UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNI :j GEORGE MOREY RICHARDSON Received, ^August, 1898. A GRAMMAR OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES BY E. A. ANDREWS AND S. STODDARD REVISED BY HENRY PREBLE ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OP GREEK AND LATIN AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY BOSTON HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY New York: 11 East Seventeenth Street Copyright, 1857, By CEOCKEE & BREWSTER, Copyright, 1885, BY JCLIA H. WILSON, ELLEN A. ANDREWS, ELIZABETH C. ORTIZ, AND MART ANDREWS. Copyright, 1888, BY JULIA H. WILSON, ELLEN A. ANDREWS, ELIZABETH C. ORTIZ, MARY ANDREWS, AND HOCGHTON, MLFFLIN & Co. All rights reserved. The Riverside Press, Cambridge : Electrotyped and Printed by H. 0. Houghton and Company. UNI PEEFACE. WHEN I acceded to the request of the publishers and the owners of the copyright of Andrews and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, that I should revise that work, I had no idea that the new book would be so unlike the original. In the thirty years, however, since the Grammar was last revised, opinions have changed a good deal as to what the contents of such a book should be, and how they should be presented, and our knowledge of the Latin language has made very great progress. I have consequently found myself driven further and further from the earlier form of the Grammar ; but the apprehension I naturally felt at this result has been relieved somewhat by the fact that the learned authors of the original work confess to a similar experience. In justification of my procedure I cannot do better than quote the following words from their preface : " The Grammar here presented to the public originated in a de- sign, formed several years since, of preparing a new edition of Adam's Latin Grammar, with such additions and corrections as the existing state of classical learning plainly demanded. We had not proceeded far in the execution of this purpose, before we were im- pressed with the conviction, which our subsequent researches contin- ually confirmed, that the defects in that manual were so numerous and of so fundamental a character that they could not be removed without a radical change in the plan of the work. . . . Instead, there- fore, of prosecuting our original purpose, we at length determined to mould our materials into a form corresponding with the advanced state of Latin and Greek philology." Most of the old paradigms have been retained, and others have sometimes been added. In the case of the regular verb I have printed the four conjugations side by side, because when thus placed they are more easily seen to be really varieties of one conjugation, and their forms are more easily implanted in the memory than when learned in four isolated groups. iv PREFACE. Many of the old examples also remain, and many new ones have been introduced. Those quoted from the Latin authors I have assigned, when possible, to their exact sources ; but in va- rious instances, especially among the examples retained from the earlier Grammar, I have been unable, with the time at my command, to discover the precise reference. It has seemed to me best not to sacrifice instructive examples on this account, but to leave them, as in the older editions, simply accredited to their respective authors. The general sequence of topics has not been greatly altered. The most important changes are the following : The sections treating of Word-Formation have been gathered into one place between Inflection and Syntax instead of being distributed among the different parts of speech in connection with their in- flection. This treatment of Word-Formation I have tried to make more effective by giving the pupil, where it could be done, some insight into the processes of the growth of words rather than merely classifying derivatives according to their apparent endings. The treatment of adverbs (except their comparison), and of prepositions and other particles, as not properly belong- ing to Inflection, has been transferred partly to Word-Formation, partly to Syntax. The rules of quantity have been brought into the early part of the book instead of being relegated to Versifica- tion, because they seem to me necessary to a reasonable accuracy in pronunciation, which, if neglected at the start, tends to a dis- tressing slovenliness very hard to correct later. While the rules of agreement for adjectives and pronouns remain in their old place at the beginning of Syntax, I have postponed the rest of the syntax of such words till after the treatment of the cases, in order to secure a more natural progression in the study of syn- tactic details. No attempt has been made to retain the old numbering of the sections, for the necessary insertion of new matter would have resulted in exhausting the patience of both teacher and pupil by a complicated system of references. The book has been divided only into sections and subsections, with occasional notes, the three kinds of divisions being distinguished by type of different sizes. PREFACE. V The main sections sometimes consist of two or three numbered paragraphs. This arrangement allows the most detailed refer- erence without the use of longer indications than 323, 2, b, or 168, c, Note 1. In the matter of pronunciation I have made no reference to the so-called English method. The time seems ripe for sparing the teacher the necessity of choosing between a system accepted by the scholarly world as substantially correct and one which, though still somewhat sheltered by a conservative tradition, makes the mastery of quantity and even of word-formation unnecessarily difficult. The third declension is a stumbling-block in the young learn- er's progress, because he does not readily see any resemblance between the nouns there treated, such as appears in the other declensions. This is due partly to the varied aspect of the con- sonant-stems, and partly to the mixing of i-stem forms with con- sonant-stem forms. Both the strict grouping by stems and the division according to the form of the nominative singular given in certain German grammars are unsatisfactory, because the groups cross each other, and thus destroy the unity of classifica- tion. I have tried to meet the difficulty by grouping the conso- nant-stems simply according to their behavior toward the let- ter s, and by presenting the i-stems in a progressive series, showing different stages in the absorption of consonant-stem forms. The obscurity which "envelops the subjunctive mood I have tried to render as slightly opaque as possible. Examples have been supplied with rather unusual copiousness, because I believe that the contemplation of examples is the surest way to acquire a feeling for the subtle differences between the subjunctive and the indicative, especially in those uses in which it seems to the novice as if the ancients employed either mood quite indiffer- ently. With regard to the arrangement of words in sentences, my own studies have led me to views somewhat at variance with those commonly held. My reasons for the difference, in its most important detail, I have explained briefly in a footnote on VI PREFACE. page 382, and I venture to trust that they may be found con- vincing. Throughout the revision I have tried to keep in mind the needs of the beginner, and when it has been necessary to intro- duce the results of modern philological research, I have tried to state them as simply and definitely as possible. At the same time, I have endeavored to furnish the more advanced pupil with all that is essential to his work both at school and in col- lege, until the time when an exhaustive grammar becomes a necessity to him. I have especially aimed at treating the more difficult topics in such a way as to be clear, while leaving as little as possible to be uidearned when the pupil's study becomes more mature and scientific. Thus, among many things, I have followed the growing custom of German scholars in abandoning the character j, while retaining the distinction between u and V. A mass of rare exceptions to rules and of small irregularities in the linguistic usage of the less known Latin writers has been excluded from the present book. Such details are an unneces- sary encumbrance in a grammar intended for student use rather than exhaustive reference, and they are accessible to those who need them in larger grammars and lexicons. This retrenchment has, however, failed to reduce the volume of the book, because of the improvement in the size of the type which the publishers have been good enough to make for me. "Whatever books seemed likely to help me have, of course, been freely brought into service, but I may mention, as of par- ticularly constant assistance, Kiihner's " Ausfiihrliche Gram- matik der lateinischen Sprache," A. Goldbacher's " Lateinische Grammatik fur Schulen," Allen and Greenough's " Latin Gram- mar," and Anton Marx's " Hiilfsbiichlein fur die Aussprache der lateinischen Vokale in positionslangen Silben." To H. J. Roby's Latin Grammar I am indebted for many examples in illustration of the uses of the subjunctive, and to W. Bram- bach's ' Hiilfsbiichlein fur lateinische Rechtschreibung " for the treatment of prepositions in compounds. Other books from which I have derived profit will be found quoted in the body of the Grammar. PKEFACE. vii I would express my sincere thanks to my friends Professor F. D. Allen and Mr. A. L. K. Volkmann for their kindly criti- cism and valuable suggestions, and to my friend Professor J. B. Greenough for his generous encouragement and many useful hints. I also take pleasure in acknowledging my indebtedness to Mr. John Tetlow, head-master of the Girls' Latin and High Schools of Boston, and to Mr. L. C. Hull, of the Lawrenceville Academy at Lawrenceville, New Jersey, for their kindness in reading my manuscript and in making suggestions by which the Grammar has profited not a little. In verifying the references and some of the examples I have been greatly aided by Mr. H. W. Haley and Mr. F. W. Nicolson of the graduate department of Harvard University. HENRY PREBLE. CAMBRIDGE, November 3, 1888. NOTE. The following list of some of the most useful recent works on subjects connected with Latin Grammar is given for the assistance of those who wish to carry on their study in special directions. ALLEN, F. D. Remnants of Early Latin. Boston. Ginn & Heath. 1880. BRAMBACH, W. Die Neugestaltuug der lateinischen Orthogra- phic in ihrem Verhaltnis zur Schule. Leipzig. Teubuer. 1868. BRAMBACH, W. Hiilfsbiichlein fiir lateinische Rechtschreibung. Leipzig. Teubner. 1876. BRUGMANN, K. Grundriss der vergleichendeii Grammatik der indogeruianischen Sprachen. Strassburg. K. J. Triibner. 1886. BUECHELER, F. Grundriss der lateinischen Declination (new edition, by J. Windekilde). Bonn. E. Strauss. 1879. CHRIST, W. Metrik der Griechen und Rbmer. 2. Auflage. Leip- zig. Teubner. 1879. CORSSEN, W. Ueber Aussprache, Vocalismus und Betonung der lateinischeu Sprache. 2. Auflage. Leipzig. Teubuer. 1868-70. CURTTUS, G. Grundziige der griechischen Etymologic. 5. Auf- lage. Leipzig. Teubner. 1879. Translated by A. S. Wilkins and E. B. England, and published by J. Murray, London. DELBRUECK, B. Syntaktische Forschungen. Halle. Buchhand- lung des Waisenhauses. 1871-79. DRAEGER, A. Historische Syntax der lateinischen Sprache. 2. Auflage. Leipzig. Teubner. 1878-81. ENGELHARDT, M. Die lateinische Konjugation nach den Ergeb- nissen der Sprachvergleichung. Berlin. Weidmann. 1887. GREENOUGH, J. B. Analysis of the Latin Subjunctive. Cam- bridge. J. Wilson & Son. 1870. HALE, W. G. The Sequence of Tenses in Latin (with supplemen- tary paper). Baltimore. I. Friedenwald. 1887-88. HALE, W. G. The C? Ph Double X (surd) />Z (sonant) Sibilants J Semi - Liquids i (sonant)/ - Is (surd) 1, r f (surd), V (sonant) 8 s ( (sonant) ( Nasals : n n m SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 15. The letters in Latin have each only one sound. The sounds of the vowels have each two grades, the long (producta) and the short (correpta). 16. The vowels are pronounced as follows : a long as in father, a short as in Cuba ; e long as in they, e short like a in desperate ; t i long as in machine, i short as in cigar ; t o long as in note, o short as in obey ; $ * Sometimes called linguals (i. e., tongue letters). t The sounds of short e and i are therefore nearly but not quite the same as in English get and pin. \ The sound of O is particularly hard to illustrate in English, and the examples given are only approximately correct. The Latin long O is a pure sound, having no tendency towards the oo sound heard at the end of our long o ; those who have heard the word " coat " pronounced by care- less speakers in New England can get therefrom a clear idea of the Latin short O. b PRONUNCIATION. u long like oo in food, u short like oo in hood.; y long like the long sound of French u or German ii, y short like the short sound of the same. 17. The diphthongs have the sounds produced by run- ning together into one sound the vowels of which they are composed. Thus : ae is sounded like ay = yes ; (ai nearly so) ; au is sounded like ow in how ; ei is sounded like ei in eight ; oe is sounded like oi in coin ; (oi nearly so) ; ui is sounded nearly like wee in sweet ; eu is sounded like eh-oo (i. e., nearly as in English feud, avoiding the tendency to make a short i of the e). a. The early diphthong ou, having a sound between o and u, soon passed everywhere into one or the other of these letters. b. During the early empire ae and oe became weakened so as to resemble long e in sound, and were thus often confused with it in spelling. 18. The consonants are sounded as in English, but c and g are always hard, as in can and get. s is always sharp, as in sin. t is always pronounced as in tent. v has the sound of English w in want. i consonans has the sound of English y in year. a. When a consonant is doubled both letters are distinctly sounded ; as in lup-piter, bel-lum, fer-rd. b. After g, q, or s, u if followed by a vowel unites closely with these letters, producing the sound heard in English san- guine, queen, suavity ; as in lingua, quarum, suaded. But in the pronoun suus, sua, suum, u is a full vowel, ex- cept sometimes in verse. Suns thus has two syllables, su-us. c. n before c, g, k, q, x, has the sound heard in English anclwr, anguish, anxious / as in anceps, ungo, inquit, anxius. d. m and s after a vowel at the end of a word were sounded feebly ; as in bonum, plenus. SYLLABLES. 7 e. n before S also had a feeble sound, producing the effect of nasalizing and lengthening the preceding vowel ; as in consul, censor, amans. f. The Romans had a tendency to pronounce final d like t, and also b final or before s like p ; as in hand, ab, urbs. g. The aspirated sounds ch, ph, and th, when first intro- duced into Latin (about 100 B. c.), had the sounds of kh, ph, and th in English inkhorn, upheave, hothouse. Afterwards ph came to be pronounced as in English phantom, and ch to have the sound of the German guttural ch, a somewhat rougher sound than English ch in character, while the sound of th approached that of simple t. h. e in est (is) was elided in prose as well as verse, when the word before it ended in a vowel or m, unless the est was em- phatic. Thus : magna est Diana JSphesiorum (pronounced ma- gna'st), hoc bellum gerendum est (pronounced gerendum'st).* SYLLABLES (Syllabae). 19. Every Latin word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels (or diphthongs). Every syllable ends with a vowel, so far as is allowed by the following rules : 20. A single consonant between two vowels is joined to the second vowel. Thus : ml-les, so-nus. 21. The double consonants x and z, and combinations of consonants which can begin a Latin (or English) word, also mn, are joined to the following vowel. Thus : re-xit, gci-za, z-gno-sco, a-plau-stre, a-mnis. a. In Greek words the Greek usage is followed, by which more combinations of letters can begin a word than in Latin. We * As in all languages, many variations from these mechanical rules oc- curred in Latin as pronounced by the Romans. With the extinction of the nation disappeared, of course, the exact pronunciation of their language. The careful student, however, will observe, as he advances, numerous facts in the growth of Latin forms, which shed light upon the finer points of pronunciation. 8 PRONUNCIATION. write, therefore, Te-cmes-sa, cy-cmis, etc. Even Phcu-tnae is found, although tn cannot begin a Greek word. 22. Other combinations of consonants are separated, the first letter being joined to the preceding vowel, all the others to the vowel which follows. Thus : ac-tus, pran-di- um, in-con-sul-to, vic-trix, ex-cer-ptum, mon-stra. 23. Compounds are separated into their parts. Thus : ab-eo, slc-ut. So also the apparent compounds like quis-piam. 24. But compounds are treated like simple words in the two following instances : a. If the first part has lost an ending. Thus : ma-yna-ni-mus (inagnus-\- animus), lon^gae-vos (longus -\-aevo7ri). b. If the second part would otherwise begin with a combina- tion of consonants impossible at the beginning of a word. Thus : pror-sus ( pro -j- versus). The first consonant in this case is almost always r. 25. When the first part of a compound ended with the same letter with which the second part began, the first of these letters was dropped. Thus : trar^scmbo (trans + scribo), dirspicio (dis -J- specio). NOTE 1. The last syllable of a word is called the ULTIMATE, the last but one the PENULTIMATE or PENULT, the last but two the ANTEPENULTI- MATE OF ANTEPENULT. NOTE 2. A syllable preceded by a vowel is called PURE (pur a), as -us in deus ; by a consonant, IMPURE (impwra), as -stat in constat. NOTE 3. An initial syllable ending- with a vowel, and any other syllable beginning with a vowel, is called OPEN ; other syllables are called CLOSE. Thus in deus both syllables are open, in obstat both are close. QUAOTTTY (Quantitas). 26. By QUANTITY is meant the relative time required to pronounce a letter or syllable. Quantity is either LONG (producta), SHORT (correptti), or COMMON (anceps). a. The time required to pronounce a short syllable is called a mora. A long syllable requires twice as much time, or two morae. QUANTITY. ACCENT. 9 27. Syllables are long, shorfc, or common BY NATURE (natura productae, correptae, ancipites) when their quan- tity is the same as that of the vowel (or diphthong) con- tained in them. Thus : eadem, consults. 28. A syllable is long BY POSITION (positione pro- ducta) when it contains a short vowel followed by two or more consonants or by one of the double consonants. Thus : amsaitis, abster^, extra. 29. But a syllable containing a short vowel followed by a mute with a liquid after it is common by position* unless the mute belongs to the first part of a compound. Thus in patris the first syllable is common, but in oblatum (06 -{~ latum) it is long. a. In real Latin words only 1 and r after a mute thus make a syllable common, but in Greek words m and n also do so. Thus the first syllable in Tecmessa is common. NOTE. The pupil should be cautioned that short vowels are always pronounced short, even when they occur in syllables which are long or common. ACCENT (Accentus). 30. By ACCENT is meant the way in which some one syllable of every word is uttered to make it more promi- nent than the other syllables. a. The Latin accent was of essentially the same nature as English accent ; that is, it consisted of a stress of voice upon the accented syllable, but was not so strongly marked as in English. On the other hand, the higher tone or pitch with which an accented syllable is uttered was more marked in Latin than in English, f * There are also a few cases of common vowels. The quantity of these was originally between long and short, and so in poetry they are sometimes used as long, sometimes as short ; in prose they are pronounced short. t The Roman grammarians of the early empire tried to introduce an artificial system of accents based upon the Greek distinctions of acute, 10 PRONUNCIATION. 31. Words of one syllable are regarded as accented ; as, me', sed,pdrs. But see 34-36. 32. Words of two syllables are accented upon the first syllable ; as, pa'-ter, ve'-jii. 33. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult if that is long (either by nature or by position), otherwise upon the antepenult;* as, i-md'-go, a-mdn-tis, but do-mi-nus, te-ne-brae. a. In early Latin the accent could stand farther back than the antepenult. ENCLITICS AXD PROCLITICS. 34. Some short words are so closely connected with the word before or after them that they have no accent of their own. 35. Words thus closely attached to the word preceding them are called ENCLITICS {enclitica), and are joined in writing with the preceding word. The syllable before an enclitic in all cases takes the accent. Thus : virl bonl cla- ri'que, good and famous men ; Graecdne an Romano, est mulier, is the woman Greek or Roman ? a. The commonest enclitics are the following particles and suffixes : que, and ; ve, or ; ne (interrog. particle) ; ce (demons, suffix) ; and the suffixes attached to pronouns to strengthen them (see 179, b and c, and 186, a) : met, pe (ppe), pse, pte, te. b. Inde is enclitic in delude, proinde, subinde, etc., thus throw- ing the accent upon the first syllable. 36. PROCLITICS (proditica) are pronounced as part of the following word, without affecting the accent. The chief proclitics are the negatives and the prepositions of grave, and circumflex accents, but the treatment of this system does not belong in a school grammar. See Miiller's Handbuch der klassischen Alter - tumswissenschqft ; B. : " Lateinische Grammatik," pp. 192 ff. * For one or two classes of exceptions, see Gen. and Voc. of nouns in -ius and -ium, 97, 5, a ; certain compounds of facio, 298, 6. ft RULES OF QUANTITY. 11 one syllable. Thus : non omnis moriar^ I shall not all die ; ad urbem eamus, let us go to town. a. Proclitics receive an accent if emphatic ; so also the prepo- sitions when separated from their nouns ; as, in Gallorum fines profectus est, he set forth into the country of the Gauls. NOTE. The accent of a compound word of more than two syllables often helps fix the quantity of a penultimate vowel in the simple word of two syllables. Thus, the accent of insd'nus, conscri'bo, intellegit, fixes the quantity of the penult of sanus, scribo, lego, in the mind, because accent, which belongs also to English words, is easier to remember than quantity. RULES OF QUANTITY. 37. Every vowel is pronounced long or short, accord- ing to its own quantity, without regard to the kind of syllable in which it stands. The few common vowels are pronounced short in prose. NOTE 1. Long vowels are marked thus (~) in this grammar, com- mon vowels thus (*) ; short vowels are left unmarked, except when the mark (~) is useful to contrast them sharply with a long vowel. NOTE 2. Vowels followed by two or more consonants (hidden quanti- ties) are treated as short, when their quantity has not been ascertained, at least with probability. 38. A vowel before another vowel or before a diph- thong is short ; as, e in meus ; i in patriae. a. The breathing h has no effect as regards quantity. Thus, e in veho is short. b. Exceptions : 1. i is long in dlus (for divos). 2. The first vowel is common in Diana, Eheu, ohe. For other exceptions see 146, and 246! c. Greek words regularly retain their original quantity ; as, Aeneas, Ixwn, heroes. d. But a few words which have ft in Greek have e in Latin. These are chorea, Malea, gynaeceum. So some have i in Latin ; as, academia. Balineum and probably platea seem to have been always used with the penultimate vowel short. These vari- ations were due to dialectic forms in Greek. 12 PRONUNCIATION. NOTE. The Greek letters are in most cases represented by the corre- sponding Latin letters ; but v is represented by y, K by C, and , x> an d 0, by ph, ch, th, respectively, and the diphthongs are reproduced thus : oi by ae, -. (I usually, e rarely, before a consonant, (e " I " before a vowel, oi by oe, av by au, ev by eu, ou by u. 39. All diphthongs are long ; as, durum, poenae. a. But ae in prae when compounded with words beginning with a vowel is short ; as, praeacutus. This diphthong is sometimes long in Statius. 40. All vowels produced by contraction (see 61) are long, whether consonants had originally stood between them or not ; as, atlus (for aliius), cogo (for coa ploughshare. {vomis, ) r 107. Such nouns are thus declined : flos, m., flower honor, m., honor pulvis, m., dust Stem flor- honor- pulver- Singular. N. & V. flos honos ) honor \ pulvis Gen. flSris honoris pulveris Dat. flori honorl pulveri Ace. florem honorem pulverem Abl. flore honQre pulvere Plural. N.Acc.&V. flores honores pulveres Gen. florum honorum pulverum Dat. & Abl. floribus honoribus pulveribus corpus, n., body opus, n., work vas, n., vase Stem corpor- oper- vas- Singular. N.Acc.&Y. corpus opus vas Gen. corporis operis vasis Dat. corpori operi vasi Abl. corpore opere vase Plural. N.Acc.&V. corpora opera vasa Gen. corporum operum vasorum Dat. & Abl. corporibus operibus vasis 38 INFLECTION. I- STEMS. 108. Masculine and feminine i- stems add s to form the nominative. Neuters add no s, but show e instead of i in the nominative. Those in all- and ari- drop the i and shorten the a.* Thus : Norn. siti- sitis, f., thirst marl- mare, n., sea. animall- animal, n., living thing. exemplari- exemplar, n., pattern. a. But a number of nouns, chiefly feminine, form the nomina- tive in -es. The common ones are as follows : aedes, f., temple (also aedis). proles, f., offspring. caedes, f., bloodshed. pubes, f., youth. clades, f., disaster. sedes, f., seat. compages, f., joint (in building). sordes, f., dirt. fames, f., hunger. stray es, f., carnage. feles, f., cat. strues, f., heap. lobes, f., ruin. suboles, f., offspring. lues, f., plague. tabes, f., wasting. moles, f., mass. torques, c., necklace. nubes, f., cloud. vates, c., seer. palumbes, c., wood-pigeon. vepres, m., bramble. b. A few stems in bri- and tri- drop the i- and develop a parasitic e. (Cf. 1O3, e, and 97, 1.) Thus : Stem Norn. imbri- imber, m., shower. Ihitri- linter, f., boat. NOTE. There was a tendency on the part of noons with i- stems to pass into consonant stems, and between the nouns with complete i- stem forms and those with complete consonant stem forms are found various words whose forms show different stages in the passage from the former to the latter. * Such nouns were originally neuter adjectives. THIRD DECLENSION. CONSONANT AND I- STEMS. 39 > G S, 2- 2- S. S. . P-S O co * CO B B g. . B B B & I 5 PI r 3, 3. (D OB CT I S II I T u S 1 B B cr cr s* i M B i i r a 1 & tf I I CDl ti CQ v i s g ft- ti B cc OK? S- 2. P a e-t- CfQ g*g . ^ p p- (g * r^ S- P B P B Mfl! R fr s B g ' -^ SB P P P >-b (D CD (D (D p, Si ?. Si sir g, g, g, g, g. * s g: f ,F B ^ CO II aq i & I 40 INFLECTION. a. Besides nouns like aetas, the nouns which have consonant stems in the singular and i- stems in the plural are chiefly the following monosyllables : Nom. Stem Gen. arx, f., citadel arc(i)- arcis dens, m., tooth dent(i)- dentis dos, f., dowry dot(i)~ dotis fons, m., fountain font(i)- fontis fur, m., thief fur(i)- furis mas, m., male mar(i)- maris mons, m., mountain mont(i)- montis nix, f., snow niv(i)- nivis nox, f., night noct(i)- noctis pons, m., bridge pont(i)- pontis strix, f., screech-owl strig(i)- strigis urbs, f., city urb(i)- urbis PECULIAR NOUNS. 110. Three nouns, vis, force, os, bone, and bos, ox or cow, show peculiarities of declension which are best seen when the nouns are given in full. Thus : vis, f., force. os, n., bone. Stem Sing, vl- Plur. viri- (i)- b5s, c., ox or cow. bov- Nom. & V. vis Gen. vis (rare) Dat. Ace. vim Abl. vl N., A. & V. vires Gen. virium Dat. & Abl. viribus Singidar. OS b5s ossis bovis ossi bovi OS bovem osse bove Plural. ossium ossibus boves bourn bobus or bubus 111. Other peculiar forms are as follows : (1.) Senex. m., old person, has a shorter stem in the oblique THIRD DECLENSION. REMARKS ON CASE-FORMS. 41 cases and in the plural. Thus : gen. senis, dat. sent, ace. senem, etc. (2.) Card, f., flesh, gen. carnis, has genitive plural carnium. (3.) luppiter, m., Jupiter (Father Jove), has in the oblique cases lovis, lovl, lovem, love. (4.) Three nouns have a longer stem in the oblique cases than in the nominative. They are : Nom. & Voc. iter, n., road, iecur, n., liver. supellex, f., furniture. Gen. itineris iecinoris or iecoris supellectilis Dat. itineri iecinori or iecori supellectili etc. etc. etc. NOTE 1. The following monosyllabic nouns are not used in the genitive plural : cor, n., heart ; cos, f., whetstone ; fax, f., torch ; faex, f., dregs ; lux, f., light; near, f., death; os, n., mouth; pax, f., peace; praes, m., bondsman; ros, n., dew; sal, m., salt; sol, m., sun; tus, n., frankincense; vas, m., voucher ; ver, n., spring. NOTE 2. IMS, n., right, and rus, n., country, have in the plural only the nominative and accusative cases. REMARKS ON CASE-FORMS. 112. The locative ending of the third declension is -I or -e for the singular, -ibus (as in the ablative) for the plural. Thus : Karthaginl or Karihagine, at Carthage ; Sardibus, at Sardis. 113. The accusative singular ends in -im in the follow- ing words : a. Always in Greek words, as Dap/mis, and in names of rivers, as Tiberis, and in buris, plough-handle. sitis, thirst. cucumis, cucumber. tussis, cough. ravis, hoarseness. vis, force. Also in adverbs which were once accusatives, like partim, amussim, etc. b. Sometimes in febris, fever. turris, tower. puppis, stern. securis, axe. restis, rope. sementis, a sowing. And rarely in several other words. 42 INFLECTION. 114. The ablative singular ends in -I in the follow- ing: a. Always in the words which have only -im hi the accusa- tive, and in securis. b. In certain adjectives used as nouns : aequdlis, a contemporary. gentllis, a family connection. annalis, a historical record, molaris, a mill-stone. aqudlis, a wash-basin. primipilarisj a military officer. consuldris, an ex-consul. tributes, a fellow tribesman. c. In neuters, except the following : baccar, a plant ; iubar, a ray of light ; nectar, nectar ; and sometimes (in verse), mare, sea, and rete, net. d. Sometimes in the following : amnis, river. finis, end. ovis, sheep. (iris, bird. Ignis, fire. pelvis, basin. axis, axle. imber, shower. sementis, sowing. bills, bile. mane, morning. sors, lot. classis, fleet. messis, harvest. strigilis, flesh-scraper. cldvis, key. ndvis, ship. turris, tower. febris, fever. And the following adjectives used as nouns : adfinis, a connection by marriage, rivdlis, rival. bipennis, two-edged axe. sapiens, philosopher. canalis, water-pipe. triremis, trireme. familiaris, friend. vocdlis, vowel. natalis, birth-day. aedtlis, aedile (rarely). 115. The ablative singular ends in -e in fames, hunger, and in -e in Soracte and in most names of towns which end in -e, as Praenestc. 116. The genitive plural ends in -um in the following nouns (though they have i- stems) : a. Always in canis, dog ; invents, youth (originally consonant stems). ambages, riddle ; volucris, bird. THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. 43 b. Sometimes in apis, bee. sedes, seat. caedes, bloodshed. strues, pile. clddes, disaster. suboles, offspring. mensis, month. vates, bard. c. Also in nouns in -tas ; as, civitds, gen. plur. civitdtum or cwitdtium ; and rarely in names denoting nationality, in -as, -atis, or -is, -itis ; as, Arpinds, Samnis. 117. The accusative plural in -is is common with i- stems, but -es is also found in all words. a. In the nominative plural -is is very rare. An old form in -eis also occurs in both accusative and nominative. NOTE. For other old or rare forms see Biicheler's Grundrvss. GENDER. 118. (1.) Nouns with the following endings are MAS- CULINE : -er, -gs, -or, -6s, -5 (except -do, -g5, and abstracts and collectives in -io), also -n (except -men). (2.) Nouns with the following endings are FEMININE : -as, -es, -is, -us, -ys, -s preceded by a consonant, -do, -go, and abstracts and collectives in -io. (3.) Nouns with the following endings are NEUTER : -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -t, -men, -ar, -ur, -us. 119. The most common exceptions to these rules are as follows : (1.) Masculine are as, a piece of money, mensis, month. pons, bridge. vas, bondsman. orbis, circle. aries, ram. amnis, river. pdnis, bread. paries, wall. collis, hill. unguis, nail. pes, foot. ensis, sword. dens, tooth. ordo, order. ignis, fire. fons, spring. sol, sun. lapis, stone. mons, mountain. OF THE "UNIVERSITY 44 INFLECTION. (2.) Feminine are arbor, tree. seges, crop. dos, dowry. pecus,* sheep. (3.) Common are bos, ox or cow. canis, dog. iuvenis, youth. Gustos, guard. cinis, ashes. pulvis, dust. sacerdos, priest or clvis, citizen. testis, witness. priestess. crlnis, hair. calx, lime. torques, necklace. finis, end. calx, heel. vates, bard. funis, rope. w?7s, mouse. anguis, snake. Iwstis, enemy. sus, swine. (4.) Neuter are cadaver, corpse. cor, heart. inguen, groin. papdver, poppy. aes, copper. unguen, ointment. iter, road. fas, right. crus, leg. i(ber, teat. nefas, wrong. ius, right. vor, spring. vas, vase. rus, country. verber, scourge. os, mouth. tus, frankincense. aeqiwr, sea. os, bone. Less common exceptions are as follows : 120. Masculine are (1.) Greek nouns in as (gen. -antis); as, elephds, ele- phant ; also, axis, axle ; buris, plough-handle ; caulis, stalk ; cucumis, cucumber ; fastis, bundle ; follis, bel- lows ; fastis, club ; pistis, fish ; ^>ostis, post ; torris, fire- brand ; vectis, lever ; vermis, worm ; vomis, plough-share. (2.) Oalix, Gup',fornix, arch ; phoenix, a fabulous bird; onyx, a precious stone ; quincunx, septunx, etc. ; auceps, bird-catcher ; chalybs, steel ; cliens, client ; quadrans, sextans, etc. ; compounds of dens, except bidens, sheep. (3.) comedo, glutton ; cardo, hinge ; harpago, grap- pling-hook ; sal, salt (sometimes neuter in singular) ; tur- tur, turtle dove ; vultur, vulture ; flamen, a kind of priest. * Priscian quotes it once from Ennius as masculine, and a neuter plural form pecuda is found. THIRD DECLENSION. GREEK NOUNS. 45 (4.) Generally, also, callis, path ; cdnalis, water-pipe ; dunis, haunch ; corbis, basket ; sentis, brier ; grex, herd ; pumex, pumice stone ; senex, old person ; rudens, rope ; tigris (in prose ; always feminine in poetry), tiger. 121. Feminine are linter, boat ; merges, sheaf ; cos, whetstone ; eos, morning ; card, flesh ; and Greek nouns in -5, like echo, echo. 122. Common are antistes, priest; palumbes, wood- pigeon ; cortex, bark ; obex, barrier ; onyx (meaning an onyx box) ; sardonyx, a precious stone ; sandyx, the color scarlet ; silex, flint ; forceps, pincers ; scrobs, ditch ; serpens, serpent ; stirps, tree trunk. 123. Neuter are Greek nouns in -as (genitive -atis), and in -es; as, hippomanes ; also, deer, chick-pea; piper, pepper; spinier, a kind of bracelet; tuber, a swelling; ador, spelt ; marmor, marble ; gluten, glue. GREEK NOUNS. 124. Greek nouns in the third declension seldom show Greek forms except in the genitive and accusative singu- lar and accusative plural. Examples of their declension are as follows : herds, m., hero, lampas, f., torch, basis, f., base. Singular. N.&V. herds lampas basis G. herois lampados basis (-eos) D. heroi lampadi basl Ac. her5a lampada basin Ab. her5e lampade basl Plural. N. & V. her5es lampades bases G. heroum lampadum basium D. & Ab. heroism lampadibus basibus Ac. her5as lampada^ basis (-eis) 46 INFLECTION. N. G. D. Ac. V. Ab. tigris, c., tiger. nais, f., naiad, chelys, f., lyre. Singular. tigris tigris (-idos) tigri tigrin (-ida) tigris tigrl (-ide) N. & V. tigres G. tigrium D. & Ab. tigribus Ac. tigris (-idas) nais naidos naidi naida nais naide Plural. naides naidum naidibus naidas chelys chelyn chely Proper Names. Examples of the declension of Greek proper names are as follows : f. N. G. D. Ac. V. Ab. m. m. N. Socrates Dld5 Simois G. Socratis (-1) Didus (-onis) Simoentis D. S5crati Did5 (-oni) Simoenti Ac. SScratem (-en) Dido (-5nem) Simoenta V. Socrates (-e) Dido Simois Ab. S5crate Dido (-one) Simoente m. Capys Capyos Capyi Capyn Capy Capye m. Daphnis Daphnidis Daphnidi Daphnim (-in) Daphni Daphni FOURTH DECLENSION. 47 Special Forms. 125. (1.) Like Simois are declined stems in ant-, ent-, ont-, tint-; as, adamas, gen. adamantis ; Xenophon, gen. Xenophontis ; Trapezus, gen. Trapezuntis, etc. (2.) But some in ont- are thoroughly latinized and de- clined like DracO) gen. Draconis. So also Agamemnon or Agamemno, but with short o in the stem, Agamemno- nis, etc. (3.) Stems in ant- have the Latin form in the nomina- tive sometimes as, Atlans^ elephdns; and also have a in the vocative as, Atla. (4.) Neuters in -a have a dative and ablative plural in -is after the fashion of the second declension ; as, poema, dat. and abl. poematls. FOURTH DECLENSION 126. The fourth declension consists of nouns whose stems end in u-. The nominative singular ends in -us rnasc. (and fern.), -u neuter. Thus : fructus, m., fruit. cornu, m., horn. Stem fructu- cornu- - Singular. Nom. & Voc. fructus cornu Gen. fructus cornus Dat. fructui (-u) cornu Ace. fructum cornu Abl. fructu cornu Plural. Nom. & Voc. fructus cornua Gen. fructuum cornuum Dat. fructibus cornibus Ace. fructus cornua Abl. fructibus cornibus 48 INFLECTION. EXCEPTIONS IN GENDER. 127. The following nouns are feminine : acus, needle. manus, hand. colus, distaff. portictis, gallery. domus, house. Qutnquatrus (pi.), Feast of ficus, fig. Minerva. Idus, pi. Ides. tribitSj tribe. Also a few by signification ; and rarely arcus, bow ; penus, pro- visions; specus, cave. a. Secus, sex, is neuter. CASE-FORMS. 128. (1.) Old genitives in -uos and -uis are found in some words ; as, senatuos ; friictms. (2.) A genitive in I-, after the analogy of the second declension, is found in senati, and in early Latin in a few other words. (3.) A few datives in u- occur. (4.) A contracted genitive plural in -um is also found. 129. The following nouns retain the u- of the stem (not weakened to i-)* in the dative and ablative plural. artus, limb, dat. and abl. pi. artubus. partus, birth, " partubus. portiis, harbor, " (portubus). tribus, tribe, " tribiibus. verii, spit, " (verubus). a. All but partus have also the form in -ibus, in classical times. With portus and veru that is the commoner form. b. Words of two syllables in -cus have more commonly -ubus in the ablative ; as, lacm, lacubus. 130. Domus, house, has two stems, domu- and domo, Cf . 59, and 90. FIFTH DECLENSION. 49 and is declined as follows (the commoner form in each case is put first) : domus, f., house. Stem domu- and domo- Singular. Plural. Nora. & Voc. domus domus Gen. domus, domi domuum, dornorum Dat. domul, domo domibus Ace. domum domos, domus Abl. domo (domu) domibus a. Domi is used only as locative, except in Plautus. A locative domul also occurs. 131. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff, have also forms of the second declension ; penus^ provisions, has forms in both the second and third declensions,* FIFTH DECLENSION. 132. The fifth declension consists of the nouns whose stems end in e-. The nominative singular ends in -es. All the nouns are feminine except dies (common in the singular, masculine in the plural) and merldies (mas- culine). They are thus declined : res, thing. Stem re- Singular. Plural. Nom. <5 b Voc. res res Gen. rel rerum Dat. rSI rebus Ace. rem res Abl. re rebus * The fourth declension seems to have been an offshoot from the third. Cf. genitive forms like nominus, from nomen, and sendtuos, from sendtus. Later, confusion arose between the fourth and the second declensions through their similarity in the nominative singular. Hence forms like seniiti, domorum. 50 INFLECTION. dies, day. Stem die- Singidar. Plural. Nom. & Voc. dies dies Gen. diel dierum Dat. diel diebus Ace. diem dies Abl. die diebus a. Dies is as a rule feminine only when it denotes duration of time or a fixed day. CASE-FORMS. 133. (1.) Old forms of both genitive and dative singu- lar in -e and -i, and of genitive only in -es, occur, but rarely ; as, fide, dii) rabies. Plebl is common as a genitive. (2.) Only res and dies are used in full in the plural. The nominative, accusative, and vocative plural are found in the following : acies, line of battle, fades, face. series, series. effigies, effigy. glacies, ice. species, shape, form. chivies, overflowing, progenies, offspring, spes, hope. (3.) The stem vowel is shortened in the genitive and da- tive singular when a consonant precedes it ; as, rei, from res, thing ; fidei, from jides, faith ; spei, from spes, hope. a. All the nouns of the fifth declension but four fides, ple- bes,* res, and spes end in -ies, and all nouns in -ies are of this declension, except five of the third declension abies, fir ; aries, battering ram ; paries, partition wall ; quies and requies, rest. b. The nouns in -ies of the fifth declension (except dies and niprlffies) generally have, especially in the genitive and dative singular, and in the plural, corresponding forms in the first declension. Thus, materia, gen. mater iae, beside materies, gen. materiel, etc.f * Less common than the third declension form plebs. t These nouns in -ies seem to have been developed from the stems in a- originally. (See Handb. der Altert., vol. ii., B., p. 203, 5.) The other nouns of the fifth declension except perhaps res were probably originally 8- stems of the third declension, like nubes. (Cf . 108, a, 109.) IRREGULAR NOUNS. 51 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 134. There are four classes of irregular nouns, as follows : (1.) HETEROGENEOUS nouns (heterogenea), or such as have forms of different genders. (2.) HETEROCLITES (heteroclita), or nouns which have forms of different declensions. (3.) DEFECTIVE nouns (defectwa), or such as lack some of their parts. (4.) REDUNDANT nouns (abundanticL), or such as have more forms than the usual number. 135. The commonest heterogeneous nouns are the fol- lowing : (1.) Masculine in singular, neuter in plural : Avernus, a certain lake, plural Averna. Tartarus^ the lower regions, " Tartar a. iocus, jest, " iocl and ioca. loom, place, I 5 ^.P^ages in books; topics. ( loca, places. sibiltis, whistling, " sibill and slbila. (2.) Feminine in singular, neuter in plural : carbasiis, sail, plural carbasa. (3.) Neuter in singular, masculine in plural: caelum, heaven, plural cadi. frenum, hridle, " frerii andfrena. rastrum, rake, " rastrl, and more rarely rostra. (4.) Neuter in singular, feminine in plural : epulum, feast, plural epulae. balneum, bath, " balneae and balnea, niindinum, market day, " nundinae. 52 INFLECTION. 136. Examples of heteroclites are as follows : iugerum, n., acre. vas, n., vessel. Singular. Norn. & Ace. iugerum vas Gen. iugeri vasis, Dat. iugero vasl Abl. iugero and (iugere) vase Plural. Nom. & Ace. iugera vasa Gen. iugerum vasorum Dat. & Abl. iugeribus and iugeris vasis a. Vesper, evening, has also vespera, ace. vesperum, more rarely vesperam, abl. vespere and vespera, and as ablative of time (see 424) generally the locative from vesperi. It has no plural. b. Requies, rest, has ace. requiem oftener than requietem ; abl. requie. NOTE. The student will remember other examples of heteroclite forms already met under the different declensions. 137. The commonest defective nouns are the follow- ing: (1.) Indeclinable (indeclinabilid) are fas, right. instar, image. nefas, wrong. mane, morning. nihil, nothing. pondo, weight. a. The first four are used only in the nominative and accusa- tive, but nihil has a collateral form nihilum, nihill, niJiilo ; mane is used in the nominative, accusative, and ablative. (Cf. 114, d.) (2.) Fruyis, of fruit, and dicionis, of sway, have no nominative. (3.) Nemo, no one, Las no vocative and no plural, and in classical Latin 110 genitive and no ablative ; these cases are supplied by the pronominal adjective nullus. (4.) The following are used only as given : IRREGULAR NOUNS. impetus, fors, help (sing.), turn. attack. chance, power (plur.). Singular. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Abl. opis opem ope V1C1S impetus fors impetu vicem impetum vice impetu forte Nom. & Ace. opes Gen. opum Dat. & Abl. opibus Plural. vices impetus vicibus a. Sponte, will, accord, is used only in the ablative singular. So also various, nouns of the fourth declension, as admonitu, iussu, arbitratu, natu, etc. See also under the third declension, 110, and fifth declension, 133. 138. (1.) Proper names, and some other nouns, from their meaning naturally have no plural. The following nouns also lack the plural : aether, the sky. caenum, mud. ebur, ivory. gelu, frost. humus, the ground. iubar, radiance. lac, milk. letum, death. llmus, mud. And some others which are less common. (2.) Abstract nouns are used in the plural as a rule only to denote instances or occasions of the quality, action, etc. See 437, 3. 139. (1.) Names of festivals and games, and several lues, plague. mane, morning. piibes, youth. specimen, example. ver, spring. vesper, evening. virus, poison. volgus, crowd. 54 INFLECTION. names of places and books, have no singular ; as, Baccha- nalia, Kalcndae, Bucolica, Athenae. (2.) Other common nouns which lack the singular are the following : acta (2 *), records. altdria (3), altar. angustiae, narrow pass. argutiae, witticisms. arma (2), weapons. bigae, a two-horse chariot. canl, gray hairs. cunabida (2), ) ^^ cunae, ) deliciae, darling. dlvitiae, riches. excubiae, watch. exsequiae, funeral rites. exta (2), entrails. exuviae, spoils. fasti, calendar. fauces (3), jaws. fides (3), lyre. grates t (3), thanks. indutiae, a truce. 140. The following nouns usually differ in meaning in the different numbers : induviae, clothes. Insidiae, ambuscade. liberi, children. mdiores (3), ancestors. manes (3), shades of the dead. manubiae, spoils of war. minae, threats. moenia (3), walls. munia % (2), official duties. nugae, trifles. nuptiae, a marriage. penates (3), household gods. phalerae, trappings. praecordia (2), diaphragm. quadrigae, team of four horses. reliquiae, remains. scalae, ladder. tenebrae, darkness. virgulta (2), bushes. Singular. -is, f., temple, aqua, f., water, auxilium, n., aid, career, in., prison, castrum, n., fort, Plural, aedes, -ium, house. aquae, a watering place. auxilia, auxiliary troops. carceres, racecourse barriers. castra, a camp. * The number annexed shows the declension, wherever doubt might arise. t Used only in the nominative and accusative. | Classical only in nominative and accusative. IRREGULAR NOUNS. ADJECTIVES. 55 codicillus, m., bit of wood, comitium, n., place of as- sembly, copia, f., plenty, facultds, f., ability, finis, m. and f., end, fortuna, f., fortune, gratia, f., favor, impedimentum, n., a hin- drance, littera, f., letter of the al- phabet, Indus, m., pastime, ndtdlis, m., birthday, opera, f., work, task, opis (gen.), f., help, pars, L, part, plaga, f., region, tract, rostrum, n., beak, prow, sal, m. and n., salt, NOTE. Examples of redundant geneous nouns and heteroclites. codicilli, tablets. comitia, an assembly for elec- tion. copiae, troops, forces. facilitates, property. fines, bounds, territory. fortunae, possessions. grdtiae, thanks. impedimenta, baggage. litterae, epistle or literature. liidi, public games. natales, birth, lineage. operae, workmen. opes, -um, means, resources. partes, a part played, or (often)* political party. plagae, nets, toils. rostra, the Rostra.f sales, witticisms, nouns are seen in many of the hetero- ADJECTIVES. 141. Adjectives are declined like nouns, but there are no u- stems J or e- stems among them. Therefore only the first three declensions are used. 142. Adjectives are best divided into two classes for declension : I. Adjectives with o- stems in masculine and neuter, and a- stems in feminine. * The singular is occasionally so used. t A part of the Roman Forum which was adorned with the prows of some war vessels. J Unless the rare compounds of manus be counted an exception. An accusative plural in -us is found of anguimanus, once masculine, once feminine, in Lucretius. 56 INFLECTION. II. Adjectives with i- stems or with consonant stems. FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 143. Adjectives of the first class are said to be of the First and Second Declension. They are declined like nouns of these declensions. Thus : Stem Nora. Gen, Dat. Ace. Voc. AbL M. bono- bonus boni bono bonum bone bono N.&V. bom Gen. bonorum D. & A. bonis Ace. bonos Stem tenero- N. &V. tener Gen. tener! Dat. tener5 Ace. tenemm AbL tenero N. & V. tenerl Gen. tenerorum D. & A. teneris Ace. teneros bonus, good. F. bona- Sinyular. bona bonae bonae bonam bona bona Plural. bonae bonarum bonis bonas tener, tender, tenera- Singular. tenera tenerae tenerae teneram tenera Plural. tenerae tenerarum teneris teneras N. bono- bonum boni bono bonum bonum bono bona bonorum bonis bona tenero- tenerum teneri tenero tenerum tenero tenera tenerorum teneris tenera ADJECTIVES OF FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 57 piger, lazy. Stem pigro- pigra- pigro- Singular. N. & V. piger pigra pigrum Gen. pigri pigrae pigri Dat. pigro pigrae pigro Ace. pigrum pigram pigrum Abl. pigro pigra pigro Plural. N. & V. pigri pigrae pigra Gen. pigrorum pigrarum pigrorum D. & A. pigrls pigrls pigrls Ace. pigros pigras pigra a. Adjectives in -ius have the full forms in the genitive and vocative singular ; as, regii and regie, from regius. 144. In tener and the few adjectives declined like it the e before the r belongs to the stem, as in the case of analogous nouns. (Cf. 97, 2.) a. These adjectives are asper, rough. miser, wretched. exter, foreign. prosper, prosperous. gibber, crook-backed. satur, full (satiated). lacer, torn. semi-fer, half-human. liber, free. And the compounds of gero and fero ; as, laniger, letifer, etc. NOTE. Satur is the only adjective of the second declension having any vowel but e before the final r. 145. Six adjectives in -us and three in -er form the genitive singular in -ius and the dative singular in -I for all genders. These are alius, another, totus, whole, alter, altera, alterum, the other. nullus, none. ullus, any. uter, utra, utrum, which of two. solus, alone. unus, one. neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither. 58 INFLECTION. 146. They are thus declined in the singular : unus, one. N. uno- unum unius tin! unum unum uno alio- aliud alias alii aliud alio M. F. Stem uno- una- Nom. unus una Gen. unius unius Dat. uni uni Ace. unum iinfl.m Voc. une una Abl. uno una alius, another. Stem alio- alia- Nom. alius alia Gen. alius alius Dat. alii alii Ace. all iim fl.1ifl.rn Voc. Abl. alio alia uter, which (of two). Stem utro- utra- Nom. uter utra Gen. utrius utrius Dat utri utri Ace. utrum utram Voc. . Abl. utro utra utro The plural is regular. a. So are declined uterque, each ; cdtwuter, one or the other. CASE-FORMS. 147. (1.) The quantity of the i of the genitive singu- lar is common in poetry. (2.) The genitive alius is rare, alterlus being used instead, except in the possessive sense, which is supplied by the adjective alienus, belonging to another. ADJECTIVES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 59 (3.) The regular forms of the genitive and dative singular are occasionally found, especially in early Latin ; as, nullae (gen.), (Plaut., Mil., iii., 1, 207) ; nullo (Cses., B. ., vi., 13). THIRD DECLENSION. 148. The adjectives of Class II. are called Adjectives of the Third Declension. They are declined exactly like nouns of the third declension, except that the forms properly belonging to i- stems are much more common than in nouns. There is also much less variety in the endings of the nominative singular. 149. Adjectives of the third declension may be divided into three classes, according as they have (1.) Three forms in the nominative singular for the three genders. (2.) Two forms in the nominative singular, one mascu- line and feminine, the other neuter. (3.) One form for all three genders. 150. Class (1) includes only certain stems in ri-. The i is dropped in the nominative singular masculine ; a para- sitic e is then developed before the r (as in the noun stems under 103, e, and 108, 6). The feminine nomina- tive singular ends in -is, the neuter in -e, as in the corre- sponding nouns. Such adjectives are thus declined : acer, sharp. Stem acri- Singular. M. F. N. Nom. & Voc. acer acris acre Gen. acris acris acris Dat. & Abl. acri acri acri Ace. acrem acrem acre Plural. Nom. & Voc. acres acres acria Gen. acrium acrium acrium Dat & Abl. acribus acribus acribus Ace. acres (-Is) acres (-Is) acria 60 INFLECTION. 151. The only adjectives of this class are acer. celeber. pedester. Silvester. alacer. equester. puter. terrester. campester. paluster. saLuber. volucer. celer.* And the names of the months September, October, November, December. a. These adjectives sometimes have the masculine singular in -is like the feminine. This is especially the case with puter, saluber, and terrester. b. On the other hand, the form in -er is sometimes found as feminine in early and late Latin. c. Volucer has volucrum in the genitive plural. 152. Class (2) includes all other i- stems, and the com- paratives (consonant stems). They are thus declined : Stem roitis, mild, miti- mltior, milder, mltior- Singular. M. & F. N. M. & P. N. N.&V. mitis mite mitior mitius Gen. mitis mitis miti5ris mitiSris Dat. miti miti mitiori mitiori Ace. mitem mite mitiorem mitius Abl. miti miti mitiore (-i) mitiore (-i) Plural. N.&V. mites mitia mitiSres mitiora Gen. mitium mitium mitiorum mitiorum D. & A. mitibus mitibus mitioribus miti5ribus Ace. mites (-is) mitia mitiares (-is) mitiora 153. P/ws, more, has in the singular only the forms of the neuter gender. The plural differs from that of other * In this adjective the e in the final syllable belongs to the stem, and is retained throughout. ADJECTIVES OF THIRD DECLENSION. 61 comparatives in having -ium in the gen. plur. Certain forms are wanting. The declension is as follows : plus, more. Stem plur- Singular. N. Nom. plus Gen. plur is plur ium pluribus plures (-Is) plus Dat. Ace. Voc. Abl. plure (rare) Plural. M. & F. N. plures plura (rarely pluria) plurium pluribus plura pluribus M. &F. N., V. felix pluribus So also the plural compound complures, a great many. 154. Class (3) includes all consonant stems except the comparatives. They are thus declined : felix, happy. praesens, present. Stem fellc- praesent- Singular. N. M. & F. felix praesens felicis praesentis felici praesenti felix praesentem felici (-e) praesente (-1) Plural. felicia praesentes felicium praesentium felicibus praesentibus praesentes (-Is) praesentia Stem veter- G. D. Ac. Ab. felicis felici fellcem felici (-e) N., V. felloes G. felicium D., A. felicibus Ac. fellces(-is) fellcia vetus, old. Singular. M. & F. N. N. & V. vetus vetus G. veteris veteris D. veterl veterl Ac. veterem vetus Ab. vetere (-1) vetere (-1) N. praesens praesentis praesenti praesens praesente\T) praesentia praesentium praesentibus Plural. M. & F. N. veteres vetera veterum veterum veteribus veteribus veteres (-Is) vetera veteribus veteribus 62 INFLECTION. CASE-FORMS. 155. (1.) Adjectives, unlike nouns, tend to the forms of the i- declension, as is shown particularly by the abla- tive singular, and the genitive and accusative plural. (2.) The only adjectives which commonly have -e in the ablative singular are the comparatives and compos, sharing in. praeceps, headlong. desidis (genitive), indolent. puber, youthful. dives, rich. superstes, surviving. pauper, poor. supplex, suppliant particeps, sharing. vetus, old.* a. But most adjectives of one ending (Class 3, above) have -e, when used as nouns. So also most present participles, and par- ticipial adjectives like praesens, when used as participles. (3.) Only a few adjectives have -um in the genitive plu- ral. The most common are dives, compos, inops (poor), praepes (swift of flight), supplex, and compounds of nouns which have -um. Most of these adjectives lack the nominative, accusative, and vocative plural altogether. a. Locuples has locupletum and locupletium. (4.) Almost all adjectives -can have the accusative plural in -is as well as -es, but -is is less common in the adjectives with consonant stems than in those with vowel stems. (5.) Some adjectives are indeclinable, as frugi (really a dative of Q/Htfe]) worthy, and nequam, worthless ; potis, pote, possible, is sometimes used as indeclinable, some- times regularly declined. (6.) A few adjectives are used only in one or two forms, as : exspes, without hope, only nominative. exlex, lawless, nominative and accusative. mactus, honored, nominative and vocative. * To these may be added the ablative pernocte, which is the only oblique case used of pernox, lasting all night. ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. 63 necesse ) ... . > necessary, nominative and accusative. necessum } pernox, lasting all night, nominative and ablative. Hebes, dull ; teres, round ; and a few others, lack the genitive plural. Desidis, indolent, lacks also the nominative singular. (7.) A few adjectives (heteroclites) have besides the third declension form another in the second declension. The most common are auxiliaris and auxilidrius (less common), auxiliary. biiugis (rare) and biiugus, yoked two together. exanimis (rare in plural) and exanimus, lifeless. hilaris and hilarus, cheerful. imbecillis (rare) and imbecillus, weak. inermis and inermus (very rare), unarmed. opulens and opulentus, rich. proclwis and proclwos (less common), sloping. singularis and singularius, singular. violens and violentus, violent. NUMERAL ADJECTIVES (Numerdlia). 156. Numeral adjectives are divided into three princi- pal classes : (1.) CARDINALS (cardinalia) ; (2.) ORDI- NALS (firdinalia) ; (3.) DISTRIBUTIVES (distributwa). 157. (1.) Cardinals simply denote the number of things meant and answer the question quot (i. e., how many) ? as, unus, one ; vlgintl, twenty. (2.) Ordinals denote order or rank and answer the question quotus (i. e., how many-eth) ? as, primus, first ; qumtus, fifth. (3.) Distributives denote an equal distribution among a given number of persons or things, and answer the question quoten'i (i. e., how many apiece) ? as, him, two apiece. (4.) For convenience the NUMERAL ADVERBS are given with the adjectives. They answer the question quotiens (i. e., how many times) ? as, semel, once ; decies, ten times. 64 INFLECTION. 158. The numeral adjectives (cardinals, ordinals, and distributives), and also the adverbs, from one to twenty, CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 1 unus, -a, -um one primus 2 duo, -ae, -o two secundus 3 tres, -ia three tertius 4 quattuor four quartus 5 quinque five qulntus 6 sex six sextus 7 septem seven Septimus 8 octo eight octavus 9 novem nine nonus 10 decem ten decimus 11 undecim eleven iindecimus 12 duodecim twelve duodecimus 13 tredecim thirteen tertius decimus 14 quattuordecim fourteen quartus decimus 15 quindecim fifteen qulntus decimus 16 sedecim sixteen sextus decimus 17 septendecim seventeen septimus decimus 18 duodeviginti eighteen duodevicesimus 19 undeviginti nineteen undevicesimus 20 viginti twenty ( vicesimus ) ( vigesimus > Q-J viginti unus \-twent -one ( vicesimus primus ) unus et viginti . ) >n y ~**' ( unus et vigesimus ) /- vicesimus alter ^ 22 viginti duo \twent two J alter et vicesimus > duo et viginti \ ( duo et vicesimus ) 28 duodetriginta twenty-eight duodetricesimus undetriginta ) twenty-nine undetrlcesimus viginti novem NUMERALS. 65 with examples of the higher numbers, are given in the following table, together with the Roman signs for them. DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. ROMAN SIGNS. singull semel I. bin! bis II. term ter III. quaterm quater IIII or IV. quini qumquies V. sen! sexies VI. septeni septies VII. octoni octies VIII. noveni novies VIIII or IX. deni decies X. undem undecies XL duodem duodecies XII. terni deni ter decies XIII. quaterni deni quater decies XIIII or XIV. quini deni ( quinquies decies ) ( quindecies ) XV. seni deni ( sexies decies ) (. sedecies ) XVI. septeni deni septies decies XVII. ( duodeviceni ) ( octoni deni ) octies decies XVIII. (undeviceni > ( noveni deni ) novies decies XVIIII or XIX. vicem vicies XX. viceni singull ( vicies semel ) ( semel et vicies ) XXI. viceni bini ( vicies bis ) ( bis et vicies ) XXII. duodetriceni duodetricies XXVIII. undetriceni undetricies XX VIIII or XXI 66 INFLECTION. CARDINALS. 30 triginta thirty 40 50 60 70 80 90 99 100 101 102 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1,000 2,000 100,000 1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 ORDINALS. ( tricesimus ) (. trigesimus ) quadragesimus quinquagesimus sexagesimus septuagesimus octogesimus nonagesimus quadraginta forty quinquaginta fifty sexaginta sixty septuaginta seventy octoginta eighty nonaginta undecentum ) (nonaginta no- V- vem) ) centum one hundred centum et unus ) hundred and centum unus > one centum et duo ) hundred and centum duo ) two ducenti, -ae, -a two hundred trecenti, -ae, -a three hundred quadringenti, -ae, -a four hundred quingenti, -ae, -a five hundred sescenti, -ae, -a six hundred septingenti, -ae, -a seven hundred septingentesimus octingenti, -ae, -a eight hundred octingentesimus nongenti, -ae, -a nine hundred mille one thousand duo mllia two thousand centum milia one hundred thousand decies centena (or centum) milia one million vicies centena (or centum) milia two million tricies centum milia three million ninety-nine undecentesimus centesimus ( centesimus et unus ( centesimus unus ( centesimus et alter ( centesimus alter ducentesimus trecentesimus quadringentesimus quingentesimus sescentesimus nongentesimus mlllesimus bis millesimus centies millesimus decies centies mil- lesimus vicies centies mil- lesimus tricies centies mil- lesimus NUMERALS. DISTRIBUTIVES. ADVERBS. ROMAN SIGNS. 67 tricem tricies XXX. quadragem quadragies XXXX or XL. qulnquageni qumquagies L. sexagem sexagies LX. septuageni septuagies LXX. octogeni octogies LXXX. nonagem nonagies LXXXX or XC. undecentenl undecenties 1C. centeni centies C. centem singuli-< centies et semel ) centies semel ) CI. centeni bin! < centies et bis ) GIL centies bis ) ducem ducenties CC. treceni trecenties CCC. quadringem quadringenties CCCC or CD. quingem qumgenties D or 10- sescem sescenties DC or IOC. septingem septingenties DCC or IOCC. octingeni octingenties DCCC or IOCCC. nongem nongenties DCCCCorlOCCCC. singula milia millies M or CIO. bma milia bis millies MM or CIOCIO- CCCIOOO. decies centies milies CCCCIOOOO- centena milia centies milies decies centena milia \icies centena milia vicies centies milies CCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOO- tricies centena milia tricies centies milies CCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOO. 68 INFLECTION. 159. The cardinals from quattuor to centum, also mille, are indeclinable. The cardinals for hundreds, and the distributives, are declined like the plural of bonus. The ordinals are declined like bonus in both numbers, fjnus, duo, tres, and milia (pi.) are also declined. 160. Unus has been declined in 146. Tres and milia are declined like the plural of regular adjectives of the third declension. Duo is thus declined : M. F. N. N. & V. duo duae duo G. duorum duarum duorum D. & Ab. duobus duabus duobus Ac. duos or duo duas duo a. The shorter form of the genitive, duum, is used especially in compounds like duumviri, and when joined with milimn. b. Like duo is declined ambo, both, except that the final o is long. They are remnants of the dual number. (See 86, a.) 161. The plural of unus is used with nouns which have no singular or a different meaning in the singular; as, unae nuptiae, one wedding ; Una castra, one camp. To denote more than one with such nouns the distributives * are used ; as, bma castra, two camps. a. The plural of unus is also used with nouns denoting seve- ral things considered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit of clothes ; and in the meaning " alone " or " the same ; " as, uni Ubii, the Ubii alone ; urns nwribus vivere, to live according to the same habits (as some one else). b. The numbers from twelve to nineteen are sometimes ex- pressed by two numbers, the greater of which usually precedes with et ; as, decent et tres, etc. ; or without et ; as, decem novem. c. From twenty to one hundred the smaller number with et is put first, or the larger number without et ; as, unus et vigintl or vigintl unus. Ordinals, however, omit et when the smaller number precedes and sometimes take it when the larger pre- * Trim is used for terra, in such cases. NUMERALS. 69 cedes ; as, tertius decimus^ and decimus tertius or decimus et ter- tius. The adverbs may also take et when the larger number precedes ; as, vicies et ter as well as ter et vicies and vicies ter. d. Instead of primus and secundus, prior and alter are used when only two are spoken of. Alter is otherwise often used for secundus / and, in the compound numbers, unus and alter are often used for primus and secundus / as, unus et vicesimus, alter et trlgesimus. e. Sixty-eight, sixty-nine, and ninety-eight, are expressed by addition only ; the other eights and nines generally by subtrac- tion only, except that twenty-eight, twenty-nine, and thirty-nine, as well as some of the distributives and adverbs, have both forms. Among ordinals seventy-eight, seventy-nine, eighty- eight, and eighty-nine have only the forms by addition. /. Above one hundred the larger number precedes with or without et ; as, centum et unus or centum unus. Et is never used more than once, and then after the first number ; as, trecenti et sexaginta sex. Numeral adverbs are to be added together when the larger precedes, but multiplied together when the smaller precedes. Thus, while centies decies means a hundred and ten times, decies centies means ten times a hundred times, i. e., a thousand times. g. Mille is generally used as an adjective, but in the nomina- tive and accusative it also occurs as a noun ; milia is a noun, and may be used with a genitive. Thus : mille homines and duo milia hominum. h. Thousands are expressed by prefixing the cardinal num- bers to milia, millions by further prefixing a numeral adverb. Thus: decem milia = 10,000. ducenta milia = 200,000. trwies centum milia = 3,000,000 (i. e., thirty times 100,000). i. The year and the hour are expressed by ordinals. Thus : hora septima, at the seventh hour ; annus quingentesimus trl- cesimus primus, the year five hundred and thirty-one. k. Fractions are expressed by ordinals with pars, a part. Thus, = tertia pars. One half is generally, however, expressed 70 INFLECTION. by dlmidia pars, or dlmidium and a genitive. Also, fractions whose numerator is one less than the denominator are ex- pressed by cardinals with paries. Thus : f = duae paries, f = ires paries, etc. NOTE. For various derivative adjectives expressing numerical relations see 286. 162. (1.) The Romans represented numbers by letters ; as, 1 = 1, V = 5, X = 10. NOTE. In several cases these letters grew out of early forms discarded from the alphabet as we have it. Thus, the old aspirates, 0> ? V , were used for 100, 1000, and 50 respectively, and developed into C , CD, and _L. Then five hundred (half one thousand) was denoted by I). For these were then substituted C, M, L, D ; but for M and D, CIO and ID are often written. (2.) When a letter is repeated, the number is equal to the value of the letter multiplied by the number of times it occurs. Thus, II = 2 x 1, or 2 ; XXX = 10x3, or 30 ; CCCC = 100 x 4, or 400. V and L are not thus repeated. (3.) When a letter of smaller value is placed before one of larger value, its value is subtracted from the larger value ; placed after, it is added to the larger value ; as : IV four, V five, VI six. IX nine, X ten, XI eleven. XL forty, L fifty, LX sixty. XC ninety, C hundred, CX hundred and ten. a. Annexing to 10 multiplies by ten. Thus : 10 = 500 ; 100 = 5,000 ; 1000 = 50,000. b. Prefixing C and annexing to CIO also multiplies by ten. Thus : CIO -1000; CCIOO = 10,000 ; CCCIOOO = 100,000. c. Hundreds of thousands are represented by repeating CCCIOOO. Thus : CCCIOOOCCCIOOOCCCIOOO - 300,000. d. Sometimes thousands are expressed by a straight line over the numeral letters. Thus : X = 10,000; XL =40,000. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 71 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (Comparatio). 163. (1.) The COMPARISON of an adjective is the change of its form to express its quality in different degrees. (2.) There are three degrees of comparison, the POSI- TIVE (gradus positwus), the COMPARATIVE (gradus com- paratlvus), and the SUPERLATIVE (gradus superlatwus). 164. (1.) The POSITIVE simply denotes a quality, with- out reference to other degrees of the same quality; as, altus, high ; mitis, mild. (2.) The COMPARATIVE denotes that a quality exists in one of two instances to a greater degree than in the other ; as, altior, higher; mitior, milder. (3.) The SUPERLATIVE denotes that a quality exists in one of several (or all possible) instances to a greater de- gree than in any other ; as, altissimus, highest ; mltissi- mus, mildest. a. The comparative is also used elliptically where we use "too" or "rather;" as, vlvit liberius, he lives too freely or rather freely. b. The superlative often indicates a high degree of a quality without direct comparison with other objects ; as, amlcus caris- simus, a very dear friend. c. The superlative with quam denotes that the quality exists in the highest possible degree ; as, quam maximus, as great as possible. d. Degrees of a quality less than the positive may be denoted by minus, less, and minime, least, prefixed to the positive, as in English. 165. The comparative is formed by adding -ior (m. and f.), -ius (n.), to the stem of an adjective ; in the case of the vowel stems the stem vowel is dropped. The super- lative is formed by adding in the same way -issimus, -issima, -issimum. Thus : 72 INFLECTION. Positive altus Stem alto- Comparative altior Superlative altissimus mltis miti- mitior mitissimus felix felio- felicior felicissimus Irregular Comparison. 166. Adjectives in -er form the comparative regularly, but add -rimus to the positive to form the superlative. Thus : acer acri- acrior acerrimus a. So vetus has as superlative veterrimus. 167. Six adjectives in -lis form their superlative by adding -limus to the stem without the stem vowel. Thus : facilis, easy facilior f acillimus difficilis, hard difficilior difficilliinus gracilis, slender gracilior gracillimus humilis, low humilior humillimus similis, like similior simillimus dissimilis, unlike dissimilior dissimillimus a. Imbecillus (-is) has also sometimes iinbecilliinus. 168. (1.) Five adjectives in -fieus (cf. facio) derive their comparatives and superlatives from supposed forms in -ficens. Thus : beneficus, kind beneficentior beneficentissimus a. So honorificus, honorable, magnificus, splendid, munificus, liberal, and maleficus, hurtful, except that maleficus has no comparative. (2.) So adjectives in -dicens (from dlco) and -volens (from vo/o), though compared regularly, have more com- monly a positive form in -dicus and -volus. Thus : maledicus (maledl- cens), slanderous maledicentior maledlcentissimus benevolus (benevo- lens), well-wishing benevolentior benevolentissimus DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 73 169. The following adjectives show various irregulari- ties of comparison : bonus, good melior optimus malus, bad peior pessimus magnus, great maior maximus parvus, small minor minimus multus, much plus * plurimus dexter, right, skillful dexterior dextimus nequam, worthless nequior nequissimus frugi, worthy frugalior frugalissimus NOTE. The superlative suffix mo- seems to have been the earliest. This was then combined with the suffix to-, so- (see 255), making -tumus, -sumus (-timus, -simus), which are found assimilated as -limus, -rimus. (See above, 166, 167). The common ending- -issimus either grew from adding -simus to comparatives, or was formed in some way after the pattern of the earlier ending -mus. See Iwan Miiller, Hand- buck der Altertumswiss., ii., B., p. 220. Defective Comparison. 170. (1.) The following adjectives are formed from stems of prepositions, and are seldom or never used in the positive : cis, citra [citerj citerior, hither citimus de deterior, worse deterrimus in, intra interior, inner intimus prae, prd prior, former primus prope propior, nearer proximus ultra [ulter] ulterior, farther ultimus (2.) Four others are used, in many forms of the posi- tives, though not classical in the nominative singular masculine ; namely : ex, extra fexterus I (exter) exterior, outer I extimus infra [mferus] (infer) inferior, inner j mflmus L . ( imus post [posterus] posterior, hinder i Postremus ( postumus super, supra [superus] superior, upper / sximmus * Only neuter in singular. (See 153.) 74 INFLECTION. (3.) The following two have no positive : Scior, swifter ocissimus potior, preferable potissimus 171. The following adjectives have no comparative : bellus, fine. invitus, unwilling. caesius, bluish gray. novos, new. fcdsus, false. plus, filial. fldus, faithful. sacer, sacred. inclutus, renowned. vafer, crafty. invictus, invincible. vetus, old. 172. (1.) The following have no superlative : adidescens, young. pronus, bending forward. agrestis, rustic. proplnquus, near. alacer, lively. salutaris, salutary. caecus, blind. satur, full. diuturnus, lasting. segnis, slow. exilis, thin. silvestris, woody. Inflnltus, unlimited. sinister, left. ingens, great. supinus, lying on the back. ieiiinus, fasting. surdus, deaf. longlnquus, distant. tempestivos, seasonable. opimus, rich. teres, round. procttvis, sloping. vwinus, neighboring. With many in -alls, -ills, -ills, and -bills, and a few other less common adjectives. (2.) Tuvenis, young, compar. iunior, and senex, old, compar. senior, have the superlative supplied by minimus natu and maximus natu, respectively. 173. The comparative and superlative may also be formed by prefixing to the positive the adverbs magis, more, and maxime, most, as in English. Thus : idoneus, fit, magis idoneus, mdxime idoneus. a. This method of comparison is common with adjectives ending in -icus, -idus-, -ulus, -undus, -imus, -inus, -orus, -ivos, -us pure (except -uus), and some others. COMPARISON OF ADVEKBS. 75 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 174. Adverbs are formed from adjectives of the first and second declension generally by substituting e for the stem vowel ; from adjectives of the third declension, and occasionally from the others, by adding -ter to the stem, before which a and o are weakened to i. Thus : durus, diire ; acer, dcriter ; firmus,firmiter.* a. The final -e is short in bene, well ; male, ill ; mferne, be- low ; superne, above ; and saepe, often. (Cf. 46, a, 2.) b. Stems in t- retain, of course, only one t in the adverb ; as, prudens, prudenter ; sollers, sollerter. Auddx has audcicter, and less commonly audaciter. c. Facilis, easy, has facile f/ difficilis, hard, difficulter ; and riequam, worthless, nequiter. 175. Only the adverbs thus formed from adjectives are as a rule compared. The comparative is the neuter ac- cusative singular of the comparative of the adjective ; the superlative is the superlative of the adjective with e sub- stituted for the stem vowel. If the adjective is irregular the adverb shows similar irregularity. Thus : dure, hard durius durissime acriter, sharply acrius acerrime audacter, boldly audacius audacissime So also male, ill peius pessime parve, little minus minime aperte, openly magis aperte maxime aperte, etc. 176. A few adverbs thus compared have no adjectives in use. Thus : diu, long diutius diutissime saepe, often saepius saepissime * These adjectives of the second declension generally also have adverbs in -6 ; as, flrme ; but alius and violentus have only aliter and violenter. t Really neuter accusative of the adjective. (Cf . 557, a, note.) 76 INFLECTION. a. Two slightly irregular forms are bene, well (from bonus) melius optime magis (comp.), more (from magnus) maxime NOTE. Other adverbs are not compared, and will be treated later. (See 187, 292, 293, and 557.) PEONOUNS. 177. Pronouns include the following classes : (1.) PERSONALS (pronomina personalia) : as, ego, I; tu, thou ; including the REFLEXIVE (reflexivum), sul, of himself, etc. (2.) DEMONSTRATIVES (demonstrative^) : as, w, he, that ; hlc, this. (3.) INTENSIVES (intensiva) : as, ipse, self ; Idem, the same. (4.) EELATIVES (relatlva) : as, qui, who. (5.) INTERROGATIVES (interrogatlva) : as, quis, who ? (6.) INDEFINITES (indefmlta) : as, cdiquis, some one or other ; quldam, some (particular) one. (7.) POSSESSIVES (possessiva) : as, meus, my ; cuius, whose ? (8.) PATRIALS (patrialia) : as, nostras, of our coun- try. PERSONALS. 178. The personal pronouns are thus declined : Singular. Norn. egS, I. tu, thou, you. Gen. mei, of me. tui, of thee, you. Dat. mini, to me. tibl, to thee, you. Ace. me, me. te, thee, you. Voc. tu, thou, you. Abl. me, with or by me. te. with or by thee, you. RSITY PRONOUNS. PERSONALS. DEMONSTRATIVES. 77 Plural. Nom. nos, we. vos, ye, you. Gen. nostrum,* or nostri, vestrum, or vestri, of us. of you. Dat. nobls, to us. vobis, to you. Ace. nos, us. vos, you. Voc. vos, ye, you. Abl. nobls, with or by us. vobis, with or by you. 179. The reflexive pronoun is the same in both num- bers and in all genders. Thus : Nom. Gen. sui, of himself, herself, itself, themselves. Dat. sibl, to himself, etc. Ace. se (sese), himself, etc. Voc. Abl. se (sese), with or by himself, etc. a. The personal pronoun of the third person when not reflex- ive is supplied by the demonstratives, is, ea, id, and (more em- phatic) hie, haec, hoc, or ille, ilia, illud. (See 18O, below.) b. All the forms of the personal and reflexive pronouns, ex- cept til and the plural genitives, sometimes add the suffix -met for greater emphasis. Thus : egSmet, vosmet, semet. c. Tu has an emphatic form tilte, and in old Latin tete is used as more emphatic for te. d. Mi is old and poetic for mihi. Mepte and tried for me, ted for te, mis for mei, and tis for tm, occur in the comic poets. NOTE. The personal and reflexive pronouns, with the intensive ipse, are the only pronouns in the strict sense (i. e., words used instead of nouns). The possessives and patrials are really adjectives, and the others are used as adjectives as well as pronouns. DEMONSTRATIVES. 180. The demonstrative pronouns are thus declined : * Nostrum and vestrum are mostly confined to the partitive use (see Syntax, 354) ; nostri and vestri are used for other relations. 78 J INFLECTION. is, he, that. Singular. M. F. Nom. is ea Gen. eius eius Dat. el el Ace. eum earn Abl. eo ea Plural. Nom. el (ii) eae Gen. eorum earum D. &A. els (us) els (iis) Ace. 60S eas hie, this. Singular. Nom. hie haec Gen. huius huius Dat. huic huic Ace. hunc hauc Abl. h5c hac Plural. Nom. hi hae Gen. horum harum D. & A. his his Ace. hos has iste, this, that. Singular. Nom. iste ista Gen. istlus istlus Dat. isti isti Ace. istum istam Abl. ist5 ista id eius el id eo ea eorum els (iis) ea hoc huius huic h6c hoc haec horum his haec istud istius isti istud isto Nom. Gen. istorum D. & A. istis Ace. istos PRONOUNS. DEMONSTRATIVES. Plural. isti istae 79 istarum istis istas ista istorum istis ista ille, that. Singular. Nom. ille ilia Gen. illius illius Dat. mi ill! Ace. ilium illam Abl. illo ilia Plural. Nom. ill! Gen. illorum D. & A. iUis Ace. illos niae illarum mis illas iUud illius illi illud illo ilia illorum illls iUa a. The old form of ille was ollus, and some cases from that form occur. Genitives and datives after the analogy of the regular forms in the first and second declensions are also found ; as, illae for illius and illi, eae for el, hae for hide, etc. libus, ibus, occur for els ; and, as fern., eabus. In early Latin are found as nominative plural, eeis, ieis, eis, I, heis, his, heisce, hlsce. b. The interjection ecce, lo ! is compounded with ille, iste, and is in colloquial language ; producing eccillud, eccistam, ecca, eccum, eccos, etc. c. An intensive suffix -ce is added to various forms of the demonstratives, producing forms like huiusce, hance, horunce, illace, istosce, ilsce. d. When the interrogative ne is attached we have forms like hlcine, haecine, illaecine, etc. e. Sometimes the e from -ce is dropped, producing from iste the following forms : 80 INFLECTION. Singular. Plural. M. F. K. M. F. N. N. istlc istaec istic or istuc istaec Ac. istunc istanc istoc or istuc istaec Ab. istoc istac ist5c Similar forms occur for ille ; and Jwrunc, harunc from hie. f. The genitive modi is combined with the genitive of the demonstratives to indicate of this or that kind. Thus : huius- modi or huiuscemodi, of this kind ; eiusmodi, of such a kind, that kind, etc. NOTE. It will be seen that ille and iste are alike in their declensions, that Afc differs from them only in having the C of the suffix -ce in certain forms, and that is differs only in the nominative singular masculine and neuter, and the accusative singular neuter. Uses of the Demonstratives. 181. (1.) ffic, this, is used to denote that which is near the speaker in thought, space, or time, or in a written or spoken sentence, and is sometimes called the demonstra- tive of the first person. (2.) Hie, that, is used to denote that which is far from the speaker, and is sometimes called the demonstrative of the third person. (3.) Iste, this, that, denotes that which is too far from the speaker for hie and too near for ille, often marking that which is near, or, which concerns, the person addressed. It is therefore sometimes called the demonstrative of the second person. It frequently refers to a point under dis- cussion between two persons, or to an opponent in argu- ment, especially in law matters, and therefore sometimes implies contempt. (4.) When hie and ille are used to refer to two things in the same passage, hie more commonly refers to the thing last mentioned, and ille to the one first mentioned ; but if the one first mentioned is more important (i. e., nearer the thought of the speaker), hie refers to that, and ille refers to the other. PRONOUNS. DEMONSTRATIVES. INTENSIVES. 81 (5.) The following examples will make these distinc- tions clearer : Diutius in hac vitci esse non possum, I cannot stay longer in this life. Haec nostra studio, ; ista tua studia, these (are) our pur- suits, those your pursuits. Ego enim istuc ipsum vereor ne malum sit, non died carere sensu sed carendum esse, for I am afraid that this very thing is an evil ; I do not mean the being without sensation itself but the necessity of being so (Cic., Tusc., i., 12, 26). a. Q. Catulus, non antlquo illo more, sed hoc nostro eru- dltus, Quintus Catulus trained not in that old fashioned style, but in this of ours. Ignavia, corpus hebetat, labor firmat ; ilia mdturat senectu- tem, hlc longam adulescentiam reddit, inactivity dulls the phy- sical forces, work strengthens them ; the one hastens old age, the other prolongs youth. Melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria ; haec in tua, ilia in deorum manu est, certain peace is better than victory hoped for ; the peace is in your hands, the victory in the hands of the gods. For the special uses of the demonstratives see Syntax, 450. INTENSIVES. 182. The intensive pronouns are thus declined : ipse, self. Singular. N. ipsum ipslus ipsi ipsum ipso ipsa ipsorum ipsis ipsa M. F. N. & V. ipse ipsa Gen. ipslus ipslus Dat. ipsi ipsi Ace. ipsum ipsam Abl. ipso ipsa Plural. N.& V. ipsi ipsae Gen. ipsorum ipsarum D. & A. ipsis ipsis Ace. ipsos ipsas 82 INFLECTION. idem, the same. Singular. N. & V. idem eadem idem Gen. eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem Dat eldem eldem eldem Ace. eundem eandem idem Abl. e5dem eadem eodem Plural. N. & V. eldem (iidem) eaedem eadem Gen. eSrundem earundem eorundem D. & A. eisdem elsdem eisdem (ilsdem) (iisdem) (iisdem) Ace. eosdem easdem eadem a. Isdem and idem occur as nominative plural masculine, and other rare forms are occasionally met. See Buecheler's Grundriss. NOTE. It will be seen that ipse is declined like iste and ille except in the nominative and accusative singular neuter, and in having a vocative. Idem is formed from is with the demonstrative suffix -dem. RELATIVES, INTERROGATIVES, AND INDEFINITES. 183. The relative qui, who, the interrogative quis {quV), who, and the indefinite quis {qui), any one, are formed from the same stem, and most of their forms are the same. The indefinite quis occurs chiefly with the particles si, nisi, ne, num ; otherwise the compound aliquis takes its place. 