THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND 
 
 MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID 
 
 ANTHROPOLOGY LIBEAR^; 
 
Aj-^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 y 
 
THE 
 
 HUNTEEIAN OBATION 
 
 Feb. 14, 1901 
 
By the same Author » 
 DISEASES AND EEFEACTION OF THE EYE. 
 
 {Fifth Edition.) 
 
 DISEASES OF BONES AND JOINTS. 
 
 {Third Edition.) 
 
 A HISTORY OF ASIATIC CHOLERA. 
 
 {Second Edition.) 
 
 THE STORY OF AN IRISH SEPT. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF THE 
 BRITISH PEOPLE. 
 
THE 
 
 HUNTEKIAN OBATION 
 
 DELIVEEED ON THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 14, 1901 
 
 AT THE 
 
 Sloaal follcgc of gurgcons of ^nglanf) 
 
 BY 
 
 N. C.^ACNAMAEA 
 
 FELLOW OF THE BOYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND 
 
 AND ALSO OF THE B.C.S. OF IRELAND 
 
 FELLOW OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY 
 
 LONDON 
 SMITH, ELDEE, & CO., 15 WATERLOO PLACE 
 
 1901 
 
 [All riRhts rescrred] 
 
HNTHKOPOLOGY LIBESE? 
 PRINTED IN ENGLANB. 
 

 TiiR chart accompanying the text of this oration was 
 compiled from photographs of casts and of skulls in 
 the Museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons of 
 England. These photographs, with four exceptions, 
 were taken by Mr. George in the photographic room 
 on the College premises, by kind permission of Prof. C. 
 Stewart. The four exceptions include three photo- 
 graphs from skulls in the Thurnam collection, forming 
 a part of the Anatomical Museum of the University of 
 Cambridge, for which I have to thank Dr. J. Griffiths ; 
 and the fourth is a photograph of one of the Mentone 
 skulls, for which I am indebted to A. J. Binny, Esq. 
 The other specimens shown on the chart were on the 
 table and were referred to during the oration. The 
 portrait of John Hunter hanging on the wall of the 
 Theatre belongs to the College, and was painted in the 
 year 1785 by Sir Joshua Eeynolds. 
 
 The oration is published at the request of the 
 Council of the Colle<ze. 
 
 'O' 
 
 N. C. Macnamara. 
 
 13 Grosvcnor Street, W. : 
 March I'JOl. 
 
 r^^^jtry ^-» #t>r~) 
 
THE 
 
 HUNTEEIAN OKATION 
 
 We meet to-day shadowed by a dark cloud of sorrow. 
 The death of our revered Queen has elicited from people 
 inhabiting every part of the globe deep expressions of 
 heartfelt grief, for she was, in a sense never before 
 realised by a monarch, a friend of all her people. Her 
 wisdom and patriotism were such that in her hands 
 we all felt the honour and best interests of our country 
 were secure. She was at the same time, in the midst 
 of all her cares and responsibilities, tender and deeply 
 sympathetic with those in trouble or sickness. The 
 Queen took a keen interest in all that concerned the 
 progress of our profession, and quite recently, in spite 
 of failing bodily strength, visited the wards of Prince 
 Albert's Military Hospital at Netley on more than one 
 occasion, in order to testify to her sick and wounded 
 soldiers how deeply she appreciated their services. 
 The memory of Queen Victoria is held in lovhig reve- 
 rence by us all, and we believe that the force of her 
 example will live and influence for good many genera- 
 tions of Enfrlish men and women. 
 
 B 
 
2 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 In this season of universal mourning we have the 
 consolation of knowing that our King, by his never 
 failing courtesy and unselfish attention to the numerous 
 calls made upon him by the nation, has already en- 
 deared himself to his subjects. His Majesty has on 
 several occasions shown his personal appreciation of 
 the work carried on in our College, and is, indeed, one 
 of our Honorary Fellows. We hope that, in spite of 
 the multifarious duties entailed on him by the exalted 
 position to which he has been called, he may still find 
 time to continue his interest in this Institution, and in 
 the Fund he has established with the object of placing 
 our MetropoUtan Hospitals in a satisfactory financial 
 position. We render him our most sincere thanks for 
 all he has done for us, and pray that, under God's pro- 
 tection, he may long be spared to rule over this country 
 and empire. 
 
 Since the last Hunterian oration was delivered in 
 this Theatre we have had to deplore the death of one of 
 our former Presidents, Sir James Paget, who for many 
 years was so intimately connected with the work of our 
 College, that it is only natural his memory should 
 to-day occupy a prominent place in our minds. It is 
 hardly possible to express the sentiments we hold re- 
 garding Sir James Paget in more appropriate language 
 han those contained in the following resolution, which 
 was forwarded to his family on December 30, 1899, by 
 the Council of the College : 
 
 *The Council gratefully remember the many ser 
 vices rendered to the Eoyal College of Surgeons by Sir 
 
THE IirXTRRIAN ORATION 3 
 
 James Paget during his long association with it, and 
 they desire to record their appreciation not only of his 
 eminence as a surgeon, his ability as a teacher, and his 
 grace and eloquence as a speaker, but also of his 
 admirable personal character, which won for him the 
 warm regard of all who knew him. 
 
 ' The Council believe that no member of the sur- 
 gical profession more fully enjoyed the confidence and 
 esteem of his colleagues, and they are assured that his 
 loss will long be felt, and that his name will ever be 
 placed in the foremost rank of those who have done 
 good in their time and brought honour to their profes- 
 sion.' 
 
 Gentlemen, — We have assembled here to-day in 
 order that we may commemorate the merits of John 
 Hunter and such other persons whose labours have 
 contributed to the extension of our knowledge in com- 
 parative anatomy, physiology, or surgery. Hunter's life, 
 in all its various aspects, has been so frequently dwelt 
 on in former orations delivered in this Theatre, that it 
 is beyond my power to throw any fresh light on this 
 subject. His fame is attributable to his having pos- 
 sessed an intense love of science, indomitable energy, 
 and a self-reliant, manly character. If we turn to his 
 portrait, hanging on the walls of this Theatre, it w^ould 
 seem that, at the time this likeness was painted, Hunter 
 was engaged in the study of the craniology of man and 
 anthropoid apes, for on the table before him there is 
 an open volume, and on its pages we see clearly drawn 
 a human skull and the skull of a chimpanzee. Hunter 
 
4 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 is portrayed, pen in hand, in deep thought, having 
 just turned away from the book he had been studying ; 
 and though his notes on comparative anatomy were 
 unfortunately destroyed with his other manuscripts, we 
 can hardly doubt that craniology was a subject in 
 which he was deeply interested, or it would not have 
 held so prominent a position in this famous picture. 
 It would therefore seem that on an occasion such as 
 the present we can do no higher honour to Hunter's 
 memory, and to that of some of the able men of science 
 who have followed him, than by endeavouring to give, 
 in as few words as possible, a resume of their labours, 
 w^ith especial reference to the subject of craniology and 
 the hglit which it is capable of throwing on the pre- 
 historic inhabitants of Western Europe, and of the 
 evolution of the race of men to which w^e belong. One 
 of the most brilhant and original thinkers who have 
 occupied the Presidential Chair of this College, Sir 
 William Lawrence, in his ever memorable lectures on 
 the natural history of man, delivered in this College in 
 the year 1819, from his researches in comparative 
 anatomy foreshadowed the idea that man and apes 
 were derived from common ancestors. Lawrence's 
 opinions w^ere received with a storm of adverse 
 criticism. Mr. Abernethy, for instance, charged him 
 with ' propagating opinions detrimental to society, and 
 endeavouring to enforce them for the purpose of 
 loosening those restraints on which the welfare of 
 mankind depend.' Time, however, has proved that 
 Law^rence was right, and in the course of lectures 
 delivered in this Theatre in February 1899, Professor 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 5 
 
