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 ENGLISH LANGUAGE: 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION, 
 
 FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 BERNARD BIGSBY, Univ. Oxon., 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PORT HURON ; LATE LECTURER 
 
 TO THE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL; AUTHOR OF 
 
 "THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE." 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 GINN BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. 
 
 18 74. 
 
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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
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ELEMENTS 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGE: 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF 
 
 GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 FOR COMMON SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY 
 
 BERNARD BIGSBY, Univ. Oxon., 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, PORT HURON; LATE LECTURER 
 
 TO THE MICHIGAN STATE NORMAL SCHOOL; AUTHOR OP 
 
 "THE HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE." 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 GINN BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS. 
 
 1874. 
 
&1 
 
 i 
 
 r> 
 
 y 
 
 EDUCATION DEPTV 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, 
 
 BY BERNARD BIGSBY, 
 
 in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 University Press: Welch, Bigelow, & Co., 
 Cambridge. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Notwithstanding the number of text-books and the pro- 
 fessions of instructors, the science of teaching Composition is 
 yet in its infancy. Authors are too accustomed to burden 
 their productions with rules and illustrations, and to ignore 
 the fact that the attainment of perfection must be sought 
 in practical exercises rather than in elaborated theories and 
 precepts. 
 
 Composition, as its name declares, is the art of putting 
 together. The child, prattling by its mother's knee, is un- 
 consciously engaged in the first steps of the study. The 
 simple word, the quality and action of the word, the phrase, 
 the sentence, come in a natural course as the results of its 
 powers of observation and imitation. In our teaching, we 
 ' must follow the golden rules of nature. The very basis of 
 our vocation is to search into the way of the child's taking 
 hold by little and little of what we teach it, so that our 
 efforts may be within its reach. 
 
 "We should not attempt at too early an age to introduce the 
 Grammar* into the school-room. It is better, by means of 
 such a subsidiary as is to be found in Part I. of this text- 
 book, to give children a knowledge of the uses of words and 
 the power to express their ideas, than to trouble their thoughts 
 and clog their memories with grammatical rules, which to 
 them signify nothing but mere notions of general terms. 
 Rules are results, and we should seek to lead the pupil step 
 by step to the attainment of these results by practical ex- 
 
 M193146 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 perience ; then, and then only, he will arrive at a knowledge 
 of their character and an appreciation of their usefulness. 
 
 But the text-book on Composition should not only be an 
 aid to the acquisition of correct expression, but a means of 
 cultivating habits of thought and observation. With this 
 end in view, the exercises should be on simple and familiar 
 objects, if possible visible at the time of study, — the child's 
 attention being thus more readily awakened, and its interest 
 sustained. The contents of Part II. of this work seem to me 
 to happily meet our requirements in this respect. By a well- 
 prepared arrangement of lessons on common objects, and 
 exercises in comparison, memory, the senses, the results of 
 experiments, the sources of things, their parts, and their uses, 
 the Author has done much to elaborate a useful system of 
 elementary training. 
 
 In Part III. another quality is brought to bear on the 
 student, — the necessity of research, and the consequent ex- 
 pansion of knowledge. A methodical system of arrangement 
 teaches the pupil to classify the information thus obtained, to 
 sift its true meaning, and to express in his own words the 
 sentiments of the writer from whom he seeks inspiration. 
 
 Parts IV. and V. are devoted to lessons of a higher order, 
 such as the comparing of different historical characters, criti- 
 cising, paraphrasing, summarizing, and theme- writing, judi- 
 cious help being given to the student in these important 
 branches. 
 
 The most noticeable features of the volume are the self-ex- 
 planation of the exercises, their total freedom from monotony 
 and vain repetition, and the well-graded progression of their 
 advancement. 
 
 DUANE DOTY, 
 Superintendent of Detroit Public Schools. 
 
 Detroit, July 1, 1874. 
 
AUTHOR'S NOTE. 
 
 The success of a similar work from his pen, issued six 
 years ago by Thomas Murby, the eminent educational pub- 
 lisher of Fleet Street, London, and its universal adoption in 
 the middle-class schools of England, lead the Author to hope 
 for a generous patronage from his fellow-teachers in America. 
 Riper experience and a more extensive field of labor have en- 
 abled him to mature the methods developed in this volume, 
 and he trusts that in the result of his efforts will be found a 
 useful aid to the great work of elementary education. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PART I. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OP GRAMMAR. 
 
 Lesson Page 
 
 1. Names of Objects . 1 
 
 2. Names and Numbers 1 
 
 3. The Parts of Things 2 
 
 4. Possession 2 
 
 5. Simple Qualities .3 
 
 6. Double Qualities 3 
 
 7. Triple Qualities 4 
 
 8. Comparison 4 
 
 9. Comparison 5 
 
 10. Comparison 5 
 
 11. Being 6 
 
 12. Being (two subjects) 6 
 
 13. Being {was or were) . . . . . . 7 
 
 14. Being (has or have been) ..... 7 
 
 15. Being (had been) ....... 8 
 
 16. Being (shall or will be) 8 
 
 17. Actions (animal) 9 
 
 18. Actions (inanimate) 9 
 
 19. Action 10 
 
 20. Action (extended) 10 
 
 21. Qualities of Actions. — Adverbs of Manner . . 11 
 
 22. Adverbs of Time 11 
 
 23. Adverbs of Place 12 
 
 24. Adverbs of Quantity 13 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 25. Adverbs affirming or denying 13 
 
 26. Adverbs of Doubt or Uncertainty . . . . 14 
 
 27. Prepositions 14 
 
 28. Prepositions 15 
 
 29. Prepositions . . . • . . .15 
 
 30. Conjunctions 16 
 
 31. Disjunctions 16 
 
 32. Disjunctions 17 
 
 33. Interjections .17 
 
 Punctuation 17 
 
 PAKT II. 
 
 FORMATION OP SENTENCES. 
 
 1. 
 
 Simple Description of Inanimate Things 
 
 22 
 
 2. 
 
 Simple Description of Places . 
 
 . 23 
 
 3. 
 
 Simple Description of Persons 
 
 23 
 
 4. 
 
 Simple Description of Animals . 
 
 . 24 
 
 5. 
 
 Comparison of Animals 
 
 25 
 
 6. 
 
 Description of Buildings .... 
 
 . 26 
 
 7. 
 
 Description of a School . . 
 
 26 
 
 8. 
 
 Description of a Meal .... 
 
 . 27 
 
 9. 
 
 Simple Narration 
 
 28 
 
 10. 
 
 Simple Narration 
 
 . 29 
 
 11. 
 
 Exercises in Memory 
 
 29 
 
 12. 
 
 Exercises on the Comparison of Ideas 
 
 . 30 
 
 13. 
 
 To fill up Ellipses 
 
 30 
 
 14. 
 
 Expansion of Words .... 
 
 . 31 
 
 15. 
 
 Contraction of Words 
 
 31 
 
 16. 
 
 To fill up Ellipses 
 
 . 33 
 
 17. 
 
 Composing a Fable 
 
 32 
 
 18. 
 
 On the Senses 
 
 . 33 
 
 19. 
 
 Composing a Fable 
 
 34 
 
 20. 
 
 A Narrative 
 
 . 34 
 
 21. 
 
 Simple Historical Biography 
 
 35 
 
 22. 
 
 A Fable 
 
 . 35 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 23. Contraction of Sentences 
 
 24. Transposition .... 
 
 25. Translation of Poetry into Prose 
 
 26. Translation of Poetry into Prose 
 
 27. Simple Narrative . 
 
 28. Grammatical Exercise 
 
 29. Senses and Experiments 
 
 30. Senses and Experiments 
 
 31. Senses and Experiments 
 
 32. Senses and Experiments 
 
 33. The Sources of Things . 
 
 34. The Sources of Things 
 
 35. The Sources of Things . 
 
 36. The Sources of Things 
 
 37. The Sources of Things . 
 
 38. The Uses of Things . 
 
 39. The Uses of Things 
 
 40. The Sources of the Parts of Things 
 
 41. Substitution .... 
 
 42. Exercises on the Comparison of Ideas 
 Letter- Writing .... 
 
 43. Letter to a Teacher . 
 
 44. Letter to a Friend 
 
 45. Letter to a Parent . 
 
 46. Letter to a Friend 
 
 47. Letter to an Acquaintance 
 
 48. Letter to a School-Fellow 
 Grammatical Analysis of Sentences 
 
 37 
 38 
 40 
 41 
 42 
 42 
 43 
 43 
 44 
 44 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 46 
 46 
 46 
 47 
 47 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 52 
 53 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 1. How David Baird lost his Money 
 
 2. Robinson Crusoe discovers a Footprint 
 
 3. The Island of Utopia 
 
 62 
 63 
 64 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 4. Letter to a Friend of the Family . 
 
 5. Humanity of Sir Robert Bruce . 
 
 6. The Arrest of Lafayette . 
 
 7. The Return of Columbus . 
 
 8. The Frogs desiring a King 
 
 9. The Offering of Isaac 
 
 10. A Snow-Storm ; a Picnic Party 
 
 11. A Game at Croquet .... 
 
 12. William Tell 
 
 13. The Chateau of Fontainebleau . 
 
 14. The Coliseum .... 
 
 15. Brussels 
 
 16. Our Town 
 
 17. Falls of Niagara .... 
 
 18. A Piano 
 
 19. A Buggy ; a Prin ting-Press 
 
 20. A Man-of-War ; a Clock 
 
 21. A Dictionary ; a Gate 
 
 22. A Church ; an Umbrella ; a Photograph 
 
 23. A Plough ; a Teapot ; a Lead-Pencil . 
 
 24. A Spade ; a Thimble ; a Slipper 
 
 25. A Pistol ; a Chair ; a Telescope . 
 
 26. Truth ..... 
 
 27. Benevolence ; Duplicity 
 
 28. Friendship ; Hypocrisy . 
 
 29. Perseverance ; Cowardice ; Envy 
 
 30. Revenge ; Mercy ; Justice 
 
 31. Ambition ; Extravagance ; Pride 
 
 32. Malice ; Charity ; Faith 
 
 33. Our School Building . 
 
 34. The White House at Washington . 
 
 35. A Museum ; a Depot . 
 
 36. A Church ; a City Hall . 
 
 37. The City of New York 
 
 38. The Steamship Ville du Havre 
 
 39. A Harmonium . 
 
 40. A Steam- Engine .... 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 The Bible 
 
 A Steam -Plough ; a Musical Box . 
 A Violet ; a Picture .... 
 A Bird's-Nest ; a Tree 
 A Theodolite ; a Stove .... 
 An Album ; a Steam- Packet 
 
 The Use of Steam 
 
 The Assassination of President Lincoln 
 
 The Discovery of America . , , 
 
 The Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers . 
 
 The Great Fire at Chicago 
 
 The Laying of the Atlantic Cable 
 
 The Eclipse of the Sun .... 
 
 The Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood 
 
 Envy 
 
 Friendship 
 
 Obedience 
 
 Filial Affection ..... 
 
 Bravery 
 
 Industry; Contentment . 
 Constancy ; Tattling ; Jealousy 
 Benjamin Franklin ; Napoleon . 
 George Washington .... 
 
 William Penn 
 
 General Lafayette ..... 
 
 Washington Irving .... 
 
 George Peabody . 
 
 General Sherman .... 
 
 George Bancroft ; Edward Everett . . 
 
 Daniel Webster ; John S. Mill . 
 
 Sir Walter Scott ; Lord Byron 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART IV. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 12. 
 13. 
 
 FIGURES OF SPEECH. 
 
 Simile, or Comparison 90 
 
 Metaphor 91 
 
 Allegory . . . 92 
 
 Allegory (continued) 93 
 
 Man as a Ship, sailing over the Sea of Life . .93 
 
 The Human Passions as a Garden of Flowers and Weeds 94 
 
 Life as the Seasons 94 
 
 The Feelings as Strains of Music . . . . 94 
 
 Personification 94 
 
 Apostrophe 95 
 
 Antithesis 95 
 
 Hyperbole. — Climax. — Irony 96 
 
 Interrogation. — Metonomy. — Synecdoche . . 97 
 
 Rules for English Composition ... 99 
 
 PART V. 
 
 ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 1. The Loss of the Yille du Havre . 
 
 2. The Fate of Ginevra 
 
 3. James Fairburn's Adventure 
 
 4. Ellen's Secret .... 
 
 5. The Adventure of Ponce de Leon 
 
 6. The Coming of the Pilgrim Fathers 
 
 7. The Conquest of Mexico by Cortez 
 
 8. De Soto's Discovery of the Mississippi 
 
 9. An Indian Massacre .... 
 
 10. A Great Battle .... 
 
 11. The Growth of "Virginia 
 
 12. Life of Washington Irving 
 
 102 
 104 
 105 
 106 
 107 
 108 
 109 
 109 
 110 
 110 
 110 
 110 
 
dual 
 
 CONTENTS, 
 
 13. Life of Pythagoras . 
 
 14. Life of Napoleon III. . 
 
 15. Life of Abraham Lincoln . 
 
 16. Life of a Distinguished Indiv: 
 
 17. The Tower of London 
 
 18. St. Peter's at Rome 
 
 19. The Falls of Niagara . 
 
 20. Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth . 
 
 21. The Mammoth C&ye, Kentucky 
 
 22. A Camera Obscura 
 
 23. An Electric Battery . 
 
 24. A Telegraphic Apparatus 
 
 25. A Printing-Press 
 
 26. An Organ 
 
 27. A Steam-Packet 
 
 28. Intemperance • • 
 
 29. Barbarism . . • 
 
 30. Imagination . • • 
 
 31. Revenge . . • 
 
 32. The Pyramids of Egypt . 
 
 33. A Watch . 
 
 34. A Balloon 
 
 35. A Photograph . 
 
 36. A Sewing- Machine 
 
 37. The Burning of Moscow 
 
 38. The Assassination of Abraham Lincoln 
 
 39. The Laying of the Atlantic Cable 
 
 40. The Abolition of Slavery 
 
 41. Common Sense 
 
 42. Oratory 
 
 43. Drunkenness the Ruin of Thousands . 
 
 44. Compulsory Education good for the State 
 
 45. Labor the Source of National Prosperity 
 
 46. Honor and Fame from no Condition rise 
 
 47. Crosses are Blessings in Disguise 
 
 48. Birds of a Feather flock together . • 
 The Vanity of Riches • . • 
 
XIV 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 50. The Advantages of Industry .... 
 
 51. Well begun is half done 
 
 52. Books are the Medicine of the Mind 
 
 53. The Value of a Good Character .... 
 
 54. International Expositions .... 
 
 55. Comparing Modern Times with Antiquity . 
 
 56. The Uses and Abuses of the Newspaper Press 
 
 57. The Combat between the Horatii and the Curatii 
 
 58. Mind makes the Body rich .... 
 
 59. Time a Paradox . . . . 
 
 60. Pearl-Fishing . . . . 
 
 61. The Eloquence of the Sacred "Writings 
 
 A Catechism of Versification, or Prosody 
 
 131 
 132 
 133 
 134 
 135 
 136 
 137 
 138 
 139 
 140 
 140 
 141 
 148 
 
PAET I. 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 NAMES OF OBJECTS. 
 
 Write the names of twenty different objects. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A cow, a cat, a dog, a chair, a horse, a spade, a door, 
 a glass, a cart, a rake, a desk, a pen, a pencil, a house, a gate, 
 a knife, a whip, a man, a boy, a girl. 
 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 NAMES AND NUMBERS. 
 
 Write the names and numbers of things you can see, 
 or think of, in a church, a parlor, a kitchen, a field, 
 a ship, a barn, a yard, a store, a depot. 
 
 B EXAMPLE. 
 
 The names and numbers of things in a school-room. 
 
 Fifty seats. One teacher's desk. One clock. Five maps. 
 Two globes. Seven chairs. One stove. One harmonium. 
 Two tables. 
 
 
Z THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 . LESSON III. 
 
 THE PARTS OP THINGS. 
 
 Write the name of a part of each of the following 
 objects : a booh, a chair, a house, a gun, a watch, 
 a room, a coat, a tree, a garden, a hive, a spade, 
 a knife, a fork, a stable, a piano, a bottle, a boot, 
 a pitcher. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 The name of a part of a flower. 
 The stem of a flower. 
 
 The name of a part of a book. 
 The leaf of a book. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 POSSESSION. 
 
 An apostrophe is an accent or mark, showing that 
 there is something cnt off, and it is used to signify 
 possession. 
 
 Write with an apostrophe each of the following 
 phrases : — 
 
 The hat of the man. The tail of the dog. The head of 
 the horse. The leg of the table. The glove of the girl. 
 The milk of the cow. The whip of the driver. The top of 
 the mountain. The source of the river. The brightness of 
 the sun. The roar of the lion. The hunger of the child. 
 The stripes of the tiger. The cry of the baby. The skin 
 of the bear. The howl of the wolf. The thickness of the 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 6 
 
 ice. The cunning of the fox. The speed of the hare. The 
 color of the grass. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 The saw of the carpenter. 
 The carpenter's saw. 
 
 The boat of the ship. 
 The ship's boat. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 SIMPLE QUALITIES. 
 
 The quality of a thing is its condition, as a dry boot, 
 a ivet stocking. 
 
 Write down one quality of each of the following : 
 a booh, a needle, a knife, a pen, a stone, a boot, a cow, 
 a game, a fish, a cat, a spade, a pitcher, a fork, a toad, 
 a coat, a clock, a man. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Qualify a dog, a cat, a rat, a table. 
 
 A black dog. A brown rat. 
 
 A white cat. A small table. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 DOUBLE QUALITIES. 
 
 Write two qualities of these objects : river, wave, 
 forest, island, flower, lake, cloud, town, sea, ship, gun, 
 turnip, mouse, cart, globe. 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Doubly qualify hat, book, coat. 
 
 A new black hat. 
 A pretty new book. 
 An old brown coat. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 TRIPLE QUALITIES. 
 
 Give three qualities to the following objects : swan, 
 viper, wolf, frog, butterfly, gnat, wasp, goat, duclc, hen, 
 fly, horse, pigeon, cow, girl, American, Turk, Spaniard, 
 Siuede, Dane, Dutchman. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Give three qualities to a pebble, a man, an Englishman. 
 
 A smooth round white pebble. 
 A tall dark handsome man. 
 A fair fat frugal Englishman. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Write two qualities of each of the following objects, 
 and let the second quality be stronger than the first : 
 a city, an ox, an ass, a stone, a watch, a knife, a mouth, 
 an eye, a ball, a cat, a leaf, a rope, a loaf, a ciqo, 
 a hammer, an axe, a ring, a stove. 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Write down two qualities of a street, a cheese, and a knife, making the 
 second quality stronger than the first. 
 
 A long street, a longer street. 
 A small cheese, a smaller cheese. 
 A heavy knife, a heavier knife. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Write three qualities of the following objects, the sec- 
 ond being stronger than the first, and the third than the 
 second : a room, a tree, a cable, a boat, a saddle, a map, 
 a wall, a river, a door, a kettle, a drum, a whip, a toy, 
 a string, a goose, a mouse, a mule. 
 
 Three comparative qualities of a boy, a stick, a knife. 
 A strong boy, a stronger boy, the strongest boy. 
 A thick stick, a thicker stick, the thickest stick. 
 A sharp knife, a sharper knife, the sharpest knife. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 COMPARISON. 
 
 Write three comparative qualities of three different 
 things, as : boat, brig, steamer ; river, lake, bay ; rat, cat, 
 dog ; box, table, chair ; shoe, coat, scarf; hat, glove, shawl; 
 book, slate, pencil; field, park, prairie; thief, forger, 
 murderer. 
 
6 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Write three comparative qualities of iron, silver, gold ; girl, boy, man. 
 Iron is heavy, silver heavier, gold heaviest. 
 A girl is strong, a boy is stronger, a man is strongest. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 BEING. 
 
 Write trie following words separately and add a 
 quality to each : a church, a dollar, a saw, a pen, 
 a buggy, a brook, a pine, a post, a train, a telegram, 
 a teapot, a cabbage, a squirrel, a purse, a toy, a hen, 
 a prison, a depot, a rainbow, a rose, a sled, a skate. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Write down something regarding the building, the paper, the song. 
 The building is elegant. 
 The paper is clean. 
 The song is sweet. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 being (two subjects). 
 
 Write the following words in pairs and add a quality 
 that can be said of both : dogs and horses, milk and 
 water, oil and tallow, glass and ice, paper and pens, cows 
 and calves, gas and air, Boston and Detroit, Ypsilanti 
 and Chicago, General Grant and General Sherman, cats 
 and kittens, the boat and tine ship. 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Add a quality that can be said of silk and cotton, 
 sugar and salt, hail and snow. 
 
 Silk and cotton are valuable. 
 Sugar and salt are soluble. 
 Hail and snow are cold. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 being (ivas or were). 
 
 Write the name of each of the following objects and 
 give the quality they had once : bed, wagons, coffee, 
 crabs, salt, apples, pears, grapes, men, whalebone, marble, 
 flannel. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Give the qualities the watch, the wind, the cloud, had. 
 The watch was new. 
 The wind was high. 
 The clouds were dark. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 being (has or have been). 
 
 Write sentences about John, the cat, the sailors, the 
 cows, the tables, the crows, the ribbons, the waves, the snow, 
 the ship, the thunder, the rain, the wheel, the lesson, the 
 whip, the book, making use of the expression "has" or 
 " have been." 
 
THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Henry, many "books, cities. 
 
 Henry has been here twice. 
 Many books have been lost. 
 Cities have been destroyed. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 being (had been). 
 
 Write sentences abont the house, the moon, the boy, the 
 horse, the merchant, the pool, the woman, the spire, the jay, 
 the dog, the Romans, the toad, employing the "bad been." 
 
 John, king, sheep. 
 
 Jobn had been here before you. 
 The king had been bathing. 
 The sheep had been running. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 being (will or shall be). 
 
 Write sentences in which yon use "will" or "shall 
 be." 
 
 example. 
 
 The river vrill be muddy. 
 He shall be whijiped. 
 The sky will be red. 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. \) 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 actions (animal). 
 
 Write what trie following animals do : the ass, the 
 raven, the tiger, the buffalo, the rook, the linnet, the 
 bear, the eagle, the salmon, the deer, the squirrel, the 
 worm, the serpent, the buzzard, the raccoon, the elephant, 
 the lion, the kangaroo. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The sheep, the -worm, the raven. 
 
 The sheep bleats. 
 
 The worm crawls. 
 
 The raven croaks. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 actions (inanimate). 
 
 "Write down what the following objects do : roses, 
 glass, rain, snow, the sea, the sun, trees, stars, copper, 
 coal, aspen, the hail, the thunder, the lightning, the river, 
 the ship, water, flowers, steel, lead. 
 
 Gold, diamonds, the wind. 
 
 Gold glitters. 
 Diamonds sparkle. 
 The wind blows. 
 
10 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 ACTION. 
 
 Write sentences about William, the dog, the cat, the 
 man, the horse, the monkey ', the crane, the kite, the flea, 
 the fish, having, 1. the name of the person or thing acting; 
 2. the name of the action ; and 3. the name of the person 
 or thing acted on, and observe the following form. 
 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 John, the sun, the dog. 
 
 1. 
 
 John 
 The sun 
 The dog 
 
 2. 
 
 touches 
 
 melts 
 
 caught 
 
 3. 
 
 the table, 
 the wax. 
 the rat. 
 
 l: 
 
 esson : 
 
 XX. 
 
 EXTENDED ACTION. 
 
 Write sentences having 
 
 1. The quality of the actor ; 
 
 2. The name of the actor ; 
 
 3. The action ; 
 
 4. The quality of the object ; 
 
 5. The name of the object, 
 
 and take these words to write about : the mischievous 
 boy, the old man, the wise child, the fast horse, the slow 
 tortoise, the cunning jay, the rich banker, the poor laborer, 
 the ugly duck, the little girl, the good woman. 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 11 
 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 
 
 The benevolent Peabody, the dishonest boy, the faithful dog. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 5. 
 
 The benevolent 
 
 Peabody 
 
 relieved 
 
 starving 
 
 children 
 
 The dishonest 
 
 boy 
 
 stole 
 
 black 
 
 cloth. 
 
 The faithful 
 
 dog 
 
 guarded 
 
 the young 
 
 sheep. 
 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 
 QUALITIES OF ACTIONS. ADVERBS OF MANNER. 
 
 Complete the following sentences by adding how or 
 in what manner the action was done : 
 
 I gave it. . . 
 He talked. . . 
 We danced... 
 
