RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

EVOLUTION

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF RELIGION

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

F? B. JEVONS, LITT.D.

PRINCIPAL Or BISHOP HATtltLo's HALL, DURHAM

METHUEN & CO.

36 ESSEX STREET W.C

LONDON

First Putlishtd in 1906

'of

E CONTENTS

PAGE

PREFACE ix

LECTURE I. ..... i

The first appearance, in Time, of consciousness upon earth
or of Religion is a question the answer to which must be
furnished by the theory of Evolution. Whether there is ft
principle of consciousness underlying the process of Evolu-
tion generally, and the Evolution of Religion in particular
a principle which even now, as a principle of Religion, mani-
fe?ts itself but imperfectly is a question for Philosophy,
The question dealt with in this Lecture is whether Religion
has been evolved out of, or preceded by, a non-religious or
pre-religious stage in the history of man. Such a stage has
been supposed to have been discovered amongst the Austra-
lian black-fellows, some of whom believe in an All-father,
* the father of all of us," " our father. " This belief, it is said,
does not, but might easily have amounted to Monotheism,
The question therefore is whether this belief is a decline from,
or a stage on the way to, Monotheism, It is held by the
S.E. tribes of Central Australia, who are socially more
advanced than those of the N. But there are indications '
that it was held once by the latter; and, if so, then the N.
tribes are further away from the original beliefs of the com-
mon ancestors of the S.E. and the N. tribes than the S.E.
tribes are. This inference, that the S.E. and the N. tribes
have both declined, the latter more, the former less, from an
earlier Monotheism, is confirmed by the parallel afforded by
the negroes of W. Africa. The similarity between Africa
and Australia in this respect suggests that we have here to do
with a general tendency* If so, then a pre-religious stage in
the history of man cannot yet be said to have been satis-
factorily provsd.

738

CONTENTS

PAGE

LECTURE II 43

The Science of Religion, which traces the Evolution of
Religion, like any other science, is based upon and starts
from facts of experience ; but the facts, from which science
generally, and therefore the Science of Religion, proceeds,
are not facts of merely individual experience but of the com-
mon experience of mankind. Next, science is not the facts
with which it deals and to which it relates, but is an abstrac-
tion from them : the Science of Religion, like all other
sciences, abstracts from, that is to say ignores deliberately
the Freedom of the Will, or at least the possibility that the
Will is free. The theory of Evolution therefore, like the
science on which it is based, is an abstraction : it deals with
growth, with the process of Evolution. But "growth" and
" process " are abstractions : they are ways in which Reality
appears to us or may be conceived to present itself to us ;
they are appearances, and, in the case of Religion at any
rate, they may be distinguished from the Reality with which
the soul is in communion when it lifts itself to God, or
strives and yearns to cling to Him. In fine, Science of Reli-
gion is something very different from Religion ; and the theory
of the Evolution of Religion is not a religious experience.

LECTURE III. . . . . .8!

The theory of Evolution assumes the reality of Time and
Space ; and if the assumption is correct the Evolution of
Religion is a process taking place in Space and Time a
process mechanical, subject to the law of Causation, incom-
patible with the Freedom of the Will. To consider the
correctness of this assumption is not for Evolution but for
Philosophy. And consideration shows that its correctness
is doubtful. As regards Time, the distinction into past,
present and future is not something in experience given to
begin with : it is a distinction made by us, applied by us, to
what in direct experience is a timeless whole ; it is a method
of interpretation and is not that which is interpreted. The
unreality of time-distinctions, the looseness of this interpreta-
tion, becomes apparent when you reflect upon the very

CONTENTS

different meanings that " now M or " the present " (momenti
age) may have. Precisely the same elasticity or looseness
is found in the meanings of "here " (in this point of Space,
or in this universe) : Space alternates between being a mere
blank, in which all things may be, and a mere point of
nothingness from which all things are excluded. Thoughts
and emotions do not occupy Space, they have no lineal ex-
tent : neither can the person who has them. If then Time
and Space are but ways of interpreting experience, if they
only occur in the translation and are not to be found in the
original, then the theory of Evolution is but a partial and
abstract version of the facts ; and the Evolution of Religion
is something quite distinguishable from the Philosophy of
Religion.

LECTURE IV. . . .117

Science (and the theory of Evolution which is scientific)
is abstract inasmuch as it ignores the Freedom of the Will
and the existence of God. The latter point Science leaves
to Religion or Theology assuming apparently that the
answer, whatever it is, can make no difference to Science.
The question is whether knowledge can be divided thus into
water-tight compartments. The discussion of the question
is Philosophy: and the question is whether Science is an
abstraction from an experience of which the knowledge of
God is a fact. First, we may note that all attempts to ex-
hibit our knowledge of Him as an inference have failed. If
the inference is verified, it can only be verified by personal
experience (in which case the belief is experience and not
inference) ; if it is not, it remains an unverified hypothesis.
There is no argument which shall by mere force of logic
make His existence an inference which a man, even against
his will, must draw. Nor is there any which can logically
prove that He does not exist. The question is not what
can be inferred from experience but what is given in experi-
ence (the experience not of any one individual but that
experience in which all finite individuals share). Whether
knowledge of this existence is given in experience is a ques-

vii

CONTENTS

tion which experience hat no constraining power to compel
ui to answer either way : some people have answered it
first one way and then the other. We are in fact free to
take either answer : it is a matter of Will. And to main-
tain the position once taken up requires a constant exercise
of Will-power for you are still free. That exercise of the
power or the Will to believe is Faith ; and Faith is not
purely intellectual but emotional, and the emotion ii Love.
Kithor we do or wo do not feel God's love for u, and nut
own gratitude for it. That is a question each must answer
for himself; and the answer leaves no doubt whether the
existence of God is a fact of experience or a mere assumption

Vlll

PREFACE

HpHESE four lectures were delivered in
the Vacation Term for Biblical Study
at Cambridge, and are printed at the request
of those who heard them,

In Lecture I. I accept the statement of
Mr Howitt in his " Native Tribes of South-
east Australia " that the South-eastern tribes
who believe in an All-father are socially more
advanced than the Northern tribes, who, ac-
cording to Messrs Spencer and Gillen, have
no "belief of any kind in a supreme Being
who rewards or punishes the individual ac-
cording to his moral behaviour. " At the
time of writing I had not seen Mr A. Lang's
letter to Folk-Lore (xvi. 2, pp, 221-224), in
which he argues, against Mr Howitt, that
the majority of the South-eastern tribes "are
in the more pjrimitive form of social organisa-
tion/' I am not concerned to take sides on

PREFACE

this question, as the question, whichever way
it is settled, does not affect my argument,
the basis of which is that social or political
progress does not necessarily imply or entail
religious development, or even prevent re-
ligious decay ; in fact, social development
and religious development may vary directly
or inversely, and the direction of the move-
ment of either can only be ascertained by
observation, not by inference from the direc-
tion in which the other moves. The im-
portant point is that the Northern tribes, in
Mr Lang's opinion, "have almost sloughed
off the belief" in the All-father, not that
they never had it ; and to that opinion I
subscribe.

Whether there ever was a pre-religious
stage in the development of man is an open
question. Mr Frazer, in the extract from
the forthcoming third edition of the " Golden
Bough, " which he gives in the Fortnightly
Review (No. cccclxviii. N.S., pp. 162-172),
does not make his opinion on this question,

PREFACE

so far as the aborigines of Australia are
concerned, quite clear. He begins by saying
that Religion, in his sense of the word, seems
to be " nearly unknown" amongst them; he
ends by saying that "if the Australian
aborigines had been left to themselves they
might have evolved a native Religion." The
implication of these last words seems rather
to be that amongst the Australian aborigines
Religion is not " nearly unknown " but actually
unknown that there is or has been no native
religion. It is, of course, a perfectly com-
petent position to take up that, in the existing
state of our knowledge, we are not justified
in treating the point as decided : and that
may be the real nature of Mr Frazer's
apparent indecision on the point. On the
other hand, if we are to press the words of
the passage at the end of his article, and
to understand them to mean that there was
no native religion in Australia, then Mr
Frazer's theory " that in the history of man^
kind Religion has been preceded by magic"

PREFACE

is confirmed if there was indeed no native
Religion in Australia. But it is of great
interest to all students of the Science of
Religion to know what position on this
point Mr Frazer takes up ; and his article
in the Fortnightly Review leaves it uncertain
whether he does or does not regard it as
settled that there was no native Religion in
Australia, and as therefore proved that in
this case " Religion has been preceded by
magic."

xii

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

theory of the descent of man from a
non-human ancestor is generally accepted
by those who are qualified to judge the evi-
dence on which it is based. And by those
who accept it the evolution of Religion from
antecedent phenomena which were non-religious
will seem a priori probable, even if the evidence
at present at our disposal does not seem con-
clusive on the point. There are indeed diffi-
culties of a philosophical kind, analogous to
the difficulty of understanding how conscious-
ness can be supposed to have been evolved
in any sense out of unconscious matter how
matter which is known only as the object of
thought, as the object of which a thinking
subject is aware, can exist or have existed
save as the object of thought, as the object
of which a conscious mind or spirit is aware.
A i

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

And those who are alive to these difficulties
will probably feel that they stand seriously in
the way of any attempt to exhibit Religion
as evolved from antecedent phenomena of a
non-religious kind. Feeling these difficulties
to be serious, some of us may incline to draw
a distinction between the first appearances in
which an underlying principle manifests itself
and the principle itself. Thus the principle
underlying the appearance of evolution ma/
be a principle of thought or consciousness, or
moral consciousness, which even as yet has
but very imperfectly manifested itself, and
before its first appearance, of course, had not
manifested itself at all. But though then it
had not manifested itself, and though now
it manifests itself but imperfectly, still it was
and is the underlying principle of evolution,
revealing itself in evolution. If there were
antecedent phenomena, if there were pheno-
mena which, apprehended under the form of
Time, preceded the first appearance of intel-
lectual consciousness, or religious conscious-
ness, then those phenomena, out of which
Religion, on the theory of evolution, was
evolved, do not, and ex hypothesi did not,

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

constitute Religion ; nor is Religion resolved
into them, if we should succeed in going back
to its first appearance and in re-constituting
the state of things in which it made its first
appearance.

Now, to the philosophical question I may
have occasion to revert hereafter. It is
obviously different from the question of fact,
whether as a matter of fact Religion has
been evolved out of or preceded by a non-
religious or pre-religious stage. That is a
question of the evolution of Religion ; and it
is with the evolution, not with the philosophy,
of Religion that I shall be concerned in this
lecture. Indeed it is precisely with this
question of fact, viz. whether Religion has
been evolved out of, or has been preceded
by, a non-religious or pre-religious stage, that
I shall choose . to deal Or, to be yet more
precise, it is with one particular answer to
this question of fact that I shall deal in this
chapter. The particular answer is that given
by Mr A. W. Howitt in his recently published
work, entitled "The Native Tribes of South-
East Australia." I need hardly say that there
is no man living who has such an acquaintance

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

with those tribes as Mr Howitt, and no man
who can speak of their modes of thought and
ways of life with greater authority than he.
Now, the outcome of Mr Howitt's forty years'
acquaintance with these tribes and work
amongst them is the conclusion that in his
own words " it cannot be alleged that these
aborigines have consciously any form of Re-
ligion " (p. 507). If this conclusion of Mr
Howitt's be correct, then we actually have
at the present day in the British Empire,
tribes not merely in a non-religious stage, but
in a pre-religious stage. " Their beliefs," he
says, " are such that, under favourable con-
ditions, they might have developed into an
actual Religion." The kind of Religion into
which their beliefs might have developed is,
according to Mr Howitt, monotheism. We
have therefore in the beliefs of these tribes, if
Mr Howitt is right, the antecedent phenomena
out of which Religion might have been though
in Mr Howitt's view it was not evolved by
these tribes phenomena which, in his view,
do not constitute Religion, though they might
well have been followed by the first appearance
of Religion. And that Religion, in his view,

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

would have been a monotheism. But in saying
this, he is most anxious to have it understood
that he has not been swayed by any considera-
tions of a theological or non-scientific character :
41 In saying this I must guard myself from being
thought to imply any primitive revelation of a
monotheistic character. What I see is merely
the action of elementary thought reaching con-
clusions such as all savages are capable of, and
which may have been at the root of monotheistic
beliefs "(#.).

What, then, is the evidence which indicates
that these South- Eastern tribes, though they
have no conscious form of Religion, were on the
direct line for developing monotheism, rather
than polytheism, or ancestor- worship, or animal-
worship ? To begin with, we must notice that
amongst these tribes there is, in Mr Howitt's
words, " a universal belief in the existence of
the human spirit after death " (p. 440). Very
naturally, the human spirits which continue to
exist after death are supposed to exist in much
the same way as before death : they live in the
sky-country in the same tribal organisation as
on this earth ; and as they have a Head Man
here, so they have a Head Man there. Now,

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

it would seem that, though Mr Howitt speaks
of the head of the tribe of the dead as a Head
Man, the natives themselves do not describe
him by the same word. The being in the
sky-country doubtless exercises many of the
functions and has many of the attributes
enjoyed by the person who amongst the
natives occupies the official position of Head
Man; and Mr Howitt's view of this being in
the sky-country is that he is supposed to be
what the Head Man of a tribe is in this world.
Mr Howitt infers this from his wide knowledge
of the natives and their beliefs. " Combining/ 1
he says, "the statements of the legends and
the teachings of the ceremonies, I see, as the
embodied idea, a venerable, kindly Head Man
of a tribe, full of knowledge and tribal wisdom,
and all-powerful in magic, of which he is the
source, with virtues, failings, and passions, such
as the aborigines regard them " (p. 500). This
being in the sky-country is, Mr Howitt tells
us, known generally amongst these tribes as
"our father/' or "father of all of us." Now,
it is true that the official Head Man is not
officially addressed or spoken of as " our
father/ 1 or "father of all of us"; but Mr

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

Howitt says "it is not a long stretch to
the idea of the All-father of the tribe, since
it is not uncommon, indeed I may go so
far as to say that it is, in my experience,
common, to address the elder men as father "
(P- 57)- Now, it would be very natural for
us to imagine that this " father of us all" is
regarded by the natives as a divine being ;
but Mr Howitt is satisfied that we should be
wrong in so doing. " It is most difficult," he
says, "for one of us to divest himself of the
tendency to endow such a supernatural being
with a nature yuasi-divme, if not altogether
so divine nature and character" (p. 501).
Indeed, as a matter of fact, various explorers
and travellers in Australia, whom Mr Howitt
quotes, have inferred, from the fact that the
natives believe in this "supernatural being,"
the conclusion that these blacks believe in
"a supreme being or deity." But the con-
clusion is felt by Mr Howitt to be undoubtedly
wrong. He says, " in this being, although
supernatural, there is no trace of a divine
nature. All that can be said of him is that he
is imagined as the ideal of those qualities
which are, according to their standard, virtues

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

worthy of being imitated. Such would be a
man who is skilful in the use of weapons of
offence and defence, all-powerful in magic, but
generous and liberal to his people, who does
no injury or violence to anyone, yet treats
with severity any breaches of custom or
morality. Such is, according to my know-
ledge of the Australian tribes, their ideal of
Head Man, and naturally it is that of the
Biamban, the master in the sky-country. Such
a being from Bunjil to Baia.ne, is Mami-ngata,
that is, ' our father ' ; in other words, the
4 All-father of the tribes '" (p. 507). Finally,
there is one more important fact to be noticed
in support of Mr Howitt's view. If this All-
father were really felt by the blacks to be a
supreme being or deity, we should expect him
to be worshipped. " But/' says Mr Howitt,
"there is not any worship of Daramulun"
(p. 507), It is indeed the case that a figure of
clay, an image of Daramulun, is made, and that
there are dances round it. These facts, how-
ever, are regarded by Mr Howitt as showing
not that the " aborigines have consciously any
form of Religion," but that "under favourable
conditions they might have developed into an

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

actual Religion." " There is not any worship
of Daramulun" he says, "but the dances
round the figure of clay and the invocating of
his name by the medicine-men certainly might
have led up to it " (p. 508).

Now, it may appear to some of us that the
tribes to which Mr Howitt refers are not merely
on the verge of passing from the pre-religious
to the religious stage, but have actually passed
it. And to a certain extent, if we take up that
position, we may fortify ourselves with quota-
tions from Mr Howitt. Thus by one tribe
this supernatural being " is said to have made
all things on the earth and to have given to
men the weapons of war and hunting, and to
have instituted all the rites and ceremonies
which are practised by the aborigines,
whether connected with life or death"
(p. 488). Another tribe speaks of him
" with the greatest reverence. He was said
to have made the whole country, with the
rivers, trees, and animals. He gave to the
blacks their laws " (p. 489). According to yet
another set of tribes, he "was the maker of
the earth, trees, and men" (p. 492). Accord-
ing to the belief of another tribe, he is " the

JL1UIN

maker who created and preserves all things "
(p. 494). Other aborigines say he told them
what to do, "and he gave them the laws
which the old people have handed down from
father to son to this time " (p. 495). Else-
where it is believed that " Tharamulun can
see people and is very angry when they do
things that they ought not to do, as when
they eat forbidden food " (p. 495).

I think that if we pressed these passages
that I have quoted we might maintain with a
certain degree of plausibility, at the least, that
the tribes in question are not merely on the
verge of passing from the pre-religious to the
religious stage, but have actually passed it.
And though the absence of worship, which I
have already mentioned, and the absence, still
more, of prayer, may make us hesitate to go
further than Mr Howitt allows us, still in
principle, whether these tribes are on the
verge or have passed it makes little difference.
If they did not take the step, at any rate on
this theory of the origin of Religion, other
peoples in other parts of the world did take
it ; and so we have before our eyes, as it were,
the actual process in actual working whereby

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

Religion is evolved from or supervenes upon
antecedent phenomena of a non-religious kind.
That is in effect the theory. Here we have
certain Australian tribes on the line between
Religion and non-religion ; and the view is sub-
mitted that they have advanced to this point
from the region of non-religion. Now, there
must be some reason for assuming that they
have progressed to this point from the region
of non-religion rather than that they have
declined to it from some more conscious form
of Religion ; and that reason is given by Mr
Howitt He says, " that part of Australia
which I have indicated as the habitat of tribes
having this belief [i.e. the belief in " our
father"] is also the area where there has been
he advance from group marriage to individual
marriage, from descent in the female line to
that in the male line ; where the primitive
organisation under the class system has been
more or less replaced by an organisation based
on locality ; in fact, where those advances have
been made to which I have more than once
called attention in this work " (p. 500). There,
then, is the reason : these tribes have advanced
in social organisation, therefore probably their

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

movement in matters affecting Religion has also
been one of progress and advance. Now, it is
at least conceivable, and I do not at this
moment put it forward as more than a con-
ceivable view, that the general movement in
matters affecting Religion has been one of
retrogression, both in these tribes whose social
organisation is more evolved and in those
other tribes whose social organisation has
been less evolved. On this view, it would be
natural enough that tribes which actually pro-
gressed socially would resist religious deterio-
ration more successfully than tribes which
were incapable even of social advance. Indeed
some of us might go so far as to suggest that
it was precisely because the one set of tribes
clung more faithfully than the other to their
religious traditions that they made social pro-
gress ; and that if the other tribes made no
social progress, it was just because they had
declined from the religious point of view.

But have they declined from the religious
point of view ? Whether they have or have
not been the victims of a retrogression in
Religion, it is at any rate clear from Mr
Howitt's words that the tribes which relatively

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

have made no social progress are in a different
position as regards religious beliefs to the
tribes in which social advance has been made.
In the socially progressive tribes, he says, " a
belief exists in an anthropomorphic super-
natural being [the All-father] who lives in the
sky, and who is supposed to have some kind
of influence on the morals of the natives. No
such belief seems to obtain in the remainder
of Australia, although there are indications of
a belief in anthropomorphic beings inhabiting
the sky-land " (p. 503).