 Keith, from a careful analysis of the maximum number 
 of anatomical characters common to man and apes, 
 arrived at the conclusion that they are derived from 
 an identical or a kindred stock. While admitting 
 without reserve that man and apes are structurally 
 almost identical, nevertheless, as pointed out by Pro- 
 fessor Huxley in the year 1S63, they differ very 
 materially as regards the relative size and weight of 
 their brains, as well as in the complexity of its con- 
 volutions. The carcase of a full-grown gorilla is 
 heavier than that of an average-sized European, but it 
 is doubtful whether a healthy adult European's brain 
 ever weighed less than thirty-two- ounces, or the brain 
 of the heaviest gorilla ever exceeded twenty ounces in 
 weight/ Although at the present time there is this 
 marked relative difference between the weiixht of the 
 brain and the form of the skulls of Europeans and 
 apes, this was not always the case, for the calvaria of 
 the earliest discovered human beings were in form not 
 very far removed from those of contemporary anthro- 
 poid apes. This fact leads us to inquire into the 
 nature of the conditions which have led to the in- 
 creased capacity of the human cranium, and to the 
 vast superiority of man's intellectual endowments over 
 those of all the other primates. If we turn to Hunter's 
 preparations in our Museum- we find among them 
 some remarkable specimens, which he describes as 
 ' compressed,' ' unsymmetrical ' human crania, which 
 he believed were the resuh of premature consolidation 
 
 ' Man's Place in Nature, by Pirofessor T. Huxley, p. 103. 
 2 College Catalogue, Nos. 135, 137 and 131). 
 
6 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 of one or more of the sutures of the skulL Professor 
 Virchow states that ' in the too early ossification of a 
 suture of the skull, the development of the cranium is 
 arrested in the diameter perpendicular to that centre.' 
 Since Hunter's day various authorities have devoted 
 much time to the subject of the abnormal closure of 
 the cranial sutures in man. Prominent among them 
 are the names of the chief of England's craniologists, 
 Drs. Thurnam, Beddoe, and Barnard Davis (the splen- 
 did collection of prehistoric and other skulls made by 
 the latter gentleman is now in the possession of our 
 College), and we have come to learn that the size and 
 shape of the skull depend, to a large extent, on the 
 growth of the bones of which it is formed along the 
 lines of the various cranial sutures, a subject to which 
 I have referred at some length in my book on ' The 
 Origin and Character of the British People.' 
 
 It is well known that the frontal bone, which forms 
 the vault of the anterior part of the cranium in the 
 young of man and apes, is divided by a suture, and so 
 long as this line of growth, together with the coronal 
 and other sutures by which the frontal is separated from 
 surrounding bones, remains open, the fore part of the 
 skull, and with it the anterior fossae which it encloses, 
 can expand. But if the frontal and the other anterior 
 sutures of the cranium consohdate early in life the fore 
 part of the skull cannot increase in capacity beyond 
 the size it had reached in infancy. Professor Deneker ^ 
 m his work on the embryology and development of 
 
 •' Archives de Zoologie cxpirimentale et gencrale^ tome troisieme, 
 annee 18B5. 
 
THE HUXTERIAN ORATION 7 
 
 anthropoid apes has shown that in consequence of the 
 early closure of the anterior sutures of the skull of 
 these animals, the fore part of their brain does not 
 increase beyond the size it had attained at the end of 
 the first year of life ; but in man these sutures do not 
 consolidate until a much later period, so that the an- 
 terior lobes of his brain are enabled to expand, and 
 actually become far more perfectly developed than the 
 corresponding lobes among anthropoid apes. 
 
 Among these apes in consequence of the great size 
 of their frontal sinuses and the roofs of the orbits rising 
 more obliquely into the cranial cavity, the anterior 
 and the inferior walls of the anterior fossae of their 
 skulls intrude upon and lessen the capacity of this 
 space, and therefore of the anterior lobes of the brain 
 which are contained in these fossoe/ Yirchow states 
 that ' of all parts of the ape's head, it is the brain that 
 grows least;' even 'the largest ape keeps its baby-brain.' 
 Although we have not sufficient data to ^^ the abso- 
 lute duration of the life of anthropoid apes, it is doubt- 
 ful if thev, as a rule, attain the af]^e at which man 
 arrives at his full growth. It is, however, certain that 
 the largest apes are perfectly developed when man is 
 still in his youth, and that the ape's brain has reached 
 perfection before the period of shedding its teeth, while 
 in man it then takes its real first step to perfection, 
 men of the same bulk as these apes having four times 
 as much superficial brain surface/ 
 
 ^ See Professor I). J. Cunningham's work on Surface Anatomy of 
 Cerebral HctnisjiJicrcs, p. 280. 
 
 ^ The Cranial Affinities of Man and Apes, by Professor R. Vircliow, 
 p. 26. Also Journal of An at. and Thys. new series, vol. xiii. p. 275. 
 
8 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 Whatever other functions the anterior lobes of the 
 brain perform, the specific structure of their cortical 
 nerve elements, in conjunction with those of the other 
 lobes of the brain, controls our associative memory and 
 our higher intellectual faculties. If we study the col- 
 lection of preparations of the brains of apes in our 
 Museum, we must arrive at a similar conclusion to that 
 expressed by Professors Edinger and D. J. Cunningham, 
 which is that the gyri (or convolutions) of the brain of 
 man and of the anthropoid apes are to a large extent 
 similar in anatomical characters, with the marked excep- 
 tion of those convolutions which enter into the forma- 
 tion of the frontal lobes. The superior and the middle 
 gyri of these lobes in anthropoid apes are always much 
 shorter than they are in the brains of average Euro- 
 peans, and what is of especial importance in the brains 
 of anthropoid apes, the inferior frontal gyri exist 
 only in a rudimentary condition of development. This 
 deficiency is very marked with respect to that area of 
 the left inferior gyrus which contains the nerve elements 
 which control our faculty of articulate language. It 
 seems probable that the rudimentary condition of this 
 gyrus in apes is therefore the anatomical expression of 
 the inferiority of these animals to man in intelligence ; 
 our intellectual development depending mainly on our 
 possessing the faculty of speech.^ It may be, anthro- 
 
 ^ The Anatomy of the Central Nei^ous System- of Man, Professor 
 Ludwig Edinger, M.D., translated from the fifth German edition by- 
 Professor W. S. Hall, 1889, pp. 194, 210. Edinger remarks that ' very 
 gradually the mantle of the embryonic brain increases in extent, ascend- 
 ing in the vertebrate series. In the apes belonging to the class of primates 
 it has attained an expansion which borders closely on the relations found 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION g 
 
 poid apes having only rudimentary, if any, specialised 
 areas of tlie cortical nerve elements which regulate the 
 apparatus necessary for the production of articulate 
 speech, that the other parts of their anterior lobes have 
 remained in a comparatively undeveloped condition ; 
 whereas the left inferior frontal lobe of man's brain 
 having become highly specialised, and with it his power 
 of language, the other convolutions of his anterior lobes 
 which govern his intellectual faculties have been stimu- 
 lated to increased action, and in this way the charac- 
 teristic expansion of the fore-brain has been evolved 
 among all the more highly civilised races of the human 
 family. 
 
 But our contention is that the factors which govern 
 the growth of the skull differ from those which develop 
 the brain, and that the imperfect evolution of the 
 frontal lobes among anthropoid apes is to a large 
 extent due to the premature ossification of that part of 
 the skull which encloses the fore-brain ; and to the 
 
 in man. Nevertheless, an important factor, besides more unessential rela- 
 tions, still separates it from the stage reached by man. The frontal lobe, 
 still very small in the lower apes, attains a large size in the higher apes, 
 but always remains much inferior to that of man. In man, even, this 
 developmental process is nowise terminated as yet. Differences still 
 plainly occur in the region of the frontal lobe which allow us to infer the 
 possibility of further perfecting. The inferior region of the frontal lobe, 
 which contains the centres of articulate speech, and shows very marked 
 variations in development, is the part more particularly concerned.' 
 
