*. ,

.* *

./'\

Western Electric Company,

TELEPHONE SYSTEMS

THE GENERAL TELEPHONE COMPANY'S STEEL TOWER AT THE
BRUNKEBERG EXCHANGE,' STOCKHOLM

THE

TELEPHONE SYSTEMS

OF THE

CONTINENT OF EUROPE

BY -,; --_, j aj j / *., ;V;

A. R. BENNETT
M

Member of the Institution of Electrical Engineers; Divisional Engineering Superintendent in London

to the United Telephone Company, Limited, 1880
Engineer to the Commercial Telephone Exchange, Glasgow, 1881-3

Chief Engineer for Scotland and Ireland to the National Telephone Company, Limited, 1883
General Manager and Chief Engineer in Scotland and the North-west of England

to the National Telephone Company, Limited, 188:5-90

General Manager and Chief Engineer to the Mutual Telephone Company, Limited, 1890-2
General Manager and Chief Engineer to the New Telephone- Company. Limited, 1892-5

WITH 1C9 ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

AND NEW YORK
1395

All. rights reserved.

CONTENTS

PAGE

INTRODUCTION i

I. AUSTRIA

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION ....... 32

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC . . . . . 35

TARIFFS 37

WAY-LEAVES . . 40

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS : 40

HOURS OF SERVICE * 42

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS ........ 43

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 44

(TRUNK) . .48

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 48

,, ,, OPERATORS ......... 49

STATISTICS ............ 49

II. BAVARIA

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION . 51

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC 52

TARIFFS 54

WAY-LEAVES . . . 55

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS . . . . . . . .56

HOURS OF SERVICE .......... 60

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 60

985154

viii Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

PAGE

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 6o

(TRUNK) 6 5

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 6 5

,, ,, OPERATORS 6 5

III. BELGIUM

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 66

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC 67

TARIFFS 7*

WAY-LEAVES 77

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS . . . . . . 7&

HOURS OF SERVICE 8t >

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 6

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 87

(TRUNK) .... . . 95

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN . . . . . . . ico

,, ,, OPERATORS 101

STATISTICS . . 101

IV. BOSNIA-HERZOGOVINA

PRESENT POSITION . . . . . . . . . 104

V. BULGARIA

PRESENT POSITION . . . . . . . . . .105

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS 105

VI. DENMARK

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION . . . . . .107

STATISTICS OF PROVINCIAL DANISH EXCHANGES . . . . no

SERVICES RENDERED BY THE COPENHAGEN TELEPHONE COMPANY. 112

TARIFFS 115

WAY-LEAVES . 118

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS 118

Contents ix

PAGE

HOURS OF SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . 124

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . 124

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 124

(TRUNK) 127

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 127

,, ,, OPERATORS. ........ 128

STATISTICS. ACCOUNTS OF THE AARHUS TELEPHONE COMPANY FOR

1893 I28

SUMMARY OF SAME FOR 1894 129

VII. FINLAND

POSITION 130

TARIFFS 132

TRUNK TARIFFS 134

OUTSIDE WORK . . . . . . . . . . . 134

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 134

VIII. FRANCE

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 136

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC 141

TARIFFS 145

WAY-LEAVES 150

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS . . . . , . . . 151

HOURS OF SERVICE 161

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 161

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 164

(TRUNK) 172

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 173

,, ,, OPERATORS 173

STATISTICS 173

IX. GERMAN EMPIRE

(EXCLUSIVE OF BAVARIA AND WURTEMBERG)

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 175

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC 179

x Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

PAGE

TARIFFS 184

WAY-LEAVES 186

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS ........ 188

HOURS OF SERVICE .......... 203

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS ........ 203

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 207

,, ,, (TRUNK) 216

STATISTICS 217

X. GREECE

POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

XI. HOLLAND

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 219

SERVICES RENDERED BY THE NETHERLANDS BELL TELEPHONE

COMPANY 224

TARIFFS 225

WAY-LEAVES 229

ROYALTIES 229

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS 229

HOURS OF SERVICE .......... 232

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 233

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 233

,, (TRUNK) . . . ' 246

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN ......... 248

,, ,, OPERATORS 248

STATISTICS 249

REPORT AND ACCOUNTS OF THE ZUTPHEN TELEPHONE COMPANY

FOR 1894 250

XII. HUNGARY

POSITION 253

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS 253

WORK 255

STATISTICS 256

Contents xi
XIII. ITALY

PAGE

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 257

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS 260

WAY-LEAVES 262

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS . . 263

HOURS OF SERVICE 265

OUTSIDE WORK 265

STATISTICS 268

XIV. LUXEMBURG

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 270

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC 271

TARIFFS ............ 272

WORK 274

STATISTICS 274

XV. MONACO

POSITION ............ 277

XVI. MONTENEGRO

POSITION 278

XVII. NORWAY

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION ....... 279

STATISTICAL TABLE OF SOME PROVINCIAL NORWEGIAN EXCHANGES 284
SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC BY THE CHRISTIANIA TELE-
PHONE COMPANY . . . . . . . . . . 288

TARIFFS ............ 290

WAY-LEAVES 293

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS . . . . . . . . 294

HOURS OF SERVICE .......... 296

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS . . . . . . . . 296

xii Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

PAGE

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 296

(TRUNK) 304

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 304

,, ,, OPERATORS 304

STATISTICS 34

ACCOUNTS OF THE CHRISTIANIA TELEPHONE COMPANY FOR 1893 36

SUMMARY OF SAME FOR 1894 37

XVIII. PORTUGAL

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 308

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS 309

WAY-LEAVES 309

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS . . 310

HOURS OF SERVICE 311

OUTSIDE WORK . . . . . . . . . 312

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 312

,, ,, OPERATORS 312

XIX. ROUMANIA

POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . -313

SERVICES AND TARIFFS 313

XX. RUSSIA

POSITION 316

TARIFFS 316

WORK 316

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS ........ 318

STATISTICS 321

XXL SERVIA
POSITION 322

Contents xiii
XXII. SPAIN

HACK

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 323

ROYALTIES .* 325

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS ....... 328

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS ........ 330

OUTSIDE WORK .......... 330

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 330

STATISTICS ........... 331

XXIII. SWEDEN

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION 332

SERVICES RENDERED IN STOCKHOLM BY THE GENERAL TELEPHONE

COMPANY AND THE STATE TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT . . 338

TARIFFS. GENERAL TELEPHONE COMPANY . . . . . 340

,, STATE EXCHANGE ........ 341

,, BELL TELEPHONE COMPANY . . . . . . 343

WAY-LEAVES ........... 343

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS. GENERAL TELEPHONE COMPANY. . 344

,, BELL TELEPHONE COMPANY . . 349

,, ,, STATE EXCHANGE . . . . 354

HOURS OF SERVICE 356

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 358

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL). GENERAL TELEPHONE COMPANY . . 358

,, ( ) STATE EXCHANGE 366

,, ,, (TRUNK). GENERAL TELEPHONE COMPANY . . 370

,, ( ,, ) STATE EXCHANGE 370

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 372

,, ., OPERATORS 373

STATISTICS 373

ABSTRACT OF ACCOUNTS OF GENERAL TELEPHONE COMPANY . . 374

XXIV. SWITZERLAND

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION . . . ..'.*'. . 376

SERVICES RENDERED . . . . . . ' , . . . 379

xtv Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

PAGE

TARIFFS (AT PRESENT APPLIED) . ...'". . . 383

,, (TO COME INTO OPERATION^SHORTLY) . . . ' ^ *.. 378

WAY-LEAVES ^ N ,1 . 388

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS *-" .. . 390

HOURS OF SERVICE * 44

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 404

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 405

,, ,, (TRUNK) . ' 412

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN . . . . . . . . .414

,, ,, OPERATORS ......... 414

STATISTICS ........... 414

XXV. TURKEY

POSITION . . . . . . . . . . . 417

XXVI. WURTEMBERG

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION . . . ...''*. . 418

SERVICES RENDERED 418

TARIFFS 423

W T AY-LEAVES 426

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS ..... -.- '' * . 427

HOURS OF SERVICE 428

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS 429

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL) 429

(TRUNK) . 435

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN 435

,, ,, OPERATORS. ........ 436

STATISTICS 436

THE TELEPHONE SYSTEMS

OF THE

CONTINENT OF EUROPE

INTRODUCTION

DURING the discussions on the existing state and future con-
duct of telephony in the United Kingdom which have taken
place pretty continuously during the last few years, many references
have cropped up to foreign and, more especially, to continental
practice. Statements have frequently been made as to the exis-
tence of what to the British public have appeared fabulously low
rates in Holland, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, and elsewhere
statements to which support was given, from time to time, by
various consular reports. The facts set forth, the believers in, and
advocates of, low rates in this country have endeavoured occa-
sionally to turn to their advantage in argument, but, owing to lack
of exact information and the denials of their opponents, with little
result. The apologists of the existing monopoly have either
traversed in toto the truth of the statements or have declared that
the conditions under which such rates exist are radically different
from those which obtain in the United Kingdom. They have
asserted, for example, that the low rates are not inclusive of all
charges ; that the subscribers have to pay the cost of their lines
or instruments, or both, and, after connection, for any repairs
that may be necessary ; that foreign telephone companies are not
burdened with such payments to the Government as are imposed
on the National Telephone Company here ; that foreign adminis-

Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

(this Jias her> specially said of Germany) have an absolute
right to fix VuripDrts\a/id wires wherever they please, underground
or Qye^iefl,Xv without payment ; that labour is less costly on the
' foreign workmen and operators arc

not only badly paid, but mercilessly sweated ; that the cheap
systems are ill-constructed and worse managed ; that the low rates,
if they exist, are only applied in small towns ; that they do not pay ;
together with various other assertions intended, and tending, to
create doubt, and confuse the advocates of telephonic reform.

The points at issue were so numerous and involved, and the
question so interesting and replete with importance to the British
commercial community, particularly in view of a possible Post
Office acquisition, partial or complete, of the telephone systems,
that the author determined to ascertain the truth for himself, and
that by the best of all methods, personal inspection and investiga-
tion. Controversy had chiefly centred on the Scandinavian and
German countries, Holland, Belgium, and Switzerland. All these,
together with France, have been visited by the author, and the
most minute inquiries as to the tariffs, rules, laws, technical prac-
tice, and other matters of interest conducted on the spot, the
points enumerated above as being specially in dispute and in-
dicated for examination receiving more than ordinary attention.
The results of this inquest are now presented to the public in a
form that, it is hoped, will facilitate reference to particular points
and enable an accurate idea of the true state of matters to be
readily arrived at.