184. The relative qui, the interrogative quis, and the indefinite aliquis are thus declined : qui, who. quis, who ? Singular. M. F. N. M. F. N. Nom. qui quae quod quis (qui) quae quid (quod) Gen. cuius cuius cuius cuius cuius cuius Dat. cui cui cui cui cui cui Ace. quern quam quod quern quaxn quid (quod) Abl. quo (qui) qua (qui) quo (qui) quo (qui) qua (qui) quo (qui) RELATIVES, INTERROGATIVES, AND INDEFINITES. 83 Plural. M. P. N. Nom. qul quae quae Gen. quorum quorum quorum D. &A. quibus quibus quibus Ace. quos quas quae a. The indefinite quis is declined just like the interrogative. aliquis, any, some. Singular. M. F. N. Nom. aliquis (aliqui) aliqua aliquid (aliquod) Gen. alicuius alicuius alicuius Dat. alicui alicui alicui Ace. aliquem aliquam aliquid (aliquod) Abl. aliquo aliqua aliquo Plural. Nom. aliqui aliquae aliqua Gen. aliquSrum aliquarum aliquorum D. & A. aliquibus aliquibus aliquibus Ace. aliquos aliquas aliqua b. In the interrogative and indefinite pronouns the forms quis, quid, aliquis, aliquid, are used substantively, the forms qm, quod, aliqui, aliquod, adjectively. c. The ablative form qul is also occasionally found as a plural. Its chief use is as an ablative of manner (see 41O), meaning " how ? " or combined with cum ; as, quicum, with whom. d. Old forms for the dative and ablative plural are queis and quis. e. Quis is sometimes found as a feminine in the comic writers, and even as a neuter. So the compounds quisque, each ; quis- nam, who in the world ; and quisquam, any one, are found as feminines. f. When two only are referred to, uter (see 145 and 146), 84 INFLECTION. not quis, is the interrogative used. So uterque means " each " (of two), quisque, " each " (of several). NOTE. It will be noticed that the above three pronouns have forms with a- stems, with o- stems, and with i- stems. 185. There are two compound relative pronouns, qul- cumque and quisquis, meaning " whoever." Qmcumque is declined like qul. Quisquis is used only in certain forms, as follows : Singular. M. F. v. Nom. quisquis (quisquis) quidquid (quicquid) Ace. quemquem quidquid (quicquid) Abl. quoquo quaqua quoquo Plural. Nom. quiqui Dat. quibusquibus a. Modi is joined to quisquis, as to the demonstratives, but in an old form of the genitive, cuicuimodi, of whatever kind. b. Indefinite interrogatives are formed from quis by various particles ; as, ecquis, numquis, any one ? Quisnam, who, pray ? is emphatic for quis. These words are common only in certain cases, and are often written as two words. The feminine nomi- native singular and neuter nominative and accusative plural generally end in qua, not quae. c. So various quasi-compouiids are formed from the indefinite quis ; as, slquis, riequis, often written separately ; qullibet, qulvls, quispiam, quisquam, quldam, with quisque, each, and unusquisque, each and all. They are all declined like quis, but quisquam is not used in the feminine nor in the plural, and quispiam has in the plural only the feminine nominative quae- piam. A form unumquidquid occurs in Plautus and Lucretius. d. The order of the indefinite pronouns from less to greater definiteness is as follows : PRONOUNS. POSSESSIVE8. 85 quisquam, any one whatever. quilibet, ) __ } any you please. quivis, } quis, any. aliquis, some one or other, any one. quispiam, some one. quidam, some particular one. NOTE. Quo- was the old form of spelling for CU- in these pronouns (cf. 59, c), so that we find in inscriptions and in Plautus and Terence quoins (originally trissyl.), and then quoins (dissyl.), for cuius, quoi for cui, quoivis for cuivis, etc. For the use of indefinite pronouns, see Syntax, 454 ff. POSSESSIVES. 186. (1.) Possess! ves are formed from the personal pronouns (including the reflexive), and from the inter- rogative (and relative). Thus: meus, my; tuus, thy, your ; suus, his, hers, etc. ; noster, our ; vester, your ; cuius (relative and interrogative), whose. (2.) They are declined regularly, meus, mea, meum, etc. ; noster, nostra, nostrum, etc. : except that the voca- tive singular masculine of meus is generally mi (other- wise meus like nominative) ; the others have no vocative. a. Cuius is used only in a few forms, as follows : Sing. Plural M. F. N. F. Nom. cuius cuia cuium cuiae Ace. cuium cuiam cuias AW rvii 1 5. b. The suffixes -met and (chiefly in the ablative) -pte are sometimes annexed to the possessives to give them emphasis. Thus : tulsmet, meapte, etc. NOTE. Old forms of the genitive plural of the possessive pronouns in -urn for -orum occur in comedy ; as, meurn, vostrum. Sovos, sova, sovom, are found in inscriptions, for SUMS, sua, suum. The older spellings of cuius, -a, -urn, were quoius, -a, -urn (originally trissyl.), quoius, -a, -urn (dissyl.) (cf. 185, note). 86 INFLECTION. * I i i ! Hi PRONOUNS. PATRIALS. VERBS. 87 PATKIALS. 188. The patrials are formed from the stems of the possessives noster and cuius, and indicate the country to which one belongs. Thus : nostras^ of our country ; cuias, of what country ? a. They are declined regularly like adjectives of one ending : nostras, nostratis, etc., but are used only in certain forms, as follows : Singular. Plural. N. nostras cuias (quoias) nostrates nostratia cuiatea (m.) G. nostratis cuiatis Ac. cuiatem (m.) Ab. nostratibus Nostratis and cuiatis also occur as nominatives. NOTE. A form vestrds, of your country, is given by Priscian and other ancient grammarians. VERBS. 189. Verbs are either TRANSITIVE (transitiva) or IN- TRANSITIVE (intransitwa).* 190. A TRANSITIVE verb marks an action as directly applied to an object ; as, videt leonem, he SEES the lion. 191. An INTRANSITIVE verb denotes a state or marks an action as not directly applied to any object ; f as, sto, I stand ; dormit, he is sleeping ; veniunt, they come. 192. To verbs belong VOICE (genusf), MOOD (modus), TENSE (tempus), PERSON (persona), and NUMBER (nu- merus). ( * Scientifically, we should not speak of verbs themselves as transitive or intransitive, but of transitive and intransitive uses of a verb. t An intransitive verb is sometimes accompanied by an apparent object, which is, however, really an adverbial modifier ; as, " I slept (for) three Aours." J So called from a false analogy with gender in nouns. 88 INFLECTION. VOICE. 193. (1.) VOICE is distinguished as ACTIVE (actlvum) or PASSIVE (pas&vum). (2.) The ACTIVE voice represents the subject as acting. Thus : Caesar Gallos vlcit^ Caesar conquered the Gauls. (3.) The PASSIVE voice represents the subject as acted upon. Thus : Galli a Caesare victl sunt, the Gauls were conquered by Caesar. a. In some languages there is also a special form to represent the subject as acting upon itself. This is called a MIDDLE voice. The Latin passive seems to have been at first of this kind, and a few instances of the use survived in classical times. Thus : Androgei galeam clipeique Inslgne decorum induitur, he puts on the helmet of Androgeus and his beautifully ornamented shield (Verg., Ae., ii., 392). b. The place of the middle voice is generally supplied, how- ever, by the active with a reflexive pronoun. Thus : pomis se arbos induit, the tree clothes itself with fruit (see Verg., G., iv., 143) ; quocumque te animo et cdgitcitwne converter^ (future perfect), whithersoever you turn in mind and thought (Cic., de Or., i., 2, 6). 194. Intransitive verbs have as such only the active voice. In Latin, however, they may be used impersonally in the passive. (See 318, 3, and 387.) 195. Some verbs, having the form of the passive, have the meaning of the active. They are called DEPONENTS (depdnentia) .* Thus: sequor, I follow; morior, I die. a. The deponents are really remnants of the middle voice, as may be seen by the etymological meaning of many of them ; as, recordor, I remind myself (hence "remember"). 196. Four verbs have the active form in the tenses from the present stem, and the passive form in their other * From depend, lay aside, because they have laid aside the active form and the passive meaning. VOICE. MOOD. 89 parts, but all with active meaning. They are called SEMI- DEPONENTS (semi-deponentia). a. They are : audeo, dare ; fido, trust (with its compounds) ; gaudeo, am glad ; and soled, am wont. MOOD. 197. There are three MOODS : the INDICATIVE (indica- twus'), the SUBJUNCTIVE (subiunctwus), and the IMPERA- TIVE (imperatlvus). NOTE. The infinitive is also often reckoned among the moods, but it is really a verbal noun, and according to the best usage at present is treated with the other noun parts of the verb. (See 202 and 203.) 198. (1.) The INDICATIVE is used to speak of things as they are, to assert, deny, or question a fact. Thus : venio, I come ; audlsne, do you hear ? (2.) The SUBJUNCTIVE is used to speak of things as they seem in the mind, to represent ideas or notions. Thus the subjunctive expresses a purpose, a wish, a supposition, etc. Examples are : Puerum mlsit qul diceret, he sent a boy to say. Utinam pater adesset, oh, that my father were here. Faciat ille si eum roges, he would do it if you should ask him. a. The difference between the indicative and the subjunctive is perhaps most clearly seen in the expression of a cause. Thus : Indicative : Hoc dixit quod verum erat, he said this because it was true ; Subjunctive : Hoc dixit quod verum esset, he said this because (as he thought) it was true.* (3.) The IMPERATIVE is used to express a command or exhortation. Thus : haec nuntiate regl vestro, tell this to your king ; ama inimlcos tuos, love your enemies. * The pupil should be cautioned against supposing that the subjunctive implies that a thing is not a fact. It expresses only as an idea a thing which also may be a fact or may not. 90 INFLECTION. TEXSE. 199. There are six TENSES: the PRESENT (praesens), IMPERFECT (imperfectum), FUTURE (futuruni), PERFECT (perfection), PLUPERFECT (plusquamper/ectum), and FUTURE PERFECT (futurum exdctum). a. The Latin tenses correspond in general to the English tenses of the same names, but are used more strictly. It should be noticed also that the Latin imperfect is mostly confined to the progressive sense (was doing, having, etc.), while the Latin per- fect serves generally for the English imperfect as well as per- fect. b. When the Latin perfect corresponds to the English perfect it is called the PERFECT DEFIXITE or PRESENT PERFECT ; when it corresponds to the English imperfect it is called the HISTORI- CAL PERFECT. 200. The tenses are divided into (1.) PRIMARY or PRINCIPAL tenses : present, perfect definite, and the two futures. (2.) SECONDARY or HISTORICAL tenses : imperfect, his- torical perfect, and pluperfect. a. Only the indicative has all six tenses ; the subjunctive has no future ; the imperative has only the present and the future, the latter expressing the command more gently. NUMBER AND PERSON. 201. There are two NUMBERS, SINGULAR and PLURAL, as in nouns, -and three PERSONS, the FIRST denoting the speaker, the SECOND denoting the person spoken to, and the THIRD denoting the person or thing spoken of. a. The imperative has in the present only the second person, in the future the second and third persons. NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 202. (1.) The three moods with their various tenses, VERB. NOUN. AND ADJECTIVE FORMS. 91 numbers, and persons, form what is called the FINITE VERB (verbumflnitum). (2.) The verb has also three noun forms and two ad- jective forms, as follows : a. Noun forms : INFINITIVE (jinflnitwus). GERUND (gerundium). SUPINE (supinum). b. Adjective forms : PARTICIPLE (participium). GERUNDIVE (gerundwum) . NOTE. These five parts are sometimes classed together as the verbum infinitum. 203. (1.) The INFINITIVE is chiefly used as a neuter noun in the nominative or accusative singular. Thus : Humanum est errare, to err is human. In animo habed Romam Ire, I intend to go to Rome. (2.) The infinitive is also used in certain special con- structions (see 53O ff.), and has three tenses, present, per- fect, and future. Thus : Pres. dlcere, to say. Perf. dixisse, to have said. Fut. dicturus esse, to be on the point of saying. 204. The GERUND is a noun of the second declension (stem ending in -ndo-), used only in the oblique cases of the singular. The infinitive supplies its nominative. Thus : - Venandi causa, for the sake of hunting ; fessus venand.5, weary with hunting. But : salubre est venari, hunting is healthful. 205. The SUPINE is a noun of the fourth declension (stem ending in -tu-) used only in the accusative and ab- lative singular. Thus : Venio rogatum, I come to ask (for asking). Difficile intellectu, hard to understand (in the understand- ing of it). For the syntax of the supine see 553 ff. 92 INFLECTION. 206. There are three PARTICIPLES; the PRESENT AC- TIVE, the FUTURE ACTIVE, and the PERFECT PASSIVE. Thus: Pres. Act. dlcenSj saying. Fut. Act. dicturus, on the point of saying. Perf. Pass, dictus, said (having been said). a. The perfect participle of deponent verbs generally has an active meaning ; as, secutus, having followed. So also tbe per- fect participle of the following four verbs : ceno, dine ; cenatm, having dined. iuro, swear ; iurdt-us, having sworn. poto, drink ; potus, having drunk. prandeo, breakfast ; pransus, having breakfasted. 207. (1.) The GERUNDIVE is an adjective of the first and second declension (having the same stem as the ge- rund). Thus: amctndus, docendus. (2.) Used to agree with a subject in the nominative or accusative, it denotes necessity or obligation. Thus : Docendus est puer, the boy must be taught. Vir venerandus, a man to be revered. Dixit id faciendum esse, he said it must be done. (3.) In other situations the idea of obligation is more hidden. Thus : Ad pdcem petendam venit, he came to ask for peace (i. e., with regard to the peace to be asked for). Urbis condendae consilium, the design of founding a city. a. In late Latin the gerundive became a future passive participle. Faciendus would then mean merely " on the point of being done." CONJUGATION. Tense-Stems. 208. Three special stems the PRESENT stem, the PERFECT stem, and the PERFECT PARTICIPLE stem are distinguished in the verb. CONJUGATION. TENSE-STEMS. 93 209. From the PRESENT stem are formed in both voices the present, imperfect, and future in all the moods ; also the present infinitive, the present participle, and the gerund and gerundive. 210. From the PERFECT stem are formed, in the active voice only, the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect tenses, and the perfect infinitive. 211. From the PERFECT PARTICIPLE stem is formed the perfect participle passive, which with the parts of esse, to be, forms in the passive voice those tenses which in the active are formed from the perfect stem. a. The supine has a (noun) stem of its own, and the future participle has a derivative (adjective) stem. The future infinitive active is formed by the future participle with esse. The future infinitive passive is formed by the supine with Iri (the present infinitive passive of ire, to go).* b. The supine and the perfect and future participles, though not connected in derivation, have a mechanical similarity of basis which helps to fix them in the mind. Thus : Perf. Part. Supine. Fut. Part. rectws rectum vecturus cast&? casum csisurus flexws flexww flexiZrws momtus monitum momturus amatws amatom amsiturus * The parts here mentioned, together with the perfect participle and the tenses formed by it, have been commonly grouped together and derived from a so-called supine stem. It has seemed best to give up this wholly unscientific point of view, but not to depart further from the traditional explanation of the verb forms. The pupil should be warned, however, that this explanation is true only of the apparent structure of the verb in its developed state as met in literature. Many of the tenses which seem to belong to the same stem have in reality very varied origins. For instance, the imperfect subjunctive probably does not belong to the present stem at all, but grew from the same form as the perfects in -Si. 94 INFLECTION. 212. The following table shows the tenses formed from each of the stems : PRESENT STEM. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Indicative Pres., Imp., Future. Pres., Imp., Future. Subjunctive " " " " Imperative " " " " Infinitive " " Participle " Gerund. Gerundive. PERFECT STEM. PERF. PART. STEM. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Indicative Per/., Plup., Fut. Perf. Per/., Plup., Fut. Per/. Subjunctive " " " " Infinitive " " Participle " FUTURE PART, with esse = Future Infin. Active. SUPINE " iri = " " Passive. Personal Endings. 213. The FINITE forms of the verb have the following PERSONAL ENDINGS:* (1.) INDICATIVE (except PERFECT) and SUBJTTN-CTIVE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. 1st Pers. -m or -r 2d Pers. -s -ris (shortened -re) 3d Pers. -t -tur Plur. 1st Pers. -mus -mur 2d Pers. -tis -mini 3d Pers. -nt -ntur * These personal endings are regarded usually as remnants of the personal pronoun forms. But see Brugmann in Handbuch der Altertums- wiss., ii., p. 72, 106. PERSONAL ENDINGS. CONJUGATION OF SUM. 95 (2.) PERFECT INDICATIVE ACTIVE.* Singular. Plural. 1st Pers. -mus 2d Pers. -sti -stis 3d Pers. -t -erunt (shortened -ere) (3.) IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. 2d Pers. -re -to -tor 3d Pers. -t5 -tor Plur. 2d Pers. -te -mini -tote 3d Pers. -nto -ntor 214. The ENDINGS of the NOUN and ADJECTIVE forms of the verb are as follows : INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLES. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Pres. -re -ri (-1 in 3d conj. ) t -ns (-ntis) Perf . -isse -tus (-a, -urn) esse -tus, -a, -um Fut. -turus (-a, -um) esse -turn iri -turus, -a, -um GERUNDIVE and GERUND. -ndus, -a, -um, etc. SUPINE. -turn, -tu 215. sum, I am, is conjugated as follows : Pres. Stem es- Perf. Stem fu- INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. sum, I am. sumus, we are. es, thou art. estis, you are. est, he is. sunt, they are. * The apparently different endings of the perfect indicative are due to the mixed origin of that tense, and can be best explained elsewhere, t Sometimes -rier (-ier). UNIVERSITY 96 INFLECTION. IMPERFECT. eram, I was. eramus, we were, eras, thou wast. eratis, you were, erat, he was. erant, they were. FUTURE. ero, I shall be. erimus, we shall be. eris, thou wilt be. eritis, you will be. erit, he will be. erunt, they will be. PERFECT. fui, I have been. fuimus, we have been, fuisti, thou hast been. fuistis, you have been, fuit, he has been. fuerunt (-re), they have been. PLUPERFECT. fueram, I had been. fueramus, we had been, fueras, thou hadst been. fueratis, you had been, fuerat, he had been. fuerant, they had been. FUTURE PERFECT. fuero, I shall have been. fuerimus, we shall have been, fueris, thou wilt have been. fueritis. you will have been, fuerit, he will have been. fuerint, they will have been. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. sim simus essem essemus sis sltis esses essetis sit sint esset essent PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. fuerim fuerimus fuissem fuissemus fueris fueritis fuisses fuissetis fuerit fuerint fuisset fuissent IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. FUTURE. es, be thou. este, be ye. est5 estate esta suntd CONJUGATION OF SUM AND POSSUM. 97 INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE. Pres. esse, to be. Perf. fuisse, to have been. Fut. f uturus esse or fore, futurus, -a, -urn, on the point to be on the point of of being. being. a. It will be seen that the parts of sum are from two differ- ent roots, Ves for the tenses from the present stem, the e dis- appearing in various forms, and s between two vowels becoming r (see 67) ; and 'Vfu for the other forms. Fueram, fuissem, etc., are compounded of both roots. b. A present participle sens is seen in the compounds absens and praesens. c. Old forms are Present Subj. siem, sies, siet, sient. fuam, fuas, fuat, fuant. Imperf. Subj. forem, fores, foret, forent. Perfect Subj. fuverint. Pluperf. Subj. fuvisset. Perf. Indie. fuvimus. Fut. Indie. escit, escunt.* d. Prosum, am profitable, retains the original d of the prepo- sition where the simple verb begins with a vowel. Thus : prositm, prodes, prodest, etc. 216. possum, compounded of potis, able, and sum, is conjugated as follows : INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular. Plural. possum, I can. possumus, we can. potes, thou canst. potestis, you can. potest, he can. possunt, they can. * Really inceptive presents. 98 INFLECTION. IMPERFECT. poteram, I could. poteramus, we could, poteras, thou couldst. poteratis, you could, poterat, he could. poterant, they could. FUTURE. potero, I shall be able. poterimus, we shall be able, poteris, thou wilt be able. poteritis, you will be able, poterit, he will be able. poterunt, they will be able. PERFECT. potui, I have been able potuimus, we have been able (could). (could), potuisti, thou hast been able potuistis, you have been able (couldst). (could), potuit, he has been able potuerunt (-re), they have (could). been able (could). PLUPERFECT. potueram, I had been able, potueramus, we had been able, potueras, thou hadst been potueratis, you had been able. able, potuerat, he had been able, potuerant, they had been able. FUTURE PERFECT. potuero, I shall have been potuerimus, we shall have been able. able. potueris, thou wilt have been potueritis, you will have been able. able. potuerit, he will have been potuerint, they will have been able. able. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. possim posslmus possem possemus possis possitis posses possetis possit possint posset possent THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 99 PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. potuerim potuerimus potuissem potuissemus potueris potueritis potuisses potuissetis potuerit potuerint potuisset potuissent (No Imperative.) INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE Pres. posse (used only as adjective). Perf. potuisse Pres. potens a. Rare forms are Pres. Indie, potessunt. Pres. Subj. potessim, potessit ; possiem, possies, possiet. Imper. Subj. potessem. Pres. Infin. potesse. b. With a passive infinitive are sometimes found potestur, poteratur, possetur. THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 217. Regular Verbs are divided into four conjugations, distinguished by the vowel before the ending (-re) of the present .infinitive active. Thus: Conjugation. Infinitive. Vowel.* I. amare a. II. monere e. III. regere t IV. audire I. a. The four conjugations are produced by the union of pre- cisely the same endings with different kinds of verb-stems, and are therefore strictly only one conjugation. Verbs with stems in a- belong to the first conjugation, those with stems in e- to the second, those with consonant or u- stems to the third, and those with stems in I- to the fourth. * This vowel is sometimes called the CHARACTERISTIC. t See first footnote, page 100. 100 INFLECTION. b. Between the verb-stem and the ending in the tenses from the present stem there is a vowel called the THEMATIC vowel. This vowel contracts with the stem vowel in the first, second, and fourth conjugations, producing a, e, I, respectively. In the third conjugation it appears as u (older o) before a nasal (m and n), and as e (often weakened to i) before other consonants.* Formation of the Three Tense-Stems. 218. (1.) In the first and fourth conjugations, and in the few corresponding verbs of the second, the stems show the following formations : a. Present stem is the verb-stem contracted with the thematic vowel. b. Perfect stem is present stem -f- v. c. Perfect participle stem is present stem -f- to. Thus: amare Vam ama- amav- amato flere Vfle(v) fie- flev- fleto- audire Vaud audi- audiv- audlto- (2.) But in the second conjugation most verbs form the perfect stem directly from the root, v then appearing as u after the root-consonant ; their perfect participle stem is also formed directly from the root and frequently has an intervening i before the ending. Thus : docere Vdoc doce- docu- docto- monere Vmon mone- monu- monito-f 219. (1.) In the third conjugation the present and * The third conjugation is the oldest, and shows the noun origin of the infinitive most plainly, namely, that it is really the dative or locative of a noun like genus or pignus, dative generl and plgnerl. Old forms of the dative in e occur in inscriptions. t The origin of this i is uncertain. It may be the thematic vowel, or in some cases a parasitic vowel (see 64), or, which is perhaps most likely, it may have been weakened from e ; as, monetum, monfftum, monitum. Words like obsoletus and moneta, with the series of nouns in -etum, vinetum, quer- cetum, etc. , beside forms like mereto in inscriptions, support this last view. VERBS. STEMS. PRINCIPAL PARTS. 101 perfect stems present various peculiarities which can best be treated in detail later. The commonest forms 01 per- fect stem are those in s-, and those which have the same form as the present stem, or only lengthen the stem-vowel. (2.) The perfect participle stem is formed from the root except in the case of the derivative u- verbs, where it is formed from the stem with the vowel lengthened. The t often appears euphonically as s. Thus : regere Vreg rege- rex- recto- fundere Vfud funde- fud- fuso- statuere Vsta statue- statu- statute- Principal Parts. 220. The PRINCIPAL PARTS of a Latin verb are the Present Indicative, Present Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and Perfect Participle. In the case of passive and depo- nent verbs the perfect participle is not counted, being in- cluded in the perfect indicative. NOTE. The principal parts are so called because they furnish the key to the conjugation of the whole verb. The present indicative names the verb. The present infinitive is also used to name the verb, as in English, but its more important function is to show to which conjugation the verb belongs. The three stems are shown by the infinitive, the perfect, and the perfect participle. 221. The principal parts in the four conjugations are as follows : Conjugation. Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Part. I. amo amare amavi amatus fleo flere flevi fletus II. doce5 docere doom doctus moneo monere monui monitus reg5 regere rexi rectus * III. fund5 fundere fudi fusus * statuo statuere statui statutus * IV. audio audire audlvl audltus * These examples show, of course, only a few of the stem forms in this conjugation. 102 INFLECTION. 222. ACTIVE VOICE. I. Conjugation. II. Conjugation. amare, Here, monere, to love to weep to put in mind Pres. Ind. Pres. Infin. Perf. Ind. Perf. Part. Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural PRINCIPAL PARTS. am5 fieo amare flere amavl flevl amatus fletus K, INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. amo fleo amas fles amat flet am am us amatis amant flemus fletis flent IMPERFECT. amabam flebam amabas flebas amabat flebat amabamus flebamus amabatis flebatis amabant flebant amabo amabis amabit FUTURE. flebo flebis flebit amabimus flebimus amabitis flebitis amabunt flebunt moneo monere monul monitus moneo mones monet monemus monetis monent monebam monebas monebat monebamus monebatis monebant monebo monebis monebit monebimus monebitis monebunt REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 103 ACTIVE VOICE. III. Conjugation. IV. Conjugation, regere, capere, venire, audire, to rule rego regere rexi rectus to take to come PRINCIPAL PARTS. capio veni5 capere venire cepi veni captus ventum * INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT TENSE. to hear audio audire audivi auditus rego capio venio audi5 regis capis venis audis regit capit venit audit regimus capimus venimus audimus regitis capitis venitis auditis regunt capiunt veniunt audiunt IMPERFECT. regebam regebas regebat capiebam capiebas capiebat veniebam veniebas veniebat audiebam audiebas audiebat regebamus regebatis regebant capiebamus capiebatis capiebant veniebamus veniebatis veniebant audiebamus audiebatis audiebant FUTURE. regam reges reget capiam capies capiet veniam venies veniet audiam audies audiet regemus regetis regent capiemus capietis capient veniemus venietis venient audiemus audietis audient * Used only impersonally, since venire is an intransitive verb. (Cf. 194.) 104 INFLECTION. PERFECT. Singular amavi flevi monul amavisti flevisti monuisti amavit flevit monuit Plural amavimus flevimus monuimus amavistis flevistis monuistis amaverunt fleverunt monuerunt (-ere)* (-ere) (-ere) PLUPERFECT. Singular amaveram fleveram monueram amaveras fleveras monueras amaverat fleverat monuerat Plural amaveramus fleveramus monueramus amaveratis fleveratis monueratis amaverant fleverant monuerant FUTURE PERFECT. Singular amaverS fleverS monuerS amaveris fleveris monueris amaverit fleverit monuerit Plural amaverimus fleverimus monuerimus amaveritis fleveritis monueritis amaverint fleverint monuerint Singular Plural SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. amem ames amet fleam fleas fleat amemus ametis ament fleamus fleatis fleant moneam moneas raoneat moneamus moneatis moneant * The forms in -ere are rare in prose, except in the historians. REGULAK PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATIO PERFECT. rexi rexistl rexit cepi veni cepisti venisti cepit venit % audivi audlvistl audlvit reximus rexistis rexerunt (-ere)* cepimus veniraus cepistis venistis ceperunt venerunt (-ere) (-ere) audivimus audivistis audiverunt (-ere) PLUPERFECT. rexeram rexeras rexerat ceperam veneram ceperas veneras ceperat venerat audiveram audiveras audiverat rexeramus rexeratis rexerant ceperamus veneramus ceperatis veneratis ceperant venerant audlveramus audiveratis audlverant FUTURE PERFECT. rexero rexeris rexerit cepero venero ceperis veneris ceperit venerit audivero audiveris audiverit rexerimus rexeritis rexerint ceperimus venerimus ceperitis veneritis ceperint venerint audiverimus audiveritis audiverint SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. regain regas regat capiam veniam capias venias capiat veniat audiam audias audiat regamus regatis regant capiamus veniamus capiatis veniatis capiant veniant audiamus audiatis audiant * The forms in -ere are rare in prose, except in the historians. 106 INFLECTION. IMPERFECT. Singular amarera flerem amares fleres amaret fleret monerem moneres moneret Plural amaremus amaretis amarent fleremus fleretis flerent moneremus moneretis monerent Singular amaverim amaveris amaverit PERFECT. fleverim fleveris fleverit monuerim monueris monuerit Plural amaverimus amaveritis amaverint fleverimus fleveritis fleverint monuerimus raonueritis monuerint PLUPERFECT. Singular araavissein flevissem amavisses flevisses amavisset flevisset monuissem monuisses monuisset Plural amavissemus amavissetis amavissent flevissemus flevissetis flevissent monuisseraus monuissetis monuissent IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. 2d Per. ama Plur. 2d Per. amate PRESENT. fle flete mone monete Sing. 2d Per. amat5 3d Per. amato FUTURE. flet5 flet5 monet5 monet5 Plur. 2d Per. amat5te 3d Per. amanto fletSte flento monetote monento REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 107 IMPERFECT. regerem regeres regeret caperem caperes caperet venlrem venires veniret audirem audires audiret regeremus regeretis regerent caper emus caperetis caperent veniremus veniretis venirent audiremus aucHretis audirent PERFECT. rexerim rexeris rexerit ceperim ceperis ceperit venerim veneris venerit audiverim audiveris audiverit rexerimus rexeritis rexerint ceperimus ceperitis ceperint venerimus veneritis venerint audiverimus audiveritis audiverint PLUPERFECT. rexissem rexisses rexisset cepissem cepisses cepisset venissem venisses venisset audivissem audivisses audivisset rexissemus rexissetis rexissent cepissemus cepissetis cepissent venissemus venissetis venissent audivissemus audivissetis audivissent IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. rege cape veni audi regite capite vemte audite FUTURE. regito regit5 capit5 capita vemta venita audito audita regitSte regunto capitate capiunto vemtate veniunta auditate audiunta 108 INFLECTION. Pres. amare Perf. amavisse Future amaturus (-a, -urn) Pres. amans Future amaturus (-a, -urn) Gen. amandi D. & A. am an do Ace. amandum Ace. Abl. amatum fl.Tna.J7Ti INFINITIVES. flere flevisse fleturus (-a, -um) PARTICIPLES. flens fleturus (-a, -um) GERUND. flendi flendo flendum SUPINE. [fletum] * fletu monere monuisse moniturus (-a, -um) esse monens moniturus (-a, -um) monendi monendS monendum monitum monitu 22a PASSIVE VOICE. I. Conjugation. II. Conjugation. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. amor doceor f moneor Pres. Inf. amari doceri moneri Perf. Ind. amatus sum doctus sum monitus sum INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. Singular amor doceor doceris (-re) docetur docemur Plural amor amaris (-re)$ amatur fl.ma.mnr ajuamini flma.nt.nr moneor moneris (-re) monetur monemur monemini monentur docemini docentur * Not found in actual use in the Latin that has come down to us. t Meaning, lam taught. The active voice is perfectly regular, and is omitted only because fieo beside moneo furnishes a more instructive para- | The forms in -re are rare in the present tense. REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 109 INFINITIVES. regere capere venire audlre rexisse cepisse venisse audivisse recturus capturus venturus auditurus (-a-, um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a,-um) esse PARTICIPLES. regens capiens veniens audiens recturus capturus venturus auditurus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a -um) (-a, -um) GERUND. regendi capiendi veniendi audiendi regendo capiendo veniendo audiendo regendum capiendum veniendum audiendum SUPINE. rectum captum ventum auditum rectu captu ventu auditu PASSIVE VOICE. III. Conj. IV. Conj. Deponent. PRINCIPAL PARTS. regor capior audior mlror* regi cap! audiri mirarl rectus sum captus sum auditus sum miratus sum INDICATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. regor capior audior miror regeris (-re) f caperis (-re) audlris (-re) miraris (-re) regitur capitur auditur miratur regimur capimur audimur miramur regimini capimim audimini miramim reguntur capiuntur audiuntur mirantur * Meaning, I wonder at or admire. t The forms in -re are rare in the present tense. 110 INFLECTION. IMPERFECT. Singular amabar docebar monebar amabaris docebaris monebaris (-re) (-re) (-re) amabatur docebatur monebatur Plural RTna.ha.Tmir docebamur monebamur amabamini docebamini monebaminl amabantur docebantur monebantur FUTURE. Singular amabor docebor monebor amaberis (-re) doceberis (-re) moneberis (-re) amabitur docebitur monebitur Plural amabimur docebimur monebimur amabimim docebimini monebimini amabuntur docebuntur monebuntur PERFECT. Singular amatus doctus monitus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) Plural amati docti moniti (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) PLUPERFECT. Singular amatus doctus monitus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a,-um) Plural amati docti moniti (-ae,-a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) FUTURE PERFECT. Singular amatus doctus monitus (-a,-um) (-a, -um) (-a, -urn) Plural amati docti moniti (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. Ill IMPERFECT. regebar regebaris (-re) regebatur regebamur regebarnini regebantur capiebar capiebaris (-re) capiebatur capiebamur capiebamini capiebantur audiebar audiebaris (-re) audiebatur audiebamur audiebamini audiebantur mirabar mirabaris (-re) mirabatur mirabamur mlrabamini mirabantur FUTURE. regar capiar audiar mlrabor regeris (-re) capieris (-re) audieris (-re) miraberis (-re) regetur capietur audietur mirabitur regeniur capiemur audiemur mirabimur regemini capiemim audiemim mirabimim regentur capientur audientur mirabuntur rectus captus PERFECT. auditus mlratus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) recti capti auditi (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) sum mirati ( sumus ~J estis (- ae '" a > Isunt PLUPERFECT. rectus captus auditus miratus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) f erarn -< eras recti capti auditi (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) mirati ( eramus \ eratis <'*) (erant ( er5 FUTURE PERFECT. rectus captus (-a, -um) (-a, -urn) (-a, -urn) (-a, -um) "J " ( erit eris recti (-ae, -a) capti (-ae, -a) auditi (-ae, -a) mirati ( erimus f oX \ eritis (-ae, -a) \ lerunt 112 INFLECTION. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Singular amer ameris (-re) ametur Plural amemur amemini amentur PRESENT. docear monear docearis (-re) monearis (-re) doceatur moneatur doceamur moneamur doceamini moneamini doceantur moneantur IMPERFECT. Singular amarer amareris (-re) amaretur docerer docereris (-re) doceretur monerer monereris (-re) moneretur Plural amaremur amareminl amarentur doceremur docereminl docerentur moneremur moneremini monerentur PERFECT. Singular amatus (-a, -um) doctus (-a, -um) monitus (-a, -um) Plural amati (-ae, -a) docti (-ae, -a) moniti (-ae, -a) PLUPERFECT. Singular amatus (-a, -um) doctus (-a,-um) monitus (-a, -um) Plural amati (-ae, -a) docti (-ae, -a) moniti (-ae, -a) REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 113 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. PRESENT. regar capiar audiar mirer regaris (-re) capiaris (-re) audiaris (-re) mlreris (-re) regatur capiatur audiatur miretur regamur capiamur audiamur miremur regamini capiamini audiamini miremini regantur capiantur audiantur mirentur IMPERFECT. regerer caperer audirer mirarer regereris capereris audireris mirareris (-re) (-re) (-re) (-re) regeretur caperetur audiretur miraretur regeremur caperemur audiremur miraremur regeremini caperemini audiremini miraremini regerentur caperentur audirentur mirarentur PERFECT. rectus captus auditus miratus ( smi (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) 1 s ; I. sit recti capti auditi mirati (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) rectus PLUPERFECT. captus auditus miratus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) recti capti audit! mirati (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) (-ae, -a) 1 f essemus -< essetis ( essent 114 INFLECTION. Sing. 2 P. Plur.2P. Sing. 2 P. 3 P. Plur.2P. 3 P. Present Perfect amare fl.ma.minT amator amator amantor IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. docere docemini FUTURE. docetor docetor docentor monere monemini monitor monetor monentor INFINITIVES. amari doceri moneri amatus doctus monitus (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a, -inn) esse Future amatum iri doctum iri PARTICIPLES. monitum iri Present Perfect Future amatus (-a, um) doctus (-a,-um) GERUNDIVE. docendus (-a, -um) - monitus (-a, -um) monendus (-a,-um) amandus (-a,-um) REGULAR PARADIGMS OF CONJUGATION. 115 IMPERATIVE MOOD. PRESENT. regere capere audire mirare regimini capimini audimini miramini FUTURE. regitor regitor capitor capitor auditor auditor mirator mirator reguntor capiuntor audiuntor mirantor INFINITIVES. regi capi audiri mirari rectus captus auditus miratus (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse (-a, -um) esse f miratum iri * rectum iri captum iri auditum iri < miraturus ( (-a, -um) esse PARTICIPLES. mirans rectus captus auditus miratus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) (-a, -um) miraturus (-a, -um) mirandus * (-a, -um) GERUND. mirandi, etc. SUPINE. miratum, etc. * The gerundive and the infinitive in iri have passive meanings even in deponent verbs. Thus : hie vir mirandus est, this man must be admired ; dlxit hoc miratum iri, he said this would be wondered at. So also some- times the perfect participle. regendus (-a, -um) GERUNDIVE. capiendus audiendus (-a, -um) (-a, -um) OF 1 TJNIVERSr 116 INFLECTION. 224. The following forms can always be recognized by the presence of certain letters : * 1. Imperf. indie., ba. 2. Fut. indie, in 1st and 2d. conj., b not followed by a. 3. Pres. subj., f except in 1st conj., a before personal ending. 4. Imperf. subj. is like pres. infin. -^ personal ending. 5. Pluperf. indie., ra. \ 6. Pluperf. subj., isse -| personal ending. V- In the active. 7. Perf. infin., isse. ) a. It will also be seen that the present imperative passive second person singular has the same form as the present infini- tive active. Furthermore, that the subjunctive present of the first conjugation resembles the future indicative of the third and fourth. b. The letters ri show that the form in which they occur is either future perfect indicative or perfect subjunctive active. The following points may be noted in addition to the rules of quantity given in 37-63. 225. In the penultimate syllables of verb forms the following vowels before a single consonant are long : a always (but see dare). e, except before r, and even then in the perfect indicative ac- tive and in the present subjunctive of the first conjugation and the future indicative of the third and fourth. i in the fourth conjugation and analogous forms. U, except in sumus and volumus (with their compounds), and the old forms quaesumus, aestumo, etc. (for later quaerimus, aestinio, etc.). * To trace the origin and development of these elements in verb-forms would require entering more fully into comparative philology than is possi- ble or desirable in a school grammar. They may be found discussed in Max Engelhardt's Die lateinische Conjugation nach den Ergebnissen der Sprachvergleichung. t The first person singular in the third and fourth conjugations cannot, however, be thus distinguished from the first person of the future indica- tive, as that also has the a. REMARKS ON THE VERB FORMS. 117 a. The characteristics of the first, second, and fourth conju- gations (a, e, 1) are always long except when shortened in final syllables by the rules given in 46-5O ; that of the third conju- gation (e) is always short. Remarks on tne Verb Forms. 226. Many verbs belonging to a given one of the four conjugations (as shown by their present infinitive) form their perfect and perfect participle stems after the anal- ogy of some other conjugation. Thus : seco secare secui sectus peto petere petivi petltus maneo manere mansi mansum (neut.) veni5 venire veni ventum (neut.) NOTE. Such verbs are really mixtures of two verbs. Some of the forms of the root verbs (third conjugation) had disappeared, and their places were taken by derivative formations of the first, second, or fourth conjugation. The same mixture of forms accounts for the perfects in -ill and participles in -itus, in the second conjugation. For lists of these irregular formations see 233 ff. 227. In the tenses formed from the present stem the following points should be noted : a. Orior, rise, and (chiefly in verse) potior, gain possession of, though belonging to the fourth conjugation, have several forms of the third. Thus : oreris, oritur, orimur, oreretur, orere. potitur, potimur, poti, poteremur, poterentur. b. On the other hand, morior, die, and some compounds of gradior, step, though of the third conjugation, have sometimes infinitives in -irl, like the fourth. c. The imperfect indicative in the fourth conjugation some- times has a form in -ibam, -ibas, etc. Thus : scibam, from scire, to know. d. The future in the fourth conjugation often has in early Latin a form in -ib5, -ibis, etc. Thus : scibo. e. The second person singular of the present imperative active 118 INFLECTION. has no final -e in the following four verbs : died, say ; duco, lead ; fero, bring ; facio, do or make. Thus : die, due, fer, fac. So also their compounds, except the compounds of facio with a preposition ; as, confice, from conficw. Scio has no present imperative ; nor do cupe and polle occur, from cupio and polled. f. The active forms of the future imperative occur instead of the passive in the early writers and their imitators. This is es- pecially common in deponent verbs. An ancient form in -mino is found in the second and third persons singular of the present imperative of several deponents ; * as, antestamino, let him sum- mon as a witness ; tu progredimiiio, you go ahead. g. In the third and fourth conjugations the gerund and gerundive often retain the earlier endings -undum and -undus instead of -endum and -endus, especially if i precedes. Poti- undus is the regular form. Ire, to go, has always eundum (see 248). 228. Among the tenses formed from the perfect stem the following points require notice : a. When the perfect stem ends in v-, the V is often dropped, and the vowels thus brought together are contracted in the forms made upon the pattern of the fourth conjugation, if s follows, and in the forms of other conjugations, if s or r follows ; as : audlssem for audlvissem amasti " amavisti implerunt " impleverunt nor am " noveram nosse " novisse consuesse " consuevisse b. When the perfect stem ends in iv-, the V is sometimes dropped without contraction ; as : audiisse for audivisse petierunt " petiverunt * This form occurs once from a passive verb, denuntidmino (3d pers. sing.), let it be proclaimed. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 119 c. When the perfect stem ends in s- or x-, shorter forms occur without the penultimate syllables -is-, -iss-, or -sis-. Thus : evasti, exstinxti, surrexe, accestis, dlxfi, exstmxem, beside evasisti, exstlnxistl, surrexisse, accessistis, dixistl, ex- stinxissem.* d. Ancient forms of a future perfect in -so, and of a perfect subjunctive in -sim, formed from the present stem, sometimes occur ; as, capso, faxo, habesso, iusso, levasso, recepso ; ausim, confexim, dixis, emissim, faxim, licessit, locassim. So also the pluperfect subjunctive /tern. e. A future passive of similar form occurs rarely in ancient Latin ; as, turbassitur, mssitur / and a future infinitive active of the first conjugation in -sere ; as, expugnassere, impetrassere. PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATIONS. 229. (1.) The future participle joined with the forms of sum makes what is called the ACTIVE periphrastic con- jugation. Thus : amaturus sum. I am on the point of loving, am destined or intend to love, etc. amaturus eram, ero, fui, etc. a. Fuero is hardly so used. (2.) The gerundive with the forms of sum makes what is called the PASSIVE periphrastic conjugation denoting what must or ought to be done. Thus : amandus sum, I must be loved, or ought to be loved, amandus eram, ero, fui, etc. (3.) The perfect participle with the parts of sum has sometimes a quasi-adjective force. Thus, forms like amatus sum, amatus essem, etc., may be simply the pas- sive tenses of completed action, or the verb sum may have its regular time and the participle be, as suggested, a kind of adjective. * Some of these were perhaps formed from the present stem like the forms treated in rf, others seem to have come from the regular forms. 120 INFLECTION. a. The distinctions of meaning here involved can perhaps best be made plain by a scheme like the following : ( Hist. Perf . He was killed. occisus est may be equiva- 1 - . ** . .r 7 7 .77 7 < Perf. Def. He has been killed. ( Adjec. & Verb, He is dead. f The wicked are suffering pun- puniuntur mall can only] ishment, or Men punish the mean wicked (always or when they *> are caught). (I was loved (fui, Hist. Perf.) amatus fui may mean -j I have been loved (fui, Perf. ( Def.) b. On the other hand, the English present passive is expressed in Latin (1) by the present only when it denotes continued or customary action ; as, faenum secatur, they are cutting hay ; faenum aestate secdtur, hay is cut in summer ; (2) by the per- fect when it denotes a state ; as, faenum sectum est, the hay is cut ; volnus curatum est, the wound is dressed. Stem-Formation in Third Conjugation. 230. The verbs of the third conjugation may be classi- fied with regard to their present stems as follows * : a. Present stem is the root (which serves also as the verb stem) -|- the thematic vowel. Thus : regere Vreg petere Vpet b. The first consonant of the root is prefixed with i (redupli- cation^. This class contains very few verbs. Thus : gignere Vgen (or in weaker form Vgn) c. Present stem takes t ; as : flectere Vflec * These formations are remnants of the verb forms inherited by the Latin from Indo-European, and were there originally produced by forma- tive suffixes ; but of course no thorough discussion of them can be given in a school grammar. STEM-FORMATION IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 121 d. Present stem takes n. Thus : (1) n simply added to roots in r- (also two vowel roots) ; as: spernere Vsper linere Vli sinere Vsi (2) n added to roots in 1 and assimilated ; as : pellere (for pelnere) Vpel faUere (for f alnere) Vf al (3) n inserted before a final mute (palatal or dental) ; as : findere Vfid tangere Vtag (4) n changed to in before a labial mute ; as : rumpere Vrup e. Present stem takes so ; as : pascere Vpa crescere Vcre f. Present stem takes i- ; * as : capio, capere \^cap facio, facere Vfac NOTE 1. These verbs in -16 occupy a sort of midway position between the consonant sterns of the third conjugation and the verbs of the fourth conjugation, as can be seen by comparing the following verbs : lego legere leg! lectus capio capere cepi captus cupio cupere cupivi cupitus venid venire veni ventum And pario, par ere, beside reperio, reperlre. NOTE 2. A few verbs show more than one of the formations described. Thus: disco (for di-dc-sco, Vefec), learn, belongs to the reduplicated class and to the sc- class. NOTE 3. In some verbs the strengthened forms extend further than the present stem and sometimes through the entire verb, as in iungo, iungere, iunctum, Viug, and in most of the t- class except mltto. * This i disappears before another i and before e, unless two consonants follow, as in the present participle, the gerund and gerundive. (Cf. the paradigm above.) 122 INFLECTION. 231. The perfect stem in the third conjugation is formed in the following ways : a. The perfect stem is generally the same as the present stem when the present stem ends in u- or in nd-. Thus : Verb. Pres. Stem. Perf. Stem. tribuo tribu- tribu- scanda scand- scand- b. The perfect stem adds s to the root : (1) In most verbs with a long vowel in the root syllable. Thus : figa fig- fix- ludo lud- lus- cedo ced- cess- dico die- dix- sumo sum- sumps- (2) In most verbs with the stem syllable long by position (except those in nd-). Thus : carpa carp- carps- finga fing- finx- (3) In a few other verbs. Thus : coquo coqu- COX- NOTE. Some (mostly roots ending in a middle mute g, d, b) also lengthen the root vowel ; as, re^o, rexi,fluo,fluxi (/flug}, jingo, fmxi. c. The stem vowel is lengthened in many verbs with a single short vowel before a single consonant in the root syllable, a becoming e, except before b and V. Thus : emo em- em- fodio fod- fod- fugiS fug- fug- lego leg- leg- ago ag- eg- capio cap- cep- scabo scab- scab- lava lav- lav- And in vinca vino- vic- d. The following verbs form the perfect stem by reduplication. STEM-FORMATION IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 123 The initial consonant and vowel are prefixed to the root, but if the root vowel is a, it is weakened to i (to e in fallo, pared, and pario) ; if ae, to 1 ; and if e or o before 1, to U. When the root vowel is thus weakened, the vowel of reduplication is always e. Thus : cado cad- cecid- caedo caed- . cecld- cano can- cecin- curro curr- cucurr- disco disc- didic- fallo faU- fefell- [pago] pag- pepig- parc5 pare- peperc- pario par- peper- pedo ped- peped- pel!5 pell- pepul- pendo pend- pepend- posco pose- popose- pungo pung- pupug- sist5 sist-* stit- tango tang- tetig- tendo tend- tetend- tol!5 toll- tetul- (rare) tund5 tund- tutud- Findo and scindo have dropped the reduplication, making fidi and scidl. Sciscidi also occurs. (1) For convenience the few verbs of other conjugations which have reduplicated perfects are here given : do dare dedi st5 stare stetl f mordeo mordere momordi pendeo pendere pependl spondeo spondere spopond! t tondeo tondere totondi * The si of the present stem is also reduplication. It will be seen that in the perfect the stem syllable loses its 3 : stitl for stistl. t It will be seen that the stem syllable loses its first consonant (s) when .TWO consonants are prefixed in reduplication. 124 INFLECTION. (2) Simple reduplicated perfects have the first two syllables short, except cecldi and pepedl. (3) Compounds usually drop the reduplication, but it is re- tained in the compounds of do, sto, disco, posed, and sometimes curro.* Thus : dedo dedidi f consto constiti f circumsto circumsteti perdisc5 perdidici exposes expoposci decurrS decucurri or decurri 232. The perfect participle stem ends in so- instead of to- in the following cases : a. When the present stem ends in a dental mute. A short vowel before the ending is then generally lengthened, the mute being dropped. Thus : cado cad- caso- rado rad- raso- fundo fund- fuso- Sometimes assimilation occurs (cf. 65). Thus : fodiS fod- f5sso- b. When the present stem adds t. Thus : flecto fleo-t- flexo- c. Several stems in 1 or r. Thus : fallo fall- falso- curro curr- curso- So also labor lab- lapso- d. Palatal stems which drop the palatal before s in the per- fect. The palatal is also dropped in the participle. Thus : spargo sparsi sparsus * Abscondo has oftener abscondi than abscondidi. t The penultimate vowel is thus weakened in compounds of these two verbs with monosyllabic prepositions. IRREGULAR STEM-FORMATION, FIRST CONJUGATION. 125 Irregular Stem-Formation. 233. The following list contains the common verbs of the FIRST conjugation which form their perfect or perfect participle, or both, irregularly : crepo crepare crepui crepitum,* make a noise. Discrepd has also a regular perfect ; increpo has regular forms and also increpul, increpitum. cubo cubare cubui cubitum, lie down. Perf . subj. cubdris and perf . infin. cubdsse occur. See also under 235, v. do dare dedi datus, give.^ domo domare domui domitus, tame. frico fricare fricui frictus and fricatus, rub. iuvo iuvare iuvl iutus, help. Also iuvdturus. mico micare micui glitter. Dimico, fight, has also the regular forms, and emicdturus occurs. neco necare necavi or necui necatus, kill. Sneco has also enectus. plico plicare plicatus or plicitus, fold. Implied and explico have regular forms and also -plicul, -plicitus. So also applied and complied, except that complicdvl is not found. The other compounds are regular. poto potare potavi potatus or potus,t drink. seco secare secui sectus, cut, secaturus. sono sonare sonui sound. Some compounds have -sondturus, and resono has resondvi. sto stare steti stand, staturus. tono tonare tonuT thunder. Attono has also attonitus, intono has intondtus. veto vetare vetui vetitus, forbid. * The neuter form of the participle is given when the verb is intransi- tive. t Strictly speaking, dare does not belong to any of the conjugations, but it is usually reckoned as of the first because of its ending -are. (Cf. 240, 1.) J Potus is really the participle of the simple verb of which poto is a fre- quentative, and often has the active meaning, having drunk. 126 INFLECTION. 234. The following list contains the common verbs of the SECOND conjugation which form their perfect or per- fect participle, or both, otherwise than in -ui and -itus : * a. ab-oleo abolevi abolitus, efface. de-leo delevi deletus, blot out, destroy. fleo flevi fletus, weep. neo nevi netus, spin. -pleo t -plevi f -pletus,f fill. b. algeo alsi - be cold. ardeo arsi arsum, be on fire. audeo ausus sum ausus, dare. augeo auxi auctus, increase. caveo cavi cautus, beware. censeo censui census, think. cieo civi citus (particip. adj.), call. Among compounds occur excitus and concitus, but accitus. doceo docui doctus, teach. fateor fassus sum fassus, confess. faveo f avi fautum, favor. ferveo ferbul - boil. (Cf. 235.) Fervo, fervere, fervi, also occurs. (Cf. 235, L) foveo fovi fotus, cherish. fulgeo fulsi - shine, gleam. gaudeo gavisus sum gavisus, rejoice. haereo haesi haesum, stick. in-dulgeo indulsl indultus, indulge. iubeo iussi iiissus, bid, order. luceo luxi - shine, be light. Polluced has polluctum. lugeo liixi - mourn. maneo mansi mansus, stay, wait for. misceo miscui mistus > 1 mix. > 1 s, ) ( mixtus, mordeo momordi morsus, bite. moveo movi motus, move. mulceo muls! mulsus, soothe. Permulctus occurs. * But see 231, rf, 1. t In compounds. IRREGULAR STEM-FORMATION, THIRD CONJUGATION. 127 mulgeo mulsi mulsus, milk. paveo pavi fear. prandeo prandi pransus (act. meaning}, breakfast, lunch. reor ratus sum ratus, think. rldeo risi rlsum, laugh. sedeo sedi sessuin, sit. sorbeo sorbui suck in. Absorbed has absorpsl. strldeo stridi whiz. (Cf. 235, i.) suadeo suasi suasum, advise. teneo tenui tentus, hold. tergeo tersi tersus, wipe. torqueo torsi tortus, twist. torreo torrui tostus, roast. turgeo tursi swell. (Cf . 235, ii.) urgeo (urgueo) iirsi urge. video vidi visus, see. voveo vovi votus, vow. 235. The following list contains the common verbs of the THIRD conjugation, arranged according to the forma- tion of the perfect stem as given in 231 : i. Perfect stem like present stem. acuo acui acutus, sharpen. arguo argui argutus (particip. adj.), accuse, convict. bibo bibi bibitus, drink. esso [ ca P essI an d \ undertake. (See vi., ( capessivi I below.) -cendo * -cendi * -census,* kindle. congruo congrui agree. cudo forge. This verb has no perfect and perfect participle, but the compounds have -cudi, -cusus. * In compounds. 128 INFLECTION. dego (de-ago) degi ex-uo, exui facesso facessi fido fisus sum, Confido has sometimes confidi. -fendo * -f endl * fervo fervi ICO IcI im-buo imbui in-duo indui ingruo lambo ingrui kmbi luo lui Some compounds have -lutus. mando rnandi metuo metui minuo minui -nuo* -nui* pando pandi pass one's time. exutus, take off. facessitus, execute. fisus, trust. -f ensus,* ward off. -boil. (Cf.234.) ictus, strike. imbutus, wet, imbue. indutus, put on. rush upon. lick. wash, luiturus. mansus, chew. metutus, fear. minutus, lessen. -nutus,* nod. ( pinsitus, } pmso pinsl and pinsnl < pmsus, > pound. ( pistus, ) pluo plui or pliivi rain, pre-hendo prehendi (prendi) prehensus (prensus), (prendo) seize. ruo nil rutus (part, adj.), fall, ruiturus. scando scandl scansus, climb. sido sidi settle. Compounds have sedi, sessum, from sedeo. solvo statno sternuo stride solvl statm sternui stridi solutus, loose. statutus, place, fix, deter- mine. sneeze. whiz. (Cf. 234.) * In compounds. LISTS OF VERBS IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 129 suo tribuo vello sui tribui velli and volsi verro verrl verto verti viso visl volvo volvi ii. Perfect stem adds s. carpo cedo cingo claudo clepo como (com-emo) coquo demo (de-emo) dico di-vido duco figo fingo flecto fllgo fluo frendo carpsl cessi cinxi clausi clepsi compsi coxi dempsi dixi divisi duxi flxl finxi flexi flixi fluxl Compounds have also fresi. frigo frixT gero -lacio * iungo gessi -lexi * iunxi sutus, sew. tributus, assign, ascribe. volsus, pluck. (See ii., below.) versus, brush, sweep. versus, turn. visus, see, visit. volutus, roll. carptus, pluck. cessum, yield. cmctus, gird. clausus, shut. cleptus, steal. comptus, comb, deck. coctus, cook. demptus, take away. dictus, say. divisus, divide. ductus, lead, guide. fixus, fix. fictus, fashion, feign. flexus, bend. flictus, dash. fluxus (part, adj.), flow. ffressus,) ^ ( fresus, ) (frlctus,)^ (frixus, V gestus, carry. -lectus,* f allure. iunctus, join. * In compounds. t The perfects adlicul, elicul, perlicul, and the participle elicitus, also occur. 60 INFLECTION. laedo laesT laesus, hurt. lingo linxi linctus, lick. ludo lusi lusus, play. mergo mersi mersus, dip. mingo mmxi mictuin, make water. mitto misi missus, send. necto nexl (nexiu) nexus, weave. ningo nmxi MI/MM nubo nupsi nuptum, marry. { panxi ) pactus, drive in, panc- pango jpegl [ turus. (See iv. and v., ( pepigl ) below.) pecto pexi (pexui) |P exus ' I comb. ( pectitus, ) pingo pinxi pictus, paint. plango planxi planctus, beat, lament. plaudo plausi plausus, clap the hands. plecto plexi (plexui) plexus, twine. premo press! pressus, press. promo (pro-emo) prompsi promptus, bring out. quatio -cussi * quassus, shake. rado rasi rasus, scrape, shave. rego rexi rectus, rule. repo repsi reptum, creep. rodo rosi rosus, gnaw. sarpo sarpsi sarptus, prune. scalpo scalps! scalptus, scrape, engrave. scribo scrips! scriptus, write. sculpo sculps! sculptus, carve. serpo serps! crawl. spargo spars! sparsus, spread, scatter. specio spexi -spectus,* see, look at. stinguo -stinx! * -stmctus,* quench. stringo strinxi strlctus, bind, graze. struo strux! structus, build. * In compounds. LISTS OF VERBS IN THIRD CONJUGATION. 131 sugo suxi sumo (sub-emo) sumpsi tego texi temno -tempsi * tergo tersi tingo (tinguo) tmxi traho traxi trudo trusi ungo (unguo) unxi uro ussl vado -vasi * veho vexi vello volsi and velll vivo vixi iii. Perfect lengthens root vowel. suctus, suck. sumptus, take. tectus, cover. -temptus,* despise. tersus, wipe. (Cf. 234.) tmctus, moisten, stain. tractus, draw. trusus, thrust. unctus, anoint. ustus, burn (transitive). vasum, go. vectus, draw, carry. volsus, pluck. (See i., above.) victum, live. ago capio edo emo facio fodio frango fugio fundo iacio egi cepi edT emi feel fodi fregl fugi fudi ieci actus, drive. captus, take. esus, eat. emptus, take, buy. factus, do, make. fossus, dig. fractus, break. f ugitum, flee. f usus, pour. iactus, cast, throw. lavo lavi Also lavdre, lavdvi, lavdtus. lego legi linquo liqui rumpo rupi scabo scab! vinco vlci ( lotus, lectus, gather, read. -lictus,* leave. ruptus, break, burst. - scratch. victus, conquer. * In compounds. UNIVERSITY 132 INFLECTION. iv. Reduplicated perfects. cado caedo canS curro disco fallo pangS parcS pario pellS pendS pSsco pungS sis to tango tendo tundS cecidi cecidi cecini cucurri didici fefelli pepigi peperci (pars!) peperi pepuli pependi poposci pupugi stiti tetigi tetendi tutudi casum, falL caesus, cut. cantus, sing. cursum, run. learn, disciturus. falsus, deceive. pactus, drive in. (See ii., above, and vi., below.) parcitum (parsum), spare. partus, bring forth, pari- turus. pulsus, drive. pensus, weigh. demand. punctus, prick. status (part, adj.), set. tactus, touch. tentus or tensus, stretch. tunsus or tusus, beat. v. Perfect stem adds v (u) to the root, after the ana- logy of the second conjugation. altus or alitus, nourish. -celsus,* push. cretus, decree. coitus, till. restrain. consultus, consult. cretus, grow. -cubitum,* lie down. depstus, knead. fremitus, roar. rage. gemitum, groan. * In compounds. t First person singular not found. alo alui cells -cellul* cernS crevi colS colui com-pesco, compescui con-sulo, consului crescS crevi -cumbo * -cubui* depso depsui fremo fremui [furo] f furui gemo gemui LISTS OF VERBS IN THIED CONJUGATION. 133 genitus, beget. litus, smear. messus, reap. molitus, grind. notus, learn, find out. occultus, hide. smell. pactus, drive in. (See ii. and iv., above.) pastus, feed. positus, put, place. raptus, seize. scitus, decree. satus, sow. sertus, entwine. situs, lay down, allow. spretus, scorn. stratus, strew. snore. strepitum, sound. textus, weave. tremble. vomitus, vomit. wish. (Cf. 242.) Here may also be given consuesco, consuevi (consuetus, adj.), accustom one's self. So other compounds, and quiesco, quievi, quietum, rest. vi. Perfect stems add Iv to the root, after the analogy of the fourth conjugation. gigno lino genul lev! or livi meto messul molo molui nosco novi oc-culo occului olo olui pango pegi pasco pono (po-sino) rapio SC1SCO pavi posui rapui SC1V1 sero sevi sero serui sino sivi sperno sterno sprevi stravi sterto stertui strepo texo strepui texui tremo tremui vomo vomui volo (velle) volui arcesso arcesslvi capesso capessivi cupio cupivi incesso incessivi or incessi lacesso lacessivl peto petivi quaero quaesivi arcessitus, summon. undertake. (See i., above.) cupitus, desire. attack. lacessitus, provoke. petitus, aim at. quaesitus, ask, seek. 134 INFLECTION. rudo rudm riiditura, bray. sapio sapivi be wise. Compounds have also -sipul in perfect, tero trivi tritus, rub, wear. vii. No perfect or perfect participle stems, ango, choke. glubo, peel. claudo, limp. hisco, gape open. fatisco, crack open. plector,* be punished. fulgo, shine. tollo,t raise. glisco, grow. vergo, incline. 236. The following list contains the common simple DEPONENTS of the third conjugation : am-plector amplexus, embrace. And other compounds. apiscor aptus, get. com-miniscor commentus, invent. And other compounds. ex-pergiscor experrectus, awake. frnor fructus, enjoy, fruiturus. fungor functus, perform. gradior gressus, walk. Irascor iratus, be angry. labor lapsus, jfa/J, slip. liquor melt. loquor locutus, speak. morior $ mortuus, die, moritums. nanciscor nactus or nanctus, get. nascor natus, be born, nasciturus. uitor nisus or nixus, lean upon. ob-llviscor oblitus, forget. paciscor pactus, bargain. patior passus, suffer. pro-ficiscor profectus, start. queror questus, complain. * Only post classical in the active. t Perf. and perf. part, supplied by the compound forms sustuli, subldtus. t For irregular forms in this verb see 227, 6. IRREGULAR VERBS, FOURTH CONJUGATION. 135 ringor rictus, snarl. sequor secutus, follow. tuor tuitus, guard. Also tueor, tueri. ulciscor ultus, avenge. utor usus, use. vescor eat. Re-vertor, reversus, return, and other compounds of verto, are generally deponent only in the forms from the present stem and in the perfect par- ticiple. 237. Except those given in 235 and 236, the verbs whose present stem ends in so- have no perfect and per- fect participle stems, or else take those of their primi- tives ; as, adhaeresco, adhaesl, adhaesum. When de- rived from nouns or adjectives they form their perfect stem (in the few cases in which they have any) regularly ; those in -asc5 having av-, and those in -esc5 having u-, after the analogy of the first and second conjugatiens ; as, vesperascit, vesperavit; duresco, durui. a. The quantity of the vowel before sc in inceptive verbs is always long, except in the few cases of verbs derived from con- sonant stems of the third conjugation. Thus : Inveterasco, adsuesco, cresco, disco, seised, etc. Short are Coalesed) gemisco, ingemisco, tremesco, contremisco, vwesco, revwiscdj adipiseor, indipiscor, depeciscor, expergiscor, nan- ciscor, paciseor, proficiscor, reminiscor, ulciscor. 238. The following list contains the common verbs of the FOURTH conjugation, which form the perfect or perfect participle stem, or both, irregularly : ( amicui ) amicio -j ' - c aimctus, dome. a-perio aperuT apertus, open. ad-sentior adsensus sum adsensus, assent. com-perio comperl compertus, find. 136 INFLECTION. eo ivi itum, go. ex-perior expertus sum expertus, try. farcio farsi (fartus, ) -! r stuff. \ f arctus, j M fulcio fulsl f ultus, prop up. haurio hausi haustus, draw, hausurus. ( mensus, ) metior mensus sum >- measure. ( mentitus, ) operio operui opertus, cover. op-perior oppertus sum (oppertus, 7 . i [ wait for. ( opperitus, \ ordior orsus sum orsus, begin. orior * ortus sum ortus, rise, oriturus. queo quivi quitus, can. raucio rausum, be Jwarse. re-perio repperl repertus, find. saepio saeps! saeptus, hedge in. f salui ^ salio < sah"vl > leap. (salii ) sancio sanxi ( sancitus, ) i r ratify. (sanctus, ) Jy sarcio sarsi sartus, patch. ( sarrivi ^ sarrio 1 > (sarrui ) sarritus, hoe. sentio sens! sensus, feel. sepelio sepellvl sepultus, bury. venio vem ventum, come. vincio vinxi vinctus, bind. IRREGULAR VERBS (Verbaanomala). 239. A few verbs take no thematic vowel in their present stems, but add the endings directly to the root, and are therefore called UNTHEMATIC verbs, or, because these forms differ from those of the regular conjugations, IEREGULAB verbs. * See 227, a. IRREGULAR VERBS. DARE. 137 240. (1.) Originally all verbs with vowel roots were unthematic, but all except dare, to give, passed over into the thematic conjugation.* (2.) Several verbs with consonant roots remained un- thematic in most of the forms from the present stem. They are esse, be ; velle, wish ; nolle, be unwilling ; malle, prefer ; ferre, bring ; fieri, become ; edere, eat. The unthematic verbs are conjugated as follows : 241. dare, to give. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. PERF. PART. dot <&re dedi datus INDICATIVE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. FUTURE. do t dabam dabo das dabas dabis dat dabat dabit damus dabamus dabimus datis dabatis dabitis dant dabant dabunt PERFECT. dedi, etc. PRESENT. dem demus des detis det dent PERFECT. dederim, etc. PLUPERFECT. dSderam, etc. FUTURE PERF. dedero, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. IMPERFECT. darem daremus dares daretis daret darent PLUPERFECT. dedissem, etc. * Such are fan, speak ; flare, blow ; ware, swim ; stare, stand ; flere, weep ; nere, spin ; -plere, fill (used only in compounds) ; cire, call ; Ire, go ; quire, be able; sclre, know. (Cf. also 230, d, 1.) t This form is, of course, thematic. 138 INFLECTION. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. da* date data datSte dato danto IXFTNTTIVE. PRESENT. PERFECT. FUTURE. dare dedisse daturus (-a, -um) esse PARTICIPLES. Pres. dans, dantis Fut. daturus (-a, -urn) GERUND. SUPINE. dandi, etc. datum, datti a. The passive is regular, except that the first person of the present indicative and subjunctive do not occur. b. Thus are conjugated the four-syllabled compounds, as circumdare, venumdare, etc. The three-syllabled compounds dedere, edere, prodere, reddere, trddere, vendere are reg- ular thematic verbs of the third conjugation. So also the follow- ing verbs, which are not compounds of do, dare, but of another do (corresponding to the Greek rt&p/u), which means put, set : abdere, addere, condere, abscondere, credere, indere, obdere, per- dere, subdere. c. Early forms of the present subjunctive occur as follows : duos, duim, duis, duit, duint. So perduim, perduis, perduit, perduint ; creduam, creduas, creduat, creduis, creduint.'f For esse, see 215. 242. velle, be willing, wish. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. volo velle volui * This form is, of course, thematic. t For a few other rare forms, see any large grammar. IRREGULAR VERBS. VELLE. NOLLE. 139 INDICATIVE. PRESENT. volo volumus vis voltis (vultis) volt (vult) volunt IMPERFECT. FUTURE. PERFECT. volebam, etc. volam, etc. volui, etc. PLUPERFECT. FUTURE PERFECT. volueram, etc. voluerS, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. velim vellmus vellem vellemus veils velitis velles velletis velit velint vellet vellent PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. voluerim, etc. voluissem, etc. INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE. Pres. velle volens Perf. voluisse a. Si vis, if you please, is often contracted to sis. 243. nolle (ne-velle*), be unwilling. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. nolo nolle nolui INDICATIVE. PRESENT. no!5 nolumus n5n vis n5n voltis (non vultis) non volt (ndn vult) nolunt 140 INFLECTION. IMPERFECT. nSlebam, etc. PLUPERFECT. nolueram, etc. FUTURE. nolam, etc. PERECT. nolui, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. noluerS, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. nolim nolimus nolis nolitis nolit nolint PERFECT. noluerim, etc. IMPERFECT. nollem nollemus noUes noUetis nollet nollent PLUPERFECT. noluissem, etc. IMPERATIVE. noli PRESENT. nolite FUTURE. n5Ht5 nolitote nolito INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE. Pres. nolle nolens Perf. noluisse a. Nevis and rievolt occur in Plaotus. 244. malle (mage-velle"), prefer. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INDIC. malo PRES. INFEST. malle INDICATIVE. PERF. INDIC. malui PRESENT. mala malumus mavis mavoltis (mavultis) mavolt (mavult) malunt IRREGULAR VERBS. MALLE. FEEEE. 141 IMPERFECT. malebam, etc. PLUPERFECT. malueram, etc. FUTURE. PERFECT. malam, etc. malul, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. maluero, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. malim malimus mallem mallemus malis malltis malles malletis malit malint mallet mallent PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. maluerim, etc. maluissem, etc. INFINITIVES. Pres. malle Perf. maluisse a. Mavolo, mavolunt, mavolet, mavelim, mavetts, mavelit, mavellem, occur in Plautus. 245. ferre, bring. ACTIVE. PASSIVE. PRINCIPAL PARTS. Pres. Ind. fero feror Pres. Inf. ferre ferri Perf. Ind. tuli * latus * sum INDICATIVE. PRESENT. fer5 ferimus feror ferimur f ers fertis f erris (-re) f erimim fert ferunt fertur feruntur * These forms are from other roots: tuli, from Vto/, tollo ; latus, for tldtus, from Vila. 142 INFLECTION. Imperfect ferebam, etc. Future feram, etc. Perfect tuli, etc. Pluperfect tuleram, etc. Fut. Perf. tulero, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. feram, etc. Imp. ferrem, etc. Perf. tulerim, etc. Plu. tulissem, etc. ferebar, etc. f erar, etc. latus sum, etc. latus eram, etc. latus ero, etc. f erar, etc. ferrer, etc. latus sim, etc. latus essem, etc. fer ferto ferto ferte IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. ferre FUTURE. fertote ferunto fertor fertor ferimim feruntor INFINITIVES. Pres. ferre Perf. tulisse ferri latus (-a, -urn) esse Fut. laturus (-a, -um) esse latum iri PARTICIPLES. Pres. ferens Perf. Future, laturus, -a, -um GERUND. f erendi, etc. SUPINE. latum latu latus (-a, -um) GERUNDIVE. ferendus (-a, -urn) rN RSITY IRREGULAR VERBS. a. Reduplicated forms from the perfect stem, as tetuli, etc., are found in the comic writers. 246. fieri, become. (It is also used as the passive of facio, do, make.) PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. INDIC. PRES. INFIN. PERF. INDIC. flo fieri factus sum INDICATIVE. PRESENT. fio fimus fis fitis fit fiunt IMPERFECT. flebam, etc. PLUPERFECT. factus eram, etc. FUTURE. PERFECT. flam, etc. factus sum, etc. FUTURE PERFECT. factus ero, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. flam, etc. fierem, etc. factus sim, etc. factus essem, etc. IMPERATIVE. Present fi INFINITIVES. Pres. fieri Perf. factus (-a, -um) esse Fut. factum iri GERUNDIVE. f aciendus (-a, -um) fite PARTICIPLE. factus (-a, -um) SUPINE. factu 144 INFLECTION. a. Compounds of. f acid which retain the full form have/7^ in the passive ; as, calefacio, calefw ; benefacw, benefw. Confit, defit, and Inftb also occur, but compounds with prepositions regularly form their own passives ; as, cdnficio, conficior ; per- ficio, perficior. 247. edere, eat. PRINCIPAL PARTS. ed5 esse or edere edi esum INDICATIVE. PRESENT. edo edimus es or edis * editis or estis est or edit edunt IMPERFECT. FUTURE. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. FUT. PERF. edebam, etc. edam, etc. edi, etc. ederam, etc. eder5, etc. S UBJUNCTIVE . PRESENT. IMPERFECT. edam or edim ederem or essem edas " edis ederes " esses edat " edit ederet ' esset edamus " edimus ederemus " essemus edatis " editis ederetis " essetis edant " edint ederent " essent PERFECT. PLUPERFECT. ederim, etc. edissem, etc. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. es or ede edito or esto edito " esto edite " este edit5te " estate edunto * The short forms occur in the same places in which the forms of sum begin with es. IRREGULAR VERBS. 145 INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE. Pres. esse or edere Perf. edisse Fut. esurus (-a, -um) esse esurus (-a, -um) PASSIVE VOICE. Pres. Ind. editur or^estur Imp. Subj. ederetur a essetur a. Ambedo has participles ambedens and ambesus. Comedo has comesus, comesurus, and rare comesftis ; also, comedim, comedis, comedit. Adedo and exedo have adesus and exesus. 248. ire, go (Vi), also presents some of the irregu- larities of unthematic verbs. PRINCIPAL PARTS. PRES. IND. PRES. INFIN. PERF. IND. PERF. PART. eo ire ivi(ii) itum INDICATIVE. PRESENT. eo Imus is itis it eunt IMPERF. FUT. PERF. PLUPERF. FUT. PERF. ibam, etc. ib5, etc. ivi (ii), etc. iveram, etc. ivero, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. IMPERF. PERF. PLUPERF. earn, eas, etc. irem, etc. iverim, etc. ivissem, etc. IMPERATIVE. PRESENT. FUTURE. i ite ito itote ito eunto 146 INFLECTION. INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLES. Pres. Ire iens (euntis, etc.) Perf. Ivisse Fut iturus (-a, -um) esse iturus (-a, -um) GERUND. eundi, etc. a. In compounds, future forms in earn, ies, iet, etc., occasion- ally occur ; and the tenses from the perfect stem more com- monly omit the v ; as, abil, redieram, etc. b. Istisj issem, and Isse, occur for ivistis, wissem, wisse. (Cf. 228, a.) DEFECTIVE VERBS (Verba defected). 249. The following verbs are used in only a few forms, and are therefore called DEFECTIVE VERBS : (1.) odi, hate, though a perfect form, has a present meaning. It occurs in the following forms : INDICATIVE. Perf. odi or osus sum, I hate, etc. Plup. oderam, I hated, etc. Fut. Perf. odero, I shall hate, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Perf. oderim, etc. Plup. odissem, etc. INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLES. Perf. odisse osus (-a, -um) (active sense) Fut. osurus (-a, -um) esse osurus (-a, -um) a. Odivit occurs (M. Anton, in Cic., PhU., xiii., 42). (2.) memini, remember, is also a perfect form with a present meaning, and has INDICATIVE. Perf. memini, I remember, etc. Plup. memineram, I remembered, etc. Fut. Perf. meminero, I shall remember, etc. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 147 SUBJUNCTIVE. Perf. meminerim, etc. Plup. meminissem, etc. IMPERATIVE. Fut. memento mementote INFINITIVE. meminisse (3.) coepi, have begun, has INDICATIVE. Perf. coepi, etc. Plup. coeperam, etc. Fut. Perf. coeperS, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE. Perf. coeperim, etc. Plup. coepissem, etc. INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLES. Perf. coepisse coeptus (-a, -urn) Fut. coepturus (-a, -urn) esse coepturus (-a, -urn) a. With a passive infinitive the deponent forms are used : coeptus est, erat, etc. (4.) aio, say, has INDICATIVE. PRESENT. IMPERFECT. aio aiebam aiebamus ais aiebas aiebatis ait aiunt aiebat aiebant SUBJUNCTIVE. PRESENT. aias aiat aiant IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLE. ai aiens a. The comic writers have the imperfect forms aibas, aibat, aibant, and treat them as dissyllables. 148 INFLECTION. (5.) inquam, say, has INDICATIVE. Pres. inquam -quis -quit -quimus -quitis -quiunt Imp. inquiebat inquiebant inquibat Fut. inquies inquiet Perf. inquisti inquit SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. inquias inquiat inquiatis inquiant IMPERATIVE. inque inquito (6.) fan, to speak, has INDICATIVE. Pres. fatur Fut. fabor fabitur Perf. fatus est Plup. fatus eram IMPERATIVE. fare INFINITIVE. fan (farier) PARTICIPLES. fans fatus (-a, -um) GERUNDIVE. fandus, etc. GERUND. Gen. fandi Abl. fand5 SUPINE. fatti (7.) queo, can, has INDICATIVE. Pres. queo quis quit quimus quitis Imp. quibam quibat Fut. quibo Perf. quivi quivit queunt quibant quibunt quiverunt DEFECTIVE VERBS. 149 SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. queam, etc. Imp. quirem quiret qulrent Perf. qulverit Plup. quissent INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE. Pres. quire quiens (queuntis, etc.) Perf. quivisse (quisse) (8.) nequeo, cannot, has INDICATIVE. Pres. nequeo nSnquis nequit -quimus -quitis -queunt Imp. nequibam -quibat nequlbant Fut. nequibunt Perf. nequivi -quivisti -quivit nequiverunt SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. nequeam, etc. Imp. nequirem, etc. Plup. nequlsset INFINITIVES. PARTICIPLE. Pres. nequire nequiens (nequeuntis, etc.) Perf. nequivisse a. Passive forms of these two verbs are occasionally found with a passive infinitive, as with coepl (see above). So quitur, queatur, queantur, quitus, etc., neqmtur and nequitum est t etc. NOTE. It will be seen that queo and nequeo are conjugated just like eo. (9.) quaes5, beg, has Ind. Pres. quaeso quaesit quaesumus Inf. Pres. quaesere (10.) Isolated forms are a. Imperative have, havete, be well, blessed, etc. haveto Infinitive havere 150 INFLECTION. b. Ind. Pres. salveo, I am well. Fut. salvebis Imper. salve, salvete, be well, hail ! salveta Infin. salvere c. Imper. cedo, cette, say, let us have, etc. d. Ind. Pres. confit, defit, deflunt, Infit, infiunt, accomplish. fail. begin. " Fut. confiet defiet Subj. Pres. cdnfiat defiat interfiat (Lucr.) Imper. c5nfieret Infin. confieri defieri effieri, interfieri (Plautus) e. Ind. Pres. ovat, have an ovation.* Subj. Pres. ovet " Imp. ovaret Participle ovans ovatus ovatums Gerund ovandi IMPERSONAL VERBS. 250. IMPERSONAL verbs are such as are used only in the third person singular and without a personal subject. The most common are the following : a. Ten verbs denoting mental or moral states : decet, it is proper, becoming. oportet, ought. libet, it is pleasant. piget, be disgusted. licet, I, you, he, etc., may. paenitet, repent liquet, it is clear. pudet, be ashamed. miseret, pity. taedet, be weary of. * An ovation among the Romans was a sort of lesser "triumph," in which the general rode on horseback instead of in a chariot, as in the regular ' ' triumph. ' ' PARTICLES. 151 b. Verbs denoting the state of the weather : fulget, ^ lapidat, it rains stones. fulgurat, > it lightens, ningit, it snows. fulminat, ) pluit, it rains. gelat, it freezes. tonat, it thunders. grandinat, it hails. vesperascit, } ' f evening ap- Lucescit. ) ., vi. advesperascit. > , . 7T _ . r rt grows light. * ' I proaches. lUucescit, ) invesperascit, ) c. Also the following : accidit, it happens. interest, it concerns. constat, it is accepted, be- iuvat, it delights. lieved. praestat, it is better. contingit, it happens favor- placet, it pleases. ably. refert, it concerns. convenit, it is agreed upon, restat, it remains. displicet, it displeases. PARTICLES. NOTE. Adverbs, so far as they are capable of inflection, have been treated under the Comparison of Adjectives (174-176). Their further treatment, as well as that of prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, belongs partly under Syntax, but mostly under Word-Formation, and will be found there. For adverbs (derivation), see 292, 293 ; (syntax), see 557. For prepositions (in composition), see 301 ff. For " (syntax), see 428 ff., and 558 ff. For conjunctions, see 562 ff. For interjections, see 583. "WORD-FORMATION (Derwatio verborum). 251. (1.) Words are either SIMPLE (simplicia) or COM- POUND (composita). (2.) SIMPLE words are such as contain only one com- plete stem ; as, ludu-s, game ; reg-o, rule ; naturali-s, nat- ural. (3.) COMPOUND words are such as contain two or more complete stems ; as, magnanimus (magno |- ammo-), high-souled ; intellego (intei; -f- lego), understand. 152 WORD-FORMATION. 252. (1.) Simple words are divided into PRIMITIVES (^prlmitiva) and DERIVATIVES (derlvata). (2.) PRIMITIVE words are such as are formed directly from roots ; as, rex, king, */reg ; cavus, hollow, VCGW / died, say, */dic. (3.) DERIVATIVE words are such as are formed from noun, adjective, or verb stems; as, culpare, to blame, from culpa (stem culpa-) ; felicitas, happiness, from felix (stem feflc-) ; memorabilis, remarkable, from me- mordre (stem memord-). a. Words derived from noun or adjective stems are called DENOMINATIVES (deTwmiTiatlva) ; those from verb stems are called VERBALS (verbalia). STRONG AND WEAK FORMS OF ROOTS. 253. Many roots appear in two forms, a strong form and a weak form. Thus : Weak Form. Strong Form. teg-ere, to cover. tog-a, a toga. fug-ere, to flee. fug-*, I have fled, a. There are a few instances of triple root forms. Thus: fid-es, faithfulness, ful-us, faithful,/0ed-ws, treaty. Cf. do-num, gift, with dd-s and da-tiis. SIMPLE WORDS. NOTE. The origin of various Latin words is very obscure. They can- not be referred to any known roots. It is, of course, only the well estab- lished, common formations that can profitably be treated here. Words without Suffixes . 264. A few nouns and adjectives are formed without any suffix,* the root itself serving as a stem. Thus : cor, n., heart ; */cord pes, m., foot ; *Jped lux, f., light; Vto trux (adj.), savage; */truc a. The unthematic verbs (see 239 ff.) also have no suffixes. b. A very few roots are reduplicated ; as, mar-mor, n., mar- ble ; tur-tur, m., turtle-dove. * For the definition of " suffix," see 56. WORDS WITH SUFFIXES. 153 Words with Suffixes. 255. The common suffixes as they appear in Latin words are as follows : (1.) Forming VOWEL stems. o-, a-, io-, ia-, ro-, ra- (lo-, la-, ri-, li-) i- mo-, ma- to-, ta- (so-, sa-) u- no-, na- ti- (si-) bo-, ba- ni- tu- (su-) co-, ca- nu- tro-, tra-, tri- (cf. tr-, below). do, da- vo-, va- (uo-, ua-) (2.) Forming CONSONANT stems. Suffix. Nom. Sing. Suffix. Nom. Sing. {is- es ent- ens er- us; er (is) ( min- men or- us, ur ; or (6s) ( mon- mo or- 6s, or ( tr- ter (cf. tr-, ( in- en; 6 1 on- 6 ~j tor- tor above). ( sor- sor a. Suffixes are called PRIMARY when applied directly to roots to form the stems of primitive words, SECONDARY or DERIVATIVE when applied to simple stems to make the stems of derivative words. NOTE. To help the pupil in understanding the growth of words, his at- tention should be called to groups like the following : rub-us, m., a bramble bush. [rubi-cus.