I propose now, therefore, in order to gain
some information about the beliefs which
obtain in the remainder of Australia, to turn
to a work of the very highest authority i I
mean Messrs Spencer and Gillen's " Northern
Tribes of Central Australia." These Northern
tribes are, Messrs Spencer and Gillen say,
4 'savages who have no idea of permanent
abodes, no clothing, no knowledge of any
implements save those fashioned out of wood,
bone, and stone; no idea whatever of the
cultivation of crops, or of the laying in of
a supply of food to tide over hard times ;
no word for any number beyond three, and

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

no belief in anything like a supreme being"
(p. xiv). " We know," they say, " of no tribe
in which there is a belief of any kind in a
supreme being who rewards or punishes the
individual according to his moral behaviour,
using the word moral in the native sense"
(p. 491). Thus these Northern tribes are
very different from Mr Howitt's South-Eastern
tribes, who believe that laws were given to
them by "our father/' and that "he is very
angry when they do things that they ought
not to do." Now, I think that anyone who
knew nothing more of the subject than the
quotations I have given in this paper, and
who was inclined to believe that the religious
ideas, like the social organisation, of Mr
Howitt's South-Eastern tribes, were evolved
from, and an advance upon, those of the
Northern tribes, would be led to expect that
the Northern tribes had not yet attained to
the conception of an anthropomorphic super-
natural All-father living in the sky ; or that,
supposing they had, at any rate he was not
imagined to have anything to do with the
morals of the natives. Yet this expectation
would not be altogether correct. Both the

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

Northern and the South-Eastern tribes have
initiation-ceremonies or mysteries, from which
the women are jealously excluded. At these
ceremonies the simple moral rules or laws of
the natives are solemnly impressed upon the
boys who are initiated. Messrs Spencer and
Gillen say of their tribes, "So far as the
inculcation of anything like moral ideas is
concerned, this, such as it is, may be said
to take place always in connection with
initiation*' (p, 502). Now, the women and
children are taught to believe that, on the
occasion of these mysteries, "a spirit takes
the boy out into the bush, enters the body
of the boy, and brings him back again
initiated " (pp. 497, 499). If, therefore, these
were all the facts we had to go on, we
should be in this position : we should know
that amongst Mr Howitt's South- Eastern tribes
a boy, when initiated, was taught to believe
in an anthropomorphic, supernatural being
who lived in the sky, was the creator and
preserver of all things, was the giver of
moral laws, who was very angry with people
if they did what they ought not to do, and
who finally was "the father of all of us."

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

We should further know that amongst the
Northern tribes the inculcation of moral ideas
took place at the initiation-ceremonies ; and
that the women and children believed that
an anthropomorphic, supernatural being played
a part in them. I think, then, that we should
go on to infer that the women and children
of the Northern tribes were not far wrong,
and that the boy was taught in the Northern
tribes what a boy in the South- Eastern tribes
was taught, viz. to believe in "the father
of all of us." But there we should be wrong :
what happens at the initiation as a matter of
fact is (in Messrs Spencer and Gillen's words),
that "he then learns that the spirit creature
whom, up to that time, as a boy, he has
regarded as all-powerful, is merely a myth,
and that such a being does not really exist,
and is only an invention of the men to
frighten the women and children" (p. 492).
From these words it is clear that as a boy
he was taught that at the mysteries he would
be initiated by an all-powerful spirit creature ;
that the men spread abroad the story, or
allowed it to be spread, that the spirit
appeared and performed the initiation (which

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

was supposed to consist, in Messrs Spencer
and Gillen's words, "in cutting out all his
insides and providing him with a new set/*
p. 498) ; and that the boy, when he learnt
at the initiation that he had been defrauded,
became interested in keeping up the fraud.

The case, then, as we have it now, is that
at the initiation ceremonies the men of the
South- Eastern tribes believe, and teach their
boys the belief, in the Ail-father, the giver
of such moral laws as the black fellows have ;
whereas the men of the Northern tribes teach
their boys "that such a being does not exist
and is only an invention of the men to frighten
the women and children/* The question then
inevitably rises, though I have not yet seen
it stated or discussed, which of these two
doctrines is the earlier. For my own part,
I see no possibility of doubt If the belief
in the All-father is supposed to be the
original, or the earlier, belief, it might easily
degenerate into a mere survival, when faith
in it, for whatever reason, was lost. Naturally
the men who were initiated into the mysteries
would not, in the later stage of their develop-
ment any more than in the earlier, give them
B 17

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

away : indeed the secret would all the more
jealously be kept. On the other hand, if we
were to hold that disbelief in the supposed
supernatural being was the earlier stage, it
would be difficult to imagine how belief grew
out of it ; and, as a matter of fact, disbelief
pre-supposes the existence of the belief the
belief is there, held by some persons and
rejected by others ; it could not be dis-
believed before it existed. It must have
existed first and then have come to be dis-
believed. That we might safely say, if we
had onlv Mr Howitt's account of the South-
Eastern tribes to go upon. But fortunately
we are not in the position of having to say
as a matter of inference and conjecture that
the belief which is found amongst the South-
Eastern tribes must have existed amongst the
Northern tribes before the Northern tribes
could come to disbelieve it : we have Messrs
Spencer and Gillen's evidence for it that it
does exist amongst the Kaitish tribe. They
say " amongst the Kaitish we meet with a
spirit individual named Atnatu, the beliefs
with regard to whom are different from those
concerning Twanyirika, and are peculiar to

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this tribe. This Atnatu , . . made himself
and gave himself his name." He lives up
beyond the sky and "he let down every-
thing which the black fellow has spears,
boomerangs, tomahawks, clubs, everything in
fact," but the women " know nothing about
Atnatu " (pp. 498, 499).

When Messrs Spencer and Gillen wrote
and published their book, Mr Howitt's work
had not appeared : the Kaitish beliefs were
without parallel amongst the Northern tribes,
and it was not unreasonable to regard their
isolated set of beliefs as something sporadic
and peculiar. Amongst all the other Northern
tribes the spirits spoken of were, as Messrs
Spencer and Gillen say, " merely bogies to
frighten the women and children and keep
them in a proper state of subjection lf (pp.
502, 503). It was not unnatural, therefore,
for Messrs Spencer and Gillen, having only
before them the evidence afforded by the
Northern tribes, to say there does not "ap-
pear to be any evidence which would justify
the hypothesis that the present ideas with
regard to them [i.e. these spirits], are the
result of degradation" (p. 508). But since

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the appearance of Mr Hewitt's work the
evidence that the ideas of the Northern
tribes are the result of degradation, and are
a degradation from the South- Eastern tribes'
belief in the All-father, has been decisive on
the point.

This supplementary evidence, so valuable
and conclusive, is a good example of the value
of the comparative method in the study of
Religion, A fact which, taken by itself, is puzz-
ling and incomprehensible, becomes intelligible
and the key to tht situation when the method
of comparison is set to work, and shows the
fact to exist elsewhere in what is evidently its
right relation to the circumstances. I pro-
pose, therefore, now to employ the comparative
method again, and I hope by doing so to
show that the facts which we have been con-
sidering are not merely of interest to those
who happen from some inscrutable reason to
concern themselves with the beliefs of these
Australian black fellows, almost, if not quite,
the lowest of the human race. Nor are these
facts peculiar to the Australian tribes: they
recur amongst a people with whom they can
have hardly come in contact, and I will ask

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you to turn with me to a book written by a
missionary who has had more than forty years 1
experience of the natives of whom he writes.
It is " Fetichism in West Africa," written by
the Rev. Robert Nassau.

" Among the negro tribes of the Bight of
Benin and the Bantu of the region of ...
whc.t is now the Kongo-Fran$ais, there was a
power," says Mr Nassau, " known variously as
Egbo, Ukuku, and Yasi, which tribes, native
chiefs, and headmen of villages invoked as a
court of last appeal, for the passage of needed
laws, or the adjudication of some quarrel which
an ordinary family or village council was un-
able to settle. . . . Egbo, Ukuku, Yasi was a
secret society composed only of men ; boys
being initiated into it about the age of
puberty. Members were bound by a terrible
oath, and under pain of death, to obey any
law or command issued by the spirit under
which the society professed to be organised "
(PP- J 39 1 4)'> "recalcitrants would submit
instantly and in terror of Ukuku's voice.
They (the men) taught their little children, both
girls and boys, that the voice belonged to a
spirit which ate people who disobeyed him.

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When the society walked in procession they
were preceded by runners who warned all on
the path of the coming of the spirit. Women
and children hastened to get out of the way ;
or, if unable to hide in time, they averted their
faces. The penalty when a woman even saw
the procession was a severe beating " (p. 141).
Mr Nassau speaks from personal acquaintance
of the Egbo, Ukuku, and Yasi of the Negro
tribes and of the Bantu in the Kongo-Fran-
<;ais. But these secret societies are found
over a much wider area. He says " there is
also in the Gabun region of the equator,
among the Shekani, Mwetyi ; among the
Bakele, Bweti ; among the Mpongwe-speak-
ing tribes, Indo and Njembe ; and Ukuku
and Malinda in the Batanga regions " (p. 248).
Now, of these secret societies, or mysteries, or
organisations, he says : " All these societies
had for their primary object the good one of
government 11 (p. 248); and elsewhere, "like
all government intended for the benefit and
protection of the governed, Ukuku, when it
happened to throw its power on the side of
right, was occasionally an apparent blessing "
(p. 145). He quotes from a Sierra Leone

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newspaper the statement that "these institu-
tions are connected with, and govern the
agencies that work in, the sociology of all
communities, such as the marriage laws, the
relation of children to parents and of sex to
sex, social laws, the position of eldership and
the deference to be paid to age and worth,
native herbs and medicines" (p. 146). How
closely, then, the functions of these African
organisations resemble those of the Australian
organisations with which I am comparing
them will be seen if I quote from Messrs
Spencer and Gillen the injunctions which are
imposed upon the Australian novice at the
time of his initiation. They are, " speaking
generally, the following : ( i ) That he must
obey his elders and not quarrel with them ;
(2) that he must not eat certain foods" [this
restriction, though not mentioned in the Sierra
Leone newspaper, is as widely spread in
Africa as in Australia]; "(3) that he must
not attempt to interfere with women who have
been allotted to other men, or belong to
groups with the individuals of which it is not
lawful for him to have marital relations; (4)
that he must on no account reveal any of the

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secret matters of the totems to the women and
children" (p. 503).

The next point that I wish to make in this
parallel between the African and the Australian
mysteries is that as in Australia the belief in
the All-father or " father of all of us" is pre-
served amongst some tribes, but in other
tribes survives only as a device of the men to
frighten the women and children, or has died
out altogether ; so too in Africa, in some cases,
especially, as Mr Nassau says, " among the
tribes of the interior, where foreign govern-
ment is as yet only nominal " (p. 248), the
belief in the spirit is genuine and operative,
while in others the natives who carry on the
organisation know, in Mr Nassau's words,
that " the whole proceeding was an immense
fiction " (p. 140), and that "they helped to
carry on a gigantic lie" (p. 141). Both stages
in the history of the institution are portrayed
by Mr Nassau. I wish I had space to quote
in full the account which he took down from
the lips of a native who told him " freely what
happened when he was initiated as a lad " ;
how "early one morning the voices of the
elders were heard in the street, ' Malanda has

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come ! ' The women and girls were frightened,
They knew they were not to look at Malanda.
And we lads were oppressed with a vague
dread that subdued us from our usual bois-
terous plays. We knew the name ' Malanda/
It was a power; it was mysterious. Mystery
is a burden : it might be for good or for evil.*'
Some twenty lads were made to sit upon a
log facing the sun. " We were told to throw
our heads back, bending our necks to the
point of pain, and to stare with unblinking
eyes at the sun. As the sun mounted all that
morning, hot and glaring, toward the zenith,
we were sedulously watched to see that we
kept our heads back, arms down, and eyes
following the burning sun in its ascent, My
throat was parched with thirst. My brain
began to whirl, the pain in my eyes became
intolerable, and I ceased to hear ; all around
me became black, and I fell off the log. As
each one of us thus became exhausted, we
wer^t blindfolded and taken to that house,
On reaching it, still blindfolded, I knew noth-
ing that was there. I smelled only a horrible
odour. It was useless to resist, as they began
to beat me with rods. My outcries only

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brought severer blows. I perceived that sub-
mission lightened their strokes. When finally
I ceased struggling or crying, the bandage
was removed. The horror of that headless
corpse standing extending its rotting arms
towards me, and the staring glass eyes
of the image overcame me, and I attempted
to flee. That was futile. I was seized and
beaten more severely than before, until I
had no will or wish, but utter submission
to the will of whatever power it might be
into whose hands I had fallen" (p. 323). But
I must not pursue the quotation any further,
or describe his twenty days 1 experiences in
that prison: he was " entrusted with a secret
to which younger lads were not admitted,
and from which all of womankind were de-
barred 11 (p. 324); " although still confined, I
did not feel that I was a prisoner ; I was
deeply interested in seeing and taking part in
this great mystery" (p. 325). Of the native
who told him this story, Mr Nassau says
he was " without even a pretence of Christi-
anity ; at heart a heathen, though a member
of the Roman Catholic Church, into which
he consented to be baptised as the means of

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obtaining in marriage his wife, who had been
raised in that Church " (p. 320). On the other
hand, to present an account of these African
mysteries when they have degenerated into
conscious fraud, I must quote the case of a
convert made by Mr Nassau's Mission. "It
had occurred in the early history of the Mission
that one young man, Ibia, a freeman, member
of a prominent family, had felt that in break-
ing away from heathenism and becoming a
Christian he should cast off the very semblance
of any connection with evil, or even tacit
endorsement of it. He knew the society was
based on a great falsehood. As a lad he
had believed Ukuku was a spirit ; on his
initiation he had found that this was not so ;
but, loyal to his heathenism and his oath, he
had assented to the lie, and had assisted in
propagating it. He was known for the fear-
lessness of his convictions ; and in his con-
version he to a rare degree emerged from all
superstitious beliefs. Few emerge so utterly
as he. He therefore publicly began to reveal
the ceremonies practised in the Ukuku meet-
ings. At once his life was in danger. " Many
attempts were made upon it. But " he came

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through his fiery trial strong, and his life has
since become that of a reformer. He became
the Rev. Ibia j'IkgngS, member of Corisco
presbytery and pastor of the Corisco church ;
and Ukuku has long since ceased to exist as
a power on the island" (p. 145). When Mr
Nassau has occasion to mention this and
similar instances to the men, they wince and
say, " Don't speak so loud ; the women will
hear you." Thus in Africa, as in Australia,
the original belief in the All-father has in some
cases been lost; the ceremonies in which it
originally found expression survive ; and then
the belief which originally was genuine be-
comes, as Messrs Spencer and Gillen say, a
mere bogey "to frighten the women and
children and keep them in a proper state of
subjection."

In Africa and Australia alike these mysteries
even those of them which enshrine a genuine
religious belief when they are in the charge
of men, eventually become known. But as in
Athens there were mysteries, the Thesmo-
phoria, to which women alone were admitted,
so in Africa there are mysteries, NjSmbS, to
which women alone are admitted. And these

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

mysteries are mysteries still : the women keep
the secret " Nothing is known of their rites/'
Mr Nassau says ; "the entire process so beats
down the will of the novices and terrorises
them, that even those who have been forced
into it against their will, when they emerge at
the close of the rite, most inviolably preserve
its secrets, and express themselves as pleased "
(p. 250). "It is remarkable/* he says, "how
well the secrets of the society are kept. No
one has ever been induced to reveal them,
Those who have left the society and have
become Christians do not tell. Foreigners
have again and again tried to bribe, but in
vain. Traders and others have tried to induce
their native wives to reveal ; but these women,
obedient to any extent on all other matters,
maintain a stubborn silence" (p. 254). Of
these real mysteries, therefore, I can say
nothing more, except that on the last day of
them the women go round begging "gifts of
rum, tobacco, plates, and cloth. In a civilised
religious worship/' Mr Nassau says, "this
would be the taking up of the collection 11
(p. 254). The practice, I may say, is not known
to me in connection with any mysteries confined

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

to men, and is probably a spontaneous manifes-
tation of woman's natural capacity for business.
If now we look to see to what point the
argument has brought us thus far, it is this :
in places so far distant from one another and
so unlike each other as Australia and Western
or Equatorial Africa, we find that boys are
initiated into certain rites which are mysteries
in so far as women, children, and strangers are
excluded, and that on initiation they are taught
certain beliefs respecting Religion and morality.
We further find these mysteries in each country
in two stages : in one, which I suggest was
the earlier, we find existing a belief in a spirit,
who made and preserves all things, and who
gave the natives the moral laws which they
recognise and on which their social organisa-
tion is based. In the other stage of the
history of these mysteries we find this spirit
regarded as merely a bogey to frighten the
women and children, and having nothing to do
with rewarding or punishing the individual
according to his moral behaviour using the
word moral in the native sense. But whereas
in Australia the men of the Northern tribes
have all, according to Messrs Spencer and

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

Gillen, come to understand that this All-father
is a myth and merely a bogey, in Western
Africa, even where the mysteries have
dwindled or disappeared, the belief in this
spirit, as God, has not disappeared. Accord-
ing to a paper read by M. A116gret at the
International Congress on the History of
Religions, in 1904, the Fan people, one of the
most important groups of the great Bantu
family, still believe that there exists " a
superior being, Nzame, creator of all things,
who lives far away, and who is still capable of
exercising his power on occasion. He it is
who, in a sense, governs the world ; but the
conception of his presence and activity is
rapidly perishing. 'We all know/ they say,
' that God exists : He it is who made us/ '
And not only the Fan, but, says M. Altegret,
" all the Bantu peoples with whom I have had
to do in this part of Western Africa designate
the Supreme Being by the same name " (Revue
de rflistoire des Religions^ 1. 2, 223-5). But,
says M. Allgret, "these religious ideas have
practically no influence now on the ordinary
life of the Fan" (p. 226). And that is a very
important statement. Mr Andrew Lang, in

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his work entitled " The Making of Religion/'
has collected evidence showing that the belief
in a superior or supreme being is found widely
spread among the lower races of the whole
world. But he points out that, as a rule, no
cult or ritual goes with the belief. So that
what M. A116gret says of the Fan belief seems
to be generally true of this belief as it now
exists among the lower races: " these religi-
ous ideas have practically no influence now
on ordinary life/ 1

The question, however, naturally arises,
whether these religious ideas were always,
as they now are mostly, without influence on
ordinary life ; or whether they had it originally
and have since lost it. It is a question on which
we are in the dark as regards most of the races
in whom the belief survives, for they have no
history. But when we turn to those tribes
about whom we know a little more, we find
that these beliefs are not, or have not beer M
without influence on the ordinary life of those
who hold them. Both in Australia and in
Western Africa, as we have seen, the ordinary
morality of the native is under the sanction of
the being in whom the boys at the mysteries

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

are taught to believe as long as they are
taught to believe. It is not, therefore, wholly
unreasonable to surmise that the belief in a
superior or supreme being elsewhere was
originally bound up with, and gave its sanc-
tion to, the morality of the native : Religion
and morality are thus closely united in the
case of tribes in Australia and Western Africa
which stand at the bottom of the scale of social
evolution, and the fact weighs in favour of those
who hold that the connection is original. Its
weight will naturally be regarded as consider-
able by those who feel the ultimate basis for
morality to be the desire to do the will of
God.

It so happens that in Australia among some
tribes we find Religion and morality divorced,
and amongst others we find them united. We
are therefore at liberty to make conjectures as
to which state of things is the earlier ; and this
paper has been in effect an attempt to show
that the union may reasonably be considered
to have preceded the divorce, So far as that
conclusion has any probability, it may en-
courage us to enquire whether there are any
other institutions which, though, they appear
c 33

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

to be isolated from one another in the present
condition of the Australian tribes, may origin-
ally have been united. Now, the institutioi
which is most regularly present in religions
of all kinds is Sacrifice ; and there are certain
rites, or at any rate practices, observed in
Australia which have generally been con-
sidered to be a primitive form of sacrifice
and the sacramental meal. These practices
form a part of the system of totemism. A
totem is in nearly all cases an edible plant or
animal, after which the totem-tribe is named.
The animal or plant is regarded with respect
or reverence by the tribe whose totem it is ;
and when the season for eating it arrives,
there must be a ceremonial eating of it by
the Head Man of the tribe to whom it is a
totem, before men of other tribes will eat
freely of it. This custom has obvious ana-
logies with the fact that most peoples, in a
more advanced stage of social and religious
development than the Australians have reached,
will not eat of the kindly fruits of the earth
until an offering of the first - fruits has been
made to the gods. Evidently amongst these
more advanced peoples it is not felt to be safe

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

or proper to eat of the harvest until a rite has
been performed which is of a religious character
and significance. The Australian tribes also
feel that it is not safe or proper to eat until
a certain ceremony has been performed. And
it was an easy conjecture that as the ceremony
was in the former case religious, so it must be
in the case of the Australian tribes. But
though the investigations of Messrs Spencer
and Gillen have shown that the ceremonies
are of a very elaborate character, they have
not shown them to be possessed of any religious
character. The Religion, if any, of the black
fellows is to be found not in these Intichiuma
ceremonies, but in the Initiation ceremonies
to which I have already so often alluded.
It seems, therefore, that if we take up the
religious rite of Sacrifice and trace back its
history, we find when we get back to its
earliest and most rudimentary form that there
is nothing religious in it. Indeed, Mr Frazer
and Messrs Spencer and Gillen, independently
of each other, arrived at the conclusion that
the Intichiuma ceremonies were magical in
intent, and designed to secure by magical
means a proper supply of food*

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I must now call to your minds once more
the fact that the Northern tribes of Central
Australia described by Messrs Spencer and
Gillen and the South- Eastern tribes described
by Mr Howitt differ in many important
respects ; and I must add to the other differ-
ences the following : it is, that the Intichiuma
ceremonies, which are regarded by Mr Frazer
and Messrs Spencer and Gillen as magical in
intent, are found in those Northern tribes which
have ceased to believe in the All-father ; and
they are not found in the South- Eastern tribes
who continue to believe in " the father of all
of us." Now, I have already put forward the
supposition that the South- Eastern belief in
" the father of all of us " is earlier than the
Northern tenet that the All-father is a mere
bogey ; and if we must conjecture why there
are Intichiuma ceremonies in the one set of
tribes and not in the other, I would suggest
that belief in magic tends to flourish at the
expense of Religion. Where the belief in
" our father " continued operative, the magic
which was developed in the Intichiuma cere-
monies did not flourish. Where the religious
belief declined, and because it declined, the

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

practice of magic grew. My next point is
that sacrifices, which are a part of the ritual
of Religion, are frequently borrowed by magic
and used for magical purposes, And I suggest
with regard to the Intichiuma ceremonies that
if, as they are now practised, the religious ele-
ment is wanting and the magical element is
predominant, it is because the religious ele-
ment has evaporated from them, and not
because it was never there. It has evaporated
from them, as it has evaporated, in the case of
the Northern tribes, from the Initiation cere-
monies. As we conjecture that religious belief
was once present in the Northern tribes' Initia-
tion ceremonies, though traces and survivals
of it are now alone to be found, so we may
conjecture that it was originally at the root
of their Intichiuma ceremonies.