 John dances... 
 Peter sings... 
 He spoke... 
 It runs... 
 He did it... 
 It measures that. . 
 
 They fought... 
 Emma laughs... 
 Ethel chatters. . . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Henry calls. . . 
 Willie runs. . . 
 
 Henry calls loudly. 
 Willie runs swiftly. 
 
 The cat mews. . . 
 The rat bites. . . 
 
 The cat mews prettily. 
 The rat bites viciously. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 ADVERBS OF TIME. 
 
 Fill in the words implying when the action was done 
 in the following sentences : 
 
12 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 He will... be ten years old. 
 
 I shall be glad... I am rich. 
 
 Can yon speak. . . 
 
 The time goes... 
 
 I am. . .thinking of you. 
 
 He was... good. 
 
 The good are... happy. 
 
 Be quiet... you are at work. 
 
 ...he was here he has done., 
 
 Are y ou... happy ? 
 
 He will... be here. 
 When it was... known. 
 
 The tortoise goes... 
 I pay my rent... 
 
 He will soon be here. 
 When it was first known. 
 
 The tortoise goes slowly, 
 I pay my rent yearly. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 ADVERBS OF PLACE. 
 
 Insert the word telling where the following actions 
 were done : 
 
 . . .was Caesar killed 1 
 
 She was... 
 
 He came... in time. 
 
 He is not going. . . 
 The crab swims... 
 The door opens... 
 
 He is lying. . . 
 She went... 
 ...it is. 
 Come. . . 
 
 . . .are you going 1 
 The kite flies... 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 He came... in June. i 
 
 She lived... two years. 
 
 He came here in June. 
 She lived there two years. | 
 
 I leaned... 
 She looked... 
 
 I leaned forward. 
 She looked up. 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 13 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 ADVERBS OF QUANTITY. 
 
 Fill in the words to express how much of the action in 
 the following sentences was done : 
 
 She spoke... 
 It is... nice. 
 He lauded... 
 He lived... 
 She liked it... 
 He is... happy. 
 
 It is... probable. 
 You talk... fast. 
 He is... better. 
 He is. . .well. 
 You are... rich. 
 Jane is... gay. 
 
 He talks... much. 
 John sings... well. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 I read... fast. 
 He is... rich. 
 
 He talks too much. 
 John sings very well. 
 
 I read extremely fast. 
 He is immensely rich. 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 ADVERBS AFFIRMING OR DENYING. 
 
 Fill in the words required to affirm or deny the action 
 of the following sentences : 
 
 Air is... an element. 
 You are... tall. 
 He is... talented. 
 ...you are wrong. 
 
 He will... come. 
 Are you going ? ... 
 ... I am going. 
 You must... stay here. 
 
14 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 May he play 1 ... 
 He is... rich. 
 
 May he play 1 No. 
 He is not rich. 
 
 He is wrong. . . 
 . . . She is sorry. 
 
 He is wrong indeed. 
 Yes ! She is sorry. 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 ADVERBS OF DOUBT OR UNCERTAINTY. 
 
 Complete these sentences by filling in the adverbs 
 required to express doubt or certainty : 
 
 He may... give you money. 
 She will... call at your house. 
 . . .he will do it. 
 If it is... he will. 
 
 ...he will do it. 
 It is yours... 
 He will... allow it. 
 ...she must have it. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 She may... desert you. 
 Henry will... give it to you. 
 
 She may perhaps desert you. 
 Henry will probably give it to 
 you. 
 
 They may. . .allow it. 
 The wicked shall... perish. 
 
 They may possibly allow it. 
 The wicked shall undoubt- 
 edly perish. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Write sentences, using in order each of the following 
 prepositions : 
 
ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 15 
 
 1. About. 
 
 2. Above. 
 
 3. Across. 
 
 4. After. 
 
 5. Against. 
 
 6. Along. 
 
 7. Amid. 
 
 8. Among. 
 
 9. Around. 
 
 10. At. 
 
 11. Athwart. 
 
 12. Before. 
 
 13. Behind. 
 
 14. Below. 
 
 15. Beneath. 
 
 16. Beside. 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 "Write sentences, using in order each of the following 
 prepositions : 
 
 1. Besides. 
 
 2. Between. 
 
 3. Beyond. 
 
 4. Down. 
 
 5. During. 
 
 6. Except. 
 
 7. For. 
 
 8. From. 
 
 9. In. 
 
 10. Into. 
 
 11. Instead of. 
 
 12. Near. 
 
 13. Of. 
 
 14. Off. 
 
 15. On. 
 
 16. Over. 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Write sentences, using in order each of the following 
 prepositions : 
 
16 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Out of. 
 
 2. Part. 
 
 3. Round. 
 
 4. Since. 
 
 5. Regarding. 
 
 6. Through. 
 
 7. Throughout. 
 
 8. Till. 
 
 9. To. 
 
 10. Towards. 
 
 11. Under. 
 
 12. Underneath. 
 
 13. Up. 
 
 14. Upon. 
 
 15. With. 
 
 16. Within. 
 
 17. Without. 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Write sentences, using in order each of the following 
 conjunctions : 
 
 1. And. 
 
 2. Before. 
 
 3. For. 
 
 4. Because. 
 
 5. That. 
 
 6. If. 
 
 7. Since. 
 
 8. Therefore. 
 
 9. Then. 
 
 LESSON XXXI. 
 
 DISJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Write sentences, using in order the following disjoin- 
 ing conjunctions : 
 
 1. Neither, nor. 
 
 2. Though, yet. 
 
 3. Whether, or. 
 
 4. Either, or. 
 
 5. So, as. 
 
 6. As, as. 
 
 7. As, so. 
 
 8. So, that. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 
 
 17 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 DISJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Write sentences, using in order the following disjoin- 
 
 ing conjunctions : 
 
 1. Although. 
 
 2. But. 
 
 3. Except. 
 
 4. Notwithstanding. 
 
 5. Provided. 
 
 6. Than. 
 
 7. Unless. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Write sentences, using in order the following words ; 
 
 1. Adieu ! 
 
 2. Ah! 
 
 3. Alas! 
 
 4. Away! 
 
 5. Begone ! 
 
 6. Hush! 
 
 7. 
 
 Hark ! 
 
 8. 
 
 Hail! 
 
 9. 
 
 Hurrah ! 
 
 10. 
 
 Lo! 
 
 11. 
 
 Oh! 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 One of the most necessary steps in the art of Composi- 
 tion is the acquirement of the knowledge of Punctuation. 
 
 Punctuation is to writing what tone is to reading. It 
 lends to words the spirit of sense and meaning. 
 
18 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 The Comma (,) denotes the smallest division in the 
 construction of a sentence. Wherever a sentence is 
 divided into Clauses, place Commas. Thus : 
 
 Tennyson's style, in point of unintelligihility of construc- 
 tion, is open to many objections. 
 
 When several nouns, adjectives, or other parts of 
 speech follow each other, they must be separated by a 
 comma. Thus : 
 
 Men, women, and children were there. It was a warm, 
 bright, and pleasant day. You, your brother, and I must 
 appear to-morrow. Write clearly, carefully, and correctly. 
 
 Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma. 
 Thus: 
 
 The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 
 Alexander the Great, conqueror of the world, died at an 
 early age. 
 
 When a verb is understood, it is well to insert a 
 comma. Thus : 
 
 As a companion, he was severe ; as a friend, captious and 
 dangerous ; in his domestic sphere, harsh and jealous. 
 
 Exercise. — Place Commas in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 a. The lives of Julius Csesar and Napoleon I. will bear 
 many comparisons. Each by a bold resolute determined 
 will triumphed over the superstition and prejudices of a 
 mighty nation and seized upon the empire of a people in 
 whose hearts was planted the love of liberty fraternity and 
 equality. Each possessed with the desire of ambition ex- 
 tended his dominions and gained the good will of his 
 warlike subjects by the display of military pomp and 
 grandeur. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 19 
 
 b. Midas King of Phrygia several thousand years ago was 
 a very warlike monarch as the classic annals show. 
 
 c. Self-conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the pros- 
 pects of many a youth. 
 
 d. To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends 
 the whole of our duty. 
 
 A Semicolon (;) is a little more expressive of separa- 
 tion than a comma. You place a Semicolon where there 
 is a change of meaning in the sentence, but a continu- 
 ance of the construction. Thus : 
 
 Be civil to all ; for civilty is the mark of gentility. 
 
 A Colon (:) is much more expressive of separation 
 than a semicolon. "When the construction of the sen- 
 tence is broken, but the sense continues, place a Colon. 
 Thus : 
 
 Many clever men make poor orators : in fact, oratory is an 
 individual gift. 
 
 A Period (.) marks the completion of the sentence. 
 A Note of Interrogation (?) denotes a question. 
 Thus : Wll0 ruleg 2 who conq>tierB/ ] 
 
 A Note of Exclamation (!) denotes a surprise or an 
 invocation. Thus : 
 
 How are the mighty fallen ! 
 
 A Parenthesis is a clause or part of a sentence not 
 necessary to the sense of the sentence, but explanatory, 
 and is generally included between the marks ( ). Thus : 
 
 Everything (for God has made nothing in vain) has its 
 especial function and duty. 
 
20 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 An Apostrophe (') denotes abbreviation. Thus : 
 7 T is for it is. E'er for ever. 'Mid for amid. 
 
 A Hyphen (-) is employed to connect compounded 
 words ; as, Lap-dog. 
 
 Quotation Marks (" ") denote that the words of an- 
 other are introduced. Thus : 
 
 " It was the English," Kaspar cried, 
 " That put the French to rout." 
 
 Exercise. — Correct the following sentences, inserting 
 the stops and capital letters : 
 
 Self-control is prompted by humility pride is a fruitful 
 source of uneasiness it keeps the mind in disquiet humility 
 is the antidote to this evil. 
 
 Vice is not of such a nature that we can say hitherto shall 
 ye come and no farther from law arises security from 
 security curiosity from curiosity knowledge, fire is with 
 regard to the heat as the cause to the effect it is itself an 
 inherent property in some material bodies and when in 
 action communicates heat fire is perceptible to us by the eye 
 as well as the touch heat is perceptible to us only by the 
 touch fire spreads but heat dies away. 
 
 And I came to the place of my birth and said to the 
 friends of my youth where are they and the echo answered 
 where are they 
 
 Be careful to avoid tale-bearing for that is a vice of the most 
 pernicious nature and generally in the end turns to the dis- 
 advantage of those that practise it many things if heard from 
 the mouth of the speaker would be inoffensive but they 
 carry a different meaning when repeated by another. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 21 
 
 Father of light and life Thou good supreme 
 O teach me what is good Teach me thyself 
 Save me from folly vanity and vice 
 From ev'ry low pursuit and feed my soul 
 With knowledge conscious peace and virtue pure 
 Sacred substantial never-ending bliss 
 
 Capital Letters are used in the following cases : 
 1. the first word of every sentence ; 2. first word of 
 every line of poetry ; 3. first word of a direct quotation ; 
 
 4. proper names and adjectives derived from them ; 
 
 5. all names of the Deity; 6. days of the week and 
 months of the year; 7. the pronoun 7"; 8. important 
 words, as the Ee volution, the Norman Conquest ; 9. 
 every principal word in the title of a work. 
 
 Exercise. — Eewrite the following, correct the use of 
 capitals where required, underline the letters you thus 
 change, and attend to the punctuation : 
 
 a. I am monarch of all i survey 
 My right there is none to dispute 
 From the centre all round to the sea 
 i am lord of the fowl and the brute 
 
 6. The contemplation of the frailness and uncertainty of 
 our present State appeared of so much importance to solon 
 of athens, that he left this precept to future ages : Keep 
 thine eye fixed upon the end of Life. 
 
 c. On Wednesday the twenty-first of august i went down 
 to brighton 
 
 d. The reformation was begun by martin luther. 
 
 e. Scott's lady of the lake describes the scenery of the 
 trossachs. 
 
PART II. 
 
 FORMATION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 SIMPLE DESCRIPTION OF INANIMATE THINGS. 
 
 Describe a pen, a knife, a brick, a booh, a table, 
 a chair, a door, a carpet, a cup, a house, a church, 
 a cart, a piano, a boat, a hat, a needle, a whip, 
 a spade, a box, and a bottle, under the following 
 headings : 
 
 1. What is it? 
 
 2. What is its use 1 
 
 3. What is it made of ? 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A chair. 
 
 1. A piece of furniture. 
 
 2. Is used to sit upon. 
 
 3. Is generally made of wood. 
 
 Then rewrite the whole in a single sentence, thus : 
 A chair is a piece of furniture used to sit upon, and is 
 generally made of wood. 
 
SENTENCES. 23 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 SIMPLE DESCRIPTION OF PLACES. 
 
 Describe New York, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, 
 Detroit, Chicago, Boston, Concord, Hartford, Montpelier, 
 Richmond, and Indianapolis, under the following head- 
 ings : 
 
 1. What is it? 
 
 2. In what State is it 1 
 
 3. On what river is it situated ? 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Augusta. 
 
 1. A city. 
 
 2. In the State of Maine. 
 
 3. Is on the Kennebec. 
 
 Then rewrite the whole in a complete sentence, thus : 
 Augusta, a city in the State of Maine, is situated on the 
 Kennebec. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF PERSONS. 
 
 Describe any one you know, and observe the following 
 headings : 
 
 1. How is he named ] 
 
 2. Is he a short or tall man 1 
 
 3. Where does he live ? 
 
24 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 My uncle. 
 
 1. William Smith. 
 
 2. Is a tall man. 
 
 3. Lives at Detroit. 
 
 Rewrite the whole in a complete sentence, thus : 
 
 My uncle, William Smith, is a tall man, and lives at Detroit. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Describe a tiger, a cat, a dog, a cow, a horse, a pig, 
 an elephant, a mouse, an ass, a wolf, a rat, an eagle, 
 a duck, a hen, a vulture, a hawk, a pigeon, and a goose, 
 under these headings : 
 
 1. Is it a wild or domestic animal 1 
 
 2. Of what color is it ? 
 
 3. Where is it found 1 
 
 4. What sort of a noise does it make when excited ] 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A lion. 
 
 1. A wild animal. 
 
 2. Of a tawny color. 
 
 3. Is found in the jungles and forests of Africa and 
 
 other countries. 
 
 4. When excited, roars. 
 
 Rewrite the whole in one sentence, thus : 
 
 The lion, a wild animal of a tawny color, is found in the 
 forests and jungles of Africa and other countries, and, when 
 excited, roars. 
 
SENTENCES. 25 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Describe the difference between a dog and a horse, 
 a cat and a rat, a cow and a fox, a wolf and a pig, 
 a squirrel and a hare, a monkey and a porcupine, 
 an ass and a sheep, an elephant and a deer, observing 
 these headings : 
 
 1. Food. 
 
 2. Habits. 
 
 3. Sounds. 
 
 4. Coat or skin. 
 
 5. Peculiarity of appearance. 
 
 6. Size. 
 
 7. Color. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A dog and a hare. 
 
 1. The dog eats flesh and meal ; the hare lives upon grass 
 and herbs. 
 
 2. The dog is domesticated, bold, and intelligent ; the 
 hare is mild, timid, and unintelligent. 
 
 3. The dog barks ; the hare is generally silent, but, when 
 in pain, squeals. 
 
 4. The dog has a coat of hair ; the hare has one of fur. 
 
 5. The dog has a long tail ; the hare has a small tuft. 
 
 6. The dog varies considerably in size ; the hare is gen- 
 erally of one size and much smaller than the dog. 
 
 7. The dog differs in color ; the hare is invariably brown 
 or white. 
 
26 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 
 
 — ♦— 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF BUILDINGS. 
 
 Describe separately a church, a railroad depot, and 
 a school-house, under these headings : 
 
 1. What is it? 
 
 2. What is it used for ? 
 
 3. Of what does it consist ? 
 
 4. Of what is it composed ? 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A house. 
 
 1. It is a building. 
 
 2. It is used for a human dwelling-place. 
 
 3. It consists of walls, roofs, windows, doors, passages, 
 rooms, and chambers. 
 
 4. It is composed of stone, brick, marble, mortar, wood, 
 iron, and glass. 
 
 Then rewrite the whole in a single paragraph, thus : 
 A house is a building used for a human dwelling-place. 
 It consists of walls, roofs, windows, doors, passages, closets, 
 rooms, and chambers ; and it is composed of stone, brick, 
 marble, mortar, wood, iron, and glass. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF A SCHOOL. 
 
 Give a description of your school, mentioning : 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 27 
 
 1. What it is called. 
 
 2. Where it is situated. 
 
 3. How many teachers there are. 
 
 4. How many pupils there are in your room. 
 
 5. How many classes. 
 
 6. The hours of work. 
 
 7. The holidays. 
 
 8. The size and shape of the school-room. 
 
 9. How many windows there are in it. 
 
 10. How many doors. 
 
 11. How many desks and forms. 
 
 12. How many pictures or maps on the walls. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF A MEAL. 
 
 Give a description of a breakfast, a dinner, and 
 a supper, observing the following points : 
 
 1. The hour. 
 
 2. The place. 
 
 3. Who sat down to it. 
 
 4. The patterns on the plates and cups. 
 
 5. The fare. 
 
 6. Incidents and accidents. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Breakfast. 
 
 1. Eight o'clock in the morning. 
 
 2. The little back parlor. 
 
 3. Papa, mamma, sister Lucy, brother Willie, and baby- 
 boy (two years old). 
 
 4. The cups and saucers were white with green rims. 
 
28 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 The plates were of the old-fashioned willow pattern, with 
 three little Chinese crossing a bridge, four temples, several 
 trees all fruit and boughs, a man in a boat, and two huge 
 birds about five times as big as the men. 
 
 5. For papa and mamma there were eggs and bacon, toast 
 and tea ; for Lucy, Willie, and me there were tea, cookies, 
 bread, butter, and milk. 
 
 6. Papa always reads the newspaper at breakfast ; and 
 just as he was in the middle of an article in which he was 
 very much interested, baby-boy began to ladle his sop into 
 the sugar-basin, and upon Mamma scolding him, screeched so 
 loudly that he had to be carried, kicking and squealing, up to 
 the nursery. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 SIMPLE NARRATION. 
 
 Eelate anecdotes about, 1. A little girl and a lamb; 
 2. A boy fishing and a bull ; 3. A lost sheep and a 
 shepherd's dog ; 4. An honest but poor old woman finding 
 a purse full of money ; and observe these headings : 
 
 1. When was it 1 
 
 2. Where was it ? 
 
 3. Who was it? 
 
 4. What was it ? 
 
 5. How was it done 1 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 The story of a "boy killing a duck. 
 
 1. This morning. 
 
 2. On the road to school. 
 
 3. Johnny Green. 
 
 4. Johnny Green killed a duck. 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPHS. 29 
 
 5. He threw a stone at it. It hit the duck on the back. 
 The cluck fell dead. Farmer Noaks ran out with a big stick 
 and gave Johnny a thrashing. Johnny cried. 
 
 Then rewrite the whole, thus : 
 
 How Johnny Green killed a duck. 
 
 This morning on the road to school Johnny Green killed 
 a duck. He threw a stone at it and hit it on the back. The 
 duck fell dead, and Farmer Noaks ran out with a big stick 
 and gave Johnny a thrashing, which made Johnny cry. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 SIMPLE NARRATION. 
 
 Eelate anecdotes about, 1. The story of Joseph being 
 put into the pit ; 2. Daniel in the lions' den ; 3. The in- 
 nocents being slain by Herod; and observe these headings : 
 
 1. When was it 1 
 
 2. Where was it ? 
 
 3. Who was it? 
 
 4. What was it 1 {Place the answer to this as the heading to 
 the paragraph.) 
 
 5. How was it done 1 
 
 LESSON XL 
 
 EXERCISES IN MEMORY. 
 
 Name all the things you can think of that you would 
 be likely to see in 
 
 1. A farm-yard ; 
 
 2. A church ; 
 
30 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. A ramble by the sea-shore ; 
 
 4. A wild-beast show ; 
 
 5. A bazaar. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE COMPARISON OF IDEAS. 
 
 If all things increased in proportion, and a cat were seven 
 feet high, how high would a mouse be ? 
 
 If a ruler were four feet in circumference, what would the 
 circumference of a pen-holder be 1 
 
 If a man's nose were eighteen inches long, how long would 
 his teeth be ? 
 
 If a cent weighed two pounds, what would be the weight 
 of a silver dollar 1 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 TO FILL UP ELLIPSES. 
 
 Insert the required words in the following sentences : 
 
 1. When he ... to Detroit, he ... that his aunt ... dead, 
 and that ... uncle had married again. 2. John has a ... 
 pony. I wish he . . . let me . . . upon it. It has a . . . tail and 
 mane, and ... beautifully. 3. Our dog Nero will ... and 
 carry . . . you may . . . him. 4. The tongue was ... us to ... 
 5. The book is full of ... 6. The swallow catches ... in 
 his ... 7. The master ... the boy when he is ... 8. A 
 queen wears a ... on her ... 9. The minister preaches ... to 
 his ... 10. The ship sailed from ... in fine weather ... but 
 after a ... there came ... and she was ... 11. I ... apples, 
 but I would ... oranges. 12. Butter is made from ... by ... 
 13. The king ... 14. The horses ... 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPHS. 31 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 EXPANSION OP WORDS. 
 
 Expand the words printed in Italics in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. Delay is always dangerous. 2. Lincoln acted sternly 
 and decidedly when it was necessary to do so. 3. Very brave 
 soldiers fell at Gettysburg. 4. The boy ran quickly. 5. He 
 acts impatiently. 6. The people believed in him. 7. I learn 
 my lessons easily. 8. John gave him the book. 9. Gertrude 
 sings sweetly. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Error is human ; forgiveness, divine. 
 
 To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 CONTRACTION OF W.ORDS. 
 
 Contract the words printed in Italics in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. To chatter about nothing is always foolish. 2. Wash- 
 ington acted with judgment when he made a friend of Lafay- 
 ette. 3. The people put trust in him. 4. I can with 
 considerable ease understand the time tables. 5. I made him 
 a present of the volume. 6. Henry runs with speed. 7. He 
 talks with discretion. 8. They proceeded with difficulty. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 He fought with bravery. 
 
 He fought bravely. 
 
32 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 TO FILL UP ELLIPSES. 
 
 Write at full length the following fable, filling up the 
 Ellipses : 
 
 The dog in the manger. 
 
 A . . . dog, having . . . his ... on some hay in a manger, an 
 ox, pressed by ..., came up, and ... to satisfy his ... with a 
 little of the ..., but the dog ..., and putting ... into a ... 
 posture, prevented his ... it, or even ... the spot where 
 he lay. 
 
 "Envious ...," exclaimed the ox, "how ... is your be- 
 havior! You cannot ... the ... yourself, and yet you will 
 not ... me, to whom it is so ..., to ... it." 
 
 The miser, who hoards up his gold, 
 
 Unwilling to ... or to spend, 
 Himself in the ... may be ..., 
 
 The ox in his indigent . . . 
 
 To hoard up what we can't enjoy, 
 Is Heaven's good ... to des... 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 COMPOSING A FABLE. 
 
 Write at full length the story of "The Fox and the 
 Grapes," observing these facts : 
 
 a. Thirsty fox sees grapes hanging from high vine. 
 
 5. Leaps up, cannot reach them. 
 
 c. Says he could if he liked, but they 're sour. 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 33 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Thirsty fox sees grapes hanging from high vine. 
 A fox, parched with thirst, perceived 'some luscious grapes 
 hanging from a lofty vine, etc. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 ON THE SENSES. 
 
 Describe a pencil, a pen, a knife, a flower, an apple, 
 a look, an inkstand, a ruler, a watch, a stick, a box, 
 observing these headings : 
 
 1. 
 
 Sight. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 Hearing. 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Smell. 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Touching. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Tasting. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The stick of liquorice. 
 
 Sight. — My sight tells me that it is about five inches 
 long and three quarters of an inch thick ; that it is stamped 
 with the name of the preparer ; that it is nearly round, and 
 that it is apparently smooth. 
 
 Hearing. — In this instance my hearing tells me nothing. 
 
 Smell. — My smelling power tells me that it has a slightly 
 fragrant perfume. 
 
 Touching. — My, feeling power tells me that it is hard, 
 brittle, and smooth. 
 
 Taste. — By tasting it I learn that it is sweet. 
 
 Thus I find that the stick of liquorice is about five inches 
 long by three quarters of an inch thick ; that it is stamped 
 with the name of the preparer ; that it is nearly round ; and 
 that it has a slightly fragrant perfume and a sweet taste. 
 