*~\ Rubic-o, the Rubicon (Red River), rubicun-dus, ruddy. rubicundu-lus, somewhat ruddy. rub-e-r, red, ruddy. Bubr-ius, a man's name. rubri-ca, L, red earth. rubric-are, to color red. Rubricd-tus, a river in Spain. o.n<7 sud-v-is (for sttad-u-is), sweet le-v-is (for/e^-u-ts), light t Cf. 109. NOUNS IN -LUS, -LA, -LUM. 155 later, genitive lat-er-is, m., brick. gernis, " gen-er-is, n., birth. nemus, " riem-or-is, n., grove. fulgor, " fulg-or-is, m., flash, gleam. cardoj " card-iritis, m., hinge. virgo, " virg-in-is, f., maiden. nomen, " no-min-is, n., name. sermoj " ser-mon-is, m., speech. pater, " pa-tr-is, m., father. " da-tor^is, m., giver. NOUNS (AND ADJECTIVES) IN -ZZT, -4 257. The suffixes lo-, la-, form a series of nouns and a few adjectives from primitive o- stems, the o regularly becoming u before the 1 of the suffix. Thus : dnu-lus, m., ring. iacib-lum, n., javelin. ocur-lus, m., eye. cingu-lum, n., girdle. rabu-la, m., pettifogger. iugu-lum, n., collar-bone. tegu-la, f., tile. garru-lus, -a, -um, talkative. NOTE. Some of these words seem to have been formed from primitives once actually in use, but early supplanted by their derivatives, others to have been built upon the same pattern from roots or stems from which no corresponding 1 primitive was ever used. This second process came about as follows : There are a few words, like speculum, n., mirror, and jigulus, m., potter, which seem to have been made from u- stems rather than O- stems. Having words like these and others like anulus (from the stem ano- -f- the suffix lo-), the Romans confounded the ending of the stem with the suffix and transferred -ulus, as a new ending, to other kinds of stems (or roots serving as stems). So in English, having inherited from Latin words like " portable," in which the "a" belongs to the stem, we transfer this "a" with the ending and form "bearable" from "bear." This process is called FORMATION BY ANALOGY. It is often impossible to tell whether a given Latin word was formed from a real primitive which afterwards became obsolete, or whether it simply grew by analogy. 258. (1.) The same suffixes lo-, la- (ro, ra-), added to a series of stems (mostly obsolete) in bo- and co-, be- came fused with these syllables into the endings -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum. 156 WORD-FORMATION. (2.) The endings -bulum, -culum, -brum, -crum, to which for convenience may be added -trum, form neuter nouns denoting MEANS or INSTRUMENT. Thus : starbulum, stall cf. stare, to stand Vsta. turirbulum, censer " tus (turis), frankincense. voca-bulum, word " vocare, to call, name. pd-culum, cup " potare, to drink. vehi-culum, vehicle " vehere, to draw. perls-culum, trial, danger " ex-periri, to try. crl-brum, sieve " cernere, to sift, distinguish. de-lu-brum, shrine " luere, to wash, atone for. candela-brum, candlestick " candere, shine, candela, can- dle. sepul-crum, tomb " sepelire, to bury. simula-crum, image " simulare, make like, pre- tend. ras-trum, rake Vrad + tro- (primary). ard-trum, plough stem of arare -f- tro- (second- ary). fere-trum, bier cf . ferre, to carry. DlMINTTTIVES. 259. The same suffixes lo-, la-, came often to have a diminutive force,* forming a large number of nouns usually of the same gender as their primitives. They also form a few diminutive adjectives. Thus : (1.) From stems in a- or o-, the stem vowel appearing as u generally, but as o after e, i, and v. Thus : riidu-lits, a little nest, from nidus, cenu-la " cena, dinner. oppidu-lum " oppidum, town. alveo-lus " alveus, a hollow. filio-lus " filius, son. * Compare the English "bookish" and " bluisV "sunny" and "sonny." DIMINUTIVES. 157 clavo-lus * from cldvos, a nail. parvo-lus, -a, -um " parvos, small. (2.) From dental and palatal stems, with a u added by analogy. Thus : aetat-u-la from aetas, a period of life. reg-u-lus " rex, king. voou-la " vox, voice. capit-u-lum " caput, head. (3.) If a liquid precedes the stem vowel of the primi- tive (a or o) that vowel is dropped and the liquid assimi- lated, sometimes with slight further change. Thus : agellus (for ager-u-lus) from ager, field. patella " patera, saucer. capella " capra, goat. piwlla " puera, girl, (but puer-u-lus) " ^mer, boy. asellus " asinus, ass. pulvilhis " pulvlnus, cushion. corolla " corona, wreath. columella " columna, pillar. sigilla (n. pi.) " signum, sign. bacillum " baculum, staff. to6e^a " to^wZa, tablet. ocellus " oculus, eye. And by analogy lapillits " Zo^w, stone. codicilhis " coc?ex, a writing (origi- nally, bark). (4.) In the case of diminutives from other consonant stems and from e-, u-, and i- steins, the endings have the forms, -culus, -cula, -culum.f Thus : sermun-culus from sermo, speech. * The O -was afterwards weakened to u, of course, as in the primitives. Hence, cldvulus, parvulus, etc. t In some cases because an intervening stem in CO- has disappeared, in others through growth by analogy. 158 WORD-FORMATION. rumus-culus from rumor, report. arbus-cula " arbor, tree. bu-cula " bos, cow. fios-cidus " fios, flower. mater-cula, " mater, mother. cor-culum " cor, heart. die-cula " dies, day. cani-cula " canis, dog. arti-cvlus " artas, limb. corni-cuLum " comu, horn. a. JZanun-culus, from ram, frog; furuiwulus, from /?Zr, thief ; and conventi-cuLum, from conventus, meeting, are also found. . A few diminutives are further formations, as : aculeus from ocws, needle [oow -J- Zo + io-]. homuncio (heside homunculus) " homo, man [AomoTt -|- co -|- io -j- ow-]. c. There are also a few double formations ; as : asellulus aseUus asinus. ADJECTIVES IN -z/5 AND -1275. 260. The same suffixes (lo-, la-, ro-, ra-) with the vowel weakened and thus appearing as li- *, ri-, form a series of adjectives denoting various ways of " belonging to." Thus: humi-lis, low from humus, ,f ground. agi-lis, nimble " an obsolete agus.$ riobi-lis, famous as if from nobus. utirlis, useful " " utus. naturd-lis, natural from natura. * There was a marked tendency of Latin adjectives to pass into i- stem forms and follow the third declension. Cf. the double forms in 155, 7, and the forms in 256, 1, footnote. t For the weakening of the stem vowel O of the primitive to i in the derivative, see 59. J The existence of a form agus is shown by the compound prod-igus beside co-dgu-lum. ADJECTIVES IN -LIS, -HIS; -NUS, -NA, -NUM. 159 luna-ris, of the moon from luna. fide-lis, faithful " fides, tribu-lis,* of the same tribe " tribus. hosti-lis, hostile " hostis. 261. Words like agilis, nobilis^ utilis, came to be re- garded as verbals. Then the endings -bills and -tills were added to verb-stems to make adjectives denoting TEN- DENCY (more often passive than active). Thus : ama-bilis, lovable. terri-bllis, terrible. fle-bilis, lamentable, tearful. versa-tilis, movable. a. Plausi-bilis, worthy of applause, and some others, seem to be from noun-stems. 262. Through the transference of the stem vowel to the suffix arose the endings -aris, -alls, -elis, -ills, -ulis. Thus: milit-aris, military from miles. popul-aris, of the people " populus. nav-alis, naval " navis. capit-alis, deadly, capital " caput. crud-elis, cruel " crudus. vir-ilis, manly " vir. ped-ulis, of the feet " pes. a. Such adjectives were often used as nouns ; as, aed-ilis, m., an aedile ; ovtte, n., a sheep-fold ; and, dropping the final vowel, pugil, m., boxer ; animal, n., living thing. ADJECTIVES IN -NUB, -NA 9 -NUM. 263. The suffixes no-, na-, form another series of ad- jectives denoting " belonging to." Thus : mag-nus,^ great from \fmag + no- (primary). pater-nus, of a father " pater, fagirnus, beechen " fagus. * The long quantity of the penultimate u, i, or o, in such derivatives has never been satisfactorily explained. t This suffix was originally participial. 160 WORD-FORMATION. Rorrws-nus, Roman from Roma, collwius, hilly " collis. marir-niis, of the sea " mare. 264. The suffixes no-, na-, form many adjectives of TIME. Thus : hodier-nus, to-day's cf. hodie. diur-nus, of the day " dies, hester-nus, yesterday's " herl. crasti-mts, to-morrow's " eras, aeter-nus, everlasting " aevom. diuti-nus, matutir-nus, of the morning " matuta. vespertl-nus, of the evening " vesper. 265. Through the transference of stem vowels to the suffix -arose the endings -anus, -enus, -Inus. Thus: mont-anm, mountainous from mons. GrracchninuSi of Gracchus. ser-enus, calm. terr-e?ms, earthy " terra. div-lnus, god-like " dlvos. vlc-mus, neighboring " vlcus. a. With these adjectives compare nouns like membr-ana, har-ena, reg-lna, pistr-inum, patr-onus, ann-vna, fort-una. b. The distributive numerals are also formed in -nus; as, Vim, senlj etc. (See 157, 158.) ADJECTIVES IN -cus, -CA, -CUM:. 266. Another series of adjectives is formed with the suffixes co-, ca-, which added to different kinds of stems give the endings -acus, -Icus, ucus, -icus, -aticus. Thus : paii-cus, few */pav. belli-cus, warlike from bellum. civi-cus, of a citizen " civis. ADJECTIVES IN -CUS, -CA, -CUM; -IUS, -IA, -IUM. 161 Galli-cus, Gallic from Gallus. op-acus, shady. pud-wus y modest cf. pudor. cad-ueus, ready to fall " cadere. patr-icus, of a father from pater, venati-cus, belonging to hunting " venatus. fluvi-aticus, living in water cf. fluvius. a. Through the Greek come words like Socraticus, of Socrates. Iliacus, of Ilium, Trojan. Corinthiacus, of Corinth. 267. A suffix c- with the vowel dropped was added to a- stems, and the ending -ax was then transferred to other stems, the adjective thus formed denoting a (generally faulty) tendency. Thus: pugn-a-x (pugna-c-is), inclined to fight. aud-a-x, bold. ten-a-x, tenacious. ADJECTIVES IN -ius, -IA, -IUM. 268. Another series of adjectives is formed with the suffixes io-, ia-, which, added to different kinds of steins, give the endings -eus, -cius, -ceus, -icius, -aceus, -icius. Such adjectives often denote MATERIAL. Thus : reg-ius, royal from rex. uxor-ius, uxorious " uxor, wife. Ephes-ius, of Ephesus. aur-eus (for aure-ius), golden " aurum. triti-ceus, wheaten " triticum. aedili-cius, of an aedile " aedllis. patr-icius, patrician " pater (through patricus). herba-cem, grassy " herba. harundin-aceus, like a reed cf. harundo. meretric-ius, meretricious from meretrlx. triburwcius, tribunicial cf. tribunus. 162 WORD-FORMATION. orator-ius, of an orator from orator, praetdr-ius, praetorian " praetor, censor-lux, of a censor " censor, a. From various Greek proper names are formed adjectives in -eus and -aeus. Thus : Epicureus, Epicurean. Smyrnaeus, of Smyrna. . 269. The ending -arms * forms adjectives often becom- ing nouns and denoting TRADE or PROFESSION (masculine), or PLACE (neuter). (Cf. 276, 4.) Thus : slc-arius, m., assassin from slca, dagger. advers-arius, -a, -urn, opposed " adversus. legwn-arius, belonging to the legion " legw. argent-arius, m., hanker " argentum. ordin-arius, -a, -urn, customary " ordo. tumidttt-arius, -a, -um, hurried " tumultus. aer-arium, n., treasury " aes. NOUNS OF AGENCY. 270. Nouns of AGENCY are formed from roots or verb stems with the suffixes tor-, s5r-, rnasc., trio, fern. Thus : da~tor, giver from \fda -\- tor- (primary) ; cf . dare, ora-tor, pleader, orator " stem ora- -[- tor- (secondary) ; cf. orare. sua-sor, adviser " ^suad- -)- sor- (primary) ; cf. suadere. vic-trix, conqueress " stem vie- -(- trie- ; cf. vincere. vena-trix, huntress " stem vena- -\- trie- ; cf. venarl. So viaJor, summoner, through an obsolete viare ; sen-a-for, senator, through an obsolete senare. a. The suffix appears in the form tr- in the following : fra-ter, m., brother (i. e. } supporter. Cf. fero). ma-ter, f., mother. pa-ter, m., father. * This ending seems to consist of ro- -f- i- added at first to stems in a- and then transferred with the a to other stems. (Cf. first example.) ABSTRACT NOUNS. 163 271. The person or (personified) thing which has to do with something is indicated by the following suffixes : (1.) on-. Thus: praec-o (for prae-voc-o), m., herald, Vvoc -j- on (primary). centuriro, m., centurion, from centuria, company of one hundred. (2.) ti-, dropping the vowel and forming the nominative in -es. Thus : eques (equi-tis), m., horseman. ales (ali-tis), c., bird. a. Some of these nouns were originally adjectives. So ales, (orig.) winged. ABSTRACT NOUNS. 272. Abstract nouns have the following endings : -ia (-tia), -ium (-tium), -ies (-ties) -ta, -tas, -tus ; -g5, -do (-tudo) -la, -15 (-ti5, -sio) ; -tus, -ura (-tura, -sura) NOTE. Abstract nouns denoting quality are formed from noun and ad- jective stems ; abstract nouns expressing action, from verb stems. They tend, however, to become more or less concrete, and the abstract meaning is not always easy to trace. The English " relation " used for "relative " is an example of this tendency of abstracts to become concrete. 273. Abstract nouns denoting QUALITY are formed with the following suffixes : (1.) ia-, fern. ; io-, neuter. Thus : audac-ia, boldness custod-ia, guard mendac-ium, lie mllit-ia, military service hospit-ium, hospitality a. Through forms like militia and hospitium, the endings -tia and -tium were transferred to other kinds of stems. Thus: amici-tia, friendship from amicus. duri-tia, sternness " durus, hard. from audax. " custos. " mendax. " miles. " hospes. servi-tium, slavery servos. OF THK UNIVERSITY 164 WORD-FORMATION. b. Collateral forms in -ies and -ties in the fifth declension appear beside the forms in -ia and -tia of the first. Thus : materies beside materia, material. durities " duritia, hardness. (2.) ta-, tat-,* tut-.* Thus : iuven-ta, f., youth from iuvenis. senec-ta, f., old age " senex. cwi-tas, f., citizenship, state " clvis. boni-tas, f., goodness " bonus, pie-tas, f., filial affection, loyalty " plus, maies-tas, f., majesty " maior(-ius), greater. hones-tas, f., respectability " honor, office, honor. vir-tus, f., manliness, bravery, virtue " vir. senec-tus, f., old age " senex. serviJus, f., slavery " servos, a. The stem vowel is dropped in liber-tas, freedom, from liber. (3.) gin- and din-.f The latter is especially common as an addition to stems in tu-, giving the ending -tud5. Thus : imcu-go, f., image. ori-go, f., origin cf. orirl. aeru-gd, f ., copper-rust. vir-ago, f., virago from vir (by analogy). torpe-do, f., sluggishness cf. torpere. cupl-do, f., desire " cupere. didce-do, f., sweetness " dulcis. magni-tudo, f ., size from niagnus. forti-tudo, f., endurance " fortis. habi-tudo,$ f., custom. vale-tudo, f., health. * These two suffixes consist of ti- (with vowel dropped) added to real or supposed stems in ta- and tu-. t I. e., go- + in-, and do- -f- in-. J Habitus (gen. -us) is more common, and suggests the type on which the words in -tudo were built. ABSTRACT NOUNS. 165 274. Abstracts denoting the NAME OF AN ACTION are formed with the following suffixes : (1.) la- (added to verb stems in e-, and the ending -ela then transferred to other stems). Thus : cande-la, f., candle cf. candere. tute-la, f., protection " tueri. client-ela, f., clientship " clwns. quer-ella, f., complaint " querl. loqu-ella, f., speech " loqui. (2.) idn- (ti5n-, sion-).* Thus : leg-id, f., gathering, legion cf. legere. msit-io, f., grafting " Inserere, insitus. quaest-w, f., investigation " quaerere. mdns-id, f., a remaining " manere, mdnsum. cogitdt-io, f., reflection " cogitare, cogitatus. larglt-w, f., bestowal of a largess " largiri, largltum. (3.) tu-. Thus:- mo-tus, m., motion (contracted for movitus) cf. movere. comita-tw, m., retinue " comitdri. equita-tus, m., cavalry " equitdre. moni-tus, m., warning " monere. anheli-tus, m., panting " anheldre. (4.) ra- (added to stems in u-, and thus producing the endings -ura, -tura, -sura). Thus : fig-ura, f., shape cf . finger e. plc-tura, f., painting " pingere. u-siira, f., use, enjoyment of a thing " utl. cen-surafi censorship. prae-tura, praetorship. NOUNS WITH VARIOUS ENDINGS. 275. ACT, MEANS, or RESULT is denoted by the suffixes * These two suffixes seem to be made by adding ion- to the stems of perfect participles. t Often thus coming to denote an office. 166 WORB-FORMATION. min- (oftener increased to mentd-) and mSnio-,* neuter, and mSnia-,* feminine. Thus : teg^men, ^ tegu-men, > covering cf. tegere. tegi-men, ) certa-men, strife, contest " certdre. frag-mentum, fragment " frangere. orna-mentum, ornament " ornare. argit-mentum, argument " arguere. momf^mentum, memorial " moriere. condi-mentum, seasoning " condire. testirmonium, testimony. querirtrionia, complaint. 276. Nouns denoting PLACE are formed with the fol- lowing suffixes : to- (eto-), ina- (trina-, trino-), fli-, ario-, torio- (sorio-). (1.) to-, eto- denote the place where something GROWS IN ABUNDANCE. Thus : arbus-tum, orchard from arbor, qiierc-etum, oak-grove cf. quercus. vin-etum, vineyard " vinum. (2.) ina-, trina-, trmo- denote the place where some- thing is DONE. Thus : cul-ina, kitchen. tdns-trina, barber-shop. salrlnae, salt mines. pis-trinum^ treadmill. a. Nouns in -ina also often denote a SCIENCE, and many have other meanings ; as, discipl-ina, teaching ; medic-lna, medicine ; reg-ma, queen ; ru-^na, downfall, etc. (3:) Hi- denotes especially the PLACE where ANIMALS * The origin and development of these suffixes, as of several to be men- tioned later (6to-, ina-, trina-, Ivo-, OBO-, olento-, bundo-, cundo, etc.), are partly too little known, partly too complicated, for explanation in a school grammar. It seems best, therefore, simply to chronicle them as they appear. PATKONYMICS. 167 are kept. These nouns are the neuters of adjectives. (See 260-262.) Thus : ov-ile, sheepfold from ovis. cub-lie, chamber. (4.) ario- forms nouns which are really the neuter of adjectives in -arms. (See 269.) Thus : columb-arium, dove-cote. tepid-arium, room for a warm bath. (5.) torio- (sorio) forms nouns which are really the neuter of adjectives in -torius (-sorius). (See 268.) Thus : prae-torium, general's tent. dever-sorium, inn. PATRONYMICS. 277. PATKONYMICS (patronymica), that is, nouns de- noting descent, from the name of the father or other an- cestor, are formed with the following (Greek) endings : -ides (fern, -is), -ides (fern, -eis), -iades (fern, -ias), and -ades. a. The masculine patronymics (L e. 9 those in -des) are of the first declension ; the f eminines (i. e., those in -as or -is) are of the third. b. There are also a few feminines of the first declension in -ine or -ione. Thus : Nerlrie, daughter of Nereus. Acriswrie, " " Acrisius. 278. (1.) -ides (f. -is) is used with names ending in -us (except -ius), -or, and -s preceded by a consonant ; also with those in -on which have the stem vowel short. Thus : Priamides from Priamus. Tantalis " Tantalus. Danais " Danaus. Agenorides " Agenor. Cecropides " Cecrops. Agamemnonides " Agamemnon, stem Agamemnon. 168 WORD-FORMATION. (2.) -Ides (f. -eis) is used with names ending in -ens or -cles. Thus : Atrldes from Atreus. Heraclldes " Heracles. Nereis " Nlreus. (3.) -iades (f. -ias) is used with names in -ius, with many in -es or -o, after the dropping of these endings, and with names in -on if the stem vowel is long. Thus : Thestiades \ Thestias \ tram Ttortiu,. Anchisiades " Anchises. Sclpiades " Scipio. Telamoniades " Telanion, stem Telamon-. So also Atlantiades " Atlas. (4.) -ades is used with most names in -as or -es Thus : Aeneades from Aeneas.* Hippotades ' Hippotes. GENTILE ADJECTIVES. 279. GENTILE adjectives (gentilicia), that is, words denoting the place or country to which some one belongs, are formed with the following suffixes : co-, ca- ; io-, ia- ; no-, na- ; ti- ; ensi-. Thus : Gatti-cus, Gallic, a Gaul. Fiderias (-atis), of Fidenae. Ephes-ius, Ephesian. Arpinas (-atis), of Arpinum. Roma-niLS, Roman. Samriis (-it is), of Samnium. Tuscul-anus, Tusculan. Cann-ensis, of Cannae. Neapolit-anus, of Naples. Utic-ensis, of Utica. Praenest-inus, of Praeneste. Atheni^emis, of Athens. Lat-inus, Latin. Sulnwnr3nsis, of Sulmo. Amer-Znus, of Ameria. Vei3ns, of Veil. * The change of vowel from in the primitive to e in the patronymic is due to a secondary form, Aeneas, PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 169 NOTE. No distinct rule can be given as to what sort of stems these different endings are used with. But stems in a- usually have -anus, those in ia- or io-, Inus, others in o-, -icus ; -ius is used mostly with Greek words, and consonant stems generally have -ensis. Other forms also are used ; as, Afer, African ; Siculus, Sicilian. Cf . also the adjec- tives like Smyrnaeus derived through the Greek (268, a). PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. 280. Adjectives with the participial meaning "pro- vided with " are formed with the suffixes to-, ta-, which added to different kinds of stems give the endings -atus, -Itus, -utus. Thus : robus-tus, strong from robur. hones-tus, honorable " honor. toga-tus " toga, a toga. tum-tus " turris, tower. cornu-tus " cornu, horn. aur-atus " aurum, gold, through aurare. cord-atus " cor, heart, as if through cordare. mell-ltus u mel, honey. av-ltus *' avos (-us), grandfather. nas-utus " nasus, nose. NOTE. Aegrdtus, sick, suggests with patronus, annona, etc., a lost series of verb stems in o-. 281. Adjectives with about the meaning of present par- ticiples are formed with the suffixes bundo- and cundo-. Thus : fa-cundus, eloquent. mlra-bundus, wondering. iu-cundus, pleasant. vere-cundus, modest. irorcundus, wrathful. mori-bundus, dying. 282. The suffixes mo-, ma-, no-, na-, alone and com- bined together, form several adjectives and nouns which were originally participles. Thus : al-mus, -a, -um, kindly cf. alere, to raise, nourish. fa-ma, f., report " fart, to speak. mag-nus, -a, -um, great. 170 WORD-FORMATION. som-nus, m., sleep (for sop-nits ; cf. soplre). fe-mina, f., woman. ter-minus, m., boundary. alurmnus, ~a, -um, cherished ; hence, as a noun, foster-child. a. The same combined suffix is found in the second person plural of passive and deponent verbs, regi^nini^ mone-minl, amabH-mirii, and in the old imperative forms like horta~mirio. (See 227, f.) ADJECTIVES WITH VARIOUS EXDINGS. 283. Various adjectives are formed with the suffixes do-, da-, uo-, ua-, ivo-, iva-. Thus : turbirdus, disordered from turba. vlvi-dus, lively. frlgirdus, cold cf . frigus. avi-dus, greedy. herbirdus, grassy from herba. lepirdus, charming cf. lepor. ann-uus, yearly from annus. ruit'ivus, native cf. natus. aest-wus, of summer " aestas. capt-ivus, captive " captus. 284. Another series of adjectives is formed with the suffixes bri-, cri-, tri-, the last often denoting PLACE. Thus : cele-ber, famous. medio-cris, mediocre. lugurbris, mournful. eques-tris, equestrian (for salu-bris, healthful. equet-tris). mulie-bris. womanish. campes-tris, level. volurcer, winged. terres-tris, earthy. Cf. also creber, -bra, -brum, frequent. 285. Adjectives denoting FULLNESS are formed with the suffixes oso-, olent-, olento-. Thus : ADJECTIVES. VERBS. 171 glori^dsus from gloria, glory. perlcul-dsus " perlculum, danger. gener-osus " genus, birth. aestit-osus " aestus, heat, tide. op-ulens * " [ops], wealth. vi-olens " vis, force. fraud-ulentus * " fraus, treachery. vm-olentus " vmum, wine. 286. Adjectives denoting various relations of NUMBEB are formed as follows : (1.) MULTIPLICATIVE denote how many fold, and end in -plex. Thus : simplex, single. qumcuplex, fivefold. duplex, double, twofold. centuplex, a hundredfold. (2.) PROPORTIONALS denote how many times one thing is greater than another, and end in -plus. Thus : duplus, twice as great. octitplus, eight times as great. (3.) TEMPORALS denote how many years old, and end in -Imus. Thus : blmus, two years old. quadrimus, four years old. NOTE. Adjectives in -arius, from the distributives, denote the number of parts of which a thing consists, but they belong chiefly to post-classical usage. Thus : quaterndrius, of four parts. VERBS. 287. -are, -ere, -Sre, -ire, were treated by the Romans as derivative endings to form many verbs from noun and adjective stems. The stem-vowel of the noun or adjective, unless u, disappears. Thus : culparerf to blame from culpa, fault. doriare, to give " donum, gift. * o of the suffix weakened to U. t The verbs in -are must have started from noun stems in a-, and those in -ire from stems in i-, and these endings must then have been transferred to other stems by analogy. 172 WORD-FORMATION. laud a re, to praise from laus, praise. aestuare, to seethe, boil " aestus, heat. albere, to be white " albus, white. lucere, to shine " lux, light. metuere, to fear " metus, fear. statuere, to fix " status, position. pumre, to punish " poena, punishment. servlre, to be a slave " servos (-MS), slave. fl/ure. to end " finis, end. custodlre, to guard " cilstos, guard. NOTE. The verbs with consonant stems (third conjugation), and many of the short verbs of the first, second, and fourth conjugations, were in- herited by the Romans from the parent language, and these verbs fur- nished the pattern for the verbs treated in 287. Such inherited verbs are regere, amdre, monere, audire. Their development is too complicated to be explained in a school grammar. Many of the simple nouns and adjectives treated above were of course also inherited already formed from the parent language, as can be seen by comparing the corresponding words in Greek and Sanskrit. Their growth, however, is much simpler and easier to trace than that of the inherited verbs. a. The denominatives of the first conjugation are generally transitive ; those of the second are almost invariably intransitive. Cf. the examples. Those in the third conjugation are all from u- stems. b. Pairs of verbs are sometimes found, one usually from the weak form of a root and intransitive, the other from the strong form and transitive (causative verbs, verba, caitsatwa) . Thus : placere, to please placare, to appease. sedere, to sit sedare, to settle. FREQUENTATIVE AND INTENSIVE VERBS. 288. (1.) FREQUENT ATI VES (frequentdtiva), that is, verbs denoting a repetition of the action of their primitives, and INTENSIVES (intenslvcf), or verbs denoting a forcible action, are formed from perfect participles by substituting the characteristic a for the stem voweL Thus : FREQUENT ATI VES, INTENSIVES, AND INCEPTIVES. 173 adiutare from adiuvare (adiutus). dictare " dicer e (dictus). quassare " quatere (quassus). habitare " habere (habitus), dormltare " dor mire (dormitum). (2.) From forms like habitare^ the apparent ending -itare spread to various present stems, and also took the place of the regular formation from verbs of the first con- jugation. Thus : agitare from agere. minitari from minari. noscitare " noscere. rogitare " rogare. clamitare " cldmdre. a. Videre, see, makes visere through visus. (3.) Double formations occur. Thus: currere cursare cursitare. dicere dictare dictitare. venire (ad)-ventare ventitare. (4.) Another kind of intensives is formed with the ending -esso, rarely -isso, in the third conjugation, with the perfect and perfect participle stems generally made after the analogy of the fourth, if used at all. Thus : lacesso lacessere lacesswi lacessltus. incesso incessere incesslvl or incessl petisso petissere a. Frequentatives are also called ITERATIVES (iteratwa) , a,ud the intensives in -esso (-isso) are also called MEDITATIVES (meditatwa). INCEPTIVE VERBS. 289. INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES (inceptwa or incoh- atlvd), that is, verbs which denote the beginning of an action, are formed by adding -sco to a verb stem, or by analogy, to noun stems. They are intransitive, of the third conjugation. (Cf. 235, 236, 237.) Thus : 174 WORD-FORMATION. labascere from labare. obdormlscere from obdormlre. calescere " calere. puerascere " puer. tremescere " tremere. iuvenescere " invents, ingemiscere " ingemere. durescere " durus. DESIDERATTVE AND DIMINUTIVE VERBS. 290. DESIDERATIVES (desiderativa) express a desire to do something. They end in -turio (-surio). Thus : empturio empturlre parturid parturire parturlvl (-ii) parturitum. esurio esurire esuritum NOTE. Others are rare and chiefly confined to the comic poets. 291. DIMINUTIVE verbs (deminutwa) are formed from diminutive noun-forms in -illus by substituting a for the stem vowel. Thus : cantillare, cojiscrlbilldre. NOTE. The diminutive verbs are very few in number. DERIVATION OF ADVERBS. 292. Besides the adverbs in -e and -ter formed and compared from adjectives, given under 174 ff., the fol- lowing should be noticed : (1.) Numeral adverbs are formed from numbers above four by the ending -ies. (Cf . 157 and 158.) Thus : qui?iquies, five times. decies, ten times. (2.) Certain adverbs of manner are formed with the ending -atim as if accusatives of the third-declensipn nouns made from the perfect participle stems of verbs of the first conjugation. Thus : gradatim, by degrees, slowly, as if through gradari, gradatus ; cf. gradi, to walk. gregatim, in crowds. Compare con-gregare, to gather into a flock. (3.) A few adverbs denoting origin or manner end in -itus. Thus : ADVERBS. COMPOUND WORDS. 175 divinitus, from the gods. funditus, from the bottom, utterly. radtefous, root and branch. 293. All other adverbs were originally oblique cases of nouns, adjectives, or pronouns, and are (1.) Also used as oblique cases. Thus : multd, much. continue, immediately. tantum, so much and no more, only. For others, see 187. (2.) Recognizable as case forms, though no longer used as such. Thus : partim, partly. secus, otherwise. (3.) More or less disguised. Thus : hinc, hence. illuc, thither. ad-eo* to such a degree, corn-minus,* at close quarters. quasi,* as it were. COMPOUND WORDS. 294. Almost all Latin compounds consist of two parts only, the second part forming what may be called the basis of the meaning, and the first part indicating some modification therein. Thus, in decemviri, the basis of meaning is viri, men, and this is limited by decem to a body of ten men ; in funambulus, the basis of meaning is " a walker," and this is limited in the compound to a rope-walker ; in vorsipellis, the basis of meaning, " skin," is limited by the notion of turning or changing, so that the compound means " changeable " (cf. English " turn-coat ") ; in persuaded, the basis of meaning, " advise," is modified so as to mean u advise through to the end " (i. e., carry one's point by advice, persuade). * Words like these are of course compounds, each part being origi- nally a case form. They are included here for the convenience of the learner. 176 WORD-FORMATION. Nouns and Adjectives. 295. (1.) The first part of a compound noun or ad- jective may be a noun, adjective, or participle stem, or a numeral, a preposition, or one of a small number of par- ticles called prefixes. (2.) The second part of a compound noun or adjective may be a noun, an adjective, or a participle, but it is far more commonly a noun or adjective form which does not occur as a simple word. Thus : magnanimus, great-souled magno- -\- animus. vorsipellis, changeable vorso- -j- pellis. suaviloquens, sweet-speaking suavi- -\- loquens. funambulus, rope-walker funi- -\- [ambulus]. sacrttegus, sacrilegious sacro- -\- [legus~\. decemviri, decemvirs decem -f- viri. interrex, interrex * inter -\- rex. innatus, inborn in (prep.) -|- natus. imberbis, beardless in- (neg. prefix) and barba. nefds, wrong ne -\-fas. subliistris, rather light sub -\- [lustris~\. pergratus, very pleasing per -\- gratus. a. Compound adjectives, which, like magnanimus, indicate the possession of some quality, are called POSSESSIVES. The second part of these compounds is almost always a noun. Thus : multangulus, many-cornered ; quadrupes, four-footed.| b. Other compound adjectives and all compound nouns are sometimes distinguished from the possessives by the name DE- TERMINATIVES, because their first part determines how the mean- ing of the second part is to be applied. NOTE. In nouns and adjectives compounded with prepositions or pre- fixes, in is much more often a negative prefix than a preposition, sub has a diminutive force, per and (less commonly) prae an intensive force, as in the examples above. * J. e., an officer who rules between the death of one king and the ac- cession of the next. t Such compounds in English generally end in -ed, as in the translations of the examples above ; but compare words like bald-head, lap-streak. COMPOUND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 177 296. (1.) When the first part of a compound noun or adjective is a noun, adjective, or participle stem ending in a vowel, this vowel is usually dropped if the second part begins with a vowel, as in magnanimus and funambulus, above. (2.) When the second part begins with a consonant, and occasionally when it begins with a vowel, the stem vowel of the first part is retained but generally weakened to i, as in sacrilegus above, or in tubicen, trumpeter (tu- ba |- [ceft]), arcitenenS) bow-holding (arcu |- tenens). a. Sometimes the stem vowel of the first part is only flattened to O or u, especially in compounds of early date. Thus : viocurus, overseer of roads via- -f- [cunts']. Troiugena, Trojan-born Troia- -\- [gena]. quadrupes, four-footed quadro- -\- pes. 297. (1.) If the first stem ends in a consonant it suffers in early compounds only the euphonic changes re- quired by the rules in 65 ff., as index for iusdex, judge (i. e.) right-speaker). (2.) Generally, however, consonant stems assume a vowel after the analogy of the other stems. This vowel was originally o, but is generally weakened to i or some- times flattened to u, as with the real stem vowels. Thus : parricida, murderer of a father pair- -f- i -\- [clda]. morigerus* complying mor- + i -\- \_gerus~\. pedisequa^ female attendant ped- + * + \_sequa]. 298. Most compound verbs are formed of simple verbs and prepositions. Thus : incipio, seize upon, begin in -\- capio. aufero, take away ab -\-fero. subverto, overturn sub -|- verto. * Literally, carrying (i. e., putting up with) a person's whims, t Literally, foot-follower. 178 WORD-FORMATION. a. The prepositions were earlier adverbs, and in composition often retain their adverbial force. Cf. 1 prae, seqitor, go before, I (will) follow (Ter., And., i., 1, 144), with ut consulibus lictdres praeirent, that lictors should walk before the consuls (Cic., lie Pub., ii., 31, 55). b. The following compounds of verbs with other words than prepositions occur : adsuefacio* ) mansuefacid, tame. cdnsuefacid, ) a patefacw, open. benefacio, benefit. satisfacid, satisfy. calefacid, make warm. tremefacid^ cause to tremble. commonefacio, remind forcibly, maid, prefer (mage -f- void), labefacio, make totter. ndld. be unwilling (ne -\- void), malefacid, do harm to. satagd, be busy enough (sat -f- agd). 299. In the second part of words compounded with a preposition or the negative prefix in-, vowel weakening generally occurs. Thus : cdnficid, cdnfectum con -\- facio, factum. imperd in (prep.) -)- pard. inimlcus in- (neg.) -(- amicus. iriiqiuus in- (neg.) -f- aequus. a. In compounds of iacid the verb form appears as icw, before which the vowel of a preposition ending in a vowel is retained long, and that of one ending in a consonant is often lengthened. Thus : abicid. deiciS. traicid'. cOnicid. obicid. subicid. 300. A very few words are compounded of more than two stems. Thus : suovetaurUia f sit- -\- ovi- + tauro- a. Words of which both parts are inflected are, properly * The nature of the first part of these compounds of facio is obscure ; it is probably a noun form or possibly an infinitive. t A sacrifice consisting of a swine, a sheep, and a bull. J These words are accented like the simple facio ; as, benefa'cit. FORMS OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOUNDS. 179 speaking, not compounds, and in the best usage are written separately. Thus : ius iilrandum, oath ; res publica, state ; veri similis, likely. b. So also forms like midtimodis (i. e., multls modis), inpri- mis, agrl cultura, aquae ductus, pater familids, are not real compounds, but only phrases which have grown more or less together. Perhaps also satis facio, bene facio, etc., should be classed with these loose unions of words rather than as com- pound verbs. In animadverto (i. e., animum adverto) the union is disguised by the dropping of the accusative ending -um. c. From real compounds are to be distinguished derivatives from compounds, such as the following : beneficium, kindness, from beneficus (bene-, stem of old form of bonus, and ficus, from root of facio). solstitium, solstice,* as if from solstitus (sol- and status). tergiversarl, shuffle, as if from tergiversus (tergo- and versus). Cf. cogittire, to meditate, which may be regarded as a com- pound of com and agitare, or as a frequentative of cogere, itself a compound of com and agere. NOTE. Latin did not develop the ability to form compounds to anything like the extent of the Greek and other kindred languages. Most of the compounds formed, except those with prepositions or the negative prefix in-, are rare and confined chiefly to the poets. Forms of the Prepositions in Compounds. 301. Prepositions ending in a consonant vary greatly in the degree in which their final consonant is assimilated with the initial consonant of the other part of the com- pound. Thus, in the best usage : (1.) ab is written* before d, h, i consonans, 1, n, r, s. Thus : ab-cfo'co, ab-Aorreo, ab-iectus^ ab-iudico, ab-Zet/o, ab-nuo, ab-ripio, ab-sum. abs before c, t. Thus : abs-cec7d, eibs-tineo. as before p. Thus : B,s-porto. a before f in a-fin, and before in or v. Tbus : a-mcweo, a-voco. * The time when the sun seems to stand still. 180 WORD-FORMATION. au before f in au-fero and au-fugio. (2.) ad is written before b, d, f, h, i consonans, m, n, q, v. Thus : ad-bibo, ad-duco, ad-fatim, ad-fero, ad- haereo, ad-iuto, B&mrabilis, ad-moneo, ad-nuo, ad-qmro, ad-voco. Generally before g, 1, p, r, s. Thus : ad-gredior, ad- ligo, ad-peto, ad-rogo, ad-sum. Otherwise assimilation takes place. Thus : ag-ger, al-ligo, ap-peto, ar-rogo. ac before c. Thus : ac-cipio. ad or a before gn, sp, sc, st. Thus: a-gnosco (ad- wosco), ad-splro (a-spiro)^ ad-scisco, ad-stri?igo (a- stringo). ad or at before t. Thus : at-traho (ad-traho). (3.) ante has the form anti in anti-cipo (from an ob- solete anti-ceps), anti-ci^a^'o, anti-stes, anti-s^o.* (4. ) com is written before b, m, p. Thus : com-buro, com-mltto, com-pdges, com-paro. con before c, d, g, i consonans, q, t, v, and generally, before 1 and r. Thus : cou-cipio, con-duco, con-gero, con-iuro, con-queror, con-temno, con-^oco, con-lego (col- lego), con-loquium (co\-loquiuiri) , con-rwo (cor-rwo). c5n before f , s. Thus : con^ero, con-sterno, con-sisto. co before gn, n, and before vowels f and h, and when contracted as in cogo. Thus : co-gnosco, co-necto, co- riiveo, co-mtor. (Cf. conubium.) (5.) ex is written before c, h, p, q, s, t. Thus : ex- celsus, ex.-cipio, ex-Aawrzo, ex.-peto, ez.-quiro, ex-^pec^o, ex.-tendo. e before b, d, g, i consonans, 1, m, n, r, v. Thus : e-blandior, e-duco, e-gredior, e-gregius, e-iuro, e-labor, e-mineo, o-neco, e-ripio, e-vado. ef, and sometimes ec, before f. Thus: ei-fero and (less commonly) ec-fero. * Cf. the old forms antid-ed, antid-eo, antid-hac. t Comedo may be an exception. FOKMS OF PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOUNDS. 181 (6.) in is written before c, d, g (except gn), h, i con- sonans, n, q, t,,v. Thus: iu-cedo, iu-duco, in-gemisco, in-hid, iu-iungd, iu-mtor, iu-qmro, in-tendo, iu-vado. in is also generally written before 1 and sometimes be- fore b, m, p, r. Otherwise assimilation occurs before 1 and r ; and im is written before b, m, p. Thus : in- lustro, im-5wo, in-mltto (im-imtto), im-pero (in-pero), in-wio (ir-ruo). in before f, s. Thus : infer o, in-sero. a. What has been said of the preposition in is equally true of the negative prefix in-. We write, therefore, in-liberalis, in- mortalis (im-mortalis) , in-sons, in-visus, etc. b. The negative prefix, however, unlike the preposition, oc- curs before gn, and then has the form 1 ; as, t-gmarus, l-griosco. (7.) ob is written before d, h, i consonans, 1, m, n, r, s, t, v. Thus : ob-duco, ob-haereo, ob-iectus, 6b-iurgo, ob-/mo, ob-mutesco, db-nubo, ob-rwo, ob-sisto, ob-tineo, ob-venio. Assimilation generally takes place before c, f, p. Thus : oc-curro, of-fero, op-peto. o is written in o-mitto, and o-perio. obs in obs-olesco, and without the b in os-tendo. (8.) per is unchanged, except in pe-iero for per-iuro. e-iero is also sometimes written. (9.) sub is written before d, h, i consonans, 1, s, t, v. Thus: sub-duco, sub-haereo, &ub-iungo, sub-levo, sub- lustris, sub-sisto, sub-tendo, sub-venio. Sometimes before m and r. Thus : sub-moved (sum- moveo), sub-ripio (sur-ripio). sus (for subs) in sus-c^?io, sus-c^o, sus-pendo, sus- tineo, sus-tuli. su in su-spicere, su-splro. Assimilation occurs before c, f, g, p, and sometimes m 182 WORD-FORMATION. and r (see above). Thus: suc-cwrro,* suf/ero, sug-gero, Bup-peto, sup-pleo. (10.) trans is written before d, f, g, m, p, v. Thus : trans-cwn'o, trans^ero, tr&nsfuga, trans-^re^ior, trans- mitto, trans-/9or#o, trans-^eAo. tran before s. Thus : tran-sm'&6, tran-sce7ic?o. trans or tra before d, n. Thus : trans-dwco (tra- ded), tra-c?o, trans-?iao (ixar-natd) : 302. Among the inseparable prepositions (1.) amb becomes am before consonants, chiefly p. Thus: am-puto, am-plector. But an before f, h, or a palatal mute. Thus : an-AeZo, an-gmro (cf . an-ceps, an- fractus). (2.) dis is written in 6is-hiasco, and before c, p, q, t, and s, followed by a vowel. Thus : dis-cedo, dis-par, dis-puto, dis-^?/I/*o, dis-te?ido, dis-sentio (but di-sertus, from dis-sero). dif before f. Thus : dif/ero, dif-fcilis. di before other consonants. Thus : dl-duco, 61-gero, di-moveo, dl-scindo. dis or di before i consonans. Thus : dis-iungo, but dl-iudico. (3.) re (so also pro) retains the original d before vowels. Thus : red-6o. Also in red-c?o. 303. A few compounds with prepositions ending in a consonant suffer contraction. Thus : surgo for sub -\- rego. pergo for per -]- rego. pond " po -\- sirio. Quantity of Compounds. 304. Compound words generally retain the quantity of the parts of which they are composed, even though vowel change may have taken place. * Here also sub is sometimes left unchanged. I TJNrv QUANTITY OF COMPOUNDS. 183 NOTE. The following observations are inserted here for the convenience of the learner, although some of the words treated are not compounds ; for example, quid am. 305. i is long in the first part of words like qmdam, quwis, etc., if that part is declined. Thus : qmlibet, qiiicumque, etc., but quldem. 306. The following words beginning with pro (and their derivatives) have the o short : a. procella, blast, storm. proffingo, break up. prof and, desecrate. profugio, flee from. profecto, surely. profundus, deep. profestus, non-festival (day), pronepos, great-grandson. proficiscor, start. propes, a piece of rigging. profiteer, profess. propinquus, near. prof am, speak out. protervos (-us), forward. b. All Greek words, and the following with their deriva- tives : probus, first class. proco, demand. probrum, wrong. procus, suitor. prope, near. propitius, propitious. c. The o is common in propago, f., a slip, propagare, to propagate, and propinare, to drink to the health of. 307. The following compounds of ne have the e long; others have it short : necubi. riequam. nequitia. necunde. nequaquam. nescius. nedum. nequlquam. riescio. nemo. nequiter. neve. 308. The following quantities are useful to remem- ber : alicubt. ubivis. quandoquidem. sicubi. utinam. siquidem. ubicumque. ibidem. nisi, ubinam. equidem. quasi, jue. quidem. alibi. 184 SYNTAX. NOTE 1. An interesting relation exists between the consonants of many primitive words in Latin and those of the corresponding words in English, both being derived from the same (ludo-European) parent language. This relation may be indicated by the following scheme : Latin. English. Latin. English. c h* cam's, hound. g k genus, kin. t th tres, three. d t decem, ten. P f pater, father. b (rare) P labrum, lip. f b fero, f rater, bear, brother. 1 lux, light. m metis, mind. n novos, new. r rectus, right. s sudvis, i/sudd, sweet. i consondns y iuvenis, young. v w via, volnus, way, wound. NOTE 2. It will be seen that, as far as the mutes are concerned, the English word shows the mute which occupies in the scale smooth, middle, rough, the place next after the Latin mute (Grimm's Law of the Per- mutation of Mutes). SYNTAX (Syntaxis). THE SENTENCE. 309. A SENTENCE (sententio) is the statement of a complete thought in words ; as, canes Idtrant, the dogs are barking. 310. (1.) That about which something is said is called the SUBJECT (subiectum) of the sentence. (2.) That which is said of the subject is called the PREDICATE (praedicatum). Thus, in the above sentence, canes is the subject and latrant is the predicate. In the sentence, Hannibal, mdgnus dux Kar- thaginiensium, sempiternum erg a Romarios odium iuravit, Hannibal the great Carthaginian leader swore everlasting hatred * This h is the remnant of an earlier ch. THE SENTENCE. 185 towards the Romans, the subject is Hannibal magnus dux Karthaginiensium, the predicate sempiternum erga Romanos odium iuravit. 311. (1.) A sentence containing only one subject and predicate is called a SIMPLE sentence. (2.) A sentence consisting of two or more members, each of which has its own subject and predicate, is called a COMPOUND sentence. Thus : Latravit canis et fur velociter fugit, the dog barked and the thief ran quickly away ; cum pugnae finis esset factus eos qui ceciderant sepeliebant, when the battle was fin- ished, they began to bury those who had fallen. 312. The different members of a compound sentence are called CLAUSES. 313. Clauses are either PRINCIPAL or SUBORDINATE. 314. (1.) A PRINCIPAL (also called INDEPENDENT) clause is one which makes complete sense by itself ; as, latravit canis, or eos sepeliebant. (2.) A SUBORDINATE (or DEPENDENT) clause is one which makes complete sense only when taken with some other clause upon which it is said to depend. Thus : cum pugnae finis esset factus, and qul ceciderant, in the sen- tence above. a. Sentences which contain subordinate clauses and only one principal clause are sometimes called COMPLEX sentences ; as, Phocion fuit perpetud pauper, cum dltissimus esse posset, Pho- cion was always poor, when he might have been very rich. The term " compound sentence " is then confined to sentences which, like latravit canis et fur velociter fugit, have more than one independent clause. In complex sentences the principal clause is often called the MAIN clause. b. Parts of a sentence consisting of two or more words which are not subject and predicate are called PHRASES. Thus : mag- nus dux Karthaginiensium ; fortiter pugnare. 186 SYNTAX. 315. Sentences are distinguished as (1.) DECLARATIVE (dedaratwae), or such as have the form of a statement ; as, venffi, spirant, the winds blow. (2.) INTERROGATIVE (interrogafavae), or such as have the form of a question ; as, splrantne venti, do the winds blow ? (3.) EXCLAMATORY (exclamatoriae), or such as have the form of an exclamation ; as, quam vehementer spirant venti, how fiercely the winds blow ! Utinam veniat, oh that he may come ! (4.) IMPERATIVE (imperafivae), or such as have the form of a command, an exhortation, or a prohibition ; as, sptrdte, ventl, blow, winds ; veniat bellum, let the war come ; ne quaesieris, ask not. a. Sentences expressing exhortation are also called HORTA- TORY ; those denoting prohibition, PROHIBITORY. RULES OF AGREEMENT. 316. The subject of a finite verb is put in the nomina- tive case, and the verb agrees with its subject in number and person. Thus: EgO scribo, I write ; nos venwmus, we shall come ; tu legis, you read; hi Graecl sunt, these men are Greeks; Romulus Romam condidit, Romulus founded Rome. a. When the subject is a personal pronoun, especially in the first or second person, it is seldom expressed except when it marks a contrast or is otherwise emphatic. The person and number are shown by the ending of the verb. Thus : Cupid, I desire ; vivis, thou livest ; habemus, we have ; dl- cunt, they say. But : egd reges ewci, vos tyranrios introduci- tis. I drove out kings, but you are bringing in tyrants ; til es patromis, tu pater, you are my defender, you my father. 317. The nominative of the third person is further omitted : RULES OF AGREEMENT. 187 (1.) When it has been expressed in a previous clause (gen- erally as subject, but also sometimes in other constructions). Thus : Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego et in Oceanum Influit (Caes., B. 6r., iv., 10), the Mense rises in the Vosges mountains and empties into the ocean ; cursorem mlserunt ut id nuntiaret, they sent a courier to carry that news (Cor. Nep.). (2.) When people in general are meant, as when we say " men," ' they," " one." Thus : - Dlcunt, they say ; ut aiunt, as they say ; maxime admiran- tur eum qu 7 i pecunia ndn movetur, men particularly admire one who is not influenced by money (Cic.). (3.) So in treatises or discussions, when the subject denotes a type of persons, where we say " one." Thus : In victu considerare oportet apud quern et quo more et ciiius arbitratu sit educatus, in regard to manner of living we must consider in whose family and in what fashion and under whose direction one has been brought up (i. e., the person in question) (Cic., Inv.y i., 25, 35). 318. Certain verbs are used in the third person singular without a subject (impersonal, impersonalia). Thus: (1.) Verbs denoting the state of the weather or operations of nature ; as, fulgurat, it lightens ; ningit, it snows ; lucescebat, it was growing light. (2.) The verbs of feeling : miseret, pity ; paenitet, repent ; piget, be disgusted ; pudet, be ashamed ; taedet, be tired. Thus : Eos ineptiarum paenitet, they repent (lit., it repents them) of their follies ; miseret te aliorum, tul te nee miseret nee pudet, you do pity others ; for yourself you have neither pity nor shame (Plaut., Trin., ii., 4, 30). NOTE. It will be seen that the real subject of the feeling here is by a grammatical idiom made the object of the verb. (3.) The passive of intransitive verbs and of some transitive verbs. Thus : 188 SYNTAX. Favetur tibi a me, you have my support ; ad exitum ven- tum est, the end was reached ; actum est de imperio, the su- premacy is lost (lit., it is finished with regard to the supremacy). (4.) Especially the neuter of the gerundive with est, erat, etc., denoting what must be done. Thus : Si vis me flere, dolendum est prlmum ipsi tibi, if you want me to weep, you must first grieve yourself (Hor., Epist., ii., 3, 102). a. Many apparently impersonal verbs have a clause or an infinitive as subject. So especially words like accidit, happens ; constat, is accepted as true ; convenit, is agreed. Thus : Everiit, senibus ambobus simul iter ut esset, both old gentle- men happened to take the same road (Ter., Phor., i., 2, 15) ; vacare culpa magnum est solacium, to be free from fault is a great consolation ; orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpora sand, we should pray for a sound mind in a sound body (luv., Sat., x., 356) ; oratorem Irascl non decet, it is unseemly for an orator to give way to anger. 319. Two or more singular subjects generally have a plural verb. Thus : Furor ir&que mentem praecipitant, madness and passion rob [me] of my cool reason (Verg.) ; grammatice quondam ac musice iunctae fuerunt, grammar and music were once united (Quint.). a. The verb is always plural, when, as in the second example, it would make no sense with the subjects taken separately. 320. With several singular subjects, however, the verb is singular if (1.) They form together one idea ; as : Senatus populusque Rdm&nus iussit, the Roman senate and people gave orders ; mens enim et ratio et consilium in senibus est, intelligence, reason, wisdom belong to old men. (2.) Generally if connected by a word meaning " or " or " nor " (aut, vel, neque, etc.) ; as : Si Socrates aut Antisthenes diceret, if Socrates or Antis- thenes said [this]. APPOSITIVES AND PREDICATE NOUNS. 189 321. But the verb often agrees with the nearest nomi- native, or with the most important one, and is understood with the rest. Thus : Turn aetas vtresque, turn avita gloria animum stimulabat, then his (youthful) age and strength and the thought of his grandfather's glory goaded on his spirit (Liv.). a. This is always the case when the verb belongs to each sub- ject separately ; as : Magis ego te am5 quain tu me, I love you more than you love me. 322. When a plural verb is used with subjects of differ- ent persons, it is of the first person rather than the second, and of the second person rather than the third. Thus : Si tu et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. 323. A relative pronoun may represent any one of the three persons ; its verb takes therefore the person of the antecedent. Thus : Eg5, qui te confirmo, ipse me rion possum, I, who comfort you, cannot comfort myself. For the agreement of the verb with an appositive or a predicate noun, see 330. For the constructio ad sensum, see 345 ff. APPOSITIVES AND PREDICATE NOUNS. 324. A noun qualifying another noun or pronoun de- noting the same person or thing agrees with it in case. 325. When the qualifying noun is annexed to the other noun without the intervention of a verb it is called an APPOSITIVE, and the words are said to be IN APPOSITION. Thus : - Scipio dux, Scipio, the general ; rios consules, we consuls ; urbs Roma, the city of Rome ; Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorum opulentissimum, totum crematum est fulmine, Volsinii, a very rich town of the Tuscans, was wholly consumed by fire caused 190 SYNTAX. by lightning (Plin., N. H., ii., 53) ; Tullia, deliciae nostrae, munusculum tuumflagitat, Tullia, my darling, has a little favor to beg of you (Cic., Att., i., 8.) a. A noun may be in apposition to two or more nouns, and is then usually plural. Thus : M. Antonius C. Cassius tribunl plebis, Marcus Antonius and Gaius Cassius, tribunes of the commons. b. So when two nouns are connected by cum, an appositive takes the case of the former ; as : Dicaearchum vero cum Aristoxeno, doctos sane homi- nes omittamus, let us leave out Dicaearchus with Aristoxenus, [who are] certainly learned men. c. A noun denoting a whole may have in apposition to it words denoting the parts (partitive apposition) . Thus : Onerariae. pars maxima ad Aegimurum, aliae adversus urbem ipsain delatae sunt, the ships of burden were mostly carried to Aegimurus, others over against the city itself (Llv.). d. Quisque, as an appositive, generally remains in the nomina- tive even when the other word has a different case ; as : Multls sib i quisque imperium petentibus, while many were trying to get the power, each for himself (Sail., lug., 18). e. Ipse is sometimes used in the same way by Livy and later writers. For the apposition of common nouns with names of towns in construc- tions of place, see 426, g and h. 326. In the same sense as a noun in apposition is some- times used a genitive depending on the noun (see 351, note), especially with names of cities ; as, urbs Romae. a. The expression " my name is so and so " may be trans- lated into Latin in the following three ways : Camillus * mihi est nomen (proper name predicate nomi- native). Camilla mihi est nomen (proper name in app. with mihi). Camilli mihi est nomen ( *' " " gen. with nomen). NOTE. Cicero uses most often the first of the three ways given. * Lit., " Camillus is the name to me." PREDICATE NOUNS. 191 327. When the annexed noun is combined with the other by the copula sum or other similar verb (expressed or implied *) it is called a PREDICATE noun. Thus : Ira furor brevis est, anger is a short madness ; ego vocor Lyconides, I am called Lyconides ; iudicem me esse void, I wish to be a judge. 328. Predicate nouns are most commonly used with : (1.) The copula sum ; as : Socrates sapiens erat, Socrates was a philosopher. (2.) Intransitive verbs denoting existence, position, or motion ; as : Haec incedit reglna, she walks [like] a queen ; tune venis legatus, do you come as an ambassador ? (3.) The passive of verbs meaning a. To name or call ; as : Cicero pater patriae est appellatus, Cicero was called the father of his country ; ille liber orator inseribitur, that book is entitled " The Orator." b. To choose, render, appoint ; as : Consul credtus est, he is appointed consul. c. To esteem, reckon, consider ; as : Vir bonus semper erat habitus, he had always been con- sidered a good man ; artium domicilium putantur Athenae, Athens is thought to be the home of the arts. (4.) Many other verbs, to denote a purpose, occasion, or circumstance of the action ; as : Puer hoc audlvi, I heard this when a boy ; Brutus consul auspicla nuntiavit, Brutus, as consul, declared the omens. 329. Appositives and predicate ilouns agree in gender * When the verb is only implied, the noun is sometimes called a PRED- ICATE APPOSITIVE ; as, Ciceronem consulem credverunt, they appointed Cicero [to be] consul. 192 SYNTAX. with the nouns they qualify, if they have a form of the same gender. Thus : Usus, magister egregius, experience, an excellent master ; philosophia, vitae magistra, philosophy, the guide of life ; licentia corruptrix est niorum, excessive freedom is a cor- rupter of character. a. There was a tendency to make the two nouns agree in number also. Thus : Omltto illds omnium doctriricirum inventrices Athenas. I leave out Athens, that well known discoverer of all the branches of learning (cf. Cic., de Or., i., 4, 13). b. When a verb has a complementary infinitive (see 532) dependent upon it, its predicate noun is still nominative ; as : Ndl~) esse sceleratorum laudator, I would not be a eulogist of rascals. c. In the poets a similar usage is sometimes found, by which an infinitive which should have a subject is used without a subject, and the predicate noun which would be in the accusative is at- tracted into the nominative ; as : Uxor invicti lovis esse riescis, know'st thou not thou art the wife of Jove invincible ? 330. A verb sometimes agrees with a predicate noun, or a noun in apposition with the subject, especially if it is nearer than the subject. Thus : Amantium Irae amoris integrati5 est, the quarrels of lov- ers are a renewal of love (Ter., An., iii., 3, 23) ; Tungrl, civi- tas Galliae, fontem habet insignem, the Tungri, a state of Gaul, have a remarkable fountain (Plin., N.H., xxxi., 2 (8), 12). NOTE. This is always the case when the appositive is the name of a person. Kindred Constructions. 331. Instead of a predicate noun (nominative or accu- sative), occur also : AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 193 (1.) A dative of service (see 385) ; as, hoc mihft erat curae. (2.) An ablative with pro (see 43O) ; as, pro filio eum habebat. (3.) A genitive after loco, in place of, or in numero, in the number of. AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 332. ADJECTIVES, ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, and PAR- TICIPLES agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case. 333. When such words are applied to their nouns di- rectly they are called ATTRIBUTIVES. Thus : Bonus vir, a good man ; benlgna mater, a kind mother ; haec res, this thing. 334. When they are applied indirectly (by means of a verb expressed or implied) they are called PREDICATE adjectives, etc. Thus : Mea mater est benlgna, my mother is kind ; hae leges uti- lissimae ducuntur, these laws are considered most beneficial ; hae sunt verae divitiae, this is real riches. NOTE. Appositives and attributives assume the thing said of the noun which they qualify; predicate nouns, adjectives, etc., affirm it. 335. Adjectives * belonging to two or more nouns of the same gender are put in the plural. Thus : Et hie imperator et ille scriptor praeclari sunt, both this general and that writer are famous. 336. When the nouns are of different genders, if they denote things with life, the adjective is masculine rather than feminine ; if they denote things without life, the adjective is generally neuter. Thus : Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt, my father and mother * Whatever is said of the agreement of adjectives applies also, of course, to adjective pronouns and participles. 194 SYNTAX. are dead ; regna, imperia, nobilitates, honores, divitiae, in casu sita sunt, kingdoms, offices, distinctions, honors, riches, depended on chance. NOTE. This is the more common use with & predicate adjective. 337. Or the adjective may be (1.) Repeated with each noun ; as : Semproniae multae facetiae multus^we lepos inerat, Sempronia was gifted with much wit and grace. (2.) Expressed with one noun and understood with the others ; as : Hominis utUitatl agri omnes et znaria parent, all lands and seas serve the needs of mankind. NOTE. These two uses are perhaps the more common with attributive adjectives. (Compare the agreement of the verb with several subjects, 319-321.) 338. Two adjectives in the singular often belong to a plural noun ; as : Cum Iegi5nibus secunda et tertia, with the second and third legions. a. A singular noun, denoting different instances of the same kind, may have several adjectives agreeing with it ; as : Bellum Punicum et Hispaniense, the Punic and Spanish wars. 339. Any part of speech used as a mere word is treated as a neuter noun, and takes an adjective in the neuter singular. Thus : Supremum vale dixit, he uttered the last farewell ; eras istud quando venit ? when is that to-morrow you mention com- ing? 340. When the subject of an infinitive is omitted after a dative denoting the same person or thing, a predicate adjective is sometimes put in the dative, sometimes in the accusative, as if the subject had been expressed. Thus : AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 195 Da mihi iust5 sancto^we videri, grant me to seem just and holy ; si clvl Romano licet esse Gaditanum, if a Roman citizen may [also] be a citizen of Cades. 341. A participle which should regularly agree with the subject of a clause sometimes agrees with a predicate noun, or with a noun in apposition with the subject, if these are nearer the participle. (Cf. 330.) Thus : Non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every mistake is to be called folly ; illorum urbem ut propugnaculum op- positum esse barbarls, [he said] their city stood as a bulwark in the way of the barbarians. a. An adjective which belongs in sense to a genitive is some- times made to agree with the noun on which the genitive de- pends. Thus : Ad maiora initia rerum ducentibus fails, the fates leading to the beginnings of greater things. b. An adjective belonging to a noun upon which a partitive genitive depends sometimes takes the gender of that genitive ; as : Velocissimum omnium animalium est delphmus, the swiftest of all animals is the dolphin. c. An adjective which belongs in sense to the antecedent of a relative pronoun is often put into the relative clause and made to agree with the relative. Thus : Inter iocos quos inconditos iaciunt, among the rude jests which they bandy about. NOTE. This is the usual arrangement with numerals, comparatives, and superlatives. Thus: node quam in terris ultimam egit, the last night he spent on earth ; Aesculapius, qui primus volnus obligdvisse dicitur, ^Esculapius, who is said to have been the first to bind up a wound. AGREEMENT OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 342. RELATIVE PRONOUNS agree with their antece- dents in gender and number, but their case depends upon 196 SYNTAX. the construction of the clause to which they belong.* Thus : Puer qui legit, the boy who reads ; ego non sum qualis eram, I am not such as I was ; Deiis, euros munere vlvimus, cui nTillus est similis, quem colimus, a quo facta sunt omnia, est aeternuS) God, by whose bounty we live, whom none is like unto, whom we worship, by whom all things were made, is eternal. a. The relative pronoun seems to have been originally an ad- jective pronoun agreeing with a noun in its own clause and re- ferring to another case of the same noun with a demonstrative or similar word in the antecedent clause. Examples of such use still occurred in classical Latin ; as : Erant omnino duo itinera quibus itineribus domd exlre possent, there were only two routes by which (routes) they could go from home (Caes., B. 6r., i., 6), b. Usually, however, only one of these nouns is expressed ; as : (1.) The antecedent noun expressed ; as : Tantae multitudinis quantam capit urbs nostra concursus est dd me factus, there was a gathering to meet me of a crowd as large as our city contains (Cic.). (2.) The noun in the relative clause expressed ; as : Quibus de rebus ad me scripsistl coram indebimus, we will see about the things of which you wrote me when we meet (Cic.) ; in quem prlmum egressl sunt locum Trola vocatw, the first place at which they landed is called Troy (Liv.), c. The noun is most commonly thus expressed in the relative clause only : (1.) When, as in the examples, the relative clause precedes. A demonstrative then often stands in the second clause ; as : Ad quas res aptissiml erimus, in iis potissimum elaborabi- mus, we shall toil most earnestly in those things for which we are best fitted. * The rule applies, of course, not only to relative pronouns proper, but to all pronouns used to refer to words in clauses other than their AGREEMENT OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 197 (2.) When the noun is in apposition with some word in the antecedent clause, or with the antecedent clause itself; as : Santones non longe a Tolosatium flnibus absunt, quae clvitas est in provincia, the Santones are not far from the borders of the Tolosates, which state is in the Province (Caes.). d. Sometimes the relative clause comes between the antece- dent noun and the rest of the antecedent clause. The ante- cedent then usually has the case of the relative. Thus : Urbem quam 'statud vestra est, the city which I am building is yours. e. Occasionally the relative takes the case of the antecedent instead of its own proper case. Thus : Cum scribas et aliquid agas eorum qu5rum consuestl, when you write and speak of some one of the tilings you are wont to speak of (Cic., Fam., v., 14, l). NOTE, d and e are called cases of ATTRACTION, and are rare in classical prose. 343. When two or more clauses in which the relative has different constructions refer to the same antecedent, sometimes the relative is repeated in different cases (as in the third example under 342), sometimes only the first relative is expressed and the others are either omitted or represented by demonstratives. Thus : Bocchus cum peditibus, quos films eius adduxerat, neque in priore pugna adfuerant, Romanes invadunt, Bocchus and the infantry which his son had brought and [ which J had not taken part in the earlier battle attack the Romans ; Brutus ille cui Caesar Igrioverat et eum postea f ilium fere habuerat, that Bru- tus whom Caesar had pardoned and had afterwards treated al- most like a son. a. When a predicate noun is used with a relative, the pro- noun commonly agrees with the predicate noun rather than with the antecedent. Thus : Career ille quae lautumiae vocantur, that dungeon which is called the " Stone Quarry." 198 SYNTAX. b. But if the sentence is negative or if the predicate noun is a proper name, the relative agrees with its antecedent as by the general rule. Thus : Nullum factum quod stultitia appellarl potest laude dlgnum est, no act which can be called folly is worthy of praise ; flumen quod nominator Bhenus, the river which is called the Rhine. 344. A relative having more than one antecedent is always plural, but its gender is regulated like that of ad- jectives (see 336 and 337). Thus : Nlnus et Semiramis qui Babylona condiderant, Ninus and Semiramis who had founded Babylon ; naves et captivos * quae ad Chium capta erant, the ships and prisoners which had been taken at Chios ; tu et pater, qui in convlvio eratis, you and father, who were at the feast. COXSTKUCTIO AD SENSUM. 345. Sometimes the various kinds of words whose agreements have been treated in the foregoing sections regulate their agreement not by the grammatical form as described, but in accordance with the real meaning in- volved. This is called CONSTRUCTIO AD SENSUM, con- struction according to the meaning. It is particularly common where the word which settles the agreement is a collective noun. 346. Thus a plural verb is often used : (1.) When the subject is a collective word ; as : Uterque eorum ex castris exercitum educunt, both of them lead their armies out of camp (Csss.) ; pars epulis onerant mensas, some load the tables with food (Verg.). a. Abstract nouns, and nouns like niiles, eques, etc., are often used collectively ; as, ndbilitas for " nobles," eqiies for " the cavalry." NOTE. The plural verb serves to bring 1 out more distinctly tlie individu- * Treated as "things." CONSTRUCTIO AD SENSUM. 199 ality of the persons meant by the collective noun. The construction is rare in simple sentences in Cicero, Csesar, and Sallust, common in Livy, and especially frequent in poetry. (2.) With a singular subject combined with cum and the ablative ; as : Bocchus cum peditibus postremam Romandrum aciem invadunt, Bocchus and his infantry attack the rear of the Ro- man line (Sail., lug.). 347. So also the number and gender of an adjective sometimes follow the sense implied : (1.) In a collective noun or its equivalent ; as : Pars per agros dilapsi . . . suam quisque spem exsequentes, part, scattering through the country, . . . following each his own hope (Liv.) ; Latium Capuar^e agro multati, Latium and Capua were fined in land (i. e., forced to give up part of their territory) (Liv.). a. In such cases, when the verb is plural (see 346) the ad- jective is always plural. b. Sometimes, especially in poetry, only the gender is regu- lated by the constructio ad sensum. Thus : Pars arduus aids pulverulentus equls furit, part raised aloft on tall horses dash about covered with dust (Verg.). c. Sallust often, and other writers sometimes, thus use a neu- ter adjective with several feminine nouns which denote things. Thus : Plerosque velocitas et regio hostibus ignara tutata sunt, their speed and the enemy's ignorance of the country saved most of them (Sail.). (2.) When the word with which the adjective would agree is implied in a possessive pronoun. Thus : Solius meum peccdtum conrigl non potest, my sin only cannot be made good (Cic.) ; cf. pugna RSmana stabilis sud pondere incumbentium in hostem, the fighting of the Romans 200 SYNTAX. [was] invincible as they bore down upon the enemy with the very weight of their line (Liv.). 348. Examples of similar agreement on the part of the relative are (1.) Antecedent a collective word ; as : Equitatum. quos mlserat, the cavalry, whom he had sent ; genus, qui premuntu r, a class who are crushed (Cic.). (2.) Antecedent not a collective word ; as : Abundantia earum renim, quae mortales prima putant, a plenty of those things which mankind imagine of the first im- portance (Sail.). (3.) Antecedent implied in a possessive pronoun, or similar adjective ; as : Nostrum consilium laudandum est, qui nohierim, my design is praiseworthy, who was unwilling (Cic.). For the remaining syntax of adjectives and pronouns, see 438 ff. CASES (C5s5s). NOMINATIVE (Nominatwus). 349. Except as already treated (namely, as the subject of a verb or as an appositive or predicate noun), the NOMI- NATIVE is used only as follows, and that rarely. (1.) In the poets. a. With an interjection, to make an exclamation ; as : En ego, vester Ascanius, here am I, your Ascanius (Verg., Ae. 9 v., 672). b. Instead of the vocative ; as : 6 virfortis atque amicus, O brave man and friendly (Ter.). (2.) In the poets and late prose writers, as the mere name of a word independently of the construction of the sentence. Thus : Eesonent mihi " Cynthia " silvae, let the woods reecho me " Cynthia" (Prop., i., 18, 3l). NOMINATIVE AND GENITIVE CASES. 201 GENITIVE (Genetwus). 350. The GENITIVE is properly the case which ex- presses the relation of one noun to another, and is in its nature equivalent to an adjective. NOTE. The genitive came to be used with certain adjectives and verbs, as well as with nouns. Its various uses may be thus tabulated : SUBJECTIVE. OBJECTIVE. Genitive of Source, Cause, or Mate- With Nouns of Action or Feeling. rial. " Adjectives. Genitive of Possession. f of Pity, etc. Partitive Genitive. j " Feeling. Genitive of Characteristic. " Verbs") " Remembering, etc. Predicate Genitive. I " Accusing, etc. I Interest and Eefert. Genitive of Price. 351. Any noun limiting the meaning of another and not denoting the same thing is regularly put in the geni- tive. Thus : Gtoriae amor, love of glory ; arma Achillis, the arms of Achilles ; nemorum cFistos, the guardian of groves. NOTE. The difference between an appositive and a limiting genitive is that the appositive denotes the same thing as the noun modified by it, while the genitive regularly denotes a different thing, although occasionally used like an appositive, as in vitium irae, urbs Romae. (Cf. 326.) 352. Many relations which in English are expressed by prepositions are denoted in Latin by the genitive. Some of the commonest are (1.) Source ; as, soils radii, the rays of the sun. (2.) Cause ; as, dolor podagrae, pain from the gout. (3.) Possession ; as, Caesaris domus, the house of Caesar. (4.) Material ; as, monies auri, mountains of gold. 353. (1.) A genitive is called SUBJECTIVE when it de- notes the subject of an action or feeling implied in the noun it limits, or indicates that to which a thing belongs. (2.) It is called OBJECTIVE when it denotes the object 202 SYNTAX. towards which the action or feeling implied in its noun is directed. Thus : SUBJECTIVE. OBJECTIVE. virorum facia, deeds of men. odium viti, hatred of wrong. aninii dolor, pain of spirit. virtiitis amor, love of virtue. Ira lunonis, the wrath of Juno, deslderium ot~i, a longing for rest. a. Sometimes the same expression may serve as either a subjective or an objective genitive, and the context must show which is meant. Thus : Caesaris amor may mean somebody's love for Caesar, or Caesar's love for somebody else. b. To avoid ambiguity, or to secure greater emphasis, a preposi- tion with its case is often used instead of the genitive ; as, odium erga Karthaginienses, hatred towards the Carthaginians. c. Two genitives are sometimes used with the same noun, one being usually subjective, the other objective. Thus : Pro veteribus Helvetiorum iniurils populi Roman!, for the old wrongs of the Helvetians against the Roman people (Caes.) ; Ulius administratw provincial, his performance of the duties of his office (Cic.). d. The noun upon which a genitive depends is regularly omitted in certain idiomatic phrases ; as, ad Dianae, near Diana's temple ; sometimes in other expressions ; as, o miserae sortis ! O ye of unhappy lot ! solet mihi in mentem venire ittlus temporis, the thought of that time is wont to come into my mind. e. Especially is it omitted in expressions of comparison where in English " that of " is used. Thus : Numae regnum pacatius erat quam Romuli, Numa's reign was more peaceful than that of Romulus. PARTITIVE GEXITIVE. 354. A word denoting a PART is limited by the genitive of the whole whose part is taken. Thus : magnus hominnm numerus, a large number of men. 355. The partitive genitive is especially common with PARTITIVE GENITIVE. 203 (1.) Numerals and nouns of number or quantity ; as : Equitum centum qulnquaginta interfectl, a hundred and fifty horsemen [were] killed (Curtius) ; permagnum pondus argenti, a very great weight of silver. (2.) Adverbs denoting quantity or amount (used as nouns) ; as : Satis eloquentiae, parum sapientiae, enough eloquence, but too little wisdom. (3.) Adverbs of place or direction ; as : Ubi terrarum sumus ? where in the world are we ? quo amentiae progressl estis, to what a pitch of madness have ye gone ? a. The word of direction is generally, as in the example, used figuratively. (4.) Comparatives and superla'tives ; as : Oratorum praestantissimus, most famous of orators. (5.) Neuter pronouns and adjectives, where in English the adjective agrees with the noun ; as : Plus eloquentiae, more eloquence ; tantum fidei, so much honor ; hoc aetatis, at this time of life. a. Like partitive genitives are the redundant genitives adhuc locorum, till now (Plaut.) ; postea loci,, afterwards (Sail.) ; in- terea loci, meanwhile (Ter.) ; etc. b. Pridie and postrldie are followed by a genitive which seems to be partitive in its nature; as, postrldie eius diet, the day after that day (Caes.) ; pridie msidiarum, the day be- fore the plot (Tac.). GENITIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC OR QUALITY. 356. The genitive, with an adjective agreeing with it, is used to denote a property, quality, or characteristic. Thus : Adulescens summae audaciae, a youth of the utmost daring (Sail.) ; fossa pedum vigintl, a ditch twenty feet wide (Caes.). 204 SYNTAX. PREDICATE GENITIVE. 357. The genitive is often used in the predicate with sum and like verbs to denote the owner of something, or the person (or thing) whose duty, characteristic, or busi- ness a given thing is. Thus : Haec domus est Caesaris, this house is Caesar's ; temeritds est florentis aetatis, prudentia senectutis, rashness belongs to the bloom of life, discretion to old age (Cic.). NOTE. The predicate genitive bears the same relation to the direct genitive which a predicate noun bears to an appositive. KINDRED CONSTRUCTIONS. 358. Instead of the foregoing genitives the following constructions are sometimes used : (1.) Instead of a subjective genitive an adjective is often used, either agreeing directly with the noun on which the genitive would depend, or serving as a predicate adjective. Thus : Amor patrius, a father's love ; rwn est mentirl meum, it is not my habit to lie. a. An adjective less commonly takes the place of an objec- tive genitive ; as, metus hostilis, fear of the enemy. (2.) Instead of the possessive genitive of a personal pronoun, the corresponding possessive pronoun is almost invariably used ; as : Liber meus, my book ; tuas 1'itteras exspecto, I await a letter from you. (Cf. also the second example under 1.) a. The possessive pronoun is also sometimes used for an objective genitive ; as, mea i?iiuria, injury to me (Sallust). (3.) Instead of a possessive or objective genitive a dative of possession (see 384 below) is sometimes used. Thus : Se tertium esse cui fatum foret urbis pofirl, [that] he was the third whose destiny it was to be master of the city (Cic.) ; GENITIVE CASE. 205 huic causae patronus exstiti, I have come forward as cham- pion of [for] this cause (Cic., Hose. Am., 2, 5). (4.) Instead of a partitive genitive a partitive apposi- tion (see 325, c, above) is used ; as : Interfectores, pars in forum, pars Syracusas pergunt, some of the slayers proceed to the market place, others to Syra- cuse. (5.) Sometimes also, instead of a partitive genitive, an ablative with ex or de, or in, or an accusative with inter, is used ; as : Nemo de els, no one of them ; acerrimus ex sensibus, the sharpest of the senses ; primus inter omnes, first among all. (6.) Instead of a genitive of characteristic an ablative of characteristic (see 411 below) is often used ; as : Homo antiq.ua virtute, a man of old-time virtue. a. The genitive is used here in questions of number, measure, weight, time, space, kind, etc. ; as : Fllius ann5rum novem, a son nine years old; corona aurea parvi ponderis, a golden wreath of little weight ; hums modi quaestio, a question of this sort. b. The ablative is used of physical and external character- istics ; as : Agesilaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguS, Agesi- laus was of low stature and slight frame; homo maxima barba, a man with a very long beard ; flumen diflicili tran- situ ripis^e praeruptis, a river of difficult passage and steep banks. c. Otherwise the two cases are used indifferently. NOTE. For the idiomatic accusative, in a few expressions, instead of a genitive of characteristic, see 398, 6, below. For the genitive with opus and usus, see 417, a, below. GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 359. (1.) The genitive may be used to complete the meaning of certain adjectives. 206 SYNTAX. (2.) In classical Latin these are chiefly adjectives de- noting DESIRE, KNOWLEDGE, MEMORY, PARTICIPATION, POWER, FULLNESS, LIKENESS, and their opposites. 360. The adjectives most commonly used with the genitive are avid us, greedy. memor, mindful. cupidus, eager. immemor, unmindful. studidsus, zealous. particeps, sharing in. fastldiosus, squeamish. compos, having control over. griarus, knowing. consors, partaking. tgnarus, ignorant. expers, having no part in. perltus, skilled. inops, needy. imperitus, unskilled. Insuetus, unaccustomed. prudens, discreet. Insolens, unaccustomed. imprudejis, indiscreet. plenus, full. providus, foreseeing. inanis, empty. conscius, conscious of. similis, like. inscius, ignorant. adfmis, allied to. rudis, untaught. Thus : - Avidus laudis. eager for praise ; memor virtutis, mindful of valor ; plena timoris, full of fear ; similis patris, like his father; etc. a. Sallust and Livy began to use the genitive with adjectives more freely, and the Augustan poets spread the construction very widely ; cf. integer vitae, pure of life (Hor.) ; incertus senten- tiae, unstable in opinion. For animi, etc., with adjectives, see 426, 6. 361. Participles in -ns from transitive verbs, when used as adjectives and thus denoting ENDURING qualities, often take a genitive, while in their participial use they take the accusative. Thus : Epamiriondas erat adeo veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur, Epaminondas was so devoted to truth that he would not lie even in jest; semper adpetentes gloriae GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES AND VERBS. 207 fuistis, you have always been eager for glory ; but mare, ter- rain adpetens, aiming at possession of the sea and land (on a given occasion). Kindred Constructions. 362. Instead of a genitive, many of these adjectives sometimes take other constructions ; as : (1.) An accusative with a preposition. Thus : Avidus in direptiones, greedy for expeditions of plunder (Livy). (2.) An ablative with a preposition. Thus : Perltus de agricultura, skilled in husbandry (Varro). (3.) An ablative of specification (see 412). Thus : Praestans ingenio, preeminent in natural endowment (Cic.). (4.) A dative. Thus : Lupd similis, like a wolf. a. Similis and dissimilis seem to be used by Cicero with the genitive usually in speaking of persons, with the dative always in speaking of things. GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 363. The genitive is also used with several classes of verbs, as follows : 364. (1.) Verbs denoting PITY as misereor and miseresco take the genitive. Thus : Miseremini sociorum, have pity for your allies (Cic.) ; mise- rescite regis, pity the king (Verg.). (2.) The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, and taedet, take the genitive of the object towards which the feeling is exercised, and the accusative of the person who has the feeling. Thus : Mea mater, tul me miseret, mei piget, mother, I pity you and am disgusted with myself (Accius) ; eos ineptidrum paenitet, they repent of their follies (Cic.) ; me civitdtis 208 SYNTAX. morum piget taedet^we, I ain disgusted and weary with the manners of the state (Sail.). 365. Verbs of REMEMBERING and FORGETTING as me- mini, reminiscor, oblivlscor take the genitive. Thus : - Memirii vivomm, I remember the living (Cic.) ; reminisci veteris famae, to bear in mind the old reputation (Nep.); mill- riarum oblivlscor -, I forget injuries (Nep.). a. One verb of pitying and one of remembering commonly take the accusative ; namely, miserarl and recordarl (both depo- nents of the first conjugation). b. Other verbs of these classes occasionally take the accusative, especially of a neuter pronoun. 366. Verbs of REMINDING and WARNING take a geni- tive of the thing with an accusative of the person. Thus : Admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae, he would remind one of his want of money, another of his pet passion (Sail.). 