It will be found that no two nations have solved, or attempted
to solve, the problem in exactly the same manner. In some cases
the divergencies are wide, but in most great intelligence, combined
with solicitude for the public weal, has been brought to bear, often
with the most satisfactory results.

It will be seen that except in two Russian towns, St. Petersburg
and Moscow, which are in the hands of a monopolist company
and where the rates are 257. per annum, no continental subscrip-
tion comes up to the 2o/. rate with which we are familiar in
London. On the other hand, subscriptions in some places descend
to 2/, IQS. and 2/. gs. ^d. per annum, everything included, and are
made to pay. The contention of the high-rate apologists that the

Introduction 3

low rates are twt inclusive will be found, for the purposes of their
argument, to be untrue and delusive. The fact is that practice in
this respect varies, even in the same countries, as in Norway and
Denmark, some of the rates being inclusive and others not.
Full particulars are given of these variations under the headings of
the several countries, but it may be as well to state definitely here
that inclusive rates, covering the supply and maintenance of all
wires, instruments and accessories, of 2/. 105-., 2/. 15^. 7^., and
3/. 6s. %d. exist in Norway ; of 2.1. 155-. id. and 3/. 6s. 8d. in
Denmark ; of 2/. qs. ^d. and 2.1. ifs. tod. in Holland ; of 3/. ^s.
in Finland ; and of 2/. i6s. and 3/. i2s. in Italy ; while rates of 4/.
and 5/. are of frequent occurrence elsewhere. In refutation of
the assertion that low rates mean bad workmanship, the author
would direct special attention to the installation at Zutphen, a
town of 1 7,000 inhabitants (where the Zutphen Telephone Com-
pany applies an inclusive rate of 2/. ijs. 10^.), which is fitted
throughout with metallic circuits of stouter bronze wire than the
National Telephone Company habitually uses in this country ; with
the very best of transmitters, receivers, and instruments, together
with an expensive switch-board by one of the leading manufac-
turers, and all the usual complement of lightning-guards, cross-
connecting apparatus, and testing instruments. The outside con-
struction consists of standards, poles, insulators, and general
fittings of the best description, the work through out being thought-
fully designed and well carried out. An all-night service is
provided, and the company pays 4-2 per cent, on the capital
invested. In proof of this a translation of the last balance-sheet,
dated February 1895, is given. A translation of the last accounts
of the Co-operative Company at Aarhus, which has an inclusive
rate of 4/. 3^. 3^. for local connections and of 5/. 16*. 7^. for those
who wish to speak to the other towns within a radius of about
20 kilometers, will also be found in the Danish section. Finally,
in order to dispose of the assertion that low rates are only appli-
cable to small towns, the accounts of the Christiania Telephone
Company for 1893 are printed at the end of the Norwegian section.
This company, operating in a capital city, has nearly 5,000 sub-
scribers, and has regularly paid dividends of from 5 to 5^ per cent,
since 1885, besides keeping its system up to date, providing

B 2

4 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

ample reserve funds, and liberally contributing to the benevolent
funds of its male and female employees, all on an inclusive subscrip-
tion of 4/. 8^. \\d.

What can be done in the direction of municipal telephones is
instanced by the example of Trondhjem, the third town of
Norway, where the telephone exchange is in the hands of the town
council. The exchange is well built of good material, provided
with the most expensive instruments in the market those of
Ericsson & Co., and earns a profit of 4 per cent, for the rate-
payers, on an inclusive rate of 2/. los. for business connections
and i/. 5-y. for private houses, rates which apply to lines not
exceeding i^ kilometers in length ! Is there a valid reason
why a British municipality should not do as well in a town of
corresponding size ?

Switzerland is another country in which low rates prevail, soon
to give way (see page 378) to lower ; but the system adopted of
charging per call or connection renders comparison with the fore-
going rates, which cover any desired number of local calls, difficult.
J- or the subscriber who makes but little use of his telephone the new
Swiss tariff will be the cheapest of all, while the busy firm's contri-
bution may exceed the highest rates mentioned in this book. Thus,
a man calling only once per working day will pay (after having
been a member of the exchange for two years) only 2/. 45-. 6d. per
annum, while a subscriber calling 20 times a day will pay 147. 2s.,
and one originating 30 talks per day as much as 2o/. js. id. This
plan is unquestionably the most rational one, but experience shows
that it tends to reduce the number of calls, so that the average of
the daily connections asked for at Zurich is only two per subscriber.
The Swiss plan, therefore, restricts the volume of business and
the usefulness of the telephone, while the lines and exchange appa-
ratus must be as expensive and perfect as in the busiest centre.

In the tabulated statements in the Danish and Norwegian
sections will be found many particulars of, and results obtained in,
the smaller towns.

Some information as to the way-leave facilities enjoyed by the
telephone administrations or companies in most of the countries
is given. The author's inquiries tend to show that the autocratic
privileges talked of are mostly imaginary. The French Govern-

Introduction 5

ment possesses greater power over private property than any other,
and, unluckily for those who seek to establish a connection be-
tween rates and way-leaves, the French rates are amongst the
dearest on the Continent. In Germany the Government has no
more power to put a standard and wires on a man's house without
his permission than it has to burn it down.

It will be seen that many foreign companies are burdened with
far more onerous payments to their governments or municipal
authorities than is the National Telephone Company. In Madrid,
20 per cent. ; in Bilbao, 34 per cent. ; in Barcelona, 3375 per
cent.; and in Valencia 31*5 per cent, of the gross receipts are
payable to the Government. In Italy a uniform tax of 10 per cent,
on the gross receipts and 2/. per annum for every public telephone
station (call office) is levied ; in Russia the tax is also 10 per
cent, of the gross takings, while the Portuguese get off with 3 per
cent.

During one public discussion on the subject of telephone rates
it was stated as justifying a io/. rate in Manchester that subscribers
in Amsterdam have to pay practically the same 9/. 14*. 2\d. But
the apologist, probably because he knew no better, omitted to say
that the Amsterdam company has to pay 2/. is. 9//. per subscriber
per annum to the town council ; and that, while the io/. rate in
Manchester is limited to a distance of one mile, the Dutch sub-
scription applies to the whole of Amsterdam proper.

Workmen's wages, according to the particulars supplied to the
author by the officials of the various administrations and com-
panies, are not invariably noticeably lower, nor the hours worked
much longer, than in this country. As a rule, the female opera-
tors are better paid, in some cases markedly so, than those of the
National Telephone Company.

On the other hand, where low wages prevail, their effect on
cost of production is sometimes neutralised more or less by the
Customs import duties. For instance, Norway possesses no iron,
and the author found English iron on the roofs of Christiania in
the form of telephone supports. Norway, too, either imports her
telephone apparatus or makes it from imported materials. Switzer-
land and Holland, which produce no iron and import instruments
or raw material, are in the same case.

6 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

The author did not undertake a foreign tour for the purpose
of convincing himself of the feasibility of low rates, but in order
to obtain authoritative evidence to help him to convince others of
the fact. Personally, he required no convincing, as his experience
in Scotland and Manchester rendered any further evidence unneces-
sary. The author knows that many of the National Telephone
Company's exchanges absorb less than 50 per cent, of the sub-
scriptions collected in them for upkeep and contingencies, so that
a municipality or company putting into the business only the capital
actually required for establishment could earn a fair profit on
not more than half the present rates.

That it must be so is evident from a consideration of the
National Company's capital and regular 5 per cent, dividend. It
has been stated frequently in print, and at public meetings, in the
presence of the company's directors and officials ; ! and so far as
the author is aware never seriously contradicted that the amount
of ' water ' to paid-up capital is as two or three to one ; that is to
say, that out of a capital of four millions for which dividends must
be found, only one million, or at most one and a third millions,
have been put into the business. To pay 5 per cent, on four
millions this one million must earn 20 per cent.

That it actually does so is unquestionable : in fact, telephony
in the United Kingdom is really conducted to-day as cheaply as
on the Continent, the only difference being that each sovereign
invested has to find interest for two or more unproductive com-
panions. Actual experience affords this assertion ample con-
firmation.

From 1880 to 1885 the National Telephone Company was
opposed in Dundee and its vicinity by the Dundee and District Tele-
phonic Company, Limited, which company had commenced business
with a rate of io/. designed to oppose the rate of 2o/. which the
National Company had established in the same town. Finding
that it could not hold its own, the National determined to ruin
the opposition by a war of rates, and suddenly came down from
2o/. to 5/. per annum at one swoop. The Dundee and District
replied with a reduction to 57. 105-., below which they considered

1 Truth, August 21, 1890, and March io, 1892. Councillor Southern's speech
to the Manchester Town Council, Manchester Guardian, March 8, 1894.

Introduction 7

it inexpedient to go, as the telephones they used, owing to patent
complications, were costing from 2o/. to 257. each, and were difficult
to procure even at those prices. At the first annual meeting (Feb-
ruary 1883) after the reduction, the Dundee and District had only a
balance of 4oo/. to the good, which was carried to a reserve fund ;
but in February 1884, after nearly two years' experience at 5/. 105-.,
it declared a dividend of 10 per cent, per annum, besides adding
.200/. to the reserve fund. In February 1885 the dividend was
5 per cent, and 2oo/. to reserve. But this victorious career pro-
ceeded but a little further, as the National made up its mind that
the speed at which the Dundee Company was ruining itself was
not rapid enough, knowing besides, from its own experience, now
of considerable duration, with a 5/. rate, that the 5/. los. of the
opposition was sufficient, and more, to permit it to live and
prosper ; and so made an offer to buy the Dundee Company,
which was ultimately accepted. At the final meeting the chair-
man congratulated the shareholders on having received an average
dividend of 9 per cent, per annum for the four and a quarter years
of the company's existence, and on the return of their capital
with 40 per cent, by way of bonus. That was how ruin had
spelled with them !