 Professor D. J. Cunningham states that ' one of the most remarkable 
 characters of the cerebrum of the chimpanzee and orang is the total 
 absence of the frontal and orbital opercula,' or the pars triangularis, which 
 contains Broca's nerve centre for articulate speech. Contributions to the 
 Surface Anatomy of the Cerebral Hemispheres, by Professor D. J. 
 Cunningham, Dublin, 1892, pp. 110, 279, 305, where he states that ' the 
 inferior frontal convolution of the ape is very different from that of 
 man.' 
 
lo THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 remarkable convexity of the orbital plates of the frontal 
 bone. However this may be, the possession of fully- 
 developed anterior lobes of the brain, especially of its 
 left inferior gyrus, is the distinctive character of the 
 central nervous system of all those families of mankind 
 who possess well-developed intellectual capacities. On 
 the other hand, if we compare the skull of an English- 
 man (with a cranial capacity of 1575) with that of one 
 of the natives of Northern Australia (with a cranial 
 capacity of 1160), we see what a wide difference there 
 is between the development of their frontal regions, and 
 also as to the nature of the sutures of their skulls.' 
 
 ' Professor Huxley lield that the organisation of the human brain had 
 more to do with man's intellectual superiority than either its weight or 
 size, and there can be no question that men having small heads are by 
 no means necessarily wanting in mental capacity; but a well-developed 
 frontal region is a characteristic feature of all the more highly civilised 
 communities of the world, and among such people low intellectual 
 endowments or even idiocy is found to be comparatively frequent in 
 those with abnormally small frontal lobes (see note p. 103, Man's Place 
 in Nature). We agree fully with Professor Huxley that among all the 
 known races of human beings the brain and its including case, the skull, 
 grow together, and the former does not exercise an absolutely predomi- 
 nating influence over the development of the latter. But it is certain 
 that if the anterior part of the skull becomes a ' shut-box ' early in life, it 
 must control the subsequent size and development of the brain which it 
 contains. Professor Welcker, who studied this subject in a thorough 
 Teutonic spirit, arrived at the conclusion that in European races the 
 frontal suture remains open up to the adult period of life in one out of 
 nine persons. Among African races it is not found open at the adult 
 period of life in more than one in one hundred and fifty persons ; and 
 among the aborigines of Australia no adult skull has yet been observed 
 with an open frontal suture. The well-known French anatomist Gratiolet 
 states as a result of his researches that ' not only the growth of the brain 
 ceases sooner in those races in which the sutures close early, but also that 
 there is a difference between the higher and lower races as to the order 
 in which the sutures are closed normally. In the latter the anterior 
 sutures consolidate before the posterior, and in the higher races it is the 
 reverse ; the posterior sutures close earlier than the anterior.' M. Gratiolet 
 bases an argument for the greater perfectibility of the higher races upon 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION ii 
 
 (This point is clearly illustrated in the photographs 
 taken from the skulls of ' existing races of men,' as 
 shown in the lower section of the chart which accom- 
 panies this oration.) We shall discover from specimens 
 in our Museum that the inhabitants of Western Europe 
 in the later tertiary and early quaternary period, as 
 regards the ossification and form, especially of the 
 frontal region of their skulls, more closely resembled 
 that of the chimpanzee than the race of men now 
 inhabiting Europe.^ 
 
 Since Hunter's and Lawrence's time considerable 
 progress has been made in the sciences of geology and 
 anthropology. Nevertheless, in our search for know- 
 ledge concerning the origin and development of pre- 
 historic man in Western Europe, we are still hampered 
 by the limited supply of his remains. It could hardly 
 have been otherwise, considering the perishable nature 
 of the human skeleton, and the vast length of time and 
 the great geological changes which have occurred since 
 man appeared in our part of the world. But we have 
 additional evidence concerning the prehistoric inhabi- 
 tants of this part of Europe, for they have left us some 
 of their imperishable handiwork in the shape of flint 
 
 these facts. On the other hand, Professor L, Edinger is disposed to agree 
 with the late Professor Perls, that not a few men of pre-eminent intel- 
 lectual power have in earty life been affected with slight hydrocephalus, 
 which, having abnormally expanded their skulls, has then receded. The 
 brain of such young people has been able to attain a greater capacity 
 than it would have acquired had there been no hydrocephalus to expand 
 the skull cap. (T/^e Anatomy of the Central Nervous System of Man, 
 by L. Edinger, M.D., translated from fifth German edition by Professor 
 W. S. Hall, p. 206.) 
 
 ^ The Origin, and Character of the British People, by N. C. 
 Macnamara, p. 25. 
 
12 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 and stone implements, which during the past century- 
 have been carefully studied in relation to the geological 
 strata in which they were discovered, by Lord Avebury, 
 Professors Boyd Dawkins and Prestwich, Sir John 
 Evans, the late Sir William Flower,^ together with 
 many other English and foreign anthropologists. A 
 few characteristic specimens of these Palaeolithic flint 
 instruments which have been unearthed in pre-glacial 
 and in inter-glacial formations in various parts of 
 England may be seen on the shelves of our Museum, 
 which also holds casts and the skulls of the Neander- 
 thal group of men. From the form and workmanship 
 of these stone implements we are now able to classify 
 and assign them to the various periods in which they 
 were manufactured by the early inhabitants of our part 
 of the world. 
 
 Up to within recent times it was held that no human 
 beings existed on the earth before the quaternary 
 geological epoch. But in the year 1867 the Abbe 
 Burgeois exhibited a collection of chipped flint weapons 
 which he had discovered in a previously undisturbed 
 tertiary formation ; it was not, however, until 1872 that 
 these instruments were admitted to have been made by 
 
 9 Sir Wmiam Henry Flower, K.C.B., F.E.S., died on July 1, 1899. 
 He was for some years the Conservator of the Museum of the Eoyal 
 College of Surgeons of England, and the Council of the College unani- 
 mously passed the following resolution at their meeting on July 13, 
 1899: 
 
 ' The Council hereby express their deep regret at the death of Sir 
 William Henry Flower, K.C.B., F.R.S., and their sincere sympathy with 
 Lady Flower and the members of his family. The Council remember 
 how much Sir William Flower, while Conservator, did to advance the 
 utility and reputation of the Museum by the skilful discharge of his 
 duties, and by the eminent position which he won for himself among 
 men of science, and they hereby record their grateful appreciation of his 
 services to the College.' 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 13 
 
 man or some other animal living previously to the 
 commencement of the quaternary period. Precisely 
 similar flint weapons have since been discovered in ter- 
 tiary strata in various localities in Europe, and in Asia. 
 
 In the year 1894 Dr. Eugene Dubois found the 
 upper part of a human skull (calvaria) in close proxim- 
 ity to a femur, and two molar teeth in a well-defined 
 tertiary geological formation in the Island of Java. 
 Dr. Dubois was employed by the Dutch Government to 
 examine and report on the fossil-bearing strata of Java, 
 and while engaged on this work he discovered im- 
 bedded in a hard mass of tertiary tuffs the bones above 
 referred to. He brought these fossils to Europe and 
 submitted them for examination to the leading anato- 
 mists of this and other countries. They concurred in 
 the opinion that the femur was a human bone belong- 
 ing to a man of a very low type ; and which showed 
 'that while it rendered its possessor capable of the 
 bipedal mode of locomotion, he still retained some 
 vestiges of adaptation to an arboreal existence.' ^^ 
 There was a difference of opinion concerning the cal- 
 varia, for it was calculated the capacity of this skull 
 did not exceed 850 c.c. The cranial capacity of the 
 largest anthropoid ape is 600 c.c. Until the Java skull 
 was found the earliest known human skulls had cranial 
 capacities of about 1220 c.c. After a complete and 
 exhaustive analysis of the anatomical characters of the 
 Java calvaria, as compared with the skulls of man and 
 apes. Professor Schwalbe has arrived at the conclusion, 
 in which I fully concur, that the Java skull, taking 
 both its form and capacity into consideration, ' is on 
 
 ^^ Journal of Anat. and PJiys., new series, vol. xiii. p. 273. 
 
