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CONTOUR MAP OK THE ATLANTIC 
 From Soundings and Temperature Observation* up to May, 1876. 
 
QLt)t boQaQc of tt)* "Challenger" 
 
 THE ATLANTIC 
 
 A PRELIMINARY ACCOUNT OF THE GENERAL RESULTS OF 
 
 THE EXPLORING VOYAGE OF H.M.S. "CHALLENGER" 
 
 DURING THE YEAR 1873 
 AND THE EARLY PART OF THE YEAR 1876 
 
 By SIR C. WYVILLE THOMSON 
 
 KNT, LL. D. , D.Sc, F.R.SS.L. & E., F.L.S., F.G.S., Etc. 
 
 REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH AND DIRECTOR OF 
 THE CIVILIAN SCIENTIFIC STAFF OF THE ' 1 CHALLENGER ' ' EXPEDITION 
 
 IN TWO VOLUMES 
 
 Vol. II. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 
 FRANKLIN SQUARE 
 
 1878 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 Final Departure from Bermudas. — Temperature Sounding near the Island. — Man- 
 ganese Concretions. — Gulf -weed. — Gnathophausia. — The General Aspect of the 
 Acores. — Island of Fayal. — Horta. — Island of Pico. — San Miguel. — Ponta Del- 
 gada. — Orange Cultivation. — Excursion to Furnas. — Sete-Cidades. — The Garden 
 of M. Jose do Canto. — A Religious Ceremony. — Arrival at Funchal Page 9 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures observed between Bermudas and Madeira. 58 
 Appendix B. — Table of Specific Gravities observed between Bermudas and Madeira . 60 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OP BRAZIL. 
 
 Return to Madeira. — The Black Coral. — Ophiacantha chelys. — Ophiomusium pulchel- 
 lum. — Ceratias uranoscopus. — The Island of San Vicente. — Porto Praya. — The 
 Island of San Iago. — A Red-coral Fishery. — The Guinea Current. — Balanoglossus. 
 — Luminosity of the Sea. — St. Paul's Rocks. — Fernando Noronha. — Low Bottom 
 Temperatures under the Equator. — Ceratotrochus diadema. — Pentacrinm Maclea- 
 ranus. — Dredging at Moderate Depths. — Arrival at Bahia 61 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures observed between Madeira and Bahia during 
 the months of July, August, and September, 18*73 116 
 
 Appendix B. — Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 500 fathoms, taken 
 between Madeira and Station CII. (Lat. 3° 8' N., Long. 14° 49' W.) 118 
 
 Appendix C. — Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 fathoms, taken 
 between Station CII. and Bahia 118 
 
 Appendix D. — Specific-gravity Observations taken between Madeira and Bahia dur- 
 ing the months of July, August, and September, 18*73 119 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 A Shower of Butterflies. — Bahia de Todos os Santos. — Excursion into the Forest. — 
 San Salvador. — Hospitality of the English Residents. — Dredging in Shallow Wa- 
 ter in the Bay. — A Case of Yellow Fever. — Fungia symmetrica. — Tristan d'Acun- 
 ha. — Inaccessible Island. — Story of the Stoltenhoffs. — The Birds of Inaccessible 
 Island. — The Habits of the Penguin. — Nightingale Island. — Subsequent History 
 of Tristan d'Acunha. — To the Cape of Good Hope 121 
 
 468S51 
 
iv 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures observed between Bahia and the Cape of Good 
 Hope Page 172 
 
 Appendix B. — Table of Serial Soundings down to 200 fathoms, taken between Bahia 
 and the Cape of Good Hope 173 
 
 Appendix C. — Specific-gravity Observations taken between Bahia and the Cape of 
 Good Hope during the Months of September and October, 1873 174 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 The Strait of Magellan. — Dredging in Shallow Water. — The Falkland Islands. — Their 
 Physical Features. — The Town of Stanley. — The Products and Commerce of the 
 Falklands. — The Balsam-bog. — The Tussock-grass. — A Peculiar Mode of Repro- 
 duction among the Echinoderms. — " Stone Rivers." — The Temperature Section 
 between the Falklands and the Mouth of the River Plate. — Montevideo. — Merid- 
 ional Section along the Central Ridge of the Atlantic. — Ascension. — An Island 
 under Naval Discipline. — Voyage to Porto Praya and Porto Grande. — Soundings 
 in the Eastern Trough of the Atlantic. — Vigo Bay. — Arrival at Spithead . . . 176 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures between the Falkland Islands and Tristan 
 d'Acunha 234 
 
 Appendix B. — Table of Temperatures between Tristan d'Acunha and the Acores 236 
 
 Appendix C. — Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 fathoms taken 
 in the South and North Atlantic in the Year 1876 238 
 
 Appendix D. — Specific-gravity Observations taken on the homeward voyage between 
 the Falkland Islands and Portsmouth 239 
 
 Appendix E. — Stations in the Atlantic where Observations were taken in 1876 . 243 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 Contour of the Bed of the Atlantic. — The Atlantic Ocean divided by a Series of 
 Ridges into Three Basins. — Nature of the Bottom. — Pelagic Foraminifera. — Vol- 
 canic Debris. — Products of the Decomposition of Pumice. — Distribution of Ocean 
 Temperature. — Laws regulating the Movements of the Upper Layers of the At- 
 lantic. — Corrections of Six's Thermometers. — Laws regulating the Movement of 
 Water in the Depths of the Atlantic. — Doctrine of " Continuous Barriers." — Dis- 
 tribution and Nature of the Deep-sea Fauna. — Universal Distribution of Living 
 Beings. — Causes modifying and restricting the Distribution of the Higher Forms. 
 — Relations of the Modern to the Ancient Faunae. — The Density of Sea-water. — 
 The Amount and Distribution of Carbonic Acid. — Of Oxygen 246 
 
 Appendix A. — The General Result of the Chemical and Microscopical Examination 
 of a Series of Twenty Samples of the Bottom from the Observing Stations on 
 the Section between Teneriffe and Sombrero 315 
 
 Appendix B. — Table showing the Amount of Carbonic Acid contained in Sea-water 
 at Various Stations in the Atlantic 327 
 
 Appendix C. — Table showing the Relative Frequency of the Occurrence of the Prin- 
 cipal Groups of Marine Animals at Fifty -two Stations at which Dredging or 
 Trawling was carried to Depths greater than 2000 Fathoms 328 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 WOOD-CUTS. 
 
 PIG. PAGE 
 
 1. Diagram constructed from Serial Sounding No. 59 10 
 
 2. Scalpellum Regium (sp. n.). Natural size. (No. 63) 11 
 
 3. Male of Scalpellum Regium. Twenty times the natural size. (No. 63) . . 14 
 
 4. Diagram showing the Relation between Depth and Temperature at Sta- 
 
 tion 69 . 19 
 
 5. Diagram showing the Relation between Depth and Temperature at Sta- 
 
 tion 71 ., 19 
 
 6. Gnathophausia Gigas, Von Willemoes-Suhm. Natural size. (No. 69) .... 20 
 
 7. Gnathophausia Zoea, Von Willemoes-Suhm. Natural size. (No. 73) ..... 21 
 
 8. Altingia Excelsa, in the Garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From 
 
 a Photograph) 31 
 
 9. Cryptomeria Japonica, in the Garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. 
 
 (From a Photograph) . 33 
 
 10. Araucaria Cookei, in the Garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From 
 
 a Photograph) 35 
 
 11. Orange-groves near Ponta Delgada. (From a Photograph) 37 
 
 12. Flabellum Alabastrum, Moseley. Slightly enlarged. (No. 78) 50 
 
 13. Curves constructed from the Serial Soundings at Stations 59, 69, 71, 
 
 and 82 54 
 
 14. Ceratotrochus Nobilis, Moseley. Slightly enlarged. (No. 78) 55 
 
 15. Diagram constructed from Serial Sounding No. 82 56 
 
 16. Ophiacantha Chelys (sp. n.). Dorsal aspect of the disk. Four times the 
 
 natural size. (No. 87) 62 
 
 17. Ophiacantha Chelys (sp. n.). Oral aspect of the disk. Four times the 
 
 natural size. (No. 87) 63 
 
 18. Ophiomusium Pulchellum (sp. n.). Dorsal aspect of the disk. Seven times 
 
 the natural size. (No. 87) 65 
 
 19. Ophiomusium Pulchellum (sp. n.). Oral aspect of the disk. Seven times 
 
 the natural size. (No. 87) 66 
 
 20. Ceratias Uranoscopus, Murray. Natural size. (No. 89) 67 
 
 21. Pyrocystis Noctiluca, Murray. From the surface in the Guinea Current. 
 
 One hundred times the natural size 82 
 
 22. Pyrocystis Fusiformis, Murray. From the surface in the Guinea Current. 
 
 One hundred times the natural size 83 
 
vi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG. PAGE 
 
 23. Bathycrintjs Aldrichianus (sp. n.). Three times the natural size. (No. 
 
 106) 86 
 
 24. Hyocrinus Bethellianus (sp. n.). About twice the natural size. (No. 
 
 106) 89 
 
 25. Hyocrinus Bethellianus. About four times the natural size. (Station 
 
 147) 90 
 
 26. Disk op Hyocrinus Bethellianus. Eight times the natural size 91 
 
 27. The Arrangement of the Soft Parts in Hyocrinus Bethellianus. Eight 
 
 times the natural size 92 
 
 28. Breeding -place of the Noddy, St. Paul's Rocks. (From a Photo- 
 
 graph) 94 
 
 29. St. Paul's Rocks. (From a Photograph) 98 
 
 30. Ceratotrochus Diadema, Moseley. Once and a half the natural size. (No. 
 
 120) • 110 
 
 31. Pentacrinus Maclearanus (sp. n.). Slightly enlarged. (No. 122) 112 
 
 32. Diagram op the Vertical Distribution op Temperature at Station 129. 130 
 
 33. Fungia Symmetrica, Pourtales. Three times the natural size. (No. 
 
 133) 132 
 
 34. The Settlement op " Edinburgh," Tristan d'Acunha. (From a Photo- 
 
 graph) 140 
 
 35. Cyclopean Architecture, Tristan Island. (From a Photograph) 143 
 
 36. Water-fall, Inaccessible Island. (From a Photograph) 148 
 
 37. Group op Rock-hoppers, Inaccessible Island. (From a Photograph) .... 158 
 
 38. Cladodactyla Crocea, Lesson. Stanley Harbor, Falkland Islands. Nat- 
 
 ural size 188 
 
 39. Psolus Ephippiper (sp. n.). Corinthian Harbor, Heard Island. Three 
 
 times the natural size 192 
 
 40. Psolus Ephippifer. Some of the plates of the marsupium removed. Three 
 
 times the natural size 193 
 
 41. Goniocidaris Canaliculata, A. Agassiz. Stanley Harbor. Twice the nat- 
 
 ural size 194 
 
 42. Cidaris Nutrix (sp. n.). Balfour Bay, Kerguelen Island. Natural size . . 197 
 
 43. Hemiaster Philiprti, Gray. Accessible Bay, Kerguelen Island. Twice the 
 
 natural size 199 
 
 44. Hemiaster Philippii. The apical portion of the test of the female seen 
 
 from within. Slightly enlarged 200 
 
 45. Hemiaster Philippii. The apical portion of the test of the male seen from 
 
 within. Slightly enlarged 200 
 
 46. Hemiaster Philippii. The arrangement of the eggs in one of the marsu- 
 
 pial recesses. Five times the natural size 201 
 
 47. Leptychaster Kerguelenensis, E. Smith. Off Cape Maclear, Kerguelen 
 
 Island. Twice the natural size 203 
 
 48. Hymenaster Nobilis (sp. n.). Southern Sea. Half the natural size 206 
 
 49. Hymenaster Nobilis. The marsupial tent with the valves closed. Twice 
 
 the natural size 208 
 
 50. Ophiocoma ? Vivipara, Ljungman, sp. Twice the natural size. (No. 
 
 149) . . 209 
 
 51. Hastigerina Murrayi (sp. n.). From the surface. Fifty times the nat- 
 
 ural size 250 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. vii 
 
 KIG. PAGE 
 
 52. Hastigerina Murrayi (sp. n.). From the surface. Ten times the natural 
 
 size 252 
 
 53. A Page op the Temperature Curve-book, for Station 325 263 
 
 54. Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature at Station 112. 272 
 
 55. Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature at Station 129. 274 
 
 56. Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature at Station 327. 274 
 
 57. Diagram showing the Effect of a "Continuous Barrier" on Ocean Tem- 
 
 perature 277 
 
 58. Challengeria. Four hundred times the natural size 292 
 
 59. Forms of the Challengerida 292 
 
 60. Flabellum Apertum, Moseley. Natural size v . . . 295 
 
 61. Flabellum Angulare, Moseley. Natural size 295 
 
 62. Chauliodus Sloanii. From the upper water. One-third the natural size. 300 
 
 VIGNETTES. 
 
 Costume of the Inhabitants of San Miguel 48 
 
 A Catamaran, Fernando Noronha 57 
 
 Penguins at Home 171 
 
 Irrigation, Porto Praya 231 
 
 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 plate To face page 
 
 XV. — The Track of the Ship from Bermudas to Madeira 14 
 
 XVI. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 Bermudas and Madeira 18 
 
 XVII. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of June, 1873 23 
 
 XVIII. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of July, 1873 50 
 
 XIX. — The Track of the Ship from Madeira to Station 102 64 
 
 XX. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 Madeira and Station 102 76 
 
 XXI. — The Track of the Ship from Station 102 to San Salvador 82 
 
 XXII. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 Station 102 and Pernambuco 87 
 
 XXIII. — The "Challenger" at St. Paul's Rocks 96 
 
 XXIV. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of August, 1873. . . 102 
 XXV. — Fernando Noronha 108 
 
 XXVI. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of September, 1873. 124 
 
 XXVII. — The Track of the Ship from San Salvador to the Cape of Good 
 
 Hope... 128 
 
 XXVIII. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 San Salvador and the Cape of Good Hope 132 
 
 XXIX. — The Island of Tristan d'Acunha 138 
 
 XXX. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of October, 1873 . . 156 
 
 XXXI. — Nightingale Island 164 
 
viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 plate To face page 
 XXXII. — Chart of the Tristan d'Acunha Group 166 
 
 XXXIII. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of November, 
 
 1873 168 
 
 XXXIV. — The Track of the Ship from the Falkland Islands to the Me- 
 
 ridian of Tristan d'Acunha 180 
 
 XXXV. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 the Falkland Islands and Lobos Island 198 
 
 XXXVI. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of February, 
 
 1876 214 
 
 XXXVII. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 Lobos Island and Tristan d'Acunha 216 
 
 XXXVIII. — The Track of the Ship from Tristan d'Acunha to Station 
 
 350 222 
 
 XXXIX. — Diagram of the Vertical Distribution of Temperature between 
 
 Tristan d'Acunha and Station 348 228 
 
 XL. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of March, 1876.. 248 
 XLI. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of April, 1876... 282 
 XLII. — Meteorological Observations for the Month of May, 1876.... 306 
 
 \ 
 
THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 Final Departure from Bermudas. — Temperature Sounding near the Island. — Scalpel- 
 lum regium. — Manganese Concretions. — Gulf -weed. — Gnathophausia. — The Gen- 
 eral Aspect of the Acores. — The Island of Fayal. — Horta. — The Island of Pico. 
 — San Miguel. — Ponta Delgada. — Orange Cultivation. — An Excursion to Furnas. 
 — Sete-Cidades. — The Garden of M. Jose do Canto. — A Religious Ceremony. — 
 Flabellum alabastrum. — Ceratotrochus nobilis. — Arrival at Funchal. 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures observed between Bermudas and Madeira. 
 Appendix B. — Table of Specific Gravities observed between Bermudas and Madeira. 
 
 We left Bermudas on Thursday, the 12th of June, for the 
 Acores. His Excellency Major-general Lefroy, C.B., F.R.S., 
 governor of the island, with his private secretary (Captain 
 Trench), and Captain Aplin, R.N., Captain Superintendent of 
 the Dock-yard, and a party of ladies, came on board in the aft- 
 ernoon ; and we bid farewell with great regret to the friends 
 from whom we had received such unvarying kindness during 
 our stay. At half -past five we steamed out of the Camber, and 
 passed among the reefs to Murray's anchorage, on the north- 
 east side of the island, where we anchored for the night. Next 
 morning we proceeded through the narrows, and early in the 
 forenoon, having seen the last of the beautiful though treacher- 
 ous purple shadows in the bright-green waters of Bermudas, we 
 set all plain sail, and stood on our course to Fayal. In the aft- 
 ernoon we got up steam and sounded, lat. 32° 37 / N., long. 64° 
 
THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 21' W., in 1500 fathoms, with, the 
 usual gray-white chalky bottom which 
 surrounds the reefs. A serial tem- 
 perature sounding indicated a distri- 
 bution of temperature very similar to 
 that at Station LY. to the north of 
 Bermudas ; the warm band to a depth 
 of 350 fathoms was still very marked 
 (Fig. 1). 
 
 Our position at noon on the 15th 
 was, lat. 33° 41' K, long. 61° 28' W., 
 1610 miles from Fayal. 
 
 On the morning of the 16th we 
 sounded in 2575 fathoms, with a bot- 
 tom of reddish ooze containing many 
 foraminifera. The bottom tempera- 
 ture was 1°'5. A small, rather heavy 
 trawl, with a beam 11^ feet in length, 
 was put over in the morning; but 
 when it was hauled in, about live in 
 the afternoon, it was found that it had 
 not reached the bottom. This was 
 the first case of failure with the trawl ; 
 it was probably caused by the drift of 
 the ship being somewhat greater than 
 we supposed. The net contained a 
 specimen of one of the singular and 
 beautiful fishes belonging to the Ster- 
 noptychidw, an aberrant family of the 
 Physostomi, distinguished by having 
 on some part of the body ranges of 
 spots or glands producing a phosphor- 
 escent secretion. The surface of the 
 body is in most of the species devoid 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA, 
 
 11 
 
 of scales, but in lieu of these the surface of the skin is broken 
 up into hexagonal or rectangular arese, separated from one an- 
 other by dark lines, and covered with brilliant silvery pigment 
 dashed with various shades of bronze, or green, or steel-blue. 
 We have taken, in all, five or six species of these fishes in the 
 net when dredging or trawling. They certainly, however, do 
 not come from the bottom ; it seems probable that they are 
 caught in the net on its passage at some little distance below 
 the surface, where there is reason to believe that there is a con- 
 siderable development of a peculiar pelagic fauna. 
 
 Fig. 2.—Scalpellum regium, Wyvili.e Thomson. Natural size. a. Males lodged within the 
 edge of the scutum. (No. 63.) 
 
 On the 17th the trawl was lowered at seven in the morning, 
 and in the afternoon a sounding was taken in 2850 fathoms. 
 
12 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 Several examples of a large and handsome species of the genus 
 Scalpellum came up in the trawl, a few still adhering to some 
 singular-looking concretionary masses which they brought up 
 along with them. 
 
 Scalpellum regium (Fig. 2) is one of the largest of the known 
 living species of the genus. The extreme length of a full-sized 
 specimen of the female is 60 mm., of which 40 mm. are occu- 
 pied by the capitulum and 20 mm. by the peduncle. The capit- 
 ulum is much compressed, 25 mm. in width from the occludent 
 margin of the scutum to the back of the carina. The valves 
 are 14 in number ; they are thick and strong, with the lines of 
 growth strongly marked, and they fit very closely to one an- 
 other, in most cases slightly overlapping. When living, the ca- 
 pitulum is covered with a pale-brown epidermis, with scattered 
 hairs of the same color. 
 
 The scuta are slightly convex, nearly once and a half as long 
 as broad. The upper angle is considerably prolonged upward, 
 and, as in most fossil species, the centre of calcification is at 
 the upper apex. A defined line runs downward and backward 
 from the apex to the angle between the lateral and basal mar- 
 gins. The occludent margin is almost straight; there is no 
 depression for the adductor muscle, and there is no trace of 
 notches or grooves along the occludent margin for the recep- 
 tion of the males; the interior of the valve is quite smooth. 
 The terga are large, almost elliptical in. shape, the centre of cal- 
 cification at the upper angle. The carina is a handsome plate, 
 very uniformly arched, with the umbo placed at the apex ; two 
 lateral ridges and a slight median ridge run from the umbo to 
 the basal margin ; the lower part of the valve widens out rapid- 
 ly, and the whole is deeply concave. The rostrum, as in Scal- 
 pellum vulgare, is very minute, entirely hidden during life by 
 the investing membrane. The upper latera are triangular, the 
 upper angle curving rather gracefully forward ; the umbo of 
 growth is apical. 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 13 
 
 The rostral latera are long transverse plates lying beneath 
 the basal margins of the scuta. The carinal latera are large 
 and triangular, with the apex curved forward very much like 
 the upper ]atera, and the infra-median latera are very small, 
 but in form and direction of growth nearly the same. 
 
 The peduncle is round in section and strong, and covered 
 with a felting of light-brown hair. The scales of the peduncle 
 are imbricated and remarkably large, somewhat as in 8. orna- 
 tum, Dak win. About three, or at most four, scales pass entire- 
 ly round the peduncle. The base of attachment is very small, 
 the lower part of the peduncle contracting rapidly. Some of 
 the specimens taken were attached to the lumps of clay and 
 manganese concretions, but rather feebly, and several of them 
 were free, and showed no appearance of having been attached. 
 There is no doubt, however, that they had all been more or less 
 securely fixed, and had been pulled from their places of attach- 
 ment by the trawl. On one lump of clay there were one ma- 
 ture specimen and two or three young ones, some of these only 
 lately attached. The detailed anatomy of this species will be 
 given hereafter, but the structure of the soft parts is much the 
 same as in Scalpellum vulgare. 
 
 In two specimens dissected there was no trace of a testis or 
 of an intromittent organ, while the ovaries were well devel- 
 oped. I conclude, therefore, that the large attached examples 
 are females, corresponding, in this respect, with the species oth- 
 erwise also most nearly allied, S. omatum. 
 
 In almost all the specimens which were procured by us, sev- 
 eral males, in number varying from five to nine, were attached 
 within the occludent margins of the scuta, not imbedded jn the 
 chitinous border of the valve, or even in any way in contact 
 with the shell, but in a fold of the body-sac quite free from 
 the valve. They were ranged in rows, sometimes stretching — 
 as in one case where there were seven males on one side — along 
 the whole of the middle two-thirds of the edge of the tergum. 
 
14 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 The male of Scalpellum regium (Fig. 3) is the simplest in 
 structure of these parasitic males which have yet been observed. 
 
 It is oval and sac-like, about 2 mm. in length by 
 9 mm. in extreme width. There is an open- 
 ing at the upper extremity which usually ap- 
 pears narrow, like a slit, and this is surround- 
 ed by a dark, well-defined, slightly raised ring. 
 The antennae are placed near the posterior ex- 
 tremity of the sac, and resemble closely in 
 form those of S. vulgare. The whole of the 
 sac, with the exception of a small bald patch 
 near the point of attachment, is covered with 
 fine chitinous hairs arranged in transverse 
 rings. There is not the slightest rudiment of 
 a valve, and I could detect no trace of a jointed 
 thorax, although several specimens were ren- 
 dered very transparent by boiling in caustic 
 potash. There seems to be no oesophagus nor 
 stomach, and the whole of the posterior two-thirds of the body 
 in the mature specimens was filled with a lobulated mass of 
 sperm-cells. Under the border of the mantle of one female 
 there were the dead and withered remains of five males, and 
 in most cases one or two of the males were not fully devel- 
 oped ; several appeared to be mature, and one or two were dead 
 — empty, dark-colored chitine sacs. 
 
 The concretionary masses to which the barnacles adhered 
 were irregular in form and size. One, for example, to which a 
 large Scalpellum was attached, was irregularly oval in shape, 
 about three centimetres in length and two in width. The sur- 
 face was mammillated and finely granulated, and of a dark- 
 brown color, almost black. A fracture showed a semi-crystal- 
 line structure ; the same dark-brown material arranged in an 
 obscurely radiating manner from the centre, and mixed with 
 a small quantity of grayish-white clayey matter. This nodule 
 
 Fig. 3.— Male of Scal- 
 pellum regium. 
 Twenty times the 
 natural size. (No 63.) 
 
Plate XV. The track of the Ship from Bermudas to Madeira. 
 
chap. I.] BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 15 
 
 was examined by Mr. Buchanan, and found to contain, like the 
 nodules dredged in 2435 fathoms at Station XVL, 700 miles to 
 the east of Sombrero, a large percentage of peroxide of manga- 
 nese. Some other concretionary lumps were of a gray color, 
 but all of them contained a certain proportion of manganese, 
 and they seemed to be gradually changing into nodules of py- 
 rolusite or wad by some process of infiltration or substitution. 
 
 On Wednesday, June 18th, we resumed our course with a 
 fine breeze, force 5 to 7, from the south-east. In this part of 
 our voyage we were again greatly struck with the absence of 
 the higher forms of animal life. Not a sea-bird was to be seen, 
 with the exception of a little flock of Mother Carey's chickens, 
 here apparently always Thalassidroma Wilsoni, which kept 
 playing round the ship on the watch for food, every now and 
 then concentrating upon some peculiarly rich store of offal as it 
 passed astern, and staying by it while the ship went on for a 
 quarter of a mile, fluttering above the water and daintily touch- 
 ing it with their feet as they stooped and picked up the float- 
 ing crumbs, and then rising and scattering in the air to over- 
 take us and resume their watch. 
 
 The sea itself in the bright weather, usually under a light 
 breeze, was singularly beautiful — of a splendid indigo-blue of 
 varying shades as it passed from sunlight into shadow, flecked 
 with curling white crests ; but it was very solitary : day after 
 day went by without a single creature — shark, porpoise, dol- 
 phin, or turtle — being visible. Some gulf -weed passed from 
 time to time, and bunches of a species of Fucus, either F. nodo- 
 sus or a very nearly allied form, evidently living and growing, 
 and participating in the wandering and pelagic habits of Sar- 
 gassum. The floating islands of the gulf -weed, with which we 
 had become very familiar, as we had now nearly made the cir- 
 cuit of the " Sargasso Sea," are usually from a couple of feet 
 to two or three yards in diameter, sometimes much larger : we 
 have seen, on one or two occasions, fields several acres in ex- 
 
16 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 tent, and such expanses are probably more frequent nearer the 
 centre of its area of distribution. 
 
 They consist of a single layer of feathery bunches of the 
 weed {Sargassum bacciferum), not matted, but floating nearly 
 free of one another, only sufficiently entangled for the mass to 
 keep together. Each tuft has a central brown thread-like 
 branching stem studded with round air-vesicles on short stalks, 
 most of those near the centre dead, and coated with a beauti- 
 ful netted white polyzoon. After a time vesicles so incrusted 
 break off, and where there is much gulf -weed the sea is studded 
 with these little separate white balls. A short way from the 
 centre, toward the ends of the branches, the serrated willow-like 
 leaves of the plant begin ; at first brown and rigid, but becom- 
 ing farther on in the branch paler, more delicate, and more 
 active in their vitality. The young fresh leaves and air- vesicles 
 are usually ornamented with the stalked vases of a Campanu- 
 laria. The general color of the mass of weed is thus olive in 
 all its shades, but the golden olive of the young and growing 
 branches greatly predominates. This color is, however, greatly 
 broken up by the delicate branching of the weed, blotched with 
 the vivid white of the incrusting polyzoon, and riddled by 
 reflections from the bright -blue water gleaming through the 
 spaces in tlie net-work. The general effect of a number of such 
 fields and patches of weed, in abrupt and yet most harmonious 
 contrast with the lanes of intense indigo which separate them, 
 is very pleasing. 
 
 These floating islands have inhabitants peculiar to them, and 
 I know of no more perfect example of protective resemblance 
 than that which is shown in the gulf -weed fauna. Animals 
 drifting about on the surface of the sea, with such scanty cover 
 as the single broken layer of the sea -weed, must be exposed 
 to exceptional danger from the sharp-eyed sea-birds hovering 
 above them, and from the hungry fishes searching for prey be- 
 neath ; but one and all of these creatures imitate in such an ex- 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 17 
 
 traordinaiy way, both in form and coloring, their floating hab- 
 itat, and consequently one another, that we can well imagine 
 their deceiving both the birds and the fishes. Among the most 
 curious of the gulf-weed animals is the grotesque little fish An- 
 tennarius marmoratus (Fig. 44, vol. i., p. 188), which finds its 
 nearest English ally in the "fishing frog" (Lojphius piscatori- 
 us), often thrown up on the coast of Britain, and conspicuous 
 for the disproportionate size of its head and jaws, and for its 
 general ugliness and rapacity. JSTone of the examples of the 
 gulf -weed Antennarius which we have found are more than 50 
 mm. in length, and we are still uncertain whether such individ- 
 uals have attained their full size. It is this little fish which 
 constructs the singular nests of gulf-weed, bound in a bundle 
 with cords of a viscid secretion, which have been already men- 
 tioned as abundant in the path of the Gulf-stream. 
 
 Scillwa jpelagica, one of the shell-less mollusca, is also a fre- 
 quent inhabitant of the gulf -weed. A little short-tailed crab 
 (Nautilograjpsus minutus) swarms on the weed and on every 
 floating object, and it is odd to see how the little creature usu- 
 ally corresponds in color with whatever it may happen to in- 
 habit. These gulf-weed animals, fishes, mollusca, and crabs, do 
 not simply imitate the colors of the gulf -weed ; to do so would 
 be to produce suspicious patches of continuous olive ; they are 
 all blotched over with bright opaque white, the blotches gener- 
 ally rounded, sometimes irregular, but at a little distance abso- 
 lutely undistinguishable from the patches of Membranipora on 
 the weed. Mr. Murray, who has the general superintendence 
 of our surface work, brings in curious stories of the habits of 
 the little crabs. He observes that although every floating thing 
 upon the surface is covered with them, they are rarely met with 
 swimming free, and that whenever they are dislodged and re- 
 moved a little way from their resting-place they immediately 
 make the most vigorous efforts to regain it. The other day he 
 amused himself teasing a crab which had established itself on 
 
 II.— 2 
 
18 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 the crest of a Physalia. Again and again he picked it off and 
 put it on the surface at some distance, but it always turned at 
 once to the Physalia and struck out, and never rested until it 
 had clambered up into its former quarters. 
 
 On Thursday, the 19th, we sounded in 2750 fathoms in a 
 gray mud containing many foraminifera. Position of the ship 
 at noon, lat. 35° 29' K, long. 50° 53' W. 
 
 The wind now gradually freshened, and for the next three 
 days we went on our course with a fine breeze, force from 4 to 
 7, from the southward, sounding daily at a depth of about 2700 
 fathoms, with a bottom of reddish-gray ooze. On Tuesday, the 
 24th, the trawl was put over in 2175 fathoms, lat. 38° 3' K, 
 long. 39° 19 / W., about 500 miles from the Acores. As in most 
 of the deep trawls on gray mud, a number of the zocecia of del- 
 icate brandling polyzoa w T ere entangled in the net. One of 
 these on this occasion was very remarkable from the extreme 
 length (4 to 5 mm.) of the pedicels on which its avicularia were 
 placed. Another very elegant species was distinguished by the 
 peculiar sculpture of the cells, reminding one of those of some 
 of the more ornamented Lejpralim. 
 
 On Wednesday, the 25th, a serial sounding (Fig. 4) showed 
 that the layer of warm water which envelops Bermudas was 
 gradually thinning out and disappearing, and a sounding on the 
 27th (Fig. 5) brought out the same result even more clearly, the 
 isotherm of 16° C, which at Station LIX. was at a depth of 330 
 fathoms, having now risen to 50 fathoms below the surface. 
 
 On Monday, the 30th of June, we sounded in 1000 fathoms, 
 about 114 miles westward from Fayal. The dredge was put 
 over early in the forenoon, and came up half filled with a gray 
 ooze with a large proportion of the dead shells of pteropods, 
 many foraminifera, and pebbles of pumice. Many animal forms 
 of great interest were found entangled in the swabs, or sifted 
 out of the mud. A schizopod crustacean of large size, and 
 great beauty of form and brilliancy of coloring, came up in this 
 
PLATE X VI.— DIAGRAM OF THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTIO 
 
)F TEMPERATURE BETWEEN BERMUDAS AND MADEIRA. 
 
Fig. C>.—Gnathophausia yigas, Von Willemoes-Soum. Natural size. (No. 09.) 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 21 
 
 haul. Dr. von Willemoes-Suhm regards it as congeneric with 
 the species taken at Station LXIX. at a depth of 2200 fathoms ; 
 and as these crustaceans are among our most interesting acqui- 
 sitions during the voyage between Bermudas and the Acores, I 
 will abstract a brief description of them from his notes. 
 
 The two crustaceans for whose reception Dr. von Willemoes- 
 Suhm proposes to establish the genus Gnathophausia, present 
 characters which have hitherto been found partly in schizopods 
 and partly in phyllopods, but not combined in the same animal. 
 They are. however, essentially schizopods, and have much in 
 common with Lophog aster, a genus described in great detail by 
 the late Professor Sars. It is proposed to refer Gnathophausia 
 to the family Lophogastrim, which must be somewhat modi- 
 fied and expanded for its reception. 
 
 In Gnathophausia the dorsal shield covers the thoracic seg- 
 ments of the body, but it is unconnected with the last five of 
 these. The shield is prolonged anteriorly into a spiny rostrum. 
 The stalked eyes are fairly developed in the ordinary position. 
 There is an auxiliary eye on each of the maxillse of the second 
 pair. 
 
 The two species of the genus are thus distinguished : G. 
 gigas, n. sp. (Fig. 6). Scale of the outer antenna with five 
 teeth ; dorsal shield with the outer angles of its posterior bor- 
 
 Fig. 7 — Gnathophausia Zo'ea, Von Willemoes-Suhm. Natural size. (No. 73.) 
 
 der produced into spines : no posterior spine in the middle 
 line ; length 142 mm. Of this species one specimen was pro- 
 cured from a depth of 2200 fathoms with a bottom of globige- 
 rina ooze at Station LXIX., 400 miles to the west of the Acores. 
 Gnathophausia Zo'ea (Fig. 7) has the scale of the outer an- 
 
22 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 tenna with one tooth ; a long central spine on the posterior 
 border of the dorsal shield, but no lateral spines ; length 60 mm. 
 A single specimen of this species occurred (Station LXXIIL). 
 On comparing the figures of these two species and of their ana- 
 tomical details with those of Lophogaster given by Sars, one is 
 struck by their great general similarity ; but there are charac- 
 ters presented by the new genus, particularly in connection with 
 the dorsal shield, which not only entirely separate it from Lo- 
 phogaster, but enlarge our views on the whole schizopod group. 
 In both species the shield is sculptured by ridges traversing it in 
 different directions, and in both there is a long spiny rostrum ; 
 but this shield is merely a soft duplicature of the skin con- 
 nected with the body only anteriorly, and leaving five thoracic 
 segments entirely free. In the structure of the shield and in 
 its mode of attachment, Gnathophausia has the greatest resem- 
 blance to Apus among all crustaceans, but it differs from it 
 widely in other respects. JYebalia is the only schizopod in 
 which the carapace is not connected with the posterior thoracic 
 segments, but in that genus the form of the carapace is totally 
 different, and the genera are otherwise in no way nearly related. 
 Neither the antennae, nor the scales, nor the parts of the mouth, 
 present any marked differences from those of Zophogaster, with 
 the exception >}f the second maxillae. These, with nearly the 
 same form as in the Norwegian genus, bear a pair of accessory 
 eyes. Such eyes are well known at the base of the thoracic and 
 even of the abdominal limbs in the Euphausid^e, a family with 
 which the Lophogastrim: have otherwise nothing in common, 
 but hitherto they have not been met with in any other animal 
 on any of the manducatory organs. 
 
 Of the eight pairs of legs seven are ambulatory, only the first 
 pair is, as in Zophogaster, transformed into maxillipeds. The 
 gills are arborescent, and attached to the bases of the legs. The 
 abdomen and its appendages scarcely differ from those of Lopho- 
 gaster. We find here also that the last segment is apparently 
 
Plate XVII, Meteorological 
 
 N Barometer 
 
 ft 
 
 BiyBulb Thermometer 
 
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 It 
 
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 1 32223222 
 
 I dill All 
 
 ZS2 
 
 28- 
 
rrvations for the month of June, 1873. 
 
 Bulb Thermometer 
 
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CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 23 
 
 divided into two. This would indicate an approach to such 
 forms as NebaUa, which has nine abdominal segments, or, at all 
 events, a tendency to a multiplication of segments which, if re- 
 ally existing, would scarcely allow the association of the genus 
 with the true schizopods. 
 
 The weather was remarkably fine. During the day the isl- 
 and of Flores was visible like a cloud on the horizon about fifty 
 miles to the northward. As our sounding was comparatively 
 shallow, our position was probably on a southern extension of 
 the rise which culminates northward in Flores and Corvo. One 
 of the most remarkable differences between the Acores and 
 Bermudas is that, while Bermudas springs up, an isolated peak, 
 from a great depth, the Acores seem to be simply the highest 
 points of a great plateau-like elevation, which extends for up- 
 ward of a thousand miles from west to east, and appears to be 
 continuous with a belt of shallow water stretching to Iceland in 
 the north, and connected probably with the " Dolphin Rise " to 
 the southward — a plateau which in fact divides the North At- 
 lantic longitudinally into two great valleys, an eastern and a 
 western. The three previous soundings, the first 330 miles 
 from Fayal, had already shown that we were passing over the 
 gradual ascent ; and this dredging, although not very fruitful 
 in results, gave indications, by the presence of some compara- 
 tively shallow-water northern species, of a northern extension 
 of its conditions. 
 
 Although the two remote little archipelagoes out in the At- 
 lantic have many things in common, the first impression of the 
 Acores is singularly different from that of Bermudas. Long 
 before the white cottages, straggling in broken lines almost 
 round the islands on the top of the sea-cliff, or grouped in vil- 
 lages round their little churches — white, quaintly edged with 
 black, like mourning envelopes — in the mouths of richly wood- 
 ed ravines, have become visible, the eye has been dwelling with 
 pleasure on the bold outline of the land, running up everywhere 
 
24 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 into magnificent ridges and pinnacles, and has sometimes been 
 almost startled by the sudden unveiling of a majestic peak 
 through a rift in the clouds far up in the sky. 
 
 As the islands draw nearer, the hazy blues and purples give 
 place to vivid shades of green, and these, at first blending and 
 indistinct, gradually resolve themselves into a rich and luxuri- 
 ant cultivation, filling up the valleys with dense woods of pine 
 and sweet chestnut, covering the slopes wherever it is possible 
 to work with orange-groves, vineyards, and fields of maize and 
 wheat ; and, even where work is scarcely possible, mitigating 
 the nearly precipitous cliffs, and rendering them available by 
 means of artificial terraces and slopes. 
 
 The Acores are situated between lat. 39° 45' and 36° 50' K, 
 and long. 25° and 31° 20' W. They consist of three groups — 
 two small islands, Flores and Corvo, to the extreme north-west ; 
 Fayal and Pico, separated by a narrow and shallow channel and 
 forming geologically one elevation, in the centre ; and associated 
 with these, spreading to the north-eastward, San Jorge, Terceira 
 (the former seat of government), and Graciosa ; while the third 
 group, nearly a couple of hundred miles to the south-westward, 
 consists of San Miguel, the richest and most important of the 
 islands, and the seat of the present capital ; Santa Maria ; and 
 two curious little patches of naked rocks, the Formigas and Dol- 
 labarat. The climate of the Acores is mild and equable. In 
 summer they are touched by the south-east trades, or rather 
 they are just in the fine-weather edge of the variables. In win- 
 ter they are subject to heavy gales from the south-west. Their 
 climate is doubtless influenced to a certain extent by the south- 
 ern deflection of the Gulf -stream, and they are near the north- 
 ern border of the Sargasso Sea. The mean annual temperature 
 of Ponta Delgada, in San Miguel, is 17°'67 C, 0°'9 higher than 
 that of Palermo, 1 0, 4 lower than that of Malaga, and 0°*6 lower 
 than that of Funchal. The mean winter temperature of Ponta 
 Delgada is 13°'05 C, l°-8 higher than that of Palermo, and 2°'7 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 25 
 
 lower than that of Funchal ; and the mean summer temperature 
 is 20°-67, 1°*3 lower than that of Palermo, and 0°*2 lower than 
 that of Funchal. The mean temperature of the warmest month 
 at San Miguel is 22°'67 C, and that of the coldest 12°-28 ; the 
 range between the extremes is therefore only about 10° C. 
 
 All the islands are volcanic, and their structure recalls, in 
 every respect, that of such comparatively modern volcanic dis- 
 tricts as those of the Eifel or Auvergne. The high rugged 
 crests, which everywhere take the form of more or less com- 
 plete amphitheatres, are the walls of ancient craters, the centres 
 of earlier volcanic action. The bottom of the old crater is now 
 usually occupied by a lake, and in it, or round its edges, or out- 
 side it on its flanks, there are often minor craters, frequently 
 very perfect in their form, which indicate eruptions of later 
 date, efforts of the subsiding fires. The rocks, which every- 
 where stretch down in great undulating masses from the sides 
 of the craters to the sea, are lavas of different dates, some of 
 them not much more than a century old ; the wooded ravines 
 are sometimes the natural intervals between lava streams, deep- 
 ened by rivulets which have naturally followed their direction ; 
 more frequently they are valleys of erosion, worn by torrents 
 in intervening accumulations of loose scoriae ; and the splendid 
 cliffs, which form an inaccessible wall round the greater part of 
 most of the islands, show, in most instructive sections, the ba- 
 saltic, trachytic, and trachydoleritic lavas, and the rudely or 
 symmetrically stratified subaerial or submarine beds of tufa and 
 ashes, the products of successive eruptions. As a rule, soil 
 formed by the wearing-down of volcanic rocks is highly favor- 
 able to the growth of plants. It is wonderful to see how the 
 coulees of lava and the mounds of pumice and ashes, formed by 
 even the most recent eruptions — of many of which we know 
 the dates, such as those of 1512, 1672, 1718, and 1722 — are 
 now covered with corn-fields and vineyards, and, in inaccessible 
 places, with a luxuriant native vegetation. 
 
20 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 Next day we sounded in 1350 fathoms, about twenty miles 
 west of Fayal, in the depression which separates the western 
 from the central group, and during the afternoon the fine bold 
 island approached us, alternate cloud and bright sunshine bring- 
 ing out the full effects of its contour and coloring. The south 
 coast of Fayal is bounded by an abrupt cliff, perhaps from one 
 to two hundred feet in height, intersected every here and there 
 by deep valleys, and showing, where the cliff is too precipitous 
 to support vegetation, sections of lava streams of various col- 
 ors, and of beds of irregularly stratified scoriae and ashes. The 
 main road runs along the top of the cliff ; and at intervals, usu- 
 ally at the point of intersection of a wooded gorge, a village of 
 low white cottages clusters round a black-and-white church, 
 surmounted by a large black cross. From the road the land 
 slopes gradually upward, passing into wide valleys terminating 
 in ravines in the side of the Caldeira, a peak upward of three 
 thousand feet in height, with a fine crater at the top of it, not 
 far from the centre of the island ; or running up abruptly upon 
 the many secondary cones and mounds of scoriae which are 
 scattered in all directions. On this side of the island wheat is 
 chiefly cultivated, except in the valleys, where there are a few 
 vineyards and fields of maize upon the slopes. The wheat was 
 already yellowing for the harvest. The fields are small, sepa- 
 rated by walls of dark lava, built, as we were afterward told, 
 partly as shelter from the high winds, and partly as the easiest 
 means of stowing the lava blocks, which have to be removed 
 from the ground in the process of clearing. Another very ef- 
 fective addition to the fence serves also a double purpose : a 
 hedge of the common reed (Arundo donax) is usually plant- 
 ed within the wall, and runs up to a height of twelve or fif- 
 teen feet, adding greatly to the shelter, and producing a long, 
 straight, light cane, which is used in many ways ; split up, it an- 
 swers the purpose of laths for supporting plaster, and the round 
 canes, bound together and often fitted in neat patterns, may 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 27 
 
 often be seen in the peasants' houses forming partitions, cup- 
 boards, or light odds and ends of furniture. These tall reed 
 hedges, at this season bearing large, feathery flower -heads on 
 this year's shoots, while the steins of last year, now becoming 
 hard and woody, bear on side branches a crop of small leaves 
 like those of the bamboo, form quite a peculiar feature in the 
 landscape. The Caldeira itself, the father of the family of cra- 
 ters, and evidently the centre of the first and most powerful 
 outburst of volcanic action, remained invisible to us — shrouded 
 all day under a thick canopy of cloud. 
 
 In the evening we steamed into the channel between Fayal 
 and Pico, and anchored in the roadstead of Horta, the chief 
 town of Fayal. Here we were visited by the Portuguese offi- 
 cer of health, who, while making strict inquiries as to the pres- 
 ence of contagious disease in the ports which we had previous- 
 ly visited, said nothing about the health of his own town ; and 
 it was with extreme chagrin that we learned from the British 
 vice-consul, who came on board shortly afterward, that Horta 
 was suffering from an epidemic of small-pox, which had latter- 
 ly been rather severe, especially among children. Under these 
 circumstances Captain Nares judged it imprudent to give gen- 
 eral leave, and on that evening and on the following morning 
 one or two of us only took a rapid run through the town and 
 its immediate neighborhood, to gain such a hasty impression as 
 we might of its general effect. 
 
 Horta is a pretty little town of ten thousand inhabitants, sit- 
 uated in a deep bay which opens to the westward, and looks 
 straight across to the island of Pico, distant about four miles. 
 The bay is bounded on the north by a bold lava promontory, 
 Ponta Espalamaca ; and on the south by a very remarkable iso- 
 lated crater, with one-half of its bounding wall broken down, 
 and allowing the sea to enter, called Monte da Guia, a very 
 prominent object when entering the bay from the southward. 
 Monte da Guia is almost an island, and apparently at one time 
 
28 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 it was entirely detached. It is now connected with the land by 
 a narrow neck, composed chiefly of soft scoriae and pumice, in 
 the middle of which there juts up an abrupt mass of dark rock 
 called " Monte Queimada " (the burned mountain), formed part- 
 ly of stratified tufa of a dark chocolate color, and partly of 
 lumps of black lava, porous, and each with a large cavity in the 
 centre, which must have been ejected as volcanic bombs in a 
 glorious display of fire-works at some period beyond the rec- 
 ords of Acorean history, but late in the geological annals of the 
 islands. 
 
 A long straggling street follows the curve of the bay, and 
 forks into two at the northern end ; and cross streets ending in 
 roads bounded by high sheltering walls, many of them white, 
 tastefully relieved with blue or gray simple frieze-like borders, 
 run up the slope into the country. The streets are narrow, 
 with heavy green verandas to the houses, and have a close feel ; 
 but the town is otherwise clean and tidy ; the houses are good, 
 in the ordinary Portuguese style ; and some of the convent 
 churches, though ordinary in their architecture, are large, and 
 even somewhat imposing. The church of the monastery occu- 
 pied by the Carmelites before the suppression of the religious 
 orders, overlooking the town, with its handsome facade sur- 
 mounted by three Moresque cupolas, is the most conspicuous 
 of these; and the Jesuit church, built somewhat in the same 
 style, a little farther back from the town, is also rather effect- 
 ive. The suburbs abound in beautiful gardens ; but they are 
 surrounded by envious walls, and the unfortunate circumstances 
 of our visit prevented our making the acquaintance of their 
 possessors, of whose friendly hospitality we had heard much. 
 
 Pico, facing the town at the opposite side of the narrow 
 strait, is at once a shelter to Horta and a glorious ornament. 
 The peak, a volcanic cone of 7613 feet in height, rivals Etna or 
 the Peak of Teneriffe in symmetry of form. The principal 
 cone terminates in a crater about 200 feet deep, and nearly in 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 29 
 
 the centre of the great crater a secondary cone, very perfect in 
 shape, and composed of scorise and lava, rises to a height of up- 
 ward of 200 feet above its rim. This little additional peak 
 gives the top of this mountain a very characteristic form. The 
 top of the mountain is covered with snow during the winter 
 months, but it has usually entirely disappeared before the end 
 of May. The sides of the mountain, alternately ridged and 
 deeply grooved, and studded with the cones and craters of 
 minor vents, are richly wooded, and the lower and more level 
 belt sloping down to the sea-cliff produces abundance of maize, 
 yams (Calocasia esculenta), and wheat. The other islands de- 
 pend greatly upon Pico for their supply of vegetables, fruit, 
 and poultry. The morning we were at Fayal a fleet of Pico 
 boats, two -masted with large lateen - sails, loaded with green 
 figs, apricots, cabbages, potatoes, and fowls, crossed over in time 
 for early market. Formerly Pico was the vineyard of the 
 Acores. Previous to the year 1853 from twenty to thirty thou- 
 sand pipes were exported from the island of a dry, rather high- 
 flavored wine, which commanded a fair price in the markets 
 of Europe, under the name of "Pico madeira. 1 ' In 1853 the 
 wretched Oidium Tuckeri devastated the vineyards and reduced 
 the population of the island, who depended mainly on their 
 wine production for their subsistence, to extreme misery. Noth- 
 ing would stop the ravages of the fungus ; in successive years 
 the crop was reduced to one-fourth, one-eighth, one-tenth, and 
 then entirely ceased, and the inhabitants emigrated in great 
 numbers to Brazil and California. Some few attempts have 
 been made to restore the vines, but up to the present time there 
 is practically no manufacture of wine in the Acores. 
 
 We left Fayal the morning after our arrival, and had one or 
 two hauls of the dredge in shallow water, from 50 to 100 fath- 
 oms, in the channel between Fayal and Pico. Everywhere the 
 bottom gave evidence of recent volcanic action. The dredge 
 came up full of fine dark volcanic sand and pieces of pumice. 
 
30 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP, li 
 
 We were surprised to find the fauna varied and abundant. As 
 in the case of plants, it seems in some cases to take but little 
 time for animals to spread in undiminished numbers over an 
 area where every trace of life must assuredly have been de- 
 stroyed by the rain of fire and brimstone. In the evening 
 we passed eastward through the channel between Pico and San 
 Jorge, and greatly enjoyed the fine scenery of the latter island, 
 which rises inland into a bold mountain ridge, and presents to 
 the sea a nearly unbroken mural cliff, ranging to upward of 500 
 feet in height. 
 
 On the evening of the 4th of July we anchored in the road- 
 stead of Ponta Delgada, the capital of San Miguel, and the 
 chief town of the A cores. We were a little anxious about Pon- 
 ta Delgada, for we had been told at Fayal that small-pox was 
 prevalent there also ; and although our information was not 
 very definite, and we were in hope that it might prove incor- 
 rect, it was with great satisfaction that we heard from the quar- 
 antine officer that they had had no cases for a year past. Leave 
 was accordingly freely given, and we all prepared to make the 
 most of our stay, which could not be extended beyond five days 
 at the farthest, if we hoped to hold to our future dates. 
 
 Ponta Delgada is very like Horta. It curves in the same 
 way round the shore of a bay, and gardens and orange-groves 
 clothe the slope of a receding amphitheatre of hills ; but there 
 is more space about it, and apparently more activity and enter- 
 prise. One of the first things we saw was a locomotive steam- 
 engine bringing down blocks of lava, to satiate, if possible, the 
 voracity of the sea, and enable them to finish in peace a very 
 fine breakwater, for whose construction every box of oranges 
 exported has paid a tax for some years past. The wild south- 
 westerly storms of winter pull down the pier nearly as fast as 
 it is built, and the engineer has adopted the plan of simply 
 bringing an unlimited supply of rough blocks, and leaving the 
 waves to work their wicked will with them and arrange them 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADE IB A. 
 
 31 
 
 as they choose. In this way the blocks seem to be driven into 
 the positions in which they can best resist the particular forces 
 to which they are exposed, and they are subsiding into a solid 
 foundation on which the building work is making satisfacto- 
 ry progress. Ponta Delgada is much larger than Horta ; the 
 streets are wider, and there are many more good-sized houses. 
 
 Fig. 8. — Altingia excelsa, in the Garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From a photograph.) 
 
 The churches are numerous and large, but commonplace and 
 immemorial; the only one which has any claim to a monu- 
 mental character is an old church near the centre of the town, 
 which was formerly attached to a Jesuit convent. 
 
 The market at Ponta Delgada does not appear to be very 
 
32 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 good, and, particularly in the short supply of vegetables and 
 fruit, it seems to suffer from its distance from Pico. 
 
 On the morning of Saturday, the 5th of July, a merry party 
 of about a dozen of us started from Ponta Delgada to see the 
 celebrated valley and lake of the Furnas. 
 
 As the crow flies, the Furnas village, the fashionable water- 
 ing-place of San Miguel, where the hot springs and baths are, 
 is not more than eighteen miles from Ponta Delgada ; but the 
 road is circuitous and hilly, and the entire distance to be gone 
 over was not much less than thirty miles. We engaged four 
 carriages, each drawn by three mules abreast, and warranted to 
 take us the whole distance, if we chose, without drawing bridle. 
 
 The first part of our route lay through the long drawn-out 
 suburbs of the town, past one or two churches without much 
 character, very like those in second-class towns in Spain and 
 Portugal. We then turned toward the interior, and walked up 
 a long ascent, not to harass our mulos so early in the journey. 
 
 The road was dreary and tantalizing. We knew that it was 
 bordered by lovely orange-groves, the last of the fragrant flow- 
 ers just passing over, and the young fruit beginning to swell, 
 and usually about the size of a hazel-nut ; but of this we saw 
 nothing; our laborious climb was between two hot black walls 
 of rough blocks of lava, nine to ten feet high. As a partial re- 
 lief, however, a tall hedge of evergreen-trees planted close with- 
 in the walls rose high above them, and threw enough of shade 
 to checker the glare on the dusty road beneath. 
 
 In the Acores at one time the orange-trees, which seem to 
 have been introduced shortly after the discovery of the islands, 
 were planted at a distance from one another, and allowed to at- 
 tain their full size and natural form. Under this system some 
 of the varieties formed noble trees with trunks eighteen inches 
 in diameter. The wind-storms are, however, frequently very 
 violent in winter, and often when the fruit was nearly ripe the 
 best part of a crop was lost, and the trees themselves greatly 
 
chap, i.] BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 33 
 
 injured and broken by a south-westerly gale. Experience has 
 now shown that larger crops may be procured with much great- 
 er certainty by dwarfing and sheltering the trees, and it has now 
 
 Fig. 9. — Cryptomeria Japouica, in the Garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From a 
 
 photograph.) 
 
 become a nearly universal practice to surround the rectangular 
 orchards or gardens, there called " quintas," with a lava wall ; 
 and, further, to break the wind still more effectually, to plant 
 within the wall a hedge of quickly growing evergreen -trees, 
 which is allowed to overtop it by twenty feet or so, and to scat- 
 ter tall evergreens wherever there is a clear space among the 
 orange-trees, which are pruned and regulated so as to keep well 
 below their level. 
 
 These tall hedges, intersecting the country in all directions, 
 have a peculiar but rather agreeable effect. Almost all the 
 
 II.— 3 
 
34 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 hedge-plants are of a bright lively green. The one most used 
 is Myrica faya, a native plant, which grows very abundantly 
 on all the uplands, and seems to be regarded as a kind of badge 
 in the islands, as its relation Myrica gale is in the West High- 
 lands of Scotland. Two other native plants, Laurus Canariensis 
 and Persea Indica, are sometimes employed, but they are sup- 
 posed to affect the soil prejudicially. Of late years a very ele- 
 gant Japanese shrub, Pittosporum undulaUim, which was orig- 
 inally introduced from England, has become widely used as a 
 shelter-plant ; and an allied species, Pittosporum tobira, is found 
 to thrive well in quintas exposed to the sea-breeze. 
 
 It is needless to say that the culture of the orange is the main 
 industry of San Miguel, and that the wonderful perfection at 
 which this delicious fruit arrives has been sufficient to give the 
 island an advantage over places less remote, and to insure a rea- 
 sonable amount of wealth to the owners of the ground. The 
 cultivation of the orange is simple and inexpensive. The soil 
 formed by the wearing-down of the volcanic rocks is, as a rule, 
 originally rich. It is inclosed and worked for a year or two, 
 and young plants of good varieties, from layers or grafts, are 
 planted at distances of eight or ten yards. Strong plants from 
 layers begin to fruit in two or three years. They come into 
 full bearing in from eight to ten years, when each tree should 
 produce about fifteen hundred oranges. The orange-trees are 
 lightly pruned, little more than the harsh spiny shoots being 
 removed. The surface of the ground is kept clean and tidy 
 with a hoe, and it is manured yearly, or at longer intervals, by 
 a method introduced in old times into Britain by the Romans : 
 lupins, which send up a rapid and luxuriant growth, and pro- 
 duce a large quantity of highly nitrogenous seed in the rich 
 new soil, are sown thickly among the trees, and then the whole 
 — straw, pods, and seeds — are dug into the ground. This seems 
 to be sufficient to mellow the soil, and any other manure is 
 rarely used for this crop. 
 
chap, i.] BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 35 
 
 The oranges begin to ripen early in November, and from that 
 time to the beginning of May a constant succession of sailing 
 vessels, and latterly steamers, hurry them to the London market. 
 
 Fig. 10.— Araucaria Cookei, in the Garden of M. Jose do Canto, San Miguel. (From a 
 
 photograph.) 
 
36 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 The fruit is gathered with great care, the whole population, old 
 and young, assisting at the harvest, and bringing it down in 
 large baskets to the warehouses in the town. Each orange is 
 then wrapped separately in a dry maize leaf, and they are 
 packed in oblong wooden boxes, four to five hundred in the 
 box. They used to be packed in the large clumsy cases with 
 the bulging tops, so familiar in shops in England in the orange 
 season ; but the orange case has been entirely superseded dur- 
 ing the last few years by the smaller box. About half a million 
 such boxes are exported yearly from San Miguel, almost all to 
 London. The prices vary greatly. Oranges of the best quality 
 bring upon the tree eight to fifteen shillings a thousand, accord- 
 ing to the state of the market ; and the expenses of gathering, 
 packing, harbor dues, and freight may come to one pound a 
 thousand more ; so that, counting the loss which with so perish- 
 able a commodity can not fail to be considerable, each St. Mi- 
 chael's orange of good quality delivered in London costs rather 
 more than a half-penny. The price increases enormously as the 
 season goes on. Several varieties are cultivated, and one vari- 
 ety ripens a comparatively small number of large fruit, without 
 seeds, toward the middle of April, which bring sometimes ten 
 times as much as the finest of the ordinary oranges in the height 
 of the season. 
 
 At length, at an elevation of six hundred feet or so, the walls 
 of the quintas were passed, and we emerged into the open coun- 
 try. The island is divided into two somewhat unequal por- 
 tions, an eastern and a western. To the east we have high vol- 
 canic ridges, surrounding the picturesque valley of the Furnas, 
 and stretching, in rugged peaks and precipitous clefts, to the 
 extremity of the island. The western portion culminates in the 
 Caldeira (or crater) of the Sete-Cidades, probably one of the 
 most striking pieces of volcanic scenery to be met with any- 
 where. 
 
 Between the two there is a kind of neck of lower land, beds 
 
chap, i.] BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 37 
 
 of lava and scoriae and a congregation of small volcanic cones, 
 wonderfully sharp and perfect, and with all the appearance of 
 being comparatively recent. It is across this neck that the road 
 
 passes to Furnas, and as it wound among the wooded dells be- 
 tween the cones we had a splendid view of the northern coast, 
 with its long line of headlands — lava flows separated by deep 
 bays radiantly blue and white under the sun and wind, and pass- 
 
38 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 ing up into deep wooded dells. Beneath us, at the point where 
 the road turned along the northern shore, lay the pretty little 
 town of Eibeira Grande, the second on the island. 
 
 This middle belt of lower land is, perhaps, with the exception 
 of the land immediately round the towns, the best cultivated 
 part of the island. The volcanic cones are covered with a young 
 growth of Pinus maritimus, with here and there a group of 
 poplars, or of Persea Indica. These, and particularly the first, 
 are the trees which furnish the wood for the orange-boxes ; and 
 on our way we saw several picturesque groups of bronzed, scant- 
 ily clad Acoreans cutting down the trees, reducing the trunks 
 to lengths suitable for the different parts of the boxes, and 
 binding up the branches and unavailable pieces into scarcely 
 less valuable fagots of fire-wood. 
 
 Every yard of tolerably level ground was under crop ; maize 
 chiefly, with here and there a little wheat, or a patch of pota- 
 toes or of tomatoes, or more rarely of sweet-potatoes, for here 
 Convolvulus batatas seems to have nearly reached its tempera- 
 ture limit. Many fields, or rather patches— for each crop usu- 
 ally covers a small space which is not separated from the con- 
 tiguous patches by any fence — are fallow; that is to say, are 
 under a luxuriant crop of lupin, sown to be dug down bodily as 
 manure, so soon as the plant shall have extracted the maximum 
 of assimilable matter from the water and air. 
 
 After passing Eibeira Grande the road becomes more rug- 
 ged, now passing down into a deep gorge with a little hamlet 
 nestling in it, and a bridge spanning the dry bed of a wet-sea- 
 son torrent ; and now rising over the well-cultivated spur of a 
 mountain ridge. We stopped for luncheon in a pretty little 
 ravine, well shaded by trees and watered by a considerable 
 stream. 
 
 Posting round the world as we are doing, with very little 
 spare time at our disposal, one impression succeeds another so 
 rapidly that it is sometimes not very easy to disentangle them 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 39 
 
 in one's memory, and refer each picture to its proper place. 
 This little valley, now ringing with English " chaff" and laugh- 
 ter, and littered with the inevitable sardine-tins and soda-water 
 bottles, seemed a reflex of our 'confused cosmopolitan condition 
 of mind. The tall, smooth tree - boles, with their scanty blue 
 aromatic foliage, all around us — which made up the greater 
 part of the vegetation — were the gum-tree {Eucalyptus robus- 
 tus), from New Holland. The group of beautiful dark conifers 
 on the other side of the stream, showing in every tone of color 
 and in every curve of their long drooping branches their thor- 
 ough luxuriance and " at-homene«s," were no Atlantic or Euro- 
 pean cypresses, but Cryptomeria Japonica, the lawn tree which 
 saddens us with its blighted brown twigs after a too hard frost 
 in England. The tree above it with the dark-green phyllodes 
 was Acacia melanoxylon, from Australia; the livelier inter- 
 mixed greens were due to the Japanese Pittosporum undula- 
 tum, to Persea Indica, and Laurus Canariensis — both of some- 
 what doubtful origin, though reputed natives — and to the un- 
 doubtedly native Myricafaya. 
 
 The Acores have been particularly fortunate in having their 
 climate made the most of by the introduction of suitable and 
 valuable plants. When the islands were first discovered, they 
 were clothed with natural forest, but during the earlier period 
 of their occupation the wood was cut down with so little judg- 
 ment that it was almost exterminated, and it became necessary 
 to send planks for orange-boxes from Portugal. Of late years, 
 however, several of the wealthiest and most influential proprie- 
 tors, both in Fayal and San Miguel, have interested themselves 
 greatly in forestry and acclimatization, and have scattered any 
 of their new introductions which seemed to be of practical 
 value about the islands with the utmost liberality. All the 
 trees from Europe and the temperate parts of America, north 
 and south, and those of Australia, ISTew Zealand, Japan, and the 
 cooler parts of China, seed freely in the Acores, so that there 
 
40 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 seems to be no limit to their multiplication. A quick-growing 
 wood is, of course, the great desideratum, as it is chiefly want- 
 ed for the building of fires, and of the scarcely less ephemeral 
 orange-cases. For this latter purpose, Cryptomeria Japonica, 
 several species of Eucalyptus, Populus nigra and angulata, 
 and Acacia melanoxylon are already supplanting Pinus mari- 
 timuSy Persea Lndica, and Lauras Canariensis. 
 
 A few miles farther on, the road left the coast, and began to 
 ascend so rapidly that, until we gained the top of the ridge, we 
 had little help from our carriages and mulos. The uplands, 
 in general character and in the style of their vegetation, are not 
 very unlike some of the richer parts of the Highlands of Scot- 
 land. The plants are somewhat on a larger scale. The heath- 
 er is the Erica Azorica, frequently rising to the height of 
 twelve to fifteen feet, with a regular woody stem much used 
 for fire-wood. The bog-myrtle is replaced by the graceful My- 
 ricafaya, and the juniper is represented by a luxuriant spread- 
 ing prostrate form, Juniperus oxycedrus. Grasses are numer- 
 ous in species, and form a rich green permanent pasture. 
 Ferns are very abundant, and give quite a character to the veg- 
 etation of the ravines among the "Montas." The steep cliff 
 down to the bed of a torrent is sometimes one continuous sheet 
 of the drooping fronds of Woodwardia radicans, often six or 
 eight feet in length. 
 
 The Woodwardia is certainly the handsomest and most char- 
 acteristic of these investing ferns. In the glades in San Mi- 
 guel it is usually associated with the scarcely less handsome 
 Pteris arguta, and with many varieties of Aspidium dilatatum 
 and cemulum. Here and there we come upon a fine plant of 
 Dicksonia culcita, the nearest approach on the island to a tree- 
 fern. The buds and young fronds of this fern are thickly cov- 
 ered with a soft, silky down, which is greatly used in the islands 
 for stuffing beds and pillows. 
 
 On reaching the crest of the hill, the view is certainly very 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 41 
 
 striking. You find that you are on the top of the ridge bound- 
 ing an old crater of great extent. The valley of the Furnas, 
 richly cultivated and wooded, lies directly below ; with a scat- 
 tered town, with public gardens, baths, and lodging-houses, 
 as an object of central interest. The valley, at a first glance, 
 looks strangely familiar, from its resemblance to many of the 
 valleys in Switzerland. It is not until the eye has wandered 
 over the lava ridges and rested upon the dense columns of va- 
 por rising from the boiling springs, that one realizes the critical 
 condition of things — the fact that he is descending into the 
 crater of a volcano, which still gives unmistakable signs of ac- 
 tivity. 
 
 The road into the valley is very steep, zigzagging through 
 deep cuttings down the face of the mountain. It was about 
 five o'clock when our now somewhat weary cavalcade drew up 
 before the door of the hotel in the village. 
 
 We had been told by the British consul at Ponta Delgada 
 that about four miles beyond the village, following a bridle- 
 path across a ridge and along the border of a lake, we should 
 find a comfortable, commodious hotel, kept by an Englishman, 
 where, if we gave due notice, we could get all accommodation. 
 Unfortunately there was no time to give notice, so we deter- 
 mined to go on chance. 
 
 One or two of us started on 2 on foot, while the gear was be- 
 ing transferred from the carriages to a train of donkeys, to give 
 Mr. and Mrs. Brown what preparation we might, and to organ- 
 ize some dinner. We had a lovely walk — up a winding path 
 among the rocks to the top of a saddle, where a beautiful blue 
 lake about a couple of miles in length, bordered with richly 
 wooded cliffs, lay below us. On the opposite side, about a 
 couple of hundred feet above the lake, we could see Gren'a, 
 Mr. Brown's house ; and nearer us, on the shore of the lake, a 
 group of natural caldrons, where the water was bubbling and 
 steaming, and spreading widely through the air a slight and not 
 
42 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 unpleasant odor of sulphur. No human habitation except Mr. 
 Brown's was visible ; but though the scene seemed singularly 
 quiet and remote, its richness and infinite variety in light and 
 shade and coloring prevented any oppressive effect of extreme 
 loneliness. 
 
 Mr. Brown met us at the door. We told him that there 
 
 i 
 
 were about a dozen of us who wanted rooms and food, and he 
 naturally answered that he had nothing to give us, and put it 
 to our common sense how it could be possible that he, in his 
 primeval solitude, should be ready at any moment to entertain 
 a dozen hungry strangers, to say nothing of their servants and 
 their asses. Notwithstanding, there was a re-assuring twinkle 
 in Mr. Brown's shrewd, pleasant eyes. We wrung an admis- 
 sion from him that there was plenty of room in the house, that 
 fowls might be got, and eggs and tea. Mrs. Brown joined us, 
 and her appearance was also re-assuring ; so we shouted for the 
 urgent tub, and left the rest to fate. Shortly we saw the long 
 string of asses winding, with our changes of raiment, round the 
 end of the lake, and it was not to our surprise that about eight 
 o'clock we found ourselves sitting before an admirable dinner, 
 with all our arrangements for the next couple of days settled 
 in the most satisfactory way. We sent the carriages back to 
 Ponta Delgada, with orders to meet us at midday on Monday 
 at Villa Franca, a town on the southern coast of the island ; and 
 we engaged some fifteen or twenty donkeys for Monday morn- 
 ing to take us and our effects over the ridge and down the 
 steep passes to the shore road. 
 
 Next morning some of our party walked to the Roman 
 Catholic chapel in the village, and afterward went to see the 
 hot springs; others wandered about on the slopes and terraces 
 overlooking the lake, enjoying the quietude and beauty of the 
 place. 
 
 But for the birds, which were numerous, and the distant 
 murmur of the boiling springs, the silence was absolute. Now 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 43 
 
 and then a large buzzard, Buteo vulgaris, on account of whose 
 abundance the islands were first named from the Portuguese 
 word agor (a kite), rose slowly and soared in the still air. A 
 genuine blackbird, Turdus merula, poised himself on the top 
 of a fir-tree, and sung to us about home ; a chaffinch, Fringilla 
 tintillon, very nearly genuine, hopped on the path and acted 
 otherwise much like an English chaffinch ; a bullfinch, Pyrrhu- 
 la murina, so like the real thing as to have given rise to some 
 discussion, piped in the thicket ; and the canary, Serinus Oana- 
 rius, here no albino prisoner, but a yellow-green sparrow of un- 
 limited rapacity in the way of garden-seeds, settled on the trees 
 and twittered in large flocks. I walked down to the baths by a 
 short cut across the hills with Mr. Brown in the afternoon, and 
 got a great deal of pleasant information from him. It seems 
 that he was very much identified with the late rapid progress of 
 gardening and forestry. Between twenty and thirty years ago 
 he went from England, a young gardener, to lay out the splen- 
 did grounds of M. Jose do Canto at Ponta Delgada ; he assisted 
 in various schemes of horticulture in the interest of M. Ernest 
 do Canto, M. Antonio Borges, and other wealthy proprietors, 
 and among other things designed the pretty little public garden 
 at Furnas, which we passed through on our way to the springs. 
 The house which Mr. Brown now occupies, with about four 
 hundred acres of land, belongs, singularly enough, to a London 
 physician, and Mr. Brown acts as his factor. It is most com- 
 fortable and pleasant — just one of those places to suggest the 
 illusory idea of going back sometime and enjoying a month or 
 two of rest. 
 
 The principal boiling springs are about half a mile from the 
 village. Bound them, over an area of perhaps a quarter of a 
 mile square, there are scorched-looking heaps like those which 
 one sees about an iron-work, only whitish usually, and often 
 yellow from an incrustation of sulphur. Over the ground 
 among one's feet little pools of water collect everywhere, and 
 
44 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 these are all boiling briskly. This boiling is due> however, 
 chiefly to the escape of carbonic acid, and of vapor formed be- 
 low, for the temperature even of the hottest springs does not 
 seem to rise to above 90° C. The largest of the springs is a 
 well about twelve feet in diameter, inclosed within a circular 
 wall. The water hisses up in a wide column nearly at the boil- 
 ing-point, bubbling in the centre to a height of a couple of feet, 
 and sending up columns of steam with a slight sulphurous 
 smell. A little farther on there is a smaller spring in even 
 more violent ebullition, tossing up a column five or six feet 
 high; and beyond this a vent opening into a kind of cavern, 
 not inaptly called " Bocco do Inferno," which sends out water, 
 loaded with gray mud, with a loud rumbling noise. The mud 
 comes splashing out for a time almost uniformly, and with lit- 
 tle commotion, and then, as if it had been gathering force, a jet 
 is driven out with a kind of explosion to a distance of sev- 
 eral yards. This spring, like all the others, is surrounded by 
 mounds of siliceous sinter, and of lime and alumina and sulphur 
 efflorescence. The mud is deposited from the water on the 
 surface of the rock around in a smooth paste, which has a high 
 character all round as a cure for all skin complaints. When I 
 looked at it first, I could not account for the grooves running 
 in stripes all over the face of the rocks ; but I afterward found 
 that they were the marks of fingers collecting the mud, and I 
 was told that such marks were more numerous on Sunday, 
 when the country people came into the village to mass, than on 
 any other day. 
 
 At a short distance from the " Caldeiros " a spring gushes out 
 from a crack in the rock of a cool chalybeate water, charged 
 with carbonic acid and with a slight dash of sulphureted hydro- 
 gen. There is a hot spring close beside it, and on the bank of 
 the warm stream and in the steam of the Caldeira there is a 
 luxuriant patch of what the people there call "ignami," or yams 
 (Caladium esculentum), which seems to thrive specially well in 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 45 
 
 such situations. The flavor of the aerated water is rather pecul- 
 iar at first, but in the hot, steamy, sulphurous air one soon comes 
 to like its coolness and freshness, and it seems to taste all the 
 better from the green cup extemporized out of the beautiful leaf 
 of the Caladium. The warm water from all the springs finds 
 its way by various channels to join the river Quente, which es- 
 capes out of the " valley of the caves " at its north-eastern end, 
 and, brawling down through a pretty wooded gorge, joins the 
 sea on the north coast about six miles from Villa Franca. 
 
 We left Gren'a after breakfast next morning, our long train 
 of about twenty saddle and baggage asses winding along the 
 eastern shore of the lake and up the steep passes — gloriously 
 fringed and mantled with Woodwardia and Pteris arguta, and 
 variegated with copses of the dark tree-heath and brakes of the 
 bright green faya — to the crest of the ridge bounding the north- 
 ern end of the valley ; and thence down crooked and laborious 
 ways through many gorges planted with grafted fruit-bearing 
 chestnuts, and over many lava spurs, to the road along the south 
 shore, where we found the carriages waiting for us. The wheat 
 harvest was going on vigorously in the lower lands, and shortly 
 before entering Villa Franca, a long town which straggles over 
 four or five miles between Eibeira Quente and Ponta Delgada, 
 we stopped and rested at a farm-house where they were thresh- 
 ing. The carriage I was in had fallen a little behind the rest, 
 and when we came up the scene at the farm-yard was very live- 
 ly. Outside was the threshing-floor, a hardened round area 
 with a stake in the centre. The wheat was spread on the baked 
 clay floor, and two sledges, each drawn by a pair of oxen, went 
 slowly round and round, "treading out the corn." The sledges 
 were driven, with much noise and gesticulation, by tawny, good- 
 natured Acoreans, and were often weighted by a mother or aunt 
 squatting on the sledge, holding a laughing black -eyed baby. 
 The drivers were armed with enormously long poles, with which 
 they extorted a certain amount of attention to their wishes 
 
46 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 from the unmuzzled oxen, much more intent upon snuffling 
 among the sweet straw for the grains of wheat, and making the 
 most of their brief opportunity. Within the house, whither 
 most of our party had retreated from the roasting sun, the first 
 large entrance room was encumbered with the beautiful ripe 
 ears of maize, of all colors, from the purest silvery white to 
 deep orange and red. It was high noon, however, and a lot of 
 bright-eyed girls, who had been husking the maize, had knocked 
 oif work ; and on the arrival of the strangers, a lad brought out 
 a guitar, and they got up a dance, very simple and merry, and 
 perfectly decorous. 
 
 Neither hosts nor guests understood one word of the others' 
 language, but by dint of signs, and laughter, and human sym- 
 pathy generally, we got on wonderfully well. It seemed to be 
 the steading of a well-to-do farmer. There were other houses 
 in the neighborhood, and a number of young people seemed to 
 have congregated, so that we had a good opportunity of seeing 
 some of the peasants. The men are generally good-looking, 
 with spare, lithe, bronzed figures, dark eyes, and wide, laughing 
 mouths, with fine white teeth. The women in the Acores are 
 usually inferior to the men in appearance, but at this farm some 
 of the girls were very good-looking also, with clear complex- 
 ions, and more of a Spanish than a Portuguese type. 
 
 From Villa Franca we drove along the shore to Ponta Del- 
 gada, where we arrived early in the evening. 
 
 While we were at the Furnas some of our companions started 
 in the other direction, to the Caldeira of the Sete-Cidades, and 
 were greatly pleased with their trip. This crater is probably 
 the most striking feature in the scenery of the island. The 
 road to it from Ponta Delgada goes westward for some miles 
 along the southern coast. It then gradually winds upward 
 through ravines festooned with Woodwardia, and among rug- 
 ged, volcanic masses clothed with faya and tree -heath, to the 
 top of a crest, between two and three thousand feet in height. 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 47 
 
 A wonderful scene then bursts upon the wanderer. The ridge 
 is the edge of a large crater two miles and a half in diameter, 
 surrounded by an unbroken craggy wall, more than a thousand 
 feet in height. The floor of the crater is richly wooded and 
 cultivated. There are two small lakes of a wonderful sapphire 
 blue, and on the margin of one of them a village of white cot- 
 tages. The zigzag path down into the crater is so steep that 
 one or two of the parties who went from the ship contented 
 themselves with the view of the valley from the crest of the 
 ridge, and from all I hear I am inclined to think that these had 
 the advantage in every respect over some others who went 
 down and had to come up again. 
 
 Next morning Captain JSTares and I called on M. Jose do 
 Canto, about whose good and liberal deeds in introducing val- 
 uable and ornamental foreign plants, and distributing them 
 through the islands, we had heard so much. We were fortunate 
 in finding him at home, and we spent a very pleasant couple of 
 hours with him in his charming garden. 
 
 The trees of all temperate and subtropical regions seem to 
 thrive admirably in sheltered situations in the Acores. M. do 
 Canto has for the last thirty years spared neither money nor 
 time in bringing together all that appeared desirable, whether 
 for their use or for their beauty, and in doing them ample jus- 
 tice while under his charge. The garden is well situated on 
 the slope above the town ; it is extensive, and very beautifully 
 laid out and cared for. Great care is taken to allow each in- 
 dividual tree to attain its characteristic form, and consequently 
 some species, particularly those of peculiar and symmetrical 
 growth, such as the different species of AUmgia, Araucaria, 
 Oryptomeria, etc., are more perfect probably than they are any- 
 where else, even in their native regions. M. do Canto does not 
 give much heed to the growing of flowers : his grounds are 
 rather an arboretum than a garden. He has now upward of a 
 thousand species of trees under cultivation. 
 
48 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. i. 
 
 We left Ponta Delgada on the 9th of July, and just before 
 our departure we had an opportunity of seeing a singular relig- 
 ious ceremony. 
 
 In one of the churches of the town there is an image of our 
 Saviour, which is regarded with extreme devotion. The inhab- 
 itants, in cases of difficulty or danger, bring it rich offerings, 
 and the wealth of the image in jewels was variously stated to 
 us at from one thousand to one hundred thousand pounds, in 
 proportion to the faith and piety of our informants. There 
 
 Costume of the Inhabitants of San Miguel. 
 
 had been great want of rain in the island for some months past, 
 and it had been determined to take a step which is taken only 
 in extreme cases — to parade the image round the town in sol- 
 emn procession. 
 
 People began to come in from the country by midday, and 
 all afternoon the town wore a gala appearance. The Acorean 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 49 
 
 girls, as soon as they can afford it, purchase, if they have not al- 
 ready inherited, a long, full, blue cloth cloak, coming down to 
 the heels, and terminating in an enormous hood, which projects, 
 when it is pulled forward, a foot at least before the face. The 
 cloak and hood are thus a complete disguise, for if the lower 
 part of the hood be held together by the hand — a very common 
 attitude, while the eyes can be used with perfect freedom — botli 
 figure and face are entirely hidden. These cloaks and hoods 
 are very heavy and close, and it seems strange that such a fash- 
 ion can hold its ground where the conditions are very similar 
 to those in the extreme south of Spain or Italy. The head- 
 dress of the men is singular, but it has a more rational relation 
 to the exigencies of the climate. It is also made of dark-blue 
 cloth — a round cap with a long projecting peak, and a deep 
 curtain falling over the neck and shoulders, an excellent de- 
 fense whether from rain or sun. The odd thing about it is that 
 where the hat is made in the extreme of a by-gone " mode " 
 which still lingers in the remote parts of the island, the sides 
 of the peak are carried up on each side of the head into long 
 curved points, like horns. The horns are "going out," how- 
 ever, although a general festa, such as we were fortunate 
 enough to see, still brought many grotesque pairs of them into 
 the city. 
 
 We saw the procession from the windows of the principal 
 hotel, which looked across a square to the church from which 
 it took its departure. The square and the streets below us 
 were, for hours before, one sea of carapugas and capotes, male 
 and female, but chiefly the latter, their wearers sitting on the 
 hot pavement, chattering quietly. About five o'clock a large 
 number of acolytes in scarlet tunics left the church, and formed 
 a double row, lining the streets in the path of the procession. 
 Then came a long double row of priests in violet chasubles and 
 stoles, repeating the responses to a portly brother, who led the 
 column, intoning from his breviary. Then a double row of 
 
 II.— 4 
 
50 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 priests in white, and then a group of the higher clergy in cloth 
 of gold and richly "appareled" vestments, preceding the image, 
 which was carried aloft under a crimson canopy. The image 
 was certainly not a high work of art, but it seemed to be loaded 
 with valuable ornaments. Behind the canopy walked the civil 
 governor (Count de Praya de Victoria), the military governor, 
 and some of the high State functionaries, and the procession 
 was closed by a column of monks. As the image approached, 
 the people knelt everywhere within sight of it, and remained 
 kneeling until it was past. It is, of course, difficult for us to 
 realize the convictions and feelings under which the inhabitants 
 of San Miguel unite in these singular pageants. 'No one could 
 doubt that the devotional feeling was perfectly sincere ; and it 
 was moderate, with no appearance either of gloom or of excite- 
 ment ; the manner of the large crowd was throughout grave 
 and decorous. 
 
 We looked with great interest the next morning to see 
 
 Fig. 12.—Flabellum alabastrum, Moseley. Slightly enlarged. (No. 78.) 
 
 whether our friends had got the coveted rain ; but although the 
 peaks and ridges fringing the crater- valleys were shrouded un- 
 
Plate XVIII, Meteorological Ol\ 
 
 Barometer 
 
 Dry Mb Thermometer 
 
 Wet 
 
 I 3 Z 
 
 10 II 
 
 12 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 16 
 
 ill! 
 
 2S 
 
 :5: 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 - 
 
 20 
 
 Si 
 
 2 2 
 
 2-32 
 
 22 
 
 / 2 
 
 2 J. 
 
 .56 
 
nations for the month of July, 1873. 
 
 alb Thermometer 
 
 Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 fibers l?€7iect£hy tts fbrce/ cux&rc&ntf to 22eoui/vr£'s s&cvLe/ 
 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24- 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 
 
 -5- 
 
 44 
 
 £<5 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS 10 MADEIRA. 
 
 51 
 
 der a canopy of cloud and mist, the sky looked as hard as ever, 
 not a whit nearer the point of precipitation. 
 
 Our first haul, after leaving Ponta Delgada, was in 1000 fath- 
 oms, midway between the islands of San Miguel and Santa Ma- 
 ria, and about fifteen miles north-west of the Formigas. The 
 bottom was globigerina ooze. The principal feature in this 
 dredging was the unusual abundance of stony corals of the 
 deep-sea group. 
 
 Three living specimens of a large species of Fldbellum (Fig. 
 12) were sifted out, the same as the one which we had dredged 
 previously at Station LXXIIL, to the west of Fayal. The coral- 
 lum is wedge-shaped, the calicle rising from an attenuated ped- 
 icle. The extreme height, from the end of the pedicle to the 
 margin of the cup, is 50 mm. ; the greatest diameter of the cal- 
 icle is 65 mm., and the smallest 30 mm. The three specimens 
 are very nearly of the same dimensions. 
 
 The lateral costse make an angle with one another of 120° to 
 140°, and are sharp and moderately prominent, with an irregu- 
 lar edge. The external surface of the calicle is covered with a 
 glistering epitheca, and near the margin is of a light pink color. 
 The costse of the faces corresponding to the primary and sec- 
 ondary septa are almost as well marked as the lateral costae, 
 and appear as irregularly dentated ridges, separated by slight 
 depressions. The ends of the calicle are broadly rounded, and 
 it is compressed laterally in the centre. The upper margin is 
 curved, describing about one-third of a circle. 
 
 There are six systems of septa disposed in five cycles. The- 
 septa are extremely thin and fragile. They are tinged with, 
 pink, and covered with rounded granules, disposed in rows* 
 The primary septa are approximately equal to the secondary,, 
 giving somewhat the appearance of twelve systems. These 
 septa are broad and prominent, with a rounded superior mar- 
 gin, and curved lines of growth. The septa of the third, fourth, 
 and fifth cycles successively diminish in breadth, and are. thus 
 
52 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 very markedly distinguished from one another, and from the 
 primary and secondary septa. The septa of the fourth cycle 
 join those of the third a short distance before reaching the 
 columella. The septa of the fifth cycle are incomplete. The 
 margin of the calicle is very deeply indented, the costse corre- 
 sponding to the primary and secondary septa being prolonged, 
 in conjunction with the outer margins of these septa, into prom- 
 inent pointed processes; similar but shorter prolongations ac- 
 company the tertiary, and some of the quaternary septa. Be- 
 tween each of the sharp projections thus formed, the edge of 
 the wall of the calicle presents a curved indentation. 
 