On its side the National had not done badly. It professed to
have lost the difference between the original rate of 2o/. and the
fighting rate of 5/. : but that was no real loss, since its subscribers
at 2o/. would have been very few, while, as matters stood, its
exchange had grown out of all knowledge. After the purchase
the combined systems numbered some 1,200 subscribers, and
constituted together the largest exchange in the United Kingdom,
excepting, perhaps, London. Subsequently, when the rate was
put up to io/., it dwindled away to about half. This great increase
in Dundee showed, as it did afterwards in Manchester, under the
Mutual Telephone Company, that a 5/. rate taps a class of sub-
scribers which cannot afford, or will not give, 8/. or io/. for the
accommodation. In Dundee a considerable number of small
shopkeepers, grocers and others, came on at 5/. and went off
when the rate was increased to io/. ; in Manchester numbers of
packing-case makers, sign-writers, plumbers, &c., who had never
thought of joining the National exchange at io/., subscribed to

8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

the Mutual at 5/. as soon as the opportunity was afforded them.
The National had found in Dundee, much to its surprise, that a
5/. rate was not only sufficient to cover expenses, but to leave a
profit into the bargain, even after debiting Dundee with its due
proportion of directors' fees, Post Office royalty of 10 per cent,
on the gross receipts, and London office general expenses, pro-
vided that the patent royalty of 2/. per annum per subscriber were
set aside. The author believes that the United Telephone Com-
pany, the owners of the patents, eventually agreed to abrogate the
Dundee royalty, so that the National really made no loss during
the competitive period. But there are no patent royalties now,
and the Dundee Town Council or a local company would not
have any London office burden to bear, so that the author is quite
sure that an exchange with metallic circuits, underground wires in
the centre of the town to each block of buildings, and all modern
improvements, could readily be made remunerative at 5/. per
annum, Post Office royalty included. The experience gained since
the days of the Dundee and District Company renders it possible
to provide an improved system at still lower rates than it did.

Other competitors had arisen and were still to arise in different
parts of the kingdom. Messrs. D. and G. Graham in Glasgow at
i2/. ; Charles Moseley in Manchester at 8/. ; Tasker & Co.
in Sheffield at y/. ; the Globe Telephone Company in London
at io/. ; and Mr. Sharpies in Preston at 6/. ; all of which
were, after shorter or longer combats, ultimately bought out
some at extravagant premiums because they, having no need
to die, steadfastly declined to do so. In not one instance did the
National run a competitor to a standstill, although in the cases of
Sharpies and Tasker the contest went on for years. Their rates
were sufficient to gain a livelihood, and the National knew it.

But the most recent home proof of the sufficiency of low rates
is that afforded by the Mutual Telephone Company, Limited, of
Manchester, which started with a 5/. rate for its shareholders and
61. for non-shareholders. The Mutual Company's case is different
from all the others, inasmuch as its exchange was constructed
entirely on the metallic circuit principle and comprised all the latest
improvements. The Mutual exchange was opened on February 28,
1891, but owing to the determination of the directors to charge

Introduction 9

nothing until a large circle of subscribers had been put in com-
munication, no rentals were made payable until July i. From
this date until October 31, the end of the financial year, the ac-
counts showed a revenue of 3,9067. 5^., only i,i45/. is. of which
was applicable to the four months dealt with ; nevertheless a credit
balance of 3787. us. ^d. was available, which was carried forward.
In the third half-year of the exchange's existence the receipts,
after deducting Post Office royalty, averaged 4/. 1 2s. 2d. per line
per annum, the annual revenue being 6,4oi/. 2s. ^d. and the
number of lines 1,389. The actual working expenses for the half-
year were at the rate of 3,2447. 175-. 6d. per annum. Adding to
this 5oo/. for directors' fees, 2507. for general expenses, and 1,6507.
(5 per cent, on 33,0697, the capital actually expended) for deteriora-
tion, the gross expenses were 5,6447. ijs. 6d., or 47. is. $d. per
line, leaving a profit of los. nd. per line per annum, or a total
profit of 7587. 3.$-. $d. This is only 2*29 per cent, per annum on
the capital expended ; but the 33,0697. included the cost of two
trunk lines to Bolton, of some 500 spare metallic circuits, of a
central switch-table fitted complete for 2,000 lines and with
ultimate accommodation for 4,000, and of standards, poles and
general fittings of capacity far in excess of immediate require-
ments, so as to leave room for future expansion. Less the cost
of the trunk lines the actual expenditure on the system had been
31,9397, not quite 237. per line. Deducting the cost of the extra
accommodation provided everywhere, the cost per line was only
some 1 67. But for a town of the size of Manchester with Salford
(population 703,507) the rate proposed by the author (see page 25)
is 57. 155-., which would materially increase the net revenue and
obviously give a municipality or an unburdened company a hand-
some margin of profit.

Most unfortunately for the Manchester public and its own
shareholders the Mutual Company was induced to sell its business
to the New Telephone Company, Limited. As general manager
and chief engineer of the Mutual Telephone Company, the
author is glad of an opportunity to state definitely that the sale
was in no wise justified in any way by the position of the com-
pany. Its business was rapidly increasing ; the proportion of
net revenue was growing every month ; many initial difficulties,

io Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

including an attempt to prevent the company's wires being run,
had been triumphantly overcome ; the most flattering opinions of
its service had been given in writing by its subscribers, many of
whom were also members of the National Manchester exchange,
and so peculiarly qualified as judges. Moreover, the Lancashire
County Council had granted permission to the company to erect
poles and wires on every road in the county of Lancaster, so leaving
the way clear for the connection of every town by trunk lines sooner
or later. In fact, the company's success had been phenomenal,
and its prospects at the date of sale were of the brightest.

But the directors became persuaded that the company's object
of winning cheap telephony for the nation would be furthered by-
transferring the business to a powerful fighting organisation such
as the New Telephone Company was supposed to be, and it would
certainly be unfair to blame them for not foreseeing the extra-
ordinary turn which that company's affairs subsequently took. In
a few months it had fallen completely under the control of the
National. The rates in Manchester were shortly afterwards raised
and alterations effected which rendered a realisation of the Mutual
Company's programme impossible. But the superiority of its
service and the sufficiency of its rate had been nevertheless
conclusively demonstrated.

The Mutual campaign of course confirmed the author's pre-
vious experience at Dundee ; and the two cases together will pro-
bably be accepted as conclusive evidence of the exorbitant cha-
racter of the existing rates. That being so, it will surely not be
contended that the commercial community has not a right to
demand that its business intercourse shall not be burdened with
avoidable expense, or in any way, or through any cause, be ren-
dered more costly than that of its trade competitors abroad.

In Belgium, one of England's keenest competitors, a merchant
at any town receiving an inquiry by mail or telegraph from, say,
South America can put himself in almost instantaneous communi-
cation with the chief manufacturers at Liege, Verviers, or elsewhere,
and with the shippers of Antwerp, each communication costing
i franc (93^.), and in the course of half an hour is in a position
to forward a quotation for the desired shipment. Similarly, a
German merchant can telephone all over the country for is. per

Introduction 1 1

connection. A British trader receiving the same inquiry would
be at a great disadvantage : the delay and uncertainty in getting
through would probably deter him from using the telephone at all ;
if not, he would have to pay the Belgian or German charges many
times over. This is not what the public wants or ought to be
called upon to submit to.

It has been said that the British public does not care for
telephony, and that it would not in any case take advantage of
cheap rates to the same extent as continental peoples do. The
author considers that this constitutes a most unfair and un-
warrantable prejudgment of what the British public would do if it
were placed on an equality as regards facilities with other peoples.

What has the telephone service, even in the best conducted
exchanges, hitherto meant, and what does it mean to-day, to the
British subscriber ? Simply that he may call up, and be called
up by, other subscribers in his own town and, to a limited extent,
other towns also. He may also be called up by non-subscribers
speaking from public stations (call offices) established, not at the
post and telegraph offices, where people naturally expect to find
them, but scattered anywhere where room for an instrument can
be found. Dealing with these facilities in the same manner as
the services rendered to the public by foreign administrations and
companies are dealt with in this present book, it may be said that
the British subscriber enjoys for his money four services, to wit :

i. Local exchange intercourse. 2. Internal trunk line inter-
course. 3. Public telephone station intercourse. 4. Forwarding
and receiving his telegrams by telephone (in some of the large
towns only).

Now, let it be thoroughly grasped what foreign subscribers
obtain for subscriptions which sometimes amount to a third or
less of the British.

AUSTRIA. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Inter-
national trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Local tele-
phonogram l service (ten words for 2^.). 6. Telephoning of

1 In Austria and Switzerland a message telephoned by a subscriber to the cen-
tral office to be written down and delivered by messenger to non-subscriber is
officially known as a phonogram, a word which, without official authority, has
also been adopted in the same sense in several other countries. In the United
Kingdom and the United States, at least, phonogram means the record of the

1 2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

messages to be written down at the central office and mailed as
letters or post-cards. 7. Messages calling a non-subscriber to a
distant public station to converse. 8. Public telephone stations.

BAVARIA. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Inter-
national trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams (free). 5. Local
telephonogram service (ten words for 2^.). 6. Telephoning of
mail matter as above. 7. Public telephone stations.

BELGIUM. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Inter-
national trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams (free). 5. Public
telephone stations. 6. Messages calling strangers to distant public
stations.

DENMARK. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks (often free).

3. International trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Local
telephonogram service (ten words for i -99^.). 6. Public telephone
stations. 7. Messages calling strangers to distant public stations.

FRANCE. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Inter-
national trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Local tele-
phonogram service. 6. Public telephone stations. 7. Municipal
telephone stations. 8. Special wayside exchange service.

GERMANY. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3.
International trunks. 4. Public telephone stations. 5. Tele-
phoning of telegrams. 6. Local telephonogram service (ten words
for 2d.). 7. Telephoning of matter to be mailed.

HOLLAND. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Public
telephone stations. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Time service.

HUNGARY. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3.
International trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Public
telephone stations. 6. Rural or village intercourse.

ITALY. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Public
telephone stations (in some towns only). 4. Telephoning of
telegrams.

LUXEMBURG. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks (in-
cluded in the local subscriptions). 3. Telephoning of telegrams.

4. Local telephonogram service. 5. Public telephone stations.
6. Messenger service. 7. Parochial telephone stations. 8. Tele-
phoning of mail matter.

phonograph ; so, to avoid possible confusion, the author substitutes the word tele-
phonogram wherever necessary throughout the book.

Introduction 1 3

NORWAY. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Inter-
national trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Local tele-
phonogram service. 6. Public telephone stations. 7. Messenger
service.

PORTUGAL. i. Local exchange.

ROUMANIA. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3.
Public telephone stations. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5.
Local telephonogram service.