14 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 the border line between that of man and anthropoid 
 apes ' ; it is more closely allied to the skulls of the 
 Neanderthal group of men than it is to the crania of the 
 higher apes ; but it is much nearer in anatomical 
 characters to the skull of the chimpanzee than it is to 
 the cranium of the average adult European of the 
 present day.^^ Nevertheless, from a study of the impres- 
 sions of the convolutions of the brain on the interior of 
 the Java calvaria, Dr. Dubois has demonstrated that 
 the inferior gyri of the frontal lobes are well marked, 
 and approach in form those of man ; and although the 
 superficies of this convolution of the brain in the Java 
 skull is less than half the dimensions of that of Europeans 
 of the present day, it is double that possessed by the 
 largest known anthropoid ape. This fact suggests that 
 the Java man had in some slight degree the faculty of 
 speech, and that his intellectual capacity was higher 
 than that of any anthropoid ape we are acquainted 
 with.^^ The post-orbital index, or narrowing of the 
 Java calvaria, is 19 '3 as compared with an average 
 index of existing Europeans of 12. In this respect the 
 Java skull comes nearer to the Neanderthal group than 
 it does to that of anthropoid apes ; it also possesses 
 indications of the existence of that characteristically 
 human feature, frontal eminences. 
 
 In the employing of skulls, which we believe to be 
 the most reliable test of human races, we classify them 
 
 " Zeitschrift fiir Mor-phologie und AnthroiDologie. Professor 
 Dr. G. Schwalbe, Universitat Strassburge. Band I. Heft 1, 1899, 
 p. 226. 
 
 *2 ' The Brain-cast of Pithecampus Erectus,' by E. Dubois, Journal of 
 Anat. avd Phys., new series, vol. xiii. 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 15 
 
 under three heads, accordmg to the measurements of 
 their cranial indices. In other words, the measurement 
 of the greatest breadth of the cranium expressed in 
 percentage of its greatest length is our guide as to 
 the race to which an individual belongs from a cranio- 
 logical point of view. When the cranial index rises 
 above 80, the head is called brachycephalic, a broad 
 head ; when it falls below 75 the term dolichocephalic 
 or long head is applied to it. Indices between 75 and 
 80 are characterised as mesocephalic, intermediate 
 heads. Assuming the length of the cranium to be 100, 
 the width is expressed as a fraction of it, and is known 
 in the living subject as being the cephalic, and in the 
 bare skull as the cranial index. For instance, if the 
 greatest breadth of a skull is 152 m.m. and its length is 
 190 m.m., we multiply the breadth, 152, by 100, and 
 divide the product by its length, 190, which gives us 
 the cephalic index 80. 
 
 We have in our Museum casts of two crania and 
 other bones, forming part of human skeletons which 
 were found resting on a ridge of calcareous rock over- 
 looking the river Orneau, in the commune of Spy, 
 Belgium. These remains were unearthed with great 
 care, and there is every reason to believe they were 
 originally deposited where they were discovered, being 
 covered over with four well-defined beds of debris and 
 clay, in which were found the bones of the rhinoceros 
 and the mammoth, also flint weapons of the Mousterian 
 epoch. ^^ One of these skulls has characters which 
 
 ^^ The most superficial layer was 9*5 metres thick, and was formed 
 by debris which had fallen from the rock above. The second layer was 
 
1 6 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 resemble those of the higher apes, and assimilate stili 
 more nearly to the Java skull, indicating the low type 
 of human being of which this cranium formed a part. 
 Its form, like that of the other human inhabitants of 
 Europe as yet discovered in the early geological strata 
 of the pre-glacial or the inter-glacial period, is of the 
 long or dolichocephalic type, its sutures are simple, 
 and for the most part are consolidated. We have 
 another cast, presented to our Museum by Professor 
 Huxley, one of our most talented and earnest workers 
 in the science of anthropology, taken from the Neander- 
 thal cranium. This cranium, with other portions of a 
 Palaeolithic human skeleton, was found in a limestone 
 cave near Diisseldorf.^^ The cave was raised some sixty 
 feet above the existing bed of the river Dllssel, and its 
 floor was covered to a depth of five feet by fluviatile 
 deposits, beneath w^hich these human remains were dis- 
 covered. The frontal angle of the Neanderthal and 
 Spy skull (No, 1) is 64°, that of the Java skull is 50°, 
 whereas the existing races of adult male Europeans 
 have a frontal angle of about 90°; in this group of 
 skulls, although still but sUght, the indications of frontal 
 
 3 metres thick, and formed of yellow argillaceous tuffs. The thii'd layer 
 was 6 metres thick, consistmg of red clay, in which were numerous 
 Mousterian flints and the tusk of a mammoth. The fourth was yellow 
 calcareous clay, immediately beneath which the human remains with 
 bones of extinct animals were found. 
 
 1-^ The term Palaeohthic is applied to geological formations distin- 
 guished by containing the rudest shapes of human stone implements 
 associated with the remains of mammals, some of which are entirely 
 extinct, while others have disappeared from the districts where their 
 remains have been found. These deposits may be classed under the 
 heads of alluvium, brick-earth, cavern-beds, calcareous tufas, and loess. 
 {Class Booh of Geology, Sir A. Geikie, p. 361.) 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 17 
 
 eminences are perhaps more distinct than is the case in 
 the Java skull. The skull capacity of the Neanderthal 
 group of human beings amounts to 1220 c.c, the Java 
 skull to 850 c.c, whereas Europeans of the present 
 day have an average cranial capacity of 1540 c.c. to 
 1600 c.c. 
 
 We have in our collection also a skull of the 
 characteristic early Palseolithic type, presented to the 
 College by one of our former Presidents whose memory 
 is treasured by all who knew him. Professor George 
 Busk : it was found in a layer of brecciated talus, under 
 the north front of the Eock of Gibraltar. We have 
 also a cast of the calvaria of one of this race found in 
 county Sligo. Another skull of the same type was 
 discovered at Bury St. Edmunds, with the remains of 
 extinct animals and Mousterian flint weapons.^^ 
 
 The anterior surface of the lower jaw among the 
 existing laces of Europe projects to form the chin. 
 Among apes the reverse is the case, for the anterior 
 surface of their mandibles recedes. The Malarnaud and 
 the Naulette mandibles, of which we have casts, are 
 evidently those of human beings : they were found in 
 geological formations (which also contained the bones 
 of extinct species of animals, and Palasolithic flint 
 weapons). These bones are distinctly ape-like in 
 character, having receding anterior surfaces, and also 
 the sockets of all the molars are equal in size. The bones 
 of the legs of these pre-glacial or inter-glacial inhabit- 
 
 ^^ We possess accurate drawings and a description of this cranium 
 There can be no question that this was a genuine Palaeolithic skull, and 
 demonstrated the presence in the county of Suffolk of this race of human 
 beings when England was still connected by land with France. 
 
 C 
 
r8 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 ants of Europe are of ape-like form, and, together with 
 the bones of their arms, prove that they were a short 
 powerful race of beings whose average stature did not 
 exceed ^vq feet. They are known as the Neanderthal 
 group of men. The side view of the skulls and that 
 from above of four of the men in this group are illus- 
 trated in our chart. 
 
 It should be clearly understood that, up to the 
 present time, no bond fide human remains belonging to 
 the early Palaeolithic period have been discovered in 
 Western Europe which were not of the same type as 
 those above described. 
 