 Two of the specimens procured expanded their soft parts 
 when placed in sea- water. The inner margin of the disk round 
 the elongated oral aperture presents a regular series of denta- 
 tions corresponding with the septa, and is of a dark madder 
 color; the remainder of the disk is pale pink. The tentacles 
 take origin directly from the septa. They are elongated and 
 conical. Those of the primary and secondary septa are equal 
 in dimensions, and, along with the tertiary tentacles, which are 
 somewhat shorter, but in the same line, are placed nearest the 
 mouth, and at an equal distance from it. The tentacles of the 
 fourth and fifth cycles are successively smaller and at succes- 
 sively greater distances from the mouth. Placed on either side 
 of each tentacle of the fifth cycle, and again somewhat nearer 
 the edge of the calicle, there are a pair of very small tentacles, 
 which have no septa developed in correspondence with them. 
 There are thus four successive rows of tentacles, and the nor- 
 mal number is ninety - six. The tentacles are of a light - red 
 color, and between their bases are stripes of yellowish red and 
 light gray. 
 
 This form belongs to the group Glabella subpedicellata of 
 Milne-Edwards, and probably to that division in which the costse 
 are prominent and ridge-like on the faces of the corallum, as 
 well as on its lateral margins ; but it differs from those de- 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 55 
 
 scribed under this head by Milne-Edwards in that it has five 
 
 cycles, the fifth being incom- 
 plete, and in other particulars 
 which appear from the descrip- 
 tion given. 
 
 A single living specimen of a 
 coral, referred by Mr. Moseley 
 to the genus Ceratotrochus (Fig. 
 14), was obtained from this haul. 
 The corallum is white, the base 
 subpedicellate, with a small scar 
 
 Fig. 14.— Ceratotrochus nobilis, Moseley. of Original adherence. The prill- 
 Slightly enlarged. (No. 78.) . r 
 
 cipal costse are prominent, and 
 round the region of the base they are beset with small spines 
 directed somewhat upward. The upper portion of the costa is 
 without spines. The primary and secondary septa are broad 
 and exsert. Pali are absent ; the columella is fascicular. The 
 absence of pali, the form of the columella, and the nature of 
 the base associate this form with the Ceratotrochi as defined by 
 Milne-Edwards. 
 
 The animal is of a dark madder color on the region of the 
 margin of the calicle between the exsert primary and secondary 
 septa, and on the membrane investing the wall of the corallum 
 from the margin down to the commencement of the spines. 
 This dark color is succeeded on the disk by a band of pale blue, 
 within which there is again a zone of very dark madder color 
 round the mouth. The dark coloring-matter is interesting, as 
 it gives an absorption spectrum of three distinct bands. 
 
 On Friday, July 11th, we sounded in 2025 fathoms, 376 miles 
 to the west of Madeira, the bottom very well marked globigerina 
 ooze, and the bottom temperature 1°'5 C. 
 
 On the following day the depth was 2260 fathoms, the bot- 
 tom globigerina ooze, and the recorded bottom temperature 
 l°-8 C. ; and on the 13th the depth was 2675 fathoms, with the 
 
THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 same very characteristic globigerina 
 deposit, and a temperature of 2 o, C. 
 The bottom temperatures in this sec- 
 tion show some irregularities ; but as 
 these do not extend beyond o, 2 C, 
 they may arise from errors of obser- 
 vation, due to the somewhat unsatis- 
 factory mode of registering of Six's 
 thermometers. 
 
 On the 14th we sounded in 2400 
 fathoms ; and a serial temperature 
 " sounding (Fig. 15) indicated an al- 
 % most total disappearance of the upper 
 a stratum of abnormally warm water; 
 » but, on the other hand, the isotherms 
 | between three and eight hundred 
 | fathoms showed very distinctly the 
 S excess of heat in a deeper layer, to 
 | which reference has already been 
 § made, and which, becoming more 
 
 1 marked a little to the northward, 
 .s gives so peculiar a character to the 
 Jj temperature soundings in the Bay of 
 
 2 Biscay. In Fig. 13 the curves con- 
 structed from the serial soundings be- 
 tween Bermudas and Madeira show 
 very clearly the gradual disappear- 
 ance of the upper warm layer in pass- 
 ing to the eastward ; and the appear- 
 ance of the second deeper hump near 
 the coast of Africa. The curve mark- 
 ed with the asterisk constructed from 
 the Porcupine, Lightning , and Shear- 
 water soundings is introduced for 
 comparison. 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO MADEIRA. 
 
 57 
 
 The weather for the last few days had been remarkably fine, 
 with a pleasant light breeze. When we turned up on deck on 
 the morning of the 16th, we were already at anchor in the 
 beautiful bay of Funchal, and looking at the lovely garden-like 
 island, full of anticipations of a week's ramble among the peaks 
 and currals and the summer quintas of our friends — anticipa- 
 tions in which we were destined to be disappointed. 
 
 Catamaran, Feruaudo Noronha. 
 
58 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. I. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Table of Temperatures observed between Bermudas and Madeira. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 iff 
 
 o SI 22 
 
 r 
 
 _ CN CO 
 
 gco<o 
 
 fc< To 
 
 if 
 
 .2 
 
 CO 
 
 SO 
 
 1 
 .2 
 
 
 d 
 
 c 
 .2 
 
 f f 
 
 
 £f ? 
 
 g CO 
 
 
 "■5 . bo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ti 
 
 
 
 
 *> cf 
 
 
 
 
 « -tf C 
 
 
 S « o 
 
 
 S i 
 
 
 
 
 !J 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23° -0 C. 
 
 23° 
 
 •3 C. 
 
 22° 
 
 ■o C. 
 
 21° 
 
 7C. 
 
 21 
 
 1- C. 
 
 23 
 
 3 9-C. 
 
 22 
 
 •5 c. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 18 
 
 •4 
 
 17* 
 
 •8 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 
 17 
 
 ' : 3 
 
 17 
 
 : 6 
 
 200 
 
 
 17 
 
 •4 
 
 17 
 
 •o 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 •s 
 
 16 
 
 .8 
 
 17 
 
 •4 
 
 300 
 
 
 1G 
 
 •9 
 
 14 
 
 •9 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 •3 
 
 14 
 
 •8 
 
 16 
 
 •1 
 
 400 
 
 
 12 
 
 •2 
 
 11 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 •2 
 
 11 
 
 •3 
 
 13 
 
 •9 
 
 500 
 
 
 7 
 
 •7 
 
 6 
 
 •s 
 
 7 
 
 •9 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 7 
 
 •6 
 
 11 
 
 •0 
 
 600 
 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 5 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 700 
 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 800 
 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 3 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 900 
 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 1000 
 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 1100 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 1200 
 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 1300 
 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 1400 
 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 1500 
 
 2 : 3 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 Bottom Tern-) 
 perature. ) 
 
 2° -3 
 
 1° 
 
 •7 
 
 1° 
 
 •5 
 
 1° 
 
 5 
 
 l°-8 
 
 
 1 ( 
 
 •7 
 
 Depth 
 
 1500 
 
 2360 
 
 2575 
 
 2S50 
 
 2875 
 
 
 2700 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 Station No. 66. 
 Lat. 37°24'N. 
 Long. 44° 14' W. 
 
 Station No. 67. 
 Lat. 37° 54' N. 
 Long. 41° 44' W. 
 
 Station No. 68. 
 Lat. 38° 3'N. 
 Long. 39° 19' W. 
 
 iff 
 
 ™ TO 
 ■■3 . si 
 5 c 
 
 Station No. 71. 
 Lat. 38° 18' N. 
 Long. 34° 48' W. 
 
 Station No. 72. 
 Lat. 38° 34' N. 
 Long. 32° 47' W. 
 
 Station No. 73. 
 Lat. 38° 30' N. 
 Long. 31° 14' W. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21° 
 
 •1 C. 
 
 21° 
 
 •1 C. 
 
 21° -1 C. 
 
 21° 
 
 •7 C. 
 
 21 
 
 •7 C. 
 
 21 ! 
 
 •7 C. 
 
 20° 
 
 •6 C. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 •9 
 
 17 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 •1 
 
 17 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 •5 
 
 17 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 •2 
 
 17* 
 
 : 5 
 
 
 16' 
 
 •3 
 
 14 
 
 •8 
 
 16 
 
 •5 
 
 15' 
 
 •4 
 
 200 
 
 16 
 
 •3 
 
 16 
 
 •0 
 
 
 15 
 
 •2 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 300 
 
 15 
 
 •6 
 
 15 
 
 •6 
 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 •3 
 
 11 
 
 •3 
 
 12 
 
 •6 
 
 400 
 
 13 
 
 •1 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 
 10 
 
 •9 
 
 7 
 
 •6 
 
 S 
 
 •4 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 500 
 
 10 
 
 •1 
 
 8 
 
 •2 
 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 5 
 
 •s 
 
 7 
 
 •3 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 600 
 
 7 
 
 •0 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 
 6 
 
 •1 
 
 5 
 
 •0 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 •3 
 
 700 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 
 5 
 
 •0 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 4 
 
 •9 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 
 4 
 
 •0 
 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •s 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 
 •0 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •s 
 
 
 3 
 
 ■1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom Tem-\ 
 perature. j 
 
 1° 
 
 •s 
 
 1° 
 
 •s 
 
 l°-6 
 
 1° 
 
 •7 
 
 2° -2 
 
 2< 
 
 '■8 
 
 3° 
 
 ■7 
 
 Depth 
 
 2750 
 
 2700 
 
 2175 
 
 2200 
 
 1675 
 
 1240 
 
 1000 
 
CHAP. I.] 
 
 BERMUDAS TO 
 
 MADEIRA. 
 
 59 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 1 
 
 Station No. 76. 
 Lat. 38° IT N 
 Long. 27° 9'W. 
 
 Station No. 78. 
 Lat. 37° 24' N. 
 Long. 25° 13' W. 
 
 Station No. 79. 
 Lat. 36° 2T N. 
 Long. 23° 3T W. 
 
 ill 
 §«« 
 
 Station No. 81. 
 Lat. 34° IT N. 
 Long. 19° 52' W. 
 
 Station No. 82. 
 Lat. 33° 46' N. 
 Long. 19° IT W. 
 
 
 Sin-Pipe 
 
 21° 
 
 •1 C. 
 
 21° 
 
 •7 C. 
 
 22° 
 
 •o C. 
 
 21° 
 
 •7 C. 
 
 21° -7 C. 
 
 21° 
 
 ■5C. 
 
 21° 
 
 •1 C. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 •5 
 
 
 IS 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 •4 
 
 
 16 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 •9 
 
 
 15 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 •6 
 
 14 
 
 : 2 
 
 13 
 
 .5 
 
 14 
 
 •1 
 
 
 14 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 12 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 •1 
 
 11 
 
 •8 
 
 11 
 
 •8 
 
 
 12 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 10 
 
 •6 
 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 •3 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 
 10 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 ■7 
 
 9 
 
 •4 
 
 
 9 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 •5 
 
 8 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 5 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 '7 
 
 7 
 
 •o 
 
 
 7 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 4 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 ■4 
 
 6 
 
 •o 
 
 
 5 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 4 
 
 •4 
 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •8 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 
 3 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 " Bottom Tern-) 
 perature. f 
 
 4° 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 l°-8 
 
 2°-0 
 
 i°-s 
 
 2° 
 
 2 
 
 Depth 
 
 900 
 
 1000 
 
 2025 
 
 2600 
 
 2675 
 
 2400 
 
 1650 
 
60 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. i. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Table of Specific Gravities observed between Bermudas and Madeira. 
 
 Date, 
 1873. 
 
 Latitude 
 North. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (d.) at 
 which Water 
 was taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 
 Temperature 
 
 it'.) during 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15 0- 56. 
 Water at 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'his. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jane 14 
 
 32° 54' 
 
 63° 
 
 22' 
 
 2360 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23° 
 
 •3 c. 
 
 25° 
 
 • 4C. 
 
 1*02432 
 
 1*02726 
 
 1-02517 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 '6 
 
 24 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02411 
 
 1 '02660 
 
 1*02857 
 
 15 
 
 33' 
 
 41 
 
 61 
 
 28 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22 
 
 '8 
 
 23 
 
 • 5 
 
 1 *02498 
 
 1*02712 
 
 1-02515 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 58 
 
 56 
 
 2575 
 
 
 21 
 
 '7 
 
 23 
 
 • 
 
 1-02516 
 
 1-02715 
 
 1 -02552 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 "5 
 
 24 
 
 • 
 
 1-02482 
 
 1*02711 
 
 1-02909 
 
 IT 
 
 34' 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 38 
 
 2800 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 "7 
 
 22 
 
 • 8 
 
 1*02520 
 
 1*02713 
 
 1-02549 
 
 IS 
 
 35 
 
 7 
 
 52 
 
 32 
 
 2875 
 
 " 
 
 21 
 
 '1 
 
 22 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02537 
 
 1 *02722 
 
 1*02576 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 17 
 
 "2 
 
 23 
 
 • 3 
 
 1 -02506 
 
 1-02711 
 
 1-02670 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 16 
 
 '2 
 
 23 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-024SS 
 
 1*02693 
 
 1*02677 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 23 
 
 •25 
 
 1-02409 
 
 1*02614 
 
 1*02763 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •8 
 
 23 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02510 
 
 1-02715 
 
 1*02912 
 
 19 
 
 35* 
 
 29 
 
 50' 
 
 53 
 
 2750 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 *7 
 
 23 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02524 
 
 1*02726 
 
 1*02562 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02512 
 
 1*02619 
 
 1-02817 
 
 21 
 
 36 
 
 33 
 
 47* 
 
 58 
 
 2700 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22 
 
 '5 
 
 23 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02522 
 
 1*02727 
 
 1-02541 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •7 
 
 23 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02384 
 
 1-02605 
 
 1*02804 
 
 22 
 
 37' 
 
 24 
 
 44 
 
 14 
 
 2750 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 22 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02536 
 
 1*02716 
 
 1-02570 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •8 
 
 23 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02413 
 
 1-02630 
 
 1-02S2S 
 
 23 
 
 37' 
 
 54 
 
 4l' 
 
 44 
 
 2700 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 21 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02542 
 
 1-02700 
 
 1*02555 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •8 
 
 21 
 
 • 
 
 1-02478 
 
 1-02619 
 
 1-02S17 
 
 24 
 
 38 ' 
 
 "3 
 
 39' 
 
 19 
 
 2175 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 23 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02483 
 
 1-02694 
 
 1 -02481 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 15 
 
 
 23 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-024S2 
 
 1-02687 
 
 1-02680 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 14 
 
 •3 
 
 23 
 
 ' 3 
 
 1-02443 
 
 1*02651 
 
 1-02676 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 23 
 
 •25 
 
 1-02404 
 
 1-0260S 
 
 1-02741 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •7 
 
 20 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02487 
 
 1-02617 
 
 1-02815 
 
 25 
 
 38' 
 
 23 
 
 37' 
 
 21 
 
 2200 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 1-02513 
 
 1-0271S 
 
 1-02511 
 
 26 
 
 38 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 50 
 
 1675 
 
 
 21 
 
 •8 
 
 22 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02540 
 
 1*02714 
 
 1*02547 
 
 27 
 
 38 
 
 IS 
 
 34 
 
 48 
 
 1675 
 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 22 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02520 
 
 1-02700 
 
 1*02555 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 1-02557 
 
 1*02670 
 
 1*02865 
 
 2S 
 
 38 ' 
 
 34 
 
 32' 
 
 47 
 
 1240 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •7 
 
 22 
 
 • 6 
 
 1*02536 
 
 1-02724 
 
 1*02560 
 
 29 
 
 37 
 
 47 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 21 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-02539 
 
 1-02701 
 
 1*02556 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 14 
 
 1660 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 19 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02601 
 
 1 -02693 
 
 1*02882 
 
 July 3 
 
 38 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 900 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 21 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02550 
 
 1*02701 
 
 1*02556 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 18 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02585 
 
 1*02664 
 
 1*02723 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 18 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02619 
 
 1*02691 
 
 1*02877 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 52 
 
 26 
 
 26 
 
 '750 
 
 Surface. 
 
 20 
 
 •9 
 
 21 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02534 
 
 1-02688 
 
 1-02547 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-02543 
 
 1*02679 
 
 1*02877 
 
 12 
 
 35* 
 
 "3 
 
 2i 
 
 25 
 
 2660 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •7 
 
 22 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02538 
 
 1-02714 
 
 1*02550 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 8 
 
 •7 
 
 IS 
 
 • 4 
 
 1*02598 
 
 1-02669 
 
 1*02797 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •s 
 
 20 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-0247S 
 
 1-02604 
 
 1*02803 
 
 13 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 19 
 
 52 
 
 2675 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22 
 
 •0 
 
 22 
 
 • 7 
 
 1 -02525 
 
 1*02715 
 
 1*02543 
 
 14 
 
 33 
 
 46 
 
 19 
 
 17 
 
 2400 
 
 
 21 
 
 ■5 
 
 21 
 
 • 8 
 
 1*02555 
 
 1-02717 
 
 1-02560 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •8 
 
 21 
 
 • 2 
 
 1*02552 
 
 1-02699 
 
 1-02897 
 
 15 
 
 
 13 
 
 IS 
 
 13 
 
 1650 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 •1 
 
 21 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02585 
 
 1 -02746 
 
 1-02601 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 1*02517 
 
 1-02629 
 
 1-02827 
 
chap. ii. ] MADE IE A TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 61 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 Return to Madeira.— The Black GovaX.— Ophiacantha chelys.— Ophiomusium pulcM- 
 lum.— Ceratias uranoscopus. — The Island of San Vicente. — Porto Praya.— The 
 Island of San Iago. — A Red-coral Fishery.— The Guinea Current.— Balanoglossus. 
 —Luminosity of the Sea.— Pyrocystis.— Young Flounders.— Bathycrinus Aldri- 
 chianus.—Hyocrinus Bethellianus.—St Paul's Rocks.— Fernando Noronha.— Low 
 Bottom Temperatures under the Equator.— Ceratotrochus diadema.—Pentacrinus 
 Maclearanus. — Dredging at Moderate Depths. — Arrival at Bahia. 
 
 Appendix A. — Table . of Temperatures observed between Madeira and Bahia during 
 the months of July, August, and September, 1873. 
 
 Appendix B.— Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 500 fathoms, taken 
 between Madeira and Station CII. (lat. 3° 8' N., long. 14° 49' W.). 
 
 Appendix C— Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 fathoms, taken 
 between Station CII. and Bahia. 
 
 Appendix D. — Specific-gravity Observations taken between Madeira and Bahia dur- 
 ing the months of July, August, and September, 1873. 
 
 When we reached Madeira we found, to our great regret, 
 that shortly before our arrival there had been a rather severe 
 epidemic of small - pox in the town ; and as Captain JNares 
 thought it imprudent to give general leave, our stay was great- 
 ly abridged. One or two of the officers went on shore, and en- 
 joyed a short ramble over the lovely island, now in the height 
 of its summer beauty ; and a few of our friends visited us on 
 board while we were taking in our stock of fresh provisions, 
 and made our cabins gorgeous with offerings of flowers and 
 fruit. 
 
 We left Funchal on the evening of the 17th of July, and 
 proceeded toward San Vicente in the Cape Verde group. We 
 took a temperature sounding on the 18th, and on the 19th 
 sounded and dredged in 1125 fathoms, with a bottom of vol- 
 
62 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 canic sand, a few miles to the west of the island of Palraa. The 
 dredging was fairly successful, yielding one or two undescribed 
 echinoderms. On the evening of the 20th we were approach- 
 ing the position of Station III., where we had brought up the 
 coral coated with manganese on the 18th of February, and we 
 were anxious to have another cast as nearly as possible on the 
 same spot, in the hope of perhaps getting some of the coral 
 alive, or in some way clearing up the question of its conditions. 
 
 Fig. I&.—Ophiacantha chelys, Wyvtlle Thomson. Dorsal aspect of the disk. Four times 
 the natural size. (No. 87.) 
 
 On the following day we were a little too far to the westward, 
 so we steamed up near the desired point, and sounded again 
 upon the ridge in 1675 fathoms, and put over the dredge. The 
 event showed that we were not far out of our reckoning, for 
 the dredge brought up a quantity of fragments of the coral, and 
 several other animals identical with those procured in the pre- 
 vious haul. None of the coral was alive, however, and the 
 pieces were quite similar in every respect to those which we 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 63 
 
 had got before, so that no further light was thrown upon the 
 curious question of its occurring in that peculiar semi-mineral- 
 ized state at so great a depth. 
 
 I give here a preliminary notice, under the name of Ophia- 
 cantha chelys (Figs. 16 and 17), of a pretty little brittle star 
 which was found clinging to several of the branches of coral. 
 It is, however, so different in aspect from such typical species 
 of the genus as 0. spinulosa and 0. setosa that I have some 
 
 Fig. IT. — Ophiacantha chelys, Wyville Thomson. Oral aspect of the disk. Four times the 
 
 natural size. (No. 87.) 
 
 hesitation in associating it with them; indeed, I should scarcely 
 have done so had it not been that the described form which 
 approaches it most nearly is undoubtedly Ophiacantha stellata, 
 Lyman. I think it very likely that when we have an opportu- 
 nity of studying the mass of new material which has been pour- 
 ing in for the last three or four years, it may be found necessary 
 to reconsider the genera of the Ophiuridea as at present defined, 
 and to revise their limits. The diameter of the disk in Ophia- 
 cantha chelys is, in an ordinary example, 8 mm. ; the width of 
 the arm near the base 2 mm., and the arm is about three and a 
 half times the diameter of the disk in length. The disk is in- 
 cised in the centre of the space between the arms so deeply as 
 
64 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. ii. 
 
 to give it the effect of being divided nearly to the centre into 
 five broad radial lobes ; these lobes are a good deal inflated, and 
 each lobe is traversed in a radial direction by two deep grooves, 
 so that a deep outer rim of the upper surface of the disk is 
 strongly fluted. The space in the centre of the disk correspond- 
 ing with the middle third of its diameter is flat, and considera- 
 bly depressed beneath the level of the outer inflated rim. The 
 whole of the surface of the disk is tessellated with a certain ap- 
 proach to regularity with strong calcareous plates, those toward 
 the periphery larger than those near the centre ; and the plates 
 bear small stump-like spines, each with a crown of spinules on 
 the free end, inserted into distinct sockets hollowed out in the 
 plates. The radial shields are long and narrow, and lie in the 
 bottom of the grooves in the radial lobes ; so that the shields of 
 each pair are separated from one another by a high calcareous 
 arch, almost a tube, formed of the inflated calcified perisom. 
 The spines are specially congregated on the central depressed 
 portion of the disk. 
 
 The mouth-papillae are nine for each angle; they are broad 
 and rather blunt, with the exception of the odd papillae termi- 
 nating the strong prominent jaws beneath the rows of teeth, 
 which are larger than the others and pointed. There are no 
 tooth-papillae; the teeth are about five in a row, pointed and 
 compressed vertically. The mouth-shields are large and wide, 
 and rudely diamond-shaped ; at the outer angle the sides of the 
 plate are turned up a little, so as to form a short spout-like ex- 
 tension toward the base of the interbrachial groove. The first 
 lower arm-plates are shield-shaped, the points closing the distal 
 ends of the mouth-fissures ; and those beyond are wide and cres- 
 centic, extending across the whole width of the arm. The ten- 
 tacular scales are simple and leaf -like, one to each tentacle. 
 The side arm-plates are very large, meeting both above and be- 
 low ; they are raised distally into a high ridge marked with the 
 shallow sockets of the arm-spines. The height of this ridge 
 
Plate XIX. 
 
 The Track of the Ship from Madeira to Station 102. 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 65 
 
 and the contraction of the proximal sides of these plates give 
 the arms a peculiar beaded appearance. The arm -spines are 
 seven in number on each side of two or three of the proximal 
 arm-joints, and usually five on the joints toward the middle of 
 the arm ; thej are long and glassy, and elegantly spinulated. 
 In color the perisom passes from a dark rose on the surface of 
 the disk and along the upper surface of the arms, through paler 
 shades, to a nearly pure white on the under surface. 
 
 This haul yielded, along with Ophiacantha chelys, the beau- 
 tiful little Ophiurid represented in Figs. 18 and 19. The diam- 
 eter of the disk is 5 mm., and the arms, which are rather wide 
 
 Fig. 18. — Ophiomnsium pxdchellum, Wyville Thomson. Dorsal aspect of the disk. Seven 
 times the natural size. (No. 87.) 
 
 at the base and taper rapidly, are only about once and a half 
 the diameter of the disk in length. The upper surface of the 
 disk is very regularly paved with thick, well-defined plates, each 
 of which rises in the centre into a pointed tubercle approaching 
 a spine in character. One almost regularly hexagonal plate oc- 
 II.— 5 
 
66 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 cupies the centre, encircled by a row of six plates of the same 
 form ; and beyond these there is an outer row, consisting of the 
 five pairs of thick radial shields and five oblong plates, occu- 
 
 M 
 
 ip 
 
 Fig. 19.— Ophiomusiuni pulchellum, Wyville Thomson. Oral aspect of the disk. Seven 
 times the natural size. (No. S7.) 
 
 pying the interbrachial spaces. The mouth-papillae are entire- 
 ly coalesced into a continuous calcareous border; the mouth- 
 shields are diamond-shaped, and rather small ; the side mouth- 
 shields, on the contrary, are unusually large. The first four or 
 five under arm-plates are shield-shaped, and rather large, with 
 well-marked rounded tentacle-scales ; but they suddenly become 
 small when they reach the narrow part of the arm, and the 
 tentacle-scales disappear. The side arm-plates on the proximal 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 67 
 
 joints of the arms are very long — so long that those of one arm 
 nearly meet those of the two adjacent arms, one or two small 
 irregular plates only intervening; and the lower surface of the 
 disk is thus made up to a great extent of the expanded bases 
 of the arms. The side -plates on the distal arm - joints retain 
 their unusual length, but they are directed outward toward the 
 end of the arm, and the inner edges of the plates of each pair 
 are apposed throughout nearly their whole length both above 
 and below. The upper arm -plates are small, and diamond- 
 shaped; the arm-spines are of moderate size — usually three on 
 each side arm-plate. I relegate this pretty little thing provis- 
 ionally to the genus Ojthiomusium, subject to reconsideration. 
 
 We sounded again and took temperatures on the 22d, and on 
 the 23d we sent down the trawl to a depth of 2400 fathoms, 
 with a bottom of globigerina ooze. Along with a number of 
 invertebrates, this haul yielded a very singular little fish of the 
 Lophioid family, which Mr. Murray has named Ceratias urano- 
 scopus (Fig. 20). The specimen is 90 mm. in length from the 
 snout to the end of the tail ; compressed laterally and of a uni- 
 form black color. The anterior spine of the first dorsal fin is 
 produced into a long filament, ending in a pear-shaped bulb, 
 terminating in a very distinct semi-transparent whitish spot. 
 
 Fig. 20.— Ceratias uranoscopus, Mukray. Natural size. (No. S9.) 
 
 This spine has its origin on the posterior portion of the head, 
 and when laid back it reaches nearly to the tip of the tail. The 
 second part of the first dorsal is placed far back on the body, 
 
68 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 and consists of two short fleshy tubercles, which lie in a depres- 
 sion in front of the second dorsal An. The second dorsal has 
 three rays ; the anal is opposite the second dorsal, and has four 
 rays ; the caudal has eight rays, the four central rays being much 
 larger than the others, and bifid. The pectorals are small, and 
 have ten very delicate rays. The gill-opening is a slit situated 
 below the pectoral fin. The upper jaw is formed by the inter- 
 maxillaries, and is armed, together with the lower jaw, with a 
 series of teeth of moderate size, which can be depressed inward 
 as in Lqphius. The skin is thickly covered with minute im- 
 bedded conical spines. The eyes are very small, and are placed 
 high up on the middle of the head. The presence of a fish of 
 this group at so great a depth is of special interest. From its 
 structure, and from the analogy of its nearest allies, there seems 
 to be no reasonable doubt that it lives on the bottom. It is the 
 habit of many of the family to lie hidden in the mud, with the 
 long dorsal filament and its terminal soft expansion exposed. 
 It has been imagined that the expansion is used as a bait to al- 
 lure its prey, but it seems more likely that it is a sense-organ, 
 intended to give notice of their approach. 
 
 On the two following days we went on our course toward 
 San Vicente, sounding and taking serial temperatures daily. 
 The weather was very fine, with a light north-easterly breeze. 
 The water, which had previously been of a deep -blue color, 
 changed on the 23d to a dull green ; on the 25th it resumed its 
 beautiful shade of cobalt. On the 26th we trawled in 1975 
 fathoms with small results, and on the 27th we anchored off 
 Porto Grande. 
 
 We remained a week at San Yicente. The island is most 
 uninteresting ; bare ridges of reddish volcanic lavas and tuffs — 
 some of them certainly with a rugged and picturesque outline ; 
 and wide valleys and valley plains — wildernesses of fragments 
 of the rock which look and almost feel as if they were at a low 
 red-heat. It was now about the hottest season, and everything 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 was dried up and parched ; the water-courses were dry, and all 
 the vegetation had disappeared except the weird -looking suc- 
 culent weeds of the desert, which with their uncouth wrinkled 
 forms and venomous spines looked like vegetable demons that 
 could defy the heat and live anywhere. Here and there outside 
 the town, where the carcass of a dead bullock or a horse had 
 been flung out on the shingle or only half buried in it, polluting 
 the air far and near, there were half a dozen of the Egyptian 
 vulture {Neophron percnopterus) perched lazily upon the bones, 
 and, when disturbed, flying off slowly and alighting again at a 
 distance of a few yards. A curious incident gave us a ghastly 
 interest in the movements of these foul birds. A very excel- 
 lent seaman -school -master, Mr. Adam Ebbels, whom we had 
 taken with us from England, died suddenly just before we 
 reached Bermudas, and his successor was to have joined us at 
 Porto Grande. He came out in the same steamer with a sub- 
 lieutenant who was also going to join the ship. They arrived 
 ten days before the Challenger, and the school-master put up at 
 the French hotel. On the Sunday before our arrival he went 
 out to take a walk, and had not since been heard of. Of course, 
 besides taking all the necessary official steps, we were all on the 
 watch for traces of him, and we were told that, if he were dead, 
 the vultures would be our surest guides to the place where the 
 body lay. They have rather an unusual mode of looking at 
 some things at San Vicente. When we were making inquiries 
 about the missing school-master, the general impression seemed 
 to be that he had met with foul play, as he was known to have 
 had a small sum of money about him and a rather valuable 
 watch when he left the hotel ; and we were told, further, that 
 a murderer lived in a cottage at a little distance from the town. 
 It seems that there is good reason to believe that this man, who 
 had been originally sent to San Vicente for the good of Portu- 
 gal, had made away with several people during his stay on the 
 island. Although his profession was by no means spoken of 
 
70 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 with approval, it was talked of easily and freely, and he did not 
 appear to be entirely beyond the pale of society. I had a curi- 
 osity to meet a murderer without having the responsibility of 
 any fiscal relations with him, and made an arrangement to call 
 at his cottage ; but something came in the way and prevented 
 the visit. 
 
 It turned out, however, that the poor fellow had not been 
 murdered or robbed at all. His body was found a week or two 
 after we left, lying, dried up with the scorching heat, on a ledge 
 near Wellington Peak ; he had wandered too far, and had been 
 overcome by heat and fatigue and unable to return — very prob- 
 ably he had had a sun-stroke. His purse and watch were in- 
 tact ; even the vultures had failed to discover him : he had gone 
 too far beyond the ring round the town where they chiefly find 
 their food. 
 
 Fresh water is about the most important element at San Vi- 
 cente, for although heavy rains fall now and then, sometimes 
 the island is for a whole year without a shower. The water is 
 taken from deep wells sunk through the tufaceous rock ; and as 
 the supply is limited, the wells are carefully inclosed and pro- 
 tected, and closed except at certain times. A large well just 
 behind the town, in an octagonal building covered in with a 
 low-pitched roof, is the great centre of attraction ; thither from 
 early morning one can see files of stately negresses marching 
 with large rather elegantly formed earthen vases poised upon 
 their heads ; and it is amusing to watch the congregation of 
 them good-naturedly helping one another to draw the water 
 and to fill their pitchers ; and chattering and laughing, and most 
 generously exhibiting their serviceable rows of pearly teeth. I 
 think the negroes at San Vicente are certainly better -looking 
 than those in the West Indies : their figures are slighter, and 
 they have altogether a lighter effect. JSTo doubt this carrying of 
 water-jars has a great influence in producing the erect gait and 
 ease of gesture for which the women especially are remarkable. 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 71 
 
 Some of the wells outside the town are almost picturesque. 
 The well building is usually inclosed within a whitewashed 
 stone-wall, and as there is a little moisture and shade within the 
 xnclosure, generally two or three trees of respectable dimensions 
 rise over the wall. There is usually a latticed gate of entrance, 
 with an ever-chaDging group of lively, good-natured beings, as 
 black as Erebus, clustering round it. 
 
 We left Porto Grande on the 5th of August, and proceeded 
 on our course toward Porto Pray a, the principal town on the 
 large island of San Iago, and the seat of the Central Government 
 of the Cape Yerde group. On the 6th, the fine peak of the 
 active volcano on the island of Fogo was in sight, and early on 
 the morning of the 7th we anchored off Porto Praya. Al- 
 though the anchorage is more exposed, and not nearly so suita- 
 ble for the habitual resort of shipping, San Iago has greatly the 
 advantage of San Vicente ashore. The town of Porto Praya is 
 tidy and well-ordered ; the Government and municipal buildings 
 are commodious ; and the central Praca is really ornamental, with 
 a handsome fountain in the middle, and an encircling row of ir- 
 rigated and cared-for trees. At one end of the town there is a 
 fine public well. The water is led, in closed pipes, from a stream 
 coming down from the higher land, into a large stone-built reser- 
 voir, from which there is a daily distribution from a long range 
 of ornamental basins and spouts to a constant crowd of applicants. 
 
 The country, although on the whole somewhat arid and bare, 
 is much less so than San Vicente. There is a large grove of 
 cocoa-nut-trees behind the town ; some of the streams are per- 
 manent, and the valleys are consequently much greener, and in 
 some places they are luxuriantly fertile. The day we arrived 
 we rode to the pretty little village of Trinidad ; the first part 
 of our way was very desolate, over an expanse of hot gravel re- 
 lieved here and there by trailing gourds and convolvuluses, and 
 a scrub of castor -oil plant and a low -growing almost leafless 
 Acacia, with long, wicked, white spines. We passed two or 
 
72 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 three fine examples of the celebrated baobab-tree (Adansonia 
 gigantea) ; the trunk of the largest on our route was about 50 
 feet in circumference, but in some trees of the same species 
 on the neighboring coast of Africa, which are supposed to be 
 among the oldest trees in the world, they attain the enormous 
 dimensions of 30 feet in diameter. The baobab-tree, with its 
 spreading low crown and large pendulous greenish-purple flow- 
 ers, has a very striking and unusual appearance. 
 
 After riding a few miles we came suddenly to a sort of basin 
 at the head of the valley, with a slow stream passing through it 
 and a broad belt of the most luxuriant tropical vegetation on 
 either side. Groves of cocoa-nuts extended for miles along the 
 banks ; and the land was cleared and fenced for the cultivation 
 of yams, sweet-potatoes, maize, pumpkins, and all the ordinary 
 vegetable productions of the tropics. Wherever the vegetation 
 was allowed to run wild, it passed into a tangled thicket of 
 oranges, limes, acacias, and castor-oil shrubs; the whole so warp- 
 ed and felted with climbing gourds and beautifully colored Ijpo- 
 meas that it was no easy matter to make one's way through it 
 unless by the cleared tracks. We went a little way up the 
 flank of one of the hills to the village, and had a good view of 
 the valley, which contrasted wonderfully in its extreme rich- 
 ness and careful cultivation with the arid plains below. The 
 swarthy inhabitants received us with their usual good-natured 
 hospitality, and after a welcome luncheon, of which bananas, 
 oranges, pine-apples, and cocoa-nut milk formed the principal 
 part, we rode back to the ship, highly pleased with our experi- 
 ence of this unexpected oasis. 
 
 Next morning one or two of us went out in the steam-pin- 
 nace to dredge for red coral. We had learned that there was 
 a regular coral fishery on the coast of San Iago, seven or eight 
 boats being constantly employed, and nearly a hundred men ; 
 and that coral to the amount of upward of 100 quintals (10,000 
 kilos.) was exported annually. The fishery is carried on at 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 73 
 
 depths between 60 and 100 fathoms, a mile or so from the 
 shore. Large, clumsy fishing- boats are used, with a crew of 
 from six to eight or nine men. A frame of two crossed bars 
 of iron, weighted in the centre with a large stone, and hung 
 with abundant tangles, some of them of loose hemp and others 
 of net, is let down with a thick rope (one and a half or two 
 inch), and eased back and forward on the ground till it has 
 fairly caught ; the rope is then led to a rude windlass in the 
 middle of the boat, and it often takes the whole strength of the 
 crew to bring the frame up. The branches of coral stick in 
 the tangles and in the meshes of the net. It was a fearfully 
 hot day — the hottest, I think, in its physiological effect on the 
 human body, which I have ever experienced. There was not 
 a breath of air, and the sea was as smooth as glass ; and the 
 vertical sun and the glare from the water were overpowering. 
 We crouched, half sick, under our awning, muffled up to pre- 
 vent the skin being peeled off ; and even a few successful hauls 
 in the afternoon, which yielded perhaps twenty or thirty fair 
 branches of coral, scarcely restored our equanimity. A few of 
 our first hauls w T ere unsuccessful, so we steamed up close to one 
 of the nearest fishing-boats. The coral-fishers, having no fear 
 of competition, were very civil ; indicating by signs when we 
 were on the right spot. They were active, swarthy Spaniards, 
 and had stripped themselves for their work to a pair of very 
 scanty drawers, and their lithe bronzed figures heaving round 
 the windlass were most picturesque ; they got several pieces of 
 coral while we were out. According to our experience, the 
 coral grows at Porto Praya in loosely spreading branches, from 
 two to perhaps eight inches high, attached firmly to ledges of 
 rock and large stones. It is bad dredging-ground ; our dredge 
 got jammed more than once, and was extricated with difficulty. 
 The Cape Verde coral is not of fine quality ; it is dark and 
 coarse in color, and it does not seem to be so compact in text- 
 ure as the Mediterranean varietv. 
 
74 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 The next morning a large party started on horseback in the 
 direction of San Domingo. We rode over some hot, flat conn- 
 try covered with a brush of Acacia and Ricinus, and at length 
 reached a ravine with a small stream running in the bottom of 
 it, the banks fairly wooded, the wood interrupted every here 
 and there with spaces of loose stones and gravel. As we rode 
 along, we frequently heard the harsh cry of the guinea-fowl, 
 and Captain Maclear and I detached ourselves from the riding 
 party and spent most of the day stalking a flock of them. They 
 were very wary, running very quickly, and rising and taking a 
 short flight before we could get within the longest range. They 
 crouched and ran among the stones, and their speckled plumage 
 so closely resembled at a distance the lichen-speckled rocks, that 
 more than once when we had seen them moving about, and had 
 crept up within shot, thinking that we had kept our game con- 
 stantly in sight, there was nothing there but a heap of gray 
 stones. In the afternoon Captain Maclear managed to separate 
 some of the birds from the flock, and marked one for his own ; 
 he stalked it warily along the rugged bank, and at last circum- 
 vented it, and cautiously brought up his gun. A sharp report, 
 and the fowl fell. But Maclear's conscience was not to be bur- 
 dened with the death of that beautiful, and, I may add, delicious 
 bird. At that moment a laugh of triumph rang from the other 
 side of a low ridge, and Captain Nares, who, quite unconscious 
 of our presence, had been stalking another flock in the same 
 direction, ran up and stuffed it into his game-bag. Maclear 
 had driven his bird right up to the muzzle of Nares's gun ! I 
 did not get a shot at a guinea-fowl either all day, but I picked 
 up a few birds, and I found the pretty king -hunter (Dacelo 
 Jagoensis) sitting tamely on the tops of the castor-oil bushes, 
 where Darwin left him forty years before. 
 
 On the 9th of August we weighed anchor, and proceeded on 
 our course toward Fernando Noronha. The northern limit of 
 the equatorial current, running westward at the rate of from 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 75 
 
 twenty to seventy miles a day, is, roughly, the fourth degree of 
 north latitude — a little to the southward of this parallel toward 
 the coast of Africa, considerably to the northward, about 35° 
 W. longitude, where it approaches its bifurcation off Cape San 
 Eoque. 
 
 Occupying a band approximately between the parallels of 4° 
 and 8° IS"., there is a tolerably constant current to the eastward, 
 the equatorial counter - current, averaging, in the summer and 
 autumn months, when it attains its maximum, a rate of twenty 
 to forty miles a day. The causes of this current are not well 
 known ; it occupies a portion of the ever-varying space between 
 the north-east and the south-east trades, and it seems probable 
 that it may be a current induced in an opposite direction, in the 
 " zone of calms," by the rapid removal of surface-water to the 
 westward by the permanent easterly wind-belts. Opposite Cape 
 Verde this easterly current takes a southward direction ; it is 
 joined by a portion of the southern reflux of the Gulf -stream ; 
 and, under the name of the " Guinea Current," courses along 
 the African coast as far south as the Bights of Benin and Bi- 
 afra, where it disappears. 
 
 The Guinea or " African " Current is a stream of warm 
 water, averaging from 250 to 300 miles in width, with an av- 
 erage rate of from twenty to fifty miles a day. Its greatest 
 concentration and force are opposite Cape Palmas, where it is 
 jammed in by the northern edge of the equatorial current ; its 
 width is there reduced to a little over a hundred miles, and it 
 attains a maximum speed of one hundred miles a day. There 
 seems to be no doubt that this current must be regarded as a 
 continuation of, and as being almost entirely derived from, the 
 equatorial counter-current. It is evident that a great part of 
 the surface-water must have an equatorial origin, for when we 
 took our observations, nearly at the hottest time of the year, 
 the surface-temperature was equal to the mean maximum tem- 
 perature of the air, and one degree above its mean minimum 
 
76 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. If. 
 
 temperature ; it is doubtless joined, and considerably aug- 
 mented, by a cooler current passing- down the coast of Africa, 
 past the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, a portion of the 
 southern branch of the Gulf-stream ; and this tributary stream, 
 whose direction so nearly coincides with that of the Guinea 
 Current, formerly tended to prevent the full recognition of the 
 principal source of the latter in the equatorial counter-current, 
 
 After leaving San Iago, on the 9th of August, we began al- 
 most at once to feel the influence of the Guinea Current, or 
 rather, perhaps, of its northern tributary ; and from that date 
 to the 17th our course lay in a south-easterly direction, parallel 
 with the coast of Africa, and nearly in the path of the current. 
 The temperature of the sea-surface during this time w T as nearly 
 constant at 26° C.,and the temperature of the air slightly lower. 
 Serial soundings were taken at several stations, and these gave 
 a singularly rapid fall in temperature of from 14° to 15° C. for 
 the first 100 fathoms ; showing that the warm current, as in all 
 other cases which we have observed, is very superficial. Where 
 the rate of the current is highest, we have as usual the iso- 
 therms crowding upward ; the cooler water rising to supply the 
 place of the hot surface-water, which is being rapidly drifted 
 and evaporated away. 
 
 We sounded on the 10th in 2300 fathoms, with a bottom of 
 globigerina ooze, and took a series of temperatures at intervals 
 of 100 fathoms, down to 1500. The surface-temperature was 
 high, and from the surface the temperature fell with unusual 
 rapidity, losing nearly 15° C. in the first hundred fathoms. 
 
 Surface 26°-lC. 15 fathoms 20°"5 C. 
 
 5 fathoms 25 -4 20 " 18 "4 
 
 10 " 24-4 100 " 11-3 
 
 There was a marked tendency at this station to the gathering 
 together upward of all the higher lines (Plate XIX.), the iso- 
 therm of 6° C. occurring at a depth of 400 fathoms, nearly 400 
 fathoms higher than the position of the same line at Madeira. 
 
TEMPERATURE BETWEEN MADEIRA AND STATION 102. 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 77 
 
 The following day we again took a series of temperature ob- 
 servations, and the gathering upward of the warmer lines was 
 still more marked (Station XCYI.) ; and on the 13th a series 
 of observations, at intervals of 100 fathoms to a depth of 1500, 
 gave a like result. The fall of temperature for the first hun- 
 dred fathoms was much the same as on the 10th. 
 
 Surface 25°-5 C. 
 
 25 fathoms 20 "6 
 
 50 " 15-2 
 
 75 fathoms 12°-7C 
 
 100 " 11 -7 
 
 On the 14th we sounded and dredged in 1750 fathoms, hav- 
 ing drawn in slightly toward the coast of Africa to get some 
 idea of the fauna of the shallower water. The dredging was not 
 very successful; the bottom was a dark-brown sandy ooze, with 
 many Globigerince and other f oraminif era ; but beyond some 
 fragments of a sponge, a broken sea - egg, and one or two bi- 
 valve-shells, the dredge contained no examples of the larger 
 animal forms. 
 
 From the 15th to the 18th we continued our course, still in 
 the Guinea Current, and under nearly similar conditions of tem- 
 perature. On Tuesday, the 19th, the position of the ship at noon 
 was lat. 5° 48' K, long. 14° 20' W., about 200 miles off Cape 
 Mesurado. A sounding was taken in the morning, in 2500 
 fathoms, with a bottom of dark sandy mud. The trawl was 
 put over, and brought up a considerable number of animal 
 forms ; among them, very prominent on account of their brill- 
 iant scarlet color, nine large shrimps representing six species 
 : — one referred to the family of the Peneidse, while the remain- 
 der were normal Carididse ; several tubicolous annelids, and sev- 
 eral examples of a fine dorsibranchiate annelid w T ith long wdiite 
 bristles, which, exceptionally in its class, were very distinctly 
 jointed; many specimens of an undescribed polyzoon with 
 stalked avicularia and large vibracula ; and a large Holothurid 
 belonging to the gelatinous group which we had frequently 
 met with previously in deep water, and remarkable for the 
 
78 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 position of the mouth, with its circle of branchiae, which was 
 placed on the lower surface of the body near the anterior ex- 
 tremity of the ambulatory area. 
 
 The trawl contained unfortunately only a fragment of a very 
 large species of Balanoglossus. Although evidently a worm, 
 this animal presents so many anomalies in structure, that Gre- 
 genbaur has defined a distinct order in its class for its accommo- 
 dation, under the name of the Enteropneusta. The first known 
 species, B. clavigerus, was originally discovered by Delle Chiage 
 in the Bay of Naples, and after his first description it remained 
 long unnoticed. Kowalewski subsequently detected another 
 species of the genus, B. minutus, also in the Bay of Naples : 
 and he worked out an excellent paper on the anatomy of the 
 genus, and showed that, like the Tunicata, Balanoglossus pos- 
 sessed a rudimentary branchial skeleton. 
 
 The body, which is worm-like, is in three marked divisions ; 
 a stout muscular proboscis, with a terminal opening for the en- 
 trance and efflux of water, round which there is a ring of rudi- 
 mentary eye-spots ; a strong muscular collar, somewhat like the 
 collar in Sabella or Clymene, between which and the proboscis 
 the mouth is placed ; and the body, which is divided into three 
 regions — first, the branchial region, which occupies about one- 
 third of the length of the animal and in which the esophagus is 
 bordered by ranges of complicated gill-sacs, opening externally 
 and supported by a delicate skeleton ; secondly, a region which 
 contains a simple stomach with hepatic cseca and the reproduc- 
 tive organs ; and, thirdly, an enormously lengthened transpar- 
 ent gelatinous caudal region, terminated by the excretory open- 
 ing. In our specimen only the proboscis, the collar, and the 
 anterior portion of the branchial region were preserved; but 
 the proportions of these — the proboscis alone 11 mm. in length 
 by 18 mm. in width — proclaimed it a giant among its fellows. 
 
 From its structure alone Balanoglossus claimed a special, we 
 might almost say a mysterious, interest ; for its unusual bran- 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 79 
 
 chial system — associating it, an annelid, or perhaps more strict- 
 ly an aberrant and highly specialized nemertid, with ascidians 
 and with Anvphioxus — brought it into the fraternity among 
 which the first hazy indications of a passage between the inver- 
 tebrates and vertebrates seemed inclined to dawn. The singu- 
 lar history of its development added to the interest which had 
 already been excited by the peculiarities of its structure. In 
 his series of papers on the development and metamorphoses of 
 the larvae and young of Echinoderms, Johannes Muller figured 
 and described what he regarded as an echinoderm larva under 
 the name of Tornaria. A couple of years ago Metschnikoff 
 found reason to believe that Tornaria was the larva, not of an 
 echinoderm, but of Balanoglossus ; and within the last year Al- 
 exander Agassiz has . confirmed Metschnikoff 's view by tracing 
 all the stages of its development from Tornaria to the fully 
 formed worm. 
 
 From the time we entered the current, immediately after leav- 
 ing the Cape Verde Islands, the sea had been every night a per- 
 fect blaze of phosphorescence. The weather was very fine, with 
 a light breeze from the south-westward. There was no moon, 
 and although the night was perfectly clear and the stars shone 
 brightly, the lustre of the heavens was fairly eclipsed by that 
 of the sea. The unbroken part of the surface appeared pitch- 
 black, but wherever there was the least ripple the whole line 
 broke into a brilliant crest of clear white light. Near the ship 
 the black interspaces predominated, but as the distance increased 
 the glittering ridges looked closer, until toward the horizon, as 
 far as the eye could reach, they seemed to run together and to 
 melt into one continuous sea of light. The wake of the ship 
 was an avenue of intense brightness. It was easy to read the 
 smallest print sitting at the after -port in my cabin; and the 
 bows shed on either side rapidly widening wedges of radiance, 
 so vivid as to throw the sails and rigging into distinct lights and 
 shadows. The first night or two after leaving San Iago the 
 
80 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 phosphorescence seemed to be chiefly due to a large Pyrosoma, 
 of which we took many specimens with the tow-net, and which 
 glowed in the water with a white light like that from molten 
 iron. 
 
 Pyrosoma is a free- swimming colony of simple ascidians 
 having the form of a lengthened cylinder 100 mm. to 120 cc. 
 in length, with a cavity within from 20 to 80 or 100 mm. in 
 diameter, open at one end, and closed and coming to a point at 
 the other; the separate individuals, often to the number of 
 many thousands, each included in its proper transparent test 
 of a consistency between jelly and cartilage, make up the wall 
 packed vertically side by side, with all their inhalent openings 
 turned outward, and the exhalent openings turned inward into 
 the cavity of the cylinder. A perpetual current is driven 
 through each animal by the action of the cilia bringing in 
 freshly aerated water to a beautifully fenestrated gill -cavity, 
 and supplying nourishment to a simple stomach and alimentary 
 tract. The consequence of this arrangement is that the water, 
 constantly flowing inward through the myriad mouths on the 
 outer wall, and finding egress only by the open end of the cyl- 
 inder, the colony is moved steadily through the water, the 
 closed end first. Each animal is provided with a fairly devel- 
 oped nervous system, and the whole can act in concert so as to 
 direct the general movements of the colony. 
 
 Besides Pyrosoma, there were large numbers of copepod crus- 
 taceans, each of which, on being shaken in the curls of the wave, 
 emitted a spark of light of great intensity, and the breaking 
 water seemed filled with these glittering points. The tow-net 
 brought up during the day, but more particularly toward even- 
 ing, an enormous number of pelagic animals, most of them more 
 or less phosphorescent. Among them, perhaps predominating 
 in numbers, were decapod crustaceans in the " zoea " and " me- 
 galopa " stages of development ; a great Phyllosoma, 12 cc. 
 from tip to tip of the limbs; several species of Leucifer ; a 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 81 
 
 beautiful little transparent Cranchia — a cuttle-fish not more 
 than a centimetre in length ; a Phillirrhde, scattered over with 
 golden spots ; and an oceanic Planarian. 
 
 As we passed southward the character of the phosphorescence 
 ^changed somewhat. Pyrosoma and the larger phosphorescent 
 creatures became less abundant, and the light given out by the 
 water, although, on the whole, even more vivid than before, was 
 more diffused, so that water shaken in a vase gave out the uni- 
 form soft light of a ground-glass globe illuminated from within 
 by a white flame. Even when examined in small quantity in 
 a tumbler the water was slightly turbid, and when the light 
 was properly adjusted, it was seen to contain a multitude of 
 minute transparent bodies, which give out in the dark a clear 
 white light, becoming very vivid, almost a spark, when they are 
 shaken or irritated. 
 
 The largest of these are spherical, nearly a millimetre in di- 
 ameter. They consist of a delicate external pellicle, so thin 
 that it can scarcely be defined under the microscope, but appar- 
 ently siliceous, for, when the little globe is pressed with extreme 
 delicacy between the finger and thumb, the wall of the cell is 
 felt to break like an infinitely thin wall of glass. When the 
 sphere is shaken from the towing-net, it usually contains only a 
 clear transparent liquid, with a small irregularly outlined mass 
 of yellowish-brown sarcode sticking apparently against the in- 
 side of the cell-wall. If it be left at rest for a time in sea- 
 water, the sarcode begins to send out prolongations which grad- 
 ully spread in a net-work of anastomosing streams over the in- 
 side of the wall, and in these streams the peculiar and extremely 
 characteristic flowing movement of living protoplasm may be 
 observed, each stream bearing along with it oil-globules and mi- 
 nute granules, as in the well-known " cyclosis " within the cells 
 of the moniliform hairs in the flower of Tradescantia. Under 
 a high power the protoplasm is seen to consist of a clear viscid 
 liquid, moving along with a defined edge separating it from the 
 
 II.— 6 
 
82 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 general fluid contents of the cell, and burdened with yellow 
 granules and compound granular masses and minute oil-glob- 
 ules and refractive particles ; and near the centre there is always 
 a large, well-defined nucleus of a somewhat denser material and 
 
 of a grayish color, which dyes 
 freely with carmine. This 
 little organism, to which Mr. 
 Murray has given the name 
 of Pyrocystis noctiluca (Fig. 
 21), seems hitherto to have 
 escaped notice, or, if observed, 
 it has probably passed for the 
 encysted condition of Nocti- 
 luca miliaris, which at first 
 sight it greatly resembles. It 
 
 Ec&21._i^^^«^M^ From certainly hag nothing what- 
 the surface in the Guinea Current. One nun- J o 
 
 dred times the natural size. ever to do with the true JVbo- 
 
 tiluca, which, according to our observations, appears to be con- 
 fined to the neighborhood of land. 
 
 Another species, Pyrocystis fusiformis (Fig. 22), which seems 
 not to be quite so abundant, although it is almost constantly 
 associated with the preceding, is very regularly spindle-shaped ; 
 and a third, which may possibly present generic differences, has 
 the form of a truncated cylinder. In this last we have observed 
 the process of endogenous multiplication by the division of the 
 protoplasmic nucleus and the development of two secondary 
 cells within the parent. We are at present inclined, though 
 with some doubt, to relegate these forms to the Diatomacese. 
 
 We took with the towing-net on the surface in the Guinea 
 Current several of the Plagusice, the young flounders described 
 by Professor Steenstrup in a remarkable paper, in which he 
 contended, though somewhat erroneously, that in passing from 
 the young symmetrical to the adult distorted condition, one of 
 the eyes of the Pleuronectidse passed right through the head 
 
Plate XXI. The Track of the SI 
 
from Station 102 to San Salvador. 
 
 2 
 
 0° 1 
 
 0° 
 
 x \ 
 
 ^ugz4 • 
 
 J X^g22^ d \ g r °* 
 
 la/> \ TO \ 
 Tgr -o# \ 
 
 \ l5D(f 
 
 y" 
 
 0° 
 
 1 
 
 78C 160V 
 
 moo 
 
 A Ascension I . 
 
 (%818'j 
 
 • 
 
 10° 
 
 
 
 ?& 
 
 
 2 
 
 0* 1 
 
 0° 
 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO TEE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 83 
 
 from one side to the other. All our specimens were perfectly 
 symmetrical, and as they ranged from one to three centimetres 
 in length, many of them were far 
 beyond the stage in which the 
 wandering of the eye is described 
 by Steenstrap, and seemed rather 
 to favor the view that there is a 
 group of pelagic fishes, which — 
 while presenting all the general 
 features of the Pleuronectidse — 
 never undergo that peculiar twist- 
 ing which brings the two eyes of 
 the flounder or turbot to the same 
 side of the head, and is evidently 
 in immediate relation with the 
 mode of life of these animals, 
 which feed and swim with the 
 body closely applied to the sea- 
 bottom. 
 
 On the 21st of August we 
 sounded in 2450 fathoms, with a 
 bottom of brownish mud, evident- 
 ly colored by the debris from some 
 of the small rivers on the African 
 coast, not more than 400 miles dis- 
 tant. A temperature sounding at 
 every 100 fathoms down to 1500 showed that we were still in 
 the Guinea Current. About midday we fell in with the edge of 
 the south-east trades, and we shaped our course to the westward. 
 
 The depth on the 22d was 2475 fathoms, and the bottom 
 temperature l°-6 C. The position of this station was 738 miles 
 to the eastward of St. Paul's Rocks. 
 
 The trawl was sent down on the 23d to a depth of 2500 fath- 
 oms, with a bottom of globigerina ooze ; and during its absence 
 
 Fig. 22. — Pyrocistis fusiformis, Murray. 
 From the surface iu the Guinea Current. 
 One hundred times the natural size. 
 
84 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 temperature observations were taken at the usual intervals to 
 1500 fathoms, and at every ten fathoms for the first sixty. 
 The trawl was fairly successful, several specimens in each 
 group, representing the sponges, the Ophiuridea, the Holothu- 
 ridea, the Annelida, the Bryozoa, the Cirripedia, the macrourous 
 Crustacea, the lamellibranchiate and gasteropod Mollusca, and 
 the fishes having been procured — a somewhat unusually varied 
 assemblage from so great a depth. 
 
 On the 24th we had passed the variable boundary, and were 
 in the region of the regular trades, with a steady surface-cur- 
 rent to the north-westward of seventeen miles a day, and we 
 found, on taking a series of temperature observations down to 
 500 fathoms, that the isotherms were again rising. The depth 
 was 2275 fathoms, with a bottom of globigerina ooze. 
 
 On the 25th we sounded in 1850 fathoms, in lat. 1° 47' N., 
 long. 24° 26' W. ; the bottom was again globigerina ooze, and 
 the bottom temperature 1°*8 C. A series of temperature 
 soundings were taken at intervals of ten fathoms for the first 
 100, and of 100 fathoms down to 1500. The trawl was put 
 over, and gave us an unusually large number of interesting 
 forms ; among others, many large specimens of a fine species 
 of Zimopsis, several brachiopods, a small Umhellularia, several 
 remarkable Bryozoa, several specimens of a species of Archas- 
 ter, some very large examples of a Salenia differing apparently 
 in some respects from S. varispina, an entire specimen of a 
 beautiful stalked crinoid which I shall describe under the name 
 of Bathycrinus Aldrichianus* and with it some fragments of 
 
 * As the stalked Oinoids are perhaps the most remarkable of all the deep-sea 
 groups, both on account of their extreme rarity and of the special interest of their 
 paleontological relations, I mean to associate the names of those naval officers who 
 have been chiefly concerned in carrying out the sounding, dredging, and trawling op- 
 erations with the new species in this class, whose discovery is due to the patience 
 and ability with which they have performed their task. Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich 
 was first lieutenant of the Challenger during the first two years of her commission ; 
 he is now with Captain Nares as first lieutenant of the Alert. Lieutenant George 
 R. Bethell, I am glad to say, was with us throughout the voyage. 
 
I 
 
 Fig. 23.—Bathycrinus Aldrichianus. Wyville Thomson. Three times the natural size. 
 
 (No. 106.) 
 
PLATE XXII. -DIAGRAM OF THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION 
 
'EMPERATURE BETWEEN STATION 102 AND PERNAMBUCO. 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 87 
 
 the stem of another form, for which I propose the name Hyo- 
 crinus Bethellianus, of which we afterward got one or two 
 complete specimens and several fragmentary portions, again as- 
 sociated with Bathycrinus, at Station CXLVIL, lat. 46° 16' S., 
 long. 48° 27 / E., about 87 miles to the westward of Hog Island, 
 one of the Crozet group. For the sake of convenience, I will give 
 a preliminary sketch of these two new crinoidal forms together. 
 
 I described and figured in " The Depths of the Sea" (p. 452), 
 under the name of Bathycrinus gracilis, a delicate little crinoid 
 which we dredged from a depth of 2475 fathoms to the south 
 of Cape Clear. I believe, from the structure of the stem and 
 calyx, and from the somewhat peculiar sculpture common to 
 both, that the first of the two forms which I have now to de- 
 scribe must be referred to the same genus. 
 
 In Bathycrinus Aldrichianus (Fig. 23), the stem in full- 
 grown specimens is 200 to 250 mm. in length, and about 2 mm. 
 in diameter across the enlarged articulating end of one of the 
 joints. The largest joints of the stem have a length of about 
 4 mm., and they rapidly shorten toward the base of the cup. 
 They are dice-box-shaped, and have the ends beveled off on 
 different sides alternately, for the accommodation of masses of 
 muscle. Toward the base of the stem a few strong jointed 
 branches come off and form a sort of imperfect root of attach- 
 ment. The cup consists of a series of basals, which are sol- 
 dered together into a very small ring scarcely to be distin- 
 guished from an upper stem-joint. Alternating with these are 
 five large triangular first radials ; these are often free, but in 
 old examples they also are frequently anchylosed into a funnel- 
 shaped piece. The second radials are articulated to the first by 
 a true joint with strong bands of contractile fibre ; they are 
 broad and flat, with an elevated central ridge, which is contin- 
 ued down upon the first radials, though in these it is not so 
 marked ; and lateral wing -like extensions, which curve up at 
 the edges and are thus slightly hollowed out. In the third 
 
88 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. ii. 
 
 radial, or " radial axillary," which is united to the second radial 
 by a syzygy, the upper border of the plate is nearly straight ; 
 but it is divided into two facets for the articulation of the two 
 first brachials. The ridge is continued from the second radial 
 to about the middle of the third, where it divides, and its 
 branches pass to the insertions of the first brachials, to be con- 
 tinued along the middle line of the arms. The wing -like 
 lateral processes are continued along the sides of the radial axil- 
 laries, and along each side of, at all events, the first three bra- 
 chials. The arms are ten in number ; in the larger specimens 
 they are about 30 mm. in length, and consist of from forty to 
 fifty joints. The first and second and the fourth and fifth bra- 
 chials are united by syzygies, and after that syzygies occur 
 sparingly and at irregular intervals along the arms. There are 
 no pinnules on the proximal joints of the arms, but toward the 
 distal end there are usually about twenty, in two alternating 
 rows ; the number and amount of development of the pinnules 
 seem to depend greatly on age, and not to be very constant. 
 The arms and the pinnules are deeply grooved, and along the 
 edges of the grooves are ranges of imbricated reniform plates, 
 cribriform and very delicate, much resembling those in the 
 same position in Rhizocrinus. The disk is membranous, with 
 scattered calcareous granules. The mouth is subcentral ; there 
 are no regular oral plates, but there seems to be a determina- 
 tion of the calcareous matter to five points round the mouth, 
 where it forms little irregular calcareous bosses. There is an 
 oral ring of long fringed tentacles, and the tentacles are long 
 and well marked along the radial canals. The excretory open- 
 ing is on a small interradial papilla. The ovaries are borne 
 upon the six or eight proximal pinnules of each arm. This 
 form appears to be in some respects intermediate between the 
 pentacrinoid stage of Antedon and Rhizocrinus. I shall re- 
 serve a discussion of its systematic position until I have an 
 opportunity of describing it more in detail. 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 89 
 
 Hyocrinus Bethellianus (Fig. 24) is 
 a totally different thing ; and yet from 
 certain points of resemblance one is 
 inclined to regard it in the mean time 
 as an aberrant member of the same 
 group. It has very much the appear- 
 ance, and in some prominent particu- 
 lars it seems to have very much the 
 structure, of the paleozoic genus Pla- . 
 tycrinus, or its subgenus Dichocrinus. 
 
 The longest portion of the stem 
 which we dredged was about 170 mm. 
 in length, but the basal part was want- 
 ing, and we had no means of determin- 
 ing what were its means of attachment. 
 The stem is much more rigid than that 
 of Bathycrinus, and is made up of cy- 
 lindrical joints which are united to one 
 another by a close syzygial suture, the 
 applied surfaces being marked with a 
 radiating pattern of grooves and ridges 
 like those of so many of the fossil gen- 
 era, and like those of the recent Pen- 
 tacrinus. The joints become short 
 and very numerous toward the base 
 of the cup. 
 
 The head, including the cup and the 
 arms, is about 60 mm. in length. The 
 cup consists of two tiers of plates only. 
 The lower of these, which must be re- 
 garded as a ring of basals, is formed, 
 as in some of the Platycrinidse, of two 
 or three pieces ; it is difficult to make 
 out which with certainty, for the pieces are more or less united, 
 
90 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 and the junctions in the mature animal are somewhat obscure. 
 
 The second tier consists of five radials, which 
 are thin, broad, and spade - shaped, with a 
 slight blunt ridge running up the centre and 
 ending in a narrow articulating sufrace for an 
 almost cylindrical first brachial. The arms 
 are five in number ; they consist of long cy- 
 lindrical joints deeply grooved and inter- 
 sected by syzygial junctions. The first three 
 joints in each arm consist each of two parts 
 separated by a syzygy ; the third joint bears 
 at its distal end an articulating surface, from 
 which a pinnule springs. The fourth arm- 
 joint is intersected by two syzygies, and thus 
 consists of three parts, and so do all the suc- 
 ceeding joints; and each joint gives off a 
 pinnule from its distal end, the pinnules 
 arising from either side of the arm alter- 
 nately. 
 
 The proximal pinnules are very long, run- 
 ning on nearly to the end of the arm, and 
 the succeeding pinnules are gradually shorter, 
 all of them, however, running out nearly to 
 the end of the arm, so that distally the ends 
 of the five arms and of all the pinnules meet 
 nearly on a level. This is an arrangement 
 hitherto entirely unknown in recent crinoids, 
 although we have something very close to it 
 in some species of the paleozoic genera Po- 
 Fig. 25.— Hyocrinus Be- teriocrinus and Cyathocrinus. Here I be- 
 
 thellianus. About four ,. , ., , , , . TT 
 
 times the natural size, heve, however, the resemblance between Hy- 
 (station cxlvii.) ocrinus and the early fossil forms ends. The 
 outer part of the disk is paved with plates irregular in form and 
 closely set. Round the mouth there are five very strong and 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 91 
 
 definitely shaped valves, slightly cupped above, and marked 
 beneath with impressions for the insertion of muscles. The 
 anal opening is on a short plated interradial tube. The mouth 
 opens into a short slightly constricted esophagus, which is suc- 
 ceeded by a dilatation surrounded by brown glandular ridges ; 
 the intestine is very short, and contracts rapidly to a small 
 diameter. Bound the esophagus a somewhat ill-defined vascu- 
 lar ring, which may possibly be continuous with the body-cav- 
 ity, gives off opposite each of the oral plates a group of four 
 tubular tentacles. The ovaries are very long, extending nearly 
 the whole length of the first two or three pairs of pinnules on 
 
 Fig. 26.— Disk of Hyocrinus Bethellianus. Eight times the natural size. 
 
 each arm. The assemblage of characters connected with the 
 disk and soft parts shows a considerable resemblance between 
 Hyocrinus and Rhizocrinus. My strong impression is that 
 the mode of nutrition of the Cyathocrinidse, and consequently 
 the structure and arrangement of their disk, was essentially dif- 
 ferent from that of all the yet known living forms; and I think 
 it is probable that when we have an opportunity of studying 
 the structure of Hyocrinus minutely, we shall find that its very 
 
92 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. n. 
 
 striking resemblance to Platycrinus is to a great degree super- 
 ficial. 
 
 There seems to be little doubt that Rhizocrinus finds its 
 nearest known ally in the chalk JBourguetticrinus, and that it 
 must be referred to the Apiocrinidse. Were it not that there is 
 
 Fig. 2T — The Arrangement of the Soft Parts in Hyocrinus Bethellianus. a, oral valves ; b, 
 oral vascular ring; c, oral tentacles; d, e, inner aspect of the esophagus and stomach ; /, 
 intestine ; g, loose aieolated connective tissue. Eight times the natural size. 
 
 an evident relation between the two new genera and Rhizocri- 
 nus, in Poteriocrinus and Hyocrinus the characters of the Api- 
 ocrinidse are so obscure that one would certainly not have been 
 inclined to associate them with that group. They are both 
 comparatively small forms, and although they do not show the 
 peculiar tendency to irregularity in the number of their princi- 
 pal parts which we find in Rhizocrinus, they have still small 
 calyces and large stems — a comparatively excessive develop- 
 ment of the vegetative parts. 
 
 On the 27th of August we sounded in the morning in 1900 
 fathoms, the bottom of little else than the shells of Globigerina. 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 93 
 
 About two o'clock in the afternoon the lookout reported St. 
 Paul's Rocks visible from the mast-head, and shortly afterward 
 they were seen from the bridge, a delicate serrated outline on 
 the western horizon. 
 
 These solitary rocks are nearly under the equator, and mid- 
 way between the coasts of Africa and of South America. 
 They were visited by Captain Fitzroy, accompanied by Mr. 
 Darwin, in the Beagle, in 1832, and a good account of their nat- 
 ural history is given by Mr. Darwin in his " Voyage of a Natu- 
 ralist." They were again touched at by Sir James Ross in the 
 Erebus, in 1839. Merchant vessels usually give them a wide 
 berth ; but our party found a bottle with a paper stating that on 
 the 19th of July, 1872, Captain Pack had landed from the ship 
 Ann MilMcent, of Liverpool, bound from London to Colombo. 
 We were greatly struck with their small size, for although we 
 knew their dimensions perfectly well — rather under a quarter 
 of a mile from end to end of the group — we had scarcely real- 
 ized so mere a speck out in mid-ocean, so far from all other 
 land. We came in to the west of the rocks under their lee. 
 To our right there were three small detached rocks, dark and 
 low; then a rock about sixty feet high, almost pure white, 
 from being covered with a varnish of a mixture of phosphatic 
 matter produced by the sea-birds and sea-salt ; next a bay or 
 cove with a background of lower rock. To the left some peaks 
 fifty to sixty feet high, white and variously mottled, and to the 
 extreme left detached rocks; the whole ridge excessively rug- 
 ged, with channels and clefts here and there through which the 
 surf dashes from the weather side. 
 
 A boat was sent off under the charge of Lieutenant Bethell, 
 with a quantity of whale-line ; and a loop of eight or ten ply 
 was passed round one of the rocks. To this a hawser was run 
 from the ship, lying about seventy yards out with her bows in 
 104 fathoms water. The hawser was made fast to the whale- 
 line, and the ship thus moored to the rock. There was a strong 
 
94 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 current running past the rocks and a steady breeze blowing, 
 both off the rocks so far as the ship was concerned, so that she 
 was safe in any case. All was made fast about six o'clock, and 
 
 Captain Nares and a small party of us went ashore in the jolly- 
 boat. Landing on these rocks is no very easy matter. Right 
 in the path of the trade -wind and of the equatorial current 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 95 
 
 there is always a heavy surf, which had a rise and fall when 
 we were there against the precipitous wall of rock of from five 
 to seven feet. The rock is in rough ledges, and landing has to 
 be accomplished by a spring and a scramble when the boat is 
 on the top of a wave. When we landed the sun was just set- 
 ting behind the ship. There was not a cloud in the sky, and 
 the sun went down into the sea a perfect disk, throwing won- 
 derful tints of rose-color upon the fantastic rocks. As men- 
 tioned by Mr. Darwin, there are only two species of birds on 
 the rocks, the " booby" {Sula fusca) and the "noddy" (Sterna 
 stolida), both having a wide distribution on tropical islands and 
 shores. On St. Paul's Bocks they are in enormous numbers, 
 and can be seen flying round the peaks and sitting on the 
 ledges from a great distance. We landed the first evening on 
 the smaller rock which forms the northern portion of the ridge, 
 and which is a breeding-place of the tern (Fig. 28). The birds 
 were quite tame, allowing themselves to be knocked over with 
 a stick, or even taken with the hand. They build simple nests 
 on rocky ledges, of a conferva which grows abundantly at the 
 water-edge mixed with feathers and matted together probably 
 with some cement matter ejected from the bird's stomach. 
 The nests seem to be used more than once, perhaps with a lit- 
 tle repair from time to time ; for many of them were large, 
 consisting apparently of several layers of different dates, and 
 were decomposed at the base into a yellowish earth. A single 
 egg was found in some of the nests, and in others a young bird, 
 but the breeding-season w r as evidently nearly over. The young 
 bird is covered with fine black down, and looks like a little ball 
 of black wool. 
 
 The captain's party laid a line across the mouth of the cove 
 to make landing easier for their successors, and in the evening 
 a boat went off with officers and men to fish. The fish were 
 in great numbers, particularly a species of the genus Oaranx, 
 called, apparently in common with man}?- other edible fishes in 
 
96 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. ii. 
 
 Spanish or Portuguese waters, " cavalao." The texture of the 
 fish is rather coarse, but the flavor is good; it is allied to the 
 tunny of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Next day the rocks were alive with surveyors and observers 
 of all kinds, and blue-jackets fishing and scrambling, and other- 
 wise stretching their legs and enjoying a firm foundation under 
 their feet. The attention of the naturalists was chiefly directed 
 to the southern rock, which is considerably the larger. Both 
 the tern and the booby breed here. The booby lays a single 
 egg on the bare rock. There were a number of eggs and young 
 birds seen ; but, as with the tern, the principal breeding-season 
 was past. In the morning both the booby and the noddy were 
 quite tame, but toward afternoon even these few hours' contact 
 with humanity had rendered them more wary, and it was now 
 no longer possible to knock them down with sticks or stones. 
 We had even some little difficulty in getting a specimen or two 
 of the Sula for preservation, as we had unwisely left this to 
 the last. 
 
 While some of the party were exploring the rock, we tried 
 once more a plan of dredging which we had adopted with some 
 success anchored on a bank at Bermudas. We sent a boat off 
 with the dredge to a distance of a quarter of a mile or so from 
 the ship — the boat taking the dredge-line from the coil in the 
 ship — let down the dredge there, and wound the dredge-rope 
 slowly on board with the donkey-engine, thus dragging the 
 dredge for a certain distance over the bottom. Life did not 
 seem very abundant, but a handsome Cidaris, a species of An- 
 tedon, some crustaceans of ordinary shallow - water types, and 
 some fine Gorgonim were brought up. On going over the col- 
 lections from the rock, we found them to consist of a minute 
 moth, two very small dipterous insects, a tick parasitical on the 
 birds, a species of Chelifer, and three spiders. All these species 
 had been observed previously by Mr. Darwin, with the excep- 
 tion of the Chelifer, and, in addition, a wood-louse and a beetle. 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADE IB A TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 97 
 
 neither of which, we detected. All the insects and Arachnida 
 were found in the old nests of the tern, many of which were 
 brought on board and carefully examined. 
 
 There is not a trace of a land-plant on this island — not even 
 a lichen. In the line within the wash of the surf there is a 
 bright -pink band of an incrusting nullipore, which here and 
 there becomes white, and greatly resembles a coral ; and the 
 same belt produces the conferva of which the terns' nests are 
 built, and one or two red algge. All the crannies in the rock 
 are inhabited by Grwpsus strigosus, an amphibious crab, which 
 we had already met with on several of the Atlantic islands. Its 
 habits amused us greatly. It was much more wary than the 
 birds. It was by no means easy to catch them, but they kept 
 close round the luncheon baskets in large parties, raised up on 
 the tips of their toes, and with their eyes cocked up in an atti- 
 tude of the keenest observation ; and whenever a morsel came 
 within their reach there was instantly a struggle for it among 
 the foremost of them, and they ambled away with their prize 
 wonderfully quickly, with their singular sidelong gait, and a 
 look of human smartness about them which has a kind of weird- 
 ness from its being exhibited through a set of organs totally 
 different in aspect from those to which we usually look for 
 manifestations of intelligence. 
 
 The lobster -pots were down during the night, but they 
 yielded little except a small species of Palinurus. 
 
 The structure of the rocks is peculiar, and they must be care- 
 fully analyzed before any definite opinion can be arrived at 
 with regard to them. They are certainly, as Mr. Darwin has 
 already pointed out, not of modern volcanic origin, like almost 
 all the other ocean islands. They look more like the serpenti- 
 nous rocks of Cornwall or Ayrshire, but from these even they 
 differ greatly in character. Mr. Buchanan examined their min- 
 eral character carefully, and subjected the most marked varie- 
 ties to a rough chemical analysis. I quote from his notes. The 
 
98 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. n. 
 
 white enamel -like incrustation described by Mr. Darwin w T as 
 observed on the southern rock only, the haunt of the booby. 
 The northern rock is chiefly composed of what appears to be 
 
 Darwin's yellowish harsh stone, split up into numerous frag- 
 ments which somewhat resemble large weathered crystals of 
 orthoclase. All these rocks give off alkaline water when heated 
 
CHAP. II.] 
 
 MADE IE A TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 99 
 
 in closed tubes, and consist chiefly of hydrated oxide of magne- 
 sia, with alumina and peroxide of iron in subordinate quantity. 
 Of the more recent veins mentioned by Darwin, some are bor- 
 dered on both sides by black bands of a hard infusible substance. 
 The powder has a dirty grayish-green color, and effervesces with 
 dilute hydrochloric acid, leaving a brown insoluble residue. In 
 strong hydrochloric acid it dissolves with evolution of chlorine, 
 and the color phenomena of dissolving peroxide of manganese. 
 It was found to consist of phosphate of lime, peroxide of man- 
 ganese, a little carbonate of lime and magnesia, and traces of 
 copper and iron ; like the other rocks, it gives off alkaline w r ater 
 in a closed tube. Mr. Buchanan is inclined to regard all the 
 rocks as referable to the serpentine group. So peculiar, how- 
 ever, is the appearance which it presents, and so completely and 
 uniformly does the phosphatic crust pass into the substance of 
 the stone, that I felt it difficult to dismiss the idea that the 
 wdiole of the crust of rock now above water might be nothing 
 more than the result of the accumulation, through untold ages, 
 of the insoluble matter of the ejecta of sea-fowl, altered by ex- 
 posure to the air and sun, and to the action of salt and fresh 
 water, but comparable with the " stalactitic or botroydal masses 
 of impure phosphate of lime " observed by Mr. Darwin at As- 
 cension. " The basal part of these had an earthy texture, but 
 the extremities were smooth and glossy, and sufficiently hard 
 to scratch common glass. These stalactites appeared to have 
 shrunk, perhaps from the removal of some soluble matter in 
 the act of consolidation, and hence they had an irregular form." 
 The composition of the minerals at St. Paul's Rocks did not 
 seem, however, to be consistent with this mode of production. 
 
 On the morning of the 29th we landed a party of explorers 
 and fishermen, and then cast off the hawser and w T ent round the 
 rocks taking soundings and swinging for the errors of the com- 
 passes ; and in the evening, after picking up our stragglers, we 
 proceeded under all plain sail toward Fernando Eoronha. 
 
100 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 On the 30th we sounded in 2275 fathoms with a bottom tem- 
 perature of +0 o, 9 C, at a distance of 265 miles to the east of 
 Fernando Noronha ; and on the 31st, at a distance of 132 miles 
 from the island, in 2475 fathoms, with a bottom temperature of 
 + o, 2 C. These were considerably the lowest temperatures 
 which we had met with since the commencement of the voy- 
 age, and at first sight it seemed singular finding them almost 
 directly on the equator. During our outward voyage circum- 
 stances prevented our tracing the source of this unusually cold 
 water, and it was only on our return that we had an opportu- 
 nity of determining that a deep indraught of cold water, pass- 
 ing up a channel roughly parallel with the coast-line of South 
 America, is open without any intervening barrier from the 
 Southern Sea to the equator. 
 
 Early in the morning of the 1st of September the island 
 of Fernando Noronha was in sight, and all forenoon we ap- 
 proached it under steam, sounding at 8 a.m. in lat. 3° 33' S., 
 long. 32° 16 7 W., in 2200 fathoms, with a bottom of globigerina 
 ooze, and a bottom temperature of +0°*5 C, the island distant 
 21 miles. We took a series of temperature soundings at every 
 ten fathoms, down to sixty fathoms — 
 
 Surface 25°-6 C. 50 fathoms 17 0, 3 C. 
 
 10 fathoms 23-9 60 " 15 -0 
 
 20 " 25-6 15 " 13-6 
 
 30 " 25'3 100 " 12-4 
 
 40 " 22-9 
 
 and at every hundred fathoms to 1500. At midday we sounded 
 again about six miles from the island, with a depth of 1010 
 fathoms and a bottom temperature of 2°'8 C, so that Fernando 
 Noronha, like most of the ocean islands, rises abruptly from 
 deep water. 
 
 It was a fresh, bright day, with a pleasant breeze from the 
 south-east. At three o'clock we cast anchor in San Antonio 
 Bay, just opposite the settlement and citadel. From this point 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 101 
 
 the island has a very remarkable appearance. The land is gen- 
 erally not very Jiigh, an irregular cliff rising from the sea to a 
 height of about a hundred feet, succeeded by undulating land 
 and conical hills, usually covered with luxuriant vegetation. A 
 little to our right there was a very singular-looking mountain, 
 the Peak. A broad, craggy base rises abruptly from the sea, 
 all the clefts among the rocks covered and filled with low vege- 
 tation, and every here and there lines and patches of bananas. 
 From a height of about 400 feet a column of rock starts up for 
 600 feet more, the last 200 feet certainly inaccessible. On one 
 side there is a great cleft undercutting a projecting portion of 
 the rock, and adding to the grotesqueness of its outline. The 
 citadel, a small fort, the station of the guard of Brazilian sol- 
 diers, is on the top of a projecting square cliff, right before the 
 anchorage. The village occupies a slight depression between 
 the citadel and the Peak, and follows the depression a good way 
 landward. There is a little bit of sandy beach to the right of 
 the citadel, just below the village, which is the usual landing- 
 place; and to the left of the citadel (from the ship) there is a 
 rather long stretch of sand, with another landing, in ordinary 
 weather better than that near the town. To the extreme left 
 there is a chain of small islands, one of them with a fine, bold 
 outline called St. Michael's Eock, and another much larger, flat 
 and rather bare, Eat Island. The view to the right is closed 
 in by two very peculiar conical detached rocks, called " The 
 Twins." 
 
 The captain and I went ashore in the galley to pay our re- 
 spects to the governor, and to see how the land lay. There was 
 a heavy sea rolling on the rocks and beaches. Some queer little 
 catamarans were moving about, each with a man on it, a stool, a 
 round basket, and a coil of fishing-line. The man either sat on 
 the stool, or stood and propelled or guided his frail boat with 
 one spade-like paddle, which he plied alternately on either side. 
 Almost the whole of the boat, which consists simply of two logs 
 
102 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap, II. 
 
 of wood fastened together with cross-pieces, is below the sur- 
 face ; and three or four of those fellows, with their scanty gar- 
 ments — usually reduced to a pair of short drawers — and their 
 smooth dark skins, look oddly, as if they were running about 
 on the water without any support. One of the catamaran men 
 spoke to us in English, and we attached him to us as inter- 
 preter, and told him to go before us to the far landing-place, 
 and then guide us to the governor's quarters. Finding the sea 
 running so high at the landing-place as to be scarcely safe for 
 a ship's boat, we pulled along the shore, and, taking advantage 
 of a lull between the breakers, we ran the boat up on the far 
 beach, and sprung out beyond reach of the surf. The road to 
 the town lay in a hollow beyond the sea -cliff. The road was 
 tolerably good, some part of the way through sand and gravel, 
 with a tangle of bushes, most of them covered with thick masses 
 of the long yellowish stems of the parasitical Ouscuta Ameri- 
 cana. Among them was growing here and there Jatropha 
 urens, one of the most noxious of the island plants, stinging 
 like a nettle, only much more bitterly. On the sides of the 
 road the scrub became very dense — Euphorbias and leguminous 
 plants, covered with a tangle of creepers belonging to many 
 genera of the Circurbitacese, the Convolvulacege, and Legumi- 
 nosse. The flowers of most of these were over, but still some 
 pretty blue tufts of pea-bloom were scattered over the trees, 
 and a little cucumber was abundantly covered with pale-yellow 
 flowers and scarlet fruit. 
 
 Near the village the road crosses a ravine, along the sides of 
 which there are some fine banyan-trees. A pretty little dove 
 was in myriads in the woods. They were so tame that they 
 would scarcely rise until we came close up to them ; and if we 
 clapped our hands, they rose in a cloud, hovered in the air for 
 a moment, and then settled down again. 
 
 On the way our guide gave us some information about the 
 place, which we found, on further inquiry, to be correct. Fer- 
 
Plate XXIV. 
 
 N Barometer 
 
 DiyMt Thermometer 
 
 Wet 
 
 E The, as rows j*vdixxzte/ tJvfy dzre^dest o f t/vo wislc( , ctn^i/ tA<y n 
 S 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 
 
 rail 
 
 /V 
 
 it 
 
 64312 5 
 
 11422 
 
 22Z 
 
 2.2.2 
 
 LOQ.223^2 
 
 £22 &23£44 
 
 5454. 
 
itions for the month of August, 1873. 
 
 lib Thermometer 
 
 Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 *vbers Iterveath' vt& /bi ce ace#rclz*v€f to Hecui/brG 's scixLes 
 
 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24- 26 26 37 28 23 30 31 
 
 c 
 
 36 
 
 t 
 
 ± 
 
 €9 
 
 I £1 
 
 t 1 
 
 £3 £ 4 £ A A & 2> & 2 1 5 2 3 3_ 2 1 3 <5 Jl£ 1 3 
 
 ill 
 
 Mil 
 
 K± 
 
 ■323 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 103 
 
 nando ISToronha is a penal settlement, belonging to Brazil. 
 There were then on the island the usual number of about 1400 
 convicts. To hold them in check there are 200 soldiers, a gov- 
 ernor, who holds the rank of a major in the army, and one or 
 two other officials, with their families. Beyond these there are 
 no inhabitants on the island, with the exception of the wives of 
 some of the convicts, and a few women. 
 