SPAIN. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3. Public
telephone stations. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Local
telephonogram service (twenty words for r^2d.\

SWEDEN (State administration and General Telephone Com-
pany). i. Local exchange. 2. yo-kilometer free radius. 3.
Internal trunks. 4. International trunks. 5. Telephoning of
telegrams. 6. Local telephonogram service (forty words for 3*3^.).
7. Messenger service. 8. Public telephone stations.

SWITZERLAND. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3.
International trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Tele-
phonogram service. 6. Parochial telephone stations. 7. Public
telephone stations. 8. Special wayside exchange service.

WURTEMBERG. i. Local exchange. 2. Internal trunks. 3.
International trunks. 4. Telephoning of telegrams. 5. Public
telephone stations. 6. Local telephonogram service (ten words
for id.). 7, Telephoning of matter to be mailed.

It will be seen from this summary that only one country
Portugal has an inferior list of facilities. One other Italy
has the same number ; but all the rest enjoy superior advantages.
In the countries noted for the widest spread of telephony it will be
found that subscribers have at their command seven or eight different
applications of the telephone ; thus Sweden, 8 ; Switzerland, 8 ;
Austria, 8 ; Germany, 7 ; Bavaria, 7 ; Wiirtemberg, 7 ; Norway, 7 ;
Denmark, 7. Is it fair, therefore, to reproach the British public'
for being slow to subscribe ? Should it not be recognised that the
telephone is one thing in Britain and another in Sweden or Austria ?
Had the telephoning of telegrams been free and unrestricted
during the past fourteen years ; had it been within the power of
subscribers to despatch telegrams to non-subscribers in the same
town, twenty words for 1*92^. as in Spain, or even ten words for

14 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

2d. as in Germany and Denmark ; had they been free to telephone
messages to be written down and posted as letters or post-cards,
the tale might have been quite different.

It would not be correct to blame the National Telephone
Company for not giving these facilities, for, indeed, it has not
been in its power to accord them. No ; the blame must be borne
by the Post Office, which, under the mistaken idea that the best
way to serve the public interest is to curtail such facilities as are
not provided by itself, has denied the public these advantages.
As a consequence, its revenues have suffered by the competition
of the telephone trunk lines. During the author's continental
tour of investigation nothing was made clearer to him by the
foreign officials than that the encouragement given to the sub-
scribers to forward telegrams by telephone for transmission has-
compensated to a very large extent, if not altogether, for the tele-
graphic traffic lost by the rivalry of the trunk lines. In every
country the tale is the same : the telegraph revenues have not
suffered by the competition of the trunk lines because the exten-
sion of the telephone system has provided new feeders to the
telegraph in every direction, and these newly-found feeders have
provided traffic enough to outweigh the loss on certain long
distance lines. Thus, to cite an example, the extensive telegram
traffic which formerly prevailed between the Bourses of Brussels
and Paris, and which necessitated the constant employment of
several direct telegraph wires, has been entirely wiped out by the
telephone circuits ; but, notwithstanding this, the telegraph receipts
continue to grow. During these fourteen years, therefore, the
Post Office has been engaged in cutting off its nose to spite the
companies, and has voluntarily cast away a source of income which
would have rendered unnecessary the wails made over revenue
lost through the competition of telephone trunks. The author
is of course aware that the telephone exchanges in some of the
principal towns are, and have been for some years, in connection
with the Postal Telegraph Office ; but what is wanted is not a
partial, but a universal and unrestricted, application of the service.
Obstacles are thrown in the way of establishing connection with
telegraph offices. For instance, the Mutual Telephone Company
applied for, but could not obtain, a connection in Manchester..

Introduction 1 5

while its rival, the National, was permitted to provide its sub-
scribers with the service. In Edinburgh, after long agitation, the
telephone exchange was joined to the telegraph office in 1888 or
1889, but childish regulations were made which greatly impaired
the usefulness of the service, it being permissible, under them, for
a man on one side of a street to have his telegrams telephoned to
him, while his opposite neighbour could not. There is no parallel
to such things on the Continent.

It is true that the Post Office now proposes, under its agree-
ment with the National Telephone Company, to give facilities
more commensurate with foreign practice, which is distinctly news
to be rejoiced at ; but why has the community been forced to wait
fourteen years for them ?

The charges scheduled in respect to the new services in
the agreement compare most unfavourably with those in vogue
elsewhere. Thirty words, if they can be telephoned and written
down by a possibly inexpert clerk in three minutes, are to cost
3^/. in a message intended for local delivery; but ten words
for 2d. without any time limit would be better. Few people
require to send thirty- word messages, and those who do may
without injustice be left to pay extra for them. No provision is
made for allowing the replies to such messages to be prepaid by
the senders, nor for the messenger who delivers them to bring
back the replies for immediate telephoning, which is a facility that
is enjoyed in several countries abroad. The foreign telephono-
grams operate both ways ; apparently the British message is to be
from the subscriber only. Then it is restricted to subscribers
only. In Denmark and Spain such messages, written down, may
be handed in at any public telephone station, telephoned by the
attendant to the central office, and thence delivered by messenger.
In Germany a ten-word message of this description costs 2d. ; in
Copenhagen 1-99^. ; while in Madrid one of twenty words can
be sent for \'<^2d. Is there any valid reason why the Londoners
or Glaswegians should be denied a parallel privilege, or why the
Post Office should discriminate against the general public in favour
of subscribers to a monopoly like the National Telephone Com-
pany ? Then the Post Office charge of 3^. is liable to be increased
by a terminal charge on the part of the company. This should

1 6 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

"ON

.'*'

c
VO

-5

* 1

: :- 1

' 1

SO S

-- C

i !

* 1

~rn

'ON

.<*

S-

"ro

ON
ON

>o .2

m ^

*f>

"*. s

. N . N

*>
VO

sl^. ?-

* T3 C
C

"cT "^-

"S>

-5j ^

-^ !

c ^ "5

|1J

1^-

"^ vb

03 ;-

-t -si

4- M

VO -*
vo -o"

* 5 JS

"3s I J 1

Co -; -

.** V 3

f*> ~M"

> '-3 J

* . N

. N V
V. JON
ro M

*> s

VO u
C

-H 1 s - a

C -" -^

w "O

et
1 |

- 10 o

vp oo

-J

- -^. "g | *- |

' o,

rt -3

^i!

i- v

-^ 8

^ -:- v = | c .1

3*3

N -o a.

^ -:-

^ "(3

N 9 -^.

.O -g

^xg

vN d g

4 ^

111

vS vo ng = J^ |

w in

ON CO

in S'S

"N fe >

|vb

fe N

}iun joj
sainuuAT

ro f. m "-> m m |

m | m

co m

ro m vn

3.2

III

S fl
-8

sls-s

1 1.1

S B ii

|||

'*!

111

Sea

D j~

K
H

bjQ

a
S

o ?

* c

Austria .
Bavaria *

'_&

Bulgaria
Denmark-

Finland .
France * f

Germany
Holland *
Hungary

Italy .
Luxembur

Norway
Roumania

Spain
Sweden .

Switzerlan
Wiirtembe

REMARKS.-
to an an

ear

Introduction 1 7

not be, or, at least, the terminal fee ought to be ascertained before
the agreement becomes law, and the gross cost to the customer fixed.

The proposed trunk rates, even without the terminal charges
which the agreement authorises the company to levy, are, with-
out exception and by far, the dearest in Europe.

The table on p. 16 drawn up from official data contrasts the
proposed British with the trunk rates of all countries in which
trunk lines are actually working.

It will be seen that, saving for a few of the shorter distances,
the British rates are far higher than any of the others, with the
single exception of Roumania's. In that country all telephone
rates, local as well as trunk, are phenomenally dear, and the
natural result is shown in the fact that Bucharest, the capital,
possesses only 100 subscribers after several years' exploitation.
Italy and Spain are the next dearest, but in neither country has
any considerable experience in trunk work yet been gained. The
lines opened are short and of recent origin. The tariffs have been
made in advance, and are not, consequently, of the same value as
guides as those of Sweden or Germany, which have been in
operation over long distances for several years. The French rates
average about half the British and are yet amongst the dearest on
the Continent.

At four hundred miles, say the length of a trunk from
London to Glasgow or Edinburgh, the British charge is $s. 6d..
against is. M. Austria, is. Bavaria, 2S. q\d. France, is. Germany,
3-f. ^\d. Italy, 35-. Spain, and lod. Sweden. At six hundred miles
Britain is &s., Austria is. &d., France 4^., Germany is., Italy
45-. iod., Spain 45-. 2*/., and Sweden is. i\d. In fact, the British
tariff, it is to be feared, will not give telephonic traffic a chance
to develop at the longer distances : it is likely to prove prohibi-
tive for all but stockbrokers, a class of the community very esti-
mable no doubt in its way, but not sufficiently so to entitle it to
the monopoly of lines erected at the public expense. In con-
sidering the trunk question it should be borne in mind that in
several countries large reductions on the tariff rates may be
obtained by subscribing for a number of talks in advance. This
is the case even in Roumania, Britain's only rival in dearness.
There is no indication of any intention to reduce trunk

1 8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

rates at night and so encourage communication during the off
hours. In France and between France and Belgium rates are
reduced about one half between 9 P.M. and 7 A.M., with satisfac-
tory results.

Indeed, there is no assurance that the trunks will be open at
night at all. At present they are ;' but when they terminate, as it
is intended that they shall, at the post offices, which mostly close
at 9 P.M., a retrograde step in this respect is to be feared. Then
the greater part of the capital invested in the trunk lines will lie
fallow during ten hours or so out of the twenty-four.

It may be well to point out in connection with the trunk line
question that in Norway and Denmark, where independent com-
panies exist in nearly every town, trunk line communication is
established and worked without friction by the adoption of a very
simple plan that of allowing each company to erect and main-
tain the trunks within its own territory, and to keep all the money
it can take at its own end.

The author must confess inability to understand the proposal
of the Post Office to pay a commission to the company on tele-
grams telephoned. No such commission is paid anywhere on
the Continent, for the very good reason that the mere existence
of the facility of telephoning telegrams constitutes a valuable aid
to the company in securing new subscribers. The usual practice
(when the service is not perfectly free, as in Belgium and Bavaria)
is to require a payment from the company or subscriber. The
Post Office should afford connection to its telegraph offices in all
towns where the facility is asked for, and abolish all vexatious
restrictions and regulations ; but it has no call to pay the
company for doing what it is glad and anxious to do wherever
permitted. At least, if a commission is paid to the company it
should be stipulated that it, on its part, must impose no charge
of any description on its subscribers in connection with the tele-
gram service.