 When the glaciers which had extended over the 
 greater part of Europe moved northward, the reindeer 
 passed away with them from our part of the continent. 
 These animals, which could be easily captured by man, 
 had roamed in vast herds over the surface of the 
 country, and had probably afforded the human inhabit- 
 ants of that period, living in Western Europe, an ample 
 supply of food. The climate of our part of the world 
 at the termination of the glacial period became such as 
 we now experience. Britain was separated from France 
 by sea, and fine rivers containing numerous fish filled 
 the valleys of our land ; the red deer, wild horse and 
 various fleet-footed animals abounded in the splendid 
 forests which overspread the country. But these 
 animals and the fish of our lakes and rivers were not 
 easily captured, and the human inhabitants of Western 
 Europe were therefore compelled to exert their intel- 
 lectual capacities to an extent not heretofore necessary, 
 in order to supply themselves with food and with the 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION ig 
 
 skins of animals for clothing. Man was able to over- 
 come the difficulties he had to face, possessing an innate 
 power by means of which (as already explained) his 
 brain was able to develop and so meet the increased 
 demand made upon it in the struggle for existence. 
 That such was the case we judge from the discovery, 
 in geological formations of the post-glacial period, of 
 the skulls of men having the same physical type as 
 those of the strictly early Paleolithic epoch of Western 
 Europe, but with increased brain capacity. These 
 post-glacial human skulls indicate, in my opinion, a 
 gradual transition in form from the ape-like characters 
 of the previous period to a higher standard, and cer- 
 tainly to a much greater skull capacity, especially in the 
 frontal region. With this improvement in the form of 
 the human skull, the flint, stone, bone and horn instru- 
 ments made by the post-glacial inhabitants of Western 
 Europe become more highly finished than those belong- 
 ing to the previous age, indicating the possession of 
 increasing intellectual power on the part of those who 
 made them. 
 
 The Engis skull, of which we have a cast, presented 
 to this College by Sir Charles Lyell, is a well-known 
 example of a human cranium of the early Neolithic ^^ or 
 post-glacial period. Huxley, in his description of this 
 
 ^^ The term Neolithic is used to signify that period in which the 
 stone, bone and horn implements made by man indicate a considerable 
 advance in the arts of life beyond those discovered in the previous Palaeo- 
 lithic epoch. In the Neolithic period the remains of the mammoth, 
 rhinoceros and other prevalent extinct forms of the Palaeolithic series had 
 almost, if not completely, disappeared from Western Em-ope. The deposits 
 in which these Neolithic remains are found consist of river-gravels, cave- 
 floors, peat-bogs, raised beaches, &c. &c. 
 
 3 
 
20 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 skull observes, ' It takes us, at least, to the further 
 side of the biological limit which separates the present 
 geological epoch from that which preceded it,' that is, 
 from the glacial period. ^^ The Borris skull probably 
 also belongs to this period, its characters being similar 
 to the Tilbury cranium described by Sir Eichard Owen, 
 and of which we have a cast in our Museum. To this 
 list of post-glacial, or it may be of the later glacial 
 period, we may add the Egisheim calvaria, or so much 
 of it as has been preserved. This specimen, of which 
 we have a cast, was discovered in a high river bed 
 near Colmar, with the bones of extinct animals and 
 Mousterian flint weapons {see chart). These and 
 various other skulls found in geological formations of 
 the time referred to are all of the same type, and lead 
 us to believe that the inhabitants of Europe in the 
 early Neolithic period consisted of only one race, the 
 descendants of the human beings who inhabited our part 
 (;f the world during the previous or Palseolithic epoch. 
 They had long (dolichocephalic) skulls, with slightly 
 projecting supra-orbital ridges, well- formed noses, and 
 a fairly developed frontal region as compared with the 
 far more ancient Java, Spy and Neanderthal crania. 
 Their mandibles and the bones of their legrs were less 
 simian in character than those of their remote progeni- 
 tors ; they were a small race of beings. We find no 
 metal weapons or instruments with their remains, and 
 we therefore conclude that they were ignorant of the 
 
 ^'' Man's Place in Nature, by Professor Huxley, p. 120. For a 
 description of the Borris skull, see S. Laing and Professor Huxley's 
 Prehistoric Uemains of Caithness. 
 
THE HUNTERIAX ORATION 21 
 
 use either of bronze or of iron, nor do they seem to 
 have possessed domestic animals, or to have had any 
 knowledge of agriculture. 
 
 This race of primitive inhabitants of Western 
 Europe are best described as the Iberians, and we may 
 conveniently employ this term so long as it is under- 
 stood to designate the Africo-European stock, who 
 were, so far as we know, the sole human inhabitants 
 of Western Europe after the termination of the glacial 
 epoch. 
 
 As we pass from the early to the mid-Neolithic 
 epoch, we come upon the remains of a race of men 
 who, as regards their physical character and state of 
 civihsation, essentially differ from the people above 
 referred to. The stone implements found with their 
 skeletons are beautifully formed, many of them being 
 highly pohshed and having sharp cutting edges. A 
 few of the purest bronze axe-heads have been discovered 
 with these remains, and also the bones of domestic 
 animals belonging to species indigenous to Asia, but 
 foreign to the Palseohthic fauna of Europe. Lastly, we 
 have evidence that these people were acquainted with 
 agriculture, and with the manufacture of sun-dried 
 pottery. They paid great respect to their dead chiefs, 
 burying their bodies in natural caves, or in tombs 
 formed of huge flagstones placed edgeways side by side, 
 with similar stones laid on the upright ones to form the 
 roof of the building. These structures, the well-known 
 long dolmens, have been found, built on precisely the 
 same plan, in Ireland, England, the greater part of 
 p]urope, the West of Asia, India, Arabia and Northern 
 
22 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 Africa. The construction of these dolmens, wherever 
 met with, is so similar in style that we conclude they 
 were the work of one race, or at least of one special 
 confederacy of races. They were not only sepulchres 
 for the dead, but many of them also contained an altar, 
 a place of mourning and of offering, where intercession 
 was made to the spirits of departed chiefs by their 
 relations and tribesmen. The Eodmarton long dolmen 
 or temple tomb (near Cirencester) affords us a good 
 example of one of these structures ; it is 180 feet in 
 length and 70 feet broad. We have in our Museum a 
 fine human skull which was found in this dolmen, with 
 some well-polished stone implements. If we compare 
 this skull with that of the Java or the Neanderthal 
 group of men, or with the skulls of the early Neolithic 
 human inhabitants of Western Europe, we are struck 
 by the marked difference that exists between them and 
 the Eodmarton skull. Dr. Thurnam's unique collection 
 of crania may be seen in the Anatomical Museum, 
 Cambridge; these crania for the most part were un- 
 earthed by himself from various Enghsh long dolmens 
 and barrows, and they resemble in form, although they 
 are of a higher type than, the skulls found in the caves 
 of Cro-Magnon and Mentone ; they are identical in 
 character with skulls found in the long dolmens of 
 France and other countries of Europe. The cranial 
 index, capacity, and other features of the bones of these 
 skulls lead us to assign them all to one and the same 
 race, of which the Cro-Magnon are probably some of the 
 earliest specimens as yet discovered in Western Europe 
 (see chart). The three Cro-Magnon and three Men- 
 