 The usual terms of penal servitude range from five to four- 
 teen years. The prisoners in this establishment are chiefly of 
 a low grade, and most of them are convicted of heavy crimes — 
 crimes of all kinds, except, so far as we could learn, political 
 offenses. In Brazil the crime of murder is nominally punished 
 with death, but the sentence is usually, if not always, commuted 
 to one of transportation for life. A large number of the Fer- 
 nando Noronha convicts are under these mitigated sentences. 
 The convicts enjoy a considerable amount of liberty, and their 
 life does not seem by any means one of great rigor. They are 
 allowed to build a hut, and to cultivate a little piece of garden- 
 ground on their own account, and to sell the produce. Their 
 time and labor, from 6 a.m. to 4 p.m., belong to Government ; 
 and during that time they cultivate, in gangs on Government 
 land, principally a small black bean, on which, as it seems, they 
 themselves chiefly subsist ; and maize, which is exported about 
 monthly to Brazil, in a little Government steamer, which like- 
 wise brings supplies to the island. The convicts receive from 
 Government each about six shillings a month, and have to keep 
 themselves in food. Those who are expert fishers are allowed 
 to ply their craft along the shore, a single man to a catamaran, 
 and a certain proportion of the take goes to the Government 
 officials. There is no boat on the island, even in the hands of 
 the authorities. 
 
 We were all extremely anxious to work up this island thor- 
 oughly. From its remarkable position nearly under the equa- 
 tor, 190 miles from the nearest land, participating, to some ex- 
 
104 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. II. 
 
 tent, in the conditions of the other isolated Atlantic groups, 
 and yet, as we were well aware, in all its biological relations 
 mainly a South American colony, it presented features of spe- 
 cial interest to European naturalists ; and it seemed to be of 
 a size which made it possible in a few days to exhaust, at all 
 events, the main features of its natural history. Accordingly, 
 we arranged parties of civilians to take up different depart- 
 ments, and the officers of the naval staff who were not occupied 
 in surveying volunteered to join them and help them in col- 
 lecting. 
 
 In the centre of the village, in an open space with a few fine 
 bread - fruit - trees, there is a solid building, forming a hollow 
 square, which seems to be used chiefly as a prison for convicts 
 guilty of offenses on the island, and partly also as a market. 
 Near this building a few irregular but rather neat -looking 
 houses lodge the governor and the Government officials. 
 
 We found the governor a grave, rather saturnine Brazilian, 
 silent, partly because he spoke no foreign language and we 
 could only communicate with him through an interpreter, and 
 partly, I think, by nature. He asked a number of questions 
 which surprised us a good deal from a man in his position. He 
 inquired repeatedly what port in England we had sailed from, 
 and to what English port we meant to return. He did not 
 seem to understand our flag nor the captain's uniform, and 
 asked if the ship had a commission from the British Govern- 
 ment. He did not seem to be quite able to grasp the idea of a 
 man-of-war for scientific purposes, and without her guns. He 
 was very civil, however, gave us coffee and cake, and told us 
 that we might do what we liked on the island in the way of 
 shooting, making collections, putting up marks for surveying, 
 etc., and offered us horses and all the aid in his power. We 
 left him with the understanding that we were to get guides 
 from him on the following morning, and regularly to begin our 
 work. After our interview, Captain Nares and I wandered 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 105 
 
 through the settlement. Irregular " streets," or double ranges 
 of huts, radiate from the central square. The huts are all sep- 
 arate, each with its little garden. They are all nearly on the 
 same plan, built of bamboo wattles and clay, and thatched. 
 Bananas grow wonderfully luxuriantly, embowering the little 
 huts, some of which are whitewashed and clean and very pict- 
 uresque. Often a great pumpkin plant had grown all over the 
 roof, and loaded it with its large fruit. In the gardens there 
 were water-melons and pumpkins, sweet-potatoes, cassava, lentils, 
 and a few lemon, orange, and bread-fruit trees. The convicts 
 were everywhere most civil ; they were generally rather good- 
 looking fellows. The great majority were of various shades of 
 black, and often with the jolly expression so common in the 
 different mixtures of the negro race. In some of the huts 
 there were women and children, and from many of them came 
 sounds of singing and laughter, and the music of a guitar or 
 banjo. It was difficult to realize that the whole place was a 
 prison, with a population of convicted felons and their warders. 
 
 Beyond the village we came to some old canebrakes, and all 
 round there was an incessant chirping of an infinite number of 
 crickets, not unlike our English species. They ran over the 
 road in all directions, and one could see dozens at a time. The 
 canebrakes were full of doves, which rose as we approached, 
 and fluttered up to the tops of the canes and looked at us ; a 
 little field-mouse was very abundant, scuttling about on the path 
 and among the dry leaves ;• altogether, the place seemed to be 
 very full of varied life. We walked over to the other side of 
 the rise, and had a splendid view of the weather coast, with the 
 curiously formed rock, the " clocher," right beneath us, and the 
 surf breaking over outlying rocks. There were some pretty 
 views from the high ground, through cultivated valleys, dotted 
 with banyan and bread-fruit trees and groups of palms, with 
 scattered habitations of convicts half hidden among the beauti- 
 ful foliage of the banana. 
 
106 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 The galley had been sent off, and was to have returned for us 
 after the men had got their supper, and one of the cutters had 
 come on shore for the other officers. The darkness falls in 
 these latitudes like a curtain, and it was getting dark when we 
 reached the beach. The captain had to look after the embarka- 
 tion of the party, as the cutter was a bulky boat not well suited 
 for surf work, and had to lie out a little way. We all went off 
 in the cutter, instead of waiting for the galley, and had simply 
 to watch for a favorable moment and make a rush for it up to 
 the middle. We caught only one light breaker, and were soon 
 all floundering in the boat, amidst a storm of laughter. 
 
 Early next morning, when all our preparations were com- 
 pleted and our working - parties ready to land, Captain Nares 
 announced that the governor had changed his mind, and did 
 not wish to have the island examined. The captain went 
 ashore to expostulate, and as we hoped that the change might 
 have arisen from a misunderstanding which might be removed, 
 boats went off with several exploring parties, the boats to lie 
 off until one or other of two signals should be made from the 
 ship — either the fore-royal shaken out, in which case all was to 
 proceed as had been previously arranged; or the main- royal 
 shaken out, when all the boats were to return to the ship. 
 Time wore on. My role for the day was to take the steam-pin- 
 nace and dredge in moderate water off the coast. As the gov- 
 ernor could not well object to that, I was not to be interfered 
 with in any case, so I only waited to get a derrick fitted in lieu 
 of one which had been damaged. About half- past ten the 
 main -royal was shaken out, and the general recall for boats 
 hoisted. 
 
 The pinnace had just started, and we ran back to hear the 
 news. The governor was courteous, but obdurate. We might 
 land ; he would give us horses and guides, every possible ac- 
 commodation ; we might even shoot pigeons, but we must do 
 no scientific work. Captain Nares asked, if we saw a butterfly, 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 107 
 
 might we not catch it, but he said he would prefer that we 
 should not. The governor of a convict establishment is in a 
 very delicate position, and bears a heavy responsibility, not un- 
 accompanied with serious risk, and it is, of course, difficult to 
 judge his conduct in such a case ; but it is not easy to see why 
 his determination should have been exerted against our throw- 
 ing light upon the natural history of the island only. Captain 
 JSTares and a party visited St. Michael's Mount and " Eat " and 
 "Platform" Islands. Mr. Moseley collected a great many 
 plants, and Mr. Buchanan made some observations on the geo- 
 logical structure of the islands, which I quote from his notes : 
 
 " The highest island, St. Michael's Mount, forms one of the 
 prominent peaks which are characteristic of the group. It is 
 very steep and formed entirely of phonolite, which occurs co- 
 lumnar at the base and massive toward the top ; on the western 
 side, where we landed, the columns are inclined to the horizon 
 at an angle of about 30°. Their transverse section looks nearly 
 square, the corners being, however, considerably rounded off. 
 The columns are for the most part slender, and their mass is of 
 a dirty green color. In this the glassy feldspar crystals are 
 arranged with great regularity, with their broadest faces in a 
 plane perpendicular to the length of the column. The steep 
 sides of the Mount are covered with loose blocks of massive 
 phonolite, fallen down from above and retained in position on 
 a very steep incline by the stems of most luxuriant creeping 
 plants. On the weathered sides of these blocks the glassy 
 feldspar crystals, and also the crystals of hornblende, though in 
 a less degree, project sometimes to the extent of a quarter of 
 an inch, so much more decomposable is the crypto-crystalline 
 matrix than the crystals occurring porphyritically in it. This 
 rock possesses in an eminent degree the characteristic property 
 from which it derives its name : w T hen struck with a hammer, 
 it literally rings like a bell. 
 
 "The rock is cleft from top to bottom in two planes nearlv 
 
108 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. ii. 
 
 at right angles to one another. These clefts are filled up with 
 a hard flinty-looking substance, which appears from its struct- 
 ure to have been gradually deposited from water trickling 
 down the sides. Its mass is concretionary and sometimes foli- 
 ated; its color is white to yellowish white or brownish yellow. 
 It scratches glass with ease, and does not effervesce with acids. 
 Plates of two to three millimetres in thickness are quite trans- 
 lucent. Heated in the forceps, it does not fuse, but turns per- 
 fectly white, and is then easily crumbled between the fingers, 
 and in the closed tube it gives off alkaline reacting and em- 
 pyreumatic- smelling water. It was found to consist of phos- 
 phate of alumina and iron, with some silicate and sulphate of 
 lime. 
 
 " Rat Island is the largest of the secondary islands, and the 
 most distant from the main island. It is composed on the 
 western side of massive basaltic rock, and on the eastern of 
 sandstone. The sandstone probably overlies the basalt, as, in 
 its structure, it bears the marks of having been deposited in 
 drifts, and the sand is calcareous, consisting of shell debris. 
 On the way to and from Hat Island we had to pass along the 
 western side of Booby Island. The wave -worn cliffs showed 
 that the island was entirely formed of the above-mentioned cal- 
 careous sandstone ; no igneous rock was visible, and, as the pe- 
 culiar wind-blown stratification-marks are continued below the 
 level of the sea, it is probable that the land here is sinking, or, 
 at all events, has sunk. Platform Island consists of a mass of 
 perfect basaltic columns rising out of the water and supporting 
 a covering of massive basalt, on which is spread out the plat- 
 form of calcareous rock on which are the ruins of a fort, and 
 from which the island doubtless takes its name." 
 
 In the pinnace we went along the northern shore of the 
 main island, dredging nine times, in water from seven to twenty 
 fathoms deep. We got surprisingly little, only a few crusta- 
 ceans, one or two star-fishes, and a pretty little Cidaris. We 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 109 
 
 passed some very beautiful bits of coast scenery ; a series of 
 little sandy bays with a steep cultivated slope above them, or a 
 dense tangle of trees absolutely imbedded in one sheet of mat- 
 ted climbers, separated by bold headlands of basalt or trap-tuff. 
 There was one particularly beautiful view when we opened 
 " Les Jumeaux," and had the peak directly behind them. 
 
 Farther on, the cliffs became even more precipitous, with 
 nests of sea-birds on all the ledges ; tropic birds ; a beautiful 
 little tern, snowy white, which usually flew in pairs a foot or 
 two apart, one following all the motions of the other, like a 
 pair of paper butterflies obedient to the fan of a Japanese jug- 
 gler. We could see these terns flying over the land, and often 
 alighting upon the trees. The noddy was very common, and 
 the booby in considerable numbers. High upon the cliffs we 
 could see the nests of the frigate-bird (Tachypetes aquila), and 
 from time to time one of these splendid birds moved in slow 
 and graceful circles over our heads. We lay for some time be- 
 low the cliffs, admiring the wonderful wealth of animal and 
 vegetable life, and returned slowly to the ship. 
 
 In the mean time, some of our party had been foraging in 
 the town, buying up what they could from the convicts ; and 
 we were glad to see a goodly pile of water and marsh melons, 
 very desirable in hot weather after a long spell at sea. 
 
 On the morning of Wednesday, the 3d of September, we 
 weighed anchor and left Fernando Noronha. Some of us who 
 had set our hearts upon preparing a monograph of the natu- 
 ral history of the isolated little island, and had made all our 
 arrangements for the purpose, were, of course, greatly disap- 
 pointed ; but, underlying our disappointment, I am inclined to 
 think that there was a general feeling of relief on leaving a 
 place which, with all its natural richness and beauty, is simply 
 a prison, the melancholy habitation of irreclaimable criminals. 
 
 To show the rate at which the floor of the sea sinks in the 
 neighborhood of these volcanic islands : at 11.40 a.m. on the 
 II.— 8 
 
110 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 3d we sounded in 400 fathoms, and at 1.30 in 525 fathoms, at a 
 distance of about six miles and a half from the island ; at 3 
 o'clock we sounded in 820 fathoms, with a rocky bottom, at a 
 distance of twelve miles ; and at 4.40 p.m. the depth was 2275 
 fathoms, with a bottom of globigerina ooze. 
 
 On the 4th we sounded in 2150 fathoms, lat. 5° 1' S., long. 
 33° 50 r W., about ninety miles from Cape St. Roque, and again 
 found a comparatively low bottom temperature, +0°'7 C; and 
 on the three following days we proceeded quietly under steam, 
 sounding from time to time in the direction of Bahia, our 
 course lying nearly parallel with the American coast, which we 
 could sometimes see — usually a low, uninteresting range of 
 sandy dunes, the dark line of the forest occasionally visible in 
 the background, or the horizon broken by a delicate feathery 
 fringe of palm-trees. On the 8th of September we sounded 
 in 2050 fathoms, with a bottom temperature of l°'l C. ; and in 
 the evening we sounded in 22 fathoms, and passed within sight 
 of the lights of Pernambuco and Olinda. 
 
 Fig. m.—Ceratotrochvs diadema, Moself.y. Once and a half the natural size. (No. 120.) 
 
 On the morning of the 9th we were off Cape Agostinho. 
 We sounded in 675 fathoms in a globigerina ooze largely mixed 
 with river mud. The haul, as usual in such moderate depths, 
 produced a large number of diverse invertebrates and a few 
 very interesting fishes of deep-sea types. 
 
f 
 
Fig. n.-Pentawinus Maclearanus, Wyviixe Thomson. Slightly enlarged. (No. 122.) 
 
chap, ii.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 113 
 
 Among the actinozoa, this haul yielded a very beautiful new 
 coral (Fig. 30), which has been described by Mr. Moseley under 
 the name of Ceratotrochus diadema. 
 
 The corallum is white, shallow, and saucer - shaped, with a 
 short rudimentary pedicle and a small scar of adherence. The 
 primary and secondary costse are prominent and serrate ; there 
 are six systems of septa and five cycles ; the whole of the septa 
 are exsert, the primary and secondary extremely so, projecting 
 10 mm. above the margin of the calicle. The quinary septa 
 unite with the quaternary, the quaternary with the tertiary, the 
 tertiary with the secondary. The primary septa remain free 
 throughout their whole course to the columella ; the columella 
 is large and oval, and composed of contorted fascicular matter. 
 The extreme diameter of the corallum between the tips of the 
 exsert septa is 5*75 centims., the extreme height 2*15 centims. 
 
 A young living specimen of this coral had been previously 
 dredged at Station LXXYIII. between the islands of San Mi- 
 guel and Santa Maria, at a depth of 1000 fathoms ; and the 
 single adult specimen now procured was without its soft parts, 
 but perfectly fresh, and apparently only recently dead. 
 
 On the following day, keeping nearly the same course, we 
 trawled three times at a depth of about 400 fathoms, and got a 
 large number of very interesting forms, the assemblage, on the 
 whole, reminding us very much of the fauna at about the same 
 depth off the coast of Portugal. Among the special prizes were 
 two specimens of the rare little crinoid jRhizocrinus lofotensis, 
 each infested by several individuals of a species of Stylifer; 
 and a single example of a fine undescribed species of the genus 
 Pentacrinus, of which I shall now give a preliminary notice, 
 proposing for it the name Pentacrinus Maclearanus* (Fig. 31). 
 
 The length of the entire specimen is about 13 centims. ; and 
 
 * I dedicate this species to Captain Maclear, K. N., whose friendly co-operation in 
 his important executive capacity of commander of the Challenger was of the great- 
 est importance to us. 
 
114 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. n. 
 
 of these 8*5 centims. are occupied by the cup and the crown of 
 arms and 4*5 by the stem. As in P. asteria the basal joints of 
 the stem form interradial button -like projections, but the pro- 
 jecting bosses are very evidently pointed and slightly prolonged 
 downward, thus showing a tendency toward the depending proc- 
 esses which attain such remarkable dimensions in the liassic ge- 
 nus Extracrinus. The first radials are low and fiat — shorter in 
 proportion to their width than in P. asteria and P. Mulleri * 
 the second radial and the radial axillary have much the same 
 form and relations as they have in the previously known spe- 
 cies ; as in P. asteria there is a true joint between the first and 
 second radials and a syzygial junction between the second radial 
 and the radial axillary. The radial axillaries support two sym- 
 metrical first brachials, which are connected with the second 
 brachials by a syzygy. From this point the branching of the 
 arms is very uniform ; each of the ten primary arms gives off, 
 as a rule, two secondary arms from the inside close to the base. 
 To take one arm as an example of this style of branching : the 
 radial axillary bears two facets right and left for two uniform 
 first brachials, which are united by syzygies to brachial axilla- 
 ries ; these latter have two facets of unequal size, the left facet 
 on the right joint and the right facet on the left joint being 
 small and supporting a simple arm, while the outer facet on 
 either joint supports a third radial, which is connected by a 
 syzygy with a second unequally facetted brachial axillary ; here 
 again the smaller facets are on the inside on each arm, and these 
 give off simple arms ; simple arms spring likewise from the 
 outer and larger facets, but these are considerably more robust, 
 and are evidently the continuations of the primary arms. Were 
 this mode of division absolutely constant, the number of arms 
 would be thirty, but the arrangement is slightly irregular, and 
 in the specimen procured thirty-one arms are present. 
 
 The arms are more regularly semi -cylindrical and more ro- 
 bust than in P. asteria, and they have rather a tendency to 
 
chap. II. J MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 115 
 
 widen toward the middle of the arm. The joints are wider 
 and shorter than in any of the other forms ; and the crest along 
 the distal edge, which is very distinct in P. asteria, P. Mulleri, 
 and P. WyviUe - Thomsoni, is scarcely perceptible. The arms 
 consist of about seventy joints, and there are no true syzygies 
 distal to the last radial axillaries. The pinnules are compara- 
 tively broad and flat, and consist of about fifteen joints. The 
 disk can not be well seen in consequence of the attitude and 
 rigidity of the arms in our single example, but it appears to 
 resemble closely that of P. Mulleri. 
 
 The structure of the stem is manifestly different from that 
 of all the hitherto described species. The nodal joints are 
 rather short and very much inflated, projecting interradially in 
 round bead-like knobs, and the inter-nodes consist of only two 
 very thin plate -like joints, so that the nodal joints with the 
 rings of cirri are crowded together. The cirri start abruptly 
 from a single nodal joint, as in P. asteria and in P. Wyville- 
 Thomsoni; they are robust, they consist of about twenty-five 
 joints, and in our specimen they are closely curled downward. 
 From the attitude of the cirri, and from the appearance of the 
 end of the stem, there can be no doubt that this specimen is 
 complete, that it is mature, and that it was living in an unat- 
 tached condition. Pentacrinus Maclearamis is thus very dis- 
 tinct from the three hitherto recognized species — P. asteria, P. 
 Mulleri, and P. Wyville-Thomsoni ; perhaps it approaches the 
 last most nearly, but it differs from it markedly in the structure 
 and arrangement of the arms, and totally in the construction of 
 the stem. 
 
116 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Table of Temperatures observed behveen Madeira and Station 102. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Depth in 
 
 
 ia 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 oo°£ 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 Co 
 
 
 
 
 el" 
 
 
 c „ 
 
 
 c „ „ 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 o c 
 '■3 v 
 
 00 
 
 '-3 on 
 
 00 
 
 .2«JO 
 
 .2 « 
 
 cn 
 
 J« 
 
 ex 
 
 
 
 
 .go 
 
 
 .-. CN 
 
 
 w . 
 
 bi 
 a 
 
 55 «i 
 
 si 
 a 
 
 ■2" „V 
 EG if 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 «0 j c° 
 
 
 03 O 
 
 03 O 
 
 03 O 
 
 
 o 
 
 Kl 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 03 O 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21° 
 
 •7 a 
 
 20° 
 
 7C. 
 
 21° -7 a 
 
 22° 
 
 •5C. 
 
 22° 
 
 •2C. 
 
 23° 
 
 •oc. 
 
 23° 
 
 •3 a 
 
 23° -3 C. 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 •o 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 
 19 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 17 
 
 •o 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 
 18 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 •9 
 
 15 
 
 •5 
 
 
 17 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 •2 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 
 17 
 
 •2 
 
 16 
 
 •i 
 
 17 
 
 •7 
 
 16 
 
 •7 
 
 14 '-i 
 
 200 
 
 13 
 
 •5 
 
 12 
 
 ■7 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 •o 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 12 -8 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 •9 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 •2 
 
 10 
 
 •2 
 
 10 
 
 •o 
 
 9 -8 
 
 400 
 
 9 
 
 •9 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 •o 
 
 7 
 
 •4 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 7 '7 
 
 500 
 
 S 
 
 •7 
 
 7 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •8 
 
 6 
 
 •8 
 
 6 
 
 •s 
 
 6 -2 
 
 600 
 
 8 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 •o 
 
 5 
 
 •7 
 
 5 
 
 •4 
 
 5 '3 
 
 700 
 
 6 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 •2 
 
 5 
 
 •2 
 
 5 
 
 •2 
 
 5 -0 
 
 800 
 
 5 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 3 -3 
 
 900 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 3 -2 
 
 1000 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 3 '6 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •o 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •1 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 1300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •o 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •9 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom Tem-l 
 perature. j 
 
 
 
 1°'8 
 
 
 l°-65 
 
 l°-8 
 
 1° 
 
 •7 
 
 l°-75 
 
 Depth 
 
 
 
 2300 
 
 
 2300 
 
 2400 
 
 2400 
 
 2075 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iz 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 
 Depth in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ao 
 
 
 
 
 
 3? S 
 
 o 
 
 
 c 
 
 rf CM 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 C 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 1 CN 
 
 .2 <> 
 
 
 
 2§ 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 g 
 
 iO 
 
 _c 
 
 
 S. . bi 
 
 3 ' 
 
 . si 
 
 1" 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 . bi 
 
 03 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 £ 
 
 . si 
 
 
 . si 
 
 
 . sc 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 03 o 
 
 
 
 
 u a 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 55 
 
 
 CO 
 
 -J c 
 
 03 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 03 O 
 
 
 03 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23< 
 
 •7C. 
 
 26° 
 
 •ic. 
 
 25° 
 
 9 a 
 
 25 
 
 •5C. 
 
 25° 
 
 7 a 
 
 25 
 
 °-6C. 
 
 26 
 
 '•1C. 
 
 26 
 
 ■2 a 
 
 25 
 
 3 -6C. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 •7 
 
 20 
 
 •6 
 
 19 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 •2 
 
 15 
 
 •2 
 
 17 
 
 : 3 
 
 16 
 
 '•'6 
 
 17 
 
 •o 
 
 18 
 
 ■3 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 13 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 •o 
 
 16 
 
 •1 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 ! 6 
 
 ii' 
 
 : 3 
 
 10 
 
 •s 
 
 11 
 
 •7 
 
 12 
 
 •5 
 
 13 
 
 '•4 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 13 
 
 •4 
 
 13 
 
 •8 
 
 200 
 
 11 
 
 •1 
 
 10 
 
 •1 
 
 9 
 
 ■3 
 
 9 
 
 •4 
 
 8 
 
 •7 
 
 9 
 
 •8 
 
 9 
 
 •7 
 
 8 
 
 •s 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 7 
 
 •8 
 
 7 
 
 •8 
 
 6 
 
 •7 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 7 
 
 •6 
 
 6 
 
 •1 
 
 6 
 
 •2 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 400 
 
 6 
 
 •5 
 
 6 
 
 •o 
 
 6 
 
 •2 
 
 5 
 
 •7 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 5 
 
 •5 
 
 5 
 
 •4 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 500 
 
 5 
 
 •9 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 5 
 
 •o 
 
 4 
 
 •6 
 
 5 
 
 •o 
 
 5 
 
 •o 
 
 4 
 
 •6 
 
 4 
 
 •o 
 
 3 
 
 •8 
 
 600 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 4 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •0 
 
 3 
 
 •9 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 700 
 
 4 
 
 •4 
 
 4 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •9 
 
 3 
 
 •9 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 800 
 
 4 
 
 •5 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •8 
 
 3 
 
 •9 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 900 
 
 3 
 
 ■6 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 1000 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 1200 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 1300 
 
 1 
 
 •3 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 1400 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 1500 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 Bot'm Tern-) 
 perature. / 
 
 
 1° 
 
 •8 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■8 
 
 2° 
 
 
 
 
 
 1° 
 
 •7 
 
 r 
 
 •7 
 
 Depth 
 
 
 2300 
 
 
 2575 
 
 1750 
 
 
 
 2500 
 
 2450 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO THE COAST OF BRAZIL. 117 
 
 Table of Temperatures observed betiveen Station 103 and Bahia. 
 
 Depth in 
 Fathoms. 
 
 Station 103. 
 Lat. 2° 49' N. 
 Long. 17° 13' W. 
 
 Station 104. 
 Lat. 2° 25' N. 
 Long. 20° V W. 
 
 Station 105. 
 Lat. 2° 6'N. 
 Long. 22° 53' W. 
 
 Station 106. 
 Lat. 1°47'N. 
 Long. 24° 26' W. 
 
 Station 107. 
 Lat. 1°22'N. 
 Long. 26° 36' W. 
 
 Station 108. 
 Lat. 1°10'N. 
 Long. 28° 23' W. 
 
 Station 110. 
 Lat. 0° 9'N. 
 Long. 30° 18' W. 
 
 Station 111. 
 Lat. 1°45'S. 
 Long. 30° 58' W. 
 
 Surface. 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 150 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 500 
 
 GOO 
 
 700 
 
 800 
 
 900 
 1000 
 1100 
 1200 
 1300 
 1400 
 1500 
 
 2 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 5°-0C. 
 
 7 '4 
 
 3 '3 
 1 -6 
 
 8 -3 
 5 '9 
 
 4 '7 
 4 -4 
 
 25° "6 C. 
 17 '7 
 13 -8 
 
 9 '4 
 6 '9 
 G -2 
 
 4 -2 
 3 -5 
 3 -7 
 3 -5 
 
 2 -5 
 
 3 -1 
 2 -4 
 2 '4 
 2 -4 
 2 -0 
 
 25° -6 C. 
 
 13 '-3 
 
 7 -7 
 5 -9 
 
 4 -5 
 
 26° -0C. 
 10 "9 
 12 -7 
 
 7 -2 
 4 -7 
 4 -6 
 
 4 -i 
 
 4 '2 
 4 "2 
 3 '9 
 
 2 '5 
 
 3 '2 
 2 -G 
 
 2 -7 
 2 -4 
 
 2G°'0C. 
 
 25° -9C. 
 
 25° -3C. 
 19 '6 
 13 -4 
 
 8 -2 
 5 -4 
 4 -2 
 4 -0 
 3 -7 
 3 -9 
 3 -8 
 
 3 
 
 3 '2 
 2 -6 
 2 -0 
 2 -4 
 2 -2 
 
 25° -3C. 
 
 Bottom Tern-) 
 peratnre. j 
 
 l°-6 
 
 •l°-7 
 
 l°-4 
 
 l°-8 
 
 2° -8 
 
 2°1 
 
 0°-9 
 
 0°-2 
 
 Depth 
 
 2475 
 
 2500 
 
 2275 
 
 1850 
 
 1500 
 
 1900 
 
 2275 
 
 2475 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 Station 112. 
 Lat. 3° 33' S. 
 Long. 32° 16' W. 
 
 Station 113. 
 Lat. 3° 50' S. 
 Long. 32° 35' W. 
 
 Station 116. 
 Lat. 5° l'S. 
 Long. 33° 50' W. 
 
 Station 118. 
 Lat. 7°28'S. 
 Long. 34° 2'W. 
 
 Station 119. 
 Lat. 7° 39' S. 
 Long. 34° 12' W. 
 
 Station 123. 
 Lat. 10° 9' S. 
 Long. 35° 11' W. 
 
 i 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 c 
 
 •6 C. 
 
 2< 
 
 ;°-o c. 
 
 25° -6 C. 
 
 25° -1C. 
 
 2, 
 
 >°-3 C. 
 
 25° -3 
 
 C. 
 
 25° -0 C. 
 
 50 
 
 17 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 12' -4 
 
 
 
 16 -8 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 •*2 
 
 
 
 7 "4 
 
 
 
 S -6 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 5 -7 
 
 
 
 5 -0 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 4 -0 
 
 
 
 
 5 -7 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 3 -3 
 
 
 
 
 $ -7 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 4 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 4 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 3 ; 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 3 '5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 3 -5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 3 '2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 
 
 2 -4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 2 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 2 ''4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 2 -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 2 -S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom Tem-\ 
 peratnre. J 
 
 0° 
 
 •5 
 
 2° -8 
 
 0°'7 
 
 1°-1 
 
 2° -3 
 
 2°'3 
 
 3°-3 
 
 Depth 
 
 2200 
 
 1010 
 
 2275 
 
 2050 
 
 1650 
 
 1715 
 
 1015 
 
118 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 500 Fathoms, taken 
 between Madeira and Station 102 (Lat. 3° 8' N., Long. 14° 49' W.). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 2 c3 
 
 o?5» 
 
 O r-i To 
 
 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 goo 
 
 ° OS 00 
 
 Co^o 
 
 
 
 Stat 
 it. 1 
 
 >ng. 2 
 
 Stat 
 it. 
 
 >ng. 1 
 
 Stati 
 it. 
 
 02*: B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 cs o 
 
 OS o 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25° '9 C. 
 
 25° -7 C. 
 
 26° -1 C. 
 
 26° -2 C. 
 
 25° '6 C. 
 
 10 
 
 21 -4 
 
 
 26 -1 
 
 
 25 -8 
 
 20 
 
 17 -1 
 
 
 25 -6 
 
 
 23 '9 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 23 -0 
 
 
 23 -0 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 17 -9 
 
 
 20 -8 
 
 50 
 
 12 ' *3 
 
 15 *2 
 
 16 -0 
 
 17 -0 
 
 18 -3 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 -8 
 
 75 
 
 ii v s 
 
 13 -0 
 
 
 15 -b 
 
 16 -1 
 
 100 
 
 10 -8 
 
 12 '5 
 
 12 V S 
 
 13 -4 
 
 13 -8 
 
 125 
 
 10 -7 
 
 11 -7 
 
 
 12 -4 
 
 
 150 
 
 10 -o 
 
 11 -o 
 
 
 11 -2 
 
 12 V 6 
 
 175 
 
 9 -S 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 "3 
 
 8 V 7 
 
 9 -7 
 
 8 V S 
 
 10 '-4 
 
 250 
 
 8 -6 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7 -8 
 
 7 V 2 
 
 6 -1 
 
 6 -2 
 
 5 ' ; 3 
 
 350 
 
 G -7 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 5 V 3 
 
 5 '4 
 
 4 '-8 
 
 4 -7 
 
 450 
 
 6 -0 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 5 -0 
 
 *5 - 
 
 4 V 6 
 
 4 -0 
 
 3 Vs 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 Fathoms, taken 
 between Station 102 and Bahia. 
 
 
 
 «^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ a. co 
 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 _0 CO "tf 
 
 Co o 
 
 Co 
 _0 (M O 
 
 Coo 
 _C 
 
 Coo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •- ° CO 
 
 
 
 
 -2 bi 
 
 
 & . si 
 
 
 -2 b£ 
 
 
 
 co*: a 
 
 CS o 
 
 co *: a 
 
 
 CO*v" c 3 
 
 co *S a 
 
 
 jj 
 
 
 OS O 
 
 i-J J 
 
 ►J J 
 
 
 s 
 
 1-5 Hi 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25° "6 C. 
 
 25° -0 C. 
 
 25° -6 C. 
 
 26° -0 C. 
 
 25°'3 C. 
 
 25° "6 C. 
 
 10 
 
 25 -8 
 
 
 25 -S 
 
 25 -8 
 
 25 -0 
 
 23 '9 
 
 20 
 
 23 -9 
 
 23 -4 
 
 25 -4 
 
 25 -8 
 
 25 -2 
 
 25 -6 
 
 30 
 
 23 -0 
 
 23 -6 
 
 25 -3 
 
 25 -7 
 
 25 -0 
 
 25 -3 
 
 40 
 
 20 -8 
 
 21 -4 
 
 19 -3 
 
 24 -6 
 
 22 -1 
 
 22 -9 
 
 50 
 
 18 -3 
 
 17. '4 
 
 17 '7 
 
 16 -9 
 
 19 -6 
 
 17 -3 
 
 60 
 
 15 -8 
 
 16 -S 
 
 15 -8 
 
 15 -0 
 
 16 *4 
 
 15 -0 
 
 70 
 
 
 16 -1 
 
 
 14 -7 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 16 -i 
 
 
 
 
 15 -4 
 
 13 -G 
 
 80 
 
 
 15" -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 15 -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 -8 
 
 13 -3 
 
 
 
 
 12 "'4 
 
 150 
 
 12 -6 
 
 11 -6 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 10 -4 
 
 8 -3 
 
 
 
 
 s "2 
 
chap. II.] MADEIRA TO TEE COAST OF BRAZIL. 
 
 119 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 Specific-gravity Observations taken between Madeira and Bahia during 
 the Months of July, August, and September, 1873. 
 
 Date, 
 1873. 
 
 Latitude 
 North. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (f) at 
 which the 
 Water was 
 taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 « 
 
 Temperature 
 
 (t') during 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15° 5. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'ms. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 July IS 
 
 30° 
 
 38' 
 
 1S° 
 
 5' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21° 
 
 • 7C. 
 
 22 c 
 
 ■oc. 
 
 1-02564 
 
 1-02733 
 
 1-02569 
 
 19 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 G 
 
 1125 
 
 
 20 
 
 • 7 
 
 22 
 
 •0 
 
 1-02570 
 
 1-02739 
 
 1-02603 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 2 
 
 22 
 
 •8 
 
 1-02563 
 
 1-02755 
 
 1-02578 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 46 
 
 20 
 
 34 
 
 2300 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 5 
 
 23 
 
 •2 
 
 1-0254S 
 
 1-02753 
 
 1 -02568 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 • 8 
 
 20 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02513 
 
 1-02631 
 
 T02S32 
 
 22 
 
 23* 
 
 58 
 
 21 
 
 'is 
 
 2300 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22 
 
 • 9 
 
 23 
 
 •8 
 
 1-02539 
 
 1-02762 
 
 1-02562 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •65 
 
 24 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02390 
 
 1-02625 
 
 1-02827 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 8 
 
 • 
 
 24 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02396 
 
 1-02631 
 
 1-0276S 
 
 23 
 
 22* 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 "2 
 
 2400 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23 
 
 • 
 
 24 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02494 
 
 1-02727 
 
 1-02523 
 
 24 
 
 20 
 
 58 
 
 22 
 
 57 
 
 2400 
 
 i' 
 
 23 
 
 ■ 3 
 
 23 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02469 
 
 1-02695 
 
 1-024S7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 • 7 
 
 23 
 
 •5 
 
 1-0252S 
 
 1-02742 
 
 1-02712 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 15 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02454 
 
 1-02668 
 
 1-02679 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02438 
 
 1-02652 
 
 1-02760 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 1 
 
 • 2 
 
 93 
 
 "5 
 
 1 -02405 
 
 1 "02619 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 6 
 
 •75 
 
 20 
 
 •7 
 
 1-02477 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1-02765 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 • 8 
 
 23 
 
 •5 
 
 1 -02438 
 
 1-02652 
 
 1-02853 
 
 25 
 
 19' 
 
 "4 
 
 24* 
 
 "*6 
 
 2075 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23 
 
 • 6 
 
 23 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02491 
 
 1-02717 
 
 1-02495 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 • 1 
 
 23 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02418 
 
 1-02644 
 
 1-02676 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 12 
 
 • 8 
 
 24 
 
 •0 
 
 1-02427 
 
 1-02656 
 
 1-02715 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 9 
 
 • 8 
 
 23 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02401 
 
 1-02630 
 
 1-02741 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 7 
 
 • 7 
 
 23 
 
 •9 
 
 1-023S7 
 
 1-02613 
 
 1-02756 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 •75 
 
 21 
 
 •0 
 
 1-0255S 
 
 1-02698 
 
 1-02899 
 
 26 
 
 li' 
 
 54 
 
 24' 
 
 41 
 
 i975 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23 
 
 ' 9 
 
 24 
 
 •6 
 
 1-02460 
 
 1-02709 
 
 1-02478 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 •4 
 
 1-02540 
 
 1-02751 
 
 1-02636 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 75 
 
 IS 
 
 • 5 
 
 23 
 
 •0 
 
 1-02522 
 
 1-02721 
 
 1-02643 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 • 6 
 
 22 
 
 •8 
 
 1-02492 
 
 1-026S4 
 
 1 -02659 
 
 2T 
 
 if 
 
 10 
 
 25* 
 
 "O 
 
 1070 
 
 Surface. 
 
 24 
 
 • 2 
 
 25 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02442 
 
 1-02708 
 
 1-02470 
 
 August 6 
 
 15 
 
 43 
 
 24 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 • 6 
 
 26 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02422 
 
 1-02719 
 
 1-02434 
 
 10 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 22 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 • 1 
 
 26 
 
 •7 
 
 1-02374 
 
 1-02692 
 
 1-02392 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2300 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 • 8 
 
 26 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02321 
 
 1-02618 
 
 1-02820 
 
 11 
 
 12" 
 
 15 
 
 22' 
 
 28 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 • 9 
 
 2G 
 
 •6 
 
 1-0234S 
 
 1-02663 
 
 1-02371 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 
 25 
 
 •6 
 
 1 -02383 
 
 1-02664 
 
 1-02658 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 12 
 
 • 3 
 
 25 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02360 
 
 1-02640 
 
 1-02708 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 • 8 
 
 25 
 
 •6 
 
 1-02355 
 
 1-02636 
 
 1-02731 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 • 3 
 
 25 
 
 
 1-02338 
 
 1-02622 
 
 1-02741 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7 
 
 • 8 
 
 25 
 
 •6 
 
 1-02347 
 
 1-02628 
 
 1 -02767 
 
 12 
 
 11' 
 
 59 
 
 21 ' 
 
 12 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26 
 
 • 1 
 
 26 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02323 
 
 1-02632 
 
 1 -02332 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 ' 5 
 
 26 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02323 
 
 1-02623 
 
 1-02343 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 • 2 
 
 26 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02346 
 
 1-02643 
 
 1-02649 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 11 
 
 • 7 
 
 25 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02344 
 
 1-02633 
 
 1-02710 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 
 
 • 7 
 
 26 
 
 •1 
 
 1-02332 
 
 1-02629 
 
 1-02773 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2575 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 • 8 
 
 25 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02326 
 
 1-02615 
 
 1-02S16 
 
 14 
 
 9' 
 
 15 
 
 18' 
 
 28 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 • 7 
 
 26 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02309 
 
 1-02618 
 
 1-02331 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 • 
 
 26 
 
 •2 
 
 1-0231S 
 
 1-02619 
 
 1-02816 
 
 15 
 
 f 
 
 53 
 
 17' 
 
 26 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 • 6 
 
 25 
 
 •9 
 
 1-02322 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02330 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 
 15 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 2G 
 
 • 1 
 
 26 
 
 •3 
 
 1-02322 
 
 1 -02625 
 
 1-02326 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 17 
 
 • 9 
 
 25 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02392 
 
 1-02661 
 
 1-02599 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 • 8 
 
 25 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02366 
 
 1-02635 
 
 1-02690 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 • 7 
 
 25 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02340 
 
 1-02609 
 
 1 02721 
 
120 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. II. 
 
 Date, 
 1873. 
 
 Latitude 
 North. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (6) at 
 which the 
 Water was 
 taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 a 
 
 Temperature 
 
 it') during 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 Water at 
 4° - 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15°'5. 
 Water at 
 4° - 1. 
 
 j Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'ms. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Aug. 17 
 
 0° 
 
 44' 
 
 16° 
 
 42' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26° 
 
 • 1C. 
 
 26° "2 C. 
 
 1-02337 
 
 1-02639 
 
 1-02340 
 
 18 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 '3 
 
 1-02344 
 
 1-02647 
 
 1-02350 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 48 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 
 a 
 
 26 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 "5 
 
 1-02336 
 
 1-02645 
 
 1-02343 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 13 
 
 52 
 
 
 <c 
 
 26 
 
 • 2 
 
 26 
 
 *4 
 
 1-02325 
 
 1-02632 
 
 1-02330 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 49 
 
 
 (( 
 
 25 
 
 • 6 
 
 ZD 
 
 '8 
 
 1-02314 
 
 1-02601 
 
 1-02318 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 IS 
 
 • 3 
 
 25 
 
 '3 
 
 1-0239S 
 
 1-0266S 
 
 1-02594 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 • 8 
 
 
 •0 
 
 a 
 
 1-023S5 
 
 1-02653 
 
 1-026S7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 10 
 
 • 4 
 
 25 
 
 '2 
 
 1 -02362 
 
 1 -02630 
 
 1-02731 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 • 3 
 
 25 
 
 '2 
 
 1-02352 
 
 1-02620 
 
 1-02793 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 '2 
 
 1-02373 
 
 1-02639 
 
 1-02819 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 
 
 2450 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 
 1-02341 
 
 1-02606 
 
 1-02808 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 52 
 
 17* 
 
 "0 
 
 2475 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 ■ 8 
 
 26 
 
 '0 
 
 1-02338 
 
 1-02632 
 
 1-02342 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 2500 
 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 '8 
 
 1-02327 
 
 1-02613 
 
 1-02330 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 *9 
 
 1-02353 
 
 1-02611 
 
 1-02808 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 
 22' 
 
 *53 
 
 2275 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 •j_ 
 
 1-02320 
 
 1-02617 
 
 1-02333 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 1850 
 
 
 26 
 
 • 
 
 26 
 
 •l 
 
 1-02331 
 
 1-0262S 
 
 1-02331 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 26 
 
 36 
 
 1500 
 
 (C 
 
 26 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 '0 
 
 1-02332 
 
 1-02626 
 
 1-02329 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 '2 
 
 1-02341 
 
 1-02610 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 •\ 
 
 1-02374 
 
 1-02640 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 '0 
 
 1-02375 
 
 1-02637 
 
 1-02613 
 
 «t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 "0 
 
 1-02355 
 
 1-02617 
 
 1-02797 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 '0 
 
 1-02366 
 
 1-02628 
 
 1-02SOS 
 
 '( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 '0 
 
 1-02316 
 
 1-0257S 
 
 1-02759 
 
 27 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 28 ' 
 
 23 
 
 1900 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25* 
 
 "6 
 
 25 
 
 •7 
 
 1-02366 
 
 1-02651 
 
 1-02369 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 
 <; 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 "8 
 
 1-023S9 
 
 1-02677 
 
 1-02405 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2275 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 25 
 
 •8 
 
 1-02327 
 
 1-02614 
 
 1-02821 
 
 31 
 
 2 
 
 6 8. 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 2475 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 • 7 
 
 26 
 
 •2 
 
 1-023S7 
 
 1 -02692 
 
 1-02407 
 
 Sept. 1 
 
 3 
 
 42 ' 
 
 32 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 •1 
 
 1-023S2 
 
 1-02679 
 
 1-02396 
 
 
 
 
 
 2200 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 • 5 
 
 24 
 
 •3 
 
 1-02376 
 
 1-02613 
 
 1-02822 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 "l 
 
 33" 
 
 50 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 •4 
 
 1-02362 
 
 1-02635 
 
 1-02351 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2275 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 25 
 
 •4 
 
 1-02346 
 
 1-02619 
 
 1.02827 
 
 fi 
 
 4' 
 
 45 
 
 33' 
 
 "7 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 25 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02402 
 
 1-02672 
 
 1-02383 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 54 
 
 34 
 
 39 
 
 "is 
 
 a 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02404 
 
 1-02697 
 
 1-02403 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 34 
 
 33 
 
 
 tt 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 •5 
 
 1-02411 
 
 1-02704 
 
 1-02421 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 39 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 1650 
 
 a 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 •7 
 
 1-02473 
 
 1-02760 
 
 1-02468 
 
 9 
 
 S 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 30 
 
 675 
 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 25 
 
 •9 
 
 1 -02462 
 
 1-02752 
 
 1-02469 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 49 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 • 3 
 
 25 
 
 •8 
 
 1-02464 
 
 1-02752 
 
 1-02481 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '466 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 •3 
 
 T02376 
 
 1-02679 
 
 
 11 
 
 l6" 
 
 11 
 
 35' 
 
 22 
 
 1715 
 
 
 2* 
 
 "3 
 
 26 
 
 •3 
 
 1-0237S 
 
 1-026S1 
 
 1-02876 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 46 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 • 4 
 
 25 
 
 •8 
 
 1-02471 
 
 1-02759 
 
 1-02484 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 •2 
 
 1-02443 
 
 1-02749 
 
 
 13 
 
 li" 
 
 52 
 
 37' 
 
 10 
 
 1015 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25' 
 
 •0 
 
 25 
 
 •0 
 
 1-02497 
 
 1-12759 
 
 1-02497 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 121 
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 A Shower of Butterflies. — Bahia de Todos os Santos. — Excursion into the Forest.— 
 San Salvador. — Hospitality of the English Residents. — Dredging in Shallow Wa- 
 ter in the Bay. — A Case of Yellow Fever and our Consequent Abrupt Departure. 
 — Fungia symmetrica. — Tristan d'Acunha. — Inaccessible Island. — Story of the 
 Stoltenhoffs. — The Birds of Inaccessible Island. — The Habits of the Penguin. — 
 Nightingale Island. — Subsequent History of Tristan d'Acunha. — Voyage to the 
 Cape of Good Hope. — We leave the Atlantic. 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures observed between Bahia and the Cape of Good 
 Hope. 
 
 Appendix B. — Table of Serial Soundings down to 200 fathoms, taken between Bahia 
 
 and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 Appendix C. — Specific-gravity Observations taken between Bahia and the Cape of 
 
 Good Hope during the Months of September and October, 1873. 
 
 We trawled again on the 11th in 1715 fathoms, and this haul 
 gave, along with a characteristic assemblage of the ordinary 
 deep-sea invertebrates, a specimen of Eujplectella suberea, a spe- 
 cies which we met with first off Cape St. Vincent, and a small 
 Unibellularia ; and on the 12th we had two fairly successful 
 hauls in 1200 fathoms. Our coal was now almost entirely ex- 
 pended, so the engines were stopped, and on the 13th we crept 
 along toward Bahia under all plain sail. 
 
 On the morning of the 14th of September we were steaming 
 along the Brazilian coast toward the entrance of the magnifi- 
 cent Bahia de Todos os Santos. All day a pretty little but- 
 terfly of the delicately formed genus Heliconia was fluttering 
 in multitudes over the ship, and over the sea as far as the 
 eye could reach they quivered in the air like withered leaves. 
 Their number must have been incalculable ; looking up into the 
 
122 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. III. 
 
 sky where they were thickest, they were as close together as, 
 and had much the appearance and style of motion of, the large 
 flakes of snow in a heavy snow-shower when a thaw is setting 
 in. Such showers of butterflies are by no means uncommon 
 along the coast of Brazil, nor are they confined to the Helieo- 
 nidse, although these, from their extreme lightness of build, seem 
 best to fulfill the required conditions. Sometimes the country 
 over a considerable area is absolutely devastated by some par- 
 ticular species of caterpillar. The butterflies or moths, as the 
 case may be, come out nearly at one time ; and the swarm of 
 insects are caught by the land-breeze and wafted out to sea, 
 where myriads are drowned, a remnant being, perhaps, floated 
 back again by the usual shift of wind in the evening. 
 
 The entrance to Bahia is certainly very beautiful. We 
 passed in the forenoon along an elevated coast, not mountain- 
 ous or hilly, but rising from the shore in even terraces to the 
 height of two or three hundred feet, the terraces broken here 
 and there by ravines and wooded knolls, every space gloriously 
 clothed with vegetation, and the sky-line broken by long lines 
 of palm-trees. To the right of the town, as we neared the 
 anchorage, a long suburb of handsome houses ran along the 
 crest of the rise. The theatre is a prominent building in the 
 middle of the town, and a little above it and to the right is a 
 handsome church — one with which we were afterward very 
 familiar as an excellent observing station. 
 
 The general effect of the town from the sea reminds one 
 somewhat of Lisbon, but Bahia is much finer ; the splendid lux- 
 uriance of the vegetation gives it a character of its own, and 
 certainly nothing approaches the palm in lightening and giving 
 grace to a picture. 
 
 During our stay at Bahia, Captain Maclear and I went in one 
 of the little coasting steamers to Caxoeira, a small town at a 
 few hours' distance up a river, to get some idea of the general 
 appearance of the country. We w T ere very fortunate in meeting 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BARIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 123 
 
 on board the steamer Mr. Hugh Wilson, a countryman of our 
 own and a leading engineer at Bahia, who was at the time car- 
 rying out some railway operations at Caxoeira. He had an es- 
 tablishment in the town, with clerks and draughtsmen at work ; 
 there he kindly put us up, and we rode out with him to see the 
 railway works. The town is on a river between two low mount- 
 ain ridges, and the railway winds along the flank of one of these. 
 The country is excessively rough, with no regular roads, and it 
 was at first rather nervous work riding up and down places 
 which no civilized horses would have dreamed of attempting. 
 Mr. "Wilson was accustomed to it, however, and led the way with 
 the utmost confidence, and we soon learned to place complete 
 trust in the intelligence of the handsome black entire horses, 
 which seemed to be strong enough for any thing, and to know 
 perfectly what they were about, often absolutely refusing to 
 take the path indicated to them, and choosing one which to our 
 less instructed eyes appeared ten times more difficult. In our 
 ride we crossed here and there steep tracks winding through 
 ravines among the mountains, and at intervals an extraordinary 
 amount of noise — men shouting and cracking their long bullock 
 whips, cattle struggling and scrambling among the loose bowl- 
 ders, and, above all, the shrill creaking of wheels — announced 
 the approach of one of the huge drays, dragged by ten or twelve 
 pairs of bullocks, carrying supplies to or produce from the inte- 
 rior. The ponderous affair comes creaking and groaning up to 
 the bottom of what looks like, and I suppose is, the dry bed of 
 a torrent, and one can not at first imagine that they can mean to 
 attempt to go up. After a spell of a few minutes, however, they 
 go at it, the men shouting and lashing, and every now and then 
 putting their shoulders to the great solid, spokeless wheels ; and, 
 to your surprise, you find that they are making a little way. 
 One leader of a team whom we spoke to had a very confident 
 expectation, in spite of appearances, of getting to his destination, 
 somewhere a good way up country, in rather less than a week. 
 
124 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. hi. 
 
 Mr. Wilson was obliged to be next day at Santo Amaro, a lit- 
 tle town about thirty miles distant, across one of the ridges, on 
 another river where he had a line of steamers plying, and he 
 asked us to ride there with him ; so we went back to his house 
 and dined, and spent the evening at his window inhaling the 
 soft, flower-perfumed air, and gazing at the stars twinkling in 
 their crystal dome of the deepest blue, and their travesties in 
 a galaxy of fire-flies glittering and dancing over the flowers in 
 the garden beneath us. It was late when we tossed ourselves 
 down to take a short sleep, for two o'clock was the hour fixed 
 to be in the saddle in the morning. We rode out of the town 
 in the starlight — Mr. Wilson, Captain Maclear, and myself, with 
 a native guide, on a fast mule. We were now obliged to trust 
 entirely to the instinct of our horses ; for if a path were visible 
 in the daylight, there was certainly none in the dark, and we 
 scrambled for a couple of hours right up the side of the ridge. 
 When we reached the top, we came out upon flat, open ground 
 with a little cultivation, bounded in front of us by the dark line 
 of dense forest. The night was almost absolutely silent ; only 
 now and then a peculiar shrill cry of some night-bird reached 
 us from the woods. As we got into the skirt of the forest, the 
 morning broke ; but the reveil in a Brazilian forest is won- 
 derfully different from the slow creeping-on of the dawn of a 
 summer morning at home, to the music of the thmshes answer- 
 ing one another's full rich notes from neighboring thorn-trees. 
 Suddenly a yellow light spreads upward in the east, the stars 
 quickly fade, and the dark fringes of the forest and the tall 
 palms show out black against the yellow sky, and, almost before 
 one has time to observe the change, the sun has risen, straight 
 and fierce, and the whole landscape is bathed in the full light 
 of day. But the morning is for yet another hour cool and 
 fresh, and the scene is indescribably beautiful. The woods, so 
 absolutely silent and still before, break at once into noise and 
 movement. Flocks of toucans flutter and scream on the tops 
 
Barometer 
 
 Plate XXVI. Meteorological Obser 
 Bit Mil) Thermometer , 
 
 at 
 
 IE The, arrows izubbcctte/ tJv& dzrtx&LOTis of*tAe< wistd/, ancb tht 
 Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 3 SO II 12 13 14 15 
 
 1111 
 
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 28 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 L 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
tionsfor the month of September, 1873. 
 
 Bulb Thermometer 
 
 Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 17 _ 18 ^ ^ 19 < ZQ _ 21 i ZZ , 23 ^ ZA- _ 2b ^ | 36 87 r _ t jS_ | _^ H 30 < _ 
 
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 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
chap. in. j 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 125 
 
 of the highest forest trees hopelessly out of shot ; the ear is 
 pierced by the strange, wild screeches of a little band of macaws 
 which fly past you like the rapped-up ghosts of the birds on 
 some gaudy old brocade. There is no warbling, no song, only 
 harsh noises — abrupt calls which those who haunt the forest 
 soon learn to translate by two or three familiar words in Portu- 
 guese or English. Now and then a set of cries more varied and 
 dissonant than usual tell us that a troop of monkeys are passing 
 across from tree to tree among the higher branches ; and lower 
 sounds, to which one's attention is called by the guide, indicate 
 to his practiced ear the neighborhood of a sloth or some other 
 of the few mammals which inhabit the forests of Brazil. And 
 the insects are now all awake, and add their various notes to 
 swell the general din. A butterfly of the gorgeous genus Mor- 
 pho comes fluttering along the path like a loosely folded sheet 
 of intensely blue tinsel, flashing brilliant reflections in the sun ; 
 great dark -blue shining bees fly past with a loud hum; tree- 
 bugs of a splendid metallic lustre, and in the most extraordinary 
 harlequin coloring of scarlet and blue and yellow, cluster round 
 a branch so thickly as to weigh it down, and make their pres- 
 ence perceptible yards off by their peculiar and sometimes not 
 unpleasant odor. But how weak it is to say that that exquisite 
 little being, whirring and fluttering in the air over that branch 
 of Bignonia bells, and sucking the nectar from them with its 
 long curved bill, has a head of ruby, and a throat of emerald, 
 and wings of sapphire — as if any triumph of the jeweler's art 
 could ever vie in brilliancy with that sparkling epitome of life 
 and light ! 
 
 It was broad day when we passed into the dense forest 
 through which the greater part of the way now lay. The path, 
 which had been cut through the vegetation, was just wide 
 enough for us to ride in Indian flle and with some care to pre- 
 vent our horses from bruising our legs against the tree-trunks, 
 and we could not leave the path for a single foot on either side, 
 
 II.— 9 
 
126 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. hi. 
 
 the scrub was so thick, what with fallen tree-trunks, covered 
 with epiphytes of all descriptions, and cycads, and arums, and 
 great thorny spikes of Bromelia, and a dense undergrowth, 
 principally of melastomads, many of them richly covered with 
 blue and purple flowers. Above the undergrowth, the tall 
 forest trees ran up, straight and branchless, for thirty or forty 
 feet ; and when they began to branch, a second tier of vegeta- 
 tion spread over our heads, almost shutting out the sky. Great 
 climbing Monsteras and other arals, and epiphytic bromeliads, 
 and orchids, some of them distilling from their long trusses of 
 lovely flowers a fragrance which was almost overpowering, and 
 mazes of Tillandsia hanging down like tangled hanks of gray 
 twine. Every available space between the trees was occupied 
 by lianas twining together or running up singly, in size varying 
 from a whip-cord to a foot in diameter. These lianas were our 
 chief danger, for they hung down in long loops from the trees 
 and lay upon the ground, and were apt to entangle us and 
 catch the horses' feet as we rode on. As time wore on, it got 
 very close and hot, and the forest relapsed into silence, most of 
 the creatures retiring for their noonday siesta. The false roof 
 of epiphytes and parasites kept off the glare of the sun, and 
 it was only at intervals that a sheaf of vertical beams struck 
 through a rift in the green canopy, and afforded us a passing 
 glimpse of the tops of the forest trees, uniting in a delicate 
 open tracery far above us. 
 
 For some hours our brave little horses struggled on, some- 
 times cantering a little where the path was pretty clear, and 
 more usually picking their way carefully, and sometimes, with 
 all their care, floundering into the mud -holes imperfectly 
 bridged over with trunks of trees. 
 
 As we had made our ascent at first, all this time we had been 
 riding nearly on a level on the plateau between the two river 
 valleys. Suddenly the wood opened, and we rode up to the 
 edge of a long, irregular cliff bounding the valley of Santo 
 
chap, in.] BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 127 
 
 Amaro. The path ran right up to the edge, and seemed to 
 come to an end but for a kind of irregular crack, full of loose 
 stones which went zigzagging down to the bottom at an angle 
 of about 70°, and we could see the path down below winding 
 away in the distance toward the main road to Santo Amaro. 
 We looked over this cliff, and told Mr. Wilson firmly that we 
 would not go down the side of that wall on horseback. He 
 laughed, and said that the horses would take us down well 
 enough, and that he had seen it done, but that it was perhaps 
 a little too much : so we all dismounted, and put the horses' 
 bridles round the backs of the saddles, and led them to the top 
 of the crack, and whipped them ujd as they do performing 
 horses in a circus. They looked over with a little apparent 
 uneasiness, but I suspect they had made that precarious descent 
 before, and they soon began to pick their way cautiously down, 
 one after the other, and in a few minutes we saw them waiting 
 for us quietly at the bottom. We then scrambled down as best 
 we might, and it was not till we had reached the bottom, using 
 freely all the natural advantages which the Primates have over 
 the /Solid unguli under such circumstances, that we fully appre- 
 ciated the feat which our horses had performed. 
 
 The next part of the road was a trial : the horses were often 
 up nearly to the girths in stiff clay, but we got through it 
 somehow, and reached Santo Amaro in time to catch the regu- 
 lar steamer to Bahia. 
 
 At Santo Amaro a line of tram-ways had lately been laid 
 down, also under the auspices of our enterprising friend, and 
 we went down to the steamboat wharves on one of the trucks on 
 a kind of trial trip. The wagon went smoothly and well ; but 
 when a new system is started, there is always a risk of accidents. 
 As the truck ran quickly down the incline, the swarthy young 
 barbarians, attracted by the novelty, crowded round it, and sud- 
 denly the agonized cries of a child, followed by low moanings, 
 rang out from under the wheels, and a jerk of the drag pulled 
 
128 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 the car up, and nearly threw us out of our seats. We jumped 
 out, and looked nervously under the wheels to see what had 
 happened ; but there was no child there. The young barbari- 
 ans looked at us vaguely and curiously, but not as if any thing 
 tragical had occurred ; and we were just getting into the car 
 again, feeling a little bewildered, when a great green parrot in 
 a cage close beside us went through, no doubt, another of his 
 best performances in the shape of a loud mocking laugh. A 
 wave of relief passed over the party, but we were rather late, 
 and the drivers expressed to the parrot their sense of his con- 
 duct, I fear strongly, but in terms which, being in Brazilian 
 patois, I did not understand. 
 
 We passed quietly down the river, with the usual mangrove 
 swamps and their rising background of forest fringed with 
 palms. When we got outside, we found that the wind had 
 risen, and there was a heavy sea in the bay. The steamer was 
 cranky, and there was something adrift with her engines, so we 
 got a good wetting before we reached the Challenger about 
 sunset. 
 
 During our stay in Bahia the steam pinnace was out almost 
 daily, dredging in the shallow water, 7 to 20 fathoms in the 
 bay. The fauna was wonderfully rich, every haul of the 
 dredge bringing up large numbers of fine tropical shore forms. 
 The Echinoderms were perhaps the most striking from the 
 abundance of one or two large species of Euryale and Antedon. 
 A fine calcareous sponge of unusual size was very common ; a 
 cylindrical stem two to three inches high supported a round 
 button-shaped head like an unexpanded mushroom ; the regu- 
 lar ladder-like arrangement of the spicules in the stem of this 
 species is particularly beautiful. 
 
 We remained a fortnight in Bahia, and enjoyed our stay 
 greatly : all the conditions were so new to us and so character- 
 istic. Our friend, Mr. Hugh Wilson, who was one of the lead- 
 ing English residents in Bahia, and evidently a man of great 
 
Plate XXVII. The Track of the Ship from San 
 
 Salvador to the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 129 
 
 energy, took us in charge, and very shortly an entente Cordiale 
 was established between our men and the young folks on shore ; 
 and notwithstanding the broiling heat, cricketing during the 
 day and dancing at night sped the time along. 
 
 The American frigate Lancaster arrived on the 16th, bear- 
 ing the nag of Hear- Admiral Taylor, and the two crews frater- 
 nized as usual. A play had been arranged for our men on 
 board the American ship, and invitations had been issued by 
 the "English Cricketers" to a ball, when we were suddenly 
 palled up by one of our leave-men returning on board with yel- 
 low fever. He was at once removed to hospital on shore, but 
 the shadow of this fell scourge having once fallen over us, no 
 further dalliance nor delay was possible. Leave was stopped, 
 and as soon as the final arrangements could be made we weighed 
 anchor and ran southward. The poor fellow died in hospital a 
 few days after our departure. 
 
 Immediately outside the bay we got into fine fresh weather. 
 No second case appeared, and although one or two cases of sim- 
 ple fever which followed kept up our anxiety for a week or 
 two, long before we reached the breezy latitudes of Tristan 
 d' Acunha the ship was as healthy as ever, and all cause of alarm 
 was past. 
 
 On the 26th of September we swung ship for the errors of 
 the compasses, and for the next three days we continued our 
 course a little to the east of south under all plain sail. We 
 sounded on the 30th, lat. 20° 13' S., long. 35° 19' W., in 2150 
 fathoms, with a bottom of reddish mud, and a bottom temper- 
 ature of 0°-6 C. An attempt was made to dredge, but the 
 dredge-rope carried away. A serial temperature sounding was 
 taken at intervals of 100 fathoms down to 1500 (Fig. 32). 
 
 On the 2d of October we saw our first albatross, sailing round 
 the ship with that majestic, careless flight which has been our 
 admiration and wonder ever since, rising and sinking, and soar- 
 ing over us in all weathers, utterly regardless of the motion of 
 
THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 the ship, and without the slightest ap- 
 parent effort. I have often watched 
 these glorious birds for hours from 
 the bridge, and, notwithstanding all 
 we know, or think we know, about 
 the mechanics of flight, to the last I 
 felt inclined to protest that for so 
 heavy a bird to support itself motion- 
 less in the air, and perform its vigor- 
 ous evolutions without a perceptible 
 movement of the wings, was simply 
 impossible by any mechanical means 
 of which we have the least conception. 
 
 We sounded on the 3d in 2350 
 fathoms with a bottom of red mud, 
 still due apparently in a great de- 
 gree to the South American rivers, 
 and a bottom temperature of 0°*8 C. 
 The trawl was lowered, and on heav- 
 ing in, it came up apparently w T ith a 
 heavy weight, the accumulators being 
 stretched to the utmost. It was a 
 long and weary wind -in, on account 
 of the continued strain. At length 
 it came close to the surface, and we 
 could see the distended net through 
 the water; when, just as it was leav- 
 ing the water, and so greatly increas- 
 ing its weight, the swivel between the 
 dredge-rope and the chain gave way, 
 and the trawl with its unknown bur- 
 den quietly sunk out of sight. It was 
 a cruel disappointment. Every one 
 was on the bridge, and curiosity was 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 131 
 
 wound up to the highest pitch : some vowed that they saw rest- 
 ing on the beam of the vanishing trawl the white hand of the 
 mermaiden for whom we had watched so long in vain ; but I 
 think it is more likely that the trawl had got bagged with the 
 large sea-slugs which occur in some of these deep dredgings in 
 large quantity, and have more than once burst the trawl net. 
 
 At 6.45 p.m. we made all plain sail, and shaped our course to 
 the south-east. 
 
 We sounded and trawled on the 6th in 2275 fathoms, with a 
 muddy bottom and a bottom temperature of o, 7 C, and ob- 
 tained a series of temperature soundings at intervals of 100 
 fathoms down to 1000. The trawl came up nearly empty, con- 
 taining only an ear-bone of a whale with one or two hydroid 
 zoophytes attached to it, and a few pebbles of pumice, one hav- 
 ing on it a large flask-shaped foraminifer or other allied rhizo- 
 pod, living. 
 
 The depth on the 10th was 2050 fathoms, the bottom an im- 
 pure globigerina ooze, and the bottom temperature 1° # 1 C. We 
 were, therefore, beginning the ascent of the western flank of the 
 great central elevation of the Atlantic. The temperature de- 
 terminations had throughout the whole of this section been of 
 the greatest interest ; the lowest temperatures which we had 
 met with previously had been in the neighborhood of Fernando 
 Noronha, nearly under the equator (-f-0 o, 2 C.) ; we were moral- 
 ly certain that this cold water welled up from the Antarctic Sea 
 in the western trough of the Atlantic, and we fully expected to 
 intersect the line of the supply. In this, however, we were dis- 
 appointed. We met with no temperature so low as the lowest 
 temperature under the equator (-f0 o *2 C.) ; and it was only 
 three years afterward, on our northward voyage, that we struck 
 the main body of the cold indraught. 
 
 On the 11th we sounded in 1900 fathoms with a bottom of 
 globigerina ooze and a bottom temperature of 1°*3 C, and put 
 over the trawl, and during its absence took a series of shallow 
 
132 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. III. 
 
 temperature soundings at intervals of 25 fathoms down to 100. 
 The trawling was comparatively successful at this station, most 
 of the invertebrate groups being more or less represented. Sev- 
 eral living specimens were procured of a pretty little coral, Fun- 
 gia symmetrica (Fig. 33), allied generically to the mushroom 
 
 Fig. 33.— Fungia symmetrica, Pouktales. Three times the natural size. (No. 133.) 
 
 corals so abundant in shallow water on coral reefs, and in mis- 
 cellaneous natural-history collections. Fungia symmetrica was 
 first described by Count Pourtales, from deep water 350 to 450 
 fathoms in the Strait of Florida. The corallum is circular, 
 plano-convex ; the wall is perfectly plane and very little perfo- 
 
5\ 
 
 PLATE XXVIII. — DIAGRAM OF THE 
 
3RATURE BETWEEN SAN SALVADOR AND THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 133 
 
 rated, with a small convex umbilicus in the centre. The costse, 
 which correspond with the septa, are distinct to the centre, finely 
 spinous and granulated, subequal, the primaries and seconda- 
 ries slightly the larger. The septa are subequal, spinous, the 
 larger slightly lobed ; in six regular systems and four complete 
 cycles. The septa of the fourth cycle are connected by their 
 inner edge with those of the third, and the latter with those of 
 the second ; the points of connection are sometimes expanded 
 into a plate ; the primary septa reach the centre without any 
 connection. The columella is rudimentary, sometimes covered 
 with a calcified membranous expansion through which some of 
 the spines project. The synapticula are large, and correspond 
 to one another in the contiguous chambers so as to form four 
 to six more or less regular concentric circles. 
 
 This species has been proved by our dredgings to be one of 
 the most constantly recurring of deep-sea animals, with a world- 
 wide distribution. It has been dredged by us fifteen times ; it 
 occurred in the North and South Atlantic, near the ice-barrier 
 in the Southern Sea, off the West Indies, in the North and 
 South Pacific Oceans, and among the Moluccas. It has a more 
 extended range in depth than almost any other animal, having 
 been obtained by us in 30 fathoms off Bermudas, and at all in- 
 termediate depths down to 2900 fathoms. Specimens from 
 2900 fathoms were obtained with the soft parts preserved ; and 
 specimens from 2300 fathoms, of which thirty or more were 
 obtained at one haul, were full of ripe ova. Fungia symmet- 
 rica is the only coral which has yet been obtained from a 
 depth greater than 1600 fathoms; it occurs on all kinds of 
 bottoms — on globigerina ooze in the Atlantic, among growing 
 branched corals (Madracis asperula) off Bermudas, on a bot- 
 tom composed almost entirely of the frustules of diatoms in 
 the Southern Sea, and on red clay with manganese nodules in 
 the North Pacific. It sustains a range of temperature from 1° 
 to 20° C. 
 
134 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. hi. 
 
 The specimens from great depths are much larger than those 
 from shallow water, and are much more delicate and fragile. 
 The largest specimens procured by Count Pourtales measured 
 one centim. in diameter; our largest specimens were three 
 centims. in diameter, and those from deep water in the North 
 Pacific averaged two centims. The specimens from the dia- 
 tom ooze bottom, though large, were evidently growing under 
 circumstances unfavorable to the formation of a corallum, the 
 bottom being almost entirely siliceous, and only containing a 
 trace of lime ; their coralla were so fragile that they broke 
 with the slightest touch. From an examination of the long 
 series of this coral obtained by us, there seems to be no doubt 
 of their belonging to one species, and certain series obtained 
 near Bermudas and the West Indies are certainly identical with 
 the Fungia symmetrica of Pourtales, although some of the 
 larger specimens seem to show close affinities with the Lopho- 
 serinse. 
 
 On Tuesday, the 14th of October, we sighted the island of 
 Tristan, distant fifty miles to the south-south- west. 
 
 The Tristan d'Acunha group, so named from the Portuguese 
 navigator who discovered it early in the sixteenth century, lies 
 in mid-ocean, about thirteen hundred miles south of St. Helena 
 and fifteen hundred west of the Cape of Good Hope, nearly on 
 a line between the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn ; it is 
 thus probably the most isolated and remote of all the abodes of 
 men. The group consists of the larger island of Tristan and 
 two smaller islands — Inaccessible, about eighteen miles south- 
 west from Tristan, and Nightingale Island, twenty miles south 
 of the main island. Tristan only is permanently inhabited ; the 
 other two are visited from time to time by sealers. We hear 
 little of Tristan d' Acunha until near the close of last century ; 
 but even before that time it appears to have been the occa- 
 sional resort of American sealers. Captain Patten, of the ship 
 Industry, from Philadelphia, arrived there in August, 1790, and 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO TEE CAPE. 
 
 135 
 
 remained till April, 1791. There was then abundance of wood 
 of small growth, excellent for lire-wood, where the tents of the 
 Industry's crew were pitched, near the site of the present set- 
 tlement; and the amount of sea-animals of all kinds — whales, 
 seals, and sea-birds — was unlimited. Captain Patten's party 
 obtained 5600 seal-skins in the seven months of their stay, and 
 he says that they could have loaded a ship with oil in three 
 weeks. In 1T92 the Lion and the Hindostan, with the British 
 embassy to China on board, touched at the island of Tristan. 
 The Lion anchored off the north side of the island, under the 
 cliff, but a sudden squall coming on, she almost immediately 
 put to sea. The island was at that time entirely uninhabited ; 
 whales and seals were seen in great numbers on the coast. In 
 1811 Captain Hey wood found three Americans settled on Tris- 
 tan preparing seal-skins and oil. Groats and pigs had been set 
 adrift by some of the earlier visitors, and they had become very 
 numerous on the upper terraces. One of the Americans de- 
 clared himself sovereign proprietor of the islands, and in the 
 intervals of seal-hunting they cleared about fifty acres of land, 
 and planted it with various things, including coffee -trees and 
 sugar - canes, which they got through the American consul at 
 Rio. It seems that for a time some of their crops looked very 
 promising, but for some reason the settlement was shortly 
 abandoned. Formal possession was taken of the islands by 
 the English in 1817, and during Napoleon's captivity at St. 
 Helena a guard detached from the British troops at the Cape 
 of Good Hope was maintained there. Batteries were thrown 
 up and a few houses built, but in little more than a year the 
 soldiers were withdrawn. A corporal of artillery of the name 
 of Glass, with his wife and two soldiers who were induced to 
 join him, were allowed to remain ; and since that time the isl- 
 and of Tristan has been constantly inhabited. In 1823 the set- 
 tlers were seventeen in number, among them three women, and 
 they had to dispose of twenty-five tons of potatoes, and abun- 
 
136 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 dance of vegetables, milk, and butter. In 1829, when Captain 
 Morrell visited it in the United States ship Antarctic, the col- 
 ony included twenty-seven families, and they were able to sup- 
 ply passing ships with bullocks, cows, sheep, and pigs, and fresh 
 vegetables and milk in any quantity. In 1836 there was a 
 population of forty-two on the island ; and in 1852, when Cap- 
 tain Denham visited and sketched and roughly surveyed the 
 group, it amounted to eighty-five, and he describes " the young 
 men and women as partaking of the mulatto caste, the wives of 
 the first settlers being natives of the Cape of Good Hope and 
 St. Helena ; but the children of the second generation he would 
 term handsome brunettes of a strikingly fine figure." They 
 were all, at that time, members of the Church of England, 
 under the pastoral charge of the Rev. W. F. Taylor, who had 
 been sent out by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 
 an unknown benefactor having generously placed one thousand 
 pounds at the disposal of the society, to supply the colony with 
 a clergyman for five years. Captain Denham speaks highly of 
 the healthiness of the climate ; he says that none of the ordi- 
 nary epidemic diseases, whether of adults or of children, had 
 reached the islands. The Rev. Mr. Taylor left in 1857, in 
 H.M.S. Geyser, and with him forty -seven of the inhabitants 
 left the island and went to the Cape of Good Hope. The con- 
 dition and prospects of the settlement had somewhat altered. 
 In its early days fur-seals with pelts of good quality, inferior 
 only to those from some of the Antarctic islands, were very 
 abundant, and vessels could fill up at short notice with oil ; it 
 was therefore a favorite rendezvous for American sealers, and 
 the islanders got a ready market and good prices for their prod- 
 uce. Gradually, however, the great sea beasts were reduced 
 in number, the sealers and whalers had to pursue their craft 
 farther afield, and Tristan d'Acunha became only an occasional 
 place of call. Another unfavorable change had taken place ; 
 in the early days the great majority of the population were 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 137 
 
 males, but as time wore on and a new generation sprung up, the 
 young men, scions of an adventurous stock and reared in tem- 
 perance and hardihood, found their isolated life too tame for 
 them, and sought more stirring occupation elsewhere. The 
 proportion between the sexes rapidly altered, and at the time 
 of Captain Denham's visit women were considerably in the 
 majority. The greater number of those who left Tristan in 
 the Geyser were young women, and many of them went into 
 service at the Cape, where there still remained some of the 
 relations of the earlier settlers. 
 
 All this time the settlement maintained an excellent char- 
 acter. Glass, its founder, a Scotchman born at Kelso, seems to 
 have been a man of principle, and of great energy and industry, 
 and to have acquired to a remarkable degree the confidence of 
 the community. He maintained his position as its leader, and 
 represented it in all transactions with outsiders for thirty-seven 
 years. The colony had always been English-speaking, and had 
 strong British sympathies; and "Governor Glass," as he was 
 called, had received permission from one of the naval officers 
 visiting the island to hoist the red ensign as a signal to ships. 
 This was the only quasi-official recognition which the colony 
 received from Britain after the withdrawal of the troops in 
 1818. Glass died in 1853, at the age of sixty-seven years. He 
 had suffered severely during his later years from cancer in the 
 lower lip and chin, but he retained his faculties and his prestige 
 to the last, and his death was a great loss to the little commu- 
 nity. A general account of Tristan d'Acunha is given by the 
 Rev. W. F. Taylor, in a pamphlet published in 1850 by the 
 Christian Knowledge Society. Mr. Taylor speaks most highly 
 of the moral character of the flock to whom he ministered for 
 five years ; indeed, he goes so far as to say that he could find 
 no vice to contend with, which is certainly extraordinary in so 
 mixed an assemblage. It may be accounted for, however, to a 
 certain degree by the compulsory sobriety of the islanders, who 
 
138 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 are usually without spirituous liquors, the rum obtained from 
 time to time from passing ships being speedily disposed of. 
 Mr. Taylor speaks somewhat despondingly of the prospect of 
 the settlement. He indicates the various causes which in his 
 opinion negative its progress, dwelling particularly upon the 
 destruction of the wood ; he looks upon the exodus which took 
 place when he left the island as the beginning of the end, and 
 he hopes in the interests of the settlers and of humanity that 
 the island may soon be abandoned. Facts scarcely seem to 
 justify Mr. Taylor's anticipations. H.R.H. the Duke of Edin- 
 burgh visited Tristan, in the Galatea, in 1867: and the Rev. 
 John Milner, in an entertaining narrative of the cruise, gives 
 an excellent account of the early history of the colony, and of 
 its condition at the time of the Galatea? s visit. The number 
 of inhabitants had again risen to eighty-six, which seems to be 
 about the normal population. Governor Glass had been dead 
 fourteen years ; he had no successor in his title ; but one of the 
 oldest of the inhabitants of the island, a man of the name of 
 Green, who married one of Glass's daughters, had slipped into 
 the practical part of his office, and was tacitly acknowledged 
 as the representative of the islanders in all transactions with 
 strangers. He lived in Glass's house, the best in the place, 
 hoisted the red ensign and a flowing white beard, and in virtue 
 of these symbols seemed to be accepted as general referee in 
 all matters of difficulty. The flocks and herds were thriving, 
 and vegetables and poultry abounded. The chaplain of the 
 Galatea christened sixteen healthy children, born since the de- 
 parture of Mr. Taylor, and offered to marry seven pairs of un- 
 appropriated lads and lasses who happened, oddly enough, to 
 form part of the community, but they were not inclined to 
 choose partners so suddenly. The prince and his suite had 
 luncheon with Mr. Green, and met some of the chief men, 
 and all the ladies were introduced to him. Altogether, in- 
 stead of the colony showing any tendency to an immediate 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BARIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 139 
 
 break-up, there seemed to be very general comfort and content- 
 ment. 
 
 At day-break on the 14th, the summit of the peak of Tristan 
 only was visible from the deck of the Challenger, a symmetrical 
 cone, the sides rising at an angle of 23° to a height of 7100 feet 
 above the level of the sea, covered with snow which came far 
 down, occupying the ravines, dark ridges of rock rising up be- 
 tween. On account of the distance, the lower terrace and the 
 more level part of the island could not be seen. A sounding 
 was taken in 2025 fathoms, globigerina ooze, the bottom tem- 
 perature 1°*6 C. The dredge was put over, and brought up 
 two specimens of a small Diadema only. In the evening we 
 resumed our course toward the island, and made all arrange- 
 ments for sending out exploring parties the first opportunity. 
 Early on the morning of the 15th we were at anchor close 
 under the land, in a shallow bay open to the westward. A 
 slope of rough pasture, about a quarter of a mile in width, 
 extended to our right, running up from the beach to an almost 
 precipitous wall of rock a thousand feet in height, the mist 
 lying low upon it, so that we could see no farther. To the 
 left, the rampart of rock came sheer down almost into the sea, 
 leaving only a narrow strip of a few yards of shingly beach. 
 A stream ran down from the high ground nearly opposite the 
 ship, and the low fall with which it tumbled into the head of 
 the bay indicated the position of the best landing-place. The 
 settlement, consisting of about a dozen thatched cottages, was 
 scattered over the grassy slope, and behind it one or two ra- 
 vines afforded a difficult access to the upper terraces and the 
 mountain. The only tree on the island is one which from its 
 limited distribution and the remoteness of its locality has, so 
 far as I am aware, no English name — Phylica arborea. It 
 is a small tree, allied to the buckthorn, not rising more than 
 twenty, or at most thirty, feet, but sending out long spreading 
 branches over the ground. The wood is of no value for car- 
 II.— 10 
 
140 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. hi. 
 
 pentry, but it burns well. The Phylica has been exterminated 
 on the low part of the island and in the mouths of the ravines 
 near the dwellings, but there appears still to be abundance in 
 
 the higher and more distant mountain gorges. No doubt, un- 
 less some plan be adopted for renewing the supply on the low 
 grounds, the labor of procuring fuel must increase, and the 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 141 
 
 stock must ultimately be exhausted ; but that can not be for 
 a considerable time. I do not see any thing whatever in the 
 climate or other conditions of Tristan to prevent the growth 
 of the more hardy varieties of the willow, the birch, and the 
 alder. The experiment is well worth trying, for the introduc- 
 tion of a fast-growing hardy tree, for shelter and for fire-wood, 
 would increase the comfort of the colony immensely ; indeed, 
 it seems to be all that is necessary to insure its permanence. 
 
 A boat came along-side early in the morning, with eight or 
 ten of the inhabitants, some of them line-looking, sturdy young 
 men, somewhat of the English type, but most of them with a 
 dash of dark blood. They brought a few seal-skins, some wings 
 and breasts of the albatross, and some sea-birds' eggs. As it 
 was their early spring, they had unfortunately, with the excep- 
 tion of a few onions which had stood over the winter, no fresh 
 vegetables. Their chief spokesman was Green, now an old man, 
 but hale and hearty. He made all arrangements with the pay- 
 master about supplying us with fresh meat and potatoes with 
 intelligence and a keen eye to business. After the departure 
 of our guests, we landed and spent a long day on shore, explor- 
 ing the natural history of the neighborhood of the settlement, 
 and learning what we could of its economy, under the guidance 
 of Green and some of the better informed of the elders ; while 
 others, and more particularly some active, dark -eyed young 
 women, got together the various things required for the ship, 
 each bringing a tally to Green of her particular contribution, 
 which he valued and noted. Most of those who left the island 
 in the Geyser and the Galatea have returned, and the colony at 
 present consists of eighty-four souls in fifteen families, the fe- 
 males being slightly in the majority. Most of the settlers are 
 in some way connected with the Cape of Good Hope; some are 
 Americans. The greater number of the women are mulattoes. 
 Many of the men are engaged in the seal and whale fishery; 
 and as that has now nearly come to an end on their own shores, 
 
142 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 they are generally employed on board American whalers in the 
 Southern seas. We had a good deal of conversation with a son 
 of Governor Glass, a very intelligent, handsome young man, 
 who had been at Kerguelen Land, and at several other whaling 
 stations in the south, and who gave us some useful information. 
 The chief traffic of the islanders is with these American ships, 
 from eight to twelve of which call in passing yearly, to barter 
 manufactured goods and household stuffs for fresh vegetables 
 and potatoes. 
 
 The fifteen families possess from five to six hundred head of 
 cattle, and about an equal number of sheep, with pigs and poul- 
 try in large numbers. Beef was sold to our mess-man at four- 
 pence a pound, mutton at fourpence, pork somewhat cheaper, 
 and geese at five shillings each, so that the Tristaners, so long 
 as they can command a market — and the number of their occa- 
 sional visitors is increasing with increasing communication and 
 commerce — can not be considered in any way ill off. Their is- 
 olation and their respectability, maintained certainly with great 
 resolution and under trying circumstances, induce a perhaps 
 somewhat unreasonable sympathy for them, which they by no 
 means discourage, and which usually manifests itself in sub- 
 stantial gifts. 
 
 The cottages are solid and comfortable. They usually con- 
 sist of two or three rooms, and are built of a dark-brown tu- 
 faceous stone, which they blast in large blocks from the rocks 
 above, and shape with great accuracy with axes. Many of the 
 blocks are upward of a ton in weight, and they are cut so as to 
 lock into one another in a double row in the thickness of the 
 wall, with smaller pieces equally carefully fitted between them. 
 There is no lime on the island, so that the blocks are fitted 
 on the cyclopean plan, without cement. With all precautions, 
 however, the wind sometimes blows from the south-west with 
 such fury that even these massive dwellings are blown down ; 
 and we were assured that the rough blocks, brought from the 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAH I A TO THE CAPE. 
 
 143 
 
 mountain and laid on the ground to be fashioned, are sometimes 
 tumbled about by the force of the wind. 
 