The proposal of the Post Office to withdraw its veto on the
establishment of public call offices in the houses or shops of sub-
postmasters is only what it ought to have done years ago. In
fact, the veto should never have been imposed. On the Con-
tinent, call offices or public telephone stations at the post and

Introduction \ 9

telegraph offices are generally provided (in Germany they usually
exist nowhere else), and are found a great convenience. The
duty ought to be imposed on the Post Office of finding room for a
call-box at all its chief branches, and to recoup itself, not by
charging a rent which might prove prohibitive to the company,
but by retaining, say, half the receipts. It would then be to the
interest of both Post Office and company to develop the traffic.
In Italy the Government imposes a tax of 2/. per annum on all
public telephone stations, with the result that they are few and far
between, several of the largest towns not possessing even one.

The proposal to allow railways, canals, &c., to be used by the
company at a nominal charge is only reasonable. The monopoly
given by Parliament to the Post Office in respect to the erection
of wires on railways was conferred before the existence of
telephony as a practical art was dreamed of, and was never
intended to act as a bar to legitimate public requirements. Any
powers in connection with railways or canals conferred on the
National Company ought to be extended to any other companies,
municipalities, or persons who may hereafter become licensees ;
and also to those who may require to erect private telephone
lines.

A table is given on pp. 20, 2 1 of the charges made in the various
continental countries for the different services rendered. The ex-
ceptions and variations are so numerous that it is a little difficult
to make comparisons at every point ; but by taking the most
commonly used unit charges in each country it is nevertheless
possible to compress a mass of information into a small compass.

One feature in the table will doubtless strike the observer. It
is the column headed * Entrance fee,' and it refers to a practice
which has enabled wonders to be wrought in the direction of
cheap telephony on a modest amount of capital, for practically it
works out that the subscriber finds, in the shape of 'entrance fee,'
'admission charge,' or 'contribution,' as it is named in various
countries, the capital, or the greater part of it, required for the
installation of his line, instrument, and share of exchange
apparatus. The custom prevails in Austria, France, Monaco,
Roumania, and Sweden, on the part of the respective States, and
in Denmark (partially), Finland (partially), Norway (partially), and

c 2

COUNTRY

Entrance Fee

Annual Subscription for
one exchange line and
instrument

Charge for
a second
connection

Austria ....

4/. 3^. 4</.

4/. 3*. 4^-

4/. 3-y. 4d.

500 meters

Bavaria ....

7/. IDS.

3/. 15^.

5 kilometers

Belgium ....

From 5/. to io/.
Usually 3 kilometers

Variable

Bulgaria ....

8/. first year ; 61. subse-
quently

Denmark ....

Copenhagen, 8L 6s. 3d.
Provinces, from \l. \Zs. 8d.

Copen-
hagen,

to 4/. 8s. i id.

61. 13^. ^d.

Finland

Companies, nil

Companies, 3/. ^s. to
4/. i6s.

France ....

Co-operative

Co-operative Societies, 2/.

Societies, 8/. to io/.

to 2/. i6s.

Paris, nil

Paris, i6/.

6/. 8j.

Lyons, nil
I2S. per zoo meters

Lyons, i2/.
Other towns over 25,000,

4/. 1 6^.

of single wire
other towns

Other towns under 25,000,

61.

Germany ....

5 kilometers

5/.

Holland ....

Amsterdam, gl. i^s. -z\d.

Dordrecht, 4/. y. iid.

Breda, 2/. 17^. iod.

Alkmaar, 2/. 9^. "jd.

IO.

Hungary ....

Buda-Pesth, i2/. ios.

Other towns, s/.

Italy

2/ 16^ to 8/

12.

Luxemburg

3/. 4.9., including right to

use all trunks

13.

Monaco . .

i2S. per 100 meters

61.

of single wire

14.

Norway

Christiania, 4/. 8.y. nd.

i/. 13^. 4^.

Provinces, i/. 8s. to

3/. 6s. 8d.

15.

Portugal ....

jl. IQS.

5/. 12 s. 6d.

16.

Roumania ....

61.

8/. to cover 1,000 talks

per annum ; 16^. per 100

afterwards

X 7-

Russia . .

St. Petersburg and Mos-

cow, 25/.

Other towns, io/. to
i2/. ios., 2^ miles

18.

Spain

5/. i2S. to i2/., according

19.

Sweden ....

Company,

to population
Company, s/. us. id

Company,

2/. is-?, "jd. any

State, 4/. 8,y. iid.

4/. 8s. iid.

distance

State,

State, s/. 15.9. -jd.

3 /. 6s. 8d.

20.

Switzerland . . V *

ist year, 4/. i6s.

2nd year, 4/.

3rd year, 3/. 4^.

Covers 800 calls only per

annum

21.

Wurtemberg

2/. I05-.

3 kilometers

Internal Trunk Rates Fee for tele-

Fee for tele-
phonograms

Fee for tele-
phoning mail
matter

Public Tele-
phone Station
charges

Minimum

Maximum j grams

3-
4-

6d.
3 minutes

5 minutes
9 ;6d.

5 minutes
g'6d.
<; minutes

is. %d. id. + -id.
3 minutes per word
is. Free
5 minutes
9 -6d. Free
5 minutes i
g'bd.
5 minutes I

id. + 'id.
per word
id. + 'id.
per word

2d.

3 minutes
z'^d.
5 minutes
z'+d.
5 minutes
4-Sd.
5 minutes

Erratum

Page 20. Table of Rates. In first column the word ' France '
should be opposite ' Paris ' in second column. . The information re
Co-operative Societies refers to Finland.

ii. 2s. 50.. not exceeding

i gvu. per

yu. <-u ^ ^n.

500 kilometers, and

message

5 minutes

S'jbd. per 100 kilo-

meters beyond

12. Included
subscri

in local '98^. per
ption message

'98^. per message
+ 3 'T.6d. cost of

984?. per
message

3*36^
5 minutes

special messenger + postage
Free ! 4*8^. per 5 min- '

2V-

14. 3 '^d.

6'Stt.

v6d. not exceed-

utes occupied
30 words for $d.

5 minutes

5 minutes ing 20 words ;

5 minutes

'66d. per 10

words after

16. n'^d. fir

st loo kilo- 'g6d. per message 4-8^. first 20

g'6d.

meters ; j g'6d. per + *48<a?. for each
loo ' after 5 words

words, and rgzd.
for each 20 after

5 minutes

17-

1 8. 5- 3 d.

2S. -jd.

i 'qzd. 20 words ;

i 'g-zd.

3 minutes

i '4.8d. each =; after

3 minutes

19. Free up to

meters ;

70 kilo-
beyond,

Company, free ;
State, '66d.

40 words for

Company, i'"$d.
within radius 70

2d.

IS. I\d.

kilometers ;

State, i 'yi. with-

in Stockholm ;

I'ggd. within 70

kilometers

20. 2-88^.

7'2(/. 'g6d. per

i'gzd. + 'og6d.

g6d.

3 minutes

message

per word

3 minutes

21. ^d.

sd.

'id. per word ;

'id. per word,

'id. per ^

zd.

5 minutes

minimum, id.

minimum id. +

word ; mini-

5 minutes

cost of messenger

mum, id.

22 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

Sweden, on the part of the various telephone companies. The
contributions exacted vary greatly. In France they are high,
amounting to i2s. per 100 meters of single wire, or i/. 41. per 100
meters of double wire, which, in most cases, is in excess of the
real -cost, so that the State makes a profit out of the subscriber at
the first onset. The Austrian is less, being 4/. 3^. 4^. for 500
meters of double wire, against the French 6/. In Sweden, however,
the contribution is only 2/. 155-. jd., just half of one year's-
(company's) rental, irrespective of the length of the line so long
as it does not extend beyond the limits of the town. Such an
amount once paid is not felt by the subscriber, but is of enormous
importance to a company or individual concessionary, as it pro-
vides funds wherewith to construct the exchange. This is the
secret of the existence and success of many of the small Norwegian
and Danish exchanges, and the author is aware of no valid reason
why it should not be practised in the United Kingdom too. It
would operate admirably in aid of the smaller municipalities
desiring to start their own exchanges, for it would obviate the
necessity of drawing on the rates for the purpose, a method to
which objection has been expressed in certain quarters. Nobody
could demur to municipalities establishing exchanges with the
subscribers' own money, which might be returned gradually in the
shape of reduced rentals after the business had begun to yield a
profit.

It is this contribution system, together with the profits-
remaining after paying its maximum dividend of 8 per cent.,
which has helped the General Telephone Company of Stockholm r
with a paid-up capital of only 32,9667., to cover a radius of 43*49
miles of country round the capital, with a network of trunk lines
comprising 121 switch-rooms and 10,346 subscribers' instruments,
and to evolve a property valued, at the end of 1894, after eleven
years' working, at 205,6487., besides building up substantial
reserves, employees' accident and benevolent funds, and paying
for the conversion of the whole of its Stockholm system from
single to double wire.

It is such results as these which should command the attention
of the British public. Let those interested and who is not ?
in the serious question of trade depression and want of employ-

Introduction 23

ment for the masses ask themselves why similar results, which
would find occupation both for idle capital and for thousands of
workmen, clerks, and female operators, cannot be achieved in our
own countr>\ Where one telephone employee now exists, five or
six years' vigorous development would call fifty into being.

The proposal of the Post Office to buy the existing trunk lines
at * cost price as shown by the company's books, together with a
further sum of 10 per cent.,' should be jealously examined. The
Post Office officials have a standing complaint that in 1870 the
telegraphs were acquired at twice or three times their proper value,
and anxiety is professed to avoid a similar extravagance in the
case of the telephones. But in the author's opinion the Post Office
officials are on the eve of tumbling into as grave an error now as
did their predecessors of 1870. Many of the existing trunk lines
are ten years old at least, and consequently, even when built of
good materials, are far on the road towards the natural life limit of
creosoted telegraph poles. But, 'as a matter of fact, many of the
lines were not built of creosoted timber at all, but of wood un-
impregnated with any preservative compound. The author him-
self erected trunk lines in the years 1885-89 with poles that were
of insufficient diameter and otherwise unsuited for such purposes,
but which were the best the company could be induced to provide.
To buy these to-day at cost price plus 10 per cent, would be a
transaction as improvident as any concluded in 1870.