34 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 A FABLE. 
 
 Write at full length the fable of " The Dog and the 
 Shadow," observing these facts (as in Lesson XVII.) : 
 
 a. A dog is crossing a river on a plank. 
 
 b. Has a piece of flesh in his mouth. 
 
 c. Sees his shadow. 
 
 d. Thinks it is another dog with another piece of meat. 
 
 e. Drops his own and plunges into the stream. 
 /. His chagrin. 
 
 g. Moral. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 A NARRATIVE. 
 
 Write a story, embodying the following hints : 
 
 The Honest Boy. 
 
 Walter Waifandstray ; poor boy ; swept crossing ; very 
 cold and hungry ; wet day ; picked up purse ; full of money ; 
 began to think whose it could be ; at last remembered 
 kind old lady ; found her address ; went to the house ; 
 knocked at the door ; pompous man-servant ; lady sent for 
 him up stairs ; was amazed at the beautiful furniture ; 
 washed ; new clothes ; went into her service ; became a rich 
 man ; honesty the best policy. 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 35 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 SIMPLE HISTORICAL BIOGRAPHY. 
 
 Give a brief sketch of trie lives of George Washington, 
 James Madison, John Quincy Adams, Martin Yan Buren, 
 James Monroe, Abraham Lincoln, and Ulysses S. Grant, 
 observing these headings : 
 
 1. Relate an incident you may have heard of his boyhood. 
 
 2. What age was he when he was elected President 1 
 
 3. What was his personal character. 
 
 4.. What wars was he engaged in, if any ? 
 5. What was his fate ? 
 
 George Washington. 
 
 1. At the age of thirteen he wrote out, for his own use, 
 one hundred and ten maxims of civility and good behavior. 
 
 2. He was fifty-five years old when elected President. 
 
 3. "He was first in peace, first in war, and first in the 
 hearts of his countrymen " ; amiable, brave, and faithful. 
 
 4. The great war with Britain that led to the Declaration 
 of Independence. 
 
 5. He was exposed in the saddle for several hours to cold 
 and snow, and attacked with acute pains which led to his 
 death. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 FABLE. 
 
 Eelate at full length the fable of " The Wolf and the 
 Lamb," observing the following facts (as in Lessons 
 XVII. and XIX.) : 
 
36 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 1 . A wolf and a lamb come to a stream to quench their thirst. 
 
 2. The water flows from the wolf to the lamb. 
 
 3. The wolf accuses the lamb of disturbing the water he 
 is drinking. 
 
 4. The lamb says, " I cannot do so, for the stream flows 
 from you to me." 
 
 5. The wolf says, " Your father set the hounds upon my 
 track yesterday." " He died a month ago," says the lamb. 
 
 6. " Your dam, then ! " says the wolf. " She died the day 
 I was born," replied the lamb. 
 
 *7. " You all of you hate me," cries the wolf, and worries 
 the lamb. 
 
 8. Unjust strength overpowers feeble innocence. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 CONTRACTION OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Contract the following sentences : 
 
 1. Caesar was an illustrious man, and Napoleon was an 
 illustrious man too. 2. War is bloody, war is unchristian- 
 like, war is devastating. 3. Death does not spare the rich, 
 neither does death spare the poor. 4. I rode in the omnibus, 
 although the omnibus was full. 5. "Wellington was brave, 
 Wellington was just, Wellington was energetic, and Well- 
 ington was one of the most famous generals the world has 
 ever produced. 6. That dog is the most stupid, the most 
 vicious, and the most disobedient dog I ever saw. 7. She is 
 very nighty, she is very silly, and she is very unhappy. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Ivory is hard, ivory is white, and ivory is obtained from elephants' tusks. 
 
 Ivory is hard and white, and is obtained from elephants 5 
 tusks. 
 
SIMPLE PAKAGRAPH. 37 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 TRANSPOSITION. 
 
 Transposition signifies the changing of the order of the 
 parts of a sentence without altering its sense ; thus : 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 I will never acknowledge his superiority while I breathe. 
 
 1. While I breathe I will never acknowledge his superi- 
 ority. 
 
 2. His superiority while I breathe I will never ac- 
 knowledge. 
 
 3. I will never while I breathe acknowledge his superi- 
 ority. 
 
 Exercise. — Transpose : 
 
 1. About this time she had the honor to introduce 
 her son. 2. Here, royal pair, your little Quaker stands. 
 3. I beg your pardon if I answered you peevishly. 4. How 
 mutable is the happiness of thoughtless people. 5. See how 
 trees now drop their leafy honors. 6. Caesar, when he had 
 conquered the Gauls, went to Britain. 7. Shakespeare, in 
 the reign of Elizabeth, wrote plays. 8. Being an old sports- 
 man, I mounted my horse and rode after the hounds. 
 9. Upon reading the works of Milton I could better appre- 
 ciate poetry. 10. On the rising of the sun they manned the 
 boats and put out to sea. 11. The cat, after watching an 
 . hour at the hole, caught the mouse. " The ploughman 
 homeward plods his weary way." * 
 
 * This line from Gray's "Elegy" admits of eleven transpositions without 
 affecting the rhyme or metre. 
 
38 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 TRANSLATION OF POETRY INTO PROSE. 
 
 Translate the following poem of Wordsworth into 
 
 prose. 
 
 LUCY GRAY. 
 
 No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew ; 
 
 She dwelt on a wild moor ; 
 The sweetest thing that ever grew 
 
 Beside a cottage door ! 
 
 You yet may spy the fawn at play, 
 
 The hare upon the green ; 
 But the sweet face of Lucy Gray 
 
 Will never more be seen. 
 
 " To-night will be a stormy night, 
 
 You to the town must go ; 
 And take a lantern, child, to light 
 
 Your mother through the snow." 
 
 " That, father, I will gladly do ; 
 
 J T is scarcely afternoon ; 
 The minster clock has just struck two, 
 
 And yonder is the moon." 
 
 At this the father raised his hook, 
 
 And snapped a fagot band ; 
 He plied his work, and Lucy took 
 
 The lantern in her hand. 
 
 Not blither is the mountain roe ; 
 With many a wanton stroke 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 39 
 
 Her feet disperse the powdery snow 
 That rises up like smoke. 
 
 The storm came on before its time ; 
 
 She wandered up and down, 
 And many a hill did Lucy climb, 
 
 But never reached the town. 
 
 The wretched parents all that night 
 
 Went shouting far and wide ; 
 But there was neither sound nor sight 
 
 To serve them for a guide. 
 
 At daybreak on a hill they stood, 
 
 That overlooked the moor ; 
 And thence they saw the bridge of wood 
 
 A furlong from the door. 
 
 They wept, and turning homeward, cried, 
 
 " In heaven we all shall meet." 
 When in the snow the mother spied 
 
 The print of Lucy's feet ! 
 
 Half breathless, from the steep hill's edge 
 
 They tracked the footmarks small ; 
 And through the broken hawthorn hedge, 
 
 And by the long stone wall. 
 
 And then an open field they crossed, 
 
 The marks were still the same ; 
 They tracked them on, nor ever lost, 
 
 And to the bridge they came. 
 
 They followed from the snowy bank 
 Those footmarks, one by one, 
 
40 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Into the middle of the plank, — 
 And further there were none ! 
 
 Yon yet may spy the fawn at play, 
 
 The hare upon the green ; 
 But the sweet face of Lucy Gray 
 
 Will never more be seen. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 No mate, no comrade, Lucy knew; 
 
 She dwelt on a wild moor ; 
 The sweetest thing that ever grew 
 
 Beside a cottage door. 
 
 Lucy, who knew no mate or comrade, dwelt on a wild 
 moor, and was the sweetest thing that ever grew beside the 
 door of a cottage. 
 
 Half breathless, from the steep hill's edge, 
 
 They tracked the footmarks small ; 
 And through the broken hawthorn hedge, 
 
 And by the long stone wall. 
 
 Half breathless, they tracked the small footmarks from the 
 edge of the steep hill, through the hawthorn hedge that was 
 broken, and by the long stone wall. 
 
 LESSON XXYI. 
 
 TRANSLATION OF POETRY INTO PROSE. 
 
 Translate the following poem into prose (as in Lesson 
 XXV.) : 
 
 THE COMMON LOT. 
 
 Once in the flight of ages past 
 There lived a man, — and who was he ? 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. ^43 
 
 Motal, howe'er thy lot be cast, 
 That man resembled thee. 
 
 He suffered, — but his pangs are o'er ; 
 
 Enjoyed, — but his delights are fled ; 
 Had friends, — his friends are now no more : 
 
 And foes, — his foes are dead. 
 
 He saw whatever thou hast seen, 
 
 Encountered all that troubles thee ; 
 He was — whatever thou hast been ; 
 
 He is — what thou shalt be. 
 
 The annals of the human race, 
 
 Their records, since the world began, 
 Of him afford no other trace 
 
 Than this, — there lived a man ! 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 SIMPLE NARRATIVE. 
 
 Write a story, embodying the following hints : 
 
 The Miser. 
 
 1. A rich miser lived in France ; ordered by government 
 to contribute large sum of money ; pleaded poverty ; damp 
 cellar ; dug deep hole ; made spring-lock door ; hid his 
 treasures. 
 
 2. Claim of poverty allowed ; the miser congratulates 
 himself ; nephew, poor man with large family ; comes to 
 beg ; refused, scoffed, and turned from the door. 
 
 3. Miser missed ; neighbors search everywhere ; at last 
 they discover the door in the floor of the cellar ; miser found 
 
42 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 dead ; candlestick ; no candle ; had eaten it in the agony of 
 hunger. 
 
 4. Poor relative becomes heir ; spends the money judicious- 
 ly ; relieves the poor ; gives to charitable institutions ; is a 
 good friend and worthy neighbor ; respected and loved by all. 
 
 5. Moral. 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL EXERCISE. 
 
 Compose sentences in which there shall be 
 
 1. A proper noun and a common noun. 
 
 2. An abstract noun and a diminutive noun. 
 
 3. A numeral adjective and a pronominal adjective. 
 
 4. The three different degrees of comparison. 
 
 5. A demonstrative, a relative, and an interrogative pro- 
 noun. 
 
 6. An active transitive verb, a verb in the future perfect, 
 and an impersonal verb. 
 
 7. An adverb, a preposition, a conjunction, and an inter- 
 jection. 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 THE SENSES AND EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 Eule. — Place a piece of glass before you. Try it by 
 your senses, as in Lesson XVIII. J then make experi- 
 ments on it, and write the results. 
 
 example. 
 A piece of india-rubber. 
 1. Sight. This piece of india-rubber is three inches long, 
 two broad, and a quarter of an inch thick. In shape it is a 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 43 
 
 solid oblong. Its color is nearly black, but in parts some- 
 what brown. 
 
 2. Smell. Its smell is strong and rather disagreeable. 
 
 3. Taste. It has no peculiar taste. 
 
 4. Touch. It is soft to the touch. 
 
 5. Experiments, a. If I pull it, it stretches, and when I 
 let go it returns to its former shape. Therefore it is elastic. 
 
 b. If I touch the hot stove with it, it melts and burns, and 
 emits a quantity of black smoke. Therefore it is inflammable. 
 
 c. If I put it in water it floats. Therefore it has less 
 specific gravity than water. 
 
 d. If I put it in water it does not diminish in bulk. There- 
 fore it is insoluble. 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 Place a piece of coal before you. Try it by your 
 senses, as in Lesson XXIX. ; then make experiments on 
 it, and write the results. 
 
 1. Sight. Size. Shape. Color. 
 
 2. Feeling. Weight. Heat. Hardness. 
 
 3. Smell. 
 
 4. Taste. 
 
 5. Experiments. In water. With fire. With a hammer. 
 
 LESSOIST XXXI. 
 
 Place a sheet of paper before you. Try it by your 
 senses, as in Lesson XXX. ; then make experiments on 
 it, and write the results. 
 
 1. Sight. Size. Shape. Color. 
 
 2. Feeling. Weight. Heat. Hardness. 
 
44 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. Smell. 
 
 4. Taste. 
 
 5. Experiments. With water, fire, ink, paint, pencil, wood. 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 Place a piece of iron-wire before you. Try it by your 
 senses, as in Lesson XXXI. ; then make experiments on 
 it, and write the results. 
 
 1. Sight. Size. Shape. Color. 
 
 2. Feeling. Weight. Heat. Hardness. 
 
 3. Smell. 
 
 4. Taste. 
 
 5. Experiments. Sustain a great weight. Put it in water. 
 Put it in the fire. Wet it and leave it in the open air. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 THE SOURCES OF THINGS. 
 
 Eule. — Place a nail before you. Trace its history, 
 as in the following example. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A piece of lead. 
 
 1. What it is. It is a metal. 
 
 2. Where it came from. I procured it from the plumber. 
 He bought it from the owner of the lead-works, who obtained 
 it by melting ore which he got from the miners, who dug it 
 out of the earth. 
 
 3. The result of experiments. When newly cut it is very 
 bright. I can hammer it into thin plates. I can easily 
 melt it. 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 45 
 
 LESSON XXXIV. 
 
 Place a piece of bread before you. Trace its history, 
 as in Lesson XXXIII. , through the hands of the baker, 
 the miller, and the farmer. 
 
 LESSON XXXV. 
 
 Trace the history of a stove, as in Lesson XXXIV., 
 through the hands of the iron-monger, the founder, and 
 the miners. 
 
 LESSON XXXVI. 
 
 Trace the history of a coat, as in Lesson XXXIV., 
 through the hands of the tailor, the cloth-merchant, the 
 manufacturer, and the wool-grower. 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. 
 
 Place a sheet of paper before you. Trace its history, 
 as in Lesson XXXVI. , through the hands of the stationer, 
 the paper-maker, the rag-merchant, and the rag-picker. 
 
 LESSON XXXVIII. 
 
 THE USES OF THINGS. 
 
 Place a piece of leather before you, and write down the 
 purposes for which it is generally used. 
 
46 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A piece of lead. 
 
 It is used to construct water-pipes and cisterns. 
 Chemists use it. Mixed with tin, it is called pewter, 
 with which table-spoons are made. Mixed with anti- 
 mony, it is manufactured into printer's types. 
 
 LESSON" XXXIX. 
 
 Place a piece of cloth before you, and write the pur- 
 poses for which it is used, as in Lesson XXXVIII. 
 
 LESSOJST XL. 
 
 PARTS OP THINGS. 
 
 Place a booh before you. Trace the history of its parts 
 through the hands of the bookseller, the publisher, the 
 printer, the binder, the engraver, and the author. 
 
 LESSON XLI. 
 
 SUBSTITUTION. 
 
 Eewrite the following, putting other words in place 
 of those printed in italics : 
 
 1. Be careful to avoid tale-bearing, for that is a vice of the 
 most pernicious nature, and generally, in the end, turns to the 
 disadvantage of those who practise it. 
 
 2. Let attachment to the words of truth be ever impressed 
 upon your mind. 
 
SIMPLE PARAGRAPH. 47 
 
 3. Above all things observe a strict attention to honesty. 
 
 4. Avoid as much as possible entering into disputes, 
 
 5. Be swift to hear, and slow to speak. 
 
 6. Never remain in ignorance for want of ashing. . 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Wit is the most dangerous talent that a female can pos- 
 sess. 
 
 Wit is the most dangerous capacity that a woman can pos- 
 sess. 
 
 LESSON XLIL 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE COMPARISON OF IDEAS. 
 
 1. If all things decreased in proportion, and a yard measure 
 were twelve inches long, how long would a foot be 1 
 
 2. If a horse were two feet high, how high would a cat be ? 
 
 3. If an acre were the size of your desk, how large would 
 be the area of }^our school grounds 1 
 
 4. If a cow were the size of a cat, how large would a pig 
 be? 
 
 6. If Ypsilanti were ten inches from Ann Arbor instead of 
 nine miles, how far would Detroit be, which is thirty miles ] 
 
 LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 The style of letter-writing should be free, easy, and 
 natural. 
 
 RULES FOR LETTER-WRITING. 
 
 1. In the right-hand upper corner of the page put 
 the name of the place from which the letter is written, 
 as Ypsilanti, Mich. 
 
48 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 2. Beneath this, the date, as June 5, 187 4. 
 
 3. In the left-hand upper part of the page the name 
 of the correspondent, as John Smith. 
 
 4. Beneath this the first complimentary address, as 
 Sir or Madam. 
 
 5. Beneath this, commencing in the middle of the page, 
 the narrative or body of the letter. 
 
 6. Beneath this the second complimentary address 
 and subscription, as 
 
 <2? am, (2% 
 
 &Mau,i4 jfuctA/uuy, 
 
 jstiuam, QJsnttu. 
 
 This second complimentary address must be varied 
 according to the degree of familiarity between the cor- 
 respondents, as in Eule 4. 
 
 example. 
 
 ffi. ^Accaao &t, M^etioct, 
 Q^ay £, 1§74- 
 flAn, J^PabA. 
 
 (£fa, Q%z be/i/y to youb let/el o£ tue 3a i?i4t, 
 
 Gs £ey to addule you ttiat Qs ddaw ve Aat/tiy to 
 meet you o?z ffiea / ne4a / ay next at Q/rcte4, at t£e 
 ttoub <me?itconea vy you. 
 
 G/a???,, (Mb, 
 
 ^autefatiAfuSf, 
 
 'friM'ain, d&?ictu. 
 
LETTER-WRITING. 49 
 
 In writing the name of the person addressed (Eule 3), 
 it is advisable to give the proper title, thus : 
 
 ty/out/zet ^u^eaiae ^^leen. 
 
 Wa/tel Me//, &p 
 
 <^7Con. &)an. ^-u.'tey. 
 
 Never make the addition of the title of Esquire when 
 any other title is used, as Professor G. Bull, Esq. 
 
 FIRST COMPLIMENTARY ADDRESS (Rule 4). 
 
 If the person addressed is a stranger, we should say 
 Sir or Madam. 
 
 If slightly known to the writer, Dear Sir or Dear 
 Madam. 
 
 If familiarly acquainted with the writer, My dear Sir 
 or My dear Madam ; and if a personal friend, My dear 
 Mr. So-and-so or My dear Mrs. So-and-so. 
 
 If two or more gentlemen of the same name or firm 
 are addressed, we may say Sirs or Gentlemen ; if two 
 ladies, Mesdames, or Ladies. 
 
 A more formal way of writing a letter is to use the 
 third person, as : 
 
 ©^&*. ^u^ieen faedenfo nek covnfeumenfo fo (~^fob. 
 fftazceid, and vead ncm, a£ ncd eaiueJ-t convenience, 
 -fa favoi, nek tuttd ntd Q^nnaaz Jxiefeokf. 
 'zn. £, '74- 
 
lomeo, 
 
 50 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 LETTER FROM A PUPIL TO HER TEACHER. 
 
 (Mn*oo/ &&ude, Mo, 
 
 fane /, 1874. 
 
 SL Mofeddol JE M <Moioe. 
 
 Qfcy aeal GlscI, fyfou nave adnea ?ne Jo ac- 
 
 dclcoe dome cj? Jne evenJd J/iaJ nave naJi/ie?iea in 
 
 oul dcnoot auli??a Jne 7 ia ^ toeefct (zfrildJ, Jnen, 
 
 teJ me Jew you JnaJ on Qs77o?iaau tadJ Q/oidd 
 
 ^Zsetuz ^fleaJolex came Jo Jane cnalae oj- oul loom. 
 
 GLsne id a vely feJead&nt Jaaw, ana nod a&eaay toon, 
 
 nek toay cnJo oak JiealJd. ^c^ou nave neala, Qs 
 
 du/^/^ode, noto dicn fa *' QsJetJa J&lozon id. f/e 
 
 midd nek vely mucn. Csul nezv Jeacnel nad nana 
 
 dome feicJuled on Jne zoatte o£ oul loom, ana toe ale 
 
 mucn A^adzd toiJn Jnem. Qsnele id one cauea 
 
 "Qsne (SfiibdJ <^£eddon," zonicn Qs Jninn. vely cute. 
 
 Q/J lefeledenJd a JtJJie oou Jeacnina a feuJi Jo dJa?ia 
 
 on iJd ncna /eeJ, a?za Jne 7 lo °^ cleaJule toond do 
 
 comical. (2/o'me veauJi/uz J 1 ^ 71 ^- n&ve free??, fi&zcea 
 
 in dt/felenJ JialJd 0/ Jne loom, a??^ add condia- 
 
 eladiy Jo iJd cneel/u/nedd. 7/e ale fi^aleddina 
 
 nicety toiJn oul dJadied ; Tol Gl/foidd ^TJleaJolex in- 
 
LETTER-WRITING. . 51 
 
 tele&fo a£ do mucn> witfc del maiznek oj? co?zauctt?ta 
 oui> ieccfa-tcond. 
 
 cna 't/iat you zoct€ excude <mobe -fbom ?ne now, 
 (2s be?na>cn, aeczi, Qseezc/iei,, 
 
 wl dutiful feu/it/, 
 
 Q4i&* Jf/ute. 
 THE DIRECTION. 
 
 Having written your letter, fold it neatly, and put it 
 in an envelope. Then direct it as follows, placing, — 
 
 1. The name and title of the person addressed. 
 
 2. The place of his residence. 
 
 3. The name of the State in which that place is located. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 j2/tomeo, 
 
 If the letter has to be mailed, place the stamp in the 
 right-hand upper corner. If it is intended as a letter of 
 introduction, write on the left-hand lower corner the fact, 
 thus, Introducing Captain C. Grant. If it is carried to 
 the correspondent by a third person, write on the left- 
 
52 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 hand lower corner the name of the bearer, thus, By favor 
 of Miss Green. 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 Write a letter to your teacher, relating the events that 
 have occurred in your school during the past three days. 
 
 LESSON XLIV. 
 
 Write a letter to a friend, giving an account of one of 
 your games. 
 
 LESSON XLV. 
 
 Write a letter to your parent or guardian, giving a 
 brief sketch of your daily studies. 
 
 LESSON XL VI. 
 
 Write a letter to a friend, inviting him to take part in 
 a game at croquet. 
 
 LESSON XLVII. 
 
 Write a letter in the third person to Mrs. G. Brown, 
 inviting her to dinner. 
 
 LESSON XLVin. 
 
 Write a letter to a school- fellow, introducing one of 
 your playmates. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 53 
 
 GEAMMATICAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE. 
 
 Grammatical Analysis is the art of separating a 
 sentence into the various component parts which enter 
 into its formation. 
 
 Every sentence must of necessity have at least a Sub- 
 ject and a Predicate. In a sentence, the Subject is 
 what we speak about ; the Predicate is what we say 
 about it. Thus, in the sentence " John rises " we have 
 John as the Subject, or what is spoken about ; and rises 
 as the predicate, or what is said about him. "John 
 rises " is a complete sentence, although a bare and pri- 
 mary one ; for John does not " rise " anything, " rise * 
 being an intransitive verb. When, however, we use a 
 transitive verb, the sentence is materially changed in 
 character. Eor instance, when we change the sentence 
 to " John strikes," we have not a complete sentence ; for 
 "strikes" being a transitive verb, the action "strikes" 
 passes from the Subject " John " to some Object or 
 other, the Object being what John strikes. "When, 
 therefore, we say " John strikes the table," we have a 
 complete sentence, of which 
 
 John is the Subject, 
 Strikes " Predicate. 
 The table" Object. 
 
54 
 
 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 Thus it is apparent that the bare, rudimentary essentials 
 of a sentence are in the case of 
 
 An Intransitive verb : 
 A Transitive verb : 
 
 Subject and Predicate, 
 Subject, Predicate, and Object. 
 
 A sentence with only one finite verb, that is, a verb not 
 in the Infinitive Mood, is called a Simple Sentence; 
 which, although it may consist of only three absolutely 
 essential words, as 
 
 John, 
 
 Strikes, 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Subject, 
 
 Predicate, 
 
 Object, 
 
 may nevertheless contain a great many more illustrative 
 words to modify or intensify the bare and primary 
 meaning of the sentence. 
 
 The subjoined is an example of how a sentence may 
 be thus extended : 
 
 Subject 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Object. 
 
 John 
 
 strikes 
 
 iron. 
 
 Old John 
 
 strikes heavily 
 
 hot iron. 
 
 Old John, 
 
 strikes heavily 
 
 hot and glowing 
 
 the smith, 
 
 and laboriously 
 
 iron. 
 
