv- iceability and minimum weight the new engine invites comparison with the best that the European war has produced. "I regard the invention and rapid development of this engine as one of the really big accomplishments of the United States since its entry in the war. The engine was brought about through the co-operation of more than a score of engineers, who pooled their skill and trade secrets in the war emergency, work- ing with the encouragement of the Aircraft Production Board, the War Department and the Bureau of U. S. ARMY FORTS, BARRACKS, AND ARSENALS FORTS FORTS FORTS 83 Adams, R. I. 25 D. A. Russell, Wyo. 106 Jay, N. Y. " 22 Keogh Mont 29 Apache, Ariz. 67 De Soto, Fla. (Remount Depot) 116 Armistead, Md. 26 Douglas, Utah. 4 Lawton, Wash. 17 Baker, Cal. 112 Du Pont, Del. 39 Leavenworth, Kans. 91 Banks, Mass. 76 Ethan Allen, Vt. 72 Levett, Maine 65 Barrancas, Fla. 3 Flagler, Wash., 34 Lincoln. N. Dak. 14 Barry, Cal. 87 Foster. Maine 31 Logan, Colo. 32 Bayard, N. Mex. 130 Fremont, S. C. 52 Logan, H. Roots, Ark. S9 Benjamin Harrison, Ind. 124 Front Royal, Va. 75 Lyon, Maine 33 Bliss, Tex. (Remount Depot) 13 MacArthur, Cal. 56 Brady, Mich. 62 Gaines, Ala. 18 McDowell, Cal. 7 Canby, Wash. 6 George Wright, Wash. 74 McKinley, Maine 114 Carroll, Md.. 86 Getty, R. I. 133 McPherson, Ga. 1 Casey, Wash. 85 Greble, R. I. 64 McRee, Fla. 127 Caswell, N. C. 107 Hamilton, N. Y. 23 Mackenzie, Wyo. 63 Clark, Tex. 109 Hancock, N. J. 97 Mansfield, R. L 8 Columbia, Wash. 90 Heath, Mass. 19 Mason, Cal. 88 Constitution, N. H. 98 H. G. Wright, N. Y. 35 Meade, S. Dak. 48 Crockett, Tex. 115 Howard, Md. 99 Michie, N. Y. 38 Crook, Nebr. 30 Huachuca, Ariz. 16 Miley, Cal. 68 Dade, Fla. 121 Hunt. Va. 20 Missoula, Mont. s s * y FORTS 42 Sill, Okla. 102 Slocum, N. T. 117 Smallwood, Md. 49 Snelling, Minn. 92 Standlsh, Mass. 89 Stars, N. H. 9 Stevens, Ore. 95 Strong, Mass. 129 Sumter, S. C. 100 Terry, N. Y. 61 Thomas, Ky. 104 Totten, N. Y. 46 Travis, Tex. 108 Wadsworth, N. Y. 5 Ward, Wash. 93 Warren, Mass. 120 Washington, Md. 58 Wayne, Mich. 84 Wetherlll, R. I. 11 Whitman, Wash. 73 Williams, Maine 15 Wlnfleld Scott, Cal. 105 Wood, N. Y. 2 Worden, Wash. BARRACKS 27 Boise, Idaho 60 Columbus, Ohio FORTS 125 Monroe, Va. 63 Morgan, Ala. Ill Mott, N. J. 128 Moultrle, S.C. 123 Myer, Va. 79 Niagara, N. Y. 134 Oglethorpe, Ga. 37 Omaha, Nebr. 78 Ontario, N. T. 81 Philip Kearny, R. I. 66 Pickens, Fla. 80 Porter, N. Y. 71 Preble, Maine 41 Reno, Okla. (Remount Depot) 94 Revere, Mass. 40 Riley, Kans. 55 Ringgold, Tex. 36 Robinson, Nebr. 82 Rodman, Mass. 12 Rosecrans, Cal. 54 St. Philip, La. 45 Sam Houston, Tex. 47 San Jacinto, Tex. 103 Schuyler, N. Y. 132 Screven, Ga. 57 Sheridan, 111. CANTONMENTS FOR THE NATIONAL ARMY A circle Is around each number on the map. 1 Ayer, Mass. Camp Devens. 2 Wrightstown, N. J. Camp Dix. 3 Atlanta, Ga. Camp Gordon. 4 American Lake, Wash. Camp Lewis. 5 Columbia, S. C. Camp Jackson. 6 Chillicothe, Ohio. Camp Sherman. 7 Little Rock, Ark. Camp Pike. 8 Louisville. Ky. Camp Zachary Taylor. 9 Battle Creek, Mich. Camp Custer. 10 San Antonio, Tex. Camp Travis. 11 Ft. Riley, Kans. Camp Funston. 12 Des Moines, la. Camp Dodge. 13 Yaphank, N. Y. Camp Upton. 14 Annapolis June., Md. Camp Meade. 15 Petersburg, Va. Camp Lee. 16 Rockford. III. Camp Grant. SPECIAL ARMY SCHOOLS Aviation Training Camps: A Mineola, N. Y. B Mt. Clemens, Mich. C Fairfleld. Ohio D Rantoul, 111. E East St. Louis, Mo. F Ashburn 111. G San Diego, Cal. H San Antonio, Tex. I Belleville 111. V Essington, Pa. W Fort Sill, Okla. X Hampton, Va. Y Omaha, Neb. (Balloon School.) Others are being arranged for. Schools of Military Aeronautics: J Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology. K Cornell University. L Ohio State University. M University of Illinois. O University of California. P Georgia School of Technology. Q Princeton University. Reserve Engineers' Training Camps: R Belvoir, Va. S American University, D. C. T Ft. Leavenworth, Kans. U Vancouver Barracks. Wash. BARRACKS 53 Jackson, La. 51 Jefferson, Mo. 70 Key West, Fla. 77 Madison, N. Y. 119 Plattsburg, N. Y. 10 Vancouver, Wash. 122 Washington, D. C. 28 Whipple, Ariz. DISCIPLINARY BAR- RACKS 11 Ft. Alcatriz, Cal. 131 Ft. Jay, N. Y. 39 Ft. Leavenworth, Kans. ARSENALS 137 Augusta, Ga. 143 Benicia, Cal. 138 Frankford, Pa. 142 New York, N. Y. 139 Picatinny, N. J. 136 Rock Island, 111. 135 San Antonio, Tex. 110 Sandy Hook Proving Grounds, N. J. 118 Springfield Armory, Mass. 141 Watertown, Mass. 140 Watervliet, N. Y. OFFICERS' TRAINING CAMPS First Series I-II Plattsburg Barracks, N. Y. III Madison Barracks. N. Y. IV Ft. Niagara N. Y. V Ft. Meyer, Va. VI Ft. Oglethorpe, Ga. VII Ft. McPherson, Ga. VIII-IX Ft. Benjamin Harrison, Ind. X-IX Ft. Sheridan, 111. XII Ft. Logan H. Roots, Ark. XIII Ft. Snelling, Minn. XIV Ft. Riley, Kans. XV Leon Springs, Tex. XVI Presidio of San Francisco. Cal. Second Series Plattsburg Barracks, N. Y. Ft. Niagara, N. Y. Ft. Meyer, Va. Ft. Oglethorpe, Ga. Ft. Benjamin Harrison, Ind. Ft. Sheridan, 111. Leon Springs, Tex. Ft. Snelling. Minn. Presidio of San Francisco, Cal. Third Series One in each Regular Army National each in the Philippines, Panama, and Hawaii. One each at Ft. Bliss, Tex., Ft. Sam Houston, Tex., and Chicka- mauga, Ga. NATIONAL GUARD TENT CAMPS a. Ft. Worth. Tex. Camp Bowie. b. Waco, Tex. Camp McArthur. c. Houston, Tex. Camp Logan. d. Ft. Sill, Okla. Camp Doniphan. e. Deming, N. M. Camp Cody. f. Linda Vista, Cal. Camp Kearny. g. Greenville, S. C. Camp Sevier. h. Spartanburg, S. C. Camp Wadsworth. 1. Augusta, Ga. Camp Hancock. J. Macon. Ga. Camp Wheeler. k. Montgomery, Ala. Camp Sheridan. 1. Anniston, Ala. Camp McClellan. m. Charlotte, N. C. Camp Greene, n. Hattiesburg, Miss. Camp Shelby, o. Alexandria, La. Camp Beauregard. p. Palo Alto, Cal. Camp Fremont, q. Mineola, N. Y. Camp Mills. Punching holes in packages of bills Receiving the bills The top of the macerator The macerator in action Cutting the bills in two DESTRUCTION OF OLD MONEY CHAPTER XXIV. UNCLE SAM'S MONEY PART L THE TREASURY / | *O the casual visitor at Wash- I ington, the Treasury is, out- side, a beautiful example of architecture and, inside, a bewilder- ing succession of offices, vaults, cages and rooms with people and money in them. He is taken by a guide to view monetary exhibits $76,640,000 ON THE SHELVES IN ONE BIN AT THE TREASURY which pass his comprehension, per- haps sees the interior of a vault with more wealth than Midas ever dreamed of, and leaves with the confused impression that his Uncle Samuel is very rich indeed, but seems to need a lot of people and paraphernalia to take care of his cash ! As a matter of fact, the activities of the Treasury Department are so varied and so numerous that only by a careful study of the laws under which it operates or a reading of its huge reports can any adequate idea be gained of its work. As for Uncle Sam's money and the way it is taken care of, it may fairly be stated that no visitor to the Treasury really gets any adequate idea. For instance, how much money is there in the United States? Not wealth money and wealth are en- tirely different. How many people, uninformed, will guess that, if the United States had to depend only on its money, and not at all on its wealth, it could pay its own ex- penses but for two years before going broke? Yet such is the case. The general stock of money in the United States June 30, 1915, was $3.989,400,000. Of the total stock, $420,200,000, or 10.53 per cent, was in the Treasury as assets. Coin and other money in national and other reporting banks, exclusive of those in the island possessions, amounted to $1,448.600,000, and, including $312,100,000 cash in Federal Reserve Banks, the sum of $1,760,700,000, or 44.14 per cent of the total stock of money, was held by banks, the re- maining $1,808,500,000, or 45.33 per cent, being outside of the Treasury and banks. The amount in circula- tion, exclusive of coin and other Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 294 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES money In the Treasury as assets, is $3,569,200,000, or $35.44 per cap- ita, an increase of $167,200,000 and a per capita increase of $1.09 over 1914. The accompanying table shows how this money is distributed. Of the total money in circulation, $1,662,981,438 is in gold coin and certificates, $414,961,583 is United States notes, Treasury notes and Federal Reserve notes, $785,393,047 is in National Bank notes and $705,- 883,506 in silver coin and certifi- cates. Thus nearly half (46.59 per cent) of our money in circulation is gold or its representative. THE WEALTH OF GOLCONDA IN TREASURY VAULT BILLS AND COIN Except on the Pacific Coast, where coin is still preferred to paper, the bulk of all monetary transactions of ordinary life is accomplished with gold or silver certificates, bank notes or the like. Held in some suspicion when first authorized (February 25, 1862), the familiar "greenback" is in the public mind to-day "as good as gold," even though it be but a silver certificate. For the people know that for every 8-8 g a S'S I . . . 0> UNCLE SAM'S MONET 295 greenback in their hands, calling for a silver dollar, there actually is a silver dollar waiting for them or for whoever calls with the "bill" to ask for it in the vaults at Wash- ington. In the first years of the war, when the "greenbacks" were first made legal, the total amount au- thorized was $450,000,000 ; the high- est amount outstanding at any time was $449,338,902, on January 30, 1864. The United States notes issued and redeemed, by denominations, during the fiscal year 1915, are set out in the table on page 296. It must not be supposed, however, that this sum, in circulation and constantly redeemed and reissued, forms the bulk of the redemption work done at the Treasury. Na- tional Banks issue notes which have to be redeemed, and the size of this financial undertaking may be im- agined when it is stated that the COUNTING COINS BY MACHINES By the canceling and retiring of these notes as they were received in the Treasury, the amount outstand- ing was reduced more than $100,- 000,000 when the process was stopped in 1878, Congress requiring the notes to be reissued when re- deemed. At that time the amount outstanding was $346,681,016, and it has not been changed since. money received by the National Bank Redemption Agency during 1915 was $782,633,567, the largest for any year, and an increase of $75,876,965 over 1914. Of the amount received, 46.53 per cent came from banks located in New York City. The number of packages was 45,532, containing 76,287,975 notes, with an average value of $10.03. 296 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCED Payments for notes redeemed was made as follows : By Treasurer's checks, $122,230,578; by remittances of new United States currency, $307,667,490, and gold, silver and minor coin, $28,220; and by credit of $340,482,729 in various accounts. The notes assorted and delivered amounted to $764,926,023, of which sum $130,389,450, or 17.05 per cent, was fit for use and was returned to banks of issue in 92,952 packages. The remainder, $634,536,573, or 82.95 per cent, was delivered to the Comptroller of the Currency, $330,- 110,347.50 in 191,068 packages, as unfit for use, to be destroyed and replaced by new notes sent to the banks of issue, and $304,426,225.50, in 25,839 packages, for destruction and retirement from circulation against deposits for that purpose. Securities to be destroyed are de- livered to the so-called destruction committee, composed of representa- tives from the Secretary's Office and from fiscal bureaus concerned. Some idea of the amount of work handled by. this committee may be had from the fact that during the year just closed 377,364,188 redeemed notes (paper money) of a nominal value of $1,541,131,111, were destroyed, as well as large quantities of other securities. Securities to be destroyed are counted, the count verified, the paper cut in pieces or punched and the pieces then fed to a macerating ma- chine, which, with water and power, makes a pulp of what once was money, which is largely used by souvenir makers to construct memen- toes of Washington ! But a "bill" is not destroyed with- out cause. Formerly any soiled or creased bill sent in was condemned, a new one put in its place, and the old one destroyed. Now, however, Uncle Sam has a wonderful money- laundering machine which washes, resizes, dries and irons out paper currency unfit for circulation but not yet torn or badly worn. The result is a "bill" hardly to be told from new. There are laundering machines at Washington and at the sub-treasuries at New York, Phila- delphia and Chicago. Naturally, it takes fine paper to stand washing and, indeed, no finer paper than that used for "green- backs" can be bought. The paper is made by a secret process under Treasury supervision by annual contract under competi- tive bids. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing, a branch of the depart- ment, designs, under the direction of the Secretary, engraves and prints the notes and certificates complete. This currency is delivered to the Treasurer in packages of 4,000 notes, UNITED STATES NOTES ISSUED AND REDEEMED Denominations Outstanding Fiscal Y ear, 1915 Outstanding June 30, 1914 Issued Redeemed June 30, 1915 One dollar $1 823 218 $3 678 $1 819 541 Two dollars 1,367,225 3 612 1 363 612 Five dollars 202 996 730 "M03 580 000 104 453 570 202 123 160 Ten dollars 93,753,256 52,880.000 38,675 260 107 957 996 Twenty dollars Fifty dollars One hundred dollars Five hundred dollars One thousand dollars Five thousand dollars 8,470,812 1,690,275 3,775,000 3,867,500 29,927,000 880,000 600,000 50,666 2,000,000 1,258,180 259,900 791,300 1,168.500 13,376,000 8,092,632 2,030,375 2,983,700 2,749,000 18,551,000 Ten thousand dollars 10,000 10,000 Total 347 681 016 159 990 000 159 990 OOO 347 681 016 Unknown, destroyed 1,000,000 1,000.000 Net 346,681,016 159,990,000 159,990,000 346,681,016 UNCLE SAM'S MONET 297 the product of 1,000 sheets of paper. Such a package is taken as the unit from which to reckon the cost. Allowing for every item of ex- pense attending making, issuing and the redeeming of paper currency, the average cost is as follows : Total average expense of 4,000 notes issued $52.50 Total average expense of 4,000 uotes redeemed 8.54 Aggregate average expense of issue and redemption $61.04 "greenback" into circulation. And it is staggering to find the total cost for redemption of 299,455,985 pieces, and issuing of 280,174,317 pieces (1915) to total $4,316,626.44 in this year. But a curious little fact commends itself to the thoughtful. Though it costs this sum to issue and redeem paper currency, that sum is more than saved by the prevention of abrasion of gold and silver coin. If we had not the notes, we would THE BILL WASHING MACHINE ALWAYS ATTRACTS ATTENTION AND IS FREdTTENTLY LOANED TO EXPOSITIONS It is interesting in this connection to know that the life of a United States one dollar note averages 3.14 years, while the five dollar note av- erages 2.73 years. The average life of all denominations of United States notes is 3.22 years. It actually costs the Government, then, about 1.526 -jents to put a use the coin. The Government saves the loss by abrasion by letting paper be "abraded" and keeping the coin in its vaults. Think it over! With all his multitudinous activi- ties, and the huge sums of income and outgo with which he deals, Uncle Sam has so modern and accu- rate a system of bookkeeping that OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES lie knows every day just where he stands. And curious though it may seem, his whole balance sheet may be written on a page smaller than that required for the same informa- tion of many a big private industry. Below is a condensed balance sheet, showing just where Uncle Sam's money comes from, when it arrives in the Treasury, and just where it goes to when it is paid out. The sheet covers years 1914 and 1915. RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS FOR THE FISCAL YEARS, 1914 AND 1915 Account 1914 1915 Increase Decrease Receipts Customs Internal revenue: Ordinary $292,320,014.51 308,659,732.56 $209,786,672.21 335,467,887 14 $26 808 154 58 $82,533.342.30 Corporation and in- come tax Lands Miscellaneous Receipts of the District of Columbia 71,381,274.74 2,571,774.77 50,855,941 . 14 8,752,937.11 80,201,758.86 2,167,136.47 59,441,800.12 9,790,474.18 8,820,484.12 ' '8,585>58.'98 1,037,537.07 404', 638 ! 30 Total Deduct moneys covered by warrant in year subsequent to the de- posit thereof 734,541,674.83 505,970.59 696,855,728.98 637,462.47 45,252,034.75 131,491.88 82,937,980.60 Total Add moneys received in fiscal year but not covered by warrant. . 734,035,704.24 637,462 47 696,218,266.51 1,692,561 07 45,120,542.87 1 055 098 60 82,937,980.60 Net available Disbursements Legislative 734,673,166.71 13 468 827 66 697,910,827.58 13 577 399 19 108 571 53 36,762,339.13 Executive State Department Treasury Department . . War Department, civil. . Navy Department, civil. Interior, civil Post Office Department proper Postal deficiencies. . . . Department of Agricul- ture Department of Com- merce Department of Labor. . . Department of Justice. . Independent offices .... District of Columbia . . . 564,134.36 5,253,911.78 60,139,856.78 2,237,069.37 860,873.02 22,656,130.62 2,236,202.24 22,208,141.12 10,958,882 . 40 3,768,904 . 05 10,188,151.26 3,232,179.61 12,756,971.18 3,065,880.50 4,908,606.79 71,107,291.59 2,215,535.19 885,870.15 29,069,642.99 1,894,873.64 6,636,592.60 29,131,112.07 11,499,098.76 3,783,611.86 10,434,871.97 5,738,773.78 13,220,662.97 2,501,746.14 'i6,967',434!8i 24,997! is 6,413,512.37 6,636,592! 60 6,922,970.95 540,216.36 14,707.81 246,720.71 2,506,594.17 463,691 . 79 ' 345,364 ! 99 2l',534!i8 341,328.60 Total civil and mis- cellaneous Military Establishment, including rivers and harbors Naval Establishment 170,530,235.45 173,522,804.20 139 682 186 28 207,169,824.05 172,973,091.73 141,835 653 98 37,347,756.37 2 153 467 70 708,167.77 549,712.47 Indian Service Pensions Interest on the public debt 20,215,075.96 173,440,231.12 22 863 956 70 22,130,350.70 164,387,941.61 22 902 897 04 1,915,274.74 38 940 34 ' '9,052,289 !5i Total ordinary dis- bursements Net 700,254,489.71 731,399,759.11 41,455,439.15 31 145 269 40 10,310,169.75 Surplus Deficit 34,418,677.00 33 488 93 i 53 PART II. THE BUREAU OF ENGRAVING AND PRINTING By Hon. JOSEPH E. RALPH, Director THE Bureau of Engraving and Printing was organized under act of July 11, 1862, and its first work was an attempt to apply machinery to the trimming and sep- arating of Treasury notes, such notes having been printed by private bank note companies and then for- warded to Washington for signature of the Register of the Treasury, and the Treasurer of the United States. This work, however, soon became physically impossible for these offi- cers to perform and a large corps of clerks was employed for this pur- pose. This was very expensive, and to obviate it authority was granted by Congress to have these signatures engraved in the plates and the seal of the Treasury imprinted on the notes, and steps were taken to pro- cure the necessary machinery to per- form this work of sealing in the Treasury Department. Following the successful execution of this work, it was determined that an effort should be made to per- form, under official supervision, the entire mechanical work upon United States securities, and authority therefor was granted by the act of July 11, 1862, which authorized the Secretary of the Treasury, in case he deemed it inexpedient to procure such notes by contract, to cause them to be engraved, printed and executed at the Treasury Department, and as prior to the passage of this act none of the public securities had been en- graved or printed otherwise than by private contract, this act may be re- garded as the organic act of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. From time to time following this date the work done by private com- panies was gradually absorbed by the bureau until all of the printing of the securities of the Government was done at that bureau, and the last work taken over by it from private contractors was the printing of the postage stamps which the bureau undertook in 1894. The bureau is the Government fac- tory for producing its paper money, bonds, revenue, postage and custom stamps, checks, drafts and all im- portant documents printed from en- graved plates. The output in the fiscal year just ended, June 30, 1916, had a value of approximately 3% billions of dollars. Putting it in a more concrete form, the daily output of United States notes, gold and silver certificates and National bank notes, is two and one- quarter million notes, having a face value of nine million dollars, and weighing over three and one-half tons. If laid out flat they would cover nine acres, and if placed end to end the daily output would make a chain two hundred and fifty miles long. Each day forty million postage stamps are manufactured, which would cover approximately seven acres, or make a chain of stamps six hundred and twenty miles long. The value of each day's output is nearly seven hundred and fifty thou- sand dollars. Six hundred em- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 300 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ployees are engaged in their manu- facture. Fifty -one different kinds of postage stamps in denominations from one cent to five dollars are made for the United States and its insular possessions. They are print- ed in fifteen distinctive colors. Another important part of the Bu- reau's work is internal revenue stamps, through which an annual in- come of over five hundred million dollars is collected for Uncle Sam. These stamps are of larger sizes than postage stamps and while the daily output is only twenty million stamps, they would cover twenty acres if spread out in single sheets and weigh six and one-half tons. More than three hundred different varieties are issued. It is a noteworthy fact that such enormous quantities of securities are produced year after year at this es- tablishment without the loss of one cent to the Government, "and is a testimonial to the integrity and abil- ity of the employees, not one of whom is bonded, as well as to the efficiency of the system under which they operate. Be it further said to the credit of these employees that not one has ever engaged in the counterfeiting of the securities man- ufactured by this bureau. The bureau employs the most ex- pert designers, engravers, plate printers and other artisans requisite to a large plate printing establish- ment, several of whom entered its service during the Civil War shortly after the bureau was organized, and who are capably occupying positions of trust and responsibility. The number of employees in the bureau engaged in the making of paper money is 2,800; in making postage stamps, 600 ; in making rev- enue stamps, 600, and about 100 in making bonds, checks, commissions and various other classes of work; the total number of employees be- ing 4,100; 2,200 of whom are fe- males. The maximum and minimum salaries of males is $6,600 and $320, respectively, per annum, and of fe- males, $2,100 and $300, respectively, per annum. An idea of the business growth of the United States may be gleaned from the fact that the Government Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 11,771,283,150 perfect pos- tage stamps during the fiscal year 1916. The paper required for this work amounted to 1,100,000 pounds, and to make this paper 4,500 large pine trees were ground to a pulp. Had these trees been converted into lumber, 85 well-appointed bung- alows could have been built. The paper itself would make an edition of 3,500,000 twelve-page seven-col- umn newspapers. As the stamps were printed from intaglio-engraved plates in which the entire surface is covered with ink and wiped with a cloth that leaves the ink only in the engraved lines, the amount of ink required was 625,000 pounds. But only 10 per cent of this was actually applied to the stamps, the balance being wiped off. The gum on the back of the stamps is made by scientifically roasting the highest grade of tapioca flour, such as is used for making pudding, and as 350,000 pounds were used, all of the inhabitants of a large city would have been given their fill of tapioca pudding for one meal with the ma- terial used. The sheets of one hundred stamps each, as sent to the post offices, piled upon each other, would make a shaft over six and three-fifths miles high, and placed end to end would make a strip 16,500 miles long, and as there are ten rows of stamps in each sheet, a strip of single stamps would be 165,000 miles long, and would girdle the earth six times, with something over. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing prints all of the securities of the United States Government, which embraces checks, drafts, bonds, paper money, revenue, cus- toms, parcel post and postage stamps and certificates of deposit for the Post Office Department 302 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES It has been our constant endeavor not only to safeguard our stamps and circumvent their counterfeiting, but to make them really artistic. When you comprehend the small space allowed for artistic embellish- ment, you necessarily must marvel at the results we obtain. ! The engraving division is the cor- nerstone of the bureau and the bul- wark of our securities. In this divi- sion 'every form of security has its origin, and the most artistic and skilled engravers that the world produces are employed here. Steel engraving is the perfection of art as applied to securities; it differs from painting and sculptur- ing, inasmuch as the engraver who carves his work on steel plates must deliberately study the effect of each infinitesimal line. Free hand with a diamond-pointed tool, known as a graver, aided by a powerful magni- fying glass, he carves away, con- scious that one false cut or slip of his tool or miscalculation of depth or width of line will destroy the artistic merit of his creation, and weeks or months of labor will have been in vain. In no other form of printing can the beautiful, soft, and yet strong effects in black and white be obtained as in steel engraving. The introduction of cheap mechani- cal process work has superseded the beautiful creations of our master en- graver commercially, and now we find the art limited to the engrav- ing of securities as applied in the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The work in this division is clas- sified and divided so that the en- gravers become specially skilled in some particular branch of the art. For instance, they are classified as portrait, script, square letter and ornamental engravers. Each is con- fined to his own specialty, and thus becomes unusually expert, the result being that not only better work is secured, but a greater amount is turned out in a given time, and what *"j of greater importance, increased security is obtained. The individual excellencies and characteristics of a number of men are impressed upon every stamp issued. Therefore, it would be as difficult for one en- graver to make a perfect reproduc- tion of a Government plate as it would be for the reader to reproduce an absolute facsimile of his or her own signature, and, strange as it may seem, no one has yet accom- plished this feat. To the credit of the engravers and employees of this division, it should be stated that in the history of the bureau none of its employees has ever engaged in counterfeiting. When it is determined to issue a new stamp, the matter is discussed by the officials having in charge the several branches of the service in- volved, and the conclusions reached are embodied in a model made by a trained designer, which is submitted for the criticisms of the officers who discussed the matter in the first place. The model is then modified in accordance with the criticisms, and is finally approved by the Post- master General. The approved design is placed in the hands of the engravers who cut it upon a small piece of annealed steel. After the approval of a proof of this engraving, the piece of steel is heated red hot in cyanide of potas- sium and hardened by suddenly dip- ping it into oil and water. This single engraved subject is duplicated four hundred times upon the larger plates that the stamps are printed from, by means of the transfer process. This is a method of reproducing engraving devised many years ago by Jacob ' Perkins, an inventive American, who may be Considered the father of the present method of duplicating bank note and stamp plates. It consists of making a re- versed duplicate or mold of the orig- inal engraving by rolling a soft, an- nealed steel roll upon it in the trans- fer press. Being accurately guided and held by the mechanism of this press, continued rolling under high 304 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES pressure forces the soft steel of the roll into the engraved lines of the original design, and forms an exact counterpart, in relief, of it. This roll, being hardened, is used to dup- licate the engraving by the same process, upon a soft steel plate, which it will do a great number of times before wearing out, reserving the original engraving, or die as it is called, for making additional rolls. The original engraving is never printed from except to make what are known as die-proofs. The paper, being printed wet, Contracts on drying, and the mathe- matically correct layout of the en- graved plate bears only an approxi- mate relation to the desired printed sheet. The paper we print to-day will vary in shrinkage from that we print to-morrow. As the physical properties of the tree govern the ex- pansion and contraction of the paper made therefrom, no two sheets are exactly the same size. The actual difference in size of the individual stamp is too minute to be readily discernible, but becomes a serious factor when the row is twenty stamps long as we now print the But that is not all. To smooth the paper for the operation of gum- ming, it is subjected to 500 tons pressure in a hydraulic press, and if very dry, it stretches but little, but if the day is damp and humid it stretches perceptibly. The con- traction of the gum itself is a fac- tor, and the atmospheric conditions still another. Our perforating ma- chines have not human intelligence, and they blindly perforate the sheets alike until their adjustment is changed. Therefore, the best we can do is to average the adjustment and it is only by chance that all the perforations are exactly central. Of course, it will be understood that typographic printing, being done on dry paper, eliminates many of these problems, and no great feat is per- formed in perfectly centering the perforations on a dry printed stamp. The present method of printing stamps is accomplished upon what is known as the "four plate power press." Four plates are used in or- der that the operation of inking, wiping, polishing and taking the im- pressions may be done simultaneous- ly. This press requires the service of a printer to polish the plates, one girl to lay the sheet in position and another girl to take it off after printing. After each two hundred sheets are printed, they are counted and dried. To secure a flat surface for subse- quent operations, they are pressed in a hydraulic press. They are next gummed by passing beneath a glass roller which is bath- ed in a solution of dextrine .(which forms the gum), and the sheets are then carried by grippers through a drying chamber in which the gum is dried in less than thirty seconds. Just before leaving the gumming machine, the sheets are carried through a device that breaks the gum into innumerable cracks and materially prevents subsequent curl- ing. The printed and gummed sheets of 400 stamps are now fed through a rotary perforator that perforates the stamps in one direction and cuts the sheets in half. Another perfora- tor of the same construction perfor- ates the stamps crosswise and makes another cut, thereby quartering the original sheets. After a close and rigid inspection, these sheets are counted and made into packages for final packing for shipment to the post offices. The new building for the use of the Bureau of Engraving and Print- ing has been occupied since early in the spring of 1914. This building is the most modern type of factory building in the United States. While the exterior of the building is clas- sic and monumental in style, the wings, which are utilized for factory purposes, are constructed along mod- ern factory lines. The building is about 505 feet Putting on the Seal and Numbering The Ink Mills Sizing the Bills The Final Step; Sealing and Numbering THE PAPER COMES OUT MONEY UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 307 long, fronting on Fifteenth Street, with a depth of about 296 feet and a height of 105 feet. It has a base- ment, four stories and attic, and is in the form of the letter "E," but with four wings instead of three, making three open end courts, two of which are approximately 230 feet long to the end of the wing. The two inner wings, to allow space for the driveways, are about 30 feet shorter. There is a mezzanine gallery on each floor, having a total length of about 1,800 feet on all floors where installed, which is used by the pub- lic for viewing the more interesting operations of the bureau, and this may be done without the possibility of any loss of a security or inter- ference with the workmen. None of the employees are permit- ted to leave the building during the lunch hour, as each individual em- ployee is held accountable for the securities which he or she is hand- ling during the working hours, and to permit them to leave the building would necessitate a check or count, which would be too expensive. Photo Harris & Ewing HAJS'D VS. MACHINE COUNTING PART III. UNITED STATES ASSAY OFFICE AT NEW YORK By Hon. VERNE M. BOVIE, Superintendent THE United States Assay Office opened its doors at 30 Wall Street in 1854. It occupied the same historical building until its age made its demolishment necessary in 1914. In 1910 a new eight story building was built adjoining the old in the rear, and with an entrance on Pine Street. Since that time its operations have been carried on there. Appropriations have now been made by Congress for the erec- tion of a new building on the site of the old Wall Street building, to be joined to the present Pine Street building, so that for the indefinite future the office will continue its service from the same historic site on which it started. From deposits of a few thousands in value in 1854, the importance of the office has increased to such an extent that for the fiscal year 1916 the aggregate value of the deposits received and handled amounted to the huge sum of $325,958,585.38. Of this $321,609,643.73 was gold and $4,348,941.65 silver. $253,957,895.26 was from foreign countries and $72,- 000,690.12 from the United States. The number of deposits made was 17,338. During the year 149,867 assays were made. The Assay Office is the great pur- chasing, as well as selling, agent for gold for the Government. It is the station where the crude wealth pro- duced by our own mines, and the wealth that all the world sends to our shores in the ordinary activi- ties of commerce, is converted into values of United States dollars and cents. We purchase gold in any amounts from $100 in value up in any form suitable for mint purposes and from any source. We receive gold dust from Alaska and Dutch Guiana; bullion from Mexico, South and Cen- tral America ; gold and silver coins from all the countries of the world : old gold and silver jewelry from pawnbrokers and jewelers ; fine gold bars and mixed bullion, and light weight and mutilated United States coin. The purchase is made at the ac- tual gold value at the uniform rate of $20.67 per fine ounce. Silver is paid for in fine silver bars, which, in turn, are marketed by the depos- itors at the current price in the open market. The process by which the crude bullion is turned into fine metal is itself an interesting one. The office is divided into four general depart- ments : the Deposit and . Weigh Room, where the metal is first re- ceived, weighed and melted ; the Assay Department, where its value and fineness are determined ; the Melting and Refining Department, where it is refined and cast into fine bars; the Clerical Force, where the calculations are made and final pay- ments provided for. Immediately upon its receipt the deposit is weighed and at once sent to the Deposit Melting Room, where it is melted and thoroughly mixed and cast into bars. From the liquid Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 310 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES metal samples are taken during this melting from which the assays are made. These determine the propor- tions and fineness of the gold and silver contents. The melted deposit is again weighed in the Deposit Weigh Room, its values determined by the assays made from the sam- ples previously taken, and payment made by check by the Superintend- ent drawn on the Treasurer of the United States. The bar of mixed gold and silver is then turned over by the head of the Deposit Weigh Room to the Superintendent of the Melting and Refining Department. Here it is again melted and cast into thin slabs or anodes about 18 inches long and ^4 inch thick of about the composition of two thirds silver and one third gold. These anodes are put in a muslin bag and are hung in a solution of silver nitrate and free nitric acid opposite a strip of pure silver called the silver cathode. Electric current is passed through and the silver passes from the anode to the cathode in pure silver crystals. It is scraped off into huge earthen jars and then taken to the melting room and cast into its final form of fine silver bars. The residue remaining in the mus- lin bag is taken out, washed and in turn melted and cast into smaller anodes, or slabs, which in turn are taken to the gold refining room and by a similar electrolytic process the fine gold extracted. The gold is then in the form of a warty, irregu- lar slab of gold. This in turn is melted and cast into fine bars ready for the vaults or for trade purposes. During the refining process the base metals and by-products are taken into solution and are later precipitated by chemical reaction and recovered. When it is realized that the ordi- nary deposit in its course through the office is melted five times; that not less than five and often seven or more assays are made of it ; that each bar is stamped with five sep- arate stamps ; that it must be con- stantly weighed and re-weighed and checked and re-checked ; some con- ception may be had of the care and attention to detail required in the office. Experimental work, looking to the discovery of better and more efficient methods, is being constantly carried on. The office uses the most perfect appliances obtainable for its work and seeks constantly to increase the efficiency and perfect the products of its labor. With the increased development of the commerce of the country and the recent almost phenomenal growth of its financial power, the importance of the work of the Assay Office, as related to the financial and business world, constantly increases. It is now the largest and most com- pletely equipped office of its kind in the world and through its doors is destined to pass in continuing vol- ume the golden stream that will make the United States the financial master of the world. PART IV. HOW COINS ARE MINTED By Hon. A. M. JOYCE, Superintendent . U. S. Mint, Philadelphia IN the operation of providing coinage for the country the Gov- ernment purchases the gold bul- lion from anyone who offers it for sale at the rate of one dollar for each 23.2 grains of pure gold, or about $20.67 per ounce, and silver at the market quotations when request- ed. This bullion, if in an unrefined state, is refined and separated from all foreign matter. It is then sent to the mint and delivered to the superintendent of the melting de- partment. Nine parts of pure gold or silver are mixed with one part of copper (alloy) and the mixture melted in crucibles placed in the gas furnaces. It is then poured into molds and produces ingots about 12 inches long, 1% inches thick, and from 1 to 2 inches wide, depending upon the denomination to be made. Granulations of these ingots or melts are taken and sent to the assay- ing department and assayed for their fineness. If found correct, the ingot is stamped with the number and fine- ness of the melt ; if not correct, it is condemned and remelted. This then places the responsibility for the legal fineness of every coin upon the assayer. The ingots passed by the sissayer as correct are then delivered to the superintendent of the coining department. The superintendent of the coining department upon receiving the in- gots from the superintendent of the melting department passes them cold, through ten-inch hardened steel rolls, eighteen or twenty times, depending upon the denomination, each driven by a fifty horse-power electric motof, each draft reducing the thickness, and adding to the length of the strip until the last draft leaves it of such a thickness that a coin of the desired denomi- nation cut from it will weigh as nearly the right weight as it is pos- sible to roll. After rolling the ingot to the required thickness of the coin, or denomination required, it is put through the cutting machine where the blank, or planchet, is punched out, leaving the clippings to be re- turned to the melting room, there to be re-melted and returned to in- gots. The blanks are then sent to the selecting tables, where women desig- nated as selectors examine the blanks and pick out all imperfect pieces or cuts, known as "chips." The gold planchets or blanks are then sent to the weighing room, where they are passed through the automatic weighing machines. In practice it is impossible to cut all the gold planchets so that they will each weigh precisely the stand- ard weight, therefore, the law per- mits a tolerance or variation of the weight from standard of one-half grain on double-eagles and eagles, and one-quarter grain on half and quarter-eagles. The machines, known as automatic weighing machines, then weigh each of the planchets separately, and Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 314 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES those found one-half grain above standard are deposited in a separate box, and marked "heavies," and those found standard and one-half grain light are placed in a separate box and marked "lights." The "heavies" that are found above the limit of tolerance are passed through a machine known as the shaving machine and reduced to within the limi^ of tolerance, one-half or one- quarter grain, depending on the de- nomination, to good "heavies" one- half and one-quarter grain above standard. Those that are found too light are condemned and go back to the melting pot. After coinage, all coins are again re-weighed. At this stage the metal, after going through the various operations, is very hard, and, before it can be stamped, it is necessary to anneal or soften the same, otherwise it would be very destructive to the dies when the piece is being struck on the coining presses. The Wanks are placed in a gas annealing furnace, where they remain in the retort un- til they become a "cherry red," when they are dropped from the furnace into water to keep them from oxi- dizing. After coming out of the wa- ter they are cleaned in a weak acid solution and dried out in centrifugal machines. They are then sent to the milling or upsetting machines, where the edge is turned up on the blank. The blanks are now bright and soft and ready for stamping or coining. In the coining room they are fed into the coining presses by automatic feeders, and the automatic fingers on the presses take one piece at a time from the bottom of the tube attached to the automatic feed- er and place it between the dies, at the same time pushing the finished piece out and dropping it in a screened box at the side of the press. The upper and lower die being re- spectively the obverse and reverse sides of the coin, in this position it drops automatically into a collar which is internally engraved to con- form to the edge of the coin, known as the reeding; at that instant the dies approach each other under a pressure of one hundred tons to the square inch, and the planchet is pressed so that the metal is driven into every corner and crevice of the engraved die, and at the same time outward into the engraving on the interior of the collar producing the reeding or rough edge. This enor- mous pressure is regulated by ad- justing screws, which determine just how close together the two dies, up- per and lower, will be brought to each other, and this adjustment is made so they shall come just close enough together to bring out every detail of the engraving. This coinage operation proceeds at the rate of from 90 to 120 pieces coined per minute, on one press, the speed of operation being adjusted according to the size of the press. There are in the Mint at Phila- delphia twenty-four coining presses of three different sizes. After stamping, each coin is sep- arately inspected and weighed. Six automatic inspecting machines are in use. Each machine is operated by two women who have a view of each side of the coin as it passes through the machine. The weighing is done on the automatic scales. The law permits a variation of one-half grain on double-eagles and eagles, and one-quarter of a grain on half and quarter-eagles, and one and a half grains on all silver coins, from the standard weight. The pieces that weigh above or below the stand- ard mark are kept separate. The condemned are rolled out and sent back to the melting pot. Owing to the greater tolerance (one and a half grains)- on silver the blanks are rolled close enough to eliminate all weighing, but after coinage the pieces are weighed the same as gold. After weighing and separating the coin is counted by weight and placed in sacks ; the gold in $5.000.00 pack- ages and the silver in $1,000.00 pack- ages, and delivered to the superin- tendent, who places it in vaults sub- 310 OUR COUNTRY A*l> ITS RESOURCES ject to orders from the Treasurer, Assistant Treasurers and banks. All metals are delivered to the superin- tendent by weight as well as value. Gold and silver coin and bullion are received and delivered at 1,000 fine ounces and minor metals and coin at troy ounces. At the end of the fiscal year, i. e., June 30th, the total weight of all the ingots delivered to the coining department by the superintendent during the year stands charged against said depart- ment and the total weight of all the good coin, condemned coin, clippings, sweeps, etc., that have been deliv- ered back by the coining department to the superintendent are placed to the credit of the coining department. Theoretically, this is supposed to balance, but if it does not the super- intendent of the coining department will be held responsible for the short- age. However, in practice, the law recognizes the \itter impossibility of putting such an enormous quantity of metal through all the different operations without a certain amount of loss or wastage, and this legal allowance on gold is 1/2000 part, or for every 2,000 ounces operated upon one ounce may be lost in wastage before the coining department is held responsible. On the same amount in silver the legal allowance would be two ounces. The actual wastage in the coining department under the new system of cleaning does not average more than five per cent of the legal allowance in gold and ten per cent in silver. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1013, the Mint at Philadelphia coined $19,678,227.50 in gold and the loss or wastage on this amount was 14.289 ounces, of the value of $284.12, and $1,936,199.75 in silver coin on which there was a loss or wastage of 22.05 ounces, of the value of $12.24, or a total value of $296.36 in gold and silver. This loss covers the workings of an entire year of $21,614,427.25. The legal percentage of wastage to the amount operated upon was gold, 1.37, and silver, 1.84. The precautions to guard against any possible loss by carelessness on the part of the employees during the process of manufacture are about as near perfect as human in- genuity can devise. At the opening of the day, the metal is weighed and charged to the various departments and a settlement of the same is made each day before the close of work. In the morning the entire weight of the metal that stands charged to the coining department on the superin- tendent's books constitutes the coin- ing department's opening balance. Every ounce of metal that is dis- tributed among the various depart- ments is charged to that department, and at the close of business for the day is weighed, and, if found cor- rect, the account with the various departments is closed and the metal locked in the vaults. A detailed statement of the workings of each department, showing the amount operated upon, finished and unfin- ished, together with loss and wast- age, is sent to the office of the super- intendent of the coining department, where a tabulated record is kept from day to day. It shows by the size of the operation if the loss ex- ceeds the legitimate loss in any one department by even less than one piece. If the loss is excessive, then the employees in that department are kept until the shortage is ac- counted for, or the error in calcula- tion discovered. It generally hap- pens to be an .error in figures, or a coin or box of coin had been over- looked. On the whole it is rare for the question to arise. Once in a while in an extraordinarily large op- eration there might be a legitimate loss equal to the weight of a single piece in excess of the estimate of what the loss should be, and this would remain unaccounted for ex- cept as legitimate loss. It would be out (if the question for any consider- able theft to be committed or even to conduct a systematic pilfering on a small scale without the culprit be- ing discovered in a short time. The 318 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES daily record of the day's workings kept in the superintendent of the coining department's office shows the loss or wastage on every operation. The scales used for the weighing of bullion, coin, and metals will weigh from 1/100 part of an ounce up to 10,000 ounces at each draft. When the coin is finished and counted it is delivered daily to the superintendent in sacks containing $5,000 in gold and $1,000 in silver in amounts that may have been coined the day previous. Out of every delivery of finished coin to the superintendent, there is taken at random by the assayer and superin- tendent one piece for each 1,000 pieces of gold, and one piece from each 2,000 pieces of silver, which are locked in what is known as the "pyx box," the superintendent or his representative holding the key to one combination, and the assayer the key to the other combination. Each year in February as assay commis- sion, consisting of twelve or fifteen leading and representative citizens from all parts of the United States, the Judge of the United States Dis- trict Court, Comptroller of the Cur- rency, and the Assayer of the United States Assay Ofiice in New York, are appointed by the President. The last named are ex-offlcio members of the Commission. He selects men who are expert chemists, scale mak- ers, coin specialists, financiers, pro- fessors and lawyers. They meet .at the Mint in Philadelphia, organize themselves into committees on count- ing, weighing and assaying and these committees open the "pyx box," count, weigh and assay a large num- ber of the coins and report the re- sult to the President. In case any of these coins are found outside the legal limit of weight or fineness, it would be sufficient grounds for the removal of the operative officer or officers. Prior to the delivery of coin to the superintendent and before the assay pieces are taken out, the lat- ter, by the trial separately of not less than five pieces for each 1,000 pieces embraced in the proposed de- livery, must satisfy himself that the coins are within the legal limits as to the weight. If these trial pieces prove satisfactory the delivery is made, and if not satisfactory all the coins are weighed separately and such as are not of legal weight are defaced and delivered to the super- intendent of the melting and refin- ing department. As an additional precaution, from the first and two subsequent deliveries in each week of gold and silver coins of each de- nomination of coin delivered by the coining department two specimen pieces are taken at random, certified and enclosed by the superintendent and assayer (in the same manner as above prescribed for the Annual Assay Commission), and promptly forwarded to the director of the mint by registered mail for assay by the assayer of the Bureau of the Mint. Metals required for the manufac- ture of minor coins, that is, five cent nickel and one cent bronze pieces, are purchased by the superintendent of the mint, with the approval of the director of the mint as to price, terms and quantity, after public ad- vertisement, as provided by law. The metal so purchased is delivered to the melting department where it is converted into ingots 23 inches long, 4% inches wide, and % of an inch thick of legal alloy. The five cent piece,, or nickel, contains 75 per cent of copper and 25 per cent of nickel, and the one cent bronze piece contains 95 per cent of copper and 5 per cent of zinc and tin. These ingots are delivered to the coining department, where they are passed through heavy sixteen- inch rolls and reduced to the thick- ness of the coin. About fifteen passes are required to make this reduction. Starting with the ingot 23 inches long, the strip is rolled fifteen feet and then cut in two. Each of these strips will be 12 feet long when finished. The strips are UNCLE SAM'S MONEY 810 then put through the cutting ma- chines, where six blanks of bronze, or five blanks of nickel are punched out. These presses make 170 revo- lutions per minute and in that time punch 1,020 bronze blanks, or 850 nickel blanks. These blanks are passed through rotary annealing fur- naces in order to make them soft and malleable before stamping. From the annealing furnace they are placed in tumbling barrels for the purpose of cleaning and bright- ening, and rolled in a solution of our own devising for about half an hour. No acid is used. After tumb- ling, or rolling the blanks are thor- oughly washed and then dried in centrifugal machines. No sawdust is used in this operation. The blanks are selected and milled. The fin- ished blanks, or planchets are taken to the coining room, where they are stamped and inspected, after which they are counted and placed in sacks. The nickel sacks hold $50 and the bronze $10. They are now ready for delivery. No pyx or special assay coins are taken from the minor coin. The tolerance on these pieces being much greater than on gold and silver, no adjusting is required. A separate plant for the minor coinage, remote from that used in the coining of precious metals, has recently been fitted up in another part of the building. This- plant is equipped with heavy machinery, and is capable of turning out a greater percentage of coin at less expense. A separate plant also adjoins the minor coinage plant. It is known as the medal room. It "is equipped with four of the latest improved hy- draulic presses and other suitable machinery and appliances for the manufacture of medals and proof coin. Here are made gold, silver and bronze medals for the Govern- ment and private parties. Gold and silver medals are made from fine gold and silver. All dies used in this and the other United States mints are made in the engraving department of this mint All dated dies and all other coinage dies which have been in use are destroyed at the end of the cal- endar year. The engraver is the custodian of all dies. The operative officers in their ac- counts with the superintendent are charged and credited with deliveries of bullion or coin by weight and the account kept in fine ounces. Troy weights are used, while metric weights are by law assigned to the half, quarter 'dollar, and dime, 15.432 grains being considered as the equivalent of a gramme. The average cost for minting the different denominations, as shown by the cost report for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1913, is as follows: PerM pieces. Double-eagles $37.42 Eagles 13.13 Half-eagles 11.50 Quarter-eagles 10.24 Half-dollars 8.17 Quarter-dollars 6.80 Dimes 2.09 5-cent nickels 2.85 1-cent bronze 1.48 The above figures include the cost of ingot assays, ingot melting, the entire coining department and all of the superintendent's department net expenditures. During the year all sweeps, rags used in cleaning machinery, wash water, etc., are gathered and placed in a large iron vessel, the water evaporated and the residue burnt. After being dried the residue is taken to the sweep cellar where it is passed through a jaw crusher which re- duces the sweeps to one inch or less in diameter, then through a mill with sixty mesh screens which grinds the sweeps under water until they are fine enough to pass through the screen to the two settling tanks and a steam drier. The type of mill is a standard mining machine where the rolls and the pan remain sta- tionary. It is of sufficient size to make it unnecessary to keep the mill in continuous operation and thus the men are available in other places. 