In connection with the acquisition of the trunk lines by the
Government, another point requires to be considered : viz., can
the trunks be worked under the new conditions as promptly and
satisfactorily as at present ? According to accepted interpretations
of the Post Office intentions, it is proposed to terminate the trunk
lines in the post offices of the various towns, communication being
had with the telephone exchanges by means of junction wires.
This means that each telephonic call from one town to another
will have to be dealt with by four operators instead of two, and
consequently double the time will be taken in getting a connection
through ; the cost in wages and in wear and tear of apparatus will
be also doubled, while the earning capacity of the trunks will be
materially reduced, which may bring about a tendency to com-
pensate for reduced carrying power by the imposition of higher

24 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

rates. In trunk switching it is necessary, in order to obtain
maximum speed, that a branch from each subscriber's wire shall
be present on the trunk switch -board, so that the trunk operator
may be able to put a trunk in connection with a subscriber's line
directly, without the intervention of another person. To give
effect to this plan after the acquisition of the trunks by the Post
Office, it will be necessary to extend all the subscribers' wires
from the telephone exchanges to the local post offices. In
Manchester, as in Liverpool, the two institutions are some quarter
of a mile apart, while in each town there are some 2,500 sub-
scribers, any one of which may be asked for at any moment over
a trunk line. It will be requisite, therefore, if the present speed
of trunk switching is to be maintained, to construct 2,500 wires,
each a quarter of a mile long, in Manchester and the same number
in Liverpool, or a total length of 1,250 miles of new wires for
those two towns alone. In towns worked on the metallic circuit
system the mileage required would be doubled. But it is under-
stood that it is not proposed to adopt this plan ; consequently
the switching speed, together with the earning power of the trunks,
must be inevitably reduced.

It is generally believed in telephonic circles that, Parliament
consenting, the Post Office will acquire the entire business of the
National Telephone Company at December 31, 1897, the next
break in the licence. It behoves the public, and, above all, the
commercial community, to watch that the transfer is only allowed
to take place under conditions which will assure a good service
and an uninterrupted development at reasonable rates, to be set
forth and fixed beforehand. It is useless to attempt to disguise
the fact that the Post Office has always opposed low rates, no
matter to what applied. The twopenny post, the penny post,
the newspaper post, the parcel post, post-cards, reply post-cards,
sixpenny telegrams ; in short, every improvement without excep-
tion had to pass the gauntlet of official obstruction before it could
attain the stage of useful existence. It may safely be predicted,
therefore, that the Post Office will seek, whenever the acquisition
of the whole telephonic business of the country comes up for
settlement, to induce Parliament to sanction rates far in excess of
those current on the Continent. That should in no wise be per-

Introduction 25

mitted. The preceding pages have amply demonstrated that rates
of 2/. ictf. in the smaller and of 5/. in the larger towns are made
remunerative abroad. The author's view is that, following the
example of the French and Spanish Governments, Parliament
should impose a scale of rates varying with the populations of the
towns. After much consideration and analysis the author has
satisfied himself that municipalities could establish and efficiently
work exchanges on the metallic circuit plan, constructed under-
ground in the centres of the towns and overhead in the suburbs
as in Vienna and Zurich (see Austrian and Swiss sections), on
the following rates, which are inclusive of Post Office royalty.
These rates being possible for municipalities, should be possible
for the Post Office also, and accordingly imposed on that depart-
ment. No article is worth more than it can be bought for, and
the commercial community is entitled to purchase what it wants
in the cheapest market.

PROPOSED SCALE OF INCLUSIVE RATES TO BE CHARGED IN THE
UNITED KINGDOM BY THE POST OFFICE OR BY FUTURE LICENSEES
FOR LINES NOT EXCEEDING ONE MlLE IN LENGTH.

s. d.

Towns up to 10,000 inhabitants . . . .400

,, of 10,000 to 25,000 inhabitants . .450

,, of 25,000 to 50,000 ,, . . . 4 10 o

,, of 50,000 to 100,000 ,, . . .4150

,, of 100,000 to 150,000 ,, . . .500

,, of 150,000 to 250,000 ,, . . -55

,, of 250,000 to 500,000 ,, . . 5 10 o

,, of 500,000 to 750,000 ,, . . .5150

London . . . . . . . . .800

Of course the Post Office would not willingly accept such rates,
in, the author believes, the perfectly sincere and honest conviction
that they would not pay. But still the fact remains that they have
been made to pay and are made to pay. A telephone engineer
fetched over from Trondhjem, where a population of over 30,000
souls is successfully catered for on a 2/. 105-. rate, would no doubt
be of a different opinion and anxious for an opportunity of show-
ing how it's done.

But a conflict of views is inevitable, and the author would pro-

26 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

pose the following plan as being both practicable and calculated
to bring conviction in its train.

As before stated, the Post Office cannot possibly acquire the
whole business of the National Telephone Company before
December 31, 1897. In the interim period there is plenty of
time for a municipality to show what can be done in the direction
of low rates and improved service. Let two or three municipali-
ties be licensed on the condition that metallic circuits are em-
ployed throughout, so that, in the event of an ultimate Post Office
purchase, the municipal exchanges will fit in properly with, and
make part and parcel of, the postal system. By the end of 1897
such experience will be gained, if the municipalities go wisely to
work, as will put an end to all quibbles as to the sufficiency of a
5/. rate. Such a test should be welcomed by all parties, whether
for or against low rates, really wishing for a settlement of the
question.

But the author doubts whether the Post Office realises the
importance of the subject of national telephony. Speaking in
the House on March i, 1895, the Postmaster-General (' Daily
Chronicle,' March 2, 1895) said that 'the telephone could not,
and never would be, an advantage which could be enjoyed by the
large mass of the people. He would go further and say if in a
town like London or Glasgow the telephone service was so inex-
pensive that it could be placed in the houses of the people, it
would be absolutely impossible. What was wanting in the tele-
phone service was prompt communication, and if they had a large
number of people using instruments they could not get prompt
communication and yet make the telephone service effective.'

What can be expected from a department whose chief enter-
tains opinions such as these ? What hope can be entertained
when the fountain of knowledge is thus found frozen at its source ?
Let the reader turn to the Swedish, Norwegian, and Swiss (with
its parochial telephone stations) sections of this book, and judge
whether Mr. Arnold Morley really knows so much of what is
passing in the world as to justify his assumption of the role of
prophet. The ' could not and never would be ' is strongly
suggestive of the predictions about railways and telegraphs and
steamboats which used ^o be made when those inventions were

Introduction 27

in their infancy of the late Dr. Lardner's rash undertaking to
eat the first steamer, cargo and all, that succeeded in crossing the
Atlantic. The author believes that Mr. Morley will live to be
wiser. If not, then Stockholm with its 1 1,534 exchange telephones
and Berlin with its 25,000 and odd subscribers exist in vain.

We are all addicted to accept our own individual experiences
as guides, and the fact probably is that Mr. Morley, not un-
naturally perhaps, but still with a limitation of vision rather amaz-
ing in a Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, is basing his belief on
home, nay London, experience. He believes that the presently
existing system is the best possible, and he deduces (and with in-
finite correctness) that no possible modification of it can bring the
telephone home to the masses. Pursuing the same line of argu-
ment, but substituting provisions for telephones, Mr. Morley
would be equally safe in declaring that the large mass of the
population of London or Glasgow could not, and never would be,
provided with daily bread. And- he would be right, assuming
that the distribution of food were carried out on a plan analogous
to that on which telephones are now supplied. If all provisions
brought into a large town were carried to one central site and thence
distributed direct to the house of each individual consumer, with-
out the intervention of markets, of shops, of costermongers, or any
of the usual intermediaries, the task involved would border on the
impossible. Division of labour is imperative in such a case. When
the labourers are many and work intelligently on an organised
plan, each in his own sphere, a very minute sphere perhaps too,
the bread and the milk and the meat will find its way almost, to
appearances, automatically to the remotest capillaries of the city's
anatomy. So it is with telephones.

Take a town, however immense, and realise that at no very
remote period telephones will be numerous in many parts of it
and totally wanting in none, and the task of devising a plan for
an exchange to meet all possible requirements becomes an easy
one. Such a plan the author laid before the British Association
in 1891, l and such a plan has recently been adopted in the recon-
struction of the General Telephone Company's system at Stock -

1 On the Telephoning of Great Cities, pamphlet by the present author.
Whittaker & Co. is.

28 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

holm (see Swedish section). With it each telephone ordered
drops into its place naturally and economically. A large portion
of that traffic which Mr. Morley fears, would riot pass beyond the
local exchange (or shop) at all ; and there exists no difficulty
whatever in dealing with the whole, however extensive it may be.
With such a plan in operation, whole suburbs of London would
not be totally cut off from telephone exchange intercourse as at
present.

In the speech already quoted the Postmaster-General (' Daily
Chronicle,' March 2, 1895) told the House of Commons that the
charge for telephones in London is only io/., exactly one half of
the actual figure, and that rates rose as high as 4o/. and 5o/. in
America, meaning, no doubt, the United States. These high
American rates are confined to a few towns, and there are special,
although not very satisfactory, reasons for their existence ; but
why should the Postmaster-General, when instructing the House
of Commons, mention high rates, which are exceptional, and omit
all reference to the low rates which are almost universal else-
where than in Britain ? Is the British Post Office really unaware
of the existence of these last ? The author thinks not, and for the
following reason. In October 1894 the author in the course of
his continental tour of investigation made formal application
through the British Consulate at Berlin (a procedure he was
advised was necessary) for permission to inspect the Berlin tele-
phone system. He was informed that this could not be permitted
without an introduction from the British Postmaster-General. At
the same time the German Government wrote to the British Post
Office inquiring whether it approved of the application or had any
objection to its being complied with. It may read strange that the
German Government imagines that a British electrician is neces-
sarily in the leading strings of his Post Office, and stranger still
although somewhat flattering to the national vanity that the Im-
perial German Post Office considers itself under the orders of St.
Martin's-le-Grand ; but so it is. W T hat the tenor of the reply was
the author knows not, but the result was a refusal to allow any
inspection or to impart any information. It would not be com-
plimentary to the intelligence or patriotism of the Post Office to
imagine that it would, without an object, deliberately obstruct a

Introduction 29-

British subject in a quest for legitimate information abroad on a
question in which he is known to be specially interested. The
author shrinks from even verging on the uncomplimentary, so it
is necessary to at least imagine a reason. Can it be that, knowing
the author's consistent advocacy of low rates, the British Post
Office feared that he would learn that in Germany the maximum
local rate, even in Berlin with its 25,000 subscribers, is only y/. los.
per annum, everything included ; and that a three-minute con-
versation can be had between any two points of the Imperial
German Post Office territory even when six hundred miles or
more apart for one shilling? a facility for which the British
Post Office proposes to charge 85-. If this was not the reason, it
is of course open to the Post Office to make known its real motive.