We may say, then, that the history of the
institution of Sacrifice leads us to expect to
find an early form of its development in Aus-
tralia. What we find is an institution which
would be sacrificial if only it were religious.
We may, if we like, stop at that point. If we
do, then we have an instance in which a
cardinal feature of Religion has been evolved

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

from antecedent phenomena of a non-religious
kind ; and then we must bear in mind the fact
that those phenomena ex hypothesi do not,
and did not, constitute Religion. If we do not
feel inclined to rest content with a theory that
requires us to suppose that Religion has
borrowed from magic the conception and the
mechanism of the sacramental meal, then we
may scrutinise the Intichiuma ceremonies in
the hope of conjecturing their antecedents and
their true relation to the other social and
religious institutions of the Australian tribes.
We may see in the Intichiuma the same pro-
cess of religious degradation as we suppose
we see in the Initiation ceremonies of the
Northern tribes. We may conjecture that the
ceremonial eating of the totem animal or plant,
which at the present day appears magical in
intent, was originally in the nature of a sacri-
fice and a sacramental meal ; and that the
same tendency which amongst the Northern
tribes robbed the Initiation ceremonies of
their religious value, also emptied the Inti-
chiuma ceremonies of their religious content.
Among the South- Eastern tribes, on the other
hand, the religious intent of the Initiation

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ceremonies either still survives or may be con-
fidently traced ; but survivals of the sacra-
mental meal have not been noticed. It would
not be safe to say that because they have not
been detected that they have not existed, or
that they do not exist amongst the tribes
whose manners and beliefs have not yet been
examined. It would have been easy to deny
that the Northern tribes had any belief in the
All-father, had not the belief been discovered
among the Kaitish ; and even so Messrs
Spencer and Gillen were led to minimise its
value. But even if we assume that survivals
of the sacrificial meal do not now exist
amongst the South-Eastern tribes, it is not
unreasonable to regard the solemn eating of
the totem amongst the Northern tribes as such
a survival. We may assume that the Northern
and the South-Eastern tribes are descendants
of common ancestors, and that the social and
religious institutions of the descendants have
been evolved out of those of their ancestors.
For instance, the totemism of the present
tribes would generally be allowed to have
descended to them from very early times
how early it is impossible to guess, but two

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

facts seem to relegate it to a far-distant past.
The first is that the origin of totemism is
unless light is thrown upon it in a forthcoming
work by Mr Andrew Lang quite lost to view,
and does not even lend itself to plausible con-
jecture. The next is that the native tribes
must have been in Australia not merely for
some centuries, but for a vast number of cen-
turies. They have not remained during that
period of unknown length unchanging and
unchanged. Primitive indeed they still are,
but not primeval. They have gone through a
long, though probably not a rapid, course of
evolution. The totemic system of the South-
Eastern tribes, viewed as a system regulating
kinship and marriage, is far more highly
evolved than that of the Northern tribes, and
therefore more remote from the system of
their ancestors. The fact, therefore if it is a
fact that no survival of the sacrifice of the
totem animal is to be found among them, is
the less to be wondered at. On the other
hand, it is well to remember that, if totemism
has survived conspicuously in the rites of the
Intichiuma, it also survives in the teaching
given to boys at the Initiation ceremonies:

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the boys are there taught that "they must on
no account reveal any of the secret matters
of the totems to the women and children "
(S. and G., /.., p. 503). The implication
obviously is that both ceremonies, both the
Intichiuma and the Initiation rites, are
descended from a ritual in which the doctrine
taught was belief in the All-father, and in
which the rites observed consisted in a
sacrifice or a sacramental meal.

If totemism were wholly absent from either
the Intichiuma or the Initiation ceremonies,
there might be no reason for casting back for
some system of ritual and belief from which
both may be believed to have been evolved.
If the suggestion that the original purport of
the Intichiuma ceremonies was purely to pro-
vide by magical means a proper supply of
food, were unanimously adopted by those
qualified to judge, it might be well to set
aside straightway any other theory on the
subject. But Mr Howitt hesitates to endorse
the suggestion, and hesitates on the ground
that " the origin of totems and totemism must
have been in so early a stage of man's social
development that traces of its original struc-

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ture cannot be expected in tribes which have
long passed out of the early conditions of
matriarchal times" (p. 151). I will conclude
this lecture, therefore, by saying that if the
origin of totems and totemism must have been
in so early a stage of man's social develop-
ment that traces of its original structure
cannot be expected to be found in the Aus-
tralian tribes, then perhaps we cannot expect
to find among them the origin of Religion
either.

T N this lecture I shall deal with the Science
*" of Religion and with Evolution. I shall
point out first that the Science of Religion,
like any other science, is based upon and starts
from facts of experience ; and next that the
facts from which science generally, and there-
fore the Science of Religion, proceeds, are not
facts of merely individual experience, but of
the common experience of mankind. I shall
then note that science is not the facts with
which it deals and to which it relates, but is an
abstraction from them. Next, the Science of
Religion, like all other sciences, abstracts
from, that is to say ignores deliberately, the
Freedom of the Will, or at least the possibility
that the Will is free. Finally, I shall argue
that the theory of Evolution, like the science
on which it is based, is an abstraction : it deals
with growth, with the process of Evolution.
And growth and process are abstractions :
they are ways in which Reality appears to us

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

or may be conceived to present itself to us.
But they are Appearances ; and in the case
of Religion, at any rate, they may be distin-
guished from the Reality with which the
soul is in communion when it lifts itself to
God, or strives and yearns to cling to Him.
In fine, Science of Religion is something very
different from Religion, and the theory of
the Evolution of Religion is not a religious
experience.

The outlines of this lecture having been thus
given, we may proceed to a consideration of
the first step in the argument, viz. that the
Science of Religion, like any other science, is
based upon and starts from facts of experience.
Now, it would appear that the facts upon
which the Science of Religion is based must
be facts of religious experience, just as those
on which any physical science is based must
be material facts : Religion is as essential to
the Science of Religion as matter is to the
physical sciences. But neither clause of this
last sentence will command unanimous assent :
those who regard Religion as an illusion can-
not agree that a Science of Religion is possible
only on the assumption that Religion is real

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

and true ; and the reality of matter is similarly
questioned even by some men of science. I
propose, therefore, to treat of both questions
that of the existence of matter and that of
the existence of Religion and to treat of
them separately.

I will begin with the question of matter.
About the existence of matter, of things
material, the ordinary non-metaphysical, non-
scientific mind has no doubt : matter and
material things do exist. And science, which
starts from the facts of ordinary experience
and from the position of common sense, has no
doubt either about the existence of matter
and things material. It is metaphysic and
metaphysicians - or, rather, some meta-
physicians who deny or doubt the existence
of matter. And it is generally admitted
that the doubts which jmetaphysic raises,
metaphysic must settle. The business of
science, on the other hand, is to keep clear
of metaphysics and metaphysical problems :
it has to ascertain all that can be ascertained
about the co-existence and interaction of
things material and about the laws of
causation which express and explain their

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

relation and succession. But it is no part of
the business of science to enquire whether, or
in what sense, matter and things material
exist. Those are questions for metaphysic
to discuss and to settle if it can.

Then, what is the position of physical
science in the meantime? It is hung in air,
so to speak. And, supposing that metaphysic
came to be in a position to demonstrate to any
ordinary person who chose to listen to the
demonstration that matter does not exist,
would physical science then collapse ? For it
would be shown that physical science is based
on an assumption, viz. that matter exists, and
that the assumption is patently wrong. Indeed,
it is not necessary for my present purpose to
ask what would be the position of physical
science if metaphysic demonstrated undeniably
the non-existence of matter. It is enough to
point out that the question of the existence of
matter is discussed by metaphysic ; and the
mere discussion is quite enough to show
that for the metaphysician, at any rate, the
existence of matter is not as certain as it
is for the ordinary mind and for many men of
science.

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

The position then seems to be that physical
science postulates the existence of matter and
things material, and is based upon that postu-
late. Withdraw that basis, show that that
postulate is one which cannot reasonably be
granted, and apparently the physical science
which is built upon it must collapse. It is
not surprising, then, or unnatural, that men of
science should look upon metaphysic with
some degree of impatience, suspicion, or con-
tempt; for they find themselves attacked by
a weapon against which science is incapable
of defending them. And that is a position
which is eminently unsatisfactory for those
who hold that what is not science is not
knowledge. The only thing for those to do
who hold that view is to shrug their shoulders
at metaphysic and say, " Everybody knows
that science is not hung in air, is not a base-
less vision : therefore matter does exist, and
if metaphysic pretends it does not, so much
the worse for metaphysic." Having delivered
his soul thus, the man of science may go back
to his science, somewhat ruffled perhaps, but
not the less satisfied with himself. We, how-
ever, who are left behind pondering, must see

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whether his case could not be rather better
stated than he himself has put it.

What we want to do is to place physical
science on a basis somewhat more satisfactory
to metaphysic and somewhat safer for science
than is afforded by the assumption that matter
exists and that science is based upon that
somewhat ambiguous assumption. If we
come to reflect upon it, what science is
built upon is experience the experience
which the man of science who has made an
experiment or a discovery has himself gone
through, and which any other person who
chooses may equally experience. What the
scientific discoverer asserts is that, under
given circumstances, anyone may have the
same experience', get the same results from
the experiment, as he had. Now, if this be
so, there seems to be no reason why matter
should ever be dragged into the question.
There is no reason why we should go beyond
the statement that such has been, and, under
the same circumstances, will always be, the
experience of any man who chooses to go
through the experience. The experience of
knocking one's head against a brick wall is

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

not in the least affected or modified by any
view we may hold as to the existence or non-
existence of matter. The experience may or
may not be rendered more intelligible by the
metaphysical assumption that matter exists ;
but the experience comes first, the assumption
comes afterwards and the experience remains
equally valid, even if the assumption never
follows, or does follow and is subsequently
shown to be an untenable assumption.

If, then, we may now take it that physical
science is built upon experience, and not upon
any such dubious assumption as that matter
exists, we may perhaps venture to suggest tint
the Science of Religion rests upon the same
foundation as any other science, viz. upon the
foundation of experience ; and assumes, like
every other science, that the experience on
which it is based is a real experience. Here,
however, in this last assumption we touch upon
a point of fundamental importance for the
Science of Religion of fundamental import-
ance because it raises the question whether the
object of the Science of Religion is to enquire
whether the subject which it investigates really
exists. We may perhaps best answer the ques-
D 49

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tion by the familiar device of asking another
question, viz. whether it is the business of the
physical sciences to enquire whether matter
exists. It is true indeed that the question
whether matter exists is a metaphysical, not a
scientific question a question which was dis-
cussed by Bishop Berkeley, and will not be
solved on scientific considerations, such as those
that are sometimes advanced. It is true also,
therefore, that a man of science may, like Pro-
fessor Huxley, be no Materialist and may hold
to Berkeley's view. It might therefore be
argued that the man of science may quite well
engage in the study of any of the physical
sciences without pledging himself or indeed
holding any opinion whether matter does or
does not exist. And from this point of view
it might be held that the student of the
Science of Religion is also equally free to pur-
sue his science whether he believes Religion
to be or not to be in any sense real or valid,
or even without holding any opinion on the
subject one way or the other.

But this mode of argument will on reflection
prove hardly tenable. Whether matter does
or does not exist is indeed a question of meta-

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physical speculation ; but the reality of the
experiences through which the student of
science goes in his experiments and his
observations must be admitted from the very
beginning, or else the foundation of science
is removed and the superstructure collapses.
What is thus true of physical science is also
true of the Science of Religion ; unless the
reality of religious experience be a fact
undoubted from the beginning, the Science
of Religion has no basis to rest upon, and
collapses in consequence.

If then the Science of Religion, like any
other science, is based upon and starts from
facts of experience, we may now proceed to
our next point, which is that the facts from
which science generally, and therefore the
Science of Religion, proceeds, are not facts
of merely individual experience, but of the
common experience of mankind. This pro-
position, however, true though it be, is by
no means universally admitted to be true.
Amongst those who would deny it are many
profoundly religious minds: they claim that
no one shall or can stand between a man
and his Maker, and that real Religion resolves

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

itself ultimately and exclusively into the re-
lation in which a man's soul stands to his
God. So strongly is the truth contained in
these propositions emphasised by some minds,
that they overlook practically altogether the
fact that no individual man is, or ever can
be, independent of the religious experience of
those with whom he is in sympathy. They
ignore in their theory, though not in their
practice, the fact that every one of us depends
on the spiritual experience of others, and
learns from them what he might otherwise
have remained in ignorance of. Not only
may he learn what to seek : he may learn
what to shun, for he may require to be taught
how to pray and give thanks, and to be taught
how the Pharisee's thanksgiving differs from
the Publican's prayer.

If anyone will read Professor James's
" Varieties of Religious Experience," he will
there find countless instances of the con-
sequences which ensue when the individual
soul adventures forth into the spiritual world
alone, without guidance. As you read the
records which he quotes of the experiences of
solitary souls, the region of prayer and

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

spiritual expansion seems a realm of indivi-
dual extravagance, of disordered visions, of
spiritual hallucination. The conclusions which
may be drawn from this record will differ
according to the different pre-suppositions
with which it may be read. If we start with
the pre-supposition that Religion and religious
experience is a purely individual affair that
the ultimate and only basis for Religion is
what I myself experience then there are
two alternatives before us. Those alterna-
tives are either to believe or not to believe
that there is something valid and real in
religious experience. If there is something
valid and real, then the question arises
whether all these experiences are alike valid,
real, and religious. To many or most of those
who have had these experiences probably to
all of those who have recorded them they
appear to be undoubtedly and all equally
alike real and true. We may then, if we will,
take up the position that what appears to one
individual real and true is real and true for
him ; and is neither real nor true for any
other individual who happens to differ from
him. In a word, there is no absolute truth

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

or reality whatever : you assert that A is A ;
I deny it, and both the assertion and the
denial are in the same sense true and in the
same sense false. If the individual or indivi-
dual experience is the final judge, beyond
whom lies no court of appeal, then the
spiritual extravagances quoted so copiously
by Professor James are in the final resort
just as valid, true, and religious as the experi-
ence of the founder of any of the higher
Religions or of the highest.

Now, that is exactly the position taken up
by those who accept the other of the two
alternatives already mentioned, and who hold
that there is nothing valid or real in religious
experience : all religious experience alike is
invalid it may differ in its manifestations
the forms folly may take are innumerable and
incalculable but the one thing certain is that
it is a purely individual affair, and that not all
individuals have it. Doubtless the fact that
they themselves have it not, is the proof con-
clusive to them that Religion is a purely
individual matter. But they are not, and
rightly are not, content to leave it an open
question. If it is an open question, then the

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

man who believes has just as much right to do
so, and is just as likely to be right in doing so,
as the man who does not. And so long as the
matter is left there, there is always the possi-
bility that want of Religion may after all be an
abnormal condition as abnormal, for instance,
as any of the spiritual extravagances quoted by
Professor James. In fact, the occurrence of a
certain small percentage of non-religious minds
would no more prove the non-existence of
Religion, than the occurrence of a small per-
centage of colour-blind persons in the popula-
tion proves that the rest of us have no experi-
ence of colour and are mistaken in imagining
that we have. The realm of music and the
world of art can scarcely be pronounced
illusions in order to gratify the tone-deaf or
colour-blind, who cannot believe, or wish not
to believe, in the existence of what they cannot
appreciate.

But is the want of Religion an abnormal
condition? If we may take it that Religion
involves a belief in a personal God, then, as
Mr M'Taggart points out in his " Hegelian
Cosmology " (p. 74), "mankind has been by
no means unanimous in demanding a personal

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

God. Neither Brahmanism nor Buddhism
makes the Supreme Being personal . . . and
in the Western world many wise men have
been both virtuous and happy who denied the
personality of God"; for instance, Hume, as
Mr M'Taggart points out Not only have
there been ?n Europe " cases of men of illustri-
ous virtue who have rejected the doctrine of a
personal God," but the number of such cases
is, Mr M'Taggart suggests, increasing. He
says : " Whether the belief in a personal God
is now more or less universal than it has been
in the centuries which have passed since the
Renaissance cannot, of course, be determined
with any exactness. But such slight evidence
as we have seems to point to the conclusion
that those who deny it were never so numerous
as at present." Let us then accept Mr
M'Taggart's conclusion, and let us draw the
inference that the number of those who dis-
believe will go on steadily increasing until
the proportions have been reversed and those
who believe are in as small a minority as are
those who disbelieve now. Will the fact that
the majority has shifted make any difference
to the merits of the question ? At the present

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

moment those who are in the minority are
quite satisfied that the majority are wrong :
will the case be any different with the minority
of the future? If Religion and religious ex-
perience are a purely individual matter, and
each man's experience or want of experience is
final for him, and there is no appeal beyond
him if the individual is indeed the measure
of all things, then it is irrelevant for him to
enquire or consider what other people think :
the matter is decided for him by his own
experience.

That people do differ in this way is matter
of fact. If we enquire why they differ thus,
the answer probably is that given by Hegel in
his " Philosophy of Religion " (i, p. 5), viz.
because the will is free. It lies with the
individual, because his will is free, to accept or
reject Religion. We are probably never so
distinctly conscious of the freedom of the will
as we are when we definitely decide to reject
it or to accept it. That decision is indeed a
purely individual affair a matter of purely
individual responsibility. But the worth of
the decision and the value of the grounds on
which it is reached are not determined thus.

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

If the individual is assumed to be the measure
of all things, then he who decides to accept
Religion is just as right as the man who decides
to reject it or, if we like to put it so, the one
is just as wrong as the other. But no man
who holds a strong opinion on this point
whether he believes or disbelieves can recon-
cile himself to this conclusion. If he is in the
minority now, he consoles himself with the
thought that eventually, indeed perhaps even
now, all really enlightened persons will be
found on his side. If he is in the majority, he
has no difficulty in believing that either some
people are colour-blind and tone-deaf in this
respect, or that the matter is one in which
nobody is congenitally incapable either of
Religion or of atheism, and everybody may
freely will to accept or reject either. But that
those are right who decide with him, or whose
decision he concurs in, the man who feels
strongly and wills decidedly has practically no
doubt. That is to say, his belief is normal
and is really right : the opposite is abnormal
and is ultimately wrong. Just as in physical
science the accepted ground is the experience
which is open to all enquirers alike, and those

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

conclusions are valid which are confirmed by
the experience of all who choose to put them to
the test ; so in the Science of Religion the only
solid and scientific basis is the experience
which every man may consult if he will. It is
this experience from which the Science of
Religion starts, and to which it returns the
experience in which the individual partakes,
but of which he is not the sole possessor. The
starting-point is not my individual experience,
or my interpretation of my experience, in the
Science of Religion any more than in any other
science. In every science alike the basis is
the fact that a given experiment can be made
or assertion proved by the experience of every
individual. Unless there is this community of
experience, there is no science ; truth is that
which is true for everybody. Objective truth
is that which is true not because a man thinks
it so, but whether a man " thinks it so or not,
and which must be judged to be so by all
rational beings" ; because "all rational beings,
in so far as they judge rationally, must neces-
sarily judge similarly of the same matter." It
is not the experience of any one individual on
which science is based. If it were, there could

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

be no science, for science assumes that it is
dealing with facts ultimately verifiable in the
experience of any man capable of reading, and
willing to read, his experience aright. But
the facts from which the Science of Religion
starts are not facts of merely individual experi-
ence, but of the common experience of man-
kind. Hence it is that public worship is in all
countries and in all ages felt to be an essential
condition of Religion. The congregation of
worshippers is a spiritual community, and with-
out this spiritual unity there is no Religion.