320 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES LEGAL WEIGHT AND FINENESS OF THE COINS OF THE UNITED STATES, THEIR DIAMETER AND THICKNESS Denomination Legal Weight Fineness Thousandths Diameter Inches Thickness Inches Grains Troy Ozs. GOLD: Double eagle Eagle 516 258 1.075 .5375 900 900 1.350 1.060 0.096 .080 Half eagle 129 .26875 900 .848 .065 Quarter eagle 64.5 .134375 900 .700 .050 SILVER: Half dollar 192.9 .401875 900 1.205 .082 Quarter dollar 96.45 .200937 900 .955 .065 Dime 38.58 .080375 900 .705 .051 MINOR: Five cents 77.16 .16075 75 per cent copper 25 per cent nickel .835 .078 One cent 48 .1 95 per cent copper .750 .058 5 per cent tin and zinc The drier constantly agitates the wet sweeps, so that they cannot bake on the bottom. One settling tank is directly above the other and the lower contains a steam syphon which lifts the water to the upper. From the upper tank a connection leads the water back to the mill so that it may be used over again. After being thoroughly dried the sweeps are barreled, samples taken there- from and assayed. Afterwards they are sold to the highest bidder. During the ten years ended June 30, 1913, this mint coined $362,824,- 125.00 in regular domestic gold coin, $60,069.00 in Lewis and Clark gold dollars, and $14,9r>3,488.38 in foreign (Mexican) gold coin, $7,041,294.65 in foreign silver and minor coin, $41,185,228.95 in domestic silver coin, and $24,477,958.21 in five cent and one cent pieces, making a total coin- , age of $450,542,164.19, or 1,547,- 431,704 pieces. Upon this large coin- age the wastage or loss was gold, $18,491.93; silver, $12,129.15, and five and one cent pieces $4,346.22, a total of $34,967.30. The average coinage per year was $45,049,441.60 and the average loss or wastage was $3,496.73. Since the elimination of acid for cleaning purposes and the introduc- tion of the new cleaning method the wastage has been reduced one-half. The last three years show a very small wastage compared with for- mer years. During the last two years the coinage of gold and silver has fallen off considerably; the former due to the passage of an act authorizing the issuing of gold certificates on gold bars instead of the coin as here- tofore, and the latter owing to a large surplus of subsidiary coin in the vaults of the Treasury and sub- treasuries. On the other hand, the demand for minor coins has in- creased. This, no doubt, was due to the change in design of the five and one cent pieces. A complete system of cost-keeping shows the cost of each process in coinage operations per ounce of metal handled, and per dollar of product; calculations are made monthly and a statement of the same made. If the seigniorage on silver and minor coin is taken into considera- tion, it will show that this mint is the largest money making institu- tion in the Government service. As, for instance, a troy pound of copper will yield $1.20 and a troy pound of nickel $3.75. The copper and nickel cost approximately 15 cents per pound for the former and 3S cents for the latter. The tin and zinc for alloying will be added to the copper. Silver can be purchased for about 60 cents per ounce,, CHAPTER XXV. HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE :v . By A. H. PEARSON PERSONAL liberty in the United States is so complete that we scarcely realize there is a pow- erful central government to wntch over our destinies and make us com- port ourselves with proper regard for the rights of citizens in our neigh- boring States. Frequently, an Amer- ican's first real contact with Federal power comes on his return from a trip abroad, when he is advised that he must pay duty on goods that he has brought with him. He may have looked with contempt on the poor foreigner who must submit to the pettifoggery of an officious govern- ment, and he may be returning with a smug "better-than-thou" attitude, only to receive a rude shock to his complacency as the customs officials board the vessel and make him swear out a statement of his dutiable per- sonal effects. Then, no matter if he does consider it an invasion of his rights as a freeborn American citi- zen, he must submit to having his trunk opened, and searched more or less perfunctorily, to make sure that he has not perjured himself. He v may even be called aside to answer searching questions about a certain piece of jewelry. Now, how did Un- cle Sam know that he had that trinket? For the first time he is aware of a spy system, not unlike that of Russia, which reaches out beyond our shores to foreign lands and keeps track of the purchases of the American tourists. Despite the humiliation of being treated as a CUSTOMS EXAMINATIONS OF DRY GOODS AT THE APPRAISEE'S STORES Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 322 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ALL CUBAN LEAF TOBACCO MUST BE MINUTELY EXAMINED smuggler, he cannot help but feel a great respect for the omniscience of a government whose existence he barely realized up to that moment. Although examination of travel- ers' baggage is the most troublesome work that the Custom House has to deal with, it is a paltry business compared with the collection of du- ties on general merchandise. De- spite the far greater attention to per- sonal baggage, smuggling still con- tinues among tourists, especially those of the gentler sex, who display remarkable ingenuity in concealing their dutiable goods. One customs official hopelessly admitted that "women are born smugglers, and we cannot hope ever to suppress them." As for general merchandise, the opportunities for smuggling are so remote, the co-operation between the Government and the importers them- selves is so complete, and the pen- alty for smuggling is so severe as compared with the reward it offers, that practically no goods enter the country without paying duty. Take STAMPING BOXES OF IMPORTED CIGARS AFTER THEY HAVE BEEN THOROUGHLY INSPECTED 324 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES diamonds, for instance, which one would suppose could very readily be introduced into the country because their value per size is so enormous. Not only does the Government keep track of .purchasers of diamonds jabroad, but the, dealers do as well, and they are constantly on the look- out for smuggled stones, realizing th'a't' it is to their own interest to report any stones introduced without paying the required tariff. Further- more, to make it unprofitable to smuggle the stones into the country, the tariff on them was reduced sev- eral years ago from 25 per cent to 10 per cent. r Some idea of the enormous amount [V)f'%ork involved in keeping track of ; the goods that . enter this country may be obtained by a visit to the Appraisers' -Stores on the lower west side of New York. The building is ten stories high and takes up an entire block, while across the street is an annex of no mean size. In these buildings at least 10 per cent of everything that comes into New York from foreign ports must be examined. A sample of literally everything under the sun finds its way v at one time or another info the Stores, and no matter what its char- acter may Jtte, whether a fifty-karat diamond or a penny doll, it must be gravely considered and its value ac- curately and scientifically determ- ined, so that the proper custom duty may be levied thereon. To handle this enormous quantity of material engages the attention of 938 men, of whom 134 are examiners. The du- ties of the examiner are exceedingly difficult. Each man has a certain classification, assigned to him, and he must be prepared to determine the wholesale value of any of the various articles that might turn up under that classification. He must be able to tell of just what material or materials the article was made, how much the materials were worth in the market from which they came, and just what was the value of the labor which, was expended upon it. Not only that, but he must know the market values of the materials and labor at the time of shipment. This must be determined on his own knowledge and not on the word of the shipper. He cannot depend on anyone else, but must stand on his own statement, which he must be ready to back up with incontestable evidence in case the importer carries an appeal to a higher court. He Weighing Cotton Yarn Inside an Oven for Customs Determinations must be able to detect all the tricks with which Unscrupulous manufac- turers delude the ignorant public. For instance, in the textiles depart- ment, the examiner must be able to tell whether a piece of goods con- tains cotton,, linen, or silk, and in what proportion. Having determ- ined this, he must know the quality of the material used in making it up. If it is of silk, he must determine whether the silk is artificial or natu- ral. If natural, what kind of silk, and where it came from. If he is in doubt about the matter, he refers a sample to the laboratory, where HOW UNCLE SAM PROTECTS HIS REVENUE 325 An Up-to-Date Smuggler's Vest Has Thirty- six Pockets the fabric is subjected to a chemical test in order to determine accurately what its composition may be. Natu- rally, an examiner acquires before long such an experience as to qualify him as an expert, an experience that it is impossible to obtain anywhere else. Recently, curiosities, works of art, and antiques, over a hundred years old, have been admitted free of duty. The examiner who has to - appraise the work of artists has an exceed- ingly difficult task. In many cases it is not at all easy to distinguish between spurious and genuine old masters. The- work of these exam- iners is of undeniable value to the country in preventing the importa- tion of counterfeits. Similar protection against fraud is found in the case of tea. No duty is levied on tea, but all tea must be examined for purity before being admitted into the country. In the tea room of the New York Apprais- ers' Stores a hundred thousand sam- ples of tea must be tested per year. One of the photographs shows the manner of testing. Each cup con- tains a different sample of tea iden- tified by a number marked on the bottom of the cup, and one of the cups contains a standard sample. Which one it is the examiner does not know, for the identification of this sample also is marked on the bottom of the cup. The examiner then proceeds to arrange the cups according to the color and taste of the tea. After the grading is done the samples are thrown away and the cups turned upside down to show the identifying numbers. All the samples on one side of the stand- ard are passed as good tea, while those on the other side are rejected. To make sure that no error has been made the test is repeated with a second set of samples. In order to SMUGGLING DUTIABLE GOODS IN BOOKS 826 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES detect any pigment used In the tea the leaves are mashed on a piece of white paper, and then the paper Is examined with a microscope for faint spots of coloring matter. The tests are very rigid and thorough, and the United States may pride itself on having nothing but pure tea to drink. Perhaps the most tedious work at the Stores is the testing of sugar. The tariff on sugar depends on the proportion of cane sugar the samples contain. This is determined accur- ately by means of a polariscope, which analyzes the light that passes through samples of the sugar syrup. In the case of sugar only samples are brought to the Stores, and as a check upon the examiner, two sam- ples out of each barrel are given him. Each sample bears its own number, but the examiners have no means of determining which two came out of the same barrel. Never- theless, his work must be so accu- rate that when like samples are paired again the readings will be practically identical. The laboratories of the Stores are also kept busy with quantitative an- alyses of various chemical products, particularly in the search for alco- hols in medicines, etc. There is also a section devoted to metallurgi- cal analyses. Obviously it would be impossible to examine every article imported into the country, and so it is the practice to bring at least ten per cent of a shipment to the Stores. If the shipment consists of but one or two cases of goods at least one case must be examined. The cases that go to the Stores are picked out at random by the examiner. He compares the contents of the case with the invoice and then investi- gates one of the articles under the invoice minutely in order to deter- mine its quality. If this tallies with the specifications the case is passed. In the case of leaf tobacco, every package must be opened, in order to determine whether the leaves are good enough to be used for wrappers, which must carry a duty of one dollar and eighty-five cents per pound, or whether they are fit only for fillers, which pay thirty- five cents duty. TESTING THE COLOR AND STBENGTH OF CHAPTEE XXVI. UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS ALASKA, 1867 ALASKA is a gigantic headland thrusting itself out from the extreme northwest corner of the American continent, with the waves of the Arctic Ocean washing its northern and western shores, and the Pacific bounding it on the south ; only the narrow Bering Strait sep- arates it from Siberia, while to the east lies Yukon Territory and Brit- ish Columbia. About a third of its area is within the Arctic Circle. We purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 for $7,200,000; for a long time we neglected its possibilities, and the revenue from it was small, but since 1867, and mostly within the past sixteen years, its utilized min- erals, fish and furs have reached the enormous value of some $600,000,000; or more than eighty times its pur- chase price. About half this return must be credited to minerals, chiefly to gold, while fisheries and furs pro- vide the other half. Of course there have been large administration ex- penses, but these probably do not exceed $50,000,000. SQME OF THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF ALASKA Copyright by Munp & Co,, IDC. 328 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Alaska's 590,844 square miles, which we acquired for one and three- quarters cents an acre, give her al- most three times the area of France, and more than double that of Texas. This area falls into four natural divisions: the Arctic Slope region, with a maximum elevation of 3,000 feet; the Central Plateau, 3,000 to 5,000 feet; the Rocky Mountain system, entering from Yukon and stretching across the country in a northeasterly direction; and the Pa- cific system, including the Alaskan, St. Elias, and "Panhandle" ranges, with such peaks as Mt. Crillon, 15,- 900 feet, the active volcano Mt. Wrangell, 17,500 feet, Mt. St. Elias, 18,024 feet, and Mt. McKinley, tow- ering to the height of. 20,300 feet, and taking rank as the highest on United States soil, and the thirteenth highest in the world. The greatest river system of Alaska is that of the Yukon and its tributaries, the Koyukuk and the Tanana. This system provides 3,000 miles of navigable water. The Kuskokwim, another important riv- er, is navigable for 600 miles. There are several fine lakes, among them the 160-mile reach of Nikhkak, in the rugged Sitkan district. The climate is milder than might be expected from the high latitude. The interior, of course, presents rig- orous conditions, but the coastal re- gions of the Pacific are beneficially affected by a warm current similar to that of the Gulf Stream. These regions have a -copious rain-fall; at Sitka the average is 80 inches, com- pared with 44.6 inches for New York City. The old belief that Alaska could never have any real agricultural value is disappearing. The Govern- ment experimental work, for which the main station is at Sitka, has re- sulted in producing at Coldfoot, 60 miles north of the Arctic Circle, 8- inch cucumbers, 19-inch rhubarb, 4- inch potatoes, and 8-pound cabbages. Lettuce is especially crisp and de- licious, and turnips of good quality mcain a weight of 16 pounds. Along the coast, seaweed and fish guano make excellent fertilizers. Here the heavy rains prevent grain from be- ing raised, except for forage; but in the interior, and particularly at Rampart, very satisfactory results have been obtained. Of the capital cities of the United States, 31 record as low degrees of temperature as Sitka, and 4 are colder than Valdez, while the winter of Juneau is usu- ally milder than that of Washing- ton, D. C. Roses, lilacs, and Eng- lish ivy thrive in the neighborhood of Seward, and southeastern Alaska boasts fifty species of birds, among them the song sparrow and the her- mit thrush. Juneau, the capital, with its quaint shops and its streets that terrace to the water, is picturesque and lively. It has good schools, churches, clubs, and hospitals, a library, a theater, a chamber of commerce, and news- papers. Fine lawns and well-fur- nished homes are not lacking, and the town is equipped with a good water supply and electric light. Some 27,000,000 acres of the Ter ritory is covered by timber cedar, hemlock, spruce, and fir. Alaskan cedar is admirable for shipbuilding, cabinet work, and interior finish ; it is close-textured, and wonderfully durable under exacting conditions, and its odor is so suggestive of san- dalwood that it has been shipped to Japan, made into ornamental boxes and fans, and sold as genuine sandalwood. Of the fishing industries, that of salmon is of commanding import- ance; the worth of the annual catch may be roughly placed at $15,000,000. In May, the "China boss" brings to the canneries a horde of Chinese, Japanese, South Americans, and Filipinos. Men, women and little children work at top speed during the canning season, twelve and four- teen hours a day and seven days a week. Fish poisoning is common. Housing conditions are unspeakably bad. In catching salmon, there are 330 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES no restrictions as to method, and the trap system menaces the life of the industry. The day's catch of one fisherman, during a particularly heavy "run," was 3,000 salmon. Na- tives are asking for remedial legis- lation, the enforcement of the laws governing restraint of trade, and the regulation of child labor. Another urgent need of Alaska is more light- houses along her dangerous coasts. Alaska is under a Governor ap- pointed by the President for a four- year term. Since 1912 it has had a Legislature of two Houses. The Ter- ritory is in the Ninth Circuit of the Supreme Court, with its four judi- cial divisions at Juneau, Fairbanks, Valdez, and Nome. Each division elects two members for the Senate and four for the House, the Senate thus consisting of eight members and the House of sixteen. One dele- gate is sent to Congress from the Territory. Business licenses furnish most of the revenue, which is approximately $1,000,000. In 1909 there were 152 industrial establishments, with a combined capital of $13,000,000, a combined output valued at $11,- 130,000, and employing 73,479 men. Education is carried on by means of a hundred schools, enrolling, in 1913, 6,563 children, and costing $350,000 to support. These are maintained partly by the Federal Government and partly by the muni- cipalities. In 1913, 460 miles of railroad were in operation. In 1915, two routes for a most important Government railroad were before President Wil- son. One was the Cordova-Fair- banks route; the other was that from Seward, on Resurrection Bay, to Fairbanks, 471 miles inland along the Tanana River. He finally select- ed the latter route, two reasons probably influencing his choice. First, a railroad from Seward al- most to Knik already exists, and was purchasable for the very rea- sonable sum of $1,150,000; this re- duces the length of the new work by some hundred miles. Second, Se- ward has probably the best harbor and town site in Alaska. The new road will cost $26,000,000, including the construction of a branch from Matanuska Junction to the Mata- nuska coal field, one of the most valuable fields of high-grade coal in the Territory. The work is under the direction of the Alaskan En- gineering Commission, and will later be exended to Yukon, thus opening up the interior and its vast re- sources. According to the census of 1910, the population of Alaska was made up of 36,347 white and 28,009 na- tives, Asiatics, and negroes. The natives are the Eskimo, or Innuit, of the north and northeast, the Tin- nehs, or Indians of the interior, the Aleuts, or islanders, and the Tlingits of the North Pacific coast. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, 1898 t I M:iS cluster of islands consti- [ tuting the Territory of Hawaii was formerly known as the Sandwich Islands, and is found in the North Pacific Ocean. Hawaii, the largest and most southerly of the group, emerges from the sea about 1,300 miles north of the equa- tor, and 2,200 miles from San Fran- cisco. The discovery of these is- lands is usually credited to Capt. Cook, in 1778, although an earlier discovery is claimed by Spain. American missionaries were sent there in 1820, and these men re- duced the language to written form ; soon after this idolatry was abolished by a decree of the ruler, Kamehame- ha II. In 1844, the independence of the islands was guaranteed by the United States, Great Britain, and France. On August 12th, 1898, the archipelago was transferred to the Government of the United States, and on June 14th, 1900, it was or- ganized as a Territory. UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS The islands have an area of 6,449 square miles. Although they lie en- tirely within the tropics, the heat is moderated by the trade winds that blow for nine months of the year; clear skies and an equable temperature characterize the cli- mate and conduce to the healthfuv conditions which prevail. The tem- perature at Honolulu, the capital, averages 71 deg. F. in December, and less than 77 deg. F. in July. The rainfall varies greatly, the windward side of the islands re- ceiving the most. At Hilo it may be eighty inches or more, while at the more sheltered Honolulu the aver- age is probably within thirty-eight inches annually. There are no hur- ricanes of damaging violence, al- though several high gales may be expected in the course of the winter season. J 1^, -HAWAIIAN 2 " & > , r ISLANDS gj There are eight islands in the Ha- waiian group, besides numerous islets for the most part uninhabited. Hawaii Island, the largest, contains 4,210 square miles, and the popula- tion in 1910 was 55,382. Here Mauna Loa, the largest volcano in the world, looms 13,675 feet into the air; Mauna Kea slightly exceeds this height, reaching 13,805 feet, and ranking as the highest peak in the Pacific Ocean. Mauna Loa is still active, and sixteen miles away, in a southerly direction, is Kilauea Hill, which has the distinction of possess- ing the largest active crater in the world, nine miles in circumference, with vertical sides 1.000 feet in depth. The eastern coast is scarred by ravines reaching a depth of 2,000 feet, through which eighty-five streams pour their waters. Northeast of Hawaii is Maul Is- land, of 728 square miles, with a population in IS/1.0 of 28,623. It is mountainous, and presents some pic- turesque scenery. Its two main por- tions are connected by a sandy isth- mus that is but little above sea level. The summit of Mount Haleakala (10,032 feet) may be reached on horseback; the long, regular gradi- ents make this feat comparatively easy. At the summit is found the largest extinct crater in the world. The northwest coast possesses a good harbor in Lahaina, with steam- ers plying between that port and Honolulu. Molokai Island, not much more than a third as large as Maui, Is occupied by a low mountain range, and is popularly known as the site of the leper settlement, where all those affected by the disease are iso- lated. Oahu Island, with a population of 90,000 and an area of about 500 square miles, presents some of the most charming, natural forma- tions, combining mountains and ra- vines, cascading waters, and rich foliage and vegetation into pictures wholly satisfying to the artistic eye. Coral reefs girdle its coasts, and on the southern shore is Honolulu, the capital of the Territory, on a plain formed by the upheaval of. an old coral reef. Kauai Island possesses the most fertile soil of any in the group, the advanced decomposition of its lavas showing that volcanic action has been long extinct. It is roughly cir- cular in shape, of an area of 547 square miles, and in 1910 the popu- lation was 23,744. Twenty miles to the southwest is the little island of Niihau. Cook found few animals in the Islands. There were dogs, rats and hogs, and a day-flying bat The only reptile was a small lizard. There are now cattle, sheep and 3, aod some deer. More than 332 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES fifty species of birds have been found, but the Chinese turtle-dove and the European house-sparrow are the only birds frequenting the towns. The windward districts are quite heavily forested. Sandalwood is no longer obtainable, but the can- dle-nut and the screw pine are char- acteristic of the slopes and valleys, while the cocoanut palm grows free- ly on the coast. The soil is general- ly very productive, and in 1910 there were 4,350 farms, covering 2,590,600 acres, the land being valued at $78,- 000,000; the live stock upon them was worth $4,300,000. The commer- cial products include coffee, rice, arrowroot, honey, bananas, sisal, wool, hides, skins and tallow, rub- ber, cotton, and tobacco, but sugar and tropical fruits are the chief ex- ports. On the sugar plantations the growing use of irrigation canals is resulting in increased crops ; that of 1914 was 618,000 tons, and the yield is from two to seven tons to the acre, depending upon location. The industrial establishments of the islands numbered, in 1910, 500, with 7,572 employees, and a combined capital of $23,875,000; the material used was valued at $25,629,000, the output at $47,404,000. Communication facilities are con- stantly being improved. There is a large and increasing mileage of good roads, and more than 300 miles of railway, 240 miles of it being on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu. In Honolulu almost every house has its telephone; there are 6,000 miles of wire on the five main is- lands. The best harbors, after that of Honolulu, are Pearl, on Oahu ; Hilo, on Hawaii; and Kahului, on Maui. From these and the lesser ports of the group, 436 vessels of a total tonnage of 1,574,845 cleared in 1915, and in the same year 456 vessels, of 1,605,925 tons, entered. Inter-island transportation is pro- vided for by a fleet of sixteen small steamers. At Honolulu new wharves have been constructed, and the larg- est steamers can now be accommo- dated. At Hilo and at Kahului breakwaters have been built, and the harbor of Kahului has been deepened. The erection of light- houses has progressed steadily. Ten steamship lines touch at the islands, from Canada, the United States," the Philippines, China, Japan, and Australia. Wireless puts the islands into communication with each other, with the Pacific coast, and with vessels at sea, and cables stretch to both shores of the Pacific. Upon formal annexation to the United States, a Legislature of two houses was established. Fifteen members are elected for a four-year term to the Senate, and thirty mem- bers with two-year terms constitute the House of Representatives. Once in two years these bodies meet in a sixty-day session. The President of the United States appoints for four years a Governor, at a salary of $7.000, and a Secretary. A Dele- gate is elected to the United States Congress by popular vote. The ju- diciary consists of a Supreme Court and Circuit and District Courts ; dis- trict magistrates are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; all other judges, including those of a United States District Court, are appointed by the Presi- dent. There were nearly 8,000 con- victions in 1915, mostly for minor offenses. There were 170 public schools in 1915, where 735 teachers gave in- struction to 29.000 pupils, at a cost of $772,000; besides this, $70,000 was expended upon new buildings. These are free schools, and English is the language in general use. In addition, there are about fifty pri- vate schools, with an enrollment of 7,700 pupils, industrial schools for both boys and girls, a normal school, a College of Agriculture and the Me- chanic Arts, and a reformatory. The enrollment records disclose the fact that of all these pupils some 18,000 are Asiatics, 8,000 are of Hawaiian blood, 5,700 are Portu- guese, and 1,403 American, the re- Photos by the American Museum f Natural History Natives Catchi Objects of Culture HAWAIIAN ISLANDS ng Fish ult 334 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES mainder being Germans and British. In. the old days, the Hawaiian was a cqast dweller, having his grass hut under the palms, and his garden or small plantation on the hill slopes. A little patch of kalo, less than fifty feet square, provided him with a year's sustenance. He was a great fisherman, and there are in existence lines made from fine olona fiber which have seen a cen- tury of service, and are still in good condition. His huge sailing canoe was a familiar sight to the Mt- lanesians, and the impression made by his gigantic war canoe, carrying pean costume ; his fishing line, when he condescends to fish, is of cheap foreign manufacture, and much of the fish he eats comes from the tin can ; the picturesque hut of grass has been almost wholly replaced by the shack of rude wood, and he is on intimate terms with the slum of the town. When Capt. Cook found him, he was one of a proud race 400.000 strong ; to-day that raoe has dwindled to less than 25,000, if we exclude the 12,000 of mixed blood. The modern Hawaiian has, how- ever, retained many "of the char- GOVERNMENT BUILDING, HONOLULU its hundred ruddy-skinned warriors, must have been awe-inspiring. This was in the days when the goddess Pele spoke from her volcanic throne, and "Pele's hair," a sort of natural mineral wool spun by the wind from lava-drops, was found in the crev- ices as substantial evidence of her reality. All this has passed. The Hawaiian of to-day affects Euro- acteristics that make him so attrac- tive to us. He is still a fine speci- men of physical humanity, pleasure- loving, athletic, and musical in voice and in temperament. His guitar still holds tones that have never been duplicated upon other instruments or evoked by other fin- gers. His women continue to weave their flower garlands and bright UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 335 necklaces, and the dance has lost none of its abandon. There are in the islands 80,000 Japanese, 22,000 Chinese, and 22,000 Portuguese, and several thousand Filipinos have been introduced. Japanese, Chinese, and Korean im- migration is now forbidden. The census of 1910 gives the popu- lation of Honolulu as 52,183, and the entire population of the inhab- ited islands is now estimated to be 322,856. Honolulu is in many as- pects quite modern ; electricity lights its streets and operates its cars. It has a Roman Catholic and an Angli- can bishop, and ministers of several other denominations. It has fine parks, a water system, hotels, clubs, newspapers, a hospital, a large library, a museum, and several large manufacturing establishments. The Hawaiian National Guard is a body of a thousand men, and mili- tary works are in progress at va- rious places in Oahu, including fortifications, a naval station, and a drydock at Pearl, on the island of Oahu. A direct property tax furnishes most of the revenue of the Territory, augmented by licenses and land sales, road, school and poll taxes. The assessed value of all property in 1915 was $176,601,222, the annual receipts from all sources were $2,- 796,146, and the expenditures $2,- 747,270; there is a bonded debt of $7,873,000. The exports of the Ter- ritory were $62,464,759, the imports $26,416,031, for the year ending June 30th, 1915. Practically all the export trade was with the United States, as was 80 per cent of the import trade. Raw sugar accounted for $51,368,995 of the export figures, refined sugar for $1,584400, and tropical fruits for $6,319,129. PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1899 IN our East India possessions, the Philippine and Sulu Islands, we have a territory as large as the United Kingdom, with a population larger than that of Canada. To put it more exactly, if less impressively, the area of the archipelago is 121,- 400 square miles, and the population is 9,000,000. The formation of the group suggests a wish-bone, with the largest and most northerly' island, Luzon, as the stem ; Mindoro and the long, narrow Palawan, with the chain of islets between them, forms the western fork of the bone; the eastern fork is made up of Samar, Panay, Negros and Mindanao, the latter being the second largest and the most southerly island of the group. The islands and islets num- ber altogether 3,141. The China Sea, which washes the western coasts, puts 500 miles of water between the group and the continent of Asia. The Sulu chain bridges the gap be- tween Mindanao and Borneo, and farther north the gap is again bridged by the long arm of Palawan and Balabac; these extensions en- close the Sulu Sea ; to the south rolls the Celebes Sea, and on the east is the vast extent of the Pa- cific, the first mainland encountered in this direction being Central America. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The Philippines were discovered by Magellan in 1521. Spain took them by conquest in 1542, and held them for more than three centuries \ but on the outbreak of the Spanish- American War, Admiral Dewey, commanding our Pacific fleet, de- stroyed the Spanish warships in Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, and Manila was taken by General Mer- ritt in the following August. The Mt. Mayon, in Luzon, broke into devastating activity; mild earth- quake shocks are frequent, but the buildings are so constructed as to withstand fairly severe shocks. The islands are all mountainous, the gen- eral trend of the systems being north and south. Mt. Apo (10,300 feet) on Mindanao is the highest summit ; no other peaks exceed 9,000 feet. The longest river is the Cagayan, LOVELY PHILIPPINE SCENERY Treaty of Paris (December 10, 1898) ceded the archipelago to the United States. Then followed battles with the native forces under Aguinaldo, ending with his capture in March, 1901. Of volcanic formation, the Philip- pines still have twelve active vol- canoes. In 1880 destructive earth- quakes were experienced ; in 1897 which rises in the mountains of the eastern coast of Luzon and traverses the island in a northerly direction for 220 miles; other important streams are the Cotobate and the Agusan in Mindanao. The Laguna de Bay, a fresh water lake, near Manila, is thirty miles long, and numerous smaller lakes are scattered throughout the islands. The archi- UNCLE SAM'S NON-OONTIGUQtTS POSSESSIONS 337 pelago has a longitudinal extent of a thousand miles; from northern Luzon to southern Mindanao is as far as from New York City to south- ern Florida ; hence it is to be ex- pected that climatic conditions vary greatly in different portions of the group. While the climate is, of course, tropical, the heat is on the whole more bearable than that en- countered in many temperate coun- tries. The seasons may be desig- nated as hot, wet and cold. The hot season (March to June) is at its worst just before the southerly trade winds begin to blow ; in the latter part of this season violent thunder- storms occur ; from July and through October the rain falls in torrents, often registering seventy inches for the four months ; in Manila, seventy- five inches is perhaps a fair annual average. From November to March is the so-called cold season, when heavier garments are necessary to comfort and a sense of invigoration is born of the cloudless skies and the cleansed air. The mean temper- ature at Manila is, for the hot season, about 87 degrees; for the wet season, 85 degrees, and for the cold. 72 degrees. The fauna of the islands is not prodigal in mammals, but it offers peculiarities that well repay the nat- uralist. There are wild boar and deer; monkeys are found every- where, one species being a pure white; there is a lemur about the size of a squirrel, which sleeps the day through and seeks its food by night, its long hind-legs propelling it over the ground in frog-like leaps ; there are two species of civet, and a wild cat ; also porcupines, squirrels and rats, and numerous species of bats; lizards, alligators and turtles are found, and some enormous mol- luscs : the shell of the tablobo has been known to attain the weight of two hundred pounds. The waters provide both curious and valuable fish. The usual domestic animals are met with, and the buffalo is used in the fields. The forested area is extensive, and is under the supervision of the United States Forestry Bureau. It offers a wonderful variety of tim- ber, cabinet woods, palms, trees yielding gums, spices and dyewoods, and bamboo. No matter what par- ticular quality or combination of qualities may be sought to meet special uses, a timber may readily be found that will admirably serve the purpose. Since the supply great- ly exceeds any local demand that is likely to arise, these forests consti- tute a most valuable resource. Three-fourths of the trees are of the dipterocarp family, corresponding to the conifers of our zone. From this family may be obtained an abun- dance of woods eminently suitable for interior finish and for furniture, and exhibiting a wide range of color and texture. Tanguile and red lauan closely resemble mahogany in appearance. If hardness be the qual- ity sought, guipo and apitong may be relied upon ; they are extensively used for flooring, and a still harder wood used for this purpose is yacal ; this latter is ideal for heavy con- struction work, as are also ipil and pagatpat ; these timbers make strong and durable railroad ties. Should we seek beautiful cabinet woods there are many trees of the locust family, among which may be found colors and grainings to satisfy the most exacting tastes; the ipel is a striking example in this class." Then there are woods that lend themselves to less common and even more diffi- cult demands. Mancono and dungon make the finest dumb-bells, bowling balls and bearings. Calantas is an excellent substitute for the Spanish cedar used in cigar boxes. Ebony, the highest priced of all Philippine woods, has a wide distribution, but the trees do not attain any great size; perfect pieces bring $300 a thousand feet board measure. The islands are far from poor in minerals. In most of the larger ones gold is found, and the crude work- ings of the natives have now given OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES place to an established industry that, in 1913, produced nearly a million dollars' worth of the precious metal. Other minerals found in greater or less quantities are silver, platinum, mercury, lead and manganese ; there are several coal fields, iron exists in various parts of the archipelago, cop- per has long been mined by the na- tives for manufacture into utensils, and there are evidences of sulphur, petroleum, rock salt, kaolin and gypsum. In 1913 the value of all minerals yielded up by the soil was $1,972,290. The aborigines were probably Ne- gritos, who were gradually forced into the remoter natural strongholds by their Malayan invaders, until the latter came to dominate the islands. Of the present entire population of 9,000,000 nearly S,000,000 are Roman Catholics; the Moros are Mohamme- dans, and number perhaps 300,000; the uncivilized, pagan tribes of the mountains, scattered throughout the islands, make up the remainder. It will be seen that the non-Christian and uncivilized elements can neither singly nor together be taken as in any way representative of the Fil- ipino people. The Malayan is the dominant and representative stock. At the social functions of Manila one meets highly educated men and women in the conventional evening dress. Should we engage one of these men in conversation about his country, he will tell us that writing was common before the arrival of the first Spanish monk, and that the inhabitants were a highly moral peo- ple at that time; that they have en- joyed three centuries of civilization ; that at the time of the American occupation, 45 per cent of the Chris- tians were literate ; that there was a university in the Philippines be- fore Harvard was founded, and that the Americans found on their com- ing 1,674 public 1 schools, and colleges for both men and women in every capital city of any importance; that Luna had already achieved interna- tional fame as an artist, and music and poetry of a high order were written ; and that the unusually fine examples of wood-carving demon- strate the artistry of the Filipino craftsman. On the other hand, he would not deny that American occu- pation had increased the number of public schools to more than 4,000, and had raised the literacy to 75 per cent. There are now 37 educa- tional divisions under direction of the Secretary of Public Instruction, with a public school enrollment of 500,000; there are noi-mal and indus- trial trade schools, and private STATUE OF MAGELLAN IN PALACE AT MANILA schools enroll some 10,000 pupils. The University of the Philippines, maintained by the State, has col- leges of Liberal Arts, Law, Medi- cine and Surgery, Engineering, Fine Arts, Veterinary Medicine and Agri- culture, with 2,000 students. Much thought has been given to the solution of the problem presented by the Moros. With this in view, a hundred miles of Moro country in UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS the island of Mindanao has b'eeu organized into eight colonies, where the mixed peoples live peacefully to- gether, their children attending the same schools. English is now the official language of the archipelago. The educated Filipino speaks sev- eral languages and follows American politics assiduously. The people are in general, kind, hospitable and in- telligent. Agriculture is the chief industry, in which one-half the workers are engaged. More than 8,000,000 acres are under cultivation, 3,000,000 acres being devoted to rice. The principal products are rice, Manila hemp, copra, sugar, maize and tobacco. Ob- solete methods and insufficient labor account for the agricultural possi- bilities being in a neglected state, but our occupation is already accom- plishing good results in this direc- tion. All public schools have now an elementary course in agriculture, and a rural credit system is fur- NATIVES OF JOLO SELLING FRUIT thered by an Agricultural Bank hav- ing twenty-six agencies. In 1914 the outstanding loans of this institution aggregated nearly two millions of dollars. The 1915 imports amounted to $44,479,861, the exports to $50,915,- 061. Abaca or Manila hemp stands first on the export list with a value of $19,000,000; copra next with a value of $12,000,000, and sugar third with a value of $9,712,757; cigars and cigarettes accounted for $2,102,- 317, and all other tobacco for $1,- 589,678. The value of the chief im- ports was: Cotton goods, $9,669,247; rice, $5,448,301 ; steel and iron prod- ucts, $3,993,984. Half the entire trade of the islands is with the United States. The central government is vested in a Governor-General, who is also President of the Philippine Commis- sion, assisted by eight commissioners, four of whom are the executive heads of departments known as In- terior, Commerce and Police, Fi- nance and Justice, and Public In- struction. The commission consti- tutes one house of the legislature, the other is known as the Assembly, with eighty-one members elected by limited franchise for four years. Two Resi- dent Commissioners, elected by the Legislature, take their seats, but without a vote, in the United States House of Representatives. Political- ly, the archipelago is divided into thirty-six provinces and, in addition, the Department of Mindanao and Sulu, which is itself divided into provinces and districts. Thirty-one are known as regular, and the others a s special, provinces ; the first class are governed by provincial boards elected by the people; governors of the special provinces are appointed by the Governor-General arid the commission, acting in concert. Muni- cipal officers are elected for terms of four years by the voters; about nine hundred towns enjoy this auton- omy. Each town has a justice of the peace ; in each of the twenty-six judicial divisions the administration of justice is under a judge of first instance, with the exception of the city of Manila, which constitutes the ninth district or division, and to which four judges are assigned. There is also a supreme court. Be- sides the municipal police, there is what is known as the Philippines Constabulary, with a strength of about 350 officers and 5,000 men. 340 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The garrison of the islands has 10,000 American and 5,000 native troops, and a body known as the Philippine scouts number about 5,000. Customs duties and internal taxes provide most of the revenue, which, in 1914, was $11,912,761 ; in the same year the expenditures were $13,333,- 321, but as at the beginning of the year there was a balance of $5,- 679,587, there was still on hand at its conclusion $4,259,027. In 1914 the bonded debt was $16,125,000. Of the expenditures for this year, more than $5,000,000 was devoted to social and public improvement and eco- nomic development. Leprosy, smallpox, the bubonic plague and cholera were formerly prevalent in the islands. Radical measures have been taken to stamp out these diseases, and much progress has been made. There are between two and three thousand lepers iso- lated in a colony on the island of Culion. Intestinal diseases, which ravaged the Philippines, have been reduced by almost one-half; this re- sult is attributed largely to the pure water supply secured for Manila ; in the smaller towns this has been accomplished by the drilling of hun- dreds of artesian wells. It is as yet hard to obtain accurate health statistics except for Manila; here the birth rate is about 36, and the death rate 25 or less, per thousand. Manila has a population of 270,- 000; of these 17,000 are Chinese; there are probably 6,000 Americans, counting in the garrison, and 6,000 Europeans, two-thirds of them Span- iards. Chinese immigration to the Philippines was prohibited in 1902, and registration is required of Chinese laborers. Th number of Chinese now on the islands is put at 50,000, and the entire number of whites (American and European) is estimated to be 20,000. The savage tribes of the mountains differ widely in many respects, and it is a mistake to call them all "Igorrotes." Even the Igorrotes, filthy and barbarous as they are, possess some good traits. Although they live in moun- tainous parts of the country they cultivate the soil industriously, first terracing the slopes, then laying out their plots upon these terraces, irri- gating them by canals that are con- structed with no mean skill. They are monogamists among whom di- vorce is unknown, and by whom in- fidelity is severely punished. There is little manufacturing done in the Philippines, but pina fibers, cotton and silk are woven into fab- rics that are frequently attractive and durable; baskets, cordage, pot- tery, furniture, hats, mats, musical instruments and carriages are also made; but the only manufacturing industry of note is that of cigars and cigarettes; 305,000,000 cigars were made on the islands in 1913, about one-third of this output being con- sumed in the country while the rest was exported ; and in the same year 4,500,000,000 cigarettes were pro- duced, mostly for local consumption. There are more than 5,000 miles of good road in the Philippines, 1,800 miles being hard-surfaced road of the first quality ; permanent bridges and culverts number nearly 6,000. At the time of the American occu- pation in 1898 there were but 120 miles of railway ; this connected Manila with Dagupan. There are now 720 miles, with 212 miles more planned, if not actually under con- struction ; 600 miles are on Luzon, 72 on Panay, and 60 on Cebu. The islands have 5,300 miles of telegraph lines and 1,173 miles of cables; 700 post-offices handle the mail. The postal revenue for 1914 was $380,- 942, and the telegraph revenue was $283,305. Money orders were sold to the value of $8,272,858. The fine harbor at Manila will allow of the entrance of vessels drawing thirty feet of water, and next in importance are the harbors of Cebu and Iloilo. Cebu is a city of 60,000 population, and Iloilo has 50,000. The ports of the Philippines in 1914 received for- eign vessels to a tonnage of 1,912,756, UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 341 and the tonnage of foreign vessels clearing was 1,931,249. The mercan- tile marine consists of some 700 ves- sels, about one-fourth of this fleet being steam vessels, totaling 55,000 tons. Four banks are established in the Philippines. In 1904, after a trou- blesome experience with the Mexican dollar, the United States tried the expedient of guaranteeing by gold the Filipino peso, a coin worth fifty cents in American money. Fluctua- tions in value are thus avoided, and the experiment has proved quite suc- cessful. The postal savings bank has now about 45,000 depositors, and the total deposits are nearly 3,000,000 pesos. The alertness of the Filipino, and his eagerness to learn, have already been touched upon. It should not, then, surprise us that more than a hundred newspapers are published on Filipino soil. The predominating language of the press is Spanish, but no less than 27 of these newspapers are in English, 33 are in native dia- PHILIPPINE COFFEE PLANTATION lects, and 3 are in Chinese. If fur- ther promise of a Filipino rena- scency is required, we may find it in the quiet tribute of the Hon. John Barrett, director-general of the Pan- American Union, who, in favorably comparing the Philippine Congress with the Japanese Parliament, finds in it "a ministry of bright men, of acknowledged ability as internation- al lawyers." PORTO RICO! 1899 PORTO RICO is the most east- erly island of the Greater An- tilles, in the West Indies ; it was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and was held by Spain until its capture by the United States in 1898. It is 100 miles long and about 40 miles in width, except toward the eastern end, which narrows considerably ; the area is 3,436 square miles, and it has, besides, several islands of importance, of which the largest is Vieques (100 square miles). Porto Rico is 1,400 miles from New York and less than 1,000 from Colon, Pan- ama. It is wonderfully fertile and presents a beautiful appearance. A mountain range, with a maxi- mum height of 3,800 feet, traverses the island from west to east, and there are 1,300 streams, of which fifty may be termed rivers ; but none are navigable for more than a mile or two from the coast. The hilly nature of the country causes tht trade winds to precipitate their moisture upon the northeastern low- lands, where the average rainfall is 120 inches, while at San Juan, the capital, it is but 55 inches. The temperature varies between 50 de- grees and 100 degrees. Although there are 40,000 small farms, valued in 1910 at more than $102,000,000, and 60 per cent of the workers are on the soil, not much more than one fourth of the land is under cultivation. The lowlands produce sugar, the hill slopes coffee and tobacco; much of the latter, of superior quality, is grown under cloth. Other products are sea island cotton, textile fibers, Indian corn, sweet potatoes, rice, maize, plan- tains and yams. Grapefruit, or- anges, pineapples, cocoanuts and other tropical fruits flourish. Most of the trade is with the United States. The country south of the mountain range is not so well 342 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES watered, but for this district there is now under construction an irri- gation system, to cost $3,000,000, which will greatly increase the out- put of the island. Molasses and honey are products of importance, but the staples are sugar and coffee, the former constituting 47 per cent of all exported products. In 1914 320,633 tons of sugar, valued at $20,240,335, and 50,211,947 pounds of coffee, valued at $8,193,544, were shipped from Porto Rico. Spanish cedar, ebony, rosewood, Indian sandalwood and mahogany are all found on the island, and the Talauma, with its white, sweet- scented flowers, furnishes a timber locally known as "sabino." At least twelve different plants are used in dyeing and tanning, and the fruit of the vijao, which grows in wild luxuriance, is used by the natives for ink and dyes, which are claimed to be quite fast in color; the root of the turmeric also yields a dye used for hammocks, ribbons and cloth, and this may prove to have commercial possibilities. Porto Rico is poor in fauna ; the passing of the armadillo and the agouti has left only small rodents, squirrels and a species of great land turtle as representative of the four-footed population. Of the few reptiles, none are venomous. Doves and various song birds frequent the higher districts; green parrots abound in the forests; and water birds, among them the gaudy flamin- go, are found along the coasts. Both salt-water and fresh-water fish are caught in considerable quantities. Of the domestic animals, cattle are raised in sufficient numbers to form an industry worthy of note. Little is known of the extent ol the mineral resources. Since much alluvial gold was recovered by the Spaniards, it is reasonable to infer that rich veins await discovery in the mountains. Copper, iron, tin, bismuth, mercury, platinum, nickel and coal have been found, and salt is worked extensively. This latter is the only mining enterprise upon an established basis. San Juan, the capital city, has a good harbor with a fairly clear en- trance ; when improvements now under way are completed the en- trance will be 600 yards wide, with 30 feet of water. The city had in 1910 a population of 50,000, with a town hall, a cathedral, a general hospital and a theater. Other towns are Ponce, which had 63,444 popu- lation, and Mayaguez, with a popu- lation of 42,429. The island boasts 74 municipalities, each electing its own mayor, city council and city officials. Porto Rico is administered by a Governor and an Executive Coun- cil, appointed by the President for a four year term ; six heads of depart- ments and five natives make up the Council. The Legislative Assembly is composed of two bodies, the Ex- ecutive Council and a House of Delegates; the seven electoral dis- tricts each supply five members to the House of Delegates. A Resident Commissioner to the United States is also elected by popular vote for the term of two years ; he takes his seat in the Federal Congress. Enact- ments of the Council and the House are subject to the veto of the Gov- ernor. The judiciary of the island includes an Attorney General with his staff, a United States Court, and a Supreme Court of five, all ap- pointed by the President; the Gov- ernor appoints fifty-nine justices of the peace ; seven District Judges are appointed by the Governor, while the people elect to office the judges and officials of thirty-four municipal courts. The educational system has been much improved since Americana UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 343 took charge of affairs. In 1899 more than 83 per cent of the people could neither read nor write. That year saw the complete reorganiza- tion of the school system, education being made compulsory. The num- ber of common schools has been in- creased from less than 800 to more than 4,300, with an enrollment of 207,010 in 1914. There are four high and twenty-five continuation schools, besides night schools, kin- dergartens and private schools. At Rio Piedras, a few miles from San Juan, is situated the University of Porto Rico, where students of both sexes receive instruction in such special subjects as teaching, scienca, engineering, medicine, law, architec- ture and agriculture; the farm and dairy of the University enable stu- dents to master the practice as well as the theory of agriculture, and in this the Government experiment sta- tion at Mayaguez offers its whole- hearted and valuable co-operation. In 1892 the island possessed 119 miles of railway. It now has more than 220 miles. This links together the towns of the western coast, partly encircles the island, and to a certain extent opens up the interior. It is intended to extend the present facilities until there is a railroad entirely around the island, and an- other project is the running of a new line across the island, with many branches and ramifications. There are a thousand miles' of tol- erable roads in Porto Rico, 600 miles or postal telegraph wire, govern- ment owned, forty telegraph stations and 80 post offices. The telephone is also winning its way into business and social demand. The population was estimated for 1914 at 1,184.489. an increase over 1910 of 66,477. Of this population, less than 50,000 are negroes, some 340,000 are mulattoes. and the rest are whites. Almost nothing is known of the original inhabitants ; a few of their stone weapons, im- plements and images, with some earthenware fragments, have been found, and are now preserved in the Smithsonian Institution ; and at Gurabo, on the Rio Grande de Loiza, may be seen a sort of monument roughly hewn in stone and bearing a number of mystifying designs. The revenues of Porto Rico come from customs and excise, from the tax on property, an inheritance tax FIRST FLAG RAISING IN PORTO RICO and various fees and licenses. The receipts from these sources for the year ending July 1st, 1914, were $10,108,708; the property had an assessed value of $179,271,023. The police force numbered about 700 men and the military forces about 600. The industries of Porto Rico are chiefly concerned with the produc- tion of embroideries, drawn work and hats. In 1910 there were 939 industrial establishments; their combined capital was placed at $25,- 544,385, and their output at $36,- 749.742. These establishments em- ployed 15.582 work people. The tonnage of American and foreign vessels clearing from Porto Rican ports during the year ending July 1st, 1914, was 1.216,909. The island is a port of call for thirteen steam- ship lines. In 1914 the imports were valued at $36.406.787 and the ex- ports at $43,102,762. In 1915 the exports to the United States alone reached a value of $43,311,920. 