 Old John, 
 
 strikes from day to 
 
 hot and glowing 
 
 the village 
 
 day, heavily and 
 
 Swedish iron. 
 
 smith, 
 
 laboriously, 
 
 
 Those words in a sentence which are neither Subject, 
 Predicate, nor Object are called Extensions of the three 
 absolutely essential parts of the sentence to which they 
 may respectively belong. Thus, in the above example, 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 55 
 
 Old, the village smith : Extension of Subject, 
 
 From day to day, heavily and laboriously : " " Predicate, 
 Hot and glowing Swedish : a " Object. 
 
 Exercise. — Tell the Subject, Predicate, and Object in 
 the following sentences : 
 
 1. God created the world in six days. 
 
 2. Shakespeare wrote " Macbeth," a drama of superlative 
 excellence. 
 
 3. Charles Dickens, the distinguished novelist, died in 
 1870. 
 
 4. Alfred the Great rose early in the morning. 
 
 5. The Crystal Palace is quite stupendous in dimensions. 
 
 6. The history of our native country is most decidedly a 
 useful and highly interesting study. 
 
 Exercise. — Tell the Extensions of the Subject, the 
 Extensions of the Predicate, and the Extensions of the 
 Object in the following sentences : 
 
 1. Music soothes the savage breast. 
 
 2. Byron, the distinguished poet, died in Greece. 
 
 3. My little doves have left a nest upon an Indian tree. 
 
 4. The "Excelsior" is a well-known set of educational 
 books. 
 
 5. London, the capital of the British Empire, is built upon 
 the river Thames. 
 
 6. I would indeed give you that admirable book, but 
 I have unfortunately lost it. 
 
56 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE. 
 
 When any of the Extensions of a Simple Sentence are 
 developed into a clause, the sentence is said to be Com- 
 plex. Thus, "Napoleon III., to gratify his ambition, 
 declared war against Prussia," is a Simple Sentence, the 
 words in Italics being simply an extension of the Predi- 
 cate "declared." But, "Napoleon III., having resolved 
 to gratify his ambition, declared war against Prussia," is 
 a Complex Sentence, the Extension of the Predicate, to 
 gratify his ambition, having been developed into a clause, 
 having resolved to gratify his ambition. Hence, a Com- 
 plex Sentence may be defined as a Principal Sentence, 
 extended by one or more clauses or Subordinate Sen- 
 tences. The Subordinate Sentences of the Complex are 
 of three kinds : 
 
 Noun Sentence, 
 
 Adjective Sentence, 
 
 Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 I. Noun Clause or Sentence. 
 Thus: 
 
 1. Punctuality is commendable : Noun. 
 
 2. To be punctual is commendable : Noun phrase. 
 
 3. That a man should be 'punctual is commend- 
 
 able : * Noun clause. 
 
 Exercise. — Expand the following nouns into noun 
 phrases and noun clauses : 
 
 Virtue, wisdom, honor, constancy, valor, chastity, silliness, 
 insanity, pride, revenge, sloth. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 57 
 
 II. Adjective Clause or Sentence. 
 
 1. A simple life is a happy one : Adjective. 
 
 2. A life of simplicity is a happy one : Adjective phrase. 
 
 3. A life which is simple is a happy one : Adjective clause. 
 
 Exercise. — Expand the following adjectives into ad- 
 jective phrases and adjective clauses : 
 
 Wise, honorable, excellent, depraved, inconstant, flowing, 
 clever, pedantic, learned, sweet, extreme. 
 
 III. Adverbial Clause or Sentence. 
 
 1. He spoke fluently: Adverb. 
 
 2. He spoke with fluency : Adverbial phrase. 
 
 3. He spoke like one trained to spealc with 
 
 fluency : Adverbial clause. 
 
 Exercise. — Expand the following adverbs into ad- 
 , verbial phrases and adverbial clauses : 
 
 Honorably, lovingly, basely, nobly, shabbily, meanly, 
 frankly, learnedly, princely, sweetly, constantly. 
 
 Example of Complex Sentence : " The general then 
 saw that the battle was lost." 
 
 Analysis (1st i 
 
 a. The general then saw : Principal clause. 
 
 b. The battle was lost : Noun clause, object to a. 
 
 Analysis (2d scheme). 
 
 a. The general : Subject. 
 
 b. Saw : Predicate to a (primary). 
 
 c. Then : Extension of Predicate b (time). 
 
 d. (The) battle : Object to b. 
 
 c. Was lost : Predicate to d (secondary). 
 
58 THE ELEMENTS OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 'Exercise. — Analyse the following Complex Sentences 
 after the 1st scheme : 
 
 I climbed a hill which was 1,500 feet high. 
 
 It is evident that you did not attend to what was said to 
 you. 
 
 I found myself among a horde of freebooters, Avho would 
 have had no scruple to have taken my life. I acknowledged 
 at once that I had been seriously at fault. 
 
 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE. 
 
 The Compound Sentence is made up of two or more 
 Complex, or two or more Simple Sentences, or is a com- 
 bination of Simple and Complex Sentences. 
 
 The relation which exists between these combined sen- 
 tences is called 
 
 Co-ordination. 
 
 There are four kinds of Co-ordination : 
 
 1. Copulative. 3. Adversative. 
 
 2. Disjunctive. 4. Illative. 
 
 Example of Compound Sentence : " There have been 
 men who have fled from the battle, and others who have 
 madly rushed upon certain death." 
 
 Exercise. — Analyse the above and the following sen- 
 tences after the manner of the 2d scheme : 
 
 I struck the nail obliquely upon the head, which caused it 
 to spring up, and it accordingly struck me in the face. 
 
 William of Normandy landed in Sussex, and prepared to 
 do battle with the Saxons, whom he knew would shortly 
 oppose his invasion. William was victorious, and Harold fell 
 mortally wounded upon the stubbornly contested field. 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 59 
 
 1. In Copulative Co-ordination, one independent 
 statement is simply annexed to another, as : " The wind 
 increased, and the ship went down" 
 
 2. In Disjunctive Co-ordination, the various indepen- 
 dent statements of a Compound Sentence, although 
 related by grammatical structure, are yet disjoined or 
 distributed in the meaning of the context, as : " Neither 
 would he go himself, nor would he allow his brother 
 to go:' 
 
 3. In Adversative Co-ordination, one independent 
 statement of the Compound Sentence is in contrast to 
 another in the meaning of the context, as : " Dives was 
 very rich, but Lazarus was exceedingly poor." 
 
 4. In Illative Co-ordination, the one statement is a 
 logical conclusion drawn from the one preceding it, as : 
 " He ventured upon the weakest part of the ice, con- 
 sequently he sank and was drowned" 
 
 Exercise. — Analyse according to the 1st, and then 
 according the 2d scheme, the following Compound Sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. The snow 's dissolved and genial spring returned 
 To clothe the fields with verdure. 
 
 2. Then rushed the steed, to battle driven, 
 And, volleying like the bolts of heaven, 
 
 Far flashed the red artillery. 
 
 3. I have every respect for knowledge ; but I pity rather 
 than despise the ignorant. 
 
 4. Avoid extremes, and shun the faults of such who still 
 are pleased too little or too much. 
 
60 THE ELEMENTS OP GRAMMAR. 
 
 5. young Lochinvar has come out of the west, 
 Through all the wide border his steed was the best. 
 
 6. Princes and lords may flourish or may fade, 
 
 A breath can make them, as a breath has made ; 
 But a bold peasantry, their country's pride, 
 When once destroyed can never be supplied. 
 
 7. This was the truest warrior 
 That ever buckled sword ; 
 This the most gifted poet 
 That ever breathed a word. 
 
 8. Set thou thy trust upon the Lord, 
 And be thou doing good, 
 And so thou in the land shalt dwell, 
 And verily have food. 
 
PART III. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 A Paragraph is composed of a series of sentences 
 relating to the same subject. 
 
 The length and form of the sentences should be 
 varied. 
 
 Paragraphs may be said to belong to three classes : 
 
 1. Narration, 
 
 2. Description, 
 
 3. Reflection. 
 
 I. NARRATION. 
 
 Paragraphs of Narration may be divided into two 
 classes : 
 
 1. Incidental (incidents, stories, fables, letters). 
 
 2. Historical (history, biography). 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 incidental (the incident). 
 
 The pupils are required to copy on their slate the fol- 
 lowing scheme : 
 
62 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Time. 
 
 2. Person. 
 
 3. Place. 
 
 4. Event. 
 
 5. Manner. 
 
 Pupils should read carefully the relation of the follow- 
 ing incident, and fill up their scheme as in the example 
 below. Having done this, let them lay aside their com- 
 position-books and write the paragraph fully from the 
 notes. 
 
 How David Baird lost his money. 
 
 On a Saturday evening in the fall of the year 1863, David 
 Baird, a carpenter, came into the city of Detroit. He had 
 with him a large sum of money, carefully concealed in the 
 breast-pocket of his coat. When he reached his hotel he was 
 told that he must occupy a double-bedded room, his com- 
 panion being a respectable mechanic from the neighborhood. 
 When David retired to rest he laid his coat under his pillow, 
 and, being very tired, soon fell into a deep sleep. In the 
 morning, when he awoke, he found that the man who had 
 slept in the room with him was gone, and shortly afterwards 
 he discovered that his purse was missing. The landlord was 
 called, and the mechanic fetched and given into custody of a 
 policeman, but the judge discharged him for want of evidence. 
 David soon succeeded in getting work, and became a pros- 
 perous man. Two years afterwards he was about to give his 
 old coat away to a poor beggar, when, feeling a lump in the 
 lining, he tore it open and discovered his lost notes, which 
 had slipped down through a hole in the pocket. David 
 richly remunerated the poor man he had so unjustly accused. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 63 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 The funeral of a young lady at Brussels. 
 
 In the year 1873, when at Brussels, I witnessed the funeral 
 ceremony of a young lady who had died on the previous day 
 of cholera. First came a priest bearing a crucifix hung with 
 black crape. He was followed by a hundred monks chanting 
 a hymn. Then came a number of gayly dressed boys singing 
 and swinging censers of perfume. These were followed by 
 a troup of young girls bearing wreaths of flowers and rep-* 
 resenting angels. After these was the magnificent hearse 
 with the corpse, which was succeeded by some forty figures 
 in white bearing torches in their hands. As the cortege 
 passed, the people in the streets knelt and crossed themselves. 
 
 1. Time. In the year 1873. 
 
 2. Person. I. 
 
 3. Place. Brussels. 
 
 4. Event. The funeral procession of a young lady. 
 
 5. Manner. A priest carrying a cross. A hundred monks. 
 Boys swinging censers. Girls dressed as angels. The hearse. 
 Forty figures with torches. The people knelt and crossed 
 themselves. 
 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 incidental (the story). 
 
 Rewrite the following relation, drawing up your scheme 
 as in Lesson L, and proceeding without the aid of your 
 book : 
 
 Robinson Crusoe discovers a footprint. 
 It happened one day, about noon, going toward my boat, 
 I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked 
 
64 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen in the 
 sand. I stood like one thunder-struck, or as if I had seen an 
 apparition : I listened, I looked round me : I could hear 
 nothing, nor see anything : I went up to a rising ground to 
 look farther ; but it was all one. I could see no other impres- 
 sion but that one. When I came to my castle, I fled like one 
 pursued. Whether I went over by the ladder, at first con- 
 trived, or went in at the hole in the rock which I called 
 a door, I cannot remember ; for never frightened hare fled to 
 ^cover, or fox to earth, with more terror of mind than I to this 
 retreat. — De Foe. 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 incidental (the fable). 
 
 Rewrite the following fable, drawing up your scheme 
 as in Lesson I., and proceeding without the aid of your 
 book : 
 
 The Island of Utopia. 
 
 It was summer time. We found it in the midst of the sea, 
 of a crescent shape, like the new moon, but more curved, the 
 two extremities coming nearer together. Hence the concave 
 part forms an admirable harbor for ships, but the entrance is 
 so full of rocks that no one but a Utopian could steer a vessel 
 safely into the harbor. They are, therefore, secure from the 
 attacks of an enemy. There are fifty-four cities in the island, 
 about the same distance apart. They are surrounded by high 
 walls ; the streets are twenty feet wide. All the houses have 
 large gardens in the rear, " Whoso will, may go in," for there 
 is nothing within the houses that is private, or any man's own. 
 And every tenth year they change houses by lot. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 65 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 incidental (the letter). 
 
 Eewrite the following paragraph from a letter, drawing 
 up your scheme as in Lesson L, and proceeding without 
 the aid of your book : 
 
 I regret to inform you that on "Wednesday afternoon last 
 little Robert was nearly killed by a runaway horse. The 
 poor boy was playing in the road, when a horse drawing a 
 buggy dashed round the corner ; and before my son could 
 reach the opposite sidewalk he was knocked down and the 
 wheel passed over his body. You may imagine that we were 
 all dreadfully frightened when he was carried into the house ; 
 but I am glad to say that he was not, after all, very badly 
 hurt. It will be a warning to him, I hope ; and the accident 
 may be " a blessing in disguise." 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 historical (history). 
 
 Eewrite the following historical relation, drawing up 
 your scheme as in Lesson I., and proceeding without the 
 aid of your book : 
 
 Humanity of Sir Robert Bruce. 
 One morning the English were pressing hard upon Sir 
 Eobert Bruce, who had given orders for a hasty retreat : for to 
 have risked a battle with a more numerous army would have 
 been imprudent. On a sudden, he heard a woman shriek 
 in despair. " What is the matter ? " said the king ; and he 
 was informed by his attendants that a poor woman, mother 
 of a new-born infant, was about to be left behind. Sir Eobert 
 
66 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 was silent for a moment when lie heard this story, being 
 divided between feelings of humanity occasioned by the poor 
 woman's distress, and the danger to which a halt would ex- 
 pose his army. "Let it never be said," he cried, "that a 
 man that was born of a woman, and nursed by a woman's 
 tenderness, should leave a mother and her infant to the mercy 
 of barbarians. In the name of God, let the risk be what it 
 may, I will fight Edmund Butler rather than leave these 
 poor creatures behind me. Let the army, therefore, draw up 
 in line of battle instead of retreating." The story had a 
 singular conclusion ; for the English general, seeing the stand 
 made by Wallace, thought that he had received reinforce- 
 ments, and was afraid to attack him. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 historical (biography). 
 
 Bewrite the following paragraph from a biography, 
 drawing up your scheme as in Lesson I., and proceeding 
 without the aid of your book : 
 
 The Arrest of Lafayette. 
 He was seized in the night by an Austrian patrol, and was 
 treated as a criminal and exposed to disgraceful indignities. 
 They consigned him to the damp and dark dungeons in the 
 citadel of Olmutz. Here he was told that he would never re- 
 ceive news of events or of persons ; that his name would be 
 unknown in the citadel, and that in all accounts of him sent 
 to court he would be designated by a number. The want of 
 air and proper food, and the dampness and filth of his dun- 
 geon, brought on dangerous diseases, of which his jailers took 
 no notice ; and he was at last reduced to such a state by his 
 sufferings that all his hair came off. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 67 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 INCIDENTAL AND HISTORICAL. 
 
 Prepare your scheme : 
 
 1. Time, 
 
 2. Person, 
 
 3. Place, 
 
 4. Event, 
 
 5. Manner, 
 
 and proceed to relate the incidents connected with " The 
 Battle of Brandy wine." 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 The Return of Columbus. 
 
 1. Time. About the middle of April. 
 
 2. Person. Columbus. 
 
 3. Place. Barcelona. 
 
 4. Event. Christopher Columbus returns to Spain. 
 
 5. Manner. Pirst were paraded Indians decorated with 
 tropical feathers. Various kinds of live parrots, animals of 
 unknown species, and rare plants. After these came Colum- 
 bus on horseback. Streets were impassable. 
 
 It was about the middle of April that Columbus arrived at 
 Barcelona, where every preparation had been made to give 
 him a solemn and magnificent reception. The beauty and 
 serenity of the weather in that genial season contributed to 
 ^ive splendor to this memorable ceremony. As he drew near 
 he place, many of the more youthful courtiers came forth to 
 greet him. First were paraded the Indians, painted accord- 
 ing to their savage fashion, and decorated with tropical 
 feathers ; after these were borne various kinds of live par- 
 rots, together with stuffed birds and animals of unknown 
 species, and rare plants, supposed to be of precious qualities ; 
 
68 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 while great care was taken to make a conspicuous display of 
 Indian bracelets. After these followed Columbus on horse- 
 back, surrounded by a brilliant cavalcade of Spanish chivalry. 
 — Irving. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 Prepare your scheme as in Lesson VII. , and proceed 
 to relate the incidents connected with the fables of " The 
 Frogs desiring a King," " The Ass in the Lion's Skin," 
 and " The Stag admiring his Horns." 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 Prepare your scheme as in Lesson VII., and proceed to 
 relate the story of " The Offering of Isaac." 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 Prepare your scheme as in Lesson VII., and proceed to 
 relate the incidents of "A Snow Storm" and "A Picnic 
 Party." 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 Take the following for your prepared scheme, and write 
 fully a paragraph on " A Game at Croquet." 
 
 1. Time. Last summer. 
 
 2. Person. Miss A., Miss B., Mr. D., and myself. 
 
 3. Place. Saratoga. 
 
 4. Event. A game at croquet. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 69 
 
 5.. Manner. Miss A. and Mr. D. opposed Miss B. and 
 myself. Played five games. We won the first, fourth, and 
 fifth. Mr. B. did not play fairly. I broke a mallet. Ground 
 level. Much enjoyment. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 Take the following for your prepared scheme, and write 
 fully a paragraph on " William Tell." 
 
 1. Time. More than 500 years ago. 
 
 2. Person. William Tell. 
 
 3. Place. Switzerland. 
 
 4. Event. William Tell shoots the apple on his son's 
 head. 
 
 5. Manner. Gesler, the cruel Austrian tyrant. Tell com- 
 manded to shoot at an apple placed on his son's head. Tell 
 shot off the apple. Had another arrow left. Said he meant 
 to kill Gesler with it if his son were injured. Tell bound. 
 Escaped to the mountains. Afterwards killed Gesler. 
 
 II. DESCRIPTION. 
 
 Descriptive Paragraphs may be divided into three 
 classes : 
 
 1. Individual Objects. 
 
 2. Class Objects. 
 
 3. Moral Qualities. 
 
 I 
 
70 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. Individual Objects. 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 Copy upon your slates this scheme : 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 2. Properties.* 
 
 3. Parts. 
 
 Eead carefully the following description of "The 
 Chateau of Fontainebleau." Having done this, fill up 
 your scheme; then lay aside your book and write the 
 paragraph from your notes : 
 
 The Chateau of Fontainebleau. 
 The Chateau of Fontainebleau is indeed a quaint and 
 lovely palace. It is situated in a beautiful forest covering 
 nearly sixty thousand acres, and is about two hours' ride from 
 Paris. It is composed of buildings of different epochs and 
 irregular appearance. The most ancient and curious part is 
 the Oval Court. The principal entrance is called the Court 
 of Honor. To the west is the wing containing the apart- 
 ments occupied by Pope Pius VII. during his exile from 
 Rome. The front of the palace exhibits six pointed pavilions. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Ashby Palace. 
 The fine old ruin of Ashby Palace is situated on the 
 borders of Leicestershire in England. It stands not far from 
 the beautiful river Trent, and commands a magnificent 
 view of the famous Barclon Hill. It consists of a square 
 tower, two embattled walls, and is surrounded by rampart 
 
 * Properties include size, shape, position, or uses. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 71 
 
 walls and a moat. There is the remnant of a huge dining 
 hall with finely trellised and fretted roof. The apartment is 
 shown where many prisoners of note were kept in durance, 
 and the subterranean chamber where the Norman knight 
 tortured the Jew, Isaac of York, is still pointed out. 
 
 1. Species. Ruined castle. 
 
 2. Properties. Is situated in Leicestershire. Stands not 
 far from the Trent. 
 
 3. Parts. Square tower. Two embattled walls. Ram- 
 parts. Moat. Dining hall. Prison hall. Chamber where 
 Isaac of York was tortured. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 Give a description of "The Coliseum/' taking the 
 following as your filled-up scheme: 
 
 1. Species. Ruined Amphitheatre. 
 
 2. Properties. Elliptical building. 564 feet long. Used 
 for public fetes. 
 
 3. Parts. Eighty rows of marble seats. Magnificent carv- 
 ings. Marble pillars. Stately windows. Triumphal arches. 
 Gorgeous designs. 
 
 LESSOIST XV. 
 
 Give a description of Brussels, taking the following as 
 your filled-up scheme : 
 
 1. Species. City. 
 
 2. Properties. In Belgium. Fortified town. 
 
 3. Parts. Many beautiful houses. The famous Hotel de 
 Ville. The Cathedral of St. Gudule. The Palace of Laerken. 
 The Gallery of St. Hubert. The Square of the Martyrs. 
 The Jardin Botanique. 
 
72 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 Give a description of the town yon live in, preparing 
 your scheme before proceeding with yonr paragraph. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 Give a description of the Falls of Niagara, preparing 
 your scheme as in Lesson XV. 
 
 2. Class Objects. 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 Copy upon your slates this scheme : 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 a. Genus. 
 
 b. Difference. 
 
 2. Properties.* 
 
 3. Parts. 
 
 4. Kinds. 
 
 Then fill up your scheme and proceed to write the para- 
 graph at full length. 
 
 Describe a piano. 
 
 * Properties include size, shape, position, or uses. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 73 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 A rifle. 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 a. Genus. A firearm. 
 
 b. Difference. It is groove-barrelled. 
 
 2. Properties. Accuracy of aim. Length of range. Used 
 in war and sport. 
 
 3. Parts. Stock. Lock. Barrel. Trigger. Spring. 
 Nipple. 
 
 4. Kinds. Breech-loading. Muzzle-loading. Spiral- 
 grooved, etc. 
 
 The rifle is a firearm. It differs from other firearms in 
 that it is groove-barrelled. It gives great accuracy of aim 
 and length of range, and it is used in war and in sport. It 
 consists of a stock, a lock, a barrel, a trigger, a spring, and 
 a nipple. There are various kinds of rifles ; as, for instance, 
 the muzzle-loading, the breech-loading, the spiral-grooved, 
 and several others. 
 
 LESSON XIX. 
 
 Give descriptions of a huggy and a printing-press, pre- 
 paring your schemes as in Lesson XYIIL 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 Give descriptions of a man-of-war and a clock, prepar- 
 ing your schemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
74 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 Give descriptions of a dictionary and a gate, preparing 
 your schemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 Give descriptions of a church, an umbrella, and 
 a photograph, preparing your schemes before proceeding 
 with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 Give descriptions of a plough, a teapot, and a lead- 
 pencil, preparing your schemes before proceeding with 
 your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 Give descriptions of a spade, a thimble, and a slipper, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your 
 paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 Give descriptions of a pistol, a chair, and a telescope, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your 
 paragraphs. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OP PARAGRAPHS. 75 
 
 3. Moral Qualities. 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 Copy on your slates this scheme : 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 a. Genus. 
 
 b. Difference. 
 
 2. Properties. 
 
 3. Effects on Society. 
 
 4. Effects on Self. 
 Describe truth. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 Honesty. 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 a. Genus. A social virtue. 
 
 b. Difference. It aims at giving each man his own. 
 
 2. Properties. It is found in trade. In the school-room. 
 In society. 
 
 3. Effects on Society. It makes men trust and respect us. 
 It encourages them to advance our interests. 
 
 4. Effects on Self. It makes us happy. It increases our 
 worldly prosperity. Honesty is the best policy. 
 
 Honesty is a social virtue. It differs from other socia^ 
 virtues in that it aims at giving each man his own. It is 
 found in trade, in the school-room, and in society. It makes 
 men trust and respect those that exhibit it, and encourages 
 them to advance their interests. It makes its possessors 
 happy, and increases their worldly prosperity. Honesty is 
 the best policy. 
 
76 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 Give descriptions of benevolence and duplicity, preparing 
 your scJiemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXVIII. 
 
 Give descriptions of friendship and hypocrisy, preparing 
 your schemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 Give descriptions of perseverance, cowardice, and envy, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your para- 
 graphs. 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 Give descriptions of revenge, mercy, and justice, pre- 
 paring your schemes before proceeding with your para- 
 graphs. 
 
 LESSON XXXI. 
 
 Give descriptions of ambition, extravagance, and pride, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your 
 paragraphs. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 77 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 Give descriptions of 'malice, charity, and faith, pre- 
 paring your schemes before proceeding with your para- 
 graphs. 
 
 III. REFLECTION. 
 
 Reflection means turning one's mind back upon, and 
 reflective paragraphs are those that call upon our thoughts 
 and emotions for expression. 
 