 They have on the island a few strong spars, mostly the masts 
 of wrecked vessels, and to get the great blocks up to the top of 
 the wall after it has risen to a certain height, they use a long 
 incline, made of a couple of these spars, well greased, up which 
 they slowly drag and shove the blocks, much as they are repre- 
 sented as doing in old times in some of the Egyptian hiero- 
 glyphs. The furniture of the rooms is scanty, owing to the dif- 
 ficulty of procuring wood ; but passing ships seem to furnish 
 
 Fig. 35. — Cyclopean Architecture, Tristan Island. {From a photograph.) 
 
 enough of woven fabrics to supply bedding, and in the better 
 cottages some little drapery, and to enable the people, and par- 
 ticularly the women, to dress in a comfortable and seemly style. 
 Low stone- walls partition the land round the cottages into small 
 inclosures, which are cultivated as gardens, and where all the 
 ordinary European vegetables thrive fairly. There is no fruit 
 of any kind on the island. The largest cultivated tract is on 
 the flat, about half a mile from " Edinburgh." There the greater 
 part of the potatoes are grown, and the cattle and sheep have 
 their head-quarters. The goods of the colonists are in no sense 
 in common ; each has his own property in land and in stock. 
 A new-comer receives a grant of a certain extent of land, and 
 
144 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. III. 
 
 he gets some grazing rights, and the rest of the settlers assist 
 him in fencing his patch, and in working it and preparing it 
 for a first crop. They then contribute the necessary cattle, 
 sheep, potato-seed, etc., to start him ; contributions which he no 
 doubt repays when he is in a position to do so, under some def- 
 inite understanding, for the Tristan Islanders have a very prac- 
 tical knowledge of the value of things. There seems to be a 
 harmonious arrangement among them for assisting one another 
 in their work, such assistance being repaid either in kind or in 
 produce or money. The community is under no regular sys- 
 tem of laws ; every thing appears to go by a kind of general 
 understanding. When difficulties occur, they are referred to 
 Green, and perhaps to others, and are settled by the general 
 sense. This system is probably another great source of the ap- 
 parently exceptional morality of the place : in so small a com- 
 munity where all are so entirely interdependent, no misconduct 
 affecting the interests of others can be tolerated or easily con- 
 cealed, and as there is no special machinery for the detection 
 and punishment of offenses, the final remedy lies in the hands 
 of the men themselves, who are most of them young and stal- 
 wart, and well able to keep unruliness in check. 
 
 The island of Tristan is almost circular, about seven miles in 
 diameter. The position of Herald Point, close to the settle- 
 ment, is lat. 37° 2' 45" S., long. 12° 18' 30" W., so that it nearly 
 corresponds in latitude with the Acores and the southern point 
 of Spain in the northern hemisphere. The island is entirely 
 volcanic; the cliff — upward of a thousand feet high — which 
 encircles it, breached here and there by steep ravines, is formed 
 of thin beds of tuffs and ashes, some of them curiously brecci- 
 ated with angular fragments of basalt ; and layers of lava inter- 
 sected by numerous dikes of varying widths of a close-grained 
 gray dolerite. The cone is very symmetrical, almost as much 
 so as the Peak of Teneriffe, and the flows of lava down its 
 flanks appear as rugged black ridges through the snow. The 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 115 
 
 inhabitants sometimes go to the top, and they represent the 
 mountain as a cone of ashes, with a lake on the summit. The 
 upper terrace is covered with long, coarse grass, with a tangled 
 brush of Phylica in the shelter of the ravines. 
 
 Two species of albatross breed on the higher parts of the isl- 
 and, Diomedea exulans and D. chlororhyne/ms, the former even 
 beyond the summer limit of the snow. A few years ago there 
 were large nocks of goats on the upper terraces, but latterly, 
 from some unknown cause, they have entirely disappeared, and 
 not even the remains of one of them can be found. With the 
 exception of the goat and the pig, and the rat and the mouse, 
 which are known to have been recently introduced, there are 
 no land quadrupeds at large on the island ; and the land birds, 
 so far as we know, are confined to three species — a thrush, JVe- 
 socichla eremita ; a bunting referred by Captain Carmichael to 
 Emberiza Brasiliensis / and a singular bird called by the set- 
 tlers the " island hen," which was at one time very common, 
 but which is now almost extinct. This is a water-hen, Galli- 
 nula nesiotis (Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc, 1861), very nearly allied 
 to our common English moor-hen {Gallinula chlo?*opus), which 
 it resembles closely in general appearance and coloring, with, 
 however, several satisfactory specific differences. The wings 
 of the Tristan species are much shorter, and the primary feath- 
 ers, and indeed all the feathers of the wing, are so short and 
 soft as to be useless for the purposes of flight. The breast-bone 
 is short and weak, and the crest low, while, on the other hand, 
 the pelvis and the bones of the lower extremity are large and 
 powerful, and the muscles attached to them strong and full 
 The island hen runs with great rapidity ; it is an inquisitive 
 creature, and comes out of its cover in the long grass when it 
 hears a noise. It is excellent eating, a good quality which has 
 led to its extermination. Mr. Moseley collected between twen- 
 ty and thirty plants on Tristan, perhaps the most interesting 
 a geranium {Pelargonium australe, Yar.), a species which ex- 
 
146 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 tends, in several varieties, to the Cape, New Zealand, and Aus- 
 tralia. 
 
 We heard a curious story at Tristan about two Germans who 
 had settled nearly two years before on Inaccessible Island. 
 Once a year, about the month of December, the Tristan men 
 go to the two outlying islands to pick up the few seals which 
 are still to be found. On two of these occasions they had seen 
 the Germans, and within a few months smoke had risen from 
 the island, which they attributed to their having fired some of 
 the brush ; but as they had seen or heard nothing of them 
 since, they thought the probability was that they had per- 
 ished. Captain Nares wished to visit the other islands, and to 
 ascertain the fate of the two men was an additional object in 
 doing so. 
 
 Next morning we were close under Inaccessible Island, the 
 second in size of the little group of three. The ship was sur- 
 rounded by multitudes of penguins, and as few of us had any 
 previous personal acquaintance with this eccentric form of life, 
 we followed their movements with great interest. - The penguin 
 as a rule swims under water, rising now and then and resting 
 on the surface, like one of the ordinary water-birds, but more 
 frequently with its body entirely covered, and only lifting its 
 head from time to time to breathe. 
 
 One peculiarity surprised us greatly; for although we were 
 tolerably familiar with the literature of the family, we had 
 never seen it described. The " rock-hopper," and, I am inclined 
 to think, species of other genera besides Eudyptes, when in a 
 number in the water, have a constant habit of closing together 
 the legs and tail straight out, laying the wings flat to the sides, 
 arching forward the neck, and, apparently by an action of the 
 muscles of the back, springing forward clear out of the water, 
 showing a steel-gray back and a silvery belly, like a grilse. 
 They run in this way in lines like a school of porpoises, seem- 
 ingly in play ; and when they are thus disporting themselves 
 
Fig. 36. — Water-fall, Inaccessible Island. (From a photograph.) 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 149 
 
 it is really very difficult to believe that one is not watching a 
 shoal of fish pursued by enemies. 
 
 In the water, penguins are usually silent, but now and then 
 one raises its head and emits a curious, prolonged croak, start- 
 lingly like one of the deeper tones of the human voice. One 
 rarely observes it in the daylight and in the midst of other 
 noises, but at night it is weird enough ; and the lonely officer of 
 the middle watch, whose thoughts may have wandered for the 
 moment from the imminent iceberg back to some more genial 
 memory, is often pulled up with a start by that gruff " whaat " 
 along-side in the darkness, close below the bridge. 
 
 The structure of this island is very much the same as that 
 of Tristan, only that the pre-eminent feature of the latter, the 
 snowy cone, is wanting. A wall of volcanic rocks, about the 
 same height as the cliff at Tristan, and which one is inclined to 
 believe to have been at one time continuous with it, entirely 
 surrounds Inaccessible Island, falling for the most part sheer 
 into the sea, and it seems that it slopes" sufficiently to allow a 
 tolerably easy ascent to the plateau on the top at one point 
 only. 
 
 There is a shallow bay, in which the ship anchored in fifteen 
 fathoms, on the east side of the island ; and there, as in Tristan, 
 a narrow belt of low ground extending for about a mile along 
 the shore is interposed between the cliff and the sea. A pretty 
 water-fall tossed itself down about the middle of the bay over 
 the cliff from the plateau above. A little way down it was 
 nearly lost in sj3ray, like the Staubbach, and collected itself 
 again into a rivulet, where it regained the rock at a lower level. 
 A hut built of stones and clay, and roofed with spars and thatch, 
 lay in a little hollow near the water-fall ; and the two Germans, 
 in excellent health and spirits, but enraptured at the sight of 
 the ship and longing for a passage anywhere out of the island, 
 were down on the beach waiting for the first boat. Their story 
 is a curious one ; and as Captain Nares agreed to take them to 
 
150 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 the Cape, we had ample time to get an account of their advent- 
 ures, and to supplement from their experience such crude no- 
 tions of the nature of the place as we could gather during our 
 short stay. 
 
 Frederick and Gustav Stoltenhoff are sons of a dyer in Aix- 
 la-Chapelle. Frederick, the elder, was employed in a merchant's 
 office in Aix-la-Chapelle at the time of the outbreak of the 
 Franco-Prussian war. He was called on to serve in the Ger- 
 man army, where he attained the rank of second lieutenant, 
 and took part in the siege of Metz and Thionville. At the end 
 of the campaign he was discharged, and returned home, to find 
 his old situation filled up. 
 
 In the mean time, his younger brother, Gustav, who was a 
 sailor, and had already made several trips, joined on the 1st of 
 August, 1870, at Greenock, as an ordinary seaman, the English 
 ship Beacon Light, bound for Rangoon. On the way out, the 
 cargo, which consisted of coal, caught fire when they were from 
 six to seven hundred miles north-west of Tristan d'Acunha, 
 and for three days all hands were doing their utmost to extin- 
 guish the fire. On the third day the hatches, which had been 
 battened down to exclude the air, blew up, the main hatch car- 
 rying overboard the second mate, who had been standing on it 
 at the time of the explosion. The boats had been provisioned 
 beforehand, ready to leave the ship. Two of the crew were 
 drowned through one of the boats being swamped, and the sur- 
 vivors, to the number of sixteen, were stowed in the long-boat. 
 Up to this time the ship had been nearing Tristan with a fair 
 wind at the rate of six knots an hour, so that they had now only 
 about three hundred miles to go. They abandoned the ship on 
 Friday : on Sunday afternoon they sighted Tristan, and on the 
 following day a boat came off to their assistance and towed 
 them ashore. 
 
 The shipwrecked crew remained for eighteen days at Tristan 
 d'Acunha, during which time they were treated with all kind- 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 151 
 
 ness and hospitality. They were relieved by the ill-fated North- 
 fleet, bound for Aden with coal, and Gustav Stoltenhoff found 
 his way back to Aix. 
 
 During his stay at Tristan he heard that large numbers of 
 seals were to be had among the islands, and he seems to have 
 been greatly taken with the Tristaners, and to have formed a 
 project of returning there. When he got home, his brother 
 had just got back from the war and was unemployed, and he 
 infected him with his notion, and the two agreed to join in a 
 venture to Tristan to see what they could make by seal-hunting 
 and barter. 
 
 They accordingly sailed for St. Helena in August, 1871, and 
 on the 6th of November left St. Helena for Tristan in an Amer- 
 ican whaler bound on a cruise in the South Atlantic. The cap- 
 tain of the whaler, who had been often at Tristan d'Acunha, 
 had some doubt of the reception which the young men would 
 get if they went as permanent settlers, and he spoke so strong- 
 ly of the advantages of Inaccessible Island, on account of the 
 greater productiveness of the soil, and of its being the centre of 
 the seal-fishing, that they changed their plans and were landed 
 on the west side of Inaccessible on the 27th of November — early 
 in summer. A quarter of an hour after, the whaler departed, 
 leaving them the only inhabitants of one of the most remote 
 spots on the face of the earth. They do not seem, however, to 
 have been in the least depressed by their isolation. 
 
 The same day the younger brother clambered up to the pla- 
 teau with the help of the tussock-grass, in search of goats or 
 pigs, and remained there all night, and on the following day 
 the two set to work to build themselves a hut for shelter. 
 They had reached the end of their voyage by no means unpro- 
 vided, and the inventory of their belongings is curious. 
 
 They had an old whale-boat which they had bought at St. 
 Helena, with mast, sails, and oars ; three spars for a roof, a 
 door, and a glazed window ; a wheelbarrow, two spades and a 
 
152 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 shovel, two pickaxes, a saw, a hamrner, two chisels, two or three 
 gimlets, and some nails ; a kettle, a frying-pan, two saucepans, 
 and knives and forks, and some crockery ; two blankets each, 
 and empty covers which they afterward filled with sea-birds' 
 down. They had a lamp and a bottle of oil, and six dozen 
 boxes of Bryant & May's matches. 
 
 For internal use they had two hundred pounds of flour, two 
 hundred pounds of rice, one hundred pounds of biscuit, twenty 
 pounds of coffee, ten pounds of tea, thirty pounds of sugar, 
 three pounds of table -salt, a little pepper, eight pounds of 
 tobacco, five bottles of hollands, six bottles of Cape wine, six 
 bottles of vinegar, and some Epsom-salts. A barrel of coarse 
 salt was provided for curing seal -skins, and fourteen empty 
 casks for oil. Their arms and ammunition consisted of a short 
 Enfield rifle, an old German fowling-piece, two and a half 
 pounds of powder, two hundred bullets, and four sheath-knives. 
 The captain of the whaler gave them some seed-potatoes, and 
 they had a collection of the ordinary garden seeds. 
 
 When they had been four days on the island they had a visit 
 from a party of men from Tristan, who had come on their an- 
 nual sealing excursion. They were ten days on Inaccessible, 
 and were very friendly in their intercourse with the new- 
 comers. They told them that the north side of the island was 
 better suited for a settlement, and transported all their goods 
 thither in one of their boats. Being familiar with the place, 
 they showed them generally their way about, and the different 
 passes by which the plateau might be reached from beneath, 
 and they taught them how to build to withstand the violent 
 winds, and how to thatch with tussock-grass. 
 
 Immediately after they left, the brothers set about building 
 a house and clearing some ground for potatoes and other vege- 
 tables. They killed nineteen fur-seals, and prepared the skins, 
 but they were unable to make any quantity of oil. Toward 
 the end of the sealing season their boat got damaged in the 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 153 
 
 surf, and they were obliged to cut it in two and patcli up the 
 best half of it, and use it as best they might in smooth weather 
 close to the shore. 
 
 They went from time to time to the upper plateau and shot 
 goats and pigs. When they first arrived, they counted a flock 
 of twenty-three goats ; three of these were killed during the 
 summer of 1871- 72 by the Tristan people, and six by them- 
 selves ; the remaining fourteen remained over the winter of 
 1872. The flesh of the goats they found extremely delicate. 
 Pigs were much more numerous, but their flesh was not so pal- 
 atable, from their feeding principally on sea-birds ; that of the 
 boars was especially rank. They found the pigs very valuable, 
 however, in yielding an abundant supply of lard, which they 
 used to fry their potatoes. 
 
 In the month of April, 1872, a singular misfortune befell 
 them. While burning some of the brush below to make a 
 clearing, the tussock in the gully by which they had been in 
 the habit of ascending the cliff caught fire, and as it had been 
 only by its assistance that they had been able to scramble up 
 the plateau, their only hunting-ground was now inaccessible 
 from the strip of beach on which their hut and garden stood, 
 which was closed in at cither end by a headland jutting into 
 the sea. While their half boat remained sea- worthy, they were 
 able to paddle round in fine weather to the west side of the 
 island, where there was an access to the top ; but the " sea-cart," 
 as they called it, was washed off the beach and broken up in 
 June, and after that the only way they had of reaching the 
 plateau was by swimming round the headland — a risky feat, 
 even in the finest weather, in these wild regions. 
 
 In winter it was found to be impossible to reach the terrace, 
 and as their supply of food was low, they experienced consid- 
 erable privations during their first winter. Their daily allow- 
 ance of food was reduced to a quantity just sufficient to main- 
 tain life, and in August they "were little better than skeletons." 
 
154 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 Help was, however, near. Early in August a multitude of pen- 
 guins landed at a " rookery " hard by their hut — stupid animals, 
 which will scarcely get out of one's way, and are easily knocked 
 down with a stick, and with fleshy breasts, wholesome enough, 
 if with a rather Ashy taste; and in the end of August the fe- 
 males began to lay large blue eggs, sufficiently delicate in flavor. 
 
 A French bark hove to off the beach in the middle of Sep- 
 tember, and in her they shipped their seal-skins, and bartered 
 penguins' eggs with her for biscuits and tobacco. Had the 
 bark arrived a week earlier, the brothers would have left the 
 island ; but the eggs had set them up again, and they deter- 
 mined to remain a little longer. In October a fore-and-aft 
 schooner, which proved to be the Themis, a whaler from the 
 Cape of Good Hope, was seen standing toward the island. A 
 gale of wind blew her off for a couple of days, but she returned 
 and communicated, landing some men from Tristan, who had 
 crossed to see what the hermits were about. Their guests re- 
 mained a day and a half, and returned to Tristan. 
 
 Early in November, that is, early in their second summer, the 
 brothers swam round the eastern headland — Frederick with 
 their blankets, the rifle, and a spare suit of clothes — Gustav 
 with powder, matches, and the kettle in an oil -cask. They 
 mounted by the help of the tussock - grass to the top of the 
 cliff, went over to the west side of the plateau, and built a small 
 hut, where they remained a month, living on goats' flesh and 
 fresh pork. On the 10th of December they returned home, 
 mended their thatch, dug the early potatoes, and put the gar- 
 den in order. 
 
 On the 19th of December the Tristan men made their second 
 sealing expedition. They remained nine days on the island, 
 and killed forty seals, one sea-elephant, and eight of the remain- 
 ing twelve goats. They left some flour in exchange for an oil- 
 cask, and this was the last communication between the brothers 
 and the outer world until the Challenger called, eight months 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 155 
 
 later. In January, Frederick swam round the point again, and 
 mounted the cliff. He shot four pigs, ran the fat into buckets, 
 and threw the hams down to his brother on the beach below. 
 He saw the four last goats, but spared them, to increase their 
 number. In February a boat came to the west side from Tris- 
 tan, and its crew killed the four goats, and departed without 
 communicating with the Stoltenhoffs. 
 
 The relations between the Tristan people and the brothers 
 do not appear to have been so cordial latterly as they were at 
 first ; and the Stoltenhoffs believe that the object of their 
 neighbors in killing the goats, and in delaying from time to 
 time bringing them some live stock which they had promised 
 them, was to force them to leave the island. It may have 
 been so, for the Tristan men had been in the habit of making 
 a yearly sealing expedition to Inaccessible, and no doubt the 
 presence of the energetic strangers lessened their chance of 
 success. 
 
 In March the brothers once more swam round the point and 
 ascended the cliff. After staying on the plateau together for 
 a few days, it was settled that Frederick should remain above 
 and lay in a stock of lard for the winter, Gtistav returning to 
 the hut and storing it. When a pig was killed, the hide, with 
 the fat in it, was rolled up, secured with thongs of skin, and 
 thrown over the cliff, and Gustav then ran the lard into a cask. 
 
 During their second w T inter the privations of the brothers do 
 not seem to have been great. They were getting accustomed 
 to their mode of life, and they had always sufficient food, such 
 as it was. They were remarkably well educated : both could 
 speak and read English fluently, and the elder had a good 
 knowledge of French. Their library consisted of eight vol- 
 umes : Schodler's " Natural History," a German atlas, " Charles 
 O'Malley," " Captain Morrell's Voyages," two old volumes of a 
 monthly magazine, " Hamlet " and " Coriolanus " with French 
 notes, and Schiller's Poems. These they unfortunately came 
 II.— 11 
 
156 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 to know almost by heart ; but they had considerable resources 
 in themselves, in the intelligent interest which they took in the 
 ever-changing appearances of nature. 
 
 When the Challenger arrived, they were preparing for an- 
 other summer ; but the peculiar food and the want of variety 
 in it were beginning to tell upon them, for all their original 
 stores were exhausted, with the exception of the Epsom -salts, 
 which was untouched, neither of them having had an hour's ill- 
 ness during their sojourn ; and they were heartily glad of the 
 chance of a passage to the Cape. 
 
 Frederick came to the ship to see us before we left for the 
 south in December. He was then comfortably settled in a situ- 
 ation in a merchant's office in Cape Town, and Gustav was on 
 his way home to see his people before resuming the thread of 
 his roving sailor's life. 
 
 We landed after breakfast, and proceeded to explore the strip 
 along the shore. We were anxious to have reached the plateau, 
 but the sea was breaking heavily on the weather coast, and it 
 was considered unsafe to land opposite the practicable ascent 
 in a ship's boat. The hut was built to the extreme left of the 
 strip, close to the water-fall, for the convenience of being near 
 the bountiful supply of pure fresh water yielded by the stream. 
 To the right, for about a quarter of a mile, the ground was 
 broken and uneven — an accumulation of debris from the cliff, 
 covered with a close thicket of well -grown Phylica arbor ea 
 tangled with long grass, and the low branches of the trees over- 
 grown with moss and ferns, the most conspicuous of the lat- 
 ter the handsome Lomaria robusta, and the most abundant a 
 spreading Hymenojphyllum matted over the stones and stumps. 
 The noddy {Sterna stolida) builds loose nests of sticks and 
 leaves in the trees, and the ground and the accumulations of 
 moss and dead leaves among the fragments of rock are honey- 
 combed with the burrows of a gray petrel about the size of a 
 pigeon, of a smaller petrel, and of Prion vittatus. 
 
Plate XXX. Meteorological Obse\ 
 
 N Barometer 
 
 Dry Bulb Thermometer 
 
 Wet 
 
 E Z7te> arrows zrvdiyCCbte/ thfy citrcc^oTv of th& ~mjufr> arvdy -£ht/ ? 
 
itions for the month of October, 1873. 
 
 ulb Thermometer Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 fibers ~b€?vect£7i/ it& fbrcey cicc&rclzjrvcf to JBecui/vr&'s $<xx>Le< / 
 17 18 19 20 21 ZZ 23 24- 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 m \X 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAP. III.] 
 
 BARIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 157 
 
 The holes of the larger petrel are like rabbit - burrows, and 
 those of the other two birds are smaller. They have the en- 
 trances usually more or less concealed, and it is odd to hear the 
 chirping of the birds, old and young, muffled by the layer of 
 soil above them, all among one's feet. According to the Stol- 
 tenhoffs, the petrels come to the land in large numbers in the 
 beginning of September, having previously been at sea, fishing, 
 when they pair and prepare the burrows for their nests. They 
 disappear for a time in the beginning of October, and return 
 early in November, when the female at once lays a single long- 
 shaped white egg, about the size of a duck's, in the burrow. 
 The young are hatched in the beginning of December. The 
 full-grown bird has a rank taste, which is even communicated 
 to the egg, but the young are good eating. The smaller petrel, 
 a bluish-gray bird, is not much larger than Thalassidroma Wil- 
 soni ; it breeds in company with the Prion, in old holes of the 
 larger petrel or in smaller special burrows. The smaller petrel 
 and the Prion fly chiefly at night or very early morning, and 
 are called, at Tristan, " night-birds." The egg of the Prion is 
 white, and about the size of a house-pigeon's. 
 
 After passing the wood the ground becomes more level, and 
 here the StoltenhofTs had made a clearing for a potato plot and 
 a vegetable garden. It was a bad season for vegetables, but 
 our blue-jackets carried off a boat-load of cabbages and radishes 
 before the establishment was broken up. They likewise rifled 
 a little hut in the garden, where a large supply of fresh pen- 
 guins' eggs was stored. Many thrushes and finches were perch- 
 ing on the low trees about, and they were so tame that we had 
 no difficulty in knocking down several with our sticks, to get 
 uninjured specimens for stuffing. Both birds are constantly 
 on the island. The thrush builds in the tussock-grass, a couple 
 of feet from the ground, in the beginning of October, and lays 
 usually two eggs — brown spots on a pale greenish ground, very 
 like those of the common blackbird ; the finch builds in the 
 
158 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. hi. 
 
 bushes, and lays four to five eggs, very like those of the com- 
 mon canary. 
 
 Beyond the garden the tussock-grass of the Tristan group, 
 which is Spartina arundinacea — not Dactylis ccespitosa, the 
 well-known tiissock-grass of the Falklands — forms a dense jun- 
 gle. The root-clumps, or " tussocks/' are two or three feet in 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAEIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 159 
 
 width and about a foot high, and the spaces between them one 
 to two feet wide. The tuft of thick grass -stems — seven or 
 eight feet in height — rises strong and straight for a yard or so, 
 and then the culms separate from one another and mingle with 
 those of the neighboring tussocks. This makes a brush very 
 difficult to make one's way through, for the heads of grass are 
 closely entangled together on a level with the face and chest. 
 In this scrub one of the crested penguins — probably Eudyptes 
 chrysocoma, called by the sealers, in common with other sjDecies 
 of the genus Eudyptes, the " rock -hopper " — has established a 
 rookery. From a great distance, even so far as the hut or the 
 ship, one could hear an incessant noise like the barking of a 
 myriad of dogs in all possible keys ; and as we came near the 
 place, bands of penguins w T ere seen constantly going and return- 
 ing between the rookery and the sea. All at once, out at sea, a 
 hundred yards or so from the shore, the water is seen in mo- 
 tion, a dark-red beak, and sometimes a pair of eyes, appearing 
 now and then for a moment above the surface. The moving 
 water approaches the shore in a wedge-shape, and with great 
 rapidity a band of perhaps from three to four hundred pen- 
 guins scramble out upon the stones, at once exchanging the 
 vigorous and graceful movements and attitudes for which they 
 are so remarkable wdiile in the water for helpless and ungainly 
 ones, tumbling over the stones, and apparently with difficulty 
 assuming their normal position upright on their feet — which 
 are set far back — and with their fin-like wings hanging in a 
 useless kind of way at their sides. When they have got fairly 
 out of the water, beyond the reach of the surf, they stand to- 
 gether for a few minutes, drying and dressing themselves and 
 talking loudly, apparently congratulating themselves on their 
 safe landing, and then they scramble in a body over the stony 
 beach — many falling and picking themselves up again with the 
 help of their flappers on the way — and make straight for one 
 particular gangway into the scrub, along which they waddle in 
 
160 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. hi. 
 
 regular order up to the rookery. In the mean time a party of 
 about equal number appear from the rookery at the end of an- 
 other of the paths. When they get out of the grass on to the 
 beach, they all stop and talk and look about them, sometimes 
 for three or four minutes. They then with one consent scuttle 
 down over the stones into the water, and long lines of ripple 
 radiating rapidly from their jxlace of departure are the only in- 
 dications that the birds are speeding out to sea. The tussock- 
 brake, which in Inaccessible Island is perhaps four or five acres 
 in extent, was alive with penguins breeding. The nests are 
 built of the stems and leaves of the Spa/rti/na in the spaces be- 
 tween the tussocks. They are two or three inches high, with a 
 slight depression for the eggs, and about a foot in diameter. 
 The gangways between the tussocks, along which penguins are 
 constantly passing, are wet and slushy ; and the tangled grass, 
 the strong ammoniacal smell, and the deafening noise (contin- 
 ually penetrated by loud separate sounds which have a startling 
 resemblance to the human voice), make a walk through the 
 rookery neither easy nor pleasant. 
 
 The penguin is thickly covered with the closest felting of 
 down and feathers, except a longitudinal band, which in the fe- 
 male extends along the middle line of the lower part of the ab- 
 domen, and which, at all events in the breeding season, is with- 
 out feathers. The bird seats herself almost upright upon the 
 eggs, supported by the feet and the stiff feathers of the tail, the 
 feathers of the abdomen drawn apart, and the naked band di- 
 rectly applied to the eggs, doubtless with the object of bringing 
 them into immediate contact with the source of warmth. The 
 female and the male sit by turns ; but the f eatherless space, if 
 present, is not nearly so marked in the male. When they shift 
 sitters, they sidle up close together, and the change is made so 
 rapidly that the eggs are scarcely uncovered for a moment. The 
 young, which are hatched in about six weeks, are curious-look- 
 ing little things covered with black down. 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAH I A TO THE CAPE. 
 
 161 
 
 There seems to be little doubt that penguins properly belong 
 to the sea, which they inhabit within moderate distances of the 
 shore, and they only come to the land to breed and moult, and 
 for the young to develop sufficiently to become independent. 
 But all this takes so long that the birds are practically the 
 greater part of their time about the shore. We have seen no 
 reason as yet to question the old notion that their presence is 
 an indication that land is not very far off. 
 
 JEudyptes chrysocoma is the only species found in the Tristan 
 d'Acunha group. The males and females are of equal size, but 
 the males may be readily distinguished by their stouter beaks. 
 From the middle of April till the last week in July there are 
 no penguins on Inaccessible Island. In the end of July the 
 males begin to come ashore, at first in twos and threes, and then 
 in larger numbers, all fat, and in the best plumage and condi- 
 tion. They lie lazily about the shore for a day or two, and then 
 begin to prepare the nests. The females arrive in the middle 
 of August, and repair at once to the tussock-brake. A fortnight 
 later they lay two, rarely three, eggs, pale-blue, very round in 
 shape, and about the size of a turkey's egg. It is singular that 
 one of the two eggs is almost constantly considerably larger 
 than the other. The young are hatched in six weeks. One or 
 other of the old birds now spends most of its time at sea, fish- 
 ing, and the young are fed, as in most sea-birds, from the crop 
 of the parents. In December young and old leave the land, and 
 remain at sea for about a fortnight, after which the moulting 
 season commences. They now spread themselves along the 
 shore and about the cliffs, often climbing, in their uncouth way, 
 into places which one would have imagined inaccessible to them. 
 Early in April they all take their departure. The Stoltenhoffs 
 witnessed this exodus on two occasions, and they say that on 
 both it took place in a single night. In the evening the pen- 
 guins were with them, in the morning they were gone. 
 
 There are three species of albatross on Inaccessible Island : 
 
162 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 the wandering albatross, Diomedea exulans ; the mollymawk, 
 which appears to be here D. chlororhyncha, though the name is 
 given by the sealers to different species — certainly farther south 
 to D. melanophrys / and the piew, D. fuliginosa. About two 
 hundred couples of the wandering albatross visit the island. 
 They arrive and alight singly on the upper plateau early in De- 
 cember, and build a circular nest of grass and clay, about a foot 
 high and two feet or so in diameter, in an open space free from 
 tussock-grass, where the bird has room to expand his wonderful 
 wings and rise into the air. The female lays one egg in the 
 middle of January, about the size of a swan's, white with a band 
 of small brick-red spots round the wider end. The great alba- 
 tross leaves the island in the month of July. 
 
 The mollymawk is a smaller bird, and builds a higher and 
 narrower nest, also usually in the open, but sometimes among 
 the brush and tussocks, in which case it has to make for an 
 open space before it can rise in flight. It breeds a little earlier 
 than the wandering albatross, and its eggs were just in season 
 when we were at Tristan. Diomedea fuliginosa builds a low 
 nest on the ledges of the cliffs. 
 
 The other common sea-birds on Inaccessible are the sea-hen, 
 here probably Procellaria gipUntea, which is always on the isl- 
 and, and lays two eggs in October on the ground ; and a beau- 
 tiful delicately colored tern, /Sterna cassini, white and pale gray, 
 with a black head and red coral feet and beak, which breeds in 
 holes in the most inaccessible parts of the cliffs. 
 
 Inaccessible, like Tristan, has its island hen, and it is one of 
 my few regrets that we found it impossible to get a specimen 
 of it. It is probably a Gallinula, but it is certainly a different 
 species from the Tristan bird. It is only about a fourth the 
 size, and it seems to be markedly different in appearance. The 
 Stoltenhoffs were very familiar with it, and described it as being 
 exactly like a black chicken two days old, the legs and beak 
 black, the beak long and slender, the head small, the wings 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BARIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 163 
 
 short and soft and useless for flight. It is common on the pla- 
 teau, and runs like a partridge among the long grass and ferns, 
 feeding upon insects and seeds. An island hen is also found 
 on Gough Island; but the sealers think it is the same as the 
 Tristan species. 
 
 Some of our party returned to the ship about midday, and 
 we cruised round the island, the surveyors plotting in the coast- 
 line, and thus filling up a geographical blank, and in the after- 
 noon we dredged in sixty and seventy-five fathoms. 
 
 We returned to the anchorage about seven o'clock, and the 
 exploring parties came on board, the Germans accompanying 
 them with all their gear. As we hove in sight of the hut a 
 broad blaze shot up, followed by a dense volume of smoke, and 
 in a few minutes the solitary human habitation on Inaccessi- 
 ble Island was reduced to a heap of ashes. I do not not know 
 whether the match was put to the dry straw of the thatch by 
 accident or by design, but the Stoltenhoffs seemed to feel little 
 regret at the destruction of their dwelling. They left the place 
 with no very friendly feelings toward their Tristan neighbors, 
 and had no wish to leave any thing behind them which might 
 be turned to their use. 
 
 Early on the morning of Friday, the 17th, we were off Night- 
 ingale Island, so named after the Dutch skipper who first re- 
 ported it. The outline of this island is more varied than that 
 of the other two, and its geological structure is somewhat differ- 
 ent. Toward the north end there is a conical peak of a gray, 
 rudely columnar basaltic rock 1105 feet high, and the southern 
 portion of the island, which is more undulating, consists of bed- 
 ded tufts with included angular fragments of dolerite, like the 
 rocks above the settlement in Tristan. Near the south shore 
 these softer rocks run up into a second lower ridge, and a low 
 cliff bounds the island twenty or thirty feet high, with creeks 
 here and there where boats can land through the surf. In the 
 sea-cliff there are some large caves worn in the friable rock, 
 
164 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. III. 
 
 which used to be the favorite haunts of the fur-seal and the sea- 
 elephant; but these have been nearly exterminated, and the 
 annual visit of the sealers from Tristan is rapidly reducing the 
 small number which still come to the island in the pupping 
 season. 
 
 The ship stopped off the east end of the island to land sur- 
 veying and exploring parties at the foot of what looked at a 
 distance like a gentle slope of meadow with some thickets of 
 low trees, running up into the middle of the island, between 
 the two elevations. 
 
 The party who landed found, however, that instead of a 
 meadow the slope was a thick copse of tussock-grass — and one 
 mass of penguins. Struggling through the dense matted grass 
 which reached above their heads, they could not see where they 
 were going, and they could not move a step without crushing 
 eggs or old or young birds. The crowds of penguins resenting 
 the intrusion with all the vigor at their command, yelled and 
 groaned and scrambled after their legs, and bit and pecked them 
 with their strong sharp beaks till the blood came. What with 
 the difficulty of forcing their way through the scrub, the im- 
 possibility of seeing a foot before them in the grass, the terrific 
 noise which prevented shouts being heard, and the extraordi- 
 nary sensation of being attacked about the legs by legions of 
 invisible and unfamiliar enemies, some of the servants got nerv- 
 ous and bewildered. They lost their own masters, and were 
 glad to join and stick to any one whom they were fortunate 
 enough to find, and thus several of our explorers got separated 
 from their apparatus, and some lost their luncheons. 
 
 Fortunately at five o'clock all our party returned in safety to 
 the ship, save one : a fine old setter answering to the name of 
 " Boss," one of a brace we had on board for sporting purposes, 
 got astray among the penguins. His voice, clamorous for a 
 time in his bewilderment and fear, and the torture he endured 
 from the beaks of the penguins, was soon lost in the infernal 
 
CHAP. III. J 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 165 
 
 uproar; and as the men had enough to do to look after their 
 own safety, they were compelled reluctantly to leave him to 
 his fate. 
 
 Since our visit the remote little community of Tristan 
 d'Acunha has not entirely escaped political complications, such 
 as have involved many states of greater importance in their 
 own estimation. The attention of the Lords of the Admiralty 
 was for some reason or other attracted to the island, and H.M.S. 
 Sappho, Commander Noel Digby, called at Tristan in January, 
 1875, and Captain Digby reported that at that time there were 
 fourteen families on the island, eighty-five persons in all. The 
 condition of the islanders seemed to have been much the same as 
 when we went there two years before. From Captain Digby's 
 report, it appeared to Lord Carnarvon that if the Tristan group 
 really formed part of the Cape Colony, which seemed to be the 
 case from Bishop Gray having visited it as part of his diocese, 
 the jurisdiction of the Cape Government should be recognized ; 
 and it might be well that certain limited magisterial powers 
 should be conferred upon Peter Green, and perhaps one or two 
 others, by the governor ; and he wrote to Sir Henry Barkly for 
 information and suggestions. Sir Henry Barkly replied that 
 Tristan d'Acunha had certainly been included in the letters 
 patent constituting the see of Capetown, but that on the crea- 
 tion of the bishopric of St. Helena it had been transferred to 
 that diocese, and that no proclamation or other evidence could 
 be found giving the Governor of Cape Colony special authority 
 over the Tristan group. Moreover, Sir Henry Barkly's advisers 
 reported that, in the present state of information relating to the 
 connection between Tristan d'Acunha and the Cape Colony, 
 they did not feel at liberty to recommend that magisterial pow- 
 ers should be conferred on any of the inhabitants by the Cape 
 Government. 
 
 Lord Carnarvon then gave up the idea of attaching Tristan 
 to the Cape, and proposed that its government should be pro- 
 
166 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 vided for under certain rules, such as exist in the case of Nor- 
 folk Island ; one or two magistrates being appointed with au- 
 thority to settle small disputes, celebrate marriages, and look to 
 the maintenance of order. It was provided that the chief mag- 
 istrate should communicate, as occasion occurred, with the Sec- 
 retary of State for the Colonies, and any graver matters would 
 doubtless be adjusted by him by giving special powers to the 
 captain of one of H.M.'s ships. The Secretary for the Colonies 
 suggested that the Admiralty should direct the officer in com- 
 mand of a ship likely to call at the island to appoint one or 
 two magistrates and to confer with them as to the rules for 
 their government; and accordingly, in October, 1875, II.M.S. 
 Diamond visited Tristan, and Captain Stanley Bosanquet for- 
 warded a very full and entertaining report to the Admiralty. 
 He said that if he had failed in carrying out the wishes of 
 H.M.'s Secretary for the Colonies, it was because, on becoming 
 acquainted with the settlers, he was unable to see any need of 
 establishing rules for their future guidance. He again took a 
 census of the population, which remained stationary at eighty- 
 five, and it appears that there are now only fifteen males of the 
 age of twenty -one years and upward. " These," he remarks, 
 " represent the physical force, and I may also say the intellect- 
 ual, of this somewhat unsophisticated community, although I 
 should not venture to assert this (superiority of the males) of 
 any more highly civilized one ;" and, from what I saw of the 
 business capacity of the Tristan young ladies and their excel- 
 lent physical development, I should certainly have thought 
 twice before venturing to assert it even there. " The families 
 are connected by the ties of marriage, and their interests are 
 identical. They have certain rules of their own, and the pres- 
 ent senior male member of the community, Peter Green, is 
 made their referee if necessary." 
 
 Captain Bosanquet doubts the necessity of the emigration of 
 any of the settlers, even if the population increase considera- 
 
PtATE XXXII . 
 
 36° Jf' 
 
 37] 
 
 TRISTAN DXCLHSTHA GROUP 
 
 TRISTAN ISLAND SURVEYED BTCAPT^DENHAM RN 1852 
 INACCESSIBLE AND ^NIGHTINGALE V?? BY CAPT^NARES RN 18 
 
 /7. /r/.O . Ls/7Si L.jL£L/V(s£./T . 
 
 Soundings in Fathoms 
 
 0' 
 
 
 
 
 10' 
 
 
 ACCESSIBLE 
 
 w 
 
 ^ * - South. 
 
 65 \y 
 
 20' 
 30' 
 
 
 
 465 
 
 ZOO 
 
 Stolt tariff I 3 
 Miuhe I 
 
 m 
 \ 
 
 13- s 
 
 0' 4 
 
 c 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 167 
 
 bly ; lie thinks that there are land and stock enough for a much 
 larger number. He says, " I have little doubt that the peculiar 
 enjoyment and content of the original few settlers has now 
 to a great extent diminished. It depended upon ample space, 
 and abundance, and undisturbed possession. Also, this and the 
 neighboring islands and sea abounded with seals, sea-elephants, 
 and wild goats, which were easily taken, and in very great num- 
 bers ; and there was an extensive traffic for the few with the 
 whale-ships which then constantly communicated. With the 
 increase of the inhabitants, however, their unbounded freedom 
 was curtailed, as there were more people who had claims to be 
 respected ; there were more mouths to feed, and more hands to 
 take part in the seal-hunting, etc., and to share in the traffic en- 
 suing therefrom." 
 
 The loss of the traffic with the whalers, and the consequent 
 scarcity of foreign productions, is certainly the great difficulty 
 of the Tristaners; but I doubt if even that is so great as they 
 represent. As I have already said, from eight to twelve ships 
 still call yearly ; and as all of them are in want of fresh provis- 
 ions, and the islanders are very shrewd at a bargain, they prob- 
 ably might easily get all they require. They seemed to us to 
 be fully alive to the advantage of making the worst of things. 
 Notwithstanding his satisfaction with the existing state of mat- 
 ters, Captain Bosanquet makes some suggestions, most of which 
 have been concurred in by the Secretary for the Colonies, al- 
 though the most important — namely, that the naval officer in 
 command of the South African station should be ex officio gov- 
 ernor of the island — seemed open to so many objections that it 
 has not been adopted. 
 
 A proposal of Lord Carnarvon's to give two hundred pounds' 
 worth of useful presents to the islanders of things which they 
 can not easily obtain from passing ships will no doubt be high- 
 ly popular. They had, it seems, represented that a clergyman 
 was one of their most urgent needs ; an educated man, clerical 
 
168 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. III. 
 
 or lay, of a certain stamp among them would be an enormous 
 advantage ; but an educated man of another stamp, such as 
 they were much more likely to get, would be very much the 
 reverse. 
 
 My own impression is that it would have been just as well to 
 have left the settlers of Tristan d'Acunha alone. At present 
 there is a general feeling of equality, and their arbiter is of 
 their own choosing; and they took special care that it should 
 be fully understood that their deference to Peter Green was 
 purely voluntary. I should fear that the appointment of mag- 
 istrates from among themselves by external authority may give 
 rise to all kinds of jealousy and ill-will. If the place is under- 
 stood to belong to Great Britain at all, it is no doubt important 
 that, in such a case as that of the Shenandoah, they should be 
 able to produce evidence to that effect. The Tristaners of the 
 present day have certainly not left the most favorable impres- 
 sion on my mind. They are by no means ill off ; they are very 
 shrewd and sufficiently greedy ; and their conduct to the Stol- 
 tenhoffs, if their story be true, which we have never had any 
 reason to doubt, in landing surreptitiously and killing the last 
 of the flock of goats on Inaccessible Island, if not actually crim- 
 inal, was, to say the least, most questionable. 
 
 While the party on land were struggling among the tussocks 
 and penguins, and gaining an experience of the vigor of spon- 
 taneous life, animal and vegetable, which they are not likely 
 soon to forget, the ship took a cruise round the island to enable 
 the surveyors to put in the coast-line ; and in the afternoon the 
 hauls' of the dredge were taken in 100 and 150 fathoms. A 
 large quantity of things were procured of all groups, the most 
 prominent a fine species of Primnoa, many highly colored Gor- 
 gonice, and a very elegant Mopsea or some closely allied form. 
 Lophohelia prolifera or a very similar species was abundant, 
 associated with an Amphihelia and a fine Coenocyathus. Hy- 
 droids and sponges were in considerable number, tangled in 
 
Barometer 
 
 Plate XXX III. Meteorological Obser 
 — BiyMl) Thermometer IV 
 
 The, arrows T*vd*yC€tte/ dzrcct^cn/ ofth>& winds, ancL 
 ^1 S 2 3 4- 5 6 7 8 910 il 12 13 14 15 
 
 at 
 
 1111 
 
 ^5 
 
 5^ 
 
 *4 
 
 *E5 
 
 3 
 
 5E 
 
 'fit 
 
 1 1 
 
 2™ hi 
 
 if 
 
ions for the month of November, 1873. 
 
 Bulb Thermometer Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 umbers bencctth its /tree/ Ojccorctuvg to Hecui/i>r6's seethe/ 
 
 i 7 , , 1 . 8 , l 9 i ?, ,^ 3 , , 2 t 5 . i 2 * ?h i^ 8 , i?i ,y .Ant r 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 Si 
 
 la 
 
 t T 
 
 Tit t 
 
 512 
 
 122 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 169 
 
 masses with calcareous and horny bryozoa. There were a few 
 star -fishes, and a very few mollusca. The whole assemblage 
 resembled a good deal the produce of a haul in shallow water 
 off the Mediterranean coast of Morocco. 
 
 On the following day we crossed over, sounding and dredg- 
 ing on our way, to within a mile and a half of the west shore 
 of the island of Tristan. A haul in 1000 fathoms gave us, 
 somewhat to our surprise, some most typical samples of the 
 common Echinus Flemingii, along with Ophiomusium Lymani 
 and Rhizocrinits. We dredged a second time as we were n ear- 
 ing Tristan in 550 fathoms, and took one or two specimens of 
 a species of Antedon, some corals the same as those off Night- 
 ingale Island, and a quantity of bryozoa. In the evening we 
 set all plain sail, and, with a favoring breeze from the north- 
 west, proceeded on our voyage toward the Cape 
 
 On the 20th of October we sounded in 2100 fathoms, on hard 
 ground, with a bottom temperature of 1°*1 C, and put the 
 dredge over. The dredge got entangled at the bottom, and 
 was disengaged with some difficulty. It came up in the even- 
 ing quite empty, and we made all plain sail and proceeded on 
 our way. 
 
 On the 21st the weather changed, the wind dropping round 
 to the S.S.E., and blowing very cold with force = 8. We ran 
 on under double-reefed topsails, and during that day and the 
 next made nearly 350 miles. 
 
 On the 23d we put the dredge over early, and veered to 3000 
 fathoms ; and after breakfast we sounded in 2550 fathoms, with 
 a bottom of reddish clay and a bottom temperature of 0°*7 C, 
 the position of the sounding being lat. 35° 59' S., long. 1° 25' 
 E. The dredge contained little save some scarlet caridid and 
 peneid shrimps; but two small star -fishes gave evidence that 
 it had reached the bottom. 
 
 On the 25th we sounded in 2650 fathoms, with a bottom of 
 reddish clay, and a bottom temperature of 1°*0 C. ; and on the 
 
 II.— 12 
 
170 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 27th in 2325 fathoms, with a bottom of gray ooze with nod- 
 ules of black manganese, and a bottom temperature of o, 47 C. 
 The distance from the Cape of Good Hope at noon was 138 
 miles. A series of temperature soundings were taken at inter- 
 vals of ten fathoms from the surface to a depth of a hundred 
 fathoms with the following results : 
 
 Surface 
 
 13°-4C. 
 
 60 fathoms 
 
 
 13-4 
 
 70 " 
 
 20 " 
 
 13-3 
 
 80 
 
 30 " 
 
 12-8 
 
 90 
 
 40 " 
 
 11 '6 
 
 100 " 
 
 50 " 
 
 11 -3 
 
 
 11° 
 
 2 0. 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 •1 
 
 11 
 
 •o 
 
 10 
 
 •9 
 
 On the 28th we stopped at 7 a.m., and sounded in 1250 fath- 
 oms with a bottom of gray mud, Table Mountain and the range 
 of hills above Simon's Bay being fairly visible on the north- 
 eastern horizon. We took a series of temperatures at intervals 
 of ten fathoms down to a hundred. At noon we took a second 
 series, fifteen nautical miles to the south-west of the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and we found that in the interval we had passed 
 into the loop of the Agulhas Current, which curls round the 
 Cape close to the land. The contrast between the two series is 
 remarkable. 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 7 A.M. 
 
 Noon. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 14°-6 C. 
 
 16°-7 C. 
 
 10 
 
 14 -1 
 
 17 -1 
 
 20 
 
 14 -5 
 
 16 -8 
 
 30 
 
 14 -4 
 
 16 -4 
 
 40 
 
 13 -8 
 
 15 -8 
 
 50 
 
 12 -5 
 
 14 -7 
 
 60 
 
 12 -3 
 
 13 -9 
 
 70 
 
 11 -6 
 
 13 -3 
 
 80 
 
 11 -6 
 
 12 -8 
 
 90 
 
 11 -7 
 
 12 -2 
 
 100 
 
 11 -6 
 
 11 -o 
 
 The temperature of the air likewise rose perceptibly, the 
 thermometer in the shade indicating at noon 15° C, nearly 
 three degrees above the average of the same hour during the 
 previous week. 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 171 
 
 At 2 p.m. we rounded the Cape, and signaled our number 
 to H.M.S. Rattlesnake, just returned from the scene of the 
 Ashantee war; and an hour later we cast anchor in Simon's 
 Bay, and bid farewell for many a long day to the friendly wa- 
 ters of the Atlantic. 
 
 PenguiDS at Home. 
 
172 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. III. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Table of Temperatures observed between Baliia and the Cape of 
 
 Good Hope. 
 
 
 
 
 .t/5 
 
 
 .03 
 
 
 
 
 co' W 
 
 
 
 
 £j « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 Dppth in Ffitnoms. 
 
 o o 
 
 
 tion 
 
 o 
 CO 
 
 tion 
 
 99° 
 
 00 
 
 tion 
 
 35° : 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o^ 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 CS 
 
 bi 
 
 03 
 
 bi 
 
 cS 
 
 bi 
 
 
 
 3 . bi 
 
 
 tfl * 
 
 s 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K-J S 
 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 k! 
 
 
 O 
 
 >Jh3 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23° 
 
 •3 C. 
 
 20° 
 
 •6 C. 
 
 18° 
 
 •3 C. 
 
 14° 
 
 •4 C. 
 
 13° 
 
 •9 C. 
 
 12° -8 C. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 •9 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 •9 
 
 
 75 
 
 19 
 
 •b 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 •4 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 •3 
 
 15 
 
 •b 
 
 16 
 
 •b 
 
 12* 
 
 ■9 
 
 13 
 
 •o 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 •l 
 
 11 
 
 •6 
 
 10 
 
 •o 
 
 
 
 7 "'7 
 
 300 
 
 6 
 
 •6 
 
 7 
 
 •5 
 
 9 
 
 •2 
 
 6 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 5 
 
 •1 
 
 5 
 
 •4 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 4 
 
 •0 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 2 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 ' ; 6 
 
 800 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 V 3 
 
 1200 
 
 2 
 
 •8 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 1 
 
 •7 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 '-4 
 
 1400 
 
 1 
 
 •9 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 2 
 
 •2 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom Tern-) 
 perature. j 
 
 0°'6 
 
 0°-8 
 
 0° 
 
 •7 
 
 1° 
 
 •1 
 
 1° 
 
 ■3 
 
 l°-6 
 
 Depth 
 
 2150 
 
 2350 
 
 2275 
 
 2050 
 
 1900 
 
 2025 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO O- 
 
 
 CO gj 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 Jot- 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 Co o 
 
 .2 £5 2 
 
 Co 
 
 .2 10 
 
 
 o £ 
 
 
 Jg 
 
 oo 
 
 .2 CO 
 
 
 So o 
 •43 CO 
 
 
 -3 . tb 
 
 1" 
 
 si 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 bi 
 
 
 bi 
 
 ■2 . bi 
 
 
 w J : c 
 
 03 O 
 J 1-3 
 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 CD * 
 
 
 
 c 
 >3 
 
 
 c 
 
 o 
 
 1-3 
 
 00 J 1 G 
 o3 
 
 i-3i-3 
 
 Surface. 
 
 12°-0 C. 
 
 12° 
 
 •2 C. 
 
 13° -4 C. 
 
 13° 
 
 •4C. 
 
 13 c 
 
 •4 C. 
 
 14° '6 C. 
 
 25 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 18" 
 
 •4 
 
 11 
 
 •3 
 
 12 -5 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 -6 
 
 100 
 
 9-1 
 
 11* 
 
 •2 
 
 13 
 
 •b 
 
 13* 
 
 •3 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 9 
 
 •5 
 
 11 
 
 •o 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 7 
 
 •7 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 V S 
 
 6 
 
 •2 
 
 6 
 
 •8 
 
 6 
 
 •7 
 
 4 
 
 •9 
 
 
 400 
 
 3 -9 
 
 4 
 
 •o 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 
 500 
 
 3 -4 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 2 
 
 •9 
 
 
 600 
 
 2 -6 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 •6 
 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •3 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 
 
 
 *2 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 "a 
 
 •2 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■b 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 •b 
 
 
 Bottom Tern-) 
 perature. j 
 
 
 1° 
 
 ■1 
 
 C 
 
 •7 
 
 1° 
 
 •o 
 
 0° 
 
 •5 
 
 
 Depth 
 
 
 2100 
 
 2550 
 
 2650 
 
 2325 
 
 
CHAP. III.] 
 
 BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 
 
 173 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Table of Serial Soundings down to 200 Fathoms, taken behveen Bahia 
 and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 
 
 
 .39. 
 35^' S. 
 
 
 139. 
 35^ S. 
 
 
 o 
 
 Depth in 
 Fathoms. 
 
 Station 1 
 Lat. 35° ! 
 Long. 1° J 
 
 Station ) 
 Lat. 36° : 
 Long. 8° 
 
 Station 1 
 Lat. 35° 
 Long. 16° 
 
 Depth in 
 Fathoms. 
 
 Station 1 
 Lat. 35° : 
 Long. 16° 
 
 Station 1 
 Lat. 35° 
 Long. 17° . 
 
 Station 1 
 
 Surface. 
 
 13° '4 C. 
 
 13° -4 C. 
 
 13°'4C. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 13° -4 C. 
 
 14°-6 C. 
 
 16°-7C. 
 
 50 
 
 13 -3 
 
 13 '4 
 
 11 -3 
 
 10 
 
 13 -4 
 
 14 -7 
 
 17 -1 
 
 100 
 
 13 -0 
 
 13 '3 
 
 10 -7 
 
 20 
 
 13 -3 
 
 14 '5 
 
 16 '8 
 
 150 
 
 12 -3 
 
 11 -7 
 
 8 -4 
 
 30 
 
 12 '8 
 
 14 '4 
 
 16 -4 
 
 200 
 
 11 -o 
 
 10 -4 
 
 7 -7 
 
 40 
 
 11 -6 
 
 13 -8 
 
 15 '8 
 
 250 
 
 8 -7 
 
 8 -2 
 
 6 -6 
 
 50 
 
 11 -3 
 
 12 -5 
 
 14 -7 
 
 300 
 
 6 -S 
 
 6 '7 
 
 4 -9 
 
 60 
 
 11 -2 
 
 12 -3 
 
 13 -9 
 
 350 
 
 5 -7 
 
 5 -2 
 
 3 -6 
 
 70 
 
 11 -1 
 
 11 '6 
 
 13 -3 
 
 400 
 
 4 '3 
 
 4 -3 
 
 3 -1 
 
 80 
 
 11 -1 
 
 11 -6 
 
 12 -8 
 
 450 
 
 4 -0 
 
 3 -7 
 
 3 -0 
 
 90 
 
 11 -o 
 
 11 '7 
 
 12 '2 
 
 500 
 
 3 '5 
 
 3 '3 
 
 2 -9 
 
 100 
 
 10 -9 
 
 11 -6 
 
 11 -o 
 
174 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. hi. 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 Table of Specific-gravity Observations taken between Bahia and the Cape 
 of Good Hope during the Months of September and October, 1873. 
 
 Date, 
 1873. 
 
 Latitude 
 South. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (6) at 
 which the 
 Water was 
 taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 (0 at 6. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 (,«') during 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15°-5. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'rns. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sept. 26 
 
 13° 
 
 45 
 
 3i 59' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25° *1C. 
 
 25° 'OC. 
 
 1*02514 
 
 1 -02776 
 
 1-02512 
 
 2T 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 37 1 
 
 
 
 25 "3 
 
 25 *6 
 
 1 -024S7 
 
 1-02770 
 
 1-02498 
 
 28 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 36 50 
 
 
 " 
 
 24 "7 
 
 24 "9 
 
 1*02517 
 
 1-02775 
 
 1-02520 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 35 40 
 
 
 
 23 "6 
 
 24 "0 
 
 1 *02530 
 
 1-02761 
 
 1-02550 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 35 19 
 
 2150 
 
 
 23 "4 
 
 24 "3 
 
 1*02518 
 
 1*02757 
 
 1-02546 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 23 "9 
 
 1 *02509 
 
 1*02736 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 *3 
 
 23 "9 
 
 1*02509 
 
 1 '02736 
 
 1-02690 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 *0 
 
 23 -8 
 
 
 1*02736 
 
 1-02S34 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 -6 
 
 24 '8 
 
 1*02328 
 
 1-0255S 
 
 1-02712 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 '2 
 
 23 '9 
 
 
 1*0255S 
 
 1-02741 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 35 37 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22 "8 
 
 22 -9 
 
 1 -02547 
 
 1*02774 
 
 1 -0254S 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 34 17 
 
 
 " 
 
 21 *0 
 
 21 '5 
 
 1*02562 
 
 1*02717 
 
 1 -02574 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 32 56 
 
 
 
 21 -0 
 
 21 -6 
 
 1*02546 
 
 1*02703 
 
 1-02560 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 21 -4 
 
 1*02552 
 
 1*02704 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 21 -7 
 
 1*02523 
 
 1*02682 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 15 -d 
 
 21 -5 
 
 1*02496 
 
 1-02649 
 
 1 '02660 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 12 -1 
 
 21 -5 
 
 1*02454 
 
 1-02608 
 
 1-02679 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7 -5 
 
 21 -6 
 
 1*02416 
 
 1-02573 
 
 1-02719 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 5 -1 
 
 21 -5 
 
 1-02402 
 
 1-02554 
 
 1*02727 
 
 
 
 
 
 2350 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -8 
 
 21 -5 
 
 1*02552 
 
 1-02706 
 
 1*02916? 
 
 4 
 
 27' 
 
 43 
 
 31 ' ' 3 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 19 -4 
 
 20 I 
 
 1-0258S 
 
 1-02702 
 
 1-02603 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 28 59 
 
 
 
 18 '9 
 
 19 -4 
 
 1*02573 
 
 1-02690 
 
 1-02601 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 28 9 
 
 2275 
 
 
 18 '3 
 
 19 -1 
 
 1*02575 
 
 1-02665 
 
 1*02593 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 16 -0 
 
 18 -5 
 
 1*02555 
 
 1-02629 
 
 1-02616 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 -6 
 
 IS -5 
 
 1-02528 
 
 1-02602 
 
 1-02683 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 9 '2 
 
 18 -6 
 
 1*02489 
 
 1-02565 
 
 1-02687 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 5 -4 
 
 18 -7 
 
 1*02462 
 
 1-02540 
 
 1-02715 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1000 
 
 2 "5 
 
 18 -7 
 
 1*02494 
 
 1-02572 
 
 1-02767 
 
 7 
 
 29* 
 
 11 
 
 26' 25 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 18 -3 
 
 18 '7 
 
 1-02576 
 
 1*02654 
 
 1-025S1 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 22 
 
 26 54 
 
 
 
 16 '6 
 
 16 *8 
 
 1*02608 
 
 1-02638 
 
 1-02610 
 
 9 
 
 33 
 
 57 
 
 24 33 
 
 
 
 14 -8 
 
 15 -4 
 
 1-02652 
 
 1*02648 
 
 1-02660 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 23 40 
 
 
 
 14 -6 
 
 15 '3 
 
 1*02615 
 
 1-02609 
 
 1-02630 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 -3 
 
 15 '9 
 
 1*02605 
 
 1-02613 
 
 1*02659 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 10 -2 
 
 15 -6 
 
 1*02570 
 
 1-02571 
 
 1*02676 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 -4 
 
 16 -0 
 
 1*02532 
 
 1-02543 
 
 1*02703 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 -2 
 
 16 -0 
 
 1*02535 
 
 1-02541 
 
 1-02725 
 
 
 
 
 
 2050 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 -1 
 
 15 '9 
 
 1*02572 
 
 1-02580 
 
 1-027S4 
 
 11 
 
 35* 
 
 41 
 
 20 55 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 13 '9 
 
 15 -2 
 
 1*02624 
 
 1-02617 
 
 1-0264S 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1900 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 '3 
 
 14 -6 
 
 1-0259S 
 
 1-02577 
 
 1-027S6 
 
 12 
 
 36* 
 
 10 
 
 17 "52 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 12 -7 
 
 13 -2 
 
 1*02640 
 
 1-02590 
 
 1-02648 
 
 13 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 14 27 
 
 
 
 12 -0 
 
 12 -3 
 
 1*02653 
 
 1-02585 
 
 1-02658 
 
 14 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 12 18 
 
 
 
 12 -8 
 
 13 -0 
 
 1*02660 
 
 1-02606 
 
 1*02661 
 
 
 
 
 
 2025 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 -6 
 
 11 -5 
 
 1-02656 
 
 1-02573 
 
 1*02775 
 
 19 
 
 37' 
 
 *5 
 
 9 "40 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 12 -0 
 
 12 -5 
 
 1-02676 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1*02684 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 43 
 
 7 13 
 
 
 
 12 -2 
 
 13 -0 
 
 1-02660 
 
 1-02606 
 
 1*02677 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 11 '2 
 
 13 -9 
 
 1-02623 
 
 1-025S6 
 
 1*02676 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 -5 
 
 13 -9 
 
 1*02605 
 
 1-02563 
 
 1-02685 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 -2 
 
 13 -9 
 
 1-02579 
 
 1-02542 
 
 1-02703 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 -0 
 
 13 -8 
 
 1 -02574 
 
 1-02535 
 
 1-02722 
 
chap, in.] BAHIA TO THE CAPE. 175 
 
 Date, 
 1873. 
 
 Latitude 
 South. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (6) at 
 which the 
 Water was 
 taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 2 
 
 Temperature 
 
 (<') during 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 Water at 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15°-5. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 
 
 
 
 thorns 
 
 Fathoms 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Oct. 20 
 
 
 
 
 2100 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1° 
 
 1C. 
 
 14 o, 0C. 
 
 1 - 02615 
 
 1*02580 
 
 1-02784 
 
 22 
 
 35° 57' 
 
 0° 15' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 13 • 
 
 6 
 
 13 '8 
 
 1' 02650 
 
 1-02611 
 
 1-02650 
 
 23 
 
 35 59 
 
 1 26 E. 
 
 
 
 13 • 
 
 4 
 
 13 '6 
 
 1*02669 
 
 1-02626 
 
 1-02669 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 ' 
 
 
 
 13 '2 
 
 1-02645 
 
 1-02594 
 
 1-02646 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 • 
 
 
 
 13 "2 
 
 1-02635 
 
 1-02584 
 
 1-02677 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 • 
 
 8 
 
 13 '4 
 
 1-02605 
 
 1-02558 
 
 1 02711 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 ' 
 
 3 
 
 13 -0 
 
 1-02600 
 
 1-02547 
 
 1-02729 
 
 
 
 
 2550 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 • 
 
 7 
 
 12 -8 
 
 1-02633 
 
 1-02574 
 
 1-02782 
 
 24 
 
 36 2 
 
 5 27 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 12 ' 
 
 2 
 
 13 -0 
 
 1-02640 
 
 1-02586 
 
 1-02656 
 
 25 
 
 36 22 
 
 8 12 
 
 
 
 15 ' 
 
 
 
 15 *2 
 
 1-02629 
 
 1-02621 
 
 1-02630 
 
 
 
 
 2650 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 ' 
 
 
 
 13 -5 
 
 1-02614 
 
 1-02570 
 
 1-02777 
 
 26 
 
 35 59 
 
 11 ' 43 
 
 10.30 a.m. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 15 • 
 
 6 
 
 15 '6 
 
 1-02653 
 
 1-02654 
 
 1-02654 
 
 
 
 
 4.30p.m. 
 
 
 14 • 
 
 6 
 
 14 '7 
 
 1-02669 
 
 1-02650 
 
 1-02670 
 
 
 
 
 S. 00 p.m. 
 
 
 13 • 
 
 3 
 
 12 -9 
 
 1-02668 
 
 1-02613 
 
 1-02660 
 
 2T 
 
 35 *35 
 
 16"" 8 
 
 
 
 13 • 
 
 7 
 
 13 -7 
 
 1-02644 
 
 1-02603 
 
 1-02644 
 
 
 
 
 2325 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -47 
 
 14 -0 
 
 1-02605 
 
 1-02571 
 
 1-02780 
 
 28 
 
 35° "0 
 
 17" 57 
 
 11.30 a.m. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 16 ' 
 
 7 
 
 17 -1 
 
 1-02577 
 
 1-02615 
 
 1-02583 
 
 ',| 
 
 
 
 2.05 p.m. 
 
 u 
 
 15 • 
 
 
 
 15 '9 
 
 1-02602 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1-02622 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 16 • 
 
 8 
 
 15 '6 
 
 1-02614 
 
 1-02615 
 
 1-02581 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 14 • 
 
 7 
 
 15 '3 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02605 
 
 1-02622 
 
176 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. iv. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 The Strait of Magellan.— Dredging in Shallow Water.— The Falkland Islands.— Their 
 Physical Features. — The Town of Stanley.— The Products and Commerce of the 
 Falklands. — The Balsam -bog. — The Tussock - grass. — The Vegetation of the 
 Falkland Islands. — A Peculiar Mode of Reproduction among the Echinoderms. — 
 "Stone Rivers." — The Temperature Section between the Falklands and the Mouth 
 of the River Plate. — Montevideo. — Low Temperatures between Montevideo and 
 Tristan d'Acunha. — Meridional Section along the Central Ridge of the Atlantic. 
 — Ascension. — Physical Features. — An Island under Naval Discipline. — Voyage 
 to Porto Praya and Porto Grande. — Soundings in the Eastern Trough of the At- 
 lantic. — Vigo Bay. — Arrival at Spithead. 
 
 Appendix A. — Table of Temperatures observed between the Falkland Islands and 
 Tristan d'Acunha. 
 
 Appendix B. — Table of Temperatures observed between Tristan d'Acunha and the 
 Acores. 
 
 Appendix C. — Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 fathoms taken 
 
 in the South and North Atlantic in the Year 1876. 
 Appendix D. — Specific-gravity Observations taken on the homeward voyage between 
 
 the Falkland Islands and Portsmouth. 
 Appendix E. — List of the Stations in the Atlantic at which Observations were taken 
 
 in the Year 18*76. 
 
 On the morning of the 20th of January, 1876, the Challenger 
 passed through the "first narrows" of the Strait of Magellan, 
 wind and tide in her favor, at the rate of about seventeen knots 
 an hour ; shortly after midday she rounded Cape Virgins, and 
 a long, uneasy swell gave us somewhat unpleasant evidence of 
 the most welcome fact that we were once more yielding to the 
 pulses of the broad Atlantic. 
 
 For the previous three weeks we had been creeping down 
 inside the islands from the Gulf of Penas, through the Messier 
 and the Sarmiento Channel and the Magellan Strait, sounding 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 177 
 
 and trawling nearly every day ; and we had amassed a splendid 
 series of characteristic Patagonian forms from depths of 60 to 
 400 fathoms. On the afternoon of the 20th we sounded in 55 
 fathoms, about 20 miles due east of Cape Virgins, with a bot- 
 tom of blackish sand and a bottom temperature of 8°*8 C. 
 
 The trawl brought up a large number of a wonderfully hand- 
 some Euryale, the disk in some of the specimens between three 
 and four inches across. We put a number of these great disks 
 into absolute alcohol, to harden the tissues at once and preserve 
 them in the best condition for dissection. There were also 
 some very large simple Ascidians {Cynthia gigas) from 30 to 
 40 centims. long, and with the ganglion — usually a minute 
 body not at once detected, lying between the two orifices — a 
 well-defined gray mass nearly as large as a pea. A viviparous 
 ophiurid occurred in considerable numbers, which we had al- 
 ready found in shallow water off Kerguelen Island. I shall 
 give an account of its singular mode of reproduction when de- 
 scribing the shallow- water dredgings at the Falkland Islands, 
 in which it occurred plentifully. On the following day we 
 trawled in 70 fathoms about midway between Cape Virgins 
 and the Jason Islands. Animals were still abundant, but most 
 of them of known forms. A pretty little Chirodota, which ad- 
 hered in numbers to the meshes of the trawl, was perhaps the 
 most interesting on account of its unusually large and numer- 
 ous wheels. The bottom was a black sand, and the bottom 
 temperature 7°*8 C. 
 
 The 22d was a wretched day, with cold rain and fog and a 
 disagreeable swell. We sounded in the morning in 110 fath- 
 oms, and put over the trawl, but it came up empty ; owing to 
 a strong current setting northward, it had probably never 
 reached the bottom. We had hoped to have reached Stanley 
 Harbor before night, but during most of the day the fog was 
 so thick that it was unsafe to run toward the land. In the 
 afternoon we sighted the Jason Islands, and in the evening it 
 
178 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 cleared up, and we had a good view of the little group — Jason 
 West, Jason East, Grand Jason, Steeple Jason, and Elephant Ja- 
 son — rocky islets rising abruptly from the sea. We had a fine 
 run during the night along the north coast of the Falklands ; 
 at half -past five next morning Cape Bougainville was seen due 
 south of us. The weather was showery and squally, with a 
 strong southerly breeze, but the land became more distinct 
 during the forenoon as we passed the entrance of Berkeley 
 Sound, and some rather high hills could be seen at intervals 
 between the showers. At two o'clock we passed Pembroke 
 Light -house, and slipped quietly between the headlands into 
 the little land-locked bay which forms the harbor of Stanley, 
 the present seat of government of the Falkland Islands. 
 
 At a first glance these islands are not attractive, and I doubt 
 if they improve greatly on acquaintance. The land is gener- 
 ally low and flat, but it rises here and there into ridges, the 
 highest a little over 2000 feet in height. The ground is dark 
 in color, a mixture of brown and dull green; the ridges are 
 pale gray, with lines of outcrop of hard white quartzite, like 
 dilapidated stone -walls, at different levels along the strike. 
 The vegetation is scanty, and, what little there is, very ineffect- 
 ive. There is nothing of a higher dignity than an herb, the 
 nearest approach to a shrub being a rank form of groundsel 
 (Senecio candicans), with large button-like yellow flowers and 
 very white woolly foliage, which runs up along the shore and 
 in sheltered nooks inland to a height of two or three feet, and 
 a pretty Veronica (V. decussata), which is, however, indigenous 
 on the west island only, and is introduced in the gardens about 
 Port Stanley. 
 
 Above Stanley Harbor the land slopes up for a hundred feet 
 or so to a low ridge, beyond which what is called there the 
 " Camp " (champ) extends nearly level for many miles, with 
 slightly raised stretches of pasture and wide patches of peat 
 and dark boggy tarns. The little town of Stanley is built 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 179 
 
 along the shore, and stretches a little way up the slope. It is 
 built mainly of square, white, gray-slated houses, and puts one 
 greatly in mind of one of the newer small towns in the Scottish 
 West Highlands or in one of the Hebrides. The resemblance 
 is heightened by the smell of peat -smoke, for peat is almost 
 universally burned, as there is no wood, and coal costs three 
 pounds a ton. The Government-house is very like a Shetland 
 or Orkney manse, stone-built, slated, and gray, without the least 
 shelter. In the square grass paddock surrounded by a low w T all, 
 stretching from the house to the shore, a very ornamental flock 
 of upland geese were standing and preening their feathers the 
 first time we called there. This tarn en ess of the sea-birds is 
 still most remarkable in the Falkland Islands, and a strange 
 contrast to their extreme wildness in the Strait of Magellan: 
 there we stalked the kelp goose (Chloephaga antarctica) and 
 the steamer -duck (Mieropterus cinereus) day after day, with 
 great labor and but little success, finding great difficulty in 
 getting even within long range of them ; while in the Falk- 
 lands the same species were all about, standing on the shore 
 within stone's- throw, or diving or fishing quietly within a few 
 yards of the boats. I was told that they are not now nearly 
 so tame, however, as they were some years ago. Almost every 
 evening we met some one coming to the settlement with a 
 string of upland geese for the pot, and I suppose it is begin- 
 ning to dawn upon the poor birds that their new neighbors 
 are not so harmless as they look. Very likely it may take 
 some generations of experience to make them thoroughly 
 wary, and the difference between the birds of the Islands 
 and those of the Strait may probably be, that while the for- 
 mer have been safe in their primeval solitude up to within 
 a recent period, the latter have been selecting themselves for 
 ages on their capacity for eluding the craft of hungry Pata- 
 gonians and Fuegians. 
 
 The town is clean and well kept, and even the smallest houses 
 
180 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 are tidy and have a well-to-do look. Many of the houses be- 
 longing to the agents of the Falkland Islands Company and to 
 the representatives of several private firms have very pretty 
 greenhouses attached to them, the gay groups of fuchsias and 
 pelargoniums of all the best home varieties contrasting pleas- 
 antly with the desolation outside. The Government barrack, 
 occupied by an officer and a company of marines, is rather an 
 imposing structure, with a square tower, in the middle of the 
 town ; and there is a neat little Episcopal church. 
 
 The Falkland Islands were first seen by Davis in the year 
 1592, and Sir Richard Hawkins sailed along their north shore 
 in 1594. In 1598, Sebald de Wert, a Dutchman, visited them, 
 and called them the Sebald Islands, a name which they still 
 bear on some of the Dutch maps. Captain Strong sailed 
 through between the two principal islands in 1690, and called 
 the passage Falkland Sound. In IT 63, the islands were taken 
 possession of by the French, who established a colony at Port 
 Louis; they were, however, expelled by the Spaniards in 1767 
 or 1768. In 1761, Commodore Byron took possession, on the 
 part of England, on the ground of prior discovery, and his doing 
 so was nearly the cause of a war between England and Spain, 
 both countries having armed fleets to contest the barren sover- 
 eignty. In 1771, however, Spain yielded the islands to Great 
 Britain by convention. Not having been actually colonized by 
 us, the republic of Buenos Ayres claimed the islands in 1820, 
 and formed a settlement at the old Port Louis, which promised 
 to be fairly successful ; but, owing to some misunderstanding 
 with the Americans, it was destroyed by the latter in 1831. 
 After all these vicissitudes, the British flag was once more 
 hoisted at Port Louis in 1833, and since that time the Falkland 
 Islands have been a regular British colony, under a governor. 
 The group was called by the French the Malouines, from the 
 inhabitants of St. Maloes, whom they imagine to have been 
 their first discoverers ; and the Spanish name, the Malvinas, the 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 181 
 
 most euphonious of them all, is the one still mostly in use by 
 their neighbors of South America. 
 
 The islands are about a hundred in number, but only two of 
 them are of any size. They lie between the parallels of 51° 
 and 52° 45' S. and the meridians of 57° 20' and 61° 46' W. 
 The climate is very miserable, considering that the latitude cor- 
 responds with that of Middlesex ; for, though the thermometer 
 rarely falls in winter much below the freezing-point, it rarely 
 rises in summer much above 18°*5 C. ; and fog and rain are so 
 constant, and sunshine so scarce, that wheat will not ripen, 
 barley and oats can scarcely be said to do so, and the common 
 English vegetables will not produce seed in the gardens. Still 
 the colony appears to be very healthy, the inhabitants seem to 
 get thoroughly accustomed to their moist, chilly surroundings, 
 and the only " pale maidens " to be seen are the drooping deli- 
 cate flowers of Sisyrinchium filifolium, which cover the camp 
 round Stanley in early spring, and have earned that pretty 
 sobriquet. Of late years the industry of the Falkland Islands 
 has been developing most rapidly. It has been found that the 
 pasture is even more suitable for sheep than for cattle ; and in 
 1872 the Falkland Islands Company alone had a flock of from 
 forty to flfty thousand of the best English breeds, a number 
 which has since greatly increased. The wool is said to be re- 
 markably fine in quality. In various parts of the islands the 
 cattle, although now nominally belonging to some proprietor 
 or lessee, are nearly wild ; and the skill shown by the Buenos- 
 Ayrean Guachos in hunting them down and capturing them 
 with the bolas is very remarkable. The Scottish shepherds, 
 many of whom have settled in the islands of late years, are, 
 however, rapidly becoming as expert as their less civilized 
 predecessors. A wild dog was common on both islands some 
 years ago, but on the east island it is now nearly exterminated. 
 
 On the day of our arrival, Captain Thomson and I paid our 
 respects to the governor, Colonel D'Arcy, and we found him 
 
182 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 greatly interested in our visit, owing to a report which had 
 reached Stanley that some seams of graphite and workable beds 
 of coal had been found at Port Sussex, on the other side of the 
 island. Although from the little I had seen and read of the 
 geology of the islands, and still more from the appearance of 
 the specimens shown me by Colonel D'Arcy, I felt pretty well 
 assured that the quest would be fruitless, to satisfy the gov- 
 ernor and the agent of the Falkland Islands Company I asked 
 Mr. Moseley, who was glad of the opportunity of seeing more 
 of the country, to ride across and ascertain the true state of 
 affairs. His observations justified our previous opinion. The 
 whole of the east island, and probably the greater part of the 
 west island also, consists of sedimentary rocks of paleozoic age ; 
 in the low grounds, clay-slate and soft sandstone, and on the 
 ridges hardened sandstone passing into the conspicuous white 
 quartzites. The beds of so-called coal were simply very bitu- 
 minous beds among the clay-slates, sometimes becoming a sort 
 of culm, which might possibly answer to mix with coal and 
 burn in a smithy fire, like the bituminous slates in the Bala 
 series of Tyrone and Dumfriesshire, but which could never be 
 worked with advantage. The graphite was only the blackest 
 samples of the same material. 
 
 Mr. Moseley brought back a fine lot of fossils from the sand- 
 stone, the beds and their contents having very much the appear- 
 ance of the ferruginous sandstones of May Hill or Girvan. 
 The species of Orthis, Atrypa, and Spirifer are different ; and 
 as there are no graptolites in the schists, it is probable that the 
 whole series belongs to a somewhat later period, possibly the 
 base of the Devonians. But if Mr. Moseley did not find coal, 
 he brought home, slung at his saddle-bow, what was of much 
 greater interest to us — the skull and a great part of the skeleton 
 of a rare little whale belonging to the genus Xiphius. 
 
 The Falkland Islands consist of the older paleozoic rocks, 
 Lower Devonian, or Upper Silurian, slightly metamorphosed 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 183 
 
 and a good deal crumpled and distorted. It is entirely con- 
 trary to our experience that coal of any value should be found 
 in such beds. Galena may occur in the quartzites, but proba- 
 bly in no great quantity ; and there is no positive reason why 
 gold may not be found, although the beds have scarcely the 
 character of auriferous quartz. 
 
 On our second visit to the town our eyes were refreshed by 
 the vision of a bishop; not a bishop blunt of speech and care- 
 less of externals, as so hard-working a missionary among the 
 Fuegians and Patagonians might well afford to be, but a bishop 
 gracious in manner and perfect in attire, who would have seemed 
 more in harmony with his surroundings in the atmosphere of 
 Windsor or St. James's. We had great pleasure in the society 
 of Bishop Stirling during our stay at Stanley. Although he 
 takes his title from the Falklands, his diocese is so large — ex- 
 tending round the whole of the southern coast of South Amer- 
 ica — that his visits to Stanley are somewhat rare ; and we owed 
 the pleasure of making his acquaintance to an accident which 
 had befallen his little missionary schooner, the repair of which 
 he was superintending. He is a most active and zealous pastor, 
 and greatly beloved by his scattered flock. A great part of his 
 time is spent in Fuegia, where he has succeeded in establishing 
 a half -civilized missionary station, and it was most interesting 
 to hear him talk of his strange experiences among perhaps the 
 most primitive race in the world. Walking over the breezy 
 " Camp" of the Falklands with Dr. Stirling, one could not help 
 thinking that his great influence in these remote regions might 
 to some extent be referred to the almost exaggerated care with 
 which he maintains the culture and refinement of a gentleman 
 and the dignity of the ecclesiastical office. 
 
 Two vegetable productions of the Falklands, the balsam-bog 
 and the tussock-grass, have been objects of curiosity and inter- 
 est ever since the first accounts of the islands reached us. In 
 many places the low ground looks from a little distance as if it 
 
184 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 were thickly scattered over with large gray bowlders, hemi- 
 spherical or oval, three or four feet high, and three or four to six 
 or eight feet across. To heighten the illusion, many of these 
 blocks are covered with lichens, and bunches of grass grow in 
 soil collected in crevices, just as they would in little rifts in 
 rocks. These bowlder-like masses are single plants of Bolax 
 gleharia, an umbellifer which has the strange habit which we 
 had already seen in the Azorella of Kerguelen Island, only 
 greatly exaggerated. These lumps of balsam -bog are quite 
 hard and nearly smooth, and only when looked at closely they 
 are seen to be covered with small hexagonal markings like the 
 calyces on a weathered piece of coral. These are the circlets 
 of leaves and the leaf-buds terminating a multitude of stems, 
 which have gone on growing with extreme slowness and multi- 
 plying dichotomously for an unknown length of time, possibly 
 for centuries, ever since the plant started as a single shoot from 
 a seed. The growth is so slow, and the condensation from con- 
 stant branching is so great, that the block becomes nearly as 
 hard as the bowlder which it so much resembles, and it is diffi- 
 cult to cut a shaving from the surface with a sharp knife. Un- 
 der the unfrequent condition of a warm day with the sun shin- 
 ing, a pleasant aromatic odor may be perceived where these 
 plants abound, and a pale-yellow gum exudes from the surface, 
 which turns brown in drying. The gum is astringent, and 
 slightly aromatic, and the shepherds use it dissolved in spirit as 
 a balsam for wounds and sores. The flowers, which are very 
 inconspicuous, are produced at the ends of the branches, and 
 the characteristic cremocarps of the umbelliferse may be seen 
 scattered over the smooth surface of the ball in late summer. 
 
 Bolax is uneatable, and can apparently be applied to no par- 
 ticular use ; and as it is widely distributed and abundant, it is 
 likely that it will long hold its place as one of the curiosities of 
 the Falklands : such is, unfortunately, not a reasonable anticipa- 
 tion for that prince of grasses, Dactylis ccespitosa. The tussock- 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 185 
 
 grass grows in dense tufts from six to ten feet high. The leaves 
 and stems are most excellent fodder, and extremely attractive 
 to cattle ; but the lower portions of the stems and the crowns 
 of the roots have unluckily a sweet, nutty flavor, which makes 
 them irresistible, and cattle and pigs and all creatures, herbivo- 
 rous and omnivorous, crop the tussocks to the ground, when the 
 rain, getting into the crowns, rots the roots ; or if they have the 
 means, they tear them out bodily. The work of extermination 
 has proceeded rapidly, and now the tussock-grass is confined to 
 patches in a narrow border round the shore, and to some of the 
 outlying islands. When we were lying off Port Louis, at the 
 head of Berkeley Sound, there was a pretty little islet thickly 
 covered with a perfectly even crop of tussock-grass about eight 
 feet high, and so dense that it could be mown with a scythe. 
 We sent a boat's crew for a supply for the animals on board, 
 by whom it was highly appreciated. 
 
 The peat of the Falkland Islands is very different in char- 
 acter from that of the North of Europe ; cellular plants enter 
 scarcely, if at all, into its composition, and it is formed almost 
 entirely of the roots and matted foliage and stems of Emjpetrum 
 rubrum, a variety of the common " crow-berry " of the Scottish 
 hills, with red berries, called by the Falklanders the " diddle- 
 dee " berry ; of Myrtus nummularis a little creeping myrtle, 
 which also produces red berries with a pleasant flavor and leaves, 
 which are used as a substitute for tea ; of Caltha ajppendiculata, 
 a dwarf species of the marsh-marigold ; and of some sedges and 
 sedge-like plants, such as Astelia pumila, Gaimardia australis, 
 and Rostkoma grandiflora. The roots and stems of these, pre- 
 served almost unaltered, may be traced down several feet into 
 the peat, but finally the whole structure becomes obliterated, 
 and the whole is reduced to an amorphous carbonaceous mass. 
 The general flora of the camp is much like that of the low 
 grounds of Fuegia and Patagonia; but one misses the pretty 
 flowering shrubs, especially the PemeUyas and the lovely Phi- 
 
 II.— 13 
 
186 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 lesia huxifolia. The Smilacese are, however, still well repre- 
 sented by the beautiful and delicately perfumed " almond-flow- 
 er " of the settlers, Gallixene marginata. 
 
 The weather while we were at the Falklands was generally 
 cold and boisterous, and boat -work was consequently uncom- 
 fortable, and frequently impracticable, except in the shallow 
 water within the harbor. We had, however, two or three days' 
 dredging in the pinnace, and made a pretty fair account of the 
 submarine inhabitants of our immediate neighborhood. Mao- 
 rocystis pyrifera, the huge tangle of the Southern Seas, is 
 very abundant in Stanley Harbor, anchored in about ten fath- 
 oms, the long fronds stretching for many yards along the sur- 
 face, and swaying to and fro with the tide. Adhering to the 
 fronds of Macrocystis there were great numbers of an elegant 
 little cucumber - shaped sea-slug (Cladodactyla crocea, Lesson, 
 sp.), from 80 to 100 mm. in length by 30 mm. in width at the 
 widest part, and of a bright saffron-yellow color. The mouth 
 and excretory opening are terminal ; ten long, delicate, branch- 
 ed oral tentacles, more resembling in form and attitude those 
 of Ocnus than those of the typical Oucumariw, surround the 
 mouth : the perisom is thin and semi-transparent, and the mus- 
 cular bands, the radial vessels, and even the internal viscera, can 
 be plainly seen through it. The three anterior ambulacral ves- 
 sels are approximated, and on these the tentacular feet are nu- 
 merous and well developed, with a sucking-disk supported by a 
 round cribriform calcareous plate, or more frequently by sev- 
 eral wedge-shaped radiating plates arranged in the form of a 
 rosette ; and these three ambulacra form together, at all events 
 in the female, a special ambulatory surface. 
 