344 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES GUAM, 1899 GUAM, the largest and most southerly island of the Ladrone group, the rest of which belongs to Germany, lies in the North Pacific Ocean, nearly 1,500 miles east of the Philippines. It was discovered by Magellan in 1521, was held by Spain from 1688 to 1898, and was captured by the U. S. cruiser "Charleston" during our war with Spain. The island is 29 miles long, from 3 to 10 miles in width, and its area is 210 square miles. The northern part presents the appearance of a large plateau, while the southern portion is hilly, attaining a height of 1,280 feet. The vegetation is luxuriant, and soil and climate are admirably suit- ed to agriculture, but the laziness of the natives has prevented any extensive development of this pur- suit. October to May is the dry sea- son, although rain not infrequently falls. The temperature is even, with August and September the hot- test months, the yearly mean tem- perature being about 81 deg. Fahr. Guam is occasionally visited by dev- astating typhoons and earthquake shocks are not uncommon. Trade winds moderate the heat and condi- tions are generally milder than in the Philippines. The valleys are forestrated with valuable hardwoods. Food fruits are the custard apple and sour sop, the pineapple and the cocoanut ; breadfruit and bananas grow freely. The hau produces very strong and durable rope ; the leaves of the pan- danus are used in braiding hats and mats ; the ylang-ylang is well known for the perfume it yields. Among the vegetable products are rice, maize, sugar, cotton, indigo, castor oil and tobacco. About the only native animals are small rodents, but the roe and the wild goat thrive, as do swine and oxen. There are no venomous snakes and the scorpions and centi- pedes are not dangerous. The population of Guam is esti- mated at 13,000; the inhabitants are for the most part Chamorros with a mixture of Tagal, Malay and Span- ish blood, speaking a Malay-Spanish dialect, but English is rapidly gain- ing ground. The American occupa- tion is raising native standards. The lepers have been segregated, telegraphic communication has been improved, public schools established and a good hospital maintained. There is a Government agricultural experiment station at Agana, the capital, which has paved streets, sewers and a water system and is connected with Apra, the only safe harbor, by a very good road. The commandant of -the naval sta- tion acts as Governor. The island has four administrative districts, each with a commissioner as its executive head. Peonage has been abolished and courts of justice estab- lished. The 1914 imports were val- ued at .$160,000 and the exports at $50,000. Guam is a port of transit between the United States and the Philippines and army transports call there at frequent intervals, some- times monthly. SAMOAN ISLANDS, 1900 THE Samoan group is found in the South Pacific Ocean, 420 miles northeast of the Fiji Islands; named by Bougainville "lies des Navigateurs," from the natives' skill in handling their canoes, it still appears on many maps as Navigators' Islands. The whole group numbers thirteen islands, for the most part mere rocky and barren islets. By the Tripartite Treaty of 1899, all those east of 171 deg. long, were turned over to the United States, which has had a naval and coaling station there since 1872. Germany retained possession of that portion of the group lying to the west of this UNCLE SAM'S NON-CONTIGUOUS POSSESSIONS 345 meridian. The United States pos- sessions comprise Tutuila, with an area of 77 square miles and a popu- lation of 7,300; Ofu, Aunua and Olosenga, having together an area of some 25 square miles with about 2,000 population; and Rose Island, uninhabited. Pagopago, the capital of American Samoa, is on the south coast of Tutuila ; its fine harbor almost di- vides the island into two parts. Tutuila is the best island of the entire group, of a mountainous char- acter, but possessing extensive forests. The natives of the archipelago are forbidden to sell land to the whites, but are permitted to retain their own laws and customs in so far as these do not conflict with the laws and ordinances established by the Governor, who is also the naval com- mandant. He is authorized to ap- point officers, regulate the police and make ordinances dealing with such matters as the assessment of taxes and the importation of spirits. A body of seventy-five men, under a drill sergeant of the United States Navy, constitutes a native guard. The natives are of fine physique, but are indolent and very independ- ent, and the plantations have to be worked by imported labor. Hook- worm and the yaws are prevalent, but a great deal has been done toward the amelioration of these diseases, and much attention is paid to sanitation and the public health. There are four religious missions, with numerous sectarian schools; besides these, there is one govern- ment supported school and another largely maintained by the native population. The total number of schools is 83, with 2,000 pupils of both sexes. The political divisions are three the Eastern, comprising eastern Tutuila and Aunua ; the Western, which is western Tutuila ; and the District of Manua, taking in Tau and its neighboring islets. Each dis- trict has its native Governor ; under him are the county chiefs, and under them the chiefs of villages. Each village has its own court. u-j-gl SAMOA The products of American Samoa include cocoanuts, cocoa beans, bananas, breadfruit, pineapples, or- anges, yams and taro, the last being a plant with leaves similar to those of the water-lily, with roots that are baked and used as food. Some cot- ton, maize, sugar and coffee are raised for local consumption. Copra (dried cocoanuts) and cocoa beans are about the only things exported, the output of copra running to 1,500 tons per annum ; this product is largely used as legal payment for taxes. PANAMA CANAL ZONE, 1904 THE Panama Canal Zone, com- prising 436 square miles of ter- ritory, was acquired by pur- chase, February 26, 1904, the sum of $10,000,000 being paid to the Re- public of Panama. In addition, Pan- ama is to receive an annual pay- ment of $250,000 during the life of the treaty, beginning nine years after date of ratification. The Canal Zone begins at a point three marine miles from mean low water mark in each ocean and ex- tends five miles on each side of the center line of the route of the canal. It includes the group of islands in the Bay of Panama, named Perico, Naos, Culebra and Flamenco. The cities of Panama and Colon are ex- cluded from the Zone, but the United States has the right to enforce sani- tary ordinances and maintain public order there, in case the Republic of Panama should not be able to do so. PART n. OF HUMAN INTEREST TO ALL UNCLE SAM'S PEOPLE CHAPTER I. THE AMERICAN FLAG By ALBERT A. HOPKINS AND INSTRUCTOR H. C. WASHBURN U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY, ANNAPOLIS, MD. FIRST PART BY THE EDITOR FROM the earliest time the flag has been of prime importance. According to Livy the cav- alry flag was a square piece of textile material fixed to the cross bar at the end of a spear. The Roman standards were guarded SHIELDS SHOWING HOW THE HERALDIC COLORS ARE TRANSLATED INTO BLACK AND WHITE with the greatest care and venera- tion, and were kept in the temples of the great cities, and after the advent of Christianity churches re- ceived them. All through mediaeval and modern history we find the fas- cinating trail of the standard under various names, which, like the "Oriflamme?' of France, have come down to us as a valuable heritage. Disregarding the history of flags in general we come to our flag, which is a modern flag in every sense of the word ; it has no myths or legends connected with it, and the Heralds' College has never been invoked in -its design. Its bright colors are at- tractive and can be seen long dis- tances, which is not the case with all flags. Love for the flag has been fostered by State, school and church, so that nothing is more venerated In this country than the "Stars and Stripes." Great care has been taken by the Federal and State govern- ments to give the greatest possible protection for the national emblem ; thirty-four States have legislation to preserve the American Flag from desecration, mutilation or improper use. The national flag must not be used for advertising, as a cover for a magazine, and the statutes of the United States forbid the use of the flag as a trade mark. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 348 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES The settlements in the thirteen original States were largely English, and the ceremonial flags of the col- onies took the form of the English national standard of the period. In 1643 the colonies of Plymouth, Mass- achusetts Bay, Connecticut and New Haven formed an alliance called the "United Colonies of New England," and in 1686 they adopted the cross of St. George with a gilt crown over the monogram of James II. NEW ENGLAND COLORS, As early as 1700 the colonies be- gan to use flags of their own design, the "pine tree" flag of New England being an example. There are vari- ous forms of this flag. In one in- PINE TREE FLAG OF NEW ENGLAND stance the ground was blue with the cross of St. George in the center and a pine tree in the first quarter. This flag may have been used at the bat- tle of Bunker Hill. Another varia- tion was a flag with a white ground and a green pine tree in the center. FLAG USED AT THE BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL (?) The rattlesnake was another favor- ite symbol in the Southern colonies, and there are many variations of this flag, but the head of the snake must THE RATTLESNAKE FLAG OF SOUTH CAROLINA always face the staff. The motto is usually "Don't tread on me." South Carolina had a yellow flag with the snake on it. An early flag displayed in the South was a dark blue flag with a white crescent, and was raised at Charleston, S. C., on September 13, 1775. The word "Liberty" was a later addition and was used at the THE AMERICAN FLAG 349 historic defense of Fort Sullivan (now Fort Moultrie), Charleston Harbor, June, 1776. These flags, so interesting to stu- dents of colonial history, were not, however, strictly speaking, the fore- runners of the "Stars and Stripes." The flag, as we have it to-day, is the result of an evolution. The most prominent features of the flag are Q THE CRESCENT FLAG OF FORT SULLI- VAN, CHARLESTON HARBOR, 1776 EARLY AMERICAN FLAG OF THE REVO- LUTION IN THE SOUTH, CHARLES- TON, S. C. Same as Long Island Battle Flag FLAG OF THE ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANY .the bars. These are not original, however, as we find them in the flag of the Dutch West India Company, and in 1704 the ships of the English East India Company carried flags with thirteen red and white stripes and the cross of St. George in the canton. FLAG OF THE DUTCH WEST INDIA COMPANY FLAG OF THE PHILADELPHIA TROOP OF LIGHT HORSE, 1775 350 OUR -COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES It has also been suggested that the arms of Washington may have suggested the original form of our flag, but there seems nothing to sub- stantiate it. The first known in- stance of the use of stripes was in the flag of the Philadelphia Troop of Light Horse, 1775. This may have been suggested by the "Cambridge Flag," which Wash- ington raised at Cambridge on Janu- ary 2, 1776. This was truly the first American flag to show in concrete form the union of the colonies. There were thirteen alternate stripes of red and white, and in the canton was the combined crosses of St. George and St. Andrew. It is variously called the "Grand Union Flag," the "Great Union Flag," and the "Union Flag." The name "Cam- upholsterer who was the reputed maker of our first flag. CONTINENTAL OR GRAND UNION FLAG RAISED AT CAMBRIDGE JAN. 2, 1776 bridge Flag," however, appears to stick, and is eminently appropriate. This flag continued to be used until the Continental Congress adopted the "Stars and Stripes." The so- called "Betsy Ross" flag, or the first "Stars and Stripes," is enmeshed with much romance, but the testi- mony as to the events rests pretty largely on the statements of Mrs. Ross herself and these are not sup- ported by contemporary writers. Her house still exists at 239 Arch Street, Philadelphia, and is cared for by the American Flag House and Betsy Ross Memorial Association, and is a memorial to the little widowed WHITE PLAINS BATTLE FLAG OCT. 28, 1776 The facts, however, seem to have been these: On June 14, 1777, the American Congress adopted the fol- lowing resolution: Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alter- nate red and white; that the Union be thirteen stars, white on a blue field, rep- resenting a new constellation. THE FIRST NATIONAL FLAG OF THIi UNITED STATES, ADOPTED JUNE 14, 1777 John Adams has the credit of pro- posing the committee that framed the resolution. Washington is said to have remarked, "We take the star from Heaven, the red from our mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing that we have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to pos- THE AMERICAN FLAG 881 terity representing liberty." This is pure bombast and is probably apocryphal. The design was not officially pro- mulgated until September 3, 1777. The stars were first arranged in a circle, but this gave way to three horizontal lines of four, five and four stars. This remained the na- tional emblem until May 1, 1795, when two more stripes and two more stars were added for Vermont and Kentucky. "The Star Spangled Banner" was written by Francis Scott Key (1779- 1843). This national lyric was in- approached under a flag of truce, when he was held temporarily on MANUSCRIPT OF THE "STAR SPANGLED BANNER" From Treble's "History of the Flag of the United States of America." Houghlon, Mifflin A Co., Publishers. spired when he witnessed the bom- bardment of Fort McHenry, Septem- ber 13, 1814. He was trying to ob- tain the release of a friend who had been captured by the British. Key was on this expedition, which had THE ORIGINAL STAR SPANGLED BANNER (Note fifteen stripes) m, njr^, ^.. ... hi* *, '' 'TJI^ *IRST PUBLICATION "STAH OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES his vessel, lest he disclose the in- tended attack on Baltimore. He was compelled, therefore, to witness the bombardment through the whole day and night, and when he saw the national emblem still floating in the breeze in the morning, his muse com- pelled him to write this national anthem. The song was first pub- lished in the Baltimore American, September 21, 1814. Originally, the song was written on the back of a letter and was copied out in full at night, in a hotel in Baltimore. It was struck off in handbill form and its popularity was widespread. Ferdinand Dura rig fitted the music of "Anacreon in Heaven" to the words. This remained the national flag for twenty-three years. It was used during the war of 1812. By 1818 five additional States were added; Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana and Mississippi were admitted into the Union, so that further changes In the flag were required. The act of April 4, 1818, provided first, "That from and after the fourth day of July, next, the flag of the United States be thirteen horizontal stripes, alternate red and white; that the union have twenty stars, white in a blue field." Second, "That on the FLAG OF TWENTY STARS AND THIR. TEEN STRIFES admission of every new State into the Union one star be added to the union of the flag; and that such ad- dition shall take effect on the 4th of July, next, succeeding such ad- mission." The return to the thir- teen stripes was due not only to a reverence for the flag of the Revo- lution but also to the fact that a further increase in the number of stripes would have thrown the flag out of balance, or would have made the stripes so thin that they would be indistinct at a distance. Since this time no change has been made in the flag except to add stars as required. In the war with Mex- ico the flag had twenty-nine stars in the union, thirty-five during the Civil War, and since July 4, 1912, forty-eight stars. Considerable con- fusion existed as to the way the stars should be placed. The official arrangement followed by the Army arid Navy is as follows : THE "STARS AND STRIPES" OF TO-DAY "America" was written by the Rev. S. Francis Smith, D.D. Dr. Lowell Mason, one of the fathers of music in this country, turned over to Dr. Smith some foreign music and asked him if he found anything par- ticularly good to write words for the music. The latter found the tune of "God Save the King," and wrote the remarkable lyric at Andover, Mass., in February, 1832. It was struck out at a sitting with no idea of its future popularity. The first time it was publicly sung was at a children's celebration of American Independence, at the Park Street Church, Boston, July 4, 1832. THE AMERICAN FLAG *-~*ym*A The Confederate flags are of con- siderable interest. The first was known as the "Stars and Bars." This was adopted at Montgomery, March 4, 1861, the day Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated. It was found that this flag was too much THE FIRST CONFEDERATE FLAG, THE "STARS AND BARS" ORIGINAL MS. OF "AMERICA From Prehle' "History of Ihe Flag of Ihe Ut States.'' Houghton/.Miffliii & Co., Publishi During the Civil War the flag came in for much attention and the stirring words of Secretary Dix may be reproduced herewith: SECOND FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY 354 .OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THIRD FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY like the flag of the North to be readily distinguished, so a second flag was adopted, May, 1863. This also was found to be objec- tionable, having the appearance of a flag of truce, so a broad transverse strip of red was added, so we have the third flag of the Confederacy. This was adopted February 4, 1865, The real battle flag was like the one pictured below. BATTLE FLAG OF THE CONFEDERACY Our flag now waves over a united country and over colonial possessions of vast territory and wealth, and has also waved over Morro Castle, when we set the Cubans free, but it did not reajajn over that historic struc- ture, for we did not invade Cuba with any thought of conquest but to free her from the oppressor. WHEN AND HOW TO DISPLAY THE FLAG OF THE UNITED STATES (Copyright by Louis Annin Ames) HOLIDAYS Lincoln Birthday February 12th. Washington's Birthday..February 22nd. Jefferson Day April 17th. Battle of LexingtonApril 19th. (Patriots' Day) *Memorial Day May 30th. Flag Day June 14th. Battle of Bunker Hill.. June 17th. Independence Day July 4th. La Fayette Day September 6th. "Star Spangled Ban- ner"Day (Baltimore) September 13th. Paul Jones Day September 23rd. Columbus Day October 12th. Battle of Saratoga October 17th. ITNITED STATES FLAG FLYING OVER MORRO CASTLE, HAVANA, CUBA Surrender of Yorktown .October 19th. Evacuation Day (New York) November 25th . *On Memorial Day. May 30th, the Flag should fly at half staff from sun- rise to noon and full staff from noon to sunset. STARS AXD STRIPES Is the official name of the national flag of the United States. In the Army our national flag is called the Standard, also the Colors. When borne with another flag, the regimental color, the two flags are called a "Stand of Colors." In the Navy our national flag is known as the United States Ensign. To show proper respect for the flag the following should be observed : THE AMERICAN FLAG Photo Harris & Ewing THE KEY HOUSE, GEORGETOWN DISPLAY Mhe flag should not be hoisted before sunrise nor allowed to remain up after sunset. At "Retreat" sunset, civilian specta- tors should stand at "attention" and un- cover during the playing of the "Star Spangled Banner." Military spectators are required by Regulation to stand at "attention" and give the military salute. During the playing of the National Hymn at "Retreat" the flag should be lowered but not then allowed to touch the ground. When the flag is flown at half staff as a sign of mourning, it should be hoisted to full staff at the conclusion of the funeral. In placing the flag at half staff, it should first be hoisted to the top of the staff and then lowered to position, dropping it from the top of the staff the distance of the width of the flag, and preliminary to lowering from half staff, it should first be raised to the top. On ship board the national flag is the flag to be raised first and lowered last. Where several flags are displayed on poles with the national flag, the Stars and Stripes should be hoisted first and on the tallest and most con- spicuous staff. Where two flags are dislayed, one our National flag, it should be placed on the right. (To ascertain the right of a building, face in the same direction as the building.) No flag should ever be flown from the same staff as the United States flag, except in the Navy ; then only during Divine Ser- vice, when the Church Pennant may be displayed above the national flag God above Country. When, in parade, the national flag is carried with any other flag, it should have the place of honor, at the right. If a number of flags are carried, the national flag should either precede the others or be carried in the center, above the others, on a higher staff. When flags are used in unveiling a monument, tablet or statue, they should not fall to the ground, but be carried aloft, forming a distinctive feature of the ceremony. When the national flag is used as a banner the union should be at the right (as you face the flag). When used as an altar covering, the union is at the right (as you face the altar), and noth- ing should ever be placed upon the flag except the Holy Bible. The flag should never be -flown re- versed except in case of distress at sea. PORTRAYING THE FI.AO To properly illustrate the flag, the staff should always be at the left of the picture with the flag floating to the right. When two flags are crossed, the national flag should be at the right. If the national flag is pictured as a ban- ner, the union is at the right. SALUTE When the National colors are passing THE CHTTRCH PENNANT ONIT MAT FIT ABOVE THE STAES AND STKIPES OTJR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in parade or in review, the spectator should, if walking, halt, and if sitting, arise and stand at "attention" and un- cover. The national salute is one gun for every State. The international salute is, under the Law of Nations, 21 guns. On shore the flag should not be dipped by way of salute or compliment. DEAL FLAG SALUTE "I pledge allegiance to my flag and to the Republic for which it stands ; One nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all." Trimming the Stars Zig-zagging MAKING AMERICAN FLAGS Striping Courtesy of the Int. Film Co. MRS. VERNON CASTLE AS BETSY ROS PART II. THE TKOPHY FLAGS OF THE UNITED STATES NAVY By Instructor H. C. WASHBURN U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY AT the United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland, is the greatest collection of naval trophy flags in the world. seas, victories won by the consist- ently maintained skill and efficiency. as well as by the traditional daring and devotion to duty, of our officers BRITISH ROYAL STANDARD This gorgeous blazoning of the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland, together with the arms of the Hanoverian dominions in Brunswick, Lunenburg and Saxony, is said to be "the only British Royal Standard ever captured in battle." And indeed, this great standard, which measures thirty feet by twenty-fivfe, was taken at the attack ou York (now Toronto), when that place, then the capital of Upper Canada, was captured by the squadron under Commodore Isaac Chauncey and a land force under Gen- eral Pike, April 27, 1813. Nevertheless, it should be remem- bered that the royal standard 1ms for centuries ceased to be a battle flag, that it is used primarily to signify the presence of the sovereign, and that it was found at the Parliament House at York, where it awaited the visit of a member of the royal family. It was in retaliation for Chauncey's raid on York, and more especially, perhaps, for the taking of the Royal Standard from the Parliament House, that the Britisli sont General Ross's army against Washington in 1814, and burned the public buildings at our capital. These old flags, one hundred and seventy-two in number, are the priceless symbols of our long honor roll of heroic victories on the high and men. Flags of Great Britain, of France, Spain, Mexico and Korea ; United States ensigns flown on ships of renown ; in one instance OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES the Stars and Stripes side by side with the Stars and Bars of the Confederacy ; their age, their faded colors, and the security of their re- pose as they hang in draped folds of the nation has been maintained by a navy whose traditions are im- perishable. Since 1847, the gradually increas- ing collection of trophies has been DONTGIVEUt* THE SHIP THE BATTLE FLAG C2 LAKE ERIE In the Flag Room at Annapolis, whose high ceiling and walls are ablaze with captured trophies, the place of honor is assigned to the "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP" flag; its message and its story are woven through the threadbare strands of every flag in the collection. This battle flag of the squadron under Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry, and his signal for going into action, was flown successively on his flagships the "Lawrence" and the "Niagara," at the battle of Lake Erie, September 10, 1813. Made at Erie by Perry's order, at the suggestion of Purser Samuel Hambleton, it bears on a dark blue field, in white letters rudely fashioned by the hands of jack tars, the dying words of Captain James Lawrence, mortally wounded in the action between the United States frigate "Chesapeake" and the British frigate "Shannon." When the British squadron came in sight of Perry's men, their commander jumped on a gun-slide, and ad- dressed the crew of the flagship: "My brave lads, this flag bears the words of Captain Lawrence. Shall I hoist it?" Wild cheers from their bared throats were echoed from the other ships of the squadron as the bunting was run up to the main- royal masthead. The men took their places at the guns. In the battle that ensued. Perry saved the Great West, and won a complete victory, which enabled him to send his famous message to General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are ours two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." The flags of all these vessels are in the Navy Collection, but the commanding position is assigned to this battle flag, with its message: "DON'T GIVE UP THE SHIP!" behind the glass of their exhibition cases, are significant reminders that we are at peace with those who in the past were enemies, and signifi- cant object lessons chat the honor kept at the Naval Academy, where, for many years, the flags were exhib- ited in the old Naval Institute Hall. In 1900, however, when this building was about to be torn down, the THE AMERICAN FLAG trophies were packed In sealed boxes, to await the day when they should be properly preserved, and placed on exhibition in the new buildings of the Naval Academy, in which alcoves and paneled spaces had been planned for their recep- tion. It was known that the flags, when packed away, were in poor condi- tion, and it was feared that in spite of all precautions they would be damaged by moths. Efforts to have ings and grounds at the Naval Aca- demy, began a correspondence which included the naval committees of Congress, patriotic societies, and the custodians of flag collections the world over. In the course of this correspondence, a letter was received from the Hon. Curtis Guild, ex-Gov- ernor of Massachusetts, in which Governor Guild named as his choice of an expert on flag preservation Mrs. Amelia Fowler, of Boston. At the request of Commander Cole, Mrs. JACK OF THE BRITISH FRIGATE "GTJERRIERE" The "Guerriere," Captain James Richard Dacres, was defeated and-cap- tured by the famous "Constitution," Captain Isaac Hull, on August 19, 1812, in the first of the frigate actions of our second war with Great Britain. "The sea-spell of England was broken," and although the "Constitution" herself fought two more splendid actions under the command of Bainbridge and Stewart respectively, against the "Java," and against the "Cyane" and the "Levant," the American people have never forgotten the first flush of pride which they felt when they heard the news of Hull's triumph. Among all the single-ship victories won by American naval officers in the War of 1812, the classic of the honor roll is the fight between the ship we have come to love as "Old Ironsides" and His Majesty's ship "Guerriere." them put in a permanent state of preservation were, however, unsuc- cessful, until 1911. To Commander William Carey Cole, U.S.N., more than to any other individual, but also to Captain John H. Gibbons, U.S.N., then Superin- tendent of the Naval Academy, who supported Commander Cole in his work, is due the credit for the ac- complishment of the restoration of the flags. Early in 1911 Commander Cole, as officer in charge of build- Fowler examined the flags in April, 1911. She found them so seriously damaged by the ravages of moths, as well as the decay of age, that no ordinary method of preservation would suffice to insure their perma- nent existence. She accepted the contract for their preservation. Her special process consisted in spreading the tattered remnants of each flag upon a backing of heavy Irish linen of neutral color. This delicate work was guided by the OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES original measurement of the flag, by a knowledge of its design, and by placing in lines at right angles the disarranged strands of the warp and woof threads in the fragments of bunting. What remained of the original flag was then sewn firmly to the linen backing by needlewomen, under Mrs. Fowler's instruction and the original, the stitches, dyed to match the adjacent edges of the old bunting, complete the design of the flag, and tell graphically the story of the pieces that are gone. On April 8, 1912, Congress passed an act appropriating $30,000 for the work of preservation and prepara- tion for exhibition. Shortly before ENSIGN OF THE CONFEDERATE STATES RAM "ALBEMARtE" This is the only Confederate flag placed on exhibition in the great trophy collection of the United States Navy, and it has been placed side by side with the ensign of the United States sloop-of-war "Kearsarge," to symbolize the Union of the North and the South. The. "Albemarle," long the terror of her enemy's wooden vessels, was sunk with a spar torpedo handled from a picket launch by Lieutenant William Barker dishing, at Plymouth, Roanoke River, North Carolina, on the night of October 27, 1864. dishing, "the bravest of the brave," whose intrepid deed matches if it "does not excel the burning of the "Philadelphia" in the harbor of Tripoli by Stephen Decatur, by this one stroke put an end to the war in North Carolina. His well-nigh miraculous survival enabled him to see this trophy of his exploit, the flag flown on the "Albemarle," which was taken shortly after his exploit, at the capture of Plymouth by the Union army. guidance. The stitches, of silk or linen thread, cover the entire sur- face of the flag, with circular meshes a network very strong, yet hardly visible, since the thread is carefully dyed to match the colors of the old flag, however faded or stained in varying degrees. Where there are gaps or missing parts in this act was passed, Commander Cole held up, before the members of the House of Representatives, as an impressive witness, the disintegrat- ing fragments of Oliver Hazard Perry's battle-flag, the signal for going into action at Lake Erie, which bears the dying words of James Lawrence, "Don't Give up THE AMERICAN FLAG 361 the Ship." The sight of this trophy in such a deplorable condition was a final argument for the appropria- tion to which the House and the Senate could not but respond, and to which they responded with ad- mirable generosity. On July 12, 1912, Mrs. Fowler's needlewomen, who averaged forty in number began the arduous labor of sewing over by hand every square on the ground that the honor of cataloguing the collection fell to me, and as some account of the work of cataloguing, which occupied two years, is also requested, it seems proper to state that Commander Cole entrusted to me the work of verifying the identity of all the flags, discovering, if possible, the data concerning certain flags of un- known history, settling questions of ADMIRAL FARRAGUT'S FLAG This is the last flag hoisted by Admiral David Glasgow Farragut, conqueror of the Mississippi and victor of New Orleans and Mobile Bay. It was flown at the masthead of U.S.S. "Tallapoosa," his last command, and was hung at half-mast during the naval obsequies of George Pea- body, at Portland, Maine. Looking up at this flag as a salute was fired at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in Admiral Farragut's honor, he remarked, "It would be well if I died now, in harness." He died shortly after- ward, on August 14, 1870. Until very recently, when Congress established the rank of Admiral, the only officers of our naval service who flew the flag with four stars were Farragut, David Dixon Porter, and George Dewey. inch of the flags. Some idea of the magnitude of the task will be had when it is explained that the col- lection contains no less than 15,00o square yards of bunting. The flags were completely restored, and placed on exhibition with great skill, by May 16, 1913. The work had occu- pied ten months. As I have been asked to write an account of the flags for this book the best plan of exhibition, and writing the official inscriptions, or the catalogue proper. When I took up this work, I found confronting me a task difficult in some ways, if not impossible. Evidence was not lacking that a considerable number of the flags had been confused with other flags. To mention a few of these cases since corrected in every in- stance the ensign of the British 362 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES frigate Cyane was listed as the en- sign of the Guerriere, and the jack of the Guerrtere was listed as the jack of the Cyane; there were five other errors in the identity of Brit- ish flags ; even flags captured during the Spanish War had been incor- inscriptions on the hoists of the flags, by eliminating each certainty in identification as it appeared, and by collecting all possible information from individuals who knew certain flags, the problem narrowed down to three or four cases. At last, these ENSIGN OF THE UNITED STATES BATTLESHIP "MAINE" The battleship "Maine," commanded by Captain Charles Dwight Sigsbee, was blown up while at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba, on the night of February 15, 1898. This flag its colors intermingled by the action of salt water- was recovered from a locker of the "Maine" after her destruction. It is thought to be the flag lowered at sunset on the evening of February 15, 1898. So far as is known, no poem has been written about the flag of the "Maine" to stir the hearts of Americans. Perhaps there is no need of a poem to summon up the memory of that ship; monuments attest the fame of her gallant dead, and her flag stands among the trophies of the Navy symbol of the honorable keeping of a nation's word, disclaiming desire for conquest, and of the freedom of Cuba. rectly labeled and numbered. The old catalogue, published in 1888, was untrustworthy, and subsequent er- rors had made it virtually useless. Gradually, by dint of gathering all the evidence available in the form of were disposed of by the discovery of some old drawings and photo- graphs. In the course of this work, the history of all but two of the flags of unknown history was de- termined. CHAPTER II. AERONAUTICS BY BARON L. D'ORCY, Mem. S. A. B. Static and Dynamic Aircraft The Drift Balloon Captive and Kite Bal- loons Dirigible Balloons History and Mechanics of the Aeroplane The Development of Military Aviation Scouting Aeroplanes Fighting Aeroplanes Bombing Aeroplanes The Seaplane Aeronautics in America STATIC AND DYNAMIC AIRCRAFT A ERONAUTICS, the science of A\ aerial navigation, and its vehi- cles, generically termed aircraft, subdivide into two distinct branches and types, respectively. The science dealing with machines which are supported by a gas lighter than air, i. e., static aircraft, is called aerosta- tion; its vehicles are the drift bal- loon, the kite balloon and the di- rigible balloon, all of which, it should be noted, possess the faculty of staying aloft without expending motive power. The science dealing Photo Hollinger WILBTJE WEIGHT Photo Hollinge OKVILLE WEIGHT Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 364 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES with machines which are supported by the pressure onrushing air ex- erts on cambered surfaces, i. e., dynamic aircraft, is called aviation; its vehicles are the glider and the aeroplane, of which, however, only the latter possesses practical value, gliders being only used for experi- mental purposes. Unlike static air- craft the aeroplane cannot remain motionless in the air, for its ability to stay aloft is conditional upon its faculty to create air pressure by continuous motion. This obvious drawback may some day be obviated by the helicopter or direct-lift ma- chine, in which sustentation is sought to be attained independently of horizontal motion by the use of vertical lifting screws. This type of machine is still in its experimen- tal stage; such is also the case of of the ornithopter or wing-flapping machine, which seeks to copy the movements of the bird's wing-beats, and of the soaring machine, which is supposed to fly by the use of favora- ble air-currents. THE DRIFT BALLOON The drift balloon (or aerostat) was invented by the Montgolfler brothers of Annonay, France, who built in 1783 a balloon supported by heated air. Before the close of the same year the crude hot-air balloon (called montgolflere) met a much more sci- entific rival which shortly succeeded in eliminating it : this was the char- Here, so named after the physicist Charles, who substituted hydrogen for hot air and invented nearly all the fitments of the modern aerostat. Hydrogen gas has a lifting power of about 60 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet and remains the most efficient static motor to the present day ; but as its production is expensive, sport- ing balloons are generally inflated with coal gas, which was invented in 1821 by George Green, of Eng- land. Coal gas, however, lifts only about 35 pounds per 1,000 cubic feet. A modern aerostat consists of an envelope, made of varnished silk, calico or rubber-proofed fabric im- pervious to gas, which is inflated through a long neck on the under side, called appendix. The envelope is surrounded with a net, the bottom of which is constituted by a suspen- sion ring to which the wicker basket carrying the aeronauts is toggled with eight ropes. The top of the envelope is provided with a valve which allows part of the gas to es- cape whenever the aeronaut wishes to descend. Upon landing, the bal- loon must at once be disinflated in order to avoid being dragged; this is achieved by the ripping panel, which covers a vertical seam in the envelope and is operated by a rope whereby the balloon can be torn open instantly. The equipment of an aerostat com- prises : ( 1 ) a guide-rope, which en- ables the pilot to maintain his verti- cal equilibrium, when near the ground, without expending ballast, the balloon being then relieved of part of its weight by the rope trail- ing on the ground; (2) ballast, con- stituted by sand carried in bags, and (3) various recording instruments such as a barograph, a statoscope, a compass, etc. In the days when self-propelled aircraft were inextant, the drift bal- loon had a wide usefulness not only in the field of scientific and sporting achievement where its value re- mains unimpaired but also as a vehicle of transportation. This was conclusively demonstrated during the siege of Paris in 1870-71, when the besieged garrison organized a balloon-mail service by means of which 164 voyagers amongst whom Gambetta and 3,000,000 despatches were carried over the Prussian lines. Out of sixty-six balloons only five were captured by the enemy and two were lost in the Atlantic ; and so great was the moral and material success of this enterprise that Bis- marck threatened to shoot every aeronaut as a spy, and Krupp pro- duced the first anti-aircraft gun. I .8 p n a " til a. :l Ep-S -3 s - ' OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Although the dirigible balloon and the aeroplane have now entirely eliminated the drift balloon from military use, it seems certain that the aerostat will always retain its value for scientific and sporting achievements. CAPTIVE AND KITE BALLOONS The typical captive balloon is nothing but an aerostat which is. maintained at a given height by a Courtesy of "Flying" FHENCH KITE-BALLOON ENGAGED IN "GUN-SPOTTING" cable attached to the ground. Such was the famous Entreprenant, which afforded General Jourdan, command- ing the French army at the battl% of Fleurus (1794), such an excellent view of the enemy's movements, that it actually turned a near French de- feat into a brilliant victory. Such was also the gigantic sightseeing balloon Giffard built for the Paris Exhibition of 1878 ; this craft, which had a volume of 882,500 cubic feet, carried thirty-eight passengers at a time to a height of 1,600 feet, and was hauled down by a 300 horse- power steam winch. This balloon has remained the largest spherical of either drift or captive type. Contrary to what might be ex- pected, the lesson of the battle of Fleurus was lost to military science and it was only after the Franco- Prussian war that the military es- tablishments of the principal nations adopted the captive balloon for pur- poses of observation in field and siege warfare. In this function cap- tive balloons played a certain role during French and British colonial expeditions ; nevertheless their use- fulness proved to be a limited one on account of their inability to stand up in a strong wind. The defects of the ordinary cap- tive balloon were overcome by two German army officers, Captains Par- seval and Sigsfeld, who produced in 1898 the so-called kite-balloon a craft which has proven so success- ful that it is now recognized to be an indispensable auxiliary of every up-to-date army and navy. The kite-balloon consists essen- tially of an elongated gas-bag which is divided into two unequal portions, the larger of which (comprising about four-fifths the total volume) is filled with hydrogen ; the remaining one-fifth constitutes the ballonnet, or air-cell, and this is automatically in- flated by the wind through a con- venient aperture. The ballonnet ful- fills two purposes : first, it creates within the gas-bag a sur-pressure equal to the pressure of the wind plus the static pressure of the hydro- gen, thus enabling the balloon to maintain its shape regardless of any wind the mooring cables can with- OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES stand; and secondly, air being much heavier than hydrogen, the air-cell causes the balloon to assume an in- clined position, which is particularly favorable for counter-acting the de- pressing tendency of the wind. In order to keep the craft always head- on to the wind a sausage-shaped air bag rudder is fitted to the rear of the envelope, which is inflated the same way as the air-cell; longitudi- nal stability is further insured by a number of sails and a device simi- lar to a kite's tail. The standard type of kite-balloon has a volume of from 25,000 to 35,000 cubic feet, and it carries one or two observers who are connected by tele- phone with the artillery unit they are attached to. As a fire-control station for military, and even naval operations of a stationary character (siege, blockade, etc.), the kite-bal- loon far surpasses the aeroplane, af- fording, as it does, a steady platform wherefrom field glasses or telescopes can be used to great advantage. In the Great War the kite-balloon is chiefly being used on the western front, where hundreds of them dot the rears of the Allies' and German lines. Their importance in effectu- ally regulating artillery fire was par- ticularly well demonstrated in the aerial operations which preluded the battle of the Somme. 