 They may be classified thus : 
 
 1. Individual Objects and Class Objects. 
 
 2. Events and Moral Qualities. 
 
 3. The Characters op Persons. 
 
 1. Individual Objects and Class Objects. 
 
 Copy on your slates this scheme : 
 
 1. The Feelings. 
 
 2. The Qualities. 
 
 a. Beauty or deformity. 
 
 b. Utility or inutility. 
 
 3. Suggestion about its origin. 
 
 4. Simile. 
 
 LESSON XXXIII. 
 
 Write a reflective paragraph on your own school build- 
 ing, preparing your scheme before proceeding with your 
 paragraph. 
 
78 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Stonehenge. 
 
 1. Hie feelings. Pleasure. Interest. Wonder. 
 
 2. The qualities. 
 
 a. Beauty or deformity. Picturesqueness. Graceful- 
 ness of outline. 
 
 b. Utility or inutility. Useful to mark the place of 
 some great battle, or as the shrine of some old Druid. 
 
 3. Suggestion about its origin. The sight of it carries our 
 minds back to the time of the early Kelts and Saxons. 
 
 4. Simile. It is like a ghost of the dead Past. 
 
 LESSON xxxrv. 
 
 Write a reflection on The White House at Washington, 
 preparing your scheme before proceeding with your para- 
 graph. 
 
 LESSON XXXV. 
 
 Write reflections on a museum and a railroad depot, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your para- 
 graphs. 
 
 LESSON XXXVI. 
 
 Write reflections on a church and a city hall, pre- 
 paring your schemes before proceeding with your para- 
 graphs. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 79 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. 
 
 Write reflections on The City of New York and An 
 Asylum for the Blind, preparing your schemes before pro- 
 ceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XXXVIII. 
 
 Write reflections on The Steamship Ville du Havre, 
 preparing your scheme before proceeding with your para- 
 graph. 
 
 LESSON XXXIX. 
 
 Write a reflection on a harmonium, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 A telescope. 
 
 1. Hie Feelings, Pleasure. Admiration. Wonder. 
 
 2. The Qualities, 
 
 a. Beauty or deformity. Its beauty. The intricacy, 
 yet simplicity, of its structure. Its completeness. 
 
 b. Utility or inutility. Useful in science, war, sport, 
 engineering, and navigation. 
 
 3. Suggestion about its origin. It reminds us of the inge- 
 nuity of its inventors, of the struggles of the man of science, 
 and of the wonderful goodness of God. 
 
 4. Simile. It is like a magician with the instant power to 
 bring far-off things near to us. 
 
80 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 We look at a telescope with feelings of pleasure, admira- 
 tion, and wonder. We admire it for its beauty, the intricacy, 
 yet simplicity, of its structure, and the completeness of its 
 arrangements. We know how useful it is to the scientist, the 
 soldier, the sailor, the engineer, and the sportsman. It 
 reminds us of the ingenuity of its inventors, the struggles of 
 the astronomer, and the wonderful goodness of God. It is 
 like a magician with the instant power to bring far-off things 
 near to us. 
 
 LESSON XL. 
 
 Write a reflection on a steam-engine, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON XLI. 
 
 Write a reflection on the Bible, preparing your scheme 
 before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON XLII. 
 
 Write reflections on a steam-plough and a musical-box, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your 
 paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 Write reflections on a violet and a picture, preparing 
 your schemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 81 
 
 LESSON XLIV. 
 
 "Write reflections on a bird's-nest and a tree, preparing 
 your schemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON XLV. 
 
 "Write reflections on a theodolite and a stove, preparing 
 your schemes before proceeding with your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON" XLVI. 
 
 Write reflections on an album, a steam-paclcet, and 
 a cannon, preparing your schemes before proceeding with 
 your paragraphs. 
 
 2. Events and Moral Qualities. 
 
 Copy on your slates this scheme : 
 
 1. Origin. 
 
 2. Kesults (to the world). 
 
 3. Besult (to self). 
 
 4. The Feelings. 
 
 5. Moral Deduction. %{ 
 
 6. Illustration (simile). 
 
 Events. 
 LESSON XLVII. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Invention of the Use of 
 Steam, preparing your scheme before you proceed with 
 your paragraph. 
 
82 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Reflection on the Declaration of American Independence. 
 
 1. Origin. The tyranny of a weak-minded king. The 
 Americans disgusted with unjust taxes. 
 
 2. Result (to the world). Increased commerce. Spread of 
 civilization. The better balancing of national power. A good 
 example. 
 
 3. Result (to America). The birth of a great nation. The 
 foundation of American freedom. The settlement of wild 
 country. The growth of Christianity, civilization, and com- 
 merce. The rapid development of national resources. The 
 increase of prosperity. A love of country. 
 
 4. The Feelings. Such being its effects, we cannot but 
 regard it with feelings of approbation. We almost feel con- 
 tempt for the weak monarch and foolish ministers. Sym- 
 pathy for the oppressed. Admiration for the revolutionary- 
 heroes. Gratitude to them for the benefits we enjoy from 
 their acts. 
 
 v 5. Moral Deduction. Patriotism a duty, not only as regards 
 ourselves, but also as regards future generations. 
 
 v\ 6. Illustration. It may be compared to the planting of a 
 
 *great tree. 
 
 What led to the declaration of independence by America 
 was the tyranny of a weak-minded king who disgusted the 
 Americans by the imposition of unjust taxes. The results to 
 the world were an immense increase of commerce, a mar- 
 vellous spread of civilization, the better balancing of national 
 power, and the exhibition of a glorious example. To America 
 it was the birth of its national glory. It gave her civil and 
 religious liberty. From that time her wild lands yielded to 
 progress of civilization, her resources were developed, Chris- 
 tianity reached her utmost confines, her prosperity has been 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 83 
 
 boundless, and a love of country has sprung up in the heart 
 of every one of her sons. These being the effects, we cannot 
 but look upon it with feelings of approbation. We regard 
 almost with contempt the weak monarch who by his foolish 
 deeds caused the alienation of such a grand country ; we can- 
 not but have sympathy for our oppressed forefathers, admira- 
 tion for their heroism, and gratitude for the benefits that we 
 enjoy from their acts. Thus we see that patriotism is a duty, 
 not only as regards ourselves, but also as regards future gen- 
 erations. It may be compared to the launching of a huge 
 vessel. 
 
 LESSON XLVIII. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Assassination of President 
 Lincoln, preparing your scheme before proceeding with 
 your paragraph. 
 
 » LESSON XLIX. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Discovery of America, pre- 
 paring your scheme before proceeding with your para- 
 graph. 
 
 
 LESSON L. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Landing of the Pilgrim 
 Fathers, preparing your scheme before proceeding with 
 your paragraphs. 
 
84 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LI. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Great Fire at Chicago, pre- 
 paring your scheme before proceeding with your para- 
 graph. 
 
 LESSON LII. 
 
 "Write a reflection on The Laying of the Atlantic Cable, 
 preparing your scheme before proceeding with your para- 
 graph. 
 
 LESSON LIII. 
 
 "Write a reflection on The Eclipse of the Sun, preparing 
 your scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LIV. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Discovery of the Circulation 
 of the Blood, preparing your scheme before proceeding 
 with your paragraph. 
 
 Moral Qualities. 
 
 LESSON LV. 
 
 Write a reflection on envy, preparing your scheme before 
 proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 85 
 
 3y,-«- ^teuWt 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Reflection on Hypocrisy. 
 
 1. Origin. A wish to appear good. A fear of what the 
 world will say. 1 Selfishness. 
 
 2. Results (to the world). It creates a false esteem that will 
 turn to contempt when the fraud is discovered. It makes 
 men distrustful of their neighbors. 
 
 3. Results (to self). The hypocrite lives in a constant 
 dread of exposure. His hypocrisy drives him into lying and 
 fraud. He loses his seK-esteem, and is sure to meet with his 
 just punishment. 
 
 4. TJie Feelings. We look upon the hypocrite with con- 
 tempt and indignation, and rarely pity him in his exposure. 
 
 5. Moral Deduction. Hypocrisy does not pay. It renders 
 us miserable while practising it, and detested when found out. 
 
 6. Illustration (simile). Like the painted sepulchre. 
 
 The origin of hypocrisy may be often found in a wish to 
 appear better than we naturally are, or a fear of what the 
 world will say of our actions. It may also be traced to 
 our innate selfishness and love of adulation. We may for a 
 time gain the esteem of our acquaintance by its exercise, but 
 when we are found out, as we are sure to be, we shall be held 
 in the bitterest contempt. Hypocrisy makes men distrustful 
 of one another. The hypocrite lives in a constant dread of 
 exposure. Nor does his misery end here ; for his hypocrisy 
 drives him to the committal of other sins : lying, fraud, and 
 irreligion. He loses his self-esteem, and is sure some day or 
 other to meet with his just condemnation. This being the 
 case, we can only look at hypocrisy with contempt and in- 
 dignation. Thus hypocrisy does not pay, for it renders us 
 miserable while practising it, and detested when found out. 
 It is as vain and worthless as the painted sepulchre. 
 
86 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LVI. 
 
 Write a reflection on friendship, preparing your scheme 
 before proceeding with, your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LVII. 
 
 Write a reflection on obedience, preparing your scheme 
 before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LVIII. 
 
 Write a reflection on filial affection, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LIX. 
 
 Write a reflection on bravery, preparing your scheme 
 before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LX. 
 
 Write reflections on industry and contentment, prepar- 
 ing your scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LXL 
 
 Write reflections on constancy, tattling, and jealousy, 
 preparing your scheme before proceeding with your para- 
 graph. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OF PARAGRAPHS. 87 
 
 3. The Characters of Persons. 
 
 Copy on your slates this scheme : 
 
 1. His mental qualities. 
 
 2. His moral qualities. 
 
 3. The motives from which he generally acted. 
 
 4. The effect of his conduct on others. 
 
 5. The effect of his conduct on himself. 
 
 6. His character in different capacities. 
 
 LESSON LXII. 
 
 Write a reflection on Benjamin Franklin, preparing 
 your scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 Napoleon I. 
 
 1. Mental Qualities. Vigor. Great capacity. Belief in 
 fatality. 
 
 2. Moral Qualities. Intrepidity. Cruelty. Arrogance. 
 Generosity. Perseverance. Truthfulness. 
 
 3. Motives. Self-aggrandizement. Love of country. 
 
 4. Effect on others. Beloved by his followers. Feared by 
 his enemies. Helped to crush the tyranny of Austria. 
 Brought the misery of war upon all Europe. 
 
 5. Effect on himself. "Was unhappy. Wore himself out 
 by his ambition. Distrustful. Discontented. 
 
 6. His various characters. A soldier. An emperor. A con- 
 queror. A husband. A man. 
 
 When we look at the life of this great man, we are struck 
 with the vigor of his mind and the capacity of his intellect. 
 
88 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 It is strange that such a man could have been a slave to the 
 deceitful terrors of fatalism. He was a paradox ; intrepid, 
 cruel, and arrogant, and at the same time generous, per- 
 severing, and truthful. His motives were always for self- 
 aggrandizement, tempered with a praiseworthy love of France 
 and an anxiety for her glory. His enthusiasm made him 
 beloved by his followers, and his military genius caused him 
 to be feared by his enemies. He was an instrument in check- 
 ing the rapacious greed of Russia and Austria, but all Europe 
 suffered through him the misery of prolonged warfare. The 
 result of his conduct was that he was unhappy, distrustful, 
 and discontented. As a soldier he was without an equal, 
 brave, sagacious, and unbending. As an emperor he was fond 
 of parade, autocratic, and imperious. As a conqueror he was 
 unrelenting and tyrannical. As a husband he was alternately 
 loving and inconstant. As a man he was a true friend and 
 a bitter foe. 
 
 LESSON LXIIL 
 
 Write a reflection on George Washington, preparing 
 your scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LXIV. 
 
 Write a reflection on William Penn, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LXV. 
 
 Write a reflection on General Lafayette, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
CONSTRUCTION OP PARAGRAPHS. 89 
 
 LESSON LXVI. 
 
 Write a reflection on Washington Irving, preparing 
 your scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LXVII. 
 
 Write a reflection on George Peabody, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON" LXVIII. 
 
 Write a reflection on General Sherman, preparing your 
 scheme before proceeding with your paragraph. 
 
 LESSON LXIX. 
 
 Write reflections on George Bancroft and Edward Ev- 
 erett, preparing your schemes before proceeding with your 
 paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON LXX. 
 
 Write reflections on Daniel Webster and John S. 
 Mill, preparing your schemes before proceeding with 
 your paragraphs. 
 
 LESSON LXXI. 
 
 Write reflections on Sir Walter Scott and Lord Byron, 
 preparing your schemes before proceeding with your para- 
 graphs. 
 
PART IV. 
 
 FIGUKES OF SPEECH. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 SIMILE, OR COMPARISON. 
 
 A Simile is a comparison of two objects, and is 
 founded on resemblances. Thus : 
 
 As the mountains are round about Jerusalem, so is the 
 Lord round about his people. 
 
 A troubled conscience is like the sea when moved by a 
 tempest. 
 
 The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course 
 of which every one beholds,, but the springs of which have 
 been seen by few. 
 
 In forming comparisons care must be taken that the 
 object selected is better known than that which is com- 
 pared to it. Comparisons should not be too far-fetched, 
 but should be appropriate to the subject under consider- 
 ation. They should not be made between objects the 
 likeness of which is too obvious. 
 
 Make similes to each of the following words : 
 
 Life. 
 
 Anger. 
 
 Friendship. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Fate. 
 
 Sorrow. 
 
 Keligion. 
 
 Perseverance. 
 
 Love. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 91 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 METAPHOR. 
 
 A Metaphor is founded on comparison, but repre- 
 sents one thing as doing what is really done by another. 
 Thus, to say, " The minister upholds the state as the 
 pillar supports the building," is a simile ; but, " The 
 minister is the pillar of the state," is a metaphor. " Man 
 is like a tree ; his actions are as its fruit," is a simile ; 
 but, " Man puts forth to-day the tender leaves of hope, 
 to-morrow blossoms," is a metaphor. 
 
 Care must be taken not to mix the metaphors. 
 
 I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, 
 That longs to launch into a bolder strain. 
 
 Addison. 
 
 In this passage " the muse " is spoken of as requiring 
 a bridle, and may therefore be supposed to be a horse ; 
 but in the next line it is figured as a ship which is to be 
 launched. 
 
 There is not a single view of human nature which is not 
 sufficient to extinguish the seeds of pride. 
 
 Here, also, there is confusion, as a " view " is spoken 
 of as extinguishing " seeds." 
 
 Change the following Metaphorical sentences into 
 plain language. 
 
 1. I will be unto her a wall of fire round about, and will 
 be the glory in the midst of her. 
 
 2. Thou art my rock and my fortress. 
 
 3. Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to my path. 
 
92 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 4. Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
 Had in her sober livery all things clad. 
 
 5. But, look, the morn, in russet mantle clad, 
 Walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern hill. 
 
 6. That maiden's eyes are the pearls of dew, 
 And her cheek the moss-rose opening new ; 
 Her smile is the sun-brink on the brae, 
 
 , When the shower is past, and the cloud away. 
 
 lesson in. 
 
 ALLEGORY. 
 
 An Allegory may be described as a continued meta- 
 phor. It represents in detail the actions of one as if they 
 were those of another. Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress " 
 is a beautiful example of a well-sustained allegory. " The 
 Vision of Mizra," in the Spectator, is another. There are 
 several magnificent allegories in the Scriptures (see Psalm 
 lxxx. and Ezekiel xvii. 22-24). 
 
 It is needful in a good allegory that the figurative and 
 literal meaning shall not be inconsistently mixed. It 
 should not be too dark, nor partake of the nature of a 
 puzzle. The meaning should be readily perceived, al- 
 though veiled by the language of figure. 
 
 Write out the poem of " Excelsior," by Longfellow. 
 Illustrate briefly its allegorical meaning. Change it into 
 a prose narrative. 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. ■ 93 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 ALLEGORY CONTINUED. 
 
 "Write an allegory on The Empire of Poetry,* taking 
 the following for your scheme : 
 
 1. The empire is a populous country, divided into Upper 
 and Lower Regions. 
 
 2. The capital of Upper Poetry is Epic, whose principal 
 suburb is Romance. Here are the Mountains of Tragedy. 
 
 3. The capital of Lower Poetry is Burlesque ; another large 
 town is Comedy. 
 
 4. Between the states of Higher and Lower Poetry are the 
 Deserts of Common Sense. 
 
 5. The empire has two rivers, Rhyme and Reason. 
 
 6. River Rhyme rises in the Mountains of Revery, whose 
 tops are called Points of Sublime Thoughts. At the foot of 
 these mountains lie the caverns of Low Conceptions. The 
 principal towns on river Rhyme are Roundelay and Ballad. 
 
 7. River Reason is very straight. It rises in the Mountains 
 of Revery. On its banks is the dark Forest of Bombast, where 
 it is utterly lost. 
 
 8. Plagiarism is a sterile province of the empire. 
 
 9. The chief island is the Island of Satire, 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 "Write an allegory on Man as a Ship, sailing over 
 the Sea of Life. 
 
 * The ideas of this allegory are taken from the writings of Fontenelle. 
 
94 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 "Write an allegory on The Human Passions as a garden 
 of Flowers and Weeds. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 "Write an allegory on Life as the Seasons. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 Write an allegory on The Feelings as Strains of Music. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 PERSONIFICATION. 
 
 Personification is a figure in which some inanimate 
 object is represented as having life and the power of 
 action. Thus : 
 
 The mountains skipped like rams, and the little hills like 
 lambs. 
 
 Earth trembled from her entrails, as again 
 
 In pangs, and nature gave a second groan ; 
 
 Sky lowered, and, muttering thunder, some sad drops 
 
 Wept, at completing of the mortal sin. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Personify the following objects : 
 
 1. A ship. 5. Sunday. 9. Drunkenness. 
 
 2. A horse. 6. Work. 10. Hope. 
 
 3. A locomotive engine. 7. Old age. 11. Sleep. 
 
 4. The morning. 8. Youth. 
 
FIGURES OP SPEECH. 95 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 APOSTROPHE. 
 
 Apostrophe addresses the absent, the dead, or the in- 
 animate, as if the last had consciousness. Thus : 
 
 Death ! where is thy sting 1 Grave ! where is thy 
 victory ] 
 
 I knew him, Horatio ; a fellow of infinite jest ; of most ex- 
 cellent fancy ; he hath borne me on his back a thousand 
 times. Here hung those lips that I have kissed I know not 
 how oft. Where be your gibes now 1 your gambols ? your 
 songs ? your flashes of merriment, that were wont to set the 
 table on a roar 1 — Hamlet 
 
 Apostrophize : 
 
 The ocean. The setting sun. The snow. The Mississippi. 
 George Washington. A faded rose. A picture. 
 
 Change the following so as to introduce an apostrophe : 
 
 As David went up, he exclaimed that he would rather have 
 died than have lost his son Absalom. 
 
 LESSON XI. 
 
 ANTITHESIS. 
 
 Antithesis contrasts two objects. Thus : 
 Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
 Strong without rage ; without o'erflowing, full. 
 
 Antithesis should be only used when the contrast is 
 natural and appropriate. 
 
 Exercise. — Form eight sentences, each containing an 
 antithesis. 
 
96 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Copy out the following, and underline the words that 
 are antithetical to each other : 
 
 a. Let us he sacrificers, but not butchers, Caius. 
 Let 's kill him boldly, but not wrathfully ; 
 Let 's carve him as a dish fit for the gods, 
 Not hew him as a carcass tit for hounds. 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 b. Grave without dulness, learned without pride ; 
 Exact, yet not precise ; though meek, keen-eyed. 
 
 Gray. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 
 HYPERBOLE. CLIMAX. IRONY. 
 
 Hyperbole exaggerates a statement. It differs from a 
 falsehood, because in using it there is no wish to deceive. 
 It is a kind of speech into which young people are liable 
 to fall. 
 
 I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, a blasted 
 fir ; his shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore like a 
 cloud of mist on a hill. — Ossian. 
 
 That star at your birth shone out so bright, 
 It stained the duller sun's meridian light. 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Climax is a figure in which the original idea is ampli- 
 fied, by which each successive circumstance rises in in- 
 terest. Thus : 
 
 It is a crime to put a Roman citizen in bonds ; it is the 
 height of guilt to scourge him ; little less than parricide to 
 put him to death ; what name, then, shall I give to the act 
 of crucifying him 1 — Cicero. 
 
 Irony gives expression to the opposite of what is 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 97 
 
 thought. Thus, if we thought a man stupid, it would 
 be ironical to say, " You are wonderfully intelligent ! " 
 If we thought a man a rogue, it would be ironical to 
 speak of him as " An honest individual — very ! " 
 
 The ironical meaning is more often brought out by the 
 tone of the voice than by the language itself. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Express the following in the language of hyberbole : 
 There were many people assembled. The mountain was 
 
 high. Much rain fell. He has saved some money by his 
 industry. 
 
 2. Quote several passages which contain examples of 
 climax. 
 
 3. Form a short narrative which shall contain a few 
 ironical sentences. 
 
 4. Divest the following passage of its hyperbolic rav- 
 ing : 
 
 She poured forth tears at such a lavish rate, 
 
 That, were the world on fire, they might have drowned 
 
 The wrath of heaven, and quenched the mighty ruin. 
 
 Popular Poetess. 
 
 LESSON XIII. 
 
 INTERROGATION. METONOMY. — SYNECDOCHE. 
 
 Interrogation is that figure which asks a question 
 without requiring an answer. It is frequently, indeed, 
 a strong mode of assertion. Thus : 
 
 Breathes there a man, with soul so dead, 
 
 LWho never to himself hath said, — 
 This is my own, my native land 1 
 : 
 
98 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Here the poet is not asking for information, but assert- 
 ing strongly that no such man could be found. 
 
 Metonomy frequently reverses cause and effect. Thus : 
 
 " They read Scott," means " They read Scott's works." 
 " Gray hairs should be respected," means that " Old age (of 
 which gray hairs are the evidence) should be treated with 
 respect." 
 
 Sometimes it places a part for a whole, as, " There 
 were twenty head of cattle in the market," where the 
 head stands for the whole animal. In " Twenty sail of 
 the line entered the harbor," the sail stands for the whole 
 ship. "When thus used the figure is sometimes called 
 Synecdoche. 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 1. Quote some poetical passages containing illustra- 
 tions of interrogation. 
 
 2. Correct the errors in the use of figurative language 
 in the following : 
 
 He was so much skilled in the empire of the oar, that 
 few could excel him. 
 
 At length Erasmus, that great injured name 
 (The glory of the priesthood and the shame), 
 Curbed the wild torrent of a barb'rous age, 
 And drove those holy Vandals off the stage. 
 On the wide sea of letters 't was thy boast 
 To crowd each sail, and touch at every coast. 
 From that rich mine how often hast thou brought 
 The pure and precious pearls of splendid thought. 
 
 3. Point out the metonomy in the following : 
 
 a. And as a hare whom hounds and horns pursue. 
 
 b. Dost thou so hunger for my empty chair 
 
 That thou wilt needs invest thee with mine honor 
 Before thy hour is ripe ? 
 
FIGURES OF SPEECH. 99 
 
 RULES FOR, ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 The following simple rules for Composition will be 
 found useful : 
 
 1. Bear in mind that clearness of expression is the 
 great object to be aimed at. 
 
 2. To gain this end, you must first acquire a perfect 
 knowledge of the topic upon which you are about to write. 
 
 3. When an artist wishes to produce an imaginative 
 sketch, he first pictures the scene in his mind's eye ; 
 then, in a few bold dashes, he commits the design to 
 canvas, and afterwards works out the body of his piece. 
 So should it be with theme-making. Ponder well upon 
 your subject before you begin. Decide upon your argu- 
 ments, and then trace out the threads of your essay in 
 salient points. Having thus produced a skeleton-theme, 
 you can proceed to the working out of your dissertation. 
 
 4. Having written a sentence, study it carefully, and 
 try if you cannot improve its tone of elegance and pro- 
 priety. 
 
 5. Do not aim at using fine words ; for simplicity is 
 the perfection of composition. 
 
 6. Similes and allegories, if well worked out, are very 
 valuable accessories. 
 
 7. Appropriate extracts from good authors are highly 
 effective. Brougham says that the power of happy quo- 
 tation is a talent second only to that of invention. 
 