367. Verbs of ACCUSING, CONVICTING, CONDEMNING, and ACQUITTING, take a genitive of the crime or of the penalty. Thus : Miltiades accusatus est proditionis, Miltiades was ac- cused of treachery ; Cicero Verrem avaritiae nimiae coarguit, Cicero accused Verres of excessive greed ; iam me ipse iner- tiae condemno, I already condemn myself for my inactivity ; Caelius iudex absolvit iniuriarum eum, qui Lucilium laese- rat, Caelius as juryman voted to acquit of wrong the man who had injured Lucilius. a. The genitive is used to indicate the penalty when it is an indefinite sum of money as a fine. The genitives capitis, pecu- niae, capitalis poenae, voti, and some others, are also used in a sort of midway sense between charge and penalty. Thus : Quanti est damriatm, how much was he fined ? capitis hominem innocentem condemnarunt, they condemned a guiltless man. to death (cf. Cic., de Or., i., 54, 233). GENITIVE WITH VERBS. 209 b. The penalty is otherwise expressed by the ablative (always with multare or when it is & fixed sum of money as a fine), or by ad or in with an accusative, and, in the poets, rarely by a dative. c. The verbs of the last two classes (366 and 367) some- times take, instead of the genitive, an ablative with de or the accusative of a neuter pronoun. Thus : De aede Telluris me admones, you remind me about the temple of the Earth (Cic.) ; eos h6c moneo, I warn them of this (Cic.) ; accusare de neglegentia, to accuse of negligence (Cic.) ; de vi condemnafl sunt, they were condemned for vio- lence (Cic.) ; si id me rion accusas, if you do not accuse me of this (Plaut.).* d. Some verbs of accusing, etc., take simply the accusative of the crime instead of the accusative of the person with the geni- tive of the crime. So especially carpo, culpo, criminor, punio, reprekendo, and some less common verbs. Interest and Refert. 368. The impersonal verbs interest and refert take a genitive of the person (or personified thing) whose in- terest they denote. Thus : Interest omnium recte facere, to do right is everybody's concern (Cic.). Refert omnium animadvert! in maids, all men are inter- ested in having the bad punished (Tac.). a. So far as there is a difference in the two verbs, refert ap- plies rather to outside or material things, interest to matters of the mind or character. Cf. the examples. NOTE. This genitive seems to have started with interest as a sort of predicative genitive of possession (patris interest = it is among- a father's possessions'), and then to have been transferred to refert through the anal- ogy in the meanings of the verbs. 369. Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, * With verbs of accusing, etc., the neuter pronoun in the accusative is mostly found in the dramatic poets. 210 SYNTAX. the ablative singular feminine of the corresponding pos- sessives is used. Thus : Tua et mea maxime interest, te valere, it is very greatly for the interest of both you and myself that you should be well (Cic.) ; mea nihil refert, it is of no concern to me (Ter.). a. The ablative feminine of the possessive pronoun is com- mon with refert : the genitive construction is said to occur be- fore Livy only in one instance in Sallust (lug.. Ill) Cicero prefers interest to refert, and uses it with either construction in- differently. NOTE. The origin of this ablative construction is still in dispute. It seems most probable that the construction started with refert as mea re fert, equivalent to e mea. re fert, it points in the direction of my interests, (cf. e re publicd est, it is in accordance with the interests of the state), and was then transferred to interest. But see J. H. Schmalz, in Handbook der Altertumswiss., ii., 271. b. Instead of the above constructions is sometimes found ad witli an accusative, and very rarely a simple accusative or a dative. Thus : Ad horiorem meum interest, it concerns my reputation (Cic.) ; quid te igitur rettulit, of what concern was that to you ? (Plaut.) 370. (1.) The degree of interest is expressed by an adverb or the accusative singular neuter of an adjective (used adverbially), or, if there is no genitive of the person interested, by a genitive (of price ; see 371). (2.) That which causes the interest is expressed by a clause as the subject of the verb or in apposition with a neuter pronoun which serves as subject. Jtefert also sometimes takes a personal subject. Thus : Maxime interest, quern ad modum quaeque res audiatur, it makes the greatest difference, how each point is received ; multum interest rel familiaris tuae, te quam primum venire, it is of much importance for your property that you come as soon as possible ; quod permagni interest, pro necessdrio saepe habetur, what is of great advantage is often regarded as neces- sary. GENITIVE OF PRICE. DATIVE. 211 For the genitive instead of an ablative with verbs of ceasing or freeing from, see 414 ; with verbs of plenty, see 409; vfithpotior, see 419, b ; for the locative animi with verbs of emotion, see 426, 6. GENITIVE OF PRICE. 371. The genitive is used to denote indefinite price or value. Thus : Voluptatem virtus minimi facit, virtue holds pleasure of very little value ; emi kortos tanti, quantl volm, I bought the grounds for the price I wished. 372. The genitives most commonly so used are tanti, so much. permdgni, } quantl, as much, or how plurimi, >- a a verv * much ? maximi, ) P rice * pluris, more. tantidem, at the same price. minoris, less. quantwis, ) however much minimi, very little. quantilubet, ) you please. parvi, little. quanticumque, at whatever magrii, at a high price. price. And rarely multi, much, and maidris, at a higher price. a. In colloquial language also figuratively assis, worth an as. pili, worth a hair. floccl, " a bit of wool. pensi, ** weighing. nauct, " a trifle. terunci, " a copper. nihill, " nothing. And huius (indicating a gesture of disdain). For the Ablative of Price, see 408. DATIVE (Datwus). 373. The DATIVE is used chiefly to indicate the person or thing indirectly concerned in the action of a verb, and for other similar relations. NOTE. The uses of the dative may be summarized as follows : Dative of Indirect Object. Dative of Possessor. Dative of Advantage or Disadvantage. Dative of Service. Ethical Dative. Dative with Adjectives. Dative of Agent. Dative with other Parts of Speech. 212 SYNTAX. DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT. 374. The dative expressing the INDIRECT OBJECT may be used (1.) With intransitive verbs. Thus: Mea domus tibl patet, my house is open to you (Cic.) ; licet nemini contra patriam ducere exercitum, no one has a right to lead an army against his country (Cic.). (2.) With transitive verbs in addition to the direct object. Thus : Hoc tibi promltto, I promise you this (Cic.) ; mihi respon- sum dedit, he gave me the answer (Verg.). 375. Several classes of verbs which seein transitive in English are intransitive in Latin, and therefore take their object in the dative. 376. Such are most verbs meaning to FAVOR, PLEASE, TRUST, BELIEVE, HELP, and their opposites ; also to COM- MAND, OBEY, SERVE, RESIST, ENVY, THREATEN, SPARE, PARDON, BE ANGRY, etc. Thus : Ilia tibl f avet, she favors you (Ovid) ; mihl placebat Pom- ponius, Pomponius pleased me (Cic.) ; qitl sibi fid.it. he who trusts in himself (Hor.) ; iniurato, scio, plus mihl credet quam iurato tibl, he will, I know, trust me without an oath more than you upon oath (Plaut., Am., i., 1, 281) ; rwn licet sul com- modi causa nocere alter!, it is not lawful to injure one's neigh- bor for one's own advantage (Cic.) : imperat aut servit collecta pecunia cuique, gathered gold commands or serves its posses- sor (lit., each one) (Hor.) ; quotiiam faction! inimlcorum resis- tere negulverit, since he could not withstand the faction of his enemies (Sail.) ; non invidetur illi aetatl, that time of life is not exposed to envy (Cic.) ; mihi minabatur, he threatened me (Cic.) ; boms nocet quisquis parcit malis, he wrongs the good who spares the wicked ; Irascl ininiicls, to be angry against one's enemies (Caes.). a. luvo, help, ar.d its compounds ; laedo, injure ; delecto, DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT. 213 oblecto, delight, and sometimes other verbs of these meanings, are treated as transitives and take the accusative. Thus : Caesar ad Lingonas litteras nuntiosque rnlsit, ne e5s fru- mento neve alia re iuvarent, Caesar sent a letter and messages to the Lingones [bidding them] not to aid them with grain or anything else (Caes., B. G., i., 26) ; hie pulvis oculum meum laedit, this dust hurts my eye. 377. (1.) Verbs compounded with the prepositions ad, ante, com, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, com- monly have intransitive meanings, and therefore take a dative of indirect object. Thus : Neqiie enim adsentior ils, for I do not agree with those (Cic., Am., 4, 13) ; quantum ndtura hominis pecudibus ante- cedit, as much as man's nature has the advantage over the brutes (Cic., Off., i., 30, 105) ; omnibus neg5tiis rion inter- fuit solum sed praefuit, he not only took part in, but presided over, all the transactions (Cic., Fam., i., 6) ; nee umquam suo cumbet inimicis, nor will he ever yield to his foes (Cic., Deiot., 13, 36). (2.) But not infrequently they are transitive, and then take (like any transitive verb) a direct object in the accusative, with or without the dative of indirect object. Thus : Convocat milites, he calls together the soldiers ; munus obire, to perform a duty (Cic., Am., 27) ; ilium praefecit exer- citui, he set him over the army. (3.) Sometimes they are used to denote relations of PLACE, and then they take a preposition with its case instead of the dative.* Thus : Inferre signa in hostes, to march against the enemy; ad- esse in senatu, to be at a meeting of the senate. 378. Several verbs take the dative in one sense, the accusative in another. Thus, especially : * This is especially common with words compounded with ad or in. When used figuratively all these words usually take the dative (or, if transitive, the accusative ; as, sublre pericula, to undergo danger). Afty" UNIVERSITY 214 SYNTAX. WITH DATIVE. WITH ACCUSATIVE. mettiere, ) fear, be anxious, for be afraid of somebody timere, ) somebody or some- or something. thing. cdnsulere, take counsel for. ask advice of, consult. prospicere, ) _ . 7 - > provide for. foresee. providere, f F cavere, take care for, guard. guard against. moderari, control. regulate, arrange. temperare, restrain, temper (by mixing). 379. Dono, present, circumdo, surround, and ad- spergo, sprinkle or scatter upon, take either a dative of the person with an accusative of the thing, or an accusa- tive of the person with an ablative of the thing. Thus : Mini librum donavit, he presented a book to me ; me Iibr5 donavit, he presented me with a book. Urbi murum circumdat, he puts a wall round the city ; ur- bem mur5 circumdat, he surrounds the city with a wall. Arae sanguinem adspergit, he sprinkles blood upon the altar ; aram sanguine adspergit, he sprinkles the altar with blood. 380. Many verbs compounded with #6, c?e, ex, pro, or circum, and the verb ademo, take a dative where an abla- tive of separation (see 413) might be expected. Thus : Bona mihi extorsisti. you have wrung my goods from me ; mulieri dnulum detraxit, he took the ring from the woman (L e., her finger) ; id mini ZJ7, C. Verres, eripuisti atque abstulisti, this you have robbed me of and taken from me, Gaius Verres (Cic., in CaecU., 5, 19). a. The dative is always used of persons and sometimes of things. The action is thus regarded as something done to the object. b. But with things the ablative with or without a preposition is perhaps more common, especially if an idea of place is in- volved. Thus : DATIVE OF ADVANTAGE OR DISADVANTAGE. 215 Ilium e periculo eripuit, he snatched, him from the danger (Caes., B. 6r., iv., 12). DATIVE OF ADVANTAGE OR DISADVANTAGE (Datwus commodi vel incommodi). 381. With many verbs the dative denotes the person or thing to whose advantage or disadvantage something is done. Thus : Non scholae sed vitae dlscimus, we learn, not for school, but for life ; rion solum ndbis dwites esse volumus, sed liberis, propinquls, amicis maximeque rei publicae, not for our- selves only do we wish to be rich, but for our children, rela- tives, friends, and, most of all, for the state. a. So nubere alicui, marry (lit., veil one's self for), vacare alicui rei, have leisure for, and expressions like quid tibi vis ? what are you after ? (lit. what do you want for yourself ?) ; quid huic homini facias ? what can you do with (for) this fellow ? (But cf. 412, a.) b. So also the dative of a participle in expressions defining a place, as : Locum, qm nunc saeptus descendentibus inter duos lucos est, asylum aperit, he opened as a place of refuge the spot which you find hedged in as you go down between the Two Groves (Liv., i., 8, 5). ETHICAL DATIVE (Dativus ethicus). 382. A special variety of the dative of advantage is the use of a personal pronoun in lively style to indicate the person interested, where the sense strictly requires no such pronoun. Thus : Utinam ille omnes secum suas copias eduxisset ! Tongilium mihl eduxit, would that he had taken out all his forces with him ! He has taken (me) Tongilius (Cic., Cat., ii., 2, 4) ; at tibi repente paucls post diebus venit ad me Cariinius, but a few days later Caninius suddenly comes to me (Cic., Fam., ix., 2,1). 216 SYNTAX. DATIVE OF AGE:NT (Datlvus agentis). 383. With the gerundive and sum the dative denotes the person who has a thing to do. Thus : Adhibenda est nobis diligentia, we must employ diligence (Cic.) ; certe mini verendum twn erat, ne quid, hoc parriclda civium interfecfo, invidiae mihl in posteritatem redundaret, I certainly did not have to fear that if I killed this murderer of his countrymen, any flood of unpopularity would rise up about me in the future (Cic., Cat., i., 12, 29) ; nobis, cum semel occidit brevis lux, nox eskperpetua una dormienda, we have to sleep through one long lasting night, when once our life's brief day is o'er (Catull.). a. To avoid a possible ambiguity, or to give the notion of agency greater prominence, the ablative with ab (a) must be used ; as : Aguntur bona civium, quibus est a vobis consulendum, citizens' property is involved, and you must take measures for its protection ; te a me monendum esse puto, I think I ought to remind you. b. The dative of agent is also sometimes used with the tenses compounded with the perfect participle. Thus : ffaec satis sint dicta nobis, let that which I have said suf- fice (Cic., Tim., 10). DATIVE OF POSSESSOR. 384. The dative is used with sum to denote the POS- SESSOR,* the thing owned being the subject of the verb. Thus : Sit mini mensa tripes, let me have a three-legged table (Hor., Sat., i., 3, 13) ; est igitur homini cum deo similitude, man has therefore a likeness with God (Cic., Legg., i., 8, 25). a. The historians sometimes join volenti, cupienti, or invvto, with such a dative, in imitation of a Greek idiom ; as : * Cf. predicate genitive of possession, 357. DATIVE WITH VERBS, AND WITH ADJECTIVES. 217 Ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat, ac- cording as war was repugnant or acceptable to each. DATIVE OF SERVICE. 385. With many verbs the dative denotes the END or PURPOSE of an action. Thus : Virtus neque datur dono neque accipitur, virtue is neither given as a gift nor received. 386. The dative of service is most commonly joined with another dative, especially a dative of advantage or a dative of possessor (dative to which and for which). Thus : Id tibl h.on5ri, habetui\ that is counted an honor to you (Cic.) ; mini mdximae est curae, it is a very great anxiety to me (Cic.) ; spero nobis hanc coniunctionem voluptati/bre, I hope this association will be a pleasure to us (Cic.) ; cuibono Juit, whom did it benefit ? (lit., to whom was it (for) a benefit ?) (Cic.). (Cf. 331, 1.) IMPERSONAL USE OF PASSIVES. 387. Verbs which take a dative can be used in the passive only impersonally, and the dative is then retained. Thus : Mihi numquam persuader! potuit animos emori, I never could be persuaded that the soul perishes ; invidetur prae- stanti fiorentlque fortunae, prominent and flourishing success is envied. DATIVE WITH ADJECTIVES. 388. The dative is used with many adjectives to de- note the object towards which the quality is directed. 389. Such are especially adjectives meaning USEFUL, PLEASANT, FRIENDLY, FIT, LIKE, INCLINED, READY, EASY, CLEAR, EQUAL, and their opposites ; also those meaning 218 SYNTAX. NEAR, many compounded with com-, and adjectives in -bills. Thus : Felix tuis, gracious to your adherents (Verg.) ; or at id in- grata Gallls, a speech unpleasing to the Gauls (Caes.) ; nihtt tarn est Lysiae diversum quam Isocrates, nothing is so differ- ent from Lysias as Isocrates ; patri similis, like his father (Cic.) ; promptus seditionl, ready for insurrection (Tac.) ; cuivis facile est, it is easy for anybody (Ter.) ; falsa veris finitima sunt, the false is next door to the true (Cic.) ; mors est terribilis iis, quorum cum vita omnia exstinguuntur, death is terrible to those who lose all things when they lose their life (Cic., Par., ii.). 390. Instead of the dative, many of these adjectives are also used with a preposition and its case. Especially : (1.) Adjectives meaning USEFUL or FIT, and their opposites, take an accusative with ad when they mean useful FOR, fit FOR, etc., the dative being commoner if they mean useful TO, etc. Thus: Utttis agris, beneficial to the fields (Juv.) ; homo ad nullam rem utilis, a man useful for nothing (Cic.). (2.) Adjectives implying MOTION or TENDENCY more com- monly take the accusative with a preposition. Thus : Pronus ad fidem, readily inclined to faithfulness (Liv.). (3.) Adjectives of FEELING often have an accusative with in, erga, or adversus. Thus : Mater acerba in suos partus, a mother harsh to her own offspring (Ovid) ; grains erga me, grateful towards me (Cic.) ; , gratum adversus te, grateful towards you (Cic.). (4.) Propior and proximus sometimes take an accusative, like the primitive prope. Thus : Quod vitium propius virtutem erat, and this fault was pretty nearly a virtue (Sail.) ; P. Crassus proximus mare Oceanum hiemarat, Publius Crassus had wintered close by the ocean (Caes., B. G., iii., 7). Cf. also 362. DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE CASES. 219 DATIVE WITH OTHER PARTS OF SPEECH. 391. The dative is sometimes found with other parts of speech, to express the same sort of relation as with verbs or adjectives. Thus : (1.) With adverbs: Congruenter naturae convenienter^we vivere, to live in harmony and agreement with nature (Cic.) ; proxime castris, next the camp (Caes., B. C., i., 72, 5). (2.) With a few (verbal) nouns : Obtemperdtio legibus, obedience to the laws (Cic., Legg., i., 15) ; invidia consult, envy towards the consul (Sail.). (3.) With interjections : Vae victls ! no quarter ! (lit., woe to the vanquished) ; hei tnihl misero ! alas ! unhappy me ! (4.) The compound expression dicto audiens, obedient, takes a second dative, as : Dict5 audientes esse regi debebant, they ought to be obe- dient to their king. ACCUSATIVE (Accusatwus). NOTE. The uses of the accusative may be summarized as follows : Accusative of Direct Object. f Verbs of Making, etc. Two Accusatives < " " Asking, etc. ( " compounded with Trans, etc. Accusative with Middle Voice. Cognate Accusative. Adverbial Accusative. Accusative of Specification (Syneedochical). Accusative with Verbal Nouns. Accusative in Exclamations. Subject Accusative. Accusative of Time. " " Place. with Prepositions. 220 SYNTAX. ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT. 392. The accusative is used especially to denote the person or thing directly affected by an action. There- fore only transitive verbs have an object in the accusative. Thus : Legates mittunt, they send ambassadors (Caes.) ; animus movet corpus, the mind moves the body (Cic.) ; da veniam hanc, grant this indulgence (Ter.). NOTE. Many verbs are transitive in Latin -which are intransitive in English. Indeed, in early Latin very many verbs which were afterwards used with other constructions could take an accusative, the accusative fill- ing with regard to the verb the same place which a genitive fills towards the noun it modifies. 393. The accusative of the active voice becomes the subject-nominative of the passive voice. Thus : Legates mlttunt ; legati iriittuntur. a. Verbs therefore which admit no accusative can be used in the passive only impersonally. (Cf. 387, and 194.) b. Occasionally the subject of a dependent clause is antici- pated in the main clause as the object of its verb, though this is much less common than in Greek. Thus : Meam uxorem . . . nescis, quails sit, you don't know what sort of a person my wife is (Plaut., Asin., 59). NOTE. The anticipated subject is sometimes in otiher constructions than that of object-accusative ; as : Quldam saepe in parva pecunia perspiciuntur quam sint leves, it is often shown in small matters of money what weak characters some people have (Cic., Am., 17, 63). Two ACCUSATIVES. 394. Certain classes of verbs take two accusatives. Thus : (1.) Many verbs which in the passive voice take a predi- cate nominative (of. 328, 3), especially verbs meajiing to MAKE, CALL, CHOOSE, RENDER, ESTEEM, RECKON. Thus : Me consulem fecistis, you have made me consul (Cic.) ; TWO ACCUSATIVES. Tram bene Ennius initium dixit insaniae, Ennius has well called anger the beginning of madness (Cic.) ; Sulpicium ac- cusatorem suum numerabat rion competltorem, he reck- oned Sulpicius his accuser, not his rival (Cic., Mur., 24, 49). a. One accusative is the direct object, the other a predicate accusative. b. Instead of the predicate accusative the same " kindred constructions " sometimes occur as for a predicate nominative (see 331 above). Cf. also the following : Fortuna me, qui liber fueram, servom fecit, e summo in- fimuni, fortune has made me who was free a slave, [changing me] from the highest to the lowest (Plant.). (2.) Verbs of ASKING, DEMANDING, TEACHING, and celare, to hide, take an accusative of the person with another accusative of the thing. Thus : Hoc te vehementer rogo, this I ask you urgently (Cic.) ; posce deos veniam,* ask indulgence of the gods (Verg.) ; cum legent quis musicam docuerit Epamlnondam, when they read who taught Epaminondas music (Nep.) ; Antigonus iter oranes celat, Antigonus hides his journey from all (Nep.). a. The following verbs of asking (and occasionally others) take an ablative with ab, de, or ex, instead of the accusative of the person : exigere, petere, postuldre, (ab) ; quaerere, (ex or de) ; scltari, sciscitarl. Thus : Pacem ab R5manis petere, to ask peace of the Romans (Caes.). b. Instead of the accusative of the thing, an ablative with de, or with verbs of teaching an ablative of means (see 407, b), is sometimes used. Thus : Sic ego te eisdem de rebus interrogem, I would thus ques- tion you on the same points (Cic.) ; de itinere hostium sena- tum edocet, he informs the senate of the enemy's march (Sail.) ; Bassus noster me de hoc libro celavit, my friend Bassus * The difference in sense between the two accusatives here and in ex- pressions like filiam tuam mihl uxorem posed, I ask your daughter as wife, should be observed. 222 SYNTAX. kept me in ignorance about this book (Cic.) ; cdiquem fidibus docere, to teach some one [to play on] the lyre (Cic.). c. In the passive the accusative of the person becomes sub- ject and the accusative of the thing remains ; as : Rogatus est sententwin, he was asked his opinion. (3.) Verbs compounded with trdns^ ad^ or circum sometimes take two accusatives, one depending upon the verb, the other upon the preposition. Thus : Omnem equitatum pontem transducit, he led all his cav- alry across the bridge (Caes.) ; Petreius ius mrandum adigit Afranium, Petreius bound Afranius by an oath (Caes.) ; Ros- cillum Pompeius omnia sua praesidia circumduxit, Pom- pey took Roscillus all around his garrisons (Caes.). ACCUSATIVE WITH MIDDLE VOICE. 395. A few verbs, seemingly deponent or passive but really remnants of a middle voice (see 193, ), take an accusative of direct object. Thus : Priamus inutile ferrum cingitur, Priam girds on his un- availing sword (Verg.) ; viridl membra sub arbuto stratus, stretching his limbs under a green arbutus tree (Hor., Odes, i., 1). a. This construction is especially common with certain perfect participles, as in the second example. COGNATE ACCUSATIVE. 396. Some verbs not otherwise transitive take, as in English, an accusative with a meaning kindred to their own (Cognate Accusative). Thus : Vltam iucundam vivere, to live a merry life (Plaut.) ; iu- ravl verissimum ius iurandum, I have sworn an inviolable oath (Cic.). a. The cognate accusative usually has an adjective agreeing with it, as in the examples. b. The degree in which the meanings of the verb and the ac- cusative are kindred varies a good deal. In the poets the con- ACCUSATIVE CASE. 223 struction became pretty widely expanded. Cf . the following ex- amples : Colre sorietatem, to form an alliance (Cic., Rose. Am., 7, 20) ; vincere indicium,* to win a suit ; saltare Cycldpa, to dance the Cyclops (Hor., Sat., i., 5, 63) ; bacchanalia vwere, to live a riotous life (luv., ii., 3). ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE. 397. The adverbial use of the accusative to denote in what respect or to what degree an action is exerted, is really a variety of cognate accusative. Thus : Nihil labord, I have no difficulty ; illud valde tibi adsentior, on that point I agree with you emphatically (Cic.) ; Suebi maximam partem lacte atque pecore vwunt, the Suebi live for the most part on milk and meat. ACCUSATIVE OF SPECIFICATION. 398. The accusative is sometimes used to specify the part to which the meaning of a verb or an adjective ap- plies. Thus : Equus tremit artus, the horse trembles in his limbs (Verg.) ; clari genus, illustrious in birth (Tac.) ; animum incensus, fired in his soul (Liv.). a. This construction is also called the SYNECDOCHICAL accu- sative. It is rare except in the poets, and is chiefly confined to the parts of the body. The use treated under 395 is often wrongly regarded as accusative of specification. b. Here belongs perhaps the idiomatic use of the accusative in such expressions as : Scls me aliquid id genus solitum scrlbere, you know I am in the habit of writing something of the sort ; id aetatis, of or at that age ; id temporis, at that time. ACCUSATIVE WITH VERBAL NOUNS, ETC. 399. Some verbal nouns and verbal adjectives in * This is a direct imitation of the Greek. 224 SYNTAX. -bundus take an accusative, like the transitive verbs from which they are derived. Thus : Quid tibi hue receptio ad te est meum virum, wherefore do you receive my husband hither to you ? (Plaut.) ; Hanrio vitabundus castra hostium consules^we, Hanno shunning the consuls and the camp of the enemy (Liv.). a. This use is chiefly confined to colloquial and late Latin. ACCUSATIVE IN EXCLAMATIONS. 400. In exclamations the noun or pronoun which marks the object of the feeling is put in the accusative, with or without an interjection. Thus : Horn in em gravem et civem egregium ! a solid man and admirable citizen (Cic.) ; miseram me (Ter.) ; pro deum homi- numque fidem, by the honor of gods and men (Cic.) ; en quattuor aras, lo four altars ! (Verg.). SUBJECT ACCUSATIVE. 401. The subject of an infinitive is put in the accusa- tive. Thus : Moleste Pompeium id ferre constabat, it was believed that Pompey took that to heart (Cic.) ; campos iubet esse patentes, orders that the fields be open (Verg.). For the subject of the Historical Infinitive see 530, a. For the accusative with propior and proximus, see 390, 4. For the accusative with prepositions, see 429, 431. For the accusative in constructions of Place and Time, see 423, 425 ff. VOCATIVE (Voeatlvus). 402. The VOCATIVE is used only to address a person or thing. Thus : Vinc&re scis, Hannibal, victoria uti riescis, you know how- to conquer, Hannibal, but you know not how to make use of victory ; Qulntili Vare, legiones redde, Quintilius Varus, give back [my] legions ; o fortunate adulescens, qul tuae virtu- VOCATIVE AND ABLATIVE CASES. 225 tis Homerum praeconem inveneris ! O happy youth, who hast found a herald of thy valor in Homer ! (Cic., Arch., 10, 24). a. The interjection o ! is used in prose only for deeply emo- tional address, as in the last example. b. Other interjections are sometimes used, especially pro ! in calling upon the gods. Thus : Pro sancte luppiter ! O holy Jupiter ! c. A predicate word is sometimes in the Augustan poets made to agree with a vocative instead of the nominative. Thus : Quibus, Hector, ab orts, exspectate vems, from what shores, Hector, dost thou, long looked for, come ? (Verg., Ae., ii., 282). NOTE. Properly speaking 1 , the vocative is hardly a case at all. The similarity of its function with that of the nominative, both serving to name an object, accounts for the identity of form which, except in the singular of masculine and feminine O- stems with nominatives in -US, is everywhere shown by the two cases. (See 90, 3.) ABLATIVE (Abldtwus). 403. The ABLATIVE may be called the adverbial case, that is, it expresses various modifications of the predicate which in English are expressed by adverbs or by preposi- tional phrases.* It is therefore used chiefly with verbs and adjectives. NOTE. To a still greater degree than with the other oblique cases is it difficult to trace any single principle in the various uses of the ablative. It has been a common theory that the original use was to denote separa- tion, but the better opinion is that such is not the case. In the following arrangement each of the first two groups contains uses which seem pretty nearly allied to each other, though it will be observed that the last member of the first group (ablative of plenty) might just as well be reckoned in the second group. The special uses comprising group 3 can all be traced to individual uses under groups 1 and 2. The last group contains those uses in which it is most difficult to trace any bond of con- nection. * The ablative had absorbed into itself the uses of the old instrumental and most of those of the locative. We have seen (90, note) that some of its forms are derived from these cases. The other uses of the loca- tive passed over to the genitive or the dative. 226 SYNTAX. USES OF THE ABLATIVE. 1. Ablative of Cause. Source. Agent. Means or Instrument. Way by which. Price. Plenty. Manner or Accompaniment. Characteristic or Quality. 2. Ablative of Specification. Separation. Want Degree of Difference. With Comparatives. { Opus and Usus. | Dignus, etc. 3. Ablative in certain special expressions -I Utor, Fruor, etc. Nitor, etc. [Adsuesco, etc. 4. Ablative Absolute. of Time. " Place, with Prepositions. ABLATIVE OF CAUSE (Abldtwus causae). 404. The ablative indicates the CAUSE of a thing in the widest sense. It thus indicates (1.) An external cause ; as : Hostes frumentl inopia conLoquium petwerunt, the enemy asked for a conference, on account of their want of grain. (2.) An internal cause ; as : Noll putdre pigritia me id facere, do not think that I do so from laziness. (3.) That in consequence of which or in accordance with which something takes place ; as : Diversis duobus vitiis, avaritia et liixuria, civitds Ro- mano, laborabat, the Roman state was suffering from two oppo- site defects, greed and extravagance ; amicl amworum dolore ABLATIVE OF CAUSE, AND OF SOURCE. 227 maerent, friends are saddened by each other's pain ; Institute su5 Caesar copias suas ediixit, Caesar led out his forces in accordance with his custom ; tanta caritas patriae est, ut earn non sensu nostro sed salute ipsms metidmur, so great is our love of country that we measure it not by our feeling, but by her own welfare (Cic., Tusc., i., 37) ; milites fessl labSre, dux anxius curls, the soldiers worn out with hardship; the gen- eral troubled with his cares. a. Cause is also sometimes expressed by prepositions ; as ; Legibus propter metum paret, he obeys the laws because of fear ; ne ob earn rem ipsos despiceret, [they begged] him not to despise them on that account. b. The ablatives causa and gratia (sometimes also ergo) are used with a genitive or a possessive pronoun to denote " for the sake of ; " as : Et mea et rei publicae causa, for my sake and that of the state. c. Words of emotion, etc., also sometimes take the ablative with de, ex, a, In ; as : Laetarl vict5ria (or in victoria), to be glad at one's vic- tory; gloridrl de (or in) suis dlvitiis, to boast of one's wealth ; laborare ex aere alieno, ab re frumentaria, to suffer under debt, from want of provisions. ABLATIVE OF SOURCE. 405. The ablative is used, chiefly with perfect parti- ciples, to denote BIRTH or ORIGIN. Thus : Tantald prognatus, descended from Tantalus ; eodem patre natus, born of the same father. a. With the name of the mother and with pronouns the pre- position ex is generally used, except in the poets ; with distant ancestors the preposition ab. Thus : Ex regis filia natus, born of the king's daughter ; bestiae quoque ex se natos amant, even the brutes love their offspring ; Belgae ortl sunt ab Germanis, the Belgians are descended from the Germans. 228 SYNTAX. b. Loco, genere,familia, generally take no preposition ; as : Summo loco natus, born in the highest station. For the construction with places, see 425, 426. c. With constare and like words the ablative is used alone to denote MATERIAL. Thus: Animo constamus et corpore, we consist of mind and body (cf. Cic., Fin., iv., 8, 19). NOTE. Otherwise a preposition is used, except sometimes in verse. ABLATIVE OF AGENT (Ablatwus agentis). 406. The ablative of persons or personified things is used with the preposition a, a>, to denote the AGENT. Thus : A Clodio diligor, I am loved by Clodius ; laiulatur ab his culpdtur ab illis, by the one set he is praised, by the other blamed (Hor.). So, perire ab hoste, to be slain by the enemy. For Dative of Agent, see 383. ABLATIVE OF MEANS (Abtatwus instrument!,). 407. The ablative of things is used without a preposi- tion to denote the MEANS or INSTRUMENT of an action. Thus : Cornibus taurl, aprl dentibus, morsu leories, aliae bestiae fuga se, aliae occultatione tUtantur, bulls protect themselves by their horns, boars by their tusks, lions by biting, some beasts by running away, others by hiding ; Britanni interiores lacte et carne vlvebant pellibusg'we erant vestiti, the Britons of the interior used to live on milk and meat, and had skins for clothing. a. A person regarded as a means is denoted by per with the accusative ; as : Multl per Caesarem aut honores aut dlvitias ceperunt, many received office or wealth at Caesar's hands. b. Various verbs which in English are used transitively are in Latin construed with an ablative of means. Thus especially ABLATIVE OF AGENT, OF MEANS, AND OF PRICE. 229 words meaning "to play" (either games or music), and some- times verbs of teaching (see also 394, 2, b). Thus : Ludere pild, to play tennis ; * canere tlbils, to play the flute ; artibus mstruere, to teach the arts ; litteris imbuere, to instil learning. c. The ablative of means may be used to denote the road or path taken (sometimes called ablative of the way by which). Thus : Omnibus vils riotls semitlsque essedarios ex silvis emittebat, he was sending out warriors in chariots from the woods by all the known roads and paths (Caes., B. G., v., 19). ABLATIVE OF PRICE (Ablatwus pretii). 408. The PRICE f or VALUE of a thing is expressed by the ablative, chiefly when it is a definite quantity. Thus : Cum te trecentis talentis regi Cotto vendidisses, when you had sold yourself to king Cottus for three hundred talents (Cic.) ; constitit quadringentis milibus, it cost four hun- dred thousand [sesterces] (Varr.) ; lev! momento aestimare, to esteem it of little consequence (Caes.). For the genitive of indefinite price, see 371, 372. a. Magrio, permagno, parvo, minima, plurimo, nihilo, though denoting indefinite value, are used as ablatives of price. b. Mutare and its compounds take either the accusative of the thing given with the ablative of the thing received in exchange, or vice versa, but the context always prevents ambiguity. Thus : Chaoniam glandem pingul mutavit arista, changed the Chaonian acorn for rich grain (Verg.) ; cur valle permutem Sabina divitias operosiores, why should I exchange my Sabine vale for more burdensome riches ? (Hor., Odes, iii., 1, 47). Sometimes cum is used with the ablative ; as : Mortem cum vita commutare, to exchange life for death (Sulp., ad Cic.). * We can also say, of course, in English, " to play at tennis," "to play on the flute," etc. t That is, the means by which something is bought or sold. 230 SYNTAX. ABLATIVE OF PLENTY (Abldtwits copiae). 409. The ablative (of means) is used with verbs and adjectives which denote FULLNESS or ABUNDANCE. Thus: [ Villa] abundat porco. haedo, agno, gallina. lacte. ca- sed, melle, the farmhouse is plentifully provided with ham, veni- son, lamb, poultry, milk, cheese, and honey (Cic., Sen., 16, 56) ; domus plena servis, a house full of slaves (luv.). a. Sometimes, by a Greek idiom, such words take a genitive in the poets ; compleo, impleo, and plenus, also in prose ; as : Ollam denariorum implere, to fill a jar with pennies (Cic.). (Cf. 359 and 360.) ABLATIVE OF MANNER (Ablatlvus modi). 410. (1.) The ablative is used with the preposition cum to denote MANNER or ACCOMPANIMENT. Thus : Cum voluptate aliquem audlre, to listen to one with pleasure ; Verres Lampsacum venit cum magna calamitate cwitatis, Verres came to Lampsacus with great disaster to the city (Cic.). (2.) The preposition is often omitted when there is an adjective agreeing with the ablative, and with a few par- ticular words, modo, ratione, more, ritu, silentio, iure, iniuria, etc. Thus : Nudls pedibus incedere, to go barefoot ; snmma aequi- tate res constitute, he arranged affairs with the greatest fair- ness ; latronum ritu vivere, to live after the fashion of brigands ; silentio praeterire aliquid, to pass by something in silence. ABLATIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC (Ablativus qualitatis). 411. The ablative is used, with an adjective agreeing with it or a genitive depending on it, to denote a CHARAC- TERISTIC or QUALITY. Thus : Agesttaus statura fuit humili et corpore exiguo, Agesi- ABLATIVE CASE. 231 laus was of short stature and small frame ; homo maxima barba, a man with very long beard ; fliimen difficili transitu rlpisque praeruptis, a river of difficult passage and steep banks ; davits ferreus digitl pollicis crassitudine, an iron nail of the thickness of the thumb. a. Physical characteristics are always expressed thus by the ablative ; other qualities may also be expressed by a genitive of characteristic. (See 356, and 358, 6.) ABLATIVE OF SPECIFICATION (Ablatwus llmitdtionis). 412. The ablative is used with nouns, adjectives, and verbs to denote IN WHAT RESPECT a thing is true. Thus : Pietate filius, consiliis parens, in affection a son, in counsel a parent. lure perltus, skilled in law ; pedibus aeger, lame in his feet. Contremisco tota mente et omnibus artubus, I am agi- tated in my whole mind and all my limbs (Cic.) ; mea quidem sententia * pdci semper est consulendum, in my opinion at least the interests of peace are always to be looked out for. a. Here belongs the ablative in the expressions quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with such a man ? quid ill5 fiet ? what will be done with him ? quid te futurum est ? what is going to become of you ? etc. For the rare dative with/aczo in this sense, see 381, a. NOTE. The tendency to confuse the ablative of characteristic and the ablative of specification can be avoided by remembering that with the first the adjective agTees with the ablative, and with the second it agrees with the noun qualified. Thus : Hbwzcf aegris pedibus (Characteristic). Homo aeger pedibus (Specification). ABLATIVE OF SEPARATION (Ablatwus separationis). 413. SEPARATION or PRIVATION is denoted, with vari- ous verbs, by the ablative. With persons a preposition * This case is sometimes regarded as belonging under 404, 3. 232 SYNTAX. , de, ex) is always used; with things the preposition is sometimes used, sometimes omitted. Thus : Qmntum Varium pellere possessionibus conoitus est, he tried to drive Quintus Varius from his possessions (Cic.) ; tune earn philosophiam sequere, quae spolwut ?ios iudici5, privat adprobati5ne, arbat sensibus ? do you follow a philosophy which robs us of the ability to pass judgment, deprives us of the power to approve, and takes away the use of the senses? (Cic.) ; hoc me Hberd metu, free me from this fear (Ter.) ; tu, lup- piter, hunc a tills aris arcebis, thou, Jupiter, wilt keep this [scoundrel] from thy altars (Cic.) ; arcem ab incendio libera- vit, he freed the citadel from fire (Cic.) ; se ab Etruscls se- cernere, to separate one's self from the Etruscans (Lav.). For the dative with words of taking away from, see 380. ABLATIVE OF WANT (Abldtwus inopiae). 414. So words and adjectives denoting NEED, etc., take the ablative. Thus : Virumqm pecunia egeat, a man -who needs money (Cic.) ; carere culpa, to be free from fault (Cic.) ; mea adulescentui indiget illorum bona existimatione, my youthf ulness needs their good opinion (Cic.) ; inops verbls, poor in words (Cic.) ; orba fratribus, bereft of her brothers (Ovid). a. Eged and indlged often take the genitive ; as : Eged consili, I need advice ; rion tarn artis indigent quam Iab5ris, they do not lack skill so much as they lack industry (Cic.) b. Other words of the kind are, by a Greek idiom, often used with the genitive hi the poets ; as : AbsttTietd irarum, thou shalt refrain from wrath (Hor.) ; cum famulis operum solutis, with the slaves released from their tasks (Hor., Odes, iii., 17). ABLATIVE OF DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE (Ablatwus mensurae). 415. DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE is expressed by the ab- lative. Thus : ABLATIVE CASE. 233 Hibemia dimidio minor, quam Britannia, Ireland is smaller by half than Britain ; quam molestum est uno digito plus habere, how irksome it would be to have one finger more [i. e., than we have] (Cic.) ; multd ante lucis adventum, long before the coining of the day (Sail.) ; quo difficilius, hoc praecla- rius, the more difficult, the more glorious. a. An accusative of specification is sometimes used instead of the ablative of measure ; as : Aliquantum est ad rem avidior, he is somewhat more eager for the thing (Ter.). NOTE. The ablatives of separation, of want, and of degree of difference, are varieties of the ablative of specification. ABLATIVE WITH COMPARATIVES. 416. The COMPARATIVE degree, when quam is omitted, is followed by the ablative. Thus : Nihil est virtute formosius, nothing is more beautiful than virtue (Cic.) ; quis C. Laelio comior, who more courteous than Gaius Laelius ? (Cic.) a. Quam has to be used if the second term of the comparison is not nominative (or vocative) or accusative ; as : Adventus hostium fuit agris quam urbi terribilior, the arrival of the enemy was more dreadful for the country than for the city (Llv.). Quam is also frequently used when the second term of the comparison is in one of the cases named. Thus : Melior tutiorque est certa pax quam sperata victoria, certain peace is better and safer than victory hoped for (Llv.). b. The words opmione, spe, exspectatione, fide, dicto, solito, aequo, credibili, necessario, vero, iusto, are used after compar- atives to supply the place of a clause. Thus : Opinione celerius venturus esse dlcitur, he is said to be likely to come sooner than one expects (Caes.) ; iniurias gravius aequo habere, to take injuries more to heart than is right and fair (Sail.). 234 SYNTAX. c. Plus, minus, amplius, and longius, with or without quam, are used with words of number or measure without affecting their construction. Thus : Non plus quam quattuor mQia effugerunt, not more than four thousand escaped (Liv.) ; minus duo milia hominum ex tanto exercitu effugerunt, out of so large an army, less than two thousand men escaped (Liv.) ; mUites Romani saepe plus dimidiati mensis cibaria ferebant, the Roman soldiers used often to carry with them provisions for more than half a month (Cic.). d. Alius is in verse sometimes construed with the ablative like a comparative ; as : Neve putes alium sapiente Toonoque beatum, nor think any one other than a wise and good man happy (Hor.). e. Inferior usually takes quam, but is occasionally followed by a dative ; as : Vir nulla arte cuiquam inferior, a man inferior to none in any kind of craft (Sail.). NOTE. The foregoing uses of the ablative will sometimes be found to shade into each other so subtly that it is difficult or impossible to assign a given instance to a given class. This is due to the necessity of making a classification for foreigners of things which a native has only to feel. ABLATIVE IN CERTAIN SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS. NOTE. The ablative is used with the following sets of words " idiomati- cally," that is, the reason for the ablative is not immediately evident, and English usage leads one to expect a different case. Opus and ffsus. 417. Opus and usus, meaning NEED,* take the abla- tive. Thus : Auctoritate tua riobls opus est, we need your influence (Cic.) ; mine animis opus, mine pectore firmo. now there is need of courage and a steadfast heart (Verg.) ; naves, quibus consull usus non esset, ships for which the consul had no occa- sion (Liv.) ; maturatd opus est, there is need of haste (Liv.). * The ablative here is an ablative of specification, showing the respect in which the need is felt. ABLATIVE IN SPECIAL EXPRESSIONS. 235 a. The person or thing who has the need is expressed by the dative, as in the above examples. The thing needed, besides being expressed by the ablative, is sometimes expressed by the nominative as subject (especially if a neuter pronoun), or rarely by the genitive ; as : Quod rion opus est, asse carum est, what is not necessary is dear at a cent (Cic., de Sen.) ; argentl opus fuit, there was need of silver (Liv.). An infinitive clause may also be used as subject ; as : Quid opus est tarn valde adf irmare, what need of such strong assertion ? DIguus, Indlgnus, Gontentus, Fretus. 418. Dignus, indignus, contentus, and fretus * take the ablative. Thus : Dignus laude, worthy of praise ; vox populi maiestate in- dlgna, a speech unworthy the dignity of the people (Caes.) ; bestiae eo contentae non quaerunt amplius, the brutes, con- tent with that, seek nothing further (Cic.) ; plerlque ingenio fretl, most of them trusting to their ingenuity (Cic.). a. Dignus and indignus sometimes take a genitive, and fre- tus in Livy takes a dative ; as : Suscipe cogitdtionem dignissimam tuae virtutis, adopt a plan which is most worthy your own merits ; f or tunae fretus, trusting to fortune. For dignus, indignus, with the subjunctive, see 482, 2. Utor, Fruor, Fungor, Potior, Vescor. 419. Utor,fruor,fungor,potior, and vescor^ and some of their compounds, take the ablative. Thus : Multl deorum beneficio perverse utuntur, many people use the blessings of the gods wrongly (Cic., N. D., iii., 28, 70) ; frul voluptate, to enjoy pleasure (Cic.) ; fungitur officio, he * The ablative with dignus and indignus is also an ablative of specifi- cation ; with contentus and fretus rather an ablative of cause. t The ablative here is really an ablative of means. Thus, frul volup- tate = to get enjoyment by means of pleasure. 236 SYNTAX. performs the duty (Cic.) ; oppido potltl sunt, they got sion of the town (Lav.) ; vescitur aura, feeds on air (Verg.) ; legibus abuti, to misuse the laws (Cic.) ; defunct! imperio regis, having fulfilled the king's command (Liv., i., 4, 5). a. In early Latin these verbs occur with the accusative. Thus : Uteris, ut voles, operam meam, you will use my services as you please (PL, Poen., v., 2, 128) ; munus fungatur suum, let him perform his duty (PL, Trin., 354). NOTE. In classical Latin these verbs are used in the gerundive, not the gerund, construction (see 550). Therefore, ad urbem potiundam, not ad urbe potiundum, for getting possession of the city ; voluptatLs fruendae causa, not voluptate frueudi causa, for the sake of enjoying pleasure. b. Potior also occurs with the genitive ; as : Si exploratum tibi sit posse te illius regni potlri, if you are satisfied that you can get possession of that kingdom (Cic., Fam., i., 7, 5). Nitor. Innitor, FIdo. Confido. 420. Nitor, inmtor,fldo, and confldo* take the ab- lative. Thus : Baculd nWi, to lean on a staff ; nifi auctoritate, to depend on (some one's) influence ; hasta innixus, leaning on his spear ; fidere cursu, to trust to running ; natura loci confldebant, they had confidence in their natural position. a. Fido and confldo also sometimes take a dative (see 376), as diffidd always does. Adsuesco. Adsuefacio. Consuesco. Insuesco. 421. Adsuesco, adsu'efacio, consuescd, insiiesco* some- times take the ablative, f Thus : Aves sanguine et praeda adsuetae, birds accustomed to the blood of prey (Hor.) ; nullo offici5 aut disciplina adsuefac- tus, accustomed to no [restraint of] duty or training (Caes.) ; * The ablative with the two sets of verbs treated in 420 and 421 is an ablative of means. Thus, baculo nltl = to support one's self by means of a staff. T In Livy and the later writers these verbs are also used with a dative. ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 237 ne gravissimS dolore timore consuescerem, in order not to become accustomed to most bitter pain through fear (Plin.). a. Acquiesco, repose in, rejoice in, takes most commonly in with an ablative, but (especially in the historians and later writers) also a simple ablative or dative ; as Qui iam aetate provectl, in nostris librls acquiescunt, those who are now advanced in years find rest in my books (Cic.) ; qul maxime P. Clodl morte acquierunt, who took the greatest satisfaction in the death of Publius Clodius (Cic.) ; cui velut oraculo acquiescebat, to whom he yielded assent as to an oracle (Suet., ViteL, 14). ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE (Ablatwus absolutus). 422. A noun and a participle are put in the ablative, not grammatically dependent upon the rest of the sen- tence, to denote the TIME, REASON, or CIRCUMSTANCES of an action. Thus : - Pythagoras Tarquinio regnante in Italiam venit, Pytha- goras came to Italy in the reign of Tarquin (Cic.) ; hac ora- ti5ne habita, concilium dlmisit, when this speech had been de- livered, he dismissed the assembly (Caes., B. 6r., i., 33) ; virtute excepta, nihil amicitia praestabilius putetis, regard nothing, with the exception of virtue, as of more value than friendship (Cic.). a. Two nouns or a noun with an adjective may also be put in the ablative absolute, with the participial notion of "being" implied. Thus : Romam venit MariS c5nsule, he came to Rome while Marius was consul (Cic.) ; quid adulescente duce efficere possent, what they could do with a youth as leader (Caes.) ; Hannibale vivo, while Hannibal was living (Nep.). b. A clause sometimes supplies the place of the noun ; as : Nondum compertS quam in regionem venisset rex, not yet having found out into what region the king had come (Liv.). * It will be remembered that esse has no present participle. 238 SYNTAX. c. A pronoun which would be in the ablative absolute is some- times omitted.* Thus : Additur dolus< missis qul magnam vim ligrwrum ardentem in flumen conicerent, a crafty scheme was also employed of sending people to throw a lot of burning wood into the stream (Llv., i., 37) ; causam digressus requirentibus, when they sought the cause of the departure (Tac., Hist., i., 27). d. The ablative absolute is chiefly used with the present par- ticiple or the perfect passive participle, and when the word in the ablative does not otherwise occur in the sentence, but it also occasionally occurs in the following cases : (1.) Future participle : Inruptiiris tarn Infestis nationibus, when such hostile nations were on the point of bursting in (Liv.). (2). Perfect participle of a deponent verb (rare with an ob- ject, but not uncommon otherwise) : Sulla omnia, pollicit5, Sulla having promised everything (Sail., lug., 103, 7) ; secutis omnibus, all following (Hor., S., ii., 8, 40) ; virtutibus ad cruciatum profectis, the vir- tues going to the rack (Cic., Ttisc., v., 28, 80). (3.) The ablative denoting the same person as the subject or object of the sentence : Ostendit se ?nihi infidelem nunquam, se viva, fore, she shows me that she will never be unfaithful to me, as long as she lives (Plaut., True., ii., 4, 85) ; Caesar, obsidibus impera- tis, kos Haeduis custddiendos tradit, Caesar, having ordered hostages, gives them over to the Haeduans to guard (Caes., B. G., vi., 4) ; nerrw erit qul credat te invito ftwriaoitm tibi esse decretam, there will be no one who will believe that the province was assigned you against your own will (Cic., Phil., xi., 10, 23). * Expressions like tranquillo, with a calm sea, sereno, under a clear sky, etc., may be considered as ablatives absolute with the noun omitted ; or, perhaps better, as ablatives of time, like ludls, comitiis, at the games, elec- tions, etc. (See 424s 6.) CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. 239 (4.) With a predicate word added : Dolabella hesterrio die hoste decreto, Dolabella having been yesterday decreed an enemy (Cic., Phil., xi., 7, 16). For the Constructions of Place and Time, see 423 ff. For the Cases with Prepositions, see 428 ff. CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. DURATION OF TIME AND EXTENT OF SPACE. 423. DURATION OF TIME and EXTENT OF SPACE are expressed by the accusative. Thus : Appius caecus multos annos fuit, Appius was blind for many years (Cic.) ; dies totos de virtute disserunt, they dis- cuss (about) virtue whole days together (Cic.) ; cum abessem ab Amdno iter uriius diet, when I was one day's journey from Mount Amanus (Cic.). (a.) MEASURE may also be expressed by a genitive of char- acteristic (cf. 356). Thus : Duds fossds qulndecim pedes Idtds perduxit, he drew out two ditches fifteen feet wide (Caes.) ; but also, valid pedum duodecim, with a rampart of twelve feet in height (Caes., B. ., ii., 5). b. Distance may also be expressed by an ablative of measure (cf. 415). Thus : Tria passuum milia ab ipsd urbe castra posuit, he pitched his camp three miles from the city itself (Liv.) ; but also, mill- bus passuum sex a Caesaris castris consedit, he encamped six miles from Caesar's camp (Caes.). TIME AT WHICH. 424. TIME AT WHICH or WITHIN WHICH is expressed by the ablative. Thus : Hoc tempore, at this time ; tertia vigilia eruptionem fe- cerunt, they made a sally in the third watch (Caes.) ; ut hieme naviges, for you to sail in winter (Cic.) 240 SYNTAX. a. The ablative occasionally also denotes duration of time ; as: Milites quinque horis proelium sustinuerunt, the soldiers maintained the battle for five hours (Caes., B. C., i., 47). b. Many words are used as ablatives of time where the Eng- lish idiom leads us to expect a different construction. Thus : Ludis, at the games ; comitils, at the elections ; initio or principle, in the beginning ; adventu, on the arrival ; dis- cessu, on the departure ; tumultu, belld, pace, etc., (in time of) insurrection, war, peace, etc. c. The day of the month is commonly expressed by the for- mula ante diem . . . Kalendas, Nonas, or Idiis, with the name of the month as an adjective agreeing with Kalendas, Nonas, or Id us. Thus : Is dies erat ante diem qulntum Kalendas Aprilis, L. Pisone A. Gabmid consulibus, that day was the fifth before the first of April (L e., Mar. 28th*), in the consulship of Lucius Piso and Aulus Gabinius (Caes., B. G., i., 6). d. The year is regularly denoted by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, and generally without a connective, as in the preceding example. e. Instead of ante diem, etc., sometimes a simple ablative of time is used, the name of the month remaining in the accusa- tive ; as : Quint5 decimo die Kalendas Sextills (XV Kal. Sext.}, the fifteenth day before the first of August (i. e., July 18th *). /. The whole expression ante diem . . . Kal., etc., may be treated as a noun and governed by a preposition. Thus : Caedem opti,natium contulerat in ante diem qulntum Kalendas Novembrls. he had assigned the massacre of the nobles to the 28th of October (cf. Cic., Cat., i.,.3, 7). For further treatment of the Roman calendar, see 661. * It mnst be remembered that the Romans, in reckoning from one day to another, included both days, while we exclude one of them. Thus the 28th of March was to the Romans the fifth day before the 1st of April, while to us it is the fourth day. CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. 241 PLACE TO, AT, IN, FROM WHICH. 425. Relations of place (except with names of towns) are expressed by prepositions, with the accusative for PLACE TO WHICH, and the ablative for PLACE AT, IN, or FROM, WHICH. Thus : Te in Epirum venisse gaudeo, I am glad you have reached Epirus (Cic.) ; inde ad montem altum, perverierunt, from there they came to a high mountain ; cruentum bellum in Afri- ca gerebatur, a bloody war was going on in Africa ; in foro ilium invenies, you will find him at the market-place ; ex Asia transibis in Europam, from Asia you will go across to Eu- rope ; ab flumine statim discedere iussit, he ordered them to go away from the river at once. 426. With names of towns (and small islands) (1.) No preposition is used ; as : Regulus Karthaginem rediit, Regulus went back to Car- thage (Cic.) ; Pausaniam cum classe Cyprum miserunt, they sent Pausanias to Cyprus with a fleet (Nep.) ; natus Tibure vel Gabiis, born at Tibur or Gabii (Hor.) ; Brundisid pro- fectl sumus, we started from Brundisium (Cic.) ; Demaratus Tarquinios Corintho fugit, Demaratus fled from Corinth to Tarquinii. (2.) The PLACE IN or AT WHICH has the locative form where that is different from the ablative.* Thus : Romae aliquot menses morabamur, we tarried some months at Rome ; Dionysius tyrannies Syracusis expulsus CorinthI pueros docebat, Dionysius the tyrant, when driven from Syra- cuse, kept a boys' school at Corinth (Cic.) ; Karthagim mortuus est, he died at Carthage. But:- Athems Plato vivebat, Plato lived at Athens; Sardibus haec facto, sunt, this took place at Sardis ; etc. * That is, in the singular of the first and second declensions, and some- times of the third. (See 88, a, 93, 97, 3, 112.) 242 SYNTAX. a. Like names of towns are used domus, home, and rus, country, with the locatives belli, tnllitiae, in the field or at war, humi, on the ground, and the expressions foris, out of doors, terra marique, on land and sea. A locative domul, as well as domi, occurs. b. A remnant of the locative case is seen in the use of animi with verbs and adjectives of emotion ; as, excruciarl animi, to be tortured in soul ; aeger aninii, sick at heart ; etc. c. The ablatives loco and parte, and sometimes others of gen- eral meaning, are used without a preposition to denote the PLACE WHERE. So also the preposition is sometimes omitted, when the ablative is qualified by an adjective (especially totus). Thus : Hoc loco, in this place ; ed parte, on that side ; urbe tota gemitus fit, a groan arises in the whole town (Cic.) ; tota Asia vagdtur, he wanders in all Asia (Cic.) ; media urbe, in the midst of the city (Lav., i., 33). d. With libro, capite, versu, etc., meaning the book, chapter, verse, etc., as a whole, no preposition is used ; but if a particu- lar place in them is meant, the preposition is necessary. e. The preposition is sometimes omitted with names of coun- tries (especially when connected with names of towns), but mostly in the ante-classical and post-classical writers. Cicero and Caesar use only Aegyptum thus. The poets omit the preposition often even with common nouns. Thus : Romae Numidiae^e faeinora eius memorat, he mentions his doings at Rome and in Numidia (Sail., lug., 33, 4) ; lltte- rae Macedonia adlatae, a letter brought from Macedonia (Liv.) ; Italiam fato profugus Lavinia??/e re nit litora, driven by fate into exile he came to Italy and the shores of Lavinium (Verg., Ae., i., 2) ; flnibus otnnes prosiluere suis, they ah 1 leaped forth from their confines (Verg.). /. The accusative is used in Latin whenever MOTIOX TO is implied, even where the English idiom leads us to expect the ablative. Thus : Coniurdtl in curiam convenerunt, the conspirators met in CONSTRUCTIONS OF PLACE AND TIME. 243 the senate house ; legates Karthaginem in Africam miserunt, they sent ambassadors to Carthage in Africa. g. When the word for " town " is put in apposition with the name of the town, and has no adjective with it, the proper name generally stands after the common noun, and takes its case. Thus : Vercingetorix expellitur ex oppido Gergovia, Vercinge- torix is being driven out of the town of Gergovia ; Cinwn in oppido Citio est mortuus, Cimon died in the town of Citium. h. When the word for " town " has an attributive with it, the proper name stands first, and if in the locative retains its own case. A preposition meaning " at " or " in " is here often omitted with the word for " town ; " occasionally also one mean- ing " from." Thus : Tusculo, ex clarissimo miinicipio, from Tusculum, a famous town ; lugurtha, Thalam pervenit, in oppidum magnum et opulentum, Jugurtha arrives at Thala, a large and wealthy town ; Cicero Arplni parvo (in) oppido Latl natus est, Ci- cero was born at Arpinum, a small town of Latium. 427. Prepositions are sometimes used with expressions of TIME for greater accuracy, and with names of towns to denote TO, IN, or FROM, THE NEIGHBORHOOD of the place. Thus : Quern per decem ann5s aluimus, whom we have been rearing for ten years (Cic.) ; de tertia vigilia ad hostes con- tendit, he hastened against the enemy during the third watch (Caes.) ; in diebus proximis decem, within the next ten days (Sail.) ; iter dlrigere ad Mutinam, to turn one's journey towards Modena (Cic.) ; ab Alexandria profectus, starting from Alexandria (Cic.) ; ex domo, from home. CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 428. The cases used with prepositions are the accusa- tive and the ablative. 244 SYNTAX. 429. The ACCUSATIVE is used with the following twenty-six prepositions : ad, to, towards. erga, towards. pone, behind. adversus (adver- extra, outside of. post, after. sum), against. infra, below. praeter, along by. ante, before. inter, among. prope, near. apud, near. intra, within. propter, near, on circum (circa), iuxta, next. account of. around. ob, against, on ao secundum, after. circiter, about. count of. supra, above. cis (citra), this side of. penes, in the power of. trans, across. contra, beyond. per, through. ultra, beyond. Thus : Ad templum rion aequae Palladis ibant, they went to the temple of the unpropitious Minerva (Verg.) ; adver "sus hostes, against the foe (Liv.) ; Germani qui cis Rhenum iucolunt, the Germans who live this side of the Rhine (Caes.) ; cum tan- turn resideat intra muros mall, when so much evil remains within the city (Cic.) ; prlncipw rerum imperium penes reges erat, in the beginning the power (over things) was in the hands of kings (Just.) ; templum ponam propter aquam, I will build a temple near the water (Verg.) ; inter agendum, in the midst of doing ; ante donandum,' before giving (Verg.). a. Cis is generally used with names of places, citra with other words also ; as : Cis Taurum, this side Mt. Taurus ; citra Veliam, this side Velia ; citra satietatem, short of satiety. b. Erga is very rarely used in classical Latin except with names of persons. 430. The ABLATIVE is used with the following ten prepositions : a or ab, from, by. cum, with. pro, before. absque, without. de, from, about. sine, without. coram,* in presence e or ex, out of. tenus, as far as. of. prae, before. * Not before Cicero. CASES WITH PREPOSITIONS. 245 Thus : Ab illo tempore, from that time; cum exercitu, with an army ; certis de causis, for particular reasons ; ex fuga, from flight ; sine labor e, without trouble. 431. In, sub, subter, super, take the accusative when MOTION is implied (even figuratively) ; the ablative for relations of REST : Via ducit in urbem, the way leads into town (Verg.) ; exercitus sub iugum missus est, the army was sent under the yoke (Caes.) ; consul subter murum hostium ad cohortes advehitur, the consul rides up to the cohorts close under the walls of the enemy (Liv., xxxiv., 20, 8) ; super Idbentem cul- mina tectl, gliding over the gable of the roof (Verg.). Media in urbe, in the midst of the city (Ovid.) ; bella sub Iliads moenibus gerere, to wage war at the foot of the walls of Troy (Ovid.) ; super tenero prosternit gramine corpus, he stretches his body on the tender sward (Verg.). Noster in te amor, my love towards you ; hostilem in modum, after a hostile fashion ; sub ea condicione, on this condition ; sub adventu Romanorum, just before the arrival of the Romans ; multa super Priamo rogitans super Hec- tore multa, asking many questions about Priam and of Hector many (Verg.). a. Subter with the ablative is rare and chiefly poetical. b. Super in the meaning " about," as in the last example, takes the ablative. Otherwise it almost always takes the accu- sative. c. Verbs of PLACING (except sometimes impono) take the ablative, not accusative, with in, notwithstanding the implied motion ; as : Tres legiones in ilia urbe posuit, he stationed three legions in that city. d. Tenus regularly follows its noun. Various other preposi- tions occasionally do so, but chiefly in the poets. Prepositions of one syllable are the least common in this position. Thus : Capulo tenus, as far as the hilt (Verg., Ae., x., 536) ; vesti- 246 SYNTAX. bulum ante, before the entrance court (Verg., Ae., vi., 273) ; te propter^ on your account (Verg., Ae., iv., 320). e. Cum is always appended to the personal pronouns, and generally to the relative and interrogative forms, quo, qua, qui- bus, qui. Thus : Est mihi tecum amicitia vetus, I have a long-standing friendship with you ; voblscum simul, along with you ; frater quocum Antiochum vicerat, the brother with whom he had conquered Antiochus. f. Tenus occasionally takes the genitive, thus retaining its original force as a noun ; as : Corcyrae tenus, as far as Corcyra. g. Certain adverbs sometimes take the accusative or ablative like prepositions. So, with the accusative, prldie, postrldie,* propius, proxime (cf. 39O, 4), usque ; with the ablative, pa- lam, procul, simul; with either case (or occasionally with a genitive or dative), clam. Thus : proxume Karthaginem, close to Carthage (Sail., Jug., 18, 11) ; palam populo, before the peo- ple (Liv., vi., 14, 5) ; clam uxorem, unknown to his wife (Plaut., Merc., 545) ; clam patris, unknown to his father (Plaut., Merc., 43). NOTE. All the prepositions denoted originally relations of PLACE, taking the accusative where motion TO or TOWARDS a place was implied, otherwise the ablative. This distinction is also easily traceable in most of the figurative uses of the prepositions as they grew out of the relations of place. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF NOUNS. The following points in the use of Latin nouns deserve especial notice : 432. Concrete nouns are used to denote the time of life at which a person does something, where in English an abstract noun or a clause is used. Thus : Adulescens Cato in Hispanw mllitaverat, Cato had served in Spain when a young man (or in his youth). So, a puero, etc., from boyhood, etc. * These two words also take a genitive (see 355, 5, 6). PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF NOUNS. 247 433. So also in designations of office. Thus : Catilmae coniurdtionem Cicero consul oppressit, Cicero, when consiil, overthrew the conspiracy of Catiline. a. In consuldtu suo can, however, also be used. 434. Abstract nouns are often used in a collective sense ; as, legatio, an embassy ; riobilitas, the aristocracy ; iuventus, the youth ; levis armatura, the light armed troops. 435. The singular of nouns denoting persons is also used collectively instead of the plural, especially in military expressions ; as, miles, the soldiery ; hostis, the enemy ; Poenus, the Carthaginian (s). (Cf. also 346, 1, a.) 436. The singular is thus used for the plural in names of animals (to denote food), and of plants, and sometimes other words. Thus : Villa abundat porco, haedo, etc., the farmhouse has plenty of pork, goat's meat, etc.* ; caput redimire rosa, to bind the head with roses ; faba vesci, to feed on beans ; bestiae pluma obductae, animals covered with feathers. 437. The plural is used where in English the singular is preferred : (1.) To indicate a thing as belonging to SEVERAL PER- SONS Or to PEOPLE IN GENERAL. Thus : Hostes terga vertunt, the enemy turn their back; animi hominum immortdles sunt, the soul of man is immortal. (2.) In names of materials, etc., to denote KINDS or PIECES of the thing mentioned ; as, vlna, kinds of wine ; carnes, pieces of flesh ; ligna, bits of wood. (3.) In abstract nouns, to denote INSTANCES of the quality. Thus : Clarae mortes pro patrid oppetltae bedtae viderl solent, an illustrious death met for one's country is regarded as a hap- piness ; in odia hominum incurrere, to run into men's dislike. * The same example will be found more fully quoted on p. 230. 248 SYNTAX. a. The plural is not infrequently used for the singular in poetry, as having a more elevated and impressive effect. NOTE. Except in the uses mentioned, abstract noons are much less com- mon in Latin than in English, verb constructions, or nouns of general meaning, like res, with an adjective, being used instead. The pupil should be particularly warned against using the longer abstracts in -tas, -tia, -tio, etc., freely as equivalents of the English words derived from them. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. The following points in the use of adjectives deserve especial notice : 438. Adjectives are often used as nouns : (1.) Especially, adjectives denoting RELATIONSHIP, or CONNECTION WITH, are often more common as nouns than as real adjectives ; as : Cognatus (-a), a relative ; adflnis, a connection ; amicus (-a), a friend ; aequalis, a contemporary ; vlcmus (-a), a neigh- bor. a. So the gentile adjectives ; as : Homanus, a Roman ; Atkeniensis, an Athenian. (2.) In the masculine plural, as in English, to denote CLASSES of people ; as : Bonij the good ; divites, the rich ; docfi, the learned. a. In the singular, to denote a class, the nominative is rare ; but the other cases are not uncommon, especially the genitive with esse ; as : Dementis hoc est, this is the part of a madman. (3.) In the neuter, to denote THINGS ; as : Bonum, a good thing ; malum, an evil. And especially perfect participles ; as : Factum, a deed ; responsum, an answer. a. The participle thus made a noun may still he modified by an adverb ; as, praecldre factum as well as praeclarum factum. In such cases, bene, male, and recte are always used rather than the corresponding adjectives. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES. 249 439. Neuter adjectives are also used substantively : (1.) In the singular, in philosophical language, to ex- press abstract ideas ; as : Rectum, the right ; turpe, the base ; summum bonum, the highest good. (2.) As partitive genitives ; as : Aliquid novi, something new. (3.) In phrases with prepositions ; as : In medid relinquere, to leave undecided ; in medium pro- ferre, to bring before people ; in tiito esse, to be in safety ; sine dub id, without doubt. (4.) In the plural where in English often an abstract singular is used ; as : lusta dicer e, to say what is just ; pestifera a salutaribus discernere, to distinguish the baneful from the salutary. a. Only the nominative and accusative are common in this use. Confusion with the similar masculine forms would often arise in the other cases, and then res is used with the adjective (bonarum rerum = bonorum, n., etc.). But where there is no danger of ambiguity such neuters occur ; as : Pmmum omnium, first of all things. 440. Adjectives are often used in Latin where English prefers a possessive case or a noun with a preposition, especially adjectives formed from names of nations or in- dividuals. Thus : Milites Pompeiam, the soldiers of Pompey ; oratio Cice- roniana, an oration of Cicero's ; bellum lugurthmum, the war against Jugurtha ; pugna Cannensis, the battle of Can- nae ; Dion Syraeusanus, Dion of Syracuse. 441. Attributive adjectives are very rarely used in direct agreement with proper names or with words like consul, which characterize an individual. The adjective is commonly made to agree with an appellative noun put in apposition with the proper name. Thus : " the wise 250 SYNTAX. Scipio " is Scipio, vir sapientissimus ; " wealthy Capua " is Capua, urbs opulentissima. a. Adjectives of quantity or number, however, are common as attributives. Thus: tota Hispania, entire Spain; Romanl duo, two Romans. So also in expressions like Pompeius magnus, Pompey the Great ; Karthago nova, new Carthage ; Scipio maior, Scipio the elder. 442. The superlatives summus, imus, ultimus, extre- mus, primus, with the word medius, are used, directly agreeing with a noun, to denote the TOP or BOTTOM, HIGH- EST, FIRST, MIDDLE part of , etc. Thus : Summus nions, the top of the mountain ; in extrenia ord- tione, at the end of his speech ; media ab urbe, from the mid- dle of the city ; prima aestate, at the beginning of summer. So, novissimo agmine, on the rear of the line of march. For special uses of Comparatives and Superlatives, see 164. PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 443. In the FIRST PERSON the plural of the personal and possessive pronouns is often used, out of politeness, for the singular (pluralis modestiae). Thus : Hunc librum ad te de senectute misimus, this book I have written on old age and dedicated to you (Cic., Sen., i., 3) ; Catonis sermo explicabit nostram omnem de senectute senten- tiam, Cato's words will explain all my opinion about old age (Cic., ibidem). a. The plural of the SECOND PERSON is never used as in Eng- lish for the singular. When it seems to be so used, it will always be found that more persons than the individual addressed are referred to ; as, for instance, his family or comrades. 444. The possessive pronouns, like the personals (cf. 316, a), are expressed only when emphatic (as marking a contrast) or to avoid ambiguity. In the first case they precede, in the second they follow, their noun. Thus : PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS. 251 Delude ego ilium de su5 regno, ille me de nostra re pu- blica percontdtus est, then I questioned him about his kingdom and he me about our state (Cic., Re Pub., vi., 9) ; vestra vero quae dlcitur vita mors est, but your so called life is really death (Cic., Re Pub., vi., 14). Quocircd si sapientiam meam admirdrl soletis quae utinam dlgna esset opinione vestra uostroque cogno- mine! -in hoc sumus sapientes, quod, etc., therefore if you are wont to look with admiration upon my wisdom oh that it were worthy of your good opinion and my surname (i. e., Sapi- ens) ! it is in this that I am wise, that, etc. (Cic., Sen., 2, 5). Beflexive and Intensive Pronouns. 445. (1.) The reflexive pronouns, se and suus, are used primarily to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause in which they stand. Thus : Oppidan! f acinus in se dc suos foedum et ferum conscis- cunt, the townspeople resolve upon a barbarous and revolting deed against themselves and theirs (Liv., xxviii., 22, 5). Ipse se quisque dlligit, non ut aliquam a se ipse mercedem exigat caritdtis suae, sed quod per se sibl quisque cdrus est, every one loves himself, not in the expectation of getting from himself any reward whatever for his fondness, but because every one is fond of himself for his own sake (Cic., Am., 21, 80). Ariovistus respond^ non oportere sese d populo Romano in su5 iure impedim, Ariovistus answered that he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his own rights (Caes., B. G., i., 36). Caesar, milites cohortdtus ut suae prlstinae virtutis memo- riam retinerent, Caesar, having exhorted the soldiers to hold fast to the remembrance of their own old time valor (Caes., B. G., ii., 21). a. Thus in the Indirect Discourse se regularly refers to the speaker, while the person addressed is referred to by ilium or eum. 252 SYNTAX. (2.) In dependent clauses which are so thoroughly subordinated that the subject of the main clause is left more prominently in the mind than the subject of the subordinate clause, se and suus refer to the subject of the main clause, unless ambiguity might be caused there- by. Thus : Orator sagaciter pervestlget quid sui ewes cogitent, opinen- tur, exspectent, our orator will cleverly search out the thoughts, opinions, and expectations of his own countrymen (cf. Cic., de Or., i., 51, 223). Af ricanus, si sua res ageretur, testimonium rion diceret, Africanus would not be giving evidence, if it were his case that was before the court (Cic., Rose. Am., 36, 103). Camillus mihi scripsit te secum locutum esse, Camillus wrote ine that you had talked with him (Cic., Att.^ xi., 23, l). a. This reference of se or suus chiefly occurs where from the nature of the situation a reflexive referring to the subject of the subordinate clause would be unnatural or impossible, as in the examples, and where if the dependent sentence were inde- pendent it would not contain a reflexive. Thus the first and third examples above would become : Quid cogitant (etc.) elves eius (i. e., oratoris) ; tu cum eo (i. e., Camilla) locutus es. b. If any ambiguity might arise, ipse is used in the subordi- nate clause to refer to the subject of the main clause. Thus : lugurtha legates mxsit qui ipsi liberisque vitam peterent, Jugurtba sent ambassadors to beg for his life and his children's (cf. Sail., lug., 46, 2). 446. Se and suus may further be used, when it can be done without ambiguity, to refer to words other than the subject, especially : (1.) To the person thought of as acting, though not grammatically the subject. Thus : A Caesare invitor ut sim sibl legatus, I am invited by Caesar to be his lieutenant ; vos ex M. Pav5ni5 audistis REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 253 Clodium sibl dlxisse periturum Milonem, you have heard Marcus Favonius say that Clodius had told him that Milo should die (Cic., Mil., 16, 44) ; contentum suls rebus esse sunt mdximae dlvitiae, to be content with one's lot is great riches. (2.) In various cases where the English puts in " own " or " very." Thus : Romdriis multitude sua auxit animum, their very numbers increased the courage of the Romans ; valetudinem ipsam per se expetimus, we aim at good health for its own sake. a. Thus sometimes two or more instances of se occur in the same sentence referring to different persons. Thus : Scythae petebant ut regis sulflliam mdtrimdnio sibiiunge- ret, the Scythians asked him [i. e., Alexander] to unite the daughter of their king to himself in marriage (Curt.) ; quod sibl Caesar denuntidret se Haeduorum iniurids rion neglec- turum, neminem secum sine sua pernicie contendisse, as to Caesar's announcement to him [Ariovistus] that he [Caesar] would not disregard the wrongs done to the Haeduans, nobody had fought with him [Ariovistus] without coming to grief him- self [i. e., nemo~] (Caes., B. 6r., i. 36). 447. The place of the third personal pronoun when not reflexive is supplied by is, ea, id, or, if a stronger form is wanted, by ille or Me. Thus : Quod fere cottldidnis proeliis cum Germdnls contendunt cum aut suls flnibus eos prohibent, aut ipsl in eorum finibus bellum gerunt, because they struggle in almost daily battles with the Germans, when either they try to keep them out of their country or themselves make war in the Germans' country (Caes., B. G., i., 1) ; Ariovistus respondit, si quid ipsl d Caesar e opus esset, sese ad eum venturum fuisse ; si quid ille se velit, ilium ad se venire oportere, Ariovistus answered that if he had wanted any thing of Caesar he should have gone to him ; if Caesar wanted any thing of him he ought to come to him (Caes., B. G., i., 34). a. Sometimes the demonstrative is used where the reflexive 254 SYNTAX. would seem more natural. Here the writer changes for the moment from the point of view of the subject to his own point of view. Thus : Helvetil persuadent Rauracls ut lina cum iis proficiscantur, the Helvetians persuaded the Rauraci to go forth with them (Caes.) ; ita se gessit [Ligarius~\ ut el pacem esse expediret, Ligarius so conducted himself that it was for his advantage to have peace (Cic.) ; [Delphds~\ postquam ventum est, cupido ineessit animos iuvenum sciscitandi ad quern eorum regnum Homanum esset venturum, after they had come to Delphi a desire entered the minds of the young men to find out to which of them the Roman kingdom was to come (Lav., i., 56, 10). 448. The intensive ipse, is used : (1.) To express the emphasis which is given in English by "himself," "herself," "itself," or "very," or by some circumlocution like that in the last example below. Thus : Ipsa spes inopiam sustentabat, their hope itself (or their very hope) made their want endurable ; a multis ipsa virtus contemnitur, virtue herself is despised by many; praecipitur ut noblsmet ipsis imperemus, it is taught that we should exer- cise control over ourselves ; medici ipsi se curare rion possunt, physicians cannot cure themselves ; Lucretia se ipsa interemit, Lucretia killed herself with her own hand. Cf . also the first example under 447. a. The Romans had a fancy for making ipse agree with the subject, as in the last two examples, where we put " self " with the object. (2.) To refer (in the same way that se refers to the subject of its own sentence), to a person or thing in an- other sentence connected with its own ; as : Ariovistus respondit, si quid ipsi a Caesare opus esset, etc. See this example under 447 on preceding page, and also cf . 445, 2, 6. 449. The reciprocal meaning of the English " each other," " one another," is expressed in Latin as fol- lows : REFLEXIVE AND INTENSIVE PRONOUNS. 255 (1.) By inter nos, inter vos, and, for the third person, when the reference is to a nominative or an accusative, by inter se ; otherwise by inter ipsos. Thus : Inter n5s natura coniunctl sumus, we are bound to each other by natural ties ; fratres inter se cum forma turn moribus similes, brothers resembling each other in both person and char- acter (Cic.) ; /eras inter sese conciliat natura, nature makes wild beasts agree with one another (Cic.) ; incidunt aliqua a doctls etiam inter ipsos mutud reprehensa, some things come in which learned people reciprocally blame in each other (Quint.). a. With inter se a reflexive accusative or dative is omitted ; as : Puerl amant (sc. se) inter se, the boys love each other; ewes inter se (sc. sibl) gratulabantur, the citizens congratu- lated each other. (2.) Or alter ) repeated in a different case, may be used when only two persons or things are meant ; alius, if more than two are meant. The plural of alter is used of two parties. Thus : Milites alius alium hortatur, the soldiers encourage one another ; noxil ambo alter in alterum causam conferunt, both being guilty they each throw the blame upon the other ; alter! alteros vincere quovis modo volunt, each side wishes to beat the other by any possible means. Cf. also, homines inter se alii aliis prodesse volunt, men wish to benefit each other reciprocally. (3.) Or a noun or pronoun may be repeated in a differ- ent case. Thus : Tantae fuerunt tenebrae ut per blduum nemo hominem homo agriosceret, the darkness was so great that for two days men could not recognize each other at aU (Cic., JV. Z>., ii., 38, 96) ; Atticus moriens non ex vita, sed ex dom5 in domum migrare videbatur, Atticus in dying seemed not to be moving out of life but out of one home into another (cf. Nep., xxv., 22) ; 256 SYNTAX. neque diiudicari posset uter utri virtute anteferendus vide- retur, nor could it be decided which of the two seemed more admirable in valor than the other (Caes., B. G., v., 44). Demonstrative Pronouns. In addition to what was said of the demonstratives in 181, the following points deserve notice : 450. (1.) If ic (especially the neuter hoc) is used to refer to something immediately to be introduced ; but if the thing is to be marked emphatically as opposed to other things said, ille (especially illud) is used. Thus : Inter omnes hoc constat, virorum esse fortium toleranter dolor em pati, all men are agreed upon this point, that to suffer pain with patient endurance is characteristic of brave men ; hoc modo locutus est, he spoke as follows. But : cum multa alia mirabilia sunt turn illud imprimis, not only are there many other admirable things, but this is es- pecially admirable ; illud vero idem Caecilius vitwsius, but the following remark of the same Caecilius is more reprehen- sible (Cic., Sen,, 8, 25). (2.) Ille often refers to that which is well known, fa- mous, or of general notoriety. Thus : Medea ilia, the Medea of story ; magno illi Alexandra si- millimus, closely resembling the (well known) great Alexander. (3.) Is is used as the antecedent of a relative which describes a class of persons or things = " he who," " the one who," " such as." Thus : Eum qui palam est adversarius facile cavendo vitare pos- sls, one who is openly an enemy you can easily escape by guarding against him ; neque enim tu is es qui quid sis nes- cias, for you are not such a person as not to know what you are (Cic.). a. Is is sometimes used to resume mention of a preceding subject where it seems unnecessary ; as : Servus meus aufugit ; is est in provincia tua, a slave of mine has run away ; he is in your domain. DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 257 b. When "that" or "those of" is used in English instead of the repetition of a noun, no pronoun is used in Latin. Thus : Philippus hostium manus saepe vitavit. sudrum effugere rion valuit, Philip often escaped the hands of his enemies, but did not succeed in avoiding those of his own subjects (Curt.) ; Nu- mae regnum multo erat pacatius quam Romuli, Numa's reign was much more peaceful than that of Romulus. (Cf. also 353, e). Relative Pronouns. In addition to what was said in 342344 about rela- tive pronouns, the following points should be noted : 451. The relative is often used to connect an indepen- dent sentence with what has gone before, where in English a different form of connection is used. Thus : Multas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri sunt, quos legite, quaeso, studiose, Xenophon's works are very profitable in many respects, and I beg you read them zealously ; quae cum ita sint, Cat'Uina, perge quo coepisti, now since this is so, Catiline, go on as you have begun. a. A special instance of this connecting relative is seen in the use of quod si, quod nisi, for " but if," " and if," or " if not," where the quod is really accusative of specification. 