3. few days be- fore the big Allied "drive" began, British and French fighting aero- planes methodically attacked every kite-balloon which stood watch over the German lines in that sector, fif- teen being set on fire and destroyed and the remainder being driven down. It was only after the German commanders had been thus deprived of their fire-control stations that the Allied drive started with its bom- bardment and subsequent infantry attack. As kite-balloons do not possess any means of defense it becomes neces- sary to provide their occupants with parachutes so that they might es- cape with their lives should the bal- loon be carried away by a storm or be set afire by enemy aviators. Not- withstanding the latter contingency, which incidentally can be neutral- ized in some measure by the co- operation of anti-aircraft guns and friendly fighting aeroplanes, kite- balloons appear to be decidedly su- perior to aeroplanes in the function of directing artillery fire because of the former's ability to hover over a place, which aeroplanes do not DIRIGIBLE BALLOONS The dirigible balloon is the logical outcome of the Montgolfier brothers' ambition which prompted their in- vention -to navigate the atmosphere at will in lieu of drifting slavishly before the prevailing wind. The basic elements of a dirigible are (1) an elongated gas-container, called hull or envelope, and so shaped in order to attain the greatest speed with the least expenditure of motive power; (2) one or more cars or na- celles containing the power-plant, which drives a number of propellers. the fuel supply, the crew and the passengers, and eventually a com- mercial or military load; (3) a sys- tem of connection between cars and hull; (4) such means as will assure the permanency of the hull's shape ; and (5) such means of control as will effectually regulate the longi- tudinal and vertical equilibrium. A century elapsed before all these requirements could be successfully filled. This is why the invention of the dirigible cannot be attributed to one sole man, but is rather due to a series of inventions, such as that of the ballonnet, of the stabilising fins and of the horizontal rudder, and finally of the gasoline engine, which latter has, more than anything else, made the actual success of the diri- gible possible. The existing dirigibles may be divided, according to their mode of construction, into two classes, viz., (1) pressure airships in which the permanency of the hull is insured by maintaining within the flexible en- AERONAUTICS velope a pressure superior to the atmospheric pressure, and (2) ri(?if the vessel. The great difficulty confronting the operation of Zeppelins is the moor- ing of these enormous vessels in the open, for unlike pressure airships they cannot be instantly disinflated in case of an impending hurricane ; but this drawback, which has caused the loss of a score of Zeppelins, is now being overcome by the increased skill of the airship crews and by a perfected system of anchoring, but I. P. LANGLEY'S STEAM-DRIVEN AERO- PLANE MODEL WHICH FLEW IN 1896 ABOVE THE POTOMAC RIVER A DIS- TANCE OF % MILE chiefly by a great number of "air- ports," which the Germans have fit- ted with elaborate sheds, hydrogen generating plants, workshops, etc. AERONAUTICS On the left is shown the motorless glider on which O. Wright remained aloft for nine minutes ; on the right, the man-lifting kite of Capt. Sacconey used for military observation Before the Zeppelins had become notorious in the Great War as en- gines of indiscriminate destruction they achieved a more legitimate fame as pleasure craft. For several years previous to 1914 the German Airship Navigation Company of Frankfurt maintained between vari- ous German towns a highly success- ful passenger service in which no passenger ever lost his life, although several accidents marked the opera- tion of the air liners. The Zep- pelins engaged in this service were fitted with a luxurious cabin-car, seating twenty-four, and a cold res- taurant service was provided. A look-out post fitted on top of the AN EARLY EXAMPLE OF THE CURTISS "FLYING BOAT" 80 horse-power engine; speed in air, 60 miles an hour; speed on water, 50 to 60 miles an hour 372 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES (Photo E. TJ. Ovington) FRONT VIEW OF THE 50 H. P. GNOME ROTARY, AIR-COOLED MOTOR hull, which could be reached from the bow-car by means of a stairway enclosed in a chimney, enabled the airship commander to navigate by astronomical observation. While private enterprise thus de- veloped the air-liner the German mil- itary authorities created the air- cruiser a Zeppelin in which the pleasant cabin-car holds bombs of the explosive and incendiary kind and mounts machine guns, and late- ly, even small quick-firers for ward- ing off enemy aeroplanes. Outside of Germany the value of the rigid air-cruiser with its great range and carrying capacity was either overlooked or contested, al- though in 1912 the first naval Zep- pelin covered on its trial run a dis- tance of 1,200 miles in 31 hours, with a crew of 31 and a wireless outfit carrying 200 miles. When the war broke out the Allies possessed only pressure airships of low range and slow speed, as com- pared to the dozen Zeppelins Ger- many was able to line up; this ex- plains the marked superiority in long-range scouting the Germans possessed during the initial onrush on both fronts. The Allies clearly DETAILS OF AEROPLANE DESIGN On the left, a machine with folding wings ; on the right, the armored nose, enclosing a rotary motor, of a military monoplane AERONAUTICS 373 perceived their Inferiority in this respect and also their inability to produce in a short time rigid air- ships which would meet the Zep- pelins on even terms ; so they set upon developing the bombing aero- plane and the anti-aircraft gun. Gradual improvement both in these weapons and in the skill of their operators soon cut short the Zep- pelin's value for overland scouting, reducing its activity to night raids on more or less defended towns, which achieved, however, little mili- tary damage. The greatest present asset of the Zeppelin seems to be its faculty to act as a fleet auxiliary for strategic reconnaissance, because it exceeds in this respect not only the radius of action but also the climbing ability of seaplanes. If it be realized that a Zeppelin can see, from a height where it is little vulnerable, four times as far and travel twice as fast as the swiftest scout-cruiser, the ex- traordinary handicap the British Grand Fleet had to cope with in the battle of Jutland may readily be understood. Although of much less potentiality than the Zeppelins, the pressure air- ships of the Allies have been found very useful for anti-submarine de- fence, mine-sweeping and minor scouting operations. It seems, how- ever, that should the dirigible sur- vive in spite of the aeroplane, which is quite possible, the rigid system will likely prove the ultimate type, there being a limit of size beyond which it will be neither practical nor economic to build pressure air- ships. It is interesting to note how rap- idly standardized airships can be built in large quantities: since the outbreak of the Great War the three factories of the Zeppelin Company have turned out airships at the rate of one in three, four and five weeks, respectively. By July. 1916, one hundred and ten Zeppelins had been launched, including twenty-five prior to the war; it is true, on the other hand, that up to that date thirteen Zeppelins had been lost in times of peace and forty-two due to the agency of war. Owing to its great vulnerability the military future of the Zeppelin seems rather uncertain ; its commercial possibilities, however, appear to be more promising for the immediate future and more especial- ly so for a trans-Atlantic service. HISTORY AND MECHANICS OF THE AEROPLANE The aeroplane is just like the dirigible balloon not so much one man's invention as the combined product resulting from experiments (Photo L. d'Orcy) TWO - SEATER SCOUTING AEROPLANE (160 H. P.) OF THE U. S. ARMY AVIA- TION SECTION STARTING TO GET OFF conducted and theories worked out for nearly a century by several schools of investigators. The funda- mental theory of the aeroplane was clearly set forth by an Englishman, Sir George Caylei/, as early as 1809, and actually furnished the basis upon which the modern aeroplane was subsequently built up. In 1846 another Englishman, Stringfelloiv, gave a practical proof of this theory by building a small aeroplane model driven by a steam engine, which made several successful flights un- der perfect balance; this machine was, in conformity with Cayley's theory, a monoplane. In 1866 F. 8. Wenham, also of England, invented the multiple surfaced aeroplane and \t was again Stringfellow Vho vindi- 374 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES cated the claims of the new prin- ciple by a successful free flight . of a triplane model. Further important contributions to the dynamics of the aeroplane were made by A. Penaud, H. Phillips, Sir Hiram Maxim and 8. P. Langley, late secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. The latter built, in 1903, a man-lifting aero- plane, which, but for its defective launching device, would have flown under control just as it did eleven years afterward with its original ro- tary motor. The first aeroplane to have actually left the ground, carry- ing a man, was the bat-shaped ma- chine with which C. Ader, of France, made, from 1890 to 1896, several short flights. The balance of this machine, however, was poor, and it was only after the German O. Lilien- thal had discovered by prolonged gliding experiments -the means of sontrolling the balance of flying ma- chines that progress became practi- cal. Lilienthal's gliding experiments were repeated and perfected in this country, under the guidance of O. Chanute, by the Wright brothers, of Dayton, Ohio, who gave the aero- plane its one missing link, the warp- ing mechanism for insuring trans- verse equilibrium ; having thus brought the dynamic flyer under three-dimensional control, the Wright brothers fitted their glider with a gasoline engine driving twin propellers and succeeded in making their first power-flights on December 17, 1903, on the beach of Kitty Hawk, N. C. The Wright brothers, therefore, fully deserve the credit of having rendered practical in other words, invented the aeroplane. The basic elements of an aero- plane are: (1) the main surfaces, or wings, of which there are one or more pairs (in the latter case super- posed or in tandem) according to whether the machine is a monoplane or multiplane (biplane, triplane, quadruplane, etc) ; (2) the auxil- iary surfaces or control organs which regulate th machine's balance and direction (ailerons, fins, elevator and rudder) ; (3) the bodywork or fuselage, which forms the bridge be- tween the wings and the tail and affords accommodation for the pas- sengers, the fuel tanks, the navigat- ing instruments, etc. ; (4) the power- plant, composed of one or more en- gines actuating one or more propel- lers, whose position ahead or abaft of the wings causes the aeroplane to be called a tractor or pusher; and (5) the undercarriage, which is fit- ted with either wheels or floats, or both, for starting from and alight- ing on land or water, or both. The seaplane or marine aeroplane is the invention of Henri Fabre, of Marseilles, France, who made the first flight from the sea on May 21, 1910, at Martigues. The "flying boat," whose development is chiefly due to Glenn H. Curtiss and M. Den- haut, is a seaplane in which the bodywork is combined with a cen- tral boat of large flotation, thus do- ( Photo L. d'Orcy) AMERICAN-BUILT SPEED SCOUT FITTED WITH A 100 H. P. STATIONARY CUR- TISS MOTOR. HORIZONTAL SPEED, 119 MILES PER HOUR. ing away with a special undercar- riage. Particular credit for having ad- vanced the mechanics of the aero- plane is due to Louis Blerlot, E. Nicuport, J. Bechereau and R. Saulnier (monoplane construction) ; to the Voisin and Farman brothers (development of the pusher biplane) to Louis Brfyuet and A. V. Roe, the AERONAUTICS 375 THE ROLLING STOCK OF AN AEROPLANE SQUADRON On the left, a motor repair lorry ; on the right, an aeroplane truck with its trailer originators of the tractor biplane, and to Gustave Eiffel, whose aero- dynamic research work has placed the aeroplane on a scientific basis. No less credit should go to the Seguin brothers for their invention of the Gnome motor, which has probably furthered the progress of aviation more than any other single invention and still appears as the prototype of the most promising aeroplane engine; and to L. Chau- vierc, inventor of the wooden air- screw. Quite an important advance in aeroplane design was achieved in 1913 by a Russian engineer. M. Si- korski, who first conceived the idea of building aeroplanes of very large size, driven by several independent motors and capable of carrying a dozen people in a comfortable, heat- ed and lighted cabin. In this coun- try Glenn H. Curtiss has since suc- cessfully produced large seaplanes based on a similar principle. THE DEVELOPMENT OF MILITARY AVIATION As soon as the aeroplane had proved its ability to effect voyages with sufficient reliability and its range, carrying capacity and climb- ing ability increased, military au- thorities all over the world were prompt in adopting it for purposes of reconnaissance. It was in this function that the aeroplane made its debut in the Great War and the services it rendered were so im- portant that all the belligerents quickly decided upon greatly enlarg- ing their aerial establishments. As specific examples of the work achiev- ed by scouting aeroplanes one might mention how in the battle of Mons the British expeditionary force was saved from envelopment and possible annihilation by an aviator who re- ported that the Germans had twice the numbers that had been antici- pated. Again, at the battle of the Marne it was an aeroplane recon- naissance which disclosed the gap between Von Billow's and Von Hau- sen's armies, and thus enabled Gen- eral Foch to drive a wedge into the German lines, forcing them to re- treat. The examples cited sufliciently emphasize the value of the aeroplane for scouting; but as both Allies and Teutons went to war provided with "aerial eyes," each party soon felt the need of preventing the enemy from seeing and forestalling the friendly moves. Such was the in- ception of what is to-day termed a "fighting machine." Then the neces- sity arose of destroying an impor- tant supply station or a railway junction of the enemy, which ob- ject could not otherwise be reached than by attacking the place fronr above : this necessity created tht bombing aeroplane. Originally there were no special machines for the manifold duties 376 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES of scouting, fighting and bombing, every aeroplane being supposed to carry out all or any duty as the necessity arose. As a result no aero- plane was really efficient in any func- tion. Curiously enough the Germans still adhere in some measure to this theory which the British and French air services rejected early in the war. SCOUTING AEROPLANES The modern scouting aeroplane, as developed by the Allies, is a two- seater of great speed range else a detailed inspection of the underlying is as a rule a highly trained special- ist, who must be able to distinguish from a height of several thousand feet a convoy train from artillery, field guns from howitzers, or a sup- ply station from an aircraft park, and be conversant with the Morse code, so that he may instantly send off his report by wireless telegraphy. To fly back to headquarters would mean too much loss of time. The observer's duty is the more difficult as the enemy below will do every- thing to mislead him, by setting up dummy guns and holding back his gun fire while the aeroplane hovers FIXED MACHINE GUN EMPLACEMENT A FRENCH FIGHTING AEROPLANE objective becomes impossible whose only task consists in observing a given objective and reporting the re- sult in the quickest way possible. Its armament is purely defensive and generally consists of one ma- chine gun firing broadsides and abaft (on tractors) or ahead (on pushers). The crew is composed of a pilot and an observer; the latter above; troop columns on march will stop and seek shelter ; positions which cannot be masked will be de- fended by anti-aircraft guns or pos- sibly by fighting aeroplanes which the observer will have to fight off with his machine gun. And reconnaissance is not limited to noting the movements and strength of enemy forces ; it includes AERONAUTICS 377 "gun-spotting," which consists in con- veying to the artillery the exact range of an objective to be shelled. These manifold duties of the ob- server explain why a scouting aero- plane must be a two-seater : the pilot is indeed kept busy enough in trying to keep to his right course wljile dodging anti-aircraft shells by flying in erratic zigzags. Although anti-aircraft guns have greatly improved in precision during crossing the enemy lines at only 2,- 500 feet altitude and still was able to effect a safe return. The wartime services of an aero- plane may attain a period of three to six months, although a good many machines last but a few weeks; ro- tary motors last 100 to 150 hours of service, provided they are thorough- ly taken apart and cleaned after ev- ery 20 hours of service. Stationary engines last a good deal longer. FRENCH AVION-CANON MOTTNTING ONE IV IN. Q. F. GUN two years of warfare of which the monthly lists of the belligerents' air- craft losses bear eloquent testimony nothing short of a direct hit into a vital part will down an aeroplane, provided its petrol-tank has not been set afire. Shrapnel balls and rifle bullets are little effective against aeroplanes flying at a height of 10,000 feet; a French scouting ma- chine received 400 bullet holes while The tactical unit of the aviation service is the squadron, which con- sists (in the United States and Brit- ish armies) of twelve machines of the same type, twelve motor trucks with their trailers for land trans- portation and of a repair-car, and several automobiles and motorcycles. The squadron subdivides into three companies (flights in the R. Flying Corps) of four machines each. 378 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES TABLE SHOWING THE EVOLUTION OF THE ZEPPELIN AIRSHIP Year Length (Feet) Beam (Feet) Total Lift (Tons) H. P. Speed (Miles) 1900 1905 1908 1910 1912 1914 1916 420 420 446 485 518 518 780 38 38.4 42.6 46 48.5 54.4 80 12.8 12.9 17.0 .21.8 25.4 30.5 61.0 32 170 210 330 600 800 1,500 15 25 28 35 47 53 65 WORLD'S RECORDS FOR AIRCRAFT (Those marked * are not recognized by the International Aeronautic Federation) DISTANCE (Cross Country) Aeroplanes 646 miles, by A. Seguin, Paris-Bordeaux-Paris, on Oct. 13th, 1913. (H. Farman pusher, 80 h. p. Gnome). Dirigibles 745 miles* by the Italian Army airship M-2 on Oct. 14th, 1913. Drift balloons. . . . .1896.97 miles by Berliner. Bitterfeld to Bisserstk, Russia, Feb. 8, 10th, 1914. DURATION (Non-stop) Aeroplanes 21 hrs., 48 min., by W. Landmann, at Johannistal (Germany) on June 26-27th, 1914. (Albatros biplane tractor, 75 h. p. Mercedes.) Dirigibles 35 hrs., 20 min., by the "Adjutant-Vincenot" (French army ship), on June 27th, 1914. Drift balloons 87 hrs., by Hugo Kaulen, Bitterfeld to Perm (Russia), on Dec. 13- 17th, 1913. SPEED OVER CLOSED CIRCUIT Aeroplanes 126.67 miles per hour, by M. Prevost, at Reims (France) on Sept. 29th, 1913. (Deperdussin monoplane, 160 h. p. Gnome). Dirigibles 58 m. p. h.* by the Italian army airship V-l, in Feb., 1915. ALTITUDE Aeroplanes 21,471 ft., by E. Audemars, at Issy, France, on Sept. 8th, 1915. (Morane-Saulnier parasol monoplane, 80 h. p. Le Rhfine.) Dirigibles 10,728 feet*, by the Italian army airship M-l in Feb., 1915. Drift balloons 34,433 feet, by Suring and Berson at Berlin, on June 31st, 1901. OVERSEA 320 miles* St. Gran, from Cruden Bay (Aberdeenshire) to Kleppe near Stavanger (Norway), on July 30th, 1914. Bleriot monoplane. FIGHTING AEROPLANES Although scouting aeroplanes do carry defensive armament, it often becomes necessary to protect them against a concerted enemy attack. Such is the function of the fighting aeroplane, a high-speed, single-seat- er tractor, which can out-fly and out- climb any other type of machine. The pilot aims the machine-gun, which is rigidly fixed in front of him, by steering the aeroplane against the target ; the blades of the air-screw are armored and thus de- flect the bullets which hit them. In this way about 30 per cent of the bullets go astray. This gun-mount- ing, which was invented by R. Gar- ros, the famous French airman, has since been adopted by the Germans on their Fokker monoplanes with the one variance, however, that the gun is connected with a timing device actuated by the motor, so that it can fire only when the blades of the air-screw do not cover the muz- zle. Quick maneuvering ability being one of the chief assets in aerial com- bat, it follows that fighting aero- planes must be highly sensitive, in other words, neutrally equilibrated, so as to instantly respond to control ; this is why only pilots showing par- ticular aptitude for aerial combat are entrusted with the operation of fighting machines. In addition to protecting scouting machines, fighting aeroplanes are also used for destroying kite bal- loons, convoying bombing machines on raids and even attacking Zep- AERONAUTICS 379 pelins. Two Zeppelins were thus de- stroyed from small combat machines carrying but a few bombs, by the late Flight-Sub-Lieut. R. Warneford, R.N.A.S., and Lieut. W. L. Robinson, R.F.C., respectively, whereas aero- planes of all types, as well as kite balloons, have been lost by the chief belligerents in numbers aggregating several hundreds. BOMBING AEROPLANES Fighting aeroplanes are but oc- casionally used as bombers and more especially in cases where quick climbing is imperative. Bombing raids proper are carried out by so- called bombing aeroplanes, in which high speed is forsaken in favor of great carrying capacity. The load of explosives such a machine carries can be apportioned either into a great number of light bombs or else into a few powerful missiles, some of which weigh as much as 300 pounds. Considering the first two years of aerial operations it appears that the French and the British achieved in- contestable aerial supremacy in scouting and fighting only toward the close of this period ; it is there- fore the more striking that the action of bombing aeroplanes, in other words the aeroplane offensive, should COCKPIT, MOUNTING A MACHINE GTJN, OF A BRITISH BOMBING AEROPLANE have belonged practically all the time to the Allies. The big bombing raids by French and British aero- plane fleets some of them composed of fifty and sixty machines against the airship sheds, railway junctions, shell factories, supply stations, sub- marine bases and coast defense works of the Germans, in the course of which immeasurable moral and material punishment was inflicted, certainly appear as one of the most striking phases of aerial warfare. An indication of what the battle aeroplane of to-morrow might be, is furnished by the French avion-ca- non; this is a large pusher, mount- ing on its bow a 1^-inch quick fire SEAPLANE UNDER CARRIAGES On the left, a "twin-floater;" on the right, a "flying-boat" 380 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES gun, which fires an incendiary shell, and is chiefly used for shooting down kite-balloons. THE SEAPLANE The functions .of the seaplane ar* 1 to all intents similar to those of the aeroplane, viz., scouting in ad- vance of fleets and naval bases, clearing the skies of enemy aircraft and bombing the enemy's coast es- tablishments. Seaplanes work under a double handicap: first, all other elements being equal, their heavy floats great- ly decrease the useful load which might otherwise be utilized for in- creasing their range or their load of bombs, and secondly, the design of seaplane-floats is not yet sufficiently advanced to permit alighting on or starting from a rough sea. Con- sequently flights of several hundred miles' length, which are common enough over land, are infinitely more difficult to carry out over the sea ; this is why all seaplane operations have unlike the work of land ma- chines occurred in close proximity of permanent bases or mother-ships. Notwithstanding their limitations seaplanes have rendered exceeding- ly useful services as fleet auxiliaries, particularly in the Gallipoli cam- paign, where gun-spotting seaplanes directed the Allies' guns on targets invisible but from the air. Sea- planes have also played a notable r61e in patrolling the coasts of the warring nations and in detecting and even destroying submarines and mines. And in the battle of Jutland the work of a solitary British sea- plane pilot was recommended by Vice-Admiral Beatty in the follow- ing terms: "Lieut. F. J. Rutland, R. N., for his gallantry and per- sistence in flying within close range of four enemy light cruisers, in order to enable accurate informa- tion to be obtained and transmitted concerning them. Conditions at the time made low flying necessary." The present trend in the design of seaplanes (as well as of aero- planes) appears to be toward ma- chines propelled by several motors and propellers, the purpose of which is to keep the machine aloft or at least capable of returning to its base even if one motor should break down or be destroyed by the enemy. THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN TROPHY donated with the object of fostering the art of aerial navigation, is now in the permanent possession of Mr. Glenn H. Cur- tiss, who won it three times in succession. AERONAUTICS IN AMERICA The Great War has had a very beneficial influence on the American aircraft industry ; millions of dollars worth of aeroplanes and motors were AERONAUTICS 381 purchased in this country by the Allies, chiefly for training purposes, and the profits derived thereby have enabled American manufacturers to develop aeroplanes and engines which begin to compare favorably with the products of Europe. Among the aeroplanes thus produced one might mention the huge multiple en- gined "flying boats" of Glenn H. Curtiss; a machine of this type is now being developed for crossing the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ire- land, a distance of 1,800 miles. The important services the aerial arms have rendered to the warring nations has awakened the American public to the realization that the United States needs and has so far lacked an air service adequate to its policies; as a consequence the Aero Club of America instituted the National Aeroplane Fund which, thanks to the generosity of patriotic citizens, has enabled the National Guard of various States to acquire aeroplanes and train aviators, and Congress appropriated a sum of over $15,000,000 for the development of aeronautics in the Navy and Army. On July 13, 1916, President Wilson crowned these measures by creating the Aerial Reserve Corps, which is nothing short of an aerial militia. The Post Office Department is fur- thermore considering the establish- ment of several aeroplane- mail routes. AEROPLANE TYPES On the left, a flying boat; on the right, a tractor biplane CHAPTER III. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA NO list of the greatest modern inventions fails to include wireless telegraphy and tele- phony. And it is perhaps equally true to state that no invention is regarded with as great awe by the laity. Yet wireless communication in its essentials is simple. There is nothing truly mysterious in wireless or radio telegraphy and telephony. MILESTONES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF WIRELESS The real beginning of wireless communication, or rather the propa- gation of electric waves through space and their subsequent detection at remote points, is largely a matter of opinion. Some authorities prefer to look upon Steinheil of Munich, Germany, as having taken the first step toward radio communication. For in 1838, Steiuheil, following the suggestion .of Gauss, demonstrated the feasibility of using the ground as the return circuit for a wire tele- graph system, which in a measure is a form of wireless telegraphy in the embryonic state; and what i? more, the work of Steinheil caused much attention to be directed to the possibilities of communication with- out wires. Such names as Trow- bridge, Preece, Rathenau, Strecker, Morse, Lindsay, Wilkins, and Mel- huish have been associated with the conduction of electric currents through bodies of water and through moist earth, largely through the in- spiration offered by Steinheil's pio- neer work. Aside from the conduction method of communication suggested by the experiments of Steinheil, electro- magnetic induction between parallel metallic conductors was suggested and studied by Trowbridge, Preece, Lodge and Stevenson. A combina- tion of the conduction and induc- tion principles also was the subject of much experiment, and under the guidance of Sir William Preece, aid- ed by the British Postal Telegraph Engineers, it became the basis of a workable system of wireless com- munication for short distances. How- ever, for several reasons this system did not lend itself to commercial purposes, and hence nothing came of it. Still another workable sys- tem of communication without wires was developed by Edison, Gilliland, Phelps and W. Smith, utilizing the principle of electrostatic induction between conductors spaced some dis- tance apart. The latter system was primarily intended as a means of communication to and from moving railway trains. However brilliant may have been the conceptions of the various pio- neer systems already referred to, the real dawn of commercially practi- cable wireless communication came witb the scientific investigation of electromagnetic waves, resulting in a clear understanding of the genera- tion, propagation, and detection of these waves. Credit in large meas- ure is due Maxwell, who, in 1865, announced his remarkable electro- magnetic theory of light. But Max- Copyright by Munn & Co., luc. 384 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES well's work, despite its profundity and its rich and invaluable collec- tion of mathematical data, was pri- marily theoretical. As a result, its full value as applied to the propa- gation of electromagnetic waves was not realized until 1888, when Hertz's discoveries and practical investiga- tions again attracted attention to the subject. The work of this young German scientist corroborated the theories of Maxwell; and so rich in possibilities was the field opened by Hertz that numerous scientific workers in various lands set upon the task of acquiring further knowl- edge of the properties of the electro- magnetic waves. Among the early workers in the field of electromagnetic transmission of power was Nikola Tesla, who, in 1892, conducted a series of specta- cular experiments on high frequency electric currents. In passing it must not be forgotten that Prof. D. B. Hughes, according to a paper pre- pared by Sir William Crookes in 1892, developed a system of trans- mitting signals a few hundred yards without connecting wires, using a microphonic detector and telephone receiver for the receiving station. It appears that Prof. Hughes dis- covered the remarkable property of loose-contact filings to cohere under the influence of electromagnetic waves as far back as 1879 ; but be- cause of the fact that he did not give his work sufficient publicity, some twelve years later Prof. E. Branly of Paris received all the credit for the wireless coherer, which played the leading part in the pio- neer days of actual radio communi- cation. Using Branly's coherer as a basis, wireless communication at- tracted the attention of Dr. A. Muir- head, Capt. H. B. Jackson, R.N., and Prof. R. Threlfall, as well as Prof. A. S. Popoff of the Imperial Torpedo School in Cronstadt, Russia, besides many other lesser known investi- gators. Yet all that had been done until this time was more in the nature of laying a substantial foundation for what was to follow. Much of the work was indeed practicable; but none of the investigators had settled down to the development of com- mercial wireless communication. Then came Marconi. This young Italian scientist, born at Bologna, was keenly interested in the work of Prof. Rhigi of the University of Bologna, and it gave him the idea for commercial wireless telegraphy. June, 1895, witnessed the young Italian experimenting with sending and receiving apparatus on his father's estate, the Villa Griffone, near Bologna. To relate in detail the ramifications of Marconi's early work would require far more space than can be devoted to this entire wireless chapter, for the work he undertook was slow and painstaking. Although he had the advantages of using various ideas developed by the early investigators and of combining these into a wireless system, each idea by itself was crude and had to be systematically developed. These distances, covered with Mar- coni's early apparatus, speak vol- umes for the rate of progress made by him: 1895, 30, 100, and 2,400 meters, or 1% miles; 1897, 14 miles; 1898, 20 miles ; 1899, 85 miles ; 1900, well over 100 miles; 1901, trans- atlantic transmission of the letter "s" in the Morse code, over a dis- tance of 2,200 miles. In the years that followed, the progress made was so rapid that long-distance com- munication has now become quite commonplace. Radio telegraphy, as we know it to-day, is not the invention of any one man. Not unlike all other great inventions it represents the labors of numerous investigators and in- ventors, many known to us and many more unknown to us. Among the better known later-day contributors to wireless telegraphy are Lodge, Muirhead, Salby, von Arco, Braun, Fleming, Fessenden, DeForest, Stone, Shoemaker, Blondel, Artom, Pick- ard, von Lepel, Poulsen, and Pierce. 386 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES HOW ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES TBAVEL THROUGH SPACE It would be difficult to explain how electromagnetic waves, which are not susceptible to our senses, travel from a wireless transmitter to a receiver at the astounding rate of 186,300 miles per second, were it not for the simple analogy offered by a body of still water. Suppose a stone is thrown into a quiet pool of water. It will be noticed that waves or ripples form in perfect circles around the spot where the stone struck the surface, spreading out in ever-widening cir- cles from the source. The ripples near the center are big aiM readily seen, while those some distance away are small and barely discernible, finally disappearing altogether, pro- vided the body of water is sufficient- ly large. In other words, the rip- ples are largest near the source of disturbance, but lose their strength in a gradual decrease the farther they are removed from the source. Although according to appearances the waves or ripples appear to form at the spot where the stone hit the surface, spreading out in ever-widen- ing concentric circles, as a matter of fact they form at the immediate point where they appear. There is absolutely no transference of water from the center outward. Instead, a certain amount of mechanical en- ergy is transmitted through the body of water, producing waves or rip- ples at intervals. The water merely acts as the conductor for the energy imparted to it by the impact with the stone. This may be readily proved by placing a small chip of wood at any spot a short distance from the source of the disturbance : it will be noted that the chip re- mains in the same spot, although it rises and falls following the up and down or rolling motion of the wa- ter upon which it rests. If there were the actual movement of the water from the center outward, the chip, obviously, would move along with the moving water Much in the same manner do elec- tromagnetic waves react upon space, or, to use the name given to the medium through which these waves are propagated, ether. Nothing act- ually moves through ether in the transmission of signals by wireless; instead, the transmitting apparatus imparts energy to the ether, which in turn vibrates in much the same manner as the pond of still water. The vibrations spread through the ether in every direction, following the contour of the earth, until the force is spent. Ether, it is well to mention here, is a substance or medi- um imagined by physicists in order to explain the phenomena of light, radiant heat, and electromagnetic waves. The waves employed in radio communication range from 300 feet to 30,000 feet in length, meas- ured from one crest to the next, just as in the instance of the rip- ples on a pond. X-rays, on the other hand, have a length of about 2.5 millionths of an inch; actinic rays of the maximum intensity, 10 mil- lionths of an inch ; light rays, from 10 to 18 millionths of an inch ; and heat rays of maximum intensity, about 15 millionths of an inch. WIRELESS TRANSMITTERS AND RE- CEIVERS For wireless communication it is necessary to have a means of creat- ing and imparting electromagnetic waves to the ether, and a means of intercepting and detecting these same electromagnetic waves at a re- mote point. The former is called a transmitter, or sender, while the latter is known as the receiver, or receptor. The most common form of trans- mitter is one in which the electro- magnetic waves, created by the discharge of a condenser across a suitable air gap, are imparted to the ether by means of an elevated sys- tem of insulated conductors known as an aerial, and a connection with the earth or ground. The condenser receives its charging current from a transformer or induction coil, and OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES whenever it becomes overcharged it discharges an instant later across a gap in circuit with it. Since the length of the wave generated by a spark discharge is governed by two factors, capacity (the measure for the storage capacity of the con- denser) and inductance (the length of conductor in the wave-generating circuit ) , the circuit includes not only the condenser and spark gap, but a variable form of conductor or in- ductance, as well. The latter is al- ways in the form of a flat spiral, or a helix. The adjustment of the capacity and inductance in the wave- generating circuit is known as tun- ing, just as a musical instrument is adjusted to emit a note of a desired pitch. By inserting a telegraph key in the primary circuit of the trans- former, or induction coil, it becomes possible to generate waves at will ; and by the proper manipulation of the telegraph key, an operator can emit different trains of waves to correspond with the dots and dashes of any telegraphic code. There are other methods of gen- erating electromagnetic waves aside from a condenser charged by a high tension current furnished by trans- former, or spark coil. Among them may be mentioned the high fre- quency alternator, capable of generating current of a frequency, of over 50,000 cycles by purely mechanical means. Several gen- erators of high frequency current have been built, and within the past few years considerable progress has been made along this line, despite the seemingly unsurmountable me- chanical obstacles encountered at the beginning. A purely mechanical means of creating high frequency current suitable for the electromag- netic wfv'es employed in radio tel- egraphy and telephony is obviously the most desirable, which accounts for the persistent efforts of inven- tors along these lines. Another method of generating high frequency currents is found in the employment of some form of low tension arc, across the terminals of which are shunted a condenser and a variable inductance. With such an arrangement high frequency current is generated, the arc acting as the gap across which discharges the con- denser. Whereas in the case of the usual spark transmitters the con- denser discharges or electromagnetic w r aves take place in the form of sep- arate trains, each train or group comprising a number of sparks, each succeeding one less powerful than the one before, in the arc generator the waves are continuous and of the same, uniform strength. Thus the spark transmitters have come to be known as damped wave transmit- ters because of their damped waves, while the arc transmitters are known as undamped wave transmitters. The damping of the waves lends itself to an analogy in the form of a sim- ple pendulum: In the undamped transmitter, the pendulum would be kept swinging an equal distance each swing, because the power would be imparted so to accomplish this regularity ; while in the damped transmitter, the power would be im- parted at one swing and not again for several swings, resulting in the pendulum swinging over a lesser arc each succeeding swing until the power were again imparted to the pendulum. The electromagnetic waves, either of the damped or undamped variety, chopped up in short and long trains to represent the desired characters of any telegraphic code, have now been propagated through ether. The problem is not only to intei'cept them but also to detect their presence. The first step in receiving electro- magnetic waves is the erection of a suitable system of elevated, insu- lated wires, known as the aerial or antenna, which serves to intercept the electromagnetic waves, and to lead the currents induced in the wires down through the receiving instruments to the ground. The heart of any receiving set for wireless telegraphy is that member 390 OUE COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES which detects the presence of high frequency currents flowing down through the aerial and receiving ap- paratus. It is known as the de- tector. In the pioneer days of the art, a glass tube containing two electrode plugs between which was placed a small quantity of metallic filings, served the purposes of detec- tor. The action of the filings co- herer, as this detector is known, is simple: the high frequency current passing through the mass of loose filings possesses the property of causing these to cohere together so as to make a better contact between the two metal plugs. The lowering of the electrical resistance of the filings is sufficient to permit the cur- rent of a local battery to flow across the bridge thus formed and operate a relay, which in turn operates a Morse register that prints the sig- nals in the form of dots and dashes on a paper ribbon. Some suitable form of tapper is used to shake the filings apart after the high frequency currents have ceased to flow through them. The tapper, known as the decoherer, is usually operated by the relay. The filings coherer, while possess- ing the important advantage of al- lowing a Morse register to be used in conjunction with it, has long since ceased to be employed in com- mercial wireless work, although it remains the favorite form of demon- stration apparatus for the class- room. It has given way to infinitely more sensitive detectors which are used in conjunction with telephone receivers worn on the head of the wireless operator. With the advent of more sensitive detectors the range of wireless transmitters has jumped from the tens of miles to the hun- dreds and even thousands of miles. So numerous and varied are the wireless detectors of to-day that even a superficial description Of each type is precluded by space limitations. Suffice it to state that among the most popular types of detectors are the crystal rectifier, utilizing cer- tain minerals and crystal formations such as iron pyrites, zincite, bornite, galena, silicon, carborundum; the electrolytic detector, which, while exceedingly sensitive, has given way to the first type because of the great- er convenience of the crystal detec- tors; the magnetic detector, which would be a truly ideal type were it not for the fact that its sensitive- ness is of a rather low order; and the audion, which is the most suc- cessful detector and the one in most general use to-day. Aside from the detector, a wire- less receiving set comprises a tele- phone receiver or receivers, and ad- justable condensers and coils for changing the capacity and induc- tance of the receiving circuit to tune it to any length of wave desired. If a transmitter is emitting waves of a length of 400 meters, for ex- ample, a receiving set must be tuned to the neighborhood of 400 meters in order to receive the waves. And while it is tuned to receive those waves, other waves of other wave- lengths will not be heard in the re- ceivers of the operator. Thus it is possible for several transmitting set? to be operating in one locality at the same time, while the same number of receiving sets are receiving, each from the desired transmitter, with- out interference from other trans- mitters. Tuned or syutonic wireless has reached a high degree of develop- ment to-day, although much remains to be accomplished. After having developed" their de- tectors to the highest possible de- gree of sensitiveness, wireless men were confronted with the problem of increasing still farther the range of receiving apparatus. Solution was found in the introduction of ampli- fiers, or magnifiers of the weak cur- rents in the detector circuit. Some form of magnifiers are in reality an ordinary telephone circuit, in that the receiver, connected to the de- tector, is capped over a microphone transmitter, which in turn is elec- trically connected to a powerful bat- 392 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tery and another telephone receiver. Thus the faint sounds of the first telephone receiver are spoken into the microphone, which in turn im- presses them on a circuit contain- ing a loud-speaking receiver, or, at least, a receiver that produces loud sounds in the ears of the operator. Other forms of amplifiers utilize a modified form of the audion detec- tor. In the one-step amplifiers of this type, an amplification or mag- nification of from 6 to 10 times is attained ; in the two-step amplifier from 60 to 100 ; and in the three-step from 600 to 1,000, according to Dr. DeForest, the inventor of the audion amplifier. Thus it will be appreci- ated that the sensitiveness of the detector is materially improved by the use of an amplifier; and it is the combination of highly sensitive detectors and amplifiers more than anything else that accounts for the remarkable long-distance communi- cation of present-day wireless. TELEPHONY WITHOUT WIRES Wireless telephony differs from wireless telegraphy only in details ; for in general principles involved they are identical. If the wave trains of a spark transmitter were sufficiently close together to be above the range of audibility when received in the telephone receivers of the operator at the receiving station, it would be but a matter of a few slight changes, such as replacing the telegraph key with a microphone, to convert the average wireless tele- graph transmitter into a radio tele- phone set. As it is, the requirements of suc- cessful radio telephony begin with a generator of undamped waves of very high frequency, so that the wave trains when received are above the range of audibility. Until recently some form of elec- tric arc was, and still is, employed for generating the high frequency current for a radio telephone trans- mitter. Although on occasions fair success attends the employment of arc generators, a radio telephone sys- tem based on the use of such gen- erators cannot be the ideal system of the future. An electric arc is necessarily unsteady ; its electrodes usually burn away at a high rate, resulting in sputtering and frequent readjustment to bring the electrodes closer together to make up for the consumption of electrode material. A constant variation in the consump- tion of current results in fluctuations in the high frequency current, which is fatal to clear transmission. Yet, despite the shortcomings of the elec- tric arc as a generator of high fre- quency currents, much progress has been made with it by numerous in- vestigators. A Danish investigator, Poulsen, has done much toward applying and improving the arc generator for wireless telephone purposes. More recently, Colin and Jeance of France have done considerable work on an arc telephone, on occasions succeed- ing in communicating over a range of several hundred miles. In Amer- ica, Dubillier, Collins, DeForest and other investigators have in the past devoted considerable attention to the arc generator with a fair degree of success. Outside of the microphone, which must be able to handle large vol- umes of current without injury, in a wireless telephone set the arc gen- erator is the center of interest; and likewise it is true that the generator is the point of divergence between the various systems. The Janke system, for instance, is a variation of the Poulsen arc, in that the arc is placed in liquid alcohol to insure greater steadiness. To impress the voice on the high frequency current, a special water-cooled multiple microphone is used. The TYK system, on the other hand, is not an American sys- tem like the former, but a Japanese system developed by Torikato. Its chief value lies in its utmost sim- plicity. The system consists of a 500-volt arc between points of burnt magnetite and brass, shunted by a OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES circuit with a rather large capacity and a small inductance. A heavy -cur- rent microphone is placed in series with the aerial. Although it is sup- posed that the TYK system is really an arc system, the inventor is of the opinion that the result produced is a quenched spark of spark fre- quency beyond the limit of audibil- ity. By a "quenched spark" is meant a discharge that does not oscillate to any appreciable extent ; in other words, the discharge rapidly dies out or it is highly damped. Various quenched spark systems have also been tried, notably that of Ditcham, but as a general thing systems based on the use of quenched spark generators do not possess good speech quality. The speech quality of the TYK system is re- ported to be poor, which confirms, to some extent, the belief that its generator is a form of quenched spark gap. High frequency alternator sys- tems have been used as far back as 1906 by Fessenden, but as in the case of their application to wire- less telegraphy, even to-day they are considered largely in the light of ex- periments because of their prohibi- tive cost, their low frequency and consequently long wave length, and the difficulty of speed regulation. The reaction vacuum tube sys- tems are the last word in radio tele- phony, and judging from the results obtained thus far with them there can be but little doubt that they possess the qualities of the ideal apparatus of the future. Marconi, DeForest, and others have, of late, investigated the possibilities of the reaction vacuum tube in connection with radio telephony. DeForest has developed a tube which is a modi- fication of his audion amplifier. Known as the oscillion bulb or tube, this generator, together with WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS USED WITH SUCCESS BY COLIN AND JEANCE OF FRANCE IN TRANSMITTING THE SPOKEN WORD OVER SEVERAL HUNDRED MILES WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 395 a potentiometer for close regulation, filament rheostat, impedance coils, loading inductance, telephone trans- former coil, microphone transmitter, fixed condenser and minor accessor- ies, a current supply for the filament and another of 150 to 300 volts for the production of the high frequency currents, forms a complete radio tel- ephone for short distance transmis- sion. For long distance work a num- ber of oscillions are employed, to- gether with a higher voltage as high as 1,500 volts for a set with a range of 150 to 200 miles. Wireless telephony owes much to the work of the engineers of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company who, in the latter part of 1915, succeeded in telephoning by wireless from Washington to Paris, and from Washington to Hawaii, the latter a distance of 4,900 miles. It is understood that a form of reaction vacuum tube was employed in large numbers in generating the high fre- quency currents required. At the present moment it seems that wireless telephony, long a lab- oratory experiment, is at last a com- mercially practicable means of com- munication. Even so, however, the great expense of installations for long distance work may cause its universal use to be postponed for years to come, although it is safe to prophesy the widespread employ- ment of short-distance wireless tele- phone sets for ship-to-shore com- munication in the immediate future. HOW THE WORLD USES WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY The later-day pioneers in wireless telegraphy, even in their wildest flights of fancy, never realized to what extent their work would play a part in the commercial world and in military and naval affairs. True, they prophesied the transmission of energy by means of electromagnetic waves on a vast scale, and even to- day there does not appear to be much promise of success along these lines. But the fact remains that communication without wires has been applied to a wide range of uses other than those originally planned. Ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore com- munication was the original aim of wireless men radio telegraphy was to be a maritime invention. To-day the greatest employment of wireless remains on the water rather than on land ; and always will its greatest field be on shipboard. There is hard- ly an ocean-going vessel carrying passengers that is not equipped with wireless, for laws have been enacted obliging such ships to carry radio apparatus because of the security it affords the traveler on water. So numerous and powerful are the land stations operating in conjunction with the ships that it is very seldom in- deed when a ship is out of touch with land. Ocean travelers receive the news of the world every day, which is flashed out by powerful stations in America and Europe. Serious work has been done in es- tablishing radio telegraph and tele- phone communication between mov- ing trains, notably that of the Lack- awanna Railroad. Although on cer- tain occasions a range of between fifty and one hundred miles has been covered between a moving train and fixed station, the results on the whole have not been satisfactory. Perhaps it is that the tests have been premature, and that a suitable sys- tem of communication, so.mewhat different from existing ones, must be developed for this particular pur- pose. Employing an aerial eighteen inches above the roof of a steel car, which is obviously grounded through the rails, it becomes evident that it is almost impossible to secure any distance with a wireless apparatus installed and operated under these conditions. The European War has given especial impetus to wireless, partic- ularly as applied to aircraft. In de- signing radio apparatus for airships and aeroplanes due consideration must be given to the extremely lim- OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ited space available on such craft, and the limited weight that can be carried. In the case of aeroplanes the guy wires and other metallic parts of the machine are generally used as the ground (the capacity ground), while the aerial is in the form of a trailing wire that is paid out from a reel after the machine has reached the proper height. Most aeroplane sets have a range of from five to thirty-five miles, and because of the intense noise and vibration of the engines it is a very difficult matter to receive messages on board ; in fact, military operations make due allowance for this condition and depend upon the aeroplane wireless operator to devote his attention al- most exclusively to sending. On board airships of the Zeppelin or the flexible types it is possible to employ more powerful apparatus, hence a greater range can be cov- ered. A typical airship installation consists of a transformer, quenched spark gap, capacity and induc- tance, aerial wire lowered down from a winch, ammeter, rapid-change switch for different wave-lengths, and an alternating current generator driven off one of the engines of the airship. Such a set, weighing about fifty-five pounds without the alter- nator, has a range between 60 and 120 miles. The aerial wire is over 600 feet long when fully paid out. Armies in the field employ porta- ble wireless sets for insuring com- munication between scattered com- mands. Some sets for use in rugged country are arranged to be carried on mule-back, and are known as pack sets. But the most common wireless sets are those mounted on two wagons, one for the generating equipment and the other for the wireless apparatus proper. The aerial of these sets is arranged in the form of an umbrella, spreading out in all directions from a common pole. The latter is usually of alum- inum or an alloy of that metal, made up of a number of sections which can be readily coupled together. Within five minutes a mast of this kind can be erected, together with the aerial and the counterpoise or capacity ground. Still another form of portable military set is the auto- mobile truck set, which is carried as one unit on a powerful motor truck, and has a range of well over one hundred miles under favorable conditions. The European War has served to demonstrate the value of long-dis- tance wireless stations for maintain- ing communication between widely separated countries. Germany has set a mark in the art by maintain- ing telegraphic communication with neutral countries after finding herself surrounded by enemies on all sides and isolated from the outside world. Through the wireless station at Nauen, near Berlin, the German authorities have been able to give each day to the neutral world the news of the war from the Teuton point of view, without danger of the news being censored or altered in any way by enemy powers. Much of the telegraphic traffic between Ger- many and the United States during the war has been handled through the Nauen and Eilvese stations in Germany, and the Tuckerton and Sayville stations in the United States. The Allied powers too, although not isolated from the outside world, have made good use of wireless tel- egraphy in keeping in touch with each other and in maintaining com- munications between their scattered armies throughout the globe. It is understood that the Allies in the West and Russia have kept in touch by wireless telegraphy, the Eiffel tower having been used in the West, and a powerful station at Petrograd, for the purpose. Wireless has also been employed to an unprecedented degree in keeping in touch with war- craft of all kinds, even to the sub- marine boats fitted with folding masts that can be hastily erected to support an aerial when the craft are on the surface. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY AND TELEPHONY 397 Upon the completion of the Euro- pean War a great chain of wireless stations encircling the globe will be put into operation. It is not unlikely that these stations may soon prove a formidable competitor to the cables, although it is doubtful if they can ever be more than a supplement to the older form of inter-continental communication. Many of the world- encircling wireless stations repre- sent the very latest phase of the art, with ranges of thousands of miles, and arranged to receive and transmit messages simultaneously and with- out interference. Among other uses of wireless is the collection and distribution of weather information to seamen and others, which service is of great value to all mankind. Wireless has also been applied with success to the problems of higher surveying, particularly by the French in the Sahara and on the Congo in Africa, and by Capt. Edwards on the boun- dary between Brazil and Bolivia. A careful comparison of time between distant points has also been rendered possible by wireless, which, because of the high velocity at which the electromagnetic waves travel, can be considered as being practically an instantaneous means of communica- tion for such distances as are en- countered on this earth. RECENT WIRELESS TELEPHONE APPARATUS DEVELOPED BY DR. LEE DE FOREST, EMPLOYING THE OSCILLION OR OSCILLATING-VALVE FORM OF GENERATOR MOVING PICTURE ACTORS IN SELF-CONTAINED DIVING SUITS, TAKING PART IN AN UNDERWATER PHOTOPLAY SCENE CHAPTER IV. MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING By AUSTIN C. LESCARBOURA PERHAPS it is because pictures are the ultimate universal lan- guage that a world-wide fascina- tion attaches to motion pictures and their production. Or it may be due to the romance of picture making the story in back of the screen story, which so often excels the tale of the film in point of human interest. But whatever may be the reason, the fact stands that no modern in- dustry commands as great interest among the multitudes as motion pic- tures, not only in the finished prod- uct but in the manufacturing processes. PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE THOUSANDS From a purely mechanical point of view, motion pictures are nothing more than a number of photographs of any one object or group of ob- jects taken at frequent intervals on a strip of film. The exposures are made at the rate of sixteen per second ; and each picture a photo- ARTISANS OF THE FILMS, THEIR STOCKROOM AND THEIR WORKSHOP (1) Carpenters, painters and electricians at work in the erection of a Vitagraph set, (2) Where the furniture employed in Lasky motion picture productions is stored. (3) The woodworking shop of the Lasky western studio Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 400 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES graph as perfect as the best of lenses and the highest photographic skill can produce measures but one inch in width by three-quarters inch in height. Perforations are provided along either edge of the film, with which the mechanism of the camera engages for the purpose of intermit- tently drawing the celluloid strip through the rays of light coming in through the lens, the object being to move the film a trifle over three- quarters of an inch each time an exposure has been made, so as to bring a fresh section of film in the path of the light rays. The film that is exposed in the camera is generally a negative. It is developed in much the same man- ner as an amateur film, although its great length calls for the em- ployment of a rack or a drum on which to wind it in order to facili- tate handling. The negative devel- oped and dried, it is passed through a printing machine together with fresh unexposed positive stock so as to make as many positive prints as may be required. It is the positive print of any motion picture produc- tion that is passed through the pro- jecting machines in theaters and viewed on the screen by the millions. But let us look in back of the screen : let us glance into the activi- ties of those who make the film pro- ductions possible, but who always remain unknown to the audience, while the actors who perform no greater part in the work become famous. A SUBMABINE THAT NEVEB SAW THE SEA The audience is tense with excite- ment as the hero in the film play struggles frantically with the con- trol apparatus of a submarine that is fast sinking to the ocean bottom, because of the constantly rising water in its hold. And as he strug- gles at his post the water pours in on him through an ugly gash made in the conning tower of the craft by an enemy destroyer. Perhaps it is the climax in a gripping drama. then again, it may be the big scene or "punch" in a hilarious comedy. But, however that may be, the real- ism of the scene has the desired effect on the audience. What dan- gers these motion picture folk incur in their daily work ! is the general comment of the unsuspecting public. Several months ago the scene in question was acted, not, as might be supposed, in the interior of a submarine, but in a quiet corner of a motion picture studio. The "sub- marine" was an elaborate structure of wood, metal, and plenty of paint ; life-sized to be sure, but only of a sufficient length or depth to repre- sent the particular compartment portrayed in the picture story. For weeks the artisans of the stu- dio workshops had worked in build- ing this pseudo submarine ; and be- fore the camera crank was turned the technical director had gone over every detail of its construction to make sure that it emulated success- fully the interior of a modern sub- marine. Then the studio hands built a tank around the scenery. The "set," as the scenery for a studio scene is called, was now ready for the director. The director, being unable to carry out his programme of photo- graphing certain outdoor or "loca- tion" scenes on a certain day because of rain or poor light, decided to stay at the studio and photograph the in- terior scenes called for in the scenario or working plan of his pic- ture. After rehearsing the action of this particular scene several times, the lamps flashed up and the camera man took his place by the side of his camera. At the com- mand of the director one of the stage hands climbed up on the deck of the "submarine," pulling a heavy hose after him, which he placed in the opening of the conning tower. The water was turned on, and it flowed through the hose and passed down upon the back of the actor playing the part of the hero-sailor struggling with the control mechan- ism of a balky underwater craft. MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 401 The water, bounded on all sides by the improvised tank of wood and rubberized canvas, slowly rose in the "submarine" interior. The cam- era, which all the while was record- ing the action, was naturally so focused as to take in only the de- sired portion of the setting the sides of the tank did not show in the film. The scene was a success. Typical of the striving of all American producers for realism is the foregoing instance. A half dozen years ago the audience of the average picture theater was not as critical as the audience of to-day. Formerly a director depended solely upon a good story and fair acting to make a film production a suc- cess; whereas to-day the director strives to reinforce these two essen- have even the most insignificant details accurate and confidence- inspiring. JACKS AND MASTEBS OF ALL TRADES No motion picture studio would be complete without its carpenter shop and staff of expert workmen. There are so many things that must be built especially for the pictures that a complete equipment of wood- working and metalworking machines and a skilled gathering of artisans are an absolute necessity. It would be impossible to describe with any pretense to thoroughness the range of work turned out by the studio workshops. It is only by offering a few examples of what they do regularly that a general idea of the scope of their toil can be BACKGROUNDS MADE TO ORDER TO FIT THE FILM STORIES (1) A set representing the living room of a country home. Note how the stairway at the left terminates in a wooden platform, beyond the range of the camera. In this Than- houscr set; (2) A set representing an office. The players at the left do not appear in tho Gaumont film being produced, for they are out of the range of the camera. tials with the utmost realism of scenery. It is imperative, claim the producers, that the pictures be re- plete with realism ; the audience must not be permitted to recall the fact that after all the scenes in many instances are but improvised backgrounds and the necessary pieces of furniture taken from the stock room or property room of the studio. In brief, the audience must be made to forget the mechanical end of picture production; and to this end every effort is made to gained. One day they may be build- ing a safe of light wood or com- pressed paper accurately made even to the bolt mechanism which may bring forth roars of laughter from an audience months hence, when it is dropped on the head of one of the comedians in a film play. They may be called upon to build an aeroplane, closely following the lines of a genuine machine that is to be used in the scenes of actual flying. The workmen may perhaps put in one or two weeks' work in 402 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES building the aeroplane, exercising much ingenuity in its construction. As likely as not the tires of the landing gear may be made from short lengths of rubber hose or can- vas tube, filled with sawdust. And the same degree of ingenuity may be repeated a dozen times or more in the construction of the machine ; all, this work to appear for a few sec- onds on the screen, and probably doomed to be blown to pieces or burned to ashes. The men may turn to the construction of a mirth-pro- voking hose-cart or fire-wagon for the fire department of some imag- inary rural community. Again, his- torical or period plays may keep the artisans busy building a replica of the first steamboat, or making an old stage-coach, or a Roman gladia- tor's weapons and shield, or even an ancient catapult. All these things are in the day's work. In a recent war play, "The Fall of a Nation," four huge siege guns figured conspicuously in the battle scenes between defenders and in- vaders. Each gun was a faithful reproduction of the famous Krupp 28-millimeter siege howitzers, mount- ed on caterpillar wheels. When seen on the screen, even a military expert would be apt to mistake the guns for their counterparts busily engaged on European battlefields. As a matter of fact, however, these "guns" were made of wood, and at the time represented perhaps one of the most intricate pieces of work yet undertaken by the film artisans. They were a faithful copy of the actual pieces, even down to the re- coil cylinders which actually func- tioned following the explosion of a charge of black powder in the metal- lined barrel. The guns were said to have cost the producers of the film some $10,000 each, and although the amount appears rather high at first, nevertheless it serves to accentuate the great amount of preliminary re- search work and designing that had to be carried out before the actual construction began. And here again the producers insisted that if the guns were to be used at all, they must be accurate enough to pass before the most critical audience without arousing undue suspicions. The producer of a submarine story, which, in its main essentials, closely follows the theme of Jules Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea," recently endeavored to secure the loan of a United States submarine from the Navy Depart- ment, without success, so the story goes. Whereupon he set out to build a submarine of sheet iron, with a length of over 100 feet, a beam of 15 feet, and a draft of 4 feet. The shell had to be of sufficient strength to withstand a submergence of forty feet deep. By means of tanks the submarine could take on water in order to settle down beneath the waves, while compressed air tanks permitted of blowing out the water ballast when the craft was to be brought up to the surface again. The submarine was fitted with a torpedo tube capable of discharging a regulation torpedo. In all, six months' time was expended in build- ing this submarine, which closely followed the lines of the "Nautilus," the famous craft of Captain Nemo : indeed, the Navy submarines were hardly suitable to represent the fic- titious craft, which may have been one reason why the producer de- cided to construct a special sub- mersible, fitted with a lock in its bottom through which divers wear- ing self-contained suits could pass out to the ocean floor. In a certain production, "The World and the Woman," there was to be a garden scene during a thun- der storm. One of the features of the scene was a driving rain, while another was a flash of lightning. The scenario called for these things : there was nothing for the studio artisans to do but to produce the desired effect. An aeroplane p r o p e 1 1 e i was mounted on a substantial support, and to it was applied the power of an electric motor through belting. An artificial garden set was soon 404 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES arranged and housed in a suitable shelter to make it dark the photo- graphing took place in the yard of the studio, in the middle of a beau- tiful day. Above the set was ar- ranged a trough, perforated with many holes to allow water to drop below on the scenery. When every- thing was ready, the electric motor was started, causing the aeroplane propeller to blow up a veritable hur- ricane through the set. Stage hands with watering cans began to pour water into the trough, which fell in the form of rain only to be driven at an angle across the setting, simu- lating a powerful gale. And at the propitious moment another stage hand set off a flashlight, giving the desired flash-of-lightning effect on the film. All of which bespeaks well of the skill of the artisans of the screen. Most of their work is done in wood and canvas, although occasionally they resort to metal, as witness the submarine already mentioned. Papier mache', plaster of Paris, compressed fiber and clay are also used in pro- fusion, especially in the making of statues, ornate panels, and other work of a similar nature, forming part of elaborate sets. The equipment of most motion picture studios is usually such as would do justice to a thriving wood- working shop and machine shop combined. A typical comedy-pro- ducing studio in southern California, for instance, has over $2,000 worth of woodworking equipment in its carpenter shop, while the stock of lumber constantly on hand and other items are said to bring the total up to $4,000. The concern em- ploys regularly over seventy-five carpenters. BUILDING INTERIORS TO FIT THE STORY The interior settings of a film play require the closest attention on the part of the producers. For here again the constant demand for ac- curacy and realism is paramount. The smallest details must be watched. If the director calls for a tenement house scene, the stage car- penters must build him a dilapi- dated hall and stairs, and small, squalid rooms. The scene must ap- pear much the worse from wear and old age the steps must look worn; the walls must be marred, with here and there a hole in the plaster ; and there must be dirt a-plenty. Again, if the director calls for the home of a rich man, it is necessary that he state what kind of rich man the film author had in mind. Is he a wealthy man from a family of long BRAINS AND SKILL AT WORK IN THE MOTION PICTURE STUDIO At the left: The technical director of the Vitagraph studio supervising the arrangement of the furnishings in an elaborate set. At the right: Film artisans at work, making the various objects required In Vitagraph picturee. ^i:-- l n -'l o Ho ig W < -==' O till ^t! l V i . 406 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES standing, or is he a nouveau richef If he belong to the former class, the furnishings are to be of a quiet, harmonious design, with the paint- ings and other ornamentation typi- fying good taste ; while if he belong to the latter, the furnishings must be of a garish sort. For it is in this manner that the motion picture producer endeavors to amplify the type of man whose home is repre- sented. And motion picture tradi- tions have it that a man with newly- acquired wealth must have garish tastes, and that a tenement house must always be old, dirty, and much the worse from excessive wear. In other words, exaggeration is prac- ticed in order to leave little to the imagination of the audience. Obviously, it would not do to leave the selection of furnishings and their proper arrangement to stage hands and carpenters, and ac- cordingly the demand for accuracy and realism has brought into exist- ence a new type of executive in the film industry the technical director, or art director as he is sometimes called. To him falls the task of reading through the synopsis or scenario of a film story, followed by the supervision of the erection of sets. He is responsible for the ar- rangement of the furnishings, even down to the smallest details, as well as for the costuming of the players. However, he is not responsible for the action part of a scene ; that task remains, as ever, the work of the director. The technical director must be a veritable human encyclopaedia a man of remarkably broad knowledge and experience. He must be well read ; and what he does not know he must be able to "dig up" at short notice. Here is how his knowledge and experience are applied : If a scene is laid in a certain country and the time is of a different century, he must know what gar- ments the players are to wear, the accouterments of the soldiers, the etiquette of the period and country, the furnishings of the interiors, the head-dress of the women, and a thousand and one other details. Perhaps actual incidents are most convincing in illustrating how the directors strive for accuracy, and how the absence of technical direc- tion may be fatal to an otherwise perfect production. The story is told of how Irvin Cobb, the noted Ameri- can writer, was visiting a prominent Los Angeles studio while a director was rehearsing a scene of a war play in which a regiment of Ger- man soldiers were marching through a Belgian village. To add what he considered a touch of comfort and naturalness to the scene, the director had the men leave their coats unbuttoned. Mr. Cobb, then only recently returned from the war zone, was horrified at this gross mis- representation of facts. He did not hesitate to tell the director that at no time do the Germans have their coats unbuttoned while actually on the march or on duty. The director was grateful for the tip, for he realized the humiliation that might have been his if the otherwise per- fect scene were held up to ridicule by the better-informed of the mil- lions who would ultimately view the picture. At the same time the au- thor also commented on the wearing of the Iron Cross decoration, which the director had insisted the men should waar conspicuously, whereas it is actually tucked away with only its ribbon showing. Can there be any doubt of the necessity of a tech- nical director? To return to interior settings : These represent one of the big items of expense in the production of a film. One reason is that the average set can be used in one production only, after which it must DC dis- mantled. In the earlier days the audience might not have commented on seeing the same pieces of furni- ture used several times. But to-day the audience is more observing and will soon detect any attempt to use the same lamp, settee, or other fur- f * is 5* 408 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES nishings repeatedly. Conspicuous repetition has got to be avoided by the producers. And as in the in- stance of the garments worn by the players, the furniture must be in keeping with the last word in in- terior furnishings. So every studio maintains a large room or several rooms in which an almost endless variety of furnishings is stored. The walls of an interior set are generally built of compressed paper or light board, backed up with framework and props, to facilitate the work of erection and destruc- tion. Tremendous quantities of the necessary materials are employed in the course of a year, as witness some 50,000 feet or more of com- pressed paper board used by a lead- ing comedy producer, together with over 500,000 feet of lumber. The same concern spends over $1,800 for some 15,000 rolls of wall paper each year, with which to cover the walls of its sets. The cost of even the most modest set runs up into the hundreds of dollars, for it must be remembered that practically every set must be built and decorated to order, and filled with the necessary furniture, which may not be used for a long time to come. Elaborate sets run up into the thousands of dollars. A good restaurant or cabaret scene may cost from $2,000 to $5,000, de- pending upon its elaborateness and size. A setting calling for intricate electric lighting effects sometimes exceeds the $5,000 mark, for in- stance, the witches' scene in the re- cent production of "Macbeth," star- ring Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, which is said to have cost over $10,000 because of the elaborate ap- paratus for producing the weird fire effects. IN THE LAND OF TWO-DIMENSIONED STRUCTURES The film artisan finds his biggest field of endeavor in the outdoor sets, for under the open skies his under- takings are not hindered by space limitations and can therefore as- sume the most gigantic proportions. Here again, the striving for realism is the first consideration; here the technical director must exercise his knowledge of architectural design covering every period in history and every part of the world. Perhaps the greatest set that has ever been constructed up until the time of writing was one represent- ing the ancient city of Babylon, em- ployed in the gigantic production "Intolerance." On the front of this huge setting the side that faced the camera there rose high walls painted to simulate stone, 100 feet in height and adorned with reliefs of strange winged creatures and ele- phants. The towers of the set stood 135 feet high, and the various struc- tures covered a ten-acre tract of land in Hollywood, CaL, just outside of Los Angeles. For more than six months the carpenters, masons, con- crete workers and painters were busied with the set, and the cost of the work is reported to have been in excess of $50,000. But slightly less pretentious was the set erected at an approximate cost of $35,000, representing the pal- ace, house of parliament, prison, royal court, and adjacent buildings in a mythical coiintry featured in the production "Civilization." The first spadeful of earth in prepara- tion for the erection of the set was turned in May, 1915. The completed set was ready for use in November of the same year. Into its construc- tion went thirty carloads, or ap- proximately 600,000 feet, of lumber. Glass valued at a total of $4,000 was necessary for the several hundred windows, while tons upon tons of cement and plaster were used as the other principal materials. For the steps of the largest building alone ten tons of cement was used. The sidewalks, with their curbings, meas- ured some 1,200 feet, and twenty men were employed for three months laying them out and arranging the parkings between them. Trees, shrubbery and lamps were among MOTION PICTURES IN THE MAKING 409 the ornaments placed within the boundaries of the set. Covering an area of over six and one half acres, the set has stood atop one of the hills in southern California, endur- ing the elements successfully as though it were intended as a perma- nent structure. It is principally in portraying for- eign scenes that the film artisans are called upon to build elaborate sets. Years ago, before the industry had reached its present high stand- ard, companies traveled abroad in order to produce plays at the actual locations called for by the scenario. To-day, in marked contrast, the pro- ducers find it easier to bring the foreign or distant spots to the stu- dio, literally speaking. Accuracy enables them to convince the au- dience that the scenes have been laid in the country called for by the story. All parts of the world have been brought to the foothills of Cali- fornia, the shores of Florida, and the edge of the Palisades of New FIRST MOVING PICTURE STUDIO IN THE TJ. S., BUILT IN 1905 This structure was mounted on pivots so that it could constantly be turned to keep the sunlight streaming in through its crude skylight. Jersey, where the producers have better laboratory facilities, under- stand the light conditions, can secure experienced players and save time. Typical instances of foreign sets have been the barracks of Delhi, India, and a street in a village of a mythical country, recently erected and used by a Western producer. The former consisted of seven indi- vidual structures and entailed an expenditure of $3,000; the latter represented a street lined with houses of solid construction. The houses were made of plaster-covered timbers, while the stone walls and trees were handled with great care to obtain correctness of detail. The entire set required about six weeks to build and involved an outlay of perhaps $5,000. There is practically no end to the elaborate outdoor sets erected by motion picture producers. In the production of "Ramona" it was said that over 1,800 sets were especially built for the play, and that the pic- turesque Spanish monastery for one of the sets cost some $10,000. A commendable piece of work was the set representing the temple of an Aztec monarch in the sixteenth century, which was used in the pro- duction "The Captive God." Its framework was built of timbers, but the body was of plaster plaques. About 7,000 of these plaques were required ; and the total cost of the set is said to have been $3,000. A set representing a border town on the line separating Mexico from the United States, for use in a typi- cal Western drama, was recently constructed at a cost of $1,500. It consisted of fifteen buildings, each entirely of frame construction. While the cost of the village was not great, at the time it was regarded by film men as one of the most realistic sets ever built for the screen. Thousands of other sets might be described, for they come and go without end. But enough instances have been cited to prove that the production of motion pictures is a costly enterprise if realism is to be secured. Also, there is to be found no more skilled and ingenious arti- san than the artisan of the screen, whose work, generally unappre- ciated, plays so conspicuous a part in the remarkable productions of our day. CHAPTER V. THE REALM OF THE AIR By C. F. TALMAN THE gaseous envelope of the earth which we call the atmosphere is interesting not only as the environment of life, in all its forms, but also as the seat of various remarkable physical phenomena. Considered especially with reference to their biological, and above all their human, relations, the activities of the atmosphere are known collectively as iceather ; but the study of the atmos- phere, the science we call Mete- orology, is broader than the study of weather. Hence, if weather is important, and everybody knows that it is immensely so, in terms of health, comfort and dollars, meteor- ology is still more important. This science ought to be, but is not yet, represented by professorships in every university in the land. EXTENT AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE The lower part of the atmosphere is the densest because it is com- pressed by the weight of. the air above it. Thus it happens that, al- though the total depth of the at- mosphere is probably at least 300 miles, one-half of its mass., i.e., one- half of the quantity of matter in it, lies below an altitude of about three and one-half miles above sea-level, while about seven-eighths lies below tho ten-mile level. Above about five miles the atmosphere is too rare (or rather the oxygen in it is too rare) to support life. The highest ice- clouds seldom occur higher than ten miles. Storms hardly ever reach this height. In short, the phenomena of life and the phenomena of weath- er are confined to a layer of air so shallow, in proportion to the dimen- sions of our globe, that on the sur- face of an orange it would be rep- resented by a sheet of paper thin- ner than the average book-paper. Dry air is a mixture (not a chemi- cal compound) of several gases, viz., about 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per cent oxygen, 1 per cent argon, and 0.03 per cent carbon dioxide, by vol- ume, besides minute quantities of hydrogen, neon, krypton, xenon, helium and possibly other sub- stances. At levels habitable by man the air always contains invisible water vapor (from a small trace to about 5 per cent), and usually small and variable amounts of ozone, am- monia, nitric acid, and other gases, which, on account of their irregular occurrence, are not classed among the normal constituents of the atmos- phere. Lastly, the lower air always contains solid impurities, in endless variety, generically known as dust. THE UPPER AIR ' Such is the composition of the air for a few miles above the earth, but the proportions of its constitu- ents do not remain the same at higher levels, since the lighter gases extend farther upward than the heavier. Probably there is no water vapor above about 12 miles ; no oxy- gen above about 60 miles, and no nitrogen above about 70 miles. From a level of about 50 miles upward the atmosphere, instead of being "air," Copyright by Munu & Co., Inc. 412 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES is mostly hydrogen the lightest known gas. Moreover, at the 50- mile level the atmosphere is less than 1/75,000 as dense as at sea- level; i. e., it is more than seventy- five times as attenuated as the best "vacuum" obtainable with an ordi- nary mechanical air pump. At 300 miles above the earth it is computed to be about one-two-millionth as dense as at sea-level. Ozone, which occurs transiently and in small amounts in the lower atmosphere, is believed to be permanently present and abundant at high levels, where it is formed from oxygen, probably under the influence of ultra-violet The past twenty years have wit- nessed a remarkable development of upper-air research, or aerology. Up to a height of about four miles the atmosphere has been extensively ex- plored by means of self-registering meteorological instruments (mete- orographs) attached to kites not of the schoolboy pattern, but box or cellular kites, the "string" of which consists of several miles of steel wire, wound around the drum of a power-driven winch. Captive bal- loons have also been utilized to some extent. For attaining great alti- tudes, however, free balloons must be used. The so-called sounding- SOUNDING THE UPPER AIR Left: Launching a pair of sounding balloons, with self-registering meteorological instru- ments attached. Upper right: Balloon meteorograph and the protective cage in which it is sent aloft. Lower right: Weather Bureau party making upper air observations. light from the sun and of auroral discharges. The existence in the at- mosphere of a gas unknown to chem- ists and li'ghter than hydrogen has been maintained in some quarters (especially by Dr. Alfred Wegener), and it has been named "geocoroni- um," or "zodiacon." If present at all, it is presumably the chief constituent of the atmosphere in the upper levels. balloon, which carries a meteoro- graph, bursts far above the earth, and the attached instruments are carried gently down" by a parachute, or an auxiliary balloon. Sounding- balloons rise to various heights up to 20 miles. Small balloons sent up without a meteorograph attached, merely for the sake of observing the drift of the air at various levels, are THE REALM OF THE AIR 413 called pilot-balloons. An altitude of more than twenty-four miles has thus been attained. Since the year 1902 it has been known that the atmosphere is div- ided into at least two layers, or shells, having quite different char- acteristics. If from some place in middle latitudes we could travel in a balloon as far upward as we pleased, carrying a thermometer with us, we should find the air rap- idly growing colder, at a more or less uniform rate, as we ascended until we reached an altitude of about seven miles. Then the fall in tem- perature would abruptly cease, and might even be succeeded by a slight- ly rising temperature for a certain distance upward. This would indi- cate that we had passed out of the troposphere, as the lower stratum of the atmosphere is now called, and entered the stratosphere, or isother- mal layer, in which there are no very decided or regular changes of temperature with altitude. The boundary between the two layers lies much higher in equatorial re- gions, and the temperatures at the summit of the troposphere in such regions are lower than anywhere KITE AND BALLOON HOUSE AT AN AEROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY else in the atmosphere. A sounding- balloon over Batavia, Java, has re- corded 133 degrees below zero, Fahr., at an altitude of about ten miles. Besides differing from the tropo- sphere in its lack of regular temper- ature contrasts in a vertical direc- tion, the stratosphere has an inde- pendent circulation ; concerning which, however, not much is yet pos- itively known. THE PBESSTJBE OF THE ATMOSPHERE The atmosphere presses down up- on the earth with a weight which, at sea-level, amounts, on an average, to 14.7 pounds to the square inch. This pressure is, at any point, ex- erted equally in all directions; it acts, for example, on the whole sur- face of the human body, and this means that a man of average size lives under a burden of some seven- teen tons of air. He is not incom- moded because the pressure from without is balanced by that of the air inside his body. The pressure of the air decreases upward at the same rate as its density ; at an alti- tude of three and one-half miles it is about half as great as at sea-level. Thus the atmospheric pressure on mountains and plateaus is considera- bly less than in lowlands. At no place is the pressure invariable, nor is there a constant relation between pressure and altitude; but, knowing approximately the average atmos- pheric pressure over the earth's sur- face, and knowing also the area of the latter, we can compute in round numbers the total weight of the at- mosphere about 5,000,000,000,000,- 000 (5 quadrillion, according to American notation ; 5,000 billion, ac- cording to British notation) tons. This is about 1/1,200,000 of the en- tire weight of the terrestrial globe. The pressure of the air is meas- ured by means of an instrument called the barometer, and hence is often referred to as "barometric" pressure. In this instrument the weight of the air is balanced against a column of mercury, and the height of the latter, generally expressed in inches or millimeters, is taken as the measure of the former. Hence, when we say that the average baro- metric pressure at sea-level is 29.92 "inches," we are really expressing 414 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES in a roundabout way the weight of the air at that level. HOW THE ATMOSPHERE IS HEATED Our life and our weather are both maintained by a tiny fraction less than half a millionth of the heat given off by the great luminary around which the earth revolves in space. At any given moment half the surface of the globe basks in the sunshine while the other half is in shadow. Besides rotating on its THE MARCH OF THE SEASONS 8, the sun ; N, north pole of the earth ; B, winter in N. hemisphere and summer in S. hemisphere ; D, summer in N. hemisphere, winter in S. hemisphere ; A, C, equinoxes. axis once a day, the earth revolves around the sun once a year, and its axis, which always remains parallel to itself, is inclined to the plane of its orbit. These facts (illustrated in the accompanying diagram) explain the alternation of day and night, the march of the seasons, and the opposition of the latter in the two hemispheres. The northern half of the globe receives more than its share of solar heat at the season when the southern half is receiving less, and vice versa; hence the north- ern summer coincides with the southern winter, and the northern winter with the southern summer. The amount of heat received at a particular place, at a given time, de- pends chiefly upon the angle at which the sun's rays reach the ground, and this is continually changing. The interposition of clouds, variations in surface top- ography, different heat-absorbing properties of water and land, and a number of other complications ac- centuate still further the contrasts in temperature between different parts of the earth's surface, and these contrasts give rise to the winds. Some of the heat that comes to us from the sun is absorbed in its pas- sage through the atmosphere, but the greater part of it penetrates to the earth, where it is absorbed, and then given out to the lower strata of air. Thus our atmosphere is heated chiefly from below. The air that is heated at the earth's surface expands in all directions, but es- pecially upward, where it encounters the least resistance. Moreover, air that has risen and spread out later- ally increases the pressure on the air over which it has flowed, and this lower air pushes in toward the over-heated area. The inflowing cool- er air helps to drive the heated air upward. In other words, the heated air does not rise merely on account of its expansion, but because it is pushed up by the air around it. Philosophically speaking, our atmos- phere is kept in motion by solar energy, just as a steam-engine is kept in motion by the energy of fuel. Since the atmosphere is relatively very shallow, the distances the air rises and falls under the effects of temperature are extremely small compared with the distances it is> carried over the surface of the earth. It is chiefly the horizontal movement of the air that we think of as "wind," but the up-and-down move- ment is an essential part of the pro- cess and has several important ef- fects. THE GENERAL WIND OF THE GLOBE In the equatorial regions the sur- race air is heated more than else- where, and rises and overflows, at high levels, toward the poles ; while the relatively cold air of high lati- tudes flows equatorward, near the earth's surface, to replace it. A simple circulation between the equa- tor and the poles could, however, only occur if the earth did not ro- THE REALM OF THE AIR 415 tate on its axis. The "deflective force" of the earth's rotation causes a particle of air moving in any di- rection over the earth's surface to deviate to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern (a phenomenon that is not limited to air movements, but ap- plies in general to bodies moving freely over the earth). At about latitude 30 degrees the winds com- ing from the equator have been so much deflected that they move al- most eastwardly. The result is a great whirl around the pole, occupy- ing most of the temperate zone in each hemisphere, with prevailing winds from the western quadrant at all levels. The centrifugal force of this whirl causes the air to bank up at about latitude 30 degrees, pro- ducing a belt of high pressure in that region, which is sometimes known as the horse latitudes. Between this belt and the equator there is a regular circulation of air e q u a to r w a r d below ( the trade icinds) and poleward above (the anti-trades) ; and both these systems of winds are given an oblique direc- tion by the earth's rotation. Near the equator, between the two trade- wind systems, is a region of calms and variable winds, with abundant clouds and rain, known as the dol- drums. Trades and doldrums shift alternately north and south in the course of the year, following the sun, and give to regions which come under their control, successive dry and raint/ seasons. Within the polar circles the low temperatures increase the density of the air, which flows away from the poles near the earth's surface; an effect that appears to be strengthened by the drainage of air down the glacier slopes of the two polar continents (Greenland and Antarctica). The accompanying table shows in a general way the arrangement of the principal wind-belts of the earth. This represents prevailing condi- tions, which are, however, subject to many interruptions. In middle latitudes, for example, while the pre- vailing drift of the air is eastwardly, the actual wind at any place and time is usually determined by the positions of cyclones and anticy- clones (of which we shall say more NORTH POLE Arctic calms and outflow- ing winds, deflected west- wardly (with poleward winds overhead). Westerly to southwesterly winds of middle latitudes. Horse latitudes ("calms of Cancer"). Northeast trade winds (with southwest anti- trades overhead). Doldrums, or equatorial calms (with east winds overhead). Southeast trade winds (with northwest anti- trades overhead). Horse latitudes ("calms of Capricorn"). Westerly to northwesterly winds of middle lati- tudes (including the "brave west winds" - of southern oceans). Antarctic calms and out- flowing winds, deflected westwardly (with pole- ward winds overhead). SOUTH POLE presently). Any of these general wind-systems may be disturbed by the seasonal winds known as mon- soons, which blow outward from a continent to the ocean in winter and in the reverse direction in summer. 416 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Interruptions on a smaller scale arise from a day-and-night alterna- tion of winds to and from bodies of water (land and sea breezes; land and lake breezes), and a similar daily reversal of the wind direction in mountainous regions (mountain and valley breezes). CYCLONES AND ANTICYCLONES Cyclones and anticyclones are areas of low and high barometric pressure, respectively, exhibiting cer- tain typical conditions of wind and weather. In this country the term "cyclone" is persistently misapplied by the hands of a clock) around the center ; not in circles, but more or less spirally inward. In the south- ern hemisphere their direction is re- versed. The anticyclone has a cir- culation opposite to that of the cy- clone (clockwise in the northern hemisphere and counterclockwise in the southern). There are certain regions of the globe in which cyclones or anticy- clones of large extent (known as "centers of action") tend to persist through a season or the whole year, though with fluctuations in size and activity. Most cyclones and anti- by the newspapers and the public to a very small intensely violent storm of the "spout" variety, prop- erly known as the tornado. The true cyclone covers an area thou- sands of times as great as that cov- ered by a tornado, and its winds may be either stormy or gentle. In the northern hemisphere the winds of a cyclone blow "counterclockwise" (opposite to the direction followed cyclones, however, travel over the earth, and those of the temperate zone (the "lows" and "highs" of the weather map) move in a general west-to-east direction. In the United States their speed averages about 600 miles a day. (This refers to the translation of the whirl as a whole, and not to the force of its winds.) In general, cyclones are at- tended by clouds and rain or snow; THE REALM OF THE AIR 417 A FREAK OF THE TORNADO anticyclones by fair weather. The temperature commonly rises with the approach of a cyclone, and falls in its rear. It is the constant passage of cyclones and anticyclones over the country that gives us our change- able weather. On the weather map these areas are depicted by drawing lines, called isobars, connecting places having the same barometric pressure. Wherever the isobars are crowded the winds the strong; where they are widely spaced the winds are gentle. The tropical cyclone (hurricane of the West Indies, typhoon of the China Sea, baguio of the Philippines) is a relatively violent whirl, .which originates in the stagnant air of the doldrums, and usually moves in an oblique and curved path toward higher latitudes, frequently passing into the temperate zone, where it increases in size and decreases in strength. While middle-latitude cy- clones occur throughout the year, tropical cyclones are almost lim- ited to particular seasons (those of the West Indies are commonest from July to October), and they are also confined to rather small regions of the globe. Storms of this type cause frightful devastation in the Carib- bean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, and occasionally in the southeastern United States (as at Galveston, Sep- tember 8, 1900, when 6,000 lives and $30,000,000 in property were destroy- ed, chiefly by the great waves gen- erated by the storm). TORNADOES AND THUNDERSTORMS The tornado is a small vortex In the atmosphere, occurring generally in the southeastern part of a cyclone, and rarely experienced, in its full development, elsewhere than in the United States, east of the Rocky Mountains. Its average diameter is about 1,000 feet, and it travels along a path varying in length from a few hundred yards to 200 or 300 miles. The whirl as a whole moves at a speed averaging 25 miles an hour, while the velocity of rotation proba- bly sometimes amounts to 500 miles an hour a wind-force far exceeding that of any other type of storm. Within the narrow track of the disturbance buildings are blown to bits, trees are uprooted, and human beings only find safety underground; but close on either side of the track little or no damage is done. The position of the whirl is marked by a funnel-shaped cloud. Waterspouts, which occur on the ocean and other large bodies of water, are similar in character to tornadoes, though gen- erally very much less violent. Thunderstorms occur chiefly in warm climates and during the warm season in temperate climates, but they are by no means unknown in the polar regions. They are char- acterized by rapidly rising air cur- rents, which may be either incidental ONE OF THE FEW ATTTHEimO PHOTO- OEAPHS OF A TORNADO 418 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES to the circulation of a cyclone or due to local overheating of the ground under strong sunshine. Cy- clonic thunderstorms sometimes oc- cur along a line several hundred miles in length, extending radially from the center of a cyclone, and sweeping over the country at a fair- ly uniform speed. This phenomenon is called a line-squall. The electrical features of a thun- derstorm are the result and not the cause of the atmospheric movements. The process by which the clouds be- come so strongly electrified as to give rise to disruptive discharges be- tween cloud and earth, or cloud and cloud, is not yet settled beyond con- troversy, but has been plausibly as- cribed to the breaking up of rain- drops in uprushing air currents, and the consequent separation of positive from negative electricity. Lightning owes its luminosity to the heating of the air along the path of the elec- trical discharge. The sudden expan- sion of the heated air produces the sound-wave we call thunder. A flash of lightning sometimes con- sists of a single virtually instantane- ous discharge; but in other cases several discharges occur in rapid succession along the same path, giv- ing to the lightning a flickering ap- pearance. The duration of a mul- tiple flash of this character may amount to half a second or more. When such a flash is photographed with a camera swinging on a vertical axis, the successive flashes appear side by side on the plate. The rare form of discharge known as pearl or beaded lightning presents the ap- pearance of a string of luminous beads. Still rarer is rocket light- ning, which shoots up into the air at the apparent speed of a skyrocket. Ball lightning, which takes the form of a globe of fire moving slowly through the air near the earth (sometimes indoors) has not yet been satisfactorily explained. Heat lightning is the reflection on the clouds of ordinary lightning too dis- tant to be audible. Lightning is far more destructive in the rural districts than in cities and towns. In this country the aver- age annual property loss from this cause is about $8,000,000, while about 1,500 persons are affected an- nually by lightning stroke, one-third of this number being killed. The efficacy of well-constructed light- ning-rods is not doubted by compe- tent authorities. Statistics show that they reduce the fire hazard from lightning by 80 to 90 per cent in the case of houses, and by as much as 99 per cent in the case of barns. OTHER ELECTRICAL PHENOMENA St. Elmo's fire (also known under a score of other names) is a brush discharge from the points of ter- restrial objects, and is most common on mountains. It is also seen on the masts and spars of vessels. Brush discharges on a vast scale are said to occur along the crest of the Chil- ean Andes, whence they are visible hundreds of miles out at sea. The aurora (called aurora, 'bore- alls in the northern hemisphere and aurora australis in the southern) is now most commonly attributed to the passage of cathode rays through the atmosphere, under the effects of some kind of radiation or emission from the sun. It is especially com- mon and brilliant at times when sun- spots are numerous, and is accom- panied by disturbances in the earth's magnetism. The aurora has been carefully studied in high latitudes by means of simultaneous photo- graphs from two stations, whereby its altitude and distance from the place of observation can be determ- ined. There appear to be two prin- cipal forms : viz., a tranquil, homo- geneous arc, occurring only at great altitudes, and shifting beams and "draperies," occurring mainly at lower levels. There is some evidence that a feeble auroral glow r commonly extends over the whole nocturnal sky, in all latitudes (carthlight). MISCELLANEOUS WINDS A wind blowing from a warm re- THE REALM OF THE AIR 419 gion toward a cyclonic center is called, in southern Europe, a sirocco, and this term is sometimes applied to similar winds elsewhere. Such winds are commonly associated with the heated terms or "hot waves" of our American summers. Winds blowing in winter from regions of high barometric pressure and low temperature bring us cold waves and sometimes blizzards (the latter term implying the presence of driving snow in addition to high wind and low temperature). The northers of Texas come under this head. A foehn (pronounced like "fern" but without the r) is a wind which has been robbed of much of its moisture through precipitation (rain- fall) on the windward slope of mountains, and which is further dried and heated in descending the leeward slope. (The heating is due to the "adiabatic" process, an ex- planation of which will be found in physical and meteorological text- books.) In the western Fnited States such a wind is called a chinook. Its effects are most pro- nounced in winter, when it brings about a very sudden rise in temper- ature and causes snow to vanish as if by magic, whence it has been nicknamed the "snow-eater." The bora of the Adriatic and the mistral of the French Riviera differ from the fochn in the fact that they blow from a cold mountainous in- terior to a warm coastland, and, therefore, though heated in their descent, produce the impression of a cold wind. Types of wind, the world over, are not numerous; but as the local examples of a given type were named before their generic identity was recognized the number of wind names in use amounts to several hundred. The khamsin, harmnttfin, simoon, leveche, leste, levanter, 1>j, e, The constellation bears no resemblance whatever to a charioteer or a goat. In fact, very few constellations bear any resemblance to the objects the ancients supposed them to represent. Half- way between Capella and the southern horizon are the three bright stars forming the belt of Orion. They are indicated in the map , , 4. and they are centered in the square formed by the stars, Betelgeux, Bellatnx, Rigel and th star noted by the letter . The little triangle of stars at A mark the head of Orion, whae the line of fault stars at ir represents a lion skin that Orion is holding forth towards the constellation of Taurus, the Bull. The principal star of this constellation is Alde- baran, a bright red star, marking the left eye of the bull, while his two horns are indicated by the stars ft and The star e is at the nght eye of the bull, and y at his nose. - They form with Aldebaran a triangle that is easily recognizable. A little to the west of this group is the interesting star cluster of the Pleiades. In this cluster, there are six stare easily visible to the naked eye, and many can see seven stars, while observers with ex- ceptionally good eyesight have been able to see as many as fourteen stars. A small spy- glass will reveal large numbers. The stars forming the belt of Qnon point in-the general direction of the first magnitude star Sirius in the constellation of Canis Major, the Great Dog. Sirius is by far the brightest object in the heavens if we exclude the sun, moon and planets. It is one of the nearest suns outside our solar system, yet it is so far off that it takes nearly nine years for its light to reach us. The diameter of Sirius is about twenty times that of the sun and its volume is about seven thousand times greater. In the constellation of Canis Major there are 440 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES At it o'clock: Jan. 7 " 10:30 ' " 14 " 19 *.