 The two ambulacral vessels of the bivium are also approxi- 
 mated along the back ; and thus the two inter-ambulacral spaces 
 on the sides of the animal, between the external trivial ambu- 
 lacra and the ambulacra of the bivium, are considerably wider 
 than the other three ; consequently, in a transverse section, the 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 187 
 
 ambulacral vessels do not correspond with the angles of a reg- 
 ular pentagon, but with those of an irregular figure in which 
 three angles are approximated beneath and two above. In the 
 female the tentacular feet of the dorsal (bivial) ambulacra are 
 very short ; they are provided with sucking-disks, but the cal- 
 careous support of the suckers is very rudimentary, and the 
 tubular processes are not apparently fitted for locomotion. In 
 the males there is not so great a difference in character between 
 the ambulacra of the trivium and those of the bivium ; but the 
 tentacles of the latter seem to be less fully developed in both 
 sexes, and I have never happened to see an individual of either 
 sex progressing upon, or adhering by, the water-feet of the dor- 
 sal canals. 
 
 In a very large proportion of the females which I examined, 
 young were closely packed in two continuous fringes adhering 
 to the water-feet of the dorsal ambulacra (Fig. 38). The young 
 were in all the later stages of growth, and of all sizes, from 5 up 
 to 40 mm. in length ; but all the young attached to one female 
 appeared to be nearly of the same age and size. Some of the 
 mothers with older families had a most grotesque appearance — 
 their bodies entirely hidden by the couple of rows, of a dozen 
 or so each, of yellow vesicles like ripe yellow plums ranged 
 along their backs, each surmounted by its expanded crown of 
 oral tentacles: in the fignre the young are represented about 
 half grown. All the young I examined were miniatures of 
 their parents ; the only marked difference was that in the young 
 the ambulacra of the bivium were quite rudimentary — they 
 were externally represented only by bands of a somewhat 
 darker orange than the rest of the surface, and by lines of low 
 papillae in the young of larger growth ; the radial vessels could 
 be well seen through the transparent body-wall ; the young at- 
 tached themselves by the tentacular feet of the trivial ambula- 
 cra, which are early and fully developed. 
 
 We were too late at the Falklands (January 23d) to see the 
 
188 THE ATLANTIC. [chap, i v. 
 
 process of the attachment of the young in their nursery, even 
 if we could have arranged to keep specimens alive under obser- 
 
 Fig. 38. — Cladodactyla crocea, Lesson. Stanley Harbor, Falkland Islands. Natural size. 
 
 vation. There can be little doubt that, according to the analogy 
 of the class, the eggs are impregnated either in the ovarial tube 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 189 
 
 or immediately after their extrusion ; that the first develop- 
 mental stages are run through rapidly ; and that the young are 
 passed back from the ovarial opening, which is at the side of the 
 mouth, along the dorsal ambulacra, and arranged in their places 
 by the automatic action of the ambulacral tentacles themselves. 
 
 The very remarkable mode of reproduction of certain mem- 
 bers of all the recent classes of Echinodermata by the inter- 
 vention of a free-swimming bilaterally symmetrical " pseudem- 
 bryo " developed directly from the " morula," from which the 
 true young is subsequently produced by a process of internal 
 budding or rearrangement, has long been well known through 
 the labors of a host of observers headed and represented by the 
 late illustrious Professor Johannes Miiller, of Berlin. 
 
 At the same time, it has all along been fully recognized that 
 reproduction through the medium of a psendembryo is not the 
 only method observed in the class ; but that in several of the 
 Echinoderm orders, while in a certain species a wonderfully 
 perfect and independent bilateral locomotive zooid may be pro- 
 duced, in very nearly allied species the young Echinoderm may 
 be developed immediately from the segmented yelk without 
 the formation of a pseudembryo, or, at all events, with no fur- 
 ther indication of its presence than certain obscure temporary 
 processes attached to the embryo, to which I have elsewhere 
 (Phil. Trans, for 1865, p. 517) given the name of " pseudem- 
 bryonic appendages." 
 
 This direct mode of development has been described in Holo- 
 thuria tremula by MM. Koren and Danielssen, in Synaptula 
 vivipara by Professor Oersted, in a " viviparous sea-urchin " by 
 Professor Grube, in Ecliinaster and in Pter aster by Professor 
 Sars, in Aster acanthion by Professor Sars, Professor Agassiz, 
 Dr. Busch, and myself, in Ophiolepis squamata by Professor 
 Max Schultze, and in a " viviparous ophiurid " by Professor 
 Krohn. ~No less than four of these observations were made on 
 the coast of Scandinavia. In temperate regions, where the 
 
190 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 economy of the Ecliinoderms has been under the eye of a 
 greater number of observers, the development of the free-swim- 
 ming larva appeared to be so entirely the rule that it is usually 
 described as the normal habit of the class ; while, on the other 
 hand, direct development seemed to be most exceptional. I 
 was therefore greatly surprised to find that in the southern and 
 subarctic seas a large proportion of the Ecliinoderms of all or- 
 ders, with the exception, perhaps, of the crinoids (with regard 
 to which we have no observations), develop their young after a 
 fashion which precludes the possibility, while it nullifies the ob- 
 ject, of a pseudembryonic perambulator, and that in these high 
 southern latitudes the formation of such a locomotive zooid is 
 apparently the exception. 
 
 This modification of the reproductive process consists in all 
 these cases, as it does likewise in those few instances in which 
 direct development has already been described, of a device by 
 which the young are reared within or upon the body of the 
 parent, and are retained in a kind of commensal connection 
 with her until they are sufficiently grown to fend for them- 
 selves. The receptacle, in cases where a special receptacle ex- 
 ists in which the young are reared, has been called a " marsu- 
 pium " (Sars), a term appropriately borrowed from the analogous 
 arrangement in their neighbors, the aplacental mammals of Aus- 
 tralia. The young do not appear to have in any case an or- 
 ganic connection with the parent ; the impregnated egg from 
 the time of its reaching the morula stage is entirely free ; the 
 embryos are indebted to the mother for protection, and for nu- 
 trition only indirectly through the mucus exuded from the sur- 
 face of her perisom, and through the currents of freshly aerated 
 water containing organic matter brought to them or driven over 
 them by the action of her cilia. 
 
 Animals hatching their eggs in this way ought certainly to 
 give the best possible opportunities for studying the early stages 
 in the development of their young. Unfortunately, however, 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 191 
 
 this is a kind of investigation which requires time and stillness 
 and passable comfort ; and such are not the usual conditions of 
 a voyage in the Antarctic Sea. Specimens have been carefully 
 preserved with the young in all stages ; and I hope that a care- 
 ful examination of these may yield some further results. 
 
 Cladodactyla crocea is one of the forms in which there is no 
 special marsupium formed ; it is possible that the comparative- 
 ly genial condition of the land-locked fiords and harbors of the 
 Malvinas, and the additional shelter yielded by the imbricating 
 fronds of Macrocystis, may render such exceptional provision 
 unnecessary. 
 
 Five at least of these directly developing echinoderms, repre- 
 senting five principal divisions of the subkingdom, were dredged 
 at the Falklands, and several others were found earlier in the 
 voyage in the subantarctic regions of the Southern Sea. It will, 
 perhaps, give a better idea of the diversity of means by which 
 practically the same end is attained, if I give here a brief de- 
 scription of the principal modifications of the process which 
 were exhibited. 
 
 To give a second example from the Holothuroidea, on the 
 morning of the 7th of February, 1875, we dredged at a depth 
 of 75 fathoms, at the entrance of Corinthian Harbor {alias 
 "Whisky Bay"), in Heard Island (so far as I am aware, the 
 most desolate spot on God's earth), a number of specimens of a 
 pretty little Psolus, which I shall here call, for the sake of con- 
 venience, P. ephipjpifer, although it may very possibly turn out 
 to be a variety of the northern P. ojperculatus. 
 
 P. epkippifer (Figs. 39, 40) is a small species, about 40 mm. 
 in length by 15 to 18 mm. in extreme width. In accordance 
 with the characters of the genus, the ambulatory area is abruptly 
 defined, and tentacular feet are absent on the upper surface of 
 the body, which is covered with a thick leathery membrane in 
 which calcareous scales of irregular form are imbedded. The 
 oral and excretory openings are on the upper surface, a little 
 
192 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 behind the anterior border of the ambulatory tract, and a little 
 in advance of the posterior extremity of the body respectively. 
 A slightly elevated pyramid of five very accurately fitting cal- 
 careous valves closes over the oral aperture and the ring of oral 
 
 tentacles ; and a less regular valvular 
 arrangement covers the vent. 
 
 In the middle of the back in the 
 female there is a well-defined saddle- 
 like elevation formed of large tessel- 
 lated plates somewhat irregular in 
 form, with the surfaces smoothly gran- 
 ulated (Fig. 39). On removing one or 
 two of the central plates, we find that 
 they are not, like the other plates of 
 the perisom, imbedded partially or al- 
 most completely in the skin, but that 
 they are raised up on a central col- 
 umn like a mushroom or a card-table, 
 expanding above to the form of the 
 exposed portion of the plate, contracting to a stem or neck, and 
 then expanding again into an irregular foot, which is imbedded 
 in the soft tissue of the perisom. The consequence of this ar- 
 rangement is that when the plates are fitted together edge to 
 edge, cloister-like spaces are left between their supporting col- 
 umns. In these spaces the eggs are hatched, and the eggs or 
 the young in their early stages are exposed by removing the 
 plates (Fig. 40). At first, when there are only morales or very 
 young embryos in the crypts, the marsupium is barely raised 
 above the general surface of the perisom, and the plates of the 
 marsupium fit accurately to one another; but as the embryos 
 increase in size, the marsupium projects more and more, and 
 at length the joints between the plates begin to open (Fig. 
 39), and finally they open sufficiently to allow the escape 
 of the young. The young in one marsupium seem to be all 
 
 Fig. 39. — Psolus ephippifer, Wv- 
 ville Thomson. Corinthian Har- 
 bor, Heard Island. Three times 
 the natural size. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 193 
 
 nearly of an age. In P. ephippif'er the marsupium occupies 
 the greater part of the dorsal surface, and its passages run close 
 up to the edge of the mouth, so that the eggs pass into them at 
 once from the ovarial opening without exposure. 
 
 In the male there is, of course, no regular marsupium ; but 
 the plates are arranged in the middle of the back somewhat as 
 they are in the female, except that they are not raised upon 
 peduncles; so that it is not easy at 
 once to distinguish a male from an 
 infecund female. 
 
 Although we have taken species 
 of Psolus sometimes in great abun- 
 dance in various parts of the world, 
 particularly in high latitudes, south- 
 ern and northern, I have never ob- 
 served this peculiar form of the re- 
 productive process except on this one 
 occasion. 
 
 On the 28th of January we dredged 
 from the steam pinnace in about 10 
 fathoms water off Cape Pembroke, at 
 the entrance of Stanley Harbor, a 
 number of specimens of a pretty lit- 
 tle regular sea-urchin Goniocidaris 
 canaliculata, A. Agassiz. 
 
 The genus Goniocidaris (Desor) 
 seems to differ from the genus Oi- FlG - 40 — Psolus epMpptfer, some of 
 
 . .-i.i i -. . . the Plates of the Marsupium re- 
 
 daT%8 m little else than m having a moved. Three times the natural 
 
 very marked, naked, zigzag, vertical Slze * 
 groove between the two rows of plates of each inter -am- 
 bulacral area, and one somewhat less distinct between the 
 ranges of ambulacral plates. It includes about half a dozen 
 species, which appear to be mainly confined to the colder 
 regions of the southern hemisphere, although two of the spe- 
 
194 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. iv. 
 
 cies extend as far to the northward as the East Indies and 
 Natal. 
 
 Fig. 41. — Goniocidaris canaliculata, A. Agassiz. Stanley Harbor. Twice the natural size. 
 
 This species (Fig. 41) has a general resemblance, at a first 
 glance, to the small Mediterranean variety (affinis) of Cidaris 
 papillata, but the radioles are thinner and much shorter, and 
 differ wholly in their sculpture ; the shell is even more de- 
 pressed ; the secondary tubercles are more distant ; and a very 
 regular series of short club-shaped rays seated on miliary gran- 
 ules are interposed in the rows between the spines of the sec- 
 ond order. The ovarial openings are extremely minute, and are 
 placed close to the outer edge of the ovarial plates. The upper 
 part of the test is quite flat, the flat space including not only 
 the ovarial plates and the plates of the periproct, but the first 
 pair, at least, of the plates of each inter-ambulacral area. Artic- 
 ulated to the primary tubercles of these latter are two circles 
 of radioles, the inner more slender and shorter, the outer stout- 
 er and longer, but both series much larger than radioles usually 
 are in that position on the test. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 195 
 
 These special spines are cylindrical, and nearly smooth, and 
 they lean over toward the anal opening, and form an open tent 
 for the protection of the young, as in Cidaris nutrix, a species 
 presently to be described, but at the opposite pole of the body. 
 In this species the eggs are extruded directly into the marsu- 
 pium ; and I imagine, from the very small size of the ovarial 
 openings, that when they enter it they are very minute, and 
 probably unimpregnated. In the examples which we dredged 
 at the Falkland Islands, the young were, in almost every case, 
 nearly ready to leave the marsupium ; we were too late in the 
 season to see the earlier stages. Young in the same marsupium 
 are nearly all of an age, some somewhat more advanced than 
 others. The diameter of the test is from 1 to 1*5 millim., and 
 the height about *8 millim. ; the length of the primary spines 
 is, in the most backward of the brood, *5 millim., while in the 
 most advanced it equals the diameter of the test. The perisom, 
 in which the cribriform rudiments of the plates of the corona 
 and the young spines are being developed, is loaded with dark- 
 purple pigment, which makes it difficult to observe the growth 
 of the calcareous elements. About thirty primary spines arise 
 on the surface of the corona almost simultaneously in ten rows 
 of three each : they first make their appearance as small papil- 
 lse covered with a densely pigmented ciliated membrane ; and 
 when they have once begun to lengthen, they run out very 
 rapidly until they bear to the young nearly the same propor- 
 tions which the full-grown spines bear to the mature corona. 
 Yery shortly some of the secondary spines, at first nearly as 
 large as the sprouting primary spines, make their appearance in 
 the interstices between these ; and a crowd of very small spines 
 rise on the nascent scales of the peristome. Successively five 
 or six pedicellarise are developed toward the outer edge of the 
 apical area, which at this stage is disproportionately large ; the 
 pedicellarise commence as purple papillae, which are at first un- 
 distinguishable from young primary spines ; the first set look 
 
t 
 
 196 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. iv. 
 
 enormously large in proportion to the other appendages of the 
 perisom. Almost simultaneously with the first appearance of 
 the primary spines, ten tentacular feet, apparently the first 
 pairs on each ambulacrum of the corona, just beyond the edge 
 of the peristome, come into play ; they are very delicate and 
 extremely extensile, with well-defined sucking-disks ; and with 
 these the young cling to and move over the spines of the moth- 
 er, and cling to the sides of the glass vessel, if they are dis- 
 lodged from the marsupium. This species seems to acquire its 
 full size during a single season. We dredged it at the close of 
 the breeding season, and we took no specimens intermediate in 
 size between the adult and the young. 
 
 Among the marine animals which we dredged from the 
 steam-pinnace on the 19th of January, 1874, at depths of from 
 50 to 70 fathoms in Balfour Bay (a fine recess of one of the 
 many channels which separate the forelands and islands at the 
 head of Koyal Sound, Kerguelen Island), there were several 
 examples of a small Oidaris, which I will name provisionally 
 C. nutrix (Fig. 42). 
 
 This species resembles O.papillata in the general form and 
 arrangement of the plates of the corona, in the form and ar- 
 rangement of the primary tubercles of the inter - ambulacral 
 areas and of the secondary tubercles over the general surface 
 of the test, in the form of the plates of the apical disk and of 
 the imbricated calcareous scales of the peristome, in the form, 
 sculpture, and proportionate length of the primary spines, and 
 in the form of the different elements of the jaw-pyramid and 
 in that of the teeth ; but the test is more depressed, the second- 
 ary spines which articulate to the ambulacral plates and cover 
 the pore -areas are longer and more cylindrical, not so much 
 flattened as they are in C.papillata / the large tulip-like pedi- 
 cellarise and the long thin tridactyle pedicellarisB mixed with 
 the secondary spines in the northern species are wanting, or in 
 very small number ; and the minute pedicellarise of the peri- 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 197 
 
 stome are much fewer. The ovaries, which in O. papillata 
 have the walls loaded with large expanded calcareous plates, 
 contain only a few small branched spicules ; and the calcareous 
 bodies in the wall of the intestine are small and distant. The 
 perforations in the ovarial plates in the female are somewhat 
 larger than in C. papillata; and the ripe ova in the ovary ap- 
 pear to be considerably larger. 
 
 Fig. 4Q.—Cidaris nutrix, Wyville Thomson. Balfour Bay, Kergueleu Island. Natural size. 
 
 The eggs, after escaping from the ovary, are passed along on 
 the surface of the test toward the mouth; and the smaller 
 slightly spathulate primary spines, which are articulated to 
 about the first three rows of tubercles round the peristome, are 
 bent inward over the mouth, so as to form a kind of open tent, 
 
198 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 in which the young are developed directly from the egg with- 
 out undergoing any metamorphosis, until they have attained 
 a diameter of about 2*5 mm. ; they are then entirely covered 
 with plates, and are provided with spines exceeding in length 
 the diameter of the test. Even before they have attained this 
 size and development, the more mature or more active of a 
 brood may be seen straying away beyond the limits of the 
 " nursery," and creeping, with the aid of their first few pairs of 
 tentacular feet, out upon the long spines of their mother. I 
 have frequently watched them return again after a short ram- 
 ble into the marsupium. 
 
 I am not aware that a free pseudembryo, or "pluteus," has 
 been observed in any species of the restricted family Cidaridse ; 
 but I feel very certain that Gidaris papillata in the northern 
 hemisphere, except possibly in the extreme north, has no mar- 
 supial arrangement such as we find in the Kerguelen Cidaris. 
 There have passed through my hands during the last few years 
 hundreds of specimens of the normal northern form, of the 
 Mediterranean varieties G. hystwix and G. affinis (Stolcesii), and 
 of the American G. abyssicola, from wide-spread localities and 
 of all ages ; and I have never found the young except singly, 
 and never in any way specially associated with breeding indi- 
 viduals. 
 
 In Stanley Harbor we dredged many specimens of an irreg- 
 ular urchin, much resembling in general appearance Brisopsis 
 lyrifera, the common "fiddle urchin" of the boreal province 
 of the British Seas, and probably to be referred to Hemiaster 
 Philippii, Gray. 
 
 These urchins were not breeding when we were at the Falk- 
 lands; but on the 9th of January, 1874, we dredged from the 
 pinnace in shallow water, varying from 20 to 50 fathoms, with 
 a muddy bottom, in Accessible Bay, Kerguelen Island, innumer- 
 able samples of apparently the same species. 
 
 The test of a full-sized example (Fig. 43) is about 45 mm. in 
 
PLATE XXXV.-DIAGRAM OF THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEM I 
 
RATURE BETWEEN THE FALKLAND ISLANDS AND LOBOS ISLAND. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 199 
 
 length and 40 mm. in width ; the height of the shell in the fe- 
 male is 25 mm., in the male it is considerably less. The apex 
 is nearly in the centre of the dorsal surface ; the genital open- 
 ings are three in number, in the female very large ; the bilabi- 
 ate mouth is placed well forward on the ventral aspect ; and 
 the excretory opening is posterior and supramarginal. The 
 odd anterior ambulacrum is shallow, and the tube-feet which 
 are projected from it are large and capitate. The anterior 
 paired ambulacra are somewhat longer than the posterior. The 
 whole of the surface of the test is covered with a close pile of 
 small spines of a dark-green color; those fringing the ambu- 
 
 Fig. 43—Hemiaster Philippii, Gray. Accessible Bay, Kergueleu Island. Twice the natural 
 
 size. 
 
 lacral grooves are long and slightly curved, and they bend and 
 interdigitate so accurately over the ambulacra that one might 
 easily overlook the grooves at a first glance. The peripetalous 
 fasciole is somewhat irregular ; but in those examples in which 
 it is best defined, it forms a wide arch, extending backward on 
 each side a little beyond the lateral ambulacra of the trivium, 
 
200 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 and then, contracting a little, forms a rudely rectangular figure 
 round the bivium. The paired ambulacral grooves in the male 
 are shallow, not much deeper than the anterior ambulacrum 
 (Fig. 45) ; in the female the pore-plates of the paired ambulacra 
 
 Fig. 44. — Hemiaster Philippii. The apical Fig. 45. — Hemiaster Philippii. The apical 
 portion of the test of the female seen from portion of the test of the male seen from 
 within. Slightly enlarged. within. Slightly enlarged. 
 
 are greatly expanded and lengthened, and thinned out and de- 
 pressed so as to form four deep, thin-walled, oval cups sinking 
 into and encroaching upon the cavity of the test, and forming 
 very efficient protective marsupia (Fig. 44). The ovarial open- 
 ings are, of course, opposite the interradial areas ; but the spines 
 are so arranged that a kind of covered passage leads from the 
 opening into the marsupium ; and along this passage the eggs, 
 which are remarkably large, upward of a millimetre in diameter 
 when they leave the ovary, are passed, and are arranged very 
 regularly in rows on the floor of the pouch, each egg being kept 
 in its place by two or three short spines which bend over it 
 (Fig. 46). 
 
 Among the very many examples of this Hemiaster which we 
 dredged in Accessible Bay, and afterward in Cascade Harbor, 
 Kerguelen, there were young in all stages in the breeding- 
 pouches ; and although from the large size and the opacity of 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 201 
 
 the egg and embryo it is not a very favorable species for obser- 
 vation, had other conditions been favorable, we had all the ma- 
 terial for working out the earlier stages in the development of 
 the young very fully. The eggs, on being first placed in the 
 pouches, are spherical granular masses of a deep orange color, 
 inclosed within a pliable vitelline membrane, which they en- 
 tirely fill. They become rapidly paler in color by the develop- 
 ment of the blastoderm ; they then increase in size probably by 
 the imbibition of water into the gastrula cavity ; and a whitish 
 
 Fig. i&.—Hemiaster Philippii. The arrangement of the eggs in one of the marsupial re- 
 cesses. Five times the natural size. 
 
 spot with a slightly raised border indicates an opening which, I 
 have no reason to doubt, is the permanent mouth ; but of this 
 I can not be absolutely certain. The surface now assumes a 
 translucent appearance, and becomes deeply tinged with dark- 
 II.— 14 
 
202 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 purple and greenish pigment ; and almost immediately, without 
 any definite intermediate steps, the outer wall is filled with cal- 
 cified tissue — it becomes covered with fine spines and pedicella- 
 rise, a row of tentacular feet come into action round the mouth, 
 the vent appears at the posterior extremity of the body, and 
 the young assumes nearly the form of the adult. These later 
 changes take place very quickly ; but they are accompanied by 
 the production of so much heavy purple and dark-green pig- 
 ment that it is difficult to follow them. The viscera are pro- 
 duced at the expense of the abundant yelk ; and the animals at 
 once take a great start in size by the imbibition of water into 
 the previseeral cavity. The young urchins jostle one another 
 on the floor of the breeding-pouch, those below pushing the oth- 
 ers up until the upper set are forced out between the rows of 
 fringing spines of the pouch; but even before leaving the mar- 
 supium, on carefully opening the shell of the young, the intes- 
 tine may be seen already full of dark sand, following much the 
 same course which it follows in the adult. The size of the test 
 of the young on leaving the marsupium is about 2*5 mm. in 
 length by 2 mm. in width. 
 
 We took along with the last species in Stanley Harbor sev- 
 eral specimens of a large species of Asteracantion, which form- 
 ed a marsupium after the manner so well described by Sars in 
 Echinaster Sarsii, Mullee, by drawing its arms inward and 
 forward, and forming a brood - chamber over the mouth. In 
 some samples of this species the young were so far advanced 
 that when the mother was placed in a jar they crept out of the 
 nursery and wandered over the glass wall of their prison ; this 
 brood had entirely lost the pseudembryonic appendages, but in 
 their younger condition these are very apparent, though scarce- 
 ly so well developed as in the young of A. molaeeus on our 
 own coast. 
 
 On the 27th of January, 1874, at Station CXLIX., off Cape 
 Maclear, on the south-east coast of Kerguelen Island, we dredged 
 
CHAP. IV. ] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 203 
 
 a handsome star -fish allied to Luidia or Archaster, which 
 has since been described by Mr. Edgar Smith, from specimens 
 brought home by the Rev. Mr. Eaton, under the name of Lepty- 
 chaster Kerguelenensis (Fig. 47). 
 
 Fig. 47. — Leptychaster Kerguelenensis, E. Smith. Off Cape Maclear, Kergnelen Island. 
 Twice the natural size. 
 
 A well-grown example is from 100 to 120 mm. in diameter 
 from tip to tip of the arms ; the length of the arm is about 
 
204 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 three times its width near the base, and three times the diame- 
 ter of the disk. The marginal plates are long and narrow, run- 
 ning np with a slight curve outward from the edge of the am- 
 bulacral groove until they meet the border of the dorsal perisom 
 above. They are closely set with short blunt spines, which be- 
 come gradually a little longer toward the radial groove ; and 
 at the edge of the groove each plate bears a tuft of about six 
 rather long spines : these tufts in combination form a scalloped 
 fringe spreading inward on each side over the groove. The 
 dorsal surface of the body is covered with a tessellated pavement 
 composed of capitate paxilli. The heads of the paxilli in close 
 apposition combine to form a mosaic with rudely hexagonal 
 facets ; and as they are raised upon somewhat slender shafts, 
 whose bases, like the plinths of columns, rest upon the soft per- 
 isom, arcade-like spaces are left between the skin and the upper 
 calcareous pavement. The eggs pass into these spaces from the 
 ovarial openings : on bending the perisom and separating the 
 facets, they may be seen in numbers among the shafts of the 
 paxilli. There is a continual discharge of ova into the passages, 
 so that eggs and young in different stages of development oc- 
 cupy the spaces at one time. The young do not escape until 
 at least six ambulacral suckers are formed on each arm ; they 
 may then be seen pushing their way out by forcing the pax- 
 illi to the side, and squeezing through the chink between them. 
 While it is extricating itself the oral surface of the young is al- 
 ways above, and the centre of the star with the mouth is usu- 
 ally the part which first protrudes ; then the arms disengage 
 themselves one after another, many of the brood remaining for 
 a time with one or two arms free and the others still under the 
 paxilli. When the young have become disengaged, they re- 
 main for a considerable time attached to the parent by the cen- 
 tre of the dorsal surface. I could never satisfy myself by what 
 means this is effected ; the attachment is very slight, and they 
 are removed by the least touch. In this attached stage until 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 205 
 
 they entirely free themselves, which they do when the number 
 of tentacular feet on each arm has reached about twenty, they 
 cluster in the re-entering angles between the arms of the moth- 
 er, spreading a little way along the arms and on the dorsal sur- 
 face of the disk ; the young escape from the marsupium chiefly 
 in the neighborhood of the angles between the rays. The mad- 
 reporiform tubercle is visible in the young near the margin of 
 the disk between two of the arms ; but in the mature star-fish 
 it is completely hidden by the paxilli, and no doubt it opens 
 into the space beneath them. 
 
 We took Lejoty chaster in the act of bringing forth young on 
 that one occasion only ; and the weather was so boisterous at the 
 time that it was impossible to trace the early stages in the devel- 
 opment of the embryo. It is evident that the process generally 
 resembles that described by Professor Sars in Pteraster milita- 
 ris; and it is quite possible that, while there is certainly not the 
 least approach to the formation of a locomotive bipinnaria, as in 
 that species, some provisional organs may exist at an early period. 
 
 In " The Depths of the Sea " (p. 120) I noticed and figured 
 a singular little star-fish from a depth of 500 fathoms, off the 
 North of Scotland, under the name of Hymenaster pelhtcidus. 
 This form was at that time the type of a new genus ; but the 
 researches of the last three years have shown that, with the ex- 
 ception perhaps of Archaster, Hymenaster is the most widely 
 distributed genus of Asterids in deep water. It is met with 
 (sparingly, it is true, only one or two specimens being usually 
 taken at once in the trawl) in all parts of the great ocean ; and 
 it ranges in depth from 400 to about 2500 fathoms. 
 
 On the 7th of March, 1874, we dredged an extremely hand- 
 some new form, to which I shall give provisionally the name of 
 Hymenaster nobilis, in lat. 50° V S., long. 123° 4' E., 1099 miles 
 south-west of Cape Otway, Australia, at a depth of 1800 fath- 
 oms, with a bottom of globigerina ooze, and a bottom tempera- 
 ture of 0°-3 C. 
 
206 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. iv. 
 
 Hymenaster nobilis (Fig. 48) is 300 mm. in diameter from tip 
 to tip of the rays ; the arms are 55 mm. wide ; and, as in H.pel- 
 lucidus, sl row of spines fringing the ambulacral grooves are 
 
 Fig. 48.— Hymenaster nobilis, Wyville Thomson. Southern Sea. Half the natural size. 
 
 greatly lengthened and webbed, and the web running along the 
 side of one arm meets and nnites with the web of the adjacent 
 arm, so that the angles between the arms are entirely filled np 
 by a fleshy lamina stretched over and supported by spines, the 
 body thus becoming a regular pentagon. The upper surface of 
 the body, the disk, and the arms — all the surface except the 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 207 
 
 smooth membrane between the arms — is covered with fascicles 
 of four to six diverging spines. These spines are abont 3 mm. 
 in height ; and they support and stretch out a tolerably strong 
 membrane clear above the surface of the perisom, like the can- 
 vas of a marquee, leaving an open space beneath it. A close 
 approach to this arrangement occurs also in Pter aster. 
 
 At the apical pole the upper free membrane runs up to and 
 ends at a large aperture, 15 mm. in diameter, surrounded by a 
 ring of five very beautifully formed valves. These valves do 
 not essentially differ from the ordinary radiating supports of 
 the marsupial tent ; a stout calcareous rod arises from the end 
 of the double chain of ossicles which form the floor of the am- 
 bulacra! groove. From the outer aspect of this support three 
 or four spines diverge in the ordinary way under the tent- 
 cover ; but from its inner aspect six or eight slender spines rise 
 in one plane with a special membrane stretched between them. 
 When the valves are raised, and the pentagonal chamber be- 
 neath them open, these spines separate from one another, and, 
 like the ribs of a fan, spread out the membrane in a crescentic 
 form (Fig. 48) ; and when the valves close, the spines approxi- 
 mate and are drawn downward, the five valves forming together 
 a very regular, low, five-sided pyramid (Fig. 49). Looking down 
 into the chamber when the valves are raised, the vent is seen 
 on a small projecting papilla in the centre of the floor; and 
 between the supporting ossicles of the valves, five dark open 
 arches lead into the spaces opposite the re-entering angles of 
 the arms, which receive the ducts of the ovaries. In the par- 
 ticular specimen to which I have referred, which is considera- 
 bly the largest of the genus which we have yet met with, there 
 were one or two eggs in the pouch, but they were apparently 
 abortive. It seemed that the brood had been lately discharged ; 
 for some oval depressions still remained on the floor of the cen- 
 tral chamber, in which the eggs or the young had evidently 
 been lodged. I have on three occasions in species of the genus 
 
208 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 Hymenaster found the eggs beneath the membrane in the an- 
 gles of the arms, and, in a more advanced stage, congregated 
 in the central tent, but never under circumstances such that I 
 
 Fig. 49.— Hymenaster nobilis. The marsupial tent with the valves closed. Twice the nat- 
 ural size. 
 
 could keep and examine them. Exposed or loosely covered eggs 
 or embryos, or any soft and pulpy organs or appendages, are 
 always in a half-disintegrated state when they are brought up 
 from such great depths, if they have not been entirely washed 
 away. 
 
 As I have already said, Hymenaster is closely allied to Pter- 
 aster • the arrangements of the marsupium are nearly the same 
 in both ; and it is highly probable that, in Hymenaster, as in 
 P. militaris, a provisional alimentary tract may be developed 
 in the early stages of the embryo. 
 
 There are several fine species of Hymenaster within reach 
 of British naturalists in the deep water at the entrance of the 
 Channel and off Cape Clear; but I fear there will be great 
 difficulty in determining this point unless the genus turn up 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 209 
 
 somewhere in shallower soundings where specimens can be 
 taken alive. 
 
 In Stanley Harbor, on the roots of Macroeystis, and also 
 brought up free by the dredge, there were numerous examples 
 of an ophiurid which appears to correspond with Ophiacantha 
 vivipara, Ljungman. We had previously got either the same 
 or a very closely allied form in great abundance in the fiords of 
 
 Fig. 50. — Ophiocoma t vivipara, Ljdngman, sp. Twice the natural size. (No. 149.) 
 
 Kerguelen. The Kerguelen variety has been noticed by Mr. 
 Edgar Smith, under the name of Ophioglypha hexactis, and I 
 have called it, provisionally, in a paper in the " Proceedings of 
 
210 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 the Linnsean Society," Ophiocoma didelphis, from its opossum- 
 like habit of carrying its young upon its back. I do not think 
 that it can properly be relegated to any genus at present de- 
 lined, but it will doubtless fall into its place when the Ophiurids 
 shall have been revised. 
 
 The disk is about 20 mm. in diameter ; and the arms are four 
 times the diameter of the disk in length. The disk is uniform- 
 ly coarsely granulated ; the arm-shields, which are well defined 
 through the membrane, are rounded in form and roughly gran- 
 ulated like the remainder of the disk. The character which at 
 once distinguishes this species from all the others of the genus 
 is, that the normal number of the arms is six or seven instead 
 of five, which is almost universal in the class. The number of 
 arms is subject to certain variation. I have seen from six to 
 nine, but never fewer than six. The arm-spines are numerous 
 and long. The general color of the disk and arms is a dull 
 greenish brown. 
 
 A large proportion of the mature females, if not all of them, 
 had a group of from three to ten or twelve young ones clinging 
 to the upper surface of the disk by their arms. The largest of 
 these were about a quarter the size of their mother ; and they 
 graduated down in size until the smallest had a diameter of less 
 than 1-5 mm. across the disk. The largest and oldest of the 
 progeny were always uppermost, farthest from the disk, the 
 series decreasing in size downward, and the supply evidently 
 coming from the genital clefts beneath. In several specimens 
 which I examined, although by no means in all, there were 
 groups of eggs and of young in still earlier stages, free in the 
 body-cavity in the interbrachial spaces. 
 
 It thus seems that in this case the true marsupium is a 
 portion of the body-cavity, and that the protection afforded by 
 it is supplemented by the attachment of the young to the sur- 
 face of the disk, maintained for some time after their extrusion 
 or escape. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 211 
 
 The process of propagation in Ophiocoma vivipara differs 
 from most of the other cases described, in the eggs being suc- 
 cessively hatched, and the young being found consequently in 
 a regularly graduated series of stages of growth. Although I 
 had not an opportunity of working the matter out with the 
 care and completeness I could have wished, I feel satisfied, 
 from the examination of several of the young at a very early 
 period, that in this case no provisional mouth and no pseudem- 
 bryonic appendages whatever are formed, and that the pri- 
 mary aperture of the gastrula remains as the common mouth 
 and excretory opening of the mature form. From the appear- 
 ance of the ovaries and of the broods of young, I should think 
 it probable that this species gives off young in a continuous 
 series for a considerable length of time, probably for some 
 months. 
 
 I have selected these illustrations of the development of the 
 young of Echinoderms from the egg without the intervention 
 of a locomotive pseudembryo from a much larger number. 
 As I have already said, I can not, on account of the unfavora- 
 ble conditions for carrying on such investigations under which 
 the majority of the species were procured, say with certainty 
 that no trace of pseudembryonic appendages or provisional or- 
 gans exists in any of these instances, but I feel satisfied that 
 none such occurs in Psolus ephijjjpifer, in Herniaster Philippii, 
 or in Ojphiacoma vivipara. Neither am I in a position to state 
 that in these southern latitudes direct development is univer- 
 sal in the subkingdom. I believe, indeed, that it is not so ; for 
 species of the genera Echinus, Strongylocentrotus, and Ambly- 
 pneustes run far south, and a marsupial arrangement seems im- 
 probable in any of these. It is, however, a significant fact that, 
 while in warm and temperate seas plutei and bipinn arise are 
 constantly taken in the surface-net, in the Southern Sea they are 
 almost entirely absent. 
 
 Amidst all their general tameness the Falkland Islands boast 
 
212 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. iv. 
 
 one natural phenomenon which is certainly very exceptional, 
 and at the same time very effective. 
 
 In the East Island most of the valleys are occupied by pale- 
 gray glistening masses, from a few hundred yards to a mile or 
 two in width, which look at a distance much like glaciers de- 
 scending apparently from the adjacent ridges, and gradually in- 
 creasing in volume, fed by tributary streams, until they reach 
 the sea. Examined a little more closely, these are found to be 
 vast accumulations of blocks of quartzite, irregular in form, but 
 having a tendency to a rude diamond shape, from two to eight 
 or ten or twenty feet long, and perhaps half as much in width, 
 and of a thickness corresponding with that of the quartzite 
 bands in the ridges above. The blocks are angular, like the 
 fragments in a breccia, and they rest irregularly one upon the 
 other, supported in all positions by the angles and edges of 
 those beneath. 
 
 They are not weathered to nnj extent, though the edges and 
 points are in most cases slightly rounded ; and the surface, also 
 perceptibly worn, but only by the action of the atmosphere, is 
 smooth and polished ; and a very thin, extremely hard, white 
 lichen which spreads over nearly the whole of them gives the 
 effect of their being covered with a thin layer of ice. 
 
 Far down below, under the stones, one can hear the stream 
 of water gurgling which occupies the axis of the valley ; and 
 here and there, where a space between the blocks is unusually 
 large and clear, a quivering reflection is sent back from a stray 
 sunbeam. 
 
 At the mouth of the valley the section of the " stone river " 
 exposed by the sea is like that of a stone drain on a huge scale, 
 the stream running in a channel arched over by loose stone 
 blocks, or finding its way through the spaces among them. 
 There is scarcely any higher vegetation on the " stone run ;" 
 the surface of every block is slippery and clean, except where 
 here and there a little peaty soil has lodged in a cranny, and 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 213 
 
 you find a few trailing spikes of Nassauma serpens, or a few 
 heads of the graceful drooping chrysanthemum -like Chabrcea 
 sitaveolens. 
 
 These stone rivers are looked upon with great wonder by 
 the shifting population of the Falklands, and they are shown 
 to visitors with many strange speculations as to their mode of 
 formation. Their origin seems, however, to be obvious and 
 simple enough, and on that account their study is all the more 
 instructive, for they form an extreme case of a phenomenon 
 which is of wide occurrence, and whose consequences are, I be- 
 lieve, very much underrated. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the blocks of quartzite in the 
 valleys are derived from the bands of quartzite in the ridges 
 above, for they correspond with them in every respect; the 
 difficulty is to account for their flowing down the valley, for 
 the slope from the ridge to the valley is often not more than 
 six to eight degrees, and the slope of the valley itself only two 
 or three, in either case much too low to cause blocks of that 
 form either to slide or to roll down. 
 
 The process appears to be this : The beds of quartzite are 
 of very different hardness ; some are soft, passing into a crum- 
 bling sandstone, while others are so hard as to yield but little 
 to ordinary weathering. The softer bands are worn away in 
 process of time, and the compact quartzites are left as long pro- 
 jecting ridges along the crests and flanks of the hill -ranges. 
 When the process of the disintegration of the softer beds has 
 gone on for some time, the support of their adjacent beds is 
 taken away from the denuded quartzites, and they give way in 
 the direction of the joints, and the fragments fall over upon 
 the gentle slopes of the hill-side. The vegetation soon covers 
 the fallen fragments, and usually near the sloping outcrops of 
 the hard quartz, a slight inequality only in the surface of the 
 turf indicates that the loose blocks are imbedded beneath it. 
 Once imbedded in the vegetable soil, a number of causes tend 
 
214 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 to make the whole soil-cap, heavy blocks included, creep down 
 even the least slope. I will only mention one or two of these. 
 There is constant expansion and contraction of the spongy veg- 
 etable mass going on, as it is saturated with water or compar- 
 atively dry ; and while with the expansion the blocks slip 
 infinitesimally down, the subsequent contraction can not pull 
 them up against their weight. The rain-water trickling down 
 the slope is removing every movable particle from before 
 them ; the vegetable matter on which they are immediately 
 resting is undergoing a perpetual process of interstitial decay 
 and removal. In this way the blocks are gradually borne 
 down the slope in the soil-cap, and piled in the valley below. 
 The only other question is, how the soil is afterward removed 
 and the blocks left bare. This, I have no doubt, is effected by 
 the stream in the valley altering its course from time to time, 
 and washing away the soil from beneath. 
 
 This is a process which in some of the great stone rivers in 
 the Falkland Islands must have taken an enormous time. I 
 fear that the extreme glacialists will see in it a danger to this 
 universal application of their beloved theory to all cases of 
 scratching and grooving. I have known too much of the ac- 
 tion of ice to have the slightest doubt of its power ; but I say 
 that ice had no hand whatever in the production of these grand 
 moraines in the Falkland Islands. 
 
 In the West Highlands of Scotland, and in many other parts 
 of the world, I have often noticed that when a hill of such a 
 rock as clay-slate comes down with a gentle slope, the outcrop 
 of the vertical or highly inclined slates covered with a thick 
 layer of vegetable soil or drift containing imbedded blocks and 
 bowlders derived from higher levels, the slates are frequently 
 first slightly bent downward, then abruptly curved and broken, 
 and frequently the lines of the fragments of the fractured beds 
 of slate can be traced for a yard or two in the soil-cap gradual- 
 ly becoming parallel with its surface, and passing down in the 
 
W— 5 
 
 Plate XXXVI . Meteorological (jj 
 ItayMb Thermometer — — . 
 
 £ Th& arrows irvdztxtte/ c&Lrc<-£tx??i of t/ve, withcb, aivcl/ t\ 
 
 N Barometer 
 
 I s z 
 
 10 II 12 13 14 15 
 
 5:3111 
 
 IS 
 
 41 
 
 55 
 
 -4 
 
 + 
 
 t 
 
 m 
 
 - 
 
 4 
 
 -3 : 
 -2- 
 + 
 
 -9- 
 
 e- 
 
 e 
 5 
 4 
 
 3 
 2 
 i 
 
 e: 
 
 A|L KL 
 RT 
 
 AND 
 
 1LQ 
 
 UANDS 
 
 sir 
 
 ANLEY H« IS C 
 
nervations for the month of February, 1876 
 
 fetBulb Thermometer Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 I 7tu7rtber's bertectt/is it& fbrce/ ctccvrefajicf to J2e€>uc/vr6 's sc^Le/ 
 
 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24- 25 26 27 28 23 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 215 
 
 direction of its line of descent. These movements are proba- 
 bly extremely slow. I well remember many years ago observ- 
 ing a case, somewhere in the West of Scotland, where a stream 
 had exposed a fine section of the soil -cap with the lines of 
 broken-down and crushed slate-beds carried far down the slope. 
 The whole effect was so graphically one of vigorous and irre- 
 sistible movement, that I examined carefully some cottages and 
 old trees in hope of finding some evidence of twisting or other 
 irregular dislocations ; but there appeared to be none such. 
 The movement, if it were sufficiently rapid to make a sign dur- 
 ing the life of a cottage or a tree, evidently pervaded the whole 
 mass uniformly. 
 
 It seems to me almost self-evident that wherever there is a 
 slope, be it ever so gentle, the soil-cap must be in motion, be 
 the motion ever so slow ; and that it is dragging over the sur- 
 face of the rock beneath the blocks and bowlders which may 
 be imbedded in it ; and frequently piling these in moraine-like 
 masses, where the progress of the earth-glacier is particularly 
 arrested, as at the contracted mouth of a valley > where the 
 water percolating through among them in time removes the 
 intervening soil. As the avalanche is the catastrophe of ice- 
 movement, so the land-slip is the catastrophe of the movement 
 of the soil-cap. 
 
 As I have already said, I should be the last to undervalue the 
 action of ice, or to doubt the abundant evidences of glacial ac- 
 tion ; but of this I feel convinced, that too little attention has 
 been hitherto given to this parallel series of phenomena, which 
 in many cases it will be found very difficult to discriminate; 
 and that these phenomena must be carefully distinguished and 
 discriminated before we can fully accept the grooving of rocks 
 and the accumulation of moraines as complete evidence of a 
 former existence of glacial conditions. 
 
 On the 1st of February we went round to the head of Berke- 
 ley Sound, and saw the old station of St. Louis now nearly de- 
 
216 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 serted, some shepherds in the employment of the Falkland Isl- 
 ands Company having occupied the old Government buildings. 
 We returned to Stanley on the 4th, and on the 6th we sailed 
 for Montevideo, bidding a final farewell to the Falklands, which 
 I am sure we shall always remember with pleasure, if not on 
 their own account, on that of the kindness and hospitality 
 which we met with during our stay. 
 
 On the 8th we sounded about 200 miles to the north-east of 
 Stanley, in a depth of 1035 fathoms. The sounding-machine 
 brought up no sample of the bottom, but a tow-net attached to 
 the dredge-rope at the weight contained a little gravel and one 
 or two small organisms. The bottom temperature was 1°*7 C. 
 The trawl was lowered, but it was unfortunately carried away, 
 after the weights, which were 300 fathoms in advance of the 
 trawl, had been brought on board. The rope was much chafed, 
 as if it had been dragged against sharp rocks. The following 
 day was fine, with light, uncertain winds. On the 10th it was 
 blowing half a gale, and the sea was running too high for 
 sounding operations. On the 11th the weather was fine, the 
 wind becoming more moderate toward noon. At 10 a.m. we 
 sounded and put down the trawl in 2040 fathoms, with a bot- 
 tom of bluish mud containing many Globigerinw, and a bottom 
 temperature of + 0° 3 C. The position of the sounding was lat. 
 42° 32' S., long. 56° 27' W., about 200 miles to the eastward of 
 Yaldes Peninsula. Temperature soundings were taken at this 
 station down to 1500 fathoms. This sounding gives a singu- 
 larly rapid fall from 14° -2 C. on the surface to 2° C. at 125 
 fathoms; the edge of the antarctic indraught appeared to be 
 pushed up against the American shore by the western border 
 of the southern branch of the reflux of the equatorial current, 
 just as the Labrador current is banked up by its northern 
 branch ; the result being no doubt increased in both cases by 
 the flinging-up of the polar water against the western land-bar- 
 rier on account of its low initial velocity. The trawl yielded 
 
PLATE XXXVII.— DIAGRAM OF THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION 01 
 
1100 
 
 1200 
 
 1300 
 1400 
 
 1500 
 
 1600 
 
 1700 
 
 1800 
 
 0061 
 
 2000 
 
 2100 
 
 j 
 
 • 330 
 
 331 
 
 332 
 1 
 
 __________ 
 
 
 
 333 
 
 334 
 
 _______ 
 
 
 
 335 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IIS! 
 
 
 
 EMPERATURE BETWEEN LOBOS ISLAND AND TRISTAN D'ACUNHA. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 217 
 
 only one or two fishes, some medusae, and a caridid shrimp, so 
 that there was no actual evidence of its having reached the 
 bottom. 
 
 On the 12th we sounded in 2425 fathoms, and took a series 
 of temperatures. The upper temperatures were decidedly 
 higher than they were the day before, 5° C. occurring at 125 
 fathoms, 2°'5 C. at 700, and 2° C. at 1100 fathoms. The po- 
 sition of the sounding was lat. 41° 45' S., long. 54° 46' W. ; 
 it was nearly double the distance of the previous sounding 
 from the 100-fathom line, which very nearly corresponds with 
 a submarine cliff of great height. The bottom temperature 
 was — o, 4 C. On the 14th we sounded in 600 fathoms on the 
 plateau extending from the South American coast, opposite the 
 estuary of the River Plate, 144 miles from Labos Island. We 
 took a set of temperatures to the bottom, and found the grada- 
 tion, so far as it went, very much the same as on the 12th. The 
 bottom temperature was 2° '7 C. On this occasion the trawl was 
 most successful, and gave us a good idea of the fauna of moder- 
 ate depths along the coast. Probably not fewer than sixty spe- 
 cies of different groups were recovered, including a very hand- 
 some Pennatulid between two and three feet in height, some 
 deep-sea corals of very special interest, and some fine Echino- 
 derms and sponges. On the 15th we anchored in Montevideo 
 Roads. 
 
 We left the anchorage of Montevideo at day-break on the 
 25th of February, and, after swinging ship for errors of the 
 compasses, we proceeded down the estuary. In the afternoon 
 the trawl was put over in 13 fathoms to get an idea of the 
 fauna of the brackish water. The species procured were com- 
 paratively few, but among them was a plentiful supply of an 
 interesting alcyonarian of the genus Jtenilla, which, although 
 well known, had not been met with by us before. On the two 
 following days we crossed the shallow-water plateau, and on the 
 28th we sounded and trawled in 1900 fathoms, over the ledge. 
 
 II.— 15 
 
218 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 The serial temperature sounding gave a bottom temperature of 
 0°-0 C. ; at 1725 the temperature was l°-0 C., at 600 fathoms 
 3°-0 C., and at 50 fathoms 20°-0 C. The trawl was not very 
 successful, but it brought up a few things of some interest, 
 among them an example of a small sea-urchin (Aceste lellidif- 
 era), of which we had previously taken single specimens at 
 widely different stations, off the coast of J^ova Scotia, near 
 Gromera Island, near JSTew Zealand, and near Japan. The bot- 
 tom was chiefly river-mud, with very little carbonate of lime. 
 
 On the following day we sounded in 2800 fathoms, and again 
 lowered the trawl. The bottom was a grayish mud with little 
 or no carbonate of lime, and the bottom temperature was — o, 4 
 C. The trawl-line parted near the ship in heaving in. 
 
 On the 1st of March we proceeded on our course, and on the 
 2d we sounded in 2650 fathoms with a bottom of gray mud and 
 a bottom temperature of — o, 4: C. The trawl was put over, 
 and a series of temperature observations were taken to 1500 
 fathoms. This sounding is very instructive : the isotherm of 
 3° C. is found at 600 fathoms, so that we have a mass of water 
 at a lower temperature than 3° C. 2000 fathoms in thickness ; 
 2°*5 C. occurs at 1900 fathoms, and zero at 2400. A very mark- 
 ed hump on the curve which extends from a depth of 125 fath- 
 oms to a depth of 255 fathoms, and corresponds with the wide 
 spaces between the isotherms of 15° C. and 6° C, evidently in- 
 dicates the position and volume of the Brazil Current, the south- 
 ern deflection of the equatorial current after its bifurcation at 
 Cape St. Roque. The trawl came up containing an unusually 
 large number of organisms for this depth, including two speci- 
 mens of an undescribed species of JZuplectella, some corals, sev- 
 eral echinoderms illustrating three of the orders, some beautiful 
 examples of a species of Stylifer commensal on one of the holo- 
 thurians, and several fishes. 
 
 Next day we sounded in 2775 fathoms, and took temperature 
 soundings. This series presented a marked difference from that 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 219 
 
 of the previous day. All the isotherms from that of 1°*5 C. 
 had risen palpably, most of them, between 100 and 200 fath- 
 oms. Even the surface participated in the fall of temperature, 
 having sunk from 21°*6 C. to 19°*9 C. This is evidently a space 
 in the Brazil Current occupied by cold water, like the peculiar 
 cold interdigitations which are so marked in the Gulf -stream. 
 The position of this sounding was lat. 37° 3' S., long. 44° 17' W. 
 A serial temperature sounding on the following day, at a dis- 
 tance of 80 miles to the eastward, where the depth was 2900 
 fathoms and the bottom temperature — 0°*3 C, showed by the 
 sinking of all the isotherms that we had again entered the nor- 
 mal now of the Brazil Current. 
 
 On the 6th of March it was blowing hard from the south- 
 west with a heavy sea. We sounded in 2000 fathoms, with a 
 bottom of gray mud, and a bottom temperature of — o, 3 C. ; 
 but the weather was too boisterous to admit of a serial temper- 
 ature sounding. On the 7th the sea was more moderate, and 
 we sounded in 2675 fathoms, with a bottom temperature of 
 — o, 6 O, and took a series of temperatures. The bottom was 
 again a fine gray or slightly reddish mud, almost free from 
 calcic carbonate. Samples of water were obtained for spe- 
 cific-gravity determinations and analysis down to 2000 fath- 
 oms. 
 
 On the 8th of March we sounded in 2440 fathoms, with a 
 bottom of light-red mud and a bottom temperature of — o- 3 C. ; 
 and on the 9th, somewhat to our surprise, we sounded in 1715 
 fathoms, with a bottom of globigerina ooze and a temperature 
 of l°-3 C. The sea was heavy, and trawling operations conse- 
 quently difficult. The trawl was lowered, however, on account 
 of the remarkable shallowness of the sounding ; but it unfortu- 
 nately came up foul, and the observation was lost. It seems 
 that this sounding was on the central meridional rise which 
 separates the western from the eastern trough of the Atlantic 
 at a depth apparently nowhere much beyond 2000 fathoms, near 
 
220 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 its western edge. As usual, the deeper isotherms showed a 
 tendency to rise slightly in the shallower water. 
 
 On the 10th the morning was misty and rainy, with the 
 wind northerly, shifting to the southward toward noon. "We 
 sounded in 2200 fathoms, globigerina ooze, with a bottom tem- 
 perature of + o, 4 C. The trawl was put over, but on being re- 
 covered it was found to have been down on its back ; and it 
 contained only a few fragments of one or two sponges, crusta- 
 ceans, and echinoderms. 
 
 We ran on during the 11th and 12th, and on the 13th we 
 sounded on globigerina ooze at a depth of 2025 fathoms with a 
 bottom temperature of 1°*2 C. The trawl again came up empty 
 and reversed, some fragments adhering to the net showing that 
 there was a varied fauna, and that much interesting material 
 must have been got from a successful haul. 
 
 The position of the sounding on the 14th was lat. 35° 45' S., 
 long. 18° 3' W. ; the depth was 1915 fathoms, the bottom globi- 
 gerina ooze, and the bottom temperature 1°*5 C. ; the distance 
 from Tristan d'Acunha was 310 miles. The trawl came up 
 again foul, with only some fragments to indicate the presence 
 of an abundant fauna. As we had already crossed our outward 
 track in 1873, and as the temperatures at depths uninfluenced 
 by the changes of the seasons seemed to verify in every way 
 our former work, we thought it unnecessary to go farther to 
 the eastward on the direct line ; and we took a north-easterly 
 course toward a point in the meridian of the Island of Ascen- 
 sion, now distant from us about 1685 miles. 
 
 We ran on next day, and on the 16th the position of the ship 
 was lat. 32° 24' S., long. 15° 5' W., 1470 miles almost due south 
 of Ascension, and 280 miles north by west of Tristan d'Acunha. 
 We sounded in 1425 fathoms on globigerina ooze with a bot- 
 tom temperature of 2°*3 C. The trawl had failed so frequently 
 of late that we determined to send down instead a large light 
 dredge which we had had made at Hong-Kong for the shallow- 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 221 
 
 water, sponge-producing seas of the Philippines. It came up 
 with scarcely any ooze and with only a small number of animal 
 species ; but among them were many very perfect specimens of 
 the rare little sea-urchin Salenia varisjpina. It is singular that 
 although there were a large number of hempen tangles attached 
 to the dredge, and they seemed to have done their work well, 
 none of the Bryozoa so characteristic of moderate depths with 
 a bottom of globigerina ooze in the Atlantic were taken on this 
 occasion. In the evening we made sail due north. 
 
 For the next ten days, up to the 26th, we kept a northerly 
 course on the central ridge of the Atlantic in soundings never 
 exceeding 2000 fathoms. The bottom was globigerina ooze, ex- 
 cept on two occasions when the sounding-tube brought up no 
 sample, and the station was accordingly entered " hard ground." 
 The bottom temperature averaged about 2° C, varying two or 
 three tenths, with differences of three or four hundred fathoms 
 in depth. The dredge was lowered on the 19th in 1240 fath- 
 oms, but it came up empty. We made another attempt on the 
 21st, and on this occasion we were more successful, bringing up 
 what we most wished, a supply of globigerina ooze for after-ex- 
 amination. The only organism recovered was a dead wisp of 
 Hyalonema spicules caught in the tangles. 
 
 On the morning of the 27th we were close to the Island of 
 Ascension, and as we neared the land the weather became thick 
 and heavy all round, and there was a very heavy rain-squall, 
 which lasted some hours. It cleared off about noon, and the 
 dark-red cones and craters of the lower part of the island were 
 visible to the north-eastward. We sounded in 425 fathoms, and 
 put over the dredge, which was fairly successful, bringing up a 
 large number of corals and sponges, and a number of echino- 
 derms, including several examples of the ordinary form of Echi- 
 nus Flemingii. 
 
 I was sitting writing below as we approached the land, and 
 did not go on deck until we had cast anchor in 11 fathoms in 
 
222 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 Clarence Bay, off Tartar Stairs, the landing -pier of George 
 Town. The sun was just setting, and the outlines and coloring 
 had a most improbable effect; the near cones perfectly sym- 
 metrical and of a deep crimson ; intermediate rough lava-mass- 
 es, like cinders seen through a huge magnifying - glass, deep 
 brown or pitch-black ; and in the middle Green Mountain, an 
 irregular peak of gray trachyte, the gray of the rock melting 
 into the curious blue green of the Australian foliage above. 
 
 Ascension is certainly a strange little place. It is purely 
 volcanic ; and although there is now no sign whatever of vol- 
 canic activity, the cones of tufa are so fresh, and so defined and 
 vivid in their different shades of brown and red, and the lava- 
 beds are so rugged, apparently utterly unaffected by atmos- 
 pheric action, that the impression is irresistible that it is a lately 
 formed heap of cinders and ashes, probably still resting upon 
 slumbering fires. The island is irregularly oval in form, about 
 seven and a half miles long by six wide ; the position of the cen- 
 tral peak is lat. Y° 56' 58" S., long. 14° 20' W. It is directly 
 in the path of the south-east trade ; so that there is an exposed 
 weather side, with abrupt cliffs and precipices and unsafe land- 
 ing, and a lee side, where there is the settlement and anchorage. 
 As in almost all these volcanic islands in the path of constant 
 winds, during the periods of eruption the scoriae and ashes have 
 been driven to leeward of the centre of action, and have pro- 
 duced a bank which now forms good holding anchorage-ground. 
 
 From the anchorage there is not a particle of vegetation to 
 be seen, except the slight green tinge near the top of Green 
 Mountain, about six miles distant ; only a waste of lava and 
 ashes, black, gray, and red, rising peak after peak and ridge 
 after ridge, until the harsh outlines and abrupt alternations of 
 color become somewhat softened down and mellowed in the 
 distance. The little town is placed on a dreary plot of cinders 
 at the end of a valley which winds up between two great cones 
 of red ashes, and eventually reaches the foot of Green Mount- 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 223 
 
 ain. There is a small fort mounting rather heavy guns, with 
 a little pier beside it, where there is fair landing in moderate 
 weather. There is, moreover, a large crane at the end of the 
 pier, and a very slight shift of the trade-wind makes it neces- 
 sary to rig a chair, or a bight of a rope, as the case may be, on 
 the chain, and hoist up a new arrival. A neat little church is 
 prominent in the middle of the town, and there is a good ma- 
 chine-shop ; a water distillery, in case of the supply on the isl- 
 and running short ; a barrack for about a couple of hundred 
 marines; a street of officers' quarters — neat little square houses 
 with trim square gardens, and a full complement of ladies and 
 healthy-looking children, and showy subtropical flowers ; a com- 
 modious hospital, and a large Government store. 
 
 All day one can see little parties of marines and Kroomen 
 going to or returning from their work, or calling at certain 
 hours at the store for rations to take home to their wives, and 
 officers strolling about in their white tropical undress and " pug- 
 geries," or superintending fatigue-parties at work on the roads 
 or in the yard. 
 
 Every thing trim and neat and precise, for Ascension, in one 
 curious respect, stands alone among all the isles of the sea. It, 
 or I suppose I should say "she," is in commission as one of 
 Her Majesty's ships, a tender to the Flora, the guard-ship at 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and is at present under the genial 
 and popular command of Captain East. All the inhabitants 
 of the island are more or less in connection with the service, 
 and a few years ago discipline was kept up as rigidly on shore 
 as if the island had been in truth a ship on a foreign station ; 
 smoking was allowed only at certain hours of the day, and 
 man-of-war routine was enforced not only upon the island staff, 
 but upon strangers also. Of late years discipline seems to have 
 been everywhere, to a certain extent, relaxed ; and in the Island 
 of Ascension, as elsewhere, there is a great increase of commu- 
 nity of feeling and human sympathy throughout the different 
 
224 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 grades of the service. This depends, doubtless, greatly upon 
 the personal equation of the commandant, but not entirely 
 so ; the old oppressive system under which Ascension, in com- 
 mon with many other ships, suffered some years ago could 
 scarcely exist under present conditions. Now, apparently, lit- 
 tle is felt of unpleasant restriction, although the island is un- 
 der military law, and every thing is done in order and at the 
 sound of the bugle. Bations are served out, of food and water, 
 to every family, so much a head, the amount varying with the 
 supply. As the island is in no sense self-supporting, nearly 
 every thing being imported, provisions are only supplied to 
 merchant-ships in case of necessity, and at almost prohibitory 
 rates. At noon, instead of the town -clock lagging out its 
 twelve strokes, the workmen disperse to their midday spell to 
 the sharp, familiar sound of " eight bells." 
 
 The day before we arrived had been most exceptional in the 
 experience of the station. Heavy rain had fallen, as it only 
 knows in the tropics how to fall, for some hours continuously, 
 too rapidly to be absorbed by the porous ashes, which soon suck 
 up any ordinary tropical shower; and the water had rushed 
 down the valley, and swept through the settlement, committing 
 great havoc among their neatly paved streets and squares. The 
 torrent had rushed far out to sea, red with ashes, and had car- 
 ried with it quantities of cinders and lumps of pumice, some 
 of which were still floating about on the surface. 
 
 During our stay we had a pleasant excursion up to Green 
 Mountain, where we remained a day or two with Captain East. 
 The road from the settlement is very good, winding up a gen- 
 tle slope for the greater part of the way among the lava ridges. 
 The whole of the lower part of the island is absolutely bar- 
 ren — a waste of stones, with here and there a gnarled cactus- 
 stump and a few solanaceous and portalaceous weeds, which 
 afford scanty food to the guinea-fowl, which, at first introduced 
 from the Cape Yerde Islands, have become rather numerous 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 225 
 
 in the rocky valleys, and afford a good deal of very exciting, 
 if rather break-neck, sport. The most useful wild plant is the 
 Cape gooseberry (a species of Physalis), which is very com- 
 mon, and yields an abundance of pleasant subacid berries. 
 Vinca rosea has spread all about, in its white and lilac varie- 
 ties, and a tuft of its showy flowers is about the only relief to 
 the general sterility. In a genial tropical climate, prevented 
 from becoming insupportably hot and dry by the moisture- 
 laden trade, and with a soil rich from the decomposition of 
 volcanic minerals, it is wonderful what a tendency to vegeta- 
 tion there is. The beds are so porous that the unfrequent rain 
 dries off at once ; but even the slightest shower brings into 
 transient blossom and beauty some little parched-up mummy 
 of a plant in every crevice. If they could only irrigate bit by 
 bit for a few years till enough of vegetable soil had been accu- 
 mulated to make the surface a little more compact and reten- 
 tive, I am sure this wilderness would soon blossom like the rose. 
 Natural causes will carry this out in time ; and no doubt some 
 of Captain East's remote successors in office, a few centuries 
 hence, will be pruning their vines on the slopes of Cross Hill. 
 
 For the last mile the road zigzags up the steep slope of 
 Green Mountain, and the whole character of the scenery sud- 
 denly changes. The clouds, driven before the south-east trade, 
 gather and linger about the top of the mountain, and besides 
 a frequent most refreshing mist, a reasonable amount of rain 
 falls ; not only enough to supply the requirements of the little 
 colony on the mountain, but enough (except in exceptionally 
 dry weather) to supply George Town also, whither it is con- 
 veyed from Dampier's Springs and other sources in iron pipes 
 to a reservo$r. 
 
 An area on the top of the mountain, of between four and 
 five thousand acres, thus forms an oasis of the most delicious 
 verdure in the middle of the desert, with a charming climate, 
 the thermometer ranging from about 17° to 27° C. 
 
226 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 Like Tristan d'Acunha, Ascension was first formally occu- 
 pied by Great Britain as a military station in 1815, during the 
 confinement of the Emperor Napoleon on St. Helena. After 
 the death of Napoleon, it was determined by the Admiralty 
 to make Ascension a depot for the refreshment of the African 
 squadron, and a detachment of marines relieved the garrison 
 in 1822. 
 
 The climate of Ascension is wonderfully healthy, with pure 
 clear air, an equable temperature, and a perfectly dry soil, with- 
 out any thing like a swamp or marsh, and with no decaying 
 vegetation. There seem to be none of the usual endemic dis- 
 eases ; and patients suffering from the terrible marsh fevers of 
 the African coast pick up rapidly the moment they are landed. 
 For many years the chief function of Ascension was that of 
 a sanitarium, the hospital below being filled with fever cases 
 landed from the African ships, which were removed as soon 
 as possible to a charming convalescent hospital on Green 
 Mountain. 
 
 On one occasion the island paid dearly for its benevolence. 
 In the year 1823, a virulent fever was unfortunately introduced 
 by H.M.S. Bann, which carried off nearly half the population. 
 
 Of late years, for various reasons, fever has become of so 
 much less frequent occurrence on the African station that the 
 hospitals of Ascension are usually nearly or quite empty. The 
 demand for fresh provisions is, however, an increasing one, and 
 great care is bestowed on the cultivation of the garden and 
 farm on Green Mountain. On a little plateau a few hundred 
 feet below the peak there is a small barrack, with a mess-room ; 
 and near it several neat, detached houses with gardens, occu- 
 pied by marine officers and their families, and the stables and 
 farm-buildings. The large farm-garden — for only a few vege- 
 tables and fruits are cultivated, and these in large quantity, for 
 the supply of the station and passing ships — is over the ridge 
 on the south side. Sheep thrive fairly on the shoulder of the 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 227 
 
 mountain, which is covered with a fine smooth sward, and 
 planted with sheltering belts and clumps of trees chiefly in- 
 troduced from Australia — Eucalyptus and Acacia mdanoxylon 
 occupying prominent places — almost like an English park. I 
 do not know a more giddy walk anywhere than round the peak. 
 From the considerable elevation and the small extent of the 
 island, the descent, especially on the south side, looks almost 
 precipitous down to the great rhythmic blue rollers breaking 
 in cataracts of snow-white foam upon the cliffs beneath ; and 
 as the wind is always blowing sufficiently hard to make one 
 feel a little unsteady, it takes some little time to get sufficiently 
 accustomed to the conditions to enjoy the view, which is cer- 
 tainly magnificent. The whole island, such as it is, lies at your 
 feet like a strangely exaggerated and unskillfully colored con- 
 tour map, the great chasms and crater-valleys, even more weird 
 and desolate, looking at them from above ; and the wide ocean 
 of the deepest blue, flecked with white by the trade -wind, 
 stretching round beyond to meet the sky in an unbroken and 
 solitary circle. 
 
 The great curiosity of Ascension is " Wide-awake Fair ;" and 
 although we had seen may such " fairs," perhaps even more 
 wonderful during the voyage, they are always objects of re- 
 newed interest. From Green Mountain, or any of the higher 
 peaks, one can see, lying toward the shore to the right of the 
 road from the settlement, a grayish - white patch some square 
 miles in extent. This is a breeding-place of Sterna fuliginosa, 
 called there the Wide-awake. The birds are in millions, dark- 
 ening the air, when they are disturbed, like smoke ; the eggs 
 are excellent — somewhat like a plover's egg in flavor. Ten 
 thousand dozen are sometimes gathered in the breeding season 
 in a single week ; and as they are nearly as large as hen's eggs, 
 they are of some consideration even as an article of food. 
 
 There are at least four other species of sea-birds abundant 
 on the island: the frigate-bird (Tachypetes aquila), which 
 
228 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 causes great havoc among the young turtles as they are escap- 
 ing from their nests and going down the beach to the sea ; 
 two species of Sula, at least two petrels, and the pretty tropic- 
 bird (Phaeton wthereus), which here, as apparently all through 
 the Atlantic, has the tail-feathers pure white. Several of these 
 birds breed upon an outlying islet, called Boatswain-bird Island. 
 
 Between Christmas and midsummer, Ascension is constantly 
 visited, for the purpose of breeding, by the common green 
 turtle (Chelone midas). During that time each female is sup- 
 posed to make three or four nests. The beaches in some of 
 the bays, particularly on the west side of the island, are com- 
 posed of a rough, calcareous sand, made up entirely of small, 
 smooth, rounded pieces of shell. The female turtle scrambles 
 about 100 yards or so above high-water mark, where she digs 
 a pit, eight or ten feet across by a foot or two deep, and buries 
 in it fifty or sixty eggs, which she carefully covers over with 
 sand. She then returns to the water till another batch of eggs 
 is mature, when she repeats the process in another place. The 
 young come out of the eggs in about a couple of months, and, 
 scrambling through the sand, make their way at once to the 
 water. The females are taken by the usual operation of turn- 
 ing, as they are going back to the sea, and are placed in ponds 
 into which the tide flows below the fort at George Town. 
 There are always a large number of the strange-looking creat- 
 ures in the ponds, whence they are regularly supplied to pass- 
 ing men-of-war. No small turtles are ever seen. The weight 
 of a good-sized turtle is from four to five hundred-weight. I 
 do not think they are by any means so delicate for table use as 
 the much smaller ones in the West Indies. 
 
 Fish are abundant round the island, and of many kinds — 
 mullet, rock -cod, cavallas, and others. They are apparently 
 good, for tropical fish, but of little account to those accustomed 
 to the northern turbot and haddock. The wild quadrupeds 
 and decapods, which may here be classed together, as their 
 
PLATE XXXIX.— DIAGRAM OF THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION 
 
iirEMPERATURE BETWEEN TRISTAN D'ACUNHA AND STATION 343. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 229 
 
 habits and propensities are very similar, are rats and land- 
 crabs; both doing a great deal of damage in the gardens by 
 destroying the roots of vegetables and fruit-trees. The rats 
 kept out of the way during the day, but we often saw the 
 crabs ; and we were told to knock them on the head (or what- 
 ever answers that purpose) whenever we fell in with them. 
 
 I am almost disappointed that we did not see the " rollers," 
 although, for many reasons, their occurring just at that time 
 would have been very inconvenient. It must be a wonderful 
 phenomenon, an enormously heavy swell arising in a perfectly 
 calm sea, without any apparent cause, and breaking against the 
 leeward coast of the island with almost irresistible fury. There 
 was a slight threatening of something of the kind as we em- 
 barked with more than usual difficulty at Tartar Stairs on the 
 2d of April, and bid farewell to Captain East and his model 
 colony, thinking how comparatively easy it was to make a lit- 
 tle corner of the world tidy and comfortable and in every way 
 respectable — if it were under discipline, and were not expected 
 to be self-supporting. 
 
 At day -break on the 3d we steamed out of Clarence Bay, 
 and swung ship for errors of the compasses. In the afternoon 
 we put over the dredge with fair result. The assemblage of 
 animal forms was very much like that off Tristan d'Acunha, 
 with the addition of a few more tropical species, such as Stylas- 
 ter erubescens and a species of Hemi-euryale. In the evening 
 we set sail, and proceeded toward our next place of call, San 
 Iago, in the Cape Verde group. 
 
 On the 4th we sounded in 1260 fathoms, with a bottom of 
 globigerina ooze, and a bottom temperature of 2°'l C. ; and on 
 the 6th, in 2350 fathoms. The sounding - tube brought up a 
 few globigerina shells and grains of manganese; the bottom 
 temperature was 0°*4 C. The dredge was put over, but, un- 
 fortunately, it came up with the tangles foul and over the 
 mouth. The number of animals was, consequently, small ; but 
 
230 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 three fine specimens of a new species of Poreellanaster, re- 
 markable for a series of long spines running along the centre 
 of the back of each ray, two samples of JJrisinga, broken, as 
 usual, a few of Ophioglypha bullata, and a bryozoon had fortu- 
 nately stuck to the outside of the net. From the temperature, 
 and from the nature of the animals procured by the dredge, 
 there could be little doubt that we had slipped off the ridge on 
 its western side, and that the sounding was in the southern 
 section of the western trough of the Atlantic. On the follow- 
 ing day, after having made good 125 miles, we sounded in 
 2250 fathoms, with a bottom of ordinary globigerina ooze, and 
 a bottom temperature of 1°*7 C. In the interval we had passed 
 over, or close to, the position where the Gazelle sounded in 
 1640 fathoms. It therefore appears, both from this and from 
 the remarkable change in bottom temperature, that we had 
 crossed the ridge, and that our sounding on the 7th was in 
 the eastern basin of the Atlantic, where all experience led us 
 to expect a considerably higher temperature than in the south- 
 western. We took a series of temperature soundings down to 
 1500 fathoms, and in the evening we crossed the equator for 
 the sixth time since leaving home. 
 
 On the 9th we were close to our position on the 21st of Au- 
 gust, 1873 (Station CIL), and we put over the dredge in 2450 
 fathoms. The dredge came up nearly empty, with only a small 
 Euplectella, and a fragment of a large hexactinellid sponge. 
 The bag contained a small quantity of globigerina ooze. 
 
 For the next few days we continued our course, sometimes 
 stopping to take temperature soundings for the first couple of 
 hundred fathoms. The weather was fine, with light northerly 
 and north-westerly breezes, which somewhat retarded our prog- 
 ress. On the afternoon of the 16th, we sighted the peaks of 
 Fogo and San Iago, and after dark the lights of Porto Praya ; 
 and as the night was remarkably fine, we went into Porto Praya 
 Roads and anchored in twelve fathoms off the town. The next 
 
chap, iv.] THE VOYAGE HOME. 231 
 
 day we landed and revisited the " sights" of the town and neigh- 
 borhood. In the evening we weighed, and proceeded under 
 steam and sail toward Porto Grande, in San Vicente, where we 
 anchored on the evening of the 18th. 
 
 Irrigation, Porto Praya. 
 
 We remained a week at Porto Grande, as the good old ship 
 had to be put all to rights for inspection and paying-oif ; and 
 we had some pleasant rides among the hills. The town was 
 wonderfully improved since our former visit, many new houses 
 built, the whole place cleaned up and made more tidy, and in 
 many places trees planted along the streets. In main features, 
 however, San Vicente was just the same — the same barren, 
 unlovely wilderness, and the same fervent heat, and the vult- 
 ures still gorging themselves on the putrid flesh of the car- 
 casses half buried in the sand outside the town. 
 
 On the morning of the 26th we weighed and left Porto 
 Grande. Toward midday we rounded the southern part of 
 the Island of San Antonio, and shaped our course toward the 
 Acores, with a good breeze from the north. For the next week 
 we proceeded on our course, the weather fine, with light winds ; 
 
232 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 and on the 3d of May we stopped and sounded in 2965 fath- 
 oms, with a bottom of red clay, and a bottom temperature of 
 2°-3 C, lat. 26° 16' K, long. 33° 33' W. We were therefore, 
 on the combined evidence of the depth and the temperature, 
 in the prolongation to the westward of nearly the deepest por- 
 tion of the eastern basin of the Atlantic. We sounded again 
 on the 6th, lat. 32° 30' K, long. 36° 8' W., in 1675 fathoms, 
 with a temperature of 2°*7 C, and a bottom of pure globi- 
 gerina ooze ; so that we had now passed over the edge of the 
 trough, and were once more on the " Dolphin Rise." Here 
 we fixed the position of our three hundred and fifty -fourth 
 and last deep-sea observing station. 
 
 From this point we made our way home as speedily as we 
 could ; but our friends in England in the early part of the year 
 1876 may well remember the continued north-east winds which 
 lasted until far on in the spring. These winds were dead in 
 our teeth ; and as our coal and fresh provisions began to get 
 low, we, in our weariness and impatience, were driven to the 
 verge of despair. At length, hopeless of any relenting, we re- 
 solved to go in to Yigo and get some coal and some fresh pro- 
 visions, and a run on shore. As we steamed up Yigo Bay on 
 the 20th of May, the Channel Fleet, under the command of 
 Captain Beauchamp Seymour, one of the finest squadrons of 
 iron-clads ever afloat, gradually resolved itself, ship after ship, 
 out of the mist. They were just gathering, and their tale was 
 nearly complete ; but before we left next day the fleet con- 
 sisted of Her Majesty's ships Minotaur, Iron Duke, Monarch, 
 Resistance, Defense, Black Prince, Hector, and the dispatch- 
 boat Lively in attendance. As we rounded the stern of the 
 Defense to our anchorage, her band struck up the air " Home, 
 Sweet Home/ 7 and tried the nerves of some of us far more 
 than they had ever been tried among the savages or the ice- 
 bergs. 
 
 Yigo seemed very charming, but we had little time to enjoy 
 
CHAP. IV ] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 233 
 
 it. We bad all many friends in the fleet, and much to say and 
 hear. While we were lying in Vigo Bay, we were aware of a 
 change of the weather, the clouds hurrying up from the south- 
 west ; so, early in the afternoon of the 21st, we weighed and 
 proceeded to sea. Our anticipations were not disappointed ; 
 outside the bay it was blowing half a gale from the south-west, 
 and the old Challenger sped across the Bay of Biscay and up 
 Channel at a pace very unusual to her. On the evening of 
 the 23d we passed Ushant Light, and at 9.15 p.m., on the 24th 
 of May, 1876, after an absence of three years and a half, we 
 stopped and came to an anchor in seven fathoms' water at 
 Spithead. 
 II.— 10 
 
234 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 Table of Temperatures observed between the Falkland Islands and 
 Tristan d'Acunha. 
 
 
 
 CO 03 ^ 
 co est- 
 
 
 
 
 °? CT> CT< 
 
 CCv » 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 •2 tD 
 
 S ts o 
 
 s • ^ 
 
 o 10 ■* 
 
 d — 1 o 
 ■J . si) 
 
 £- CO io 
 
 ■2 . ti 
 
 5« § 
 
 o « 
 
 *kk 
 
 l"i 
 
 £° r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 8°-2 C. 
 
 14° -2 C. 
 
 15° -3 C. 
 
 19° -7 0. 
 
 23° -0C. 
 
 22° -0 C. 
 
 21° '6 C. 
 
 25 
 
 5 '7 
 
 13 -7 
 
 11 '2 
 
 15 -6 
 
 21 -7 
 
 
 21 -0 
 
 50 
 
 4 -4 
 
 6 -2 
 
 9 -0 
 
 7 -8 
 
 20 -0 
 
 20 -4 
 
 18 -7 
 
 75 
 
 4 '2 
 
 4 -2 
 
 6 -7 
 
 6 -9 
 
 19 -6 
 
 17 -8 
 
 IS -5 
 
 100 
 
 4 -0 
 
 2 -5 
 
 6 -3 
 
 6 -8 
 
 17 -6 
 
 15 -6 
 
 16 '7 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 5 "0 
 
 
 17 "2 
 
 14 '2 
 
 15 "3 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 4 -4 
 
 4 -8 
 
 16 '2 
 
 12 -0 
 
 14 -8 
 
 1T5 
 
 
 1 -9 
 
 4 -0 
 
 4 -5 
 
 14 '6 
 
 11 -o 
 
 14 -1 
 
 200 
 
 3 '4 
 
 1 -6 
 
 3 -8 
 
 4 -6 
 
 13 -2 
 
 10 -o 
 
 12 '5 
 
 225 
 
 
 1 -7 
 
 3 -9 
 
 4 -4 
 
 13 '3 
 
 7 -2 
 
 12 -4 
 
 250 
 
 
 2 -2 
 
 4 -2 
 
 4 -4 
 
 12 -6 
 
 5 -7 
 
 10 -6 
 
 275 
 
 
 1 '7 
 
 3 -7 
 
 4 -0 
 
 11 -3 
 
 5 -2 
 
 9 -0 
 
 300 
 
 3 '4 
 
 1 '6 
 
 3 -5 
 
 3 '4 
 
 10 '2 
 
 4 '6 
 
 7 '2 
 
 400 
 
 3 -S 
 
 1 '6 
 
 3 -2 
 
 3 "4 
 
 4 '8 
 
 4 '3 
 
 4 '6 
 
 500 
 
 2 -5 
 
 
 3 -9 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 -7 
 
 5 '2 
 
 3 -6 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 2 -6 
 
 2 -7 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 -3 
 
 3 -4 
 
 700 
 
 
 
 2 -5 
 
 
 2 -6 
 
 2 -6 
 
 2 -7 
 
 800 
 
 
 1 '7 
 
 2 -7 
 
 
 2 -3 
 
 2 -5 
 
 2 -6 
 
 900 
 
 
 1 -6 
 
 2 '5 
 
 
 1 '8 
 
 2 -4 
 
 2 -7 
 
 1000 
 
 
 1 -6 
 
 2 -2 
 
 
 2 -4 
 
 2 -7 
 
 2 -5 
 
 1100 
 
 
 1 "6 
 
 2 -0 
 
 
 1 -8 
 
 1 -3 
 
 2 -6 
 
 1200 
 
 
 1 '6 
 
 2 -2 
 
 
 1 '6 
 
 2 -4 
 
 2 -5 
 
 1300 
 
 
 1 '4 
 
 1 -3 
 
 
 2 -0 
 
 2 -5 
 
 2 -9 
 
 1400 
 
 
 1 -3 
 
 2 -1 
 
 
 1 -6 
 
 2 -1 
 
 2 -4 
 
 1500 
 
 
 1 -o 
 
 1 -9 
 
 
 2 -2 
 
 2 -3 
 
 2 -3 
 
 Temperature-* 
 at Bottom. ) 
 
 l°-7 
 
 0°-3 
 
 — 0°-4 
 
 2° -7 
 
 o°-o 
 
 — 0°-4 
 
 — 0°-4 
 
 Depth at Bot-| 
 torn. / 
 
 1035 
 
 2040 
 
 2425 
 
 600 
 
 1900 
 
 2800 
 
 2650 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 235 
 
 
 
 
 
 m .£> © 
 
 1st* 
 
 
 
 6^ S3 
 
 UtSUbll 111 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 £o r 
 
 c- ^ 
 
 •2 _ tx 
 
 5"S § 
 
 c ro-"< 
 •J . s3o 
 
 C CO TO 
 
 •J . 60 
 
 "5 ■» c 
 5 « o 
 
 TO TO 
 
 .2 ti 
 
 fl TO TO 
 
 £ TO (J* 
 
 •J . Si 
 
 K 
 
 jjTOcn 
 
 •2 . ti 
 
 £ • £ 
 
 S3 § 
 
 Surface. 
 
 19°-9C. 
 
 21° -2 C. 
 
 18°-0 C. 
 
 17° -9 C. 
 
 18° -0 C. 
 
 17**8 C 
 
 19°-4 C. 
 
 20° -3 C. 
 
 25 
 
 17 -6 
 
 20 -0 
 
 17 -7 
 
 17 -2 
 
 17 -0 
 
 14 -9 
 
 16 '8 
 
 18 -1 
 
 50 
 
 14 -0 
 
 19 -3 
 
 13 '9 
 
 15 -0 
 
 14 -4 
 
 13 -9 
 
 14 -2 
 
 15 -1 
 
 T5 
 
 13 -2 
 
 IS -7 
 
 13 -1 
 
 13 '9 
 
 13 -3 
 
 13 '6 
 
 12 -9 
 
 13 -6 
 
 100 
 
 11 -8 
 
 17 -8 
 
 12 -3 
 
 13 '4 
 
 13 -0 
 
 13 -0 
 
 12 -S 
 
 13 '3 
 
 125 
 
 10 -2 
 
 16 '6 
 
 11 -8 
 
 13 -1 
 
 12 -2 
 
 12 -8 
 
 12 -3 
 
 11 -8 
 
 150 
 
 7 '8 
 
 15 -0 
 
 10 -7 
 
 13 -0 
 
 12 -2 
 
 12 '8 
 
 11 -o 
 
 11 -7 
 
 175 
 
 6 '3 
 
 12 '2 
 
 8 '8 
 
 12 -8 
 
 12 -0 
 
 12 -2 
 
 9 -6 
 
 10 -6 
 
 200 
 
 5 -5 
 
 15 -4 
 
 7 '2 
 
 11 *7 
 
 10 -6 
 
 11 -o 
 
 8 -0 
 
 10 -1 
 
 225 
 
 5 1 
 
 12 -6 
 
 6 '4 
 
 10 -2 
 
 9 -2 
 
 10 -o 
 
 7 -2 
 
 9 -0 
 
 250 
 
 4 -5 
 
 11 '3 
 
 5 -2 
 
 9 -0 
 
 8 '3 
 
 8 -5 
 
 6 -6 
 
 8 -0 
 
 275 
 
 4 '2 
 
 9 5 
 
 4 -8 
 
 7 -7 
 
 7 -2 
 
 7 -3 
 
 5 -8 
 
 7 -0 
 
 300 
 
 3 -S 
 
 7 -7 
 
 4 -5 
 
 7 -0 
 
 5 '3 
 
 6 -7 
 
 5 '3 
 
 6 -3 
 
 400 
 
 3 -8 
 
 4 -5 
 
 4 -0 
 
 5 -7 
 
 4 -1 
 
 3 -8 
 
 4 -4 
 
 4 -5 
 
 500 
 
 3 -7 
 
 3 -8 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 '4 
 
 2 -9 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 '3 
 
 3 -3 
 
 600 
 
 2 -6 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 -2 
 
 3 '9 
 
 2 -7 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 '2 
 
 700 
 
 2 -6 
 
 2 "8 
 
 2 -5 
 
 2 '7 
 
 2 -6 
 
 4 -3 
 
 2 '7 
 
 2 '8 
 
 800 
 
 2 -6 
 
 3'3 
 
 2 -5 
 
 3 -1 
 
 2 -5 
 
 2 -7 
 
 2 -5 
 
 2 '6 
 
 900 
 
 2 -5 
 
 2 -8 
 
 2 -5 
 
 3 -2 
 
 2 -3 
 
 2 '8 
 
 2 -4 
 
 2 '8 
 
 1000 
 
 2 '2 
 
 2 *4 
 
 2 "3 
 
 2 '4 
 
 2 '4 
 
 2 "6 
 
 2 *3 
 
 2 "5 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tempera- "j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ture at y 
 
 — 0°'4 
 
 — 0°'3 
 
 — 0°'6 
 
 — 0°-3 
 
 l°-3 
 
 o, 4 
 
 l°-2 
 
 l°-5 
 
 Bottom. J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Depth at 1 
 Bottom, j 
 
 2775 
 
 2900 
 
 2675 
 
 2440 
 
 1715 
 
 2200 
 
 2025 
 
 1915 
 
236 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. iv. 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Table of Temperatures observed between Tristan d'Acunha and the 
 
 Azores. 
 
 
 coc»^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 So o 
 
 a 
 
 Depth in Fathoms. 
 
 ok* 
 
 ^O) CO 
 
 C co .-. 
 