It now becomes necessary to note that no
science is the facts with which it deals and to
which it relates : every science, and therefore
the Science of Religion, is an abstraction from
the facts. First, then, what are the facts with
which the Science of Religion has to deal ?
Next, in what sense is the Science of Religion
an abstraction from them ? And finally, with
what object is the abstraction made ?

The late Professor Sidgwick, in his " Methods
of Ethics 11 (Book III. ch. i. 4), insisted that
the existence of morality should be discussed
quite independently of the origin of morals ;
and that the question of the validity of ethics

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

was quite independent of and could not be
affected by any conclusions which might be
reached as to the manner in which morality
as a matter of historic fact originated. The
principles which he laid down as to the proper
method of discussing the existence, origin, and
validity of morals are equally applicable to
the existence, origin, and validity of Religion ;
and I shall now proceed to apply them.

The first question, as to the existence of
morality, can, he says, "only be determined
by introspection, together with the observation
of the present phenomena of other minds " ; and
what he says as to the method of determining
the existence of morality obviously applies with
equal force as to the method of determining
the existence of Religion. The assumptions
made both with regard to Religion and with
regard to morality are, first, that the pheno-
mena are exhibited generally in other minds ;
and next, that it is possible to observe " the
present phenomena of other minds." Neither
Religion nor morality is confined to this mind
or that, but is to be found actually or potenti-
ally in all minds ; and both Religion and
morality imply that " the present phenomena

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

of other minds " are accessible to us, and that
when we have gained access to them we find
that their experience is actually or potentially
ours. Without such spiritual communion there
would be neither morality nor Religion. The
experience in which we participate is yours or
mine so far as we choose to partake in it,
but it does not cease to exist if or when we
choose to turn aside from it.

Before, however, we can leave the matter
of the existence of Religion to turn to the
question of its origin, it is necessary to define
it. What Professor Sidgwick said of morality
applies with equal force to Religion : " It seems
premature to enquire into the origin of any-
thing before we have ascertained what it is."
This statement of Professor Sidgwick's may
then be supplemented by the obvious comment
that if we have ascertained what a thing is we
are in a position to state what it is, that is to
say, to define it. And till the student of the
Science of Religion has some idea what Re-
ligion is, he will not be able to recognise it
when he sees it, and will not advance the
cause of his science. Now, if there is to be
Religion, there must be, as we have seen,

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

a body of individuals : they must have a
common purpose, each must be conscious
of that common purpose, and the congrega-
tion must be so far, and in that sense, in
spiritual communion. But all these condi-
tions are equally requisite and equally realised
whenever any body of men work together for
any purpose. The conditions may be indis-
pensable to Religion, but they may be realised
without resulting in Religion. The one thing
wanting from them is the one thing necessary
to Religion, viz, the sense which the worship*
pers have that they are in spiritual communion
rot cnly with each other, but with their God
and that God conceived not merely as a
"principle of unity/' but as a personal God
But this sense is not merely a cold intellectual
perception of a fact which arouses no particular
emotion : it is a sense of love of love towards
one's God and towards one's neighbour.

These, then, are the facts, as disclosed by
introspection of one's own mind and observa-
tion of the present phenomena of other minds,
with which the Science of Religion has to
deal ; and the facts obviously are something
different from the Science which deals with

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

them. We may say that the facts are con-
crete facts of experience, and that Science is
abstract, or deals in abstractions made from
the facts ; and if we say so, we are making
a statement which is undoubtedly true, but
which is liable to misinterpretation. It would
be misinterpreted if it were understood to imply
that Religion is experience and science is not.
The man of science in conducting his experi-
ments or drawing his conclusions is certainly
undergoing experience experience as direct
as it is possible to have. But science, say
Science of Religion, which is itself an experi-
ence, is not experience of the religion which
it dissects nor are the dissected members the
religion in which they were elements. A man
may, for the purposes of science, study a re-
ligion which is not his own, and in so doing
his experience is plainly different from that
of a believer when practising his religion.
For the purposes of science a man may
study the religion which is his own ; but so
far as he treats it scientifically his attitude
is quite different from that in which, as a
believer in it, he stands towards it: the ex-
perience through which he goes is different

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

in the two cases. The difference in the two
cases is not merely that his attitude is different
but that with which he is dealing is different.
As a man of science he takes the religion with
which he is dealing in abstraction: he abstracts
from it, and sets aside, for one thing, the re-
ligious feeling or emotion which is the very
breath of its being, and without which it is
indeed fit for the dissecting table, but is no
longer the religion which animates and vivifies
those for whom it is a living thing and the
vital truth. That is why Science of Religion
is not altogether unjustifiably to some
minds so repellent. The man of science
may "peep and botanise upon his mother's
grave/' but to do so he must for the moment
banish from his mind the relation in which
he stands to it : the turf must for the moment
be as any other piece of 'turf: it must be
taken in abstraction from its other relations.
It is with such abstractions that Science of
Religion deals, and only with such abstrac-
tions. If it is with his own religion that
the student is concerned, it requires no great
effort to realise that he is then dealing with
an abstraction. If it is with a religion not
E 65

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his awn, he may easily forget that there are,
or have been, those for whom it was no
abstraction, no caput mortuum, but some-
thing very different from that which he has
before him. If the student has no religion
of his own, he may easily fall, and in some
cases undoubtedly does fall, into the fallacy
of imagining that for no one was or is
religion anything but the unreal thing which
it is for him. In any case it is clear that
the student of the Science of Religion cannot
believe all the religions which he studies, and
that any religion taken apart from belief in
it is an abstraction. The Science of Religion
therefore deals with an abstraction from the
facts, and is not the facts with which it
deals and to which it relates.

If now we enquire with what object this
abstraction from experience is made, we must
reply in the first place that the Science of
Religion is a historical science, and as such
its object is to trace the Evolution of Religion.
Whether, when the evolution of religion has
been traced, all that science and philosophy
can do for religion has been done, is a
point to which we shall have to return here-

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

after. For the present we may be content
to note that any theory of the evolution
of religion must concern itself, amongst
other things, with the question of the origin
of religion ; and following the example of
Professor Sidgwick, who, in dealing with
morals, insisted on the necessity of sharply
distinguishing between the origin and the
validity of morality, we shall draw the same
distinction in the case of religion. In words
which apply to religion as well as to morality
he said : "It seems to be frequently assumed,
that if it can be shown how certain mental
phenomena, thoughts or feelings, have grown
up if we can point to the antecedent pheno-
mena, of which they are the natural conse-
quents then suddenly the phenomena which
we began by investigating have vanished ;
they are no longer there, but something else
which we have mistaken for them, viz., the
'elements/ of which they are said to be
1 composed '" . Thus, to apply to religion
the argument which Professor Sidgwick used
of morality, if the Science of Religion can
point to the antecedent phenomena of which
religion is the natural consequent, then it is

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

sometimes supposed that religion is thereby
ftxploded : it is no longer there, but only the
elements say fear or magic of which it is
supposed to be composed. This is a fallacy,
it is hardly necessary to say, into which
they are particularly prone to fall who hold
that there is nothing " in " religion : they
trace its origin to certain antecedent pheno-
mena, and believe that those phenomena
fear or the belief in magic are religion,
and that it is only by a mistake that re-
ligion is ever considered to be anything
else. But as Professor Sidgwick noted, the
laws of belief are not like the laws of
chemistry; or, in his own words: "The
psychical consequent is in no respect exactly
similar to its antecedents, nor can it be
resolved into them : and there is nothing,
at least according to the ordinary empirical
view of causation, which should lead us to
regard the latter as really constituting the
former." That is to say, religion regarded,
as for the purposes of the theory of Evolu-
tion it must be regarded, as a psychical
consequent which ensued upon certain ante-
cedents, "is in no respect exactly similar

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

to those antecedents " say fear or the
belief in magic "nor can it be resolved
into them " : they do not " really constitute
religion/'

The one thing necessary for the theory of
Evolution is that it should be free. The
one thing necessary if its results are to be
accepted by religious minds is that it should
be matter of common knowledge that, what-
ever view of the origin of religion may be
taken, its validity remains unaffected* Pro-
fessor Sidgwick said, " It has been very
commonly assumed on the one side that if
our moral faculty can be shown to be
'derived* or 'developed/ suspicion is there-
by thrown upon its trustworthiness : while
on the other hand if it can be shown to
be 'original* its trustworthiness is thereby
established. The two assumptions seem to
me to be equally devoid of foundation/'
The same view is taken by Professor Sorley,
the successor to Professor Sidgwick's chair :
he says in his "Ethics of Naturalism' 1 (2nd
ed,, p. 133): "It cannot be held that moral
intuitions are invalid because evolved, The
evolutionist will certainly go very far wrong,

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

as Mr Sidgwick points out, if he maintains
that ' a general demonstration of the derived-
ness or developedness of our moral faculty
is an adequate ground for distrusting it." 1
It is scarcely necessary for us to insist that
what is thus said, and repeated, of morality
is equally true of religion : its trustworthi-
ness, its validity, is a question quite apart
from the question of its origin.

The Science of Religion then, as science, is
not concerned with the question of the validity of
religion. Indeed science, generally, has not to
do with the question whether- the experience on
which it is based is or is not trustworthy : it takes
experience for its basis and as the test of the
trustworthiness of its conclusions. It leaves to
metaphysic the enquiry whether its basis and
foundations are sound. Further, each particular
science limits itself to the investigation of some
particular aspect or department of experience ;
and takes that department apart from in
abstraction from the rest. The question
whether some given religion is or is not
valid is a question with which the Science
of Religion has not to do : it takes any
religion, with which it deals, apart from the

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

question whether it deserves belief, and deals
with it in the abstract. That, of course, is
not the only abstraction which the Science
of Religion makes from concrete religion.
Another, and one with which we will now
go on to deal, is that it abstracts from the
Freedom of the Will It is no part of my
intention to prove that the will is free. I
assume that it is so, and that science quite
legitimately for its own purposes sets aside
the assumption. I only wish to point out that
science does not begin by disproving the
freedom of the will : it begins by assuming
that there is no freedom. Consequently no-
thing in science can prove that the will is
not free. When all the deductions have been
drawn that science is capable of drawing, the
question whether the will is free remains un-
touched. Science assumes that there is no
freedom of the will, and the fact that the
conclusions of science are in harmony with
its original assumption no more proves the
assumption to be true, than the coherency of
Euclid proves that two straight lines cannot
enclose a space.

There is, of course, nothing arbitrary in the

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proceedings of science, \frhen it decides to take
the facts of experience in abstraction from the
freedom of the will, with which in experience
they are or appear to be associated. There is
nothing arbitrary, for the simple reason that
the object of science is to discover the causes
of things and the laws according to which things
must be supposed to happen if we are to have
any scientific knowledge of them. If, then, our
object is to discover the laws and causes of
things, we must assume that everything has a
cause, that nothing can happen without a cause,
and that a cause can only produce a given effect.
This assumption is fundamental for all science,
and consequently it is fundamental for the
Science of Religion. For science or by science
the whole process of religion must be regarded
as the necessary outcome of laws and causer
which could not be otherwise than as they are :
the whole process is studied apart, in abstrac-
tion, from the freedom of the will the
individual is supposed not to be free in his
actions, his beliefs, his aspirations, or his
want of belief and his turning away from
the things of religion. The Science of
Religion is abstract and deals with abstrac-

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tions with certain aspects of experience
just because its ob, "t is to ascertain and
state laws, which laws are themselves abs-
tractions.

Science, then, is an interpretation of experi-
ence ; but the interpretation of a thing is not
the thing interpreted ; nor does the original
text disappear and cease to exist, because a
translation of it appears, say, in Bohn's series.
The translation doubtless helps the student to
a better understanding of the text ; but it is
not the text which it interprets more or less
inadequately. The translation is neither the
original nor is it final. The original text is
there before the translation is made ; and it is
there after the translation is made. And how-
ever good the translation is, it is a translation to
the end ; and its object and justification is not
to take the place of the text or to pose as being
the original, but to help us to a better under-
standing of the original.

Now science is a translation of the original
text of experience : it translates that experience
into laws and causes ; it puts it into a shape
and gives it an appearance other than its own.
And it does so in order that we may go back

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to the original, the real thing, better fitted to
appreciate it. But it cannot be denied that in
the present day, the age of science, the general
notion is that we must stick to the translation,
and that there simply is nothing else to go to
or go back to. The current notion is that the
translation is the original text, that science is
not a means but an end, that when we have
read the scientific translation we are entitled
to deny that there is any original text, and to
assert that science is the final truth, not merely
about the abstractions with which science deals,
but about the experience from which they are
abstracted.

In one respect, indeed, common-sense does
feel that there is some discrepancy between
the experience on vhich science is based and
the science which is built upon it and that is
the matter of Free-will. But as common-sense
is unwilling to part with either, it retains both,
without any attempt to reconcile them. Yet
the Universality of Causation which science
postulates is incompatible with the freedom
of the will which common-sense recognises.
If we start by assuming the freedom of the
will, we must at least deny that the law of

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cause and effect holds good of everything
we must infringe to some extent upon the
universality of causation. We may perhaps
imagine that \ve shall be able to pause satis-
factorily and permanently, if we draw a
distinction between mind and matter, and
regard the one as the abode of spiritual free-
dom and the other as the region in which
causation is universal and nature is uniform.
But in that case either mind and matter
interact upon one another or they do not.
If they do interact upon one another, then
mind, in so far as it is thus acted upon, is
so far subject to the law of causation ; and
matter, so far as it is thus acted upon, is no
longer subject to the law of cause and effect.
Yet, how can we imagine or believe material
things to be set in motion or deflected in their
motion except by material things ? or how can
material things impinge upon spiritual beings?
Whence comes the motion in the one case and
what becomes of it in the other ? And how is
either theory compatible with the Conservation
of Energy? in either case the sum total of
energy must be a varying amount. Feeling
these difficulties, we may incline to the view of

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those who have held that there is no interaction
between mind and matter, but that conscious-
ness is epiphenomenal, that is to say, it accom-
panies or is concomitant with movements and
changes of matter, as a shadow may accom-
pany the locomotive which casts it. But in
that case, we who believe in free-will get no
help, for it is the material train which casts
the shadow the epiphenomenal consciousness,
that is to say, the shadow, does not move the
train.

Thus the difficulties in which we are in-
volved, if we draw a distinction between mind
and matter, and imagine that distinction to be
ultimate and fundamental, are from any point
of view great ; and they become intolerable,
if we are in earnest with the belief that God
is a spirit, and that the basis and reality of all
things is spiritual. In fine, if the spiritual is
the real and is the only reality, then the
universality of causation and the uniformity
of Nature can only be aspects of the real, ways
of looking at it, abstract conceptions of it
appearances. To this point of view science
itself, when it passes into evolution, seems to
be tending. The law of causation is that

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under the same circumstances the same result
will ensue if identically the same antecedents
recur, the same consequence will follow. The
only question is a question of fact, viz.,
whether identically the same antecedents ever
do recur. If they did, the course of the world
would repeat itself as if it were a recurring
decimal. But from the point of view of
evolution the same thing never does recur :
each stage in that evolution is different from
any that preceded and from any that will
follow. The uniformity of Nature, in this
sense of the words, is abandoned : we con-
tinue to assert strenuously that if or whenever
the same cause recurs the same effect will
follow, but, when we are promulgating the
theory of evolution, we maintain that the
same cause never does recur. And certainly,
in our own personal experience, the same cir-
cumstances never are repeated : at no two
periods of our lives are the circumstances,
however similar they may be, exactly the
same and, if they were, we at any rate are
not the same.

The question, however, now suggests itself
whether we have got rid of the law of

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causation, because we have pointed out that
there is no room in the theory of evolution
or the process of evolution for recurring
causes. We can scarcely believe that we
have. A cause is no less a cause, even if it
has never happened and never produced its
effect before, or will never occur and therefore
never produce its effect again. We have not
got rid of causation because we have got rid
of the uniformity of causation. Every single
cause that acts is a cause, even if no two
causes in the whole course of the universe's
evolution are the same. And in a universe
which evolved in this way, there would be no
event uncaused and no room anywhere for
any free-will. Universality of causation is
incompatible with freedom of the will ; and
the theory of evolution abstracts from the
freedom of the will, it is built upon the
assumption that no stage of evolution could
have been otherwise than it was.

Thus the theory of evolution is essentially
abstract, in that it sets aside the freedom of
the will. It is also abstract in another sense,
viz., that it concentrates itself on one aspect of
things their growth and development. That

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is to say, it accepts without question the reality
of Time and Space. It is abstract again in
yet another sense, viz., that it investigates the
process of evolution in time and space, with-
out reference to without prejudging the
question whether there is a God, The theory
of evolution then is abstract through and
through. It starts from experience, but it
confines itself to certain aspects of experience.
Eventually, therefore, we must face the
question whether a theory which avowedly
confines itself to certain aspects of experience,
can be accepted as a satisfactory explanation
of the whole of experience. The only ground
on which we could so accept it would be that
we had reason quite apart from the theory of
evolution to believe that the will is not
free, that time and space are realities, and
that the process of evolution requires no God.
If on the other hand, we hold that the will is
free, or that time and space are not ultimate
realities, and that there is a God, then the
theory of evolution will be for us not Reality
but one aspect or Appearance of Reality. It
will enable us to understand the reality of ex-
perience in some respects and from some

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

points of view the better, as any translation
may help us to a better understanding of the
original. But like all translations it is in-
adequate and even in some respects mislead-
ing. The question then arises whether time
and space are real, for if they are only
appearance, the process of evolution also is
not Reality but an appearance given to
Reality. This question will occupy us in
the next lecture.

Ill

T N this lecture I propose to discuss the
* subject of Time and Space. I wish to
show that Time and Space are ways in which
we interpret experience ways in which we
dissect experience. And I use the word
4< dissect " advisedly, as wishing to imply that
experience must be dead before we can lay it
out in Time and Space. In the first place, it
is when we reflect upon experience that we
arrange it in Time and Space, not when we
are aware of it ; and, next, any experience is,
at the moment when we have it, a live ex-
perience, so to speak, whereas, when we
" re-fleet " or turn back upon it, it is, as it
were, dead ; and then we lay out its corpse in
Time and in Space. My object therefore is
to argue that in our living experience we have
to do with the timeless and the non-spatial.
Of course, the common-sense notion is that
Time is a reality, that things take place and
are in Time. That notion of course involves
F . 81

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the distinction of past, present and future as
something given to begin with, and not as a
distinction introduced by us. In the same
way the popular idea is that a cause is some-
thing given to start with as distinct from the
effect and as really separate from the effect
It is, however, clear on the least reflection that
the popular idea is quite untenable : the dis-
tinction is one which we put upon the facts
and by which we interpret the facts but it is
not in the facts. For instance take the case
of the explosion of a barrel of gunpowder :
enumerate all those conditions which are
necessary to the production of the effect, i.e.
without which the effect would not take
place : the gunpowder must be there, in a
confined space, it must be dry, it must be in
an atmosphere which permits of explosions,
etc., etc., and a light must be applied. Now
the cause is the sum of conditions necessary
to the effect. Unless and until all the con-
ditions are there, the cause does not exist.
But the moment the conditions are all there,
the effect is produced. We may distinguish
in words between the cause and the effect,
but the distinction is a verbal one, introduced

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by us, and not in the facts. We may enumerate
all the conditions of the explosion spark in-
cluded and having done so we can pause, or,
without pausing, we can say <c and then the ex-
plosion followed." Indeed we actually believe
it, for that is what we read in the newspaper.
But though we pause and distinguish between
the effect and the sum of conditions necessary
to produce it, there is no such pause in actual
fact, for the sum of conditions is not only
necessary to produce the effect, it constitutes
the effect. The distinction is a distinction
in thought, not in the facts. It is a distinction
which we introduce on reflection, not one given
in actual experience, But though it is really
quite untenable, it is also absolutely indispens-
able. I say it is indispensable. What would
become of the whole theory of evolution, of
the universality of the law of causation, if we
tried to dispense with it ? There is no need
to try to dispense with it, if we remember that
reflection is not the same thing as the ex-
perience reflected on. Remember that reflec-
tion is as it were the translation of the original
experience, and it is easy to understand that
the two things are different though related

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

that what is one sentence in the original is
broken up in the translation into two sentences
connected by a conjunction, "and." Error
only comes in when statements which are true
of the translation are supposed to be true of
the original when it is supposed that the dis-
tinction which we make on reflection between
cause and effect is a distinction which was
given in actual experience.