* 22 At 0:30 o'clock: January 29 o'clock: Feb. 6 30 ' 14 21 NIGHT SKY: JANUARY AND FEBRUARY. two other first magnitude stars, but Sinus so far outshines them that they look no brighter than second magnitude stars. If we follow the line from Aldebaran eastward beyond f we come tD the constellation of Gemini, the Twins, marked by the two bright stars, Castor and Pollux; while south of this con- stellation is the first magnitude star Procyon ia the constellation of Canis Minor, the Little Dog. It will be noticed that most of the constellations so far referred to lie adjacent to the Milky Way. If we follow the Galaxy northward, we find just beyond the con- stellation of Auriga, the constellation of Perseus, whose most interesting star is marked P and l> known as Algol, the Demon Star or the Winking Demon. Every two days. twenty hours and forty-nine minutes, this star begins to fade until, in the course of three or four hours, it loses four-fifths,of its light. Then it begins to become brighter until eventually, after three or four hours more, it reaches its normal brilliancy. The star marks the head of Medusa, which according to the Greek legend Perseus was carrying when he came across Andromeda chained to the rock. Further north along the Milky Way we come to Cassiopeia. In the northeast is the great dipper forming part of Ursa Major, the Great Bear; far in the east is the constellation of Leo, the Lion, in which are the prominent stars Regulua. Denebola. The curved lins of stars ending with Regulus is known as the Sickle. (Tt SUi Maps are all copyrighted ty Munn ft Co., Inc.) THE HEAVENS ABOVE 441 9 o'clock Apr. 7 " 8:30 "- 14 "8 " < aa At 9:30 o'clock: March 30 NIGHT SKY: MARCH AND APRIL. Our map for March and April shows most of the constellations along the Milky Way low in the western sky. The great dipper is well up near the zenith with its pointer scars p and a indicating the position of the Pole Star, Polaris. Oddly enough the ancients repre- sented the great bear as having; a long tail, indicated by the stars e, f, r?. These are the only stars that follow the outline of the beast. The star o is at the bear's mouth, while the stars *, i, and M, *, and v, f represent three of his feet. The star is interesting because it hai a small companion, called by the Arabs "Alcor." A little to the south of the zenith ia the constellation of Leo, referred to in the Below Leo are two >wn as Corvua, the Crow, and Crater, the Cup. They are not very con- previous paragraph. small groups known as Corvus, the Crow, spicuous; neither is Hydra, the Sea Serpent, which stretches its long length across the southern sky. Its brightest star is Alphard which is of the second magnitude. Above the head of the serpent is the inconspicuous constellation of Cancer, the Crab. An interesting feature of this constellation is a faint star cluster, just visible to the naked eye and marked on the map Praesepe, the "Beehive." In the telescope this is seen to be made up of a myriad of small bright 442 At 9:30 o'clock: May 30 THE NIGHT SKY OF MAY AND JUNE. At 9 o'clock: June 7 " 8:30 U 8 " " 22 as- the Wandering Star for the reason that it is slowly drifting with respect to the other stars in the Heavens. Since the time of Christ it has moved in a southwesterly direction, fully one degree, or through a distance equal to twice the diameter of the moon. Its yearly displacement is two seconds of arc. South of Bootes is the con- stellation of Virgo, whose brightest star is Spica. Between Virgo and Ursa Major are two faint constellations known as Coma Berenicis. Berenice's Hair;, and Canes Venatici, thJ Hun ting Dogs. Close to the southern horizon is the constellation of Centaurus. the Centaur, Not very much of this constellation can be seen from our latitude. Its brightest stars lie below the horizon. They include a Centauri, the nearest body outside the solar system. This star is only 255,000 times as far from us as we are from the sun. It takes its light 4J years to come to us. In the southeast, low down near the horizon may be seen the constella- tion of Scorpio, the Scorpion. This con- stellation is made up of a very easily recog- nizable group of stars. It contains the brilliant first magnitude star, Antares, at each side of which are the lesser stars j Muni. * Co,, l w . 478 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES to the President that Mr. Alger saw the light and tendered his resigna- tion. The case of Mr. Ballinger is fresh in the public mind and stu- dents of politics, at least, will not need to be reminded that this gentle- man stayed in office for some time after there was a decided degree of friction between him and the Chief Magistrate of the land. The President has a personal sec- retary, who in turn has many as- sistants. The job of being private secretary to the President of the United States is not, as one might think, that of an amanuensis. Ra- ther has the office the dignity of a personal cabinet officer. The sec- retary to the President of the United States must be a man of great tact, ready memory, and have an able grasp upon political affairs. He is the one man about him whom the President must be in a position to trust absolutely, and the character of the many gentlemen who have held this office has been well shown by their future careers. gl *&& ITIES COMHISSIOft ORGANIZATION OF THE EXECUTIVE BRANCH OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT by Mr. W. I. Swanton, Assistant Engineer U. S. R. CHAPTER V. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE THE following brief notes rep- resent the abridgment of a ninety-two page pamphlet, prepared by the direction of the Secretary of State, which shows the enormous condensation nec- essary in a work of this kind. Vice-President die, the Secretary of State would become President. This really makes him the "Premier," al- though there is no official sanction for the title. The act of July 27, 1789, created an executive department, to be Photo by Harris & Swing THE GEEAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES Separate written authority from the President must accompany his signed document before the Seal can be impressed The Department of State is of par- ticular interest, in view of the fact that, after the Vice-President, the Secretary of State is the ranking of- ficial of the Government. In other words, should both the President and known as the Department of For- eign Affairs. By the act of Sep- tember 15, 1789, the name of the department was changed to that of the Department of State, the princi- pal officer thereof to be called the Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 480 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Secretary of State, and provision was made for the safe-keeping of the acts, records, and seal of the United States. THE GREAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA The Department of State looks ask- ance at any reproduction of the Great Heal and will never sanction its publi- cation or use, but it will be found iu cyclopedias, dictionaries and atlases. So its publication here needs no apology, although a request to make a cut of a passport was denied the writer largely because the Great Seal was shown on it. When properly understood the seal should have the same respect as the flag. A committee was appointed on July 4, 1776, to prepare a Great Seal. posed to represent Congress. This all symbolizes the union and strength of the States preserved through the aid of Congress. The olive branch in the "dex- ter" talon represents peace, while the "sinister" talon holds thirteen arrows. In his beak is a scroll with the motto, "E Pluribus Unum" (one unity composed of many parts). What is above is called the "crest," but it is not really a crest at all, because the stars could not be tangibly represented as in na- ture, and attached to the top of a hel- met, or could reasonably be represented as resting on a shield. The reverse, which has never been cut, consists of an unfinished pyramid. In the zenith is an eye in a triangle surrounded by a glory. On the base of the pyramid are the letters, 'MDCCLXXVI," and underneath the motto, "NOVUS ORDO 8ECLORUM" (a new series of ages), while above is THE GEEAT SEAL OF THE UNITED STATES The members were Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson. Sev- eral excellent designs were submitted, but Congress was not satisfied, so an- other committee was .appointed com- posed of Messrs. Middleton, Boudinot and Rutledge, and finally, on June 20, 1782, the Great Seal, as we now know, was adopted. It must be admitted that the heraldry is a little mixed, as might be supposed of the sturdy Americans who were far removed from the Heralds' College. A heraldic interpretation la dry and uninteresting, but in brief the sense is about as follows : The Ameri- can Eagle bears on his breast an es- cutcheon composed of thirteen bars, sup- porting top, or a "chief," which is sup- the motto, "AXXUIT COEPTI8" (God has favored the Undertaking). The origin of "E PLURIBUS UNUM" is shrouded in mystery and is variously ascribed to Virgil and others. In the early days the Secretary of State was charged with a multitude of duties, for under him all patents were issued; but in 1849, the work of the Patent Office was turned over to the Department of the Interior. Copyrights were also under the direction of the Secretary of State, but in 1850 it was transferred to another department. The census en- i ?! i * a s * o fs* o I f g E si* 3 M^t |R!I OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES RECORDS OF THE FIRST CENSUS OF 1780 MADE BY THE DEPASTMEITT OF STATE AEE STILL Of EXISTENCE umeration was also under the charge of the Secretary of State In the early days. Certain matters relating to pardons were also under his juris- diction, but in 1893 President Cleve- land transferred such work to the Department of Justice. In 1856 a law was passed providing that the Secretary of State should be author- ized to grant and issue passports, and to cause them to be granted and verified in foreign countries by dip- lomatic and consular officers, under such rules as the President might prescribe. What might be called the organic THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 483 law, indicating the duties of the Sec- retary of State, is comprised in Sec- tion 202 of the Revised Statutes, reading as follows: "The Secretary of State shall per- form such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on or intrusted to him by the President relative to correspon- dences, commissions, or instructions to or with public ministers or consuls from the United States, or to negotiations with public ministers from foreign States or princes, or to memorials or other applications from foreign public ministers or other foreigners, or to such other matters; respecting foreign affairs as the President of the United States shrll assign to the department, and be shall conduct the business of the de- partment in such manner as the Presi- dent shall direct : Provided, That the Secretary of State may prescribe duties for the Assistant Secretaries, the soli- citor, not interfering with his duties as an officer of the Department of Justice, and the clerks of bureaus, as well as for all the other employees in the de- partment, and may make changes and transfers therein when, in his judgment, it becomes necessary. (June 20, 1874, vol. 18, p. 90.)" By the act of February 3, 1887, the Secretary of State was charged with the duty of certifying to the two Houses of Congress, and with the publication in some newspaper, of the Presidential election returns. Among the other duties of the Sec- retary of State might be mentioned the communication and correspon- dence of the President with the gov- ernors of the States and the attesta- tion of all presidential proclama- tions, together with the publication of the laws and the Statutes at Large in the United States, em- bracing all acts of Congress, all proclamations issued by the Presi- dent, all treaties between the United States and foreign nations, includ- ing postal conventions, and all con- current resolutions of the two Houses of Congress. The compensation of the Secretary of State, under the act of September 11, 1789, was $3,500; under the act of February 20, 1819, it was raised to $6,000; in 1853, increased to $8,000; and under the act of March 4, 1911, increased to $12,000. In 1909 the question of reorganiza- tion was taken up, and it was found necessary to modernize and other- wise make for efficiency. This was caused by a number of reasons. The foreign trade of the country had been growing at an enormous extent. The people, endeavoring to market their manufactured products abroad, found themselves engaged in com- petition with the highly developed industries of England, France, Ger- many, and other countries; they were brought face to face, not only with the questions of tariffs and customs administration, but also with the need of that measure of diplomatic and consular support en- joyed by their competitors. The war with Spain had marked a new epoch in the history of Ameri- can foreign relations. The American people, after having been regarded for many years as a stay-at-home nation, absorbed in the development of their own resources, had sudden- ly been recognized to have assumed a new position among nations, so that it would be thenceforth impos- sible for this Government to escape the responsibilities of being one of the great forces in international af- fairs, and of taking a more promi- nent part in discussions and delib- erations concerning matters of in- ternational importance. Consequently the Department of State had been called upon to deal with a multitude of questions with which, before the Spanish war, it had not been concerned. The Hague conferences, the adjustment of boun- daries and other questions between the United States and Mexico and Canada, the arbitration of disputed questions with Canada and other nations, the negotiation oJ treaties to meet new conditions arising from the growth of the foreign interests of our people, the efforts of the United States to improve the condi- tions in Central America, the con- stantly increasing number of ques- tions arising from the development of Mexico, and the adjustment of 484 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES difficulties and protection of the in- terests of nearly 40,000 of our citi- zens who had temporarily taken up their residence and invested nearly $1,000,000,000 of American money in that country, the reorganization and improvement of the Diplomatic and Consular Services, and the increas- ing demand of the public upon those organizations all these things and others had thrown upon the Depart- ment of State a mass of correspond- ence and a great number of questions for determination or discussion en- tirely beyond its ability to treat efficiently with the then existing equipment. Every immigrant coming to this country, and every American going to a foreign country, increases, in one way or another, the possibility of work for the Department of State. The inadequacy of the force of the Department became critical, and a tentative reorganization of the De- partment upon modern lines, with a view to a maximum degree of effi- ciency, was then effected. The Secretary of State is peculiar- ly the adviser of the President, es- pecially those points involving broad questions of general policy, and the Secretary of State is also responsible for the conduct of foreign relations, and, in addition to the time required for the study of important diplomatic questions, he receives the represen- tatives of foreign governments for the discussion of diplomatic business and is in touch with matters affect- ing treaties with the Committee on Foreign Relations of the Senate. The Assistant Secretary, who receives a salary of $5,000 a year, does not specialize, but must be prepared to be in close touch with all the larger questions of foreign policy, and re- lieve the Secretary, as far as pos- sible, of a portion of the general work. This is a very responsible position in the Department. The Second Assistant Secretary is assigned to the detailed treatment by the departmental and diplomatic services of current diplomatic and political questions, except such spe- cial matters as may, from time to time, be assigned the Counselor. It is his duty to direct the activities of all the bureaus and divisions in re- spect to the diplomatic questions that are constantly arising all over the world, and to examine and ap- prove the correspondence in respect to such matters prepared for the signature of the Secretary or the Acting Secretary. His salary is $4,- 500 a year. The administrative direction of the Diplomatic Service, as distin- guished from the treatment of sub- jects of international intercourse, is delegated to the Third Assistant Secretary of State. He is responsi- ble for the maintenance, upkeep, and expenditures for that service. He also directs the treatment of all questions in relation to international congresses, conferences, commissions, expositions, and ceremonial matters, and has the supervision of the Di- vision of Western European Affairs. He is charged with the approval or disapproval of expenditures of pub- lic moneys in the department and the foreign service. His salary is $4,500 a year. * The administration of the Con- sular Service and the direction of its activities in connection with the pro- motion and extension of our foreign commerce is delegated to the Direc- tor of the Consular Service, who has immediate control of expenditures for the maintenance of that organi- zation. He is also charged with the study and treatment of such special subjects as may, from time to time, be assigned to him by the Secretary and the Assistant Secre- tary of State. He also receives $4,500 per annum. The Chief Clerk has the direction of the internal business of the de- partment, of the clerical force, the methods of transacting business, in- cluding the receipt and transmission of mail, the purchase of supplies, etc. His compensation is $3,000 a year. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE Generally speaking, the questions of law, international or municipal, which may be involved in the de- termination of matters brought be- fore the department, are referred to the Solicitor's office. The result is, that the scope of the work coming before the office is very broad, in- cluding questions of constitutional law, admiralty law, criminal law, the law of torts, contracts, etc., and, of course, all branches and fields of international law. The more im- portant of the matters which actual- ly come before the office for determ- ination are as follows : Diplomatic claims International extraditions Citizenship, naturalization, expatria- tion, passports, etc. Extraterritoriality and the Jurisdiction of ambassadors, ministers, or consular courts Neutrality, belligerency, contraband, asylum, etc. International arbitrations Distribution of awards There are also seven chiefs of bureaus as follows: Accounts and disbursing clerk Appointments Citizenship Consular Diplomatic Indexes and archives Rolls and library The affairs of the department are also handled by Chiefs of Divisions, for Far Eastern affairs Information Latin-American affairs Mexican affairs Near Eastern affairs Western European affairs There are also translators, as- sistant solicitors, law clerks, private and confidential secretaries, as well as dispatch agents in New York, San Francisco, New Orleans and London. In the Bureau of Rolls and Li- brary are contained some of the most valuable documents concern- ing our history, including the Declar- ation of Independence, Continental Congress records, and historical manuscripts of all kinds. OUR CONSULAR SERVICE T~>OR many years it has been the H custom for Americans- to ridi- cule the American Consular Service, holding up to scorn the comic opera creation who held the center of the stage with his palm- leaf fan and slow drawl as the pro- totype of a consular officer. In the distant past there may have been an occasional officer who lived down to this popular conception, but it is so no longer. The modern Consular Service had its inception in the days of Grover Cleveland, although it was Theodore Roosevelt who put it upon its pres- ent firm, non-political and" non-par- tisan basis, with merit and merit only as the cause for advancement. Since then it has grown in efficiency and size until to-day it is unrivaled. In the past good results from the Consular Service were Infrequent because of the method of appoint- ment of consular officers without re- gard to their particular fitness for the places to which they were sent, or as the former Secretary of State, Mr. Root, expressed it, "The placing of round pegs in square holes." Since 1896, when the first order pro- viding for an examination before appointment went into effect, the Service has been strengthened and improved until those who knew it in the old days can no longer recog- nize it. Men who pass an examination for a Consular position to-day have to know a variety of things and know them well. Examinations are both oral and written, the two counting equally. The oral examination de- termines the -candidate's business ability, alertness, general contem- porary information, and natural fit- OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES IN CONGRESS. THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 487 I m 1 1 1 iH P; i ! I! % * \ %?y\ ffi i 11 i *j !!!!Sf?f! Bfflaa : I* i it; rprri: t: OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ness for the service, including moral, mental and physical qualifications, character, address and general edu- cation and good command of Eng- lish. The written examination in- cludes French, German or Spanish; the natural, industrial and commer- cial resources and the commerce of the United States, especially with reference to possibilities of increas- ing and extending the foreign trade of the United States; political econ- omy and the elements of interna- tional, commercial and maritime law, American history, government and institutions ; political and com- mercial geography ; arithmetic (as used in commercial statistics, tariff calculations, exchange, accounts, etc.) ; the modern history, since 1850, of Europe, Latin-America and the Far East, with particular atten- tion to political, commercial and eco- nomic tendencies. After passing a stiff examination and getting an appointment, young consular officers go to school in Washington, at a "model -consulate" in the Consular Bureau at the State Department. Every newly appointed consul is required to proceed to Washington and spend at least thirty days in this school learning just what he will be expected to do when he reaches his post, and how he may get the best results from whatever conditions confront him. Although this special form of training has been in force but a comparatively short time it is showing its good effect by the improvement in the work and reports of the consular officers, and by the attitude of appreciation and understanding of their duties which the consuls dis- play as a result of the instructions. , A consular officer has no duty of greater importance than that of service to his countrymen. The splendid service rendered by United States consular officers in the field of the great war now raging is well known, and none of the unfortunates who were helped in Berlin, London, Paris and Belgium by our Consuls General, consuls and consular agents will ever forget the service they received. Some of the accompany- ing pictures show how great was the pressure on the consulates of the great neutral nation in the countries at war, where citizens of the enemy clamored for help, relief, passports, and the hundred and one things that only a trained, hard working and disinterested staff could do. Important as such services are, they are, luckily, not often required. Nor is the gathering and transmit- tal of commercial information, im- portant though that duty is, the whole work of a consular officer. Only when reading a list of his duties is it easy to comprehend why those who fill such positions mrst be highly educated and alert men. For instance, a consular officer must maintain and promote all in- terests of American citizens. He is required to protect them in all privileges provided by treaty or con- ceded by usage ; to vis and, when so authorized, to issue passports; when permitted by treaty, law or usage, to take charge of and settle the personal estates of Americans who may die abroad, without legal or other representatives, and remit the proceeds to the Treasury in case they are not called for by a legal representative within one year; to ship, discharge, and, under certain conditions, maintain and send Amer- ican seamen to the United States; to settle disputes between masters and seamen of American vessels ; to investigate charges of mutiny or in- subordination on the high seas and send mutineers to the United States for trial ; to render assistance in the case of wrecked or stranded Amer- ican vessels, and, in the absence of the master or other qualified per- son, take charge of the wrecks and cargoes, if permitted to do so by the laws of the country; to receive the papers of American vessels arriving at foreign ports and deliver them after the discharge of the obliga- tions of the vessels toward the mem- bers of their crews, and upon the production of clearances from the 490 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES proper foreign port officials; to cer- tify to the correctness of the valua- tion of merchandise exported to the United States where the shipment amounts to more than $100; to act as official witnesses to marriages of American citizens abroad; to aid in the enforcement of the immigration laws, and to certify to the correct- ness of the certificates issued by Chinese and other officials to Chi- nese persons coming to the United States ; to protect the health of our seaports by reporting weekly the sanitary and health conditions of the port at which he resides, and by issuing to vessels clearing for the United States bills of health describ- ing the condition of the ports, the vessels, crews, passengers and car- goes ; and to take depositions and perform other acts which public notaries in the United States are authorized or required to perform. In addition to the foregoing du- ties, consular officers in China, Tur- key, Siam, Muskat, Morocco, and a few other so-called non-Christian countries, are invested with judicial powers over American citizens in those countries. These powers are usually denned by treaty, but gen- erally include the trial of civil cases to which Americans are parties, and in some instances extend to the trial of criminal cases. The service now employs about 1,700 people. The principal officers and their compensations are as follows : Consuls General Consul General of Class 1 $12,000 Consul General of Class 2 8,000 Consul General of Class 3 6,000 Consul General of Class 4 5,500 Consul General of Class 5 4,500 Consuls Consul of Class 1 $8,000 Consul of Class 2 6,000 Consul of Class 3 5,000 Consul of Class 4 4,500 Consul of Class 5 4,000 Consul of Class 6. . . . 3,500 Consul of Class 7 3,000 Consul of Class 8 2,500 Consul of Class 9 2,000 At present there are 241 consuls in the nine classes. The consular officer in London, Paris or Berlin lives a busy, active and civilized life. The consular of- ficer iu some small place in a semi- civilized country may have little to do and no amusement. But in either event he is a willing servant of his country and doing for it a work beyond computation in price, al- though it is a fact that fees col- lected for the multitudinous serv- ices he renders almost equal the cost of the service. All fees received by any officer in the consular service for services ren- dered in connection with the duties of his office or as a consular officer, including fees for notarial services, and fees for taking depositions, exe- cuting commissions or letters roga- tory, settling estates, receiving or paying out moneys, caring for or disposing of property, are paid into the Treasury of the United States. The only compensation of officers is their salaries, except in the case of consular agents. Consular agents are paid one half of the fees re- ceived in their offices, up to a maxi- mum sum of one thousand dollars in any one year, the other half being paid into the Treasury. The fees collected do not nearly equal the .expenditures of the serv- ice. Fees for a deposition may run to $100, depending on its length. The illustrations on page 481 show two types of consulates in far coun- tries the handsome residence at Cairo, Egypt, contrasted with the mud-roof dwelling in far off Tur- key. But the type of dwelling makes little difference to its occupant he is there to serve, to open the mar- kets of his country to American manufacturers, and to serve Amer- icans in need or in distress. In- deed, he does more than serve his own countrymen not infrequently he serves the merchants of the coun- try to which he is sent. The Consular Reports public documents published from the let- ters sent in to the Consular Bureau of the State Department contain vital information regarding trade THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 491 conditions in all countries. How valuable these are was well brought out recently in a published inter- view with the president of the Shef- field (England) Chamber of Com- merce. It seems that certain Shef- field manufacturers had sudden need to know the sources and distribution throughout the world of .wolfram ore, from which tungsten, essential in the manufacture of high-resist- ance steel for guns and armor, is made. The president of the Cham- ber of Commerce was unable to 'ocate the information he desired from British sources. In his inter- view he said: "It was suggested that I would find It in the reports of American consuls, did find it there. I discovered where wolfram was produced ; the quality, state of the trade and amount avail- able. That information assisted ma- terially in bringing about the manufac- ture of tungsten powder in this country, which, although started during the war, has been a magnificent success and will be a great success after the war." The Director of the Consular Service, Mr. Wilbur J. Carr, who has risen from the ranks in his twenty years of service, called at- tention recently to a unique feature of America's system, which is one reason why it is so efficient This is the system of inspection. Speak- ing of it, Mr. Carr said : "In this field we have been pioneers. The law of 1906 created five so-called consul generals at large. Each travels over a grand division of the world, in- specting each consular office once every two years. The Department of State is enabled by this means not only to detect and rectify irregularities in the work of individual consuls, but to en- force uniformity of method and organ- ization. If a consular officer in a far- off corner of the globe, by inspiration or careful thought evolves an improved method of performing some routine duty or discovers a new and effective way by which the foreign trade of the United States may be promoted, this is discov- ered by the inspector on his next visit and if found good in every way, com- municated to the Department of State, and by it to the other consuls at large, with the result that all which is best in individual offices and in the practices of individual officers becomes eventually the common property of the service. Other governments recognize the prac- tical value of this inspection system. Great Britain has undertaken something analogous in a tentative way and the French foreign office has a like project under consideration." OFFICIAL DUTIES SECRETARY OF STATE - The Secretary of State is charged, under the direction of the President, with the duties appertaining to corre- spondence with the public ministers and the consuls of the United States, and with the representatives of foreign pow- ers accredited to the United States ; and to negotiations of whatever character relating to the foreign affairs of the United States. He is also the medium of correspondence between the President and the chief executives of the several States of the United States ; he has the custody of the Great Seal of the United States, and countersigns and affixes such seal to all Executive proclamations, to various commissions, and to warrants for the extradition of fugitives from Justice. He is regarded as the first in rank among the members of the Cabinet. He is also the custodian of the treaties made with foreign states, and of the laws of the United States. He grants and issues passports, and exequaturs to foreign consuls in the United States are issued through his office. He publishes the laws and resolutions of Congress, amendments to the Constitution, and proclamations declaring the admission of new States into the Union. COUNSELOR The Counselor becomes the Acting Secretary of State in the absence of the Secretary. He is charged with the su- pervision of such matters and the prep- aration of such correspondence as may he assigned to him by the Secretary. ASSISTANT SECRETARIES OF STATE Under the organization of the depart- ment the Assistant Secretary, Second Assistant Secretary and Third Assistant Secretary are charged with the super- vision of all correspondence with the diplomatic and consular officers, and are intrusted with the preparation of the correspondence upon any questions aris- ing in the course of the public business that may be assigned to them by the Secretary. DIRECTOR OF THE CONSULAR SERVICE The Director of the Consular Service is charged with the general supervision of the Consular Service and such other 492 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES duties as may be assigned to him from time to time by the Secretary. CHIEF CLERK The Chief Clerk has general super- vision of the clerks and employees and of departmental matters ; charge of the property of the department. FOREIGN TRADE ADVISER General supervision of foreign trade matters ; diplomatic and consular corre- spondence and miscellaneous correspond- ence relating thereto. DIPLOMATIC BUREAU Diplomatic correspondence and miscel- laneous correspondence relating thereto. DIVISION OF LATIN-AMERICAN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Central America, Panama, South Amer- ica and the West Indies. DIVISION OF MEXICAN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Mexico. DIVISION OF FAR EASTERN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Japan, China, and leased territories, Siberia. Ilong-kong, French Indo-China, Siam, Straits Settlements, Borneo, East Indies, India, and in general the Far East. DIVISION OF NEAR EASTERN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Rou- mania, Servia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Abyssinia, Persia, Egypt, and colonies belonging to coun- tries of this series. DIVISION OF WESTERN EUROPEAN AFFAIRS Diplomatic and consular correspond- ence, on matters other than those of an administrative character, in relation to Great Britain (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and British colonies not else- where enumerated), Portugal, Spain, France, Morocco, Belgium, the Kongo, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, the Neth- erlands, Luxemburg, Denmark and Liberia. CONSULAR BUREAU Consular correspondence and miscel- laneous correspondence relating thereto, and administrative matters relating to the consular service. BUREAU OF APPOINTMENTS Custody of the Great Seal and appli- cations for office, and the preparation of commissions, exequaturs, warrants of extradition, Departmental Register, dip- lomatic and consular lists and consular bonds ; correspondence and other matters regarding entrance examinations for the foreign service. BUREAU OF CITIZENSHIP Examination of applications for pass- ports, issuance of passports and authen- tications ; receiving and filing duplicates of evidence, registration, etc., under act of March 2, 1907, in reference to ex- patriation of citizens and their protec- tion abroad ; keeping of necessary rec- ords thereunder ; conduct of correspond- ence in relation to the foregoing. BUREAU OF INDEXES AND ARCHIVES Recording and indexing the general correspondence of the department; charge of the archives. BUREAU OF ACCOUNTS Custody and disbursement of appro- priations and indemnity funds, and cor- respondence relating thereto. BUREAU OF ROLLS AND LIBRARY Custody of the rolls, treaties, etc. ; promulgation of the laws, treaties, Ex- ecutive orders and proclamations ; care and superintendence of the library and public documents ; care of papers relat- ing to international commissions. DIVISION OF INFORMATION The preparation and distribution to the foreign service of diplomatic, com- mercial and other correspondence and documents important to their informa- tion upon foreign relations ; editing "Foreign Relations" of the United States. OFFICE OF THE LAW CLERK Editing and indexing the laws, resolu- tions, public treaties and proclamations for publication in the Statutes at Large. SUPERINTENDENT OF BUILDING The superintendent of the State, War and Navy Department Building is the executive officer of the commission created by Congress, consisting of the Secretaries of State, War and Navy, for the government of this building. He has charge of, care, preservation, repairing, warming, ventilating, lighting and clean- ing of the building, grounds and ap- proaches, and disburses the special ap- propriations for this purpose; he has charge of all the employees of the build- ing proper, and appoints them by direc- tion of the Secretaries. CHAPTEE VI. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY SECRETARY OF THE TREASURY TS Secre- tary of the Treasury is charged by law with the manage- ment of the na- tional finances. He prepares plans for the improve- ment of the reven- ue and for the support of the public credit ; superintends the collection of the revenue, and directs the forms of keeping and rendering public ac- counts and of making returns ; grants warrants for all moneys drawn from the Treasury in pur- suance of appropriations made by law, and for the payment of moneys into the Treasury; and annually submits to Congress estimates of the probable revenues and disburse- ments of the Government. He con- trols the construction and main- TEZ TREASURY BUILDING, "WASHINGTON, D. 0. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 494 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tenance of public buildings, the coinage and printing of money, the administration of the Coast Guard and the Public Health branches of the public service. He is ex-officio chairman of the Federal Reserve Board created by act approved De- cember 23, 1913, known as the "Federal Reserve Act." There are three Assistant Secre- taries in charge of the bureaus and divisions of the Treasury Depart- ment. One has charge of Public Health Service, Supervising Archi- tect's Office, the selection of sites for public buildings, Coast Guard, Ap- pointment Division, General Supply Committee, Section of Surety Bonds and all unassigned business of the Department. To the Assistant Secretary in charge of fiscal bureaus is assigned general supervision of all matters relating to the Office of the Comp- troller of the Currency, the Office of the Treasurer of the United States, the Bureau of Internal Reve- nue, the Bureau of the Mint, the Office of the Comptroller of the Treasury, the Auditors of the sev- eral departments, the Register of the Treasury, the Bureau of En- graving and Printing, the Division of Bookkeeping and Warrants, the Division of Loans and Currency, the Division of Mail and Files, the Divi- sion of Printing and Stationery, the Division of Public Moneys, the Se- cret-Service Division, the Federal Farm Loan Board, and the Office of the Disbursing Clerk. To the Assistant Secretary in charge of customs is assigned the general supervision of the Division of Customs, of all matters pertain- ing to the Customs Service, and the Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, as referred to later on. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk is the chief ex- ecutive officer of the Secretary, and, under the direction of the Secretary and Assistant Secretaries, is charged with the enforcement of depart- mental regulations general in their nature; is by law superintendent of the Treasury Building and other re- lated buildings and rolling stock belonging to the department ; the direction of engineers, watchmen, firemen, etc., connected with the maintenance and protection of the Treasury buildings, etc. ; the ex- penditure of appropriations for con- tingent expenses ; the administrative control of appropriations made for Government exhibits at various ex- positions ; the supervision and gen- eral administration of the General Supply Committee ; handles offers in compromise cases ; the custody of the records, files and library of the Secretary's office ; the custody of all sites for proposed buildings in Washington; the checking of all mail relating to the personnel of the Treasury Department; the handling of requests for certified copies of official papers, and the charge of all business of the Secretary's office which is not otherwise assigned. COMPTROLLER OF THE CURRENCY The Comptroller of the Currency is the chief officer of that bureau of the Treasury Department which is charged with the execution of all laws passed by Congress relating to the issue and regulation of the na- tional currency, generally known as national bank notes, secured by United States bonds ; and under the supervision of the Federal Reserve Board Is also in charge of the issue of circulating notes to Federal Re- serve banks. In addition to these powers the Comptroller exercises general super- vision over all national banks throughout the United States, in- cluding Alaska and Hawaii, in the matter of their organization and regulation. He is vested with the power to appoint receivers and to enforce penalties prescribed for DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY SEPAKATING CHAEEED BANK BILLS ^ violations of the national bank act. Under the Federal Reserve act he executed and issued the certificates or charters for tht Federal Reserve banks. The Comptroller of the Cur- rency is ex officio a member of the Federal Reserve Board. Reports of condition of all na- tional banks are made to the Comp- troller not less frequently than five times a year, by the banks, and also periodically by the national bank examiners appointed by him. His powers are exercised under the general supervision of the Sec- retary of the Treasury, but under the law his annual report is made direct to Congress ; all other bureaus of the Treasury Department report to Congress through the Secretary of the Treasury, and these reports are printed. TREASURER OF THE UNITED STATES The Treasurer of the United States receives and keeps the moneys of the United States and disburses the same upon war- rants drawn by the Secretary of the Treasury, countersigned by the Comptroller of the Treasury, and not otherwise. He takes receipts for all moneys paid by him and gives re- ceipts for all moneys received, and all receipts for moneys received by him shall be endorsed upon warrants signed by the Secretary of the Treas- ury, without which warrant so Signed, no acknowledgment for money received into the public Treasury shall be valid. He renders his accounts to the Comptroller of the Treasury quarterly, or oftener if required, and transmits copies there- of, when settled, to the Secretary of the Treasury. The moneys in his hands are at all times subject to the inspection of the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comptroller of the Treasury. The Treasurer makes a report to the Secretary of the Treas- ury every 30th of June, showing the condition of all of the several accounts. 496 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES COMMISSIONER OP INTERNAL REVENUE The Commissioner of Internal Revenue has general superintend- ence of the collection of all in- ternal-revenue taxes, the enforce- ment of internal-revenue laws, ap- pointment of internal-revenue em- ployees, compensation and duties of gaugers, storekeepers and other subordinate officers ; the preparation and distribution of stamps, instruc- tions, regulations, forms, blanks, hydrometers, stationery, etc. TESTING ALCOHOLIC LIUUORS DIRECTOR OF THE MINT 1 Five coinage mints have been established in different sections of the country, of which two, located at New Orleans, La., and Carson City, Nev., now operate only as Assay Offices. The Mints now engaged in coinage operations are located at Philadelphia, San Fran- cisco and Denver, that at Phila- delphia being the largest. In addi- tion to the Assay Offices located at New Orleans, La., and Carson City, Nev., the Government maintains six others, located at New York City, Seattle, Wash.; Deadwood, S. D. ; Boise, Idaho ; Salt Lake City, Utah, and Helena, Montana. The headquarters of the Mint Ser- vice are in the Treasury Department, Washington, D. C., known as the Bureau of the Mint. This consists of the office of the Director of the *The subject of the assay of coins, bullion, etc., and the minting of money terms an Interesting chapter in the first part of this book. (Pages 309 to 320.) DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURE Mint, an assay laboratory for the purpose of testing the weight and fineness of the coins made at the several mints, and a clerical force which, under the Director of the Mint, reviews the accounts of the various institutions, prepares for publication, quarterly, an estimate of the value of the standard coins of foreign countries for custom house and other public purposes, and works up the statistical data for the annual report of the Director on the operations of the Mint Service for the fiscal year, including also statistics of the pro- duction of precious metals in the United States and the world for the calendar year. ceipts of the precious metals to the Mints to be coined. Much of the metal is not suitable for immediate coinage, and refineries are main- tained at the Mints at San Frau- cisco and Denver and the Assay Oflace at New York City to purify the metal. Such of it as may be needed for coinage is then alloyed with copper, the proportions being nine parts of gold or silver to one part of copper, making what is known as 900 fine or "standard" metal, which has been found most suitable for coins, the pure gold or silver being comparatively soft, and subject to appreciable abrasion or wear. Minor coins are manufactur- ed from nickel and bronze, the MONEY OF ALL KINDS IS TRANSPORTED IN HEAVILY GUARDED TRUCKS The Mints and Assay Offices have been established in localities suit- able for the convenient acquisition of gold and silver by the Government for the purpose of coinage. Gold and silver bullion is received and paid for at its exact valuation (the price of gold remaining stationary, while that of silver fluctuates) and the Assay Offices forward their re- stocks of the necessary metals being bought in the open market as re- quired. As the stock of gold in the coun- try has accumulated far beyond the needs for that metal as a circulating medium, it has been found most con- venient and economical, after filling the yearly demands for new gold coin, to melt the balance of this 498 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES precious metal into bars of uniform and convenient size, to be stored in the vaults of the mints and held as a reserve against which gold cer- tificates may be issued. New coin usually gets into cir- culation through the Disbursing Of- fice of the Treasury Department and banking institutions in exchange for the larger denominations of money. The mints manufacture not only all of the domestic coin, but also the coinage for the Philippine Isl- ands and, as their business permits, such of the coinage of adjacent coun- tries as it is found expedient and practicable to handle. At the Philadelphia Mint there is maintained a complete engraving and medal-making establishment, where are manufactured all dies used in the domestic and Philip- pine coinage, and also dies and med- als of a national character. COMPTROLLER OF THE TREASURY The Comptroller of the Treasury, under the direction of the Secre- tary of the Treasury, prescribes the forms of keeping and rendering all public accounts except those relat- ing to postal revenues and the ex- penditures therefrom. He is charged with the duty of revising accounts upon appeal from settlements made by the auditors. Upon the applica- tion of disbursing officers, the head of any executive department, or other independent establishment not under any of the executive depart- ments, the Comptroller is required to render his advance decision upon any question involving a payment to be made by them or under them, which decision, when rendered, gov- erns the auditor and the Comptrol- ler in the settlement of the account involving the payment inquired about. He is required to approve, disapprove, or modify all decisions by auditors making an original con- struction or modifying an existing construction of statutes, and certify his action to the auditor whose du- ties are affected thereby. Under his direction the several auditors super- intend the recovery of all debts finally certified by them, respect- ively, to be due the United States, except those arising under the Post Office Department. He superin- tends the preservation by the auditors of all accounts which have been finally adjusted by them, to- gether with the vouchers and certifi- cates relating to the same. He is required, on his own motion, when in the interests of the Government, to revise any account settled by any auditor. In any case where, in his opinion, the interests of the Govern- ment require, he may direct any of POETICO OF THE TREASURY the auditors forthwith to audit and settle any particular account pend- ing before the said auditor for set- tlement. It is his duty to counter- sign all warrants authorized by law to be signed by the Secretary of the Treasury. DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY 499 REGISTER OF THE TREASURY The Register of the Treasury signs all bonds of the United States, the bonds of the District of Columbia, the Philippine Islands, the city of Manila, the city of Cebu, and the Porto Rican gold loans, and keeps records showing the daily outstand- ing balances thereof. He certifies to the Treasurer of the United States, the Auditor for the Treas- ury, and the Loans and Currency Division, Secretary's Office, the in- terest due on United States at interest periods ; also gives an administrative examination to paid interest checks received from the Treasurer, and transmits the same to the Auditor for the Treasury. He examines and records all paid inter- est coupons and all other United States securities redeemed, and keeps records of the outstanding principal and interest of the bonded indebted- ness of the Government. $500,000 IN NOTES ON A TRUCK BUREAU OP ENGRAVING AND PRINTING* The Bureau of Engraving and Printing designs, engraves, prints and finishes all of the securities and other similar work of the Govern- ment, embracing United States notes, bonds, and certificates, Na- tional Bank notes, Federal Reserve notes, internal-revenue, postage and customs stamps, Treasury drafts and checks, disbursing officers' checks, licenses, commissions, patent and pension certificates, and por- traits authorized by law of deceased Members of Congress and other pub- lic officers; also all postage stamps and all securities issued by the Bu- reau of Insular Affairs to our insular possessions. *A special chapter by Director Ralph will be found In the flrsf part of this book and is filled with interesting facts and pictures. (See pages 299 to 307.) 500 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES THE UNITED STATES PUBLIC HEALTH SEKVICE By RUPERT BLUE, Surgeon-General T! a scientifically trained officer, who reports directly to the chief and assistant chief of the bureau. The work of the bureau is conducted on the project plan, the investigations under each of the offices being arranged by group pro- jects consisting of closely related lines of work, which group of projects are still further divided into projects. THE WORK OF THE FOREST SERVICE* The Forest Service is charged with the administration and pro- tection of the 152 National forests. These forests comprise over 155 million acres of laud, have an esti- mated stand of 600 billion board feet of timber, supply range for 14 million head of livestock, and contain water power valued at about ?200,000,000. In addition to caring for the National forests, the Forest Service conducts investigations of improved methods of utilizing and marketing all classes of forest prod- ucts ; carries on studies to determine possible uses for wood waste, and co-operates with private individuals and corporations in solving prob- lems relative to the use of wood in general. Under the provisions of the Weeks Law, the Forest Service examines lands in the Southern Ap- palachian and White Mountain re- gions which are offered for sale to the Government and protects and ad- ministers such lands after their pur- chase, in addition to co-operating with various States in forest fire protection. Finally, information in regard to the relation of forests to the general welfare is collected and disseminated. This subject Is so Important that a special illustrated chapter will be found In the first part of this book. See page 75. 