 ^?-co 
 C <x "-■ 
 
 <ODO 
 
 
 ^ t-CO 
 
 on" 
 
 °tf CO 
 
 
 
 
 •I .d 
 £^ § 
 
 •J . si 
 
 
 3 . &i 
 
 <£ -w S 
 
 3 . si 
 
 
 
 i so 
 
 
 c« i-S 3 
 
 Mi-Ik! 
 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23° -0 C. 
 
 24° -4 C. 
 
 25° -0 C. 
 
 24° -7 C. 
 
 24° -4 C. 
 
 25° -1 C. 
 
 26° -1 C. 
 
 25 
 
 21 '0 
 
 21 -0 
 
 22 *2 
 
 24 -1 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 17 -8 
 
 18 -3 
 
 20 -7 
 
 22 -1 
 
 20 '6 
 
 21 '8 
 
 21 -9 
 
 T5 
 
 16 -3 
 
 16 -3 
 
 IS -4 
 
 19 -6 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 15 -4 
 
 14 -9 
 
 16 -7 
 
 17 -7 
 
 15 -1 
 
 14 '4 
 
 14 -0 
 
 125 
 
 14 -1 
 
 14 -3 
 
 15 -7 
 
 14 "5 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 13 -3 
 
 13 -3 
 
 15 -0 
 
 12 -9 
 
 11 -4 
 
 10 -8 
 
 10 -3 
 
 1T5 
 
 12 -4 
 
 12 -3 
 
 13 -8 
 
 11 -2 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 -6 
 
 11 -6 
 
 12 -6 
 
 9 -9 
 
 9 -0 
 
 3 -2 
 
 S -3 
 
 225 
 
 11 -o 
 
 9 -8 
 
 11 -8 
 
 9 "2 
 
 
 7 -9 
 
 7 -6 
 
 250 
 
 10 -5 
 
 9 -1 
 
 10 -4 
 
 7 '8 
 
 
 7 -0 
 
 7 -0 
 
 2T5 
 
 9 "7 
 
 8 -4 
 
 9 -4 
 
 7 -2 
 
 
 6 -0 
 
 6 '4 
 
 300 
 
 8 '2 
 
 7 *9 
 
 8 "7 
 
 6 *0 
 
 4 '1 
 
 5 *7 
 
 5 '8 
 
 400 
 
 5 -7 
 
 4 -6 
 
 4 -6 
 
 3 -6 
 
 3 -6 
 
 4 -0 
 
 4 -5 
 
 500 
 
 3 -7 
 
 3 -6 
 
 4 -3 
 
 3 -2 
 
 3 -2 
 
 4 -0 
 
 3 -9 
 
 600 
 
 3 '8 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 -3 
 
 3 -2 
 
 3 -8 
 
 4 -0 
 
 3 -7 
 
 700 
 
 2 '6 
 
 3 -4 
 
 3 I 
 
 3 -1 
 
 3 '5 
 
 3 -9 
 
 3 -4 
 
 800 
 
 2 -4 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 -2 
 
 3 '2 
 
 3 -4 
 
 3 '6 
 
 2 -8 
 
 900 
 
 2 '4 
 
 3 -0 
 
 2 '8 
 
 2 '2 
 
 3 -3 
 
 3 -3 
 
 3 '5 
 
 1000 
 
 2 -6 
 
 3 '8 
 
 2 -8 
 
 2 '9 
 
 2 *9 
 
 2 *8 
 
 3 '2 
 
 1100 
 
 
 2'7 
 
 
 2 '2 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 
 3 -2 
 
 
 2 '7 
 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 
 2 -3 
 
 
 2 '9 
 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 2 "3 
 
 
 2 -7 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 
 2 "4 
 
 
 2 -0 
 
 
 
 
 Temperature^ 
 at Bottom. 1 
 
 2° '3 
 
 l°-9 
 
 2° -5 
 
 l°-8 
 
 2° '5 
 
 2°6 
 
 3°-0 
 
 Depth at Bot--> 
 torn. / 
 
 1425 
 
 1890 
 
 1240 
 
 1990 
 
 1415 
 
 1500 
 
 1475 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 237 
 
 
 il 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 De th in 
 Fathoms. 
 
 iff 
 £ . m 
 
 Iff 
 
 .2 
 
 
 Station No. 
 Lat. 2° 4S 
 Long. 14° 41 
 
 .2 
 
 h* 
 .2 
 
 m 
 
 ion No, 
 26° 21 
 33° 37 
 
 o 
 
 C CO TO 
 
 B . ui 
 
 
 -3 H § 
 
 Stat 
 Lat. 
 Lonf 
 
 "§ — o 1 
 -e as o 
 
 
 
 
 OS « c 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26°-7C. 
 
 27° "1C. 
 
 28° -2C. 
 
 2S° 
 
 '2C. 
 
 27° -8C. 
 
 28° '9 C. 
 
 21° -5 C. 
 
 21°'1C. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 •2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 19 -1 
 
 50 
 
 21 -9 
 
 19 '0 
 
 22 -1 
 
 14 
 
 •o 
 
 18 
 
 •4 
 
 15 
 
 •2 
 
 20 
 
 •o 
 
 18 -0 
 
 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 -4 
 
 100 
 
 12 -2 
 
 12 *5 
 
 11 '6 
 
 12 
 
 '8 
 
 14 
 
 •2 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 17 
 
 •7 
 
 17 '2 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 10 '6 
 
 9 "8 
 
 9 *4 
 
 11 
 
 •2 
 
 12 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 '3 
 
 16 
 
 •4 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 S -7 
 
 7 "8 
 
 8 "2 
 
 9 
 
 '3 
 
 8 
 
 •8 
 
 10 
 
 •3 
 
 15 
 
 •o 
 
 15 '5 
 
 225 
 
 7 -7 
 
 7 "5 
 
 8 -7 
 
 9 
 
 •2 
 
 7 
 
 •7 
 
 8 
 
 •6 
 
 15 
 
 •o 
 
 
 250 
 
 7 -8 
 
 7 '2 
 
 6 -7 
 
 7 
 
 ■s 
 
 7 
 
 •6 
 
 8 
 
 *0 
 
 14 
 
 •o 
 
 
 275 
 
 7 -1 
 
 6 -4 
 
 7 -0 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 6 
 
 •7 
 
 7 
 
 •2 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 -9 
 
 6 '5 
 
 7 -8 
 
 6 
 
 •2 
 
 6 
 
 •6 
 
 6 
 
 •5 
 
 12 
 
 •2 
 
 11 -9 
 
 400 
 
 6 -0 
 
 
 5 -6 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 C 
 
 •o 
 
 5 
 
 •o 
 
 9 
 
 •5 
 
 10 -2 
 
 500 
 
 4 '8 
 
 
 4 -3 
 
 3 
 
 •8 
 
 4 
 
 •5 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 7 
 
 •8 
 
 7 -4 
 
 600 
 
 3 -4 
 
 
 3 -6 
 
 3 
 
 •9 
 
 5 
 
 •9 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 6 
 
 •2 
 
 7 -0 
 
 700 
 
 3 *8 
 
 
 3 -7 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 4 
 
 •0 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 4 
 
 •7 
 
 5 -8 
 
 800 
 
 3 -2 
 
 
 3 -S 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 4 
 
 •2 
 
 4 
 
 •o 
 
 5 
 
 •2 
 
 4 -8 
 
 900 
 
 3 -2 
 
 
 3 -4 
 
 4 
 
 •3 
 
 4 
 
 •6 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 4 
 
 •o 
 
 4 -3 
 
 1000 
 
 3 '2 
 
 
 4 *0 
 
 3 
 
 •6 
 
 4 
 
 •5 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 3 
 
 •7 
 
 4 "0 
 
 1100 
 
 
 
 Q >1 
 
 3 
 
 •5 
 
 4 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •3 
 
 3 
 
 •8 
 
 3 '3 
 
 1200 
 
 
 
 3 -0 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 3 
 
 •4 
 
 2 
 
 •1 
 
 2 '7 
 
 1300 
 
 
 
 2 '9 
 
 3 
 
 •1 
 
 3 
 
 •0 
 
 3 
 
 •o 
 
 3 -1 
 
 3 '5 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 2 "7 
 
 2 
 
 •7 
 
 2 
 
 ■9 
 
 2 
 
 •5 
 
 3 
 
 •2 
 
 3 '6 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 2 -4 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 2 
 
 •s 
 
 2 
 
 •4 
 
 2 
 
 •6 
 
 2 '4 
 
 Tempera- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ture at [ 
 
 2° '6 
 
 4° -5 
 
 2°-l 
 
 0° 
 
 •4 
 
 l c 
 
 •7 
 
 l c 
 
 •7 
 
 2' 
 
 •3 
 
 2° '7 
 
 Bottom. J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Depth at 1 
 Bottom. J 
 
 1445 
 
 425 
 
 2010 
 
 2350 
 
 2250 
 
 2250 
 Station 102. 
 
 2965 
 
 1675 
 
238 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. IV. 
 
 APPENDIX C. 
 
 Table of Serial Temperature Soundings down to 200 Fathoms, taken 
 in the South and North Atlantic in the Year 1876. 
 
 Depth, in Fathoms. 
 
 Station No. 324. 
 Lat. 36° 9' S. 
 Long. 48° 22' W. 
 
 Station No. 339. 
 Lat. 17° 26' S. 
 
 Long. 13° 52' W. 
 
 Station No. 340. 
 Lat. 14° 33' S. 
 Long. 13° 42' W. 
 
 Station No. 341. 
 Lat. 12° 16' S. 
 Long. 13° 44' W. 
 
 Station No. 342. 
 Lat.- 9° 43' S. 
 Long. 13° 51' W. 
 
 Station No. 343. 
 Lat. 8° 3' S. 
 Long. 14° 27' W. 
 
 Station No. 345. 
 Lat. 5° 45' S. 
 Long. 14° 25' W. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22= -0 C. 
 
 24° -4 C. 
 
 25° -1C. 
 
 26° 
 
 •1C. 
 
 26° 
 
 •7C. 
 
 27° 
 
 ■ic. 
 
 28° -2 C. 
 
 10 
 
 21 -0 
 
 24 
 
 •3 
 
 25 -0 
 
 26 
 
 •0 
 
 26 
 
 •8 
 
 27 
 
 •o 
 
 28 -0 
 
 20 
 
 20 -6 
 
 24 
 
 •1 
 
 24 -1 
 
 25 
 
 •7 
 
 26 
 
 •5 
 
 26 
 
 •7 
 
 27 -8 
 
 30 
 
 20 -8 
 
 24 
 
 •o 
 
 24 -3 
 
 24 
 
 •o 
 
 26 
 
 •1 
 
 25 
 
 •o 
 
 26 -4 
 
 40 
 
 20 '7 
 
 21 
 
 •3 
 
 22 -8 
 
 23 
 
 •8 
 
 23 
 
 •3 
 
 22 
 
 •4 
 
 24 -2 
 
 50 
 
 20 '4 
 
 20 
 
 •6 
 
 21 '8 
 
 21 
 
 •9 
 
 21 
 
 •9 
 
 19 
 
 •o 
 
 22 -1 
 
 60 
 
 
 19 
 
 •5 
 
 20 -8 
 
 20 
 
 •0 
 
 19 
 
 •5 
 
 16 
 
 •8 
 
 IS -3 
 
 70 
 
 
 19 
 
 •o 
 
 20 -6 
 
 18 
 
 •5 
 
 17 
 
 •o 
 
 14 
 
 •5 
 
 14 -9 
 
 80 
 
 
 17 
 
 •8 
 
 18 -8 
 
 16 
 
 •7 
 
 14 
 
 •3 
 
 13 
 
 •2 
 
 13 -6 
 
 90 
 
 
 16 
 
 •6 
 
 18 -2 
 
 15 
 
 •o 
 
 13 
 
 •0 
 
 13 
 
 •o 
 
 12 -7 
 
 100 
 
 15 '6 
 
 15 
 
 •1 
 
 14 -4 
 
 14 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 •2 
 
 12 
 
 •5 
 
 11 -6 
 
 110 
 
 
 15 
 
 •o 
 
 13 -3 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 12 
 
 •6 
 
 11 
 
 •9 
 
 11 -o 
 
 120 
 
 
 14 
 
 •o 
 
 12 -2 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 11 
 
 •6 
 
 11 
 
 •o 
 
 10 -6 
 
 130 
 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 11 -7 
 
 11 
 
 •8 
 
 11 
 
 •7 
 
 10 
 
 •3 
 
 10 -1 
 
 140 
 
 
 12 
 
 •2 
 
 11 '5 
 
 10 
 
 •8 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 10 
 
 •o 
 
 9 -3 
 
 150 
 
 12 V 
 
 11 
 
 •4 
 
 10 -8 
 
 10 
 
 •3 
 
 10 
 
 •6 
 
 9 
 
 •8 
 
 9 -4 
 
 160 
 
 
 11 
 
 •1 
 
 10 -2 
 
 10 
 
 •0 
 
 10 
 
 •o 
 
 9 
 
 •5 
 
 9 -3 
 
 170 
 
 
 10 
 
 •8 
 
 9 -1 
 
 9 
 
 •7 
 
 9 
 
 •6 
 
 9 
 
 •1 
 
 9 -0 
 
 180 
 
 
 10 
 
 •2 
 
 9 -6 
 
 8 
 
 •9 
 
 9 
 
 •3 
 
 9 
 
 •1 
 
 8 -7 
 
 190 
 
 
 9 
 
 •7 
 
 8 '7 
 
 8 
 
 •7 
 
 9 
 
 •2 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 8 -6 
 
 200 
 
 id -b 
 
 9 
 
 •o 
 
 S '2 
 
 8 
 
 •3 
 
 8 
 
 •7 
 
 7 
 
 •8 
 
 8 -2 
 
 Depth in 
 Fathoms. 
 
 Station No. 346. 
 Lat. 2° 42' S. 
 Long. 14° 41' W. 
 
 Station No. 347. 
 Lat. 0° 15' S. 
 Long. 14° 25' W. 
 
 Station No. 348. 
 Lat. 3° 10' N. 
 Long. 14° 51' W. 
 
 Station No. 349. 
 Lat. 5° 28' N. 
 Long. 14° 38' W. 
 
 Station No. 350. 
 Lat. 7° 33' N. 
 Long. 15° 16' W. 
 
 Station No. 351. 
 Lat. 9° 9'N. 
 Long. 16° 41' W. 
 
 Station No. 352. 
 Lat. 10°55'N. 
 Long. 17° 46' W. 
 
 Station No. 353. 
 Lat. 26°21'N. 
 Long. 33° 37' W. 
 
 Surface. 
 
 28°'2C. 
 
 27° '8 C. 
 
 28° 
 
 ■9C. 
 
 28°-6C. 
 
 28° 
 
 •9C. 
 
 27° 
 
 •7C. 
 
 25° -4 C. 
 
 21°-5C. 
 
 10 
 
 28 
 
 •o 
 
 26 
 
 •8 
 
 2S 
 
 •9 
 
 28 
 
 •4 
 
 28 
 
 •9 
 
 26 
 
 •6 
 
 23 -9 
 
 19 -4 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 •6 
 
 25 
 
 •6 
 
 27 
 
 •9 
 
 21 
 
 •2 
 
 23 
 
 •9 
 
 18 
 
 •9 
 
 20 -6 
 
 19 -4 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 •8 
 
 23 
 
 •3 
 
 21 
 
 •6 
 
 17 
 
 •o 
 
 20 
 
 •3 
 
 16 
 
 •7 
 
 17 '5 
 
 20 -1 
 
 40 
 
 14 
 
 •1 
 
 21 
 
 •o 
 
 16 
 
 •7 
 
 15 
 
 •7 
 
 18 
 
 •2 
 
 15 
 
 •7 
 
 16 -1 
 
 19 -6 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 •o 
 
 18 
 
 •4 
 
 15 
 
 •2 
 
 15 
 
 •1 
 
 16 
 
 •9 
 
 15 
 
 •3 
 
 15 -0 
 
 20 -0 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 16 
 
 •6 
 
 14 
 
 •7 
 
 14 
 
 •7 
 
 15 
 
 •6 
 
 14 
 
 •4 
 
 14 -0 
 
 19 -3 
 
 70 
 
 13 
 
 •2 
 
 15 
 
 •8 
 
 14 
 
 •2 
 
 14 
 
 •o 
 
 15 
 
 •3 
 
 14 
 
 •5 
 
 13 -5 
 
 18 -6 
 
 80 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 14 
 
 •8 
 
 13 
 
 •9 
 
 13 
 
 •8 
 
 14 
 
 •8 
 
 14 
 
 •2 
 
 13 -1 
 
 18 '4 
 
 90 
 
 13 
 
 •2 
 
 15 
 
 •4 
 
 13 
 
 •4 
 
 13 
 
 •7 
 
 14 
 
 •4 
 
 13 
 
 •9 
 
 13 -1 
 
 18 -1 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 14 
 
 •2 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 13 
 
 •4 
 
 13 
 
 •8 
 
 13 
 
 •4 
 
 12 '8 
 
 17 -7 
 
 110 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 14 
 
 •0 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 13 
 
 •o 
 
 13 
 
 •1 
 
 12 
 
 •6 
 
 12 -3 
 
 17 '2 
 
 120 
 
 12 
 
 •2 
 
 13 
 
 •3 
 
 13 
 
 •0 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 13 
 
 •1 
 
 12 
 
 •2 
 
 12 -2 
 
 17 -2 
 
 130 
 
 12 
 
 •1 
 
 13 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 12 
 
 •4 
 
 12 
 
 •8 
 
 11 
 
 •7 
 
 11 -9 
 
 16 '7 
 
 140 
 
 11 
 
 •4 
 
 12 
 
 •3 
 
 12 
 
 •4 
 
 12 
 
 •o 
 
 12 
 
 •7 
 
 11 
 
 •4 
 
 11 '7 
 
 16 '3 
 
 150 
 
 11 
 
 •2 
 
 12 
 
 •0 
 
 12 
 
 •3 
 
 11 
 
 •6 
 
 12 
 
 •5 
 
 11 
 
 •1 
 
 11 "8 
 
 16 -4 
 
 160 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 11 
 
 •8 
 
 11 
 
 •6 
 
 11 
 
 •1 
 
 12 
 
 •0 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 11 '6 
 
 16 -1 
 
 170 
 
 10 
 
 •2 
 
 11 
 
 •2 
 
 10 
 
 •9 
 
 10 
 
 •8 
 
 11 
 
 •3 
 
 10 
 
 •o 
 
 11 '2 
 
 15 -6 
 
 180 
 
 9 
 
 •8 
 
 10 
 
 •o 
 
 10 
 
 ■4 
 
 10 
 
 •4 
 
 10 
 
 •7 
 
 9 
 
 •7 
 
 11 -2 
 
 15 '6 
 
 190 
 
 9 
 
 •5 
 
 9 
 
 •8 
 
 9 
 
 •8 
 
 10 
 
 •0 
 
 10 
 
 •5 
 
 9 
 
 •2 
 
 10 -5 
 
 15 '3 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 •3 
 
 8 
 
 •8 
 
 10 
 
 •3 
 
 9 
 
 •1 
 
 10 
 
 •2 
 
 8 
 
 *7 
 
 10 -5 
 
 15 -0 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 239 
 
 APPENDIX D. 
 
 Specific-gravity Observations taken on the Homeward Voyage between 
 the Falkland Islands and Portsmouth. 
 
 Date, 
 1816. 
 
 Latitude 
 South. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (&) at 
 which Water 
 was taken. 
 
 1 
 
 Temperature 1 
 
 ■o 
 
 s 
 
 Temperature 
 (t') durins: 
 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 Water at 
 4° — 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15°'56. 
 Water at 
 4° — 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'ms. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Feb. 7 
 
 50° 
 
 41' 
 
 56° 
 
 20' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 7° 
 
 5C. 
 
 90. 
 
 3C. 
 
 1-02637 
 
 1-02517 
 
 1-02601 
 
 8 
 
 4S 
 
 37 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
 1035 
 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 9 • 
 
 9 
 
 1 '02635 
 
 1*02525 
 
 1-02667 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 10 • 
 
 4 
 
 1-02627 
 
 1-02526 
 
 1-02693 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 9 * 
 
 9 
 
 1-02631 
 
 1-02521 
 
 1-02704 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 10 • 
 
 
 
 1-02631 
 
 1-02523 
 
 1-02710 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 • 
 
 1 
 
 1-02030 
 
 1-02524 
 
 1-02715 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 • 
 
 1 
 
 1-02630 
 
 1-02524 
 
 1-02715 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 10 • 
 
 1 
 
 1-02645 
 
 1-02540 
 
 1-02730 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 11 • 
 
 5 
 
 1-02611 
 
 1-02528 
 
 1-02730 
 
 9 
 
 47 
 
 50 
 
 56* 
 
 "9 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 • 
 
 7 
 
 1-02634 
 
 1-02535 
 
 1-02632 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 11 • 
 
 7 
 
 1-02608 
 
 1-02527 
 
 1-02630 
 
 11 
 
 42 
 
 32 
 
 56 
 
 27 
 
 2040 
 
 « 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 13 ' 
 
 7 
 
 1 '02564 
 
 1-02525 
 
 1-02562 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 13 
 
 7 
 
 16 ' 
 
 s 
 
 1-02498 
 
 1-02530 
 
 1-02569 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 16 " 
 
 3 
 
 1-02497 
 
 1-02528 
 
 1-026S9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 15 ' 
 
 9 
 
 1-02503 
 
 1-02512 
 
 1-0270S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 16 * 
 
 1 
 
 1-02497 
 
 1-02514 
 
 1-02714 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 16 * 
 
 2 
 
 1-02493 
 
 1-02511 
 
 1-02711 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 1 
 
 • 6 
 
 16 • 
 
 2 
 
 1-02504 
 
 1-02522 
 
 1-02722 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 16 * 
 
 1 
 
 1-02556 
 
 1-02573 
 
 1-02771 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 16 ' 
 
 3 
 
 1-02564 
 
 1-02584 
 
 1-02782 
 
 12 
 
 41 
 
 39 
 
 54 
 
 40 
 
 2425 
 
 Surface. 
 
 14 
 
 • 8 
 
 16 * 
 
 3 
 
 1-0253S 
 
 1-02559 
 
 1-02544 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 —0 
 
 • 4 
 
 15 ' 
 
 9 
 
 1-02544 
 
 1-02553 
 
 1-02767 
 
 13 
 
 39 
 
 33 
 
 54 
 
 20 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 11 
 
 • 3 
 
 13 ' 
 
 4 
 
 1 -02568 
 
 1-02526 
 
 1-02612 
 
 " 
 
 3S 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 • 2 
 
 18 * 
 
 G 
 
 1-02459 
 
 1-02540 
 
 1-02471 
 
 14 
 
 37 
 
 17 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 
 600 
 
 (( 
 
 17 
 
 • 6 
 
 17 ' 
 
 8 
 
 1-02470 
 
 1-02530 
 
 1-02476 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 15 
 
 • 6 
 
 17 ' 
 
 1 
 
 1-02499 
 
 1-02538 
 
 1-02538 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 • 8 
 
 16 ' 
 
 9 
 
 1-02458 
 
 1-02493 
 
 1-02632 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 16 • 
 
 8 
 
 1-02534 
 
 1-02567 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 4 
 
 •"e 
 
 16 • 
 
 S 
 
 1 '02503 
 
 1-02535 
 
 1-02722 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 3 
 
 • 4 
 
 17 • 
 
 
 
 1-02500 
 
 1-02537 
 
 1-02727 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 • 7 
 
 16 ' 
 
 9 
 
 1-02510 
 
 1-02544 
 
 1-02740 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 "4 
 
 55* 
 
 "0 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 • 8 
 
 21 • 
 
 1 
 
 1-01655 
 
 Too li 
 
 ?ht for 
 
 " 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 55 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 2 
 
 21 • 
 
 6 
 
 1-01215 
 
 reduction. 
 
 26 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 "21 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 
 
 22 • 
 
 3 
 
 1-02113 
 
 1-02291 
 
 1-02122 
 
 27 
 
 35 
 
 25 
 
 52 
 
 35 
 
 
 (i 
 
 23 
 
 . £ 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 1-02444 
 
 1-02667 
 
 1-02450 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 39 
 
 50 
 
 47 
 
 1900 
 
 
 23 
 
 • 3 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 1-02460 
 
 1-02680 
 
 1 -02470 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 • 7 
 
 23 • 
 
 1 
 
 1-02475 
 
 1-02682 
 
 1-02519 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 22 • 
 
 9 
 
 1-02494 
 
 1-02692 
 
 1-0257S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 • 6 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 1-02471 
 
 1-02670 
 
 1-02615 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 13 
 
 • 2 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 1-02428 
 
 1-02627 
 
 1-02670 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 10 
 
 • 2 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 1-02385 
 
 1-02587 
 
 1-02690 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 • 8 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 1-02450 
 
 1-02653 
 
 1-02832 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 
 
 • 3 
 
 23 
 
 05 
 
 1-02461 
 
 1-02666 
 
 1-02860 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 1-02445 
 
 1-02650 
 
 1-02S60 
 
 29 
 
 36 
 
 "9 
 
 48 
 
 22 
 
 2800 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 ' 9 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 1-02440 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02443 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -0 
 
 • 4 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 1-02433 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1-02S20 
 
 March 1 
 
 36 
 
 "O 
 
 47 
 
 33 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 • 3 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 1-02492 
 
 1-02649 
 
 1-02498 
 
 (i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 3 
 
 1-02503 
 
 1-02685 
 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 44 
 
 46 
 
 16 
 
 2650 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22* 
 
 : 'o 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 1 -02499 
 
 1 -02682 
 
 1-02511 
 
 cc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 • 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 1-02475 
 
 1-02682 
 
 1-02540 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 • 7 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 1-02513 
 
 1-02695 
 
 1-02612 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 16 
 
 • 7 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 1-024S5 
 
 1-02676 
 
 1-02646 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 12 
 
 • 5 
 
 22 
 
 55 
 
 1-02452 
 
 1-02642 
 
 1-02706 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7 
 
 • 2 
 
 22 
 
 7 
 
 1-02490 
 
 1-02682 
 
 1-02831 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 • 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 1-02392 
 
 1-02590 
 
 1-02772 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 
 
 • 6 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 1-02347 
 
 1-02543 
 
 1-02738 
 
 l£ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -0 
 
 • 4 
 
 23 
 
 2 
 
 1-02383 
 
 1-02591 
 
 1-02805 
 
240 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 Date 
 1876.' 
 
 Latitude 
 South. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (i) at 
 which Water 
 was taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 a 
 
 Temperature 
 
 (t') during 
 Observation. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t'. 
 W T ater at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15°-56. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'ms. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 March 3 
 
 37° 
 
 3' 
 
 44° 
 
 17' 
 
 2775 
 
 Surface. 
 
 20° 
 
 oc. 
 
 21 c 
 
 • 5C. 
 
 1-0233S 
 
 1-02494 
 
 1-02380 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -0 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 • 6 
 
 1 '02420 
 
 1-02580 
 
 1*02793 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 48 
 
 42 
 
 45 
 
 2900 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 • 5 
 
 1 -024S1 
 
 1 -02639 
 
 1*02490 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -0 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 ' 2 
 
 1 -02444 
 
 1-02623 
 
 1*02836 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 32 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02462 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1 *02474 
 
 6 
 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 
 36 
 
 2900 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-02493 
 
 1-02578 
 
 1*02525 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 31 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 2675 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 IS 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02530 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1*02610 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02470 
 
 1-02576 
 
 1-02725 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 •45 
 
 1*02441 
 
 1-02540 
 
 1-02727 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2000 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 • 4 
 
 1 -02490 
 
 1*02588 
 
 1 -02794 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -0 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02477 
 
 1-02582 
 
 1-02796 
 
 8 
 
 37 
 
 45 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 2440 
 
 Surface. 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 • 5 
 
 1 -02549 
 
 1 -02627 
 
 1*02562 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 -0 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02471 
 
 1 -02607 
 
 1*02820 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 47 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 1715 
 
 Surface. 
 
 18 
 
 05 
 
 18 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02544 
 
 1*02628 
 
 1*02560 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02494 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02573 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 14 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 1-02509 
 
 1*02624 
 
 1-02650 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02488 
 
 1*02625 
 
 1-02673 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 • S 
 
 1-02536 
 
 1-02595 
 
 1 -02696 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 • 8 
 
 1 -02441 
 
 1*02551 
 
 1*02723 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 • 7 
 
 1 '02490 
 
 1 '02547 
 
 1*02731 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 18 
 
 • 
 
 1 -02505 
 
 1 '02569 
 
 1*02763 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 • 7 
 
 1 '02457 
 
 1 '02591 
 
 1*02795 
 
 10 
 
 37 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 31 
 
 2200 
 
 Surface. 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 18 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02531 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1 *02552 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 17 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02502 
 
 1-02559 
 
 1.02753 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1400 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 • 9 
 
 1 -02533 
 
 1-02594 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 17 
 
 •85 
 
 1 '02525 
 
 1 -02585 
 
 1-02793 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 • 5 
 
 1*02540 
 
 1*02591 
 
 1-02540 
 
 12 
 
 35 
 
 52 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 20 • 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 • 3 
 
 1 *02481 
 
 1*02602 
 
 1-02490 
 
 13 
 
 35 
 
 36 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 2*025 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02484 
 
 1*02619 
 
 1-02502 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 16 • 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 9 
 
 1 *02424 
 
 1 '02623 
 
 1 -02590 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 1 • 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02446 
 
 1 '02630 
 
 1-0265S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 * 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 4 
 
 1 -02446 
 
 1 '02630 
 
 1-026S6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 8 • 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 5 
 
 1 -02401 
 
 1-025S6 
 
 1*02723 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 • 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02350 
 
 1*02566 
 
 1-02737 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 ' 
 
 4 
 
 22 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02363 
 
 1*02553 
 
 1-02737 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 • 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02394 
 
 1*02577 
 
 1-02773 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 • 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02401 
 
 1*02591 
 
 1-02796 
 
 
 35" 
 
 45 
 
 18 
 
 31 
 
 1915 
 
 Surface. 
 
 20 • 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 • S 
 
 1-02473 
 
 1'02611 
 
 1-02491 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 • 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02393 
 
 1-025S3 
 
 1-02778 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 * 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02457 
 
 1'02612 
 
 1-02S14 
 
 
 34' 
 
 "9 
 
 15 
 
 46 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 • 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02459 
 
 1 -02640 
 
 1*02464 
 
 
 32 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 i<425 
 
 " 
 
 22 • 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02464 
 
 1'02674 
 
 1-02477 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 21 * 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02451 
 
 1 '02660 
 
 1-02516 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 17 • 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-02457 
 
 1*02654 
 
 1-02591 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 15 • 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 • 
 
 1-02440 
 
 1 *02643 
 
 1-02646 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 9 
 
 1-02424 
 
 1-02625 
 
 1-02703 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-023S0 
 
 1 *02576 
 
 1-02707 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 • 
 
 1-023S0 
 
 1*02612 
 
 1-02780 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-02451 
 
 1-02648 
 
 1*02843 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02360 
 
 1*02594 
 
 1*02789 
 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 • 
 
 1-02462 
 
 1*02695 
 
 1*02443 
 
 
 27 
 
 54 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 1890 
 
 
 24 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02457 
 
 1*02707 
 
 1*02448 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02442 
 
 1*02680 
 
 1*02537 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 23 
 
 • 8 
 
 1-02437 
 
 1 -02665 
 
 1*02592 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 23 
 
 • 9 
 
 1-02410 
 
 1-02640 
 
 1*02654 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 24 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02371 
 
 1 -02605 
 
 1-026S9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 • 
 
 1-02307 
 
 1*02598 
 
 1*02742 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02333 
 
 1*02570 
 
 1-02751 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOO 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02354 
 
 1*02594 
 
 1-02787 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 24 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02353 
 
 1*02600 
 
 1-02800 
 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 13" 
 
 36 
 
 1240 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02450 
 
 1*02718 
 
 1*02455 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 • 9 
 
 1-02459 
 
 1*02718 
 
 1*02540 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 •75 
 
 1-02413 
 
 1*02668 
 
 1*02531 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02407 
 
 1*02659 
 
 1*02625 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02408 
 
 1-02650 
 
 1-02S43 
 
 
 23' 
 
 27 
 
 13' 
 
 51 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 24 
 
 95 
 
 25 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02456 
 
 1*02722 
 
 1-02460 
 
 
 21 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 1990 
 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 •85 
 
 1-02504 
 
 1*02762 
 
 1-02510 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 24 
 
 • 9 
 
 1-02472 
 
 1*02730 
 
 1-02493 
 
CHAP. IV. 
 
 ] 
 
 THE VOYAGE HOME. 
 
 241 
 
 Date, 
 
 Latitude 
 
 Longitude 
 
 rg 
 el- 
 
 1 (<5) at 
 Water 
 ;aken. 
 
 CD 
 
 3 
 
 £ 
 
 i 
 
 erature 
 luring 
 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15° -56. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 c Grav- 
 at t'. 
 ter at 
 
 1876. 
 
 South. 
 
 West. 
 
 's co 
 g< 
 
 (5 
 
 Deptl 
 was 1 
 
 a. 
 S 
 
 <u 
 
 
 
 !S " 
 m 
 
 >> * 
 
 a, 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 F'ms. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lVlt.ll C II L\. 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 22° 
 
 ic. 
 
 23° • 7C. 
 
 1 '02488 
 
 1*02712 
 
 1 02593 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 24 *S5 
 
 1*02418 
 
 1*02675 
 
 1*02618 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 25 * 
 
 1 '02343 
 
 1 '02605 
 
 1*02716 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 25 • 
 
 1*02396 
 
 1 "02658 
 
 1*02821 
 
 (( 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 •3 
 
 6 
 
 25 ' 
 
 1 '02400 
 
 1-02662 
 
 1 02852 
 
 22 
 
 19° 55' 
 
 13° 56' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 25 * 
 
 1 -02498 
 
 1-02760 
 
 1'02507 
 
 23 
 
 17 26 
 
 13 52 
 
 1415 
 
 <t 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 24 * 6 
 
 1*02518 
 
 1 -02768 
 
 1 *02520 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 24 * 9 
 
 1 -02467 
 
 1*02726 
 
 1 '02494 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 25 * 2 
 
 1'02440 
 
 1*02710 
 
 1*02577 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 15 ' 
 
 5 
 
 25 • 1 
 
 1 -02382 
 
 1 02649 
 
 1 U2b49 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 ' 
 
 
 
 24 ' 9 
 
 1 '02334 
 
 1*02592 
 
 1 "02716 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 4 ' 
 
 
 
 24 ' 9 
 
 1-02311 
 
 1 *02570 
 
 1*02758 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 3 " 
 
 7 
 
 25 ' 1 
 
 1 '02306 
 
 1*02570 
 
 1 "02764 
 
 „ 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 ' 
 
 5 
 
 25 " 1 
 
 1-02314 
 
 1 -02580 
 
 1*02775 
 
 24 
 
 14 33 
 
 13 42 
 
 1500 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 ' 
 
 1 
 
 25 * 3 
 
 1-02492 
 
 1-02763 
 
 -1 .AO,1AA 
 
 1 02499 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 24 ' 
 
 
 
 25 " 3 
 
 1-02470 
 
 1-02739 
 
 1*02505 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 21 - 
 
 9 
 
 25 ' 1 
 
 T 02471 
 
 1-02737 
 
 1 02OOO 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 14 * 
 
 5 
 
 24 '75 
 
 l - 02387 
 
 1-02644 
 
 1*02670 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 8 ' 
 
 3 
 
 24 * 9 
 
 1-02483 
 
 1*02742 
 
 1*02S75 
 
 41 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 • 
 
 7 
 
 24 * 9 
 
 1-02327 
 
 1 '025S5 
 
 1-02754 
 
 j, 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 * 
 
 4 
 
 24 " 9 
 
 1-02386 
 
 1*02645 
 
 
 lt 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 3 • 
 
 6 
 
 25 ' 
 
 1*02311 
 
 1*02572 
 
 1*02763 
 
 4t 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 • 
 
 6 
 
 25 ' 2 
 
 1*02341 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1 .AOQAQ 
 
 1 OZotlo 
 
 25 
 
 12 29 
 
 13 44 
 
 1475 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26 • 
 
 2 
 
 26 " 1 
 
 1*02422 
 
 1-02722 
 
 1 .AO/4 OA 
 
 (< 
 
 12 16 
 
 13 44 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 26 • 4 
 
 1 02413 
 
 1-02720 
 
 1 *024oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 21 "' 
 
 9 
 
 26 *15 
 
 1*02431 
 
 1*02731 
 
 1 U20O4 
 
 
 
 
 
 115 
 
 
 
 25 "95 
 
 1*02325 
 
 1*02619 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 s"* 
 
 '3 
 
 25 • 9 
 
 1*02320 
 
 1-02614 
 
 1*02746 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 5 • 
 
 8 
 
 25 • 9 
 
 1*02339 
 
 1*02631 
 
 1*02798 
 
 U 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 4 • 
 
 5 
 
 26 • 
 
 1-02279 
 
 1*02574 
 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 2 ■ 
 
 8 
 
 26 '05 
 
 1*02282 
 
 1 '025S0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 3 • 
 
 
 
 26 *45 
 
 1*02308 
 
 1*02616 
 
 1 .AQCAQ 
 
 26 
 
 l6'"6 
 
 13 "44 
 
 1445 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26 -65 
 
 26 '65 
 
 1*02418 
 
 1 '02732 
 
 1'02418 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 26 '55 
 
 1-0240S 
 
 1 '02720 
 
 1 .AOyf 1 O 
 
 << 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 21 • 
 
 9 
 
 26 ' 6 
 
 1'02385 
 
 1*02697 
 
 1 *0252o 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 • 
 
 2 
 
 26 * 3 
 
 1 -02309 
 
 1*02615 
 
 1 .AO£YA 
 
 1 02579 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 8 • 
 
 7 
 
 26 • 4 
 
 1-02319 
 
 1*02629 
 
 1*02755 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 ' 
 
 9 
 
 26 '45 
 
 1 -02309 
 
 1 "O9fi90 
 
 1*02774 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 6 • 
 
 
 
 26 ' 4 
 
 1-02271 
 
 
 1*02759 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 900 
 
 3 • 
 
 2 
 
 26 "45 
 
 1 02296 
 
 1 "09607 
 
 l*0f797 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 AJVJbWJLLL* 
 
 2 ' 
 
 6 
 
 26 ' 7 
 
 1'02298 
 
 
 1'02813 
 
 27 
 
 /Off Ascension) 
 1 Island. f 
 
 425 
 
 Surface. 
 
 27 • 
 
 1 
 
 26 • S 
 
 1*02379 
 
 1*02700 
 
 1-02370 
 
 44 
 
 
 it 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 4 * 
 
 5 
 
 25 " 7 
 
 1 -02340 
 
 1*02622 
 
 l - 02803 
 
 April 3 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 QUI late. 
 
 27 ' 
 
 7 
 
 27 * 4 
 
 1*02331 
 
 1'02672 
 
 1 -02316 
 
 4 
 
 5 45 
 
 14 25 
 
 2010 
 
 ft 
 
 28 ' 
 
 3 
 
 28 '05 
 
 1-022S1 
 
 1 -no ra a 
 
 1 "02272 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 26 • 
 
 9 
 
 27 * 7 
 
 1*02323 
 
 1 •09A7A 
 
 1 '02350 
 
 4( 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 22 • 
 
 1 
 
 28 '05 
 
 1-02329 
 
 1 -nOAQzl 
 X v£0\J'± 
 
 1-02502 
 
 ,4 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 11 • 
 
 6 
 
 27 ' 6 
 
 1-02266 
 
 1*02616 
 
 1*02698 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 s • 
 
 3 
 
 27 * 6 
 
 1 -02245 
 
 J. uzoy* 
 
 1*02727 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 • 
 
 6 
 
 27 • 6 
 
 1*02234 
 
 1*02583 
 
 1*02740 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 5 • 
 
 5 
 
 27 • 7 
 
 1*02234 
 
 1*02588 
 
 1*02758 
 
 (t 
 
 
 
 
 1525 
 
 2 • 
 
 4 
 
 27 ' 8 
 
 1'02241 
 
 1*02599 
 
 1*02793 
 
 4, 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 • 
 
 1 
 
 27 • 9 
 
 1*02260 
 
 1*02620 
 
 1-02S14 
 
 5 
 
 i' 'io 
 
 14* 34 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 28 ' 
 
 2 
 
 2S • 1 
 
 1*02248 
 
 1-02616 
 
 1-02244 
 
 Q 
 
 2 42 
 
 14 41 
 
 2350 
 
 
 28 • 
 
 2 
 
 28 ' 2 
 
 1 "02272 
 
 1-02642 
 
 1-02271 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 22 
 
 2 
 
 27 ' 8 
 
 1*02293 
 
 1-02651 
 
 1-02474 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 14 ' 
 
 
 
 27 • 9 
 
 1-02271 
 
 1*02633 
 
 1*02665 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 • 
 
 8 
 
 27 • 8 
 
 1-0227S 
 
 1-02636 
 
 1-02691 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 • 
 
 5 
 
 27 ' 8 
 
 1*02266 
 
 1-02624 
 
 1-02739 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 ' 
 
 5 
 
 27 • 7 
 
 1*02237 
 
 1 -025S9 
 
 1-02746 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 27 \8 
 
 1*02220 
 
 1-02578 
 
 1-02749 
 
 
 
 
 
 SOO 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 27 • 9 
 
 1*02255 
 
 1*02616 
 
 1*02804 
 
 
 
 
 
 1875 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 27 ' 8 
 
 1*02255 
 
 1-02614 
 
 1-02S14 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 27 ' 8 
 
 1-022S2 
 
 1-02641 
 
 1-02848 
 
 7 
 
 6' 15 
 
 14* 25 
 
 2250 
 
 Surface. 
 25 
 
 27 
 25 
 
 8 
 2 
 
 27 • 7 
 27 ■ 3 
 
 1*02303 
 1*02340 
 
 1 02657 
 1-02683 
 
 1-02300 
 1-02415 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 27 ' 3 
 
 1*02366 
 
 1-02706 
 
 1-02632 
 
242 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 Date, 
 1876. 
 
 Latitude 
 South. 
 
 Longitude 
 West. 
 
 Depth of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Depth (6) at 
 which Water 
 was taken. 
 
 Temperature 
 
 C 
 
 Temperature 
 
 (f) during 
 Observation. 
 
 a. ^ 
 w 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity at 15°'56. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 at t. 
 Water at 
 4° = 1. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F'ms. 
 
 Fathoms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ap'l 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 14° * 
 
 1C. 
 
 27° 
 
 • oc. 
 
 1-02297 
 
 1-02625 
 
 1-02655 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 • 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 • 9 
 
 1*02257 
 
 1-025S0 
 
 1-02738 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1500 
 
 2 • 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 • 
 
 1*02283 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02805 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 1 • 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 •85 
 
 1*02281 
 
 1-02603 
 
 1-02804 
 
 8 
 
 1° 
 
 30' N. 
 
 14° 
 
 6' 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 28 • 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 •75 
 
 1-02271 
 
 1*02627 
 
 1-02256 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 51 
 
 
 " 
 
 29 ' 
 
 9 
 
 29 
 
 •65 
 
 1-02183 
 
 1-02602 
 
 1-02179 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 25 • 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 • 7 
 
 1 '02266 
 
 1-02620 
 
 1-02358 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 • 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02293 
 
 1-02647 
 
 1-02655 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 ■ 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 •65 
 
 1-02291 
 
 1-02642 
 
 1-02699 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 • 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 ' 7 
 
 1-02256 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02727 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 • 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02272 
 
 1-02622 
 
 1-02780 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 385 
 
 5 • 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 •65 
 
 1 -02250 
 
 1-02603 
 
 1-02780 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 800 
 
 3 • 
 
 8 
 
 2S 
 
 •15 
 
 1-02219 
 
 1-02587 
 
 1-02777 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 14 " 
 
 38 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 28 • 
 
 6 
 
 28 
 
 •45 
 
 1-02256 
 
 1-02636 
 
 1-02253 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 17 ■ 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 • 9 
 
 1*02287 
 
 1-02647 
 
 1-02591 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 • 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 • 9 
 
 1-02281 
 
 1-02641 
 
 1-02652 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 • 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 • 7 
 
 1 -022S4 
 
 1-02638 
 
 1-02684 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 9 * 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02266 
 
 1-02620 
 
 1-02743 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 • 9 
 
 1 -02244 
 
 1-02603 
 
 
 11 
 
 T 
 
 26 
 
 is' 
 
 13 . 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 28 •' 
 
 5 
 
 28 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-02259 
 
 1-02640 
 
 1-02259 
 
 
 7 
 
 33 
 
 15 
 
 16 4 
 
 
 25 
 
 22 • 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 •65 
 
 1-02294 
 
 1-02645 
 
 1 -02474 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 16 • 
 
 9 
 
 27 
 
 •65 
 
 1-02294 
 
 1-02645 
 
 1-02610 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 • 
 
 8 
 
 27 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02283 
 
 1-02637 
 
 1-02683 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 7 • 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 •55 
 
 1*02253 
 
 1-02601 
 
 1-02750 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 35 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 27 • 
 
 7 
 
 27 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02320 
 
 1-02671 
 
 1-0231S 
 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 
 25 
 
 17 • 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 ' 3 
 
 1*02344 
 
 1-02652 
 
 1-02600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 • 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 • 4 
 
 1 *02347 
 
 1-02653 
 
 1*02660 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 13 • 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 • 2 
 
 1*02330 
 
 1-02633 
 
 1-02678 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 8 • 
 
 7 
 
 26 
 
 • 3 
 
 T02316 
 
 1-02624 
 
 1*02751 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 6 • 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 • 3 
 
 1*02292 
 
 1-02598 
 
 1*02753 
 
 13 
 
 io' 
 
 'is 
 
 17' 
 
 48 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26 • 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 • 9 
 
 1*02381 
 
 1-02672 
 
 1*02378 
 
 " 
 
 10 
 
 55 
 
 17 
 
 46 
 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 •45 
 
 1 *02493 
 
 1-02654 
 
 1*02564 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 •55 
 
 1-02472 
 
 1-02633 
 
 1*02643 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02468 
 
 1-02627 
 
 1*02680 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 10 • 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 •55 
 
 1*02443 
 
 1-02602 
 
 1*02704 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 •55 
 
 1*02450 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1-02747 
 
 14 
 
 11 
 
 *23 
 
 18* 
 
 42 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 23 ' 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 • 5 
 
 1*02469 
 
 1-02687 
 
 1*02462 
 
 15 
 
 12' 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 
 " 
 
 22 • 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02490 
 
 1-026S2 
 
 1*02484 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 56 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 23 ' 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02468 
 
 1-02660 
 
 1*02457 
 
 26 
 
 16 
 
 48 
 
 25 
 
 14 
 
 
 " 
 
 23 ■ 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 • S 
 
 1-02504 
 
 1-02702 
 
 1-02501 
 
 27 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 26 
 
 32 
 
 
 (C 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02509 
 
 1-02700 
 
 1-02503 
 
 2S 
 
 17 
 
 47 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 
 (< 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 22 
 
 • 8 
 
 1*02499 
 
 1-02697 
 
 1-02500 
 
 29 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 10 
 
 
 tt 
 
 23 
 
 7 
 
 23 
 
 • 5 
 
 1*02533 
 
 1-02753 
 
 1-02530 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 30 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 • 1 
 
 1*02555 
 
 1-02762 
 
 1-02560 
 
 May 1 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 31 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 22 ' 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02578 
 
 1-02771 
 
 1-02580 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 3S 
 
 
 
 21 • 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 • 7 
 
 1-02613 
 
 1-02775 
 
 1-02616 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 37 
 
 2965 
 
 (1 
 
 21 • 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02619 
 
 1-02774 
 
 1-02618 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 20 • 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02610 
 
 1-02760 
 
 1*02639 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 20 • 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 • 4 
 
 1-02587 
 
 1-02742 
 
 1*02628 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02560 
 
 1-02719 
 
 1-02661 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 15 ' 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02531 
 
 1 '02690 
 
 1-02702 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 12 • 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 ' 4 
 
 1-02542 
 
 1-02699 
 
 1-0266S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 •35 
 
 1-02487 
 
 1-02642 
 
 1-02759 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2500 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02532 
 
 1-02682 
 
 1-02878 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 • 5 
 
 1-02556 
 
 1-02714 
 
 1-02908 
 
 4 
 
 28 
 
 io 
 
 34 
 
 55 
 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 ■ 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 • 2 
 
 1-02612 
 
 1-02761 
 
 1-02619 
 
 5 
 
 29 
 
 50 
 
 35 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 • 3 
 
 1-025S8 
 
 1-02741 
 
 1-02602 
 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 • 9 
 
 1*02580 
 
 1-02749 
 
 1-025S7 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 41 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 1675 
 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02575 
 
 1-02735 
 
 1-02585 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 19 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 1*02593 
 
 1-02708 
 
 1-02615 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-025S0 
 
 1-02700 
 
 1-02635 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 • 6 
 
 1-02568 
 
 1-02701 
 
 1-02660 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 20 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-025S8 
 
 1-02706 
 
 1-02706 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 20 
 
 •05 
 
 1-02558 
 
 1-02675 
 
 1-02752 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 400 
 
 10 
 
 • 2 
 
 20 
 
 • 1 
 
 1-02543 
 
 1-02603 
 
 1-02765 
 
 tt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 7 
 
 • 
 
 20 
 
 • 
 
 1*02516 
 
 1-02632 
 
 1-02783 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1200 
 
 3 
 
 • 
 
 20 
 
 • 9 
 
 1-02558 
 
 1-02700 
 
 1-02892 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bottom. 
 
 2 
 
 • 7 
 
 20 
 
 • 2 
 
 1*02544 
 
 1-02665 
 
 1-02859 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 243 
 
 APPENDIX E. 
 
 List of the Stations in the Atlantic at which Observations were taken 
 
 in the Year 1876. 
 
 Station CCCXIIL, January 20th, 1876.— Lat. 52° 20' S., Long. 68° 
 0' W. Depth, 55 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 8°'8 C. Sand. 
 
 Station CCCXIV., January 21st, 1876.— Lat. 51° 36' S., Long. 65° 
 40' W. Depth, 70 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 7°'8 C. Sand. 
 
 Station CCCXV., January 26th, 27th, 28th, 1876.— Lat. 51° 40' S., 
 Long. 57° 50' W. Depth, 5 to 12 fathoms. Sand and gravel. 
 
 Station CCCXVL, February 3d, 1876.— Lat. 51° 32' S., Long. 58° 
 6' W. Depth, 4 to 5 fathoms. Mud. 
 
 Station CCCXVIL, February 8th, 1876.— Lat. 48° 37' S., Long. 55° 
 17' W. Depth, 1035 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'7 C. Hard 
 ground. 
 
 Station CCCXVIIL, February 11th, 1876. — Lat. 42° 32' S., Long. 
 56° 27' W. Depth, 2040 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 0°'3 C. 
 Gray mud. 
 
 Station CCCIX., February 12th, 1876.— Lat. 41° 54' S., Long. 54° 
 48' W. Depth, 2425 fathoms. Bottom temperature, o *4 C. Gray 
 mud. 
 
 Station CCCXX., February 14th, 1876.— Lat. 37° 17' S., Long. 53° 
 52' W. Depth, 600 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°'7 C. Hard 
 ground. 
 
 Station CCCXXL, February 25th, 1876.— Lat. 35° 2' S., Long. 55° 
 15' W. Depth, 13 fathoms. Mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXIL, February 26th, 1876.— Lat. 35° 20' S., Long. 53° 
 42' W. Depth, 21 fathoms. Shells. 
 
 Station CCCXXIIL, February 28th, 1876. — Lat. 35°. 39' S., Long. 
 50° 47' W. Depth, 1900 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 0°*0 C. 
 Gray mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXIV., February 29th, 1876.— Lat. 36° 9' S., Long. 48° 
 22' W. Depth, 2800 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — 0°*4 C. Gray 
 mud. 
 
244 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. IV. 
 
 Station CCCXXV., March 2d, 1876.— Lat. 36° 44' S., Long. 46° 16' 
 W. Depth, 2650 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — 0°*4 C. Gray mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXVL, March 3d, 1876.— Lat. 37° 3' S., Long. 44° 17' 
 W. Depth, 2775 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — 0°'4 C. Gray mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXVIL, March 4th, 1876.— Lat. 36° 48' S., Long. 42° 
 45' W. Depth, 2900 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — 0°*3 C. Gray 
 mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXVIIL, March 6th, 1876.— Lat. 37° 38' S., Long. 39° 
 36' W. Depth, 2900 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — 0°'3 C. Gray 
 mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXIX., March 7th, 1876.— Lat. 37° 31' S., Long. 36° 
 7' W. Depth, 2675 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — 0°'6 C. Gray 
 mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXX., March 8th, 1876.— Lat. 37° 45' S., Long. 33° 0' 
 W. Depth, 2440 fathoms. Bottom temperature, — o, 3 C. Gray mud. 
 
 Station CCCXXXL, March 9th, 1876.— Lat. 37° 47' S., Long. 30° 
 20' W. Depth, 1715 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°*3 C. Globi- 
 gerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXIL, March 10th, 1876.— Lat. 37° 29' S., Long. 27° 
 31' W. Depth, 2200 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 0°*4 C. Globi- 
 gerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXIIL, March 13th, 1876.— Lat. 35° 36' S., Long. 21° 
 12' W. Depth, 2025 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1° '2 C. Globi- 
 gerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXIV., March 14th, 1876.— Lat. 35° 45' S., Long. 18° 
 31' W. Depth, 1915 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'5 C. Globi- 
 gerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXV., March 16th, 1876.— Lat. 32° 24' S., Long. 13° 
 5' W. Depth, 1425 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2° '3 C. Globige- 
 rina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXVL, March 18th, 1876.— Lat. 27° 54' S., Long. 13° 
 13' W. Depth, 1890 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1° '9 C. Globi- 
 gerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXVIL, March 19th, 1876.— Lat. 24° 38' S., Long. 
 13° 36' W. Depth, 1240 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°"5 C. 
 Globigerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXXXVIIL, March 21st, 1876. — Lat, 21° 15' S., Long. 
 14° 2' W. Depth, 1990 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'8 C. Glo- 
 bigerina ooze. 
 
CHAP. IV.] 
 
 THE VOYAGE ROME. 
 
 245 
 
 Station CCCXXXIX., March 23d, 1876.— Lat. 17° 26' S., Long. 13° 
 52' W. Depth, 1415 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°*5 C. Globi- 
 gerina ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXL., March 24th, 1876.— Lat. 14° 33' S., Long. 13° 42' 
 W. Depth, 1500 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2 °*6 C. Hard ground. 
 
 Station CCCXLL, March 25th, 1876.— Lat. 12° 16' S., Long. 13° 44' 
 W. Depth, 1475 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 3 o, C. Hard ground. 
 
 Station CCCXLIL, March 26th, 1876.— Lat. 9° 43' S., Long. 13° 51' 
 W. Depth, 1445 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2° '6 C. Globigerina 
 ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXLIIL, March 27th, 1876.— Lat. 8° 3' S., Long. 14° 27' 
 W. Depth, 425 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 4°"5 C. Coral. 
 
 Station CCCXLIY., April 3d, 1876.— Off Ascension Island. Depth, 
 420 fathoms. Hard ground. 
 
 Station CCCXLV., April 4th, 1876.— Lat. 5° 45' S., Long. 14° 25' 
 W. Depth, 2010 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2° *1 C. Globigerina 
 ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXL VI., April 6th, 1876.— Lat. 2° 42' S., Long. 14° 41' 
 W. Depth, 2350 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 0° '4 C. Globigerina 
 ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXL VII., April 7th, 1876.— Lat, 0° 15' S., Long. 14° 25' 
 W. Depth, 2250 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°*7 C. Globigerina 
 ooze. 
 
 Station CCCXLVIIL, April 9th, 1876.— Lat. 3° 10' N., Long. 14° 
 51' W. Depth (see Station CIL). 
 
 Station CCCXLIX., April 10th, 1876. — Lat. 5° 28' N., Long. 14° 
 38' W. 
 
 Station CCCL., April 11th, 1876.— Lat. 7° 33' N., Long. 15° 16' W. 
 Station CCCLL, April 12th, 1876.— Lat. 9° 9' N., Long. 16° 41' W. 
 Station CCCLIL, April 13th, 1876. — Lat. 10° 55' K, Long. 17° 
 46' W. 
 
 Station CCCLIIL, May 3d, 1876.— Lat. 26° 21' N., Long. 33° 37' 
 W. Depth, 2965 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°*3 C. Red clay. 
 
 Station CCCLIV., May 6th, 1876.— Lat. 32° 41' N., Long. 36° 6' 
 W. Depth, 1675 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2° *7 C. Globigerina 
 ooze. 
 
246 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. v. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 The Contour of the Bed of the Atlantic. — The Atlantic Ocean divided by a Series 
 of Ridges into Three Basins. — The Nature of the Bottom. — Pelagic Foraminif- 
 era. — Hastigerina Murrayi. — Volcanic Debris. — Products of the Decomposition 
 of Pumice. — The Distribution of Ocean Temperature. — Laws regulating the 
 Movements of the Upper Layers of the Atlantic. — Corrections of Six's Ther- 
 mometers. — Laws regulating the Movement of Water in the Depths of the 
 Atlantic. — The Doctrine of "Continuous Barriers." — The Distribution and 
 Nature of the Deep - sea Fauna. — The Universal Distribution of Living Be- 
 ings. — Causes modifying and restricting the Distribution of the Higher Forms. 
 — Relations of the Modern to the Ancient Faunae. — The Challengerida. — The 
 Density of Sea -water. — The Amount and Distribution of Carbonic Acid. — Of 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Appendix A. — The General Result of the Chemical and Microscopical Examination 
 of a Series of Twenty Samples of the Bottom from the Observing Stations on 
 the Section between Teneriffe and Sombrero. 
 
 Appendix B. — Table showing the Amount of Carbonic Acid contained in Sea-water 
 at Various Stations in the Atlantic. 
 
 Appendix C. — Table showing the Relative Frequency of the Occurrence of the Prin- 
 cipal Groups of Marine Animals at Fifty -two Stations at which Dredging or 
 Trawling was carried to Depths greater than 2000 Fathoms. 
 
 It is, of course, impossible at this stage of the work, while 
 the great bulk of the observations are still unreduced, while 
 the chemical analyses are only commenced, and there has not 
 been time even to unpack the natural - history specimens, to 
 give any thing like a detailed account of the additional data, 
 which have been acquired by the Challenger expedition, or of 
 their bearings upon the various problems of physical geogra- 
 phy. Still, from the presence of a competent scientific staff 
 on board, a good deal was done during the voyage ; and certain 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 247 
 
 general results were arrived at which are of great interest even 
 in their present crude form. 
 
 I propose in this chapter to summarize these results, giving 
 briefly a general outline of the conditions as to the contour 
 of the bottom of the ocean, the nature of the deposits which 
 are being laid down on the bottom, the general distribution 
 of temperature, the direction and force of surface and subma- 
 rine movements of the water, and the nature and distribution 
 of the deep-sea fauna, according to my present impressions; 
 premising that these may be modified to a certain extent by 
 further study of the materials in our hands. I will, however, 
 confine myself at present, as far as possible, to the facts which 
 appear to be ascertained with some approach to certainty. 
 
 The Contour of the Bed of the Atlantic. — During the first 
 few days of our cruise we verified many previous observations 
 to the effect that, after passing a comparatively narrow, shal- 
 low belt, the water deepens rather suddenly along the coasts 
 of Europe and North Africa, to between 2000 and 2500 fath- 
 oms, a peculiar ridge, first observed by the Swedish corvette 
 Josephine, and lately by the United States sloop Gettysburg, 
 running down in a south-westerly direction from about Cape 
 Roca, including the Josephine Bank and Madeira, and giving 
 its western boundary to a tongue of deep water which passes 
 in a north-easterly direction between Madeira and the main- 
 land toward Cape St. Vincent. (See Frontispiece.) 
 
 From Teneriffe westward, except at one spot about 160 miles 
 south-west of the Island of Ferro, where we sounded in 1525 
 fathoms on the top of a ridge, the water gradually deepened 
 to the westward to the depth of 3150 fathoms at the bottom 
 of a wide valley, which extends more than half-way across the 
 Atlantic. About long. 43° W. the floor began to rise, and at 
 long. 44° 39' W. we sounded in 1900 fathoms on the top of a 
 gentle elevation. Farther to the westward the depth again 
 increased, and in long. 61° 28' N". we sounded in 3050 fathoms 
 
248 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 at the bottom of a deep western trough ; the water then shoaled 
 rapidly up to the West Indian Islands. 
 
 On our next section from St. Thomas to Bermudas we 
 sounded a little to the north of the Virgin Islands in 3875 
 fathoms, the greatest depth known in the Atlantic, and our 
 whole course lay through a depression upward of 2500 fathoms 
 deep, showing that the western trough extended considerably 
 to the northward. This western valley was again traversed be- 
 tween Bermudas and the Acores, the water shallowing at a dis- 
 tance from those islands, thus showing that they formed the 
 culminating points of a plateau of considerable extent. Be- 
 tween the Acores and Madeira we recrossed the eastern valley, 
 and our course from Madeira to the Cape Yerde Islands, and 
 southward to a station in lat. 5° 48' K, long. 14° 20' W,, lay 
 within it, near its eastern border. We then crossed the valley, 
 and in lat. 1° 22' 1ST., long. 26° 36' W., we sounded in 1500 fath- 
 oms near the centre of the middle ridge, and, altering our course 
 to the south-westward, we crossed obliquely a western depres- 
 sion, with a maximum depth of about 2500 fathoms, between 
 St. Paul's Rocks and Cape St. Roque. From Bahia we crossed 
 a western depression with a maximum depth of 3000 fathoms, 
 and came upon 1900 fathoms on the central rise, a few degrees 
 to the westward of Tristan d'Acunha. An eastern depression 
 with an average depth of 2500 fathoms extended for the greater 
 part of the distance between Tristan d'Acunha and the Cape 
 of Good Hope. 
 
 On our return voyage, in 1876, we crossed the western basin 
 of the South Atlantic about the parallel of 33° S. We then 
 ran northward on the top of the rise in the meridian of Tristan 
 d'Acunha and Ascension as far as the equator, and the greater 
 part of the remainder of our course lay nearly in the axis of 
 the eastern depression. 
 
 Combining our own observations with reliable data which 
 have been previously or subsequently acquired, we find that 
 
Plate XL. Meteorological Obser 
 
 Barometer 
 
 Dry .Bulb Thermometer 
 
 Wet 
 
 £ 17te> arrows i*zdzjxzte/ t?v& clzree&LOTv of tA& wi*u]y } a^vdy th*y ai 
 
tions for the month of March, 1876. 
 
 ulb Thermometer Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
 17 18 19 20 21 22 . 23 24- 25 26 27 ,28 23 30 31 j^ C 
 
 -5 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 249 
 
 the mean depth of the Atlantic is a little over 2000 fathoms. 
 An elevated ridge rising to an average height of about 1900 
 fathoms below the surface traverses the basins of the North 
 and South Atlantic in a meridional direction from Cape Fare- 
 well, probably as far south at least as Gough Island, following 
 roughly the outlines of the coasts of the Old and the New 
 "Worlds. 
 
 A branch of this elevation strikes off to the south-westward 
 about the parallel of 10° N., and connects it with the coast of 
 South America at Cape Orange ; and another branch crosses the 
 eastern trough, joining the continent of Africa probably about 
 the parallel of 25° S. The Atlantic Ocean is thus divided by 
 the axial ridge and its branches into three basins : an eastern, 
 which extends from the West of Ireland nearly to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, with an average depth along the middle line of 
 2500 fathoms ; a north-western basin, occupying the great east- 
 ern bight of the American continent, with an average depth of 
 3000 fathoms ; and a gulf running up the coast of South Amer- 
 ica as far as Cape Orange, and open to the southward, with a 
 mean depth of 3000 fathoms. 
 
 The Nature of the Bottom. — Except in the neighborhood of 
 coasts, where the deposit at the bottom consists chiefly of the 
 debris washed down by rivers, or produced by the disintegra- 
 tion of the rocks of the coast-line, the bed of the Atlantic, at 
 depths between 400 and 2000 fathoms, is covered with the 
 now well-known calcareous deposit, the globigerina ooze, con- 
 sisting, as has been already described (vol. i., p. 198), to a great 
 extent of the shells, more or less broken and decomposed, of 
 pelagic foraminifera. In the Atlantic the species producing 
 the ooze are chiefly referable to the genera Globigerina, Or- 
 bulina, Pulvinulina, Pullenia, and Sphmroidina, the two latter 
 in smaller proportions. 
 
 One very beautiful form occurs at the bottom, sparingly on 
 account of the extreme tenuity of its shell. Hastigerina Mur- 
 
 II.— 17 
 
250 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. v. 
 
 rayi is very widely distributed on the surface of warm seas, 
 more abundant, however, and of larger size in the Pacific than 
 in the Atlantic. The shell (Fig. 51) consists of a series of eight 
 
 Fig. 51. — Ilaxtigerina Murrayi, Wyyiue Thomson. From the surface. Fifty times the 
 
 natural size. 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 251 
 
 or nine rapidly enlarging inflated chambers coiled symmetrical- 
 ly on a plane ; the shell-wall is extremely thin, perfectly hya- 
 line, and rather closely perforated with large and obvious pores. 
 It is beset with a comparatively small number of very large 
 and long spines. The proximal portion of each spine is formed 
 of three laminae, delicately serrated along their outer edges, and 
 their inner edges united together. The spines, when they come 
 near the point of junction with the shell, are contracted to a nar- 
 row cylindrical neck, which is attached to the shell by a slightly 
 expanded conical base. The distal portion of the spine loses 
 its three diverging laminae, and becomes flexible and thread- 
 like. The sarcode is of a rich orange color from included high- 
 ly colored oil-globules. 
 
 On one occasion in the Pacific, when Mr. Murray was out in 
 a boat in a dead calm collecting surface creatures, he took gen- 
 tly up in a spoon a little globular gelatinous mass with a red 
 centre, and transferred it to a tube. This globule gave us our 
 first and last chance of seeing what a pelagic foraminifer really 
 is when in its full beauty. When placed under the microscope, 
 it proved to be a Ilastigerina in a condition wholly different 
 from any thing which we had yet seen. The spines, which were 
 mostly unbroken, owing to its mode of capture, were enormous- 
 ly long, about fifteen times the diameter of the shell in length ; 
 the sarcode, loaded with its yellow oil-cells, was almost all out- 
 side the shell, and beyond the fringe of yellow sarcode the space 
 between the spines to a distance of about twice the diameter of 
 the shell all round was completely filled up with delicate bul- 
 lae, like those which we see in some of the Radiolarians, as if 
 the most perfectly transparent portion of the sarcode had been 
 blown out into a delicate froth of bubbles of uniform size. 
 Along the spines fine double threads of transparent sarcode, 
 loaded with minute granules, coursed up one side and down the 
 other; while between the spines independent thread-like pseu- 
 dopodia ran out, some of them perfectly free, and others anasto- 
 
252 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 mosing with one another, or joining the sarcodic sheaths of the 
 spines, but all showing the characteristic flowing movement of 
 living protoplasm. The wood-cut (Fig. 52), excellent though it 
 
 Fig. 52. — Hastigerina Murrayi, Wyvilt.e Thomson. From the surface. Ten times the 
 
 natural size. 
 
 is, gives only a most imperfect idea of the complexity and the 
 heauty of the organism with all its swimming or floating ma- 
 chinery in this expanded condition. We have seen nothing 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 253 
 
 exactly like it in any other species. We have frequently seen 
 Globigerina with spines, and the sarcode extended along them, 
 and displaying its characteristic movements; and on one or 
 two occasions we saw Pulmnulinoe with a half-contracted float, 
 resembling partially expanded bullse ; but in all these cases 
 the animals had been taken in the tow -net, and were greatly 
 injured. 
 
 Everywhere in the globigerina ooze, Mr. Murray has de- 
 tected, in addition to the foraminifera which make up the 
 great part of its bulk, fragments of pumice, minute particles 
 of feldspar, particles and crystals of other minerals due to the 
 disintegration of volcanic rocks, such as sanidine, augite, horn- 
 blende, quartz, leucite, and magnetite, and rounded concretions 
 of a mixture of the peroxides of manganese and iron. 
 
 I have already (vol. i., p. 212 et seq.) discussed very fully the 
 way in which, at depths over 2000 fathoms, the carbonate of 
 lime of the globigerina ooze is gradually removed, the ooze 
 becoming darker in color and effervescing less freely with 
 acids, until at length it gives place to a more or less homoge- 
 neous red clay ; and I have referred to the relative proportions 
 in which these two great formations occur in the Atlantic. 
 Their distribution may be broadly defined thus : the globige- 
 rina ooze covers the ridges and the elevated plateaus, and oc- 
 cupies a belt at depths down to 2000 fathoms round the shores 
 outside the belt of shore deposits ; and the red clay covers the 
 floor of the deep depressions, the eastern, the north-western, 
 and the south-western basins. An intermediate band of what 
 we have called gray ooze occurs in the Atlantic at depths aver- 
 aging perhaps from 2100 to 2300 fathoms. 
 
 Over the red -clay area, as might have been expected from 
 the mode of formation of the red clay, the pieces of pumice 
 and the recognizable mineral fragments were found in greater 
 abundance ; for there deposition takes place much more slowly, 
 and foreign bodies are less readily overwhelmed and masked ; 
 
254 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 so abundant are such fragments in some places that the fine 
 amorphous matter, which may be regarded as the ultimate and 
 universal basis of the deposit, appears to be present only in 
 small proportion. 
 
 Mr. Murray has studied very carefully the distribution of vol- 
 canic debris over the floor of the ocean. He finds that recog- 
 nizable pieces of pumice, varying from the size of a pea to that 
 of a foot-ball, have been dredged at eighty stations, distributed 
 all along our route ; and he finds them in greater abundance 
 in the neighborhood of volcanic centres, such as the Acores 
 and the Philippines, than elsewhere. In deposits far from 
 land they were most numerous in the pure deep-sea clays ; mi- 
 nute particles of feldspar, having the appearance of disinte- 
 grated pumice, were detected in all such ocean deposits. Many 
 of the large pieces were much decomposed, while some were 
 only slightly altered; some were coated with manganese and 
 iron, and many appeared as a mere nucleus, round which the 
 manganese and iron had aggregated. They varied greatly in 
 structure, being highly vesicular, or fibrous and compact, and 
 in color from white through gray or green to black. There 
 seemed to be every gradation from the feldspathic to the ex- 
 treme pyroxenic varieties. 
 
 Mr. Murray believes that all the pieces of pumice which we 
 find at the bottom of the sea have been formed by subaerial 
 volcanic action. Some of them may have fallen upon the sea ; 
 but the great majority seem to have fallen on land, and been 
 subsequently washed and floated out to sea by rains and rivers. 
 After floating about for a longer or shorter time, they have 
 become water-logged and have sunk to the bottom. Both in 
 the North Atlantic and in the Pacific small pieces of pumice 
 were several times taken on the surface of the ocean by means 
 of the tow-net. Over the surface of some of these, serpulae and 
 algse were growing, and crystals of sanidine projected, or were 
 imbedded in the feldspar. During our visit to Ascension, there 
 
chap, v.] GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 255 
 
 was a very heavy fall of rain, such as had not been experienced 
 by the inhabitants for many years. For several days after, 
 many pieces of scoriae, cinders, and the like were noticed float- 
 ing about on the surface of the sea near the island. Such frag- 
 ments may be transported to great distances by currents. 
 
 On the shores of Bermudas, where the rock is composed of 
 blown calcareous sand, we picked up fragments of traveled vol- 
 canic rocks. The same observation was made by General Nel- 
 son at the Bahamas. Mr. Darwin observed pieces of pumice on 
 the shore of Patagonia, and Professor L. Agassiz and his com- 
 panions noticed them on the reefs of Brazil. During a recent 
 eruption in Iceland, the ferry of a river is said to have been 
 blocked for several days by the large quantity of pumice float- 
 ing down the river and out to sea. 
 
 Near volcanic centres, and sometimes at great distances from 
 land, we find much volcanic matter in a very fine state of di- 
 vision at the bottom of the sea. This consists mainly of mi- 
 nute particles of feldspar, hornblende, augite, olivine, magnet- 
 ite, and other volcanic minerals. These particles may probably 
 have been in many cases carried to the areas where they are 
 found by winds in the form known as volcanic dust or ashes. 
 Mr. Murray examined a packet, sent to me by Sir Pawson Paw- 
 son, of volcanic ashes which fell at Barbadoes in 1812, after 
 an eruption on the Island of St. Vincent, a hundred and sixty 
 miles distant ; and he found them to be made up of particles 
 similar to those to which I have referred. 
 
 The clay which covers, broadly speaking, the bottom of the 
 sea at depths greater than 2000 fathoms, Mr. Murray considers 
 to be produced, as we know most other clays to be, by the de- 
 composition of feldspathic minerals ; and I now believe that 
 he is in the main right. I can not, however, doubt that were 
 pumice and other volcanic products entirely absent, there would 
 still be an impalpable rain over the ocean-floor of the mineral 
 matter which we know must be set free, and must enter into 
 
256 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 more stable combinations, through the decomposition of the 
 multitudes of organized beings which swarm in the successive 
 layers of the sea; and I am still inclined to refer to this source 
 a great part of the molecular matter which always forms a con- 
 siderable part of a red-clay microscopic preparation. 
 
 There is great difficulty in pointing out rocks belonging to 
 any of the past geological periods which correspond entirely, 
 whether in chemical composition or in structure, with the beds 
 now in process of formation at the bottom of the ocean. There 
 seems every reason to believe that the rocks of the Mesozoic 
 and Cenozoic series, at all events, were formed in comparative- 
 ly .shallow water, and after the prominent features at present 
 existing had been stamped upon the contour of the earth's 
 crust ; and, consequently, that none of these have the essential 
 characters of deep-sea deposits. I imagine, however, that the 
 limestone which would be the result of the elevation and slight 
 metamorphosis of a mass of globigerina ooze would resemble 
 very closely a bed of gray chalk ; and that an enormous accu- 
 mulation of red clay might in time, under similar circumstances, 
 come to be very like one of the Paleozoic schists, such, for ex- 
 ample, as the Cambrian schist with Oldhamia and worm-tracks 
 at Bray Head. It is a very difficult question, however, and one 
 on which I shall offer no opinion until we have very much more 
 complete data from comparative microscopical examination and 
 chemical analysis. 
 
 The Distribution of Ocean Temperature. — Throughout the 
 whole of the Atlantic the water is warmest at the surface. 
 From the surface it cools rapidly for the first hundred fathoms 
 or so ; it then cools more slowly down to five or six hundred 
 fathoms, and then extremely slowly, either to the bottom or to 
 a certain point, from which it maintains a uniform or nearly 
 uniform temperature to the bottom. 
 
 A glance at a series of temperature sections such as those rep- 
 resented in Plates V., IX., XVI., XX., XXIL, and XXVIII., 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 257 
 
 gives the impression that a generally uniform temperature is 
 maintained by a belt of water at a depth of from seven to eight 
 hundred fathoms, and that this belt separates two bodies of wa- 
 ter w T hich are under essentially different conditions. Above, 
 the vertical distribution of temperature differs greatly in dif- 
 ferent localities; while below the uniform belt there is a slow 
 and gradual cooling, which also differs both in rate and in 
 amount in different localities, but in another way. These va- 
 riations in temperature, whether in the superficial layers or in 
 the deeper, are undoubtedly in all cases connected with currents 
 or movements of the water, and may be regarded as evidences 
 of portions, modified by various causes, of a general system of 
 circulation of the water of the ocean. 
 
 The movements of surface-water may usually be determined 
 with considerable precision by a comparison at the end of a 
 given time of the apparent course of a ship and her position by 
 dead reckoning with her actual position by observation. The 
 rate and direction of a surface-current may also be ascertained 
 by getting in some way a fixed point — by anchoring a boat, for 
 instance — and observing and timing the course of a body float- 
 ing past it. Neither of these methods can be satisfactorily ap- 
 plied to deep-sea currents ; indeed, it seems probable that the 
 movements of masses of underlying water are so slow, that, even 
 if we had some feasible method of observation, the indications 
 of movement within a limited period would be too slight to be 
 measured with any degree of accuracy. 
 
 We can not, therefore, measure these currents directly, but 
 we have in the thermometer an indirect means of ascertaining 
 their existence, their volume, and, approximately, their direc- 
 tion. Water is a very bad conductor of heat, and consequently 
 a body of water at a given temperature, passing into a region 
 where the temperature conditions are different, retains for a long 
 time, without much change, the temperature of the place where 
 its temperature was acquired. To take an example : the bot- 
 
258 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 torn temperature near Fernando Noronha, almost under the 
 equator, is o, 2 C, close upon the freezing-point ; it is obvious 
 that this temperature was not acquired at the equator, where the 
 mean annual temperature of the surface-layer of the w T ater is 21° 
 C, and we may take the mean normal temperature of the crust 
 of the earth as not lower, at all events, than 8° C. The water 
 must, therefore, have come from a place where the conditions 
 were such as to impart to it a freezing temperature; and not 
 only must it have come from such a place, but it must be con- 
 tinually renewed, however slowly, for otherwise its temperature 
 would gradually rise by conduction and mixture. Across the 
 whole of the North Atlantic the bottom temperature is consid- 
 erably higher, so that the cold water can not be coming from 
 that direction ; on the other hand, we can trace a band of water 
 at a like temperature, at nearly the same depth, continuously to 
 the Antarctic Sea, where the conditions are normally such as 
 to impart to it its low temperature. There seems, therefore, to 
 be no room for doubt that the cold water is welling up into the 
 Atlantic from the Southern Sea ; we shall, however, discuss this 
 more fully hereafter. 
 
 The investigation, by this indirect method, of the movements 
 of the water of the ocean, was one of the points to which our 
 attention was very specially directed ; and it was prosecuted 
 throughout the voyage with great care. The method of taking 
 temperature sections was first systematically employed, so far as 
 I am aware, by the American Coast Survey in their examination 
 of the Gulf-stream, and some modifications, extending its use to 
 deep water, were devised during the cruises of the Lightning 
 and Porcupine ; and the instructions to the Challenger were 
 chiefly based on our experience in the preliminary trips. (See 
 " The Depths of the Sea," p. 284 et seq.) 
 
 The observing stations were fixed as nearly as possible in a 
 straight line, if possible either meridional or on a parallel of lat- 
 itude ; the bottom temperature was carefully determined by the 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 259 
 
 mean of two observations ; a string of thermometers was then 
 sent down in detachments, to avoid the risk of too great a loss 
 in case of an accident, at intervals of 100 fathoms, to within 100 
 fathoms of the bottom, or more usually to a depth of 1500 fath- 
 oms — considerably beyond the uniform layer. 
 
 Such observations gave us a very fair idea of the distribu- 
 tion of temperature along a section, and the general course of 
 groups of lines joining points of equal temperature along the 
 section gave very delicate indications of any general rise or fall. 
 The word " isotherm " having been hitherto so specially appro- 
 priated to lines passing through places of equal temperature on 
 the surface of the earth, I have found it convenient, in consid- 
 ering these questions of ocean temperature, to use the terms 
 " isothermobath " and " isobathytherm ;" the former to indicate 
 a line drawn through points of equal temperature in a vertical 
 section, and the latter a line drawn through points of equal 
 depth at which a given temperature occurs. Isothermobaths 
 are shown in schemes of a vertical section, such as those in 
 Plates Y.j IX., XL, etc. ; isobathytherms are, of course, pro- 
 jected on the surface of the globe. All the temperature obser- 
 vations have been made with the modification of Six's register- 
 ing instrument known under the name of the Miller-Casella 
 thermometer ; and this instrument, although a great advance 
 upon any other hitherto constructed, is essentially uncertain 
 and liable to error from various causes ; thus even a slight jerk 
 causes the index to move slightly either up or down, and an 
 observation is in this way very frequently vitiated. In almost 
 every serial temperature sounding, one or two of the thermom- 
 eters were evidently adrift from some such cause. There was 
 an excellent proof that these eccentricities did not always de- 
 pend upon differences of temperature. Very frequently, es- 
 pecially at considerable depths, where the differences were very 
 slight, thermometers sent to greater depths gave indications 
 higher than those above them. There may be no absolute rea- 
 
260 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 son why underlying water might not in some cases have a tem- 
 perature higher than that of the layers above it ; but the ther- 
 mometer is not constructed to show such an anomaly : having 
 once registered its minimum, it has no power of amendment. 
 
 I have no hesitation, therefore, in saying that any single in- 
 dication with a thermometer on Six's principle is* not trust- 
 worthy, and that a fact in temperature distribution can only 
 be established by a series of corroborative determinations. 
 
 Although the gross errors to which an unprotected thermom- 
 eter is liable from pressure may be said to be got rid of by the 
 addition of the outer shell, a certain amount of error in the 
 same direction still remains, probably from a slight compres- 
 sion of the unprotected parts of the tube. This error, which 
 is one of slight excess, although for practical purposes it might 
 perhaps be safely regarded as the same for all thermometers, is 
 in detail special to each instrument, and all our thermometers 
 were tested by Captain Tizard, and their individual errors tab- 
 ulated for every 100 fathoms. 
 
 The following table, which is given as an example, is in Fah- 
 renheit degrees : 
 
 Number of 
 Thermometer. 
 
 Correction for 
 100 Fathoms. 
 
 For 500 
 Fathoms. 
 
 For 1000 
 Fathoms. 
 
 For 1500 
 Fathoms. 
 
 For 2000 
 Fathoms. 
 
 For 2500 
 Fathoms. 
 
 For 3000 
 Fathoms. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-5 
 
 0-7 
 
 0-9 
 
 1-1 
 
 14 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-4 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-2 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-4 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-8 
 
 1-0 
 
 1-2 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 0-4 
 
 0-7 
 
 0-8 
 
 0-9 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 0-8 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-8 
 
 0-9 
 
 11 
 
 1-2 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 0-3 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-8 
 
 0-9 
 
 11 
 
 1-2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 0-2 
 
 0-4 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-7 
 
 0-9 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 0-2 
 
 04 
 
 0-6 
 
 0-8 
 
 10 
 
 1-2 
 
 These particular thermometers were part of a batch sent out 
 to us late in the cruise, specially strengthened, and certainly 
 of a better construction than those which we had had before. 
 By testing a large series of the earlier instruments in a Bra- 
 mah's press, Captain Davis had come to the conclusion that, 
 when subjected to a pressure corresponding to a depth of 2000 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 261 
 
 fathoms, they gave, broadly, a uniform error of 1°*4 F. in ex- 
 cess, and that this correction might be applied proportionally to 
 the depth at which the observation is taken, i. <?., o, 7 F. for ev- 
 ery 100 fathoms. This may probably hold as a rough rule for 
 ordinary instruments, where absolute accuracy is not required. 
 
 On reconsidering this matter since our return home, a doubt 
 has arisen whether we were justified in applying to the mini- 
 mum side of the thermometer these corrections on the scale 
 prepared by Captain Davis, and a new set of experiments has 
 been commenced at pressures up to three to four tons on the 
 square inch. 
 
 This last class of errors may seem very trivial, but there are 
 cases, where questions of special delicacy arise, in which they 
 may assume considerable importance. Throughout the ocean 
 generally, at all events between the two polar circles, the tem- 
 perature of the ocean may be said as a rule to sink from the 
 surface to the bottom. There are many places, however, where 
 this gradual sinking appears to be arrested at a certain point, 
 from which the temperature remains uniform to the bottom. 
 Frequently the temperature as recorded by the thermometer 
 reaches a minimum at a depth of 1800 or 2000 fathoms: this 
 is the case, for example, throughout the greater part of the 
 Atlantic, and there is little doubt that the result is in the main 
 correct, and can be accounted for by the action of a very sim- 
 ple law; but if the temperature remained exactly the same, 
 the application of this ultimate correction to depths from 2000 
 down to 3000 fathoms would cause the thermometer to appear 
 to rise sensibly. This certainly is not generally the case, or it 
 would have come out in the large ' number of observations 
 w T hich have been made under circumstances where such a re- 
 sult might have been expected ; and therefore I think we must 
 conclude that in all the great ocean basins, from some cause 
 or other, there is a very slight fall of temperature to the very 
 bottom. 
 