Now, what I have said about the distinction
between cause and effect will be found, I
think, to apply equally to the distinction
between the present and the not-present, i.e.
the past and future between the " now " and
the "not now." What is included in the
present moment? something or nothing? If
nothing, then the present is a vertical line, a
line without breadth and that is an absolute
abstraction, a pure nonentity. In that case
the past and the future exist but not the
present-^-and that is self-contradictory, for
past and future, whatever they may be or
have been, are now non-existent the one no
longer, the other not yet, existent. Still, the
tendency is especially on the part of Sensa-
tion Philosophers to draw the line as fine as

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

possible. How fine then can the line which
represents the present be drawn ? Evidently
the minimum below which we cannot go must
contain at least a single sensation. The
sensation which preceded the present sensa-
tion is past, that which is to follow is future.
We look, then, as it were through a narrow
slit, wide enough for just one sensation, which
sensation must pass away before another can
come. It is in their succession that past and
present consist. But the past when past is
not wholly past it survives in memory, if not
in fact Now, one objection to this view is
the discontinuity of experience which it neces-
sarily assumes : we are looking through the
narrow slit of the present moment and see the
sensation before us, that sensation has to dis-
appear, and the next to take its place. The
break between the two is supposed either com-
plete or not. If supposed complete it is untrue
to fact : our life is not a series of detached
moments. If the break is not complete, that
is to say if there is no break, then we may
compare the process to a diorama : as it moves
before our eyes, part of the picture we have
seen is gone, part of that which we are going

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

to see is coming on. If then we are not aware
of two successive sensations simultaneously, at
any rate we are simultaneously aware of the
latter half of the first and the earlier half of
the second.

But, having got so far as this, having come
to recognise that we may see together the end
of the one and the beginning of the other, we
may perhaps inquire why the range of our
vision is supposed to be thus limited, and
whether as a matter of fact it is thus restricted.
It is supposed thus limited in the interest of a
theory a very natural theory viz., that the
distinction of past, present, and future is
given to us in experience, not an interpretation
of experience. Now, theory must fit facts :
it is useless to mutilate facts to suit theory.
The question therefore simply is whether we
actually are aware only of one sensation at a
time. We have seen that this is strictly un-
tenable, even on its own pre-suppositions.
Now let us set: them aside and imagine we
hear a burst of melody whether from "a
happy, happy bird " or a solemn organ's
stately peal. Is it the case that we are aware
of a succession of independent notes, and that

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

having heard them one after another, we put
them together and eventually on reflection
get a distant idea of a tune ? Surely it is the
other way about ! First the phrase is there,
whole, complete, enrapturing. Subsequently,
in cold blood we may dissect it into its com-
ponent parts, its successive notes. But that is
a subsequent proceeding. In other words the
time-distinctions of past, present, and future
are introduced by us, on reflection, into our
experience : they are not essential to or neces-
sarily a part of the experience. I say " the
phrase is there/ 1 and I suggest that you were
aware of the words together that they formed
a unity. You may now say there are four
words : the-phrase-is-there ; and that " the "
comes first, " phrase " second, " is " third, and
" there" fourth. You may treat the separate
words as though they were so many lantern-
slides : you may put in the first, throw it on
the screen ; take it out and put in the second,
and so on, making each picture on the screen
quite discontinuous with the rest And then
you may go on to argue that therefore the
sentence as I originally uttered it was nothing
but those four separate, discontinuous, succes-

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

sive words. Now to argue thus is to confuse
the original, direct experience with the very
different reflection upon it and dissection of it,
which we may make but do not always or
necessarily make. Yet the two things thus
confused are really quite distinct and easily
distinguishable. I may perhaps illustrate the
distinction by calling your attention to a table :
as it stands it is a table, but separate the four
legs from the top, cast them apart ; and then,
though you have five pieces of wood, you no
longer have a table, Separate and apart from
one another, the five pieces are not a table ;
and, on the other hand, the table was not, or
is not, merely five pieces of wood it has a
use, a purpose, a meaning which they have
not. It has a being different from theirs.
They and it are undeniably different. For
one thing, it has a unity which they have not.
So too, I proceed to argue, the sentence has a
unity which its constituent words, when it is
dissected into them, have not. That it can be
dissected into them, we recognise on reflection
and when our attention is called to the fact.
But in the first instance, in our first immediate
experience, it is the unity which is presented

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

to us, and of which we are aware. The
sentence as a whole is before us, and it
is all at once before us. "The phrase is
there." I submit that that sentence as a
whole, and the whole of that sentence, was
grasped by you at once. The opposite, and,
as I am maintaining, the erroneous view* is
that each word successively alone was present
and presented, and that each word was past
and gone before you could be aware of the
next: through the slit of attention you could
only see one word at a time. What gives this
view its plausibility is that, when your atten-
tion has been called to the fact that it can be
dissected into four successive words, you can
easily repeat the sentence and note the words.
From this it is easy to infer that, when the
sentence was first uttered, you began by hearing
the words separately and then you constructed
the sentence out of them subsequently. But
the inference, though easy, is, I suggest, mis-
taken, and a reversal of the actual proceeding.
This, I believe, I can show quite easily, If
the inference is true of the sentence, it must
also be true of the words composing the
sentence. If you were conscious first of the

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

words, then of the sentence, and, last of all,
of the meaning of the sentence, then you
were also first of all conscious of the initial
consonants, next of the long vowel, next of
the sibilant, then of the whole word " phrase,"
and finally of its meaning. Now that, I think,
would be plainly an error. Of the 800 millions
or more of persons who people the earth, the
vast majority cannot spell, and have no idea
that a word can be broken up at all. Breaking
a word up thus is a procedure of reflection ;
and to that reflection they never do, aj a
matter of fact, proceed. Breaking a sentence
up is also a procedure of reflection, and a pro-
cedure to which countless millions of spoken
sentences are never subjected. On reflection,
indeed, we can say that the first half of the
spoken sentence was past before the second
half came to be uttered ; or that, whilst the
first half was being spoken, the second half
was yet in the future. That is to say, we
can on reflection introduce time-distinctions
between the words of the sentence, or indeed
between the syllables of one word. But in
the first instance what we are aware of is
the spoken phrase, or the phrase of melody

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

as a whole the phrase is before us as a
whole : we dissect it, or may dissect it, after-
wards. The distinction into past, present, and
future is not something given to begin with :
it is a distinction made by us subsequently
applied by us to what in direct experience
was a timeless whole. Time is a form of
analysis, a way in which we may analyse
experience.

Perhaps you may feel that though the
argument I have been setting forth has an
appearance of plausibility when illustrated
by reference to a simple phrase of words or
notes, it can hardly be stretched far enough
to embrace all time. If so, let me use a
simple illustration. Imagine the capital letter
V. Imagine the two strokes, however, pro-
longed to infinity. Imagine, further, that
you are looking from the base of the letter.
You can only see as far as your sight permits
you, and those of us who are short-sighted
cannot see very far. A line drawn across the
V will mark the range of my vision, a more
distant line will mark the range of vision of a
better sighted person. Thus we may imagine
a series of parallel lines drawn across the V ;

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and each of these lines will differ in length
from all the others. Now, the length of any
one of these parallel lines gives, so to speak,
the " time-grasp " of the mind. The 4< time-
grasp" of a mortal man may be very restricted ;
but that of the Infinite and Eternal Mind of
God will comprehend infinity. To His com-
prehension infinity will be what a short
sentence is to our minds as comprehensible
as the words I AM. But time-distinctions,
though they may be applied to infinity and
the Infinite, are evidently inadequate to cope
with it ; and that inadequacy is a further
confirmation of the view that time-distinctions
are not something given to begin with, but
are distinctions made by us. We may seek
to interpret Eternity by means of the time-
distinctions we employ, but we cannot get
Eternity into them, or stretch Time wide
enough to include Eternity. Useful as time-
distinctions are, they are also a method of
interpretation used by us they are not the
reality which we interpret by means of them.
It is not in them, nor are they in it. We
translate Eternity into terms of Time; and
so familiar are we with those terms, that I

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION ,

feel as though it were paradoxical to state
the simple truth, viz., that Eternity is real
and Time is not.

The paradoxical appearance of the state-
ment that time-distinctions are only a method
of interpretation used by us becomes very pro-
nounced when we set our faces towards the
future. Surely the difference between pre-
sent and future is a real difference, a difference
in things, and not merely a difference of inter-
pretation? We may know the past and see
the present : we neither see nor know the
future. We have present sensations, memory
of past sensations and expectation of future
sensations expectation but not knowledge.
Well ! then, can we be said to have knowledge
of the past? If it is admitted that we can,
then we can have knowledge of what is not
present. Now, past and future alike are
not present ; but the suggestion made is that
of the past we have memory and therefore
knowledge; while of the future we have
expectation and therefore not knowledge.
How far then is memory the same thing as
knowledge? Some people remember things
which I will venture to say they not being

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

present never took place. On the other
hand, when we base ourselves on the Nautical
Almanac, is our expectation of the next
eclipse inferior as knowledge to our memory
of childhood's days? Or is the proposition,
"all men are mortal " of less certitude when
applied to the future than to the past ? If it
is equally certain, then we have some know-
ledge of the future. Though the moment of
death is not known, even in the case of
condemned criminals, quite so accurately as
that of the eclipse of the sun, there is as
much certainty about it as about most of
our memories of the past. And generally
speaking, we rely with justifiable confidence
on lunch being served to-day at much the
same time as yesterday. There is probably
as much correctness in your anticipation of
this afternoon's proceedings as in your re-
collection of the events of yesterday afternoon.
Or, to take a wider view, our earthly life lies
between birth and death, the one event in the
past and the other in the future : the future
event is as certain as the past event, and the
past is not more matter of knowledge than the
future. If then we liken the brief span of life

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

to the phrase that is spoken or sung, we may
comprehend that the time - distinctions with
which we may and do, on reflection, break up
the unity, whether of the sentence or of life,
are introduced on reflection, and are not there
in immediate experience. The difference
between present and future which seems
so undeniable when once our attention is
directed to it, is a difference which does not
exist until our attention is directed to it.
When our attention has been called to it,
we can repeat the sentence which as first
uttered was a unity, a whole, in which there
were no time-distinctions and no conscious-
ness of any such distinctions. We may stop
in the middle of the sentence we may say
"the phrase " and pause. Then the pause
represents the present, the words we have
uttered are past, and the words we are going
to utter " is there " are future. But until
and unless we thus introduce time-distinctions,
the sentence is timeless. Until and unless
we introduce time-distinctions, consciousness
is timeless. Time is a way in which we may
interpret consciousness. But the fact that
Time is in the interpretation or is the form

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of the interpretation is no proof that it is in
the original.

The difficulty we undoubtedly feel when we
try to realise the timelessness of experience
and consciousness is, I think, due to the fact
that in order to interpret consciousness into
terms of time we have to assume that we are
here and now. When, but not until, we make
that assumption, we can distinguish the "now "
from the " not now." We can divide the " not
now " into the " no longer," and the " not yet."
Then, if it is suggested to us that there are
difficulties inherent in this process of distinc-
tion, we are apt to understand simply that the
" not now" is unreal. We try therefore to
abolish the " not now " from thought ; and we
find ourselves imagining Eternity as a " now "
prolonged to infinity both ways. The result
is that, after all our struggles of this kind, we
do not get rid of time-distinctions. Whether
the " now " is conceived as a narrow slit
through which we see the present sensa-
tion even though the slit be imagined so
narrow that it is length without breadth or
whether the " now " be expanded to such a
width that it is infinite, in either case so long

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

as we start from the " now " there must be a
" not now " outside it. And so long as that is
the case we evidently have not reached the
notion of Eternity : we are still within the
limits of time-distinctions. Evidently, there-
fore, the conception of Eternity is not to be
reached this way it cannot be reached, that
is to say, by insisting on the " now " and
denying the "not now." Both, alike and
equally, must be denied and set aside. In a
word, Eternity is not a "now" infinitely
extended : it is timelessness.

If it should be felt that this idea is ex-
travagant, I would point out that at any rate
it is not self-contradictory. And I should like
to go on to say that time-distinctions are plainly
self-contradictory ; and that the only way of
getting over the self-contradictions is to re-
cognise that the distinctions are themselves
unreal. Then, if they are unreal, we may
perhaps understand that the self-contradic-
tions are due simply and necessarily to the
original error of mistaking an unreality for a
reality. I say, then, that time-distinctions are
unreal, that they are self-contradictory. This
suggestion I have in effect already made when
o 97

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I pointed out the difficulties attendant on
attempts to define the "now" or to indicate
its extent. What extent do you assign
to the "now" to "the present time"?
You may perhaps vaguely mean the present
hour of lecture. You may, of course, mean
the present moment which, of course, is no
longer present it was over before I could
speak of it. Indeed, when you come to look
at it, it was but the line dividing the past from
the future and a line, as you know, is length
without breadth that is to say, it had no
breadth, that is no duration it had, in fact,
no existence. Length without breadth is
purely imaginary. The present, in that
sense of "the present moment," is not a
real thing. Now, that conclusion is exactly
in harmony with the view that I am engaged
in maintaining, viz., the unreality of the
" now " and the " not now." Past and future
time, for those who believe in time, must
essentially be the same as present time.
The past is made up of moments that have
gone by ; the future of moments yet to come
and those moments, like the present moment,
are imaginary. If you exist in the present, if

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

your past existence is over and now non-
existent, if your future existence is not yet
and may perhaps never be, then you exist
in the present, that is to say you have to
squeeze yourself up within the limits of a
line which has no breadth, and is, in fact,
purely imaginary. Personally, I don't feel
that I have room to breathe when laced up
so tightly. Shall we then relax the limits of the
11 now," and leave ourselves room to breathe
and turn in? We have seen that we can
speak intelligibly of the present hour. We
can speak with equal reason of the present
day, the present century, the present age, the
present epoch, the present dispensation. When
we do speak and think thus, "the present 11
seems to have widened itself out as unreason-
ably as the " now " narrowed itself a moment
ago when it shrank to a line's breadth, i.e. to a
breadth which is purely imaginary, as we have
seen. Perhaps you will say that, of course,
when we speak of the present century we don't
mean that it is present. Of course, too, when
we speak of the present day or hour we don't
mean that it is present Or, if we come to
that, the present minute with its sixty seconds

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is not "present." On the whole, then, it
would seem that "the present century" or
"the present hour" is not a real thing, any
more than "the present moment" is. There,
too, once more I quite agree. " The present,"
so far from being the one actual reality in
which alone we live and move and have our
being is a self-contradictory idea. There is no
fixed or reasonable line to be drawn between
the "now" and the "not now." We move
the line about to suit our own purposes. The
"now" and the "not now," each of them in
turn, threatens like a dragon to swallow up the
other, and seems to have done it but never
does do it, for these are relative terms, and
neither can enjoy its shadowy existence with-
out the other. What we have to do is to re-
cognise that these monsters and how horrible
at times is the difference between the " now "
and the "not now"! are not realities, but
shadows which the blade of reason may strike,
and not in vain. And if it does strike, it strikes
them both; and when they vanish Eternity
arises not an everlasting "now," but pure
timelessness.

Let us now turn from Time to Space, and
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let us consider whether space is one of the
realities of which we have experience* or one
of the ways in which we may interpret the
experience we have. To begin with, it is
clear that some of the arguments we have
used whatever their value are as applic-
able to space as to time. As the moments
of time are relative to one another, so are
the points of space. As the "now" is
relative to the "then" and is intelligible
only in its relativity, so the "here" is rela-
tive and intelligible only as relative to the
"there." If there were no "here," there
could be no "there," just as there can be
no "then" or "not now," if there is no
"now." Again, there is no peace between
the "here" and the "there," any more than
there is between the "now" and the "not
now." In turn the " here " seems to swallow
up the "there," and then to shrink into
nothingness itself. Let us try to define
"here," or at any rate to form some notion
of it It would be quite correct to say that
you and I are "here," meaning in this room.
It would be equally correct to say that we are
11 here/ 1 meaning in this town, or wider still

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meaning in this England of ours; or wider
still in Europe ; or in this world ; or widest
of all in this universe. " Here " is in fact a
word which, like a stone thrown into a pond,
sends out widening circles, which go on spread-
ing until they embrace everything : what at one
moment was outside the circle and " not here/ 1
at the next is "here" and so on, until every-
thing is "here." The "there" or the "not
here " seems entirely abolished and swallowed
up. It seems, but only seems, abolished : the
seeming is mere appearance. Consider ! by
11 here " we may mean " in this room " ; but
equally well it may mean " at this table," or
"on this paper." And there it may mean
"this word," "this letter," "this letter i," or
" the dot upon the i." And when we have got
to this dot, we may remember that the dot is
a point, and that a point is position without
magnitude. "Position without magnitude!"
the thing is an unreality. It is not a thing of
which we have experience. And space is an
arrangement of points, that is, of unrealities.
Sum up all the unrealities, and though they be
infinite in number, the sum is as unreal as the
items which make it up. The "here," having

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swallowed up the "there," now shrinks and
shrivels up into nothingness.

Space then alternates between being a mere
blank, in which all things may be, and being a
mere point of nothingness, from which all things
are excluded. And so long as we imagine
space to be real, we are compelled to vacillate
between these two extremes, and perpetually
to abandon each in favour of the other. Its
infinity is illogical, incomplete, unsatisfying,
It: is illogical, because it is impossible to have
one of two relative terms without the other
impossible to conceive of a "here" to which
there is no "there." It is incomplete, because,
extend it as you may, you cannot extend it so
far that there is no "beyond." It is unsatis-
factory because you cannot extend it so far,
and yet feel that you must, The escape from
this unsatisfying want of logic lies in recog-
nising that space is not a* reality of which we
have experience, but a way of interpreting the
experience we have. It is a way of inter-
preting the unity of things, the unity of which
we are aware and of which we form part.
But, like all interpretations, it consists in
substituting for the original a version which,

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however good, however useful, is not the
original. It is reflection, and the outcome of
reflection upon the original. But it is not the
experience which it dissects, or rather of which
it is the dissection. The dissected creature is
not the living creature : the unity of life has
gone. Space is a form of thought by means
of which we break up the unity of experience,
and into which we distribute things when
under the influence of reflection their unity
has evaporated. The difficulty, or rather the
impossibility, of piecing together the "here"
and the "there," of defining their edges, so to
speak, in order that we may set the broken
bone, is itself the proof that the unity of life,
of reality, is not in them. By means of the
conception of space we hold, or imagine we
hold, things apart, so that we may contem-
plate and examine them separately. But the
moment we have ascribed to them this separate,
individual existence, we find that, when we
want to put them back into relation with other
things, those other things also are in space.
The result is that we do not get back to the
original non-spatial unity of experience : we
find ourselves in a spatial world, containing

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separate things, effectually isolated from one
another by their spatial relations* The only
unity those isolated things possess is such
unity as they can attain in virtue of the fact
that they are all in space. And how unreal is
any unity which professes to unite the " here "
and the " not here," we have already seen : it
is as unsatisfactory and impossible as the
attempt logically to distinguish them,

Thus far we have been considering argu-
ments which apply equally to space and
time, and calling attention to points which
space and time have in common. But it is
equally true that there are points of difference,
and it is equally necessary to consider them.
The first point I would call your attention to
is the fact that space bears a special reference
to my individual, personal experience, which
time does not. This present moment which
is "now 11 for me is also "now** for you, and
for all in this country or this world. But
" here," the space which I occupy, is not
44 here " for you or anybody else it is " there"
for everyone but me : two things cannot simul-
taneously occupy the same point of space, but
an infinite number of events or experiences

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may and do take place in the same moment of
time. If we may take "now" as the central
point of time, from which we look back upon
the past and forward into the future, then we
are all of us alike and equally at that point, in
the "now." But with the central point of
space the case is different. Space has its
centre everywhere and its circumference no-
where. It has its centre everywhere, for
wherever there is a centre of consciousness
there is a centre of space, that is to say, a
" here." Its centres are infinite in number and
never coincide. But its circumference is no-
where. That seems to mean that it has indeed
a circumference, but that that circumference
is not in space, or perhaps, rather, we should
say that what lies outside the circumference is
not space. But in what intelligible sense can
we speak of space as being in the non-spatial ?
If it is implied that the non-spatial does not
exist, the position is open to all the difficulties
and self-contradictions involved in the mean-
ingless phrase " infinite space." If it is implied
that the non-spatial does exist and is a reality,
then the spatial does not exist, or at any rate
is a non-reality. In truth we have travelled,

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as all who talk about space must perpetually
travel, from one extreme to the other. We
narrowed down the "here" until it was
position without magnitude; and now we
have widened space out, until, with its centre
everywhere and its circumference nowhere, it
is simply magnitude with no position.

I have said just now that wherever there is
a centre of consciousness there is a centre of
space, and that space bears a special reference
to my individual, personal experience. And
the consequence of starting from these assump-
tions, viz., that there are "centres, 11 that is to
say local centres, of consciousness, and that
individual experience is the bed-rock, or the
seed-plot of experience generally, is that we
are eventually landed in an "antinomy of
thought/ 1 that is to say, we find ourselves
compelled to say that space must have, yet
cannot have, bounds. But though we may say
that in words, we cannot profess that the words
have any meaning. The fact which comes out
plainly is that the very idea of space is self-
contradictory and unintelligible. Under those
circumstances, it is I think not unreasonable
that we should go back to the premises from

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which we started and examine them again,
and see whether they are really sound.