 8. Try to cultivate a love of reading the works of 
 standard writers, and an imitation of the style of your 
 favorites will naturally follow. 
 
100 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 9. Express your meaning as freely as possible. Long 
 periods may please the ear, but they perplex the under- 
 standing. Therefore, avoid too long sentences. 
 
 10. Write without restraint, but not hastily. 
 
 11. Try to acquire the habit of writing, as if you were 
 speaking deliberately on some subject of which you are 
 master. 
 
 12. Accustom yourself to think justly, and you will 
 not be at a loss to write intelligibly. 
 
 13. Never omit a careful perusal of what you have 
 written, for you may find some inaccuracies. The neglect 
 of this rule is not only a reflection on the writer, but a 
 rudeness to the person addressed. 
 
 14. Stick to your text, and do not let every incidental 
 thought lead you on to a digression. 
 
PART V. 
 
 ON THE STRUCTUKE OF THEMES. 
 
 A Theme is a series of paragraphs giving a complete 
 exposition of the whole subject of which a number of 
 paragraphs treat. 
 
 Themes may be divided into — 
 
 1. Themes of Narration. 
 
 2. " " Description. 
 
 3. " " Reflection. 
 
 4. " " Discursion. 
 
 5. " " Argumentation. 
 
 directions to pupils. 
 
 1. When you cannot derive your facts from personal 
 observation, read some authentic account of them ; and 
 in the course of reading fill out your scheme, 
 
 2. Proceed with your theme by the help of your filled- 
 up schemes, never making use of your booh of reference 
 after taking your first notes. 
 
 3. Indicate by marginal notes on your scheme those 
 points that will admit of enlargement and discussion. 
 
 4. A theme is an expansion of paragraphs ; therefore 
 the schemes will be the expanded schemes of paragraphs. 
 
10.2 
 
 ENGLJSH COMPOSITION. 
 
 I. NARRATION. 
 
 1. Incidental (incidents, stories). 
 
 2. Historical (history). 
 
 3. Biographical. 
 
 LESSON I. 
 
 narration (incident). 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. 
 
 2. Object. 
 
 3. Place. 
 
 4. Event. 
 
 5. Manner. 
 
 "Write a narration of The Loss of the Ville du Havre, 
 taking the following for your prepared scheme, expanded 
 with marginal notes. 
 
 The Loss of the Ville du Havre. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. November, 1873. 
 
 2. Object. The Ville du Havre. 
 
 3. Place. The Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 4. Event. The sinking of the 
 
 Ville du Havre. 
 
 5. Manner. A collision with 
 
 the Loch Earn. Steam- 
 er sank in 20 minutes. 
 226 lives lost. 87 persons 
 saved. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 The winter coming on. The dreari- 
 ness of the time of year, etc. 
 
 Account of the grandeur of the ves- 
 sel. The merry parties on board. 
 
 Sketch of the vastness and dreariness. 
 
 Graphic account of the rushing to- 
 gether of these sea-monsters in the 
 fog. The screams of the drown- 
 ing. The confusion. The bravery 
 of some. The fearful end. Give 
 details of sinking of ship. Picture 
 the sorrow of friends at home. 
 The anxiety of all till the com- 
 plete truth was known. The grati- 
 tude of those saved. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 103 
 
 Cured by Laughter. 
 SCHEME. EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 1. Time. A short time since. 
 
 2. Persons. John Doe and Rich- Say who John Doe and Bicliard Roe 
 
 ard Roe. were. 
 
 3. Place. Pittsburg. Give a description of Pittsburg. 
 
 4. Event. John Doe and R. 
 
 Roe cured by laughter. 
 
 5. Manner. Lying ill in bed. What they were ill of. Why he 
 
 Night. Watchman fell threw pillow? Show how laughter 
 asleep. John Doe threw cured them. Draw moral, 
 pillow at him. Knocked 
 him over. Both roared with 
 laughter. Did them good. 
 
 A short time since at Pittsburg, a flourishing city of 
 Pennsylvania, John Doe, a respectable grocer, and Richard 
 Roe, a well-to-do farmer, were lying in one room, very sick, 
 one with brain-fever, and the other with an aggravated case 
 of the mumps. They were so low that watchers were needed 
 every night, and it was thought doubtful if the one sick of 
 fever would recover. A gentleman was engaged to watch 
 over night, his duty being to wake up the nurse whenever it 
 became necessary to administer medicine. 
 
 In the course of the night both watcher and nurse fell 
 asleep. The man with the mumps lay watching the clock, 
 and saw that it was time to give the fever patient his potion. 
 He was unable to speak aloud, or to move any portion of his 
 body except his arms ; but, seizing a pillow, he managed to 
 strike the watcher in the face with it. Thus suddenly 
 awakened, the w T atcher sprang from his seat, falling to the 
 floor, and awakened both the nurse and fever patient. 
 
 The incident struck the sick men as very ludicrous, and 
 they laughed heartily at it for some fifteen or twenty minutes. 
 When the doctor came in the morning he found his patients 
 vastly improved. He never knew so sudden a turn for the 
 
104 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 better ; and now both, are up and well. Thus a hearty laugh 
 often does us more good than a bottle of physic. 
 
 LESSON II. 
 
 NARRATION (story). 
 
 Write a narration of The Fate of Ginevra, taking the 
 following for your filled-up scheme : 
 
 The Fate of Ginevra. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. A long time ago. 
 
 2. Person. Ginevra. 
 
 Place. A palace near the 
 Reggio Gate. 
 
 4. Event. The fate of Ginevra. 
 
 5. Manner. Ginevra about to 
 
 marry Francesco Doria. 
 Wedding-day. Ginevra 
 hides in sport. They can- 
 not find her. She never 
 returns. Francesco joins 
 the Venetians in their war 
 with Turkey, and is slain. 
 Fifty years after some vis- 
 itors open the lid of an old 
 chest and find the skeleton 
 of Ginevra. Had hid in 
 sport, and found a grave. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Give a description of her. Young, 
 beautiful, full of gayety. Dressed 
 in bridal costume. The daughter 
 of Donati. 
 
 Give description of palace. Noble 
 chambers, paintings, carvings, heir- 
 looms, cabinets, velvet curtains, 
 gardens, statues, cypresses. 
 
 Picture the beauty of the bride, the 
 magnificence of her dress, and the 
 happiness of Francesco Doria, a 
 brave young noble. Give a sketch 
 of the gay festival on the wedding- 
 day. Her mirth when she hides. 
 The consternation of the guests 
 when they cannot find her. Fran- 
 cesco's despair. Donati's grief. 
 What war. Depict the shadowed 
 life and reckless death of young 
 Francesco. Describe a merry par- 
 ty of visitors. The glee with 
 which they discovered the old 
 chest. Their horror when they 
 found what was in it. The skele- 
 ton. The pearl, the emerald, the 
 golden clasp with the name of 
 "Ginevra" engraved on it. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 105 
 
 LESSON III. 
 
 Narrate the story of James Fairbum being lost in the 
 Stalactite Cavern, taking the following for your prepared 
 scheme : 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. Christmas, 1872. 
 
 2. Person. James Fairbum. 
 
 3. Place. The Stalactite Cav- 
 
 ern at Matlock. 
 
 NOTES EXPANDED. 
 
 Depict the festivity of Christmas 
 time, and the appearance of the 
 ground covered with snow. 
 
 Son of a rich farmer in Derbyshire, 
 England. 
 
 Wonderful cavern extending six hun- 
 dred feet under ground. Entered 
 by a low chasm. Stream running 
 through it. Seventy feet high. 
 Huge columns of rocks. Like a 
 vast cavern of ice tipped with gold. 
 Dark. Terribly gloomy. 
 
 Event. James Fairbum be- 
 ing lost in the Stalactite 
 Cavern. 
 
 Manner. James Fairbum 
 going to visit his father, to 
 spend Christmas, drops 
 through a chasm down a 
 slanting rock into the Sta- 
 lactite Cavern. Calls for 
 help in vain. Night passes, 
 and no help. Seeks egress ; 
 can find none. Gives him- 
 self up to despair. Hears 
 a dog in the stream. Calls 
 him. Too faint to move. 
 Ties handkerchief round 
 the dog's neck. The dog 
 
 goes away. Kescued. 
 
 Give a fanciful description of the ap- 
 pearance of James Fairburn and 
 of his anxiety to be home Christ- 
 mas day. Describe his dropping 
 through the chasm in trying to 
 take a near road over a field. His 
 striking his solitary match and dis- 
 covering where he is. His hor- 
 ror. His efforts to get out. His 
 delight at hearing the dog. His 
 calling it. His terrible faintness. 
 His anxiety when the dog leaves 
 him. The joy of his friends at 
 finding him. 
 
106 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON IV. 
 
 Narrate the story of Ellen's Secret, taking the follow- 
 ing for your prepared scheme : 
 
 Ellen's Secret. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. June, 1872. 
 
 2. Person. Donald Blane. 
 
 3. Place. Benzonia, Michigan. 
 
 4. Event. Ellen's Secret. 
 
 5. Manner. Dorothy and Don- 
 
 ald Blane very poor. 
 Death of Dorothy's broth- 
 er, William Blane, of De- 
 troit. Large property re- 
 verts to Dorothy by will. 
 Ellen Moore, an orphan, 
 whom William Blane had 
 adopted, comes to live 
 with Dorothy and Donald. 
 Dorothy is severe with 
 her; Donald loves her. 
 Dorothy and Donald quar- 
 rel in consequence of his 
 affection for Ellen. Ellen 
 bears all in patience. Don- 
 ald leaves home. Dorothy 
 taken ill. Thinks she is 
 dying, and sends for her. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Describe the beauty of summer. 
 
 Describe the family of the Blanes. 
 Great respectability. Father a 
 minister. Died. Donald Blane, 
 an orphan, brought up by Dorothy 
 Blane, an aunt. Describe Donald 
 Blane. 
 
 Describe Benzonia. Romantic ra- 
 vine. Beautiful Lake. Pictu- 
 resque river. Rugged cliffs. No- 
 ble woods. Describe Blane's 
 house. Pretty cottage. Well-cul- 
 tivated yard. Fruit-trees. Flow- 
 ers. 
 
 Describe genteel poverty. Surprise 
 of Dorothy and William. Altered 
 circumstances. Comfort of wealth. 
 Dorothy proud and overbearing. 
 Donald free and generous. De- 
 scribe Ellen Moore. Describe the 
 circumstances of the adoption. 
 Her father dying and leaving her 
 to his friend William Blane. Don- 
 ald's growing love. Dorothy's pet- 
 ty daily persecutions of Ellen. 
 Donald's grief. His anxiety to spare 
 her pain. Describe Donald's indig- 
 nation at his aunt's treatment of 
 Ellen. Ellen's gentleness and pa- 
 tience. Donald's departure. Doro- 
 thy's illness. Ellen's attention to 
 her. Describe Dorothy's repent- 
 ance. The j oy of the wedding-day. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 107 
 
 The aunt consents to the 
 union of Donald and El- 
 len. Marriage-day. After 
 marriage Ellen shows a 
 will of William Blane, 
 dated after the one by 
 which Dorothy succeeded 
 to the property, which 
 leaves the whole of it to 
 her, and which she was 
 too proud to bring forward 
 before her marriage. 
 
 The festivities. The marriage. De- 
 scribe the circumstances of Ellen's 
 production of the will. The sur- 
 prise and gratitude of Dorothy and 
 Donald. Bring in the climax of 
 the secret. 
 
 LESSON V. 
 
 narration (historical). 
 Write a narration of The Adventure of Ponce de Leon, 
 taking the following for the filled-up scheme : 
 
 The Adventure of Ponce de Leon. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Describe the condition of Spain at 
 this period. Who was king ? 
 
 Who was Ponce de Leon ? 
 
 Why called Florida? Give a de- 
 scription of the country and its 
 position. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. 1512. 
 
 2. Person. Ponce de Leon. 
 
 3. Place. Florida. 
 
 4. Event. The adventure of 
 
 Ponce de Leon. 
 
 5. Manner. De Leon hears of 
 
 Indian legend about a foun- 
 tain which had the power 
 of keeping one forever 
 young. Resolves to seek 
 it. Reaches a land of flow- 
 ers. Tries to take posses- 
 sion. Driven off by In- 
 dians. Wounded. Dies. 
 Earliest discovery of what 
 is now called the United 
 States. 
 
 Describe the effect of such a narra- 
 tive on the superstitious spirit of 
 the young noble. The growth of 
 
 . his curiosity. His difficulties in 
 preparing an expedition. The 
 troubles he met with. The beauty 
 of the Florida forests. The fights 
 with the Indians. His wound. 
 How he daily expected to come to 
 the Fountain of Life. The pangs 
 of his death. The greatness and 
 prosperity of the United States. 
 
108 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON VI. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 Narrate the story of The Coming of the Pilgrim Fathers, 
 taking the following for your nlled-up scheme : 
 
 The Coming of the Pilgrim Fathers. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. 1620. 
 
 2. Persons. The Pilgrim Fa- 
 thers. 
 
 3. Place. Massachusetts. 
 
 Event. The coming of the 
 Pilgrim Fathers. 
 
 Manner. How they sailed 
 across the Atlantic in the 
 Mayflower. Drew up codes 
 of laws. Landed at Plym- 
 outh. Winter. Indian 
 chief sent a rattlesnake- 
 skin wrapped round a bun- 
 dle of arrows. Governor 
 Bradford returned it filled 
 with powder and bullets. 
 Frightened the Indians. 
 Cleared the wood. Raised 
 crops. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Describe the state of America at this 
 period. The appearance of the 
 country. 
 
 Who were they? Why were they 
 called Puritans? Why did they 
 leave England? Describe their 
 characters and manners. 
 
 Describe the appearance of the coun- 
 try. Its wildness. Its inhabitants. 
 Its apparent unfitness for settle- 
 ment. 
 
 Describe the terrors of the voyage. 
 The anxiety of the adventurers to 
 reach land. Their fear of the In- 
 dians. The wildness of the coun- 
 try. Describe the consternation 
 of the Pilgrim Fathers when they 
 received the Indian message. Ex- 
 plain what it all meant. Describe 
 the different aspect of the coun- 
 try after the settlement had been- 
 made. 
 
 X 
 

 ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 LESSON VII. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 109 
 
 Narrate the account of The Conquest of Mexico by Cortez, 
 taking the following for your filled-up scheme : 
 
 The Conquest of Mexico by Cortez. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Time. 1519. 
 
 2. Person. Fernando Cortez. 
 
 3. Place. Mexico. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Who was he ? What was his char- 
 acter ? Give a brief sketch of him. 
 
 Give a description of the country. 
 Who were the Aztecs ? Who was 
 Montezuma ? 
 
 4. Event. The conquest of Mex- 
 
 ico by Fernando Cortez. 
 
 5. Manner. Cortez fitted up 
 
 an expedition. Burnt his 
 ships. Conquered the peo- 
 ple. Made slaves of the 
 natives. 
 
 Describe the setting forth of the ex- 
 pedition. How were the Span- 
 iards dressed? What arms had 
 they ? Why did Cortez burn the 
 ships ? Describe the sufferings of 
 the Aztecs, and the cruelties of the 
 Spaniards. Show how it was not 
 by such men as these that a great 
 nation should be founded. 
 
 LESSON VIII. 
 
 Narrate the account of Be Soto's Discovery of the Mis- 
 sissippi, drawing up your scheme and expanding it, as in 
 Lesson VII. 
 
110 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON IX. 
 
 Narrate the account of any Indian massacre you may 
 have read of, drawing up your scheme and expanding it, 
 as in Lesson VIII. 
 
 LESSON X. 
 
 Narrate the account of any great battle you may have 
 read of, drawing up your scheme and expanding it, as in 
 Lesson VIII. 
 
 LESSON XL 
 
 Narrate the history of the Growth of Virginia, drawing 
 up your scheme and expanding it, as in Lesson VIII. 
 
 LESSON XII. 
 narration (biography). 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Birth. (PtKJU 
 
 2. Education. 
 
 3. Pursuits. 
 
 4. Moral character. 
 
 5. What distinguished him. 
 
 6. When, where, and how he died. 
 
 Narrate the Life of Washington Irving, taking the fol- 
 lowing for your filled-up scheme : 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OP THEMES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 1. Birth. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 April 3, 1783. 
 
 2. Education. During boyhood 
 
 meagre. Self-cultured. 
 
 3. Pursuits. Literary. 
 
 4. Moral Character. Gentle, 
 
 unassuming, vivacious. 
 
 5. What distinguished him. 
 
 His writings. 
 
 6. When, where, and how he 
 died. 
 
 Washington Irving. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 New York. His father died during 
 Washington Irving's boyhood. 
 
 His brothers had the superintend- 
 ence of his education. 
 
 Journalist and reviewer. Wrote for 
 the " Morning Chronicle." Some 
 account of journalism at that time. 
 
 Give some anecdote in illustration of 
 his possession of these qualities. 
 
 Humorous " History of New York." 
 Tell all you know about it. " The 
 Sketch Book. " Give some idea of 
 its contents. " Bracebridge Hall." 
 Relate briefly its plot, and com- 
 ment on its character. " History 
 of the Life and Voyages of Chris- 
 topher Columbus." " The Alham- 
 bra/' Give some idea of its con- 
 tents. "Life of Washington." 
 Make some remarks on his style. 
 Easy, pure, and graceful, and re- 
 markable for distinct and delicate 
 word-painting. 
 
 lesson xni. 
 
 Narrate the Life of Pythagoras, taking the following 
 for your nlled-up scheme: 
 
 Pythagoras. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 Birth. B. c. 500. 
 
 Education. Travelled 
 search of information. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 At Sidon, in Syria. His father was 
 
 a merchant at Samos. 
 From 18 years of age he travelled 
 
 in search of knowledge, visiting 
 
 Greece, Asia Minor, Italy, and 
 
 Egypt. 
 
112 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 3. Pursuits. Philosophy. 
 
 4. What distinguished him. 
 His teachings. 
 
 When, where, and how he 
 died. 
 
 At Croton he established in his own 
 house a college. He taught his 
 disciples mysteries in hieroglyph- 
 ics and symbols. 
 
 By his wisdom he delivered several 
 cities from the yoke of slavery, 
 He made wonderful discoveries in 
 religion, mathematics, and politi- 
 cal economy. When he found out 
 the great truth in geometry, that 
 "the square of the longest side of 
 a right-angled triangle is equal to 
 both the squares of the other two 
 sides," it is said that in his grati- 
 tude he offered to the gods a heca- 
 tomb, or the sacrifice of a hun- 
 dred oxen. Pythagoras and his 
 followers believed in the transmi- 
 gration of souls from one body to 
 another ; on which account they 
 abstained from eating flesh, and 
 lived altogether on vegetables. 
 
 Phalaris, the tyrant of Sicily, ordered 
 the death of Pythagoras, but was 
 himself murdered by the revolu- 
 tionary citizens on the very day 
 that he had appointed for the exe- 
 cution of the philosopher. The 
 fate of Pythagoras is involved in 
 obscurity. Some say that he was 
 killed in a tumult ; others that he 
 died a natural death at the age of 
 ninety. 
 
 LESSON XIV. 
 
 Narrate trie history of the Life of Napoleon III., hav- 
 ing prepared your scheme and expanded it, as in Lesson 
 XII. 
 

 • ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 113 
 
 LESSON XV. 
 
 Narrate the history of the Life of Abraham Lincoln, 
 having prepared your scheme and expanded it, as in Les- 
 son XII. 
 
 LESSON XVI. 
 
 Narrate the history of the Life of the Most Distin- 
 guished Individual you can think of in your own State. 
 
 II. DESCRIPTION. 
 
 The Descriptive Theme may be regarded as the ex- 
 pansion of the Descriptive Paragraph. The subjects of 
 Descriptive Themes are : 
 
 1. Individual Objects. 
 
 2. Class Objects. 
 
 3. Moral Qualities. 
 
 The Schemes are the same as those used in the con- 
 struction of Paragraphs. 
 
 Individual Objects. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 2. Properties (position, use, size, shape, etc.). 
 
 3. Parts. 
 
114 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XVII. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL OBJECTS. 
 
 Describe The Tower of London, using the following 
 filled-up scheme: 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. The Species. A citadel. 
 
 2. Its Properties. 
 the Thames, 
 of stone. 
 
 Situated on 
 Size. Built 
 
 Its Parts. Chapel. Towers. 
 Jewel House. Dungeons. 
 Castellated walls. Armory. 
 Moat. Drawbridge. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Mention some other citadels of 
 note. 
 
 What was it built for ? Say some- 
 thing about the Thames. Com- 
 pare its present surroundings 
 of commerce with the romantic 
 times of the Middle Ages. 
 
 Towers. Beauchamp Tower, fa- 
 mous for the imprisonment of 
 Anne Boleyn. Give some sketch 
 of her trials. Brick Tower 
 where Lady Jane Grey was kept. 
 Bloody Tower, where the princes 
 were murdered by Richard III. 
 Lion Tower, where the lions 
 were kept. The Horse Armory 
 consists of full-sized effigies of 
 mounted men in armor of every 
 age of chivalry, and was built 
 by Sir S. Meyrick. The Jewel 
 House contains the royal jewels, 
 — one diamond there being worth 
 ten million dollars. 
 
 LESSON XVIII. 
 
 Describe St Peter's, at Borne, preparing your scheme 
 and expanding it, as in Lesson XVII. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 115 
 
 LESSON" XIX. 
 
 Describe The Falls of Niagara, preparing your scheme 
 and expanding it, as in Lesson XVII. 
 
 LESSON XX. 
 
 Describe Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, preparing your 
 scheme and expanding it, as in Lesson XVII. 
 
 LESSON XXI. 
 
 Describe The Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, preparing 
 your scheme, and expanding it, as in Lesson XVII. 
 
 Class Objects. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Species. 
 
 a. Genus. 
 
 b. Difference. 
 
 2. Properties. 
 
 3. Parts. 
 
 4. Kinds. 
 
 LESSON XXII. 
 
 Describe a camera obscura, taking the following for 
 your prepared scheme : 
 
116 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 A Camera. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. The Species. Optical instru- 
 
 ments, a. Genus, b. Diff- 
 ence. Takes images of ex- 
 ternal things. 
 
 2. Properties. Reflects inverted 
 
 image. Used for photog- 
 raphy. Size various. 
 
 3. Parts. Ground glass. Cham- 
 
 bers. Lens. 
 
 4. Kinds. Portable. Stationary. 
 
 Stereoscopic. Microscopic. 
 Magnifying. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Say something about its discovery. 
 
 Give a brief sketch of the invention 
 and use of photography. 
 
 Show how the images are rendered 
 permanent by chemicals. Ex- 
 plain the method. 
 
 Point out how the increasing use 
 of these valuable instruments is 
 encouraging their perfection. 
 
 LESSON XXIII. 
 
 Describe an electric battery, preparing and expanding 
 your scheme, as in Lesson XXII. 
 
 LESSON XXIV. 
 
 Describe a telegraphic apparatus, preparing and ex- 
 panding your scheme, as in Lesson XXII. 
 
 LESSON XXV. 
 
 Describe a printing-press, preparing and expanding 
 your scheme, as in Lesson XXII. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 117 
 
 LESSON XXVI. 
 
 Describe an organ, preparing and expanding your 
 scheme, as in Lesson XXII. 
 
 LESSON XXVII. 
 
 Describe a steam-packet, preparing and expanding 
 your scheme, as in Lesson XXII. 
 
 Moral Qualities. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Definition. 
 
 a. Genus. 
 
 b. Difference. 
 
 2. Effect on Society. 
 
 3. Effect on Self. 
 
 4. Moral. 
 
 LESSON XXVIH. 
 
 Describe Intemperance, taking the following for your 
 
 prepared scheme : 
 
 Intemperance. 
 
 SCHEME. EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 1. Genus. Social vice. Draw contrast between the intem- 
 
 perate man and the sober man. 
 
 2. Difference. Is caused by the Give some proof of this by exam- 
 
 use of strong drinks. pie and quotations, and show 
 
 that the use of strong drinks is 
 dangerous. 
 
118 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 3. Effect on self. It makes a man 
 
 a slave. It ruins his mental 
 and physical constitutions. 
 Makes him the easy prey 
 to other vices. Deadens his 
 good qualities. Causes him 
 to lose his self-respect. Is 
 his curse. Total debasement 
 and prostration. 
 
 4. Effect on Society. Bad ex- 
 
 ample. Makes men shun 
 him. Contempt. Loss of 
 confidence. Sorrow on fam- 
 ily. Innocent suffer for the 
 guilty. 
 