262 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 In order to eliminate as far as possible from the results of 
 our serial temperature soundings errors depending upon irreg- 
 ularities in the action of the thermometers, it has been found 
 necessary in all cases, instead of trusting to their individual 
 indications, to construct a free-hand curve for each series, and 
 to take the indications from the curve. If the readings of the 
 thermometer are plotted to scale, and if we attempt to con- 
 struct such a symmetrical curve as that represented in Fig. 53, 
 a page of the Curve-book, selected at random as an example, 
 the curve naturally passes through the greater number of the 
 plotted points, leaving out one or two at a greater or less dis- 
 tance at either side. Where many of the thermometers are 
 astray, as not unfrequently happens when the serial sounding 
 is taken in heavy weather, this process requires to be performed 
 with some judgment, and is liable to a certain amount of error ; 
 but it is wonderful in a series of such curves how strong the 
 internal evidence is of their accuracy. A certain marked tem- 
 perature phenomenon, for example, is indicated in a certain 
 locality by an irregularity in the curve ; and as we recede from 
 the cause of disturbance, the irregularity gradually dies out, to 
 be replaced very probably by an irregularity due to some other 
 cause. This is well shown in the curves representing the grad- 
 ual change of temperature from west to east in the North At- 
 lantic aud the North Pacific (vol. i., Figs. 100 and 101, pp. 362 
 and 366). The temperatures used in the text and in the tem- 
 perature sections are taken from such curves. In the tables in 
 the Appendices the temperatures are given as they were read 
 from the thermometers, after applying the known corrections 
 for pressure and error of zero-point, in order that the actual 
 data from which the curves were constructed might be sup- 
 plied. This will explain the discrepancies which frequently 
 occur between the temperatures referred to in the text and 
 those given in the tables. 
 
 Referring, in the first place, to the distribution of tempera- 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 263 
 
 ture in the layer extending from the belt of comparatively con- 
 stant temperature to the surface, on our first section from Ten- 
 
 Fig. 53.— A Page of the Temperature Cnrve-book, for Station CCCXXV. 
 
 eriffe to Sombrero, we found the temperatures below the 100- 
 fathom line very uniform, the upper isothermobaths crowding 
 together a little, and the lower slightly rising to the westward. 
 
264 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 The main feature in the section was the steady increase to the 
 westward of the temperature of the surface-layer, the isotherm- 
 obaths of 19°, 20°, 21°, 22°, 23°, and 24° C. being added in regu- 
 lar succession. This was due chiefly to the southward direction 
 of the section, partly to the advance of the season, and partly 
 to the westward determination of the warm surface-water. 
 
 From St. Thomas to Bermudas the surface-temperature nat- 
 urally fell gradually, the lower lines remaining pretty steady ; 
 but at Station XXVIIL, lat. 24° 39' K, long. 65° 25' W., a 
 very marked widening of the space between the isotherm obaths 
 of 18° and 19° C. was observed, and, farther on, the whole of 
 the space between the lines of 16° and 19° C. became abnor- 
 mally expanded, indicating the presence of a layer of water 
 200 fathoms thick, considerably above its normal temperature, 
 lying between the 100 and the 300 fathom line. This warm 
 band appeared again to the north of Bermudas, and on our 
 north-westerly course toward Sandy Hook (Plate XL) it main- 
 tained its volume and position to lat. 36° 23' N., long. 71° 
 5V W., when it came to the surface, or became merged in the 
 phenomena of the Grulf-stream. 
 
 We next crossed the Gulf -stream, of which I have nothing 
 further to say than that all we saw confirmed our previous con- 
 victions as to its cause and its effects ; and we sounded in the 
 Labrador Current, the local and most insignificant return stream 
 from the Arctic Sea. 
 
 On our return from Halifax to Bermudas (Plate IX.), we 
 again encountered the warm band at Station LTL, lat. 39° 44' 
 1ST., long. 63° 22' W., and traced it all the way to the island. 
 To the east of Bermudas it again made its appearance on our 
 section from Bermudas to the Acores (Plate XVI.), and main- 
 tained its volume to Station LXX., lat. 38° 25' K, long. 35° 50' 
 W., where it became less definite, and then thinned out, while 
 at the same time the lower isothermobaths began to dip down 
 and to separate, indicating an enormous accumulation of super- 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 265 
 
 heated water, occupying depths between 400 and 1000 fathoms, 
 This condition continued np to the Island of Madeira ; we had 
 already established that it extends as far north as the Bay of 
 Biscay. 
 
 South of Madeira, the deep warm band steadily narrowed 
 up to the Cape Yerde Islands ; and after we passed the Bijouga 
 Islands, and were in the full tide of the Guinea Current, the 
 isothermobaths had gathered up to the surface, the line of 5° 
 C. being at 300 fathoms, and reducing the warm water to a 
 mere superficial layer. The next section, from Station CIL to 
 Pernambuco (Plate XXIL), was nearly equatorial, and the same 
 singular condition w^as maintained throughout — an exceedingly 
 rapid fall for the first 300 fathoms to a temperature of about 
 5° C, with an underlying mass of cold water of vast thickness. 
 
 Shortly after leaving Bahia, we crossed the warm surface- 
 water of the Brazil Current ; and as the first part of our course, 
 as far as Tristan d'Acunha, then lay in a south-easterly direc- 
 tion, the surface -temperature of course steadily declined, the 
 isothermobaths between 10° and 4° C. maintaining their pre- 
 vious course, crowded together between the depths of 100 and 
 400 fathoms (Plate XXYIIL). From Tristan d'Acunha the 
 temperature for the first 600 fathoms remained very uniform 
 in its rate of cooling until we were within little more than 
 twenty miles of the Cape of Good Hope, when a sudden rise 
 in all the higher temperatures told us that we had entered the 
 westward loop of the Agulhas Current. 
 
 In the southern summer of 1876, on our course from Monte- 
 video to Tristan d'Acunha, for the first 900 miles we traversed 
 the southern extension of the Brazil Current, which depressed 
 the isothermobaths of 15° C. to a depth of nearly 200 fath- 
 oms, with some cool interdigitations (Plate XXXYIL), and 
 the temperature remained very equable for the remainder of 
 the section, the spaces between the higher isothermobaths wid- 
 ening a little to the eastward. On the meridional section from 
 II.— 18 
 
266 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. V. 
 
 Tristan d'Acunha to the equator, the isothermobaths between 
 5° and 20° C. altered very slightly in position : the surface-lay- 
 ers, of course, became steadily and rapidly warmer. 
 
 Bearing in mind that at a certain depth below the surface, 
 varying only slightly in different regions, there is a thick belt 
 of water at a pretty nearly uniform temperature from 4° to 5° 
 C, it is evident that the much higher temperature of the sur- 
 face-layers must be due, for each position, directly or indirectly, 
 to the heat of the sun. Normally the surface -temperature 
 would attain its maximum near the equator, and would decrease 
 uniformly toward the poles; and the very abnormal distribu- 
 tion of temperature which actually exists must depend upon 
 some disturbing cause or causes. That several such causes 
 come into play, and many complicated combinations of these 
 causes, there appears to be little doubt ; but one disturbing 
 cause seems to be so paramount, so sufficient in itself to account 
 for the observed phenomena, that I do not think it necessary in 
 this preliminary sketch to pursue the inquiry beyond it. 
 
 The permanent winds, blowing eternally in one direction 
 where the water is hottest, send the heated surface-water in a 
 constant stream to the westward. This " equatorial current,' 7 
 impinging upon the coast of South America about Cape St. 
 Bogue, splits in two. A considerable portion of the northern 
 branch coursing round the Gulf of Mexico, and becoming con- 
 tracted and condensed by the Strait of Florida, makes itself 
 manifest as the celebrated Grulf-stream ; while the remainder, 
 moving outside the islands in a gentler and less obvious cur- 
 rent, spreads over the great bight between North and South 
 America, and gives an indication of its presence in the high 
 thermometer - readings round Bermudas, and westward to the 
 Acores. The cause of the second and deeper hump on the 
 temperature-curves (vol. i., Fig. 100), in a section between Ber- 
 mudas and the coast of Europe, is perhaps not so evident. The 
 explanation which I have suggested elsewhere is that the warm 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 267 
 
 water of the Gulf-stream, forced to the eastward by its high in- 
 itial velocity, and thus accumulated at the head of the Atlantic, 
 whence it has no free egress, becomes " banked down," and the 
 warm stratum abnormally thickened against the coast of West- 
 ern Europe. Some ingenious theories, depending upon changes 
 of density produced by evaporation, and changes of density 
 combined with changes of temperature, have been proposed to 
 account for the great accumulation of water of abnormally high 
 specific gravity, and at an abnormally high temperature in the 
 North Atlantic ; but these do not seem to be satisfactory, and 
 as they can only be supposed to act, at most, as very subordinate 
 auxiliaries to the wind circulation, they sink in importance into 
 the category of questions of detail. 
 
 The branch of the equatorial current deflected to the south- 
 ward of Cape St. Roque passes down as the Brazil Current, 
 parallel with the coast of South America. In its southward 
 extension it finds no barrier corresponding to that which cir- 
 cumscribes and moulds the northern branch. Gradually widen- 
 ing out and becoming less defined, at the same time acquiring 
 a sufficient easterly deflection to keep it out from the coast, it 
 is at length almost merged in the great easterly drift-current 
 which sweeps round the world, occupying a belt 600 to 1000 
 miles broad in the Southern Sea. But while the greater part 
 of the Brazil Current is thus merged, it is not entirely lost ; for 
 at its point of junction with the drift-current of the westerlies 
 all the upper isobathytherms are slightly deflected to the south, 
 and opposite the point where this deflection occurs there is 
 comparatively open sea far to the southward, and a penetrable 
 notch in the southern pack. Taking advantage of this, Wed- 
 dell, in 1829, and Boss, in 1843, reached the parallels of 14° 14' 
 and 71° 30' S. respectively, between the meridians of 15° and 
 30° W. The same thing occurs with regard to the Agulhas 
 Current and the East Australian Current ; but the case of the 
 Brazilian Current is a little more complicated than that of the 
 
268 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 other two, for there is high and extensive land between the me- 
 ridians of 55° and 65° west, in 65° south latitude ; and the warm 
 current, already led far to the southward by the American coast, 
 appears to bifurcate upon Graham Land, and to produce another 
 bight in 90° west longitude, a little to the west of the southern 
 point of South America. In this bight, Cook, in 1771, and Bel- 
 lingshausen, in 1821, pushed nearly to the seventieth parallel of 
 south latitude. 
 
 I have already referred (vol. ii., p. 75) to the principal tem- 
 perature phenomenon of the eastern portion of the South At- 
 lantic — the equatorial counter-current, and its extension as the 
 Guinea Current. The cause of the counter-current to the east- 
 ward in the zone of calms is somewhat obscure, as the only ob- 
 vious explanation — that it is a current in an opposite direction 
 induced in the space between the current of the north-east and 
 south-east trades to supply the water removed by them — seems 
 scarcely sufficient to account for its volume and permanence. 
 
 The comparative thinness of the belt of warm surface-water 
 in the equatorial region is at first sight remarkable, and has 
 given rise to a good deal of speculation ; but it will be seen 
 by comparing the distribution of temperature at Station CXII. 
 (Fig. 54), nearly on the line, with that at Station CCCXXVIL, 
 (Fig. 56), in the latitude of Tristan d'Acunha, that the positions 
 of the isothermobaths of 4° and 5° C. are nearly the same : the 
 slight difference apparently depends upon the latter station be- 
 ing within the influence of the Brazil Current. The phenome- 
 non is thus essentially a continuation to the north of the equa- 
 tor of southern conditions, and the small eifect of the vertical 
 sun in raising the temperature to any depth below the surface 
 is doubtless due to the removal of the heated layer as soon as it 
 is formed by the trade-winds and their counter-currents, and to 
 the rapid abstraction of heat in the formation of watery vapor. 
 
 One of the best-marked and most important phenomena of 
 the distribution of temperature in the upper layers of the 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 269 
 
 Atlantic is the steady increase in the volume of warm water 
 from the south northward. For example, between Montevideo 
 and Tristan d'Acunha we find the isothermobath of 7° C. at an 
 average depth of about 250 fathoms. Along the equator at 
 under 300 fathoms, between Teneriffe and Sombrero it occurs 
 at a depth of 500 fathoms, and between Bermudas and Madeira 
 at about 600 fathoms. The principal accumulation of warm 
 water at depths below 400 fathoms, in the North Atlantic, is 
 to the eastward. 
 
 We now pass to the more difficult problem of the distribution 
 of temperature in the mass of water filling up the trough of the 
 Atlantic beneath the uniform belt. The isothermobath of 3° 
 C. may, perhaps, be regarded as the first line decidedly within 
 the upper boundary of the cold water, and we learn something 
 by observing its position. In the most northern cross-section, 
 between Bermudas and Madeira, it occurs at a depth of from 
 1000 to 1200 fathoms below the surface. In the next cross-sec- 
 tion, from Teneriffe to Sombrero, it has nearly the same position, 
 becoming a little deeper toward the eastward. In the next sec- 
 tion, along the equator, it is at a depth of from 1000 to 1100 
 fathoms, nearly as before. Between San Salvador and the 
 Cape of Good Hope it rises to a mean depth of 600 fathoms, 
 and between the Falkland Islands and Tristan d'Acunha it is at 
 a depth of from 500 to 600 fathoms. The broad fact thus be- 
 comes patent, that as the volume of warm water at a tempera- 
 ture above 7° C. increases to the northward, so the mass of cold 
 water at a temperature below 3° C. increases toward the open- 
 ing of the Atlantic into the Southern Sea. 
 
 I must now refer again to the frontispiece, and recall the 
 general distribution of depth in the Atlantic. In discussing 
 this question, I will speak of the eastern basin of the Atlantic, 
 stretching from the west coast of Britain nearly to the Cape of 
 Good Hope, and bounded to the westward by the median ridge ; 
 the north-western basin, bounded to the west and north by the 
 
270 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 coast of North America and the shoal -water extending across 
 to Greenland, to the east by the median ridge, and to the south 
 by the spur of the ridge joining the coast of South America at 
 Cape Orange ; and the south- western basin bounded to the north 
 by this spur, to the west by the coast of South America, to the 
 east by the median ridge, and to the south entirely open to the 
 Antarctic Sea. In all our serial soundings in the eastern and 
 the north-western basins, the temperature slowly fell to a depth 
 of about 2000 fathoms, and from that depth it remained nearly 
 uniform to the bottom, the difference in the readings beyond 
 2000 fathoms being so slight as to be well within the limits of 
 error of observation with Six's thermometers, but, on the whole, 
 showing a tendency to sink, or, at all events, showing no tend- 
 ency to rise on the correction for pressure being applied, which 
 they ought to have done had the temperature been absolutely 
 the same. The bottom temperatures and the recorded temper- 
 atures below 2000 fathoms were slightly, but constantly, lower 
 in the north-western than they were in the eastern basin, in 
 the former averaging about 1°*6 C, and in the latter a little 
 under l°-9 C. 
 
 In the south-western basin the vertical distribution of tem- 
 perature is different, and this difference appears to give the key 
 to the whole question of the distribution of temperature at 
 great depths in the Atlantic. On our return voyage, in Febru- 
 ary, 1876, four observing stations, numbered on Plates XXXIY. 
 and XXXV. from CCCXVIL to CCCXX., were established. 
 Two of these were in comparatively shallow water near the 
 edge of, but still upon, the plateau which extends from the 
 coast of South America to a distance of nearly 400 miles, and 
 includes the Falkland Islands ; the two remaining soundings, 
 CCCXVIII. and CCCXIX., were well beyond the cliff of the 
 plateau at depths greater than 2000 fathoms. All these sound- 
 ings, the two deep ones particularly, indicate the presence of a 
 great underlying mass of cold water, the isothermobath of 2° C. 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 271 
 
 occurring at Station CCCXVIII. at a depth of 125 fathoms. 
 At Station CCCXIX. the 2° C. line is at 1100 fathoms, and 
 the other isotherm obaths up to 5° C. show a corresponding rise. 
 I attribute this remarkable difference between two soundings so 
 near one another to the banking of the cold water against the 
 submarine cliff by the Brazil Current. Sounding CCCXYIII. 
 seems to have fallen directly upon the " cold wall." 
 
 At the deeper sounding (CCCXIX.) the thermometer fell, 
 for the first time in our experience in the South Atlantic, be- 
 low the freezing-point ; but the relations of this very low bot- 
 tom temperature will be better understood when we consider 
 the section between Montevideo and Tristan d'Acunha. 
 
 On the line between Montevideo and Station CCCXXXV. 
 fifteen observing stations were established. The first three of 
 these, CCCXXI. to CCCXXIIL, were on the estuary of the 
 River Plate, or (CCCXXIIL) just beyond the edge of the delta 
 at its mouth ; the next seven, CCCXXIV. to CCCXXX., gave 
 a section of a wide inlet into the western trough of the South 
 Atlantic with a mean depth of 2750 fathoms ; and the remain- 
 ing five stations, CCCXXXI. to CCCXXXV., were on the cen- 
 tral rise, with an average depth of 1850 fathoms. The mean 
 bottom temperature of the seven deep soundings is — Oj 4 C, and 
 that of the five soundings on the rise +l°-3 C. The isothermo- 
 bath of o, C. is at a depth averaging 2400 fathoms, a depth 
 which it never much exceeds except where the cold water 
 rises against the American coast, as at Stations CCCXIX. and 
 CCCXXIIL : it therefore occurs in the line of the seven deep 
 soundings only ; and there it forms the upper limit of a mass 
 of water with a temperature below zero, 320 square miles in 
 section. Perhaps the isotherm obath of 1°'5C. may fairly be 
 taken as the upper limit of the very cold water ; the section of 
 the Antarctic indraught below that temperature is here about 
 800 square miles. (The transverse section of the Gulf-stream 
 is about 6 square miles. There is no volume of water at all in 
 
THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. V. 
 
 the Labrador Current below 1 0, 5 C. 
 opposite Halifax, that temperature be- 
 ing only found at the bottom.) 
 
 The isothermobaths of 2°, 2°-5, 3°, 
 and 4° C. are very constant at 1500, 
 900, 600, and 400 fathoms respective- 
 ly, for all the stations on the parallel 
 except Station CCCXXIII. on the 
 " cold wall," where all the lower tem- 
 pi perature- lines are at a much higher 
 | level, and at the shallow sounding at 
 I Station CCCXXXL, where all the 
 I lines below that of 4° C. rise slightly, 
 g We must be careful, however, not to 
 a attach too much importance to slight 
 E deviations of the colder lines. On 
 | the scale used in the plates, the mean 
 e interval between the isothermobaths 
 | of 2° and 3° C. in the Atlantic is 
 | 1000 fathoms ; so that a rise or fall 
 > of 100 fathoms, which is very prom- 
 ~ inent on such diagrams, actually rep- 
 s resents only one-tenth of a centigrade 
 degree, an amount very small in itself, 
 I. and quite within the limit of error of 
 g observation with a deep-sea thermom- 
 eter. It is only where there is a con- 
 cordance among several isothermo- 
 bathic lines in such a rise or fall that 
 the indication is of any real value. 
 
 From these observations we learn 
 that along the line where the south- 
 western trough of the Atlantic joins 
 the Southern Sea the temperature falls 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 275 
 
 steadily and perceptibly to the bottom, and that the bottom 
 temperature is more than 2° C. lower than the temperature at 
 similar depths in the eastern or the north-western basin. The 
 conditions which exist at the mouth of the trough extend to 
 the equator. 
 
 Figure 54 represents the vertical distribution of temperature 
 at Station CXIL, lat. 3° 33' S., long. 32° 16 ; W., twenty-one 
 miles to the north-west of Fernando Noronha. Figure 55 gives 
 the temperature at Station CXXIX., lat. 20° 12' S., long. 35° 
 19' W., nearly midway between Station CXIL and Station 
 CCCXXVII., one of the most characteristic in the section at 
 present under consideration, represented in Figure 56. The 
 depth at Station CCCXXVII. is 2900 fathoms, and the depths 
 at the two other stations 2150 and 2200 respectively; and it 
 will be seen that at the latter stations the bottom tempera- 
 tures correspond almost precisely with the temperature at Sta- 
 tion CCCXXVII. at like depths. The isothermobath of 2° C. 
 is at the same height, 1500 fathoms, at the two southern sta- 
 tions ; and at the northern station only, near the equator, it 
 sinks to 1800 fathoms. The isotherm obaths of 2°*5 and 3° C. 
 correspond within a hundred fathoms or so in level at Stations 
 CXXIX. and CCCXXVII. ; at Station CXIL all the isother- 
 mobathic lines under that of 4° C. down to the line of 1° C. are 
 much lower than at Stations CXXIX. and CCCXXVII. ; that 
 is to say, that at the equator, between 410 fathoms and 2000 
 fathoms, the water is considerably warmer than it is farther 
 south. 
 
 The isothermobathic lines of 4° and 5° C. seem everywhere 
 in the Atlantic to mark broadly the line of demarkation be- 
 tween the upper zone, where the temperatures are obviously 
 affected by the diffusion of water by wind-currents ; and the 
 lower zone, where the temperatures are continuous with those 
 of the Southern Sea. In the North Atlantic they are markedly 
 lower than they are to the south of the equator ; that is to say, 
 
276 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 there is a much larger body of water above them heated by 
 conduction, convection, and mixture. 
 
 The section between Montevideo and the meridian of Tris- 
 tan d'Acunha includes, besides the soundings on the South- 
 American plateau and the soundings on the " cold wall," a se- 
 ries of soundings crossing the south-western trough with an 
 average depth of 2750 fathoms and an average bottom temper- 
 ature of — 0°'4 C, and a few soundings on the middle ridge 
 of the Atlantic, with an average depth of 1850 fathoms and 
 a mean bottom temperature of +1°*3 C. There seems to be 
 little doubt that in the trough a huge mass of Antarctic water, 
 at temperatures ranging from + 1°*5 C. to — o, 6 C, is creep- 
 ing northward at depths greater than 1800 fathoms. On the 
 central rise very little water at a temperature lower than + 1°*5 
 C. passes northward ; but that is only on account of the absence 
 of the required depth, for the isothermobaths of 1°'5 and 2° C. 
 are practically at the same levels respectively over the central 
 plateau and over the trough. But the evidence seems equally 
 cogent that the water at depths less than 1800 fathoms, and at 
 temperatures higher than 1°'5 C, is part of the same mass, and 
 is moving in the same direction. We can trace the same strata 
 continuously over the trough and over the eastern and north- 
 western basins, the temperature of each layer only very slightly 
 rising, as has been already shown, to the northward. 
 
 Suppose a mass of water at a temperature gradually sinking 
 from the surface downward (Fig. 57) to be flowing slowly in 
 a certain direction, and suppose the course of that water to be 
 intercepted by a barrier which rises to the height of the layer 
 of water at a temperature of 2°*0 C. Suppose at the same time 
 that the water beyond the barrier is not constitutionally prone 
 to alter its temperature, and that it is quietly drawn off before 
 it has time to do so from any external cause. It seems clear 
 that the water beyond the barrier will be of the uniform tem- 
 perature to the bottom of the stratum of water which is passing 
 
chap, v.] GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 277 
 
 over the barrier, or very nearly so ; for if there be any appre- 
 ciable vis d tergo, a little water at a slightly lower temperature 
 will force itself over the barrier and sink to the bottom. 
 
 Fig. 57. — Diagram showing the Effect of a "Continuous Barrier" on Ocean Temperature. 
 
 Now, if we admit that the water in the basin of the Atlantic 
 consists of a continuous indraught welling into it, from some 
 cause, from the Southern Sea, the southern water is welling 
 into a space honey-combed by such barriers. On the eastern 
 side it meets with a barrier not far to the north of the Cape 
 of Good Hope, uniting the coast of Africa with the central 
 ridge, and no water can pass into the eastern basin at any lower 
 level than the lowest part of that barrier and of that ridge. 
 On the western side of the central ridge the water passes freely 
 up in the south-western basin nearly as far as the equator; 
 but opposite British Guiana it is met by the barrier uniting 
 the coast of South America with the central ridge, so that 
 here again the ingress of all water below a certain tempera- 
 ture is stopped, and although the extreme depth of the north- 
 western basin is at least 3875 fathoms, the temperature of 
 
278 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. v. 
 
 1°*6 C. is maintained from a depth of 2000 fathoms to the 
 bottom. 
 
 All the facts of temperature distribution in the Atlantic ap- 
 pear to favor the view that the entire mass of Atlantic water 
 is supplied by an indraught from the Southern Sea, moving 
 slowly northward, and interrupted at different heights by the 
 continuous barriers which limit its different basins ; but this 
 involves the remarkable phenomenon of a vast body of water 
 constantly flowing into a cul-de-sac from which there is no exit. 
 When I suggested this view some years ago, I was asked, very 
 naturally, how it was possible that more water could now into 
 the Atlantic than flowed out of it, and at that time I could see 
 no answer to the question, although I felt sure that a solution 
 must come some day. Now it seems simple enough ; but in 
 order to understand the conditions fully, I would ask my read- 
 ers to recall the appearance of the Atlantic — and of the Pacific 
 also, which is under exactly the same conditions — not on a map 
 on Mercator's projection, where the northern and southern por- 
 tions are necessarily greatly distorted, but on a terrestrial globe, 
 or on such a representation of part of a globe as we have in 
 the frontispiece to this volume. The earth may be divided 
 into two halves, aptly called by Sir Charles Lyell the land and 
 the water hemisphere, one of which contains the greater part 
 of the ocean, while the other includes almost all the land, with 
 the exception of Australia. On the globe one sees much more 
 clearly than on a map that the Atlantic is a mere tongue, as it 
 were, of the great ocean of the water hemisphere stretching up 
 into the land. The Arctic Ocean, with which it is in connec- 
 tion, is, again, a very limited sea, and nearly land-locked. The 
 North Pacific is another gulf from this water hemisphere, but 
 one vastly wider and of greater extent ; while the South Pa- 
 cific is included within the water hemisphere. 
 
 Although from the meridional extension of the continents 
 to the southward, the water of the Atlantic is, as I have shown, 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 279 
 
 directly continuous, layer for layer, with the water of the Ant- 
 arctic basin, it must be looked upon, not as being in connection 
 with that basin only, but as being a portion of the great ocean 
 of the water hemisphere ; and over the central part of the wa- 
 ter hemisphere precipitation is certainly greatly in excess of 
 evaporation, while the reverse is the case in its extensions to 
 the northward. The water is, therefore, carried off by evapora- 
 tion from the northern portions of the Atlantic and of the Pa- 
 cific, and the vapor is hurried down toward the great zone of 
 low barometric pressure in the southern hemisphere, the heavy, 
 cold water welling up from the southward into the deepest 
 parts of the northward-extending troughs to which it has free 
 access to replace it. It is unfortunate that we have as yet 
 scarcely sufficient data to estimate the relative amount of rain 
 and snow in the northern and southern hemispheres; but the 
 broad fact that there is very much more in the southern is so 
 patent as scarcely to require proof. This excess becomes still 
 more apparent when we include, as we must do, in this source 
 of supply of water to the north, the tropical region of the South 
 Pacific, which forms part of the great ocean. 
 
 To recapitulate briefly the general facts and conclusions with 
 regard to the distribution of ocean temperature in the Atlantic, 
 it seems to me : 
 
 1. That the Atlantic must be regarded in the light of an 
 inlet or gulf of the general ocean of the water hemisphere, 
 opening directly from the Southern Sea. 
 
 2. That the water of the Southern Sea simply wells up into 
 the Atlantic, and that all the temperature bands of the Atlantic 
 are essentially continuous with like temperature bands in the 
 Southern Sea, with these modifications : That (a) above a certain 
 line, which may be roughly represented by the isothermobathic 
 lines of 5° and 4° C, the temperature of the water is manifestly 
 affected by direct radiation and by the very complicated effects, 
 direct and indirect, of wind - currents ; and (b) that the whole 
 
280 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 mass of water gradually and uniformly rises in temperature 
 toward the head of the gulf. 
 
 3. That water at any given temperature (below 4° C.) can 
 only occur in the Atlantic where there is a direct communi- 
 cation with the belt of water at the same temperature in the 
 Southern Sea without the intervention of any continuous bar- 
 rier. (The actual result of the present arrangement of such 
 barriers is, that, however great the depth may be, no water at 
 a temperature lower than l°-9 C. is found in the eastern basin ; 
 none at a temperature lower than 1 0, 6 C. in the north-western ; 
 and none beneath the freezing-point anywhere in the Atlantic, 
 except in the depression between the coast of South America 
 and the central ridge, to the south of the equator.) 
 
 4. That the temperature of the Atlantic is not sensibly af- 
 fected by any cold indraught from the Arctic Sea. (I purposely 
 neglect the Labrador Current and the small branch of the Spitz- 
 bergen Current, for these certainly do not sensibly affect the 
 general temperature of the North Atlantic.) 
 
 5. That although there is a considerable flow of surface-wa- 
 ter through the influence of wind-currents from the Atlantic 
 into the Southern Sea, that flow is not sufficient to balance the 
 influx into the basin of the Atlantic (the constant influx being 
 proved by the maintenance of a general uniformity in the course 
 of the isothermobathic lines, and by the maintenance in all the 
 secondary basins of the minimum temperature due to the height 
 of their respective barriers) ; that, for several reasons (the lower 
 barometric pressure, and the supposed greater amount of rain-fall 
 in the Southern Sea ; the higher specific gravity at the surface 
 than at greater depths in the Atlantic ; the higher specific grav- 
 ity of the surface-water in the Atlantic to the north than to the 
 south of the equator), it is probable that the general circulation 
 is kept up chiefly by an excess of evaporation in the region of 
 the North Atlantic, balancing a corresponding excess of precip- 
 itation over evaporation in the water hemisphere. 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 281 
 
 The Distribution and Nature of the Deep-sea Fauna. — The 
 most prominent and remarkable biological result of the recent 
 investigations is the final establishment of the fact that the dis- 
 tribution of living beings has no depth-limit ; but that animals 
 of all the marine invertebrate classes, and probably fishes also, 
 exist over the whole of the floor of the ocean ; and some of the 
 most interesting of the problems which are now before us have 
 reference to the nature and distribution of the deep-sea fauna, 
 and to its relations with the fauna of shallower water, and with 
 the faunse of past periods in the earth's history. This is, how- 
 ever, precisely the class of questions which we are as yet least 
 prepared to enter into, for every thing depends upon the care- 
 ful study and the critical determination of the animal forms 
 which have been procured ; and this task, which will occupy 
 many specialists for several years, has been only just com- 
 menced. 
 
 My present impression is that although life is thus univers- 
 ally extended, the number of species and of individuals dimin- 
 ishes after a certain depth is reached, and that at the same time 
 their size usually decreases. This latter observation is not, 
 however, true for all groups ; a peculiar family of the Holo- 
 thuridea, very widely distributed in deep water, maintain the 
 full dimensions of the largest of their class, and even exhibit 
 some forms of unusual size. Of the value of our present im- 
 pressions on such questions I am by no means sure. Using 
 all precautions, and with ample power and the most complete 
 appliances, it is extremely difficult to work either with the 
 dredge or with the trawl at depths approaching or exceeding 
 3000 fathoms. A single dredging operation in such depths 
 takes a long time ; the dredge is put over at day-break, and it 
 is usually dark before it is recovered, so that .the number of 
 such operations must be comparatively small. It is necessary 
 to take every precaution to keep the ship as nearly as possible 
 in the same place; and as this can never be done absolutely, it 
 
 II.— 19 
 
282 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 is unsafe to run the risk of adding to any motion which the 
 dredge may already have acquired, by attempting to drag it 
 for any distance over the ground. The consequence is, that in 
 those cases where the dredge does reach the bottom, it probably 
 too often sinks at once into the soft ooze and remains clogged 
 with a single " mouthful " until it is hauled up again. Some- 
 times a slight excess of movement in the vessel, from currents 
 or from wind-drift, seems to give a vibratory motion to the 
 enormous length of rope, and to keep the dredge tripping over 
 the ground, so that only a few things are picked up by the 
 tangles or clinging to the outside of the net. We must, there- 
 fore, bear in mind that only an infinitesimally small portion 
 of the floor of the ocean at depths over 2500 fathoms has yet 
 been explored. 
 
 Whatever may be the case at the extreme depths referred 
 to, there can be no doubt that at depths which may be regarded 
 as comparatively accessible, say a little above 2000 fathoms, 
 the fauna is sufficiently varied. I give in Appendix B to 
 this chapter a table taken from the Station-book, showing the 
 number of occurrences of representatives of the principal groups 
 of marine animals at the fifty-two stations at which we dredged 
 or trawled successfully at depths greater than 2000 fathoms 
 during the voyage. All the groups marked with an asterisk 
 on this -list were represented, having been observed and noted 
 when the trawl or dredge came up. It is very probable that 
 on going over the collection carefully it will be found that 
 many, particularly of the smaller forms, have been omitted. 
 The occurrences of fishes, of cephalopods, and of decapod crus- 
 taceans must be taken with a reservation ; for it is not always 
 possible to determine whether they were taken on the bottom, 
 or above it during the hauling-in of the net. 
 
 The distribution of life evidently depends in a marked de- 
 gree either upon the nature of the bottom or upon the condi- 
 tions which modify the nature of the bottom. Thus over the 
 
Plate XL I. Meteorological Ob 
 
 Barometer 
 
 Dry iiiilh Thermometer 
 
 1 
 
 Tfbe arrows z*u?7&z£e/ tJv& cl^e^Oum. of'tA& wind,' czrvcl; tfve 
 
 3-i 
 
 t s z 
 
 10 13 
 
 12 13 
 
 14 15 
 
 £S«t 
 
 ill 
 
 Ifiilii 
 
 i 
 
 33 
 
 MS 
 
 212 
 
 23 
 
 515. 
 
 444 
 
 ASCEHSI 
 
 SEUIH 
 
 SII 
 
 SSI 
 
vations for the month of April, 1876. 
 
 Bulb Thermometer - Temperature of Sea Surface 
 
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 C 
 
 F 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 283 
 
 vast areas where the calcareous matter of the pelagic foraminif- 
 era has been removed, and the bottom consists of red or gray 
 clay, animal life is scarce ; and is represented chiefly by shell- 
 less orders, such as the Holothuridea and the Annelids. This 
 comparative sterility depends, no doubt, to a great degree upon 
 the absence of carbonate of lime, but not entirely so ; for the 
 most sterile regions of the whole sea are the mortar-like lime 
 deposits which form the slopes of coral reefs and islands. There 
 appears to be something in the state of aggregation of the lime 
 in the Globigerina shells and its intimate union with organic 
 matter which renders the globigerina ooze a medium peculiarly 
 favorable to the development of the higher forms of life. The 
 stomachs of the more highly organized animals living in it or 
 on its surface are always full of the fresher f oraminif eral shells, 
 from which they undoubtedly derive not only material for the 
 calcification of their tests, but nitrogenous matter for assimila- 
 tion likewise. 
 
 As we had previously anticipated, the fauna at great depths 
 was found to be remarkably uniform. Species nearly allied 
 to those found in shallow water of many familiar genera were 
 taken in the deepest hauls, so that it would seem that the enor- 
 mous pressure, the utter darkness, and the differences in the 
 chemical and physical conditions of the water, and in the pro- 
 portions of its contained gases depending upon such extreme 
 conditions, do not influence animal life to any great extent. 
 
 The geographical extension of any animal species, whether 
 on land or in the sea, appears to depend mainly upon the main- 
 tenance of a tolerably uniform temperature, and the presence 
 of an adequate supply of suitable food, the latter condition 
 again depending chiefly upon the former; and the conditions 
 both of temperature and of food-supply are very uniform at 
 extreme depths where the nature of the bottom is the same. 
 Possibly the element next in importance is the length of time 
 during which migration may have taken place, and there seems 
 
284 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 much reason for believing that the great ocean depressions of 
 the present time have persisted through all the later geological 
 periods, back probably as far as the Permian Age, and perhaps 
 much farther. If this be so, the length of time during which 
 the vast area occupied by the abyssal fauna has maintained its 
 continuity, and probably a great uniformity in essential condi- 
 tions, is incalculable ; that is to say, it can not, in the present 
 state of our knowledge, be reduced even approximately to as- 
 tronomical time. 
 
 In discussing the general distribution of temperature, the 
 reasons have been already given which have led us to the be- 
 lief that there is a constant underflow of water from the south 
 northward, and one would naturally expect some indication of 
 migration having proceeded, and continuing to proceed, in that 
 direction. It is impossible to come to a definite conclusion 
 on this question until the species in the different groups shall 
 have been critically determined : there seems, however, to be 
 little doubt that the families which are specially characteris- 
 tic of the abyssal fauna, such as the Hexactinellid sponges, 
 the stalked Crinoids, the Echinothuridse, and the genera al- 
 lied to Inf ulaster and Mieraster among the Echinidea, are 
 more abundant, and larger and more fully developed, in the 
 Antarctic Ocean, and in the great ocean of the water hemi- 
 sphere generally, than they are in the Atlantic and the North 
 Pacific. 
 
 Our preliminary dredgings in the North Atlantic along the 
 coasts of Portugal and Spain were chiefly on the globigerina 
 ooze at depths under 2000 fathoms; and there we found all 
 the ordinary forms of deep-sea life abundant, particularly 
 sponges referable to the genera Hyalonema, Aphrocallistes, 
 Euplectella, Corallistes, and Caminus. As this area had been 
 gone over by Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys in the Porcupine we were 
 already aware that stalked crinoids and corals of Tertiary types 
 occurred. 
 
chap, v.] GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 285 
 
 The first section across the Atlantic, from Teneriffe to Som- 
 brero, was through deep water, and principally over a bot- 
 tom of red clay, the most unproductive of all the deep-sea 
 sediments. The following table gives an idea of the pro- 
 portion in which the principal zoological groups were repre- 
 sented : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ci o5 
 
 CO gj 
 
 
 ion 1 
 F'm 
 
 t a 
 
 .2 fa 
 
 CO g 
 
 .2 fa 
 
 .2 Eh 
 
 :J 
 
 .2 fa 
 
 il 
 
 il 
 
 o fa 
 
 os Q 
 
 gfa 
 
 "a 
 
 
 Stat 
 1890 
 
 Stat 
 1945 
 
 Stat 
 1530 
 
 Stat 
 2740 
 
 Stat 
 3150 
 
 Stati 
 1900 
 
 Stati 
 1950 
 
 11 
 
 Stati 
 1420 
 
 Stati 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Decapoda 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Edriophthalmata . . . 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Gephyrea 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Asteridea 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Alcyonaria 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Porifera 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 The only stations in this section which can be considered at 
 all productive are No. III. and No. XIII., both on globigerina 
 ooze, and Station XXIII. in shallow water off the Island of 
 St. Thomas. At the other stations animal forms were few in 
 number, and apparently stunted in growth. 
 
 In the next series of stations, from Bermudas to Sandy Hook 
 and Halifax and back to Bermudas, the conditions varied great- 
 ly ; but by far the greatest abundance of animal life occurred 
 in the comparatively shallow water, including one or two of 
 the cod banks off the American coast and the coast of Nova 
 Scotia. The fauna of that region was of course, on the whole, 
 well known ; some interesting observations were, however, 
 made on the distribution of the subarctic fauna in deeper 
 
286 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 water. At one or two stations off the edge of the banks sev- 
 eral species of the curious Infulaster-like genus Pourtalesia 
 occurred, but extremely small and dwarfed, a great contrast 
 to the fully developed forms of the same group which are 
 abundant in the Antarctic Sea. 
 
 
 Station 24. 
 390 F'ms. 
 
 Station 29. I 
 2700 I \ns. 
 
 Station 33. 
 435 F'ms. 
 
 ' Station 36. 
 32 F'ms. 
 
 Station 40. 
 2675 F'ms. 
 
 Station 44. 
 1700 F'ms. 
 
 Station 45. 
 1250 F'ms. 
 
 Station 46. 
 1350 F'ms. 
 
 Station 47. 
 1340 F'ms. 
 
 Station 48. 
 51 F'ms. 
 
 Station 49. 
 83 F'ms. 
 
 Station 50. 
 1250 F'ms. 
 
 Station 54. 
 2650 F'ms. 
 
 Station 56. 
 1075 F'ms. 
 
 Station 57. 
 690 F'ms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata 
 Brachiopoda 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 Edriophthalmata . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cirripedia ....... 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Gephyrea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holothuridea .... 
 Echinoidea 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 Asteridea 
 
 Crinoidea 
 
 
 
 
 HydromedusEe . . . 
 Zoantharia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 Porifera 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Although most of the dredgings between Bermudas and Ma- 
 deira, with the exception of a few near the Acores, were in very 
 deep water, animal life was fairly represented ; and some groups, 
 the Cirripedia, for example, yielded one or two of their largest 
 and most striking species. 
 
 The six stations on the section between Madeira and Station 
 OIL were mostly in water of moderate depth on a line parallel 
 with the coast of Africa, and sufficiently near the coast to have 
 the deposits sensibly influenced by the presence, of land detri- 
 tus. Such an admixture of river or shore mud is usually unfa- 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 287 
 
 
 Station 61. 
 2850 F'ms. 
 
 Station 63. 
 2750 F'ms. 
 
 Station 64. 
 2750 F'ms. 
 
 Station 68. 
 2175 F'ms. 
 
 Station 69. 
 2200 F'ms. 
 
 Station 70. 
 1675 F'ms. 
 
 Station 71. 
 1675 F'ms. 
 
 Station 72. 
 1240 F'ms. 
 
 Station 73. 
 1000 F'ms. 
 
 Station 76. 
 900 F'ms. 
 
 Station 78. 
 1000 F'ms. 
 
 Station 79. 
 2025 F'ms. | 
 
 Station 83. 
 1650 F'ms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Edriophthalmata 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Annelida 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Holothuridea 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 Ophiuridea 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hydromedusae 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 vorable to the development of a rich fauna, and the number of 
 groups represented is accordingly small. 
 
 
 £ § 
 
 
 
 
 §| 
 
 s i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §fe 
 
 
 
 Stati 
 1125 
 
 Stati 
 1675 
 
 Stati 
 2400 
 
 
 "-5 o 
 
 Static 
 2500 
 
 Pisces 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 Gastropoda 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Schizopoda 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Cirripedia 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Echinoidea 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ophiuridea 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Asteridea 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Alc} 7 onaria 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 Of the next series of stations where the trawl or dredge was 
 employed successfully, the first three, CIY., CVL, and CVIL, 
 
288 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 were in deep water nearly under the line ; Station CIX. was in 
 shallow water near St. Paul's Hocks ; Station CIII. a was close 
 to the Island of Fernando Noronha ; and the remainder were 
 at moderate depths, usually much below 1000 fathoms, along the 
 Brazilian coast from Cape St. Koque southward to Bahia. The 
 fauna of course varied greatly in this section with the varying 
 conditions. Along the coast of Brazil the bottom was usually 
 river-mud more or less mixed with the shells of globigerina and 
 the debris of surface shells; and the fauna was comparatively 
 rich, recalling that of the western coast of South Europe in the 
 abundance of hexactinellid and coralloid sponges. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?! c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 §§ 
 
 ~ a 
 
 2 1 
 
 
 >n 113 . 
 5 F'ms 
 
 s 120, 1 
 500 F'r 
 
 Si 
 
 on 122 
 F'ms. 
 
 %t 
 
 2 H 
 
 s ° 
 
 
 Stati 
 250( 
 
 Stati 
 185( 
 
 Stati 
 150( 
 
 
 |T 
 
 Station 
 675 & 
 
 Stati 
 350 
 
 "g o 
 XJl 
 
 Stati 
 400 
 
 Stati 
 1600 
 
 Station 
 1200 & 
 
 Pisces 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Decapoda 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Cirripedia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Annelida 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 Asteridea 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Zoantharia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Alcvonaria 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 Porifera 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 The following table gives the general distribution of the 
 principal animal groups along a line extending from the coast 
 of South America to the Cape of Good Hope, nearly along the 
 parallel of 40° south. Most of these dredgings were in compar- 
 atively deep water, some on the gray and red clays of the west- 
 ern and eastern troughs, and several on the median ridge of the 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 289 
 
 Atlantic. Along this line, which may be said to indicate the 
 limit between the Atlantic and the Southern Sea, the forms 
 which are specially abyssal, and which are most nearly related 
 to extinct chalk or older tertiary species, are certainly more 
 fully developed and more numerous than they are in any part 
 of the Atlantic " gulf." 
 
 
 Station 131. 
 '2275 F'ms. 
 
 Station 133. 
 1900 F'ms. 
 
 Station 134. 
 100—150 F'ms. 
 
 Station 135. 
 1000 F'ms. 
 
 Station 137. 
 2550 F'ms. 
 
 Station 322. 
 21 F'ms. 
 
 Station 323. 
 1900 F'ms. 
 
 Station 325. 
 2650 F'ms. 
 
 Station 331. 
 1715 F'ms. 
 
 Station 332. 
 2200 F'ms. 
 
 Station 333. | 
 2025 F'ms. 1 
 
 Station 334. 
 1915 F'ms. 
 
 Station 335. 
 1425 F'ms. 
 
 Pisces 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Gastropoda 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Lamellibranchiata 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Decapoda , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Schizopoda 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '* 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 
 It may not be out of place, before leaving this subject, to give 
 a brief preliminary sketch of the distribution of the groups of 
 marine organisms which inhabit the depths of the sea ; or, lead- 
 ing a pelagic existence, contribute by the subsidence of their 
 hard parts after death to the formation of submarine deposits. 
 This is a subject which must be much more fully discussed 
 when the species have been determined, and the new forms de- 
 scribed ; but we have already perhaps sufficient material for a 
 general outline. 
 
 No plants live, so far as we know, at great depths in the sea ; 
 and it is in all probability essentially inconsistent with their nat- 
 
290 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 lire and mode of nutrition that they should do so. What may 
 be their extreme limit I am not prepared to say; some strag- 
 gling plants may occur at much greater depths, but certainly 
 what is usually understood by vegetation is practically limited 
 to depths under 100 fathoms. Very few of the higher Algse 
 live even occasionally on the surface of the sea. The notable 
 exception is the gulf -weed (Sargassum bacciferum\ which scat- 
 ters its feathery islets over vast areas of warm, still water, and 
 affords rest and shelter to the peculiar nomadic fauna to which 
 I have already alluded (vol. i., p. 180, etc.). 
 
 Confervoids and unicellular Algge occur, however, frequently, 
 and sometimes in such profusion as to discolor the water over 
 an area of many miles. If Diatoms are to be regarded as 
 plants, these are found abundantly on the surface, more partic- 
 ularly where the specific gravity of the water is comparatively 
 low. The frustules of Diatoms occur in all the deep-sea de- 
 posits in greater or less number ; and in some places, as at a 
 few of the stations in the Indian Ocean, they form the bulk of 
 the sample brought up by the sounding -machine. Over the 
 area occupied by this siliceous deposit, the higher fauna were 
 found to consist mainly of forms with but little carbonate of 
 lime entering into the composition of their tests, such as very 
 thin- shelled irregular urchins, and especially an abundance of 
 Holothuridea. These were often modified in a singular way ; 
 the perisom was reduced to a mere membrane, and the stomach 
 and intestine were expanded so as to occupy nearly the whole 
 of the body-cavity ; and distended with the " diatom ooze " so 
 completely that the animal looked like a thin transparent bag 
 filled with it. There can be little doubt that the diatoms sink 
 to the bottom still retaining a small portion of their organic 
 matter, which is slowly extracted by the alimentary canal of the 
 Holothurid. 
 
 Radiolarians were met with throughout the whole of the At- 
 lantic ; and often in great abundance, the sea being not unfre- 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 291 
 
 quently slightly discolored by them. The forms which oc- 
 curred in such numbers were usually species of the Acantho- 
 metridse ; but Polycystina and the compound genera were also 
 numerous. The remains of Padiolarians were found in all deep- 
 sea deposits, usually in very direct proportion to the numbers 
 occurring on the surface and in intermediate water. It was 
 frequently observed, however, that where, in deep water, certain 
 species swarmed on the surface, very few of their skeletons 
 could be detected on the bottom. This applies especially to 
 the Acanthometridse, and is probably owing to the extreme te- 
 nuity of the siliceous wall of their radiating spicules, which may 
 admit of their being dissolved while sinking to a great depth ; or 
 possibly the spicules may never become thoroughly silicified, but 
 may retain permanently more or less the condition of acanthin. 
 The Polycystina seem much less destructible, and occur in abun- 
 dance on the bottom at the greatest depths. Although the Pa- 
 diolaria are universally distributed — like the Diatoms, but in a 
 less marked degree — they seem to be most numerous where the 
 specific gravity of the water is low; they specially swarm in 
 the warm and comparatively still region of the South-western 
 Pacific and among the islands of the Malay Archipelago, where 
 they are much more abundant than in any part of the Atlantic. 
 I have already given the reasons which led us to the belief that 
 Radiolarians inhabit the water of the ocean throughout its en- 
 tire depth, or, at all events, its upper and lower portions. 
 
 In the investigations with the towing-net, made by Mr. Mur- 
 ray during the latter part of the cruise — at all depths, the nets, 
 being either sent down independently to the depths required, 
 or attached to the dredge or trawl-rope — about thirty species or 
 more were procured of a beautiful group of minute forms ap- 
 proaching, but in many important points differing from, the 
 Radiolarians. This order have apparently hitherto escaped ob- 
 servation, and I retain for the type genus the name Chal- 
 lengeria, and for the order that of " Challengerida." This 
 
292 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 appears to be the only new group of higher than generic value 
 which has come to light during the Challenger expedition. 
 
 As a rule, these forms are extremely mi- 
 nute, although some of them approach in size 
 the smaller Eadiolarians. They consist usu- 
 ally of a single chamber of silica, varying 
 greatly in form, sometimes triangular, some- 
 times lenticular, and frequently nearly glob- 
 ular or flask-shaped ; with a single opening, 
 usually guarded by a beautifully formed and 
 frequently highly ornamented lip. The sur- 
 face of the shell is usually richly sculptured, 
 ^^SETS a favorite style of ornament being a series 
 natural size. f closely apposed and symmetrically ar- 
 
 ranged circular pits sunk deep in the siliceous wall, their inner 
 walls refracting the light, and giving the surface of the whole 
 a peculiar pearly lustre. The contents of the shell consist of a 
 mass of granular sarcode, with one or more large, well-defined 
 
 Fig. 59.— Forms of the Challengerida. 
 
 granular nuclei, which color deeply with carmine ; and a num- 
 ber of dark-brown, sometimes nearly black, rounded compound 
 granular masses. It is singular that these deeply pigmented 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 293 
 
 spheres, which probably represent the spheres of a lighter color 
 which we find in all the surface rhizopods, seem to be special- 
 ly characteristic of rhizopods from deep water, being found 
 also in the Eadiolarians from the deep tow-nets. The Challen- 
 gerida were never met with on the surface ; they were taken 
 rarely in tow-nets sunk to depths of 300 and 400 fathoms ; and 
 they were most abundant when the tow-nets were sent down 
 on the dredge or trawl rope to much greater depths. Their dis- 
 tribution seems to have a wide extension ; they are occasionally 
 found in the bottom deposits, but rarely, probably on account 
 of their small size and the extreme tenuity of their tests, which 
 renders them liable to solution in sea-water. The Challenge- 
 rida are essentially rhizopods with monothalamous siliceous 
 shells ; and their zoological position may be not very far from 
 such forms as Gromia. 
 
 The distribution of the pelagic Foraminifera has already 
 been discussed. They are universally distributed throughout 
 the temperate and warmer seas, diminishing in number and de- 
 creasing in size toward the frigid zones. Certain species are 
 occasionally found in large numbers on the surface, but at a 
 depth of a few fathoms their occurrence is much more certain. 
 We have good reason to believe that the vertical range of the 
 oceanic group does not extend beyond the first few hundred 
 fathoms, and that all the pelagic forms occur occasionally on 
 the surface. Living Foraminifera are very generally distrib- 
 uted on the bottom, but the forms differ from those found on 
 the surface and near it, and are for the most part to be referred 
 to arenaceous or imperforate types. 
 
 Sponges extend to all depths, but perhaps the class attains 
 its maximum development between 500 and 1000 fathoms. All 
 the orders occur in the abyssal zone, except the Calcarea, which 
 seem to be confined to shallow water. At great depths the 
 Hexactinellidse certainly preponderate ; and next to these per- 
 haps the Esperiadse, the Geodidse, and the Lithistidae. The 
 
294 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 ordinary horny and halichondroid forms, although they have 
 a considerable vertical range, are most abundant in the coral- 
 line zone. In the Atlantic, hexactinellid sponges are very 
 abundant to depths of about a thousand fathoms along the 
 coasts of Portugal and Brazil. These forms, which occur in 
 the fossil state in the earlier Paleozoic rocks, and, represented 
 by the VentriculidsG and allied families, abound in the chalk 
 and greensand, show in a marked degree the wide extension in 
 space at the present day of a very uniform abyssal fauna, the 
 same or very similar species of the genera Aphrocallistes, Far- 
 rea, Uyalonema, Euplectella, Holtenia, and Rossella being appar- 
 ently cosmopolite. Nearly all the deep-sea sponges of all or- 
 ders are stalked, or provided with beards or fringes of radiating 
 spicules, or otherwise supplied with means of supporting them- 
 selves above the surface of the soft ooze in which they grow. 
 
 Among the Coelenterata the Hydrozoa are not very fully 
 represented at great depths. To this rule, however, some sin- 
 gular exceptions occur. In many of our deepest dredgings, 
 where there was a great lack of carbonate of lime, and animal 
 life appeared to be very scarce, the curved horny tubes of what 
 is probably a species of the genus St&phomoscyphus was found 
 adhering to the ear-bones of whales or to concretions of iron 
 and manganese ; and on two occasions in the North Pacific, at 
 depths of 1875 and 2900 fathoms, we captured a giant of the 
 class, a species of Monocaulus with a stem upward of two me- 
 tres long, and a head three or four decimetres across the crown 
 of extended tentacles. 
 
 True corals referable to the Madreporaria are not abundant 
 in deep water. According to Mr. Moseley's report, about ten 
 genera reach a depth of 1000 fathoms ; four genera are found 
 at 1500 fathoms ; and a single species extends practically through 
 all depths, ranging from 30 to 2900 fathoms. In the Atlantic 
 especially deep-sea corals are sparsely scattered : two or three 
 species of the genus Caryophyllia are among the most com- 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 295 
 
 mon, and Deltocyathus Agassizii, and one or two species of the 
 genus Oeratotroehus, were frequently met with near the Amer- 
 
 Fig. 60.— Flabellum apertum, Moseley. Natural size. 
 
 ican coast and in the Gulf -stream region. Besides Flabellum 
 alabastrum — the fine species already described from the Acores 
 — Flabellum apertum (Fig. 60), a form with a wide geograph- 
 ical range, occurred oif the coast 
 of Portugal ; and a very delicate lit- 
 tle species, named by Mr. Moseley 
 Flabellum angulare (Fig. 61), was 
 dredged on one occasion only, not 
 far from the fishing-banks of Nova 
 Scotia, at a depth of 1250 fathoms. 
 The special peculiarity of this spe- 
 cies, if the individual which we pro- 
 cured be not abnormal, is its regu- 
 larly pentagonal form and the per- 
 fect quinary arrangement of its 
 parts; it has exactly 40 septa — 10 
 primary and secondary, 10 tertiary, 
 and 20 quaternary. Species of Lo- 
 phohelia and of Amphihelia were FlG - ^—Fiaieiium angulare, moseley. 
 
 Natural size. 
 
 generally distributed at comparative- 
 ly moderate depths, and the cosmopolitan Fungia symmetrica 
 occurred in small number at all depths. The deep-sea corals 
 
296 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 are mostly simple and solitary, and the greater number belong 
 to the Turbinolidse : nearly all the genera pass back to Tertiary, 
 and a few to Mesozoic times. Upon the whole, the corals must 
 undoubtedly be regarded as affording evidence of a certain re- 
 lation between the deep-sea fauna of the present day and the 
 fauna of shallower water during the deposition of at all events 
 some portions of the Tertiary series. 
 
 Attached Alcyonarians, and especially genera allied to Mop- 
 sea and Primnoa, are extremely abundant in the cooler seas at 
 depths from 500 to 1000 fathoms, sometimes occurring in such 
 quantity as to hamper and clog the trawl, and affording charm- 
 ing exhibitions of elegance of form and beauty of coloring. 
 Certain forms of the Pennatulidse go down to great depths: 
 the genus Umbellula, which we at first regarded as of extreme 
 rarity, turned up every now and then, usually in nearly the 
 deepest hauls, represented by two or three nearly allied species. 
 
 Among the Echinodermata the stalked crinoids of the deep- 
 sea fauna are most interesting, but they are comparatively few 
 in number. The large forms belonging to the Pentacrinidse, 
 although they are very local, appear to be more common than 
 has been hitherto supposed at depths of from three to five hun- 
 dred fathoms. Five or six new species have been added to the 
 meagre list, but most of these are from the South-western Pa- 
 cific, and do not enter into the Atlantic fauna. The Apiocrini- 
 dse, represented by the genera Wiizocrinus, Bathycrinus, and 
 Ilyocrinus, which are of so great interest as the last survivors 
 of a large and important order, are rare prizes at much greater 
 depths. Representatives of all the three genera were dredged 
 in deep water in the South Atlantic. 
 
 Ophiuridea, many of them referable with the common sand 
 brittle-star to the genus Ophioglypha, and many others to the 
 closely allied genus Ophiomusium, came up from the greatest 
 depths, and, particularly in the North Atlantic, formed a prom- 
 inent feature in the fauna. Asteridea, principally represented 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 297 
 
 by forms more or less nearly allied to Astropeeten, Astrogonium, 
 Archaster, Pteraster, and Hymenaster, abounded at all more 
 moderate depths; and the singular aberrant genus Brisinga 
 was found universally from the coast of Labrador to the Ant- 
 arctic ice -barrier, at all depths, from 400 to 3000 fathoms, the 
 trawl rarely coming up from deep water without some frag- 
 ments of its fragile arms. 
 
 The novel forms of sea-urchins, regular and irregular, are 
 numerous and highly interesting, especially in their paleonto- 
 logical aspect. Species of the genera Porocidaris and Salenia 
 occur not unfrequently, and the curious flexible Echinothuridse 
 have assumed the proportions of an important family. Among 
 the irregular urchins the relation between the modern abyssal 
 fauna and the fauna of the later Mesozoic beds is even more 
 marked. A number of genera hitherto undescribed associate 
 themselves with the chalk genus Tnfulaster, while others And 
 their nearest allies in Micraster and Ananchytes. 
 
 The Holothuridea are very generally distributed down to 
 the greatest depths ; and are represented in deep water by a 
 peculiar series allied to P solus, with a very distinct ambulatory 
 disk, very frequently a great develojmient of calcified tissue 
 in the perisom, and frequently symmetrical series of long tubu- 
 lar appendages along the back and sides. These Holothurice, 
 . which are among the most characteristic of the abyssal forms, 
 have not yet been critically examined. 
 
 Polyzoa were found at all depths : some extremely beauti- 
 ful and delicate forms, referred principally to the Bicellariadse 
 and to the Salicornariadae, occurred at depths between 2000 
 and 3000 fathoms in sterile regions where other animal life 
 was scarce. 
 
 The G-ephyrea yielded a few interesting undescribed forms. 
 Annelids were not abundant at great depths ; but on one or 
 two occasions — as, for example, at Station XIX., on the section 
 between Teneriffe and Sombrero — their occurrence was of spe- 
 II.— 20 
 
298 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 cial interest, for they seemed to be almost the sole inhabitants 
 of red clay from which nearly the whole of the carbonate of 
 lime had been removed. 
 
 The various orders of Crustacea form a most interesting and 
 important element in the ocean fauna. The pedunculated Cir- 
 ripedia seem to be universally distributed in comparatively 
 small numbers even at the greatest depths, where some of the 
 abyssal species are larger and more highly ornamented than 
 those previously known from shallow w T ater. Some of the 
 finest additions to our knowledge of species were made among 
 the Schizopoda, in colossal forms of the genera Gnathophausia 
 and Petalophthalmus. 
 
 The macrourous Decapods were very many, and included 
 some splendid im described species, especially among thePeneid 
 and Caridid shrimps. There was often, however, some slight 
 doubt whether these forms lived actually on the bottom : we 
 had good evidence that they lived near the bottom, but in sev- 
 eral instances shrimps were captured when we had reason to 
 suspect that the trawl had been buoyed up, and had never act- 
 ually touched the ground. Galathece were frequent to great 
 depths, but brachyourous Decapods appear to be confined al- 
 most entirely to comparatively shallow water. 
 
 The Pycnogonida occurred frequently, and attained an enor- 
 mous size in cold Arctic and Antarctic water at medium depths. 
 The Brachiopoda we found widely distributed, but by no means 
 numerous either as to species or individuals. On one or two 
 occasions, in the Porcupine, we got fine hauls of TerebraUila 
 cranium and T. septata attached to the pebbles of a gravel of 
 the volcanic rocks of the Faroes, and we took one or two other 
 species with the conditions almost repeated in the neighborhood 
 of the Heard Islands and the Crozets in the Southern Sea. 
 
 The two great modern groups of the Mollusca, the Lamel- 
 libranchiata and the Gastropoda, do not enter largely into the 
 fauna of the deep sea. Species of both groups, usually small 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCL USIONS. 
 
 299 
 
 and apparently stunted, were widely though sparsely diffused, 
 and exceptionally a large and handsome form occurred, as, for 
 example, a singularly beautiful volute in 1600 fathoms at Sta- 
 tion CXLVTL, in the Southern Sea ; some line species of Mar- 
 garita in 1260 and 1675 fathoms south of Kerguelen ; and a 
 large bivalve, allied to Lima, which turned up in deep dredg- 
 ings at rare intervals at stations the most widely separated in 
 the Atlantic and the Pacific. 
 
 Cephalopods came up in the trawl occasionally, but in most 
 cases they belonged to the peculiar gelatinous group which are 
 well known to be pelagic, and had doubtless been taken while 
 the trawl was passing through the upper water. In some few 
 cases species had evidently come from the bottom, but not from 
 any great depth. It is singular that only on one occasion we 
 took a specimen of the animal of Spirula, although the delicate 
 little white coiled shell is one of the commonest objects on the 
 beach throughout the tropics — sometimes washed up in a long 
 white line which can be seen from any distance. 
 
 After the method of dredging with the trawl was intro- 
 duced, one or two or more fishes were taken at almost every 
 haul, showing that, while not abundant, they were universally 
 present. "With these, however, as with the decapod Crusta- 
 ceans, the question often arose whether the specimen had been 
 brought up from the bottom, or had been taken by the trawl 
 on its way up. In many cases this could not be answered with 
 certainty ; but it seems that certain families which are met with 
 very frequently — such as the Sternoptychidse and the Scopeli- 
 dse, many of them remarkable for their grotesque forms, their 
 brilliant coloring, and metallic lustre, and the symmetrical rows 
 of deeply pigmented sense or phosphorescent organs which 
 sometimes extend along the greater part of the body (Fig. 62) 
 — are in most, if not all, cases from the upper waters ; while 
 certain other families — for example, the Ophidiidse and the 
 Macruridse — live at or near the bottom. What we know of 
 
300 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 the distribution of fishes seems to me to corroborate the view 
 that in a deep-sea vertical section there are two regions — one 
 
 Pig. 62. — Chauliodus Sloanii. From the upper water. One third the natural size. 
 
 within a limited distance of the surface, and the other a little 
 way above the bottom — which have their special faunae ; while 
 the zone between is destitute of, at all events, the higher forms 
 of animal life. 
 
 In some places, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific, especially 
 at extreme depths in the red-clay arese, the trawl brought up 
 many teeth of sharks and ear-bones of whales, all in a semi-fos- 
 sil state, and usually strongly impregnated with, or their sub- 
 stance to a great extent replaced by, the oxides of iron and man- 
 ganese. These deposits of bones occur at great distances from 
 land, and where from other causes the deposition of sediment 
 is taking place with extreme slowness. The sharks' teeth be- 
 long principally to genera, and often to species, which we believe 
 to be now extinct, and which are characteristic of the later Ter- 
 tiary formations ; and there seems little doubt that they have 
 been lying there, becoming gradually buried in the slowly ac- 
 cumulating sediment, from Tertiary times. The fishes which 
 were collected during the expedition are now undergoing ex- 
 amination by Dr. G-iinther, and the semi-fossil remains from the 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 301 
 
 sea-bottom by Mr. Murray ; and several questions of great inter- 
 est must be left open until tlieir investigations are completed. 
 
 The first general survey of the deep-sea collections, under- 
 taken with a knowledge of the circumstances under which the 
 specimens were procured, justify us, I believe, in arriving at the 
 following general conclusions : 
 
 1. Animal life is present on the bottom of the ocean at all 
 depths. 
 
 2. Animal life is not nearly so abundant at extreme as it is 
 at more moderate depths; but as well-developed members of 
 all the marine invertebrate classes occur at all depths, this ap- 
 pears to depend more upon certain causes affecting the compo- 
 sition of the bottom deposits, and of the bottom-water involving 
 the supply of oxygen, and of carbonate of lime, phosphate of 
 lime, and other materials necessary for their development, than 
 upon any of the conditions immediately connected with depth. 
 
 3. There is every reason to believe that the fauna of deep 
 water is confined principally to two belts, one at and near the 
 surface, and the other on and near the bottom ; leaving an in- 
 termediate zone in which the larger animal forms, vertebrate 
 and invertebrate, are nearly or entirely absent. 
 
 4. Although all the principal marine invertebrate groups are 
 represented in the abyssal fauna, the relative proportion in 
 which they occur is peculiar. Thus, Mollusca in all their class- 
 es, brachyourous Crustacea, and Annelida, are, on the whole, 
 scarce ; while Echinodermata and Porif era greatly preponder- 
 ate. 
 
 5. Depths beyond 500 fathoms are inhabited throughout the 
 world by a fauna which presents generally the same features 
 throughout. Deep-sea genera have usually a cosmopolitan ex- 
 tension, while species are either universally distributed, or, if 
 they differ in remote localities, they are markedly representa- 
 tive ; that is to say, they bear to one another a close genetic 
 relation. 
 
302 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 6. The abyssal fauna is certainly more nearly related than the 
 fauna of shallower water to the faunae of the Tertiary and Sec- 
 ondary periods, although this relation is not so close as we were 
 at first inclined to expect, and only a comparatively small num- 
 ber of types supposed to have become extinct have yet been 
 discovered. 
 
 7. The most characteristic abyssal forms, and those which are 
 most nearly related to extinct types, seem to occur in greatest 
 abundance and of largest size in the Southern Ocean ; and the 
 general character of the faunae of the Atlantic and of the Pa- 
 cific gives the impression that the migration of species has taken 
 place in a northerly direction, that is to say, in a direction cor- 
 responding with the movement of the cold under-current. 
 
 8. The general character of the abyssal fauna resembles most 
 that of the shallower water of high northern and southern lati- 
 tudes, no doubt because the conditions of temperature, on which 
 the distribution of animals mainly depends, are nearly similar. 
 
 The Density of Sea-water. — The specific gravity of the sur- 
 face-water was determined daily by Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, the 
 chemist to the expedition, with great accuracy ; the specific 
 gravity of the bottom- water was also determined so far as pos- 
 sible at every observing station, and every opportunity was 
 taken to procure for physical and chemical examination sam- 
 ples of water from intermediate depths. On our return home 
 through the Pacific, Mr. Buchanan, at my request, prepared a 
 preliminary report on his method of investigation and on the 
 general results of his work, which I received at Valparaiso ; 
 and from that report the following summary of specific-gravity 
 conditions in the Atlantic, according to the first year's obser- 
 vations, is taken. The apparatus in use for procuring water 
 from the bottom and from intermediate depths has been already 
 described (vol. i., p. 51 et seq.). 
 
 Representing the specific gravity of distilled water at 4° C. 
 by 100,000, Mr. Buchanan found that of ocean-water at 15°*56 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 303 
 
 C. to vary between the extremes of 102780 and 102400; so 
 that, to be of any value at all, the possible error in the results 
 must not exceed 10. The hydrometer used for these observa- 
 tions is fully described in a paper presented to the Royal Soci- 
 ety by Mr. Buchanan early in 1875, and published in abstract 
 in the " Proceedings " for that year. Its description is briefly 
 as follows : 
 
 The stem, which carries a millimetre-scale 10 centimetres long, 
 has an outside diameter of about 3 millimetres, the external vol- 
 ume of the divided portion being 0*8607 cubic centimetre ; the 
 mean volume of the body is 160*15 cubic centimetres, and the 
 weight of the glass instrument is 160*0405 grammes. With 
 this volume and weight it floats in distilled water of 16° C, at 
 about the lowest division (100) of the scale. In order to make 
 it serviceable for heavier waters, a small brass table is made to 
 rest on the top of the stem, of such a weight that it depresses 
 the instrument in distilled water of 16° C. to about the topmost 
 division (0) of the scale. By means of a series of six weights, 
 multiples by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the weight of the table, spe- 
 cific gravities between 1*00000 and 1*03400 can be observed. It 
 is not necessary that these weights should be accurate multiples 
 of the weight of the table ; it is sufficient if they approach it 
 within a centigramme, and their actual weight be known with ac- 
 curacy. The weights of the table and weights in actual use are : 
 
 Weight of table 0-8360 gramme. 
 
 " of weight No. 1 0-8560 " 
 
 " " II 1-6010 
 
 " " III 2-4225 grammes. 
 
 IV 31245 
 
 " V 4 -07 10 
 
 VI 4-8245 
 
 For ocean-waters the hydrometer is always used with the table 
 and either No. IV. or No. Y. weight. 
 
 When the mechanical part of the construction of the instru- 
 ment was finished, with the exception of the closing of the top 
 
304 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAP. v. 
 
 of the stem (which instead was widened into a funnel -shape 
 large enough to receive the ordinary decigramme weights), the 
 calibration of the stem was effected by loading the stem with 
 successive weights, and observing the consequent depressions 
 in distilled water of known temperature. This done, the top 
 was sealed up and the instrument carefully weighed. The ex- 
 pansion of the body with temperature was determined in a 
 similar manner by reading the instrument in distilled water 
 of various temperatures. The co-efficient of expansion of the 
 glass was then found to be 0*000029 per degree centigrade. 
 
 For using this instrument at sea about 900 cubic centimetres 
 of sea-water are taken, and the containing cylinder placed on 
 a swinging table in a position as near the centre of the ship as 
 possible. The observation with the hydrometer, loaded with 
 the necessary table and weight, is then effected in the ordinary 
 way, the accuracy of the readings being but little affected by 
 rolling. Pitching, however, is found to have a distinctly dis- 
 turbing effect ; and when it is in any way violent, it is advisa- 
 ble to store the specimen of water till the weather improves. 
 
 The temperature of the water at the time of observation is 
 determined by one of Geissler's " normal " or standard ther- 
 mometers, graduated into tenths of a degree centigrade ; and 
 it is essential for the accuracy of the results that the water, 
 during the observation of the hydrometer, should be sensibly 
 at the same temperature as the atmosphere, otherwise the chang- 
 ing temperature of the water makes the readings of both the 
 hydrometer and the thermometer uncertain. At low tempera- 
 tures (below 10° or 12° C.) a tenth of a degree makes no sensi- 
 ble difference in the resulting specific gravity ; but at the high 
 temperatures always found at the surface of tropical seas, ris- 
 ing sometimes to 30° C, the same difference of temperature 
 may make a difference of 3 to 4 in the resulting specific gravity. 
 
 Having obtained the specific gravity of the water in ques- 
 tion at a temperature which depends upon that of the air at 
 
CHAP. V.J 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 305 
 
 the time, it is necessary, in order that the results may be com- 
 parable, to reduce them to their values at one common temper- 
 ature. For this purpose a knowledge of the law of expansion 
 of sea-water with temperature is necessary. This had been de- 
 termined with sufficient accuracy for low temperatures by Des- 
 pretz and others ; but as the temperatures at which specific- 
 gravity observations are usually made are comparatively high, 
 their results were of but little use, directed as they were chiefly 
 to the determination of the freezing and maximum -density 
 points. When the late Captain Maury was developing his 
 theory of oceanic circulation, owing to difference of density 
 of the water in its different parts, he found the want of infor- 
 mation on this important subject. At his request the late Pro- 
 fessor Hubbard, of the National Observatory, United States, 
 instituted a series of experiments, from which he was enabied 
 to lay down a curve of the volumes of sea-w T ater at all tempera- 
 tures from considerably below the freezing-point to much above 
 what obtains even in the hottest seas. The results are published 
 in Maury's "Sailing Directions," 1858, vol. i., p. 237, and have 
 evidently been carried out with great care. The composition 
 of different oceanic waters varies, even in extreme cases, within 
 such close limits, that the law of thermal expansion is sensibly 
 the same for all of them : of this Hubbard's experiments afford 
 satisfactory proof. In the table which gives the results of all his 
 experiments, he takes the volume of w r ater at 60° F. as his unit. 
 
 In the following table the volumes for every centigrade de- 
 gree from —1° C. to +30° C. are given : 
 
 Temp. ° C. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Temp. ° C. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Temp. ° C. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 Temp. ° C. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 -1 
 
 0-99792 
 
 + 7 
 
 0-99853 
 
 + 15 
 
 0-99987 
 
 + 23 
 
 1-00194 
 
 
 
 795 
 
 8 
 
 866 
 
 16 
 
 1-00010 
 
 24 
 
 224 
 
 + 1 
 
 799 
 
 9 
 
 878 
 
 17 
 
 034 
 
 25 
 
 256 
 
 2 
 
 804 
 
 10 
 
 893 
 
 18 
 
 059 
 
 26 
 
 288 
 
 3 
 
 812 
 
 11 
 
 910 
 
 19 
 
 086 
 
 27 
 
 320 
 
 4 
 
 820 
 
 12 
 
 927 
 
 20 
 
 111 
 
 28 
 
 352 
 
 5 
 
 830 
 
 13 
 
 947 
 
 21 
 
 137 
 
 29 
 
 385 
 
 6 
 
 840 
 
 14 
 
 967 
 
 22 
 
 164 
 
 30 
 
 420 
 
306 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 The results of Mr. Buchanan's observations are given for 
 each section in tables forming Appendices to the several chap- 
 ters. In these tables the specific gravity is given at the tem- 
 perature at which the determination was made ; at the temper- 
 ature reduced to 15°*56 C. ; and at the temperature which it 
 had in the position in the ocean from which it was taken — the 
 specific gravity of distilled water at 4° C. being retained as the 
 unit. 
 
 With a single exception, off the coast of Brazil, the densest 
 water which we have met with in the ocean was found on the 
 section from Teneriffe to St. Thomas in the heart of the north- 
 east trade-wind territory, where, from the strength and dryness 
 of the wind, the amount of evaporation must be very large. 
 Round about the Canary Islands the mean specific gravity was 
 found to be 1*02730; to the westward it rises steadily until in 
 long. 28° W. it has reached 1-02762. Between long. 28° W. and 
 54° W. the mean specific gravity is 1*02773, the maximum be- 
 ing 1-02781. On approaching the West Indies, it rapidly falls 
 off to an average of 1-02719 in the neighborhood of St. Thom- 
 as ; and if we take into account all the observations made on 
 the western side of the Atlantic, from St. Thomas northward 
 to the edge of the cold water which separates the Gulf-stream 
 from the coast of America, we obtain the same average, 1*02719. 
 Between Bermudas and the Acores an almost perfectly uniform 
 specific gravity was observed, the mean being 1*02713, and the 
 extremes 1-02694 and 1*02727. As Madeira is approached, the 
 specific gravity rises until it reaches 1*02746 close to the island 
 itself. The mean specific gravity on the eastern side of the 
 North Atlantic, between the latitude of St. Thomas and that 
 of the Acores, is 1*02727, or slightly higher than that of the 
 water on the western side. 
 
 After leaving the Cape Verde Islands, the ship's course lay 
 almost parallel to the African coast, and at an average distance 
 of about 200 miles from it. Proceeding thus in a south-easterly 
 
Barometer 
 
 Plate XL II. Meteorological Obsen 
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CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCL US J ONS. 
 
 307 
 
 direction, the specific gravity fell rapidly from 1-02692 off St. 
 Iago on the 10th of August to 1-02632 on the 12th, after which 
 it retained the low mean specific gravity of 1-02627 until the 
 21st of August, when the course was changed to a westerly one 
 along the equator. The specific gravity of the water on this 
 day was the lowest hitherto registered for a surface-water ; it 
 was 1*02601, in lat. 3° 8' N., and on the boundary-line between 
 the equatorial and Guinea currents. The same low specific 
 gravity was observed in following the equatorial current as far 
 as St. Paul's Hocks, after which it quickly rose as the Brazilian 
 coast was approached; and the maximum of 1*02786 was ob- 
 tained on the 26th of September, when off the entrance to 
 Bahia, in lat. 13° 4' S. 
 
 The observations in the South Atlantic were limited to a line 
 down the western side as far as the Abrolhos Bank, and thence 
 across to the Cape of Good Hope. In the region of the south- 
 east trade- wind, therefore, we have only a few observations close 
 to the coast ; and as we have seen in the North Atlantic, on the 
 voyage from Teneriffe to St. Thomas, the specific gravity is 
 higher in mid-ocean than either on the east or the west side, so 
 in the South Atlantic it is possible that the same may hold good. 
 From the Abrolhos Bank to Tristan d'Acunha the specific grav- 
 ity sinks steadily from 1-02785 to 1*02606, and from Tristan to 
 the Cape of Good Hope, along a course lying between the 35th 
 and the 37th parallels of south latitude, the mean specific grav- 
 ity was 1*02624. Between the same parallels of north latitude 
 the mean specific gravity w T as 1*02713. 
 
 It must be remembered that the results obtained can only be 
 held good for the season of the year in which they were ob- 
 served, and that the observations in different latitudes were 
 made in different seasons ; and, further, that all the observations 
 north of the line as far as 20° N". were obtained on the eastern 
 side; and those to the southward of it as far as 30° S. were ob- 
 tained on the western side of the ocean ; so that it would be 
 
308 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 unwise to attempt to draw any general conclusions from such 
 imperfect data. Considering, however, our four parallel sec- 
 tions, we have at least this positive result — that in the month 
 of June and mean lat. 36° N. the surface-water in mid-ocean 
 has a mean specific gravity of 1-02712; that in the months 
 of February and March and mean lat. 22° N. the mean surface 
 specific gravity is 1*02773 ; that in the month of August and 
 mean lat. 2° N. it is 1-02624 ; and that in the month of October 
 in mean lat. 36' S. it is 1-02621. 
 
 On the way to and from Halifax, in the month of May, some 
 observations were obtained in the cold water with which the 
 north-eastern coast of America is surrounded, the mean specific 
 gravity being 1-02463. On the 1st of May, in the Gulf-stream, 
 the specific gravity of the water was 1-02675, and its tempera- 
 ture 23°*9 C; and the next day it was 1*02538, and the temper- 
 ature 13°-3 C. If the results be reduced to their values at the 
 respective temperatures of the different waters, we have for the 
 specific gravity of the Gulf-stream water 1*02445, and of Labra- 
 dor-current water 1*02584 ; so that the fall of temperature very 
 much more than counterbalances the want of salt in the water. 
 In the same way we find the mean specific gravity of the water 
 referred to the temperature which it has in the ocean to be, in 
 lat. 36° K and month of June, 1*02548 ; in 22° K and months 
 of February and March, 1*02592 ; in 2° K and month of Au- 
 gust, 1-02335 ; and in 36° S. and month of October, 1-02659. 
 
 From the determination of the specific gravity of intermedi- 
 ate and bottom water, Mr. Buchanan concludes that, as a gener- 
 al rule, both in the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, between the 
 parallels of 40° and 40° S., the specific gravity reduced to 
 15*56 C, is greatest at or near the surface, and decreases more 
 or less regularly until a minimum is reached, generally 400 fath- 
 oms from the surface, whence there is a slow rise, the bottom- 
 water being slightly heavier. 
 
 From Mr. Buchanan's report, and from the specific -gravity 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 309 
 
 tables of the year 1873, we come, then, to the broad conclusion 
 that the density of the upper layers of the North Atlantic is 
 considerably higher than that of any other part of the ocean, 
 and the specific -gravity tables for the spring months of 1876 
 give the same result. I need scarcely say that this is exactly 
 what must have been anticipated, if my view be correct, that 
 the movement of deep water in the Atlantic is mainly due to 
 excess of evaporation over precipitation in its northern portion. 
 
 An element of great uncertainty is undoubtedly introduced 
 into the determination of the specific gravity of surface-wa- 
 ter by the weather. These determinations were made, as usu- 
 al, daily for the section between Stations CCCXXIII. and 
 CCCXXXV., from Montevideo to Tristan d'Acunha, in the 
 beginning of March, 1876; and the mean of these, the tem- 
 perature reduced to 15°*56 C, was 1*02620. Of the eighteen 
 days occupied in running the section, nine were dry and fine, 
 and on nine rain fell either continuously or in showers. The 
 mean for the nine dry days was 1*02639, and for the nine wet 
 days 1*02591. The maximum surface specific gravity for the 
 section (1*02680) was at Station CCCXXIII. at the point where 
 probably the Brazil Current has most effect on the surface; 
 and the minimum (1*02494) was at Station CCCXXVI. after a 
 heavy fall of rain. The mean specific gravity of the surface- 
 water at the temperature at which it was procured was 1*02502. 
 
 The specific gravity of the bottom-water was determined at 
 ten stations on the section. Reduced to a temperature of 15°*56 
 C, the mean was 1*02601 ; the maximum, 1*02650, was at Sta- 
 tion CCCXXIII. at a depth of 1900 fathoms; and the mini- 
 mum, 1*02580, was at Station CCCXXYI. at 2775 fathoms. 
 The mean specific gravity of the bottom-water at the depth at 
 which it was procured was 1*02811, showing a difference be- 
 tween the two means of 0*00210, due to difference of tempera- 
 ture alone. 
 
 It seems from these observations that the differences of sur- 
 
310 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 face specific gravity due to differences of salinity along the 
 section are very small, and that, with the exception possibly 
 of Station CCCXXIIL, which is abnormal in many respects, 
 they depend mainly on the rain-fall. 
 
 The difference between the mean surface specific gravity, 
 the temperature reduced to 15°-56 C, and the mean bottom 
 specific gravity under the same conditions is also very slight. 
 The actual specific gravity at every point is practically de- 
 termined by the temperature ; and consequently the bands of 
 equal density are, like the bands of equal temperature, virtu- 
 ally continuous with those of the Southern Sea. 
 
 The Amount of Carbonic Acid contained in Sea -water. — I 
 give in Appendix C to this chapter a table of carbonic acid 
 determinations from Mr. Buchanan's " Laboratory Work ;" and 
 the substance of the few following remarks on the subject is 
 taken from his preliminary report (" Proceedings of the Royal 
 Society," vol. xxiv., p. 602 et seq.). 
 
 The carbonic acid, when boiled out of the water, was received 
 by baryta-water of known strength ; its consequent loss of al- 
 kalinity was measured by hydrochloric acid of corresponding 
 strength. Having observed that the presence of sulphates in 
 sea-water is one of the potent agents in the retention of the 
 carbonic acid (" Proceedings of the Royal Society," vol. xxii., 
 p. 483 et seq.), Mr. Buchanan always added 10 cubic centimetres 
 of a saturated solution of chloride of barium to the water be- 
 fore commencing the operation. This facilitates greatly the 
 liberation of the carbonic acid, and also causes the water to boil 
 tranquilly, even to dryness, without showing any tendency to- 
 ward bumping. The quantity of water used has been almost 
 invariably 225 cubic centimetres, and the property possessed 
 by sea -water of retaining its carbonic acid with great vigor 
 makes it possible to perform the determination of it even a 
 couple of days after its collection. 
 
 As in the great majority of cases, where the carbonic acid 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 311 
 
 has been determined, the oxygen and nitrogen have also been 
 collected, and have been preserved until our return home, 
 where they will shortly be analyzed. It would be useless to 
 attempt to discuss the results of the carbonic acid determina- 
 tions at present, and before these analyses have been made, 
 especially as there is likely to be some relation between the 
 amounts of oxygen and of carbonic acid. Independently, how- 
 ever, of the relations which may subsist between the two bodies, 
 it may be gathered from the inspection of the table (Appendix 
 C) that, taking surface-waters alone, the amount of carbonic 
 acid present is many times greater than would be contained 
 in the same volume of distilled water under the same circum- 
 stances. Sometimes it is more than thirty times as much. 
 
 The amount of carbonic acid contained by surface-waters of 
 the same temperatures increases with the density, and conse- 
 quently is greater in the surface-water of the Atlantic than in 
 that of the Pacific, the two oceans being very markedly dis- 
 tinguished from one another by the different densities of their 
 surface-waters. Thus we have a mean of 0-0466 gramme C0 2 
 per litre in Atlantic surface-water of temperature between 20° 
 and 25° C. and mean density of 1-02727 ; while in the Pacific 
 the mean is 0*0268 gramme in water of 1-02594 mean density : 
 and the mean amount of carbonic acid in Atlantic water of 
 temperature above 25° C. and mean density 1*02659 is 0'0409 ; 
 while in the Pacific the corresponding water is of mean density 
 1-02593, and contains 0*0332 gramme C0 2 per litre. As a rule, 
 other things being equal, the amount of carbonic acid dimin- 
 ishes as the temperature increases ; thus the mean amount of 
 carbonic acid in waters whose temperature was between 15° 
 and 20° was found to be 0*0446 gramme per litre, the mean 
 density being 1*02642 ; while we have seen that in the Atlan- 
 tic the surface-water of temperature above 25° C. and of mean 
 density 1*02659 contains 0*0409 gramme per litre. Also there 
 is usually more carbonic acid in waters taken from the bottom 
 
312 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 and intermediate depths than in surface-water; but if regard 
 be had to the temperature of the water, it will be seen that 
 there is but little difference in the amount in waters of the 
 same temperature, from whatever depth they may have been 
 derived. This seems to indicate that the animal life at the 
 bottom and at great depths can not be very abundant, other- 
 wise there could hardly fail to be a decided excess of carbonic 
 acid in the deep water, owing to constant production and want 
 of the means of elimination of the gas. On this subject, howev- 
 er, it would be premature to speculate before the determination 
 of the oxygen, from which we may hope for much information. 
 