When we speak of " centres of conscious-
ness" and mean thereby local centres, it is
obvious that we are assuming that space really
exists. And that is an assumption which we
cannot properly make when we are engaged
in enquiring whether space does exist.
Further, we spoke of "individual, personal
experience " as though each individual's ex-
perience were a separate world by itself, which
could exist quite independently of all other
persons and beings, and would go on existing
if all other spirits, even God Himself, were
not. Now that is a view which is held, it is the
philosophical system of "solipsism." It is a
view, however, which I shall set aside, on the
ground that we can and do share each other's
experience, or rather that there is a common
experience in which we all share. Now, this
community of experience, or communion in
experience, cannot and does not override the
conviction each one of us has of his own
personal individuality. And having granted
this, having insisted on this, I wish to go on
to ask whether it follows that our individuality,

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our centre of consciousness, must be a local
centre a centre in space. If it does, then, as
I have pointed out, it follows that there are
many centres, and that the circumferences are
not real And if the circumference of a circle
is not real, neither is the centre : a circle which
has no circumference can have no centre. It
simply is not a circle at all, it is a self-
contradiction. Well ! but does it follow from
the conception of personal individuality that
such a centre of consciousness must be in
space? If it is in space it must occupy space,
and the experiences within it must also occupy
space. If you are your body and nothing else
and nothing more, then you do occupy space,
and 4< shooting pains" may travel through your
body, traversing and occupying space, But if
that is so, then the thoughts that go on in your
head, or the pain that rages in your tooth, also
occupy space. Now, you localise the tooth-
ache in that particular stump ; as a matter of
fact it is not. Persons who have had a foot
or a leg amputated still, when the weather
changes, locate the pain they feel in the corn
which is no longer there, though they could
swear it was. The pain is there, but it is not

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in the spot in which you locate it. Perhaps,
then, though it is not in that particular spot, it
is in some other point of space. Well ! if it is in
space it must occupy space. And how much
space does a raging toothache occupy ? Miles !
Neither lineal measure, no, nor cubic measure
will express it. Great thoughts doubtless are
the prerogative of great minds ; but docs any
one seriously imagine that thoughts measure
two feet by three, or that great minds can be
estimated by cubic contents? It is obvious
that pain and joy, thought and resolution are
non-spatial. They do not occupy space, and
thus cannot be in space. They are not in
space, they are in you and me. Then, neither
are you or I in space. If the pain which I
have does not occupy space, neither can I who
have the pain occupy space. Space is not
something in which I am, but a way in which,
or a language into which I interpret my direct
experience. To speak of myself as a centre of
consciousness, and to ask whether that centre
is in space, is to use a metaphor and to ask
whether it is actual fact and truth. If it were,
it would not be a metaphor. Dut it is a
metaphor, and a misleading metaphor. To

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admit that thoughts have breadth or width or
depth only in a metaphorical sense, that, in
fact, they do not occupy space, and yet to
imagine that they are inside your head some-
where is a logical impossibility. It is really a
repetition of the fruitless journey which we
have travelled already, We were told to con-
ceive space as a circle, with its centre every*
where and its circumference nowhere ; and
then, outside the circle, we had to conceive the
non-spatial. Now, the fallacious argument
exhorts us to seek the non-spatial not outside
the circumference, but inside the centre, This
time, however, the non-spatial includes thought,
will, emotion all experience, What remains
may be shot down in space, Matter may be
deposited there.

The reason why I have devoted a lecture
to the subject of time and space may now be
stated, if indeed it is necessary to put it into
explicit words. It is obvious that Evolution
is a process conceived to take place in space
and time ; and therefore the Evolution of
Religion is a process conceived to take place
in space and time. But if space and time
are not ultimate realities but ways in which,

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

or forms according to which, we interpret
experience, then space and time are part of
the translation, or the form which the transla-
tion takes ; but they are not in the original.
Evolution is not the ultimate fact with which
we have to deal. The theory of Evolution is
a way of re-arranging in thought our ex-
perience of fact, or perhaps I should rather
say our experience which is fact. That re-
arrangement consists in a re-distribution of
experience, in parcelling it out as occupying
this portion of space and that period of time.
So far common-sense detects nothing in the
arrangement with which it disagrees : science
is and boasts that it is nothing but common-
sense, clarified, it may be, and consistently
applied. Even the principle by which science
accounts for or explains the changes which it
conceives to occur in time and space is a
principle which it owes to common-sense,
and which is therefore approved by common-
sense it is the principle of cause and effect.
But the lengths to which science carries out
this principle in the interests of the theory of
Evolution are such that eventually common-
sense must revolt from them ; for eventually

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the theory of Evolution seeks to exhibit every-
thing that is and occurs as subject to a law of
Universal Causation. If everything that is
done or that happens is the inevitable effect of
a pre-determined cause, then everything that
is done by you or me is the necessary outcome
of the causes at work ; and our freedom, the
freedom of the will is gone, But there
common -sense revolts, Science and the
theory of Evolution act very well so long as
we exclude the existence and activity of free
moral agents from our view j and only so long
will they act satisfactorily. In other words,
science and the theory of Evolution are
abstract : they are abstractions from experi-
ence, they are only partial views of experience,
and they are views which can only be got by
closing our eyes to the existence of free
agents. It is obvious therefore that science
and the theory of Evolution afford only a
partial explanation of the Universe. They do
not aim, and avowedly do not aim, at more,
But in that case they can never give an ex-
planation of the whole, If the interpretation
which they aim at putting on the facts with
which they deal were to become absolutely
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exhaustive, it would still leave unaccounted
for the existence and the action of free moral
beings. The interpretation might be a theory
of Evolution, complete at all points : it would
not be a Philosophy. And so too, however
complete a theory we may get of the Evolu-
tion of Religion, it cannot, so far as it is
Evolution, be Philosophy.

I have said that the theory of Evolution
gives only a partial explanation of the Uni-
verse ; and I mean to imply that a partial
explanation is something very different from
the explanation of a part. If instead of being
very different they were the same thing, then
science might rest safe and satisfied : her own
garden-plot would be marked off by itself, and
she could cultivate it without danger of being
interfered with. Science and the theory of
Evolution are abstractions from experience:
they are abstractions and not realities ; and
they are abstracted from the experience of
free moral agents. That is to say, science
deliberately and rightly ignores the fact that,
throughout, it is dealing with the experience
of free moral agents ; her object is a partial
explanation of that experience, an explana-

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tion of it when it is viewed as some-
thing with which free moral agency has
nothing to do. Error comes in only when
it is alleged or understood that there can be
something in the experience of free moral
agents which is entirely independent of and
aloof from that free moral experience. The
error becomes glaring when it is supposed
that the ultimate explanation of that experience
proves that neither freedom nor morality is in
it. There, as I have said, common-sense
revolts : morality and the freedom of the
will it will not part with* Then it must part
with the universality of causation, And if
the law of cause and effect is not universal
if, for instance, the will of a moral agent is
not subject to it then the law of causation
is but a mode of interpretation : it is essentially
not the explanation of a part of our experience
but a partial explanation of it It is a law
which requires time and space to act in ; and
like time and space it is not a reality or an
experience, but a way of interpreting reality or
translating experience. The fact that time
and space and the law of causation afford
but a partial explanation of reality^ and a

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

limited explanation, is shown by the anti-
nomies of thought implied by them. To seek
the first of causes, the end of time or the limits
of space is an endeavour which we can only
renounce with satisfaction when we recognise
that time, space and cause are not realities
that they only occur in the translation and
are not to be found in the original.

116

VOLUTION, we have seen, assumes the
reality of time and space, and the
validity of the law of causation. It sets
aside the freedom of the will and ignores
the possibility of the existence of God. It
may or may not be right in making these
assumptions; or rather it would be more
correct to say that it is both right and
wrong in making them. It has a right to
make them, inasmuch as science has found
by experience that the best way of attacking
complex problems is to simplify them arti-
ficially, that is to say, to concentrate attention
on some one aspect of them, and to deal with
that in abstraction from the rest When we
have learnt how certain factors would behave
what results they would produce if they
were the only factors, we are the better able to
judge of their action and effect when they are
complicated with other factors. The possibil-
ity of error arises when it becomes doubted

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whether there are actually any other factors to
take into account. When such doubt arises,
the question debated is whether the conclu-
sions of science are abstract and as abstract
require correction or whether they are not.
That is the question which is always implied,
though not always recognised, in debates as to
the relation of science to religion. Historic-
ally indeed there is no doubt that men of
science began by simply claiming provisional
freedom for science : they claimed that they
should be allowed to cultivate their plot in the
garden of knowledge without liability to irrup-
tion and invasion from theology. And not
only have they claimed this right, they have
established it : they have repelled the on-
slaughts which have been made upon their
domain, and have repelled them so triumph-
antly that they have peace upon their borders
or might have peace if they chose to stand
purely upon the defensive. As a matter of
fact, however, they do not always abstain from
reprisals : attacks upon religion in the name
of science were in the latter part of the past
century as frequent as ever attacks upon
science in the name of religion had been

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and much more telling. Indeed we
might g so far as to say that science
has not only invaded her neighbour's territory
but claims to have annexed it : the Science of
Religion is but one province in the empire of
science. The claim, however, is not admitted
by the inhabitants, nor do they render allegi-
ance to the invading power. The title-deeds
of the claimant, so to speak, are called in
question. The claim would, or might be
valid, if the assumptions on which it is based
were proved to be true. Those assumptions
with regard to time and space, the law
of universal causation, the freedom of the
will, and the existence of God are assump-
tions the validity of which requires to be
proved, and can be tested only by Philosophy.
Now it is, I believe, not going too far to sav
that men of science are beginning to recog-
nise that no proof of these assumptions can
be given. All these assumptions are of the
nature of hypotheses; and any hypothesis is
now recognised by science provided that it
is capable of explaining the facts v/hich
require explanation. And only so long as
it does explain them is it thus recognised :

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the moment it fails, or a more comprehensive
hypothesis emerges, that moment the old one
is thrown on to the scrap-heap of science.
Thus science is coming to be consciously
hypothetical, and to be aware that she is
purely hypothetical. All that she requires
of her hypotheses is that they should account
for the facts : verification, in the sense in which
that word is defined in Mill's " Logic," science
does not now profess to attain or to even aim
at. The point, however, to which I wish to call
attention is that the facts for which science
undertakes to account are facts of human
experience ; that those facts are in quite a
legitimate manner artificially simplified by
science ; that they are simplified because they
are taken in abstraction from the experience
of which they are part ; and that in particular
they are taken in abstraction from the freedom
of the will and from the existence of God.

Now, there are those who hold that the
will has no freedom and that the world has
no God; and for them, therefore, it might
appear that science is no abstraction from
experience, and requires no correction that
it is the truth, and the final truth, of experi-

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ence. A moment's reflection, however, should
suffice to show that this is not quite the case.
Science and the scientific theory of Evolu-
tion are not built upon a denial of the
existence of God or of free - will : they do
not require us to begin by denying either;
they simply require us to leave aside both for
the time being. The object of science is not
to enquire whether either is a reality, but to
build up the theory of Evolution in such a
way that it cannot be affected by any views
we hold or conclusion we may come to as
to the existence of free-will or God, The
assumption seems to be that knowledge or
experience is divided, as it were, into water-
tight compartments, none of which can be
affected by anything that goes on in any
other. On this assumption it is imagined,
by those who make it, that liberty is secured
both for religion and for science : each line
of thought may be produced ever so far both
ways, and the two lines will never meet or
clash. Now, this assumption is obviously
fatal to the belief that science is the truth,
the whole truth, and the final truth of experi-
ence ; it is fatal because it sets up religion

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

as being actually or possibly as true and real
as science itself. And it appeals very strongly
to the sense of justice in men of science : they
have claimed for themselves that science
should be free to run its course without
interference from religion, and it is only
just that religion should be allowed the
same liberty and should enjoy the same
freedom from interference on the part of
science. It is, however, tolerably clear that,
just as this arrangement appears to be, and
indeed may be, it is an arrangement which
has no element of permanence in it. It sets
up religion and science as two masters of
equal authority, and it offers no reason what-
ever for believing that it is impossible for them
to come into collision : it simply assumes that
they can never meet or clash. Either that
assumption may or may not be discussed : if
it may not, it is pure dogmatism; if it may,
then it is for Philosophy to discuss the rela-
tion of science to religion. In the same way
the assumption that science is no abstraction
from experience, and therefore requires no
correction, is either pure dogmatism or else
it is a proposition which is open to discus-

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sion and the discussion is Philosophy. The
question whether science is or is not an
abstraction from experience is simply the
question whether the freedom of the will
and the existence of God are facts of which
we have experience or not,

Perhaps I may put this point in another
way. Science and the theory of Evolution
are built upon the understanding that science
must go on its way quite unhampered by
the question whether there is or is not a
God. As far as science and evolution are
concerned, that question is not raised : it is
assumed that we do not know, and for the
purposes of science do not require to know.
And so long as we adhere to that assump-
tion, the position of science remains unmoved.
But the moment that we know, or think we
know, the position of science becomes altered.
The position was that we did not know, the
fact is that we do know. And the position
of science necessarily becomes altered by that
fact. Whether we believe that there is or
is not a God, the position of science is
bound to change. In the one case, science
ceases to be an abstraction from experience

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and becomes the whole and sole truth of
experience. In the other case, it is seen
that science is not the whole truth of
experience, but an abstraction, and an ab-
straction which will require correction before
it can take its proper place in our experience
of the real. Science does not know whether
the will is free or God exists. If we know
both facts, then our view of science and of
the theory of Evolution will be very different
from the view of the man who knows neither.
I have spoken of the freedom of the will
and the existence of God as facts of which
on one view we have, and on the other we
have not, experience or knowledge. And
perhaps it may appear to you, as it has
done to many, that our knowledge of the
existence of God is a matter of inference.
If so, I feel bound to point out the lesson
which is taught upon this point by the history
of Philosophy. That lesson is that all the
many attempts to infer His existence have
failed thus far. That fact should by itself,
I think, suffice to give us pause, if we are
inclined to renew the attempt to draw so
great an inference. It should set us enquir-

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ing whether there is anything in the nature
of the attempt itself which necessarily forbids
the attempt from being successful. I suggest
that there is something of the kind. If the
existence of God is a matter of inference
from our experience, then it is not a fact
given in our experience. That in itself is
an assumption and an assumption against
which some of us at any rate will rebel.
But though we feel inclined to revolt against
this assumption, let us recognise that it is
made with a good object. It is made for
the purpose of showing that we can, at any
rate, infer His existence. Very good! what
is the value of the inference? In other words
is it a hypothesis of the same nature as the
hypotheses of science, which are avowedly
incapable of verification and are announced
to be purely working hypotheses which will
be cast aside as soon as they have served
their turn and will go to augment the scrap-
heap of science ? If it is an un verifiable
hypothesis of that kind, it has no meaning
for us we have no use for it It might be
scientific : it is not religious* Perhaps, how-
ever, a student of the Evolution of Religion

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

will say that after all it is precisely this that
meets him in the history of religion : what
he finds is that all sorts of hypotheses are,
and have been, held and then rejected. The
worship of animals, of the heavenly bodies,
of the earth, of the gods of Greece what
were all these worships but hypotheses as
to the being of God ? And if they have
gone down, what is that but a proof that
they were unverifiable hypotheses ? Religion,
no less than science, has its scrap-heap, and
is continually augmenting it. Now this is
precisely the sort of difficulty and danger to
which a student of the Science of Religion
is exposed. It is almost inevitable that he
will draw the conclusion that as it is with
the history of science, so it is with the
history of religion : in both cases we have
to do with hypotheses, of which some have
been cast aside, and the others will as
certainly be sent to join them. In both
cases we have to do with hypotheses or
fancies, but not with fact. Now, it is ob-
vious that in the worship of the sun, moon,
stars, animals, etc., we have to do with fancies
or hypotheses. But we also have to do

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with something more. It is true that the
peoples of the earth have sought and do
seek their God in stocks and stones. But
it is also true that they cease to identify
Him with the tree or the animal in which
once they sought Him. The hypothesis
that He is to be found in the animal or at the
altar or in a house made with hands is aban-
doned in some cases and may be abandoned
in all. But though these hypotheses are or
tend to be abandoned one after another, they
are simply hypotheses as to the way or
shapes in which. He manifests Himself. Such
hypotheses are very different from belief in
Him. Indeed the very fact that they change
is proof that He abides. It is because the
belief in Him is there all the time that the
hypotheses as to His shape or place can
change : unless the belief were there, they
\vould not change, they would simply cease.
The testimony of the. Science of Religion is
that the belief is simply ineradicable, It is
quite distinct from the hypotheses as to His
place, shape, or mode of manifestation ; and
the question before us is as to the nature and
validity of the belief. Is it a matter of in-

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ference? If it is, then it is all-important to
us to know whether the inference is verifiable
or not. If it is not verifiable, then an argu-
ment which represents the existence of God as
something which is not matter of experience,
but of inference, and proceeds to show that
the inference is an unverifiable hypothesis, is
an argument whose nature casts a doubt on
the assumption that the existence of God is
not a matter of experience. On the other
hand, if the inference is verifiable, of what
nature is the verification of which it is suscep-
tible? The verification must be something
of which we have experience. If astronomy
infers that an eclipse will be visible at a
certain time and place, the verification of the
inference is to be found in experience. So
too, if the existence of God is an inference,
it is only by experience that the inference can
be verified. But when it is verified thus, it
is an inference no longer it is a matter of
personal experience. It is no longer a pro-
position dependent for its truth on some other
proposition. It is not a hypothetical or con-
ditional conclusion, true if the protasis or the
premises be true ; if otherwise, false. It is

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not a conclusion or an inference at all for
those who have had the experience : it is a
fact and a fact of experience. That is why
I suggest that all the attempts that have been
made to exhibit the existence of God as an
inference have failed and must fail It is
believed, when it is believed, as a fact, not as
an inference. That is the reason why all the
attempts to exhibit it as an inference which
we must draw and cannot help drawing if
we reason logically, have failed as all such
attempts must fail. They fail in a sense
discreditably because they begin by making
an assumption the truth of which they are
bound eventually to deny: they begin by
assuming that the existence of God is not a
fact of experience, and they end with the con-
clusion that it is. They begin with the pro-
mise that they will show His existence to be
a matter of logical inference, and in the end
it is found to be a question of personal ex-
perience, and not of inference at all. If all
the attempts which have been made to exhibit
the existence of God as an inference from
certain facts have failed, it is because there
are no premises vast enough or adequate to
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bear the weight of such an inference. The
existence of God is the premise from which
all things must be explained : they are not the
logical condition on which His existence is
dependent.

What then is the position in which we find
ourselves if we admit that it is impossible to
infer the existence of God ? Obviously we
have to give up the idea attractive as it
appears or has appeared in all probability to
all of us at some time we must give up the
idea that it is possible to construct an argu-
ment which shall by mere force of logic make
the existence of God an inference which a
man, even against his will, must draw. Next,
logical constraint of this kind, as it is im-
possible, so also it is superfluous : they do
not infer Him who believe in His love and
His goodness they know His loving-kind-
ness as a matter of their direct personal ex-
perience. On the other hand, to those who
do not believe, this belief of ours appears to
be an assumption. That we must freely
admit ; and in admitting it we gain the right
to say, not only with complete confidence but
with perfect justice, that the other first prin-

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ciple, viz., that there is no God is also an
assumption and is an assumption which is
at variance with the facts of our experience.

In thus declining to make the existence of
God a matter of inference from experience, in
insisting that it is and for those who believe
can only be a fact of experience, we base our-
selves on experience, and it becomes therefore
necessary for us to see that experience is not
defined in such a way as to beg the question.
Indeed it is equally necessary for both parties
to the dispute : if it is settled & priori that ex-
perience is only experience of tangible, visible
things, then the existence of God cannot be a
matter of experience ; or if it is settled & priori
that experience is only experience of finite
spirits, then rve cannot have experience of
God the question is begged, for the whole
question is whether we do have such ex-
perience. And it is our duty to protest against
such a petitio principii. On the other hand,
we have no right to begin by assuming that
every finite spirit has conscious experience of
God : we are bound to accept the evidence of
those who testify that they have no such ex-
perience. And we may accept it without in

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

the least binding ourselves to hold that they
never will have, still less that they never can
have such experience.