 Show by example that the habit 
 of excess in drinking does en- 
 slave a man. Show how it de- 
 stroys his mental and physical 
 qualities. Give medical opinion 
 to prove that it ruins his body. 
 Quote instances to show that it 
 drives him to commit other 
 crimes. 
 
 Draw a sketch of an imaginary 
 drunkard, and picture the trou- 
 ble he brings upon his wife and 
 children. 
 
 LESSON XXIX. 
 
 Describe barbarism, preparing and expanding your 
 scheme, as in Lesson XXVIIL 
 
 LESSON XXX. 
 
 Describe imagination, preparing and expanding your 
 scheme, as in Lesson XXVIIL 
 
 LESSON XXXI. 
 
 Describe revenge, preparing 
 scheme, as in Lesson XXVIIL 
 
 and expanding your 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 119 
 
 III REFLECTION. 
 
 Reflective Themes, like Keflective Paragraphs, are 
 those** that call, upon our thoughts and emotions for 
 expression. Keflective Themes may be classified under 
 five headings : 
 
 1. Individual Objects. 
 
 2. Class Objects. 
 
 3. Events. 
 
 4. Abstract Qualities. 
 
 5. The Characters of Persons. 
 
 "We shall apply one scheme to Individual and Class 
 Objects, another to Events and Abstract Qualities, and a 
 third to The Characters of Persons. 
 
 reflection {Individual Objects and Class Objects). 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. The Feelings. 
 
 a. Sad. 
 
 b. Pleasant. 
 
 2. The Qualities. 
 
 a. Beauty or Deformity. 
 
 b. Utility or Inutility. 
 Suggest; 
 
 4. Simile. 
 
 LESSON XXXII. 
 
 individual object. 
 "Write a reflection on The Pyramids of Egypt 
 
120 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON XXXHI. 
 
 CLASS OBJECT. 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. The Feelings. 
 
 2. The Qualities. 
 
 a. Beauty or Deformity. 
 
 b. Utility or Inutility. 
 
 3. Origin. 
 
 4. Simile. 
 
 Write a reflective theme on A Watch, taking the fol- 
 lowing for your prepared and expanded scheme : 
 
 SCHEME. EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 1. The Feelings. Interest. Won- Reflect on the discovery and per- 
 
 der. fection of horology. Mention 
 
 the sun-dial. The sand-cup. 
 Any other means of measuring 
 time you may have read of. 
 
 2. The Qualities, a. Beauty or Reflect on some famous clock, such 
 
 deformity. Great beauty. as the great clock at Strasburg. 
 
 Intricacy. Evenness. Mar- Reflect on the evenness and deli- 
 
 vellous adjustment, b. Util- cacy of the works. Name all 
 
 ity or inutility. Useful. the occupations you can think 
 
 of where the use of the watch 
 
 is important. Speculate as to 
 
 what we should have done had 
 
 we never discovered the watch. 
 
 3. Origin. 
 
 4. Suggestion, 
 
 LESSON XXXIV. 
 
 Write a reflection on a balloon, preparing and expand- 
 ing your scheme, as in Lesson XXXIIL 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 121 
 
 LESSON XXXV. 
 
 Write a reflection on a photograph, preparing and ex- 
 panding your scheme, as in Lesson XXXIII. 
 
 LESSON XXXVI. 
 
 "Write a reflection on a sewing-machine, preparing and 
 expanding your scheme, as in Lesson XXXIII. 
 
 EVENTS AND ABSTRACT QUALITIES. 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Origin. 
 
 2. Result to self. 
 
 3. Result to the world. 
 
 4. The Feelings. 
 
 5. Moral Deductions. 
 
 6. Illustration hy simile. 
 
 LESSON XXXVII. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Burning of Moscow, taking 
 the following as your prepared and expanded scheme : 
 
 SCHEME. EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 1. Cause. The approach of Na- Reflect on the ambitious character 
 poleon I. of Napoleon. The march of his 
 
 army into Russia. The trepida- 
 tion of the invaded people. The 
 boldness of the resolve to burn 
 the city rather than it should 
 fall into the hands of the con- 
 
122 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 2. Result to self. Saved the Rus- 
 sians from the advance of 
 the French. 
 
 3. Result to the world. Sym- 
 pathy for Russia. Delight 
 at the check of an autocrat. 
 'Adjustment of the balance 
 of power of Europe. 
 
 queror. The dismay of Napo- 
 leon. His retreat from starva- 
 tion. The death of his soldiers 
 on the roadside. His desertion 
 of his followers. His appear- 
 ance in Paris. 
 
 Reflect on the heroism of the Rus- 
 sians. The terrible sufferings 
 they endured. Their savage ex- 
 ultation as they saw their enemy 
 repulsed. 
 
 Review briefly the progress Russia 
 has made since this time. Show 
 how by this retreat Napoleon 
 lost the prestige of his name as 
 a military tactician. Reflect on 
 the evil of seeking to conquer 
 for the sake of conquest. 
 
 LESSON XXXVIII. 
 
 Write a reflective theme on The Assassination of Abra- 
 ham Lincoln, preparing and expanding your scheme, as 
 in Lesson XXXVII. 
 
 LESSON XXXIX. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Laying of the Atlantic Cable, 
 preparing and expanding your scheme, as in Lesson 
 XXXVII. 
 
 LESSON XL. 
 
 Write a reflection on The Abolition of Slavery, prepar- 
 ing and expanding your scheme, as in Lesson XXXVII. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 123 
 
 LESSON XLI. 
 
 ABSTRACT QUALITY. 
 
 Write a reflection on Common Sense, taking the follow- 
 ing for your prepared and expanded scheme : 
 
 Common Sense. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Origin. A well-balanced mind. 
 
 2. Result to self. It makes a 
 man reliant on self. Gives 
 him a proper appreciation 
 of the ways of the world. 
 
 3. Result to the world. The 
 world is richer. Men have 
 confidence in the man of 
 common sense. 
 
 4. The feelings. 
 Envy. 
 
 Admiration. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Reflect on the education of a man 
 that shall make him real or ideal 
 in his views. 
 
 Reflect on the absurdity of a roman- 
 tic view of life. On the suffering 
 produced by flightiness of judg- 
 ment. On the necessity of 
 weighing things justly in the 
 scale of right and wrong. On 
 the grand power the man holds 
 who possesses common sense. 
 On his certain success. On his 
 improved character and juster 
 view of life. On his moderated 
 passions. On his higher quali- 
 fication for the acceptance of 
 religion. Give an example of 
 all this. 
 
 Reflect how railroads have been 
 made, the telegraph has been 
 perfected, the ocean navigated, 
 the printing-press invented, and 
 a thousand useful arts accomp- 
 lished by common sense. Men 
 are made happier by having a 
 man of common sense living in 
 the midst of them. 
 
 Minds otherwise constituted some- 
 times shrink from the superior 
 judgments of common sense, but 
 
124 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Moral deduction. We should 
 train our minds to habits of 
 judgment. We should show 
 respect to the decisions of 
 common sense. 
 
 Illustration by simile. The 
 man who has common sense 
 holds the philosopher's stone. 
 
 in the end are sure to be con- 
 vinced. We bow to the opinion 
 of the man who possesses it. 
 We court his advice. We value 
 his friendship. 
 Reflect on the misery of those 
 who refuse to listen to its dic- 
 tates. 
 
 He who has no common sense is 
 like a man walking through life 
 on stilts, who stare's above every 
 one's head, and cannot see a 
 thing lying at his feet. 
 
 IV. ARGUMENTATIVE THEMES. 
 
 Argumentative Themes are the most difficult, and 
 the most important of all compositions. 
 
 They require the use of great care and the exercise of 
 much judgment in their compilation. 
 
 It is necessary that the student should make himself 
 thoroughly the master of the subject he takes in hand. 
 
 The following scheme will be found practicable : 
 
 Explanation. 
 Proposition. 
 Proof. 
 
 a. Possibility. 
 
 b. Probability. 
 
 c. Testimony. 
 
 d. Example. 
 
 e. Analogy. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 125 
 
 4. Kefutation. 
 
 5. Appeal to the feelings. 
 
 6. Summary. 
 
 LESSON XLII. 
 
 Prove that Oratory owes more to Education than to 
 Nature, taking the following for your prepared and ex- 
 panded scheme : 
 
 Oratory owes more to Education than to Nature. 
 
 SCHEME. 
 
 1. Explanation. Oratory is not 
 always a natural gift'; there 
 may be cases exceptional to 
 the rule, but generally it is 
 a mechanical art cultivated 
 by education. 
 
 EXPANDED NOTES. 
 
 Point out the difference between 
 oratory and eloquence. Elo- 
 quence is the natural expression 
 of the emotions of the heart. 
 Oratory is the artificial cultiva- 
 tions of rhetorical rules. A 
 woman pleading for the life of 
 a babe who has been torn from 
 her is naturally eloquent, be- 
 cause she expresses the natural 
 emotions of her maternal tender- 
 ness; but a barrister pleading 
 uses the forms of a studied but 
 artificial oratory. A wounded 
 deer pleads with a look for pity, 
 but it would be absurd to call 
 this look oratory. Eloquence 
 may be expressed by a gesture 
 or a look ; oratory must be ex- 
 pressed in words. Therefore, 
 oratory must be the artificial 
 product of education, not the 
 natural prompting of the mind. 
 Education may be external or un- 
 conscious. It maybe acquired 
 
126 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 2. Proposition. Oratory owes 
 
 more to education than to 
 nature. 
 
 3. Proof. 
 
 a. Possibility. It is possible, 
 because men of the highest 
 natural talent have found 
 it difficult to express them- 
 selves orally. 
 
 Refutation. But it may be 
 objected that if such men 
 were trained, they would 
 not make brilliant orators. 
 
 Answer. Practice in public 
 speaking brings confidence 
 and does away with hesi- 
 tation in all men. 
 
 b. Probability. It is prob- 
 able that oratory owes 
 more to education than to 
 nature; because flow of 
 words comes from practice, 
 the voice is modulated by 
 the rules of rhetoric, and 
 the gesture is generally 
 methodical. 
 
 Refutation. It may be ob- 
 jected that Patrick Henry 
 was born an orator. Our 
 argument is that he rather 
 possessed eloquence than 
 oratory. His words were 
 poured straight from the 
 heart, and were unembel- 
 lished by the aid of trope 
 and cadence. 
 
 by study and attention to rules, 
 or it may be imbibed by the ex- 
 ercise of habits of observation. 
 
 Give instances, — John Stuart 
 Mill, Wilkie Collins, Tennyson. 
 
 Demosthenes was a wonderful in- 
 stance of this. He stammered 
 in his speech, was troubled with 
 shortness of breath, and had a 
 weak voice, yet, notwithstand- 
 ing these defects, he became, by 
 education of these faulty organs, 
 the most powerful orator the 
 world ever produced. 
 
 The exception often proves the 
 rule. Some men untrained have 
 been known to make beautiful 
 cabinets, which have been ex- 
 hibited at exhibitions as works 
 of art ; but it would be just as 
 absurd to say that for this reason 
 cabinet-making was a natural 
 gift, as to say that oratory is 
 natural because Patrick Henry 
 was an orator by nature. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 
 
 127 
 
 i c. Testimony. George Crabbe, 
 one of England's greatest 
 authors, says, " Oratory- 
 is an imitative art; it de- 
 scribes what is felt by 
 another." Dean Swift 
 says oratory is to a great 
 degree mechanical, and in 
 this it differs from har- 
 mony. 
 
 Refutation. It may be said 
 that these men were de- 
 ceived themselves, or that 
 they deceived us. 
 
 Answer. Being great ora- 
 tors, they were not likely 
 to be deceived; they had 
 no object in deceiving us. 
 The remarks were made 
 dispassionately, not in the 
 heat of debate. 
 
 4. Example. Many public speak- 
 
 ers who are trained orators 
 have no real eloquence. They 
 have to prepare their dis- 
 courses, digesting their mat- 
 ter from written publications, 
 and if called upon to speak 
 without preparation, would 
 make but sorry exhibitions 
 of themselves. 
 
 5. Appeal to the Feelings. Pic- 
 
 ture the strong, healthy, 
 sinewy man, who had never 
 learned to dance, attempting 
 an intricate minuet. With 
 all his strength and natural 
 activity he would flounder 
 awkwardly through his steps. 
 Then portray the man with 
 
 Give several quotations. Who 
 was George Crabbe ? Who was 
 Dean Swift ? What is harmony ? 
 
 Show how animus or object is 
 always acknowledged as strong 
 conclusive evidence. Give an 
 instance of a man being sup- 
 posed guilty from the object he 
 had in commission of a crime. 
 
 This proves that oratory owes more 
 to education than to nature. 
 Simile of the rough diamond. 
 A man with good oratorical 
 powers, until he had been 
 trained, is like the rough dia- 
 mond before it has been in the 
 hand of the lapidary. 
 
128 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 naturally graceful carriage 
 and powerful voice failing 
 miserably in his oratory from 
 his lack of knowledge of the 
 rules of the art. 
 6. Summary.* 
 
 LESSON XLIII. 
 
 Prove that Drunkenness is the Ruin of Thousands, pre- 
 paring and expanding your scheme, as in Lesson XLIL 
 
 LESSON XLIV. 
 
 Prove that Compulsory Education is good for the State, 
 preparing and expanding your scheme, as in Lesson 
 XLIL 
 
 LESSON XLV. 
 
 Prove that Labor is the Source of National Prosperity, 
 preparing and expanding your scheme, as in Lesson 
 XLIL 
 
 V. DISCURSIVE THEMES. 
 
 Themes upon subjects that cannot be properly classi- 
 fied in any of the preceding divisions may be termed 
 Discursive Themes. 
 
 * As the summary is the recapitulation of the principal points of 
 the scheme, it is left to the ingenuity of the student. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 129 
 
 As it is almost impossible to make one scheme applic- 
 able to all essays upon discursive theses, the student, 
 qualified by exercise in the previous chapters, will do 
 well to prepare his notes and expand them before pro- 
 ceeding to his treatment of the subject in hand. 
 
 LESSON XL VI. 
 
 Write an essay on 
 
 Honor and fame from no condition rise; 
 Act well your part, there all the honor lies, 
 
 taking the following for. your scheme, which must be 
 
 expanded. 
 
 Notes. 
 
 1. Explain at full length the meaning of the thesis. 
 
 2. Argue in favor of a man born in a high position leaving a 
 bad reputation behind him. 
 
 3. Give instances in support of the above argument. 
 
 4. Argue in favor of a man born in a low position attaining 
 honor and eminence. 
 
 5. Give instances in support of the above argument. 
 
 6. Argue that we are not the slaves of circumstances, but that 
 circumstances are the consequences of our own actions. 
 
 7. Give extracts from any authors you may have read in support 
 of your arguments. 
 
 8. Draw your moral, and show how honor and fame must follow 
 in the footsteps of all good actions, and how bad deeds surely 
 bring with them dishonor and disgrace. 
 
 LESSON XLVII. 
 
 Write an essay on 
 
 Wen crosses in God's sovereign hand 
 Are blessings in disguise, 
 
130 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 taking the following for your scheme, which must be ex- 
 panded. 
 
 1. Adversity is described in the Bible as the salutary 
 chastisement of an all-wise parent who wishes to reclaim 
 his child. 
 
 2. Adversity yields to time. 
 
 3. On recovering its first shock, we begin to see things in 
 their true light. 
 
 4. True friends are distinguished from false friends. 
 
 5. We get a better knowledge of our own weakness. 
 
 6. Reflection and vigilance succeed inattention and negli- 
 gence. 
 
 7. We find out the vanity of the world's doings. 
 
 8. We are more inclined to trust in God. 
 
 9. Our hearts are chastened and our minds purified. 
 
 LESSON XLVIIL 
 
 Write an essay on 
 
 Birds of a feather flock together, 
 
 taking the following for your scheme, which must be 
 expanded. 
 
 1. Show how likely it is that persons of similar tastes will 
 seek each other's society. 
 
 2. How liable we are to adopt the sentiments of those that 
 surround us. 
 
 3. How good companions lead us to good actions. 
 
 4. How careful we should be in our choice of friends. 
 
 5. Give instances of men being led to ruin by evil com- 
 panions. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OP THEMES. 131 
 
 6. How good companions lead us to good actions. Give 
 instances. 
 
 7. Moral. — How careful we should be in our choice of 
 friends. 
 
 LESSON XLIX. 
 
 Write an essay on The Vanity of Riches, taking the 
 following for your scheme, which must be expanded. 
 
 1. By weak minds the possession of wealth is considered 
 the greatest earthly happiness. 
 
 2. But the possession of wealth always falls short of our 
 expectations. 
 
 3. As we acquire wealth our wants increase, so that we 
 are never satisfied. 
 
 4. Kich men are led into temptation. 
 
 5. They are never sure of the sincerity of their friends 
 and dependants. 
 
 6. Wealth will not prevent illness or death. 
 
 7. However rich a man may be, he cannot always spend 
 his money upon his own actual enjoyment. Peter the Great, 
 with all his wealth, was obliged, by order of his physician, 
 to dine off a mutton-chop. 
 
 8. Moral. — Therefore, we must not set our minds upon 
 earthly wealth, but try to lay up the riches of a just life. 
 
 
 LESSON L. 
 
 Write an essay on The Advantages of Industry, taking 
 he following for your scheme, which must be expanded. 
 
132 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. God has given nothing to man without labor. 
 
 2. Every man, in every station of life, has need to be in- 
 dustrious. 
 
 3. An idler is an enemy to industry. 
 
 4. All classes of society benefit more or less by the in- 
 dustry of a single man. 
 
 5. An industrious man has his time so occupied that he 
 keeps out of the way of temptation, whilst idleness is the 
 mother of all evil. 
 
 6. It is the duty of all, not only to practice habits of in- 
 dustry, but to persuade those over whom they have influence 
 to be industrious. 
 
 7. Job says " the hand of the diligent maketh rich." 
 
 8. Idleness is always tiring, and work, to an industrious 
 man, is always agreeable. Dr. Johnson said that the hardest- 
 worked man in the world was the man who had nothing to do. 
 
 LESSON" LI. 
 
 Write essays on, 
 
 I. Well begun is half done, 
 
 taking the following for your scheme, which must be ex- 
 panded. 
 
 1. Show with what reluctance we often set about a task. 
 
 2. How apparent difficulties vanish as we give our atten- 
 tion to the work. 
 
 3. How, by beginning to do good, we are led to continual 
 improvement. 
 
 4. How the first step is always the most troublesome. 
 
 5. How the first steps in life are sure to lead to a good or 
 evil career. 
 
 6. Draw out the moral. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 133 
 
 II. One bird in hand is worth two in the bush. 
 
 1. Show how we should never lose sight of the reality. 
 
 2. Relate the fable of the dog and the shadow. 
 
 3. Point out the evils of gambling. 
 
 4. Draw out the moral. 
 
 LESSON LII. 
 
 Write an essay on 
 
 Books are the Medicine of the Mind, 
 
 taking the following for your scheme, which must be 
 expanded. 
 
 1. Explain the meaning of the thesis. Show how it was, 
 according to Diodorus, the inscription on the great Egyptian 
 Library. 
 
 2. Show how, in distracting the attention by reading, per- 
 sons suffering from great sorrow alleviate their misery. 
 
 3. Give instances. (Goethe, when he lost his son, began 
 the study of a new science.) 
 
 4. Show how a mind harassed by ennui would be stirred 
 to a healthy action by the reading of daring exploits, adven- 
 tures, and battles. 
 
 5. How the wavering, fickle mind would be subdued by 
 the influence of contemplative writings. 
 
 6. How the sad are cheered by light, graphic accounts of 
 social incidents. 
 
 7. How in all cases of mental anxiety good books are great 
 cures. 
 
 8. Give what extracts you can in support of the thesis. 
 
 9. Give what examples you can. 
 
 10. Draw your moral. 
 
134 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 LESSON LIII. 
 
 "Write an essay on The Value of a Good Character, 
 taking the following for your scheme, which must be 
 expanded. 
 
 1. Point out how a good character may be obtained by any 
 person in any sphere of life. 
 
 2. How nobility of birth, wealth, and power do not estab- 
 lish a man's good reputation. 
 
 3. How goodness of character is not hereditary. 
 
 4. How, although circumstances may draw a man to com- 
 mit errors, he had better lose his fortune than his character. 
 
 5. For if a man's character be gone, — 
 
 a. If he is rich, he loses the respect of his neighbors 
 and the esteem of his intimates. 
 
 b. If he is poor, he loses all chances of employment, 
 and sinks into poverty and crime. 
 
 6. Relate fully the following fable, making it bear upon 
 the thesis : — 
 
 Jupiter has given to all men a rich jewel that none 
 can take from them. Some throw theirs away ; 
 others lose theirs ; some few find again the treasure 
 they have lost. 
 
 7. Show that if a man lose his character he must not give 
 himself up to despair, but diligently seek to redeem it. 
 
 8. Show the influence of a good character in different 
 phases of life, and contrast it with the feebleness of a bad one. 
 
 9. Give instances of men of wealth leaving bad names 
 behind them. 
 
 10. Give instances of humble persons whose names are 
 remembered with respect. 
 
 11. Show how a good character, if it do not in all cases, 
 will invariably, in the end, bring the possessor substantial 
 benefit. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 135 
 
 LESSON LIV. 
 
 Write an essay on The Effect International Expositions 
 are likely to have on the Civilization of Nations, the Pro- 
 motion of Commerce, and the Spread of Christianity, tak- 
 ing the following for your scheme, which must be ex- 
 panded. 
 
 1. Give brief sketches of any international expositions you 
 may have read of. 
 
 2. Show how necessary it is that the spot chosen for such 
 a purpose should be an appropriate one. 
 
 3. Show how civilization is increased by — 
 
 a. The gathering together of the learned of many 
 nations, and the consequent interchange of thought. 
 6. The encouragement of the fine arts. 
 
 c. The stimulus to the ingenuity of invention. 
 
 d. The additional means and inducements afforded 
 to persons to expand their minds by travel. 
 
 4. Show how commerce is increased by — 
 
 a. The advancement of international trade. 
 6. The inducement of competition. 
 
 c. The means of advertising to the world the value 
 and usefulness of particular merchandise. 
 
 d. The glimpse offered to merchants of the business 
 customs of foreign trade. 
 
 e. The introduction of new branches of commerce. 
 
 5. Show how Christianity is spread by — 
 
 a. The opportunity thus afforded to religious societies 
 of propagating the gospel among the visitors of all 
 nations. 
 
 6. The exhibition to unenlightened people of the 
 
 I superior civilization of Christian countries. 
 
 c. The instigation of the natural instinct of a man 
 
136 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 to worship God when surrounded by so many- 
 beauties and wonders. 
 d. The generation of a social feeling among the widely 
 separated races. 
 
 LESSON LV. 
 
 Write an essay, comparing Modem Times with An- 
 tiquity, taking the following for your scheme, which must 
 be expanded. 
 
 Prove that — 
 
 a. As a dwarf, standing on the shoulders of a giant, will 
 see farther than the giant himself, the moderns, familiar 
 with the discoveries of their forefathers, enjoy a more 
 comprehensive view of the world than the ancients. 
 
 b. The ancients lived in the youth of the world, the 
 moderns live in its maturity ; hence the latter enjoy 
 the blessings of experience. 
 
 c. The ancients might have had greater capacities for 
 aspiring to perfection, the moderns have greater capa- 
 bilities. 
 
 d. As geographers, the ancients were limited in knowl- 
 edge, for they had not discovered the polarity of the 
 magnet. 
 
 e. As historians, they were hampered with belief in 
 prodigies and superstitions that led them to distort 
 truth. 
 
 /. As moralists, their want of knowledge of a future 
 
 state was a source of error. 
 g. As warriors, their ignorance of chemistry rendered 
 
 their battles, as compared with those of modern times, 
 
 mere personal encounters. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 137 
 
 h. As mechanics, their ignorance of the powers of steam 
 and water crippled their efforts. 
 
 i. In sculpture, it is true, the ancients excelled the 
 moderns, because the image- worship of their temples 
 held out encouragement to the artist, and the principal 
 rewards of value and merit were public statues. 
 
 h. In poetry the ancients equalled the moderns, because 
 their mythology was eminently calculated to foster 
 poetical fancy ; and the scenery of nature, the lab- 
 oratory of the poet, was all ready to his hand, and 
 wanted no development. 
 
 LESSON LVI. 
 