 At a meeting of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, on the 4th 
 of June of the present year, Mr. Buchanan communicated the 
 results of an examination of the gases dissolved in sea-water at 
 different depths, especially with reference to the amount of 
 oxygen contained. 
 
 He finds that at the surface the amount of oxygen varies 
 between 33 and 35 per cent., the higher number having been 
 observed in a water collected almost on the Antarctic circle : 
 the smallest percentages have been observed in the trade- wind 
 districts. In bottom-water, the absolute amount is greatest in 
 Antarctic regions, diminishing generally toward the north. 
 The oxygen percentage is greatest over diatomaceous oozes, 
 and least over red clays containing peroxide of manganese : 
 over blue clays it is greater than over globigerina oozes. In 
 intermediate waters the remarkable fact was observed that the 
 oxygen diminishes down to a depth of 300 fathoms, at which 
 point it attains a minimum, after which the amount increases. 
 
 The following figures show the nature of this phenomenon : 
 
 Depth ) 
 (fathoms). ) 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 200 
 
 300 
 
 400 
 
 800 
 
 j Between 800 and 
 ( the bottom.* 
 
 Oxygen [ 
 O + N = 100 ) 
 
 33-7 
 
 33-4 
 
 32-2 
 
 30-2 
 
 33-4 
 
 11-4 
 
 15-5 
 
 22-6 
 
 23-5 
 
 * Nature, July 26th, 1877. 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 313 
 
 Mr. Buchanan drew the conclusion, in explanation of the 
 small amount of oxygen at depths of 300 fathoms and upward, 
 " that animal life must be particularly abundant and active at 
 this depth, or at least more abundant than at greater depths." 
 In other words, that a permanent condition, probably of all con- 
 ditions the most unfavorable to animal life, is produced am! 
 maintained by its excess. 
 
 This is entirely contrary , to experience. I think, however, 
 that the observation, which is in itself of the highest interest, 
 goes far to support the opposite opinion, at which I had previ- 
 ously arrived from other considerations, that in deep water a 
 wide intermediate zone between the surface and the layer im- 
 mediately above the bottom is nearly destitute of animal life — 
 at all events, in its higher manifestations. 
 
 If the view which I have adopted of the cause and course of 
 the circulation of the water in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans 
 be correct, it seems to afford a ready explanation of the peculiar 
 distribution of oxygen. Free oxygen is doubtless in all cases 
 derived by the water of the sea from the atmosphere, and it is 
 consequently absorbed through the surface, where the water is 
 constantly agitated in contact with the air, and the surface-wa- 
 ter contains most. 
 
 In the Antarctic regions, the surface-water sinks rajfidly to the 
 bottom, and moves northward as the cold southern indraught. 
 The bottom-water has thus, next to the surface-water, had the 
 latest opportunity of becoming impregnated with air, and a con- 
 siderable portion of that air it retains. If the deep circulation 
 in the Atlantic and the Pacific be chiefly maintained, as I have 
 been led to believe, by evaporation of the surface-water and a 
 slow indraught of Antarctic water beneath to supply its place, a 
 central belt, or, at all events, a belt at too great a depth to be 
 affected by surface influences, must be the oldest water in the 
 vertical section, and must consequently have been longest sub- 
 jected to the removal of oxygen by the scant v fauna which may 
 II.— 21 
 
314 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 still subsist, and more especially by the oxidation of the prod- 
 ucts of the decomposition of surface organisms as they sink 
 through it toward the bottom. 
 
 A great deal has yet to be done before we can be in a posi- 
 tion to generalize with safety on the many chemical questions 
 of great interest which have been raised during the progress of 
 the expedition. I hope, however, that the next two years may 
 see the water and gas analyses, and the analyses of the matters 
 of mineral and organic origin which form the deep-sea deposits, 
 well advanced ; and that the complete data in this department 
 may appear in the form of appendices to an early volume of the 
 official report. 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 315 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 The General Results of the Chemical and Microscopical Examination of 
 a Series of Twenty Samples of the Bottom, from the Observing Sta- 
 tions on the Section between Teneriffe and Sombrero. 
 
 (The samples were analyzed by Mr. James S. Brazier, Regius Pro- 
 fessor of Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen. The microscopic 
 work was done by Mr. John Murray, and the results are taken from 
 his notes.) 
 
 No. 1. — Station I. February 15th, 1873. Lat. 27° 24' K, Long. 
 16° 55' W. Depth, 1890 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°'0 C. 
 Chemical composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 7*91 
 
 ' Alumina 5*26 
 
 Ferric oxide 3*95 
 
 Calcium phosphate Large traces 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid 
 = 73-07. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 19-02. 
 
 Calcium sulphate , . 0'44 
 
 Calcium carbonate 50'00 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1*32 
 
 t Silica 1210 
 
 f Alumina > ^ 
 
 Ferric oxide ) 
 
 Lime..... 1;26 
 
 Magnesia. 0*52 
 
 Silica. 13-77 
 
 100-00 
 
 A globigerina ooze, containing many coccoliths and rhabdoliths, many 
 pelagic foraminifera of the genera Globigerina, Pulvinulina, Orbulina, 
 
 Pullenia, etc. Amorphous clayey and calcareous matter, and small 
 
 particles of feldspar, mica, quartz, hornblende, and magnetite. 
 
 No. 2.— Station II. February 17th. Lat. 25° 52' N., Long. 19° 14' 
 W. Depth, 1945 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2 o, C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
316 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F. 
 
 " Alumina 
 
 Portion soluble 
 
 5-02 
 3-23 
 
 Ferric oxide 4*18 
 
 Calcium phosphate Trace 
 
 hydrochloric acid ■{ Calcium sulphate - 
 
 82-90. 
 
 Calcium carbonate 64*55 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1*17 
 
 Silica 9-08 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 12*08. 
 
 Alumina 
 Ferric oxide. 
 
 ^ Lime 
 
 Magnesia.. . 
 Silica , 
 
 1-79 
 
 060 
 
 0.33 
 
 028 
 
 9-08 
 
 100-00 
 
 A globigerina ooze of a gray color, containing many pelagic forara- 
 inifera of the genera Globigerina, Pulvinulina, Orbulina, Pullenia, 
 and Sphceroidina ; a few Biloculince and arenaceous foraminifera ; a 
 few shells of pteropods, otolites of fishes, and spines of echini; a few 
 
 spicules of sponges and radiolarians. Amorphous clayey matter, and 
 
 many small particles of quartz, mica, magnetite, feldspar, and augite. 
 The larger mineral particles were rounded as if wind-blown. 
 
 No. 3.— Station V. February 21st. Lat. 24° 20' X. ; Long. 24° 28' 
 W*. Depth, 2740 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2 o, C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 8-20 
 
 Alumina 4 - 70 
 
 Ferric oxide. . 3 -50 
 
 Calcium phosphate Traces 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid ■< 
 — 77-30. 
 
 Calcium sulphate 0*70 
 
 Calcium carbonate 56 - 39 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 0'98 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 14-50. 
 
 is 
 
 Silica ...... 
 
 Alumina 
 Ferric oxide. 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia.. . 
 
 11-03 
 1-80 
 0-80 
 0-50 
 0-40 
 
 [Silica 11*00 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing many pelagic foraminifera of the genera Glo- 
 bigerina, Orbulina, Sphceroidina, Pullenia, .and Pulvinulina ; a few 
 Biloculince and arenaceous foraminifera; a few radiolaria, and one or 
 two pteropod shells. Much amorphous clayey matter, deeply dyed 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 317 
 
 with oxide of- iron ; many small mineral particles — mica, magnetite, feld- 
 spar, quartz, and hornblende. These mineral particles appeared wind- 
 blown, and had probably been carried to this area by the Harmattan 
 and trade- winds. 
 
 No. 4.— Station VII. February 24th. Lat. 23° 23' N., Long. 31° 31' 
 W. Depth, 2750 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2 o, C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F „ . 7*45 
 
 ' Alumina 6*40 
 
 Ferric oxide 15*42 
 
 Calcium phosphate Trace 
 
 -{ Calcium sulphate 1*60 
 
 Calcium carbonate 44 1 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1.20 
 
 Silica 24*25 
 
 Alumina 6*00 
 
 Ferric oxide 2*54 
 
 Lime 1*06 
 
 Magnesia - 64 
 
 Silica 29-33 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid 
 = 52-98. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 39-57. 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing much amorphous clayey matter, and many 
 small mineral particles — quartz, mica, hornblende, feldspar, magnetic 
 iron. A few broken pieces of pelagic foraminifera. 
 
 No. 5.— Station VIII. February 25th. Lat. 23° 12' N., Long. 32° 56' 
 W. Depth, 2800 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°'0 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F. . . . , 8 - 95 
 
 ' Alumina 8'95 
 
 Ferric oxide 9*70 
 
 Calcium phosphate Large trace 
 
 2-24 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 
 hydrochloric acid \ Calcium sulphate 
 
 = 63-01. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 28-04. 
 
 Calcium carbonate 16*42 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 2-70 
 
 Silica 23-00 
 
 Alumina 4-20 
 
 Ferric oxide 2*10 
 
 Lime 0.89 
 
 Magnesia 0-60 
 
 Silica 20-25 
 
 100-00 
 
318 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 A red clay, containing much amorphous clayey matter, and many fine 
 
 mineral particles — mica, quartz, feldspar, magnetite, and augite. A few 
 
 pelagic foraminifera, entire and broken ; a few arenaceous f oraminifera. 
 
 No. 6.— Station IX. February 26th. Lat. 23° 23' N., Long. 35° 10' 
 W. Depth, 3150 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'9 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 10-40 
 
 Alumina 8*30 
 
 Ferric oxide 9 •'75 
 
 Calcium phosphate Good traces 
 
 Calcium sulphate - 87 
 
 Calcium carbonate 3*11 
 
 Magnesium carbonate. . 1*90 
 
 [Silica 19-81 
 
 f Alumina 9*10 
 
 Ferric oxide 2*04 
 
 Lime 0-47 
 
 Magnesia . 0'95 
 
 Silica 33-30 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid 
 = 43*74. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid =45-86. 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing much amorphous clayey matter, many parti- 
 cles of mica, magnetite, quartz, and hornblende. Some of the larger 
 particles were rounded. A very few broken portions of pelagic fo- 
 raminifera occurred, and a few arenaceous forms. 
 
 No. 7.— Station X. February 28th. Lat. 23° 10' N., Long. 38° 42' 
 W. Depth, 2720 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'9 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F. . . 7'61 
 
 Alumina 9*73 
 
 Ferric oxide 9*30 
 
 Calcium phosphate 
 
 Calcium sulphate - 61 
 
 Calcium carbonate 13*30 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1*31 
 
 Silica 24*73 
 
 Alumina. . 5'50 
 
 Ferric oxide 2-96 
 
 Lime 0-23 
 
 Magnesia 0*19 
 
 Silica 24*53 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid 
 = 58*98. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 33-41. 
 
 100-00 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 319 
 
 A red clay, containing much amorphous clayey matter, and many fine 
 
 mineral particles — feldspar, mica, quartz, and magnetite. A few entire 
 
 and many broken pelagic and arenaceous foraminifera. 
 
 No. 8. — Station XI. March 1st. Lat, 22° 45' N., Long. 40° 37' 
 W. Depth, 2575 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 2°'0 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 9-13 
 
 Alumina 5 "61 
 
 Ferric oxide 4*65 
 
 Portion soluble in Calcium phosphate 
 
 hydrochloric acid -{ Calcium sulphate 1*02 
 
 — 76*59. Calcium carbonate 5T16 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1'93 
 
 ^Silica 1222 
 
 Portion insoluble ~) j^^^g res i(j ue principally alumina and ferric oxide, 
 
 in hydrochloric >-.,.,. 
 
 . j ^ nn with silica 14-28 
 
 acid = 14-28. J 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing much deep-red amorphous clayey matter, with 
 
 many particles of feldspar, magnetite, augite, mica, quartz, etc. A 
 
 good many pelagic foraminifera and their fragments. Coccoliths and 
 rhabdoliths. 
 
 No. 9. — Station XII. March 3d. Lat. 21° 57' N., Long. 43° 29' 
 W. Depth, 2025 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°*9 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 8-80 
 
 Alumina 1924 
 
 Ferric oxide 13 74 
 
 Calcium phosphate Fair traces 
 
 Calcium sulphate 1-37 
 
 Calcium carbonate 43 - 93 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1-94 
 
 General residue, consisting of soluble silica with the insoluble silicates 10-98 
 
 100-00 
 
 A globigerina ooze, containing many pelagic foraminifera of the gen- 
 era Globigerina, Orbulina, Pulvinulina, Sphceroidina, and Pullenia ; 
 
 many coccoliths and rhabdoliths. Much amorphous clayey matter, 
 
 with iron and manganese peroxides. 
 
 No. 10.— Station XIII. March 4th. Lat. 21° 38' N., Long. 44° 39' 
 
320 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. v. 
 
 W. Depth, 1900 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'9 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 6-63 
 
 Alumina £ 
 
 Ferric oxide. . . ) 
 
 Calcium phosphate Small traces 
 
 Calcium sulphate 0-51 
 
 Calcium carbonate 74-50 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 1-27 
 
 General residue, consisting of soluble silica with the insoluble silicates 11 '23 
 
 100-00 
 
 A globigerina ooze, containing many pelagic foraminifera of the gen- 
 era Globigerina, Hartigerina, Pulvinitlina, Sphceroidina, and Orbulina ; 
 many coccoliths and rhabdoliths. A few pteropod shells and valves of 
 
 Ostracoda, and otolites of fishes. Amorphous clayey matter and small 
 
 mineral particles — mica, quartz, olivine, feldspar, and pumice. Some of 
 the particles of quartz were rounded as if wind-blown. 
 
 No. 11.— Station XIV. March 5th. Lat, 21° 1' N., Long. 46° 29' 
 W. Depth, 1950 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'8 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 4-58 
 
 Alumina ) 
 
 u • -a M" 33 
 iernc oxide ) 
 
 Portion soluble in Calcium phosphate 112 
 
 hydrochloric acid \ Calcium sulphate 1*20 
 
 = 90-82. | Calcium carbonate 791Y 
 
 Magnesium carbonate T40 
 
 Silica. . . , 4 60 
 
 Portion insoluble "| 
 in hydrochloric )■ 
 acid = 4-60. j 
 
 Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric oxide, 
 
 with silica 4'60 
 
 100-00 
 
 A reddish globigerina ooze, containing many pelagic foraminifera of 
 
 the usual genera, and many coccoliths and rhabdoliths. Amorphous 
 
 clayey matter with oxide of iron ; many small particles of sanidine, 
 angite, hornblende, and magnetite. 
 
 No. 12.— Station XV. March 6th. Lat. 20° 49' N., Long. 48° 45' 
 W. Depth, 2325 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°*7 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 321 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230 c 
 Alumina 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid -{ Calcium sulphate. 
 
 Ferric oxide 
 
 Calcium phosphate Large 
 
 87-50. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 8-33. 
 
 Calcium carbonate. . . 
 Magnesium carbonate 
 ^ Silica 
 
 Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric oxide, 
 
 with silica. 
 
 4-17 
 6-25 
 
 traces 
 
 1- 91 
 67-60 
 
 2- 58 
 9-16 
 
 8-33 
 100-00 
 
 A globigerina ooze, containing many pelagic foraminifera of the gen- 
 era Globigerina, Orbulina, Pulvinulina, and Sphceroidina ; many coc- 
 
 coliths and rhabdoliths. Amorphous clayey matter with oxide of 
 
 iron. Small particles of sanidine, augite, pumice, magnetite, etc. ; a 
 few grains of manganese peroxide. 
 
 No. 13.— Station XVI. Lat. 20° 39' N., Long. 50° 33' W. Depth, 
 2435 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'7 C. Chemical composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F. 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid ■{ Calcium sulphate . 
 
 Ferric oxide 
 
 Calcium phosphate. Small 
 
 78-40. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 12-00. 
 
 Calcium carbonate. . . . 
 Magnesium carbonate 
 
 Silica 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Ferric oxide 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia. 
 
 Silica 
 
 9-60 
 4-00 
 
 7- 10 
 traces 
 
 2-32 
 52-22 
 
 0-76 
 12-00 
 
 | 2-96 
 
 0-64 
 0-40 
 
 8- 00 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing amorphous clayey matter, with oxide of iron, 
 and many small particles of magnetite, feldspar, pumice, and horn- 
 blende ; a few grains of manganese peroxide. Many pelagic forami- 
 nifera of the genera Globigerina, Orbulina, Sphceroidina, and Pulvinu- 
 lina ; coccoliths and rhabdoliths. The dredge brought up five small 
 round manganese concretions about the size of marbles, and three 
 shark's teeth of the genus Lamna with a slight coating of manganese 
 peroxide. 
 
322 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 No. 14.— Station XVII. Lat. 20° 7' N., Long. 52° 32' W. Depth, 
 2385 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'9 C. Chemical composition: 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 6-84 
 
 Alumina 2*69 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 
 Ferric oxide 
 
 Calcium phosphate 
 
 hydrochloric acid ■{ Calcium sulphate. 
 
 83-44. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid - 9-72. 
 
 Calcium carbonate. . . . 
 Magnesium carbonate . 
 Silica 
 
 Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric oxide, 
 
 9-05 
 P74 
 0-81 
 
 58-40 
 0-68 
 
 10-07 
 
 with silica 9-72 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing amorphous clayey matter, with oxide of iron, 
 and many small particles of sanidine, augite, magnetite, and quartz ; a 
 
 few grains of manganese peroxide. Many pelagic foraminifera of 
 
 the genera Globigerina, Pulvinulina, Sphceroidina, etc. ; coccoliths and 
 rhabdoliths. 
 
 No. 15.— Station XVIIL March 10th. Lat. 19° 41' N., Long. 55° 
 13' W. Depth, 2675 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'6 C. Chem- 
 ical composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 7'75 
 
 Alumina 8*25 
 
 Ferric oxide 1P37 
 
 Calcium phosphate 0*42 
 
 Calcium sulphate 0-52 
 
 Calcium carbonate 15-78 
 
 Magnesium carbonate l"4l 
 
 Silica 22-25 
 
 Alumina 7 - 00 
 
 Ferric oxide 2*50 
 
 Lime 0-57 
 
 Magnesia 0*38 
 
 [Silica 21-80 
 
 100-00 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid 
 = 60-00. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 32-25. 
 
 A red clay, containing amorphous clayey matter, and small particles 
 of augite, feldspar, hornblende, and magnetite ; a few grains of manga- 
 nese peroxide. A few broken tests of pelagic foraminifera, cocco- 
 liths, and rhabdoliths. 
 
 No. 16.— Station XIX. March 11th. Lat, 19° 15' N., Long. 57° 47' 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 323 
 
 W. Depth, 3000 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°*3 C. Chemical 
 composition : • 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 744 
 
 f Alumina 12*91 
 
 Ferric oxide 10-33 
 
 Calcium phosphate Traces 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 
 hydrochloric acid -j Calcium sulphate , 
 
 == 56-47. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 36-09. 
 
 0-96 
 
 Calcium carbonate 1-49 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 3*10 
 
 I Silica 27-68 
 
 f Alumina 7-81 
 
 j Ferric oxide 1*57 
 
 - Lime 1-03 
 
 Magnesia 0*52 
 
 Silica 2516 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing amorphous clayey matter, with oxide of iron ; 
 
 small crystals of sanidine, mica, augite. A few siliceous spicules, 
 
 Only a single fragment of Globigerina shell was observed. 
 
 No. 17— Station XX. March 12th. Lat. 18° 56' K, Long. 59° 35' 
 W. Depth, 2975 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1 0, 6 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after washing and drying at 230° F 7 - 45 
 
 f Alumina 12-28 
 
 Ferric oxide 11*44 
 
 Portion soluble in [ Calcium phosphate Small trace 
 
 hydrochloric acid \ Calcium sulphate 1*47 
 
 = 56*83. Calcium carbonate 3*50 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 2*14 
 
 Silica 26*00 
 
 Alumina 7 -28 
 
 Portion insoluble Ferric oxide 2-36 
 
 in hydrochloric -{ Lime 1*18 
 
 acid = 35-72. Magnesia 0-50 
 
 Silica 1 24-40 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing amorphous clayey matter, with oxide of iron ; 
 small particles of hornblende, augite, magnetite, sanidine, and quartz, 
 
 and a few grains of peroxide of manganese. A few siliceous spicules. 
 
 Only two fragments of Globigerina shell occurred in the portion of the 
 sample examined. 
 
324 
 
 THE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [chap. v. 
 
 No. 18.— Station XXI. March 13th. Lat. 18° 54' N., Long. 61° 28' 
 W. Depth, 3025 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 1°'3 C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 5'92 
 
 Alumina. 7'04 
 
 Ferric oxide 12-25 
 
 Calcium phosphate Small traces 
 
 Calcium sulphate - 51 
 
 Calcium carbonate 2*44 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 3 -48 
 
 Silica 24-70 
 
 Alumina 5 - 51 
 
 Ferric oxide 6- 7 3 
 
 Lime 0-81 
 
 Magnesia 0-41 
 
 Silica. 30-20 
 
 Portion soluble in 
 hydrochloric acid 
 = 50-42. 
 
 Portion insoluble 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 43-66. 
 
 100-00 
 
 A red clay, containing much amorphous clayey matter, with iron per- 
 oxide ; many fragments of sanidine, augite, olivine, hornblende, and 
 magnetite ; many of the mineral particles much larger than those at 
 Station XX. A few fragments of the tests of Globigerina. 
 
 No. 19.— Station XXII. March 14th. Lat. 18° 40' N., Long. 62° 56' 
 W. Depth, 1420 fathoms. Bottom temperature, 3 o, C. Chemical 
 composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 3*80 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Ferric oxide 
 
 Portion soluble in Calcium phosphate 2 - 41 
 
 hydrochloric acid ■{ Calcium sulphate - 41 
 
 4-42 
 
 92-75. 
 
 Portion insoluble ~) 
 
 Calcium carbonate 80-69 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 0-68 
 
 Silica 
 
 4-14 
 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid — 3-45. 
 
 Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric oxide, 
 
 with silica 3 -45 
 
 100-00 
 
 A globigerina ooze, containing many pelagic foraminifera of the gen- 
 era Globigerina, Orbulina, Pulvinulina, Pullenia, and Sphceroidina ; 
 many shells of pteropods and heteropods ; a few coccoliths and rhabdo- 
 liths ; otolites of fishes, and spines of echini ; a few siliceous spicules. 
 Amorphous mineral matter and particles of quartz, feldspar, horn- 
 blende, and magnetite. 
 
chap, v.] GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 325 
 
 No. 20.— Station XXIII. March 15th. Off Sombrero Island. Depth, 
 450 fathoms. Chemical composition : 
 
 Loss on ignition after drying at 230° F 4*00 
 
 'Alumina l - 80 
 
 Ferric oxide 3-00 
 
 Portion soluble in Calcium phosphate Good traces 
 
 hydrochloric acid -\ Calcium sulphate 1 '00 
 
 93-95. Calcium carbonate 84*27 
 
 Magnesium carbonate l - 28 
 
 Silica 2-60 
 
 Portion insoluble "] 
 in hydrochloric 
 acid = 2-05. 
 
 Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric oxide, 
 
 with silica 2*05 
 
 100-00 
 
 A pteropod ooze, containing very many shells of pteropods and het- 
 eropods, and their broken fragments ; many pelagic foraminifera of the 
 genera Globigerina, Pulvinulina, Orbulina, Pullenia, and Sphceroidi- 
 na ; large Biloculince and calcareous Rotalice and Cristellarice ; a few 
 
 coccoliths. Amorphous clayey and calcareous matter, with sandy 
 
 particles, quartz, feldspar, mica, magnetite, and sanidine. 
 
 Notes on the Foregoing Analyses by Professor Brazier. 
 
 The loss on ignition consists, for the most part, of water, probably 
 water of hydration ; but there is in all cases evidence of the existence 
 of organic matter. The majority of the specimens, when treated with 
 hydrochloric acid, evolved the peculiar tarry odor so characteristic of 
 some of the limestones of this country. This odor was most percepti- 
 ble in the specimens numbered 8, 9, 13, 19, 20. 
 
 In all the specimens in which the quantity of material was sufficient, 
 the alkaline vapors which accompanied the moisture evolved were read- 
 ily recognized. 
 
 The portion of the sample taken for analysis, after being treated with 
 hydrochloric acid, yielded in every case a residue of a whitish-gray color, 
 Nos. 10, 11, and 12 being nearly white. 
 
 No. 8. — Material at command, 9 '80 grains. 
 
 Loss on ignition 0'895 
 
 Soluble in acid 7*506 
 
 Insoluble in acid 1-399 
 
 9-800 
 
326 THE ATLANTIC. [chap. v. 
 
 No. 9. — Material at command, 9 '10 grains. 
 
 Loss on ignition 0*80 
 
 Soluble in acid 7-30 
 
 Insoluble in acid TOO 
 
 9-10 
 
 No. 10. — Material at command, 19*60 grains. 
 
 Loss on ignition . 1*30 
 
 Soluble in acid 16-10 
 
 Insoluble in acid 2-20 
 
 19-60 
 
 No. 11. — Material at command, 24 grains. 
 
 Loss on ignition 1*10 
 
 Soluble in acid 21-80 
 
 Insoluble in acid 1'10 
 
 24-00 
 
 No. 12. — Material at command, 12*0 grains. 
 
 Loss on ignition 0'50 
 
 Soluble in acid 10-50 
 
 Insoluble in acid 1-00 
 
 12-00 
 
 No. 14. — Material at command, 2 1 "80 grains. 
 
 Loss on ignition 1*90 
 
 Soluble in acid 23-20 
 
 Insoluble in acid 2'YO 
 
 27-80 
 
CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 327 
 
 APPENDIX B. 
 
 Table showing the Amount of Carbonic Acid contained in Sea-water at 
 Various Stations in the Atlantic. 
 
 Date, 1873. 
 
 Latitude. 
 
 Longitude. 
 
 Depth of Sample in 
 Fathoms. 
 
 Temperature 
 at Depth. 
 
 Specific Grav- 
 ity of Water 
 at 15°-56 C. ; 
 Water at 
 4° C. = l. 
 
 Grammes 
 of C0 2 in 
 One Litre of 
 Water. 
 
 TTpVi 98. 
 J? cU, iO 
 
 23° 
 
 10' N. 
 
 oo -tZ VV . 
 
 0*70A rvm 
 
 Z I ZU J30lt0m. 
 
 Z U \j. 
 
 X V Z 1 t: / 
 
 
 Mar 9fi 
 
 19 
 
 41 
 
 OO / 
 
 oo / O 
 
 * 
 
 1 UZiDO / 
 
 u wo / 
 
 0*7 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 A PC 1 CK 
 
 DO lo 
 
 Surface. 
 
 OK • O 
 ZO Z 
 
 1 •A9 , 7AQ 
 
 1 UZ /Uo 
 
 a-aj a 
 
 U U^rD 
 
 .£0 
 
 22 
 
 49 
 
 do iy 
 
 zyDU ijoiiom. 
 
 1 • KC\ 
 1 OU 
 
 x uzoy t 
 
 U UOo 
 
 9Q 
 
 24 
 
 39 
 
 (KK OK 
 DO ZO 
 
 ZoOU 
 
 1 'A*7 
 
 1 D I 
 
 1 -A9AAA 
 1 UZDUD 
 
 A-AKO 
 
 u uoz 
 
 OX 
 
 27 
 
 49 
 
 D4: oy 
 
 Surface. 
 
 
 x UZ / oo 
 
 U U4o 
 
 Mav 9A 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 A'-j a a 
 
 Do 4U 
 
 ZDOU -DOtiOm. 
 
 1 • ft 
 1 o 
 
 1 -A9 AQA 
 
 x uzoyu 
 
 A-AAzf 
 
 U UD4: 
 
 nh 
 4 / 
 
 34 
 
 50 
 
 Do oy 
 
 Surface. 
 
 o i • h 
 
 Zi l 
 
 1 •AO'71 1 
 1 UZ /ll 
 
 A-A/1 K 
 U U-IO 
 
 June 14 
 
 32 
 
 54 
 
 Do ZZ 
 
 a 
 
 OO . Q 
 
 1 -00*71 A 
 
 1 UZ /ID 
 
 U U410 
 
 
 32 
 
 54 
 
 63 22 
 
 2360 Bottom. 
 
 1 • 7 
 
 1-02650 
 
 0-0472 
 
 16 
 
 34 
 
 28 
 
 58 56 
 
 2575 " 
 
 1 • 5 
 
 1-02701 
 
 0-0500 
 
 23 
 
 37 
 
 54 
 
 41 44 
 
 Surface. 
 
 21 • 1 
 
 1-02690 
 
 0-0529 
 
 24 
 
 38 
 
 3 
 
 39 19 
 
 2175 Bottom. 
 
 
 1-02607 
 
 0-0536 
 
 2V 
 
 38 
 
 18 
 
 34 48 
 
 1675 
 
 2 • 3 
 
 1-02660 
 
 0-0592 
 
 30 
 
 38 
 
 30 
 
 31 14 
 
 1000 " 
 
 3 • 7 
 
 1-02683 
 
 0-0446 
 
 Aug. 16 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 15 55 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26 • 1 
 
 1 : 02615 
 
 0-0432 
 
 18 
 
 . 6 
 
 11 
 
 15 57 
 
 u 
 
 26 • 
 
 1-02637 
 
 0-0382 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 48 
 
 14 20 
 
 a 
 
 26 • 2 
 
 1-02635 
 
 0-0455 
 
 20 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 13 52 
 
 a 
 
 26 • 2 
 
 1-02622 
 
 0-0430 
 
 21 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 14 49 
 
 300 
 
 5 • 3 
 
 1-02610 
 
 0-0536 
 
 25 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 24 26 
 
 Surface. 
 
 26 • 
 
 1-02618 
 
 0-0426 
 
 26 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 24 26 
 
 50 
 
 
 1-02630 
 
 0-0533 
 
 Sept. 27 
 
 14 
 
 51 S. 
 
 37 1 
 
 Surface. 
 
 25 ■ 3 
 
 1-02770 
 
 0-0330 
 
 30 
 
 20 
 
 13 
 
 35 19 
 
 100 
 
 17 • 3 
 
 1-02736 
 
 0-0360 
 
 Oct. 1 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 35 37 
 
 Surface. 
 
 22 • 8 
 
 1-02744 
 
 0-0591 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 43 
 
 34 17 
 
 a 
 
 21 • 
 
 1-02717 
 
 0-0418 
 
 3 
 
 26 
 
 15 
 
 32 56 
 
 2350 Bottom. 
 
 ' 8 
 
 1-02706 
 
 0-0491 
 
 4 
 
 27 
 
 43 
 
 31 3 
 
 Surface. 
 
 19 • 4 
 
 1-02702 
 
 0-0432 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 35 
 
 28 9 
 
 1000 
 
 2 • 5 
 
 1-02572 
 
 0-0556 
 
 * On this occasion two thermometers were crushed by the extreme pressure. 
 
328 
 
 TEE ATLANTIC. 
 
 [CHAi-. V. 
 
 APPEN 
 
 Table showing the Relative Frequency of the Occurrence of the Principal Groups of 
 
 to a Depth Greater 
 
 
 Station 5. 
 j 2740 F'ms'. 
 
 Station 7. 
 2125 F'ins. 
 
 Station 9. 
 , 3150 F'ms. 
 
 Station 20. 
 2975 F'ms. 
 
 Station 29. 
 2700 F'ms. 
 
 Station 40. 
 2675 F'ms. 
 
 Station 54. 
 | 2650 F'ms. 
 
 Station 61. 
 2850 F'ms. 
 
 Station 63. 
 2750 F'ms. | 
 
 Station 64. 
 2750 F'ms. 
 
 Station 68. 
 2175 F'ms. 
 
 Station 69. 
 2200 F'ms. 
 
 Station 89. 
 2400 F'ms. 
 
 Station 101. 
 2500 F'ms. 
 
 Station 104. 
 2400 F'ms. 
 
 Station 131. 
 2275 F'ms. 
 
 Station 134. 
 2025 F'ms. 
 
 Station 137. 
 2550 F'ms. 
 
 Station 160. 
 2600 F'ms. 
 
 Station 165. 
 2600 F'ms. 
 
 Station 181. 
 2440 F'ms. 
 
 Station 198. 
 2150 F'ms. 
 
 Station 206. 
 | 2100 F'ms. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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CHAP. V.] 
 
 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 
 
 329 
 
 DIX C. 
 
 Marine Animals at Fifty-two Stations at which Dredging or Trawling ivas carried 
 than 2000 Fathoms. 
 
 
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 II.— 22 
 
INDEX 
 
 A. 
 
 Abel, Professor, F.R.S., report on sam- 
 ples of soil from Bermudas, i., 323. 
 Acanthometrina, i., 221. 
 Aceste bellidifera, i., 349. 
 Acores, The, ii., 23. 
 Aerope rostrata, i., 353. 
 Adansonia gigantea, ii., 72. 
 ^olian rocks, Bermudas, i., 287, 292, 322. 
 African Current or Guinea Current, ii., 75. 
 Agulhas Current, ii., 265. 
 Albatross, ii., 129, 141, 145, 161. 
 Alciope, L, 173. 
 
 Aldrich, Lieutenant Pelham, R.N., appoint- 
 ed to the " Challenger," i., 24 ; ii., 84. 
 
 Algesiras, i., 128. 
 
 Alima, i., 173. 
 
 Aloes in flower, i., 128. 
 
 Altingia excelsa, San Miguel, ii., 31. 
 
 American deep-sea expeditions, i., 22. 
 
 Amrnocharidce, i., 194. 
 
 Amphinomidce, L, 172. 
 
 Annelid, tube-building, living at the sea- 
 bottom, i., 194. 
 
 Annelids in the Atlantic, ii., 297. 
 
 Antennarius marmoratus, i., 188 ; its nests 
 of gulf -weed, ii., 17. 
 
 Aqueduct at Algesiras, i., 128. 
 
 Area, living on the sea -bottom, i., 174, 
 233. 
 
 Arrowroot, its cultivation in Bermudas, i., 
 317. 
 
 Ascension, Island of, ii., 221, 229 ; George 
 Town, Green Mountain, 222 ; govern- 
 ment, 223, 226 ; botany, 224 ; climate, 
 226; "Wide-awake Fair," 227 ; birds, 
 ibid. 
 
 Astacidce, Willemoesia leptodactyla, i., 181, 
 242. 
 
 Astacus pellucidus, i., 185. 
 
 Astacus zaleucus, i., 244. 
 
 Astronomical Observatory, Lisbon, i., 120. 
 
 Atlanta peronii, i., 125. 
 
 Atlantic, The : General conclusions from 
 
 the " Challenger " expedition, ii., 246- 
 329; contour of the bed, 247-249 ; nat- 
 ure of the bottom, 249-256 ; distribu- 
 tion of temperature, surface and sub- 
 marine currents, 256-280; density of 
 sea-water, 302-310 ; amount of carbon- 
 ic acid and oxygen in sea-water, 310- 
 314. 
 
 Avicida, i., 189. 
 
 Avocada pear, i., 320. 
 
 B. 
 
 Bailey, Professor, globigerina, i., 199. 
 Baillie, C. W., Navigating Lieutenant, his 
 
 sounding-machine, i., 60, 61. 
 Balayioglossus, ii., 78. 
 Ball's dredge, i., 62. 
 Balsam-bog, Falkland Islands, ii., 183. 
 Baobab-tree, Cape Yerde Islands, ii., 72. 
 Barnacles, ii., 12. 
 
 Barometer, aneroid, by Messrs. Elliott, 
 used in the expedition, i., 156. 
 
 Barometrical observations taken during 
 the expedition, explanatory diagrams, 
 i., 155. 
 
 Barometrical pressure, its relation to lat- 
 itude, i., 88. 
 
 Basalt rocks, Fernando Noronha, ii., 107, 
 108; Tristan d'Acunha, 144. 
 
 Bathycrinus Aldrichianus, ii., 86, 87. 
 
 Beach marks, i., 86. 
 
 Belem : Castle, i., 113 ; monastery of San- 
 ta Maria, porch, quadrangle, and clois- 
 ters, 115, 116, 117. 
 
 Bermudas, history and description of, i., 
 271. 
 
 Bermudas arrowroot, i., 317. 
 
 Bethell, Lieutenant George R., R.N., ap- 
 pointed to the " Challenger," i., 24, 167, 
 229. 
 
 Bignonia at Madeira, i., 152. 
 
 Birds of Bermudas, i., 279, 301, 320 ; Bra- 
 zil, ii., 125 ; Falkland Islands, 179 ; Isl- 
 and of Ascension, 227 ; San Miguel, 42 ; 
 Tristan d'Acunha, 145, 156-158. 
 
332 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Black coral, ii., 62. 
 
 Blind crustaceans, i., 240. 
 
 Blindness of deep-sea animals, i., 184. 
 
 Boaz Island, Bermudas, L, 298, 306, 811. 
 
 " Bocco do Inferno," cavern and hot 
 spring, San Miguel, ii., 44. 
 
 Bockett microscope-lamp, used in the ex- 
 pedition, i., 29. 
 
 Boiling springs, San Miguel, ii., 43. 
 
 Bolax glebaria, balsam -bog of Falkland 
 Islands, ii., 184. 
 
 "Booby" (Sulafmca), ii., 95, 96, 109. 
 
 Booby Island, Fernando Noronha group, 
 ii., 108. 
 
 Bosanquet, Captain Stanley, R.N., his re- 
 port on Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 166. 
 
 Botany : Observations proposed to the ex- 
 pedition, i., 89 ; Portugal, 129, 151, 152; 
 Bermudas, 277, 281, 321 ; Halifax, 357, 
 358 ; the Acores, ii., 24, 31, 33, 35, 37, 
 43-47 ; Cape Verde Islands, 71 ; Fer- 
 nando Noronha, 102 ; Brazilian forest, 
 124; Falkland Islands, 178, 184, 185; 
 Island of Ascension, 224, 225. 
 
 Bougainvillea at Gibraltar and Funchal, 
 i., 152. 
 
 Brachiopoda in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 
 Brazier, Professor James S., chemical ex- 
 amination of samples of the bed of the 
 Atlantic, ii., 315-326. 
 
 Brazil, forest scenery, natural history, ii., 
 122, 124. 
 
 Brazil Current, ii., 219, 265, 267. 
 
 Breffit & Co's "drop-bottles," used in the 
 expedition, i., 30. 
 
 Brisinga, i., 172. 
 
 British Museum, specimens of Euplectella, 
 i., 137. 
 
 Brito Capello, J. C, manager of the Lis- 
 bon Observatory, i., 119. 
 
 Bromley, Lieutenant Arthur, R.N., ap- 
 pointed to the " Challanger," i., 24. 
 
 Brooke's sounding-machine, i., 18. 
 
 Bryozoa, i., 185, 187. 
 
 Bryozoon (Naresia cyathus), dredged near 
 Cape St. Vincent, i., 142. 
 
 Buchanan, J. Y., M. A., F.R.S.E., appointed 
 on the scientific staff of the " Challen- 
 ger," i., 24, 80 ; apparatus invented by 
 him, i., 51, 55, 172 ; geology of Fernan- 
 do Noronha, ii., 107 ; his observations 
 of the density of sea-water, i., 230, ii., 
 302 ; of carbonic acid and oxygen in 
 sea-water, 310-312, 327. 
 
 Building at Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 142, 143. 
 
 " Bull-dog," H.M.S., sounding expedition, 
 i., 19. 
 
 Buleo vulgaris, ii., 43. 
 Butterflies, shower of, ii., 121. 
 
 C. 
 
 Cable telegraphs, deep-sea soundings in 
 
 connection with, i., 17. 
 Calcareous concretions, Bermudas, i., 306- 
 
 311. 
 
 Calcareous formation in the bed of the 
 
 Atlantic, i., 198, 199. 
 Calcaromma calcarea, i., 221. 
 Caldeira, great crater of, San Miguel, ii., 
 
 26, 36, 46. 
 Calymne relicta, i., 368-370. 
 Canary Islands, i., 152. 
 Canto, Jose do, M., foreign trees and plants 
 
 in his garden, San Miguel, ii., 31, 33, 35, 
 
 43, 47. 
 Cape Mondego, i., 113. 
 Cape Eoca, i., 113. 
 
 Cape St. Vincent, trawling and dredging 
 
 near, i., 120, 130. 
 Cape Verde Islands, ii., 68, 230, 231. 
 Carbonic acid in sea-water, apparatus on 
 
 board the "Challenger," i., 40 ; general 
 
 conclusions, ii., 310; table of results, 
 
 327. 
 
 C armaria Atlantica, i., 124. 
 
 Carpenter, Dr., C.B., F.R.S., "Lightning" 
 sounding expedition, i., 20 ; his sugges- 
 tion of the "Challenger" expedition, 
 22 ; on globigerina, 201. 
 
 Cassava, i., 318. 
 
 Catamarans at Fernando Noronha, ii., 57, 
 101. 
 
 Cattle of Bermudas, i., 314; Falkland Isl- 
 ands, ii., 181. 
 
 Caves in Bermudas, their origin, i., 293 ; 
 the Walsingham Caves, 300 ; in lime- 
 stone, 308 ; in Rock of Gibraltar, 130. 
 
 Cavolinia, i., 126. 
 
 Caxoeira, Brazil, ii., 123. 
 
 Cedars in Bermudas, L, 277, 279, 299, 313, 
 321 ; overwhelmed by coral sand, 290, 
 292. 
 
 Cephalopocls in the Atlantic, ii., 299. 
 
 Ceratias uranoscoptcs, ii., 67. 
 
 Ceratotrochus nobilis, ii., 55. 
 
 Chcetoderma uitidulum, i., 249. 
 
 Chalk from Bermudas, analysis of, i., 327. 
 
 " Challenger," H.M.S., i., 72 ; causes which 
 led to the expedition, 17; official cor- 
 respondence from minutes of Council 
 of the Royal Society, 73 ; equipment of 
 the ship, 22 ; staff of officers, naval and 
 civilian, 24 ; special arrangements for 
 scientific work, 27 ; natural history 
 work-room, 26 ; chemical laboratory, 
 33 ; apparatus for boiling out the gas- 
 es from sea-water, 37 ; for determining 
 the carbonic acid, 40 ; for gas analysis, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 333 
 
 42; "slip water-bottle," 49; Buchan- 
 an's " stop-cock water-bottle," 53 ; hy- 
 draulic pressure-gauge, 58; improve- 
 ments in the dredge and mode of hand- 
 ling it, 63 ; the steam-pinnace, 70 ; At- 
 lantic stations where observations were 
 taken in 1873, 100 ; in 1876, ii., 243. 
 
 Challengeria, ii., 291. 
 
 Challengerida, ii., 291. 
 
 Chauliodus Sloanii, ii., 300. 
 
 Chemical examination of samples of the 
 bed of the Atlantic, ii., 315-326. 
 
 Chemical laboratory on board the " Chal- ' 
 lenger," i., 32. 
 
 Chemical observations proposed to the ex- 
 pedition, L, 89. 
 
 Cidaris nutrix, ii., 196, 197. 
 
 Cintra, i., 113. 
 
 Cladodactyla crocea, ii., 186, 188, 191. 
 
 Climate of Bermudas, i., 320; of the 
 Acores, ii., 24. 
 
 Clio cuspidata,'\., 126. 
 
 Clione borealis, i., 127. 
 
 Clustered polyp, i., 149. 
 
 Coccoliths, i., 198, 209, 216. 
 
 Coccoloba uvifera, Bermudas, i., 291. 
 
 Coccospheres, i., 210. 
 
 Cod-fishing near Halifax, jSF. S., i., 356. 
 
 Coelopleurus Jloridanus, i., 271. 
 
 Convolvulus batatas, ii., 38. 
 
 Convolvulus Cave, Bermudas, i., 302. 
 
 Corals in the Atlantic, i., 240, 249, 250, 
 255, 278 ; ii., 294 ; coral reefs, i., 85 ; 
 of Bermudas, 280, 283, 284, 285, 301, 
 333 ; analysis of, 327 ; remarkable spec- 
 imen, 170, 190; black coral, Madeira, 
 ii., 62; red -coral fishery, Cape Verde 
 Islands, 72, 73 ; Ceratotrochus diadema, 
 113; Fungia symmetrica, 132; Flabel- 
 lum apertum, 295 ; in the globigerina 
 ooze, 285. 
 
 Corinthian Harbor, Heard Island, ii., 191. 
 
 Cork forest, i., 129. 
 
 Corvo, Island of, Acores, ii., 24. 
 
 Coryphcena hippurus, L, 192. 
 
 Coryphwnoides ser ratios, L, 121. 
 
 Costume of the Acoreans, ii., 48, 49; of 
 
 Tristan d'Acunha, 143. 
 Crabs on Atlantic Islands, ii., 17, 97. 
 Crickets at Fernando Noronha, ii., 105. 
 Crinoids in the globigerina ooze, ii., 284, 
 
 296. 
 
 Crinoids, stalked, named after officers of 
 the expedition, ii., 84 ; Bathycrinus Al- 
 drichianus, 86, 87 ; Hyocrinus Bethellia- 
 nus, 89, 90 ; Pentacrinus Madearanus, 
 112, 113. 
 
 Crosbie, Alexander, appointed surgeon to 
 the " Challenger," i., 24. 
 
 Crustacea in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 
 Cryptohelia pudica, i., 255. 
 Cryptomeria Japonica, San Miguel, ii., 33, 
 39. 
 
 Current-drag, i., 176, 177, 195; observa- 
 tions on the surface and Gulf -stream 
 at various depths, L, 338, 339. 
 
 Currents in the Atlantic, surface and sub- 
 marine ; general conclusions from the 
 " Challenger" expedition, ii., 75, 257. 
 
 Curves constructed from serial tempera- 
 ture soundings. (See Temperature.) 
 
 Cyclopean architecture, Tristan Island, ii., 
 142, 143. 
 
 Cystosoma Neptuni, i., 130. 
 
 Cystosomidce, i., 134. 
 
 D. 
 
 Dadylis ccespitosa, tussock-grass, ii., 184. 
 Dana, James D., A.M., caves in coral rocks, 
 L, 801. 
 
 D'Arcy, Colonel, governor of the Falk- 
 land Islands, ii., 181. 
 
 Davis, Captain, his correction of errors of 
 thermometers, ii., 261. 
 
 Decapods in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 
 Deep-sea fauna, its nature and distribu- 
 tion ; general conclusions from the 
 "Challenger" expedition, ii., 281; ta- 
 bles at different stations, 285, 289 ; ta- 
 ble of animals at depths greater than 
 2000 fathoms, 328, 329. 
 
 Deep-sea soundings in connection with 
 submarine telegraphs, i., 17 ; in the 
 "Bull -dog" expedition, 19; "Light- 
 ning" expedition (1868), 20; "Porcu- 
 pine" expedition (1869-70), 21. 
 
 Deltocyathus Agassizii, i., 253. 
 
 Density of sea-water ; general conclusions 
 from the " Challenger " expedition, ii., 
 302. 
 
 Denudation of rocks in Bermudas, L, 294, 
 296, 310. 
 
 Diacria trispinosa, i., 126. 
 
 Diagram of current observations, i., 338. 
 
 Diagrams of serial temperature sound- 
 ings. (See Temperature.) 
 
 Diatoms in the Atlantic, ii., 290. 
 
 Dickie, Professor, on dredging, i., 95. 
 
 Didyopodium, i., 221. 
 
 Diomedea (Albatross), ii., 145, 162. 
 
 Disintegration of rocks by water in Ber- 
 mudas, i., 294, 295. 
 
 " Dolphin," U. S., surveying expedition, i., 
 198. 
 
 "Dolphin Rise" in the Atlantic, i., 190, 
 
 208, 213; ii., 23, 232. 
 Dolphins, i., 192. 
 
 Doves at Fernando Noronha, ii., 102, 105. 
 
334 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Dredges, and mode of dredging on board 
 
 the " Challenger," L, 63, 65 ; ii., 281. 
 Drift current, ii.. 267. 
 
 E. 
 
 East, Captain, R.N., commander of the 
 
 Island of Ascension, ii., 223. 
 East Australian Current, ii., 267. 
 Ebbels, Adam, seaman school-master, his 
 
 death on the voyage, ii., 69. 
 Echinodermata in the Atlantic, i., 240 ; 
 
 reproduction and growth of, ii., 189, 
 
 201-211. 
 
 Edinburgh, H.R.H. the Duke of, his visit 
 to Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 138. 
 
 Edinburgh, settlement at Tristan d'Acun- 
 ha, 139, 140. 
 
 Eggs of Gastropoda, i., 123; of the pen- 
 guin, ii., 161 ; of the wide-awake, 227. 
 
 Egyptian vulture, ii., 69. 
 
 Elliott, Messrs., aneroid barometer used in 
 the expedition, i., 156. 
 
 Epigcea repens, i., 358. 
 
 Equatorial Current, ii., 266 ; and counter- 
 current, 268. 
 
 Erica Azorica, Acores, ii., 40. 
 
 Ericthus, i., 173. 
 
 Ethnographical observations proposed to 
 
 the expedition, i., 97. 
 Euphrosyne, L, 172. 
 
 Euplectella, i., 135; aspergillum, 135; cu- 
 mmer, 136; suberea, 139; fossil speci- 
 mens, 141. 
 
 Exocetus evolans, flying -fish, i., 175, 180, 
 192. 
 
 Eyes, their absence in some and develop- 
 ment in other deep-sea animals, i., 184. 
 
 F. 
 
 Falkland Islands, ii., 178-216; historical 
 notices, 180; description, 181 ; geology, 
 182, 211, 212; botany, 183; sea-slugs 
 and sea-urchins, 186, 193; "stone riv- 
 ers," 212, 213. 
 
 Fanshawe, Admiral, his official residence, 
 Bermudas, i., 279. 
 
 Fauna of the Atlantic. (See Deep-sea 
 Fauna.) 
 
 Fauna of Bermudas, i., 320. 
 
 Fayal, ii.. 24, 26. 
 
 Ferguson, James H., appointed chief en- 
 gineer to the " Challenger," i., 24. 
 
 Fernando Noronha, Island of, ii., 100 ; 
 penal servitude at, 103. 
 
 Ferns in San Miguel, ii., 40. 
 
 Firoloides, i., 124. 
 
 Fish of Bermudas, ii., 10 ; Ascension Isl- 
 and, ii., 228. 
 Fishing-frog, ii., 17. 
 
 Flabellum alabastrum, ii., 50, 51. 
 Flabellum angulare, ii., 295. 
 Flabellum apertum, ii., 295. 
 Flores, Island of, ii., 23. 
 Flounders, young, in the Guinea Current, 
 ii., 82. 
 
 Flying-fish, i., 175, 180, 192. 
 
 Fogo Island, Cape Verde group, ii., 71. 
 
 Forests of Brazil, ii., 125. 
 
 Fossils of Bermudas, i., 298. 
 
 Frigate-bird, ii., 109, 227. 
 
 Fruit-farms near Algesiras, i., 129. 
 
 Funchal, ii.,61. 
 
 Fungia symmetrica, i., 255 ; ii., 132. 
 Furnas lake and valley, San Miguel, ii., 
 32-46. 
 
 G. 
 
 " Galatea," H.M.S., visit to Tristan d'Acun- 
 ha, ii., 138, 144. 
 
 Galvanometer, marine, Sir William Thom- 
 son's, i., 168. 
 
 Gama Lobo, M., manager of the Lisbon 
 Observatory, i., 120. 
 
 Gas-analysis apparatus on board the " Chal- 
 lenger," i., 42. 
 
 Gases in sea-water, apparatus for collect- 
 ing, i., 37. 
 
 Gastropoda in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 
 Geology: Observations proposed to the 
 expedition, L, 96 ; Bermudas, 285-327 ; 
 Halifax, 358, 359; the Acores, ii., 24; 
 St. Paul's Rocks, 99 ; Fernando Noron- 
 ha, 107 ; Falkland Islands, 182, 212. 
 
 George Town, Island of Ascension, ii., 222. 
 
 Gephyrea in the Atlantic, i., 168 ; ii., 297. 
 
 Gibraltar, i., 127 ; St. Michael's Cave, 130 ; 
 view of the Rock, 159. 
 
 Glacial action in Nova Scotia, i., 359. 
 
 Glass, " Governor " of Tristan d'Acunha, 
 ii., 135, 137. 
 
 Globigerina, i., 122, 180, 198-209, 217. 
 
 Globigerina bulloides, from the surface, i., 
 202. 
 
 Globigerina ooze, i., 122, 198, 199 ; ii., 55, 
 249, 253. 
 
 Globigerina ooze and red clay, tabular 
 view of their proportions, i., 215. 
 
 Gnathophausia gigas, ii., 20. 
 
 Gnathophausia Zoea, ii., 21. 
 
 Gold mines, Nova Scotia, i., 358. 
 
 Goniocidaris canaliculata, ii., 193. 
 
 Gorgonoid, i., 122. 
 
 Grampus, i., 192. 
 
 Grapstcs strigosus, ii., 97. 
 
 Grass. (See Tussock-grass.) 
 
 Gray ooze, i., 213, 225 ; ii., 253. 
 
 Green, Peter, "Governor" of Tristan 
 d'Acunha, ii., 138, 141, 144, 165, 168. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 335 
 
 Green Mountain, Island of Ascension, ii., 
 222, 225. 
 
 Gru-gru palms in Bermudas, i., 281, 321. 
 Guarica cardinalis, i., 279. 
 Guinea Current, i., 158 j ii., 75, 76, 82, 265, 
 268. 
 
 Guinea-fowl, San Domingo, ii., 74. 
 
 Gulf-stream, i., 123, 158, 226, 332-391; 
 its width, depth, and rate, 345 ; Tables 
 of Meteorological Observations in cross- 
 ing and recrossing it, 379 ; specific grav- 
 ity of the water, ii., 308. 
 
 Gulf- weed, i., 180, 188, 191 ; ii., 15, 290. 
 
 H. 
 
 Habrodictyon, i., 136. 
 
 Haeckel, Ernst, on Radiolaria, i., 199; 
 
 Coccospheres, 209. 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia, i., 356. 
 Haliomma, i., 222. 
 Haliommatidae, i., 221. 
 Halo, solar, i., 355. 
 
 Hamilton, Bermudas, i., 312 ; Cedar Ave- 
 nue, 313. 
 
 Hartnach's microscopes used in the expe- 
 dition, i., 29. 
 
 Hastigerina Murrayi, ii., 250, 252. 
 
 Heard Island, ii., 191. 
 
 Heliconidge, shower of, ii., 121 
 
 Hemiaster Philippii, ii., 198-202. 
 
 Heteropoda, L, 122, 123. 
 
 Hexactinellidae, i., 141, 170. 
 
 Hierro, Island of, i., 153. 
 
 Holothuroidea, L, 135 ; ii., 191, 281, 290, 
 297. 
 
 Horta, Fayal, ii., 27. 
 Humming-birds in Brazil, ii., 125. 
 Hyalonema toxeres, i., 120, 257-261. 
 " Hydra" sounding -machine, i., 61, 168, 
 172. 
 
 Hydraulic pump used in the expedition, 
 i., 58. 
 
 Hydrometer used for determining the 
 
 density of sea-water, i., 55 ; ii., 303. 
 Hymenaster membranaceus, i., 113. 
 Hymenaster nobilis, ii., 205-208. 
 Hymenaster pellucidus, ii., 205. 
 Hyocrirtus Bethellianus, ii., 89-92. 
 
 I. 
 
 Ice -markings on schist rock, Halifax, i., 
 359. 
 
 Inaccessible Island (Tristan d'Acunha 
 group), history and description of, ii., 
 138-163 ; its occupation by Frederick 
 and Gustav Stoltenhoff, 150-162; wa- 
 ter-fall in, 148, 149 ; rock-hoppers and 
 penguins, 146. 
 
 Insects of Brazil, ii., 125. 
 
 Ipomcea nil, at the Convolvulus Cave, Ber- 
 mudas, i., 302. 
 
 Ipomcea pes-caprce, Bermudas, i., 291. 
 
 Ireland Island, Bermudas,. i., 296, 297, 300, 
 311. 
 
 "Island Hen," of Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 
 145, 162. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jacobsen, Dr., his apparatus for boiling at- 
 mospheric gases out of sea-water, i., 36. 
 Janthina,'\., 123. 
 
 Japan Current compared with the Gulf- 
 stream, i. r 364. 
 
 Jasminum gracile, Bermudas, i., 305. 
 
 Jason Islands, ii., 178. 
 
 Jatvoplia manihot, i., 318. 
 
 Jatropha urens y \\., 102. 
 
 Jeffreys, Gwyn, F.R.S., "Porcupine" 
 sounding expedition, i., 21, 79, 98^ 185 ; 
 on Globigerina, 200.. 
 
 Juniper, of Bermudas, i., 277, 290. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kerguelen Island,, ii., 196, 198, 199, 200, 
 202. 
 
 Kittiwake, i., 192. 
 
 Krohn, on Globigerina and Orbulina v '\., 
 199, 207. 
 
 L. 
 
 Labrador Current, ii., 272, 280 ; specific 
 
 gravity of water, 308. 
 Lamellibranchiata in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 Larus tridactylus, i., 192. 
 Leda, living on the sea-bottom, i., 174, 185, 
 
 233. 
 
 Lefroy, Major-general, Sir J. H., K.C.B., 
 F.R.S., Governor of Bermudas, his offi- 
 
 . cial residence, i., 280, 281 ; report to 
 him on analysis of soils from Bermudas, 
 294 ; visit to the Caves of Bermudas, 
 305 ; sanitary statistics of Bermudas, 
 313. 
 
 Lefroyella decora, i., 375. 
 Le Have Bank, i., 355, 359. 
 Lemon-trees near Algesiras, i., 129. 
 leptychaster Kerguelenensis, ii., 203. 
 Life, its universal extension at all depths 
 
 of the ocean, ii., 281. 
 Light-house on Gibbs's Hill, Bermudas, i., 
 
 312. 
 
 " Lightning," H.M.S., sounding expedition, 
 i., 20. 
 
 limacina helicina, i., 127. 
 
 Limestone of Bermudas, i., 286 ; its for- 
 mation from coral-sand, i., 291. 
 
 Limopsis, living on the sea-bottom, i., 174, 
 233. 
 
336 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Lindahl, M.,on Umbelhdaria, i., 151. 
 Lisbon, i., 113; Polytechnic School, 113; 
 
 Botanic Garden, 119 ; Observatory, 119. 
 Lithophytes of Bermudas, i., 284. 
 Liverpool, Euplectella in Free Museum at, 
 
 i. , 138. 
 
 Long Island, Bermudas, i., 312. 
 
 Lophius piscatorius, ii., 17. 
 
 LophogastridEe, ii., 21. 
 
 LophoJielia Carolina, i., 254. 
 
 Lowe, Right Hon. Robert, M.P., his offi- 
 cial assent to the " Challenger " expe- 
 dition, i., 23. 
 
 Lupins used as manure for orange-trees, 
 
 ii. , 34, 38. 
 
 M. 
 
 Ma clear, Captain J. F. L. P., appointed 
 commander of the " Challenger," i., 23 ; 
 ii., 113. 
 
 M'Clintock, Sir Leopold, "Bull -dog" 
 
 sounding expedition, i., 19. 
 Macruridte, i., 121. 
 Madeira, i., 151 ; ii., 61. 
 Madracis asperula, i., 333. 
 Magellan, Straits of, ii., 176. 
 Magnetic Observatory at Lisbon, i., 119. 
 Manganese concretions in the Atlantic, ii., 
 
 15. 
 
 Maranta arundinacea, i., 317. 
 " May-flower " of Nova Scotia, i., 358. 
 Medusa?, phosphorescence of, i., 180. 
 Meteorological observations taken during 
 the expedition, explanatory diagrams, 
 
 i. , 155. 
 
 Meteorological observations in crossing 
 and recrossing the Gulf-stream, L, 379. 
 
 Meteorological Observatory, Lisbon, i., 119. 
 
 Microscopes used in the expedition, i., 28, 
 191. 
 
 Microscopical examination of samples of 
 the bed of the Atlantic, ii., 315. 
 
 Miller, Professor, W. A, improvements in 
 registering thermometers, i., 22. 
 
 Miller-Casella registering thermometer, i., 
 22, 82, 84, 167, 229 ; ii., 259. 
 
 Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., and 
 Admiral Sir David, great stalagmite 
 from Walsingham Cave, Bermudas, i., 
 303. 
 
 Milne's "slip water-bottle," i., 48 ; hy- 
 draulic pump, 58, 59. 
 
 Milner, Rev. J., his narrative of the visit 
 of the " Galatea " to Tristan d'Acunha, 
 
 ii. , 138. 
 Mirage, i., 356. 
 
 Mollusca in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 Mollymawk (Diomedea exulans), ii., 162. 
 Mora Mediterranea, i., 121. 
 
 Moraines (" stone rivers "), Falkland Isl- 
 and, ii., 214. 
 
 Moseley, Henry Nottidge, B.A.,F.R.S., ap- 
 pointed on the scientific staff of the 
 " Challenger," i., 24, 80 ; development 
 of Pyrosoma, 173 ; West Indian corals, 
 250 ; plants of Bermudas, 321 ; Flabel- 
 lum alabastrum, ii., 50, 51 ; plants of 
 Tristan d'Acunha, 145 ; geology of the 
 Falkland Islands, 182; new species 
 named by him, 50, 55, 110, 295. 
 
 Mother Carey's chickens, ii., 15. 
 
 Movements of the ocean, i., 85. 
 
 Miiller, Johannes, on Olobigerina, L, 199. 
 
 Munida, i., 185. 
 
 Murray, John, F.R.S., appointed on the 
 scientific staff of the " Challenger," i., 
 24, 80; on Olobigerina, 199, 201 ; Rhab- 
 dospheres, 210 ; nature and origin of 
 red clay, 217, 218, 221 ; fauna of the 
 Atlantic, ii., 16, 17, 251, 252, 291 ; new 
 species named by him, 67 ; microscop- 
 ical examination of samples of the bed 
 of the Atlantic, 315. 
 
 Mylius, C, on Umbelhdaria, i., 151. 
 
 N. 
 
 Naves, Captain, Sir G. S., K.C.B., F.R.S., 
 appointed to command the " Challen- 
 ger," i., 23 ; his supervision of sound- 
 ing and dredging operations, 197 ; visit 
 to the Painter's Vale Cave, Bermudas, 
 305. 
 
 Naresia cyathus, i., 143, 187. 
 
 Natural history work-room on board the 
 " Challenger," i., 26, 27. 
 
 Naidilograpsus minutus, ii., 17. 
 
 Nelson, General, on the geology of Ber- 
 mudas, i., 284, 287, 307. 
 
 Neophron percnopterus, ii., 69. 
 
 Nerium oleander, Bermudas, i., 299. 
 
 Nests of fishes in the gulf-weed, ii., 17. 
 
 Newbold, Corporal, R.E., photographs 
 taken by him during the expedition, 
 i., 59. 
 
 Nightingale Island, Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 
 163. 
 
 " Noddy " (Sterna stolida), ii., 95 ; photo- 
 graph of its breeding-place, St. Paul's 
 Rocks, 94; Fernando Noronha, 109, 156. 
 
 O. 
 
 OculinidcE, i., 254. 
 Odium Tuckeri, ii., 29. 
 Oleanders of Bermudas, i., 289. 
 Ophiacantha chelys, ii., 62, 63. 
 Ophiocoma vivipara, ii., 209, 211. 
 Ophioglypha bullata, L, 371, 372. 
 Ophiomusium pulchellum, ii., 65, 66. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 337 
 
 Ophionereis lumbricus, i., 271. 
 Ophiopholis, food of the Newfoundland 
 
 cod-fish, L, 356. 
 Ophiuridea, i., 172, 240, 248; ii., 63, 65, 
 
 296. 
 
 Orange cultivation, San Miguel, ii., 32 ; 
 
 photograph of an orange grove, 37 ; 
 
 plantations destroyed by Coccidee, i., 
 
 318 ; trees near Algesiras, 129. 
 Orbulina, L, 122, 180, 198-208, 217. 
 Orbulina imiversa, from the surface, i., 
 
 205. 
 
 Orca gladiator, i., 192. 
 
 Oviedo, discovery of Bermudas, i., 271. 
 
 Owen, Major, F.L.S., "On the Surface 
 
 Fauna of Mid-ocean," i., 200, 204, 207. 
 Owen, Professor, F.R.S., on Eaplectella as- 
 
 pergillum and cucumer, i., 135, 136. 
 Omenta filiformis, i., 194. 
 Oxygen in sea-water; general conclusions 
 
 from the " Challenger " expedition, ii., 
 
 312. 
 
 Oxy gyrus keraudrenii, i., 125. 
 
 P. 
 
 Pacific Ocean, North, its temperature, i., 
 363. 
 
 Painter's Yale, Bermudas, cave at, i., 286, 
 304. 
 
 Palinuridse, i., 241. 
 Palma, i., 153. 
 
 Palm-trees at Mount Langton, Bermudas, 
 
 i. , 281, 321 ; at Bahia, ii., 122. 
 Papaw-trees, Bermudas, i., 319, 320. 
 Peat of Falkland Islands, ii., 185. 
 Pelagic foraminifera, ii., 251, 293. 
 Penal servitude at Fernando Noronha, ii., 
 
 103, 105. 
 
 Penguins on Inaccessible Island, ii., 146, 
 158-161 ; on Nightingale Island, 171. 
 
 Pentacrinus Maclearanus, ii., 112, 113. 
 
 Persea gratimma, i., 320. 
 
 Petrels, i., 192 ; at Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 
 156, 288. 
 
 Philippine Islands, specimens of Euplec- 
 tella from the, i., 137. 
 
 Phonolite rocks at Fernando Noronha, ii., 
 107. 
 
 Phormosoma uranus, i., 146, 147 ; hopla- 
 
 cantha, 148. 
 Phosphorescence of the sea, i., 180, 185 ; 
 
 ii. ,79. 
 
 Phosphorescence of Gorgonoid, i., 122; of 
 Umbellularia Groenlandica, 150. 
 
 Phosphorescent animals, i., 173. 
 
 Photography on board the " Challenger," 
 i., 59 ; Engravings from Photographs : 
 Belem Castle, i., 114 ; Cloister of Santa 
 Maria, Belem, 117; Bermudas: Group 
 
 of Palms, iEolian Rocks, Land-glaciers, 
 Convolvulus Cave, Calcareous Concre- 
 tions, Cedar Avenue, Swamp vegetation, 
 Papaw-trees, 281, 288, 290, 291, 292, 
 297, 302, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 313, 
 315, 319, 322 ; Natives of San Vicente, 
 375 ; Acores : Garden Trees at San Mi- 
 guel, ii., 31, 33, 35 ; Orange Groves, 37 ; 
 St. Paul's Rocks, 94, 98 ; Breeding-place 
 of the Noddy, 94 ; Tristan d'Acunha : 
 "Edinburgh" Settlement, 140; Cyclo- 
 pean Architecture, 143 ; Inaccessible 
 Island water-fall, 148 ; Group of Rock- 
 hoppers, 158; Group of Penguins, 171 ; 
 Irrigation, Porto Praya, 231. 
 
 Phylica arborea, at Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 
 139, 156. 
 
 Physalia, i., 123. 
 
 Pico, Island of, Acores, ii., 24, 28. 
 Plagusice, ii., 82. 
 Plants in the Atlantic, ii., 289. 
 Platform Island, Fernando Noronha group, 
 ii., 108. 
 
 " Poison ivy " of Bermudas, i., 305. 
 
 Polycystina, i., 221. 
 
 Polyzoa in the Atlantic, ii., 297. 
 
 Ponta Delgada, San Miguel, ii., 24, 30, 37. 
 
 Porcellanaster cendeus, i., 352. 
 
 " Porcupine," H.M.S., sounding expedi- 
 tion, i., 21 ; temperature soundings, 226, 
 233. 
 
 Port Louis, Falkland Islands, ii., 180. 
 
 Porto Prayo, Cape Verde Islands, ii., 71, 
 73 ; mode of irrigation, 231. 
 
 "Portuguese men-of-war," i., 123. 
 
 Potato cultivation in Bermudas, i., 318. 
 
 Pourtales, Count, on Globigerina and Or- 
 bulina, i., 199, 207 ; on " Deep-sea Cor- 
 als," 250, 253. 
 
 " Pride of India " (Melia azedaracli), Ber- 
 mudas, i., 299. 
 
 Protective resemblance in the gulf -weed 
 fauna, ii., 16. 
 
 Protozoa, i., 219. 
 
 Psolus ephippifer, ii., 191, 192, 193. 
 
 Pteropoda, i., 122, 125. 
 
 Pterotrachea, i., 124. 
 
 Pulvinulina, i., 181, 198-209. 
 
 Pumice fragments on the bed of the At- 
 lantic, i., 217, 225 ; ii., 253. 
 
 Pycnogonida in the Atlantic, ii., 298. 
 
 Pyrocystis fusiformis, ii., 82, 83. 
 
 Pyrocystis noctiluca, ii., 82. 
 
 Pyrosoma, phosphorescence of, i., 180; 
 ii., 80. 
 
 R. 
 
 Radiolaria,i.,l74, 180,198, 199,218,219; 
 ii., 290. 
 
338 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Rain-fall at the Island of Ascension, ii., 
 224, 255. 
 
 Rain-water in universal use in Bermudas, 
 
 i. , 277. 
 
 Rat Island, Fernando Noronha group, ii., 
 108. 
 
 Red clay of the bed of the Atlantic, its 
 nature and origin, i., 177, 181, 187, 190, 
 193, 212, 214, 215, 262, 269, 293; ii, 
 253, 255. 
 
 Red clay and globigerina ooze, tabular 
 view of their proportions, i., 215. 
 
 Red-coral fishery, Cape Verde Islands, ii., 
 72, 73. 
 
 "Red earth" of Bermudas, i., 293, 294, 
 325, 326. 
 
 Religious ceremony in San Miguel, ii., 48, 
 49. 
 
 Rhabdoliths, i., 198, 209, 216. 
 
 Rhabdospheres, specimens from the sur- 
 face, 500 and 2000 times the natural 
 size, i., 211, 212. 
 
 Rhizocrinus, ii., 91. 
 
 Rhizopods, i., 216. 
 
 Rhus toxicodendron, of Bermudas, i., 305. 
 Ribiera Grande, San Miguel, ii., 38. 
 Richards, Admiral, Sir George, F.R.S., his 
 
 aid to the expedition, L, 23, 80. 
 "Rock-hoppers," on Inaccessible Island, 
 
 ii. , 146, 158. 
 Rotalia, i., 200. 
 
 Royal Society, proposal for a circumnavi- 
 gating expedition, i., 23. 
 
 S. 
 
 St. Elmo's fires, i., 273. 
 St. George's Island, Bermudas, i., 277, 312. 
 St. Michael's Mount, Fernando Noronha, 
 ii., 107. 
 
 St. Paul's Rocks, ii., 93 ; photographic 
 views of, 94, 98. 
 
 St. Thomas, West Indies, i. ; 248. 
 
 Saleniadae : Salenia varispina, L, 145. 
 
 Sand (coral), Bermudas Islands formed 
 by, i., 285, 287 ; garden, cottage, and 
 cedar grove overwhelmed by it, 289- 
 291 ; its conversion into limestone, 291. 
 
 Sand-bath, sea-going, on board the " Chal- 
 lenger," i., 47. 
 
 Sand-glacier, Elbow Bay, Bermudas, i., 289. 
 
 San Domingo, Cape Verde Islands, ii., 74. 
 
 San Iago, Cape Verde Islands, ii., 71, 72. 
 
 San Jorge, Acores, ii., 30. 
 
 San Maria, capital of San Miguel, Acores, 
 ii., 24. 
 
 San Miguel, ii., 24, 30-50. 
 Santo Amaro, Brazil, ii., 126. 
 San Vicente, natives of, i., 375 ; ii., 68 ; 
 Porto Grande, 231. 
 
 Sargasso Sea, ii., 15, 24. 
 Sargassum bacciferum, ii., 290. 
 Scalpellum regium, female, ii., 11, 12; 
 male, 14. 
 
 Schmidt, Professor Oscar, on Rhabdo- 
 spheres, L, 209. 
 
 Schouw, Professor G. F., relation of baro- 
 metric pressure to latitude, i., 88. 
 
 Schultze, Professor Max, on Euplectella, i., 
 137 ; on Globigerina, 200 ; on Globige- 
 rina and Orbulina, 207. 
 
 Sea-birds, their scarcity near Bermudas, 
 ii., 15. 
 
 Sea-hen, ii., 162. 
 
 Seal fishery of Tristan d'Acunha Islands, 
 ii., 135, i36. 
 
 Sea-slugs, ii., 131, 186. 
 
 Sea-urchins, i., 145-149, 349, 368; ii., 
 193-196, 198-201, 290, 297. 
 
 Sea -water in the Atlantic; general con- 
 clusions from the "Challenger" expe- 
 dition : temperature, ii., 256 ; density, 
 302 ; amount of carbonic acid and oxy- 
 gen, 310. 
 
 Sea-water, boiling atmospheric gases out 
 of, 36, 37. 
 
 Sea-weed, i., 284 ; ii., 290. 
 
 Serial temperature soundings. (See Tem- 
 perature.) 
 
 Serpula, i., 284. 
 
 Serpula borings, i., 298. 
 
 "Serpuline reefs," i., 285, 333. 
 
 Sete-Cidades, crater of, Acores, ii., 46. 
 
 Setubal, dredging near, i., 120. 
 
 Sharks, L, 192. 
 
 Sharks' teeth, serai-fossil, from the ocean 
 bed, ii., 300, 321. 
 
 Sheep of Falkland Islands, ii., 181. 
 
 Shells, land, of Madeira, L, 152. 
 
 Sialia Wilsoni, i., 279. 
 
 Siemens, Charles W., F.R.S., deep-sea tem- 
 perature apparatus, i., 58, 82, 84, 88, 229. 
 
 Six's registering thermometers, i., 22; ii.. 
 259. 
 
 Slavery in Bermudas, i., 276. 
 
 " Slip water-bottle," used in the expedi- 
 tion, i., 47, 168. 
 
 Sloggett, Henry C, appointed sublieuten- 
 ant to the " Challenger," i., 24. 
 
 Smith's " History of Virginia ;" account 
 of Bermudas, i., 274-276, 293. 
 
 Smith and Beck's binocular microscope, 
 used in the expedition, i., 29. 
 
 Soil of Bermudas, report from Professor 
 Abel, F.R.S., on, i., 323. 
 
 Solar halo, i., 355. 
 
 /Solarium, i., 185. 
 
 " Soldier crab," marine shells transported 
 inland by the, i., 298. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 339 
 
 Somers, Admiral Sir George, wrecked at 
 Bermudas (1609), i., 273; his death 
 there, 274. 
 
 Sounding- machines, "Hydra" and Bail- 
 lie, L, 60, 61; "Valve" sounding-lead, 
 62. 
 
 Sounding on board the " Challenger," 
 mode of, i., 66, 168. 
 
 Soundings, temperature. (See Tempera- 
 ture.) 
 
 Spatangus purpureus, i., 271. 
 
 Specific gravity of the water of the Atlan- 
 tic: mode of determination on board 
 the " Challenger," i., 55 ; ii., 303 ; Ta- 
 bles of Specific Gravities : TenerifTe to 
 Sombrero, i., 237 ; between St. Thomas, 
 Bermudas, and Halifax, 378 ; Bermu- 
 das to Madeira, ii., 60 ; Madeira to Ba- 
 hia, 119; Bahia to the Cape, 174; Falk- 
 land Islands to Portsmouth, 239. 
 
 Spitzbergen Current, ii., 280. 
 
 Sponges in the Atlantic, ii., 284, 293 ; Hex- 
 actinellidae, Euplectella, i., 135, 141 ; Hy- 
 alonema, 141, 257 ; Poliopogon amadou 
 (new), 171; Esperiadae, 186; West In- 
 dian, 240 ; of Bermudas, 284, 306 ; Le- 
 froyella decora, 374, 375. 
 
 Springs, boiling, San Miguel, ii., 43. 
 
 Stalactites and stalagmites, i., 305-311. 
 
 Stalagmite ceilings and stalactite columns 
 of caves in Bermudas, i., 301 ; great 
 stalagmite from the Walsingham cave, 
 303. 
 
 Stalked crinoids. (See Crinoids.) 
 
 Stanley Harbor and Town, Falkland Isl- 
 ands, ii., 177, 178, 198, 194. 
 
 Star-fishes, i., 240, 351 ; ii., 203, 205. 
 
 Steam-pinnace, the " Challenger's," i., 70. 
 
 Sterna fuliginosa, "wide-awake," ii., 227. 
 
 Sterna stolida, "noddy," ii., 95. 
 
 Sternoptychidae, ii., 10. 
 
 Stevenson, Thomas, C.E., mean thermome- 
 ter for changes of temperature, i., 157, 
 162 ; table of its indications, 162. 
 
 Stirling, Dr. William, D.Sc, M.B., his ap- 
 pointment as naturalist, i., 80 ; his res- 
 ignation, 99. 
 
 Stirling, Rev. Dr., Bishop of Falkland Isl- 
 ands, ii., 183. 
 
 Stokes, William, killed by an accident to 
 the dredge, i., 261. 
 
 Stoltenhoff, Frederick and Gustav, their 
 occupation of Inaccessible Island, ii., 
 150-162. 
 
 " Stone rivers," Falkland Islands, ii., 212- 
 215. 
 
 " Stop-cock water-bottle," used in the ex- 
 pedition, i., 51-53, 178, 180. 
 Strait of Magellan, ii., 176. 
 
 Stylaster, i., 240. 
 Styliola, i., 126. 
 
 Submarine telegraphs, deep-sea soundings 
 
 in connection with, i., 17. 
 Sulafusea, "booby," ii., 95. 
 Sunrise in Brazil, ii., 124. 
 Surface-currents, i.,335. 
 Swamp vegetation, Bermudas, i., 314, 315. 
 Svenite bowlder raised with the dredge, 
 "i.,355. 
 
 T. 
 
 Tables of carbonic acid in water of the 
 Atlantic, ii., 310, 327 ; of air and water 
 temperature (see Temperature) ; of 
 specific gravity (see Specific Gravity) ; 
 of deep-sea fauna at different stations, 
 285-289 ; of marine animals at depths 
 below 2000 fathoms, 328, 329 ; tables 
 of temperature explained, 262. 
 
 Taylor, Rev. W. F., his account of Tristan 
 d'Acunha, ii., 136-138. 
 
 Telegraphs, submarine, deep-sea soundings 
 in connection with, i., 17. 
 
 Temperature, air; May to October, 1873, 
 
 i. , 162 ; at Bermudas, 1855 to 1873, 328 ; 
 tables of, in crossing and recrossing the 
 Gulf-stream, 379. 
 
 Temperature of the water of the Atlantic : 
 General conclusions, ii., 257 ; Diagrams, 
 constructed from serial soundings, i., 
 231, 342, 349; ii., 10, 19, 56, 130, 272, 
 277 ; showing the effect of a " continu- 
 ous barrier," 277 ; Curves constructed 
 from serial and bottom soundings, i., 
 227, 267, 347, 362, 366; ii., 54, 263. 
 Tables: Portsmouth to Teneriffe, i., 
 160; Teneriffe to Sombrero, 235; be- 
 tween St. Thomas, Bermudas, and Hal- 
 ifax, 376, 377 ; Bermudas to Madeira, 
 
 ii. , 58, 59 ; Madeira to Bahia, 116, 117, 
 118 ; Bahia to the Cape of Good Hope, 
 172, 173; Falkland Islands to Tristan 
 d'Acunha, 234 ; Tristan d'Acunha to 
 the Acores, 236 ; North and South At- 
 lantic, 1876, 238. 
 
 Temperature of the deep sea, as shown 
 by the " Lightning" expedition, i., 21. 
 
 Tern (Tristan d'Acunha Islands), ii., 162. 
 
 Thalassidroma pelagica, i., 192. 
 
 Thermometers, registering, i., 21, 156, 225, 
 229 ; ii., 259, 304 ; instruments broken 
 in deep sounding at Bermudas, i., 263. 
 
 Thomson, Sir C. Wyville, LL.D., F.R.S., 
 appointed director of the civilian scien- 
 tific staff of the "Challenger," i., 26, 80, 
 98 ; new species named by him, 139, 143, 
 147, 171, 220, 258, 259, 260, 261, 350, 
 351, 352, 353, 354, 369, 370, 372, 373, 
 
340 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 374; ii., 11, 62,63, 65, 66, 86, 89, 112, 
 192, 193, 197, 206, 208, 250, 252. 
 
 Threshing in San Miguel, ii., 45. 
 
 Tidal observations, i., 86. 
 
 Tizard, Captain Thomas H., navigating 
 lieutenant, appointed to the " Challen- 
 ger," i., 24 ; his correction of thermome- 
 ters used for deep-sea temperatures, ii., 
 260. 
 
 Tow-net, L, 70; ii., 80. 
 
 Transparency of sea-water, i., 88. 
 
 Traveling in Brazil, ii., 126. 
 
 Trawls, and mode of trawling on board 
 the " Challenger," i., 68, 186 ; action of 
 the trawl, ii., 281. 
 
 Triptera columella, i., 127. 
 
 Tristan d'Acunha Islands, ii., 134; his- 
 torical notices, 134, 165 ; Tristan, de- 
 scriptive accounts of, 139-146 ; Inac- 
 cessible Island, history and description 
 of, 146-163 ; its occupation bv Freder- 
 ick and Gustav Stoltenhoff, i 50-1 6 2 ; 
 Nightingale Island, 163. 
 
 Trochocyathus coronatus, i., 250. 
 
 Tropic-bird, ii., 228. 
 
 Turtle caught at Bermudas (1609), i., 273. 
 
 Turtle, common green, at Ascension Isl- 
 and, ii., 228. 
 
 Tussock - grass at Tristan d'Acunha, ii., 
 164; Falkland Islands, 183, 185. 
 
 U. 
 
 Umbelhdaria Groenlandica, i., 149, 150. 
 Upland geese, Falkland Islands, ii., 179. 
 Urchins. (See Sea-urchins.) 
 
 V. 
 
 "Valve" sounding-lead, i., 62. 
 Vegetation in the Atlantic, ii., 290. 
 Velella, i., 123. 
 
 "Venus's flower-basket," i., 137. 
 Vigo Bay, sounding and dredging, i., 112 ; 
 ii., 232. 
 
 Villa Franca, San Miguel, ii., 45. 
 
 Volcanic debris over the bed of the At- 
 lantic, ii., 254. 
 
 Volcanic Islands: the Acores, ii., 25, 29, 
 46, 109 ; the Tristan d'Acunha group, 
 144, 149 ; Island of Ascension, 222. 
 
 Volcanic mud and sand in the bed of the 
 Atlantic, i., 214. 
 
 Volcano, Fogo, Cape Verde Islands, ii., 71. 
 
 Vulture, Egyptian, ii., 69. 
 
 W. 
 
 Wallich, Dr., naturalist to the "Bull-dog" 
 sounding expedition, i., 19 ; on cocco- 
 liths, 209. 
 
 Walsingham caves, Bermudas, i., 302. 
 
 Watch -buoy, in current observations, i., 
 336. 
 
 Water of the Atlantic ; " slip water-bot- 
 tle " and " stop-cock water-bottle," used 
 in the expedition, i., 47, 51-53, 178, 
 180. 
 
 Water, total want of, in Bermudas, i., 277, 
 295 ; its scarcity in San Vicente ; wells 
 and water-carriers, ii., 70. 
 
 Water -fall, Inaccessible Island, ii., 148, 
 149. 
 
 Watson, Rev. R. B., his collection of the 
 land-shells of Madeira, i., 152. 
 
 Wells in San Vicente, ii., 70. 
 
 Whale (Xiphius), Falkland Islands, ii., 
 182. 
 
 Whisky Bay, Heard Island, ii., 191. 
 
 " Wide - awake " [Sterna fidiginosa) ; 
 " Wide-awake Fair," ii., 227. 
 
 Wild, J. J., appointed secretary to the di- 
 rector of the scientific staff of the " Chal- 
 lenger," and artist, i., 26, 80. 
 
 Willemoes-Suhm, Dr. Rudolf von, appoint- 
 ed on the scientific staff of the " Chal- 
 lenger," i., 26, 99 ; new species named 
 by him, i., 183, 243, 245 ; ii., 20, 21. 
 
 Willemoesia crucifer, i., 241. 
 
 Willemoesia leptodactyla, i., 181. 
 
 Williams, Sir Fenwick, of Kars, i., 130. 
 
 Wilson, Hugh, C.E., his railway operations 
 in Brazil, ii., 123, 127, 128. 
 
 Wind, force and direction of, table and 
 diagrams of, i., 158, 159. 
 
 Wind-currents, ii., 280. 
 
 Woodwardia radicans, Acores, ii., 40. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xiphicantha, i., 222. 
 
 Y. 
 
 Yellow fever in Brazil, ii., 128. 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zoological observations proposed to the 
 
 expedition, i., 96. 
 Zoophytes on the coral reefs, Bermudas, 
 
 i. 5 283. 
 
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