It is necessary to insist upon caution in this
respect, because these are arguments which
approach the Being of God from the point of
view that that Being is a principle of unity.
In the hands of some philosophers those argu-
ments proceed to the conclusion that the
principle of unity which binds free, finite spirits
together is itself a Personality the Personality
of God. In the hands of other philosophers,
however, this further step is not taken. By
such a philosopher it is or may be argued that
finite spirits may be united by a principle
which, since it unites them, is a principle of
unity but which is in no sense a person or a
personality. The members of a college or a
football club have, as a college or a club, a
unity : they have common purposes, a common
principle. It is that principle which gives
them their unity : it is a principle of unity.
The principle dwells in them, in each and all
of them. Its reality is efficacious and un-
doubted. The spirit of the college or the
club dwells in each member and works and

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manifests itself in each and all But though
the principle of unity which inspires and pene-
trates them all is a reality, no one I suppose
would maintain that the principle in such cases
is a person or a personality* This mode of
argument may then be applied, has been
applied, to that principle of unity which binds
together all free, finite spirits. That there is
such a principle, thus uniting all the free, finite
spirits of the whole universe, is conceded or
assumed. But the principle of unity in their
case is taken to be the same as the principle
of unity which binds together the members of
a college or a club, In the latter case the
principle is not conceived to be personal ; in
the former case therefore the principle of unity
which binds together all thinking beings is not
a personal God but an impersonal Absolute.
This argument is set forth in Dr M'Taggart's
" Hegelian Cosmology," and he sums it up by
saying (p. 94) : " I think therefore that it will
be best to depart from Hegel's own usage,
and to express our result by saying that the
Absolute is not God, and, in consequence, that
there is no God."

If Dr M'Taggart's argument is logically

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correct, it will be a fresh instance of the
position I am maintaining, viz., that all
attempts to exhibit the existence of God as
an influence from experience are fore-
doomed to failure ; and I do not feel con-
cerned with it further from that point of
view. The reason why I have alluded to
it is that it shows how necessary it is to insist
on the existence of God as being actually or
possibly a fact of experience and not an in-
ference from experience. If we start from the
experience of free, finite spirits, and seek to
discover what there is in it or may be inferred
from it, we must either take or not take the
knowledge of God as a fact of experience. If
we do so take it, then no argument is neces-
sary to prove it or capable of proving it. If
we do not so take it, then we may go on
whithersoever the argument carries us and
wherever we are 1 wafted we end with an in-
ference. The inference may be that the
principle of unity which binds together all
thinking things is a personal God, or that it
is an impersonal Absolute, and that " in con-
sequence there is no God." The latter
negative inference will have no hold over

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those whose belief is based not on inference
but on experience. And the positive infer-
ence will not be satisfactory even to those who
seek rather to infer God than to know Him.

I have insisted now so much and so often
on the fact that the existence of God is not an
inference not a fact capable of being inferred
-^that I feel I have earned the right to say that
in exactly the same way there is no possibility
of logically demonstrating the non-existence of
God. I think the idea generally is that no
one can prove His existence, and that, in the
absence of proof, the inference that He exists
is illogical and only tenable by unreasonable
minds. It seems a perfectly fair and indeed
proper position to take up, to say that one is
prepared to believe anything that can be
proved, and that one cannot be . expected to
believe things that can't be proved. To ask
for proof, to demand the premises from which
a conclusion is drawn, to require to satisfy
one's self that the rules of the syllogism or of
induction have been complied with all that is
reasonable and praiseworthy. The question is,
How far can the process be carried on, or
carried back? If only propositions which can

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be inferred are properly to be believed, then
every inferred proposition is a conclusion from
premises which in their turn are inferred from
previous propositions and so on. Yes ! so
on. But how far? If we go on thus ad
infinitum, we have a chain of arguments
hanging down as it were from the sky. The
bottom end we have indeed in our hands : but
the other end if there is another end is out
of sight, and we don't know whether it is
firmly fixed up or will come down with a run
on our heads. Evidently we cannot believe
that the regress of inference is infinite : we
must assume that there are ultimate major
premises of all demonstration. But if they are
really ultimate, and are also worthy of belief,
then the whole of our inferred knowledge
depends upon propositions which are not
inferred. It would seem, therefore, that a
proposition may be worthy of belief even if it
is not an inference, and that inferred propo-
sitions owe their validity to the fact that they
are inferences eventually from propositions
which are not inferred. Now, propositions
which are not inferred are sometimes spoken
of as facts or facts of experience. And

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with one reservation, or rather explanation,
we may accept the statement. The reserva-
tion is that all so-called facts are propo-
sitions. It is sometimes assumed that a
fact is something corresponding to one
of the terms which make up a proposition ;
and on that assumption it is supposed that we
can make a bridge over from an outside world
consisting of loose, unconnected or disconnected
"facts" to the world of experience in which
our thought, and we as thinking creatures, live
and move and have our being. But if there
be such an outside world of such loose, discon-
nected facts, we at any rate have no knowledge
of it, nor does it come within our experience,
If we think, we think propositions. A term is
either understood by us to be part of a propo-
sition expressed, understood, or implied, or
else it is a meaningless sound. If it is more
than a meaningless sound, it is a sound with a
meaning, and the meaning is a proposition.

I will take it, therefore, that in experience
we have to do, and can have to do, only with
propositions, and that of propositions some are
inferred from other propositions and some are
not. There is, therefore, nothing irrational in

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believing the propositions which are not
inferred but are facts of experience ; and it is,
strictly speaking, irrational to say that you will
only believe those propositions which are
inferred from other propositions. We are,
therefore, not convinced, and we need not be
intimidated by those who say that, as there is
no process by which the existence of God can
be exhibited as an inference, therefore it is
irrational to believe it We shall simply say
that neither is there any process by which the
non-existence of God can be demonstrated as
a logical inference from the fact of experience.
The question is not what can be inferred from
experience, but what is given in experience.

Here, perhaps, it is necessary or advisable
to remind ourselves that by experience is not
meant the experience of any one individual,
but the experience in which all finite beings
share. That experience is exhausted by no
one individual, nor has any one individual the
sole and exclusive right of interpreting it. As
a matter of fact, on this very point, viz. the
existence of God, it is read differently by
different individuals : one sees the fact there ;
another sees that it is not there; another

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cannot tell whether it is there or not, And
however sure any one of them may be of what
he sees he is not in a position to say that any
one else must also see it that such an one
may see it, if he will, however, he who does
see it feels no doubt. We must therefore
accept it as a fact to begin with that what one
man sees another may equally well not see,
But if we accept this conclusion, what in*
ference are we to draw from it? Each man
in this case regards what he sees as truth ;
and what each sees as true involves the un-
truth of what the other sees. To say that we
must accept this state of things and cannot go
beyond it, is to say that the same thing both
is and is not true. And to say that, is to say
that there is no truth, And there, on that
view, is an end of the matter : we have
reached philosophical Scepticism there is no
truth. The only alternative to this position is
to assume, as a matter of faith, that there is
truth, and only one truth, that which is valid
for all. Further, in making that assumption
we have also made other assumptions which
are also equally questioned or denied by
philosophical Scepticism : we have assumed

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that there are other thinking beings besides
ourselves, and we have assumed that those
beings have a common experience that there
is not only a plurality of spirits but a com-
munion of spirits. That these assumptions
are true is questioned by the philosophy of
Solipsism, which asserts that I exist and that
there is no proof that other beings exist, still
less that they and I have communion. Once
more then, if Solipsism is right, we can pro-
ceed no further ; and if we decide that we
must, or at any rate that we do, and that we
will, believe in a community of spirits having a
common experience, we can only do so as a
matter of faith. And that there is truth, one
and indivisible and valid for all spirits, is as I
have said also matter of faith. From this
point of view, viz., that there is such a thing
as truth a point of view which after all is the
ordinary point of view it is inevitable that it
must either be or not be true, and cannot both
be and not be true, that there is a personal
God. Further, every man who accepts one
of these alternatives on the strength of his
own experience must regard the other as a
mere assumption. In other words, he assumes

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the alternative which he accepts to be that
which is true for all thinking beings : he is
asserting not only that it is true for him, true
in his experience, but that it is the truth of
common experience, of that experience which
is common to, and shared in, by all finite
spirits. So long, however, as others make the
opposite assumption, as they have a perfect
right to do, so long he must recognise that his
belief is for others what theirs is for him, viz.,
an assumption.

It comes to this, then, that it is impossible to
demonstrate either the existence or the non-
existence of God as a logical inference from
any premises that we have or can imagine
ourselves as having. We have, therefore, to
accept whichever proposition we do accept as
uninferred. Being uninferred, it appears as,
or is, a fact of experience ; and it is as a fact
of our experience that we accept it. There is
no logical constraint upon us : we are free to
accept or reject it Atheism is possible
because the will is free to believe or not
believe in God ; and it is because the will is
free, and only because it is free, that religion
is possible. Hence it is that the common

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experience, in which all finite spirits share,
has no constraining power to compel us to
accept either alternative. We are free, we
have freedom to close our eyes to facts, to the
facts of our common experience. If we had
no such freedom, atheism would be unknown,
and the very notion of it an idea that we
simply could not grasp. But we are free : we
are also free to open our eyes and to see the
loving-kindness of the Lord. This freedom is
not a thing which any man is debarred from,
though any man may debar himself from it,
for he is free to deny the freedom of the will
and to assert that he finds no such freedom in
his experience. Nay ! the very man who
asserts his freedom may be very far from
realising it or understanding the dangers to
which it exposes him. To say that we are
free, that we have perfect freedom to believe
in God, sounds so easy. It is only when we
understand that we are free, equally and per-
fectly free, to disbelieve, that any difficulty
arises. Thus for a long time, in the days of
one's youth, one may go on in happy ignorance
of this latter side of one's freedom, under the
delusion that it is simply impossible to dis-

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believe. In the world beyond one's home, one
is told or knows that strange things take place
but then they must be strange people who
do them rational persons all believe. But
when one goes into the world, one finds that
rational persons do not all believe ; and that
the people who disbelieve are, or at any rate,
so long as you did not know, appeared to be,
quite human beings. And this disillusionment,
this waking up from the delusion that it is im-
possible for rational beings and estimable men
to disbelieve, is sometimes followed by fatal
results : it is discovered that disbelief is not
an impossibility and then freedom (which
has perhaps coincided with the first escape
from home) is conceived to consist wholly in
freedom to disbelieve. You are free to dis-
believe, there is nothing to stop you the old-
time arguments at any rate are incapable of
giving you pause, you have been through all
of them, they have no hold on you or power
to check you. Thus you may rush to the
extreme which is the very opposite to that
from which you started: first disbelief was,
now belief is, impossible. You go on in
ignorance no longer happy ignorance of

1JN JttVUJLU TIUJN

the fact that you still are free. Indeed, the
characteristic of those who are in this state is
that they find it just inconceivable that any
rational creature can believe in religion.
They do not believe in, or at any rate they
have not realised, the freedom of the will.
At least they do not believe that in this
respect there is any freedom for rational
creatures: there are things which they must
believe, or rather disbelieve, if they are
rational. The trouble is that they cannot
help seeing and admitting to themselves that
there are other people to all appearance,
indeed beyond all doubt, rational creatures, or
rational enough in other matters who hold
themselves under no compulsion to disbelieve.
And the man who gets to this point, and has
fairness enough to turn the matter over, is
very apt to begin to doubt whether there is
any such thing as truth, or to assume the
thoroughly illogical position of the Agnostic,
viz., that there are some things, science for
instance, in which truth can be attained ; and
other things the only really interesting
things in which it cannot, and with regard
to which there very probably is no truth. At

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this point there is a ray of hope, the possibility
of escape. The man who begins by sitting on
the fence of Agnosticism, will probably come
down : as he sits there and looks down on the
persons on both sides of the fence, and reflects
that they were free to choose and have chosen
freely whichever side they liked, it may occur
to him that after all he cannot be so very
different from other people that if they are
free to take a side, he probably is equally free.
But this freedom, which before seemed to him
so easy so easy that he exercised it first one
way and then the other now wears another
aspect It requires, or rather perhaps it con-
sists in an exercise of the will, To maintain
the position you have taken up, to say " so I
will, and so I believe/ 1 requires a constant
exercise of will-power. To take up your
position is one thing, to maintain it is
another, for your will is still free other-
wise there would be no relapses from con-
version.

We are then free, always free, to assume
either that there is or that there is not a God ;
and it is not until you have made the assump-
tion that you can experience its consequences ;

K 145

nor until you have experienced its con-
sequences can you know its value. Without
Faith you cannot feel the consequences of
Faith : only by living the life can you do so.
The consequences to be valued must be felt :
no intellectual discussion can take the place of
the feeling. Feeling and emotion are every
whit as essential as reason to the realisation of
truth. If belief is, as it has been defined to
be, " readiness to act," then the glow of belief,
without which there is no action, is something
other and more than that " pure reason " which
Aristotle says " moves nothing/ 1 The glow
of belief not only imparts warmth to action, it
gives light to reason. It gives that light by
which we see that the assumption we origin-
ally made by faith is no mere assumption
made privately and individually by us, but the
truth which in the words of Hegel (" Philo-
sophy of Religion," i. 3) is "the substance of
actual existing things." " It may have" this
image of the Absolute, he says " it may have
a more or less present vitality and certainty
for the religious and devout mind ; or it may
be represented as something longed and
hoped for, far off and in the future. Still,

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it always remains a certainty/' It is of
the Absolute that Hegel uses these words,
And if in using the word Absolute, "we
depart from Hegel's own usage/* and say
that " the Absolute is not God " but a non-
personal principle of unity analogous to that
found in a college or a club, we are stripping
Faith of its emotional quality and thereby
annihilating it. Faith is not purely intellectual
but also emotional, and the emotion is Love.
A principle of unity does not inspire any
particular love, nor can it feel it or pour it
forth. A fellow-being may do both. But
love, even of our neighbour, is not the same
as love of God ; nor is our neighbour's love
the same as God's love. If by the Absolute
we mean simply a principle of unity, there can
be no love in question. But here again the
appeal is to experience : either we do or we
do not feel God's love for us. And in either
case there is little more to say. To feel it
not, is to feel no need of being grateful, to
have nothing nothing to be thankful for.
From the brink of that abyss, let us turn away
to the alternative, to God's love for us. If we
feel it, there is an end to any question whether
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the Absolute is personal or not : " I know that
my Redeemer liveth."

I may now conclude by summing up this
course of lectures on the relation of the
Evolution of Religion to the Philosophy of
Religion. The theory of the Evolution of
Religion is concerned essentially with the
task of arranging the common experience of
mankind, so far as it is religious, under the
forms of Space and Time, and in accordance
with the law of Cause and Effect. That
becomes quite obvious when we reflect that
part of the task of students of the Science of
Religion consists in endeavouring to deter-
mine whether Religion was or was not pre-
ceded by a non - religious period in the
development of humanity, and in either case
what were the causes which produced the
result. That was the question which I raised
in the first lecture : whether the state of things
which we find now in the South- Eastern tribes
of Central Australia a state either religious
or approximating on religion or that which
we find among the Northern tribes a state
distinctly less religious, or more remote from
religion is the earlier in time and the cause

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of the other. And in either case, we are
further concerned with the task of deter-
mining whether the state of things which we
find and believe to have been the earlier in
one quarter of the globe, in one region of
space, is to be assumed to have been also
the earlier in a different quarter of the globe,
a different region of space. And however
we determine the question, we alike assume
that the state of things is the effect of pre-
existing causes.

Thus the theory of the Evolution of
Religion cannot work unless we assume the
validity of space, time, and the universality
of the law of causation, On the other hand
it is not necessary, for the purpose of tracing
the Evolution of Religion, that we should
assume either that the will is free or that
God exists : there are distinguished students
of the Science of Religion who are con-
vinced that both these latter assumptions are
erroneous, and that the assumptions of the
validity of space, time, and causation are
correct There are students, however, who
differ from them on both points. The points,
therefore, must be discussed ; and the dis-

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cussion is Philosophy. The theory of
Evolution, therefore, is one thing, Philosophy
is another. The Evolution of Religion is one
thing, and the Philosophy of Religion is another.
The theory of Evolution generally as applied
to other things than religion assumes the
validity of space, time, and causation ; and
therefore the question whether they are valid
is a matter to be discussed by Philosophy
generally. The theory of the Evolution of
Religion in particular insists that the ques-
tions as to the freedom of the will and the
existence of God must be relegated to Philo-
sophy to the Philosophy of Religion in
particular.

Whether we turn from Evolution or Evolu-
tion of Religion to Philosophy or Philosophy
of Religion, the first question that confronts
us is whether the theory of Evolution and
science generally is experience or reflection
on experience, whether it is concrete or ab-
stract. And I therefore devoted the second
lecture to arguing that science is not the facts
with which it deals but an abstraction from
them, that the Science of Religion is some-
thing very different from religion, and that

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

the theory of the Evolution of Religion is
not a religious experience.

When once we recognise the difference
between an experience and reflection on that
experience when we see that in reflection
or by reflection we dissect experience, and
that the dissected creature is not the living
creature then it becomes intelligible that
space, time, and causation are forms into
which we distribute our dissected experience,
the order in which we arrange the words of
our translation, an order which is peculiar to
the translation and does not belong to the
original. That was the sum and substance
of the third lecture : the theory of Evolution
generally assumes the validity of space and
time ; Philosophy has to enquire into the
validity of the assumption.

Finally, religion assumes the freedom of
the will and the existence of God ; and the
Philosophy of Religion has to enquire into the
validity of those assumptions. Here, there-
fore, we come once more to close quarters
with the question of the relation of the Philo-
sophy of Religion to the Evolution of Religion.
Religion, as I say, assumes the freedom of the

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION"

will and the existence of God. The theory
of Evolution, whether applied to religion or
to anything else, refuses to make any such as-
sumptions. Some of the most distinguished
students of the Evolution of Religion refuse
either to make or to believe in those assump-
tions. The question as to the validity of these
assumptions, which by some are regarded as
true and by others as not true, may be dis-
cussed ; and if it is discussed, the discussion
is Philosophy Philosophy of Religion. The
position which I have taken up in this, the
fourth lecture, is that, though the question
may and must constantly be discussed, it
cannot be settled by Philosophy. The busi-
ness or part of the business of Philosophy
and it has hitherto discharged that part of
its business very thoroughly is to examine
attempts to prove that there is or is not a
God, and to show that without Faith there
is no proof. The whole question is as to the
contents of experience ; and whether we will
see and attend to what is there, is a matter
of will free - will or perhaps I should
rather say that when we have Faith and
when we do believe, then we can go on to

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

erect a philosophy on that foundation. Then
we are in a position to assert what the content
of experience is and to build upon it. It is
upon experience that constructive philosophy
must be based. If the work of excavating
and clearing out the foundations appears to
be destructive, let us remember that it is
destructive only if we propose to erect nothing
on the site ; and that the appearance is wholly
misleading if our hope is there to raise a temple
of the Lord.

The whole question is, I say, as to the
content of experience whether we have
experience of God. If we are satisfied that
we have, then our position is that those
who believe they have not, believe so freely,
of their own free will ; and that they are
mistaken in so believing* They base them-
selves on their own personal experience ; and,
we cannot help believing, they tend to over-
look the fact that in so doing they fall into
the fallacy of Solipsism, the fallacy, that is,
of imagining that experience is limited to
myself, the fallacy of denying that there is
a common experience in which all finite
spirits share, and of which no individual is

153

RELIGION IN EVOLUTION

the sole, authorised interpreter. On the
other hand, there are those who endeavour
to make this community or communion of
spirits their starting-point, and to argue from
it to the Absolute, the principle of unity.
By some of them it is maintained that this
principle of unity can be proved to be a
personal God ; by others it is maintained
that it can only be an impersonal principle,
and that therefore there is no God. On
the whole, therefore, I think it wiser to
regard these arguments as an additional
proof of the position that we must begin
with belief in God, by recognising that He
is no inference or hypothesis, and that we
must not hope to reach Him by putting a
train of reasoning between us and Him. At
that distance spiritual communion becomes a
remote possibility, whereas we know it in
experience as the most immediate fact.

HtlftED IT
TtXHBtTLL

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

PUBLISHED BY METHUEN

AND COMPANY: LONDON

36 ESSEX STREET

W.C.

CONTENTS

FACE

General Literature, . 9-19

Ancient Cities, . 19

Antiquary's Books , ao

Beginner's Books, . ao

Business Books, . ao

Byzantine Texts, . at

Churchman's Bible, . It

Churchman's Library, . at

Classical Translations, it

Commercial Series, . aa

Connoisseur's Library, aa

Library of Devotion, . 33

Standard Library, . 93

Half-Crown Library, . 14
Illustrated Pocket Library of

Plain and Coloured Books, 34

Junior Examination Series, s6

Junior School-Books, . . s6

Leaders of Religion, . , 97

Little Blue Books,
Little Books on Art,
Little Galleries, .
Little Guides, * .
Little Library,
Miniature Library,
Oxford Biographies,
School Examination Series
Social Questions of To-day
Textbooks of Science, .
Textbooks of Technology
Handbooks of Theology,
Westminster Commentaries,

37
28
a8

ad
30
30
30

31
3*
3
3*

Fiction, ..... 39.315

The Strand Novels, . , 37

Books for Boys and Girls, . 38

N o vels of Alexandra Dumas, 38

Methuen's Sixpenny Books, 39

FEBRUARY 1906

A CATALOGUE OF

MESSRS. METHUEN'S

PUBLICATIONS

Colonial Edition! are published of all Messrs. METHUEN'S Novels issued
at a price above w. eV., and similar editions are published of some works of
General Literature. These are marked in the Catalogue. Colonial editions
are only for circulation in the British Colonies and India.

An asterisk denotes that a book is in the Press.