 "Write an essay on The Uses and Abuses of the News- 
 paper Press, taking the following for your scheme, which 
 must be expanded : 
 
 1. Give a brief history of the art of printing newspapers. 
 
 2. Point out the enormous power of the press in Amer- 
 ica : — 
 
 3. a. Show how the welfare of a nation is upheld by the 
 
 free discussion of politics. 
 6. How crime is detected and exposed by newspaper 
 paragraphs. 
 
 c. How cases deserving sympathy are brought before 
 the notice of the charitable. 
 
 d. How education is aided. 
 
 e. How commerce is increased by advertising. 
 
 /. How dishonest politicians are held in check by it. 
 g. How a thirst for knowledge is fostered in the 
 
 minds of the people. 
 h. How the human heart is expanded by the reading 
 
 of the sufferings and struggles of our fellow-men. 
 
138 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 4. a. Show how dangerous a weapon the newspaper is in 
 
 the hands of an unscrupulous editor. 
 
 b. How the people are stirred to discontent, sedition, 
 and violence. 
 
 c. How, by pandering to a vitiated taste for the sen- 
 sational, it becomes a propagator of vice. 
 
 d. How it may be the medium of malicious slander 
 on public and private characters. 
 
 e. How, by unjust criticism, unfair reporting, and the 
 publication of falsehood, it may generate great evil. 
 
 5. And, lastly, show that, however jealous the American 
 people should be of the liberties of their newspaper press, they 
 should be equally careful to guard against any attempt that 
 may be made to relax the laws that have been wisely framed 
 to protect them against the abuses of its enormous power. 
 
 LESSON LVII. 
 
 "Write at full length, as if you were eye-witnesses, a 
 description of the Combat between the Horatii and the 
 Curatii, taking the following for your scheme, which 
 must be expanded. 
 
 1. The treaty being concluded, the three brothers take 
 arms. 
 
 2. The advance between the two armies. 
 
 3. The signal is given ; they close in combat ; the lookers- 
 on are in an agony of expectation. 
 
 4. The three Albans are wounded ; two Romans are dead. 
 
 5. Happily, the surviving Roman is not wounded ; to 
 divide his adversaries, he feigns flight. 
 
 6. He slays another Alban ; grief of the Alban army. 
 
 7. Romans shout with delight ; he kills a second Alban. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 139 
 
 8. There remains now but one combatant on each side ; 
 the Roman unwounded, his antagonist weak and bleeding. 
 
 9. The spent Alban drags his failing limbs to the en- 
 counter ; the Roman stabs him through the heart. 
 
 10. Loaded with spoils, Horatius returns to the camp ; 
 great joy of the Romans. 
 
 11. Each party bury their dead. 
 
 Note. — As a specimen of such description, read Livy's account 
 of Section 3 : 
 
 " The signal is given ; the champions march three and three 
 against each other, themselves alone inspired with the courage of 
 armies. Both sides, insensible to their own danger, have nothing 
 before their eyes but the slavery or liberty of their country, whose 
 future destiny depends wholly on their valor. The moment the 
 clashing of their weapons is heard, and the glitter of their swords 
 is seen, the spectators, seized with fear and alarm (while hope or 
 success inclines to either side), continue motionless, so that one 
 would say they have lost the use of their speech and even of 
 breath." 
 
 LESSON LVIIL 
 
 Write an essay on this passage from Shakespeare, — 
 
 For H is the mind that makes the body rich ; 
 And as the sun breaks through the darkest clouds. 
 So honor peereth in the meanest habit, 
 
 taking the following for your scheme, which must be 
 expanded. 
 
 1. Explain at full length the meaning of the thesis. 
 
 2. Show how a man may be born to wealth, and yet, from 
 the poverty of his mind, be a pitiable object. 
 
 3. Give instances in support of this. 
 
140 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 4. Show how a man without land or money may be rich 
 in the possession of mental qualifications. 
 
 5. Give instances of this. 
 
 6. Give extracts from the works of any authors in support 
 of your assertion. 
 
 7. Draw out your moral. 
 
 LESSON LIX. 
 
 Write an essay on Time a Paradox, taking the follow- 
 ing for your scheme, which must be filled up. 
 
 1. Time is undefinable. The past is gone, the future has not 
 come, and the present becomes past even while we speak of it. 
 
 2. Time measures all things, but is itself unmeasurable. 
 
 3. Time discloses everything, but is itself a mystery. 
 
 4. Time advances like the slowest tide, but retreats like 
 the swiftest torrent. 
 
 5. Time is the cradle of ambition, — and its grave ! 
 
 LESSON LX. 
 
 Write an essay on pearl-fishing, taking the following 
 for your notes, which must be expanded. 
 
 1. A pearl is a concretion of a bluish- white color, found in 
 the interior of some oysters and mussels. 
 
 2. The most important fishery is at Ceylon. 
 
 3. A fleet of pearl-fishing boats consists of about nine ves- 
 sels, each manned by eight sailors and two divers. 
 
 4. Oyster-beds sometimes extend for ten miles in length 
 and two in breadth. 
 
 5. Certain ablutions and incantations are observed previous 
 to starting. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 141 
 
 6. The boat having reached the spot selected for fishing, 
 the anchor is cast. 
 
 7. Outside the boat is erected a floating scaffolding, from 
 which the diver starts. 
 
 8. A heavy stone is attached to a long rope, with a stirrup 
 just above the weight. 
 
 9. This is lowered into the water, the diver having pre- 
 viously placed his foot in the stirrup. 
 
 10. He is in this manner lowered to the bottom, bearing 
 with him a basket. 
 
 11. On reaching the bottom he throws himself upon his 
 face, and grasping everything he can lay hands on, rapidly 
 fills his basket. 
 
 12. The oysters being taken on shore, are allowed to get 
 putrid. The animal matter is then easily washed away, and 
 the pearls are secured. 
 
 LESSON LXI * 
 
 Write an essay on The Eloquence of the Sacred Writ- 
 ings. Divide your remarks into the following headings, 
 giving extracts to support your assertions, and showing 
 how forcibly they support your thesis. 
 
 1. Simplicity. 
 
 2. Grandeur. 
 
 3. Imagery. 
 
 4. Beauty of Description. 
 
 5. Figures. 
 
 a. Metaphor. 
 
 b. Repetition. 
 
 c. Apostrophe. 
 
 * Three or four lessons may be profitably devoted to the prepara- 
 tion of this important theme. 
 
 , 
 
142 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 6. Delineations of the Passions. 
 
 a. Simplicity of childhood. 
 
 b. Filial affection. 
 
 c. Exuberance of joy. 
 
 d. Tendernees. 
 
 e. Insatiability of ambition. 
 
 Examples and Suggestions. 
 1. Simplicity. 
 
 Luke xxiii. 33 : " There they crucified him." 
 The very simplicity of these words proves to us that the 
 Evangelists were directed by the hand of God. What mortal 
 writer would have spoken in so unaffected a manner of a 
 father who had laid down his life for him 1 There is no 
 passionate detail of his sufferings, no emotion, no outburst 
 of gratitude, no appeal to the feelings of compassion or sur- 
 prise. The fact is simply recorded, — they crucified him 
 there. 
 
 Genesis i. 16 : "He made the stars also." 
 
 Can anything be more simple, yet more august 1 God 
 adorns the universe with these infinite wonders, and the 
 stupendous act is recorded in a word ! How many beauties 
 are comprehended in this brief sentence ! When we gaze in 
 wondering rapture on the firmament, set with innumerable 
 gems, and when we consider the order and going of these 
 mysterious myriads of heavenly worlds, we marvel at the 
 exquisite simplicity of the hand that wrote "he made the 
 stars also" 
 
 Comment upon the simplicity of the story of the in- 
 tended sacrifice of Isaac. 
 
on the structure op themes. 143 
 
 2. Grandeur. 
 
 Genesis i. 1 : "In the beginning God created the heaven and 
 the earth." 
 
 How majestic is this commencement of the Holy Writ ! 
 Without the inspiration of God, a man would have set about 
 the record of so mighty a subject with a rhapsody of pompous 
 expression ; but here we burst into the full revelation of the 
 mysterious history without a word of preface, — from chaos 
 to heaven and earth ; from darkness to light ; from space to 
 being. 
 
 Comment upon the grandeur of the following passages : 
 
 Genesis i. 3 : " God said, Let there be light, and there 
 was light." 
 
 Isaiah vii. 7 : " Thus saith the Lord God, It shall not stand, 
 neither shall it come to pass." 
 
 Psalm xxxvii. 35, 36 : "I have seen the wicked in great 
 power, and spreading himself like a green bay-tree. Yet he 
 passed away, and, lo, he was not ; yea, I sought him, but he 
 could not be found." 
 
 Also take for comment, Psalm xxxix. 6 ; Exodus iii. 
 14 j Daniel vi. 14-31. 
 
 3. Imagery. 
 
 Comment upon the imagery displayed in the follow- 
 ing passages : 
 
 Isaiah ix. 6 : " And the government shall be upon his 
 shoulder." 
 
 Psalm xciii. 1 : " The Lord reigneth, he is clothed with 
 majesty : the Lord is clothed with strength, wherewith he 
 hath girded himself." 
 
144 english composition. 
 
 4. Beauty of Description. 
 
 Comment upon the beauty of the description of the 
 war-horse in Job xxxix. 19-25. 
 
 5. Figures. 
 Explain the metaphor in 
 
 Job xxxiv. 22 : " There is no darkness, nor shadow of 
 death, where the workers of iniquity may hide themselves." 
 
 Comment on the repetition in 
 
 Jeremiah xxxi. 28 : " And it shall come to pass that like as 
 I have watched over them, to pluck up, and to break down, 
 and to throw down, and to destroy, and to afflict ; so will I 
 watch over them, to build, and to plant, saith the Lorcfr" 
 
 Explain the apostrophe in Psalm cxxxvii. 4, 5, 6 ; Jere- 
 miah xlvii. 6, 7. 
 
 6. Delineations of the Passions. 
 
 Comment on the innocence of Joseph in relating his 
 dreams, which were to arouse the cupidity of his 
 brothers. 
 
 Comment on the filial affection of Joseph in Genesis 
 xlv. 2, 3. 
 
 Comment on Ehoda's exuberance of joy in Acts xii. 14. 
 
 Comment on the tenderness displayed in Isaiah i. 2, 3. 
 
 Comment on the insatiability of ambition of Haman in 
 Esther v. 13. 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 145 
 
 Miscellaneous Subjects for Themes. 
 
 1. The benefits of adversity. 
 
 2. The evanescence of beauty. 
 
 3. Cruelty to animals. 
 
 4. " Charity covereth a multitude of sins." 
 
 5. The advantages of civility and politeness. 
 
 6. The baseness of ingratitude. 
 
 7. Mutual forbearance. 
 
 8. The necessity of early religious instruction. 
 
 9. The proper employment of time. 
 
 10. Memoir of Washington Irving. 
 
 11. To insult misfortune is unworthy of an honest man. 
 
 12. We are always forgetting the enjoyments we possess. 
 ]£ Virtue and vice are as different as light and darkness. 
 
 14. Wisdom leads us to happiness. 
 
 15. Do not despise poverty. 
 
 16. A description of Paul's shipwreck. 
 
 17. " Lifted so high 
 
 I disdained subjection, and thought one step higher 
 Would set me highest." 
 
 18. " Sounds, not arms, shall win the prize ; 
 
 Harmony the road to fame." 
 
 19. " Life is but an empty dream." 
 
 20. The influence of surroundings on the mind. 
 
 21. On the changes of the seasons. 
 
 22. On the barometer. 
 
 23. The character of Lafayette. 
 
 24. " To gild refined gold, to paint the lily, 
 
 To throw a perfume on the violet, 
 
 To smooth the ice, or add another hue 
 
 Unto the rainbow, or, with taper light, 
 
 To seek the bounteous eye of heaven to garnish, 
 
 Is wasteful and ridiculous excess." 
 
146 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 25. " There *s a divinity doth shape our ends, 
 
 Rough hew them how we will." 
 
 26. " The evil that men do lives after them ; 
 
 The good is oft interred with their bones." 
 
 27. " One touch of nature makes the whole world kin." 
 
 28. " The better part of valor is discretion." 
 
 29. " 0, what a tangled web we weave 
 
 When first we practise to deceive ! " 
 
 30. " We take no note of time 
 But from its loss ; to give it then a tongue 
 
 Is wise in man." 
 
 31. "A thing of beauty is a joy forever : 
 
 Its loveliness increases ; it will never 
 Pass into nothingness." 
 
 32. On steam. 
 
 33. On solitude. 
 
 34. Knowledge is power. 
 
 35. The waste of war. 
 
 36. The emptiness of vanity. 
 
 37. The forgiveness of injuries. 
 
 38. Virtus est sua merces. 
 
 39. It is better to have a good conscience and be poor, than 
 a guilty one and be rich. 
 
 40. Truth is the straightest way to an end. 
 
 41. " Words may be counterfeit, 
 False coined, and current only from the tongue 
 Without the mind." 
 
 42. " Let thy discourse be such, that thou may'st give 
 
 Profit to others, or from them receive. 
 
 43. Vita sine Uteres vera mors est 
 
 44. " For the whole world without a native home 
 
 Is but a prison." 
 
 45. " You '11 find the friendship of the world is show, — 
 
 Mere outward show." 
 
 46. What will Mrs. Grundy say ? 
 
ON THE STRUCTURE OF THEMES. 147 
 
 47. l< The sweetest cordial we receive at last 
 
 Is conscience of our virtuous actions past." 
 
 48. " The quality of mercy is not strained ; 
 
 It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven . 
 Upon the place beneath." 
 
 49. The events of your school-life during the past month. 
 
 50. "Finis." 
 
1-48 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 A CATECHISM OF VERSIFICATION, OR PROSODY. 
 
 Q. What is versification ? 
 
 A. Versification is the art of making verses. 
 
 Q. What is it called in grammar ? 
 
 A. Versification is called in grammar prosody, from two 
 Greek words, pros and ode. 
 
 Q. What are the two most prominent features in forming 
 verses 1 
 
 A. The two most prominent features in forming verses 
 are : 1. Rhythm ; 2. Rhyme. 
 
 Q. What are the various names applied to poetical compo- 
 sitions ? 
 
 A. Blank verse, lyric verse, elegiac verse, pastoral verse, 
 didactic verse, epic poetry, dramatic poetry. 
 
 Q. What is blank verse ? 
 
 A. Blank verse has no rhyme, consists of five feet to each 
 line, and is used chiefly in dramatic or epic poetry. 
 
 Q. What is lyric verse 1 
 
 A, Lyric verse is the verse in which songs are written. 
 
 Q. What is elegiac verse 1 
 
 A. Elegiac verse is of a mournful character, chiefly in 
 memory of the dead. 
 
 Q. What is pastoral verse ? 
 
 A. Pastoral verse is descriptive of country life, sometimes 
 called bucolics. 
 
 Q. What is didactic verse ? 
 
 A. Didactic verse contains direct moral teaching. 
 
 Q. What is epic verse ] 
 
VERSIFICATION, OR PROSODY. 149 
 
 A. Epic verse treats of some grand historical subject. 
 Q. What is dramatic verse 1 
 
 A. Dramatic verse is in dialogue, and chiefly in the form 
 of blank verse ? 
 
 Ehythm. 
 
 Q. What is rhythm ? 
 
 A. By rhythm is meant the regular recurrence of accented 
 and unaccented syllables. There may be rhythm in prose, 
 but it is not required to follow in regular measure, as in verse. 
 
 Q. What is euphony ? 
 
 A. When the ear is pleased in prose, we say the words are 
 arranged with due regard to euphony, 
 
 Q. What is accent ? 
 
 A. Accent is a peculiar modulation of the voice, marking 
 a syllable of a word. 
 
 Q. Give instances. 
 
 A. Dissyllable : Deter', confuse', harvest, in'come. 
 Trissy liable : Interfere', delight'ful, la'borer. 
 Polysyllable : Con'querable, innu'merable. 
 
 Q. When the accent falls on the last syllable, what is it 
 said to be on ] 
 
 A. When the accent falls on the last syllable, it is said to 
 be on the ultimate (ultimus, last) ; as provide', remain'. 
 
 Q. When the accent falls on the last syllable but one, what 
 is it said to be on 1 
 
 A. When the accent falls on the last syllable but one, it is 
 said to be on the penult (pene, almost ; ultimus) ; as propor- 
 tion, depend'ent. 
 
 Q. When the accent falls on the last syllable but two, what 
 is it said to be on 1 
 
 A. When the accent falls on the last syllable but two, it is 
 said to be on the antepenult {ante, before ; and pene, ultimus) ; 
 as ma r jesty, pa'triot, mem'ory. 
 
150 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Q. What is a foot 1 
 
 A. A foot consists of a certain number of syllables. 
 
 Q. What are the chief feet of English poetry ? 
 
 A. The chief feet of English poetry are the iambus, trochee, 
 anapcest, and dactyl. 
 
 Q. What is an iambus ? 
 
 A. An iambus is a foot consisting of one short syllable and 
 one long one, as w — , betray, incline. 
 
 Q. What is a trochee ? 
 
 A. A trochee is a foot consisting of one long syllable and a 
 short one, as — ~, hateful, dismal. 
 
 Q. What is an anapaest 1 
 
 A. An anapaest is a foot consisting of two short syllables 
 and a long one, as w ^ — , contravene, intercede. 
 
 Q. What is a dactyl ? 
 
 A. A dactyl is a foot consisting of one long syllable and 
 two short ones, as — ^ ^, neighborhood, easterly. 
 
 Q. What are the subordinate feet of poetry ? 
 
 A. The subordinate feet of poetry are spondee , pyrrhic 
 
 ^ ">-, amphibrach w — w , tribrach ^ ^ w. 
 
 Iambic Verse. 
 
 Q. What do you know about iambic verse ? 
 
 A. That the greater part of English poetry is written in it. 
 
 Q. How may feet are there in iambic measure ? 
 
 A. Either three, four, five, six, or seven. 
 
 Q. Give examples. 
 
 A. Three feet, or trimeter. 
 
 In pla | ces far | or near, | 
 Or fa | mo as or | obscure, | 
 Where whole | some is | the air, | 
 Or where | the most | impure. | 
 
VERSIFICATION, OR PROSODY. 151 
 
 Four feet, or tetrameter : 
 
 The stag | at eve | had drunk | his fill, 
 
 "When danced | the moon | on Mon | an's rul. | 
 
 Five feet, or pentameter : 
 
 Prodi | gious ac | tions may | as well | be done 
 By weav | er's is | sue as | by prin | ce's son. 
 
 Six feet, or hexameter : * 
 A need | less Al | exan | drine ends | the song, 
 That like | a wound | ed snake | drags its | slow length | along. 
 
 Trochaic Metre. 
 Q. Give examples of trochaic metre. 
 A. Two feet: 
 
 On a | mountain, 
 
 By a | fountain, 
 
 Lay the | shepherd 
 
 With his | pipe. 
 
 Three feet : 
 
 "When our | hearts are ] mourning. 
 Three feet, with an extra or residuary syllable : 
 
 Earth to | earth and | dust to ] dust, 
 
 Here the | evil | and the | just, 
 
 Here the | matron | and the | maid, 
 
 In one | silent | bed are | laid. 
 
 
 * This form is called heroic measure. 
 
152 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Four feet : 
 
 But a | mid my | broken | slumbers 
 Still I | heard those | magic | numbers, 
 Till their | chimes in | sweet col | lision 
 Mingled [ with each | wand'ring | vision. 
 
 Five feet : 
 
 All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, 
 All that | dwell in | pala | ces or | garrets. 
 
 Then me | thought I | heard a | hollow | sound 
 Gath'ring | up from | all the | lower | ground. 
 
 Anapaestic Measure. 
 
 Q. Give examples of anapaestic measure : 
 A. Two feet: 
 
 All our la | bor must fail 
 
 If the wick | ed prevail. 
 
 Three feet : 
 
 I am mon | arch of all | I survey ; 
 My right | there is none | to dispute. 
 From the cen | tre all round | to the sea 
 1 am lord | of the fowl | and the brute. 
 
 Four feet : 
 
 The Assyr | ian came down | like the wolf | on the fold, 
 
 And his co | horts were gleam | ing with pur | pie and gold. 
 
VERSIFICATION, OR PROSODY. 153 
 
 i 
 
 Dactylic Measure. 
 Q. Give examples of dactylic measure : 
 Bird of the | wilderness, 
 Blithesome and | cumberless, 
 Light be thy | matin o'er | moorland and | lea. 
 Emblem of | happiness, 
 Blest in thy | dwelling-place, 
 0, to a | bide in the | desert with | thee ! 
 
 Rhyme, etc. 
 Q. What is rhyme 1 
 
 A. Rhyme is the agreement of the last sound of one line 
 or verse with that of another. It must correspond in sound 
 and construction. Love and dove are good rhymes, but love 
 and prove will not rhyme. Higher and lyre will not rhyme. 
 Q. Is rhyme confined to a single sound ? 
 A. No : as, 
 
 Pillow, billow ; fellow, yellow. 
 Tenderly, slenderly ; family, clammily. 
 
 Alliteration. 
 Q. "What is alliteration ? 
 
 A. Alliteration is the frequent recurrence of the same letter 
 or sound in a verse. It was at one time the leading feature 
 of poetry. Thus : 
 
 Zfow high Ms highness Tiolds fas haughty ftead, 
 J5egot by butcher, but by Mshops &red. 
 
 Parallelism. 
 Q. What is parallelism ? 
 
 A. Parallelism is the repetition of the same idea in slightly 
 different words. It was a peculiarity of Hebrew poetry : 
 
154 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 Let the people praise thee, Lord, 
 Let people all thee praise. 
 
 0, let the nations all be glad, 
 In songs their voices raise. 
 
 Terms. 
 
 Q. What are two consecutive rhymes called ? 
 
 A. Two consecutive rhymes are called a couplet. 
 
 Q. What are three consecutive rhymes called ? 
 
 A. Three consecutive rhymes are called a triplet 
 
 Q. What is a stanza ? 
 
 A. A stanza is a group of verses varying in length. 
 
 Q. What is a Spenserian stanza 1 
 
 A. A Spenserian stanza consists of eight heroic lines and 
 one Alexandrine, so called because first used by Spenser in 
 the Faerie Queen. Burns's Cotter's Saturday Night and Byron's 
 CJiilde Harold are in this measure. 
 
 Q. What is an ottava rima ? 
 
 A. Eight lines, the first six of which rhyme alternately, 
 and the last two in succession. Byron's Don Juan is an ex- 
 ample. 
 
 Q. What is ballad measure 1 
 
 A. Ballad measure (Gay's stanza) consists of four and three 
 .measures alternately. ' 
 
 Q. Of what does an elegiac stanza consist ? 
 
 A. Elegiacs are usually four measures with alternate 
 rhymes. 
 
 Q. What is an epigram 1 
 
 A. An epigram is a sharp, pointed statement. 
 
 Q. What is an epitaph ? 
 
 A. An epitaph is an inscription on a tomb. 
 
 Q. What is a sonnet 1 
 
 A. A sonnet is a poem fourteen lines in length. 
 
VERSIFICATION, OR PROSODY. 155 
 
 Miscellaneous Exercises in Prosody. 
 
 1. Name as many writers as you can of the following kinds 
 of poetry : Dramatic, elegiac, pastoral, epic. 
 
 2. What are the peculiarities of rhythm and rhyme ? 
 
 3. Explain the following terms : Antepenult, iambic, te- 
 trameter. 
 
 4. What is meant by a Spenserian stanza 1 Quote one and 
 scan it. 
 
 5. Criticise the following rhymes : Heart, dart; earn, 
 burn ; rain, deign ; eyes, sighs ; chill, hill. 
 
 6. Scan the following passages, marking below each the 
 kind of verse to which it belongs : 
 
 " Our revels now are ended ; these over-actors, 
 As I foretold you, were all spirits, and 
 Are melted into air, into thin air." 
 
 " Then the army, elsewhere bent, 
 
 Struck its tents, as if disbanding." 
 
 " The sanguine sunrise, with its meteor eyes 
 And his burning plumes outspread, 
 Leaps on the back of my sailing rack, 
 When the morning star shines dead." 
 
 " For of all sad words of tongue or pen, 
 The saddest are these : It might have been." 
 
 " Gold, still gold ! it haunted her yet — 
 At the Golden Lion the inquest met — 
 
 Its foreman a carver and gilder — 
 And the jury debated from twelve to three 
 
 What the verdict ought to be ; 
 And they brought it in as felo-de-se, 
 
 Because her own limb had killed her." 
 
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