452. The Latin expresses " such is my, your," etc., and " so-called," by a relative, as follows : Quae tua est prudentia, such is your discretion ; si miJu ne- gotium permisisses, qui meus in te amor est, confecissem, if you had entrusted the business to me, I should have accom- plished it, such is my love for you ; vestra quae dicitur * vita, your so-called life. 453. The difference between Latin and English use should be observed in relative clauses like the follow- ing: Thrasybuld corona a populo data est, quam quod amor * In this use tlie relative clause is usually thus inserted between an at- tributive and its noun. 258 SYNTAX. clvium dederat nullam habuit invidiam, a wreath was given by the people to Thrasybulus which caused no envy because the love of his countrymen had given it ; adsentior Platorii quern tu quantl facias scio, I agree with Plato, and I know how highly you esteem him ; non satis politics es els artibus, quas qui tenent erudlt't appellantur, you are not well enough perfected in those branches which cause their possessors to be called edu- cated. Indefinite Pronouns. The following points in the use of the indefinite pro- nouns should be noted : 454. Quisquam is the most general of the indefi- nite pronouns, and means " anybody at all." Quivis and qmlibet are nearly as indefinite, meaning " any one you please." Thus : Quamdiu quisquam, erit, qin te defendere audeat, vlves, as long as there shall be anybody who will venture to defend you, you shall live (Cic., Cat., i., 2, 6) ; si quisquam est timi- dus in magnls perlculoslsque rebus, is egd sum, if any one is timid in great and dangerous things, I am he (Cic., Fam., vi., 14, i) ; cuivis potest accidere quod cuiquam potest, what can happen to anybody at all, can happen to anybody you will (i. e., to everybody) (Sen., Tr., 11, 6) ; omnia sunt eiusmodl quivls ut perspicere possit, all are of such a nature that any one you please can understand them (Cic.) ; hie apud mawres nostros adhibebatur peritus, nunc quilibet, in such a case an expert used to be employed in the time of our ancestors, now any one at all [will do] (Cic.) ; non cuivis homirii contingit, it does not fall to every man's good fortune (Hor.). a. Sometimes the verb part of quivls and quilibet is inflected. Thus : Dominus vino quid volet faciet, the master will do what- ever he likes with the wine (Cato, R. JR., 47 and 48, 2) ; fa- cile cui velles tuam causam probares, you could have proved your case to any one you wished (Cic., Verr., iv., 12, 28). INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 259 455. (1.) Quisquam, with the corresponding adjec- tive ullus, is used especially in negative sentences, or sen- tences implying a negation. Thus : Neque ex castrls Catilinae quisquam omnium dlscesserat, nor had any one at all deserted from Catiline's camp (Cic.) ; nee ullo casu potest contingere ut ulla intermlssio flat offici, nor can it by any chance happen that there be any interruption of the obligation of duty (Cic.) ; an quisquam potest sine perturbatione mentis Irascl ? or can any one indulge in anger without disturbance of his mental equipoise ? (Cic., Tusc., iv., 24, 54) ; taetrior hie tyrannus Syracusanls fuit quam quis- quam superiorum, this tyrant was more loathsome to the peo- ple of Syracuse than any of his predecessors (Cic.). a. Instead of non quisquam, unless the pronoun is rather em- phatic, nemo or nihil is used, and similarly nullus instead of non ullus. Nullus, besides its adjective use, supplies the place of the genitive and ablative singular and the plural of nemo, and the cases of nihil other than nominative and accusative singular.* b. Nemo is used, not nullus, with adjectives used as substan- tives ; as, nemo Romanus, no Roman. 456. Quis (qul) is the unemphatic " any," " one," and is used chiefly after si, nisi, ne, mem, and the pro- nouns, as quo, quanta, etc. Thus : Si quis mlratur, if any one wonders ; num. quis hoc nescit ? does not every one know this ? iustitiae prlmum munus est ut ne cui quis noceat, the first injunction of justice is that one shall harm no one ; detrahere quid de aliquo, to take away something from somebody. a. After si, nisi, ne, num, the forms quis and qul are used indifferently as substantives or adjectives ; otherwise, as with the interrogative pronoun, quis is substantive, qul, adjective. 457. Aliquis, some one or other, any one, is less indefinite than quis, as is seen especially after si, nisi, ne, etc. Thus : Si est aliqui sens us in morte praeclarorum virorum, if * There is, however, also a declined form of nihil. (Cf. 137, 1, a.) 260 SYNTAX. illustrious men have some consciousness when dead (Cic., Best., 62, isi) ; timebat Pompeius omnia ne aliquid vos timer et-is, Poinpey watched all things with anxiety that you might have no anxiety (Cic.). a. Aliquis is especially common in the emphatic meaning some at least. Thus : Est hoc aliquid, tametsi non est satis, this is something at least, although it is not enough (Cic., Caec., 15, 47) ; multi sine doctrina aliquid omnium generum et artium consequontur, many without teaching acquire something in all branches of learning (Cic.). 458. Quisjpiam, some one, is more definite than aliquis. Thus : Hereditas est pecunia, quae morte alicuius ad quempiam pervenit iure, an inheritance is money which at some one's death comes to a person legally (Cic.) ; quaeret fortasse quis- piam, some one will perhaps ask. 459. Quid am, some particular one, is the most definite of these pronouns, and implies that a person or thing is definitely known, though indefinitely described. Thus : Quldam de conlegis nostris, one of my colleagues (Cic.) ; sets me quodam tempore Metapontum venisse tecum, you know that at a certain time I went with you to Metapontum (Cic.). a. Quidam often expresses what in English is denoted by " a sort of ; " as : Milvo est quoddam bellum naturale cum corvo, the kite has a sort of natural antagonism toward the crow (Cic., N. D., ii., 49, 125). 460. When only two persons or things are referred to, the following pronouns are used : alter, the other. uter ? which ? neuter, neither. ut'erque, both. Corresponding to the following, if more than two are referred to : alius, another. quis ? who ? nemo, nullus, none. quisque, each. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. THE VERB. 261 a. Ambo is used for " both " only when the thing said applies in the same way to the two objects ; otherwise uterque is used ; as : Caesar atque Pompeius dwersa sibi ambo concilia capiunt . . . eddemque die uterque eorum ex castris exercitum edu- cunt, Caesar and Pompey both adopt different plans, . . . but on the same day both lead out their armies from camp (Caes., B. C., iii., 30). b. Alter is used for the English " one's neighbor ; " as : Nihil alterms causa facere, to do nothing for one's neigh- bor's sake. c. The following distinctions should be observed : alter = the other ; alteri = the other party. alius = another ; alii =. others. eeterl =. all the others, the rest. alteruter = one or the other. Cf. also 449, 2. d. For the convenience of the pupil the following series of the words for number is given : panel a few, only a few. aliquot = some, not many, several. nonnulli = some (indeterminate). plures several, rather many. multl = many. pluriml = very many. plerlque = most. unusquisque = each and all. SYNTAX OF THE VERB. Tenses. 461. The IMPERFECT, PRESENT, and FUTURE mark an action or event simply as taking place (beginning or con- tinuing) in the PRESENT, PAST, or FUTURE respectively. 462. The PERFECT, PLUPERFECT, and FUTURE PERFECT mark an action or event as COMPLETED. 262 SYNTAX. (1.) The PERFECT marks something as completed either (a) in the PRESENT (perfect DEFINITE) or (6) in the INDEFINITE PAST (i. e., without reference to any other event HISTORICAL perfect or AORIST).* Thus : (a.) \_Natura~] oculos membranls tenuissimts vestivit et saepsit, nature has clothed and protected the eye with a very delicate membrane (Cic., N. D., ii., 57, 142). (b.) ltd tantum bellum . . . extrema hieme adparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate c5nfecit, thus he got ready for this great war in the last part of winter, entered upon it at the beginning of spring, and finished it in mid-summer (Cic., Leg. Man., 12, 35). (2.) The PLUPERFECT marks something as completed at or before the beginning of some other PAST action or event. Thus : Pyrrhl temporibus iam Apollo versus facer e desierat, in the time of Pyrrhus Apollo had already ceased to give oracles (Cic., Dw., ii., 56, 116). (3.) The FUTURE PERFECT marks something as com- pleted at or before the time of some other FUTURE action or event. Thus : Cum, til haec. leges, ego Caesarem fortasse conveners, when you are reading this I shall perhaps have met Caesar. The following points in the use of the tenses deserve special mention : 463. Statements which are true of all time, and have therefore a special interest in the present, such as general truths, are expressed by the present tense. Thus : Labor omnla vincit, labor conquers all things. a. Sometimes a general statement, instead of being thus directly stated by the present, is implied by a perfect (on the principle that what has often happened is the natural thing to * The pupil should perhaps be warned that the Romans did not feel this difference as we feel it. Otherwise, they would probably have ex- pressed it by a difference of form. UNIVERSITY TJNIVER TENSES. 263 expect). The perfect in this use is sometimes called the GNOMIC perfect, but the general nature of the tense in these cases is so evidently perfect that a special name seems undesirable. Thus : Avaritia pecuniae studium habet, quam nemo sapiens con- cuplvit, greed involves a zeal for money which no wise man desires* (Sail., Cat., 11, 3) ; ob debilitatem animl multl pa- rentes, multl amwos nonnulll patriam, plerlque autem se ipsos penitus perdiderunt, through weakness of mind many utterly ruin their parents, many their friends, some their country, and most people themselves (Cic., Fin., i., 15, 49) ; non domus et fundus, non aeris acervus et auri aegroto domino deduxit corpore febres, non animo curas, not houses and lands nor heaps of coin take away disease from the ailing body of their owner or care from his mind (Hor., Epist., i., 2, 47). 464. The present and imperfect are often used of repeated or customary actions, and of attempted or in- tended action's. Thus : Cottldie in senHtum venit Catilina, Catiline comes daily to the Senate ; haec audiebant antea, nunc vident, they used to hear these things before, now they see them ; in exsilium eicie- bam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam ? was I try- ing to drive into exile a man who I saw had already actually entered upon war? (Cic., Cat., ii., 6, 14). 465. The present is used in giving the statements of past writers whose works are still extant ; as : Homerus dicit e Nestoris lingua melle dulciorem fluxisse sermonem, Homer says that from Nestor's tongue flowed speech sweeter than honey. 466. The present is sometimes used instead of the historical perfect in lively narration, to make a more vivid picture (HISTORICAL present). Thus : De"siliunt ex equls, pr5volant in prlmum, they spring from their horses, they fly to the front (Llv., iii., 62, 8). * I. e., none ever has desired, and therefore we may infer that none ever will do so. 264 SYNTAX. 467. With ia?n diidum, iam diu, iam pridem, and sometimes without these words, the present and imperfect are used, where in English the perfect and pluperfect are preferred, to indicate an action which has been going on some time and is still going on (PRESENT), or which at a certain past time had been and was still going on (IM- PERFECT). Thus : Iam diu ignore quid agas, I have long been in ignorance as to how you are ; tot anrios bellum gero, all these years I have been waging war ; audiebat iam dudum verba, he had heard the words for some time. 468. With dum (= " while ") the present is regularly used to denote an action going on at the same time as another, even when the two actions belong to past time. Thus: Dum ego in Sicilia sum, nidla statua deiecta est, while I was in Sicily not a statue was overthrown (Cic., Vefr., ii., 66, 161). NOTE. In the meanings " until " and " as long as," dum takes the past tenses for past actions. Also in the meaning " while," if the main verb denotes a continued action or state (often in Livy and once or twice earlier). 469. With postquam (posteaquam), " after," and with the expressions for " as soon as " ubi, ubl primum, ut, ut primum, cum primum, simul dc (simul atque or simul alone), the perfect is the regular tense, though the pluperfect would seem more logically exact. Thus : Sed postquam aspexi, illco cognovi, but after I looked at [it] I recognized it at once (Ter., Heaut., iv., 1, 43) ; Pom- peius, ut equitatum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit, as soon as Pompey saw his cavalry routed he withdrew from battle (Caes., B. C., iii., 94) ; cum primum Romam veni, nihil prius faciendum mihi putavi, quam ut tibi gratularer, as soon as I (had) reached Rome, I thought it my first duty to tender you my congratulations. a. But the imperfect is used if a situation is to be described as a continued action ; the pluperfect, if as the result of an action ; as : TENSES. 265 Ut domum reducebatur, fit obviam el C. Curio, when he was being escorted home, Gains Curio met him ; ut ad mare excubuerant, accessere hostes, as soon as they had got their guard posted, the enemy drew near. b. Or if a distinct interval of time has elapsed between the event introduced by postquam and the main event, the clause with postquam regularly takes the pluperfect ; as : Hannibal anno tertio postquam domo profugerat cum qulnque navibus Africam accessit, in the third year after he had gone into exile, Hannibal went to Africa with five ships (Nep., Han., 8). Cf. the English use of tenses with " after " and " as soon as." 470. Other cases where a different tense is used in Latin from the one which English would lead us to ex- pect are as follows : (1.) In letters sometimes an imperfect (or historical perfect) is used for the present, or a pluperfect for a perfect. The writer thus puts himself at the time when the letter will be read (EPISTOLARY imperfect and pluperfect). Thus : Nihil habebam quod scriberem ; neque enim novl quic- quam audiveram, I have nothing to write, for I have heard nothing new. (2.) A perfect or pluperfect is used in dependent clauses (especially with cum, si, etc.) indicating a customary action or event, where English usage would lead us to expect a present or imperfect.* Thus : Cum ad villam vem, hoc ipsum nihil agere et plane cessare me delectat, when I come to my country seat, this very doing nothing and absolutely resting delight me (Cic., Or., 2, 6) ; cum rosam vlderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur, whenever he saw a rose, he thought spring was beginning (Cic., Verr., v., 10, 27). (3.) In subordinate clauses depending on a past tense and stating something which was true at the time mentioned and is * The present or imperfect in the main clause shows the repetition of the act, and the subordinate clause is regarded more directly from the time of the main clause than in English. 266 SYNTAX. still true, the imperfect is sometimes used where the present might be expected. Thus : Pastum animantibus large et copiose ndtura eum qui cuij^ie aptus erat comparavit, nature generously and abundantly pre- pared for the animals that food which was suited to each (Cic., N. Z>., ii., 47, 121) ; vide, ne, cum omries rectae animi adfectidms virtute's adpellentur, non sit hoc proprium nomen omnium, sed ab ea, quae Tina ceterls excellebat, omnes ndmi- natae si-nt, see, lest, while all right dispositions of the mind are called virtues, this name does not properly belong to all, but all are named from the one which in itself surpasses all the others (Cic., Tusc., ii., 18, 43). (4.) The imperfect is sometimes used to express surprise at something just discovered, though it has been going on for some time ; as : Ekeu, pater mi, tn hie eras ? ah ! father, you here ? Cf . also the pluperfect, haud aspexeram, I didn't see [you] (Ter., Ad.. 373). (5.) The perfect is sometimes used instead of a future per- fect to indicate vividly what will happen if something else hap- pens (as if it had already happened). Thus : [Brutus'] si conservatus erit, vicimus, if Brutus shall be saved, we have conquered (Cic., Fam., xii., 6, 2). 471. The perfect is sometimes used to express what has been the case, but is so no longer. Thus : Fuimus Troes, we are no longer Trojans (Verg., Aen.. ii., 325) ; triste enim est nomen ipsum carendl qiria snbicitur haec vis: habuit non habet, for the very word "deprivation" is melancholy, because the meaning " had but has no longer " underlies it (Cic., Tusc., i., 36, 87). a. In a few verbs the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect have acquired the meaning of the present, imperfect, and future of a kindred verb. Thus : ?iosco, find out ; ndvt, know (i. e., have found out). So odi = I hate, meminl =. I remember. NOTE. The tenses in Latin are used in general with much greater exactness than in English, and the Romans were particularly fond of the future perfect tense. TENSES. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 267 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. NOTE. In its original shape in the Indo-European the sub- junctive seems to have been a tense rather than a mood, having about the meaning indicated by the English " am going to." This meaning soon broadened so as to include that kind of in- determinate futurity involved in the ideas which we express by " may," " could," "would," etc. It is this quality in the mood as we find it in Latin which explains the absence of special future tense forms,* and which is also at the bottom of the dis- tinction which grew up between the subjunctive and the indica- tive ; namely, that while the indicative represents a thing as a fact of the past, present, or future, the subjunctive came to mark a thing as something conceived in the mind merely (i. e., as something which might or would be a fact, if the thinker's idea should be realized). This notion of indeterminate futurity is more or less distinctly traceable in the four uses of the subjunc- tive in Independent Sentences. (See 472-475.) SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. Hortatory Subjunctive. 472. The HORTATORY subjunctive expresses (1) an EXHORTATION Or ENTREATY ; (2) a COMMAND Or PROHI- BITION ; (3) an OBLIGATION ; (4) a CONCESSION. The negative is ne. Thus : (1.) Meminerimus etiam adversus Infimos iustitiam esse servandam, let us remember that justice must be observed even towards the humblest (Cic., Off., i., 13, 4l). (2.) Vlribus utare, dum adsint, cum absint, ne requlras, use your strength while it lasts, but when it is gone do not pine for it (Cic., Sen., 10, 33) ; suum quisque n5scat ingenium, let every one study his own temperament ; donls impil ne placare audeant deos, let not the impious venture to try to propitiate * If it was desirable to guard against a possible ambiguity, or to empha- size distinctly the notion of futurity, the Romans used periphrastic forms (facturus sim, essem, etc.). 268 SYNTAX. the gods with gifts (Cic.) ; nikil incommodo valetudinis tuae feceris, do nothing prejudicial to your health (Cic.). (3.) Ut homost, ita morem geras, you must regulate your conduct by the character of your master (i. e., like master, like man) (Ter., Ad., 431) ; quae hlc erant, curares, you should have looked out for what were here (Ter., Hec,, 230) ; ne po2joscisses, you should not have asked (Cic., Att., iL, 1, 3). (4.) Sed ierit ad bellum, dissenserit non a te solum, verum etiam a fratribus : hi te orant tul, but grant that he went to the war, that he took the other side not only from you but also from his brothers : they and they were on your side beg you [to spare him] (Cic., Lig., 12, 35) ; ne sint in seneetute vires : ne postulantur quidem vires a seneetute, suppose there is no strength in old age: neither is strength demanded from old age (Cic., Sen., 11, 34) ; decies centena dedisses huic pared panels contento, suppose you had given this frugal fellow whose wants are few some million or so (Hop., Sat., i., 3, 15). a. The singular of the second person of the present tense is not used, until after Livy's time, for commands, exhortations, or prohibitions, unless the subject is indefinite (i. e., "you" = " any one "). (Cf. the examples.) b. In the perfect tense the second person is used in com- mands and exhortations only when they are negative (i. e., when they are really prohibitions). The imperative is used for posi- tive commands, etc. (See 527.) c. The perfect and pluperfect differ from the present and im- perfect respectively only in the greater precision which comes from the notion of completed action, but even this distinction in the case of the present and perfect is almost intangibly subtle. d. Commands, exhortations, entreaties, and prohibitions natu- rally occur only in the primary tenses (present and perfect). Optative Subjunctive, 473. The OPTATIVE subjunctive is used to express a wish, sometimes alone, sometimes with utinam or ut, " O that ! " The negative is ne. Thus : SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 269 Valeant ewes mel, sint incolumes, sint beati, may my countrymen prosper in safety and happiness (Cic., Mil., 34, 93) ; ne vivam si sew, may I die, if I know (Cic., Att., iv., 16) ; falsus utinam votes sim, oh, may I prove mistaken in my prophecy ! (Liv., xxi., 10, 10) ; utinam P. Clodius viveret, would that Publius Clodius were living ! (Cic., Mil., 38, 103) ; utinam me mortuum vidisses, would that you had seen me dead (Cic., Q. Fr., i., 3, l). a. The present and perfect imply nothing as to the fulfillment of the wish, but the perfect is chiefly confined to early Latin and the poets. The imperfect implies the non-fulfillment of the wish in present time, the pluperfect in past time. b. Utinam or ut is almost always used when the tense is imperfect or pluperfect. These particles tend to give more for- mality or solemnity to the expression of the wish. c. Sometimes instead of the simple subjunctive, velim, riolim, malim, vellem, riollem, mallem, or cuperem, is used with the substance of the wish added in the infinitive or subjunctive. Thus: Tuam mih* dari velim, Cotta, eloquentiam, I wish your elo- quence might be given me, Cotta (Cic., N. D., ii., 59, 147) ; vellem adesse posset Panaetius, would that Panaetius could be here now. NOTE. Here velim, nollem, etc., are potential subjunctives (see 474). For the dependent subjunctive (like posset in the second example), see 491. Potential Subjunctive. 474. The POTENTIAL subjunctive is used to express the shades of possibility and kindred ideas indicated in English by an unemphatic " may," " might," " can," "could," or "would." The negative i's non (hand, etc.). Thus : Hie quaerat quispiam, at this point some one may ask (Cic., N. D., ii., 53, 133) ; Platonem nee nimis valde nee nimis saepe laudaveris, you cannot [could not] praise Plato too highly or too often (Cic., Legg., iii., 1, l) ; Me sine ulla dubitcitidne 270 SYNTAX. conflrmaverim eloquentiam rem esse omnium difficillimam, this I would venture to assert without any hesitation, that elo- quence is the hardest thing in the world [to acquire] (Cic., Brut., 6, 25) ; itaque baud facile discerneres utrum impe- ratori an exercitui cdrior esset, therefore you could not easily tell whether he [Hannibal] was dearer to the general or to the army (Liv., xxi., 4, 3) ; nillla profecto alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset, any other nation would have been buried beneath such a mass of disaster (Liv., xxii., 54, 10), a. The primary tenses are used when the situation referred to is present, the secondary tenses when a past situation is in- volved. The distinction between the perfect and pluperfect on the one hand and the present and imperfect on the other is the same as in the hortatory use of the subjunctive. (See 472, c.) b. The potential subjunctive is often used to put a statement mildly for courtesy's sake, and is then called by the special name Subiunc&vus modestiae. Thus: Pace tud, patria, dlxerim, with your permission, O my country, I would say (Cic., Mil., 38, 103) ; baud sciam an, I could not tell whether (Cic., Tusc., iii., 24, 55). Cf. also the third example, above (conftrmaverim). c. The second person singular of a general subject (" you " = '* one," " anybody ") is especially common : as : Quern neque gloria neque pericula excitant, nequtquam hor- tere. him, whom neither glory nor danger rouses, you will ex- hort in vain (Sail., Cat., 58, 2). Cf. also the second example, above (laudaveris} . d. If the potential idea is to be brought out emphatically, the verbs possum, can, and licet, may, are used. With these and similar verbs, as debed, oportet, etc., and with adjectives of like meaning used with sum, sometimes also others, the indicative is often used where a potential subjunctive might be expected. The potential idea is here sufficiently indicated by the meaning of the word used. Thus : Perturbationes animorum poteram morbos appellare, sed non convenlret ad omnia, I might call disturbances of the soul SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. 271 diseases, but [the word] would not apply to all cases (Cic., Fin., iii., 10, 35) ; quanta melius fuerat, in hoc promlssum patris non esse servatum, how much better it would have been in this case for the father's promise not to have been kept (Cic., Off", iii., 25, 94) ; fuit tanti, mihl crede ; haberes quod defenderes, it would have been worth the price, believe me ; you would have some defense; possum persequi permult a ohlectamenta rerum riisticarum, sed ea ipsa, quae dlxl, sentio fuisse longwra, I might tell of very many delights of farming, but I feel that what I have said has itself been rather long (Cic., Sen., 16, 55) ; longum est ea dwere ; sed hoc breve dlcam, it were a long task to say that, but this I will say briefly (Cic., Sest., 5, 12). NOTE. The present indicative is thus often used where in English the past potential is preferred, as in the last two examples. Dubitativo Subjunctive. 475. The DUBITATIVE subjunctive is used to put a question for rhetorical effect, where no answer is ex- pected. Thus : Quid faciam, what can I do ? (Hor., Sat., ii., 1, 24) ; quid facerem, what could I do ? (Verg., EC., i., 40) ; quid hoc homine f aciatis, what would you do with such a man ? sed quaero a te, cur C. Corrielium non defenderem, but I ask you, why should I not have undertaken the defense of Gaius Cornelius ? (Cic., Vat., 2, 5) ; ego te ^idere noluerim, I un- willing to see you ? a. The present (or future) applies to a present situation, the imperfect and (rare) perfect to a past situation. Further- more, in questions in positive form the present implies doubt simply, the imperfect implies that no other course than the one adopted was natural or possible. Questions in negative form imply that the doubt suggested is too preposterous to consider. (Cf. the examples.) NOTE. The potential and dubitative subjunctives may, of course, oc- cur in dependent clauses, especially in indirect questions. Thus : Hoc spatio plura facinora in se victl ediderunt quam infestl edidisseiit victores, during this time the conquered performed more hostile acts against 272 SYNTAX. themselves than angry conquerors would have done (Liv. , xxxi., 18, 8) ; pudet ; nee quid again neque quid huic respondeam scio, I am ashamed, and know not what to do or what answer to give him (Ter., Ad., 485 ) Cf. also the Constructions of Indirect Discourse, 514 ff. For Concessive Dependent Clauses see 478-480. SUBJUNCTIVE IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES. Conditional Sentences. NOTE. The clause containing the condition proper (i. e,, the "if" clause) is called the PROTASIS, the other clause the APODOSIS or conclu- sion. 476. (1.) The INDICATIVE is used in conditional sentences to denote what is, was, or will be true, if some- thing else is, was, or shall be true. (2.) The SUBJUNCTIVE is used in conditional sentences to denote what would be or would have been true, if something else were, should be, or had been true. a. With the indicative, therefore, the supposed case is treated as a, fact, as to the existence of which the speaker or writer is uncertain ; with the primary tenses of the subjunctive the sup- posed case is treated as something merely assumed for argu- ment ; with the secondary tenses of the subjunctive the supposed case is treated as not a fact. b. The perfect subjunctive differs from the present only in marking completed action. The imperfect refers to present time or to a state or continued action in the past ; the pluperfect to past time. NOTE. The indicative implies nothing as to the reality of the protasis, but ASSERTS the reality of the apodosis, if the reality of the protasis be granted. The primary tenses of the subjunctive, in representing the case as merely assumed, hint that it is not actual, hut indicate nothing as to its probability or even possibility, except that in so far as they involve a refer- ence to the future they do not mark the case as distinctly impossible. The secondary tenses of the subjunctive mark the case distinctly as not actual, and are the only tenses that can be used when the supposed case is impos- sible, although they do not themselves mark it as impossible or even im- probable. Thus : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 273 477. INDICATIVE. Si id facis, hodie postre- mum me vides, if this is what you are doing you see me to- day for the last time (Ter., And., 322). Quid? si tyrannidem oc- cupdre, si patriam prodere conabitur pater, silebitne filius ? again, if a father at- tempt to make himself ruler unconstitutionally, if he try to betray his country, will the son keep silent about it ? (Cic., Off., iii., 23, 90). Si miki bond re publica frui rion licuerit, at carebo mala,, if I may not enjoy a good government I shall at least not live under a bad one (Cic., Mil, 34, 93). Rationem antlqul philo- sophl sententiae suae rion fere reddebant, nisi quid erat numeris aut descrlptionibus explicandum, the philosophers of old were not in the habit of giving an account of their opinions unless they had to ex- plain something by arithmetic or geometry (Cic., Tusc., i., 17, 38). Sic agam : si quid venale habuit Heius, si id, quantl aestimdbat, tantl vendidit, desino quaerere cur emeris, SUBJUNCTIVE. Ego si Scipionis deside- rio me moverl negem, men- tiar, if I should say that I was not affected by a longing for Scipio, I should lie (Cic., Am., 3, 10). Si gladium quis apud te sana mente deposuerit, re- petat msaniens, reddere pec- catum sit, if anybody should, being in sound mind, put a sword into your keeping and demand it in a fit of insanity, it would be wrong to return it (Cic., Off., iii., 25, 95). Si aut collegam, id quod mdllem, tul similem, L.Aemi- 11, haberes, aut tu collegae tul esses similis, supervacanea esset ordtio mea, if you had, as I should prefer, a colleague like yourself, Lucius Aemilius, or if you were like your col- league, my words would be su- perfluous (Liv., xxii., 39, l). Nunc quemadmodum au- diar sentw, at turn si dice- rem, rion aucHrer, I see how attentively I am listened to now, but if I had spoken then I should not have been listened to (Cic., Clu., 29, 80). SI Metelli fidei diffisus essem, iudicem eum rion re- tinuissem, if I had distrusted 274 SYNTAX. I will put it in this way : if the honor of Metellus, I should Heius had anything to sell, and not have retained him upon the if he sold it for as much as he jury (cf. Cic., Verr., Act 1, 31). asked, I stop inquiring why Ergo eg nisi peperissem, you bought it (Cic., Verr., iv., Roma, rion oppugnaretur ; 5, 10). nisi f ilium haberem, Itoera Vel officio, si quid de- in llbera patrid mortua es- buerat, vel errori, si quid sem, therefore, if I had not nescierat, satisfactum esse been a mother, Rome would duxit, he thought he had met not be under siege ; if I did all the demands of allegiance not have a son, I should have if he had owed any, and had died in freedom in a free coun- made good his error if through try (Liv M ii., 40). ignorance he had made any (Cic., Deiot., 5, 13). a. The idea of non-fulfillment is not inherent in the secon- dary tenses of the subjunctive themselves. This idea comes from the feeling that the past is settled and irrevocable, and thus when a supposed case is referred to the past there is a much stronger feeling that the real state of the case was dif- ferent than when a supposed case is referred to the present or future. It occasionally happens, however, that a supposition is thrown into the past without any implication as to its fulfill- ment, and then the secondary tenses of the subjunctive are still used in Latin. Thus : Si conlibuisset, ab duo usque ad mala citaret " id Boo ckae," if the fancy had seized him, he would shout " Ho I Bac- chants," till he dropped * (Hor., Sat., i., 3, 6). b. The distinction between the primary and secondary tenses as to the implication of non-fulfillment had not yet become fully established in the times of Plautus and Terence, and the present in their plays sometimes occurs of unfulfilled conditions. Thus : * Literally, from the egg to the apples, i. e., from beginning to end. Cf., in English, " from the soup to the fruit course." For the much commoner occurrence of this use in Indirect Discourse (real or implied), see 516. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 275 Adsum : nam si absim, haud recusem, quln mihi male sit, mel meum, I am here, for if I were away, I should make no objection to its going hard with me, my honey (Plaut., Cure., 164) ; tu si hie sis, aliter sentias, if you were in my shoes, you would feel differently (Ter., And., 310). c. With verbs like possum, debed, licet, etc., and other ex- pressions which in themselves denote necessity, possibility, power, duty, and the like, the indicative (imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect) is regularly used in classical Latin in the apodo- ses of conditions contrary to fact, where with other verbs the imperfect or pluperfect subjunctive is used. Thus : Quod esse caput debebat, si probarl posset, and this ought to be the main point, if it could be proved [as it cannot] (Cic., Fm., iv., 23) ; si unum diem morati essetis, morien- dum omnibus fuit, if you had delayed a single day, all would have had to die ; si mihi nondum aetds vacationem daret tamen aequum erat me dlmltti, if my age did not yet justify my exemption (as it does), yet it were just that I should be discharged. Cf. also, under Potential Subjunctive, 474, d. d. GENERAL CONDITIONS (i. e., such as denote what repeat- edly or always happens under certain circumstances) are ex- pressed in Latin by the indicative, except in the two following cases : (1.) The protasis has the subjunctive in the second person singular of the present when the subject is indefinite (i. e., " you " = " any one "), while in the other persons the indicative is employed, however general the application of the thing said. Thus : \_Mens quoque et animus, ~\ nisi tamquam luminl oleum In- stilles, exstinguuntur senectute, unless you drop oil into the lamp of the mind and soul, so to speak, their light goes out in old age (Cic., Sen., 11, 36) ; but, parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium dornl, prowess of arms abroad is of little worth unless there be wisdom at home (Cic., Off., i., 22, 76). (2.) If the general condition refers to the past, the protasis 276 SYNTAX. has the imperfect (or pluperfect) subjunctive in the Augustan poets and later writers of both verse and prose, where the re- publican writers use the indicative. Thus : Accusatores, slfacultas incideret. poenls adficiebantur, the accusers were [in every case] visited with punishment, if oppor- tunity offered (Tac., Ann., vi., 30) ; but, si quod erat grande vas aut mains opus inventum, laeti adferebant, if any large vase or considerable work of art was found, they carried it to him [Verres] with joy (Cic., Verr., iv., 21, 47). NOTE. The subjunctive in case (2) is a product of Greek influence. It -will be seen that in both (1) and (2) the apodosis has the indicative. (Cf. also 508, and 510, 1.) e. The protasis may be implied in some other form of expres- sion. Thus : Roges me, qualem naturam deorum esse ducam, nih'il for- tasse respondeam, ask me what I think the nature of the gods is, and I shall perhaps have no answer to make (Cic., N. D., i., 21, 57) ; nam absque te esset, hodie numquam ad solem occasum viverem, for had it not been for you, I should never have lived to see the sun set to-day (Plaut., 3fewz.,1024) ; rion mihi, nisi admonito, venisset in mentem, I should not have thought [of it] unless reminded (Cic., de Or., ii., 42, 180) ; nemo umquam, sine magna spe immortalitatis, se pro patrw of ferret ad mortem, no one would ever expose him- self to death for his country without a great hope of immortal glory [such as he now has] (Cic., TTisc., i., 15, 32). NOTE. In the development of language coordinate sentences were earlier than the subordinate constructions. This is well illustrated in such a sen- tence as the first example under e. It is but one step from roges me, nihil respondeam, to si me roges, nihil respondeam. The protasis in all subjunctive conditions was in this way developed from the hortatory sub- junctive, while the apodosis grew from the potential use, the two being col- lateral offshoots from the original notion of indeterminate futurity. /. So one form of expression may be used in the protasis, an- other in the apodosis ; and shades of meaning are thus some- times indicated, especially by the poets, which can hardly be re- tained in an English translation. Thus : CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 277 Atque adeo, si facere possim, pietas prohibet, and in fact filial affection prevents, supposing I could do it (Plaut., Ps., 290) ; cantus et e curru Lunam deducere temptat, et f aceret, si rion aera repulsa sonent, incantation tries to draw down the moon from her chariot, and would do it if the cymbals were not beaten till the echo [prevented] (Tib., i., 8, 21) ; si volebas participari, auferres dimidium domum, if you wanted to take a share, you might take half home (PL, True., iv., 2, 55) ; mirer, si vana vestra auctoritas ad plebem est, I should won- der if your influence counts for nothing with the commons (Liv., iii., 21, 4) ; si ipsa ratio minus perficiet, ut mortem neglegere posslmus, at vita acta perfieiat, ut satis superque vlxisse videamur, if Reason herself does not make me indif- ferent to death, yet the experience of life would make me seem to have lived quite long enough (Cic., Tusc., i., 45, 109) ; Flavl, delicias tuas Catullo, nei sint inlepidae atque inelegantes, velles dwere nee tacere posses, you would want to tell Catul- lus of your love, Flavius, and could not keep silent unless she be sordid and not very nice (Cat., 6, iff). Concessive Glauses. 478. With si, si maxima, etsl, tametsi, etiam si, con- cessive clauses take the indicative or subjunctive under precisely the same circumstances as conditional clauses with si. Thus : INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. In quibus si moderatio Si haec rion gesta audire- illa, quae in nostrls solet esse tis, sed picta videretis, ta~ consulibus, n5n fuit, at fuit men appareret uter esset 1n- pompa, fuit species, even if sidiator, even if you were not they had not that evenness of listening to these things as character which our consuls events described, but were look- are wont to have, yet they had ing at them delineated in col- an impressive dignity of man- or, yet you could tell which ner (Cic., Pis., 11, 24). was the one who laid the Nam si ego dlgna hdc con- snare (Cic., Mil., 20, 54). 278 SYNTAX. tumelia sum maxume, at tu indignus, qul faceres tamen, for even though I deserve this insult ever so much, yet you were not the one to put it upon me (Ter., Eun., 865). Caesar, etsi nondum eorum consilia cognoverat, tamen ex eo, quod obsides dare inter- miser ant, fore id, quod acci- dit, suspicabatur, although Caesar had not yet discovered their designs, yet from the fact that they had neglected to send the usual hostages, he began to suspect what proved to be the case (Caes., S. G., iv., 31). Tametsi statim vicisse de- bed, tamen de meo iure de- cedam, although an immediate victory is rightfully mine, I will retire from my right (Cic., Rose. Am., 27, 73). Quod crebro [_quis~\ videt, non mlratur, etiam si cur flat nescit, what one sees fre- quently he does not marvel at, even if he does not know its cause (Cic., Div., ii., 22, 49). Etiam si quid scribas non habebis, scribito tamen, even though you (shall) have no- thing to write, nevertheless write (Cic., Fam., xvi., 26,2). Nam ista veritas etiam si iucunda non est, mihi tamen grata est, for that truth, al- Neque enim, si maxime statuae deiectae essent, eas ego vobis possem iacentes ostendere, for even if the sta- tues were altogether scattered upon the ground, I could not show them to you, as they lay there (Cic., Verr., ii., 68, 164). Etsi nihil aliud Sullae nisi comulatum abstulisse- tis, tamen eo contentos vos esse oportebat, though you had taken nothing else from Sulla than the consulship, yet you ought to be satisfied with that (Cic., Sull, 32, 90). Sed tametsi iam ita con- stituisses, ut abesse perpetud mattes quam ea, quae riolles, videre, tamen id cogitare de- beres, but although you had already made up your mind to stay away forever rather than see what you would rather not see, yet you ought to bear this point in mind (Cic., Fam., iv., 7,4). Etiam si nobilitatum non sit, tamen honestum sit, quodque vere dlcimus, etiam si au nullo laudetur, natura esse laudabile, even though it should not be stamped as noble, yet it would be worthy of re- spect and a thing which we truly call praiseworthy in its CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 279 though it is unpleasant, I am nature, even though no one yet glad to hear (Cic., Att., in., should praise it (Cic., Off., i., 24, 2). 4, 14). 479. Concessive clauses are also introduced by licet, ut, quamvls, and quamquam. Of these : 480. (1.) Clauses with licet or ut take the subjunc- tive. (2.) Clauses with quamquam take the indicative in classical Latin, the subjunctive later, while clauses with quamvls take the subjunctive in classical Latin and the indicative later.* Thus : INDICATIVE. jRomani, quamquam iti- nere et proelio fessl erant, tamen Metello Instructi inten- flque obviam procedunt, al- though the Romans were weary with the march and the battle, yet they went forth against Metellus drawn up in good order and on the alert (Sall., lug., 53, 5). Quamquam in utroque vestrum summum esse inge- nium studiumque perspexl, tamen haec, quae sunt in spe- tie posita, in te, Sulpici, dl- vlna sunt, although I have seen in both of you very great ability and zeal, yet in this matter of beauty of style you, Sulpicius, are divine (Cic., de Or., i., 29, 131). SUBJUNCTIVE. Sed omnia licet concur- rant, Idus Martiae conso- lantur, but though all [hor- rors] should unite against me, yet the 15th of March is a consolation (Cic., Att., xiv., 4, 2). Ut enim neminem alium nisi T. Patinam familiaris- simum suum rogasset, sclre potuit, for even though he had asked no one but his dear friend Titus Patina, he might have known (Cic., Mil., 17, 46). Quamquam enim sintf in quibusdam mails, tamen hoc nomen beatl longe et late patet, for though they may be in some misfortune, yet this word Chappy" is one of far- * In very late Latin licet also is found with the indicative. t In this and the few other cases in which Cicero uses the subjunctive in a quamquam clause, the subjunctive is potential, and not influenced by the concessive character of the sentence. (Cf. the translation.) 280 SYNTAX. Quamvis est enim om- reaching import (Cic., Tusc., nis hyperbole ultra finem, v., 30, 85). rion tamen esse debet ultra Quamvls sis molestus, modum, for although all hy- nunquam te esse confitebor perbole means overstepping malum, for although you are the line, yet it should not go annoying, I will never admit beyond all bounds (Quint., that you are bad (Cic., Tusc., viii., 6, 73). ii., 25, 61). NOTE. The concessive clauses with quamvls and ut are of hortatory origin, quamvls meaning- "however much," and uf, "how; " licet is really an impersonal verb, and the subjunctive was at first a coordinate potential subjunctive (cf. 491) ; quamquam introduces regularly something granted to be a fact, and therefore naturally has the indicative. a. Quamvls, in its earlier meanings " however," " as much as you please," etc., is used to modify some particular adjective or adverb, and then has no effect upon the mood of the verb. Thus : Quasi vero mihi difficile sit, quamvis multos nominatim proferre, just as if it would be hard for me to mention by name as many as you please (Cic., Hose. Am., 16, 47) ; doctorum est ista consuetude eaque Graecorum, ut els ponatur de quo dispu- tent quamvis subito, it is the professional philosophers, and that, too, Greek ones, who have that habit of letting a subject be proposed to them for discussion however suddenly (Cic., Am., 5, 17). So, quamvis licet Imectemur Stoicos metud ne soil philoso- phl sint, for though we attack the Stoics as much as you please, I fear they are the only real philosophers (Cic., Tusc., iv., 24, 53). b. Quamquam and etsl, often, tametsi, rarely, are used with independent sentences to add a sort of correction to what has been said, as is done in English by " and yet." Thus : Quamquam quid opus est in hoc philosopJidrz, and yet, what need is there of philosophizing on this subject? (Cic., Tusc., i., 37, 89) ; hdrum duarum condicionum nunc utram mails vide ; etsi consilium, quod cepl, rectum esse et tiitum CLAUSES OF CONCESSION, AND OF COMPARISON. 281 scid, now see which of these two propositions you prefer ; and yet the plan which I have formed I know is sound and safe. (Ter., Heaut., 327). c. Etsi, quamquam, and quamvis are used rarely in classical writers, but very commonly in Tacitus and the later authors (like "although" in English), with participles, etsl and quam- quam also with adjectives, without any verb. Thus : Qua re omni ratwne esse interdiuperruin pendum ; etsi ali- qu5 accepto detriments, tamen summa exercitus salva locum, quern petant, capl posse, [that] therefore on all accounts they must break through by daylight, and although some loss might be experienced, yet with the main body of the army un- hurt, the place they were making for could be taken (Caes., B. C., i., 67) ; lorlcam induit linteam, quamquam hand dissimu- lans parum adversus tot miicrones profuturam, he [Galba] put on a canvas breastplate, though perfectly well aware that it would be of little use against so many sword points (Suet., Galba, 19) ; haec, mlra quamquam, fidem ex eo trahebant, these things, wonderful though they were, induced belief from the fact (Tac., An., vi., 30) ; mene non primum cum Pompeid, quallcumque consilio sud, delude cum, boms esse, quamvis causa temere instituta, I not be, in the first place, on Pom- pey's side whatever his design, and afterwards on the right side, although they had not managed their course with discretion ? (Cic., Att., ix., 6, 4). For Concessive clauses with Relative Pronouns, see 500, 2, 6. " " Cum " 510, 2. " Clauses of Proviso with Dum, Modo, etc., " 504. Clauses with Particles of Comparison. 481. (1.) Clauses of comparison take the indicative when the comparison is simply stated as a fact. (2.) They take the subjunctive when the comparison is put as a supposed case. Si is then usually added to the particle of comparison ; as, tamquam si, quasi^ ut sl^ velut si, ac si. Thus : UNIVERSITY Of . W\V ^ 282 SYNTAX. INDICATIVE. lllud te hortor, ut, tam- quam poetae bonl solent, sic tu in extrema parte muneris tul dlligentissimus sis, this I urge upon you: just as good poets are in the habit of doing, so do you exercise especial care in the last part of your task (Cic., Q. Fr., i., 1, 46). Quasi poma ex arbori- bus, cruda si sunt, vix evel- luntur, si mdtura et cocta, decidunt, sic vltam adulescen- tibus vis aufert, as fruit when unripe is torn with difficulty from its tree, but when it is fully ripe falls, so force is neces- sary to take away life from the young (Cic., Sen., 19, 71). Est ita, ut dlcitur, it is as it is said to be. Haec sicut exposui, ita gesta sunt, these things took place as I have set forth (Cic., Mil., 11, 30). Ut sementem feceris, ita metes, as thou sowest, so shalt thou reap (Cic., de Or., ii., 65, 261). Longe alia nobls ac tu scripseras nuntiantur, the accounts told me are far other than you wrote (Cic., Att., xi., 10, 2). Pergratum mihi feceris, si quemadmodum soles de ceteris rebus cum ex te SUBJUNCTI V E . Verum homines corrupti superbia ita aetatem agunt, quasi vostros horiores con- temnant; ita hos petunt, quasi honeste vixerint. but men have become spoiled by arrogance and conduct them- selves as if they scorned your offices, but sue for them as if they lived respectable lives (Sail., lug., 85, 19). Qul quasi sua res aut horios agatur, ita dlligenter Sex. Naevi studw et cupiditati morem gerunt, who devote themselves to accomplishing the zealous and eager desires of Sextus Naevius with as much energy as if their own interests or honors were at stake (Cic., Qiiine., 2, 9). Tantus patres metus de summa rerum cepit, velut si iam ad portas hostis esset, as great a fear for the govern- ment seized upon the senators as if the enemy were already at the gates (Liv., xxi., 16, 2). At acciisat C. Cornell fl- lius, et id aeque valere debet, ac si pater indicaret, but the son of Gaius Cornelius is the accuser, and that ought to have as much weight as if the father were giving testimony (Cic., SulL, 18, 51). Tamquam clausa sit CLAUSES OF COMPARISON, AND OF PURPOSE. 283 quaeritur, sic de amicitia dis- Asia, sic nihil perfertur ad putaris quid sentias, I shall nos, we fail to get any news as be very much obliged to you if completely as if Asia were you tell us what you think blockaded (Cic., Fam., xii., 9). about friendship, in the same Ut si bond animo fecis- way you are wont to discuss sent laudavit consilium eo- other topics, when you are rum, he [Agesilaus] praised asked about them (Cic., Am., their scheme, just as if they iv., 16). had acted with good inten- tions (Nep., Ages., 6, 2). a. In subjunctive clauses of comparison, if the supposed com- parison applies to the present (or future), the primary tenses are used ; if to the past, the secondary tenses. The perfect and pluperfect indicate, of course, completed action. Occasionally, however, the imperfect is used referring to present time, when the comparison involves something impossible or very unnat- ural, as in the fourth example above. For Comparative Clauses with Quam = " than," see 498, and 516, e. Clauses of Purpose (Final Glauses). 482. The SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE is introduced : (1.) By the conjunctions ut, that, and ne, that not, lest (occasionally ut ne). To connect two clauses of purpose neve (neu) is used for " and not " as well as "or not " " nor." Thus : Esse oportet ut vivas ; non vivere ut edas, you must eat in order to live, not live in order to eat (Cornif., Heren., iv., 28, 39) ; ne qua eius adventus procul slgnificatio fiat, that no indication of his arrival may be made at a distance (Caes., J5. G., vi., 29) ; excitanda est diligentia, ut ne quid neglegenter agamus, we must rouse up our energy so as to do nothing care- lessly ; ut vetera exempla relinquam, neve eorum aliquem qul vivunt nominem, to leave examples from old times and yet not name any of the living (Cic., Sest., 47, 101). (2.) By a relative pronoun or adverb ; as, qul, unde, etc. Thus : Ea qui c5nficeret Gaium Trebonium legatum relinquit, 284 SYNTAX. he leaves his lieutenant Gaius Trebonius to attend to these things (Caes., B. G., vii., 11) ; scribebat tamen orationes quas alii dicerent, yet he used to write speeches for others to deliver (Cic., Brut., 56, 206) ; homini natura ratwnem dedit, qua re- gerentur animi adpetltus, to man Nature has given reason, to govern the desires of the mind (cf. Cic., N. D., ii., 12, 34) ; quasi iam divinarem, id quod accidit, illo exstlncto, fore unde dlscerem neminem, as if I already had a presentiment of what proved to be the case, that after his death there would be nobody from whom I could learn (for me to learn from) (Cic., Sen., 4, 12) ; habebam quo confugerem, I had a refuge to flee to (Cic., Fam., iv., 6, 2) ; locum, ubl consistat reperire rion poterit, he will not be able to find a place in which to make a stand (Cic., Qulnc., 1, 5). NOTE. Ut represents the purpose in a general way as the purpose of the action indicated by the main verb ; the relative connects the purpose par- ticularly with some word in the main clause. Thus : Cldvem cepit ut idnuam reduderet, he took the key to open the door. Cldvem cepit qua idnuam recluderet, he took the key to open the door with. (3.) Especially by quo (in the sense of ut eo), if the purpose clause contains a comparative.* Thus : Inr'ttant ad pugnandum, quo fiunt acriSres, they goad them on to battle, to make them the fiercer (Varr.) ; libertate usus est, quo impunius dicax esset, he used his freedom to bluster the more safely (Cic., Qmnc., 3, 11). a. When the clause upon which the purpose clause depends stands first, it often contains some word or phrase like ideo, idcirco, eo cdnsilio, hoc animo, to prepare the way for the purpose clause ; as : Legibus denique idcirco omnes servlmus, ut Uberl esse possimus, to the laws, in short, we are all slaves, but only on this account, namely, to secure the possibility of freedom (Cic., Clu., 53, 146) ; eo ad te animS venimm, ut de re publicd * Quo is very rarely used if there is no comparative, and, on the other hand, ut is occasionally used where there is a comparative. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 285 esset silentium, with this purpose we have come to you, that we might cease thinking and talking about the government (Cic., Brut., 3, 11). b. When the purpose belongs to the present (or future) the present subjunctive is used ; when it belongs to the past, the imperfect is used. The perfect and pluperfect are in the nature of the case uncommon, representing a purpose as completed in the present or past respectively. c. But the clause of purpose sometimes depends upon an idea of saying implied, instead of upon the main verb of the sentence expressed. Thus : Sed ut hie, qui intervenit, me intuens, ne Ignoret, quae res agatur, de natura agebamus deorum, but that our friend who has just come in and he glanced at me may not be in the dark as to the subject of our discussion, we were discussing the divine nature (Cic., N. D., i., 7, 17). Ne Ignoret indicates the purpose of making the remark, not the purpose of the discus- sion. d. Of similar character is the use of nedum introducing a subjunctive clause where we say " not to mention," " still less," etc. Thus : Satrapa si siet amator numquam sufferre eitis sumptus queat, nedum tu possis, if her lover were a governor he could never stand her extravagance, still less can you (Ter., Heaut., 454). NOTE. Ut, as well as qui, u&f, etc. , is in origin a relative, so that all these clauses of purpose are really of the same nature. Their develop- ment may be illustrated thus : He sends a boy ; he will or would say, (or) let him say. He sends a boy who will say, (or) who is to say. He sends a boy, that he may say, (or) to say. The English exhibits the coordinate construction beside the subordinate in the expressions " come and see me," "come to see me." For other constructions of purpose, see as follows : Gerunds and Gerundives : 551, and 552, 2. Future Participle (rare) : 545, a. Supine (with verbs of motion) : 554, 2. (Poetical) Infinitive : 536. 286 SYNTAX. Clauses of Result (Consecutive Clauses). 483. The SUBJUNCTIVE OF RESULT is introduced : (1.) By ut, that, ut lion, that not. Thus : Non is es, Catilina, ut te pudor umquam a turpitudlne revocarit, you are not such a person, Catiline, that shame has ever kept you from a base deed (cf. Cic., Cat., i., 9, 22) ; multls gravibusque volneribus confectus, ut iam se sustinere non posset, worn out with many serious wounds, so that now he could no longer hold himself up (Caes., B. G., ii., 25). (2.) By a relative pronoun or adverb, qui, etc. Thus : Nemo est tarn senex, qui se annum non putet posse vivere, no one is so old that he does not think he can live a year (Cic., Sen., 7, 24) ; quis tarn fuit illo tempore ferreus, qui non illo- rum aetdte] nobilitdte, miserid commoveretur, who was so iron-hearted then, that he was not influenced by their age, their high birth, and their pitiable condition? (Cic., Verr., v.,46, 12l). (3.) Especially by qmn (equivalent to the nominatives qui, quae, quod, etc., with non), when the main clause contains or implies a negative. Thus : Nidlast tain facilis res, quin difficilis siet, qi^om invitus facias, nothing is so easy that it is not hard when you do it against your will (Ter., Heaut., 805) ; numquam accedo, quin abs te abeam doctior, I never come to you without going away richer in knowledge. a. The clause of result is generally foreshadowed in the main clause by some word like ita, sic, tarn, is, talis, tantus, adeo. (Cf. the examples.) b. When clauses which seem to be result clauses have ne or ut ne, it is because the thing said is looked at rather as an intended effect (purpose) than as a result (accomplished effect). Thus : Utroque tempore ita me gessi ne tibi pudort, ne regno tuo, ne genii Macedonum essem, on both occasions I so conducted CLAUSES OF RESULT. myself as not to bring discredit upon you or your kingdom, or upon the Macedonians as a people [i. e., it was my aim not to, etc.] (Liv., xl., 15, 6). NOTE. As in the case of purpose clauses, the relative clause of result is an earlier development than the ut clause. This development began as an independent apodosis with an implied protasis in some such fashion as this: This is a very simple thing : you would easily see it. This thing is so simple : it is one which you would easily see. This thing is so simple that you would easily see it. This thing is so simple that it causes no trouble.* Starting thus with the notion of indeterminate futurity inherent in the subjunctive, the result clause tends to pass from the supposed case to an actual case. In this process the subjunctive loses more and more of its modality, and gains correspondingly in definiteness of tense, so that : c. In pure result clauses, unlike the other dependent clauses thus far treated, the tenses of the subjunctive seem to acquire the same distinctness of temporal quality which the indicative has. This is especially true of the perfect subjunctive, as can be seen in examples like the following : Expulsus regno tandem aliquando, Mithridates tantum tamen consilid atque auctoritate valuit ut se rege Armenia- rum adiuncto novls opibus copiisque renovarit, driven at last out of his kingdom, Mithridates was still so effective with his schemes and influence that he renewed his means and troops by winning the king of the Armenians as an ally (Cic., Miir., 15, 33). NOTE 1. How far the Romans were conscious of a substitution of tense force for mood force in such subjunctives it is perhaps impossible to tell. It may be that the perfect, through denoting completed action, differs in clauses of result from the imperfect in the same way that the English expressions "so that he did" and "so as to do" differ. Compare with the example just given the following from the same oration : Qul rex, sibt aliquot annis sumptls ad confirmandds rationes et copids belli, tantum spe conatuque valuit, ut se Oceanum cum Ponto coniuncturum putaret, and this king, having taken several years to mature his plans * Cf. J. B. Greenough's essay on The Latin Subjunctive, pp. 17 ff., and W. G. Hale's "Sequence of Tenses in Latin," American Journal of Phi- lology, viii., 1, pp. 49 ff. 288 SYNTAX. and strengthen his forces, found himself so powerful, in his hopes and ambitions, as to fancy that he was going to spread his sway from the Black Sea to the ocean (Cic., Mur., 15, 32). In using the imperfect, the writer seems to he thinking more of the fact (expressed by the main verb) which produces the result, while the perfect calls attention rather to the result itself. NOTE 2. This difference between the perfect and the imperfect sub- junctive can perhaps be more plainly seen by comparing a clause of result with a clause of purpose. Thus : RESULT. Inventus est scrlba quidam qui cornicum oculns conflxerit, there was found a certain clerk who bearded the lion (lit., pierced the eyes of the crows) (Cic., Mur., 11, 25). PURPOSE. Reperti sunt duo equites Romani qui te istd curd liberarent, there were found two Roman knights to free you from that anxiety (Cic. , Cat., i., 4, 9). The purpose is something looked forward to in the indefinite future, and therefore has no reference to a particular time other than the time of the main verb ; the result is something which has occurred at a definite past time, and therefore, besides its reference to its main verb, involves, like the indicative, a reference also to the time the thing is said.* Substantive Clauses with Ut. Ne, Quin, Quominus. 484. After the analogy of final and consecutive clauses, subjunctive clauses introduced by ut (and ut nori), lie (neve or neu, and ut ne), qum, and quominus, were used as the subject or object of a variety of verbs, or in apposition to some word governed by them. 485. Clauses analogous to final clauses are thus used depending upon several classes of verbs which denote an action directed to the future. Such clauses are called SUBSTANTIVE OF OBJECT CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. Thus : 486. With verbs meaning to WISH, ASK, BESEECH, DE- MAND, DETERMINE, DECREE, ALLOW, etc. ; as I Phaetkon optavit ut in currum patris tolleretur, Phae- thon wanted to be taken up into his father's chariot (Cic., Off., * This difference exists, of course, in the nature of the case itself, and not in the form of the expression. In English we mark the difference by the mood of the verb ; the Romans failed to do so, but it does not follow that they did not feel the difference. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 289 iii., 25, 94) ; Verves rogat et orat Dolabellam, ut ad Nero- nem proficiscatur, Verres asks and begs Dolabella to visit Nero (Cic., Verr., i., 29, 72) ; mllites poscunt pugnam, postulant, ut slgnum daretur, the soldiers call for battle, and de- mand that the signal be given (Liv., ii., 45, 6) ; Galll sta- tuunt, ut decem milia hominum in oppidum mittantur, the Gauls determine that ten thousand men be sent into the town (Caes., B. G., vii., 21) ; decrevit senatus, ut L. Oplmius vi- deret, rie quid res publica detriment?, caperet, the senate de- creed that Lucius Opimius should see to it that the state suffered no harm (Cic., Cat., i., 2, 4) ; consuli permlssum est, ut duds legiones scriberet novas, the consul was authorized to enroll two new legions (Lav., xxxv., 20, 4). 487. With verbs meaning to PROPOSE, ADVISE, WARN, URGE, PERSUADE, DIRECT, COMMAND, COMPEL, etc. ; as : \_Nescls~] te autem ipsum ad populum tulisse, ut quintus praeterea dies Caesarl tribueretur, and have you forgotten that you yourself proposed to the people that a fifth day be- sides should be assigned to Caesar ? (Cic., Phil., ii., 43, 110) ; postea me, ut sibi essem legatus, rion solum suasit, verum etiam rogavit, afterwards he not only advised, but even re- quested me to be his lieutenant (Cic., Prov. Cons., 17, 42) ; monet, ut in reliquum tempus omnes suspwiones vitet, he warns him, for the future, to avoid all suspicious conduct (Caes., B. Gr., i., 20) ; Caninms noster me tuis verbis admonuit, ut scriberem ad te, our friend Caninius has suggested to me on your behalf that I write to you (Cic., Fam., ix., 6, l) ; Caesar mllites cohortatus est, utl suae prlstinae virtutis memoriam retinerent neu perturbarentur animo, Caesar urged the soldiers to hold fast to the remembrance of their old-time valor, and not to be troubled in their minds ; huic magnls praemils pollicitationibusque persuadet, uti ad hostes transeat, he persuades this man by promise of great rewards to cross over to the enemy's lines (Caes., B. G., iii., 18) ; servls imperat, ut se ipsum neglegant, flliam defendant, he orders his slaves not to pay any attention to him, but to protect his daughter 290 SYNTAX. (Cic., Verr., i., 26, 67) ; teriemus enim memoria Q. Catulum esse coactnm, ut vita se ipse privaret, for we remember that Quintus Catulus was forced to take his own life (Cic., de Or., iii., 3, 9). 488. Substantive clauses of purpose are further used with verbs meaning to ATTEND TO, LOOK OUT FOE, STRIVE, TRY, etc. ; as : Cura ut valeds, see that you keep well (Cic., Fam., vii., 5, 3) ; videamus, ut, quidquid acciderit, fortiter feramus, let us see to it that we bear bravely whatever happens ; qul sta- dium currit, eniti debet, ut vincat, he who runs a race ought to try his best to win (Cic., Off., iii., 10, 42). 489. Many of these verbs are also used with an infini- tive clause. Thus : (1.) Void, ndld, maid, cupid, studed, always ; statud, cdn- stitud, decernd, generally, take an infinitive (not a subjunctive clause) when there is no change of subject. Thus : Si accelerare volent, ad vesperam cdnsequentur, if they are willing to hurry they will overtake him by evening (Cic., Cat., ii., 4, 6) ; simul illdrum C'llamitatern commeinorando augere n5l5, at the same time I do not wish to increase the misfortune of these people by dwelling upon it (Cic.. Ver. Ac., i., 14) ; incomtnoda sua nostrls committere legibus et iudiciis quam dolorl suo permittere maluerunt, they preferred to leave their injuries to the protection of our laws and courts rather than base action upon their own distress (Cic., Verr., i., 32, 82) ; statuerunt id secum in Syriam reportare, they determined to take that back with them to Syria (Cic., Verr., iv., 28, 64). (2.) Void, twlo, maid, cupio, have often also the infinitive even when the subject changes. Thus : An omriis tu istos vincere volebas, qul nunc tu ut vin- cas tanto opere laborant, or did you want to have all these gen- tlemen win who are now struggling so hard to have you win ? (Cic., Qulnct., 21, 69) ; tu Syracusan5s diem festum Mar- cellls impertlre noluisti, you were unwilling to have the people of Syracuse celebrate a holiday in honor of the Marcelli SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 291 (Cic., Verr., ii., 21, 51) ; rem talem per olios citius quam per se tardius confici malebat, he preferred to have a matter of this kind carried out quickly by others rather than slowly by himself (Cic., Sest., 32, 70). (3.) Sirio always (except in the imperative), smdpatior gen- erally, take the infinitive. (4.) lubed and veto regularly take the infinitive ; so also im- pero and postulo when the verb dependent upon them is passive or deponent ; as : Caesar quinque cohortes de media node proficisci impe- rat, Caesar orders five cohorts to set out about midnight. 490. Several of these verbs take the subjunctive if they imply a COMMAND or REQUEST, the infinitive if they merely introduce a STATEMENT. Thus : (1.) Persuaded, moneo, concedo, etc., with the subjunctive, mean *' persuade, warn, allow one to do a thing ; " with the in- finitive, " persuade, warn, grant one that a thing is so and so." (2.) Words like dicer e, scribere, respondere, nuntiare, with the subjunctive, mean " tell, write, etc., one to do so and so ; " as : Dicam tuls, ut librum meum descrlbant ad teque mlt- tant, I will tell your people to make a copy of my book, and send it to you (Cic., Fam., xii., 17, 2). 491. Sometimes the subjunctive has no introductory ut. Thus : Visne igitur hoc primum videamus, do you wish then that we should look at this point first ? malo te sapiens hostis me- tuat, quam stulti ewes laudent, I would rather have you feared by a wise enemy than praised by foolish fellow-countrymen ; a te peto, me absentem defendas, I beg of you to defend me in my absence ; Caesar Commid imperat quas possit adeat clvitates, Caesar orders Commius to visit such states as he can ; hane si qui partem putabit esse orationis, sequatur licebit, if any one thinks this is a part of oratory, he may follow [Her- magoras] (Cic., Inven., i., 51, 97). 292 SYNTAX. So with velim, vellem, malim, etc., used as a circumlocution to express a wish. (See 473, c.) NOTE. It is incorrect to say that in these cases an ut is omitted. They are survivals of the old coordinate construction before the ut construction was developed, and the apparently dependent subjunctive is really an inde- pendent hortatory or potential subjunctive. 492. After verbs and expressions which denote FEAR, ANXIETY, etc., the subjunctive with rie expresses a fear that something will or may happen ; with tie non (or ut), a fear that something will or may not happen (see note below). Thus : Vereor, ne, dum minuere velim labdrem, augeam, I am afraid that, while wishing to lessen the labor, I shall increase it (Cic., Leg., i., 4, 12) ; vldit periculum esse, ne exutum impedimentls exercitum nequlquam incolumem traduxisset, he saw there was danger of his having taken the army safely across to no purpose if stripped of its baggage (Lav., ix., 18) ; non qu5 verear, ne tua virtus oplnidnt hominum non re- spondeat, not that I am afraid that your merits will not fulfill men's expectations (Cic., fain., ii., 5, 2) ; veremur, ne forte non alvorum utilitatibus sed propriae laudl servlsse videa- mur, I am afraid that I may, perhaps, seem to have been work- ing not for the interests of others, but for my own glory ; rem frumentariam, ut satis commode supportari posset, timere [se] dicebant, they said they were afraid that provisions could not be conveyed comfortably and conveniently (Caes., B. G., i., 39). a. Ut, rather than ne ndn, is used by the comic poets, espe- cially with timed, metud, and paved, and by Pacuvius and Ter- ence with vereor. Cicero also prefers ut after vereor and timed, and Caesar uses it after timed, as in the last example. Ne non is rare in the comic writers, and disappears wholly after Cice- ro's time. b. Vereor, and less commonly other verbs of fearing, when they mean " afraid to do," take an infinitive ; as : Ah f vereor cdram in ds te laudare amplius, oh, I am SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. 293 afraid to praise you any more thus to your face (Ter., Ad., 269). c. The verb of fearing or caution is sometimes omitted in lively address or conversation, the subjunctive clause thus stand- ing alone ; as : Ne nimium modo . . . tuos iste animus aequos subvortat, only [take care] lest that easy-going disposition of yours upset us too completely (Ter., Ad., 835). NOTE. Clauses of fearing are really developments from the hortatory or the optative use of the subjunctive, and this origin explains the apparent contradiction in the use of ut to express ' ' that not. ' ' Thus : metuo; ne id fiat ! = metud ne id flat. I am afraid; < ^ > it not happen " I am afraid it will happen. metuo; neidnonflat! = metuo ne id non flat. metuo; ut id flat I " metuo ut id flat. let ) ( it not fail to happen ) " I am afraid it will not may ) { it happen ) happen. I am afraid ; 493. Substantive clauses of purpose often passing into result are used : (1.) With ne (ut ne) or without a particle, after words meaning to guard against or forbid. Thus : Cavendum est, ne extra modum prodeas, you must guard against overstepping the limit (Cic., Off.) i., 39, 140) ; neque enim est inter dictum out a rerum natura aut a lege aliqua atque more, ut singulis hominibus ne amplius quam singulas artes nosse liceat, for neither by the constitu- tion of the universe, nor by any statute or convention, is it for- bidden that one man shall know more than one subject (Cic., de Or., i., 50, 215). a. Cavere means properly " look out for," " provide for." Therefore with ne it means " to guard against ; " and with ut " to take care that." Cave without a particle is used as a cir- cumlocution for forbidding. Thus : Cave festines, do not hasten ; cave f axis, don't do it. (2.) With ne or quominus (sometimes also qum, if the 294 SYNTAX. main clause contains or implies a negative), after verbs meaning to OPPOSE, REFUSE, HINDER, etc. Thus : Pliira ne scribam, dolore impedior, I am prevented by grief from writing more ; Atticus, ne qua sibi statua ponere- tur, restitit, Atticus opposed having a statue set up to him anywhere ; elsdem de causls . . . quominus dimicare vellet, movebatur, by the same reasons he was influenced against wishing to fight (Caes., B. C., i., 82) ; Epaminondas non recu- savit quominus legis poenam subiret, Epaminondas did not refuse to suffer the penalty of the law (Nep., Epam., viii., 2) ; Regulus sententiam ne diceret recusavit, Regulus refused to give an opinion (Cic., Off., iii., 27, 100) ; rion possumus, quin alii a nobls dissentiant recusare, we cannot object to others disagreeing with us (Cic., Acad., ii., 3, 7). a. Recusare in affirmative clauses always takes ne after it ; in negative clauses it may be followed by quin, quominus, or the infinitive. Illud recusavit, ne id a se fieri pSstularent. quod adver- sus ius hospitl esset, he would not let them demand that a thing should be done by him which was against the law of hospitality (Nep., xxiii., 12, 3) ; non recusabo, quominus omnes mea legant, I will not object to everybody reading my words (Cic., Fin., i., 3, 7) ; frater meus ad omnia perlcula prlnceps esse non recusabat, my brother has no reluctance to taking the lead in facing all dangers. b. Impedlre and deterrere sometimes, and prohibere more commonly, take the infinitive. Thus : Caesar igries in castris fieri prohibuit, Caesar forbade fires being made in the camp (Caes., B. C., iii., 30, 5) ; quid est, quod me impediat ea, quae mihi probabilia videantvr sequi, what is there to hinder me from adopting the views which seem to me probable ? (Cic., Off., ii. 2, 8). 494. Substantive clauses after the analogy of CLAUSES OF RESULT are chiefly used : a. With impersonal verbs like fit, accidit, contingti, evenit, SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES OP RESULT. 295 est, as a circumlocution to express the occurrence or existence of something. Thus : Accidit ut una nocte omnes hermae Athenis deicerentur, it came to pass that in one night all the " hermae " * at Athens were thrown down ; persaepe evenit, ut utilitas cum honestate certet, it is often the case that what is expedient is at variance with what is right (Cic., Part. Or., 25, 89) ; quando fuit ut quod licet non liceret, when was it true that the lawful was not lawful ? 495. After certain kinds of verbs the substantive clause has a final or a consecutive character, according as the given case is regarded as something intended or as something accomplished or in process of accomplishment. Thus : 496. With verbs meaning to CAUSE, ACCOMPLISH, OB- TAIN, etc. ; as : Hamilcar effecit ut imperator in Hispaniam mitteretur, Hamilcar brought it about that he should be sent into Spain as commander (0000,00,00). (FINAL.) Impetrabis a Caesare, ut tibi abesse liceat, you will get from Caesar permission to be away (Cic., Att., ix., 2, A 1). (CONSECUTIVE.) Commeatus ab Remis reliqmsque clvitatibus ut sine peri- culo ad eum portari possent, efficiebat, [this thing] made it possible for supplies to be brought to him from the Remi and the other states without danger (Caes., B. G., ii., 5). (FiNAL.) 497. So with impersonal verbs like efficitur, sequiturrf restat^ relinquitur, and expressions like proximum est, mos est, ius est. Thus : Restat, ut de imperatore ad id belhim deligendo . . . dicen- dum esse videatur, it seems necessary for me in conclusion to * That is, images of Hermes with only the upper half of the body de- lineated, the lower half being 1 simply squared off into a column of support. t Efficitur and sequitur may also take an infinitive ; as : ex quo illud efficitur, qul ben'e cenent, omnes libenter ceuare, thence follows that all who dine well enjoy dining. 296 SYNTAX. speak about the choice of a commander for this war (Cic., Leg. Man., 10, 27). (CONSECUTIVE.) Proximum est, ut doceam deorum providentia mundum administrdrl, the next thing is for me to show that the universe is managed by divine providence (Cic., N. D., ii., 29, 73). (FiNAL.) Ariovistus respondit ius esse belli, ut qul vlcissent els quos vlcissent quemadmodum vellent imperarent, Ariovistus an- swered that it was the right of war for the conqueror to lay such commands upon the vanquished as he wishes (Caes., B. G., i., 36). (FINAL.) 498. So after comparatives with quam, with or without nt, the subjunctive has sometimes a final, sometimes a consecutive, nature. Thus : Isocrates maiore mihi ingcnw videtur esse quam ut cum Lyswb comparetur, Isocrates seems to me to have too great ability to be compared with Lysias. (FINAL.) Qul perpessus est omnia potius quam conscws delendae tyrannidis indicaret, who suffered everything rather than dis- close the accomplices of the plot to overthrow the tyranny (Cic., Tusc., ii., 22, 52). (CONSECUTIVE.) 499. To the foregoing clauses may be added the clauses with qmn, depending on a clause which contains or implies negation. Thus : Nemo fuit mUitum quin volneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers but was wounded. (CONSECUTIVE.) Quis est, quin cernat, quanta vis sit in sensibus, who does not see how much power there is in the senses ? (CONSECUTIVE.) Aegre sunt retentl mllites quin oppidum irrumperent, the soldiers were with difficulty restrained from bursting into the town (Caes., B. C., ii., 13). (CONSECUTIVE.) Cicero nihil praetermlsit, quin Pompeium a Caesaris con- iunctwne avocaret, Cicero neglected no means of trying to get Pompey away from alliance with Caesar. ( FINAL.) NOTE. It will be seen that in the first two examples quin retains more of its original force as a relative, and in the last two has become more thoroughly a conjunction. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 297 a. Clauses with quln are especially common after non possum, facere non possum, rion dubito, rion dubium est, etc. Thus : Facer e non possum quln cottldie ad te mitt am litter as, I cannot help sending you a letter every day. (FiNAL.) Quis dubitet, quln in virtute dlvitiae sint, who can doubt that there are riches in virtue ? (CONSECUTIVE.) Non videbatur esse dubium, quln Caesar venturus esset, there seemed to be no doubt that Caesar would come. (CONSE- CUTIVE.) b. In the meaning " I do not hesitate to do," non dubito may also take an infinitive in classical Latin, though rarely after the forms of expression non est dubitandum, and noil dubitare. Thus : Pro patria quis bonus dubitet mortem oppetere, what good man would hesitate to meet death for his country ? n5llte dubitare quln Pompeid unl credatis omnia, do not be reluc- tant to trust everything to Pompey alone. NOTE. Nepos, Livy, and the later writers also use the infinitive some- times after non dubito in the meaning " I do not doubt that. ' ' c. Tantum o.best takes after it two clauses with ut, one a pure result clause, the other a substantive clause. Thus : Tantum abest ut scrlbl contra rids nSllmus, ut id etiam maxime optemus, so far am I from being unwilling to have men write against me, that that is what I particularly desire (Cic., Tusc., ii., 2, 4). d. When clauses introduced by ut, quln, etc., contain the apodosis of a past condition contrary to fact, and depend on a secondary tense, the circumlocution facturus (etc.) fuerit is generally used instead of a pluperfect subjunctive. Thus : Adeo inopia est coactus Hannibal, ut, nisi cum fugae specie abeundum timuisset, Galliam repetiturus fuerit, Hannibal was driven by want to such a pass that if he had not been afraid of seeming to run away if he withdrew, he would have gone back to Gaul (Liv., xxii., 32, 3). e. Sometimes the perfect subjunctive of a word like posse, debere, etc., or a gerundive, is used in the same way. Thus : 298 SYNTAX. Hand dubium fuit quirt, nisi ea mora intervenisset, cas- tra eo die capl potuerint, there was no doubt that, if this delay had not occurred, the camp could have been taken on that day ; adeo aequls vlribus gesta res est, ut, si adf uissent Etruscl, accipienda clades fuerit, the engagement took place with forces so nearly equal that if the Etruscans had been there a disaster must have befallen us. Cf. 517, below. NOTE. The above treatment of subjunctive substantive clauses is in- tended to classify as conveniently as may be the kinds of verbs after which such clauses are most common. Various other verbs sometimes express ideas to which the same sort of notion may be attached, and can then of course take such a substantive clause. Thus : Ad Appl Claudl senectutem accedebat etiam ut caecus esset, to the old age of Appius Claudius was added blindness also (Cic., Sen., 6, 16) ; quam palmam utinam dt immortales, Sclpio, tibi reservent, ut avl reliquids persequare, this glory of finishing yoiir grandfather's work I pray that the immortal gods may keep for you, Scipio (Cic., /Sen., 6, 19). For other kinds of substantive clauses, see 540, and as follows : Clauses with Quod, 540, 4. Infinitive Clauses, 515 ff., and 533 ff. Indirect Questions, 518. Relative Clauses (other than those of Purpose or Result). 500. (1.) Relative clauses take the INDICATIVE when they state (or deny) a FACT in regar'd to the antecedent. Such clauses may also imply a cause, result, concession, etc., or be equivalent to a condition, but the fact is always the prominent thing. (2.) Relative clauses take the SUBJUNCTIVE when they indicate a QUALITY or CHARACTERISTIC of the antecedent conceived (a) as making the statement of the main clause applicable ; (5) as a cause or hindrance of that statement ; (c) as a special restriction or a condition of its applica- tion ; (d) as producing a given result. NOTE. This use of the subjunctive is often called the SUBJUNCTIVE OF CHARACTERISTIC, especially when a result is involved in it (class d). The antecedent is frequently a word like is, tdlis, tantus, nemo. RELATIVE CLAUSES. 