I.P.L. represents Illustrated Pocket Library.

S.g.S. represents Social Question* Series.

PART I. GENERAL LITERATURE

Abbot (Jacob). See Little Blue Books.

Abbott (J. H. M.). Author of 'Tommy
Cornstalk.' AN OUTLANDER Itf
ENGLAND: BRING NOMK iMrmtASiOMtOF

AN AUSTRALIAN AMKOAD. Stcomi Edition,

Cr. Bvo. 6*.

A Colonial Edition is also published.
Acatos (M. J.). See Junior School Books.
Adams (Frank). JACKSPRATT. With 24

Coloured Pictures Super Royal i(>mo. as.
Adeney (W. P.), M.A. See Bennett and

Adeney.
/llschylus. See Classical Translations.

/I! iiop. Srr I.P.I,

A lii A wort h ( W. I liirrUon). Rn* T . P. L.

Ahlcr.on (,l. !,). MK, ASQUITII. With
Portraits and Illustration*. Vtmy Bw.
js. 6d. net.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Aldls (Janet). MADAMK GEOFFRIN,

HER SALON, AND HER TIMES.

With many Portraits and Illustrations.

Second tidttifln. Detny Bvo. io/. td. net.

A Colonial Kdition is also published.

Alexander (William), D.D., ArchbUhop
of Armagh. TMOTJailTS AND
COUNSELS OF MANY YEARS.
Demy i6mo. as. 6d.

Alken (Henry). THE NATIONAL
SPORTS OF GREAT BRITAIN. With
descriptions in English and French. With
51 Coloured Plates. Royal Folio. Five
Guineas net. The Plates can be had
separately in a Portfolio. ^,3, 3*. net.
See 0Uo I.P.L.

Allen (JcA*le). See Little Hooks on Art.

Allen (J. Komllly), F.S.A. See Antiquary's
Hooks.

Almack (E.). Sec Little Books on Art.

Amherst (Lady). A SKETCH OF
EGYPTIAN HISTORY FROM THE
EARLIEST TIMES TO THE PRE-
SENT DAY. With many Illustrations.
JJany 8*0. iw. eV. net.

Anderson (P.M.). THE STORY OF THF

BRITISH EMPIRE FOR CHILDREN.
- With many Illustrations. Cr. Bve. a/.
Anderson (J. Q.). B. A.. Examiner to London

Uiveriiy L NOUVELLK GRAMMAlKh

FRANCAISK. Cr. Bvo. a/.
EXERCICES DE GRAMMAIRE FRAN

CAISE. Cr. Bvt. is. 6d.
Andrewes (Bishop). PRECES PR I.

VATAE. Edited, with Notes, by F. E.

BRIC.HTMAN, M. A., of Pusey House, Oxford.

Cr. Bvo. 6s.
Anglo- Australian. AFTER-GLOW MR.

MORIKS. Cr. tvo. 6*.

A Colonial Edition In nUo published.
ArUfophnnrA. TIIK FKOGS, Trn%Ut>.;

into KnglUh by K. W. HuNTJNurumj

M.A. Cr. Bvo. as. 6d.
Aristotle. THE NICOMACHEAN

ETHICS. Edited, with an Introducti.-

and Notes, by JOHN BURNET, M.A., Pr

fessor of Greek at St. Andrews. Chtafi

issue. Demy five. to*. 6d. net.
Ashton (R.). See Little Blue Books.
Atkins (H. Q.). Sec Oxford Biographies, :
Atkln/ion(C. M.). IICKKMY BKNTHAT

Demy Bvo. 51. net.
Atkinson (T. D.). A SHORT HISTOKV

OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTUR! ,

With over 200 Illustrations. Fcup. c.

A^GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN

ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE. Illu-j

trated. Fcap. Bvy. $s. 6d. net.
Audcn (T.), M.A, F.S.A. See Ancient CitifJ
Aurellus (Marcus). See Standard Lib.-^

and W. H. D. Rouse.
Austen (Jane). See Littfe Library i j

Standard Library.

Ave (Ernest). See Books on Business, j
Bacon (Francis). See Little Library -. /

Standard Library.

GENERAL LITERATURE

Baden -Powell (R. S. S.), Major-General.
THE DOWNFALL OF PREMPEM. A
Diary of Life in Asb oiti, 1895. Illustrated.
Third Edition. f Large Cr. Bvo. 6s.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

THE MATABELE CAMPAIGN, 1896.
With nearly too Illustrations* Fourth
Edition, Large Cr. Bvo. 6s.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

*Barot (Richard)* THE LAKE OF
CO MO. Cr Bvo. 3*. 6d net.

Bailey (J. C.), M.A. See Cowper.

Baker (W. Q.), M.A. See Junior Examina-
tion Series.

Baker (Julian L.), F.I.C., F.C.S. See Books
on Business.

Balfour (Graham). THE LIFE OF
ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. S'cond
Edition. Two Volumes. Demy Bvo. 251. net.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Bally (S. E.). See Commercial Series.

Bank* (Elizabeth L.). T H E A U T O-
BIOGRAPHY OF A 'NEWSPAPER
GIRL. 1 Second Edition. Cr. Bvo. 6s.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Barbara (R. H.). See Little Library.

Baring (The Hon. Maurice). WITH
THE RUSSIANS IN MANCHURIA.
Third Edition. Demy Bvo. ft. 6d. net.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

baring-Gould (S.). THE LIFE OF
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. With over
450 Illustrations in the Text, and la Photo-
gravure Plates. Gilt top. Large quarto.

TI?E* TRAGEDY OF THE C^SARS.

With numerous Illustrations from Busts,

Gems, Cameos, etc. Ftfth Edition. Royal

Bvo. jos. 6d. net.
A BOOK OF FAIRY TALES. With

numerous Illustrations by A. J. GASKIN.

Second Edition. Cr* Bvo. Buckram* 6s.
OLD ENGLISH FAIRY TALES. With

numerous Illustrations by F. D. BEDFORD.

Jtcond Edition . Cr. Bvo. Buckram, 6s.

A Colonial Edition is nlso published*
THE VICAR OF MORWENSTOW. Re-

vised Edition. With a Portrait. Cr. Bvo.

3*. 6d.

tRTMOOR: A Descriptive and Historical

Sketch. With Plans and numerous Illus-
trations. Cr. Bvo. 6s.
THE BOOK OF THE WEST. Illustrated.

Twovolumes. Vol. I. Devon. Second Edition.

Vol. n. Cornx.%11. Second Edition. Cr. Bvo.

A BOOK OF NORTH WALES, lllus-

trated. Cr. Bvo. 6s.
A BOOK OF SOUTH WALES. Illustrated.

Cr.Bv*. 6*.
A BOOK OF BRITTANY. Illustrated. Cr.

It*, 6>.
A BOOK OF THE RIVIERA, Illustrated.

Cr.lv*. 6s.
A Colonial Edition ts also publuhed.

DAR'

*THE RHINE. Illustrated. Cr. Bv*. C*.
A BOOK OF GHOSTS. With 8 Illustra-
tions by D. MURRAY SMITTI. Second Edi

f.icn. Cr. Bvo. 6s.

A Colonial Edition is also published.
OLD COUNTRY LIFE. With 7 Illnstra.

tions. Fifth Edition. Larf;e Cr. 8f o. 6*.
A GARLAND OF COUNTRY SONG!

English Folk Songs with their Traditional

Melodies. Collected and arranged by S.

BARING-GOULD and H. F. SHETPARD.

Demy *to. 6s.
SONGS OF THE WEST: Folk Songs of

Devon and Cornwall. Collected from the

Mouths of the People. ByS. BARING-GOULD,

M.A.,andH. FLEETWOOD SHKPPARD, M.A.

New and Revised Edition, under the musical

editorship cf CECIL J. SHARP, Principal of

the Hampstead Conservatoire. Large Im*

ferial Svo. 5$. net.
See also Little Guides and Half-Crown

Library.
Barker (Aid red P.). See Textbooks of

Technology.
Barnes (W* E.), D.D, See Churchman'*

Bible.

Barnett (Mr*. P, A.). See Little Libra/y.
Baron (R. R. N.), M.A. FRENCH PROSE

COMPOSITION. Stcond Edition. Cr.Svt.

3t.6d. Key, 3*. net. See also Junior School

Books.
Barron (H. MA M.A,, Wadham College,

Oxford. TEXTS FOR SERMONS. With

a Preface by Canon SCOTT HOLLAND,

Cr. Bvo. y.6d.
Bartholomew (J. O.), F.R.S.E. Sec C. O.

Robertson.

Bastable(C. P.), M.A. See S.Q.S.
Bateon (Mrs. Stephen). A BOOK OF

THE COUNTRY AND THE GARDEN.

Illustrated by F. CARRDTUERS GOULD and

A. C. GOULD. Demy Bvo. tot. 6d.
A CONCISE HANDBOOK OF GARDEN

FLOWERS. Fcaj>. Bvo. 3*. 6d.
Batten (Lorin? W.), Ph.D., S.T.D. THE

HEBREW PROPHET. Cr. Bvo. 3*. 6d.

Deaman(A. Hulme). PONS ASINORUM ;

OR, A GUIDE TO BRIDGE. Second

Edition. Feat. Bvo. as.
Beard (W. S. ). See Junior Examination

Series and Beginner's Books.
Beckford (Peter). THOUGHTS ON

HUNTING. Edited by J. OTHO PAGKT,

and Illustrated by G. H. JALLAND. Second

Edition. Demy Bvo. 6s.
Beckford (William). See Little Library.
Beechlnff (H. ;C.), M. A., Canon of West*

minster. See Library of Devotion.
Be^bie (Harold). MASTER WORKERS.

Illustrated. Demy Bvo. 7*. & net.
Behmen (Jacob). DIALOGUES ON THE

SUPERS EN SUAL LIFE. Edited fey

BERNARD HOLLAND /V/. tar* 3*. M.

MESSRS. METHUEN'S CATALOGUE

PARIS. With Map. and
Illustration*. Cr. to*. 69.
MARIE ANTOINETTE. With many
Portraits and Illustrations. Demy Quo.

A Colonial Edition is also published.
BeHotCH.H.L,), M.A. THEINNERAND

MIDDLE TEMPLE. With numerous

Illustrations. Crown too. 6>. tut.

See also L, A. A. Jones.
Bennett (W. H.), M.A. A PRIMER OF

THE BIBLE. Second Edition. Cr. too.

is. 6d.
Bennett (W. H.) and Adeney (W. F.). A

BIBLICAL INTRODUCTION, Third

Edition. Cr. too. ^s. 6d.
Benson (Archbishop) GOD'S BOARD:

Communion Addresses. Fcap. too. $s. 6d.

net.
Benson (A. C.), M.A. Sco Oxford Bio-

Be g n r s^n C (R. M.). THE WAY OF HOLI-

NESS: a Devotional Commentary on the

1 1 9th Psalm. Cr. 81/0. 5*.
Bernard (E. R.), M.A., Canon of Salisbury.

THE ENGLISH SUNDAY. Fcap. too.

ir. 6V/.
Bertouch (Baroness de). THE LIFE

OF FATHER IGNATIUS. Illustrated.

Demy too. los. 6d. net.

A Colonial Edition is also published.
Betham-Edwards(M.). HOME LIFE IN

FRANCE. Illustrated. Fourth, Edition.

Demy too. 7 r. 6d. net.

A Colonial Edition is also published.
Bethune- taker (J. P.), M.A. See Hand-

books of Theology.
Bidez (M.). See Byzantine Texts.
Biggs (C. R. D.), D.D. Sec Churchman's

B'indley (T. Herbert), B.D. THE OECU-

MENICAL DOCUMENTS OF THE

FAITH. With Introductions and Notes.

Cr. too. 6s.
Blnns (H. B.). THE LIFE OF WALT

WHITMAN. Illustrated. Demy too.

icxr. 6d. net.

A Colonial Edition is also published.
Blnyoa (Laurence). THE DEATH OF

ADAM, AND OTHER POEMS Cr. too.

3*. 6d. net.
WILLIAM BLAKE. In a volumes.

Quarto. i, it. each.

Vol. i. THE BOOK OF JOB.
Blrnstlngl (Ethel). See Little Books on Art.
Blackmantle (Bernard). See I. P.L.
Blair (Robert). See I. P.L.
Blake (William). See I. P.L. and Little

Library.
Blaxland (B.), M.A. See Library of

Devotion.
Bloom (T. Harvey), M.A. SHAKE-

SPEARE'S GARDEN. Illustrated.

Fcap. to*. 3* . 64. ; leather, 4*. 6V. net.
See also Antiquary's Books.

Blouet( Henri). See Beginner's Books.

Boardman (T. H.), M.A. Set Textbooks
of Science.

Bodley(J. B.C.), Author of 'France. THE
CORONATION OF EDWARD VII.
Denty 8vo. 21*. net. By Command of the
King.

Body (G eorgeX D. D. THE SOUL'S
PILGRIMAGE I Devotional Readings
from his writings. Selected by J. H. BURN,
B.D. , F. R. S. E, Pott too. at. 6d.

Bona (Cardinal). See Library of Devotion.

Boon (P. C.). See Commercial Series.

Borrow (George). See Little Library.

Bos (J. Ritzema). AGRICULTURAL
ZOOLOGY. Translated by J. R. AINS.
WORTH DAVIS, M.A With 155 Illustrations.
Cr. too. Third Edition. 3*. 6d\

Betting (C. QA B.A. EASY GREEK
EXERCISES. Cr. 8vo. a*. See also
Junior Examination Series.

Boulton (E. S.), M.A. GEOMETRY ON-
MODERN LINES. Cr.Stw. as.

Boulton (William B.). THOMAS
GAINSBOROUGH With 40 Illustra-
tions. Second Ed. Demy too. js.6d.net.

SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS, P.R.A. With
49 Illustrations. Demy too. -js.6d.net.

Bowden(E. M.). THE IMITATION OF
BUDDHA: Being Quotations from
Buddhist Literature for each Day in tae
Year. Fifth Edition. Cr. \6rno. *s.6d.

Boyle (W,). CHRISTMAS AT THE ZOO.
With Verses by W. BOYLE and 24 Coloured
Pictures by H. B. NEILSON. Su^er Royal
\6rno. 2f.

Brabant (P. G.), M.A. See Little Guides.

Bradley (J. W.). See Little Books on Art.

Brailsford (H. N.). MACEDONIA.
Illustrated. Demy too. 12*. 6d. net.

Brodrlck (Mary) and Morton (Anderson).
A CONCISE HANDBOOK OF EGYP-
TIAN ARCHAEOLOGY. Illustrated. Cr.
too. 3*. 6d.

Brooke (A. S.), M.A. SLINGSBY AND
SLINGSBY CASTLE. Illustrated. Cr.
too. 7*. 6d.

Brooks (E. W.). See Byzantine Texts.

Brown (P. H.) f LL.D., Fraser Professor f
Ancient (Scottish) History at the University
of Edinburgh. SCOTLAND IN THE
TIME OF QUEEN MARY. Demy too.
js. 6d. net.

Browne (Sir Thomas). See Standard
Library.

Browned (C. L.). THE HEART OF
JAPAN. Illustrated. Third Edition.
Cr. too. 6s. ; also Demy too. &/.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Browning (Robert). See Little Library.

Buckland (Francia T.). CURIOSITIES
OF NATURAL HISTORY. Illustrated
by H. B. NEILSON. Cr. lit. 3*. u/.

GENERAL LITERATURE

Buckton (A. M.) THE BURDEN OF
ENGELA: a Ballad-Epic. Second Edition.
Cr. Bvo. 3*. 6d. net.

EAGER HEART : A Mystery Play. Fourth
Edition. Cr. Bvo. if. net.

Budge (E. A. Wallis). THE GODS OF
THE EGYPTIANS. With over 100
Coloured Plates and many Illustrations.
Two Volumes. Royal Bvo. 3, 3*. net.

Bull (Paul), Army Chaplain. GOD AND
OUR SOLDIERS. Second Edition.
Cr. Bvo. 6s.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Bvlley(Miss). SeeS.Q.S.

Bunyan (John). THE PILGRIM'S PRO-
GRESS. Edited, with an Introduction,
by C. H. FIRTH, M.A. With 39 Illustra-
tions by R. ANNING BET.L. Cr. Bvo. 6s.
See also Library of Devotion and Standard
Library.

Burch (0. J.), M.A., F.R.S. A MANUAL
OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCE. Illus-
trated. Cr. Bvo. 3*.

Burgess (Oelett). GOOPSAND HOW TO
BE THEM. Illustrated. Smr.ll +to. 6s.

Burke (Edmund). See Standard Library.

Burn (A. E.), D.D., Prebendary of Lichfield.
See Handbooks of Theology.

Burn (J. H.), B.D. See Library of Devotion.

Burnand (Sir P. C.). RECORDS AND
REMINISCENCES. With a Portrait by
H. v. HEKKOMER. Cr. Bt>o. fourth ana
Cheaper Edition. 6s.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Burns (Robert), THE POEMS OF. Edited
byANDRE\vLANGandW.A.CRAiciit. With
Portrait. Third Edition. Demy Ew, gilt
top. 6*.

Burnslde (W. F.), M.A. OLD TESTA-
MENT HISTORY FOR USE IN
SCHOOLS. Cr. Bvo. y.6d.

Burton (Alfred). Seel.P.L.

Butler (Joseph). See Standard Library.

Caldecott (Alfred), D.D. See Handbooks
of Theology.

Calderwood (D. S.), Headmaster of the Nor-
mal School, Edinburgh. TEST CARDS
IN EUCLID AND ALGEBRA. In three
packets of 40, with Answer*, is. each. Or
in three Books, price ad. t *d., and jd.

Cambridge (Ada) [Mr*. Cross]. THIRTY
YEARS IN AUSTRALIA. Demy 8t*.
7 J. 6d.
A Colonial Edition is also published*

Canning (George). See Little Library.

Capey (E. P. H.). See Oxford Biographies.

CveleAs (John). Seel.P.L.

Carlylc (ThoniM). THE FRENCH
REVOLUTION. Edited by C, R. L.
FLETCHER, Fellow of Magdalen College,

Oxford. TbvtMntm, cv. fa*. 18*.

THE LIFE AND LETTERS OF OLIVER
CROMWELL. With an Introduction
by C. H. FIRTH, M.A., and Notes and
Appendices by Mrs. S. C. LOMAS. Three
volumes. Demy Bvo. tBs. net.

0*rlyle(R. M. and A. J.). M.A. See Leaders
of Religion.

'Carpenter (Margaret). THE CHILD
IN ART. Illustrated. Cr. Bvo. 6s.

Chambcrlin (Wilbur B.). ORDERED
TO CHINA. Cr. Bvo. 6s.
A Colonial Edition is also published.

Channer (C. C.) and Roberts (M. B.).
LACEMAKING IN THE MIDLANDS,
PAST AND PRESENT. With 16 full-
page Illustrations. Cr. Bvo. is. 6d.

Chapman (S. J.). See Books on Business.

Chatterton (Thomas). See Standard
Library.

Chesterfield (Lord), THE LETTERS OF,
TO HIS SON. Edited, with *n Introduc-
tion by C. STRACHEY, and Notes by A.
CALTHROP. Two Volumes. Cr. Bvo. 12*.

'Chesterton (Q. K.). DICKENS. With
Portraits and Illustrations. Demy 8e*
7*. 6d. net.

A Colonial Edition is also published.

Christian (F. W.). THE CAROLINE
ISLANDS. With many Illustrations and
Maps. Demy Bvo. iys.6d.net.

Cicero. See Classical Translations.

Clarke (P. A.), M.A. See Leaders of Religion.

Cleather (A. L.) and Crump (B.).
RICHARD WAGNER'S MUSIC
DRAMAS : Interpretations, embodying
Wagner's own explanations. In Four
Volumes. Fcap Bvo. ss. 6d. each.
VOL. i. THE RING OP THE NIBELUNG.
VOL. it. PARSIFAL, LOHENGRIN, and

THE HOLY GRAIL*
VOL. in. TRISTAN AND ISOLDE*

Clinch (G.). See Little Guides.

C lough (W. T.). See Junior School Book*. '

Coast (W. 0.). B.A. EXAMINATION
PAPERS IN VERGIL. Cr. Bvo. is.

Cobb (T.% See Little Blue Books.

Cobb (W. FA M.A. THE BOOK OF
PS A LM S : with a Commentary. Dem^ Bvo.

ColerldgeTs. T.), SELECTIONS FROM.

Edited by ARTHUR SYMONS. Fcap. 8v*.

af. 6rf. net.
Colltngwood (W. Q.). See Half-Crown

Library.
Collins (W. B.% M.A. Set Churchman'*

Colonmu* HYPNEROTOMACHIA POLT-
PHILI UBI HUMANA OMNIA NON
NISI SOMNIUM ESSE DOCET
ATOUE OBITER PLURIMA SCITU
SANE QUAM DIGNA COMMEMO-
RAT. An edition limited to 350 copie on
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