THE HUNTERIAX ORATION 23 
 
 tone skeletons were those of people some 6 feet 4 inches 
 and upwards in stature, so that a race of giants in far 
 distant times was no myth. Their cranial capacity was 
 above that of the average Europeans of the present 
 day; from their physical conformation and from the 
 remains of the animals found buried with them, which 
 are of Asiatic species, and from other evidence, we are 
 led to the conclusion that the Cro-Magnon race repre- 
 sent the advance guard of the proto-Aryan human 
 family, of which the Eodmarton ^^ and many other long 
 dolmen skulls show a more advanced type. These 
 people in far distant ages migrated from the East into 
 Western Europe, and from thence spread into our 
 islands ; southwards they passed into India, Persia and 
 Arabia, Asia Minor and Northern Africa. Over this 
 vast area and far away in Eastern Asia we find their 
 remains, with flint and stone implements of the early 
 Neolithic type, buried in long dolmens or barrows- 
 The roots of many of the words used by .this ancient 
 people exist in most of the languages now spoken in 
 Europe ; their rehgious sentiments, myths, and above 
 all, their racial, mental and physical characters, as por- 
 trayed in the Eig-Yeda, and on the ancient monuments 
 of Egypt, are pronounced features in the existing 
 Teutonic and Anglo-Saxon people. From the form of 
 the crania found in many of these long dolmens we 
 know that this tall, fair, handsome, long-skulled race 
 intermarried with the pre-existing short, dark Iberian 
 
 ^^ In the History of Ancient Wiltshire, by Sir H. C. Hoare, vol. i. 
 plate xvii. p. 164, there is an account of a skull found in a long barrow 
 near Stonehenge, which is now to be seen in the Anatomical Museum at 
 Cambridge (No. 180a), of which I have a photograph. 
 
24 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 inliabitants of Europe. The fair, tall race probably did 
 not at an)^ time, unless in the North of Europe, form 
 a large proportion of the population ; they were a 
 dominating, fighting and priestly caste who compelled 
 the primitive, small, dark (Iberian) inhabitants of 
 Western Europe to work as their slaves. 
 
 During the Neolithic era, while the descendants of 
 the proto-Aryan stock were slowly feeling their way 
 from the East along the valley of the Danube into 
 Europe, a very different race were passing from 
 Northern Asia into the Baltic Provinces. These people 
 formed settlements on the islands of Denmark, and 
 westward as far as the North of Ireland. They were 
 the first of the broad-skulled races of the human family 
 who had entered Europe. Their skulls were brachy- 
 cephahc in form, with broad faces and noses, the latter 
 being deeply concave at the base. Their remains are 
 found in the islands of Denmark, especially that of 
 Moen, also in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Staffordshire,^^ 
 and in Cos. Antrim and Tyrone,^^ in which localities 
 their descendants may still be recognised by their 
 physical characters. They buried their dead and did 
 not practise cremation, as did the Mongolians of the 
 bronze age in Europe. These people belonged to the 
 stone age of Europe, and by comparing their skulls 
 with those of the Eodmarton or Cro-Magnon crania we 
 568 the great difference in form of the prehistoric, 
 long, and the broad-headed races of men. 
 
 '^ Crania Briiannica, Tables on, pp. 241-44. 
 
 '° Professor A. C. Hadclon. See Studies in Irish Craniology, Proceed- 
 ings of Royal Irish Academy, vol. iv. p. 577. 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 25 
 
 Until the close, therefore, of the Xeolitliic epoch 
 there were three pure races who fornied the sole 
 human inhabitants of Europe, so far as we can judge 
 from their skulls and other remains, with the exception 
 of those who were the outcome of the intermarriage of 
 these three races of people with one another. 
 
 Passino* from the Neolithic to the succeeding? bronze 
 age, we believe that Europe was overrun by a small, 
 broad-skulled people having characteristic Mongoloid 
 features. These people were probably, in their Asiatic 
 home, originally derived frcm the same stock as the 
 tall, fair, broad-skulled North MongoHan race above 
 referred to. But the southern Mongoloid people of 
 the bronze age in Europe were a small race of men with 
 dark hair and eyes. These were the early lake-dwellers 
 of Switzerland and other parts of Europe. Professor 
 A. C. Haddon is disposed to think that, before their 
 arrival in our islands, these people had become a 
 mixed stock through intermarriage with the Iberian, 
 or Mediterranean race. (In the dolmen at Meudon we 
 find the remains of a man of the broad- and a woman 
 of the long-skulled race placed side by side.) They 
 were traders in bronze, and probably, as Professor G. 
 Mortillet and other authorities hold, gradually replaced 
 stone, horn, and bone with bronze instruments and 
 weapons, effecting in this way a great revolution in 
 the social and industrial habits of the pre-existing 
 inhabitants of Western Europe. In these far distant 
 times deep mining operations were out of the question. 
 Superficial ores of copper were abundant in most parts 
 of Europe and in Asia, but alluvial tin was extremely 
 
26 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 scarce, and it is still only found in large quantities in 
 South-Eastern Asia. Cornwall, the Scilly Isles, the 
 South of Ireland, and some few other places on our Con- 
 tinent also contained superficial ores of tin. It seems 
 probable that the Mongolians inhabiting the highlands 
 of South-Eastern Tibet, long before the commencement 
 of the bronze age in Europe, spread into Burma, the 
 Malay Peninsula, and Cochin China, and there acquired 
 the art of mixing copper and tin in such proportions 
 as to form bronze, the weapons and instruments which 
 they manufactured of this metal being a ready and 
 profitable source of barter in Europe. These people, 
 without doubt, made bronze weapons both in the South 
 of England and of Ireland, for clay moulds have been 
 found there in which weapons of the early bronze 
 period in Europe were cast. 
 
 Together with the broad skulls and other remains 
 of these people we find in the debris of the lake-dwellings 
 numerous ornaments of jade, nephrite and chloro- 
 melanite, minerals found in large quantities in South- 
 Eastern Asia, but not in Europe ; and lastly, vases, on 
 which are depicted people in Oriental costume, and 
 instruments used only by the south-eastern Tibetans 
 have been discovered in connection with the remains 
 of the lake-dwellers. It is almost unnecessary to 
 remark that, although many millions of Hindus have in 
 successive periods occupied the greater part of Bengal, 
 it would be impossible to discover their bones in 
 the soil, for the simple reason that they have either 
 burnt the bodies of their dead, or else cast them into 
 one of the sacred river of India. And so it is with 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 27 
 
 the skeletons of these southern Mongoloid people of 
 the bronze age in Europe ; as a rule their bodies were 
 cremated after death, and numerous cinerary urns 
 containing their remains are found scattered over the 
 "Wiltshire and other ranges of hills in the South of 
 England. Some few of their skeletons, however, have 
 been found in the round barrows which are so numerous, 
 especially in the South of England, of Ireland, and 
 throughout various other parts of Europe, and in Asia. 
 With these remains and cinerary urns very many 
 bronze instruments have been met with, indicatiag, 
 like the stone implements of the Palaeolithic period, 
 different stages of excellence in workmanship.-^ The 
 size of the handles of the bronze knives and other 
 weapons, as well as the bangles, prove that the people 
 who used them were a small race of men and women, 
 we believe best represented in Europe by the pre- 
 historic short inhabitants of Auvergne.-'- 
 
 One of the finest skulls in our Museum was taken 
 from a round barrow at Codford, Wilts ; and although 
 this skull must be at least 5,000 years old, it still seems 
 as if it were full of life and fun (see our chart), charac- 
 teristic features of the race to which it belonged. The 
 form of this brachycephalic skull, together with its 
 nasal bones and orbits, are clearly Mongoloid in cha- 
 racter, and are well known to those of us who have 
 lived in India as representing the Ghurkhas and 
 
 ^^ The Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain, by Sir John 
 Evans. 
 
 ^^ Formation de la Nation Francaise, par G. De Mortillet, Professor 
 k I'Ecole d'Anthropologie, pp. 257, 269-270. See also The Dolmens of 
 Ireland, by A. C. Borlase, pp. 1012-14. 
 