299 501. The following examples will make these uses and distinctions clearer. INDICATIVE. Virtus est una altissimis deflxa radlcibus, quae num- quam vi ulla tabefactari po- SUBJUNCTIVE. (a.) Innocentia est adfectio tails animi, quae noceat riemirii, test, virtue is the one thing harmlessness is that sort of which, fixed upon the deepest mental disposition which harms roots, can never be shaken by nobody (Cic., Ttisc., iii., 8, 16). anyforce*(Cic.,PM.,iv.,5,13). Fortunatus illius exitus qui ea non vidit, cum fierent, quae providit futura, happy his end, for he saw not when they came the things which he foresaw were coming (Cic., Brut., 96, 329). Curat Chrysogonus, ut eius bona veneant statim, qui non sem, tamen complures Athe- norat hominem aut rem, Chry- nls dies sum commoratus, I, sogonus took care to have his though I had dabbled in Greek effects at once sold, though he literature late and but slightly, did not know either the man yet tarried several days at Ath- or the case (Cic., Rose. Am., ens (cf.Cic., de Or., i., 18, 82). (O.) fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum prae- conem inveneris, O happy youth, in that you found in Homer the herald of your valor (Cic., Arch., 10, 24). EgOmet, qui sero ac levi- ter Graecas litteras attigis- .Epicurus se unus, quod 37, 105). Quia me meamque rem, quod in te uno fuit, delace- sciam, sapientem profiterl est ravistl, because, so far as was ausus, Epicurus alone, so far as in your individual power, you I know, ventured to proclaim have ruined me and my inter- himself a wise man (Cic., Fin., ests (Plaut., Capt., 666). Catonem vero quis nostro- ii., 3, 7). Omnium quidem dratorum, * The difference between the two moods in relative clauses often cannot be shown by an English translation without greatly changing the form of the expression, but a more or less literal translation will perhaps aid the pupil in understanding the use of the moods, by clearing from his path any difficulties arising from the meanings of the Latin words. 300 SYNTAX. rum oratorum, qui quidem nunc sunt, legit ? but who of of our orators of the present age at least reads Cato ? (Cic., Brut., 17, 65). Quis ignored, qui modo umquam mediocriter res istds sclre curavit, quin tria Grae- corum genera sint ? who does not know, provided he has ever taken moderate pains to under- stand this subject, that there are three races of Greeks? (Cic., Flacc., 27, 64). Quisquis hu.c venerit, va- pulabit, whoever comes here will get a beating (Plaut., Amph., 153). Virtutem qui adeptus erit, ubicumque erit gentium, a riobls dlligetur, the man who acquires virtue will be esteemed by us wherever he shall be (Cic., N. D., i., 44, 121). Maximum ornamentum amlcitiae tollit, qui ex ea, tollit verecundiam, he takes away the greatest adornment of friendship, who takes away respect from it (Cic., Am., 22, 83). Quicquam bonum est, quod non eum qui id possidet, meli- orem f acit ? is there any good thing which does not make him who possesses it better ? Cic., Par., i., 3, 14). quos quidem ego cognove- rim, acutissimum iudico Q. Sertorium, of all orators those at least whom I know I judge Quintus Sertorius to be the sharpest (Cic., Brut., 48,180). Servos est nemo, qui modS tolerabtti condicwne sit servi- tutis, qui non auddciam clvi- um perhorrescat, there is not a slave, provided he is in an endurable state of slavery, who does not shudder at the reck- lessness of citizens (Cic., Cat., iv., 8, 16). Quaecumque causa vos hue attulisset, laetarer, I should be glad, whatever rea- son had brought you here (Cic., de Or., ii., 4, 15). Philosophia, cui qui pa- reat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestid possit degere, philoso- phy, whose obedient disciples can pass all the periods of life without annoyance (Cic., Sen., 1,2). (d.) Quis tarn fuit Hid tempore ferreus, qui non illdrum aeta- te, nobilitate, miserid comino- veretur ? who was there then so hard hearted as not to be influenced by the age and rank and misfortunes of these peo- ple? (Cic., Verr.,v., 46, 121). RELATIVE CLAUSES. 301 a. The subjunctive of characteristic is especially common after general expressions of existence or non-existence. When such expressions are followed by an indicative relative clause they usually contain some word like multi, qmdam, etc., which to a certain extent specializes them. (Cf. 5OO, note.) INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Sunt autem multi, . . . qui Sunt qui discessum anirrii eripiunt* aliis quod alils a corpore putent esse mor- largiantur, but there are many tern, there are [philosophers] who take away from one to who think that death is the give to another (Cic., Off., i., departure of the soul from the 14, 43). body (Cic., Tusc., i., 9, 18). b. The distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive is perhaps most easy to see in the clauses which are equivalent to the protases of conditions, as in the last examples under class (c) above ; although here, too, the distinction is a very subtle one. Qui adeptus erit is the man who as a fact shall have got, qui pareat, the man who in any given case should obey. With the general relatives quisquis, quicumque, etc., the indicative is much more common than the subjunctive. c. Short relative clauses merely defining an individual, and thus practically equivalent to a descriptive adjective, are apt to take the indicative where a characteristic subjunctive might be expected. f Thus : Haec est, inquam, societas, in qua omnia Insunt, quae pu- tant homines expetenda, this is an association, I say, in which are contained all the things which men think worth aiming at (Cic., Am., 22, 84). * The fact quality still comes out sharply in these cases, and thus dis- tinguishes them from the subjunctive clauses. t The pupil should perhaps be cautioned that the indicative here has not any more than elsewhere the same shade of meaning which a subjunctive would have. It is only that the point of view of the writer is slightly different according to the mood he chooses in any given case. OF TRF UNIVERSITY 302 SYNTAX. Clauses with the Temporal Particles Dam, Donee, Quoad. 502. Dum, donee, quoad, meaning " so long as," * or " while," f almost always take the indicative in classical Latin. NOTE. They thus simply mark the fact that one action is coextensive with, or happens during, another. Examples are : Ut aegrotd, dum anima, est, spes esse dlcitur, sic ego, quoad Pompei-us in Italia fuit, sperare rion destiti, as a sick man, so long as the breath of life remains, is said to have hope, so I did not cease to hope as long as Pornpey was in Italy (Cic., Att.j ix., 10, 3) ; dum ego in Sicilia sum, nulla statua de- iecta est, while I was in Sicily not a statue was thrown down (Cic., Vei*r., ii., 66, 161) ; tud-s epistulas cum lego, 'minus mih$ turpis videor, sed tarn dm, dum Ieg5, when I read your letters I fancy myself less base, but only so long as I am reading (Cic., Att., ix., 6, 5) ; dum in Asia bellum geritur, tw in Aetolia, quidem quietae res fuerant, while the war was going on in Asia, affairs had been in unrest even in Aetolia (Liv., xxxviii., 1, l) ; neque enim, dum eram vobiscum, animum meum vide- bat is, for while I was with you, you did not see my soul (Cic., Sen., 22, 79) ; dum haec Vels agebantur, interim arx Romae Capitoliumque in ingentl perlculo fuit, in the interval while these things were going on at Vei, the Citadel and Capitol at Rome came into great danger (Liv., v., 47, l) ; dum Latinae loquentur litterae, quercus huic loco lion deerit, as long as Latin literature shall [live and] speak, this place will not lack an oak-tree (Cic., Legg., i., 1, 2) ; hoc fed, dum licuit, intermls'i, quoad non licuit, this I did as long as it was allowable, and refrained from as long as it was not allowable (Cic., Phil., iii., 13, 33). * I. e., definitely marking duration of time. t L e., either indefinitely marking duration or denoting a certain point in a given time. CLAUSES WITH DUM, DON EC, QUOAD. 303 Donee grains eram tibi, Persarum vigul rege beatior. More blest than Persia's king I throve, What time thou heldst me dear. (Hor., Carm., iii., 9, 1 ff.) a. Dum has a- preference for the present tense. (Cf. 468.) b. Donee is not used in Cicero in these meanings, nor in Caesar and Sallust at all. c. Sometimes a causal notion is implied in the clause with dum. Thus : Ita dum pauca mancipia retinere volt, fortiinas omnes perdidit, thus, in consequence of wishing to hold on to a few slaves, she lost all her property (Cic., Caec., 17, 56) ; in has cladls incidimus, dum metui quam carl esse et dlligl malui- mus, these are the disasters we have fallen into in consequence of having preferred to be feared rather than to be dear and be- loved (Cic., Off., ii., 8, 29). d. The subjunctive with dum, donee, quoad, in the meanings " while," " so long as," is very rare in classical Latin, tmt occurs several times in Livy, and becomes more common later. The subjunctive here seems to mark the character of the time rather than the fact of the occurrence, and thus to differ from the indi- cative just as the relative clauses of characteristic do. Thus : Isto bond utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requlras, use that blessing while it is there, but when it is gone do not pine for it (Cic., Sen., 10, 33) ; nihil deinde moratus, rex quattuor milia armatorum, dum recens terror esset, Scotussam misit, then with no delay the king sent four thousand armed men to Sco- tussa while the panic was fresh (Liv., xxxvi., 9, 13) ; nihil sane trepidabant [elephantl~\, donee continent!, velut ponte age- rentur, the elephants displayed no excitement as long as they were driven along what seemed to be a continuous bridge (Liv., xxi., 28, 10).* * These cases are sometimes, but it seems to me less satisfactorily, explained otherwise : dum adsit, as attraction (see 523), dum esset, as implied indirect discourse (see 522), donee agerentur, as a general con- dition (see 477, d, 2). 304 SYNTAX. 503. With dum, donee, quoad, meaning " until," the indicative simply chronicles the fact, the subjunctive im- plies & purpose. Thus : INDICATIVE. Mihi quidem usque curae erit, quid agas, dum, quid egeris, sciero, I certainly shall be constantly anxious as to how you are until I know how you have been (Cic., Fam., xii., Usque eo timui, donee ad reiciundos indices venimus, I was afraid up to the time when we came to rejecting jurymen (Cic., Verr., i., 6, 17). Tamen non faciam finem rogandi, quoad nobls nun- tiatum erit te id fecisse, yet I shall not stop asking until word is brought me that you have done the thing (Cic., Att., xvi., 16, 16). SUBJUNCTIVE. Dum reliquae naves eo convenirent, ad horam rio- nam in ancorls exspectavit, he waited at anchor till the ninth hour for the rest of the ships to assemble there (Caes., B. G., iv., 23). Rogandl orandique sunt, ut . . . differant in tempus aliud, dum defervescat Ira, they must be asked and begged to postpone [their vengeance] till another tune, namely, till their wrath cools down (Cic., Tusc., iv., 36, 78). Exspecta, amabo te, dum Atticum conveniam, wait, please, till I meet Atticus (Cic., Att., vii., 1, 4). a. Donee and quoad are very rare with the subjunctive in this sense. b. The imperfect and pluperfect indicative do not occur with dum, meaning " until," and in the subjunctive only the tenses for incomplete action (present and imperfect) are found. Clauses of Proviso. 504. Dum, modo, and dummodo, indicating a PROVISO ("if only," "provided that"), take the subjunctive. The negative particle is ne. Thus : Oderint, dum metuant, let them hate if only they fear (Suet., Col., 30) ; dum res maneant, verba fingant arbir tratu sud, provided the things are left, let them fashion words CLAUSES WITH ANTEQUAM AND PEIUSQUAM. 305 at their own sweet will (Cic., Fin., v., 29, 89) ; manent ingenia senibus, naodo permaneat studium et industria, the mental faculties of the old do not become impaired provided their interest and energy hold out (Cic., Sen., 7, 22) ; celeriter ad comitia veniendum censed, dummodo ne haec ambitiosa festinatio aliquid imminuat eius gloriae, I think we ought to come quickly to the election, provided that such haste prompted by ambition should not detract somewhat from his glory (Cic., Fam., x., 25, 2) ; omnia postposul, dummodo praeceptis patris parerem, I put everything off, provided I obeyed my father's instructions (Cic. fil. apud Cic., Fam., xvi., 21, 6). NOTE. The proviso with modo and dummodo was originally a hortatory subjunctive ; with dum it developed from the temporal use. Cases like the first example under 502, d (utdre, dum adsit), are the connecting link between the indicative temporal clause and the proviso. In these provi- sional clauses the subjunctive retains its indefinite future force, the present applying to a present, the imperfect to a past, situation. Clauses with Aniequam and Priusquam. 505. With antequam or priusquam, " before," the in- dicative simply states (or denies) as a fact the priority of the thing said in the main clause to that said in the temporal clause ; the subjunctive marks a further relation between the two clauses. Thus : INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Antequam pro L. Mure- Is videlicet antequam ve- na dicere InstituS, pro me niat in Pontum, litteras ad ipso pauca dicam, before I be- Cn. Pompeium mittet, he will, gin to speak in defense of Lu- of course, send a letter to cius Murena I will say a few Gnaeus Pompeius before he words in my own behalf (Cic., gets to Pontus (Cic., Agr., ii., Mur., 1, 2). 20, 53). Petillni non antequam Tragoedi cottldie ante- vires ad standum in miiris quam pronuntient vocem ferendaque arma deerant, cubantes sensim excitant, the expuanati sunt, the Petilini [Greek] tragedians, in a re- 306 SYNTAX. were not beaten until strength to stand on the walls and hold their arms failed them (Liv., xxiii., 30, 4). Neque defatigabor ante- quam ancipitls vias ratio- nesque et pro omnibus et contra omnia disputandi perceper5, nor shall I yield to fatigue be- fore I have learned the devious ways and principles of argu- ment on both sides of all ques- tions (Cic., de Or., iii., 36, 145). Inde ante pi-ofectus est Anton ins quam ego eum ve- nisse cognovi, Antonius went away from there before I learned that he had come (Cic., Att., xv., 1, a, 2). Membrls utimur prius- quara didicimus, cid-us ea causa utilitatis habeamus, we use our limbs before we have learned for what useful pur- pose we have them (Cic., Fin., iii., 20, 66). Neque prius fugere desti- terunt, quam ad fliimen Rhe- num . . . pervenenint, nor did they stop fleeing before they reached the river Rhine (Caes., B. G., i., 53). Antequam tuas leg! litte- ras, hominem ire cupiebam, before I read your letter I wanted the man to go (Cic., Att. y ii., 7, 2). clining position, daily practice raising their voices gradually louder and louder, before they are to declaim their parts (Cic., de Or., i., 59, 251). Priusquam inde dlgre- derentur, rogantl Mettio, ex foedere icto quid imperaret, imperat Tullus, uti iuventutem in armis habeat, in answer to the question of Mettius before they left the place, what his orders were in accordance with the treaty they had struck, Tul- lus ordered him to keep the young men under arms (Liv., i., 26, i). Inde ante discessit quam ilium venisse audissem, he went from there before I had heard of his having come (Cic., Att., xiv., 20, 2). Numidae priusquam ex castrls subvenlretur, sicutl iussi erant, in proximos colles descendunt, the Numidians go down, as they had been ordered, to the nearest hills before aid from the camp could arrive (Sail, lug., 54). Non prius Viridovicem re- liqiwsque duces ex concilid dimittuntj quam ab his sit concessum, they do not let Viridovix and the other leaders go from the meeting before they have granted (Caes., B. G., iii., 18). ANTEQUAM, PRIUSQUAM. - POSTQUAM, UB NOTE. The difference between the two moods can be seen most plainly in the fourth pair of examples above. Here the indicative simply chroni- cles the fact that Antonius had gone before Cicero learned of his coming 1 , the subjunctive implies that Cicero's not knowing of his coming prevented him from stopping- Antonius' departure. In the first subjunctive example there is an implication that it is important to have the letter sent before the writer himself appears ; in the second example the purpose of the practice is hinted at in the subjunctive pronuntient, and so on. a. Beginning, perhaps, with Livy, the feeling for this differ- ence between an indicative and a subjunctive in temporal clauses is more and more confused, and the subjunctive becomes more and more common where it is difficult, if not impossible, to see why the indicative should not have been used. Thus : Panels ante diebus quam Syracusae caperentur, T. Ota- cilius CMin quinqueremibus octoginta Uticam ab Lilybaed trans- misit, a few days before Syracuse was taken, Titus Otacilius crossed over to Utica from Libybaeum with eighty men-of-war (Liv., xxv., 31, 12). Cf. also Clauses with Cum, 509. Clauses with Postquam, Ubi, etc. 506. Clauses with postquam (posteaquam), " after," and ubi, " when," " after," " as soon as," almost always, and clauses with ut, " when," " as soon as," and simul ac, " as soon as," perhaps always, take the indicative, simply stating (or denying) that the act of the main clause is sub- sequent to that of the temporal clause. These conjunc- tions have a preference for the perfect tense, even where the pluperfect would be more exact (cf. 469). Thus : Milites postquam victoriam adept! sunt, nihil reliqui victls fecere, the soldiers, after they [had] won the victory, left nothing to the conquered (Sail., Cat., 11) ; postquam Instruct!, utrlusque stabant, ... in medium duces procedunt, af- ter they got into position on both sides, . . . the leaders came forward into the space between (Liv., i., 23, 6) ; ubi de eius adventu Helvetil certiores fact! sunt, legatos ad eum mlttunt, when (after) the Helvetians were informed of his arrival, they 308 SYNTAX. sent ambassadors to him (Caes., B. G., i., 7) ; Pompeius ut equitdtum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit, after Pompeius saw his cavalry routed he withdrew from the battle (Caes., B. C., iii., 94) ; simul ac primum el occasio visa est, aversa pecunia publica quaestor consulem deseruit, as soon as it seemed to him a good opportunity, the quaestor, appropriating the funds of the state, abandoned his consul (Cic., Verr., i., 13, 34). 507. Other temporal expressions than ante, prius, and post are sometimes followed by a clause with quam. Thus : Intra triduum quam oppugnare coeperat, receptam [ur- bern] ex hostibus colonls restituit, within three days from be- ginning the siege he recovered the town from the enemy and restored it to the settlers (Liv., xli., 16, 8) ; Lilybaeum tertio die quam inde profectus erat . . . rediit, he came back to Lilybaeum three days after he had gone from there (Liv., xxv., 31, 14) ; multa mehercule fecit Antonius pridie quam tu ilium relinqueres. Antonius was very active indeed the day before you left him (cf. Veil., Pater., ii., 83, 3) ; cum, eo Catulus et Lucullus nosque ipsl postridie venissemm quam apud C&- tulum fuissemus, when Catulus, Lucullus, and myself had come there the day after we had been at Catulus's house (Cic., Acad., ii., 3, 9). 508. Livy, Tacitus, and the later writers sometimes use the subjunctive (pluperfect as well as imperfect) with ubl (and quotiens)^ to denote the general repetition of an act in past time, where the classical writers have the indicative. Thus : Id ubl dixisset, hastam in fines eorum emittebat, when [every time] he had said this, he would throw a spear into their country (Liv., i., 32, 14) ; quotiens super tall negotio consul- taret, editd domiis parte ac llberti uriius conscientia, utebatur, whenever he conferred about a matter of this kind, he would retire to the upper part of the palace and take only one freed- man as a witness (Tac., Ann., vi., 21). POSTQUAM, UBL - CUM (QUOM). 309 Cf. under Conditional Sentences, 477, d, 2, and under cum, 51O, 1, and examples 8-13 in the indicative column, 9-11 in the subjunctive column. NOTE 1. Ut is found with the subjunctive only in the following exam- pie:- lam ut llmen exirem ad genua accidit lacrumdns misera, the minute I crossed the threshold the poor girl fell weeping at my feet (Ter., Hec., iii., 3, 18). NOTE 2. Postquam also occurs in one or two passages with the subjunc- tive, though in the few places in Cicero where it occurs in the manuscripts (in the form posted quam) the best texts now read posted cum. Glauses with Cum (Quom). 509. (1.) Clauses with cum (quom), " when," if pres- ent, imperfect, or future, mark a collateral event occurring at the same time as the main event ; if perfect, pluperfect, or future perfect, they mark a collateral event occurring just before the main event. (2.) If only this temporal relation exists between the two events, the cum clause takes the INDICATIVE. (3.) If a further relation * exists, but the actual oc- currence of the collateral event is more important than that relation, the cum clause again takes the INDICATIVE. (4.) But if the marking of the further relation is the more important thing to the writer, the cum clause takes the SUBJUNCTIVE. a. In the imperfect and pluperfect tenses the subjunctive is so much more common f than the indicative, even where a difference of meaning is hardly appreciable, that it is a good practical rule for the beginner in writing Latin, that these tenses should not be used in the indicative. * That is, if one event is to be regarded as causing, hindering, or other- wise affecting the other. t The proportion of subjunctives to indicatives in Cicero's orations is about five to one for the imperfect tense, more than twenty to one for the pluperfect. 310 SYNTAX. NOTE. The subjunctive with cum is a characteristic subjunctive, as with the relative pronouns. (Cf. 500, 2, note.) The primary difference of mean- ing between the indicative and the subjunctive is thus roughly indicated by the expressions "at the time when " (indicative), " at a time when" (subjunctive). (Cf. the first pair of examples below.) 510. From the simple temporal meaning, cum {quom) passes into the meanings : (1.) "Whenever" (application general) 1 chiefly with the " Now that " (applying to the im- ! indicative, until mediate present) j after the classical " In that " (explanatory) J period. (2.) " Although " (implying a hindrance) l with the sub- " Since " (implying a reason) I junctive, ex- " While on the other hand " (an alter- j cept in early native) J Latin. a. In Plautus and Terence and other early Latin writers, the subjunctive with q uom is rare, the indicative being used, whether the mere fact of time is to be expressed or a reason is to be implied. 511. These uses and shades of meaning can best be understood by a careful study of a series of examples like the following : INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE- Nam in ceteris rebus cum Nunc in ipso discrlmine venit calamitas, turn detrl- ordinis iudwidrumque vestro- mentum accipitur, for in eve- rum, cum sint paratl qul, ry thing else the damage is re- etc., now at the very crisis of ceived only when the disaster the danger to the senate and to actually comes (Cic., Leg. your right of supplying juries, Man., 6, 15). at a time when there are peo- Cum haec Romae ageban- pie ready to, etc. (Cic., Verr. tur, Chalcide Antwchus sol- Act., i., 1, 2). licitabat cwitatium animos, Ipse, cum primum pa- when this was going on at bull copia esse inciperet, ad CLAUSES WITH CUM (QUOM). 311 Rome, Antiochus was stirring up the feelings of the cities at Chalcis (Liv., xxxvi., 5, l). Cum haec leges, habebi- mus consules, when you read this we shall have consuls (Cic., Att., v., 12, 2). Cum primum Edmam venl, nihil prius faciendum putavl, as soon as I got to Rome I thought nothing ought to be done earlier (Cic., Ait., iv., I, 1). Nondum centum et decem anrii sunt cum de pecuniis repetundls a L. Pisone lata lex est, nulla antea cumfuis- set, it is not yet a hundred and ten years since Lucius Piso proposed a law about bribery, there having been none before (Cic., Off., ii., 21, 75). Turn cum in Asia, res magnas permulti amiserant, sclmus Romae solutions im- pedlta fidem concidisse, at that time, when a large number of people had lost large for- tunes in Asia, we know that payment was obstructed at Rome and credit collapsed (Cic., Leg. Man., 7, 19). Sin cum potuero, non venero, turn erit inimicus, but if I do not come when I can, then he will be my enemy (Cic., Att., ix., 2, a, 2). exercitum venit, he himself, as soon as there began to be plenty of fodder, went to the army (Caes., B. 6r., ii., 2). Zenonem cum Athenls es- sem, audiebam frequenter, during my stay at Athens I often attended Zeno's lectures (Cic., N. D., i., 21, 59). Potero silere, Hortensl, po- tero dissimulare, cum tan- turn res publica volnus acce- perit ? can I be silent, Hor- tensius, can I hide my feel- ings at a time when the state has received so severe a wound ? (Cic., Verr., v., 70, 179). Cum eius promissls legi- ones fortissimae reclamas- sent, domum ad se venire ius- sit centuriones, when the le- gions most stoutly held out against his promises, he ordered the centurions to come to his house (Cic., Phil., v., 8, 22). Cum hostem populi Ro- marii Antonium iudicasset, comes esse eius amentiae no- luit, having judged Antony the enemy of the Roman peo- ple, he did not wish to be the companion of his madness (Cic., Phil., iii., 3, 6). Haec Scipio cum dixis- set, L. Furium repente veni- entem adspexit, etc., when 312 SYNTAX. Serpit delude res, quae pro- did us ad pern idem, cum semel coepit, Idbitur, then the thing winds along, and when it has once begun glides swiftly to destruction (Cic., Am., 12, 41). Deinde cum similis sen- sus exstitit amoris, si ali- quem, etc., secondly, when a like feeling of affection has arisen, if any one, etc. (Cic., Am., S, 27). Cum ad villain venl, hoc ipsum niliil agere et plane cessdre me delectat, when I come to my country seat, this very inactivity and absolute idleness charm me (cf. Cic., de Or., ii., 6, 24). Cum pater familiar in- lustriore loco ndtus deces- sit, eius propinqui conve- niunt, when the head of a house of high birth dies, his kinsmen gather together (Caes., B. G., vi., 19). Cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrdbdtur, whenever he saw a rose he thought spring was beginning (Cic., Verr., v., 10, 27). Plerumque milites statwis castris habebat, nisi cum odds aut pdbult egestas locum mu- tare subegerat. he generally had been keeping the soldiers Scipio had said this, he looked up and suddenly saw Lucius Furius coming (Cic., fie Pub., i, 11, 17). Cum autem contrahat amlcitiam, ut supra dixi, si qua signiftcdtio virtutis elu- ceat, ad quam se similis ani- mus adplicet et adiungat, id cum contigit, amor exoridtur necesse est, and when, in case as I have said, some indication of merit flashes out, towards which a like nature is drawn to unite itself, a friendship is formed, when this happens, affection must arise (Cic., Am., 14, 48). Ut A. Varius, qui est ha- bitus iudex durior, dicere con- * sessori solebat, cum datls testibus alii tamen citaren- tur, as Aulus Varius, who was considered an austere judge, used to say to his col- league on the bench, when, af- ter some witnesses had been heard, others were still all the time being called (Cic., Fin., ii., 19, 62). Cum in ius duel debito- rem vidissent, undique con- voldba?it, whenever they saw a debtor arrested, they gathered from all sides (Llv., ii., 27, 8). Neque hereditdtem cuius- quam adiit, nisi cum ami- CLAUSES WITH CUM (QUOM). 313 in the same camp, except when miasma or want of fodder had compelled him to change his position (Sail., lug., 44). Atgue utinam tarn in pe- rwulo fuisset ! cum ego Us, quibus meant salutem ca- rissimam esse arbitrabar, ini- mwiss i mis crudeliss imisque usus sum, and oh that it had been in such danger ! now that I have found those most hostile and cruel to whom I thought my safety was most dear (Cic., Att., iii., 13, 2). Sunt enim qitidam, qul molestas amicitids faciunt, cum ipsl se contemn! putant, for there are people who make friendship a bore, when [in that] they keep fancying them- selves slighted (Cic., .4m., 20, 72). Quae cum praeponunt ut sit aliqua r&rum selectio, naturam videntur sequi ; cum autem negant ea quic- quam ad beatam vltam per- tinere, rursiis naturam re- linquunt, when [in that] they put forward this doctrine, that there is a choice in things, they seem to follow nature, but in that [when] they maintain that the things have nothing to do with happiness they leave citia meruisset, nor did he accept any man's bequests ex- cept when they belonged to him through right of friendship (Tac., Ann., ii., 48). Quod cum mciius esse vi- deatur quam insania, tamen eiusmodl est ut, etc., and al- though this seems to be greater than insanity, yet its nature is such that, etc. (Cic., Tusc., iii., 5, 11). Hlc tu me accusas quod me adflictem, cum ita sim adflictus, ut nemo umquam, under these circumstances you upbraid me because I bewail my lot, when I have been tried as no man was ever tried (Cic., Att., iii., 12, 1). Itaque fama et multitudi- nis iUdicio moventur, cum id honestum putent, quod aplerlsque laudetur, therefore they are influenced by what men say and by the judgment of the crowd, when they imag- ine that right which is ap- proved by the majority (Cic., Tusc., ii., 26, 63). Qua caecatl homines, cum quaedam etiam praeclara cuperent, eaque nescirent nee ubi nee qualia essent, fanditus alii, etc., and men, blinded by this, while desiring some things really admirable, 314 SYNTAX. nature again (Cic., Fin., iv., but not knowing either where 16, 43). or what they were, have some Gratulor tibi, cum tantum of them utterly, etc. (Cic., vales apud Dolabellam, I Tusc., iii., 2, 4). congratulate you in that you Quae cum ita sint Cati- have so much influence with Una perge qiid coepistl, since Dolabella (Cic., Att., xiv., 17, [now that] this is so, Catiline, a, 3). go on as you have begun (Cic., Quom. adfinitate vostra me arbitraminl dlgnum, habed Cat., i., 5, 10). \_Di&nysius~\, cum in com- vobls, Philto, magnam gra- munibus suggestls consistere tiam, in that [since] your fa- non auderet, contidndrl ex mily think me worthy of their turri alta solebat, Dionysius, alliance, Philto, I am very not daring to take his place grateful (Plaut., Trin., 504). oil the general platforms, used Di tibi, Demea, bene fa- to speak from a high tower ciant, quom te video nos- (Cic., Tusc., v., 20, 59). trae familiae tarn ex animo Cum ininiicitiae fuerint factum velle, the gods bless numquam . . . rei publicae you, Demea, now that [since] providebo, since there never I see you wish our family so have been enmities ... I will thoroughly well (Ter., Ad., look out for the country (Cic., 917). Prov. Cons., 20, 47). a. When cum has the general meaning " whenever," the tense is more commonly one of completed action. (Cf. the ex- amples.) b. The meaning of cum is often more exactly denned (espe- cially with the indicative) by the addition of words like prl- mum, interim, intered, nondum, quidem, tamen, etc. (Cf. the 512. Sometimes, by an inversion which also occurs in English, the main statement is put into the cum clause, and the (grammatically) principal clause contains the accessory statement. The cum clause then stands after the main clause, and usually takes the indicative. Thus : CUM (QUOM). CUM . . . TUM. 315 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Dixerat hoc ille, cum puer Simulat se eorum praesidio nuntiavit venire ad eum confidere t cum interea aliud Laelium domoque iam exisse, quiddam iam diu machine- he had just finished speaking, tur, he pretends that he has when a slave brought word that confidence in their protection, Laelius was coming, and had while meantime he has been already left the house (Cic., Re long concocting another scheme Pub., i., 12, 18). (Cic., Verr., Act i., 6, 15). Dies nondum decem inter- Ego in castra a. d. VII K. cesserant, cum ille alter fl- Sept. veni, cum interea su- lius infans necatur, ten days perioribus diebus ex senatus- had not yet intervened, when consulto et evocatorum fir- that other infant son was slain mam mdnum ,et equitdtum (Cic., Clu., 9, 28). comparavissem, I went into Prlmo actii placed, quom camp on the twenty-sixth of interea rumor venit datum August, when meanwhile dur- iri gladiatores / populus con- ing the days before I had got volat, in the first act I win together in accordance with applause, when suddenly a re- the Senate's decree a strong port comes that there is to be force of retired veterans and a prize fight, and the people cavalry (Cic., Fam., xv., 4, 3). flock thither (Ter., Hec., 39). a. This inversion gives a more lively effect to what is said. Compare in English, "When we reached the middle of the valley, the cannon suddenly thundered forth," and "We had reached the middle of the valley, when suddenly the cannon thundered forth." NOTE. The pupil should be cautioned that this inversion does not al- ways take place when the cum clause stands after the main clause. 513. Cum . . . turn pass from the meaning "when . . . then" into the meanings "while . . . yet," "not only . . . but also," " both . . . and," and then are often used to connect single words or expressions. (Cf. the last example below.) ' Thus : 316 SYNTAX. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. Cratippum cum audi5 lu- Cdnsilium tuum cum sem- benter, tum etiam propriam per probavissem turn mul- eius suavitatem vekementer to mag is probavl lectls tuis amplector, I not only hear Cra- llUerls, though I had always tippus gladly, but even am par- approved your plan, I ap- ticularly fond of his peculiar proved it much more after charm of style. having read your letter. Sed cum mulfls in rebus Cumque plUfimSs et mdxi- neglegentia plectimur, tum mas commoditates aniicitia mdxime in amicis et diligent* contineat, tum ilia nlmlrum dls et colendls, but while in praestat omnibus, etc., and many things we are punished while friendship includes very for carelessness, this is particu- many great advantages, it no larly the case in choosing and doubt surpasses all other things cultivating friends (Cic., Am., in this, that it, etc. (Cic., Am., 22, 85). 7, 23). Hie quidem fructum omnis ante actae vltae hodierm die maximum cepit, cum sumnw consensu senatus turn iudicio tuo gravissinio et maxitrio, as far as he is concerned, he has to-day reaped the richest fruit of all his past life, both through the unanimous approval of the senate and through your most weighty and exalted decision (Cic., Marc., 1, 3). CONSTRUCTIONS OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE. The CONSTRUCTIONS OF INDIRECT DISCOURSE include : 1. INDIRECT DISCOURSE 'proper. 2. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 3. CLAUSES OF QUOTED CAUSE. 4. Other dependent CLAUSES GIVING ANOTHER'S IDEA without any verb of saying expressed. 5. Clauses in the SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION. Indirect Discourse Proper. 514. When a person's words or thoughts (whether an- other person's or the speaker's own) are quoted, not in their exact grammatical form, but in narrative form de- INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 317 pending upon a word of saying or thinking, the quotation is called INDIRECT ( Oratio obliqua *). 515. In indirect discourse : (1.) All subordinate verbs are put in the SUBJUNCTIVE. (2.) The main verb is put in the INFINITIVE, except that (3.) Imperatives are put in the SUBJUNCTIVE, and hor- tatory and dubitative subjunctives retain their mood. Thus : Dicit hie sibi ndn placere, quod quaedam ndn invenian- tur, quibus sibi opus sit, he says he does not like it here, be- cause certain things of which he has need are not found (illi ndn placet, quod . . . ndn inveniuntur, quibus el opus est). Dixit se ndn credere ; an fieri id posse, he said he did not believe it ; or could this be done ? (ndn credo ; an fieri id potest ?) Dicit aleam iactam esse ; quid f aciat ? statim proficis- cantur exercitusque sequatur, he says the die is cast ; what can he do ? let them start at once and let the army follow (dlea iacta est ; quid f aciam ? statim proficisciminl exercitusque sequatur). 516. If the verb of saying or thinking upon which an indirect discourse depends denotes PAST time (i. e., is im- perfect, historical perfect, or pluperfect), the dependent clauses, as a rule, are all thrown into the past (i. e., the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive f). Thus : INDIRECT. DIRECT. 1. Ad haec Ariovistus respondit: lus esse belli, ut, qui vi- " lus est belli, ut, qui vi- cissent, Us quds vicissent, cerint, Us quds vicerint, quern ad modum vellent, quern ad modum {volant}' * Direct Discourse is called in Latin Oratio recta. t These tenses, therefore, do not always imply non-fulfillment in condi- tional clauses quoted, but often merely indicate that a supposed case is thrown into the past. 318 SYNTAX. imperarent : item populum Romanum i'ict~is ndn ad alter rlus praescrlptum, sedad suum arbitrium imperare consu- esse. Si ipse populo Roma- no ndn praescriberet, quern ad modum sud iure uteretur, non oportere sese a populo Romano in suo iure impedlrl. Haedu5s sibl quoniam belli fortunam temptassent et armls congressi ,dc superatl essent, stipendiari5s esse factos. jblayncim Caesarem iniuriam facere, qul suo ad- ventu vectlgalia sibl deteri- ora faceret. Haedius se ob- sides redditurum non esse, neque Us neque eorum socils iniuria bellum illaturum, si in eo manerent quod convenissent stipendiumque quotanms penderent ; si id non f ecissent, longe its fra- ternum ndmen populi Romarii afuturum. Quod sibl Cae- sar denuntiaret. se Haedu- drum iniurias non neglectu- rum, neminem secum sine siia pernicie contendisse. Cum vellet, congrederetur : intellecturuni. quid invicti Germam, exercitatissiml in armls, qui inter annos quatr tuordecim tectum non subis- sent, virtute possent. imperent: item populus R5- manus victls non ad alterlus praescriptum, sed ad suum arbitrium imperare consue- vit. Si ego populo Romano non praescrib5. quern ad mo- dum suo [are utatur, iwn oportet me a populo Ro- mdno in meo iure impedlrl. Haedui mini, quoniam belli fortunam temptarunt et ar- mls congressi ac superatl sunt, stipendiaril sunt f ao ti. Magnam tu, Caesar. iniuriam facis, qui tuo ad- vent u vectlgalia mini deteri- ora facis. Haeduls obsides non reddam, neque Us neque eorum socils iniuria bellum illaturus sum, si in eo {SbSM V uod convene- runt stipendiumque quotan- n ~ ls IplSdSth sl id ^n fe- cerint, lonye us fraternum ndmen populi Romanl aberit. Quod mini denuntias, te Haedudrum i-nlurias non ne- glect urum, nemo mecum sine sua pernicie contendit. Cum j JJjjJ!' [ congredere : in- telleges, qul.,i., 23, 65) ; id utrum illi sentiant. an vero si- mulent, tu intelleges, you will understand whether that is their real opinion or whether they are in fact pretending (Cic.) ; si qualis sit animus, ipse animus nesciet, if the mind itself shall not know what sort of a thing the mind is (Cic., Ttisc., i., 22, 53). a. The expressions nescio quis, nescio quo modo, nescio unde, etc., are generally equivalent to " some one," " somehow," * Pluperfect when the verb of saying is past (see 516). INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 325 etc., and therefore having lost their interrogative force, have no influence upon the mood of the verb which follows them. Thus : Sed casu nescio quo in ea tempora aetas nostra inci- dit, but by some chance my life has fallen upon a time, etc. (Cic.). b. So also mirum quam, mlrum quantum, nimium quan- tum ; as : Sales qul in dicendo nimium quantum valent, wit, which has some tremendous power in oratory (Cic., Or., 26, 87). c. In early Latin the indicative was used in indirect ques- tions, and this use frequently occurs in Plautus and Terence. Thus: Sclre void, quoi reddidisti, I want to know to whom you gave it (Plaut., Cure., 543) ; vide avaritia quid facit, see what greed does (Ter., Ph., 358). d. Indirect questions are sometimes, by a development from conditional clauses which also occurs in English, introduced by si = " if," " whether." Thus : - Quaeslvit iterum si cum Romarils mllitare liceret, his second question was, whether [if] he might serve in the Roman army (Liv., xl., 49, 6) ; mlrabar hoc si sic ablret et eri sem- per lenitas verebar quorsum evaderet, I wondered if [whether] this would [not] come out so, and was always apprehensive as to what master's easy discipline would result in (Ter., An., 175). e. Sometimes, especially in the comic poets, a direct question is repeated with surprise by the person to whom it is addressed, and thus becomes indirect and is put in the subjunctive depend- ing on the idea " do you ask." Thus : Quid nunc faciundum censes ? Tr. Ego quid censeam ? What do you think ought to be done now ? Tr. What do I think? (Plaut., Most., 556). NOTE. Indirect questions are not to be confounded with dependent rel- ative clauses, though sometimes the form is the same. Thus : Dicam quae sentiam (interrogative) = quae sentio? dicam, What do I 326 SYNTAX. think ? I will tell ; dicam quae sentiam (relative) = dlcam ea quae sentio or sentiam, I will say the things I think. For the use of the interrogative particles in indirect questions, see 579 ff. Causal Glauses with Quod, Quia, Quonlam. 519. In causal clauses with quod or quia* " because," and quoniam,) " since," the indicative simply asserts (or denies) one thing as the cause or reason of another ; the subjunctive represents the cause as one assigned by some one other than the speaker or writer, generally by the subject of the main clause. NOTE. It is to be observed that the subjunctive does not deny (even by implication) that the reason given is the true one. On the contrary, the subjunctive may be used of that which the speaker believes to be the cause of an action, but which he does not wish to state positively as such. INDICATIVE. It a fit ut adsint prop- terea, quod offi?ium sequon- tur, taceant autem, idcirco quia periculum vitant. so they are here because they are thus performing a duty, but they are silent for the reason that they shun danger (Cic., Rose. Am., 1, i). Quod spiratis, quod vo- cem mlttitis, quod formas hominum habetis. indiynan- tur, they are angry because you breathe and speak and have the shapes of men (Llv., iv., 3, 8). Qiio quidem etiam magis sum exercitus, non quia mul- SuBJUNcrrvE. Laud at Africanum Pcu- naetius, quod fuerit absti- wens, Panaetius praises Africa- nus for his self-control (Cic., Off., ii, 22, 76). An pmnitet vos quod sal- vom exercitum traduxerim? do ye regret my having brought the army over in safety ? (Caes., B. C., ii., 32). Bene inawres accubitionem epularem amworum, quia vi- tae coniunctionem haberet, convwium riominaveru?it, our ancestors did well in giving to the reclining of friends together at a banquet the name " convi- vium," a living together, from * Quod is much commoner than quia or quoniam, especially with the sub- junctive, CAUSAL CLAUSES. 327 tis debe5, sed quia saepe its involving a community of concurrunt, etc., therefore I life (Cic., Sen*, 13, 45). am even more exercised, not Regrio non aequo animo because I am indebted to many carebas ; est autem impudens people, but because there often luctus maerore se conficientis, come together, etc. (Cic., quod imperare non liceat 11- Planc., 32, 78). beris, you did not bear with Yds, Quirltes, quoniam calmness the loss of power. iam nox est, in vestra tecta But his grief is shameless who discedite, do you, fellow citi- consumes himself , with sadness zens, since the night is now because he may not have sway come, depart to your houses over freemen (Cic., Tusc., iii., (Cic., Cat., iii., 12, 29). 12, 26). lactatum in condicionibus nequtquam de Tarquinils in regnum restituendis, magis quia id negare ipse nequiverat Tarquinils, quam quod negatum Iri sibi ab Romanis ignora- ret, mention was made in the terms though to no purpose of restoring the Tarquins to the throne, more because he had himself been unable to refuse that to the Tarquins, than be- cause he did not know well enough that the Romans would reject the proposition (Liv., ii., 13, 3). 520. Died, puto, etc., are sometimes put in the sub- junctive in a causal clause, when the reason is really con- tained in an infinitive dependent upon them. Thus : Cum enim Hannibalis permissu exlsset de castrls, rediit paulo post, quod se oblitu'm nescio quid diceret, for when he had gone out from the camp with Hannibal's permission, he returned a little later because, as he said, he had forgotten something (Cic., Off., i., 13, 40) ; qul istinc veniunt, superbiam tuam accusant, quod negent te percontantibus respondere, those who come from there criticise your arrogance because, as they say, you do not answer people who question you (Cic., Fam., vii., 16, 3) ; ex his Bellovacl suum numerum non compleverunt, quod se sud nomine atque arbitrio cum Ro- mariis bellum gesturos dicerent, of these the Bellovaci did 328 SYNTAX. not fill out their contingent, because, as they said, they were going to fight with the Romans on their own account and under their own direction (Caes., B. G., vii., 75). 521. The subjunctive is used with non quod and nan quo, meaning " not that " (not because), negative non quod non, non quo non, non quln (not but that).* Thus : Etsl n5n idcirco eorum usum dimiseram, quod iis suo censerem sed quod eorum me subpudebat, although I had not given up their intimacy because I was angry with them but because I was rather ashamed of them (Cic., Fatn., ix., 1, 2) ; non quo mea quidem iam intersit . . . sed, etc., not that it makes a difference to me any longer . . . but, etc. (Cic., de Or., ii., 18, 74) ; etsl eo te adhuc consilw usum intellego, ut id reprehendere non audeam, non quin ab eo ipse dissentiam, sed quod ea te sapientid esse iudico, although I see that you have thus far adopted a course which I should not venture to criticise, not that I do not myself hold a different view, but be- cause I have such confidence in your wisdom (Cic., Fain., iv., 7,1). For qw>d = " the fact that," introducing substantive clauses, see 540,4. Clauses giving the Thought of Another. 522. The subjunctive is used to represent the thing said in a subordinate clause as something in the mind of a person other than the speaker or writer, generally the subject of the main clause (implied indirect discourse). Thus : Paetus omiws libros quos frdter suus reliquisset, mihi donavit, Paetus gave me all the books which his brother had left \_i. e., he was influenced to give them by the fact that his * Non quia, non quia won, are also used, but are very rare in classical Latin. Occasionally all of these conjunctions, except non quo, non quo non, are found with an indicative, thus marking the reason distinctly as the actual one. SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION. 329 brother, etc.] (Cic., Att., ii., 1, 12) ; Darius, dum ipse abes- set, pontis custodes rellquit prlncipes, quos secum ex Ionia diixerat, Darius left as guards of the bridge while he should be absent, chieftains whom he had brought with him from Ionia ; Agesilaus multo gloriosius duxit, si mstitutis patriae paru- isset quam si bello superasset Asiam, Agesilaus thought it a much more glorious thing if he obeyed the established laws of his country than if he conquered Asia in war (cf, Nep., Ages., 4). Subjunctive by Attraction. 523. A clause depending upon a subjunctive (or an infinitive), and denoting something which may be re- garded as an integral part of the thought expressed in the clause on which it depends, generally takes the sub- junctive, though, except for such dependence, it would take the indicative. Thus : Mds est Athenls laudari in contione eos, qui sint in proe- lils interfecti, it is customary at Athens for a eulogy to be delivered in the public assembly over those who have been killed in battle (Cic., Or., 44, 151) ; in Hortensio memoria fuit tanta, ut, quae secum commentatus esset, ea sine scripto verbls elsdem redder et, quibus cogitavisset, Hortensius had such a powerful memory, that without having written them down he could give expression to the things he had turned over in his mind, using the same words in which he had thought them (cf. Cic., Brut., 88, 30l) ; fwbat ut Alcibiades omnium oculos, quotienscumque in publicum prodisset, ad se con- verteret, Alcibiades used to attract the gaze of all the people every time he went out. NOTE. The uses of the subjunctive given in the last two paragraphs (522 and 523) are merely varieties of some of the more general uses treated above. In many cases they might be explained as Characteristic subjunctives. It is, however, worth while to put them into separate cate- gories, because the considerations given show the reason why the subjunc- tive is chosen in the given case, while in cases otherwise similar, but in which these considerations are not present, the indicative is often found where a Characteristic subjunctive might be expected. 330 SYNTAX. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. The following points in the use of the tenses in subjunctive clauses should be observed : 524. When the thing said has really the nature of an occurrence (although it is expressed, as far as the mood goes, simply as an idea), the tenses of the subjunctive mark practically * the same differences of time as the tenses of the indicative. a. This is the case with (1.) Clauses of Result. (2.) Temporal Clauses (and those developed from them). (3.) Clauses of Concession, with qiiamvls, licet, etc. (4.) The constructions of Indirect Discourse. Thus : Socrates tain sapiens erat ut hodie quoque honoretur, So- crates was so wise that he is honored even to-day ; tarn acriter pugnaverunt ut paene omnes occiderentur, they fought so desperately that nearly all were slain ; haec verba ita excel- lent ia siint ut deo alicui tribuerentur, these words are so admirable that they used to be attributed to some god. Cum, Atheius essem, Zenonem saepe audiebam, when I was at Athens I often heard Zeno. Hoc dicit quod verum sit, he says this because it is, as he thinks, true. f 525. But in the various constructions of indirect dis- course, if the word upon which a subjunctive depends re- fers to past time, the subjunctive is regularly drawn into the same time (i. e., is made imperfect or pluperfect). Thus : Turn ostendit quanta esset vis conscientiae, then he showed * In these uses the subjunctive has lost its modality and gained in tense quality (as has been said in 483, c, with the note before and after), but, scientifically speaking 1 , this exchange was never quite complete enough to make the tense quality of this mood absolutely identical with that of the indicative. TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 331 how great the power of consciousness of guilt is ; his mos erat omnes qul ad Insulam ipsorum accessissent statim interfici, these people had the custom of immediately killing all who ap- proached their island ; laudabat Africanum Panaetius quod abstinens esset, Panaetius used to praise Africanus for his self- control. NOTE. This tendency arises, perhaps, from a desire for symmetry of ex- pression. The same thing is occasionally shown in dependent indicative clauses (see 470, 3), and is at the bottom of the so-called subjunctive by attraction. A similar attraction of tense occurs in English also, though not with the same regularity as in Latin. See the second example above. Also compare with each other the two forms in which each of the follow- ing sentences may be expressed : That battle showed what unaided valor CAN do. That battle showed what unaided valor COULD do. If he were here, he would do what the occasion DEMANDS. If he were here, he would do what the occasion DEMANDED. 526. When the thing said is not thought of as an occurrence at all, but only as an idea in the mind of the speaker or writer, the primary tenses of the subjunctive are used in speaking of a present (or future) situation, the secondary tenses in speaking of a past situation. The perfect and pluperfect differ from the present and imper- fect only in their implication of completed action. a. This is the case with : (1.) Subjunctives in Independent Sentences.* (2.) Conditional clauses * (including Concessions and Com- parisons). (3.) Clauses of Purpose (whether pure purpose or substan- tive clauses). Thus, hand facile discernas, like the English " you cannot easily tell," applies to a present situation; hand facile discer- neres, like " you could not easily tell," applies to a past situa- tion. So, hunc librum tibi do, ut eum legas, I give you this * The use of the imperfect subjunctive to denote a wish or a supposi- tion unfulfilled in present time is only an apparent exception, and has been sufficiently treated in 473, a, and 477, a. 332 SYNTAX. book to read, indicates a present purpose ; hunc librum tibi dedi, ut eum legeres, implies a past purpose (t. e., what was the pur- pose at the time of giving). NOTE. In these uses, as there is no question of the occurrence of any- thing, there is no definite time relation to the moment of speaking or writing, as when the indicative is used, or as there is (by implication) in the cases treated under 524, and the mood quality of the subjunctive is much more marked than its tense quality. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 527. The IMPERATIVE MOOD is used to express directly commands-) requests, and advice. Thus : Hue ades, come here (Verg., Ed., 2, 45). Nosce te, know thyself (Cic., Tusc., i., 22, 52). Aequam mementd servare mentem, remember to keep an unruffled mind (Hor., Carm., ii., 3, l). a. The negative is ne for " not," neve for " nor " or " and not." Non and neque are rare, and occur chiefly in poetry. b. The future imperative expresses the command, etc., more mildly than the present. But for the missing present of scio, memim, and of habeo meaning " think," the future forms are used scito, scltote, memento, mementote, habeto, habetdte. c. The third person of the future occurs only in laws and wills. d. Fac, fac ut, curd lit, are used with a subjunctive to ex- press a command more strongly ; velim, nolim, mdlim (cf. 473, c, and 491), to express one less strongly, than the imperative. The future indicative is also sometimes used, as in English. e. Qum, why not, with the present indicative, is sometimes equivalent to a command ; as, quin accipis ? = take it (lit., why don't you take it?) (Ter., Heaut., 832). 528. PROHIBITIONS are expressed by the present im- perative only in poetry, by the future imperative only in laws, wills, precepts, etc. Thus : Ne crede colori, trust not the color (Verg., Ed., 2, 17) ; IMPERATIVE MOOD. INFINITIVE. 333 hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito neve urito, give nei- ther burial nor cremation to the dead within the city (Laws of the XII. Tables). 529. Otherwise PROHIBITIONS take : (1.) In the second person : a. Ne, with the perfect subjunctive (for a particular case only) ; as, hoc ne f eceris, Marce, do not do this thing, Mar- cus. b. Ne, with the present subjunctive (for a general case only) ; as, hoc ne facias, do this not (i. e., nobody must do it). c. Noll, with the infinitive ; as, noil oblivlsci, do not forget. d. Cave, with the subjunctive ; as, cave festines, do not hurry. e. Fac ne, with the subjunctive (in colloquial speech). Thus : fac ne quid aliud cures, nisi ut convalescas, do not attend to anything but the recovery of your health (Cic., Fam., xvi., 11, 1). (2.) In the third person : Ne, with the present subjunctive ; as, donis impii ne pla- care audeant deos, let not the wicked presume to try to pro- pitiate the gods with gifts. Compare also 472, 2, and 472, a, 6. INFINITIVE. NOTE. The INFINITIVE has the nature of a noun, in that it may he used as the subject or object of various verbs, or in apposition with a pro- noun ; it has the nature of a verb, in that it admits distinctions of tense, is modified by adverbs, not adjectives, and like the finite verb governs oblique SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIVE. 530. The SUBJECT of an infinitive is put in the accu- sative. Thus : Ad rem publicam pertinet me conservari, it concerns the interests of the state that I should be saved (Cic.) ; videbat id non posse fieri, he saw that it could not be done (Nep.). 334 SYNTAX. a. But the infinitive is sometimes used in lively narration in- stead of the (historical) perfect indicative, and then its subject is in the NOMINATIVE (historical infinitive). Thus : Interim cottldie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile Caesar daily demanded grain of the Haeduans (Caes., B. Gr., 1, 16) ; nos pavidl trepidare metu, panic- stricken we hurry about in alarm (Verg., Ae., 2, 685). INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT. 531. The infinitive, either with or without a subject, may be the SUBJECT of a verb. Thus : Difficile est amicitiam manere, si a virtute defeceris, it is hard for friendship to abide, if you fall from virtue (Cic., Am., 11, 37). Mains dedecus est parta amlttere quam omriino rion para- visse, it is a greater disgrace to lose what you have acquired than not to have made any acquisitions at all (Sail., lug., 31, 17) ; numquam igitur est utUe peccare, to do wrong is there- fore never expedient (Cic., Off., iii., 15, 64). a. The infinitive is used as subject chiefly with est, erat, etc., and a predicate noun or adjective, or with certain imper- sonal verbs, such as libet, licet, oportet, videtur, piget, pudet, placet, praestat, refert, interest, convenit, fugit, iuvat, etc.* b. The infinitive may of course also be equivalent to a pred- icate nominative ; as : Impune qiiaelibet facere, id est regem esse. to do with impunity whatever one will, that is to be king (Sail.). c. When the infinitive used with licet and such words has a predicate adjective or noun with it, this is generally put in the dative, whether there is a dative of indirect object ex- * With verbs like oportet, which, strictly speaking, have the subject in- volved in the verb idea (t. e., im personals in the narrowest sense), the infin- itive is in origin not a subject infinitive but a complementary infinitive (see 532). These infinitives, however, became so fused with the subject infin- itive, and thereby lost their resemblance to other complementary infinitives so thoroughly, that it seems most practical to treat them as is here done. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. 335 pressed with licet or not ; but sometimes it is put in the accu- sative. Thus : Licuit esse 6tios5 Themistocll, it was in Themistocles' power to be inactive (Cic., Tusc., i., 15, 33) ; sibi vltam filiae sud cariorem fuisse, si liberae ac pudicae vlvere licitum fuisset, [he said] that his daughter's life would have been dearer to him than his own, if she could have lived in freedom and virtue (Liv., iii., 50, 6). Quod si civi Romano licet esse Graditanum, and if a Ro- man citizen may be [also] a citizen of Gades (Cic., Ealb., 12, 29). For the subjunctive with impersonals, see 494, a, and 497. COMPLEMENTARY INFINITIVE. 532. The infinitive without a subject is used with sev- eral classes of words which require a further action of the same subject to complete the meaning (complementary infinitive). Thus : Hoc qued dicere, this I can say (Cic., Sen., 10, 32) ; haec vitare cupimus, this we wish to avoid (Cic.) ; poetas omnino non conor attingere, I do not attempt to touch the poets at all (Cic., de Dr., ii., 14, 61 ). a. Such are verbs denoting ABILITY, OBLIGATION, INTENTION, or ENDEAVOR ; also verbs meaning BEGIN, CONTINUE, CEASE, ABSTAIN, LEARN (TO),* REMEMBER (TO),* UNDERSTAND, DETER- MINE, DARE, BE AFRAID (TO),* HESITATE, BE WONT. b. If a complementary infinitive has a predicate noun or ad- jective, this agrees in case with the subject of the verb on which the infinitive depends. Thus : Aude sapiens esse, dare to be a philosopher ; solet tristis viderl, he is apt to seem sad ; iubet eum virum esse audere, he bids him dare to be a man. Cf. also 329, b. For the subjunctive with some of these verbs, see 484 ff. For the infinitive with a subject after verbs of wishing, etc., see 533, 3. * In the meanings /earn, remember, be afraid, that (something) is so and so, these verbs of course take other constructions. (See 515 ff. ; also 490, and 492). "UNIVERSITY 336 SYNTAX. INFINITIVE AS OBJECT. 533. The infinitive with a subject is used as the OBJECT of certain classes of verbs. Thus : (1.) With verbs of SAYING, THINKING, KNOWING, PERCEIV- ING (verba sentiendl et decldrandl) ; as : Dicit se eras venturum esse, he says he will come to-mor- row ; centurwties nihil temere agendum esse exlstimabant, the centurions thought that nothing ought to be done inconsi- derately ; audivl te venisse, I heard you had come; sentit igitur animus se . . . sua vl, rion aliena, moveri, the mind therefore perceives that its activity is from its own force, not from an outside force (Cic., Tusc., i., 23, 55). (2.) With verbs of DETERMINING, DECREEING, and the like ; as : Metellus statuit olio more bellum gerendum esse, Metellus determined that the war must be carried on in an- other fashion. (3.) With verbs of WISHING (mostly when a new subject is introduced), and with iubed and veto. Thus : Hoc velim intellegi, I should like to have this understood (Cic.) ; legati qiiod erant appellafl superb his, Corinthum patres vestrl . . . exstinctum esse voluerunt, your fathers insisted on the destruction of Corinth because their ambas- sadors had been addressed rather arrogantly (Cic., Leg. Man., 5, ll) ; me amarl void, I wish to be loved ; iubet nos Pytkius Apollo noscere nosmet ipsos, the Pythian Apollo bids ns know ourselves ; legates Caesar discedere vetuerat, Cae- sar had forbidden the ambassadors to depart (Cas-, B. G., 2, 20). (4.) With verbs of EMOTION and FEELING ; as : Gaudeo te salvom venisse. I am glad that you have ar- rived safely ; Antonius se similem esse Catifanae gloriari solebat, Antonius used to boast that he was like Catiline ; multl peccasse se non anguntur, oblurgari moleste ferunt, many INFINITIVE WITH CERTAIN VERBS. 337 people are not distressed that they have done wrong, but take it ill to be found fault with ; miror * te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you do not write to me at all. (5.) With verbs of HOPING, PROMISING, VOWING, THREATEN- ING, SWEARING, the future infinitive is regularly used. Thus : Spero te id facturum esse, I hope you will do so ; promlr sit se venturum esse, he promised to come ; totam se urbem deleturum esse minatur, he threatens to destroy the entire town ; numquam amicum se Romania futurum esse iurabat, he swore he would never be a friend to the Romans. NOTE. This use of the infinitive is the regular construction of indirect discourse. (See 515 ff.) For the subjunctive with some of these verbs, see 484 ff. INFINITIVE WITH DICOR, VIDEOR, FERTUR, ETC. 534. Several verbs, which in the active take an accusa- tive and infinitive, are used personally in the passive rather than impersonally,! the subject-accusative of the infinitive thus becoming the subject-nominative of the finite verb. Thus : Dicor vir probus esse, I am said to be an upright man ; vetamur hoc f acere, we are forbidden to do this ; videor diem ilium videre, I seem to see that day ; Numae regnum pacatum esse traditur, Numa's reign is said to have been a peaceful one. a. A predicate word with the infinitive in this use is of course nominative, as in the first example. b. In poetry, sometimes a predicate word is put in the nomi- native (by a Greek idiom) after an active verb of saying ; as: Phaselus tile, quern videtis, hospites, ait fuisse navium celerrimus, that skiff you see, there yonder, friends, doth say, she was of boats the swiftest in her day (Cat., 4, l). * Cf . also substantive quod clauses, 540, 4. t The impersonal construction also occurs, but chiefly with the gerun- dive or perfect participle. 338 SYNTAX. OTHER USES OF THE INFINITIVE. 535. The infinitive (generally with the interrogative ne) is used in EXCLAMATIONS. Thus : M ene incepto desistere victam, I, defeated, abandon my undertaking! (Verg., Aen., 1, 37) ; quemquanme hominem in aninio instituere, that any man should take the determi- nation ! (Ter., Ad., 38). Cf. the subjunctive, with main verb omitted, 482, rf, and 492, c. 536. The infinitive retains its original use of express- ing a PURPOSE in a few expressions. Thus : (1.) With habed, do, ministro, in a few passages ; as : Tantum habeS polliceri, I have so much to promise (Cic., Fam., i., 5, a, 3). (2.) With paratus and siietus (insuetus), used as adjectives. Thus : Omnia perpetl paratus, ready to endure all; insuetus vera audire, unaccustomed to hear the truth (Liv., xxxi., 18, 3). a. In poetry a great many adjectives are used with the infini- tive, where we might rather expect a gerund or a subjunctive clause. Thus : Cedere nescius, unknowing how to yield (Hor., Carm., i., 6, 6); avidi commrttere piignam, eager for the fray (Ovid., M., 5, 75) ; certa morl, bent upon death (Verg., Aen., 4, 564) ; dlgnus amdri, worthy to be loved (Verg., Eel., 5, 89). b. A rare case of the use of the infinitive as a noun is : ut inter optime valere et gravissime aegrotare nihil prorsus dwerent interesse, so that they said there was absolutely no dif- ference between being perfectly well and most seriously ill (Cic., Fl., ii., 13, 43). Cf. beate vivere vestrum quale est ! your h'ving happily, what does it amount to ? c. The infinitive of purpose depending upon a verb is occa- sionally used by the poets ; as : Proteus pecus egit altos visere monies', Proteus drove his herds to visit the high mountains (Hor., Carm., i., 2, 7). INFINITIVE MOOD. 339 OMISSION OF THE INFINITIVE. 537. Esse (and/m'sse),* especially as elements of the future active and perfect passive infinitives, are often omitted, particularly after verbs of saying or thinking; as: Yds cognovi fortes [esse], I have found you brave ; adule- scentl morem gestum [esse] oportuit, the young gentleman should have been humored (Ter., Ad., 214) ; promisit se ven- turum [esse], he promised to come. a. In a relative clause, an infinitive is sometimes omitted when it can be supplied from the verb of the main clause ; as : Quos voluit omnes interfecit [sc. interficere], he killed all whom he chose [sc. to kill]. TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 538. In the constructions of indirect discourse (real or implied), the tenses of the infinitive represent the action as past, present, or future, with reference to the word of saying. They correspond to the tenses of the indicative as follows : Pres. infin. = pres. indie. Perf. " = past " (imperf., perf., or pluper.). Fut. " =fut. " a. With meminl (and occasionally other words) the present infinitive is used to represent an imperfect indicative ; as, Tide me meminl dicere, I remember saying this, thus denoting a recollection of the progress of an action. If the mere fact is remembered, the perfect infinitive is used ; as, meministis me ita distribuisse catisam, you remember I divided the case in this way. b. Instead of the future infinitive is often used futurum esse ut (or fore ut) with a subjunctive, always when the given verb has no future participle. Thus : Numquam putavl fore ut supplex ad te venirem, I never * Fore is less commonly omitted. 340 SYNTAX. thought I should come to you as a suppliant (Cic., Ait., xvi., 16 c, 10) ; dlxit futurum esse ut poscerent, he said they would demand. 539. In other constructions than those of indirect dis- course, only the present infinitive is common. The perfect is used to denote COMPLETED ACTION.* a. With verbs of WISHING, OBLIGATION, etc., the perfect pas- sive is found sometimes where the present would seem more logical ; as : Patres vestrl Corinthum exstlnctum esse voluerunt, your fathers insisted that Corinth should be destroyed (Cic., Leg. Man., 5, 11). b. In early Latin, and in the poets and later writers, the per- fect active is also thus used with various verbs. Thus : Tendentes opaco Pelion imposuisse Olympo, struggling to pile Pelion upon shady Olympus (Hor., Carm., iii., 4, 52) ; boo chatur vates, magnum si pectere possit excussisse deum, the prophetess rushes wildly about to try if she can shake off the divine influence from her soul (Verg., Aen., 6, 78). SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 540. There are four classes of substantive clauses, as follows : (1.) Subjunctive clauses introduced by ut, rie, quin^ etc. (developed from purpose or result). (Cf. 484 ff.) (2.) Infinitives with subject accusative (indirect dis- course). (Cf. 515 ff. and 533 ff.) (3.) Indirect questions. (Cf. 518.) (4.) Indicative clauses introduced by quod = " the fact that " (a variety of causal clauses) ; as : Magnum btneficiuan est naturae, quod necesse est raori, it is a great natural blessing that we must die. * Especially with expressions like satis habeo,pudet, contentus sum, melius erit, etc. SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 341 Which of these kinds of substantive clauses should he used with any given verb can generally be determined by considering the nature of the thing said, as follows : 541. (1.) If the thing said in the substantive clause has the nature of a STATEMENT (spoken or thought), an infinitive clause is used ; as : Ndn putabant de tali viro suspiciSnibus oportere iu- dicari, such a man ought not to be judged [they thought] by suspicious circumstances. (2.) If the thing said involves a REASON or EXPLANA- TORY fact, the substantive clause takes quod ; as : Mihi quidem videntur homines hoc re maxime beluis praestare quod loqui possunt, to me, at least, men seem to have the advantage over the brutes in this respect chiefly, that they can speak (Cic.). (3.) If the thing said is a question, the substantive clause, as an indirect question, takes the subjunctive ; as : Quae esset brevissima via quaeswit, he asked what was the shortest way. (4.) If the thing said has not the nature of any of these three things, the substantive clause takes the sub- junctive with ut* rie, etc. ; as : Feel rion invltus ut prodessem multis rogatu tuo, I have been not unwilling to contribute to the advantage of many people at your request (Cic., Am., 1, 4) ; ad Appi Claudl senectutem, accedebat etiam ut caecus esset, to the old age of Appius Claudius even blindness was added (Cic., Sen., 6, 16). NOTE. Verbs which in their original use take some particular form of substantive clause often acquire shades of meaning which admit other forms. The possible uses with any given verb are best learned from the dictionary, and by observing the practice of the Latin writers. 342 SYNTAX. PARTICIPLES. In the use of the Latin participles the following points should he noted : 542. Participles are followed by the same cases and constructions as their verbs. Thus : Quldam, poeta nominatus, some one, called a poet. Catulorum oblita leaena, a lioness forgetful of her whelps (Verg., ., 3, 245). Faventes rebus Karthaginiensium, favoring the interests of the Carthaginians. Casus abies visura marlnos, a fir tree [which is] to see the chances of the deep (Verg., G., 2, 68). Horum opera saepe anted usus, having used their services often before. 543. The PRESENT participle denotes something going on at the same time as the action of the verb with which it is connected. Thus : Turnum fugientem haec terra videbit, this land shall see Turnus fleeing (Verg.). a. The action denoted by a Latin present participle must belong to exactly the same time as the main action. Only cer- tain participles denoting motion veniens, adveniens, etc. are used with that kind of loose reference to present time which the English participle often has. Thus we say, " hearing this sound, I ran quickly," where the Roman could not use a present participle, but would take some other form of expression ; as, qi(d son-foil audits currebam celeriter, or cum hunc sonitum audivissem, etc. b. The present participle depending upon a verb of saying or perceiving is almost equivalent to an infinitive, but is a more lively form of expression. See fugientem in the example above. Cf. Laelium et Sclpionem facimus admlrantis, I represent Laelius and Scipio expressing their wonder (Cic., Sen., 1, 3). PARTICIPLES. 343 544. The PERFECT participle denotes something already finished at the time indicated by the verb with which it is connected. Thus : Qui, missus ab Argis, . . . Itala consederat urbe, who, sent from Argos, . . . had settled in the Italian city (Verg., Ae., 10, 779). a. The perfect participle of many deponent verbs has almost the force of a present participle. So, commonly, arbitratus, ratus, solitus, usus, veritus. Also ausus, commorattis, flsus, secutus, and others. b. The perfect participle of deponent verbs is sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, experta virtus, valor that has been tried. NOTE. Except in the case of deponent verbs, an active perfect parti- ciple has to be supplied in Latin by changing the construction to the passive (Ablative Absolute), or by a temporal or causal clause (especially a clause introduced by CU?M, postquam, or dum). 545. The FUTURiTparticiple denotes something which is to take place after the time indicated by the verb with which it is connected. Thus : Magna, pars hominum est, quae navigatura de tempestate rion cogitat, there is a large part of mankind who when on the point of taking a voyage do not think about the state of the weather. a. The future participle thus agreeing with a noun or pro- noun is rare in good prose. In the poets and later writers, (including Livy) it frequently denotes likelihood, intention, or purpose. Thus : An sese medios moriturus in hostes mferat, or shall he plunge into the midst of the foe, to meet his death (Verg., Ae., 9, 398). 546. The present and perfect participles are often used as attributive adjectives (or as nouns), and can even be compared, like other adjectives. Thus : Urbs florentissima, a most flourishing city. Vir spectatus, a man proved worthy. 344 SYNTAX. Male parta male dilabuntur, ill gotten gains slip away in the same bad fashion (Cic., Phil., ii., 27, 65). Quo paratior ad usum forensem promptiorque esse passim, that I may be better prepared and more ready for forensic prac- tice (Cic., Caec., 13, 41). 547. A present or a perfect participle is also often used in the sense of a predicate, where in English a clause (or phrase) would be found denoting an accompanying cir- cumstance, a cause or hindrance, etc. Thus : Sanguls in totum corpus distribultur per venas in omnes paries corporis pertinentes, the blood is distributed to the whole body, through veins which extend into all parts of the body (Cic., N. D., ii., 55, 137) ; Caesar exploratls regidnibus albente caelo omnes copias castrls eduxit, Caesar, having re- connoitred the country, led all his forces forth from camp as day was breaking (Caes., B. C., 1, 68). a. This is the regular use of the participle in the ablative absolute construction (cf. 422), as in the last example. b. Sometimes a participle is made to agree with a noun, when the participle itself contains the main idea. In English a noun (especially one in " ing ") is used instead of the participle, and its relation to the other noun is expressed by " of." Thus : Hae lltterae recitatae magnum luctum fecerunt, the reading of this letter caused great grief (Llv.) ; ab condita wrbe ad Hberatam, from the founding of the city to the estab- lishment of the republic [literally, to its freeing] (Llv.). Cf. also the use of the gerundive (550, especially d). c. Beside its regular use in forming the compound tenses of the verb (see 211), the perfect participle is sometimes used with habed almost in the sense of the English compound tenses. In Latin, however, the two parts of the expression retain their own force more distinctly than in English, and the use is chiefly con- fined to words of knowing and the like. Thus : Clodl animum perspectum habeo. I have thoroughly in- vestigated Clodius's state of mind [literally, I hold it in an PARTICIPLE. GEKUND AND GERUNDIVE. 345 investigated condition]. Cf. (Plaut., Cap., 345) transactum reddet omne, he will do the thing up brown [literally, he will return it finished], and (in Terence and Cicero) missum facio, I let go, dismiss. GERUND and GERUNDIVE. 548. (1.) The GERUND is a verbal noun used in the oblique cases with the same force which the infinitive has as subject (or object) of a verb, and governing the cases like any other part of the verb. Its meaning is active. (2.) The GERUNDIVE is a verbal adjective denoting necessity, propriety, or duty, or, in the oblique cases, tak- ing the place of the gerund under certain circumstances. In the first of these uses it is passive ; in the second, though seemingly passive, it is really, like the gerund, active. 549. Examples of the use of the gerund are as fol- lows : . Metus parendi sibi, fear of obeying him ; parcendo victis, by sparing the conquered ; efferor studio patres vestros . . . videndi, I am carried away with a desire to see your fathers (Cic., Sen., 23, 83). 550. Instead of the gerund with an object, in the case of transitive verbs the gerundive construction is com- monly used ; i. e., the object is put in the case which the gerund would have had, and the gerundive is made to agree with it. Thus : Consilium scrlbendae epistulae, the purpose of writing a letter (Gerund, scrlbendl epistulam) ; ad defendendam Ro- mam ab oppugnanda Capua duces Romanos abstrahit, he draws off the Roman generals from the siege of Capua to the defense of Rome (Gerund, ad defendendum Romam ab op- pugnando Capuam) ; reparandarum classium causa, for the sake of repairing the fleets (Gerund, reparandl classes). 346 SYNTAX. a. The gerundive, rather than the gerund, is regularly used with the verbs utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, which in early times took the accusative where later usage employed the abla- tive. Thus : Quod ilia aetas magis ad haec iitenda (rather than ad his utendum) idoneast, because that time of life is better suited to these employments (Ter., Heaut., 133) ; iustitiae fruendae (rather than iustitia fruendl) causa, for the sake of enjoying justice ; hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum (rather than potiundi castris) venerant, the enemy had come into the hope of getting possession of the camp. b. If ambiguity would arise (through confusion of the gender) from the use of the gerundive, the gerund is used. So especially when the object is a neuter pronoun or adjective. Thus : A liquid faciendi ratio, a principle of doing something (Cic.) ; artem et vera et falsa dimdicandi, the art of distin- guishing the true and the false (Cic.). c. The genitive of the gerund sometimes occurs with a pos- sessive pronoun agreeing with it, rarely also with a noun de- pending upon it, where it looks at first sight like a gerundive irregularly used. Thus : Quoniam tui videndi est copia, since there is an opportunity of seeing you [said of a woman] (Plaut.) ; in castra venerunt sui purgandl causa, they came to the camp for the sake of excusing themselves [lit., of their own excusing] (Liv.) ; non vereor ne quis me haec vestri adhortandi causa magnifice loqul existimet, I am not afraid any one will think I exaggerate this to encourage you (Liv., xxi., 41, l) ? exemplorum eligendi potestas, the power of [the] choosing [of] examples (Cic.). d. The gerund and gerundive represent something as not yet completed or accomplished. If something completed is spoken of, the perfect participle must be used. Thus : Susplcio regnl adpetendi, a suspicion of aiming at royal power ; susplcio regni adpetiti, a suspicion of having aimed at royal power ; ante conditam condendamve urbem, be- GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 347 fore the founding of the city was accomplished or planned (Liv., i., praef., 6). CASES OF THE GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. 551. The GENITIVE of the gerund or gerundive with causa (or gratia) * and the ACCUSATIVE of the gerund or gerundive with ad are often used to denote purpose. Thus : Postremo \_Catillna~] dissimulandi causa vel sui expur- gandl . . . in senatum venit, finally, for the purpose of hiding [the real state of the case] or of clearing himself, Catiline came into the senate (Sail., Cat., 31, 4) ; ad castra facienda, for the purpose of making a camp (Cic.). a. The DATIVE of the gerundive is used to express a purpose, after names of offices, and words denoting election or appoint- ment. Thus : Decemviri legibus scribendis, a commission of ten for writ- ing out the laws ; triumviros agro dando creat, he appoints a committee of three for assigning land (Liv., 3, 1, 6). NOTE. Otherwise the dative of both gerund and gerundive is rare. b. The ACCUSATIVE of the gerund and gerundive (except in the use treated under 552, 2) is found only with the prepositions ad and (occasionally) ante, in or ob, or (in verse) inter. See above examples. c. The ABLATIVE of the gerund and gerundive is used with prepositions, and to denote cause, manner, or instrument. Thus : De consulatu petendo, in regard to being a candidate for the consulship ; currendo et luctandd exercere, to exercise by running and wrestling. OTHER USES OF THE GERUNDIVE. 552. Besides forming the periphrastic conjugation (see 229, 2), to denote what must be done, or ought to be * These nouns are almost always placed after the genitive because the genitive is almost always the more emphatic of the two words (see 585). 348 SYNTAX. dojic, and serving as a substitute for the gerund (see 550 and 551), the gerundive is chiefly used as follows : (1.) As an attributive adjective, meaning " worthy of," and the like. Thus : [Prudentia] quae est rerum expetendarum fugienda- Tumque scientia, prudence, which is the knowledge of things to be desired and things to be shunned (Cic., Off., i., 43, 153) ; admlranda frugalitas, an admirable frugality (Cic., Deiot., 9, 26). (2.) As a predicate adjective denoting PURPOSE, after words meaning to give, deliver, agree for, undertake, re- ceive, and some others. Thus : Testamentum tibi tradet legendum, he will hand his will to you to read (Hor., Sat., ii., 5, 5l) ; attribuit n5s truci- dandos CetTiego, he assigned us to Cethegus to be butchered (Cic., Cat., iv., 6, is). (3.) The neuter is sometimes used impersonally (espe- cially in early Latin and the poets) governing a case. Thus : Nunc pacem orandum, nunc . . . anna reponendum et bellum exitiale cavendum, now we must beg for peace, now lay aside arms and avoid murderous war (Sil.) ; cum suo cuique iudicio sit utendum, since each must use his own judgment ; quam nobls quoque ingrediundum sit, [a road] which we too must travel (Cic., Sen., 2, 6). SUPINE. NOTE. The supine is found in a comparatively small number of verbs. For a list of them see Draeger's Historische Syntax, vol. ii., p. 859 ff. 553. The SUPINE is a verbal noun with active meaning, used only in the accusative and ablative, as follows : 554. The ACCUSATIVE of the supine is used : (1.) To form the future passive infinitive with In (see 211, a). Thus : GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. SUPINE. 349 Ait Karthdginem cap turn iri, he says Carthage is going to be (or will be) taken. NOTE. Here m is used impersonally, and the apparent subject of the in- finitive is really the object of the supine. (2.) With verbs of motion (expressed or implied), to denote PURPOSE. Thus : Legatl venerunt questum iniurias et res repetltum, ambassadors came to complain of wrongs and demand restitu- tion (Liv.) ; cubitum discessimus, we parted for the night [lit., to lie down] (Cic., lie Pub., vi., 10, 10) ; puerum misit roga- tum, quid vellet, he sent a boy to ask what he wished. a. So metaphorically, dare niiptum, collocare nuptum, give in marriage, sessum recipere, offer a seat, perditum Ire, go to ruin. b. The accusative of the supine is especially rare with an ob- ject, as in the first example above. 555. The ABLATIVE of the supine is used in classical Latin only as an ablative of specification (see 412), chiefly with the adjectives facilis, difficilis ; iucundus, iniucundus ; honestus, turpis ; credibilis, incredibilis ; mirabilis, utilis, optimus ; and with the nouns fas, nefas, opus. Thus : Rem . . . factu facilem, a thing easy to do (Ter., ffeaut., 704) ; mlrabile dictu, wonderful to tell (Verg., 6r., 2, 30) ; in- credibile memoratil, incredible to relate (Sail., Cat., 6, 2) ; hoc fas est dictu, this is a right thing to say (Cic., Tusc., v., 13, 38) ; dictu opus est, it must be said (Ter., Heaut., 941). a. The ablative of the following supines occurs in classical Latin : audltu, cognitu, dictu, factu, intellectu, inventu, memo- ratu, scltu, vlsu. b. In Livy and later writers dlgnus and indlgnus occur with the ablative of a supine ; as, indignum relatu. c. The gerundive with ad is more common with facilis, diffi- cilis, and iucundus, and the infinitive is also used ; as, facile est invenire, it is easy to find. Dignus takes qul with the 350 SYNTAX. subjunctive in classical Latin, or the ablative of a noun. (Cf. also 536, a.) The Different Constructions of Purpose. 