Fortunately, this unpatriotic obstruction did not prevent the
author from eventually obtaining all the information he sought, as
will appear from a perusal of the German section.

The book is not entirely devoted to tariffs and regulations.
Such matters are indissolubly bound up with technical questions,
for cheap rates with bad construction and indifferent service are
to be deprecated, and indeed disallowed altogether, for the author
holds them to be intolerable, and only less acceptable than the
combination of dear rates and a bad service. The service of a
telephone exchange should be the first consideration. This
opinion has always led the author to advocate the universal use
of metallic circuits, without which privacy of conversation and
speech undisturbed by strange noises, together with effective long-
distance talking, is unattainable. Prompt and correct switching,
with no uncertainty between signals intended to have different
meanings, are also essential to a good system ; and the operators'
voices should never be heard on the wires. The familiar ' Have
you finished?' and other intrusive cries with which London
operators break in upon one's conversation every few seconds are
totally unnecessary in a well-ordered exchange. In large towns
the main routes of wires should be laid underground, at least in
the central parts. These preliminaries and essentials having been
attended to, and the best of material and workmanship em-
ployed in carrying them out, attention may be profitably given to
the rates. The author's contention has always been, at least for

3O Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

the past ten years, that all these things are compatible with the
scale of charges given above.

It is hoped that the analyses of the facilities, regulations, and
methods of dealing with traffic given in the book will prove of
interest, and even profit, to telephone managers. The result
of the working of many intelligent minds separately striving
after a solution of the same problem must be always worthy
of contemplation ; and none are so wise as to be independent
of the experience of others. The details given in the various
sections make it abundantly evident that telephone mana-
gers and engineers may learn much from each other, for the
facilities given to the public vary considerably in different coun-
tries, while some methods are obviously superior to others in
vogue elsewhere.

The author has endeavoured, as far as possible, to avoid de-
scribing well-known apparatus and methods. In respect to the
technical portions a familiarity on the part of the reader with
ordinary telephone exchange work and management is throughout
assumed.

It will be readily understood that a book like the present
would be impossible without the cordial co-operation of many
friends, and the author has pleasure indeed in acknowledging his
indebtedness to the gentlemen of all nationalities with whom it
was his good fortune to come in contact during his continental tour.
Everywhere (except at Berlin) officials, whether of State adminis-
trations or of companies, permitted, and even courted, the fullest
inspection, and placed the most ample information, documentary
and otherwise, at the author's disposal. Specially he would like to
place on record his thanks to the following gentlemen : M. J.
BANNEUX, Director, and M. H. FRENAY, Engineer, of the Belgian
Posts and Telegraphs, Brussels ; Mr. E. B. PETERSEN, General
Manager of the Copenhagen Telephone Company; Mr. F. Ros-
BERG, Telephone Engineer, Helsingfors ; M. SELIGMANN, Chief
Engineer, French Telephone Administration, Paris ; Dr. H. F. R.
HUBRECHT, Managing Director, and Mr. N. HEINZELMANN,
Engineer, Netherlands Bell Telephone Company, Amsterdam ;
Mr. A. E. R. COLLETTE, Engineer, Dutch Administration of Posts
and Telegraphs, The Hague ; Mr. C. J. VAN BUEREN, Managing

Introduction 3 1

Director, Zutphen Telephone Company, Zutphen ; Messrs. RIB-
BINK & VAN BORK, Telephone Engineers, Breda and Amster-
dam ; Signer E. GEROSA, Manager, Societa Telefonica Lom-
barda, Milan ; Mr. KNUD BRYN, Manager, Christiania Telephone
Company, Christiania ; Mr. H. T. CEDERGREN, Managing Direc-
tor, General Telephone Company, Stockholm ; Mr. AXEL HULT-
MANN, late Chief Engineer, Swedish State Telephone Adminis-
tration, Stockholm ; Dr. T. ROTHEN, Director of the Bureau
International des Administrations Telegraphiques, Berne ; Dr.
WIETLISBACH, Director, Swiss Telegraphic Administration, Berne ;
Mr. A. HOMBERGER, Local Telephone Manager, Ziirich ; Mr.
MAX HAHN, Vienna ; Mr. C. SIEGEL, St. Petersburg ; M. BER-
THON, Societe Industrielle des Telephones, Paris ; Mr. SPRING-
BORG, Manager, Aarhus Telephone Company ; Mr. L. M. ERICS-
SON, Stockholm M. F. NEUMAN, Director of Posts and Telegraphs,
Luxemburg ; Mr. C. G. NIELSON, Chairman of the Drammen
Uplands Telephone Company ; Mr. NORSHUUS, Manager of the
Bergen Telephone Company.

The following works have been occasionally used in writing
the Belgian, French, Italian, and Dutch sections respectively :
'La Telephonic,' E. Pierard; 'Telephonic Pratique,' L. Montillot :
' Telefono,' Domenico Civita ; ' Het Plaatselijke Telephoonnet te
Zutphen,' Aug. Collette. The ' Journal Telegraphique,' the official
organ of the telegraph administrations, edited by Dr. T. Rothen,
has been freely drawn upon, especially Dr. Wietlisbach's descrip-
tion of the Ziirich exchange, which he has very kindly allowed the
author to use.

22 ST. ALBAN'S ROAD,
HARLESDEN, LONDON, N.W.
March 9, 1895.

32 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

I. AUSTRIA

HISTOBY AND PRESENT POSITION

THE history of the telephone in Austria dates from 1880, when
the Government granted a concession for the city of Vienna to
the Vienna Private Telegraph Company. This was soon followed
by concessions to various persons and firms for several of the
principal towns, the most valuable of which were acquired by an
English association, the Telephone Company of Austria, Limited.
Some of these concessions were, however, burdened by im-
practicable conditions owing to the desire of the Government to
leave the settlement of details to the local authorities most
interested. For instance, it is related that the Cracow municipality
required of the concessionary for that town that all wires should
be run horizontally, immediately beneath the projecting eaves of
the houses, and always at the same height above the ground
(incompatible conditions since the heights of the buildings
varied) ; that the wires should never cross a street, and that a
sum of money should be deposited out of which the municipality
could satisfy any claims for damages that might arise. It is
perhaps needless to say that the Telephone Company of Austria
did not touch that licence ; and, in fact, the municipality of
Cracow had to wait for its telephones until 1887, when the State
began the construction of exchanges on its own account, and then,
strange to say, obtained the fulfilment of none of its conditions.
In addition to that of the capital, the Vienna Private Telegraph
Company undertook the exchange at Briinn ; the Telephone
Company of Austria constructed from time to time, until its
acquisition by the State on January i, 1893, tne exchanges at

Austria 33

Prague, Trieste, Lemberg, Graz, Czernowitz, Pilsen, Reichenberg,
and Bielitz-Biala ; and a company called the Linz-Urfahr
Undertakers (Unternehmung) established an exchange system in
Linz-Urfahr, which was also absorbed by the Government on the
first day of 1893. After that date, the only -company left was the
Vienna Private Telegraph, which maintained an independent
existence until January i, 1895, when the State finally became
the possessor of the whole Austrian system.

The rates charged by the companies varied from 8/. 6s. 8<
in Vienna and y/. los. in Prague and Trieste to 5/. in the smaller
towns, out of which 10 florins or i6s. %d. per subscriber had to
be paid annually to Government.

In 1887 the State began to open exchanges and construct
trunk lines in accordance with the provisions of a law promulgated
on October 7 of that year. Its first ventures were at Baden,.
Voslau, and Wiener-Neustadt, which were connected to Vienna
by single 3 mm. bronze wires. Soon afterwards, State exchanges-
were opened in Aussig, Teplitz, and Carlsbad, while Briinn was
joined to Vienna by two telegraph wires fitted with the Van
Rysselberghe apparatus. Subsequently, the extension of the
State system went on rapidly until, on December 31, 1892, the
day before the absorption of the first two companies, it comprised
sixty-one exchanges and twenty-nine metallic circuit trunk lines,
including seven international. At the date of writing (February
1895) practically all the Austrian towns of any note are in
possession of exchanges, and in the enjoyment of trunk line
communication. The Van Rysselberghe system has not been-
persisted in, so that the trunks are invariably metallic circuits
intended exclusively for telephony.

The law referred to was a most important one, as it specified
the services to be rendered to the public by the Imperial Post
and Telegraph Department, the tariffs to be levied, and the
general rules to be observed, both by the State officials and the
subscribers. In future it will constitute the groundwork of
Austrian telephony. The late companies' regulations will be
brought into line with it as soon as existing agreements will
permit, and in a few years absolute uniformity will prevail. The
development of the Austrian system is likely to be rapid and

34 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

extensive, for the law is conceived in a most liberal spirit. The
facilities placed at the disposal of subscribers and of the general
public are not only numerous, but the charges are extremely
moderate, and that in spite of the adoption of the principle first
introduced, the author believes, by Mr. H. T. Cedergren of
Stockholm, and subsequently adopted by the French Government
of causing the subscribers to pay for the installation of their lines
and instruments by a * contribution ' as it is called in Austria,
or ' admission fee ' as it is termed in Sweden. This plan obviates,
of course, the necessity of finding a heavy capital ; each unit
brings its initial cost with it, and the annual subscription has to
cover only maintenance and working expenses, and not interest
on capital. The ' contribution ' in Austria is 4/. 3^. \d. for lines
not exceeding 500 meters in length, and i6s. 3d. for each addi-
tional 100 meters, making the initial cost to the subscriber of a
i -kilometer line 8/. 6s. &/., payment of which, in accordance with
the law, may be extended over five years if desired. But the
annual subscription is only 50 florins, or 4/. 3^. 4^., so that the
contribution ,to first cost is a bagatelle to a subscriber who comes
on, as most of course do, for the term of his business life. By
spreading payment over five years, a line not exceeding 500

meters in length costs only 4/. 35. ^d. + - = 5/. per

annum for the first five years, and 4/. 3^. 4^. per annum thereafter.
Similarly, a i -kilometer line costs 4/. 35. ^d. + =

5/. i6s. &d. for the first five years, and 4/. 35. 4^. thereafter. One
good effect of the contribution system is that the line, whatever
its length, being paid for, the State can afford to make the annual
subscription uniform for all distances. Actually, in Austria the
unit subscription of 4/. 3^. ^d. covers all distances up to fifteen
kilometers. These facts constitute a lesson which British muni-
cipal authorities would do well to study, for it teaches how a
telephone exchange may be started without capital and supported
on very slender subscriptions. The trunk tariff, while not so
liberal as that of Germany, is still most commendably moderate,
as under it is. &d. franks a three-minute conversation from one
end of Austria to the other.