556 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES BUREAU OF CHEMISTRY The Bureau of Chemistry is con- istry of public interest, and other cerned with analytical work and in- vestigation under the food and drugs act, questions of agricultural chem- chemical investigations referred to it by the Department of Agricul- ture. BUREAU OF SOILS The Bureau of Soils investigates the relation of soils to climate and organic life ; studies the texture and composition of soils in field and laboratory ; maps the soils ; studies the cause and means of preventing the rise of alkali in soils of irri- gated areas, and the relation of soils to seepage and drainage con- ditions. SOIL FERTILIZER INVESTIGATIONS PLANT HOUSE BUREAU OF The Bureau of Entomology studies insects ; experiments with the introduction into the United States of beneficial insects; makes tests with insecticides and insecti- cide machinery ; identifies insects sent in by Inquirers. It is prac- tically solely a research organization and studies the insects which are ENTOMOLOGY injurious to various crops and do- mestic animals,, and to man himself, in the hope of learning the cheapest and most effective remedies and pre- ventives. It expends an annual appropriation of about $850,000, and employs some six hundred men, more than two hundred of whom are scientifically trained. BUREAU OF BIOLOGICAL SURVEY The work of the Bureau of Bio- logical Survey is distributed among four divisions, dealing with the fol- lowing matters: (1) Study of birds and mammals in their rela- tion to agriculture, their food hab- its, etc., and recommendation ol measures for the preservation of ben- eficial species and the destruction of harmful species, also experiments Jn fur farming; (2) making biological surveys, study of geographic distri- bution of animals and plants, and mapping natural life zones; (3) car- rying into effect the Federal laws protecting game and regulating the importation of foreign birds and animals; and (4) general super- vision of the Federal migratory bird law, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 557 SPEAYING TREES IS A GREAT HELP TO THE FARMER DIVISION OF ACCOUNTS AND DISBURSEMENTS This division has charge of the disbursement of public funds ap- propriated for the Department of Agriculture. DIVISION OP PUBLICATIONS The Division of Publications con- ducts all business of the depart- ment transacted with the Govern- ment Printing Office; has general supervision of the printing, index- ing, binding, and distribution of publications, and the maintenance of mailing lists. BUREAU OF CROP ESTIMATES The Bureau of Crop Estimates issues the monthly crop reports based on data collected by sal- aried field agents and a corps of approximately 150,000 voluntary crop reporters, every State, coun- ty and agricultural township being represented. The monthly crop re- ports contain annual estimates of numbers of different classes of live stock on farms and losses due to disease and exposure, annual esti- mates of acreage planted and acre- age harvested of the principal crops, monthly reports of the condition of about sixty different crops during the growing season, monthly fore- casts of yields per acre and total production, monthly reports of farm prices of all crops and classes of live stock, and in December esti- mates of total production of all the principal crops. The monthly re- ports of condition and forecasts of production are issued to the press associations in Washington and tele- graphed to the Weather Bureau Sta- tion Directors in all the States for prompt dissemination to the local press, and at the close of the year 658 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES annual estimates of crop and live stock production are published in the Yearbook of the Department. timates for all adhering countries, which are issued to the press through the Office of Information. The bureau also furnishes estimates The bureau compiles statistics and HOW A WELL PACKED AND A POORLY PACKED BASKET OF LETTUCE ARRIVED AT MARKET of the United States crops to the furnishes information relating to the International Institute of Agricul- agriculture of the United States and ture at Rome, Italy, and in return foreign countries in response to receives from the Institute crop es- special inquiries. LIBRARY The department library contains 137,000 books and pamphlets, includ- ing an extensive collection on agri- culture, a large and representative collection on the sciences related to standard reference books. Periodi- cals currently received number 2,337. A dictionary catalogue is kept on cards, which number about 325,000. The librarian has charge of the agriculture, and a good collection of foreign mailing lists. STATES RELATIONS SERVICE The States Relations Service of the United States Department of Agriculture administers the Hatch and Adams acts providing Feder- al aid for the State agricultural experiment stations and the Smith- Lever act providing for co-opera- tive extension work in agriculture and home economics. It also has charge of the farmers' co-opera- tive demonstration work conducted by the Department of Agriculture, makes investigations relating to agricultural schools, farmers' in- stitutes, and home economics, and directs the work of the agricultural experiment stations in Alaska, Ha- waii, Porto Rico and Guam. The service issues Experiment Station Record, a periodical technical re- view of the world's scientific litera- ture pertaining to agriculture be- sides various publications relating to its special lines of work. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF PUBLIC ROADS AND RURAL ENGINEERING* The Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering has charge of all work within the Department of Agriculture which is of an ag- ricultural nature involving engi- neering or mechanical principles, to- gether with the supervision of all road work under the Federal Aid Road Act. For carrying out this work the office is divided into two main branches, known respectively as (I) Management and Economics, (2) Engineering, and these are sub- divided into lines of work as fol- lows : Management ; Engineering Economics; Road Materials Tests and Research ; Highway Construc- tion and Maintenance; Irrigation; Drainage; Rural Engineering. For convenience in Federal Aid road work ten field districts have been established, and in addition to the general organization there are two general inspectors who report to the director of the office. With regard to character the work may, however, be more conveniently grouped into three general classes, as follows: (1) Education or extension ; (2) in- vestigations or research; and (3) the supervision of the road work under the Federal Aid Road Act, the administration of which was placed by Congress under the Sec- retary of Agriculture. The educational or extension work includes reaching the people by means of lectures, addresses, the publication of bulletins, the exhibi- tion of models, etc., and thus teach- ing the economic value of science and experience in the improvement and care of roads, the necessity and the methods for obtaining adequate land drainage, the economic impor- tance of farm irrigation and practi- cal methods, the meaning and pos- sibilities of modern farm conveni- ences, not for the farm only, but also for the farm home, and the intelli- gent utilization of farm equipment and machinery. Special advice and assistance is also frequently given where the problems to be solved involve a knowledge of community and co-op- erative administration and of meth- ods for planning and financing such works as a better system of roads or the irrigation or drainage of a district. Here the questions are specific rather than general and the lecturer gives way to the engineer. Not infrequently the assistance takes the form of an actual demonstration of construction under Government supervision. In fact, the office then becomes practically an object lesson school for road construction, the proper methods of farm irrigation or land drainage. The research and experimental work of the office has become ex- ceedingly important and varied by reason of the many problems, not only in road construction and main- tenance to which modern traffic con- ditions have given rise, but also in connection with the drainage and ir- rigation of agricultural lands and in the development of the various struc- tures, appliances and equipment necessary for adequately conducting farm operations. Proper co-ordina- tion between the investigations con- ducted in the laboratories and the results obtained from field experi- ments and actual practice is con- stantly sought, and the laboratories have been specially equipped so as to further this object. Under the Federal Aid Road Act of July 11, 1916, the Secretary of Agriculture is authorized to co-op- erate with the States through their respective State highway depart- ments in the construction and im- provement of rural post roads. The act provides for a comprehensive program extending over a period of five years, with an appropriation of $5,000,000 for the fiscal year 1917, and increasing annually by $5,- 000,000 to $25,000,000 for the fiscal *The subject of "Good Roads" forms a chapter. See page 103. 560 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES year 1921. The appropriations are apportioned to the several States on the basis of population, area, and mileage of rural free delivery and star routes, each factor having a weight of one-third. The amount ap- portioned by the Federal Govern- ment must be at least duplicated by the State. The same act also pro- vides for an annual appropriation of $1,000,000 for a period of ten years for the construction of roads and trails within or partly within the national forest reserves. OFFICE OF MARKETS AND RURAL ORGANIZATION This office secures and distrib- utes information regarding the mar- keting and distributing of farm and non-manufactured food prod- ucts. It conducts a demonstration telegraphic market news service re- garding fruits and vegetables, and selves in matters of rural market- ing, credit, insurance, and communi- cation. It co-operates with various States in conducting marketing in- vestigations. Under authority given to the Secretary of Agriculture by law it is responsible to him for the COMBINATION PACKAGE FOR POSTAL DELIVERY OF EGGS. BUTTER AND CELERY OR CHICKENS a service by mail concerning the commercial surpluses of some other less perishable crops. It is begin- ning a similar service upon live stock and meats. Co-operation among farmers is studied, with a view to helping them to help them- proper enforcement of the United States Cotton Futures Act and the Warehouse Act, and in co-operation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of the enforcement of the Grain Standards Act This office is being appreciated. CHAPTEK XIII. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE SECRETARY OP COMMERCE THE Secretary of Commerce is charged with the work of pro- moting the commerce of the United States and its mining, man- ufacturing, shipping, fishery, and transportation interests. His duties also comprise the administration of the Lighthouse Service and the aid and protection to shipping thereby ; the taking of the census and the col- control of the Alaskan fur-seal, salmon, and other fisheries ; the ju- risdiction over merchant vessels, their registry, licensing, measure- ment, entry, clearance, transfers, movement of their cargoes and pas- sengers, and laws relating thereto, and to seamen of the United States; the regulation of the enforcement and execution of the act of Congress THE MIGHTY "IMPERATOE" STEAMING PAST THE GREATEST CREATIONS ON LAND lection and publication of statistical information connected therewith ; the making of coast and geodetic sur- veys ; the collecting of statistics re- lating to foreign and domestic com- merce ; the inspection of steamboats, and the enforcement of laws relating thereto for the protection of life and property ; the supervision of the fish- eries as administered by the Federal Government; the supervision and relating to the equipment of ocean steamers with apparatus and opera- tors for wireless communication ; the custody, construction, maintenance, and application of standards of weights and measurements; the gathering and supplying of informa- tion regarding industries and mar- kets for the fostering of manufac- turing; and the formulation (in con- junction with the Secretaries of Ag- Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 562 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES riculture and the Treasury) of regu- lations for the enforcement of the food and drugs act of 1906 and the insecticide act of 1910. He has power to call upon other depart- ments for statistical data obtained by them. For the proper accomplishment of any or all of the aforesaid work it is by law provided that all duties performed, and all the powers and authority possessed or exercised, at the date of the creation of said department, by the head of any executive depart- ment in and over any bureau, office, officer, board, branch, or division of the public service transferred to said department, or any business arising therefrom or pertaining thereto, or in relation to the duties and autho- rity conferred by law upon such bureau, office, officer, board, branch, or division of the public service, whether of appellate or advisory character or otherwise, are vested in and exercised by the Secretary of Commerce. The act creating the Department of Labor, approved March 4, 1913, changed the name of the Department of Commerce and Labor to the De- partment of Commerce. Under the terms of this act the Bureau of La- bor, Bureau of Immigration, Divi- sion of Naturalization, and Chil- dren's Bureau were detached from the Department of Commerce and Labor and organized as the new De- partment of Labor. ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF COMMERCE The Assistant Secretary performs such duties as shall be prescribed from time to time by the Secretary or may be required by law. In the absence of the Secretary he acts as head of the department. CHIEF CLERK The chief c^erk is charged with the general supervision of the clerks and employees of the department ; the en- forcement of the general- regulations of the department ; the superintendency of all buildings occupied by the department in the District of Columbia ; the gen- eral supervision of all expenditures from the appropriations for contingent ex- penses and rents ; the receipt, distribu- tion, and transmission of the mail ; the supervision of the library and the stock and shipping section of the department ; and the discharge of all business of the office of the Secretary not otherwise assigned. DISBURSING CLERK The disbursing clerk is charged by the Secretary of Commerce with the duty of preparing all requisitions for the ad- vance of public funds from appropria- tions for the Department of Commerce to disbursing clerks and special dis- bursing agents charged with the dis- bursement of public funds ; the keeping of appropriation ledgers relating to the advance and expenditure of all items of appropriations. He has charge of the issuing, recording, and accounting for Government requests for transportation issued to officers of the department for official travel ; the audit and payment of all vouchers and accounts submitted from the various offices, bureaus, and services of the department (except the Coast and Geodetic Survey and those services having special disbursing agents) ; and the general accounting of the department. APPOINTMENT DIVISION The Chief of the Appointment Division Is charged by the Secretary of Commerce with the supervision of matters relating to appointments, transfers, promotions, reductions, removals, and all other changes in the personnel, including ap- plications for positions and recommen- dations concerning the same, and the correspondence connected therewith ; the preparation and submission to the Sec- retary of all material for the Official Register, and the custody of oaths of office, records pertaining to official bonds, service records of officers and employees, correspondence and reports relating to personnel, reports of bureau officers respecting efficiency of employees, and records relating to leaves of absence. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 563 DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS fhe Chief of the Division of Publi- cations is charged' by the Secretary of Commerce with the conduct of all busi- ness the department transacts with the Government Printing Office ; the general supervision of printing, including the editing and preparation of copy, Illus- trating and binding, the distribution of publications, and the maintenance of mailing lists. The advertising done by the department is in his charge. He also keeps a record of all expenditures for publishing work of the department and conducts the correspondence it entails. DIVISION OF SUPPLIES Under the direction of the chief clerk the Chief of the Division of Supplies has personal supervision of all the work in- cident to the purchase and distribution of supplies for the department proper and for the services of the department outside of Washington, and of the keep- ing of detailed accounts of all expendi- tures from the appropriation for con- tingent expenses of the department. He receives, verifies, and preserves the semi- annual returns of property from the offices and bureaus of the department which are supplied from the contingent appropriation, and examines and reports on the semi-annual property returns of all other bureaus and services of the department. BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE* The Bureau of Foreign and Do- mestic Commerce is concerned pri- marily with the collection of infor- mation concerning foreign markets and the dissemination of this infor- mation for the use and benefit of American commercial interests. For the collection of information the bureau depends chiefly upon the American consular service, upon the ten commercial attaches appointed by the bureau, and upon a corps of fifteen to twenty-five traveling spe- cial agents. The consuls submit reports to the State Department on a variety of commercial subjects, and once a year prepare a review of the com- mercial and industrial activities of the district to which they are as- signed. These reports are turned over to the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce for publication. There are commercial attache's at London, Paris, Berlin, Petrograd, Peking, Melbourne, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires, Lima, and Santiago (Chile). They are attached to the embassies or legations, but confine their attention to commercial affairs. They have been termed "business diplomats" and "ambassadors of in- dustry." This service has recently completed a world-wide survey of the markets for American hardware, the first that has ever been made. The special agents are specialists. If it is desired to learn the possibil- ities of selling boots and shoes in South America, for instance, a man is selected by examination who knows the business thoroughly, who can speak Spanish fluently, and who can report well what he learns. This man is then sent to South American countries to spend a year or two studying the subject. Since the war started the activities of the special agents have been largely centered in South America and the Far East. The information gathered by the consuls, attaches and agents is dis- tributed from the central office at Washington. The shorter current reports are published in the daily "Commerce Reports," which has a paid circulation of nearly 10,000. The longer and more specialized re- ports are published in the form of monographs, ranging in length from 16 to 500 pages. There are books of this kind on the cotton-goods mar- kets of nearly every country in the world. The reports of the attaches on the hardware markets are being published in this form. Specific op- portunities to secure foreign busi- ness are published as "Trade Oppor- *See page 231 for "The Recent Development of American Commerce," by Secre- tary Redfleld, and "Commercial and Industrial Preparedness," by Dr. E. E. Pratt, Chief of the Bureau, page 245. 564 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES tunities," on the back page of "Com- merce Reports," with names and ad- dresses omitted. The information withheld can be obtained by any American firm of known standing upon application to the bureau. Hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of business is brought to the United States in this manner. Upon occasion special bulletins are sent to manufacturers and exporters. To facilitate the distribution of trade information the bureau has re- cently established district offices at New York, Boston, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans, San Fran- cisco, and Seattle. What are termed "co-operative offices" have been es- tablished at Philadelphia, Chatta- nooga, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Los Angeles and Portland, Ore. These co-operative offices are in reality for- eign-trade departments of the local chambers of commerce which have made special arrangements to fur- nish the same information service in their districts as the regular dis- trict offices furnish in theirs. The foreign-trade statistics used so extensively in the public press are compiled by the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce from cus- tom house documents, in co-opera- tion with the Treasury Department. These statistics are published month- ly, quarterly, and yearly. THE BUREAU OF THE CENSUS A census of the population of the United States has been taken decennially by the Federal Gov- CENSUS TABULATING MACHINE ernment, beginning in 1790. The Constitutional requirement of a de- cennial census is found in Article 1, Section 3, which directs that Rep- resentatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, as ascertained by actual enumeration, to be made once in ten years. From decade to decade the scope of the census was extended to in- clude not only a great amount of detail with respect to the population but also other entirely distinct lines of inquiry, such as agriculture, manufactures, etc. In 1902 the Census Office was by law made a permanent branch of the Department of the Interior un- der the name "Bureau of the Cen- sus." A year later it was trans- ferred to the newly created Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, and since March 4, 1913, it has been a bureau of the Department of Com- merce. The last decennial census covered the subjects of population, agricul- ture, manufactures and mines and quarries and oil and gas wells. During the years intervening be- tween decennial censuses the bu- reau conducts decennial inquiries re- lating to wealth, debt and taxation, to dependent, defective and delin- quent classes, to religious bodies, to fisheries and to transportation Dy water; quinquennial inquiries in re- DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 566 gard to manufactures, central elec- tric light and power stations, street and electric railways and telegraphs and telephones; annual collections of birth and death statistics and of financial and other statistics of cities ; semi-annual inquiries as to stocks of leaf tobacco held by manu- The Census Bureau has developed its tabulating machinery to an extraordinarily high degree of effi- ciency, so that by its aid the aver- age output of the clerks engaged in routine tabulation is increased many fold. The illustration on the preceding page shows the machine Photo by Harris & Ewing "ON YOTTR MARK!" AWAITING THE SIGNAL RELEASING CROP REPORTS Reporters waiting to rush to telephones facturers and dealers ; and periodical collections, at intervals averaging less than one month, of statistics relating to cotton and cottonseed. Special inquiries are occasionally devolved upon the bureau by Con- gress, by the President or by the Secretary of Commerce. by which the final process of me- chanical tabulation is performed. Punched cards are automatically fed into this machine at the rate of 400 or more per minute, and the statis- tical facts indicated on them by the positions of the holes are electrically recorded with unerring accuracy. BUREAU OP STANDARDS The functions of the Bureau of Standards are as follows: The cus- tody of the standards ; the compari- son of the standards used in scien- tific investigations, engineering, man- ufacturing, commerce, and educa- tional institutions with the stand- ards adopted or recognized by the Government ; the construction, when necessary, of standards, their mul- tiples and subdivisions; the testing and calibration of standard measur- OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES ing apparatus ; the solution of prob- lems which arise in connection with standards; the determination of physical constants and properties of materials, when such data are of great importance to scientific or manufacturing interests and are not cipa,! government within the United States, or for any scientific society, educational institution, firm, corpor- ation, or individual within the Unit- ed States engaged in manufacturing or other pursuits requiring the use of standards or standard measuring TEST SET OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES RECOMMENDED BY THE U. S. BUREAU OF STANDARDS to be obtained of sufficient accuracy elsewhere; and other investigations as authorized by Congress. The bu- reau is authorized to exercise its functions for the Government of the United States, for any State or muni- instruments. For all comparisons, calibration tests, or investigations, except those performed for the Gov- ernment of the United States or State governments, a reasonable fee will be charged. BUREAU OF LIGHTHOUSES The work of the Bureau of Lighthouses is given in the chapter on the "Government Protection of Life and Property at Sea," page 135. BUREAU OF FISHERIES The work of the Bureau of Fish- ter on "The Fish We Eat.' cries is given in the special chap- page 67. See UNITED STATES COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY The work of the United States in the chapter on "The Three Great Coast and Geodetic Survey is given Government Surveys," page 127. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERC1 BUREAU OF NAVIGATION By HON. EUGENE TYLEB CHAMBERLAIN Commissioner of Navigation THE Federal Government exer- cises general superintendence over merchant shipping through the Bureau of Navigation of the Department of Commerce. To en- gage in trade or in the fisheries, vessels in the United States must first secure a permit from the Gov- ernment ; that is to say, vessels of which the contents are 500 cubic also decides all questions about measuring the cubical contents of the vessel, a somewhat intricate task performed by custom house officers. As various charges, Federal, local and private, are based on the size of vessels, the Federal Government through the Bureau of Navigation endeavors to see that the rules of measurement are enforced uniform- BUREAU OF NAVIGATION FIEET feet or more. Smaller boats are not required to get this permit, nor are barges, lighters and similar craft employed only in harbors or on canals and waters not subject to Federal jurisdiction. The issue of these permits is based on the clause of the Constitution which gives the Federal Government the power to regulate commerce with foreign na- tions and between the States. These permits are called registers if the vessel is to engage in foreign trade, and enrollments or licenses if the vessel is to engage solely in trade between American ports. Collectors of Customs issue annually these papers, of which there are over 26,- 000, but the Bureau of Navigation superintends the work and decides all doubtful questions. The Bureau ly. Foreign nations follow the- same general method of issuing documents to their ships and measuring their size as does the United States in- deed, the laws of the United States on ships' registers date back to the time of Alexander Hamilton, first Secretary of the Treasury, who adopted the British system. The only important tax imposed by the Federal Government on ships in foreign trade is a duty on their tonnage or cubical contents, which may not exceed annually 30 cents a ton, or 100 cubic feet, on ships in trade with the more remote conti- nents, or 10 cents annually on ships in trade with the nearby foreign ports of North America and adja- cent islands. This Federal tax law is also enforced by Collectors of OTJB COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Customs tinder direction of the Bu< reau of Navigation. The tax is im-; posed uniformly on American antf, foreign ships. Every maritime nation supervises the labor contracts entered into by the seamen on its merchant vessels engaging in foreign trade. This su- pervision is to prevent frauds upon seamen, to prevent their being left stranded in foreign ports and to enable the seaman to know in ad- vance just what work he has agreed to perform, the course and duration of the voyage, the fare he is to re- ceive on board and the pay he is to get. These contracts are made in writing on printed Government forms and are signed by a shipping commissioner or collector of cus- toms as a representative of the Gov- ernment. When the contract has been performed and the voyage end- ed, the seamen are paid off and discharged before the shipping com- missioner. Governments are spe- cially interested in the whereabouts and welfare of their merchant sea- men, as in many countries they are reckoned an asset in national de- fense. During the past fiscal year 487,524 officers and men signed such agreements and were later paid off and discharged by the commission- ers, some men appearing in the total as often as the number of voyages they made. It requires 60,000 offi- cers and men to man the ocean- going merchant ships and yachts under the American flag, and the Bureau of Navigation of the Com- merce Department has general su- pervision over the shipping and dis- charge of crews under the method outlined. The American Navy now has about 55,000 enlisted men, and officers and the Marine Corps bring the total beyond the number in the merchant service. When the war- ships recently ordered are in com- mission four or five years hence the Navy will require 77,000 enlisted men. The Bureau of Navigation also supervises the laws requiring wire- less apparatus and operators on ships and requiring wireless appara- tus and operators on sea or land to be licensed and to conform to re- quirements of the international treaty and American law designed to prevent the interference of wire- less stations with one another. To carry out these laws and the treaty the Bureau has radio inspectors at the principal seaports and Great Lake ports to inspect wireless appa- ratus on ships before their departure and make sure that the main appa- ratus is efficient and that the aux- iliary apparatus, employed if the main apparatus is put out of opera- tion by accident at sea, is ready for use. In the last fiscal year these officers made 7,236 inspections of ships before leaving port. The laws of the United States regulating American merchant ships and foreign merchant ships in Amer- ican ports fill a volume of consider- able size, popularly termed the Navi- gation Laws. These laws are de- signed partly to insure the safety of passengers and crews, partly to prevent the misuse of the American flag, to secure revenue and to pre- vent frauds on the revenue, to pro- mote American shipbuilding, to se- cure comfortable quarters for steerage passengers, to prevent col- lisions, fire and other casualties, to secure efficient officers and sufficient crews, to furnish complete statistical records within limits, to regulate trade with foreign ports and be tween American ports, including those in Alaska, Hawaii and Porto Rico, and for many other purposes. Violations of these laws involve pen- alties of greater or less severity and from the beginning of Government it has been found necessary to lodge somewhere discretionary power to mitigate or remit such penalties when circumstances warranted that action, the full statutory penalties being imposed in flagrant and willful cases. This discretionary power is lodged in the Secretary of Com- merce, and the preliminary investi- gation of such matters is made for him by the Bureau of Navigation, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 569 which ascertains all the facts and recommends a course of action to the Secretary. Last year 7,895 such cases were examined by the Bureau of Navigation. At seaports viola- tions of law are reported by col- lectors of customs, radio inspectors, Coast Guard officers, inspectors spe- cially designated to see to it that steamers, especially excursion steam- ers, do not leave port with more passengers than can be safely car- ried, and by steamboat-inspection officers. Each owner, master, officer or man charged with violation of law has an opportunity to offer his defense or excuse in writing, and the evidence is then weighed by the Bureau of Navigation and a recom- mendation made to the head of the department. Since motor boats began to fur- nish the means of water transporta- tion for many parts of the country and motor boating became a national sport the navigation laws have come close to thousands of Americans who before were only remotely aware of their existence. There are about 250.000 motor boats on the waters of the United States. The Bureau of Navigation has two motor boats of its own ("Dixie" and "Tarra- gon") which are almost constantly engaged in securing compliance with the laws among vessels generally, but especially among motor boats. They cover the Atlantic coast from KM st port, Me., to Key West, Fla., visiting the intervening bays, har- bors, sounds, and rivers during the seasons of greatest local activity, and have proved to be an efficient and economical means of securing strict compliance with the naviga- tion laws. THE STEAMBOAT INSPECTION SERVICE By D. N. HOOVER, Jr. Acting Supervising Inspector General ORGANIZATION THE head of the Steamboat In- spection Service is the Super- vising Inspector General, who is stationed at Washington, and un- der the Supervising Inspector Gen- eral is the Deputy Inspector General. In addition to the clerical force at Washington there work* directly un- der the supervision of the central office, two traveling inspectors, one located at New York, N. Y., and the other at San Francisco, Cal., whose business it is to re-examine vessels with a view to ascertaining whether the local inspectors have properly inspected the same, and also to fol- low up complaints that may be re- ferred to them by the central office. A corps of assistant inspectors, detailed for duty at the steel mills for the purpose of testing plate to be used in construction of marine boilers, also works under the direct supervision of the central office. The United States, including Ha- waii, Alaska and Porto Rico, is divided into ten supervising inspec- tion districts, over each of which districts presides a supervising in- spector. The Supervising Inspector Gener- al and the ten supervising inspectors above referred to constitute the Board of Supervising Inspectors, which meets in annual session the third Wednesday of January each year for the purpose of establishing all necessary regulations required to carry out in the most effective man- ner the laws that relate to the Steam- boat Inspection Service. Each Supervising inspection dis- trict is divided into local inspection districts. Over each local inspection district a board of local inspectors, consisting of an inspector of hulls and an inspector of boilers, presides. In those districts where the pressure 570 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES of work requires it, there are also stationed assistant inspectors, who work under the supervision of the board of local inspectors of the district. ACTIVITIES OF THE SERVICE The Service exists for the purpose of inspecting vessels, licensing offi- cers and conducting investigations of disasters and violations of law. Once each year, steamers subject to inspection are required to have the hulls of the same thoroughly ex- amined, and the inspectors must sat- isfy themselves that such vessels are of a structure suitable for the ser- vice in which they are to be em- ployed, have suitable accommoda- tions for passengers and crew, and are in a condition to warrant the belief that they may be used in navi- gation as steamers with safety to life, and the inspectors have to sat- isfy themselves that all the require- ments of law in regard to fires, boats, pumps, hose, life preservers, floats, anchors, cables, and other things are faithfully complied with. Furthermore, all excursion and fer- ry steamers are required to be re- inspected three times during the year for which certified or during the period of navigation. Local inspec- tors are also required to inspect the boilers and their appurtenances in all steam vessels before the same shall be used, and once at least in every year thereafter, are required to subject all boilers to hydrostatic pressure. They must assure them- selves that the boilers are well made, of good and suitable material ; that the openings for the passage of wa- ter and steam, respectively, and all pipes and tubes exposed to heat, are of proper dimensions and free from obstructions ; that the spaces be- tween and around the flues are suf- ficient; that flues, boilers, furnaces, safety valves, fusible plugs, low- water indicators, feed-water appa- ratus, gauge cocks, steam gauges, water and steam pipes connecting boilers, means of prevention of sparks and flames from fire doors, low-water gauges, means of remov- ing mud and sediment from boilers, and all other such machinery and appurtenances thereof, are of such construction, shape, condition, ar- rangement, and material that they may be safely employed in the serv- ice proposed without peril to life. Applicants for licenses from the Service obtain the same in all in- stances, except in the case of oper- ators for motor boats, after due writ- ten examination before the local in- spectors having jurisdiction, and in the case of deck officers, in addition to the written examination, they are examined as to color-sense and visual acuity. As a result of the Seamen's Act, the Service also cer- tificates able seamen and lifeboat men. The boards of local inspectors have authority by statute to investi- gate disasters and violations of law, and when they are conducting such investigations they are proceeding in a quasi judicial manner, and by statute certain appeals are provided from the local inspectors to the supervising inspectors, and in cer- tain instances, to the Supervising Inspector General. CHAPTER XIV. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR THE SECRETARY OF LABOR THE Secretary of Labor is charged with the duty of fostering, promoting, and de- veloping the welfare of the wage earners of the United States, im- proving their working conditions, and advancing their opportunities for profitable employment. He has power under the law to act as mediator and to appoint commis- sioners of conciliation in labor dis- putes whenever in his judgment the interests of industrial peace may re- quire it to be done. He has authori- ty to direct the collecting and col- lating of full and complete statistics of the conditions of labor and the products and distribution of the products of the same and to call upon other departments of the Gov- ernment for statistical data and re- sults obtained by them and to col- late, arrange, and publish such sta- tistical information so obtained in such manner as to him may seem wise. His duties also comprise the gathering and publication of in- formation regarding labor interests and labor controversies in this and other countries ; the supervision of the immigration of aliens, and the enforcement of the laws relating thereto, and to the exclusion of Chi- nese; the direction of the adminis- tration of the naturalization laws ; the direction of the work of investi- gating all matters pertaining to the welfare of children and child life and to cause to be published such results of these investigations as he may deem wise and appropriate. The law creating the Department of Labor provides that all duties performed and all power and au- thority possessed or exercised by the head of any executive department at the time of the passage of the said law, in and over any bureau, office, officer, board, branch, or division of the public service by said act trans- ferred to the Department of Labor, or any business arising therefrom or pertaining thereto, or in relation to the duties performed by and au- thority conferred by law upon such bureau, officer, office, board, branch, or division of the public service, whether of an appellate or advisory character or otherwise, are vested in and exercised by the head of the said Department of Labor. The Secretary of Labor is also given au- thority and directed to investigate and report to Congress a plan of co-ordination of the activities, duties, and powers of the office of the Sec- retary of Labor with the activities, duties, and powers of the present bureaus, commissions, and depart- ments, so far as they relate to labor and its conditions, in order to har- monize and unify such activities, duties, and powers, with a view to additional legislation to further de- fine the duties and powers of the Department of Labor, and to make such special investigations and re- ports to the President or Congress as may be required by them or which he may deem necessary, and to re- port annually to Congress upon the work of the Department of Labor. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. DEPARTMENT OF LABOR 673 ASSISTANT SECRETARY OF LABOR The Assistant Secretary performs by law. He becomes the Acting such duties as shall be prescribed Secretary of Labor in the absence by the Secretary or may be required of the Secretary. CHIEF CLERK The chief clerk is charged with the supervision of all expenditures from general supervision of the clerks and em- the appropriations for contingent ex- ployees of the department ; the enforce- penses and rents ; the receipt, distribu- ment of the general regulations of the tion, and transmission of the mail, and department ; the superintendency of all the discharge of all business of the buildings occupied by the department in Secretary's office not otherwise as- the District of Columbia ; the general signed. DISBURSING CLERK The disbursing clerk is charged by the and accounting for Government requests Secretary of Labor with the duty of for^ transportation issued to officers of preparing all requisitions for the advance the department for official travel ; the of public funds from appropriations for audit and payment of all vouchers and the Department of Labor to disbursing accounts submitted from the various clerks and special disbursing agents offices, bureaus, and services of the de- charged with the disbursement of public partment ; the general accounting of funds ; the keeping of appropriation the department ; and the accounting for lodgors relating to the advance and ex- all 'naturalization receipts received under penditure of all items of appropriations. the provisions of the act of June 29, APPOINTMENT CLERK The appointment clerk has charge of diction of the department. He is custo- all clerical work incident to appoint- dian of oaths of office, bonds of officers, fnents which are made under the juris- personnel files, and efficiency reports. DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS AND SUPPLIES The Chief of the Division of Publica- of the department and conducts the cor- tions and Supplies is charged by the respondence it entails. Under the direc- Secretary of Lr.bor with the conduct of tion of the chief clerk he has pejsonal all business the department transacts supervision of all the work incident with the Government Printing Office; to the purchase and distribution of the general supervision of printing, in- supplies for the department proper and eluding the editing and preparation of for the services of the department out- copy, illustrating and binding, the dis- side of Washington and of the keeping tribution of publications, and the main- of detailed accounts of all expenditures tenance of mailing lists. All blank from the appropriation for contingent books and blank forms and the printed expenses of the department. He re- stationery of all kinds used by the bu- ceives, verifies, and preserves the semi- reaus and offices of the department in annual returns of property from the Washington and the various outside ser- offices and bureaus of the department vices of the department are in his cus- which are supplied from the contingent tody and are supplied by him. The ad- appropriation, and examines and reports vertising done by the department is in on the semi-annual property returns of his charge. He also keeps a record of all other bureaus and services of the all expenditures for the publishing work department. BUREAU OF IMMIGRATION The Bureau of Immigration is charged It causes alleged violations of the Immi- with the administration of the laws re- gration, Chinese-exclusion, and alien con- lating to immigration and of the Chinese- tract-labor laws to be investigated, and exclusion laws. It supervises all ex- when prosecution is deemed advisable penditures under the appropriation for submits evidence for that 'purpose to the "Expenses of regulating immigration." proper United States district attorney. 674 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES DIVISION OF INFORMATION The division of Information, under the Bureau of Immigration, gathers from all available sources information concerning the resources, products, and physical characteristics of the States and Terri- tories. This information is made avail- able to admitted aliens and others seek- ing homes or places of settlement. Under the direction of the Secretary of Labor, the division also acts as a division for the distribution and employment of labor, and is the central oflBce of the eighteen distribution zones covering the entire United States. In this phase of its activities it co-operates with the Post Office Department, the Department of Agriculture, and the Department of the Interior. BUREAU OF NATURALIZATION The act approved March 4, 1913, cre- ating the Department of Labor, provided a Bureau of Naturalization, and that the Commissioner of Naturalization, or, in his absence, the Deputy Commissioner of Naturalization, shall be the adminis- trative officer in charge of the Bureau of Naturalization and of the administration of the naturalization laws under the immediate direction of the Secretary of Labor. Under the provisions of the act of June 29, 1906, naturalization juris- diction was conferred upon approximate- ly 3,500 United States and State courts. The duties of the Bureau of Naturaliza- tion are to supervise the work of these courts in naturalization matters, to con- duct all correspondence relating to natur- alization, and, through its field officers located in various cities of the United States, to investigate the qualifications of the candidates for citizenship and represent the Government at the hear- ings of petitions for naturalization. In the archives of the bureau are filed duplicates of all certificates of naturali- zation granted since September 26, 1906, as well as the preliminary papers of all candidates for citizenship filed since that date, averaging an annual receipt of ap- proximately 450,000 naturalization pa- pers. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS The Bureau of Labor Statistics is charged with the duty of acquiring and diffusing among the people of the United States useful information on subjects connected with labor in the most gen- eral and comprehensive sense of that word, and especially upon its relations to capital, the hours of labor, the earn- ings of laboring men and women, and the means of promoting their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperity. It is especially charged to investigate the causes of and facts relating to con- troversies and disputes between employ- ers and employees as they may occur, and which may happen to interfere with the welfare of the people of the several States. It is also authorized, by act of March 2, 1895, to publish a bulletin on the condition of labor in this and other countries, condensations of State and foreign labor reports, facts as to condi- tions of employment, and such other facts as may be deemed of value to the industrial interests of the United States. This bulletin is issued in a number of series, each dealing with a single sub- ject or closely related group of subjects, and the bulletin is published at irregu- lar intervals as matter becomes avail- able for publication. By the act to provide a government for the Territory of Hawaii, as amended, it is made the duty of the bureau to collect and present in quinquennial re- ports statistical details relating to all departments of labor in the Territory of Hawaii, especially those statistics which relate to the commercial, industri- al, social, educational and sanitary con- dition of the laboring classes. The administration of the act of May 30, 1908, granting to certain employee's of the United States the right to receive from it compensation for injuries sus- tained in the course of their employ- ment, is vested in the bureau by the act of March 4, 1913, creating the Depart- ment of Labor. CHILDREN'S BUREAU The act establishing the bureau pro- vides that it shall investigate and report upon all matters pertaining to the wel- fare of children and child life among all classes of our people, and shall es- pecially investigate the questions of in- fant mortality, the birth rate, orphanage, Juvenile courts, desertion, dangerous oc- cupations, accidents and diseases of children, employment, and legislation af- fecting children in the several States and Territories. The bureau is also empow- ered to publish the results of these in- vestigations in such manner and to such extent as may be prescribed by the Sec- retary of Labpr. CHAPTEK XV. THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, AT WASHINGTON, FOB THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE AMONG MEN From Official Sources THE Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, under the terms of the will of James Smithson, an English- man, who, in 1826, bequeathed his fortune to the United States of America to found, at Washington, under the name of the "Smithsonian Institution," an establishment for the "increase and diffusion of knowl- edge among men." From the in- come of the fund a building, known as the Smithsonian building, was erected on land given by the United States. The Institution is legally an establishment having as its mem- bers" the President of the United States, the Vice-President, the Chief THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C. Copyright by Munn & Co., Inc. 576 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Justice and the President's Cabinet. It is governed by a Board of Regents consisting of the Vice-President, the Chief Justice, three members of the United States Senate, three mem- bers of the House of Representa- tives and six citizens of the United States, appointed by joint resolution of Congress. It is under the imme- diate supervision of the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, who is the executive officer and the director of all of the Institution's activi- ties. For the increase of knowledge the Institution aids investigators by making grants for research and ex- ploration, supplying books, appara- tus, laboratory accommodations, etc. It occasionally provides for lectures, which are published. It has initiated numerous scientific projects of na- tional importance, some of Vhich have resulted in the creation of in- dependent Government bureaus. It advises the Government in many matters of scientific character, espe- cially in those that have an interna- tional aspect. For the diffusion of knowledge the Institution issues three regular series of publications : Annual Re- ports, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge and the Smithsonian Mis- cellaneous Collections. All these publications are distributed gratui- tously to important libraries throughout the world. The Institution, in co-operation with the Library of Congress, main- tains a scientific library which num- bers 260,000 volumes, consisting mainly of the transactions of learned societies and scientific periodicals. The parent institution has the ad- ministrative charge of several branches which grew out of its early activities and which are supported by Congressional appropriations. These are the National Museum, in- cluding the National Gallery of Art ; the International Exchange Serv- ice ; the Bureau of American Eth- nology ; the National Zoological Park; the Astrophysical Observa- tory, and the Regional Bureau for the International Catalogue of Sci- entific Literature. NATURAL HISTORY BUILDING, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Established by the act of Con- gress of 1846 founding the Smith- sonian Institution, and under its direction, the United States Na- tional Museum is the designated depository for the national col- lections in art and natural his- tory, being also charged with their classified arrangement and their use in advancing knowledge and promoting education. Starting with accommodations in the Smith- THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 577 building, which it still largely occupies, two extensive structures have since been erected especially for its purposes, one com- pleted in 1881, the other in 1911. Located on the Mall, between Ninth and Twelfth Streets, these three buildings furnish the museum with about 650,000 square feet or nearly 15 acres of floor space, somewhat more than half of which is devoted to the public exhibitions. and storage quarters and an audi- torium. The natural history collections, in- cluding, besides zoology and botany, geology, paleontology, ethnology, archeology and physical anthro- pology, represent the greatest and most important growth of the museum. The first notable acquisi- tion consisted of the rich and varied results of the cruise of the U. S. Exploring Expedition in the South HALL OF AMEEICAN HISTORY, OLDEE BUILDING, U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM The latest building, four stories high, of white granite, with a main frontage of 561 feet and a depth of 364i/ 2 feet, and costing $3.500.000, is architecturally one of the most prominent among the Government edifices in Washington. Specifically designed to meet the requirements of natural history, and with its two main floors and part of another com- posed of large exhibition halls, it also contains exceptionally exten- sive and well-appointed laboratories Seas and other waters during the four years from 1838 to 1842. Then, for a long period, the bulk of the accessions came from numerous spe- cial explorations, principally by the Government, in the western part of the United States, and to some ex- tent in other near and far regions; and these were followed by the regu- larly organized Government surveys and' investigations, still in progress. Through thousands of other sources material from every quarter of the 578 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES globe has also been acquired, and this constant flow of specimens has advanced the National Museum in its natural history departments to the highest rank among the museums of the world. Its collections are, naturally, most complete for North America, and, besides having served as the basis for extended and im- portant researches for over two thirds of a century, they have been liberally utilized in the interest of general education, with methods of public installation developed to a remarkable stage of perfection. of periods, the most conspicuous fea- ture being a large and varied series of Washington relics. One hall is devoted to costumes and another to coins, medals and postal tokens. The industrial art collections are of great importance both historically and suggestively, and while inade- quate facilities have somewhat re- tarded their development, they al- ready form the basis of a -depart- ment of the utmost practical signifi- cance. Among the subjects even now widely represented are the graphic arts and ceramics; textiles, "JOHN BULL" ENGINE, AND HALL OF MECHANICAL TECHNOLOGY, OLDER BUILDING, V. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM The older museum and Smith- sonian buildings are assigned to American history and the industrial arts, except that the upper main story of the latter structure is oc- cupied by the division of plants, or National Herbarium. The exhibi- tion collections of history, which fill four halls, are especially rich in mementoes of prominent persons and laces, embroideries, woods, medi- cines, foods and the various miscel- laneous uses to which animal and vegetable products are put ; the pro- cesses of mining and of dealing with mineral products ; land, water and air transportation; fire arms and other weapons, weights and meas- ures ; electrical and other inven- tions, including the telegraph, tele- THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 579 phone and phonograph ; and all classes of machinery and of physical apparatus. The National Gallery of Art or department of the fine arts acquired in 1849 a notable series of engrav- ings of the old masters and many works on art which had been assem- bled by George P. Marsh. Occa- sional additions were received in subsequent years, but it was not until the bequest of Harriet Lane Johnston in 1906 that the gallery took form. This collection of seven- teen paintings, besides other objects, includes a Luini and several excel- lent English and Dutch portraits. In the same year Mr. Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, Mich., presented his notable collection of American and Oriental art, to which he has constantly added until its size has been more than doubled. It now consists of some 5,346 articles, of which over 1,000 are paintings, pastels, drawings, engravings, litho- graphs, etc., by nine American art- ists, headed by Whistler; while the Oriental objects, exceeding 4,300 in number, some of which date back several centuries B. C., include paint- ings, pottery, bronzes, sculptures, jades, glass, etc., mainly from China, Japan, Corea, Persia, India, Meso- potamia and Egypt, constituting a collection of exceptional value, un- rivaled in Ihe importance of the material it furnishes for research into the art of the Far East. To Mr. William T. Evans, of New York, the gallery is indebted for a selec- tion of 151 paintings in illustration of the work of contemporary Ameri- can artists, 106 of whom are repre- sented, and also for numerous ex- amples of the best American wood engraving. There have also been many individual contributions to the gallery, and, in default of other ac- commodations, its possessions are provisionally installed in the natural history building, except the Freer collection, for which a special build- ing has been designed and will imme- diately be erected at the expense of Mr. Freer. THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE The International Exchange Ser- vice a branch of the United States Government carried on under the direction of the Smithsonian Institu- tion serves as an intermediary for the exchange of scientific and liter- ary publications between establish- ments and individuals in the United States and those in foreign coun- tries. This phase of its work was begun soon after the Institution was founded in 1846. Later, in 1867, an exchange of official documents between govern- ments was established, and Con- gress, by act of March 2 of that year, provided for this purpose a certain number of copies of all par- liamentary acts and of all publica- tions printed by order of any depart- ment or bureau of the Government, which are forwarded through the Exchange Service to various for- eign countries. BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY The Bureau of American Ethnol- ogy was established by Congress in 1879, at the instance of the late Major J. W. Powell, for the pur- pose of conducting ethnologic re- searches among the American In- dians, but subsequently its investi- gations were extended to include Hawaii. Although devoted chiefly to the aborigines in the United States, researches by the bureau have been conducted in lesser degree in Canada, Mexico, Central Amer- ica, South America and the West Indies. In these investigations ethnology has been taken in its broadest sense to include all the activities of the Indian race, as well as their archeology and his- tory. The results of the bureau's 580 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES studies to the present time are era- bodied in thirty-three annual re- ports and sixty-three bulletins pub- lished or in press, as well as a num- ber of miscellaneous publications. The bureau maintains a corps of nine ethnologists, possesses an eth- nologic reference library of about 21,500 volumes and 13,500 pamph- lets, many thousand photographic negatives of Indian portraits and other subjects, and a large collection of original manuscripts, pertaining chiefly to Indian linguistics. ANIMALS AT THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK The National Zoological Park, es- tablished by act of Congress in 1890, "for the instruction and recre- ation of the people," and placed under the direction of the Smith- sonian Institution, maintains a col- lection of living animals which is exhibited free to the public. The park occupies 169 acres in the val- ley of Rock Creek, about three miles ways. northwest of the White House. The collection comprises (June 30, 1916) about 1,400 specimens. The number of visitors during 1915 was over 1,000,000. The park co-operates with the United States National Museum, the Department of Agriculture, the United States Hygienic Laboratory, and private investigators, in various THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY The Astrophysical Observatory of the Smithsonian Institution, founded in 1890 and supported by small annual appropriations by Congress, is engaged in exact measurements of the intensity of the sun's radi- ation. Principal results : Map of Fraunhofer lines of infra-red solar spectrum to wave-length 53000 Ang- stroms. Determination of the mean intensity of solar radiation out- side the earth's atmosphere, 1.93 calories per square centimeter per minute. Discovery of the varia- bility of the sun's radiation through a range of about 5 per cent attend- ing the sun spot cycle, and also of an irregular variability, sometimes reaching 10 per cent in short inter- vals of a few days or weeks. Prin- cipal observing station on Mount Wilson, California. Expeditions to North Carolina, Sumatra, Flint Island for total solar eclipse work, and to Mount Whitney, Cal. (14,500 feet) and Bassour, Algeria, for solar THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 681 radiation work. Inventions of sil- standardized silver disk pyrhelio- ver disk pyrheliometer, standard meters to government and private water pyrheliometers and 'pyrano- observatories in various parts of the meter. Furnished about thirty world. UNITED STATES REGIONAL BUREAU INTERNATIONAL CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature publishes an annual classified index to the liter- ature of science. The organization consists of a central bureau in Lon- don and thirty-three regional bu- reaus established in, and supported by, the principal countries of the world. That for the United States is supported by an annual appro- priation from Congress, adminis- tered by the Smithsonian Institution. TOWER TELESCOPE, ASTROPHYSICAt OBSERVATORY, MOUNT WILSON CHAPTER XVI. MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. By Hon. CORNELIUS FORD, Public Printer FROM 1789 to 1861 the Govern- ment printing and binding was done in private offices. This plan became expensive and unsatis- factory, and in 1861 Congress au- thorized the purchase of the print- ing plant then owned by Cornelius Wendall, located on a portion of the site now occupied by what is known as the "old building." This office at the time of purchase employed 300 persons, and the Government paid approximately $135,000 for the building and equipment. Subse- quently various additions were made to the plant, but were inadequate to meet the demands for work. The development of printing and binding for the public is typical of the in- dustrial and commercial growth of the republic, and emphasizes the spirit of inquiry and investigation that characterizes the American people a spirit that is causing an almost fabulous volume of printing on subjects of general, special, or peculiar interest to our citizens. In 1899, the need of larger quar- ters having become imperative, Congress authorized the construc- tion of the present building on ground adjoining the old offices. This building is of magnificent pro- portions, and is a landmark in the Capital City, and an enduring monu- ment to the art of typography and the part it plays in our Government. It contains 7 floors, with basement and loft, with floor space of 372,350 square feet, and cost approximately $2,410,000. The old building is used principally for storage, and com- bined floor area of entire plant is 13% acres. The office is as nearly fireproof as any building can be made, and numerous wide staircases are distributed in such a way as to facilitate the egress of employees in case of fire or panic. The most up- to-date sanitary conditions prevail, an emergency hospital is provided for the use of employees, and a "rest room" is available for use of women employees who may become exhausted during working hours. There are about 4,000 persons em- ployed, and the entire plant is under the direct management of the Public Printer, who is appointed by the President at an annual salary of $5,500. The general layout is as follows: Job Composing Room 92 employees, with up-to-date equipment ; this sec- tion handles 30,000 jobs in a year. Linotype Composing Section 245 employees, with 81 linotype machines and first class equipment; about 1 Copyright by Munn & Co.. Inc. MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES billion ems of type are set In one year on the linotype machines. Monotype Composing Section 435 employees, with 165 keyboards and 126 casters ; about 1 billion 300 mil- lion ems of type are set in one year on the monotype machines. Hand Composing Section 225 employees, engaged principally in correcting, making up and imposing. Proof Room 270 employees, engaged in editing, preparing, reading and re- vising. Electrotype and Stereotype Foundry 130 employees, with up-to- date equipment, producing over 13,000,000 square inches of plated matter in a year. Press Room 443 employees, with 145 modern presses ; all rollers and about one-third of necessary ink are made on premises. Bindery 950 employees, with com- plete machine equipment for all kinds of pamphlet and bound work. A number of smaller divisions handle special work, such as postal cards, money order books, etc. Branch offices are located in the State, War and Navy building and in the Congressional Library, and handle emergency work for these branches of the Government. The buildings contain 16 elevators, besides several lifts for handling forms of type from pressroom- or foundry. Eight automobile trucks, with capacity ranging from 1,000 to 8,000 pounds each, together with a number of side-car motorcycles, de- liver all work produced in tjie Gov- ernment Printing Office. Pneumatic tubes furnish rapid communication between various divisions. A plate vault for the storage and safekeep- ing of electrotype and stereotype plates is located in the basement of the new building, occupying 10,000 square feet of floor space ; old plates are constantly being destroyed and the metal used over, and new plates added ; about 1,200,000 plates, weigh- ing approximately 7,000,000 pounds, are constantly on hand. The engine room equipment con- sists of four electric generator? totaling 2,500 kilowatts, two air compressors with, capacity of 3,000 cubic feet of free air per minute, one 2,000,000 gallon pumping engine, and one refrigerating plant for cir- culating drinking water and making ice. The boiler room equipment consists of eight boilers, six of which are Scotch marine type, hand fired, totaling 1,800 horse-power, and two are water tube boilers with auto- matic stokers, totaling 1,000 horse- power ; a total of 2,800 horse-power. The total value of all machine equipment is approximately $2,500,- 000. The upkeep of building and equipment is under the direction of a superintendent of buildings, and this work is handled by an elec- trical division with 71 employees, a machinists' division with 32 em- ployees, a carpenter division with 27 employees and a building division with 36 employees. The materials used yearly are as follows: Paper stock, 32,000,000 pounds; ink, 65,000 pounds; leather stock, 300,000 square feet; gold and aluminium, 30,000,000 square inches ; sewing thread, 32,000,000 yards; cloth for binding, 250,000 yards; wire for stitching, 6,500,000 feet; glue, 225,000 pounds; paste, 34,000 gallons; card containers, 3,000,000; metals, 200,000 pounds; keyboard paper, 10,200,000 feet; coal, 12,500 tons ; soap, 40,000 pounds. The Government Printing Office is the largest office in the world, but printing and binding is increasing so rapidly that it is only by exten- sive systematizing of production methods can Government needs be met. The vast increase in work is shown by fact that blanks, schedules, postal cards, money order forms, envelopes and similar work printed in fiscal year 1915 totaled about 3 billion copies, as compared with about 131 millions in 1880. Book work increased proportionately and about 1,700,000 type pages are set in one year. The output of postal cards is ap- proximately 4,000,000 a day. About 120,000,000 money order forms are printed each year and delivered in books of from 50 to 200 each. 584 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Some of the principal items of production in a year are : Copies on job work, postal cards and money orders, 3,000,000,000; blank books, 1,130,000; newspapers and miscel- laneous documents bound, 100,000 ; pamphlets and books printed, 100,- 000,000. In addition, the Daily Con- gressional Record is printed each night during session of Congress, varying in size from 8 to 225 quarto pages ; the copy comes in late at night some of it as late as 2 A. M. ; type must be set, plates made, 34,000 copies printed, folded, gathered, wire-stitched and addressed in time to catch early morning mail. About 30 million copies of speeches are on paper, and delivery made to the Capitol, one half mile distant, in from 15 to 20 minutes after copy is received. The bound Congressional Record, covering proceedings of the 63d Congress, 2d Session, made 19 volumes ; 6,130 copies were printed and bound on each volume, making a total of 116,470 volumes. The total annual expense of the office is about $6,500,000, and this amount is divided and allotted be- tween Congress, the departments and the various bureaus of the Gov- ernment, in accordance with their necessity for printing, each being allowed printing and binding only to the amount of their allotment. Ex- PKINTING 4,000,000 POSTAL CARDS EACH DAY. printed annually for Members of Congress and paid for by them. Approximately 25,000 bills and reso- lutions of Congress are printed dur- ing a session, varying in size from 2 to 200 pages, with from 200 to 800 copies on each. During the closing hours of a session of Congress the pressure for hurried work is tremen- dous and there have been times when bills making from 1 to 12 pages have been put in type, read, 1 copy printed on parchment and 3 isting law requires this printing and binding to be done at cost, and charges are based upon a fixed scale of prices, regulated by a modern cost system, and rendered for each piece of work produced. Employees work eight hours a day, receive a compensation comparing favorably with union wages paid throughout the country, and are allowed thirty days' vacation with pay each year. Some divisions of the office run night forces throughout the year and MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES others only during the session of Congress. Employees working at night receive a 20 per cent advance over day rates in pay. The Division of Public Documents is a central distributing agency for Government publications and re- ceives, by law, copies of all . public documents printed in the Govern- ment Printing Office. A specified number of these documents are dis- tributed to certain designated de- pository libraries throughout the country, and other copies are sold at cost to the public, no more than one copy to any one person. Forty million documents are sent out by this division in a year, and in order to facilitate mailing a 30-inch belt conveyor, operating through a tun- nel 7 feet high, 8 feet wide and 455 feet long, connects the Government Printing Office with the mailing tables of the city post office. Copies of Government publications can be secured by writing the Superin- tendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D, C. COUNCIL OF NATIONAL DEFENSE The Council of National Defense was created by the act of June 3, 1916. Its membership consists of the Secretaries of War, Navy, In- terior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labor, and a civilian advisory com- mission of seven members nominated by the Council and appointed by the President. The Advisory Commis- sion is comi)osed of Daniel Willard, president of the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, chairman ; Samuel Gom- pers, president of the American Fed- eration of Labor; Dr. Franklin H. Martin, of Chicago ; Howard E. Cof- fin, of Detroit; Bernard Baruch, of New York; Dr. Hollis Goudfrey, of Philadelphia, and Julius Rosenwald, of Chicago. All the members, as such, serve without compensation, but are allowed actual expenses of travel and subsistence when attend- ing meetings of the Council", or en- gaged in investigations pertaining to its activities. The duties of the Council are to supervise and direct investigations and make recommendations to the President and the heads of execu- tive departments as to the location of railroads, with reference to the frontiers of the United States, so as to render possible expeditious concentration of troops and supplies to points of defense ; the co-ordina- tion of military, industrial, and com- mercial purposes in the location of extensive highways and branch lines of railroads ; the utilization of waterways ; the mobilization of military and naval resources for defense ; the increase of domestic production of articles and materials essential to the support of armies and of the people during the inter- ruption of foreign commerce; the development of seagoing trans- portation ; data as to amounts, loca- tion, method and means of produc- tion, and availability of military supplies; the giving of information to producers and manufacturers as to the class of supplies needed by military and other services of the Government, and the creation of relations which will render possible in time of need the immediate con- centration and utilization of the resources of the nation. It establishes the policy for the Government departments as regards national defense. The actual work will be done by sub-committee. Its first meeting was held Dec. 6, 1916. INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION The Interstate Commerce Com- all common carriers engaged in the mission, appointed under "an act to transportation of passengers or regulate commerce," approved Feb- property wholly by railroad, or ruary 4, 1887, has supervision over partly by railroad and partly by 686 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES water, when both are used under common control, management, or ar- rangement for a continuous carriage or shipment, including express, sleeping and parlor car companies, telephone, cable, telegraph and wire- less companies, and all pipe lines, from one State, Territory, or Dis- trict of the United States to any other State, Territory, or District of the United States, or to any for- eign country. It has jurisdiction to inquire into and report on the reasonableness of rates ; undue or unreasonable preferences or advan- tages in transportation rates or facilities; to prescribe the publicity to be given to joint tariffs; the power to call for reports, to require the attendance of witnesses and the production of books and papers, to hear complaints of the violation of the act made against any carrier, and to determine what reparation shall be made to the party wronged. By the act of June 18, 1910, the jurisdiction of the commission was increased as to through rates, and joint rates, freight classification, switch connections, long and short hauls, filing or rejection of freight schedules, investigations on own mo- tion, determining reasonable rates, suspension of proposed rates, and other matters. The act of March 2, 1893, known as the "safety appliance act," pro- vides that railroad cars used in interstate commerce must be equipped with automatic couplers, and drawbars of a standard height for freight cars, and have grab- irons or handholds in the ends and sides of each car; and that loco- motive engines shall be equipped with a power driving-wheel brake and appliances for operating the train-brake system. Other acts have delegated further powers and duties to the commis- sion, such as regulating the safe transportation of explosives by com- mon carriers ; compelling railroad companies to equip locomotives and tenders with safe appurtenances; the investigation of railroad acci- dents ; compelling railroads to equip cars with sill steps, hand brakes, ladders, running boards, and roof handholds, and designating the num- ber, dimensions, location and man- ner of application of appliances ; and making common carriers liable for all damage to property caused by them, and forbids, with certain exceptions, limitations of liability. The commission has been directed to investigate, ascertain, and report the value of property owned or used by every common carrier. The commission is now composed of seven members. It appoints a secretary, and such attorneys, ex- aminers, special agents, and clerks as are necessary in the proper per- formance of its duties. CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION The purpose of the civil service act, as declared in its title, is "to regulate and improve the civil serv- ice of the United States." It pro- vides for the appointment of three commissioners, not more than two of whom shall be adherents of the same political party, and makes it the duty of the commission to aid the President, as he may request, in preparing suitable rules for car- rying the act into effect. The act requires that the rules shall pro- vide, among other things, for open competitive examinations for test- ing the fitness of applicants for the classified service, the making of ap- pointments from among those pass- ing with highest grades, an appor- tionment of appointments in the de- partments at Washington among the States and Territories, a period of probation before absolute appoint- ment, and the. prohibition of the use of official authority to coerce the political action of any person or body. The act also provides for in- vestigations touching the enforce- ment of the rules, and forbids, under penalty of fine or imprisonment, or MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES 587 both, the solicitation by any person such service, or the collection of in the service of the United States such political contributions by any of contributions to be used for other person in a Government political purposes from persons in building. FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD Generally speaking, the .functions of the Federal Reserve Board are to exercise a broad supervision over the affairs and conduct of twelve Federal reserve banks established in accordance with the terms of the Federal reserve act in different parts of the country and invested with authority to discount paper, issue Federal reserve notes, and perform the various banking functions de- scribed in the act itself. The board has full power to appoint its own staff of employees and officers and to regulate the conditions of their employment. Its support is derived from the several reserve banks from assessments levied by it half yearly pro rata. The board is responsible to Congress and reports annually to that body. Certain functions in con- nection with the national banking system are also assigned to it under the legislation, although the Comp- troller of the Currency, who is a member of the board, exercises the same general administrative and supervisory authority over the na- tional banks that has been in his hands in the past. THE FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION The Federal Trade Commission was organized March 16, 1915. It consists of five Commissioners, ap- pointed by the President. Their term of office is seven years, and not more than three of them shall be of the same political party. The work of the Commission falls within three main divisions. First, it is charged with the duty of enforcing the law against unfair methods of competition. It receives informal complaints of such meth- ods employed in interstate com- merce. If upon examination there is, in the judgment of the Commis- sion, reason to believe that such un- fair methods are being used it pro- ceeds to have them corrected, either by informal negotiations with the parties complained against or, in case this fails, by filing its own formal complaint and conducting hearings in the case. If the prac- tices complained of are found ac- tually to exist the Commission issues its order directing those indulging in them to cease and desist. The Com- mission has considered and disposed of many cases and in most instances the practices complained of have been abandoned without the filing of formal complaints. Second, it makes, either on its own initiative, if deemed in the pub- lic interest, or by direction of either House of Congress, special investi- gations of particular industries for the purpose of ascertaining all the facts relative thereto, with the view of correcting abuses if any are found to exist. It has concluded, or is now conducting, investigations of this kind with respect to the fer- tilizer, petroleum, beet sugar, coal and print paper industries, and others. It has also investigated con- ditions in the foreign trade of the United States and the tariff laws and regulations of several South American countries. Third, it offers its advice and assistance to business men along lines that will be helpful in bring- ing about greater efficiency. In this connection it has prepared systems of cost accounting that are adapted to the needs of manufacturers and merchants. In addition to this its expert accountants are available to associations of business men for the purpose of conferring with them and OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES offering advice with respect to their accounting methods. Merchants and manufacturers can obtain copies of bulletins containing the accounting systems upon application to the Commission at Washington, D. C. UNITED STATES GEOGRAPHIC BOARD By Executive order of August 10, 1906, the offi- cial title of the United States Board on Geo- graphic Names was changed to United States Geographic Board and its duties enlarged. The Board passes on all unsettled questions concerning geographic names which arise in the depart- ments, as well as determining, changing and fixing place names within the United States and its insular possessions, and all names hereafter suggested by any officer of the Government shall be referred to the board before publication. The decisions of the board are to be accepted by all departments of the Government as standard authority. Advisory powers were granted the board concerning the preparation of maps compiled, or to be compiled, in the various offices and bureaus of the Government, with a special view to the avoidance of unnecessary duplications of work; and for the unification and improvement of the scales of maps, of the symbols and conventions used upon them, and of the methods of representing relief. All projects of importance are now submitted to this board for advice before being undertaken. COMMISSION OF FINE ARTS The duties of the Commission of Fine Arts consist of giving general advice upon the location of statues, fountains and monuments in the public squares, streets and parks in the District of Columbia ; upon the selection of models for statues, fountains and monuments erected under the authority of the United States ; and the method of selection of the artists for their execution ; upon the plans and designs for pub- lic structures and parks in the Dis- trict of Columbia; and upon all questions involving matters of art with which the Federal Government is concerned. The commission ad- vises upon general questions of art whenever requested to do so by the President or a committee of Congress. ARLINGTON MEMORIAL AMPHITHEATER COMMISSION Created by public buildings act of March 4, 1913, to direct the construc- tion of a memorial amphitheater and chapel in Arlington National Ceme- tery, Virginia, at a cost of $750,000. The building will consist of an ellip- tical structure inclosing an open-air amphitheater with seating capacity for about 5,000 persons. The exterior of the building will be in the form of a colonnade of white Vermont mar- ble with entrances at the ends of the principal axes. The front entrance will be on the east, and this section will contain on the first floor a recep- tion hall and stage of the auditorium, a museum room on the second floor and a chapel in the basement. Tlu entrance will be on the west side. The Commission consists of the Secretary of War, chairman ; the Secretary of the Navy, the superin- tendent of the United States Capitol Building and Grounds and repre- sentatives of the Grand Army of the Republic, Confederate Veterans and United Spanish War Veterans. Colonel Wm. W. Harts, U. S. Army, is the Executive and Disbursing Officer of the Commission. MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES ALASKAN ENGINEERING COMMISSION The Alaskan Engineering Commission was created under the act of March 12. 1914, which empowered, authorized, and directed the President to locate, con- struct, operate, or lease a railroad, or railroads, to connect the interior of Alaska with one or more of the open navigable ports on the coast. Authority was also granted to purchase existing railroads, to construct, maintain, and operate telegraph and telephone lines, and to make reservations of public lands in Alaska necessary for the purposes of the railroad. For the execution of this work a com- mission of three engineers was appointed by the President to make the necessary surveys. They were directed to report to the Secretary of the Interior, under whom the President has placed the gen- eral administration of the work. NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOB AERONAUTICS The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics was appointed by the Presi- dent, pursuant to act of Congress ap- proved March 3, 1915. Its membership consists of two officers of the Army, two officers of the Navy, a representative each of the Smithsonian Institution, the United States Weather Bureau, and the United States Bureau of Standards, to- gether with one member from the Treas- ury Department and four professors from various universities who are ac- quainted with the needs of aeronautical science, or skilled in aeronautical engi- neering or its allied sciences. All the members, as such, serve without com- pensation. The duties of the committee, as pro- vided by Congress, are to supervise and direct the scieatiflc study of the prob- lems of flight, with a view to their prac- tical solution, and to determine the problems which should be experimentally attacked, and to discuss their solution and their application to practical ques- tions. UNITED STATES BOARD OF MEDIATION AND CONCILIATION The purpose for which the Board of Mediation and Conciliation was estab- lished is to settle by mediation, con- ciliation, and arbitration controversies concerning wages, hours of labor, or conditions of employment that may arise between common carriers engaged In interstate transportation and their em- ployees engaged in train operation or train service. The board is an Inde- pendent office, not connected with any department. GENERAL SUPPLY COMMITTEE It is the duty of the General Supply Committee to make an annual schedule of required miscellaneous supplies for the use of each of the executive depart- ments and other Government establish- ments in Washington, to standardize such supplies, eliminating all unneces- sary grades and varieties, and to solicit bids based upon formulas and specifica- tions. It is composed of one officer from each of the executive departments, designated by the head thereof. BOARD OF INDIAN COMMISSIONERS The Board of Indian Commissioners, created in 1869, is a body of unpaid citizens, appointed by the President, who maintain an office in Washington, for the expenses of which and of travel Congress appropriates. The board Is not a bureau or division of any depart- ment, but is purposely kept reasonably Independent and afforded opportunities for investigation in order that it may freely express an intelligent and impar- tial opinion concerning Indian legis- lation and administration. Its legal duties are to visit and inspect branches of the Indian Service, to co-operate with the Commissioner of Indian Affairs In the purchase and inspection of Indian supplies, and to report to the Secretary of the Interior, to whom and to the President the board acts in an advisory capacity, with respect to plans for civilizing or dealing with the Indians. THE INTERNATIONAL JOINT COMMISSION The International Joint Commission was created by treaty with Great Bri- tain, and has jurisdiction over all cases involving the use or obstruction or diver- sion of waters forming the international boundary or crossing the boundary be- tween the United States and Canada, and questions or matters of difference Involving the rights, obligations, or in- terests of the United States or of the Dominion of Canada. COMMISSION FOR EQUITABLE DISTRI- BUTION OF WATERS OF THE RIO GRANDE This commission was authorized by the protocol of May 6, 1896, between Mexico and the United States, and their treaty of 1848, authorizing the appoint- ment of "commissioners" to settle "any disagreement" or "differences" between the two countries. It is commonly called "Commission for the Equitable Distribution of the Waters of the Rio Grande" the boundary for about 1,300 miles between these two nations. INTERNATIONAL (CANADIAN) BOUND- ARY COMMISSIONS The International (Canadian) Bound- ary Commissions were authorized by conventions or treaties between the United States and Great Britain, as follows : OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES 1. January 24, 1906. For defining and marking the boundary between Alaska and British Columbia. Length, 862 miles. 2. April 21, 1906. For denning and marking the boundary between Alaska and Canada, along the 141st meridian. Length, 625 miles. 3. For defining and marking the boundary between the United States and Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, with the exception of the Great Lakes and the St. Law- rence River. Length, 2,647 miles. UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EFFICIENCY The duties of the Bureau of Efficiency are to establish and maintain a system of efficiency ratings for the executive departments in the District of Columbia ; to investigate the needs of the several executive departments and independent establishments with respect to personnel, and to investigate duplication of statis- tical work and methods of business in the various branches of the Government service. COURT OF CLAIMS OF THE UNITED STATES This court was established by act of Congress February 24, 1855. It has feneral jurisdiction of all "claims ounded upon the Constitution of the United States or any law of Congress, except for pensions, or upon any regu- lations of an executive department, or upon any contract, express or implied, with the Government of the United States, or for damages, liquidated, or unliquidated, in cases not sounding in tort, in respect of which claims the party would be entitled to redress against the United States, either in a court of law, equity, or admiralty, if the United States were suable, except claims growing out of the late Civil War and commonly known as war claims," and certain rejected claims. The court is also vested with the jurisdiction of cer- tain Indian depredation claims. FEDERAL WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION COMMISSION The Federal Workmen's Compensation Commission is charged with the admin- istration of the Federal Workmen's Com- pensation Law. The law provides for the payment of 35 per cent of wages during widowhood to the widow of any workman employed by the Government and killed in the discharge of duty, and grants to a workman during period of total disability a monthly payment of two-thirds of his wages and a less amount in the case of partial disability. Provision is also made for payment to dependent's, other than the widow, in case of death of a workman. CHAPTER XVII. THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION AT the entrance of Potomac Park, in Washington, stands one of the most beautiful structures ever erected in the West- ern Hemisphere, namely, the build- ing of the Pan-American Union. The structure and grounds repre- sent an investment of $1,100,000, of which the American republics con- tributed $250,000 and Dr. Andrew Carnegie $850,000. The architec- ture is an appropriate combination of the classical and Spanish renais- sance. A lofty vestibule opens into a typical Latin- American "patio," or courtyard, in the center of which is a beautiful fountain, while gorgeous parrots squawk around and trop- ical monkeys disport themselves in cages. Plants and flowers of the PAN-AMERICAN UNION, FRONT FACADE. WASHINGTON, D. C. Copyright by Munn & Co,. IDC. OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES rarest flora of tropical America are found everywhere, while under* the cornice are the coats-of-arms of the American republics and the names of men prominent in their history. The glass roof above is operated by electricity and can be closed at a moment's notice. In the rear of the patio is a wide corridor, now used for exhibits of Latin-American countries, and back of that is a large reading and reference room. The second floor is approached by two grand stairways and contains a broad corridor, or foyer, in which are suspended the national flags of the American republics. This foyer opens upon the "Hall of the Amer- icas," a large salon 100 feet in length and 70 feet in width. On this floor will also be found the Governing Board room and offices. In the rear of the main structure is a beautiful sunken garden, with a pool forming the central feature, and the building of the Pan-Amer- ican Annex forms the background. The tile effects are marvelous. It may well be asked what is the meaning of this magnificent build- ing? What is its history, organiza- tion and purpose? The Pan-American Union (for- merly known as the International Bureau of the American Republics) was established in the year 1890 in accordance with the resolutions passed at the first Pan-American conference, held at Washington in 1889-90, and presided over by Mr. Elaine, then United States Secre- tary of State. It was indorsed and continued by resolutions of the sec- ond conference at Mexico in 1901; the third, at Rio de Janeiro, in 1906, and the fourth, at Buenos Aires, in 1910. Its reorganization under the present administration dates practi- PATIO, PAN-AMERICAN UNION, WASHINGTON, P. C- THE PAN-AMERICAN UNION cally from January, 1907, following the third conference, which was at- tended by Elihu Root, then Secre- tary of State. The Pan-American Union is the international organization and office maintained by the twenty-one Amer- ican republics, as follows : Argen- tina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colom- bia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Salvador, United States, Uruguay and Vene- zuela. It is devoted to the develop- ment and advancement of commerce, friendly intercourse and good under- standing among these countries. It is supported by quotas contributed by each country, based upon the population. Its affairs are admin- istered by a director general and assistant director, elected by and responsible to a Governing Board, which is composed of the Secretary of State of the United States and the diplomatic representatives in Washington of the other American governments. These two executive officers are assisted by a staff of internattonal experts, statisticians, commercial specialists, editors, translators, compilers, librarians, clerks and stenographers. The Gov- erning Board holds regular meet- ings to consider the work of the Pan-American Union and to act upon the reports and recommenda- tions of the director general. This board in turn selects a supervising committee which considers matters not requiring the attention of the entire board. Appointments to the staff are made by the director gen- eral and the supervisory committee only after rigid competitive examina- tion of applicants. Although, being an international institution, the Pan- American Union is not under the rules of the United States Civil Service, its regulations covering ex- aminations and additions to its staff are even more strict than those of the Civil Service and usually re- quire an accurate and fluent knowl- edge of Spanish or Portuguese. Special pamphlets on the twenty Latin-American republics, with spe- cific information as to their form of government, industries, etc., have been issued and may be obtained by addressing the Director - General, Pan-American Union, Washington, D. C. THE "HALL OF THE AMEKICAS" OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCE* INDEX A Barytes 188 Accidents, Automobile 228 Battleships, Wireless on 389 Accidents, Mining Accidents, Railway 156, Aerological Observatory 195 158 413 363 Bell, Alexander Graham Bicycles Bill Washing Machine 56 208 217 297 Aeronautics, Military Aeronautics, National Advisory Corn- 290 589 Bills, Legislative Biological Survey Bismuth 458 556 184 Aeroplane, Mechanics of Aeroplane Squadron, Rolling Stock for 373 375 Blast Furnaces Blizzards Bombing Aeroplanes 215 419 379 Aeroplanes, Bombing Aeroplanes, Fighting Aeroplanes, Scouting Agricultural Implements Agricultural Population Agriculture Agriculture, Department of Agriculture. Intensive Aircraft, Records Airships 379 378 376 216 40 37 547 63 378 367 Borax Box Manufacture Brick Bridge, Hell Gate Bromine Buckwheat Buildings, Tall Bullion, Melting and Refining of . . . Butter Butter Churning 19o 80 190 151 194 45 210 309 213 60 Alaska 327 Alaskan Fisheries 71 c Aluminium 182 Cabinet, The 476 "America" American Commerce 353 231 Cables of the World Calcium Chloride 382 194 American Flag Animal Industry, Bureau of Antarctic Regions 347 555 10 Canning and Preserving Capitol at Washington 212 455 217 Anticyclones Antimony 416 184 Cars, Railway Cattle Raising Regions 147 59 Apples Architect. Supervising Treasury. . . . 50 503 Cattle Statistics Cement 60 190 Arctic Regions 10 5<>4 Area of the United States Area of United States and Foreign 19 Census, First Cheese 4S2 213 Countries 21 Arlington Radio Station Army, Appropriations 385 285 Chemistry, Bureau of Children's Bureau 556 574 Army, National Army, Organization 282 289 Chromic Iron Ore Cities of the United States 184 29 Army, Reserve Army. United States 284 281 Civil Service Commission Claims, Court of 5S6 590 Arsenic 194 Clay and Clay Products 190 Asbestos 194 Climate 422 Asphalt Assay Office. New York 195 309 Cloud Forms 410, Coal 420 186 Astronomy Astrophysical Observatory Attorney General 423 580 519 Coal Production. World's Const ;iiid Geodetic Survey 183 127 50*} Atmosphere, The 411 Cocoa. World's Production of 55 418 Cod 70 Automobile Industrv Aviation, Military ". 223 375 Coffee, World's Production of Coins, Counting, bv Machines 55 295 Coins, Legal Weight of 320 B Coins. Minting of 313 Balboa 4 Coke Oven By-Products 186 Balloon Sounding 412 College Enrollment 255 Balloons 364 Columbus, Discoveries of 2 Barley 44 Comets : 437 INDEX 595 Commerce, American 231 Commercial Preparedness 245 Comptroller of the Currency 494 Commissioner of Patents 540 Construction and Repair, Bureau of 536 Comptroller of the Treasury 498 Commerce, Department of 561 Consular Service 485 Copper . 180 Copper, World's Production of 197 Cordage 213 Corn 42 Cotton 47, 49 Cotton Goods 213 Cotton, World's Production of 48 Court of Claims, U. S 590 Crossties 80 Crossties Purchased 82 Crossties, W T ood for 82 Culebra Cut 117 Cultivation, World's Commercial. ... 39 Cusk 70 Cyclones 416 D Daguerre 207 Dairy Production, World's ( Declaration of Independence. . .486, 487 Defense, Council of National 585 Department of State 479 Derelicts, Destroying 142 Diamonds, World's Production of. . 197 Diesel, Dr 209 Dirigible Balloons 368 Dutch Possessions 13 Dye Plants 249 Dyestuffs 220 E Eads, James B 205 Earthquakes 9 Edison, Thomas A 198 Education 255, 544 Eiffel Tower Wireless 391 Electric Cars 217 Electrical Industry 217 Ellis Island 35, 501 Education 255, 544 Engraving and Printing, Bureau of 299, 499 Enlisted Men, Navy 272 Enlistments, Army 28 Entomology, Bureau of 556 Ericsson, John 2( Ethnology, Bureau of 579 Explosives 220 Exports and Imports 232, 23 Express Service 154 Families per Square Mile 24 Farm Products 38, 62 Federal Reserve Act 24S Federal Reserve Board 587 Federal Trade Commission . . . 248, 587 Feldspar 195 Felt Goods 213 Fertilizers 220 Fighting Aeroplanes 378 Fine Arts Commission 588 Fire Lookout 74 Fires, Forest ................... 86 Fish Commission Car ............. 69 Fish We Eat .................... 67 Fisheries, Bureau of ........... 72, 566 Fisheries of the World ........... 66 Fisheries Products .............. 68 Flag, Battle, of Lake Erie ........ 358 Flags, Trophy, of the U. S. Navy . . 357 Flax ........................... 50 Flour and Grist Mills ............ 212 Fluorspar .................... , . 190 Foghorn ........................ 138 Footwear ....................... 219 Foreign Trade Problems ......... 247 Forest Fires .................... 84 Forest Regions. Natural ......... 81 Forests and Forestry .......... 75, 555 Forests, National ............... 84 Freight Service, Railway ...... 152, 154 French Possessions .............. 13 Fuels .......................... 186 Fuller's Earth .................. 195 Gaillard Cut .................... 117 Garnet ......................... 195 Gas Industry ................... 221 Gas, Natural .................... 188 Catling, II. J .................... 206 Gems and Precious Stones ........ 195 General Staff Corps .............. 507 Geodetic Survey ................. 127 Geographical Discovery, Progress of .1, 11 Geological Survey ............... 119 Geographic Board. U. S .......... 588 German Possessions, Former ...... 13 Geysers ........................ 94 Glacier Park .................... 98 Glass .......................... 221 Gloves, Leather ................. 219 Glucose ................... ..... 222 Goethals, Colonel ................ 118 Gold ........................... 177 Gold Production, World's .......... 179 Good Roads and Bad ............ 103 Government Protection at Sea. ...: 135 Government Surveys ............. 119 Granite Production ............. 196 Graphite ...................... 195 Gravel ........................ 190 Great Britain's Possessions ....... 12 Greenbacks, How Made .......... 299 Guam ......................... 344 Gypsum ........................ 192 Haddock 67 Hake 71 Hail . 421 Halibut 67, 70 Halo Hats Hawaiian Islands Hay Health Service, U. S. Public Heavens Above Herring Hides and Skins Houses of Congress Hops Horses and Mules Hosiery 420 .213 330 46 500 423 70 64 455 54 60 213 House of Representatives 457 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES House of Congress 455 Howe, Elias, Jr 202 Humidity 419 Hydrographic Office 129 I Ice, Artificial 221 Illiteracy 257 Immigration 33, 34, 573 Imports and Exports 232 Inaugural Address, President Deliv- ering 464 Inaugural Procession 450 Indian Population 26 Industrial Preparedness 245 Insurance, War Risk 504 Intensive Agriculture 63 Interior, Department of the 539 Internal Revenue, Commission of. . 496 Interstate Commerce Commission.. 585 Inventors, Hired 204 Iron Ore and Iron 180 Iron Ore, Chromic 184 Iron, World's Production of 183 Irrigation (See Reclamation) Isochronic Distances of the World. . 346 Jupiter Justice, Department of. Jute 519 213 Knit Goods 213 Kodak, Autographic Patent 206 Labor, Department of 572 Labor Statistics, Bureau of 574 Land and Sea. Profiles of 6, 7 Land Office, General 544 Languages of the World 25 Laths 77 Laundries 222 Lead 182 Lead, World's Production of 197 Leather Industry 219 Legislative Halls 455 Library of Congress 261 Libraries 260 Lighthouses, Bureau of 135, 566 Lightning 418 Lightships 138 Lime 195 Limestone Production 196 Lincoln Highway 106 Linoleum 214 Live Stock 60 Livingstone 5 Lobsters 71 Locks, Panama 110,111,113 Locomotive, Powdered Coal Burning 151 Locomotives 147 Lumber Cut 76 Lumber Production 77 M Magnesite 195 Mail Cars 160 Maine, Ensign of the 362 Males and Females, Proportion of. 30 Manganese "V. .-.- 134 Manufactures '.' 211 Maps, Geologic 120 Marble Production 196 Mars 436 Maxim, Sir Hiram 208 Meat Packing ci Median Point 22 Medicine and Surgery, Bureau of. . 534 Men of Progress 201 Metallic Products, Miscellaneous . . . 184 Metals, Scrap 186 Meteors 437 Mica 196 Mileage, Railway, of the U. S 146 Military Aviation 375 Military Bureaus 511 Military Establishment 281 Militia, Strength of 284 Milk, Condensed 213 Milky Way 430 Mineral Industry of the U. S 177 Mineral Paints 196 Mines, Bureau of 191, 193, 544 Mining Accidents 195 Mint, Director of the 496 Minting of Coins 313 Mirage 421 Money, Destruction of Old 292 Money in Circulation 294 Money, Uncle Sam's 293 Monuments, National 101 Moon 434, 438 Motion Pictures in the Making.... 399 Motorcycles 217 Moving Picture Studio, First 409 Moving Pictures Under Water 398 Mules and Horses 60 Mussel 72 N National Museum National Parks, Our Nation, Heart of the Natural Gas Naturalization Nauen Wireless Station Navigation, Bureau of Navy, Cost of Navy, Department of the.... Navy, Enlisted Men Navy Expenditures Navy, The New Navy Increase Since 1903.... Navy, Secretary of the Naval Observatory Navy, Vessels of Nebulae Negro Population Newspaper Plant, Railway... Nickel ! Non-Metallic Products Notes Issued and Redeemed . . 576 95 449 188 574 393 ..528, 567 263 526 270 269 263 263 526 529 266 429 26 157 184 188 296 Oats 44 Occupations 34 35 Oilcloth . . '214 Oils, Vegetable, World's Production of 187 INDEX 597 Ore Handling, Mechanical 244 Organization of Government 478 Organs 222 Paints and Varnishes 220 Paints, Mineral 196 Panama Canal 109 Panama Canal Zone 345 Pan-American Union 591 Paper 219 Parcel Post 162 Parks, National, Our 95 Passenger Service, Railway 152, 154 Patent, Early 200 Patent Office 199, 540, 541 Patents Increasing 202 Peaches 54 Peary, Admiral 8 Peas 56 Pension Office 543 Petroleum 185, 187, 188 Philippine Islands 335 Phonographs 222 Phosphate Rock 192 Pianos 222 Pipe, Cast Iron 217 Planets 433 Plant Industry 555 Platinum 178 Poles 80 Pollock 70 Ponce de Leon 3 Population of the U. S 19 Population of the World 23 Population, Center of 20, 22 Porto Rico 341 Portuguese Possessions 13 Possessions, Our Non-Contiguous. . . 327 Postmaster General 522 Postage Stamps, Making 171 Postal Savings 165 Postal Service " 161 Post Office Department 522 Post Office Expenditures 168 Potash 192 Potatoes 45 Pottery Products 190 Power Development, Reclamation.. 91 Precious Stones, World's Production of 195, 197 Precipitation 421 Preparedness, Commercial and In- dustrial 245 President, Letter from the 172 President, The 405 Printing and Publishing 220 Printing Office. Government 582 Progress of Geographical Discovery. 11 Pulp. Wood 219 Purchases Made by U. S 240 uarry Industry 196 uicksilver 184 R Races of U. S 24 Races of the World 27 Radium 184 Railroads of the U. S 145 Railway Mall 166 Railway Wireless 387 Realm of the Air, The 411 Reclamation Service 87 Records, Aircraft 378 Religions of the World 31 Resources, National 173 Revenue, Protection of 321 Rice 50, 212 Roads, Good and Bad 103 Roads, Public, Office of 559 Rolling Mills 215 Roosevelt Dam 93 Rosin 221 Rubber Goods 221 Rubber, World's Production of 48 Rural Free Delivery 164 Rye 45 Safety First Train 147 Salt i4 Samoan Islands 344 Sand ij6 Sandstone Production 196 Saturn 432, 437 School Enrollment 255 Scouting Aeroplanes 376 Seal Fisheries . 71 Seal of the U. S 480 Seaplanes 380 Seasons, March of the 414 Senate Chamber . . . 456 Sheep 65 Sheep Raising Regions 59 Sleet 421 Shipbuilding '. . '. 217 Shipping Board 248 Ship Registry Act 248 Ship Wireless Stations 389 Silk 214 Silver ','. 178 Silver Production, World's 179 Skins and Hides 64 Sky Line, New York's , ' 33 Slate 196 Slaughtering and Meat Packing..! 212 Small Arms, Military 289 Smithsonian Institution 575 Smudge Pots 58 Smuggling 325 goap 221 Soapstone 196 South Pole Expedition ', 10 Standards, Bureau of 565 Stamps 162 Stamps, Manufacture of 304 Starch 222 Star Maps 439, 445 Stars 427 "St;\r Spangled Banner"..! !! 351 State, Department of 479 Steamboat Inspection Service... 569 Steam Cars 217 Steam Engineering, Bureau of. . 534 Steel Works 215 St. Elmo's Fire 418 Stockholders. Railway 150 Street Railways 153 Suffrage. Woman's Sugar sg Sugar, World's Production of 57 Sulphur ^94 698 OUR COUNTRY AND ITS RESOURCES Sulphuric Acid 194 Supreme Court 461 Surf Boat 141 Survey, Coast and Geodetic 127 Survey, Geological JJ.7 Survey, Hydrographic 129 Surveying, Romance of 125 Surveys, Government 119 Swine 65 Sword Fish 70 Tungsten 186 Turpentine 221 Twine 213 Uncle Sam's Autobiography 447 United States Possessions 13 Talc 196 Talking Machines 222 Tariff Commission 248 Tea, World's Production of 55 Teachers 258 Telegraphic Communications of the World 382 Telegraphy, Wireless 383 Telephony Without Wires 392 Telescopes 425 Territory, Acquisition of 21 Textiles 213 Thunderstorms 417 Tide Predictor 131 Tile and Brick 190 Tile Fish 72 Timber Cut by Species 79 Timber Regions of the World 78 Timber Supply 75 Tin 186 Tin and Terne Plate 217 Tin, World's Production of 197 Titanium 186 Tobacco 50, 52, 53 Tobacco Culture 53 Tobacco, World's Production of. ... 51 Tomato Plants 54 Tolls, Panama Canal 112 Topographic Work 11 Tornadoes 417 Track, Railway 146 Transportation 217 Treasury 293 Treasurer of the U. S 495 Treasury, Department of the 493 Treasury Receipts and Disburse- ments 298 Tree, Oldest 95 Zeppelin Airships Triangulation Survey , 126 Zinc V Vanadium Vegetable Oils, World's Production of 186 187 Vespucci, Amerigo Vocational Education Volcanoes of the World 3 259 9 W Wagons '. 217 War College, Army 508 War, Department of War Game. Army 500 510 War, Secretary of , . . . 500 Washington Monument Washington, the Nation's City Water Power on National Forests. . Weather Bureau Westinghouse, George Wheat 451 447 85 548 207 43 Whistle. Uncle Sam's White House ' Wilson, A. B 446 467 . 203 Wind Belts of the Earth Wine, World's Production of Wire Wireless. Railway 415 54 21(i 387 383 Woman's Suffrage Wood Preservation 32 82 Woolen and Worsted Goods Woolworth Building Workmen's Compensation, Federal. Wright Brothers 215 254 59H 363 Yards and Docks, Bureau of 531 Yosemite 100, 102 University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. V ID-URL OCT 01 199C AUGO 1