556. The following eight ways of expressing PURPOSE are possible in Latin : (1.) Subjunctive with ut or tie. (2.) " "a relative. (3.) Gerund (or gerundive) with ad. (4.) " " " causa (gratia). (5.) Accusative of the gerundive. (6.) Future participle. (7.) Supine. (8.) Infinitive. a. Of these the subjunctive with ut or qui is the common and regular construction (for the distinction between ut and qui see 482, 2, note). The gerund and gerundive constructions (with ad or causa) are used only in short expressions, and rarely if the verb of purpose has any further modifier than an object and an adverb of manner. The gerundive without ad or causa is used only with the verbs given under 552, 2. The future participle belongs mostly to late Latin, and is said not to occur in Cicero at all. The supine is used only as in 554. The infinitive is poetical and not common. (Cf. 536.) ADVERBS. 557. Latin ADVERBS are used, in general, like English adverbs, to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. a. The adverbs in -e and -ter (from adjectives of the second and third declensions respectively) are usually adverbs of MAN- NER ; as, care, dearly ; praecldre, nobly ; audacter, boldly ; levi- ter, lightly. b. The adverbs in -um and -im (originally accusatives), are usually adverbs of QUANTITY or AMOUNT ; as, multum, much ; paulum, a little ; partim, partly. They therefore modify verbs chiefly. m >- -^ x v JJJT> - ATWTCPttS 31 CONSTRUCTIONS OF PURPOSE. ADVERBS. 351 c. The adverbs in -5 (originally ablatives) are usually adverbs of DEGREE OF DIFFERENCE ; as, multo, by far, much ; paulo, (by) a little. They therefore modify adjectives and adverbs chiefly. NOTE 1. The last two classes tend to pass into each other, so that the difference is sometimes so subtle as to seem wholly arbitrary. Cf . primum, first (in a series), to begin with, with primo, first (in time), in the first place. NOTE 2. Apparent exceptions to the above are the adverbs of emphatic assertion, sane, vero, profecto, certo, and others, though generally they are adverbs of manner which have lost their original meanings. d. Of the words for "so," ita and (more emphatic) sic are adverbs of manner, and modify verbs ; tarn is an adverb of de- gree, and modifies chiefly adjectives and adverbs. e. Ut . . . ita, "as . . . so," are often equivalent to " al- though . . . yet " (one member of the comparison being by implication a negative). Thus : Ut quies certaminum erat, ita ab apparatu operum . . . nihil cessatum, though there was a cessation of conflict, yet there was no interruption in the construction of fortifications (Liv., xxi., 8, 1). f. With a word or phrase explaining something said, ut is sometimes ambiguous. It may be "seeing that," giving a rea- son, or " considering that," indicating a limitation, and the con- text has to decide. Thus : Epicharmi, acutl nee Insulsl hominis, ut Sicull, of Epi- charmus, a clever and witty man as [you would expect of] a Sicilian (Cic., Tiisc., i., 8, 15) ; Spurius Maelius . . . ut illls temporibus praedives, Spurius Maelius, a very rich man for those times (Liv., iv., 13, l). g. Of the words for " not," rion indicates simple negation, ne negatives commands or purposes, and hand is used with single words and phrases, especially adjectives and adverbs. h. In Latin an adjective is sometimes used, characterizing the person who does a thing (especially his state of mind), where English prefers an adverb of manner or order. Thus : Itaque fed n5n invitus, ut prodessem multis tuo rogatu, I 352 SYNTAX. have not unwillingly labored at your request for the benefit of many (Cic., Am., i., 4) ; quid prudens et sciens ad, interitum ruis, why do you rush to destruction knowingly and with your eyes open ? hostes rari se ostendere eoeperunt, the enemy be- gan to show themselves here and there ; priori Rerno au~ gurium venisse fertur, an omen is said to have come to Remus first. i. With words like primus there is a difference of meaning according as (1) the adjective agreeing with the subject, or (2) the adjective agreeing with the object, or (3) the adverb is used. Thus : Ille primus aedem hw posuit, he was the first to build a temple here. Ille primam aedem hw posuit, he built the first temple here [some one else may have built another]. Ille primum aedem hie posuit, he first built a temple here [and then did something else]. PREPOSITIONS. 558. The PREPOSITIONS originally expressed relations of place, and then passed into other relations. A synopsis of their use may be given as follows : Prepositions with Accusative. 559. (1.) Ad, towards, to (opposite of ab). PLACE: ad urbem ire, to go to, or towards, the city ; ad 'urbem esse, to be near the city. TIME : ad senectutem, to, or till, old age ; ad vesperum, towards evening. NUMBER : ad mllia tria,* towards, or about, three thousand. METAPHORICAL relations : ad vitam beatam. towards, or with regard to, a happy life ; ad tantum bellum, towards, or for, so great a war ; ad me scrlbere, to write to me ; ad oppidum eapiendum, towards, or for the purpose of, taking the town ; ad voluntdtem meam, according to my wish ; ad hunc modum sermo est institutus, the conversation was started in this fasliion. * In the historians and later writers ad is also used as an adverb with numbers. Thus: ad duorum milium numerus, a number of about two thousand (Caes.)- PKEPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE. 353 (2.) Adversus (less commonly adversum) [p.p. of advertere; i. e., ad and vertere, to turn], turned towards, towards, against, facing. PLACE : adversus aegrum, opposite the sick man ; adversum speculum, before the mirror. METAPHORICALLY: quonam modo me gererem adversus Caesarem, how should I have conducted myself towards Caesar? adversum legem, against the law ; impetus adversus montem, an attack against, or upon, the mountain. (3.) Ante, before (opposite of post). PLACE (used only with objects at rest) : ante aedls, before the house ; ante se, before himself ; ante oculos, before one's eyes, or face. TIME : ante hiemem,* before winter ; ante lucem, before daylight. META- PHORICALLY : ante alias pulchen"ima omriis, fair before, or beyond, all others ; ante omnia, before, or above, all things. (4.) Apud, near (primarily of persons and used only where no motion is implied). Apud Caesarem, before Caesar, or at Caesar's house ; hoc est apud Graecos prope gloriosius quam Romae triumpJidsse, this is almost more glorious among the Greeks than a triumph is at Rome ; bellatum apud Actium, a battle was fought at Actium ; magna apud plebem gratia, of great influence with the commons. (5.) Circum (later also circa), around, about. PLACE: terra circum axem se convertit, the earth revolves around its axis (Cic., Acad., ii., 39, 123) ; capillus circum caput reiectus, hair thrown back about the head ; circum haec loca, about these places ; circa forum, about the forum (Quint.) ; paucae quae circum illam essent, the few [attendants] about her (Ter.). (6.) Circiterrf about (very rare of place and mostly used of time). Circiter memdiem, about noon. (7.) Citra (more rarely cis), on this side of (opposite of ultra). PLACE : citra Rhenum, on this side of the Rhine ; cis Taurum, this side the Taurus mountain. TIME (post-classical, cis also in Plautus) : cis paucos dies, within a few days. META- PHORICALLY (post classical) : citra virtutem, without virtue. * "Two days before " and similar expressions may be rendered into Latin in either of the following ways : ante (prep.) duos dies ; duobus ante (adv.) diebus. t More common as an adverb. 354 SYNTAX. (8.) Contra, opposite, against. PLACE : contra Italiam, opposite Italy ; contra Massiliam, off Marseilles ? contra medium port Icurn, facing the middle of the portico; contra hostem fossam facere, to make a ditch facing the enemy; dacere contra hostes, to lead against the enemy. METAPHOR- ICALLY : contra sententiam, contrary to one's opinion; conin- rationemfacere contra Caesarem, to make a conspiracy against Caesar. (9.) Erga. towards (chiefly of feelings towards persons, and generally friendly). Erga ilium benignus, kindly disposed towards him ; did no, bonitas erga homines, the divine goodness towards mankind ; odium erga regem, hatred towards the king ; erga me urn salutem. in regard to my safety (Cic.) (10.) Extra, outside of, beyond (opposite of infra). PLACE: extra Pdoponrietum, outside of the Peloponnesus : extra provinciam, beyond the province. METAPHORICALLY: extra iierum, beyond the number ; extra modum, beyond bounds ; extra unum te^ except you alone. (11.) Infra, on the under side, below (opposite of supra). Infra oppidum. below the town; infra infimos homines, be- neath the lowest of mankind (Ter.). (12.) Inter, between, among. Inter Padum et Alpes, be- tween the Po and the Alps ; inter primos, among the first ; inter has turbas, in the midst of these disturbances ; inter noctem. during the night. (13.) Intra, inside of, within (opposite of extra). Intra parietes meos. within my walls ; intra arnws qulnque. within five years ; intra centum, less than a hundred. (14.) luxta, close to, near. luxta eum castra posuit, he pitched his camp close to him ; iuxta deds. next to the gods ; iuxta seditionem, next tiling to an insurrection. (15.) Ob (before, as an obstruction, but mostly used in the metaphorical sense ** on account of "). Mors ob oculos versata est, death danced before his eyes ; ob stultitiam. on account of, or through, folly ; ob earn rem, on that account. (16.) Penes, in the possession, power, or hands of. Penes eos victoria est, the victory is with them ; penes regem, in the king's power. PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE. 355 (17.) Per, through. PLACE : per forum Ire, to go through the forum ; per 'mare, over the sea. TIME : per hiemem, through the winter ; per indutias, during the truce. MET- APHORICALLY : per vos, through your means ; per me licet, you may, for all I care ; per ludum, in sport. IN ASSEVERA- TIONS : per deos, by the gods ; per tuam jidem, by your honor. (18.) Pone, behind (rare in classical Latin). Pone me, be- hind me ; pone castra, behind the camp. (19.) Post, behind, after (opposite of ante). PLACE : post me, behind me ; post montem, behind the mountain. TIME : post paucos dies,* after a few days ; post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city. (20.) Praeter, along by, beyond (most common in the metaphorical meanings "beyond," "except," "contrary to"). Praeter castra ducere, to march by, or beyond, the camp ; praeter aetatem stultus, foolish beyond his years ; praeter spem, contrary to expectation ; praeter imperatas pecunias, besides the money ordered ; nulli vestltus praeter pelles, no clothing except skins. (21.) Prope, near. Prope oppidum, near the town ; prope me, near me. (22.) Propter, near (but chiefly in the metaphorical sense "on account of"). Propter hanc statuam, near this statue; propter frlgora, on account of the cold ; propter me, on my account. (23.) Secundum, following, after (participial form from se- quor) . PLACE : lie secundum me, come after, or behind, me ; secundum mare superum, along the upper [Adriatic] sea. TIME : secundum ludos, after the sports ; secundum hunc diem, after this day. METAPHORICALLY : secundum deos, next to the gods ; secundum naturam, according to nature. (24.) Supra, on the upper side of, above (opposite of Infra). PLACE : supra terram, above the earth. NUMBER : supra septem mllia, more than seven thousand. METAPHORICALLY : supra leges, above the laws ; supra humanam fidem, beyond what one could believe of man. * Or pauclspost diebus. (Cf. foot-note on p. 353.) 356 SYNTAX. (25.) Trans, across, beyond. Trans mare ire, to go across the sea ; trans Rhenum esse, to be across the Rhine. (26.) Ultra, on the farther side of, beyond (opposite of citra). Ultra Padum, on the other side of the Po ; ultra puerlles anrios, beyond the years of boyhood; ultra modum, beyond the limit. Prepositions with Accusative or Ablative. 56O (1.) In, into (with accusative), in (with ablative) (oppo- site of ex). a. With accusative (motion implied). PLACE : in urbem, into the city ; in Hisjmniam, into Spain ; in caelum, to- wards heaven. TIME: in multam noctem, till late at night. METAPHORICALLY : in perpetuum, for ever ; in aliquem car- men scrlbere, to write a poem on somebody ; in llberos indul- gentia, indulgence towards one's children ; pietas in deos, piety towards the gods ; impetus in castra, an attack upon the camp ; in bellum ardentes, eager for war. b. With ablative (motion not implied). PLACE: in urbe, in the city ; in terra, on the earth ; in contwne, in the assem- bly ; in his, among 'these. TIME : in adulescentia, in youth ; in eo anno, in that year. METAPHORICALLY : in me, in my case ; in metu, in fear ; in hoc genere, in this class. (2.) Sub, under (opposite of super). a. With accusative (motion implied). PLACE: sub iugum mlttere, to send under the yoke ; sub montem accedere, to go to the foot of the mountain. TIME : sub vesperum, just to- wards evening ; sub lucem, just before dawn ; sub haec dicta, just after this was said. METAPHORICALLY: sub potestdtem eius coder e, to fall under his power. b. With ablative (motion not implied). PLACE : sub terra, under the earth ; sub vestiment'is, under one's clothing ; sub monte, at the foot of the mountain. TIME : sub ipsa profeo tidne, just at the start ; sub luce, by daylight. METAPHOR- ICALLY : sub armis, under arms ; sub regno illlus, under his sway ; sub his condicwnibus, on these terms. (3.) Subter, beneath (rare and mostly poetical). Subter PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE AND ABLATIVE. 357 fasflgia tectl, below the point of the roof ; subter mare, un- der the sea ; subter lltore, by [beneath] the shore. (4.) Super, above (opposite of sub). a. With accusative. Super caput hostium pervemre, to come out above the heads of the enemy ; aquila super carpen- tum volitans, an eagle flying over the carriage ; super Bospo- rum, beyond the Bosporus ; super epuias, during the feast (post-classical). b. With ablative (chiefly in the metaphorical meaning "about," "concerning"). Super hac re, on this matter; su- per ancilla, in regard to the handmaid ; super Priamo rogi- tans, asking about Priam. [Very rare in Cicero, and not found in Caesar in this use.] Prepositions with Ablative. 561. (1.) Ab (abs, a), away from, from (opposite of ad). PLACE : ab urbe ducere, to march from the city ; a te abtre, to go away from you. TIME : ab urbe condita, from or after, the founding of the city ; ab hora tertia, from the third hour. METAPHORICALLY : ab defensione desistere, to cease from the defense ; prope ab origine, near [i. e., not far from] the ori- gin ; ab Hid differre, to be different from that ; quartus ab Arcesila, fourth from \_i. e., after] Arcesilas ; a patre deductus ad Scaevolam, taken by my father to Scaevola ; abs te laudari, to be praised by you. (2.) Absque, away from, without, except (ante-classical and post-classical). Absque paucls syllabls, except a few sylla- bles (Gell.)- Absque is very rare except in Plautus and Terence, where it is used only in connection with the imperfect subjunctive of sum as an equivalent for a conditional clause. Thus : Quam fortundtus ceterls sum rebus absque una hac f oret, how lucky I am in everything- else, were it not for this one thing- [if it were apart from this one thing] (Ter., Hec., 601). (3.) Coram (first used as preposition by Cicero), before the face of, in presence of. Coram genero meo, in my son-in-law's presence ; cdram populo, before the people (Hor.). 358 SYNTAX. (-4.) Cum, with, in company with (opposite of sine). Cum coniugibus et llberls, with their wives and children ; wecum, with me ; pariter cum ortu soils, at sunrise. (5.) De, from (between ab and ex), down from. PLACE : de flnibus suis exlre, to go out from one's boundaries ; de digito anulum detrahere, to take a ring from the finger ; de caeti), from heaven. TIME : de nocte, by night ; de tertia, vigilm, in the third watch. METAPHORICALLY : poeta de populd, a poet from the people ; de slid adventu, about his arrival ; de argento, in regard to the money ; quid de fratre, how about brother ? (6.) Ex (e), out of, from (opposite of in). PLACE: ex op- pido Ire, to go out of the town ; e portu, from the harbor. TIME : ex consulatu, from, or after, his consulship ; ex eo tem- pore, from that time. METAPHORICALLY : ex te quaerere, to ask of you ; ex lioc quaestu, from this profession ; statua ex aere facta, a statue made of bronze ; ex mea sententid, in accord- ance with my opinion [wishes] ; e re publicd, in the interest of the state ; e regione, in a straight line. (7.) Prae, before, in front of. PLACE : prae se mittere, to send in front of one's self. METAPHORICALLY (more fre- quent) : prae inetu.* for fear ; prae magnitudine, in compari- son with their size ; prae iaculorum multitudine, on account of the number of darts. (8.) Pro, before, in front of. PLACE : pr5 aede Castoris, in front of the temple of Castor ; pr5 castrls, before the camp ; pr5 contione, before the assembly. METAPHORICALLY: prd patrid, in behalf of the country ; pro te, for, or instead of, you ; pro beneficiis tuis, in return for your kindnesses ; pro digni- tate sua, in accordance with his own dignity. (9.) Sine, without (opposite of cum). Sine te, without you ; sine dubio, without doubt ; sine poend, without punishment. (10.) Tenus, so far as (stands after its case). Aethiopia tenus, as far as Aethiopia ; capulo tenus, as far as the hilt. (For tenus with genitive, see 431, /.) For cases with other parts of speech used like prepositions, see 390, 4, 391, 1 and 3, and 431, g. CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. 359 NOTE. Observe the different meanings of the following 1 constructions : Romam to Rome. ad Romam in Romam to (the neighborhood of) Rome, into Rome. Roma from Rome. ab Roma ex Roma from (the neighborhood of) Rome, from (within) Rome. Romae at Rome. ad Romam near Rome. Also: CONJUNCTIONS AND OTHER CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. The following points in the use of connectives deserve attention. Words for AND (Copulatives). 562. The three words for " and," et, que, atque (ac), are used as follows : (1.) Et is the general connective, meaning simply " and ; " as : Cicero et Caesar ; qualis et quanta sit, of what sort and extent it is ; virtus ipsa contemnitur et ostentatio esse dwitur, virtue itself is scorned and said to be [mere] display ; multi et * praedarl virl, many famous men. (2.) Que implies a very close connection, and is at- tached to the second of the connected words, or, when it connects phrases or clauses, to the first word of the second phrase or clause. Thus : Ferro ignlque, with fire and sword ; dorm mllitiaeque, at home and in the field ; senatus populusque Rdmanus ; sic ndtura solitarium nihil amat semperque ad aliquod tam- quam adminiculum . . . adnititur, so nature loves nothing solitary, but is always struggling for some support, as it were (Cic., Am., 23, 88). a. With the prepositions a, ab, ad, apud, ob, sub, que is * A connective is thus regularly used between two adjectives agreeing with the same noun in Latin, where in English no connective is preferred. 360 SYNTAX. attached to the object rather than to the preposition ; as, a meque, and by me ; ob eamque rem, and on that account. (3.) Atque (ac, never used before vowels or h) is sometimes used as a simple connective of two words. Thus : Belld ac pace, in war and peace ; in omni caelo atque terra, in all heaven and on earth; honesta atque inhonesta. things right and wrong ; minuit ac inollit, lessens and softens. But atque (ac) is more commonly used to give greater prominence to the last one of the connected ideas (= " and in fact," " and particularly"). Thus : Res tanta atque tarn atrox, a thing so great and in fact so monstrous ; vitium levium homhutm atque fcdlacium, the vice of frivolous and in fact treacherous men ; ad opes tuendas ac tenendas, for the guarding and even maintaining his power. a. Atque (ac) is less common than et or que, to connect clauses. b. Atque (ac) is used after words implying a comparison, in the sense of " than " or " as." Thus : Virtus eadem in homine atque deo est, virtue is the same in man as in God ; vides omnia fere contra, ac dicta sunt, evenisse, you see almost everything has come out different from what was said ; aliter de aliis ac de ndbls iudicami(s, we judge of others otherwise than of ourselves. Cf. the similar use of " nor " in vulgar English ; as, " he '& taller nor I be." For et and que after neque (nee), see 565, d. " atqui, see 569, 1. 563. (1.) For " both . . . and," et . . . et is the regular classical expression. a. QiLe . . . que is chiefly confined to the poets and later writers, though also used sometimes in prose when the first word is a pronoun ; as, seque remque publicam curare, to care for himself and the state. Et . . . que, and que . . . et, are rarely found. CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. 361 b. Qua . . . qua, and simul . . . simul are also found. So, too, modo . . . modo, turn . . . turn, " now this . . . now that," tend to pass into the weaker meaning " both . . . and." (2.) Cum . .' . turn, " both . . . and," " not only . . . but also," and non modo {solum, or sometimes tantum) . . . sed (verum) etiam * throw more stress upon the second of the ideas connected. Thus : Qua quid potest esse cum fructu laetius turn adspectu pulchrius ? cuius quidem non utilitas me solum, ut ante dlxi, sed etiam cultura et natura ipsa delectat, than which [the vine] what can be, not only more luxuriant in fruit, but even more beautiful to look at ? I take delight not only in its usefulness, but also in the very cultivation of it and study of its nature (Cic., Sen., 15, 53). a. So also when the first expression or both expressions are negative : non modo non, etc., . . . sed etiam, or sed ne . . . quidem. Thus : Omnia despicere non mod.5 non laudl verum etiam vitio dandum puto, I think that to look down upon everything (i. e., from a philosophic height) must be regarded not only as no glory, but even as a defect ; ego non mod5 tibi non Iras- cor sed ne reprehendo quidem factum tuum, 1 not only am not angry with you, but do not even find fault with what you have done. b. When the second member contains ne . . . quidem, if the predicate of both members is the same, the second non is regu- larly omitted in the first member. Thus : Quae non modd amlco sed ne libero quidem digna est, which [servile flattery] is not only not worthy of a friend, but not even of a freeman (Cic., Am., 24, 89). 564. When more than two things are connected, either the conjunction is omitted altogether (asyndetoii), or it is used between each two words. Thus : Cicero, Caesar, ftallustius, or Cicero et Caesar et Sallus- tius. * Sometimes also sed alone. 362 SYNTAX. a. Sometimes que is attached to the last word of a series otherwise unconnected, although in Cicero in such cases (except where the last word is alii, ceteri, or the like) there is generally, if not always, a closer connection between the last two members of the series which makes them a sort of unit in relation to the rest ; as, voltus, voces, motus statusque mutantur (Off., i., 29, 102), where the motions and attitude form one element of the series, the other two being the expression of the face and the voice. b. In Livy and later writers the last two words are sometimes connected even by et when the others are unconnected, as is done in English. c. Asyndeton is especially common with pairs of words which together form a sort of whole ; as, equites pedites permlxti, horse and foot all mixed up together ; ventls remls, with wind and oar; and in fixed expressions like L. Pisone A. Gablnio consulibiis ; Itippiter optimus maximus. Words for OR (Disjunctives). 565. (1.) Of the words for " or," aut and vel are used in assertions and negations, an in questions, slve in condi- tional statements. (2.) Aut indicates that in the nature of the case only one of the alternatives is possible ; vel (from void) indi- cates that the choice of the alternative rests with the per- son concerned. Thus : Haec aut vera sunt aut falsa, this is either true or false ; hie vincendum aut moriendum est, under these circumstances we must conquer or die. Eiusmodi coniunctionem tectorum oppidum vel urbem ap- pellaverunt, such a combination of buildings they called a town or [if you please] a city (Cic., Re Pub., i., 26, 41) ; transfer idem ad modestiam vel temperantiam, apply the same thing to self-control or self-restraint (Cic., Fin., ii., 19, 60). Sed utrum tu amwls hodie an inimicls tuls datum's ce- nam ? but are you going to give a dinner to your friends or to your enemies on this occasion ? (Plaut., Ps., iii., 2, 88). DISJUNCTIVE PARTICLES. 363 Cumque hominl sive natura sive quis deus nikil mente praestdbilius dedisset, and that when either nature* or some god had given man nothing more excellent than his mind (Cic., Sen., 12, 40). a. Aut or vel can of course be used in a question when the alternative does not apply to the whole question, but only to a particular pair of words or phrases in it ; as : Nonne haec necessario aut vera aut falsa sunt ? are not these things necessarily either true or false ? b. Ve is milder than vel, and is attached like que to the second word or phrase ; as : Sine ulMs praemils fructibusve, without any rewards or emoluments ; plus minusve, more or less ; bis terve, two or three times. c. The use of vel, where there is no alternative, in the sense of " if you will," " even," is of course adverbial, not conjuncti- val. Thus : Nullaene igitur res sunt seniles, quae vel Inflrmis corpori- bus animo tamen administrentur, are there then no occupations befitting old men, which, even though their bodies be feeble, they can yet carry on with their minds ? (Cic., Sen., 6, 15). Vel is especially common in this use with superlatives. d. After neque (nee) in Latin an affirmative clause or phrase is added with et or que, even when in English "not . . . but " is preferred. Thus : Sed nee ilia exstincta sunt alunturque potius et augentur, but that [remembrance] is not destroyed, but rather nourished and increased (Cic., Am., 27, 104). For neve = " and not " in purpose clauses, see 482, 1. NOTE. As an effective example of the use of different connectives may be given the following sentence from Cicero (Off., i., 25, 86) : Hinc apud Atheniensls mdgnae discordiae, in nostrd re publicd non so- lum seditiones, Bed. etiam pestifera bella civilia : quae gravis et fortis civis et in re publicd dignus principdtu fugiet atque oderit trddetque se totum rel publicae neque opes aut potentiam consectdbitur totamque earn sic tuebitur ut omnibus consulat. * I. e., nature, if it was she. 364 SYNTAX. Words tor BUT (Adversatives). 566. (1). Sed and (more emphatic) verum are the regular adversative conjunctions corresponding to the English "but.'* Thus: Vera died, sed neqmquam, I speak the truth, but to no pur- pose. Non quid nobls utUe, verum quid necessarium sit, quaeri- mus, we are trying to find out, not what is expedient for our- selves, but what is necessary. (2.) At* marks a contrast more forcibly than sed or verum, and especially introduces an objection to a line of argument, particularly a supposed objection of an oppo- nent. Thus : Magnae dlvitiae dHabuntur, at ingerii egregia facinora, \in- mortalia sunt, even great riches slip away, but the deeds of a noble disposition are immortal ; at meinoria minuitur, but {[you will say] the memory weakens. 567. Vero, ** in fact " (standing regularly second in its clause ; see 590, a), contrasts something sharply with what has gone before, as certainly true. Thus : Haec sunt leviora, ilia ver5 gravia ctfque magna, these things are rather trifling, but those are really weighty and great. a. So after a supposed case which is not the real one, nunc vero or nunc alone " as it is," introduces the real case. Thus: Ille autem, si mehercule hfc, quod agit, numquam antea, co- gitasset, tamen Icutrocin&ntem se interficl mallet quam exsulem vtvere ; nunc vero, etc., now he, if, by the gods, he had never before meditated the move he is now making, would yet prefer to be killed in border warfare than to live in exile ; but as it is, etc. (Cic., Cat., ii., 7, 16). 568. Autcm is the mildest word for "but," and fre- quently marks a transition so slight that in English " how- ever," " now," " and," would be employed. Thus : * A form ast occurs in poetry. ADVERSATIVES. ATQUI AND TAMEN. 365 Croesus hostium vim sese perversurum putavit, pervertit autem suam, Croesus thought he was going to overthrow the power of his foes, but he overthrew his own ; nihil praestabilius miM videtur quam posse dlcendo homines impellers quo veils, unde autem veils deducere, nothing seems to me finer than to be able by oratory to persuade men to what you will and again to draw them away from what you will ; M. Octavius Salonas oppugnare Institute; est autem oppidum et loci natura et colle murittum, Marcus Octavius began to besiege Salonae ; it is, by the way, a town fortified by its situation upon a hill. a. Parentheses are often, as in the last example, introduced by autem. I. Ceterum is also used for "but" (lit., as to the rest), es- pecially by Livy. Thus : Nwidum bellum erat, ceterum iam belli causa certdmina . . . serebantur, there was not yet war, but quarrels were already being stirred up with a view to war (Liv., xxi., 6, l). Atqui and Tamen. 569. (1.) Atqui, and yet, must not be confounded with atque. It stands only at the beginning of an inde- pendent sentence, and asserts emphatically the truth of that sentence in spite of what went before it. " rem " inquis " inexplicdbUem ! " atqui explicanda est, " oh inexplicable situation," you say ; and yet it must be ex- plained. (2.) Tamen is the regular word for " yet," u however." It does not stand first unless the concessive character of the thing- said is to be emphasized rather than the thing itself. Thus: Pausanids accusdtus capitis absolvitur, imiltatur tamen pe- cunia, Pausanias is accused of a capital crime and, though not condemned to death, is yet punished by a fine ; quae tametsl Caesar intellegebat, tamen quam mltissime potest legatos ap- pellat, although Caesar understood what this meant, he never- theless addressed the ambassadors as affably as possible. 366 SYNTAX. Words for THEREFORE (niatives). 570. Itaque marks a thing as the ACTUAL consequence of something which precedes ; igitur and (less common) ergo introduce the LOGICAL consequence of an argument ; proinde(= "accordingly") is used only with commands and exhortations (imperative and subjunctive). Thus : Aristldes aequalis fere fuit Themistocli ; itaque cum eo de principatu contendit, Aristides was of about the same age as Themistocles : therefore he was his rival in aiming at the chief magistracy. Bestiolae quaedam unum diem vivunt ; ex his igitur Tiora octavo, quae mortua est, provecta aetdte mortua est, certain ani- malculse live but one day ; one of these therefore which dies at the eighth hour, dies in advanced age. Proinde foe animum tantum habeas quanta opus sit, see therefore that you have as much courage as is needed. a. Igitur does not often stand first, except in Sallust, Livy, and the later writers. Words for FOR. 571. These are nam, namque, enim, etenim. Namque and etenim imply a little closer connection than the others, and are much less common. Emm is weaker than nam, and in classical Latin never begins its clause. Thus : Nam maximum omamentum amicitiae tollit, qul ex ea tol- lit verecundiam, for he takes away the greatest ornament of friendship who takes respect from it (Cic., Am., 22, 82). Sic se res habet ; ut enim non omne vlnum sic rion omnis natura vetustate coacescit, so the matter stands ; for, as in the case of wine, not every disposition grows sour with age (Cic., Sera., 18, 65). a. Neque enim is much commoner than nam non, and in gen- eral the Romans had a fancy for bringing in the negative as early as possible. Hence, usually, are found neque, nee umquam, etc., rather than et non, et numquam, etc. CONNECTIVE PARTICLES. 367 Quldem, Sane, Vero, Certe, Profecto, Saltern, etc. NOTE. These words are rather adverbs emphasizing the word before them than conjunctions, but their use in connecting 1 sentences by throwing emphasis upon the first word in their clause makes it easier to understand them in connection with the preceding. 572. Quidem is the weakest of the above words, and is often best rendered in English by putting extra stress of voice upon the word before it ; sane and vero give per- haps the most emphasis. Thus : Vim hoc quidem est adferre / quid enim refert qua nie ratione cogatis ? cogitis certe, THIS is to apply force ; for what matters it how you force me ? force me you certainly do (Cic., Am., 8, 26). Ego vero non gravarer, si mihl ipse confiderem, I certainly should make no objection if I had confidence in myself (Cic., Am., 5, 17). Profecto negare non potes, surely you cannot deny it (Cic., Verr., ii., 18, 44). Eripe mihi hunc dolorem aut minue saltern, take this grief from me or at least alleviate it (Cic., Att., ix., 6, 5). a. Equidem is used, as a rule, rather than quidem, if the parti- cle is to be connected with an ego (expressed or implied) ; as : Id equidem egd certo scio, that I know for sure (Plant., Bacc., iii., 3, 3) ; " nihil" inquit " equidem novl," " I know nothing about it," he says (Cic., Dw., i., 6, 11). But : Ex me quidem nihil audlre potuisses, you could have heard nothing from me (Cic., N. Z>., i., 21, 57). Equidem is, however, occasionally used with the second and third persons. b. Ne . . . quidem, " not . . . even," " not . . . either," takes the emphatic word or words between its parts. (Cf. 563, 2, a.) c. Si quidem corrects a previous statement, and is equivalent to " that is, if ; " as : Apud Graecos anfiquissimum est genus poetarum, si qui- dem Homerus fuit ante Romam conditam, among the Greeks 368 SYNTAX. poets are a very ancient class that is, if Homer lived before the founding of Rome. Etiam and Quoque. 573. Etiam, even, also, generally stands before the word or phrase which it emphasizes ; quoque,* also, even, always after the word it emphasizes, or second in the clause when it applies to it as a whole. Thus : lustitiam qul tollunt, etiam adversus de5s impil iudi- candl sunt, those who do away with justice are to be judged disloyal even towards the gods. Qua tempestate K artJiagin lenses pleraeque Africae imperi- tabant, Cyrenenses quoque magni fuere, at the time when the Carthaginians ruled most of Africa, the Cyrenaeans also were great (Sail., Jug., 79, 2). a. JEt is rarely used for etiam in classical prose, except with certain particles, nam, qnin, *sed, sic, simul, verum, etc., and with the demonstrative pronouns or ipse ; as : Et illud videndum quanta magis homines mala fugiant, quam sequantur bona, we must notice this also, how much more men shun the wrong than they pursue the right (Cic., Part, dr., 26, 90). In Aequds transiit et ipsos bellum molientes, he marched over into the land of the Aequi [who were] themselves planning war (Liv., vi., 2, 14). INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. Single Questions. 574. JYe is always used to ask questions simply for in- formation, and does not show whether an affirmative or a negative answer is expected. It is always attached encliti- cally to an emphatic word in its clause, usually to the first word (?*. e., the most emphatic one). Thus : Visne fortunam experiri ? do you want to try fortune ? omnisne pecunia soluta est ? is all the money paid ? * Not to be confused with quoque (ablative of quisque, each). INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 369 a. Ne can be attached to any kind of word except preposi- tions of one syllable. Cf. in nostrane potestate, in our power? (Cic., Fin., ii, 32, 104). b. Sometimes the context or the situation shows whether an affirmative or a negative answer is expected, especially with words of thinking or perceiving. Thus : Videsne abunddre me otio, do you not see that I have plenty of leisure ? (Cic., Tusc., ii., 11, 26) ; ubi tua aut quails potesne dicere, can you say where or what your own [mind is] ? (Cic., Tusc., i., 27, 67). c. Ne is occasionally appended to another interrogative word ; as, uterne, utrumne, quantane, numne. d. In the dramatic and other poets vin ? viden ? satin ? etc., are often found for vime ? videsne ? satisne ? etc. 575. Ndnne is used to introduce a question to which an affirmative answer is expected. Thus : Canis ndnne lupo similis est, is not a dog like a wolf ? a. So also nemone, nihilne, nwnquamne, nusquamne. b. Ndnne is not used by Plautus and is very rare in Terence, the simple ne being used instead. Cf. 574, b. 576. Num is used to introduce a question to which a negative answer is expected. Thus : Ntun jraoKi* me tarn dementem fuisse ? do you imagine that I was so mad ? 577. Sometimes questions expressing wonder or disap- proval are put without any particle ; as : Rogas ? you ask ? can you ask ? tu id nesciebas ? you did n't know it ? Archiam ego rion diligam ? shall I not esteem Archias ? 578. An is used to introduce a single direct ques- tion (1) when it implies a supposed answer to a previous question, or (2) when it strengthens a previous statement by hinting that the thing suggested in the question is in- conceivable. Thus : (1.) Quid ad me venitis? an speculandi causa, why come ye to me ? for the purpose of spying ? 370 SYNTAX. (2.) Oratorem Irdscl minime decet ; an tibi Irdscl turn videtur cum quid in causls vehement l ius dldt, it is not at all becoming for an orator to give way to wrath ; or does he per- haps seem to you to give way to wrath when he says something violently in pleading a case ? 579. In indirect questions ne and num are used without appreciable difference ; nonne implies the answer " yes." Thus : Quaeritur, idemne sit pertindcia et perseverantia, the ques- tion is, whether persistence and perseverance are the same. Romdrii speculdbantur, num sollicitdti animi socidrum ab rege Persed essent, the Romans were trying to find out whether the feelings of their allies had been alienated by king Perseus. Quaesierds ex me. n5nne putdrem inveriiri verum potuisse, you [had] asked me whether I did not think the truth might have been found out. a. The phrases kaud scio an, riescw an, dubito an, are apt to imply an affirmative answer, and are thus often equivalent to the English * I am inclined to think." Thus : Aristotelem baud scio an recte dlxerim principem philo- sophorum, I am inclined to think I could justly call Aristotle the chief of philosophers. b. Forsitan (i. e., fors sit an) always takes the subjunctive in good prose ; as, f orsitan quaeratis, qul iste terror sit, per- haps you ask, what that alarm is (Cic.. Hose. Am., 2, 5). For- tasse takes the indicative. Disjunctive Questions. 580. DISJUNCTIVE or DOUBLE questions (whether direct or indirect) are introduced by utrum . . . an, or ne (num) . . . an, or by an alone with the second member, the first having no particle. Thus : Utrum nescls quam alte adscenderis an pro nihilo idputas, do you not know how high you have climbed, or do you count it as nothing ? DISJUNCTIVE QUESTIONS. 371 Romamne veniam^&n hie maneam, an Arplnum fugiam ? shall I go to Rome, or stay here, or fly to Arpinum ? perquiritur, virtus suamnQ propter dignitatem an propter fructum ali- quern expetatur, the question [for our exhaustive discussion, per~\ is. whether virtue is desired for its own worth or for some reward. Postrema syllaba brevis an longa sit, in versu nihil refert, it makes no difference in verse whether the last syllable is short or long. a. In short, sharp indirect questions of two members, ne is sometimes used with the second member, the first having no particle. Thus : Datames experlrl voluit verum f alsumne sibi esset relatum, Datames wished to see whether a true or a false report had been brought to him. b. For an occasionally anne is used ; as : Quaerendum est, utrum , una species sit anne plures, we much ask whether there is one species or several. c. Real disjunctive questions must be carefully distinguished from single questions, which involve alternatives in points of detail merely. In these last, not an but aut or vel is used. Thus, in quid ergo ? solem dicam aut lunam aut caelum deum, the question is, whether such things as the sun and moon and sky are to be called gods ; but in solem dicam an lunam an caelum deum, the question is, to which one of the three the name of god is to be given. (Cf. 565, 2, a.) 581. If the second member of a disjunctive question is negative, it is introduced by annon or by necne. Annon is more common for direct questions, necne for indirect. Thus : - Isne est, quern quaero, annon, is that the man I am look- ing for or not ? Di utrum sint necne sint, quaeritur, the question is whether there are or are not gods. 372 SYNTAX. YES and NO. 582. The answer to a question in Latin is regularly given by repeating its emphatic word for affirmation, and by repeating that word with non for denial. Thus : Mene vis ? te. Do you want me? Yes. Estnefrater intus? non est. Is brother at home ? No. a. Sometimes also an affirmative answer is given simply by ita, ita vero t ita est, etiam, sane, quidem, certe, or maxime ; a negative answer by non, non ita. non vero, or minime. b. Immo and immo vero give a strong affirmative answer to a question in which some doubt is latent, or contradict strongly a negative question. Thus : Non igitur praestat patria omnibus officils ? imrno vero, is not then patriotism more important than all other relations of duty ? Yea, verily. Num Sulla Romae fuit ? immo longe afuit, was Sulla at Rome ? On the contrary, he was far away. INTERJECTIONS. 583. The INTERJECTIONS are rather exclamatory sounds than words in the proper sense, and have no syntax. The chief Latin interjections are as follows : a ! (ah /) ah ! eu ! well done ! aha ! ah ! aha ! euge ! bravo ! good ! apage ! be gone ! euax f hail ! (used by Plautus atat ! (atatte ! atatatae ! etc.), only). oh ! alas ! lo ! euhoe f hail ! au ! oh ! ha f (hahae f ha f ha ! ha f) ecce f lo ! behold ! hold ! ho ! ehemf ha! what! hei f (eif) woe! ah me ! eheu ! alas ! hem ! (em /) oho ! indeed ! eho ! (ehodum f) ho ! holloa ! alas ! eia ! (heia !) ah ! indeed ! heu f oh ! oh ! alas ! ew / lo ! behold ! heus ! ho there ! say ! INTERJECTIONS. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 373 hui! hah! ho! oh! phu I (fu/) foh! fugh! id ! ho ! hurrah ! hail ! phy ! pish ! tush ! malum ! the deuce! pro! (pro/if) oh! of (ok!) O! oh! ah! st ! hush! whist! ohe ! ho ! holloa ! tatae ! strange ! so ! oho ! oho ! aha ! vae ! woe ! alas ! oi ! oh me! alas! vah! (vaha!) ah! alas! papae ! strange ! a. Of these o, ecce, ehem, en, papae, tatae, vah, express AS- TONISHMENT; euhoe, euax, id, express JOY or ECSTASY; eheu, hei, heu, oi, vae, express SORROW ; eho, ehodum, heus, ohe, are used to CALL ATTENTION ; eia, euge, heia, express PRAISE ; pro, proh, are used in ASSEVERATION. b. To the interjections may be added the mild oaths : Eccere, by Ceres ! Ecastor, by Castor ! gracious ! Edepol, or Pol, by Pollux ! gad ! mehercule, (hercle, etc.), by Hercules ! thunder! me dius fidius, by Jove ! and the expressions Dl meliora (duint), God forbid ! (lit., give better things) ; D1 vostram /idem, Heavens ! (lit., O gods, [I appeal to] your honor) ; pro deorum atque hominum fidem, heavens and earth ! pro dl immortales, by the immortal gods ! peril, oh dear ! (lit., I am ruined), etc. c. Here may also be mentioned the affirmative particle ne, verily (not to be confused with the negative* ne). It is used only with personal pronouns and demonstrative pronouns or adverbs. Thus : Ne eg5 homo infellx ful, verily I was an unlucky being (Plaut., Am., i., 1, 172). ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS {Ordo verborum). NOTE. One of the most important differences between Latin sentences and English sentences is the way in which the words are arranged. In English ordinarily the subject comes first (an adjective which modifies it standing, however, before it), the verb next, then the object, and so on. The lack of case- endings makes such an arrangement necessary in order to tell 374 SYNTAX. how the words are related to each other. In Latin, on the other hand, the gender, number, case, mood, tense, etc., of the words are shown by their endings simply, and their order is used for another purpose, namely : 584. ID Latin sentences the words are arranged chiefly to show which are the more emphatic ones, i. e. (roughly speaking), which would receive greater stress of voice in English. 585. This arrangement is based upon the very simple principle that the first word in any combination is more emphatic than the second, the second more emphatic than the third, and so on. Thus : Bonus vir means " a GOOD man," vir bonus means " a good MAX ; " latrant canes means " dogs BARK," canes Idtrant means " DOGS bark." In the same way, Gallos Caesar vlcit means " Caesar con- quered THE GAULS ; " and verberat crudeliter servos means " he is BEATIXG the slaves cruelly" NOTE 1. When the expression becomes longer and more complex the shades of relative emphasis are too numerous and too fine to be at all adequately expressed by stress of voice, but a little practice in reading Latin so as to understand it without translating enables one to feel the force and delicacy of the emphases indicated by the word-arrangement. The pupil should accustom himself thus to feel the differences in arrange- ments like the following : (1.) Omnes herl Romam venimus. Heri Romam omnes venimus. Romam omnes herl venimus. Venimus herl omnes Romam. (2.) Hi pueri facile Latine scribunt. Pueri hi Latine facile scrlbunt. Scrlbunt facile hi pueri Latine. Latine facile scrlbunt hi pueri. Facile hi pueri scribunt Latine. ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 375 (3.) Fortis miles numquam tergum vertet. Numquam miles fortis tergum vertet. Tergum fortis miles numquam vertet. Vertet numquam fortis miles tergum. NOTE 2. In all except the very simplest sentences, some of the words are used as single units in the sentence, others are grouped in phrases, and these last have more complicated relations of emphasis ; for instance, a relation to the other words of their own phrase and a relation to the sen- tence as a whole. - Now it is chiefly the relation of emphasis which a word has to its own phrase that we mark by stress of voice in English. There- fore for the English-speaking- student of Latin it is especially necessary to observe how the words are grouped in phrases ; also to notice that the emphasis of a phrase may be increased by separating its words from each other, because then the attention has to be held over from the first word of the phrase until its last word arrives to complete it. Compare the ar- rangements in groups (2) and (3) above. The following practical rules on points of detail may be given : 586. In combinations of a noun and an adjective the noun comes first, unless the adjective is distinctly em- phatic* 587. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS (meus, alius, hie, ille, etc.) are more often found before their nouns, because when used at all they are oftener emphatic than not. * The following considerations will make the reason for this rule clear : In such an expression as "dogs bark" there are two contrasts latent, a contrast between dogs and other animals and a contrast between barking and other actions. If we emphasize "dogs," we bring the one contrast more sharply before the hearer's attention; if we emphasize "bark," we do the same by the other contrast. In expressions, however, consisting of a noun and an adjective, there are further possibilities. If we say "a brick house," we do, as before, contrast sharply a brick house with some other kind of house ; but if we say " a brick Aouse," while we may mean thus sharply to contrast a house of brick with other buildings of brick, we may also mean simply to mark the complex idea " brick house " as a single thing which we make the subject of our thought. There is a subtle con- nection between our word accent and stress of voice which makes us utter the word ' ' house ' ' in this last case somewhat more forcibly than the word "brick," and the Roman did the analogous thing in putting the noun be- fore the adjective in such cases. When there is a doubt about the proper position in any given case, it will be found that if the adjective is put first, not belonging there, the effect is one of over-emphasis (turgid rhetoric). OF THR 376 SYNTAX. 538. ADVERBS are apt to be more emphatic than the verbs, participles, or adjectives which they modify, and therefore rather more commonly stand before them. 589. PREPOSITIONS regularly stand just before their nouns, or with an adjective or genitive intervening. (But see 431, d and e.) 590. CONJUNCTIONS and other connectives stand be- tween the words or clauses which they connect. a. The following words stand after the word which they em- phasize, or occupy the second place in a clause when they apply to it as a whole (hence they are called POST-POSITIVE) : autem, but, besides, and. quidem, in fact. enim, for. quoque, also, even. igitur, therefore, then. vero, in truth, but. interim, meanwhile. b. Que, and (and ve, or *), are attached enclitically to the second of two words which they connect, and, when they con- nect phrases or clauses, to the first word of the second phrase or clause. Thus : Plas minusve, more or less ; senatus populusque Rd- manus, the senate and people of Rome ; corpora curare eos iussit seque paraios ad omnia habere, he bade them take rest and re- freshment and be ready for any development of affairs. 591. RELATIVE and INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, besides their pronominal functions, also serve as connectives, and therefore stand first in their clauses (sometimes with a preposition before them). 592. The VOCATIVE CASE generally, and the verb in- quam always, stand after one or more words. 593. A word may often be made particularly emphatic by being put even before the particle or pronoun which in- troduces a sentence. Thus : Haec cum Caesar I nunttata essent, leg aids ad se venire ius- sit, when this was reported to Caesar, he ordered the ambassa- dors to come to him. * Cf . also the interrogative ne, 574. THE PERIOD. 377 THE PERIOD (Periodus). 594. By a PERIOD is usually meant a sentence consist- ing of a main clause and one, or, generally, several subor- dinate clauses, in which the parts are gracefully balanced and the sense is not completed until the end. But any sentence in which complete sense is not made until the last word is reached may be called a periodic sentence. 595. The VERB, from its nature, makes complete sense, unless some word before it indicates the contrary ; and therefore in a periodic construction the verb tends to stand last. a. In dependent clauses this tendency of the verb to stand last is very much stronger than in independent clauses. NOTE. The Romans were especially fond of a more or less complete periodic structure of sentences in connected writing. This is only another way of saying that it was a Roman habit of thought to put the least em- phatic part of a statement into verb form.* 596. (1.) It follows from the tendency to a periodic structure that in Latin almost all kinds of subordinate clauses more commonly stand before their main clause ; but : (2.) RESULT CLAUSES generally, CAUSAL and RELATIVE CLAUSES not uncommonly, and others sometimes, come after the main clause. a. The difference between a periodic and a non-periodic structure of sentence may be seen in the following : PERIODIC. ScTpio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exer- citum in Africam traiecit. NON-PERIODIC. ScTpio in Africam traiecit exercitum, ut Han- nibalem ex Italia deduceret. NOTE 1. It is a very common form of period to begin the sentence thus * The proportion of sentences with the verb last in Cicero is somewhat more than fifty per cent, in Caesar about seventy-five per cent, and in Latin prose in general rather less than sixty per cent. 378 SYNTAX. with some word belonging to the main clause, then to insert the subordi- nate clause or clauses, and finally to bring in the rest of the main clause with its verb standing last. This is, in fact, the kind of sentence to which the name " period " most properly applies, periodus being the Greek word vepioSos (irepi. round, 686s, way, road) = Latin ambitus, a going round, t. e., a coming back to the starting-point. NOTE 2. The heaping of finite verbs at the end of a period should be avoided. Generally there is an infinitive or other close modifier of the main verb which emphasis allows to be kept for the last place but one, thus separating the verb of the dependent clause from the main verb, which closes the period. NOTE 3. The fondness of the Romans for simplicitv and directness created in their speech a certain tendency to make the most emphatic part of their thought also grammatically the subject of the sentence, in other words, the emphatic word (occupying the first place in the sentence) is a little oftener the subject than not. The common doctrine, however, which teaches that the regular order for a Latin sentence is '* subject first and verb last," is erroneous, and besides causing various misconceptions in points of detail gives the learner a very uu-Latin mechanical style. While it is true that of the sentences which have a subject expressed about fifty- two per cent have the subject first, and about fifty-seven per cent have the verb last, only about thirty-four per cent have both subject first and verb last. In those sentences, furthermore, which have no subject ex- pressed, the verb comes last only about fifty-eight times out of a hundred. 597. (1.) In historical narrative, philosophical expo- sition, and other continuous writing, successive sentences are more closely united into a series in Latin than in English. (2.) This is done largely by choosing as the most em- phatic word to be placed first in "each sentence one that refers (especially by way of contrast) to something men- tioned in the latter part of the previous sentence. Ex- amples are : Sed quis ego sum aut quae est in me fatultas ? doct5rum est ista consuetude eaque Graecorum, ut ils pondtur de quo dis- putent quamvis subito, but who am I or what skill is there in me ? To the trained philosophers, and those, too, Greek philo- sophers, belongs that habit of allowing a question to be set them for discussion on the spur of the moment (Cic., Am., 5, 17). ANAPHORA AND CHIASMUS. 379 Qua re sibi habeant sapientiae nomen et invidiosum et ob- scurum ; concedant ut viri bom f uerint. Ne id quidem f acient : negabunt id nisi sapienti posse concedi, therefore let them keep for themselves the invidious and vague word " phi- losopher," but grant that these people were good MEN. They will not do even THIS : they will say it cannot be granted of any one but a philosopher (Cic., Am., 5, 18). Sollemne adlatum ex Arcadia instituisse Pana vener antes . . . quern Romam deinde vocaverunt Inuum. Huic dedi- tis Iudicr5, cum sollemne notum esset, msidiatos ob iram praedae am/issae latrones, cum Romulus vl se defendisset, Remum cepisse, captura regl Amulio tradidisse, ultro ac- cusantes. Criminl maxim,e dabant, etc., he had established a sacred festival brought from Arcadia, consisting of certain rites performed by young men in honor of Pan, whom the Romans afterwards called Inuus. Since this was a well known event, the robbers, who were full of rage at the loss of their booty, made a plot to attack [the shepherd boys] while busied with the festival. Romulus succeeded in defending himself, but they took Remus, and, having taken him, handed him over to king Amulius with a gratuitous accusation. Their main charge was, etc. (Liv., i., 5, 2-3). ANAPHORA AND CHIASMUS. 598. The Romans had also a great fancy for antitheses, or the setting off against each other of the corresponding parts of Jbwo expressions or statements. (1.) When the corresponding parts of two or more phrases, clauses, or sentences stand in the same order, the arrangement is called ANAPHORA.* (2.) When the corresponding parts stand in opposite orders, the arrangement is called CHIASMUS, or the chias- tic order. Thus : * From the Greek avcNpe/w, bring up ; hence, the repeating of the order. 380 SYNTAX. ANAPHORA. CHIASMUS. Quid dicam de moribus facil- Aeque iucunda erit simpli- limis, de pietate in matrem, citas dissentientis quam com- liberalitate in sorores, boni- probantis auctoritas (Plln., tate in siios, iustitia in Ep., iii., 4, 9). omnes? (Cic., Am., 3, ll). Si hostium fuit ille sanguls, Ita recta ingenia debilitat summa militum pietas ; nefa- verecundia, perversa confir- rium seehis, si civium (Cic., mat audacia (Plin., Ep., iv., 7). PM., xiv., 3, 6). a. When alter . . . alter are used, referring to two things already mentioned, they are usually arranged chiastically ; as: In quo quid potest esse mail, cum mors nee ad viv5s per- tineat nee ad mortuos ? Alterl nulll sunt, alteros non attmget, but in this what evil can there be, since death concerns neither the living nor the dead ? The one have no existence, and it will not touch the others (Cic., Tusc., i., 38, 91). NOTE. In chiasmus the balanced phrases consist usually of only two terms each, and the name comes from the resemblance to the Greek letter X (cAz)> suggested by the criss-cross arrangement. CERTAIN MINOR POINTS OF ORDER. 599. Certain minor points with regard to the arrange- ment of the sentence deserve notice, as follows : a. The more rhetorical writers, especially Cicero, were careful to make their sentences euphonious and rhythmically smooth. This they accomplished by choosing * words which in the posi- tions required by their relations of emphasis produced a pleasing variety by their alternations of long with short syllables and of accented with unaccented parts, and also by paying particular attention to the end of the sentence. Cicero declares himself especially fond of certain cadenees at the end of a sentence ; namely, _ w - (cretic), as, postu- lant ; -w^ (dactyl), as, reximus ; _ www _^ (1st paeon with * Not by changing the order, as if the Romans thought their sentences out in words first, and afterwards settled the order. MINOR POINTS OF ORDER. 381 a trochee or spondee), as, esse videatur ; and, above all, - w - v (double trochee), as, comprobavit. On the other hand, the rhythm _ w v - ^ (dactyl and spondee, i. e., the ending of a regular hexameter verse), was rather Avoided ; as, degere possit. It should be observed, however, that a false emphasis is never allowed for the sake of a more rhythmical ending. b. The emphases of the early part of a sentence are often fixed by the logical sequence of the ideas in their relation to the previous sentence, but towards the end the distinctions of em- phasis are less sharp, and it frequently depends on the mere choice of the writer from which of two or three slightly differ- ent points of view the closing ideas shall be presented. c. Not infrequently the verb occupies the last place but one in the sentence. The commonest cases are (1) when the verb stands between a noun and a modifying adjective or genitive, (2) when the verb precedes an infinitive which depends upon it, (3) when the subject of the verb is kept for the last place. Thus : (1.) Ut ulla intermlssio fiat offici (Cic., Am., 2, 8). (2.) Quantas vix queo dicere (Cic., Am., 6, 22). (3.) Ne te . . . disserentem deficiat oratio (Cic., lie Pub., i., 23, 37). NOTE. Sometimes there is an evident gain in emphasis in thus making the verb a little more prominent than the other word, but sometimes the difference in emphasis is so slight that the arrangement seems rather to have been made for euphony. Thus, in the last case above, the difference in emphasis is easily appreciable according as deficiat oratio or oratio defi- ciat is written ; in the second case it is less easy to feel an emphasis on queo ; in the first case the shade of emphasis is intangible, but the rhetorical effect of the separation of intermissio and offici is very distinct. d. The difference between the ordinary accent of English and of Latin sentences sometimes tends to make a Latin empha- sis seem unnatural to us, especially at the end of a sentence. For so far as we mark emphasis by position at all, the last place in our sentences is the most emphatic. NOTE 1. Such cases occur chiefly (1.) In carefully balanced pairs of sentences where all the words are 382 SYNTAX. forcible, as in the second example of anaphora (598) above. Thus : ita recta ingenia debilitat verecundia, perversa conflrmat auddcia. Here there are three pairs of contrasts, and it is difficult to see that one is stronger than another, except that an English accent tends to make us give the contrast between verecundia and auddcia a little more force than the others. To the Roman, however, so far as there was a difference it was in favor of the contrast between recta ingenia and perversa. ('2.) In a similar single sentence, where the last word has a certain em- phasis, though the words before it are still more emphatic ; as, ex tribus primis generibus, longe praestat, med sententid, regium (Cic., He Pub., i., 45, 69). The proper relative emphases here can be expressed roughly by trans- lating thus: ''The royal is in MY OPnaoN BY FAR the best of the FIRST THREE KINDS." (3.) When the last word is a proper name. Thus, the sentence tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo dijficiles dc morosl slmus, ut nobls non satisfaciat ipse Demosthenes (Cic., Or., 29, 104), means "so far am I from admiring my own efforts that I am critical and exacting to such a degree that Demosthenes HIMSELF does not SATISFY 3LE." At first sight the meaning might seem to be " that I am not satisfied with DEMOSTHENES HIMSELF," but the Latin order for that would be ut ipse Demosthenes nobls non satisfaciat.* * In thus giving a different explanation from the usual one of passages like the two last quoted, I regret that it would take too much space to set forth here the reasons for my opinion. A study of very many instances has convinced me that this opinion is correct. It is. of course, inherently possible that the last word in the cases given should be the most emphatic, and tradition has made it seem more natural to regard them so ; but when I put the following arrangements beside each other : longe praestat med sententid regium ; regium med sententid longe praestat ; ipse Demosthenes nobls non satisfacit ; nobis non satisfacit ipse Demosthenes, and find in Cicero near this last order the following : itaque se purgdns iocdtur Demosthenes, where nobody makes "Demosthenes" the emphatic word, and, on the other hand, vt Aeschinl ne Demosthenes quidem videdtur Attice dlcere, and cum etiam Demosthenes exagitetur ut putidus (Or., 8, 26 and 27), I cannot believe that so practical a people as the Romans used the dif- ferent arrangements only for the sake of variety, nor can I find any better explanation than the one suggested. VERIFICATION. 383 NOTE 2. So also an emphasis is sometimes repeated for rhetorical effect where an alternation of emphasis would seem more natural to us. Thus : Qudlis, ut arbitror, nemo umquam erit, vt conflrmdre possum, nemo certe fuit (Cic., Am., 3, lo) ; nam plurimum fide, plurimuni veri- tate, plurimuni intellegentia praestat (Plin., Ep., iii., 2, 3). Here the Roman mind is concentrated for the moment on the given expressions as individual phrases, while we are inclined to think rather of their relation to each other as parts of a whole. Sometimes, however, we, too, should repeat the emphasis as the Roman does. Thus : Qua re quod dandum est amicitiae, large dabitur a me, ut tecum agam, Servi, non secus dc si meus esset frdter, qul mihl est cdrissimus, isto in loco ; quod tribuendum est officio, jidei, religionl, id ita moderdbor ut meminerim, me contra amid studium pro amici perlculo dicere, ... so as to remember that though it is a friend whose desire I oppose, it is also a friend whom my speech tries to shield from danger (Cic., Mur., 4, 10). VERSIFICATION (Versificatio). 600. In poetry, unlike prose, the words are marked off into regular divisions of time, called FEET (pedes). A combination of a fixed number of feet constitutes a line or VERSE (versus). 601. The unit of measurement is the quantity or dura- tion of one short syllable or one MORA. (See 26, a.\ 602. Feet consist of three morae, or of four morae, a few also of five morae, making thus divisions of time like the measures of music, as follows : (1.) Three-time measure (|). Trochee - w (musically f f ), as, arma. Iambus w _ ( " f ), " erant. Tribrach w w ( " f f ), " facer e. (2.) Four-time (or two-time) measure (| = f ). Dactyl - w y (musically f |*^ ), as, corpora. Anapaest w w - ( " / f ) " domim. Spondee _ _ ( " f f )' " f undunt ' Proceleusmatic wwvw( " ff f ), " hominibus. 384 VERSIFICATION. (3.) Five-time measure ().* Cretic _ w - (musically \ y \ )% Bacchms w _ _ ( " P f f 1st Paeon _ >> ( f f f ), as, castitas. " C atones, " temporibus " celeritas. ( 4th Paeon www -( To these may be added the following : a. Six-time measure ( = f ). Greater Ionic -- v v (musically f f j 9 ), as, correximus. Lesser Ionic w ^ -- ( " f_f f f ), " properabant. Choriambus - v w - ( " f P f ) " terrificant. NOTE. Several other varieties of feet are named by the ancient gram- marians, but are discarded by the usage of to-day, as unnecessary in ex- plaining Latin versification. They are : Pyrrhic w w Amphibrach w - w Antibacchius -- v^ , Molossus --- > Dispondee > Ditrochee - w w 5 Diiambus w - w - 5 Antispast w w > 2d Paeon w - w v ? 3d Paeon w w - w ? 1st Epitrite w 5 2d Epitrite - w j 3d Epitrite w - , 4th Epitrite w , as, deus. amdre. Romdnus. 1 ' contendunt. " conflixerunt. " comprobdvit. " amdveranfif^ ' adhaesisse. " potentia. " animdtus. awdverunt. " conditores. ' ' discordids. 11 adduxistis. It will be seen that the four-syllabled feet are merely compounds of the two-syllabled. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 603. Verse is distinguished according to the kind of foot which forms its basis ; as, dactylic, anapaestic, tro- chaic, iambic, Ionic, etc. * This time is very rare in music. tr ICTUS; THESIS AND ARSIS. 604. Most kinds of verse are named, according to the number of feet which they contain, dimeter, trimeter, te- trameter, pentameter, hexameter (i. e., measures of two, three, four, five, or six feet). Thus, a dactylic hexameter is a dactylic line of six feet. 605. Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are either (1.) Reckoned by pairs of feet (dipodies), or (2.) Named by Latin adjectives in -arius, used as nouns, and denoting the number of feet in the verse. Thus, an iambic line of six feet is called either an IAMBIC TRIMETER (line of three measures or dipodies) or an IAMBIC SENARIUS (line of six iambic feet) ; a trochaic line of eight feet is called either a TROCHAIC TETRAMETER or a TROCHAIC OCTONARIUS. a. A combination of two verses is sometimes called a DISTICH ; a half verse, a HEMISTICH. b. A verse sometimes lacks a syllable at the end, and is then called CATALECTIC ; if it is complete it is called ACATALECTJC ; if it lacks a whole foot it is sometimes called BRACHYCATAI^ECTIC. c. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable or foot at the end, and is then called HYPERCATALECTIC or HYPERMETER. d. The term PENTHEMIMEBIS is sometimes used to indicate a portion of a verse consisting of two feet and a half (measured always from the be- ginning). Less common are HEPTHEMIMEBIS (three feet and a half), TBIHEMIMERIS (one foot and a half), and other like terms. METRICAL ACCENT ; THESIS AND ARSIS. 606. One syllable in every foot of a verse receives a greater stress of voice than the others. This is called the metrical accent, or ICTUS. 607. The part of the foot which receives the ictus is called the THESIS, the rest of the foot is called the ARSIS.* * THESIS (from riOy/Ai, put) means the downward movement of the foot in beating time or marching; ARSIS (from atpca, raise), the upward beat or raising of the foot. Through a misunderstanding of the Greek, the mean- ing of the terms thesis and arsis has commonly been reversed, the accented part of the verse being called the arsis and the unaccented part the thesis. 386 VERSIFICATION. NOTE. The alternation of thesis and arsis produces what is called the KHYTHM of the verse. CAESURA AND DIAERESIS. 608. (1.) The ending of a word within a foot is called CAESURA (i. e., a cutting) ; the ending of a word coin- ciding with the end of a foot is called DIAERESIS. (2 ) In the hexameter and several other kinds of verse some one caesura generally marks a pause in the sense, and is called the PRINCIPAL caesura, or the caesura of the verse. a. In the hexameter the principal caesura occurs most com- monly in the third foot ; sometimes in the fourth foot. In the latter case there is usually also a slight caesural break in the second foot. A diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot is called the BUCOLIC diaeresis, from its frequent occurrence in Greek pastoral poetry. b. When a caesura occurs after the thesis of a foot, it is called a MASCULINE caesura ; in the middle of the arsis it is called a FEMIXIXE caesura. A masculine caesura in the third foot is sometimes called a PEXTHEMIMERIS, or PEXTHEMIMERAL cae- sura. For examples see the dactylic hexameter (614). FIGURES OF VERSIFICATION. 609. The following peculiarities in the treatment of words in verse are called FIGURES of versification : (1.) A vowel, or m preceded by a vowel, is regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. This elision (striking out) consists in partially suppressing the vowel or syl- lable, not in wholly omitting it. It is also called SYNALOEPHA (smearing together). Thus : Quidve moror? s(l) omnes un(o) ordin(e) habetis Achi- vos. (Verg., Ae., ii., 102.) Cf. th' for the, in English. a. The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui (when plu- FIGURES OF VERSIFICATION. 387 ral), with the interjections o, Aeu, a, pro, vae, vdh, are not subject to elision, though 6 is sometimes made short. 6. Before a pause, a vowel which would otherwise be elided is sometimes retained, especially in comedy. The succession of vowel sounds* thus caused is called HIATUS (gaping) ; as : Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossani. (Verg., Gr., i., 281.) NOTE. When a long vowel or diphthong ending a Greek word thus remains unelided in the arsis, it is usually made short (systole), as the O of Pelio in the example. c. The elision of a syllable in m is sometimes called ECTHLIPSIS (squeez- ing out). d. In the early poets final s and its preceding vowel were sometimes elided before a vowel, and a vowel before final S was not always lengthened when the next word began with a consonant. (Cf . 18, d.) (2.) Sometimes the vowels i and e are made partial con- sonants, thus making one syllable of two. This is called SYNAE- RESIS. Thus : Aurea percussum virga versumque venems. (Verg., Ae., vii., 190.) (3.) On the other hand, the resolution of one syllable into two is called DIAERESIS or DIALYSIS ; as, siZ-u-a for siZ-va. This is chiefly confined to a few syllables consisting of V or gu, QU, su, and a following vowel, and is in most cases really a survival of an earlier form of the given word. (4.) A short syllable is occasionally lengthened (diastole). This occurs chiefly in the thesis before a caesura. (5.) A vowel at the end of a verse is occasionally elided be- fore a vowel at the beginning of the next verse. This is called SYNAPHEIA. Thus : Omnia Mercuric similis, vocemque colorem qu(e) Et crlnes flavos, etc. (Verg., Ae., iv., 558, 559.) 610. The last syllable of any verse except anapaestic (see 630) may be either long or short indifferently. 611. The metrical reading of verse is called SCANNING. a. Care should be taken in scanning Latin verse not only to * The case of in preceded by a vowel is hardly an exception, because the m was so feebly pronounced as merely to nasalize the vowel. (Cf. 18, d.) 388 VERSIFICATION. mark the feet accurately in regard to quantity and ictus, but also to keep the words distinct, observing the pauses as in prose. When the word-accent is at variance with the ictus, the latter is to be made the more prominent. 612. A fixed number of verses occurring in a regularly repeated order, whether the verses be of the same kind or of different kinds, is called a STROPHE or STANZA, and is often named for some poet ; as, the Alcaic strophe or Horatian stanza, the Sapphic strophe. 613. A long syllable is properly just twice the length of a short syllable, and all the feet of a verse are of exactly equal length. ; but : a. A long syllable is sometimes lengthened so as to be equiva- lent to three or even to four short ones, and is then denoted by the signs L and U respectively. b. A rest of the length of one or of two short syllables some- times occurs at the end of a foot. These rests are denoted by the signs A and A respectively. THE DIFFERENT METRES. Dactylic Metres. 614. (1.) The DACTYLIC HEXAMETER * Consists of six dactyls, of which the last is incomplete. (2.) For any of the first four feet spondees may be substituted. A spondee rarely occurs as the fifth foot also, and the verse is then called a spondaic verse. NOTE. The principal caesura (marked thus ||) is most commonly after the thesis of the third foot (penthemimeris) ; often, however, after the thesis of the fourth foot, and then there is usually a lesser caesura in the second foot. In many lines, however, the principal caesura is in the arsis of the third foot (feminine caesura). A bucolic diaeresis frequently occurs in pastoral poetry like Virgil's Eclogues and Georgics. * Often called the Heroic Verse, DACTYLIC METRES. 389 The scheme of the metre is therefore as follows : vJ^/ \J\J I) VW VS* W ^ w or musically * ? * 909. * f ' \? f ? \? ^ i 1 U I I U I I I U I I U I I LJ I I W 1 I Thus : At tuba | terribi|lem soni|tum || procul | aere ca|noro. (Verg., Ae., ix., 503.) Inton|si cri|nes || lonjga cer|vice flu|ebant. (TibulL, iii., 4, 27.) Ludere | quae veljlem || calajmo perjmisit ajgresti. (Verg., Ec. 9 i., 10.) Non medi|a de | gente || Phry|gum exe|disse ne|fandls. (Verg., Ae., v., 785.) Cf . in English : Meanwhile, apart, at the head of the hall, the priest and the herdsman Sat, conversing together of past and present and future ; While Evangeline stood like one entranced, for within her Olden memories rose, and loud in the midst of the music Heard she the sound of the sea, and an irrepressible sadness Came o'er her heart, and unseen she stole forth into the gar- den. (Longfellow's Evangeline.) NOTE. A light and rapid movement is produced by the frequent recur- rence of dactyls ; a slow and heavy one by that of spondees ; as : Quadrupe | dante j pu|trem soni|tu || quatit | ungnla | campum. (Verg., Ae., viii., 596.) 111! injter se|se || malgna vl | bracchia | tollunt. (Verg., Ae., viii., 452.) . 615. The ELEGIAC stanza consists of a dactylic hexa- meter alternating with a verse consisting of two half hexameters each of which has its last foot incomplete (i. e., one long syllable). a. Of the half verses only the first admits a spondee instead * The last foot is strictly -* v A. 390 VERSIFICATION. of a dactyl, and both must end with the end of a word. The scheme is therefore as follows : - vw - sJv -^ || vv -^ v^/ -^ w w -* w vw vJw A || ww ww A and musically the half verses are represented thus : rcrirc;ir*ircrirc;ir*i Thus: Flebilis | indi|gnos || Ele|geia | solve cajpillos Ah nimis | ex ve|ro || nunc tibi | nomen e|rit. (Ov., Am., iii., 9, 3.) Cf. in English : Lo ! in a land that is new, a new-born Salamis waits you. Hearts that often ere now perils have brav'd at my side Graver by far, I pledge you. To-night be merry. To-mor- row Speed once more our barks over the measureless sea. (S. H. Hodgson : Trans, of Nor., Od., i., 7.) Other dactylic verses are rare. The following occur in strophes : 616. The ALCMANIAN strophe consists of a dactylic hexameter alternating with a dactylic tetrameter. The scheme is : vw vTw || v^/ vJw w v^ w \Jw vw \Jv w Thus: Ambigu|am tel|lure no|va || Sala|mma fulturam. O for|tes pe|ioraque | pass! Mecum | saepe vi ri, || nunc | vino | pellite [ curas ; Cras in] gens ite|rabimus ! aequor. (Hor., Od., i., 7 ; the original of the selection under 615.) 617. The FIRST ARCHILOCHIAN STROPHE consists of a dactylic hexameter alternating with a dactylic penthe- mimeris (two feet and a half). The scheme is : TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC METRES. 391 Thus: Frigora | mite|scunt || Zephy|ris, ver | proterit | aetas Interi|tura, si|mul Pomifer autum|nus || frujges ef|fuderit, et mox Bruma re|currit in|ers. (Hor., Od., iv., 7.) Trochaic and Iambic Metres. 618. The longer trochaic and iambic measures belong chiefly to dramatic poetry. For their understanding the following preliminary points are necessary : (1.) When a spondee is substituted for a trochee or an iam- bus, it loses a portion of its full time, and is called an IRRA- TIONAL SPONDEE.* This is represented by the sign _ > (or mu- sically | / ' ) when it stands for a trochee, and by the sign > _ when it stands for an iambus. (2.) When a long syllable in a foot is exchanged for two short syllables, the foot is said to be resolved, and the resulting foot is called a resolution of the other foot. Thus, a tribrach (w w w) is the resolution of a trochee or an iambus. A spon- dee ( ) may be resolved into a dactyl (_ w v^) or an anapaest (v ^ -) an( l these last into a proceleusmatic '(v/ w v). (3.) All of the above feet may, therefore, occur in trochaic and iambic measures. When they are used in trochaic verse they have the ictus on their first syllable ; when used in iambic verse, the spondee, dactyl, and tribrach have the ictus on the second syllable, the anapaest and the (rare) proceleusmatic on the third. (4.) A verse may have an introductory syllable or two, like the introductory notes before the first full bar in music. These introductory syllables are called ANACRUSIS. Trochaic Metres. 619. The most common trochaic measures are the SEP- TENARIUS (tetrameter catalectic), and the OCTONARIUS (tetrameter acatalectic). * Sometimes also an irrational trochee, or irrational iambus, respectively. 392 VERSIFICATION. a. In each of these, as used by the early dramatic poets, any complete foot may be resolved into a tribrach, and for any complete foot but the last the spondee and its resolutions may be substituted.* These irregularities are, however, most freely used in the first and fifth feet. In the late drama the substitu- tions are confined to the second foot of each dipody. An ana- paest is not used immediately after a dactyl. b. The commonest pause is a diaeresis at the end of the fourth foot, and in that case the fourth foot must not be a dactyl. Otherwise a break almost invariably occurs at the end of the fifth foot, generally with a lesser break in the fourth or after the third. NOTE. The ictus on the second foot of each dipody is less strong than that on the first foot, and is left unmarked in the scheme of the metres. 620. The possibilities of the septenarius may be represented by the following scheme : f vv/ or musically Thus: Nuptijas dojmi^ad pa|rari || missast | ancil|la^ili|co. (Ter.T An., 514.) I sa]ne Ceg5 te2ex|erce|bo~hodie,~ut || dlgnus | es, sili]cerni|um, Aeschi|nus odi|ose j cessat; || prandijum cor|rampi|tur; Ctesi]pho~autem~in a | more | totus: ||ego iam | prospici|am mi|hi. (Ter., Ad., lines 587-589.) Cf . in English : Then the dreary shadows scattered, like a cloud in morning's breeze, And a low deep voice within me seemed whispering words like these. (Whittier's Cassandra Southwick.) * But the proceleusmatic is very rare in Plautus and not found in Ter- ence. TROCHAIC AND IAMBIC METRES, 393 621. The possibilities of the octonarius may be repre- sented by the following scheme : 2 V V > V V or musically Thus : Cense | o. Sed | heus tu. | Quid vis ? || Censen | posse mare. (Ter., Enn., 217.) Obse|cro popu| lares, | ferte || misero2at|que2inno|centPau]xilium : Subve|nite2ino|pi :~Oti|ose ; || nun ci jam ili|co~hic conjsiste, Quid rejspectas? | nil pe|riclist: || numquam, dum^ego^ade-l ro^hic te|tanget. (Ter., Ad., lines 155-157.) Cf. in English : Beams of noon, like burning lances, through the tree tops flash and glisten, As she stands before her lover, with raised face to look and lis- ten. (Whittier's Slaves of Martinique.) 622. A TROCHAIC DIMETER (catalectic) (3 1-2 feet) occurs in the later tragedy (used strophically). The second foot may be a spondee or dactyl. Thus : Lenis | ac modi | ce flu | ens Aura nee ver|gens la|tus. (Sen., Oed., line 887.) NOTE. This measure also enters into the formation of the HIPPONAC- TEAN strophe. (See 650.) Other trochaic verses are occasionally found, chiefly as portions only of lines. Iambic Metres. 623. The IAMBIC TRIMETER (senarius) is the most common of all dramatic measures, but the SEPTENARIUS 394 VERSIFICATION. (tetrameter catalectic) and OCTONARIUS (tetrameter aca- talectic) are also frequently used. a. Speaking generally, the same substitutions and resolutions occur as with the trochaic measures, in any foot except the last among the comic writers, confined mostly to the first foot of each dipody in other kinds of poetry. The proceleusmatic oc- curs chiefly in the first foot, and then the third syllable (ictus syllable) must begin a word, and the ictus and word accent must coincide. An anapaest immediately after a dactyl is avoided. 624. The SENARITJS consists of six iambic feet. The regular caesura is after the first syllable of the third foot (penihemimeraT). Otherwise, after the arsis of the fourth foot there is almost always a caesura, often with a diaere- sis after the second foot. The scheme is as follows : i/ f > V V V V Thus : Phase]lus iljle |j quern | vide]tis ho|spites. (Catull., 4, 1.) Storax.|Non redi|it || hac | nocte^a | cena^Aejschinus Neque ser|volo|rum || quis|quam. qui2ad|vorsum^i|erant. Profeclto^hic ve|re di|cunt : || si^ab|sis usfpiam. (Ter., Ad., lines 26-28.) Cf . in English : light immortal, winds on wings of swiftness borne, O river sources, and the countless flashing smile Of ocean's wavelets, universal mother earth. (L. Dyer, Trans, of Aesch., Prom., 88 ff.) 625. The SEPTENARITJS consists of seven and a half iambic feet. The regular break is after the fourth foot, and this foot must then be a real iambus. If this break IAMBIC METRES. 395 does not occur, there is always a break after the arsis of the fifth foot. The scheme is as follows : Thus : Salu|tant, ad | cenam | vocant, || adven|tum gra|tu]an|tur. (Ter., Eun., 259.) Sed quid hoc | est ? vide | on ego | Getam || currenltem^huc ad- veni|re ? Is est i|psus, ei, | timeo | miser, || quam hfc^mihi | mine nun|tiet rem. (Ter., Phorm., lines 177, 178.) Cf. in English* In Scarlet towne, where I was borne, There was a faire maid dwellin, Made every youth crye " Wel-awaye ! " Her name was Barbara Allen. (Percy's JReliques.) 626. The OCTONARIUS consists of eight iambic feet. When the break after the fourth foot occurs without eli- sion, this foot must be a real iambus, as in the septenarius. The scheme is as follows : Thus : Domum | modo^i]bo,2ut ad|pare|tur || dl|cam,2atque2huc | re- nun|tio. (Ter., An., 594.) Abs qm|vis homijne, quomst | opus, || beneficijum^accipelre gau|deas ; Verum^enim | ve ro^id | demum | iuvat, || si quem^ae) quomst ^is bene|facit. (Ter., Ad., lines 254, 255.) * Written as two lines. 396 VERSIFICATION. Cf . in English : * On Linden, when the sun was low, All bloodless lay the untrodden snow ; And dark as winter was the flow Of Iser, rolling rapidly. (Campbell.) NOTE. Iambic measures are sometimes regarded as trochaic measures with anacrusis, and may then be expressed musically as follows : Senarius : V : \s w II w v w A Septenarius : Octonarius : w! -^ -w -*v -lw * -v ^w -A 627. The pure IAMBIC TRIMETER (i. e., without any resolutions or substitutions) is first found in Catullus. Thus : Phase|lus il|le, || quern | vide|tis, ho | spites Ait | fuis(se || na vium | celer|rimus. (Catull., 4.) 628. The CHOLIAMBIC t measure is an iambic trimeter with a trochee for the last foot. Thus : v~ v v|| w w ^v as: Miser | Catul|le |] de|sinas | inep|tire Et quod | vides | peris |se || per|ditum | ducas. (Catull., 8.) a. The choliambic may also be represented metrically thus : * Written as two lines. t I. e., lame iambic. It is also called SCAZON (hobbling). ANAPAESTIC, BACCHIAC, AND CRETIC METRES. 