28 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 Burmese of the present day. A lazy, bright, rolhcking 
 people, intensely superstitious and home-loving — ' The 
 Irish of the East,' as they have been aptly called. In 
 the course of many centuries the southern Mongohan 
 people of western Europe have unquestionably become 
 absorbed into the pre existing Ibero-Aryan population, 
 a cross breed has resulted, and from this stock the 
 ancient British people of our islands were derived. 
 Their skulls are mesocephalic (a combination of the 
 long and broad skull), and are amply represented in our 
 Museum, the cephalic indices being about seventy-eight.^^ 
 Subsequent to the bronze age the ancient Britons were 
 well-nigh exterminated in England by Teutonic races 
 who invaded our country from the North of Europe, 
 the Anglo-Saxons taking the place of the pre-existing 
 ancient British population of England and Scotland. 
 Nevertheless, in some districts of England, such as 
 North Bedfordshire, a number of the descendants of the 
 ancient British stock continue to flourish up to the 
 present day, as also in the greater part of South Wales, 
 much of Cornwall, and the South and West of Ireland, 
 the upper classes in Ireland being clearly derived from 
 the ancient Aryan stock who passed from GaUia into 
 that country during the Neohthic period. On the left 
 lower line of our chart a characteristic head and face 
 of one of the descendants of the ancient British race 
 may be seen, and on the right-hand corner of the chart 
 that of a typical Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 Passing from prehistoric to the present time, we 
 
 -•'' The Mongolian cephalic index being from eighty upwards, and that 
 of the Ibero-Aryan seventy-five and below that figure. 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 29 
 
 have come to possess the measurements of the heads of 
 some twenty-five millions of the existing inhabitants of 
 Europe.-^ From these measurements we learn that a 
 large proportion of the people now dwelling in the 
 countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea are a 
 short, brunette, long-skulled race, descended, we believe, 
 from those who, from the form of their skulls and other 
 physical characters, occupied that part of Europe and 
 the North of Africa in far distant ages, the Iberian 
 race. 
 
 Scandinavia and North Germany are inhabited by a 
 tall, fair, long-skulled people derived from the proto- 
 Aryan races who settled in that part of our continent 
 in the Neolithic epoch. A vast triangle, having its 
 base in Eastern Eussia and its apex on the Atlantic in 
 South-western France, is inhabited by the broad-skulled 
 people derived from Mongoloid or Turanian ancestors. 
 We do not for a moment affirm that these races, as 
 such, have remained pure, far from it ; but the results 
 of the measurements of the heads of a great number of 
 the existing inhabitants of Europe point to the conclu- 
 sions above indicated ; and this idea is confirmed by 
 the cranial indices of the splendid collection of crania 
 which occupy so large a space in the Museum of this 
 college — a collection which was commenced by John 
 Hunter, and upon which during the past century a 
 great amount of time and labour has been spent in 
 describing and classifying the skulls which it contains.-^ 
 
 "^^ The Kaces of Europe, by W. Z. Eipley, p. 34. 
 
 We have about 4,000 skulls in our Museum, arranged according to 
 the countries of which they are presumably native. All these specimens 
 
30 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 Our collection has been added to and kept well up to 
 date by Professor C. Stewart, and might, I think, with 
 advantage to science, be utilised in an effort to solve the 
 debatable question of the connection between the 
 Neanderthal group of men and the post-glacial inhabi- 
 tants of Western Europe. 
 
 The characteristic physical type of Palasolithic man 
 may be still recognised among the inhabitants of 
 Western Europe, although their skulls have grown more 
 capacious, especially in the frontal region. This change 
 in the form of the cranium marks a corresponding ad- 
 vance in the capacity and organisation of the brain, 
 and of the intellectual ability of man ; it is in truth 
 evidence of his inherent power to overcome the demand 
 made on his mental capacity in order to cope successfully 
 with his ever-increasing struggle for existence, con- 
 sequent on the growth in number of his fellow creatures, 
 and the more complicated social conditions of his 
 surroundings. Doubtless the form of skull of a large 
 proportion of the inhabitants of our island indicates 
 a cross breed formed by the intermarriage of the long- 
 and broad-skulled famihes of man who in distant ages 
 met and intermarried in Western Europe, thereby im- 
 proving the stock of their descendants. Eaces of men 
 such as the natives of Australia who have remained in 
 , an unchanged environment, and without intermarriage 
 with other people, have made but httle progress in their 
 intellectual capacity, the form of their skulls continuing 
 
 have been accurately measured, and described in our catalogue either by 
 Sir W. Flower or by Mr. L. McAra under Professor C. Stewart's 
 supervision. 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 31 
 
 of the same type as those possessed by the Paleolithic 
 inhabitants of Europe. 
 
 The same causes to which we have referred, actincr 
 for long periods of time on people of the same race, have 
 not only led to the hereditary transmission of their 
 physical characters, such as those existing respectively 
 among the northern, central, and southern inhabitants 
 of Europe, but have also developed specialised areas of 
 nerve structure in their brains, by means of which they 
 have come to think, feel and reason alike ; thus having 
 an inherent widely diffused individuality. In this way 
 we are able to comprehend the source and the meanino- 
 of large bodies of men belonging to the same race beinn- 
 frequently moved to take common action on matters 
 affecting the well-being of their race ; they possess, in 
 fact, like innate sentiments, or racial characteristics, 
 although separated from one another by great distances 
 and living under diverse climates and environment. 
 Their emotions and ideals harmonise, because their 
 progenitors existed for many ages under similar external 
 conditions, and consequently developed like specialised 
 nerve-centres, which have been transmitted, together 
 with their physical characters, to their successors, and 
 become crystallised in their laws, and reflected in their 
 conceptions of religion as well as in their social institu- 
 tions.'' 
 
 In illustration of our meaning, we may refer to those 
 revolting pages of history during which Belgium and 
 
 ^^ The Origin and Character of the British People, by N. C. 
 Macnamara, p. 192. See also the Westminster Revieiv, December, 1900, 
 p. 634. 
 
32 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 the Netherlands passed under the dominion of Spain, 
 the Iberian dominating for the time being over a 
 thoroughly Teutonic race. Or we may contrast the 
 existing condition of the Iberian population of South 
 America with the Teutonic Anglo-Saxon inhabitants of 
 the United States, or that of the latter with the negro 
 population of America. 
 
 We have a chart here which shows the result of 
 the recent General Election held in this country : the 
 question at issue was one in which the whole of the 
 people of Great Britain were deeply interested. It is 
 remarkable what a large proportion of the inhabitants 
 of England and of Scotland, mainly of Anglo-Saxon 
 origin, voted together on this subject ; whereas a con- 
 trary opinion regarding this same question was held by 
 the greater proportion of the people of Ireland, and to 
 a large extent by the Welsh, most of whom are derived 
 from Ibero-Mongolian ancestors. It is difficult to 
 account for the diversity in the sentiments of the people 
 above referred to, unless we consider it due to their 
 racial mental quahties.^^ Environment has doubtless 
 played an important part in the evolution of these 
 people, but their inherited racial character has had 
 more to do with the position which the Anglo-Saxon 
 race has gained in the world than the mineral wealth, 
 
 27 This idea is confirmed by the result of the elections that have 
 lately taken place in Canada and in the United States of America. The 
 younger branches of our Anglo-Saxon race, forming by far the larger 
 proportion of the inhabitants of these vast and flourishing dominions, 
 had to solve a similar question to that placed before the people of Great 
 Britain, and they have responded by a vast majority to this call, on pre- 
 cisely the same lines as those followed by Englishmen, moved, we believe, 
 bv common racial inherent sentiments. 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 33 
 
 climate, or protection afforded us by our sea-girt 
 coast. 
 