397 629. The IAMBIC DIMETER (catalectic) is found in the later tragedies. It is also called the Anacreontic, and is used strophically. Thus : Ut ti|gris or|ba gna|tis. (Sen., Med., 863.) NOTE. Other iambic measures occasionally occur, chiefly as parts of strophes or as single lines, especially the dimeter acatalectic (quaternarius) and trimeter cataleetic. See 650 ff. Anapaestic, Bacchiac, and Cretic Metres. Anapaestic, bacchiac, and cretic measures are mostly confined to the early comedy writers (especially Plautus) and the later tragic poets. The common forms are as follows : Anapaestic Metres. 630. In anapaestic verse a spondee, a dactyl, or a pro- celeusmatic may be substituted for an anapaest. There is a regular break after the fourth foot in the septenarius and octonarius. (1.) Septenarius. Quid ais ? | viro me | malo male | nuptam. || Satin au|dis quae^il-J lie loqui|tur ? Satis. Si | sapiam,~hinc | intro~abe|am,~ubi mihi || bene sit.| Mane: male~e|rit poti|us. (Plaut., Menaech., 602, 603.) Cf . in English : * Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, As his corse to the rampart we hurried ; Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot O'er the grave where our hero we buried. (Wolfe's Burial of Sir John Moore.) (2.) Octonarius. Mille mo|dis amor | ignojrandust, || procul abhi|bendust | atque^ap | standust ; Nam qui^in a|morem | praecipi|tavit, || peius pe rit quasi | saxo | saliat. (Plaut., Trin., lines 264, 265.) * Written in two lines. 398 VERSIFICATION. Cf . in English : * The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, And the holly branch shone on the old oak wall ; The baron's retainers were blithe and gay, Keeping their Christmas holiday. (See Wadham's Versification, p. 65.) (3.) Dimeter acatalectic (quaternarius). Haec ego | quom cum~ani|mo meo | reputo Ubi qui~e|get, quam | preti sit | parvi Apage,~amor, | te, non | places : nil | te~utor. (Plaut., Trin., lines 256-258.) Cf . in English : * 'T is the last rose of summer Left blooming alone ; All her lovely companions Are faded and gone. (T. Moore.) (4.) Dimeter catalectic (paroemiac). Quam^hic rem | gerat ani]mum~advor|tam. (Plaut, Trin., line 843.) NOTE. Other varieties also occur, as the trimeter catalectic and the manometer. This last, like the paroemiac, is used mostly as the last line of a series of longer anapaestic verses. Bacchiac and Cretic Metres. 631. i. In bacchiac and cretic measures either (but not both) of the long syllables may be resolved, or a molossus ( ) may be substituted. ii. The TETRAMETER is the most usual variety in each of these measures. A break is most common after the second foot. Thus : (1.) Bacchiac tetrameter. [Ictus w JL _] Adcura|te~agatur, || docte~et di|ligenter, TantaTmcepjta res est : || haud somni|culose~hoc * Written in two lines. CHORIAMBIC AND IONIC METRES. 399 Agendumst. || Ero~ut me | voles es|se. Spero, Nam tu nunc | vides pro | tuo ca|ro capite Carum^offer|re me meum caput vi|litati. (Plaut., Copt., lines 226-230.) (2.) Cretic tetrameter. [Ictus J- w _] Copiast, | atque^ea || facitis nos | conpotes, Secede^huc | nunciam, || si vide|tur, procul, Ne~arbitri | dicta no||stra~arbitra|ri queant Neu perma|net palanPhaec || nostra fal|lacia. (Plaut, Capt., lines 217-220.) a. The last foot is often incomplete (tetrameter catalectw) ; as: Meo modo^et | moribus vivito~an|tiquis. (Plaut., Trin., line 295.) NOTE. In comedy the iambic senarius is used for the scenes of spoken dialogue ; the iambic septenarius and octonarius and the trochaic septe- narius are used in more or less long passages, which were delivered as recitative with musical accompaniment. The trochaic octonarius, the anapaestic, bacchiac, cretic, and the shorter trochaic and iambic measures are used for strophic groups of lines (called CANTICA) which were regularly sung to music. Choriambic and Ionic Metres. 632. The CHORIAMBIC TETRAMETER is occasionally found. [Ictus J. w ^ -] Thus : Omne nemus | cum fluvils | omne canat | profundum. (Claud., Nupt. Hon., ii., 4.) NOTE. Many of the logaoedic measures (see 643) are sometimes scanned as choriambic. 633. The LESSER IONIC verse is found in one ode of Horace. [Ictus ^ ^JL _] A strophe consists of ten feet. Thus : Miserarum^est | nequejimori | dare ludum | neque dulci Mala vmo^aut | lavere^aut ex|animari Metuentes | patruae ver|bera linguae. (Hor., Od., iii., 12.) 400 VERSIFICATION. 634. The GREATER IONIC (Sotadean) was used by En- mus, Martial, and others. [Ictus J. _ w w ] a. The early poets use double trochees and other equivalent feet instead of the Ionic, and resolve a long syllable of the Ionic freely, but Martial and the later poets confine themselves chiefly to one resolution in a verse, and use only the double trochee as a substitution. Thus : Nain quam varia J sint genera po|ematorum, | Balbi, Quamque longe | distincta~ali|a2ab aliis sis, \ nosce. (Ace., Didasc.) Has, cum gemilna compede, dedicat ca|tenas, Saturne, tijbi Zoilus, anulos pri|ores. (Martial.) PECULIARITIES OF EARLY VERSIFICATION. Besides the feeble force of s in early prosody (see 609, "l,d) 9 the following points should be noted : 635. The originally long quantity of certain final sylla- bles, which afterwards became short, was sometimes retained. So (1.) -es (gen. -itis) ; as, super stes. (2.) -or (gen. -oris) ; as, soror. (3.) Verb endings in -r, -s, -t ; as, regredwr, augeat, fueriSj monult. a. These irregularities occur chiefly in Plautus. NOTE. The final a of the feminine singular in nouns and adjectives of the first declension has also often been measured long in early Latin verse ; as, epistuld, bond ; but many of the best authorities now deny this quantity. 636. Words of two syllables, with the first syllable short, often shorten a long final vowel; as, nov&', levl; iube* a. This shortening is particularly common before a syllable which has the verse accent ; as, dari mi. * This is due to the influence of the word-accent. It is much easier after a short accented syllable to pronounce a final vowel short than long. PECULIARITIES OF EARLY VERSIFICATION. 401 637. Other long syllables are not infrequently short- ened when they stand after a short syllable * and before a syllable which has the verse accent ; as, wegat PJiafnium ; vel occidito ; seueotu'tem. 638. Also after a short monosyllable which has the verse accent, a syllable may be shortened. Thus : sed Id quod ; quid Istuc ; dd Ipsam. a. So, too, the second syllable of a word of several syllables, if the first is short and has the verse accent ; as, vo\xmtate. 639. Monosyllables ending in a long vowel (or -m) are often employed before a vowel as the thesis of a foot, being shortened instead of elided. Thus : qul aget ; n agas ; quam ego. 640. Vowels which ordinarily make a syllable of their own are often run together with a following vowel (even though h intervene), thus making one syllable of two. This is called STNIZESIS or SYNAERESIS. Thus: antehac, dibam (aibas^ etc., always), meus, tuus, fuisse. (Cf. 609, 2.) 641. Doubled consonants were not regularly written (or sounded) in the time of Plautus, and thus words like ttle,jimmo, quippe, are used by him with the first syllable short. a. Ennius first wrote doubled consonants regularly ; and his contemporary Terence rarely neglects their effect upon the quan- tity of a syllable ; when he does so, it is almost always at the beginning of an iambic verse. b. Before the combination, mute and liquid, short vowels always retain their natural (short) quantity in Plautus and Terence ; as, s&cri, inp&tro. * Whether in the same word or not. In words of more than two sylla- bles, however, only the first two syllables seem to suffer this shortening. 402 VERSIFICATION. Saturnian Verse. NOTE. The earliest Latin verse was not, like the verses already treated, an imitation of the Greek, but a product of Italian soil. It is called SATURXIAX verse. Scholars are not agreed as to certain important points in its character, but it is generally admitted that the accent (ictus) has much more promi- nence as compared with quantity than in the Greek metres. 642. SATURNIAN verse consists of two half verses with a break between them, on the following scheme (iambic dimeter catalectic + trochaic tripody) : v * v-Z- w- * M w ^ v J-* Thus: Dabunt | malum | Meteljli || Naevi|o po|etae. Cornejlius | Luci|us || Scipi'o Bar]batus Gnaevod I patre | prognajtus || fortis | vir sapi|ensque Quoius | forma | virtu [tei || parisu|ma|fuit. Cf. in English : The king was in the parlor, counting out his money ; The queen was in the kitchen, eating bread and honey. a. It is perhaps best to consider the last syllable of each half verse an accented one.* Thus : ^J. ^2 ^j. 2 || _ w j.^ t. NOTE 1. The Saturnian is found chiefly in inscriptions. Hiatus is allowed between the two halves of the verse. The unaccented parts (arses) of the verse consist of a long syllable or a short syllable or two short syllables. Sometimes an arsis disappears, as in the last foot but one in the last line above. The accented parts (theses) must be either one long syllable or two short syllables. Alliteration is common. NOTE 2. Another view now frequently held is that of O. Keller, that *' quantity " has nothing to do with the metre, and that the accent coin- * See Westphal, Gr. Metrik, ii., 42, and K. Klotz, Jahresber. 1883, p. 323. SATURNIAN VERSE. LOGAOEDIC VERSE. 403 cides always with the word-accent. Each half verse always begins then with an accent.* Thus : Dabunt malum Mete"lli || NaeVio poe*tae. Between the second accented syllable and the third, two unaccented syl- lables always occur ; in other cases generally only one unaccented syllable. There are always three accented syllables in the first half verse, generally three in the second ; sometimes, however, only two in the second, and then usually an unaccented syllable before that half verse (anacrusis). The arsis even of the last foot occasionally consists of two syllables. Logaoedic Verse. 643. LOGAOEDIC verse is a name given to a kind of verse consisting of dactyls and trochees (chiefly irrational), from the resemblance to prose caused by slight inequalities in the time of the feet (from Ao'yos and dotS^, prose-song). a. The irrational trochee (or spondee) is thus represented : _ > ; or musically, f J" ; the irrational dactyl is called a CYCLIC dactyl, and represented thus : -v ^, or musically, f f J, or nearly / y y. 644. Logaoedic lines consist almost always of one dac- tyl and two, three, or four trochees. The dactyl occupies any foot but the last.f Thus : Logaoedic Dipody -w^ -^ (Adonic) Logaoedic Tripody -w w - w - w (1st Pherecratic) - w -v \s v (2d Pherecratic) Logaoedic Tetrapody -w w _ v _ v _ v (1st Gly conic) -w -vw -v -v (2d Glyconic) -w -w -v v -w (3d Glyconic) Logaoedic Pentapody _ v _^ -u v _ w -^ (Lesser Sapphic) -w -vw -w -w -v (Phalaecian) a. These lines are used, either as complete in themselves or combined into longer lines, to make various forms of (chiefly strophic) verse, as in the following sections. * See O. Keller, Der Saturnische Vers als rhythmisch erwiesen. t One logaoedic tetrapody occurs with two dactyls, the lesser Alcaic, thus : ~~\J w ""^ ^ v v 404 VERSIFICATION. Metres of Horace and Catullus. 645. The ASCLEPIADEAN verse is used in five varie- ties, as follows : (1.) LESSER (or IST) ASCLEPIADEAN (2d Pherecratic -j- 1st Pherecratic). [Not strophic.] Thus : -> A/ w I* II A/ v -t-v u A or musically: f f '| f % ? | f' | f g J | f f|f ^| Maecenas ata|vis || edite | regi|bus. (Hor., Od., i., 1.) Horace, Orfes, i., 1 ; iii., 30; iv., 8. NOTE. It wiU be seen that the last foot of the first half of the line consists of one long syllable protracted into the time of three short ones (cf. 613, a), and that the last foot in the line contains a rest. Similar phenomena of course occur in the other logaoedic verses given below. (2.) SECOND ASCLEPIADEAN (three lesser Asclepiadean lines followed by a second Glycoiiic). [Strophic.] Thus : 1> A/ w I* || A, v ^ SA -> A/w || A/ v -^ ^ A JL> A^w i* || A/ w -^ ^ A -^ > A/w -^w O A The last verse is musically : | \ v\ v K P I U Scribe | ris Vari|o || fortis et | hosti|um Victor, | Maeoniji || carminis | ali|ti, Quam rem | cumque fe|rox || navibus | aut e|ques Miles | te duce | gesse|rit. Horace, Odes, i., 6, 15, 24, 33; ii., 12; iii., 10, 16; iv., 5, 12. (3.) THIRD ASCLEPIADEAN (second Gly conic alternating with a lesser Asclepiadean). [Strophic.] Thus : - > v w w w A Sic te | diva po|tens Cy|pri Sic fra|tres Hele|nae, || lucida | side|ra, Vento|rumque re | gat pa|ter Obstricjtis ali | is || praeter I|apy|ga. Horace, Odes, i., 3, 13, 19, 36 ; iii., 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28; iv., 1, 3. METRES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 405 (4.) FOURTH ASCLEPIADEAN (first two lines lesser Asclepi- adean, third line 2d Pherecratic, fourth line 2d Gly conic). [Strophic.] Thus : -2> <, w 12 || A, w -2v, wA !> -A^w 12 || A/ w -^w wA -2> Ayw 12 wA > v^ v w w A The last two lines are, musically : Quis mul|ta graci|lis || te puer | in ro|sa Perfu|sus liquijdis || urget o|dori|bus Grato, |Pyrrha, sub | an|tro ? Cui fla|vam reli|gas co|mam. Horace, Odes, i., 5, 14, 21, 23 ; iii., 7, 13 ; iv., 13. (5.) GREATER (or STH) ASCLEPIADEAN (2d Pherecratic -|- Adonic -j~ 1st Pherecratic). [Not strophic.] Thus : Tu ne | quaesie|ris, || scire ne|fas, || quern mihi, | quern tijbi. Horace, Odes, i., 11, 18; iv., 10; Catullus, 30. 646. The SAPPHIC strophe is used in two varieties, as follows : (1.) LESSER SAPPHIC (first three lines lesser Sapphic, fourth line Adonic). Thus : NOTE. There is usually a caesura after the long syllable of the dactyl. 406 VERSIFICATION. lam sa|tis terjris || nivis | atque | dirae Grandijnis mi | sit || pater et rujbente Dexte|ra sa|cras || iacujlatus | arces Terruit] urbem. Cf. in English : All the night sleep came not upon my eyelids, Shed not dew, nor shook nor unclosed a feather, Yet with lips shut close and with eyes of iron Stood and beheld inc. (Swinburne's Sapphics.) Horace, Odes, i., 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38; ii., 2, 4, 6,8, 10, 16 ; iii., 8, 11, 14, 18, 20, 22, 27 ; iv., 2, 6, 11 ; and the Carm. Saec.; Catullus, 11,51. NOTE 1. Catullus, in the only two poems which he wrote in the Sapphic metre, differs from Horace in occasionally using- a real trochee in the second foot, and in sometimes neglecting 1 the caesura, or putting it between the short syllables of the dactyl. NOTE 2. The last two lines are occasionally run together by both Horace and Catullus ; as : Labijtur ripa il love | non pro | banteCu- xorius | amnis. (Hor., Od., i., 2, lines 19-20.) NOTE 3. The Sapphic line is sometimes divided as follows : (2.) GREATER SAPPHIC (1st Pherecratic [Aristophanic] alter- nating with a greater Sapphic line (i. e., 3d Glyconic -\- 1st Pherecratic). Thus : Lydia | die per om nes Te de|6s ojro Syba|rin || cur prope|res a|man|do. , Odes, i. 8. METRES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 407 647. The ALCAIC strophe * consists of two greater Al- caic lines (i. e., lesser Sapphic lines, catalectic with ana* crusis), a trochaic dimeter with anacrusis, and a lesser Alcaic. Thus : -> -A^v -^ v w A > ~W w w w A <* r \rc\rt-\rtt\rt r- nrfirri r? ifp- Vijdes ut | alta | stet nive | candi|dum Sojracte, | nee iam | sustine ant o|nus Siljvae la|boran|tes, ge|luque Flumina | constite|rint a|cuto. Cf. in English : - O mighty-mouth'd inventor of harmonies, O skill'd to sing of Time or Eternity, God-gifted organ-voice of England, Milton, a name to resound for ages. (Tennyson's Ode to Milton.) Horace, Odes, i., 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37 ; ii., 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20; iii., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 29 ; iv., 4, 9, 14, 15. 648. The GLYCONIC-PHERECRATIC verse is used in two forms by Catullus, as follows : (1.) A strophic form (consisting of three, or four, 2d Gly- conic verses and one 2d Pherecratic). Thus : w A/w -w -A ^^ -ww -w -A w -v w \j A - w A/w U -A * Also called the HORATIAN stanza, because Horace uses it more than any of the other logaoedic verses. 408 VERSIFICATION. Dia|nae sumus | in fijde Puel|lae~et pue|rPmte|gri : Dla|nam pue|ri2inte|gri Puel|laeque ca|na|mus. (Catull., 34.) Nil po|test sine | te Ve|nus, Fama I quod bona | compro|bet, Commo|di cape | re? at po|test Te vo|lente. Quis | huic de|o Compalrarier j au|sit? (Catull., 61.) Catullus, 34, 61. NOTE. The first foot is usually a trochee, but sometimes a spondee, or even (as in the first strophe above) an iambus. Cf. Greek usage. One verse (61, 25) has a spondee instead of the dactyl. (2.) A form not strophic, called the PRIAPEAN verse, in which the Glyconic and Pherecratic make together a single line. Thus : w A/v -^ v I* || - w -A^w I* w A O Co | Ionia, | quae cujpis || ponte | ludere | Ion | go. Catullus, 17. 649. The PHALAECIAN verse (Jiendecasylldble) is a logaoedic pentapody with dactyl in the second place. Thus:- Cui do | no lepi|dum no|vum lijbellum. Cf . in English : Look, I come to the test, a tiny poem All composed in a metre of Catullus. (Tennyson's Hendecasyllabics.) Catullus, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 21, 23, 24, 26, 27, 28, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 58b. NOTE. The first foot is occasionally a real trochee, or even an iambus. METRES OF HORACE AND CATULLUS. 409 Other kinds of verse (not logaoedic) are used by Horace or Catullus as follows : Strophic Metres. 650. The HIPPONACTEAN strophe consists of a trochaic dimeter catalectic alternating with an iambic trimeter catalectic. Thus : v w v./ w A Non ejbur ne|que~aure[um Mea I reni|det||in|domo | lacujnar. Horace, Odes, ii., 18. 651. The PYTHIAMBIC strophe consists of a dactylic hexameter alternating with an iambic dimeter acatalectic. Thus : w v^ w ww Mollis in|ertia cur || tan | tarn dif |fuderit | irais Obli vio|nem sen|sibus. Horace, Ep., 14, 15. 652. The 2D PYTHIAMBIC strophe consists of a dac- tylic hexameter alternating with a pure iambic trimeter (acatalectic). Thus : vJw \J\J II X X IX VII 24 IX IX VIII VI 25 VIII ' VIII " VII V 26 VII VII " VI IV 27 VI VI V III 28 V V IV Pridie 29 IV ' IV III 30 III III " Pridie 31 Pridie ' Pridie " NOTE. In leap-year the last seven days of February were reckoned thus : 23. VII Kalendds Martids. 27. IV Kal. Mdrt. 24. Bisexto " " 28. Ill 25. VI " " 29. Pridie " " 26. V Cf. also 660, 4, Note 2. * I, e.j of course, the Calends of the following month. 420 APPENDIX. MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 662. (1.) The Roman system of reckoning was a duodecimal one, in which the smaller unit (-fa) was called uncia, the larger unit, as. Thus : 12 unciae = if or 1 as 11 u or deunx ii a 10 n a dextans =. it "f it 9 n n dodrans \ & it 3_ it 8 a a bes =. ft " 1 n 7 n it septunx =. TV it 6 tt a semis = ft " 4 it 5 it a quincunx = ft " 4 it a triens =. 1\ 4< 1 " 3 a tt quadrans r= A " i n 2 it tt sextans T 2 * " i sescuncia = A 1 uncia = ^ NOTE. The uncia was subdivided as follows : Semuncia = uncia Binae sextulae = " Sicilieus = l Sextula == l " Dimidia sextula = Jg. " ' ; ^1^ " Scripulum = ^ " " ^ " [Dimidium scripulum] = ^ " " -gi^. <{ (2.) The as was thus the real unit of measurement, and the special units in different kinds of measures and weights were treated as asses, and subdivided into twelfths. 663. MONEY. 1 as = originally about a pound of copper. 2^ asses = 1 sestertius or nummus = about 5 cts. 2 sestertii = 1 quinarius = " 10 cts. 2 quinarii = 1 denarius = " 20 cts. 25 denarii = 1 (nummus) aureus = " $5. 1000 sestertii = 1 sestertium MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. NOTE 1. Originally all the Roman coins were copper : namely, the as and its fractions. The sestertius, quindrius, and denarius were introduced later, and were silver ; the denarius was at first equal to ten asses, but after- wards the as was depreciated, and the denarius was equal to sixteen asses. The aureus was of gold, and was first struck during the second Punic war. NOTE 2. For sums from 2,000 to 1,000,000 sesterces, mille, milia, with ses- tertium (genitive plural), were used, or sestertium as a neuter noun. Thus : Quadrdgintd milia sestertium or quadrdgintd sestertia = 40,000 sesterces. NOTE 3. For sums from 1,000,000 sesterces upwards, the combination decies (vicies, etc.) centena milia sestertium was used, and the words centena milia were generally omitted. Thus : Decies sestertium = 1,000,000 sesterces; centies sestertium = 10,000,000 sesterces. Sometimes the numeral adverb was used alone. Thus : Decies = 1,000,000 sesterces. NOTE 4. Sesterces were indicated by the sign US. A line over this in- dicated thousands, lines on the sides also hundreds of thousands. Thus : _HS. DCC = 700 sestertii; HS. D = 500,000 sestertii, or 500 sestertia; |HS.| DCCC = 80,000,000 sestertii. 664. WEIGHTS. 4 scripula = 1 sextula. 2 sextulae = 1 sicilicus. 4 slcilici = 1 uncia. 12 unciae = 1 libra (as or pound). NOTE 1. The following Greek coins and weights were also used : 6 oboli = 1 drachma (coin or weight). 100 drachmae = 1 mina. 60 minae = 1 talentum (Attic). NOTE 2. In imperial times a siliqua (= i obolus) was also used. 665. MEASURES. (1.) MEASURES OF LENGTH. 4 digit! = 1 palmus minor. 3 palmi minores = 1 palmus (maior). 4 palmi = 1 pes (as) (11.65 Eng. inches). l pedes = 1 cubitus. 2 pedes = 1 gradus. 2 gradus = 1 passus. 125 passus = 1 stadium. 8 stadia = 1 mille (passuum) (Roman mile). 422 APPENDIX. NOTE 1. The unit of square measure is the iugerum (as). The other square measures scarcely require treatment in a grammar at all. NOTE 2. These measures also were divided into the regular fractions of the as as the equivalent of the pes or iugerum. (2.) DRY MEASURE. 1^ cyathi = 1 acetabulum. 4 acetabula = 1 hemina. 2 heminae = 1 sextarius. 16 sextarii = 1 modius (peck). (3.) 2 2 2 6 4 2 20 LIQUID cyathi acetabula quartarii heminae sextarii congii urnae amphorae MEASURE. = 1 acetabulum. = 1 quartarius. = 1 hemina. = 1 sextarius. = 1 congius. = 1 urna. = 1 amphora. = 1 culleus. ROMAN NAMES. 666. A free Roman had usually three names. Thus : (1.) The PBAEXOMEX, distinguishing the individual. (2.) " NOMEX " " gens. (3.) " COGXOMEX " " familia. a. PBAEXOMIXA all end in -us, except Kaeso. NOMINA all end in -ius, and are really adjectives (cf. 268). COGXOMIXA have various endings, and are derived generally from some per- sonal peculiarity of their original bearer (cf. our nicknames). Thus: Decimus Junius Brutus.* Publius Cornelius Scipio.* Quintus Mucius Scaevola.* Sometimes only two names are found ; as, Gaius Laelius. * From brutus, heavy, scipio, a staff, scaevus, the left (hand or side). ROMAN NAMES. ABBREVIATIONS. 423 b. Further c5gnomina are often used ; thus, especially, cogno- mina in -ianus indicate adoption FROM a certain gens ; -anus (when not added to gentile names) and -icus indicate military or other distinction. Thus : Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus, Africanus Minor.* NOTE. The adoptive name is in familiar language often reduced to the gentile form. Thus, Cicero calls Atticus Pomponius rather than Pompo- nidnus. In later Latin only, a second cognomen was called an agnomen. c. Daughters were usually called simply by their father's gen- tile name ; as, Tullia (Cicero's daughter). If two sisters were to he distinguished, maior and minor were added. A third or fourth daughter was known as tertia or quarta, and so on. d. The Roman praenomina were abbreviated thus : A. = Aulus. App. = Appius. C. = Gaius. Cn. = Gnaeus. D. = Decimus. K. = Kaeso. L. = Lucius. Q. = Qulntus. M. = Marcus. Ser. =Servius. M' = Manilius. Sex. = Sextus. Mam. = Mamercus. Sp. = Spurius. N. = Numerius. T. = Titus. P. = Publius. Ti. or Tib. = Tiberius. 667. ABBREVIATIONS. A. = absolvo, antique, a. d. = ante diem. A. u. c. = anno urbis condi- tae. C. = condemno. cos. = consul. coss. = consules. D. = dlvus. d. d. = dono dedit. d. d. d. = dat, dicat, dedicat. des. = designatus. D. M. = di manes. Eq. Rom. = eques Romanus. F. or f . = f ilius. Ictus. = iurisconsultus. Id. = Idus. imp. = imperator. I. O. M. = lovi optumo max- umo. K. or Kal. (or Cal.) = Kalen- dae. N. or n. = nepos. Non. = Nonae. P. C. = patres conscript!. * The younger Africanus was adopted by P. Cornelius Scipio (the son of Africanus Major) from the Aemilian gens. 424 APPENDIX. pi. = plebis. pout. max. = pontifex maxi- mus. pop. = populus. P. R. populus Romanus. pr. = praetor, proc. proconsul. Q. B. F. F. Q. S. quod bonum f elix faustumque sit. Qtiir. :r= Quirites. resp. = res publica. S. = salutem, sacrum, Senatus. S. D. = salutem dicit. S. D. P. = salutem dicit pluri- mam. S. P. Q. R. = Senatus popu- lusque Romanus. S. T. E. Q. V. B. E. = si tibl est quod vis bene est. S. V. B. E. E. V. = si vales bene est, eg5 valeo. Sc. = senatus consultum. tr. = tribunus. U. (u. r.) = uti rogas. 668. PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. NOTE 1. The writers from the time of Lucretius to the time of Sueto- nius are called the CLASSICAL writers. In a more restricted sense this term is limited to the period beginning with Cicero and Caesar and ending with Tacitus. The Classical period is sometimes divided into the GOLDEN Age and the SILVER Age, the historian Livy counting as the first prose writer of the latter and the Augustan poets being reckoned in the f ornier. Among the writers later than Suetonius a BRAZEN Age, followed by an IRON Age, is sometimes further distinguished. The writers before and after the Classical period are, however, now generally classed simply as Ante-classical and Post-classical writers, respectively. NOTE 2. The following alphabetical list of the chief Latin writers is subjoined as a convenient reference-list for the pupil. Acc. or Att. L. Accius or Attius (trag.) 170-94 B. c. Amm. Ammianus Marcellmus (hist.) died A. D. 400. App. L. Appuleius (philos.) flour. A. D. 160. Aug. Aurelius Augustinus (Chr. writ.) died A. D. 430. Aur. Viet. Sextus Aurelius Victor (hist.) flour. A. D. 360. Aus. D. Magnus Ausonius (poet) died A. D. 390. Boeth. Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severmus Boetius or Boe- thius (philos.) died A. D. 525. CaecU. Statius Caecilius (corned.) flour. 180 B. c. PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 425 Caes. Cassiod. Cato Cat. or Catull. Gels. Censor. Charis. Cic. or C. Claud. Col. Cornif. Curt. Donat. or Don. Enn. Fest. Flor. Front. Frontin Fronto or Front. Gai. Gell. Hier. Hirt. t. or) tin. ) Hor. lust. Gaius lulius Caesar (hist.) Magnus Aurelius Cassiodo- rus (hist.) M. Porcius Cato (orat. and hist.) C. Valerius Catullus (poet) Aurelius Cornelius Celsus (physic.) Censdrmus (gram.) Flavins Sosipater Charisius (gram.) M. Tullius Cicero (orat. and philos.) Claudius Claudianus (poet) L. lunius Moderatus Colu- mella (husbandry) Q. Cornificius (rhet. "ad Herennium ") Q. Curtius Rufus (hist.) Allius Donatus (comment.) Q. Ennius (poet) Sex. Pompeius Festus (gram.) L. Annaeus Floras (hist.) S. lulius Frontmus (engin., etc.) M. Cornelius Fronto (orat.) Gaius (lurisconsultus) Aulus Gellius (gram., etc.) Hieronymus (Chr. writ.) Aulus Hirtius (hist, "8th book of Caes.," etc.) Q. Horatius Flaccus (poet) lustmianus (emperor, Code ") 100-44 B. c. died A. D. 575. 234-149 B. c. 87-54 B. c. flour. A. D. 50. flour. A. D. 238. flour. A. D. 375. 106-43 B. c. flour. A. D. 400. flour. A. D. 50. flour. 80 B. c. ? flour. A. D. 50. flour. A. D. 350. 239-169 B. c. flour. A. D. 150 ? flour. A. D. 140. A. D. 40-103. A. D. 100-175. A. D. 110-180. A. D. 130-175. died A. D. 420. died 44 B. c. 65-8 B. c. died A. D. 565. 426 APPENDIX. luv. D. lunius luvenalis (satir. poet) A. D. 60-140. Loot. it. Caelius Lactantius Firmi- anus (Chr. writ.) died A. D. 325. Liu. Titus Livius (hist.) 59 B. c. - A. D. 17. Liu. Andron. Livius Andromcus (trag.) 284-204 B. c. Luc. M. Annaeus Lucanus (poet) A. D. 39-65. Lucil. C. Ennius Lucilius (satir. poet) died 103 B. c. Liter. T. Lucretius Carus (poet, philos.) 98-55 B. c. Macr. Aurelius Theodosius Macro- bius (critic) flour. A. D. 400. Mart. M. Valerius Martialis (poet) A. D. 40-102. Mart. Cap. Miirtianus Minneus Felix Capella (satir.) flour. A. D. 425 ? Mel. or Mela Pompfmius Mela (geog.) flour. A. D. 45. M'tn. Fel. Minucius Felix (Chr. writ.) flour. A. D. 200. Naev. C. Naevius (dram, and epic poet) 235-199 B. c. Nep. Cornelius Nepos (biog.) flour. 44 B. c. Non. Nonius Marcellus (gram.) flour. A. D. 280 ? Ou. P. Ovidius Naso (poet) 43 B. c. - A. D. 17. uv \ M * P5cuvius ( tra S-) 220-132 B. c. Pers. A. Persius Flaccus (satir.) A. D. 34-62. Petr. Petronius Arbiter (satir. romanc.) flour. A. D. 60 ? Phaedr. T. Phaedrus (fab.) flour. A. D. 40. Plant. T. Maccius Plautus (corned.) 254-184 B. c. Plin. C. Plinius Secundus [Maior] (nat. hist.) A. D. 23-79. Plin. C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus [Minor] (letters) A. D. 62-113. Prise. Priscianus (gram.) flour. A. D. 500. Prop. Sextus Propertius (poet) 49-15 B. c. PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 427 Prud. Aurelius Prudentius Clemens (Chr. writ.) flour. A. D. 400. Quint. M. Fabius Qumtilianus (rhet.) A. D. 35-95. Sail. C. Sallustius Crispus (hist.) 87-34 B. c. Sen. [M.] Annaeus Seneca (rhet.) 54 B. c. - A. D. 39. Sen. L. Annaeus Seneca (phil. and trag.) 4 B. c. - A. D. 65. Serv. Servius Honoratus (gram.) flour. A. D. 390. Sid. Apollinaris Sidonius (Chr. writ.) died A. D. 488. Sil. C. Silius Italicus (poet) A. D. 25-101. Stat. P. Papinius Statius (poet) A. D. 45-96. Suet. C. Suetonius Tranquillus (biog.) A. D. 75-160. Tac. C. Cornelius Tacitus (hist.) A. D. 55-119. Ter. or T. P. Terentius Afer (corned.) 185-159 B. c. Ter. Maur. Terentianus Maurus (gram.) flour. A. D. 290. Tert. Q. Septimius Florens Tertul- lianus (Chr. writ.) died A. D. 220. Tib. Albius Tibullus (poet) 54-19 B. c. Ulp. Domitius Ulpianus (jur.) died A. D. 228. Vol. Fl. C. Valerius Flaccus (poet) flour. A. D. 70. Vol. Max. Valerius Maximus (hist. anec.) flour. A. D. 26. Vol. Prob. M. Valerius Probus (gram.) flour. A. D. 60 ? Varr. M. Terentius Varro (hus- bandry, gram., etc.) 116-27 B. c. Veil. P. Velleius Paterculus (hist.) flour. A. D. 30 ? Ver. Flac. Verrius Flaccus (gram.) died 4 B. c. ? Verg. P. Vergilius Maro (poet) 70-19 B. c. Vitr. Vitruvius Pollio (arch.) flour. 10 B. c. INDEX. THE references in the following Index are to the sections and sub-sections, not to pages. N stands for note, F for foot-note, ff. after a number indicates that the subject extends through several sections. A, sound of, 16; noun stems in, 89, 91 ff. ; adjective steins in, 142 ff. ; verb stems in, 217 ff. ; Greek nouns in, of 1st dec!., 94 ; Greek nouns in, of 3d decl., 125 (4); euphonic changes of, 58 ff. ; quan- tity of, 46, 46 a ( 1 ), 225, 241. A, ab, abs, with abl., 427, 430; with verbs of asking, 394 (2) a; with verbs of origin, 405 a; to denote agent, 406 ; form of, in composition, 301 ( 1 ) ; meanings of, 561 (1). Abbreviations, 667 ; of praenomina, 666 d. Abest, tantum . . . ut, with ut or quin, 499 c. Ablative, 88 (6) ; sing, in 3d dec!., 114, 115 ; sing, in adj. of 3d decl., 148, 155 (2); plur. in -abus, 93 e; plur. in -obus, 160 ; plur. in -ubns, 129 ; old form of, in d, 90 F ; as adverb, 293, 557 c; of character or qual., 411 ; with prep., 430, 431 ; with comp. verbs, 380 b ; with opus and usus, 417 ; with dirjmis, etc., 418; with utor, etc., 419; with nltor, etc., 420 ; with j sis, 609 (3). Diastole, 609 (4). J>n\ imper., 227 e. I Id. with ace. and infin., 533 (1) ; with vt, 490 (2) ; introducing both direct and indirect discourse, 516 b. Dido, as abl. after comparatives, 416 b ; aud i ens, with dat., 391 (4). Dlcunl = they say, 317 (2); dicor, with infin. and pred. nom., 534. -diciis, adj. in, compared, 168 (2). Dido, declined, 124. Dies, declined, 132. Difference, degree of, abl. of, 415. Difficilis, compar., 167. Dljinis, with abl., 418; with gen., 418 a; with relative and subjunc., 555 c, cf. 5OO (2) ; with supine in -it, 555 b ; with infin., 536 a. Dimeter, 604 ; trochaic, 622 ; iam- bic, 629; anapaestic, 630 (3), (4). Diminutive, nouns and adj., 259 ff. ; verbs, 291. Diphthongs, 6, 7 ; sounds of, 17 ; quantity of, 39; euphonic changes of, 60 ; Latin representatives of Greek, 38 d y. Dipody, 605 (1). Dis, form in comp., 302 (2). Discessu, as abl. of time, 424 b. Di 'sert us, 302 (2). Disjunctive conj., 565 ; questions, 580, 581. INDEX. 435 Dissimilis, compar., 167. Distance, cases expressed by, 423 b, Distich, 605 a. Distributive numerals, 157 (3) ; used for cardinals, 161. Diu, compared, 176. Do, conjugated, 241 ; not properly of 1st conj., 233 F 2. -do, noun ending, 272, 273 (3). Doceo, coustr. with, 394 (2)6, 407 6; passive conjugated, 223. Domimts, declined, 95. Damns, declined, 130 ; donri, loca- tive, 130 a, 426 a. Donee, moods with, 502 ff. Dono, cases with, 379. Double consonants, 9 iii., 3 e, 10 a, 12 a; questions, 580, 581. Doubled consonants not making position in Plautus, 641. Doubtful gender, 83 N. Dual number, 86 a. Dubitative subjunctive, 475 ; in in- direct questions, 475 N. Dubito, with qulii, 499 a ; with infin., 499 b ; dubild an, 579 a. Due, imper., 227 e. Duim, duls, etc., 241 c. Dam, moods with, 502 ff. ; in clauses of proviso, 504 ; nZdum, 482 d. Dummodo, in clauses of proviso, 504. Duo, declined, 160 ; duum for duo- rum, 160 a. -dus, adj. ending, 283 ; -ndus, gerun- dive ending, 214. E, sound of, 16 ; elided in est, 18 h ; euphonic changes of, 59, 63 ; af- finity for r, 59 a ; representing et, 38 d ; old dative in, 133 (1), 217 F 2, b F. 1 ; uom. and ace. plur. of Greek nouns in, 98 c; adverbs in, 174, 557 a ; e as prep., 430 ; quantity of, 46, 225 ; parasitic, 64. Early versification, peculiarities of, 635 ff. Ecce, compounded with demoustr. pron., 180 b. Ecquis, declension of, 185 6. Ectlipsis, 609 ( 1 ) c. Edim, edls, etc., 247. Edo, conjugated, 247. Effieri, 249 (10) d. Egeo, indiged, cases with, 414, 414 a. Ego, declined, 178. Ei y diphthong, 7 ; how pronounced, 17 ; quantity of the e in 5th decl., 133 (3). et, how represented in Latin, 38 d, 38 N. -els, ending of fern, patronymics, _ 277, 278 (2). Eiusmodi, etc., ISO/. ela, abstract ending, 274 (1). Elegiac verse, 615. -elis, adjec. ending, 262. Elision, 69, 609 (1). -ellus, -a, -urn, diminutive endings, 259 (3). -em, ace. ending in 3d decl., 90 F. Emphasis, as influenced by order of words in the sentence, 584, 585, _ 593 ; repeated, 599 d N 2. En, interject., 583. Enclitics, 35 ; quantity of enclit. particles, 45 a, 46 F ; uses of the latter annexed to pronouns, 179 6, 180 c, 186 b; qne, 562 (2); ve, 565 b ; ne, 574, 575 b. Enim, use of, 571 ; position of, 590 a. -ensis, adj. ending, 279. -entissimiis, superl. in, 168. -enus, adj. ending, 265. Ed, conjugated, 248. Ed, etc., pronouns as adverbs, 187 ; with part, gen., 355 (3). -eos, gen. ending of Greek nouns, 98. Epicene nouns, 84. Epistolary use of tenses, 470 (1). Epulum, plur. of, 135 (4). Eques, etc., used collectively, 346 a, 435. Equidem, 308 ; use of, 572 a. -er, nouns in, of 2d decl., 95, 97 (1), (2) ; of 3d decl., 103 (especially 103 e), 106 e, 108 b; adj. in, of 2d decl., 143, 144, cf. 145 ; of 3d decl., 150, 151 ; superlative of adj. in, 166 ; passive infin. in, 214 F. En/fi, with ace., 429 ; chiefly of persons, 429 b; meanings of, 559 (9). -ere, ending of perf. indie., 213 (2), 222. 436 INDEX. Ergo, use of, 570; with gen., 404 (3) b. -es, quantity of, final, 50, 50 (2). -es, -itis, noun ending, 101 c ; quan- tity of, 50 (2). -es, ending of Greek noons, 94. Esctt, 215 c. Esse, conjugated, 215 ; omitted, 537; with pred. gen., 357; with d;it. of possessor, 384. -esso (-isso), intensive verb ending, 288 (4). Et, use of, 562 (1); et ipse, etc., 573 a ; connecting last two terras of a series, 564 b ; et . . . et, 563 ; negue . . . et, 565 d. Et. non, 571 a. Etenim, 571. Etiam, 573. Etsl, eliam si, moods with, 478. -etum, noun ending, 276 (1). Eu, diphthong, 7 ; sound of, 17 ; in voc. sing, of Greek nouns, 98. Euphonic change, N before 58 ; vowels, 58 ff . ; consonants, 65 ff. ; arrangement of words, 599 a. -eus, -ens, adjective endings, 268, 268 a. >--, perf. stem ending, 218 (I) b. Ex (e), with abl., 430; instead of part, gen., 358 (5) ; meanings, 561 (6) ; form in comp., 301 (5). Exchanging, verbs of, cases with, 4086. Exclamations, ace. in, 400 ; nom. in, 349; infin. in, 535. Exclamatory sentences, 315 (3). Existence and non-existence, mood with expressions of, 501 a. Exler, 155 (6) Expecting, verbs of, future infin. with, 533 (5). Extpediiione, as abl. after compara- tives, 416 b. Exterior, compared, 170 (2). Extra, with ace., 429; meanings of, 559 (10). Far, imper., 227 e; fac tit with sub- junc., 527 d ; fac ne, 529 e. Facilis, compar., 167 ; facile, as ad- verb, 174 c. Facio, compounds of, 246 a, 298 6, fid, as passive of, 246. Fame, abl. of fames, hunger, 115. Familias, with pater, etc., 93 c. Fan, conjugated, 249 (6). Fas, indeclinable, 137 (1) ; with su- pine in -u, 555. Fasti dies, 660 (6). Favor, etc., verbs meaning to, with dat., 376. ; Faxo, faxim, faxem, 228 d. Fearing, verbs of, with ut, ne, etc., 492 ; with infin., 492 b. Feeling, verbs of, mood with, 533 (4). Feet, in poetry, 6OO ; different kinds of, 602. Felix, declined, 154. Fer, imper., 227 e. Fero, conjugated, 245. Festi dies, 66O (6). Festivals, plural names of, 139 (1) ; list of important, 660 (6) N 1. -Jicus, adj. in, compared, 168 (1). Fide, as abl. after comparatives, 4166. Fido, semi-deponent, 196 ; with abl., 420 ; with dat., 420 a. Figures of versification, 6O9 ff. Fl/la, dat. and abl. plural, 93 e. Filius, voc. sing., 97 (5). Filling, verbs of, with abl., 409 ; with gen., 409 a. Final, clauses with ut, etc., 482 (1) ; with qm, etc., 482 (2) ; with quo, 482 (3) ; substantive, 484 ff. ; syllables, quantity of, 46 ff. Finite verb, 202 (l"). / id, conjugated, 246. First, decl. of nouns, 91 ff. ; of adj., 143 ff. ; coujug., 218 ff. (especially 222, 223). Flocci, as gen. of price, 372 a. Forem, fore, etc., 215, 215 c ; fore ut, 517 (2), 5386. Forts, 426 (2) a. Fors, forte, 137 (4). Forsitan, fortasse, use of, 579 6. Fractional expressions, 161 k. Freeing, verbs of, with abl., 413 (1). Frcauiii, plur., 135 (3). Frequentative verbs, 288 (1), (2) ; double formations, 288 (3). Fretus, with abl , 418 ; with dat., 418 a. INDEX. 437 Fricatives, 11 a. Fructus, declined, 126. Fruyl, compared, 169. Fruor, with abl., 419 ; with ace., 419 a ; gerundive use of, 419 a N, 550 a. Fuam,fuds, etc., 215 c. Ful, etc., with perf. part., 229 (3). Fungor, with abl., 419; with ace., 419 a ; gerundive use of, 419 a N, 550 a. Furd, first person wanting, 235 v. F. Future, tense, 461 ; used for imper., 527 d; how supplied in subj., F before 472 ; impera., use of, 527 b, c; infin. formation of, 211 a; used with verbs of "hoping," etc., 533 (5) ; particip., 206, 545 ; denoting purpose, 545 a; with sum, 229 (1). Future perfect tense, 462 (3) ; old form in -so, 228 d ; frequency of use of, 471 N. Futurum esse, fulsse, ut, with subj , 517 (2), 538 6. Fuvimus, etc., 215 c. G, sound of, 18; euphonic changes of, 66 ii., vii., 69 i., ii. (1), 71. Galliambic verse, 657. Gaudeo, semi-deponent, 196 a. Gems, gender of names of, 81 ii. Gender, 78 ff. ; rules of, 80 ff ; nat- ural and grammatical, 79; in 1st decl., 92; in 2d decl., 95, 96; in 3d decl., 118 ff. ; in 4th decl., 126, 127 ; in 5th decl., 132 ; epicene nouns, 84; common, 83; doubtful, 83 N. Gener, declined, 95. General, relatives, 185 ; conditions, 477 d ; truths expressed by pres- ent, 463 ; by perfect, 463 a. Genitive, 88 (2) ; old forms, 93 a, c, d, 97 (7), 128 (1), (2), 133 (1), 147 (3), 180 a; with nouns, 350 ff . ; subjective and objective, 353; poss. adj.' used for, 358 (1) a; dat. used for, 358 (3) ; of characteristic or quality, 356 ; of measure, 423 a ; governing word omitted, 353 d, e ; predicate, 357 ; two gen., 353 c ; with causa, etc., 4O4 b ; with opus, 417 a; partit., 354; of source, 352 (1); with dlgnus, 418 a; of price, 371, 372 ; with verbs of ac- cusing, etc., 367 ; of reminding, etc., 366; of pitying, 364 (1); miseret, etc., 364 (2) ; with verbs of abundance, 409 a ; of the pen- alty, 367 a ; of gerund and gerun- dive, 548 ff., 551. Genius, voc. sing., 97 (5). Gentile names, 279. Genus, in phrase id genus, 398 6. Georgicon, 98 a. Gerund, 204 ; syntax of, 548 ff . Gerundive, 207 ; syntax of, 548 ff . ; of utor, fruor, etc., 550 a; 2d periphrastic conjug., 229 (2) ; to express purpose, 551, 552 (2) ; neuter used impersonally govern- ing a case, 552 (3). Glyconic verse, 644 ff. Glyconic-pherecratic verse, 648. Gm and gn making preceding vowel long, 41. Gnomic perfect, 463 a. -yd, noun ending, 272, 273 (3). Grammatical figures, 659. Gratia, causa, etc., with gen., 404 6. Greek ace. so-called (synecdochical), 398 a. Greek, nouns, N before 94 ; 1st decl., 94 ; 2d decl., 98 ; 3d decl., 124, 125 ; diphthongs, how represented in Latin, 38 d N. Grimm's law, 308 N 2. Gutturals, 12 i F. H, its nature, 9 a; no effect on quantity, 38 a. Habeo, with perf. part., 547 c; fut. impera. for present, 527 b. Hadria, masc. gen., 92. Happening, verbs of, with ut, etc., 494 ff. Haud, use of, 557 g. Have, conjugated, 249 (10) a. Hemistich, 6O5 a. Hephthemimeris, 605 d. Heroic verse, 614 F. Heteroclites, 134 (2), 136. Heterogeneous nouns, 134 (1), 135. Hexameter verse, 604, 614. Hiatus, 609 (1) b. Hie, declined, 180; distinguished from iste, tile, etc., 181 ; other 438 INDEX. uses of, 447, 450; hie, as adverb, 187. Hidden quantities, 37 N 2. Uiemps, 70, 101 F. Him, her, etc., how expressed in Latin, 179 , 447. Hipponactean verse, 650. Hindering, verbs of, case with, 413 ; moods with, 493 (2). Historical tenses, 200 (2) ; present, 466; perfect, 199 b, 462 (1) 6; infinitive, 530 a. Honor, declined, 107. Hoping, verbs of, tense of infin. with, 533 (5). Horace, meters of, 645 ff. Hortatory, sentences, 315 (4) a ; subj., 472. Huml, loc., 426 a. Huius, as genitive of price, 372 a ; huius modi, 180 f. Hypercatalectic verse, 605 c. Hyper-meter, 605 c. Hypothetical sentences. See Condi- tional sentences. /, used as both vowel and conso- nant, 3 b ; vo.vel sound of, 16; consonant sound of, 18; represent- ing ei, 38 d x ; dropped, 63, 69 (4) ; t for ii, 3 /, 97 (4) ; quantity of, 38 (1), (2), 46, 225; t- stems, 108, 150 ff. ; tendency of adj. to pass into, 260 F 1 ; in abl. sing, of 3d decl., 114; inserted in certain present stems, 230 /; effect of con- sonant i on quantity of preceding vowel, 41 ; -ia, abstract ending, 273 (1). lacio, compounds of, 3 f, 299 a. -iacus, adj. ending, 268. Iambic verse, 623 ff. ; iambico-dac- tylic verse, 654 (2), (3) ; iambic strophe, 653. lamdudum, with pres. and imperf., 467. -ias, fein. patronym. ending, 278 (3). Ibam, for iebam, in 4th conj., 227 c. Hndem, 308. -6o, fut. ending in 4th conj., 227 d. -j'cms, icius, adjective endings, 268. Ictus, 6O6. Id, as antecedent, 450 (3) ; id genus, id temporis, etc., 398 b. Idem, declined, 182 ; idem and isdem as num. plur., 182 a. Ides of the month, 660 (4). -ides, -Ides, -iades, patronymic end- ings, 277, 278. /ecu/', declension of, 111 (4). -itr, passive intiu. ending, 214 r. -ies, ending of numeral adverbs, 156 (4), 292 (1); nouns of 5th decl. in, 133 a. lesus, 98 d. Igitur, use of, 570 ; position of, 570 a, 590 a. -if, noun ending, 262 a. -ile, noun ending, 276 (3). -His, adj. ending, 262. Illative particles, 570. Ille, declined, 180; distinguished from hie, iste, etc., 181 ; other uses of, 447, 450. Iirvtsmodl, ISO/ -illo, diminutive verb ending, 291. -illus, -a, -urn, diminutive endings, 259 (3). -i/n, acc. ending in 3d decl., 113 ; in pres. subj., 215, 216, 241 c, 242 ff. ; adverbs in, 557 b. Imbecillus, 155 (7). I mind, use of, 582 6. Imperative, mood, 198 (3); sen- tences, 315 (4); endings of, 213 (3); use of, 527; subj. for, 472, 515 (3), 529. j Imperfect ten?e, 461 ; continued or custom, action, 464; epistolary, 470 (1) ; other uses, 47O (3), (4) ; of oportet, etc., 474 d, 477 c. Impero, constr. with, 487, 489 (4). Impersonal verbs, 250, 318; pas- sive use of intransitives, 194, 318 (3), 387 ; clause as subject of, 318 (4), a. Tmpetus, declined, 137 (4). Impure syllables, 25 x 2. -imus, ending of temporal adj., 286 (3). In-, neg. prefix, 295 N, 299, 300 N, 301 (6) a. In, prep, with acc. and abl., 431 ; meanings of, 560 (1 ) ; with names of towns, 427; with words in app. with a locative, 426 h; form in comp., 301 (6). Ina, noun ending, 276 (2). INDEX. 439 Inceptive or inchoative verbs, 289 ; quantity of vowel before sc in, 237 a. Incomplete actions, tenses of, 461. Inde, enclitic, 35 b. Indeclinable nouns, 137 (1 ) ; adjec., 155 (5). Indefinite pronouns, 177 (6) ; de- clension of, 183 ff. ; order of defi- niteness, 185 d; uses of, 454 ff. ; subject omitted, 317 (2), (3) ; you = any one, 472 a, 477 d (1), 529 (1)6. Independent clauses, 314 (1). Indicative mood, 197, 198 (1) ; in apodosis of conditions contrary to fact, 477 c. Indiyed, cases with, 414, 414 a. Ind'ignus. See Diynus. Indirect discourse, 514 ff. ; use of tenses in, 516, 524, 525 ; questions, 518; indicative in" early Latin, 518 c; with si, 518 d; distin- guished from relative clauses, 518 e N; reflexive, 445 (2) 6, 448 (2). Induo, in middle voice, 193 a. -Ine, -ione, fern, patronym. endings, _ 277 b. Inferior, compared-, 170 (2) ; followed by dative or by quam, with abl., 416 e. Infinitive, 197 N, 203; as noun and verb, N before 530 ; as sub- ject, 531 ; as object, 533 ; as pred. num., 531 b ; complementary, 532 ; nse of tenses of, 538, 539 ; subject of, 530; historical use, 530 a ; in indirect discourse, 515 ff. ; in exclam., 535 ; poetical with adj., 536 a ; denoting pur- pose, 536; with prep., 536 b ; perf. for present, 539 a, b ; omitted, 537. In fit, 249 (10) c?. Inflection, 2 ii., 54 ff. Infra, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (11). Initio, as abl. of time, 424 b. Iniurid, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). Innitor, with abl , 420. Inqnam, conjugated, 248 (5) ; use of, 516 b. Instar, indeclin. noun, 137 (1). Instrument, abl. of, 407. Instrumental case, 88 6. Insuesco, cases with, 421. Intensive pronouns, 177 (3) ; de- clined, 182 ; use of, 448 ff . ; verbs, 288. Intention, denoted by fut. part., 545 a. Inter, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (li) ; inter se, etc., for reci- procal relations, 449 (1). Inttred loci, 355 (5), a. Interest, with gen., 368 ; with med, tud, etc., 369. lnttrjie.il, inter/tat, 249 (10) d. Interior, compared, 170 (2). Interim, position of, 590 a. Interjections, 74 (8) ; list of, 583 ; use of, 583 a ; with nom., 349 (1) a ; with dat., 391 (3) ; with ace., 400; with voc , 402 a, b; d, not elided, 609 ( 1 ) a. Interrogative sentences, 315 (2) ; particles, 574 ff. ; pronouns, 177 (5); declined, 183 ff . ; as connectives, 591. Intrd, with ace., 429; meanings, 559 (13). Intransitive verbs, 191 ; impersonal use of in pass., 194, 318 (3), 387. -inus, adj. ending, 265. Involuntary agent, 407 a. -id, noun ending, 274 (2) ; verbs in, 230 f; quantity of their root- vowel, 52, locus, plur. of, 135 (1). Ionic verse, 633, 634. Ipse, declined, 182 ; use of, 445 (2), 6, 448, 449 (1) ; inter ipsos, 449 (1 ) ; _ in peculiar apposition, 325 e. Irl, use of, with supine to form fut. pass, infin.. 211 a, 554 (1). Irrational feet, 618 (1 ), 643 a. Irregular verbs, 239 ff. -is, quantity of, final, 50; fern, patronym. ending, 278 (1) ; -Is, in Gentile adj., 279 ; plur. ending in nouns of 3d decl., 117; in adj., 155 (4) ; in dat. and abl. plur. of Greek nouns of 3d decl. in -a, 125 (4). Is, declined, 180; as antecedent, 45O (3) ; for 3d pers. pron., 179 a, 447. 440 IXDEX. Islands, gender of names of, 81 ii. ; locative use of names of, 426. isso, intensive verb ending, 288 (4). Iste, declined, 180; distinguished from hie. Hie, etc., 181 (3) ; other uses of, 447, 450. Istlc, declined, 180 e. Istitisiitodi, ISO/. Ita, use of, 557 d, e. Itaqu?, use of, 570. -ittr, adverbs in, 174, 175, 557 a. Iterative verbs, 288 a. -ito, frequentative verb ending, 288 (2). -itus, adverbs in, 292 (3). -tins, adjective ending, 280. ~ium, noun ending, 273 (1) ; ending of gen. plur. in 3d declension nouns, 109 ff. ; adj., 150 ff. lure, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). -ius, adjective ending, 268, 279. -ius, gen. sing, ending, 146. lubeo, moods with, 489 (4), 533 (3). lipptter, declension of, 111 (3). lurdtns, active sense of, 206 a. Ius iura.nd.um, apparent compound, 300 a. lussu, 137 (4) a. lusto, after comparatives, 4166. Into, case with, 376 a. luxta, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (14). -ivus, adj. ending, 283. K, early disappearance of, 3 c. Kalends of the month, 66O (4). Kindred, constructions with app , 326 ; with pred. noun, 331 ; with certain gen., 358, 362 ; words in Latin and English, 308 N (1); consonants interchanged, 71. Knowing, verbs .of, moods with, 533 (1). L, euphonic changes of, 71, 72. Labials, 12 iii. Lac, nom. formation, 103 6. Lampas, declined, 124. Lapis, declined, 102. Last place in sentence seemingly emphatic, 599 d. Latin grammar, defined, 1 ; divisions of, 2. Letters, division of, 4 ff. ; sounds of, 15 ff. ; representing numerals, 162 ; as abbreviations of prae- nomina, 666 d. Lil>et, impers., 250 a. Libio, without prep., 426 d. Licet, impersonal verb, 250 a ; case of predicate word with, 531 c; indie, in conditions contr;irv to fact, 477 c (cf . 474 d) as "con- junction meaning ' although," 480 (1), 480 N. -hmus, superl. in, 167. Linguals, 12 ii. F. Liquet, impers.. 250 a. Liquids, 10 (1) ; liquid stems, 101, 103, 104. Us, adj. ending, 260. Locative case, 88 a ; in 1st decl., 93 ; in 2d decl., 97 (3) ; in 3d decl., 112 ; clomul beside domi, 130 a, 426 (2) a; of names of towns, etc., 426 (2) ; absorbed by ablative, 403 F ; animl with verbs and adj., 426 (2) b. Locuples, gen. plur. of, 155 (3) a. Locus, plur. of, 135 (1); as abl. of place, 426 (2) c; with gen. in- stead of pred. noun, 331 (3) ; interea loci, etc., 355 (5) a. Logaoedic verse, 643, 644. Longius, with or without quam, 416 c. Ludi*, as abl. of time, 424 b. -luft, -la, -him, nom. and adj. ending, 257 ff. ; dimin., 259 ff. AT, feeble pronunciation when final, 18 d; elision in verse, 609(1); euphonic change of, 66 v. Mdctus, mdcte, 155 (6). Magis and tiidxime, uses to form compar. and superl., 173. Magnus, compared, 169 ; as gen. of price, 372 ; as abl. of price, 408 a. Making, etc., verbs of, with two ace., 394(1). M aid, conjugated, 244; mtilim, mdl- lem, in expressions of wishing, 473 c, 491, 527 d ; mood with, 487, 489 ff. Mains, compared, 169. Mane, 137 (1). Manner, abl. of, 410 ; adverbs of, 557 a (also N 2), 557 d. INDEX. 441 Masculine, gender, 78, 80 ; caesura, 608 b; adj. used as nouns, 438 (1), (2). Material, nouns, 76 iv. ; adj., 268; abl. of, 405 c. May, how expressed in Latin, 474, 474 d. Med, tua, etc., with refert and interest, 369. Means, abl. of, 407 ; persons re- garded as, 407 a. Measure(s), ace. of, 423 a ; ex- pressed by gen. of cliarac., 356, 423 a ; abl. of, 415 ; Roman tables of, 685 (cf. also 662). Med, for me, 179 d. Meditative verbs, 288 a. Medial vowels, 5 F 2. Medius, use to denote " middle of," 442. Meminl, conjugated, 249 (2); perf. as pres., 471 a ; use of imperative, 5276; with gen., 365 ; with ace., 365 a, b; tense of infin. with, 538 a. -men, -mentum, noun endings, 275. Metis, gen. with in mentein venit, 353 d. -met, enclitic suffix attached to pron., 179 b, 186 (2) b. Metre(s), 600; kinds of, 603; dac- tylic, 614 ff . ; iambic, 618, 623 ff . ; trochaic, 618 ff. ; anapaestic, 630 ; logaoedic, 643 ff . ; elegiac, 615; Ionic, 633, 634; bacchiac and cretic, 631 ; Sapphic, 646 ; Ado- nic, 644; choriambic, 632 ; choli- ambic, 628; Alcaic, 647; Ascle- piadean, 645 ; Saturnian, 642 ; Galliambic, 657 ; Phalaecian, 649 ; miscellaneous, 650 ff. ; of Horace and Catullus, 645 ff Metathesis, 72, 659 (20). Metrical accent, 6D8. Metuere, cases with, 378; moods with, 492, 492 b. Meus, 186.^ Ml, for mi hi, 179 d ; as voc. of meus, 186 (2). Middle voice, 193 a, 6 ; with ace., 395. Mile, Roman, 665 (I). Miles, declined, 102 ; used collec- tively, 346 (1) a, 435. Mllitiae, as loc., 426 a. Mllle, declension of, 160; use of, 161 g, h. Million, how expressed in Latin, 161 h; a million sesterces, 663 N 3. mini, ending of 2d person plural, 213, 214. -mind, old imperative ending, 227 f. Minns, with or without quatn, 416 c; with minime, to indicate inferior degree of a quality, 164 d ; mini- me used for " no/' 582 a; as gen. of price, 372; as abl. of price, 408 a. Mlror, conjugated, 223. Mirum quam or quantum, 518 b. M/sereor, miseresco, miseret, with gen., etc., 364. Miseror, with ace., 365 a. Mlfisum facio, 547 c, examples. Miffs, declined, 152 ; compared, 165. Mixed conjugation of various verbs, 226. Modera/i, with ace. and dat. in diff. senses, 378. -modi, annexed to pronouns, 180 f t 185 a. Modo, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). Modo, "provided that," with sub]., 504 ; noa modo, etc., 563 (2) ; modo . . . modo, 563 (1) b. Moneo, conjugated, 222, 223 ; cases with, 366, 367 c; moods \\ith, 487, 490. Money, Roman, 662, 663. M onometer, 604. Monosyllables, quantity of, 45, 47 ff . ; regarded as accented, 31; certain not elided, 609 (1) a. Months, gender of names of, 80 ii. ; division of, 660 (4). Mood and tense signs, 224. Moods, 197 ; use of indie , 198 (1) ; use of subj., 198 (2). 472 ff. ; use of impera., 198 (3), 527 ff. ; inrin. sometimes regarded as, 197 N. Mora, 26 a, 601. More, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). Morior, irreg. infin. of, 227 b.- Motion, ace. of, 425, 426; implied, 426 /; verbs of, case with, 377 (3); with supine to denote pur- pose, 554 (2). 442 INDEX. Multiplicatives, 286 (1). Multare, constr. with, 367 b. Afulttu, compared, 169 ; multum and mrdto, as adverbs, 557 b, c; muld as gen. of price, 372. Mumjicus, compared, 168 a. -mus, adjective ending, 282. Mutes, 9 ii. ; divisions of, 11, 12; mute and liquid producing com- mon quantity of preceding vowel, 29 ; but not in early versification, 641 6. Mute stems, 101, 103. Aluto, cases with, 408 6. N, before palatals, 18 c; before s, 18 e ; euphonic changes of, 66 vi., 69 (3) ; inserted in the present stem of certain verbs, 230 d. yam, namque, etc., 571. Names, of persons, 277, 278, 666 ; of nations, 279. Nasals, 10 i. Ndfu, 137 (4) a. Nat us, with abl., 405. Nauci, as gen. of price, 372 a. Nd and tit, making preceding vowel short, 42. -n&, enclitic, 35 a; uses of, 574 ff. Ne, negative, 557 g; quantity of its compounds, 307 ; with imperative, 527 a ; with hortatory subjunctive, 472 ; in wishes, 473 ; nednm, 482 d ; ne non, 492 ; in clauses of purpose, 482 (I); of intended ob- ject, 483 6 ; with quidem, 563 (2) 6,572 b; as affirmative particle, 583 c. Nee . . . et (que), 565 d ; necne, 581 ; neque rather than et non, 571 a. Necessdrio, after comparatives, 416 6. Nedum, with subj., 482 d. Nefas, indeclin., 137 (1); with su- pine in -u, 555. Ne fasti dies, 660 (6). Negatives, 557 g ; nee tillus, etc., for et nullus, etc , 571 a. Nemo, declension of, 137 (3)T~ JN equa rather than nequae, 185 6, c. Neqnam, indeclin., 155 (5) ; com- pared, 169. Nequed, conjugated, 249 (8). Ne . . . quidem, 563 a, b, 572 6. Neguis, declension of, 185 c. Nendo an, 579 a; itescio quis, etc., 518 a. Neuter, declension of, 145, 146 ; use of, 460. Neuter, nouns, of 2d decl., 95 ff. ; of 3d decl., 103 ff., 118 ff.; adj. and pron. with part, gen., 355 (5) ; pron. as ace. of spec., 398 b; verbs (see Intransitive). Neve or neu, after ut or ne, 482 (I) ; with impera., 527 a. Nihil and nihilam, 137 (1) a; nihiR, as gen. of price, 372 a; nihilo, as abl. of price, 408 a. Nimium quantum, 518 6. Nisi, 308. Nitor, with abl., 420. Nix, stem, 101 d. No, how expressed, 582. Nolo, conjugated, 243 ; noli, with infin. for prohibitions, 529 c; no- lim, nollem, in expressions of wish- ins, 473 c, 491, 527 d; mood with, 489 ff. Nome* est mt&t, 326 a. k Nominative csise, 88 (1) ; formation in 3d decl., 1OO ff . ; as subject, 316 ; other uses, 349 ; w ? ith opus, 417 a. Non, etc., 557 g ; omitted after non modo, 563 (2) b ; non niodd . . . se d etiam, etc., 563 (2) ; non gxo, non qtiin, etc , 521 ; o/i dubito, 499 a, b. Nones of the month, 66O (4). Nonne, 575. Sos, for eqo, 443. Noster, declined, 186 (2). Nostrds, declined, 188 a. Nostn and nostrum, use of, 178 P. Not and nor, how expressed in pur- pose clauses, etc., 482 (1), 527 a. Nouns, 74 (1); classes of, 75, 76; defective, 134 (3), 137 ff.; sing, and plur. in diff. meanings, 140; heteroclite, 134 (2), 136 ; hetero- geneous, 134 (1), 135; derivation of, 254 ff. ; peculiarities in uses of, 432 ff . -ns, particip. and adj. ending, 154; constr. with partic. in. 361 ; mak- ing long quantity of preceding vowel, 41. INDEX. 443 Nubo, with dat., 381 a. Nullus, decl. of, 145, 146; supply- ing cases of nemo, 137 (3) ; for non ullits, etc., 455 a. Num, 576, 579. Number, iu nouns, 85; in verbs, 201 ; of verb with collective noun, 346 (1); with two or more nouns, 319 ff. Numerals, 156 ff . ; cardinal, 157 (1); ordinal, 157 (2) ; distributive, 157 (3) ; placed in rel. clause, 341 c ; letters for, 162 ; adverbs, 157 (4); multiplicative, 286 (1); pro- portional, 286 (2) ; temporal, 286 (3). Nummus, 663. Numquis, 185 6. Nundinae, 135 (4); quantity of -u, 42 a ; -nus, adj. endiug/263 ff ., 279, 282; in adj. of time, 264; in distributives, 265 6. 0, sound of, 16; euphonic changes of, 59 ff. ; quantity of final, 46; retained after z^ and u, 59 b, c; as interjection, 583 ; as noun ending, 103 c, 271 (1). Oaths, 583 b. Ob, with ace., 429; meanings, 559 (15) ; form in comp., 301 (7). Object, direct, 392 ff . ; indirect, 373, 374. Objective genitive, 353 (2). Oblique cases, 88 c. Obliviscor, with gen., etc., 365. Odor, compared, 170 (3). Oc.tonarius, iambic, 626; trochaic, _621. Odl, conjugated, 249 (1). Oe, diphthong, 7 ; how pronounced, _17. Ohe, interjection, 583; quantity of, 38 (2). 01, old diphthong, 7 a; how pro- nounced, 17. -o/ens, -olentus, adjective endings, 285. Olins, for ilk, 180 a. -olus, -a, -u?r>, diminutive endings, 259 (1). ~om (-dm), for -urn, -urn, 97 (7). -on, Greek noun ending, 98. -on, for -drum, 98 a. Open syllables, 25 N 3 ; vowels, 5 F 2. Oplnione, after comparatives, 416 b. Oportet, impersonal, 250 a ; indie. in contrary to fact conditions, 477 c (cf. 474 d). Oppidum, in app. with names of towns, 426 g, h. [Ops], declined, 137 (4). Optative subjunctive, 473. Opus, work, declined, 107. Opus, need, with abl., 417 ; with other cases, 417 a ; with supine in -u, 555. -or, noun ending, 255 (2). ratio obllqua, 514 ff. ; tenses in, 525. Order of words, 584 ff. Ordinal numbers, 157 (2) ; in ex- pressions of time, 161 i. Origin, participles of, with abl., 405 ; denoted by gentile adjectives, 279 ; by patrials, 188. Orior, irreg. forms of, 227 a. Orpheus, declined, 98. Oro, with two ace., 394 (2) ; moods with, 486. -os, quantity of final, 50 ; for -us in second decl., 59 b, c, 95. os, noun ending, 106 a, 255 (2). Oos-, derivatives from, 255 N. Vs (ossis), declension of, 110. -osus, adj. ending, 285. Ou, old diphthong, 7 a. Ovat, conjugated, 249 (10) e. P, euphonic changes of, 66 iii., vi. ; parasitic, 70. Pace, as abl. of time, 424 b. Paenitet, impers., 250 a; with gen., etc., 364 (2), 365 6. Palatals, 12 i. Panthi^s, voc. of, 98 c. Paradigms, of nouns, 1st decl., 91 ; 2d decl.. 95; 3d decl., cons, stems, 102, 104, 107 ; i- stems, 1C9; peculiar nouns, 110; 4th decl., 126; 5th decl., 132; Greek nouns, 1st decl., 94; 2d decl., 98; 3d decl., 124; adject., 1st and 2d decl., 143, 146 ; 3d decl. of three endings, 150; of two endings, 152; of one ending, 154; pers. pron., 178 ; demons, pron., 180 ; 444 IXDEX. FJ!., interrog., indef. pron., 184, 185; intensive pron., 182; pos- -ses?ive pron., 186 ; patrials, 188 ; su7ii, 215; jwssum, 216; regular verbs, 222, 223 ; irreg. (unthe- matic) verbs, 239 ff. ; defective verbs, 249. Parasitic, vowels, 64; consonants, 70, 101 d. Pardtns, with infin., 536 (2). Paroemiac verse, 63O (4). Pars, use of, iu fractional expres- sions, 161 k; in abl. of place with- out prep., 426 c. Participles, uses of, 542 ff. ; as ad- jectives, 546 ; with gen. or ace., 361 ; perf. part, with sum, 229 (3) ; with habed, 547 c ; future part, with sum, 229 (1) ; i or e in abl. of pres. part., 155 (2) ; of de- pon. verbs, 206 a, 544 a, b ; agree- ment of, with app. or pred. noun, 341 ; in abl. absol., 422, 422 d ; used for clauses, 547 ; denoting origin, 405 ; for English nouns in " ing," 547 b. Particles, 73, 562 ff. Partitive genitive, 354, 355 ; appo- *.ition, 325 c. Parts of speech, 73 ff. Parvos (-us), compared, 169 ; parvl, as gen. of price, 372 ; pared, as abl. of price, 408 a. Passive voice, 193 (3) ; impersonal of intrans. verbs, 194, 387; sec- ond accusative retained in, 394 (2) c. Paler, declined, 104; familias, 93 c. Patrial pronouns, 177 (8), 188. Patronymics, 277, 278. Pecuniiie, as genitive of penalty, 367 . Pei'ero,69 (5), 301 (8). Pelaqns, gender of, 96 (2) ; plur. of, 98 c. Penalty, how expressed, 367 a, b. Penes, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (16). Pensi, as gen. of price, 372 a. Penthemimeris, as part of a verse, 605 d; as a caesura, 608 b. Penult(s), 25 x (1); quantity of, certain, 51. Per, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (17) ; form in comp., 301 (8) ; intensive force in comp., 295 x. Perceiving, verbs of, mood with, 533 (1) ; with pres. part., 543 b. Perduim, etc., 241 c. Perfect stem, 208, 210 ; formation in 3d conj., 231 ; in other conj., 218 ; v omitted iu parts from, Perfect, tense, 199, 462 ; historical and perf. def., 462 (1) ; old sulj. form in -sim, 228 d ; quan- tity of dissyllabic perfects, 51 ; " gnomic," 463 a ; with ]>oslquam, etc., 469 ; otherwise, 470 ff., 471 ; distinction betw. perf. and pres. of the subj. in certain uses, 472 c, 473 a, 476 (2) b, 481 a, 482 b, 526 ; subj. for impera., 472 b, 529 (1) a ; infm., how used, 538, 539; participle, 544 ; with habed, 547 c ; of dep. verbs, 544 a, b ; active meaning in certain other verbs, 206 a, 249 (1) ; for pluperfect, 469 ; perfect participle stem, 208, 211. Period, 594 ff. ; difference bet. periodic and non-periodic sentence, 596 a. Periphrastic conjugations, 229. Permdgno, as abl. of price, 408 a. Pernox, 155 (6). Personal, pronouns, 177 (1), 178; omission of, 316 a, 317 ; plur. for sing, in 1st person, 443; 3d, sup- plied by demoustr., 447 ; endings of the verb, 213. Person, of verbs, 201 ; of the im- perative, 201 a ; second used in- definitely, 472 a, 474 c, 477 d (1 ), 529 b; of verb, with subj. of diff. pers., 322 ; of verb, a rel. clause, 323. PtYo, cases with, 394 (2) a. Ph, il iii. F ; sound of, 18 g. Phalaecian vfrse, 649. Pherecratic verse, 644, 648. Phonetic decay, x before 58. Phrases, 314 b; order of words in, 585 ff. Piger, declined, 143. Piget, impersonal, 250 a; with gen., etc., 364 (2), 365 b. Pill, as gen. of price, 372 a. INDEX. 445 Place, constructions of, 425 ff. ; cer- tain distinctions in, page 359, note. Plants, gender of names of, 81 ii. Plebes and plebs, 133 a F. Plenty, abl. of, 409. Plenus, with abl. or gen., 409, 409 a. -plex, multiplicative ending, 286 (1 ). Pluperfect tense, 462 (2) ; old subj. form in -sem, 228 d ; epistolary, 470 (1). Plural, number, 86 ; nouns lacking, 138 ; nouns used only in, 139 ; list of nouns with diff. meaning in sing, and plur., 140; plur. of diff. gender from sing., 135 ; used for sing., 437 ; nos for ego, 443 ; of verbs or adj., with collective nouns, etc., 346 ff. ; of abstract nouns, 437 (3). Pluriml, as gen. of price, 372 ; plu- rimo, as abl. of price, 408 a. -plus, proportional adjective ending, 286 (2). Plus, declined, 153 ; compared, 169 ; with or without quam, 416 c; as gen. of price, 372. Poemafis, nom., 103/V dat. and abl. plur., 125 (4). Pondo, indecl., 137 (1). Pone, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (18). Pond, with abl. and in, 431 c. Posed, with two ace,, 394 (2); quantity of the first d, 237 a. Position, quantity by, 28, 29; in early verse, 609 (1) d, 641 b; em- phasis affected by, 584 ff. Positive degree, 164 (1). Possessive, pronouns, 177 (7), 186 ; used for gen. of personals, 358 (2) ; in appos. with a genitive, 347 (2) ; with refert and interest, 369 ; omission of ,444 ; position of, 444, 587 ; compounds, 295 a. Possum, conjugated, 216 ; indie, in contrary to fact conditions, 477 c (cf. 474 d) ; possum for possem, 474 d N ; non possum quln, etc., 499 a. Post, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (19) ; as adv. with abl. in ex- pressions of time, 559 (19), (3) F; case with comp. of, 377. Postquam, moods with, 506, 508 . N 2 ; preference for perf. tense, 469. Posterior, compared, 170 (2). Postridie, with gen., 355 (5) 6 ; with quam, 507. Postulo, case with, 394 (2) a. Potential subjunctive, 474. Potior (verb), irreg. forms of, 227 a; with abl., 419 ; with ace., 419 a ; with gen., 419 b ; use of gerundive, cf. 550 a. Potior (adj.), compared, 170 (3). Potis, 155 (5). Potus, active meaning of, 206 a, 233 F 3. Prae, with abl., 430 ; meanings of, 561 (7) ; intensive force in comp., 295 b N ; quality in certain comp., 39 a ; case with verbs, comp. with, 377. Praenomina, 666 a; abbreviations of, 666 d. Praesens, declined, 154. Praeter, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (20). Predicate, 309 (2) ; nom. or ace., 327 ff. ; agreeing in gender and number with its noun, 329 ; adj., 334; dat. instead of, 331 (1); verbs used with, 328 ; case of, with licet, etc., 531 c : with com- plementary infin., 329 l>, 532 b ; with verbs of saying, 534 6 ; with abl. absol., 422 d (4). Prepositions, 74 (6) ; with ace., 429 ; with abl., 430 ; with ace. and nbl., 431 ; forms in comp., 301 ; mean- ings of, 558 ff. ; inseparable, 302 ; use as adverbs, 298 a, 559 (foot- notes) ; proclitic in accent, 36 ; po- sition of, 589; placed after their, nouns, 431 d, e. Present stem, 209; formation in 1st, 2d, and 4th conj., 218 (1) a; in 3d conj., 230. Present, tense, 199, 200 (1),461; histor. use, 466 ; denoting cus- tomary action, 464 ; of general truths, 463 ; of extant writers, 465; with dum, 468; retained after past tense in indirect dis- course, 516 a; with iam dudnrn, etc., 467 ; iufin., used how, 538 ; 446 INDEX. particip. declined, 154; use of, 543. Priapean verse, 648 (2). Price, abl of, 4O8 ; gen. of, 371, 372. Pridie, with gen., 355 (5) b ; with quam, 507. Primary, suffixes, 255 a; tenses, 200 (1). Primitive words, 252 ; examples of, 256. Principal, parts of verbs, 220, 221 ; clauses, 314 (1). Principio, as abl. of time, 424 b. Prior, compared, 17O (1) ; primus for " first part of," 442 ; prior, refers to two only, 161 d; uses of primus with subject, object, etc., compared, 557 i. Priusquam, moods with, 5O5. Pro, with abl., 430; meanings of, 561 (8) ; original d retained in, 302 (3) ; with abl. for pred. noun, 331 (2) ; quantity of compounds and derivatives of, 306. Prqfesll dies, 660 (6). Prohibco, constr. with, 413. Prohibitions, 472, 528. 529. Proinde, accent of, 35 b ; use of, 570. Promising, verbs of, tense of, infin. wich, 533 (5). Pronouns, 74 (3); pers., 177 (1) ; decl., 178 ; demons., 177 (2) ; decl., 180; uses of, 181, 450; rel., 177 (4); decl., 183, 184; agreement of, 342 ff. ; iuterrog., 177 (5) ; decl., 183, 184 ; indef ., 177 (6) ; decl., 183, 184; intens., 177 (3); decl., 182 ; possess., 177 (7) ; decl., 186; patri.il, 177 (8), 188; com- pound, 185; with part, gen., 355 (5) ; peculiarities in use of, 443 ff. ; correl., 187 ; omitted with abl. absolute, 422 c. Pronunciation, 2 i., 3 ff . ; of vowels, 16 ; of diphthongs, 17 ; of conso- nant^, 18. Prope, with ace., 429; meanings of, 559 (21). Proper nouns, 76 i. Propior, compared, 170 (1) ; propior, etc., with ace., 39O (4) ; with dat., -pse, Pu Proportional numerals, 286 (2). Propter, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (22). Prosody. See Versification. | Prosnicere, with dat. and ace., in diff. senses. 378. Prosum, 215 d. ! Protasis, N before 476. Protraction of lon.ir syllables in certain kinds of verse, 613 a, 645 ff. Piocidere, with dat. and ace. in diff. senses, 378. Proviso, clauses of, 504. , -pte, enclitics, 35 a. udet, impersonal, 250 a ; with gen., etc., 364 (2), 365 b. Punishing, verbs of, constr. with, 367 a, b. Pure syllables, 25 N 2. Purpose, expressed by, ut, etc., with subj., 482 (1) ; relative clause, 482 (2) ; gerund or gerundive with ad or causa, 551 ; f ut. part., 545 a ; supine with verbs of mo- tion, 554 (2) ; infin. (poet.), 536 ; different expressions for, com- pared, 556 ; dat. of, 385. Pythiambic verse, 651, 652. Qua . . . qua, 563 (1)6. i Quaerdj constr. with, 394 (2) a. Qaaetd, old form of quaero, 249 (9). Quality, denoted by adj., 74 (2) ; gen. of, 356; abl. "of, 411. Quiandoquidem, 308. Qitanti, as gen. of price, 372. Quantity, 26 ; of vowels, 37 ff. ; of syllables, 27 ff . ; natural, 27 ; by position, 28, 29 ; general rules of, 37-44 ; special rules of, 45-53 ; INDEX. 447 nouns and adverbs of, with part, gen., 355 (1), (2) ; hidden quanti- ties, 37 N 2. Quasi-compounds, 300, a, b, c. Quasi, 308; mood with, 481 (2); primary tenses with, 481 a. que, enclitic, 35 a, 590 b ; use and position of, 562 (2), 590 b; at- tached to last word of a series, 564 a ; after neque, 565 d ; que . . . que, etc., 563 a. Queis and quis, old forms for quibus, 184 d. Queo, conjugated, 249 (7). Questions, 574 ff. ; double, 565, 565 a, 580, 581; indirect, 518; direct, in indirect discourse, 515 (2) ; short direct, quoted, 516 c. Qul, declined, 184; rel., interrog., and indef., 183, 184 b; as abl., 184, 184 c; as connective, 451. Quiet, moods with,, 519 ; non quia, 521. Quicumque, declension of, 185 ; mood with, 501 6. Quid tibl vis, quid huic hominl facias, etc., 381 a (cf. also, 412 a).' Qnldam, declension of, 185 c ; use of, 459. Quidem, 308 ; use of, 572 ; position of, 590 a. Quilibet, use of, 454 ; verb part in- flected, 454 a. Quin, with subj. of result, 483 (3) ; with verbs of hindering, 493 (2) (cf. 499) ; non quin, 521 ; with pres. indie, equiv. to command, 527 e. Quis, declined, 184; difference be- tween noun and adj. forms, 184 b; distiug. from uter, 460. Quisnam, 185 b. Quispiam, 185 c ; use of, 458. Quisquam, 185 c ; use of, 454. Quisque, 185 c; use of, 184/; in ap- position, 325 d. Quisquis, declension of, 185 ; mood j wiih, 501 b. Quids, 185 c ; use of, 454 ; verb part inflected, 454 a. Quo, as adverb of direction, 187, 355 (3); with subj. of purpose, 482 (3) ; non quo, 521 ; quo . . . eo (hoc, etc.), 415. Quoad, moods with, 502 ff. Quod, causal, moods with, 519; verb of saying or thinking with, put in subj., 520; restrictive, 500 (2)e; quod si, 451 a; meaning " the fact that," 540 (4). Quoius and quoi, for cuius and cui, 185 N. Quom, old form of cum, 59 c, 509 ff. Quominus, with verbs of hindering, etc., 493 (2). Quoniam, moods with, 519. Quoque, distinguished from etiam, 573 ; place of, 573, 590 a. Quot, 157 (I) ; correlative, 187. Quotation, indirect, 514 ff. Quotient, 157 (4). 7?, euphonic changes of, 69 (5), 71, 72. Rostrum, plur. of, 135 (3). Ratione, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). Ratus, in pres. meaning, 544 a. -re, ending of 2d pers. sing, passive, 213 (I), 223. Re-, inseparable prefix, d retained in, 302 (3). Reciprocal relation, how expressed, 449. Recordor, cases with, 365 a. Reckoning, Roman modes of, 660 Recuso, constr. with, 493 (2) a. Redundant, nouns, 134 (4) ; adj., 155 (7). Reduplication, in pres. stem, 230 b; in pert, stem, 231 d ; of com- pounds, 231 d (3) ; quantity of vowel, 231 d (2). Refert, with gen., 368 ff. ; with me d, tud, etc., 369 ; with other con- structions, 369 b. Reflexive, pronoun, 179 ; uses of, 445 ff. ; in indirect discourse, 445 a ; verbs, 193 (3) a, b. Regnum, declined, 95. Rego, conjugated, 222, 223. Regular verbs, 217 ff. ; paradigms of, 222, 223. Relative, adverbs, mood with, 482 (2), 483 (2) ; pronouns, 177 (4), 183 ff. ; agreement of, 342 ff. ; to express "so-called," 452; person of, 323 ; as connectives, 451, 591 ; 448 INDEX. clauses of purpose, 482 (2) ; of result, 483 (2) ; of diaraciuusiie, 500 (2); as protases, 5OO (2) c, 501 c ; restrictive, 500 (2) c ; po- j sition of, 596 (2) ; in infiu., 516 d. Reminiscor, case with, 365. Repeated action, how expressed, 464; as general condition, 477 d. Res, declined, 132 ; certain uses of, 437 a x, 439 (4) a. Rests in verse, 613 l>. Resolution of syllables in verse, 618 (2). Restrictive clauses, 500 (2) c. Result, clauses of, 483 ; substan- tive clauses of, 493 ff. ; use of tenses in, 483 c, 524 a (I) ; posi- tion of, 596 (2). Rhythm, 607 N. Rhythmical sentence, 599 a. -riiitus, superl. in, 166. Hitu, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). Rivers, gender of names of, 80 ii. ~ro-, noun stems in, 97 : diminutive formations from, 259 (3) ; adj. stems in, 143, 144. Rof/o, with two ace., 394 (2). Roots, 56, 57; strong and weak forms of, 253. V/-M&-, derivatives from, 255 x. Rus, defective, 111 x 2 ; used like names of towns, 426 a. -rus, fut. part, ending, 206, 211 b. S, sound of, 18 ; feeble sound at end of words, 18 d ; euphonic changes of, 67, 69 (1). 69 (5), 69 (0) iii., 71 ; elision of final, in early verse, 6O9 (1) d ; as nom. ending,' 9O (1) ; j as stem ending, 105 ff. ; ace. plur. i ending, 9O (6). Saepe, compared, 176 ; quantity of I e in, 46 (2). Sal, quantity of vowel, 47 a, 103 a ; gender of* 12O (3). Salved, conjugation of, 249 (10) b. Sane, use of, 572. Sapphic verse, 646 ; greater, 646 (2). Satago, 298 6. Satis, with part, gen., 355 (2). Satisfacio, 298 b, 3OO 6. Satur, 144 x. Saturnian verse, 642. Saying, verbs of, constr. with, 490 (2), 515 ff., 533 (1) ; passive with pred. nom., 534, 534 a. Scanning, 611. Scazon, 628 F. Scidi, 231 (3) d. Stito, scitote, u>ed for the wanting pres., 227 e, 527 6. -sco, verb ending (inceptive) 230 e, 289; quautitv of vowel before, 237 a. Se, suus, declension of, 179, 186 ; use of, 445 ff. Second, decl. of nouns, 95 ff. ; of adj., 143 ff. ; conjugation, 217 ff., 234. Secondary tenses. See Historical. Secnndus, formation of, 281, 559 (23) ; scciindum as prep, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (23). Secutus, with pres. meaning, 544 a. Sed, use of, 566 (I). Sedeo, sedo, 287 b. -sent, old pluper. subj. eudiug, 228 d. Semi-deponents, 196. Semi-vowels, 9 i., 10. Sendrius, iambic, 623, 624. Sendti, sendtuos, as gen. forms, 128 (1), 128 (2), 131 F. Senex, declension of, 111 (I) ; com- pared, 172 (2). Sens, participle of eese, 215 b. Sentence(s), 309 ff. ; classification of, 311,315; connecting of snc- cessives, 597. Separation, abl. of, 413 ; verbs of, compounded with al>, de, etc., 380. Spread, as abl. absol., 422 c F. Sestertius, 663. Short syllable, 26, 27. -si or -sin, ending of Greek datives plural, 124. Si, moods with, 476 ff . ; introducing indirect questions, 518 d. Sibilant, 10 ii. Sic, 187, 557 d. Slcubi, 308. Siem, sies, etc., 215 c. Silentio, as abl. of manner, 410 (2). -sim, old perfect subjunc. ending, 228 d. Sinu'lis, compared, 167: with gen., 360; with dat., 362 (4), 389. Simple words, 251, 254 ff. ; sentence, 311 (1). INDEX. 449 Simul, with abl., 431 g; simul . . . simul, 563 (1) 6; simul dc, etc., 469, 506. Sine,viiih abl., 430; meanings of, 561 (9). Singular number, 86 ; for plural, 435, 436 ; words used only in, 138 ; words lacking, 139. -sio, abstract ending, 272, 274(2). Siquidem, 308, 572 c. Siquis, 185 c. Sis for si vis, 242 a. Sive, use of, 565. -so, old future ending, 228 d ; eu- phonic for to, 71, 232, 255 ff. Soled, semi-deponent, 196 ; solitus in pres. meaning, 544 a ; solito with compar., 416 6. Solus, declension of, 145, 146. Sonants, 13 i. Sotadean verse, 634. Sounds of the letters, 15 ff. ; vowels, 16 ; diphthongs, 17 ; consonants, 18. -sor, ending of nouns of agency, 270. -sorium, noun ending, 276 (5). Space, ace. of, 423. Spe, as abl. after comparatives, 4166. Specification, ace. of, 398 ; abl. of, 412. Specus, gender, 127. Spirants, 10 ii. Spondaic verse, 614 (2). Sponte, 137 (4) a. Stems, 54 ff . ; in a-, 91, 143 ff., 217 ff . ; in o-, 95, 143 ff. ; in i-, 108 ff., 150, 151 ; in 1-, 217 ff. ; ending in a consonant, 10O ff., 152 ff., 217 ff. ; originally in s-, 105, 106, 109; in M-, 99, 126, 141 F 3, 217 ff. ; in e-, 132, 217 ff. ; three special stems in verb, 208 ff. ; formation of stems in 1st, 2d, and 4th conj., 218 ; of pres. stem in 3d conj., 219(1), 230; of perf. stem in 3d conj., 219 (1), 231 ; of perf. part, stem in 3d conj., 219 (2), 232 ; derivative stems, 255 a. SMI, stitl, 231 d, 231 d (1). Strong and weak forms of roots, 253. Strophe or stanza, 612. Suadeo, with dat., 376. Sub, with ace. and abl., 431 ; mean- ings of, 560 (2) ; form in comp., 301 (9) ; lessening force in comp., 295 b N. Subject, 310 (1 ) ; nom., 316 ; omitted, 316 a, 317, 318; ace., 401, 530 ; of histor. infin., 530 a ; position of, 596 N 3. Subjective genitive, 353 (1) ; adj. or possess, pron. used for, 358 (O, (2). Subjunctive mood, 198 (2), and note before 472 ; in independent clauses, 472-475 ; hortatory, 472 ; potential, 474 ; optative, 473 ; dubitative, 475 ; in dependent clauses, 476 ff . ; in conditional clauses, 476, 477 ; in concessive clauses, with etsl, etc., 478; with quamvls, etc., 479, 480 ; in com- parative clauses, with tamquam si, velut si, etc., 481 ; with quarn, 498, 516 e ; in clauses of purpose, 482 ; of result, 483 ; substantive clauses, 484 ff . ; with verbs of fearing, 492 ; in relative clauses (characteristic), 500, 501 ; without ut, 491 ; in temporal clauses with antequam, etc., 505 ; with dum, etc., 502, 503; with postquam, 506; with cum, 509 ff. ; with ubi, etc., 506, 508 ; in clauses of proviso, 504 ; in causal clauses with quod, etc., 519 ; with non quo, etc., 521 ; of died, puto, etc., introducing a cause, 520; in indirect questions, 518 ; in indirect discourse, 514 ff . ; giving other people's ideas, 522 ; by attraction (so called), 523 ; tenses of, 472 c, 473 a, 474 a, 475 a, 476 (2) b, 477 a, 6, 481 a, 482 b, 483 c, 499 d, 524, 525. Subordinate clauses, 314 (2) ; in indirect discourse, 515 (1); re- tained in indicative, 516 /; in contrary to fact conditions, 499 d, e ; position of, 596. Substantive clauses with ut, ne, etc., 484 ff. ; with quod, etc., 540 (4) ; with the infin., 515 ff., 531, 533 ; as indirect questions, 518 ; different kinds compared, 541 ff. 450 IXDEX. Subter, with ace. and abl., 431 ; meanings of, 56O (3). Subtractive expressions in nume- rals, 161 e, 162 (3). Stn. See ?e. Suffixes, 56; primary and secon- dary, 255 a ; lists of common, 255 (1)* (2) ; words without, 254. Sum, conjugated, 215 ; with gen., 357; with dat., 384; in perfect tenses of passive, 211 ; in peri- phrastic conjugations, 229 ; with adj. governing substantive clause with ut, etc., 494 a, 497; indica- tive in conditions coutrarv to fact, 477 c (cf. 474 d). Supellex, 111 (4). Super, with ace. and abl., 431 ; meanings of, 560 (4). Superior, compared, 170 (2); high- est part, top of, 442. Superlative, 164 (3) ; special use of, 164_ (3) b, c, 442 ; formed wi,h mdxime, 173 ; wanting, 172. Supines, 205 ; mechanical similar- it v of basis with perf. and fut. part., 211 b; uses of ace., 554; to denote purpose, 554 (2) ; uses of abl., 555: quantity of diss\ 1- labic, 51. Supra, with ace., 429; meanings of, 559 (24). Surds, 13 ii. Sus, declined, 102. Suus. See se. Swearing, verbs of, tense of infin. with, 533 (5). Syllables, rules for dividing, 19 ff. ; quantity of, 28 ff . ; of vowels in final, 45 ff . ; in certain others, 51, 52 ; last either long or short in verse, 610 ; in early verse, 636 ff . Synaeresis, 609 (2). Synaloepha, 6O9 (1). Synapheia, 609 (5). Syncope, 63 ii., 659 (29). Synecdochical ace., 398 a. Syntax, 2 iv., 309 ff. Systole, 6O9 (1) o N. T, sound of, 18; euphonic chancres of, 65, 66 iii., iv., 69 i., ii. (2), Hi., 71. -ta, abstract noun ending, 273 (2). Taedel, impers., 250 a; with gen., etc , 364 (2), 365 b. Tam, 187, 557 d. Tametsl, 478. Tamen, use of, 569 (2). Tamquam, 481. Tanti, as gen. of price, 372. Tantum abest tit, 499 c. -tds, noun ending, 109, 273 (2). Teaching, verbs of, constr. with, 394 (2), 407 b. Temfterare, with dat. and ace. in diff. seizes, 378. Temporal, numerals, 286 (3) ; clauses, 502 ff. ; uses of tenses in, 524. Tendency, adj. of, 261, 267. Tense(s), 199; primary and se- condary, 200 ; uses of, 461 ff . ; of subjunc., 524 ff. ; of imper., 527 b, c; of infin., 538, 539; of parti- cip., 543 ff. ; table of, formed from the three stems, 212. Tenus, wiih abl, 430; with gen., 431 /; meanings of, 561 (10); placed after its noun. 431 d. ter, adverbs in, 174, 557 a; nouns of agency in, 270 a. Terra marlque, 426 a. Terunci, as gen. of price, 372 a. Tete, 179 c. Tetrameter, dactylic, 616, 654 (4) ; anapaestic, 630 (2). Th, aspirate, 11 iii. ; sound of, 18 g. Thematic vowel, 217 b. Thesis and arsis, 607. Thinking, verbs of, constr. with, 533 (1). Third, decl. of nouns. 99 ff. ; of adj. 148 ff.; conjug.,217 ff. Thousands, how expressed, 161 h, 162 d. Threatening, verbs of, case with, 376; tense of infin., 533 (5). -tia, -ties, -tid, -tium, abstract end- ings, 272 ff. Tigris, declension of, 124; gender of, 120 (4). -tilis, adjective ending, 261. Time, adj. of, 264; adverbs of, 187 ; constructions of, 423 ff . ; id aeldtis, etc., 398 6; abl. absol. denoting, 422 ; concrete nouns in expressions of, 432 ; mode of INDEX. 451 reckoning, 660 ; table of, 661 ; clauses of, 502 ff . Tiniere, cases with, 378; moods with, 492, 532 a. "Too" or "rather," expressed by compar., 164 (3) a. -tor, ending of nouns of agency, 270. -torium, noun ending, 276 (5). Tot, 187. Totus, 187, 187 F 1. Totus, declension of, 145, 146; of place, 426 c. Towns, gender of names of, 81 ii., loc. constr. of, 426 (2). Jr-, -tri-, stems in, 103 e, 108 b. Tranquilld, as abl. absol., 422 c F. Trans, with ace., 429 ; meanings of, 559 (25) ; form in comp., 301 (10); constr. with verbs comp. with, 394 (3). Transitive verbs, 190. Trees, gender of names of, 81 ii. Tres, declension of, 160. Trihemimeris, 605 d. Trimeter, iambic, 623, 624, 627. -trina, -trinum, noun endings, 276 (2). -iris, adjective ending, 285. -trix, ending of fern, nouns of agency, 270. Trochaic verse, 618 ff. -Irum, noun ending, 258. Tu, declined, 178; ttite, 179 c. -turn, noun ending, 276 (1). Turn . . . turn, 563 (1) b. Tumultu, as abl. of time, 424 b. Tune and mine, 187 F 2. -ttido, abstract ending, 272, 273 (3). -tus, noun ending in 4th declension, 274 (3); adj. ending, 256 (1); perf. part, ending, 214. 4us, ending in 3d declension, 273 (2). Tuns, 186 ; tud, with refert and in- terest, 369. U, sound of, 16 ; after g, q, or s, 18 b ; euphonic changes of, 59, 63 ; affinity for 1, 59 a ; not allowed after v or qu, 59 b, c; quantity of, final, 46 ; penult, in verbs, 225 ; parasitic, 64 ; representing oe, 60 ; retained in certain words, 59 d. -tt- stems, of nouns, 99, 126; of adj., 141 F 3 ; of verbs, 217 a. Ubi, moods with, 506, 508; perfect tense with. 469. Ubicumque, ubinam, ulique, ubivls, 308. -ubus, dat. and abl. ending in 4th decl., 129. -uleus, in diminutives, 259 (4) 6. -ulis, adjective ending, 262. Ullus, declension of, 145, 146 ; use _ of, 455. Ulterior, compared, 170 (1) ; ultimus, _for "last part of," 442. Ultra, with acc. } 429 ; meanings of, 559 (26). -ulus, -a, -uni, noun and adj. ending, 257 ; diminutives in, 259 (2). -um, gen. plur. ending in 3d decl., 116. -um, gen. plur. ending in 1st and 2d _ decl., 93d, 97 (7). Uncia, 662. -undain, -widtts, for later -endmn, -endus, in gerund and gerundive, 227 g. Unthematic verbs, 239. Unus, declension of, 145, 146 ; plu- _ral use of, 161 a. Unusquisque, 460 (/ ; unumquidquid, in Plautus, 185 c. -MO, verbs in, 287 (especially a). -ura, noun ending, 274 (4)." -urio, desiderative verb ending, 290. -tints, in fut. part., 211 b, 214. -us, ending of nouns and adj. in 2d decl., 95 ; in 4th decl., 126 ; quan- tity of final, 50. -MS, in nouns of 3d declension, 102, _106 d, 273 (2). Usque, with ace., 431 g. Usus, with abl., 417. Ut = as, 187 ; explanatory or limit- ing, 557 f; interrogative = how, 187; = when, moods with, 506^ 508 N 1 ; in clauses of purpose, 482 (1); of result, 483 (1); sub- stantive clauses, 484 ff. ; conces- sive, 479, 480 ; in wishes, 473 ; ut . . . ita, 557 e. Uter, declension of, 145, 146 ; dis- tinguished from quis, 460. Uterque, 146 a ; distinguished from quis, 460 ; from ambo, 460 a. Utilis, cases with, 390 (1). Utl. Seetft. 452 INDEX. Utinam, 308 ; in wishes, 473, 473 b. Utor, with ahl., 419 ; with ace , 419 a ; gerundive use of, 550 a. Utrum . . . an, 580. -utus, adj. ending, 280. -uus, adj. ending, 283. V, sound of, 18 ; euphonic changes of, 68, 69 (6). Vacare, with dat., 381 a. Vae, interjec., 583 ; with dat., 391 (3). Value, gen. of. See Gen. of Price. Fas, vdsis, 105, 107. -ve, enclitic, 35 a, 590 b : use of, 565 b. Vel, use of, 565 ; meaning "even," 565 c. Velim and vellem, in expressions of wishing, 473 c, 491, 527