 The environment under which, even a few genera- 
 tions of men exist would seem capable of influencing 
 the structure of their central nervous system, as illus- 
 trated by comparing the mental qualities of our rural 
 and urban population. The conditions under which 
 the city-bred child and man live engender in the 
 course of a few generations an unstable state of nerve 
 structure, resulting in an excitable character, which, if 
 carried beyond a certain point, leads to unsoundness 
 of mind, and may account for the increasing number 
 of lunatics in this and the other large cities of Europe. 
 General Sir Eedvers BuUer again, in speaking of the 
 soldiers under his command in South Africa, refers to 
 the fact that our city-born men have imperfect sight 
 compared with men reared in the open plains of the 
 Transvaal, thus affording us another example of the 
 effects of environment on the race.^^ These are a few 
 of the many interesting and important subjects which 
 arise in connection with the study of anthropology, 
 including craniology ; and the contents of our Museum 
 and Library offer unrivalled opportunities to the 
 
 2^ Sir Eedvers Biiller in one of his speeches is reported to have stated 
 that,'' In the first instance many of oiur men are city-born, and England 
 is not a very large comitry. We went out to a region where the prin- 
 cipal number of our enemies were born in a very open country, a very 
 large country, and it is not untrue to say that practically the vision, the 
 ordinary sight, of our enemy was two miles at least further than the 
 average sight of the English who were fighting against them. That is a 
 matter of actual fact. An ordinary Dutchman or African can see a 
 man coming towards him two miles before the man approaching can 
 detect him.' 
 
 D 
 
34 THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 student seeking for knowledge in these branches of 
 science. 
 
 In conclusion, as already stated, much of Hunter's 
 reputation was founded on the result of his labours in 
 those branches of science which tend to elucidate man's 
 nature ; and during the past century a succession of 
 English surgeons have carried on the work commenced 
 by our great master, enriching our Museum and en- 
 deavouring to make this College not only an examining 
 and licensing body, but what it certainly should be, an 
 Imperial institution for the cultivation and diffusion of 
 those departments of knowledge which bear on com- 
 parative anatomy, physiology, or surgery. The ideas 
 entertained by John Hunter's immediate successors on 
 this subject were ably stated by Sir William Lawrence, 
 in his Lectures already referred to, when he observes 
 that ' our own individual credit, and the dignity, 
 honour, and reputation of our body, which we are bound 
 to maintain, demand that surgeons should not be behind 
 any other class of the community in the possession 
 either of the cultivation of those branches of know- 
 ledge which are directly connected with surgery, or in 
 any of the collateral pursuits less immediately attached 
 to it.' Sir William continues : ' It is only in reference 
 to such views and objects that the Hunterian collection 
 could have been accepted or can be of any use to this 
 College.' ^^ Hunter would, had he still been with us, 
 have thrown all his indomitable energies into the 
 
 ^^ Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, avd the Natural History of 
 Man, delivered at the Eoyal College of Surgeons by W. Lawrence, F.E.S., 
 1819, p. 497. 
 
THE HUNTERIAN ORATION 
 
 35 
 
 successful working of such an institution, and amidst 
 the turmoil, strife and competition going on around 
 him, would, as we see him in this picture, have been 
 engaged in the earnest, accurate, patient study of 
 nature. It remains for our younger members to 
 emulate the example set them by John Hunter, and by 
 such service secure for themselves lasting satisfaction 
 and add to the real dignity and utility of this College 
 and of their profession. 
 
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 SPOTTISWOODE AN'D CO. LTD., NEW-8TREBT SQUABK 
 
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BY THE S^IMIE ^XJTHIOK/. 
 
 With 33 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 65. 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF 
 THE BRITISH PEOPLE. 
 
 PRESS OPINIONS. 
 
 G UARDIAN.—' As the great human waves followed one another from their 
 home in the uplands of Central Asia they arrived at last at the Western Sea, 
 Here they were stopped, and subject races had either to be exterminated or else 
 absorbed. In the west of Europe, therefore, the racial question is complicated. 
 The spade and the plough are continually bringing to light evidences, in the 
 shape of skulls or the ornaments usually buried with the dead, of many different 
 races, and the localities where these traces are found are so scattered that it 
 is extremely difficult to come to any broad and reliable conclusions. In the book 
 before us we have the story given in a very lucid and readable form.' 
 
 PHYSICIAN AND SURGEON.— 'ThQ author has evidently been at great 
 pains to accumulate, verify, and marshal his facts. If his conclusions cannot be 
 accepted in their entirety, he has nevertheless brought together a mass of facts 
 which not only afford much interesting food for speculation, but which point to a 
 new line of anthropological research.' 
 
 MANCHESTER GUARDIAN— ' Gives a readable account of some of the 
 main facts of the science in so far as the races of Europe are concerned. In 
 particular we may mention the descriptions of the different skulls attributed to 
 palaeolithic man, which are illustrated by good photographic reproductions. . . . 
 The book is well written, and will be acceptable to many who wish to have the 
 rudiments of the subject put before them in a readable form.' 
 
 ST. JAMES' GAZETTE. — ' Mr. Macnamara is a confirmed craniologist. The 
 best and only reliable test of race he finds in the evidence of skulls, and doubtless 
 those who are of his opinion will find his little book, which is well illustrated by 
 the way, full of interest and confirmation.' 
 
 NATURE. — ' Mr. Macnamara seeks in a small compass to indicate the origin of 
 the component parts of the British people, and to account for the differences of 
 local moral character by proportionate inheritance from the original races, all of 
 which are assumed to have their mental and moral peculiarities as fixed as their 
 physical characters.' 
 
 YORESHIRE POST.— 'Contains an interesting survey of the evidence which 
 craniology offers as to the primitive inhabitants of these islands, and the sources 
 from which their present peoples are derived. . . . This is an interesting book, and 
 it is usefully illustrated.' 
 
 GLASGOW HERALD. — 'Mr. Macnamara's account of anthropological 
 researches is excellent for the most part. Particularly clear and interesting is 
 his first chapter on the ]physical and mental development of palaeolithic man, 
 illustrated, as it is, with photographs of the principal primitive skulls, including 
 notably the recently-discovered Java skull cap, which seems to supply a kind 
 of missing link.' 
 
 SCOTSMAN. — • A noteworthy attempt to settle a difficult question, and to 
 show the bearing of anthropology on social and political preblems.' 
 
 PERTHSHIRE ADVERTISER.— ' The author has handled the question in 
 a manner that shows he has given it great study, and the volume will take its 
 place among the best of our learned publications on this scientific subject.' 
 
 London: SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15 Waterloo Place, S.W. 
 
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 VERTEBRATE EMBRYOLOGY. A Text-book for Students and 
 
 Practitioners. By the late A. Milnes Marshall, M.D., D.Sc, M.A , 
 F.R.S., Professor in the Victoria University; Beyer Professor of Zoology 
 in Owens College; late Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. With 
 numerous Illustrations. 8vo. 21s. 
 
 • Will be extremely useful to all teachers and students of biology. ... An eminently practical 
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 A JUNIOR COURSE of PRACTICAL ZOOLOGY. By the late 
 
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 C. Herbert Hurst, Ph.D., Lecturer in the Victoria University ; Demon- 
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 CLINICAL MANUAL for the STUDY of MEDICAL CASES 
 
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 LUMLEIAN LECTURES on SOME CIRRHOSES of THE LIVER. 
 
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 &c. ; and Fancouet Baenes, M.D., Consulting Physician to the British 
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 An INDEX of SYMPTOMS as a CLUE to DIAGNOSIS. By 
 
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 East London Children's Hospital. Second Edition. Small crown 8vo. 6s. 
 
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 likely to be very serviceable in its suggestiveness . . . altogether a little book of undoubted novelty 
 
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 A TREATISE on the SCIENCE and PRACTICE of MIDWIFERY. 
 
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 H.I. and R.H. the Duchess of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Duchess of 
 Edinburgh); Emeritus Professor of Obstetric Medicine in King's College : 
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 MANUAL of the ANTISEPTIC TREATMENT of WOUNDS. For 
 
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 London : SMITH, ELDER, & CO., 15 Waterloo Place, S.W. 
 
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