Austria 35

But there is one thing in Austria which the author would like
to see remedied with all practicable despatch. Except in Vienna,
where many of the lines are already doubled, although not always
used as metallic circuits, the system employed is single wire with
earth return. If the Austrians are prudent, they will discard this
while the change is yet comparatively easy. As already stated,
the development under this wise telephone law will be rapid and
practically boundless. There is no finality in telephone exchange
work when conducted on liberal and far-seeing principles the
horizon ever recedes as progress is attained, and new and un-
expected channels for usefulness ever present themselves. It
would be a pity, therefore, beyond expression, if the system were
allowed to drift into such a muddle as that which already exists
in Germany. Let the Austrians open no more exchanges except
on the metallic circuit plan, and address themselves to the task of
altering gradually if expense is a grave consideration, but still
methodically altering all the existing single-wire ones. Other-
wise in a few years' time they will find themselves in possession
of a system altogether behind the age, and which, to the humilia-
tion of the national pride, will not bear comparison with those of
France, Sweden, Belgium, or Switzerland, nor, the author hopes,
with that of Great Britain either.

The gist of the law will be given under the various headings.

SEEVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

i. Intercourse between the subscribers and public telephone
stations of the same town. Subscribers are held responsible for
all damage to their instruments, or to the connecting wires within
their premises, arising from malice or want of proper care. They
have to pay the actual cost of shifts consequent on removals as
determined by the Government engineers. The State reserves
power to suppress any connection, temporarily or permanently, at
any time without notice : if this is done before the expiration of
five years, money paid in advance as contribution to the cost of
the line will be refunded for the unexpired period ; if after five
years, no refund will be made. The State accepts no responsi-

36 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

bility for interruptions, and no subscriptions will be refunded on
account of failure of service. No hard and fast radius within
which local subscriptions apply has been fixed, and in practice
the privileged area comprises a town, and the suburbs and sur-
rounding districts which naturally group with it. This is a wise
and liberal measure, which frees the people from the restrictions
imposed on suburban intercourse in France, Germany, and Wiir-
temberg. The use of instruments is restricted to the subscribers,
their servants, and to friends staying with them.

2. Internal trunk line communication. The trunk system
is already very extensive. At the end of 1893 forty metallic cir-
cuits, with a length of 3,302 kilometers, were in operation, and
considerable extension has taken place since. The longest lines are
those between Vienna and Prague (354 kilometers) ; Vienna and
Trieste (505 kilometers) ; and Prague and Asch (230 kilometers).
The Vienna-Prague route comprises three metallic circuits.

3. International trunk line communication. With the excep-
tion of the line to Hungary, which gives Vienna communication
with Buda-Pesth, Szegedin, Temesvar, Arad, Raab, Pressburg,
and other towns in the sister kingdom, the most impor-
tant line by far is the Vienna-Berlin (660 kilometers), opened
in January 1895. The others are with Switzerland, Bavaria,
Wiirtemberg, and Saxony (two circuits), but their use is restricted
to the towns adjacent to the frontiers. The Italian Government
has proposed a connection between the two countries, but nothing
has yet been settled on the subject.

4. Telephoning of telegrams. Every facility is given for
the exercise of this privilege, the State recognising the utility of
creating a branch telegraph station in every subscriber's office or
house, thereby encouraging the use of the telegraph and tending
to compensate for any evil influence exercised by the telephonic
trunk lines on the telegraphic revenue. The telephone exchanges
are usually located at a telegraph office ; when this is not the case
the two are joined by wire, and clerks are always in attendance to
write down messages from subscribers, or telephone those arriving
for them. Messages are accepted in any ordinary language, but
when the clerks are not acquainted with the tongue used, sub-
scribers must number the letters of their messages according to a

Austria 37

preconcerted plan, and dictate them, by the aid of German
numerals, letter by letter. The code, which is printed in the
subscribers' lists, provides for forty-three different letters, including
the accented ones of the French, German, and Hungarian lan-
guages. Copies of telegrams telephoned to subscribers are not
afterwards delivered by messenger, but, on demand, are posted free
to the addressees by the next mail. This plan saves messengers'
wages, uniforms, and boot-leather to no inconsiderable amount.

5. Telephoning of messages (telephonograms) for local de-
livery. These are of several classes, viz. :

(1) Telephoning of written messages addressed to subscribers
handed in at any public telephone station.

(2) Written messages in the form of letters or post-cards for-
warded to the central telephone exchange office, by letter post or
pneumatic post, in order to be telephoned to subscribers. These
must bear postage-stamps to the amount of the tariff charge.

(3) Messages telephoned by subscribers to the central office to
be written down and forwarded to non-subscribers by (a) messen-
ger ; (ft) post-cards or letters, by letter post ; or (c) pneumatic post.

(4) Message calling a non-subscriber in the same or another
town to a specified public station in order to hold a conversation
with the sender.

6. Public telephone stations. These are fairly numerous,
there being thirty-one in Vienna and ten in the suburbs, generally
situated at the post and telegraph offices. The provincial towns
are proportionally well served. Users of public stations can
avail themselves of any of the privileges open to subscribers,
telegrams and telephonograms being accepted and trunk talks
allowed. No distinction is made at the public stations between
subscribers and non- subscribers.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for local exchange communication. Payments
come under two headings (a) contribution to the cost of the line
and instrument; (ft) annual subscription. The 'contribution,'
which in most cases will cover the entire cost of the line, is
4/. $s. d. for wires not exceeding 500 meters in length, after

38 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

which it is increased at the rate of 165-. 8*/. per 100 meters, up to
a maximum length of fifteen kilometers. Lines exceeding fifteen
kilometers in length are to be specially arranged for. The
contribution for a i -kilometer line is consequently 8/. 6s. $>d.
Contributions may be paid down, or divided into five equal annual
payments, at the subscriber's option.

The annual subscription consists nominally of two parts,
2/. los. for the subscriber's station and i/. 13^. 4^. for the ex-
change apparatus ; but actually the subscriber has only to concern
himself with one payment of 4/. 3^. 4^. This annual subscription
covers all distances up to fifteen kilometers. The unit subscrip-
tion of 4/. 3.5-. ^d. is, however, doubled for instruments located in
railway stations, hotels, or theatres, where they can be used by
travellers, guests, or spectators. Clubs and kindred institutions
must also pay double rates if they wish their members to be free
of the instrument.

No reduction is made for second, third, or multiple instru-
ments. When a person takes several lines the contribution is
calculated on the sum of their lengths, and the unit annual
subscription is collected for each instrument.

When a subscriber cannot be joined up without the use of
cables or other special works, the State reserves the right to fix his
contribution at a higher rate.

Government offices pay only half of the above-named rates,
and, on the recommendation of the Minister of Commerce, the
same reduction is accorded to municipal and other public offices.

Subscribers who only use their instruments for six months or
less in each year are also admitted to the benefit of half rates.

Subscriptions are payable half-yearly, in advance, during the
first fortnights respectively of January and July.

2. Rates for internal trunk communication. The time unit
is three minutes.

^,-. (f.
o to 50 kilometers . . . . . .06

51 to 100 ., . . . . . .010

101 to 150 ,, . . . . .12

Over 150 ,, .18

When conversation is required between two towns which can

A u stria 39

only be joined by the connection of several trunk lines, the rate
levied is the sum of the charges ordinarily made for the use of
each trunk separately, provided the total does not exceed 25. 6d.,
which is the maximum.

Urgent conversations, i.e. talks which take precedence of all
others, are allowed at triple the usual charge. Annual sub-
scriptions are not admitted in connection with trunks. Users of
trunks must keep a deposit of 2/. is. Sd. with the State.

3. Rates for international trunk communication. Time
unit, three minutes.

s. d.
Vienna Berlin . . . . . . .26

Vienna Buda-Pesth and the other Hungarian towns i 8
Bregenz Bavaria . . . . . . .10

Bregenz Wtirtemberg . . . . . .10

Bregenz Switzerland . . . . .10

Express or urgent talks are admitted on all lines except to
Switzerland, at triple unit rates.

4. Rates for the telephoning of telegrams. For each
telegram received or delivered through the telephone exchange
the charge is id. plus 'id. per word, fractions of a kreuzer (2d.)
being inadmissible in the total. A ten-word message consequently
costs to telephone, id. + 10 x -1 = 2^.; and an eleven- word,
id. + 11 x 'i = 2-i + 'i = 2'2d. Charges on telegrams must be
covered by deposit.

5. Rates for messages telephoned for local delivery. The
rates for this service, as defined on page 37, are the same as for
the telephoning of long-distance telegrams, viz., id. per message
plus 'id. per word, fractions of '2d. being inadmissible. This
service is restricted to subscribers who keep deposits with the
State. When the message is posted as a letter an extra charge of
'2d. is made for the paper and envelope.

6. Rates levied at public telephone stations. Talks with
local subscribers, per three minutes, 2d. Trunk talks, forwarding
of telegrams and of telephonograms, are charged as in the pre-
ceding sections.

Alarms of fire or flood or notices of accidents may be tele-
phoned from any public station without charge.

.40 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

WAY-LEAVES

The State enjoys no absolute right of way. Local authorities
and proprietors are constrained from offering vexatious opposition
to the passage of wires by the Telegraph Acts, but on the other
hand the State must do nothing without previous consultation.
Fixtures on private buildings must be negotiated with the pro-
prietors.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

Much of the old companies' work, of course, still remains.
The Vienna Private Telegraph Company in 1 888, and the Tele-
phone Company of Austria, at Prague in 1889, fitted up multiple
boards, designed by Mr. Otto SchafBer, of Vienna, and manu-
factured in that town. At Trieste the latter company placed a
i,2oo-line non-multiple board manufactured by the Consolidated
Telephone Construction and Maintenance Company, Limited,
London, which firm also supplied boards of smaller capacity for
the other towns, worked by the Telephone Company of Austria.
Both the Schaffler and .Consolidated boards are highly spoken of,
and are all still in use. At Vienna there is only one central
station, and there are collected (March 1895) some 7,700 lines,
mostly double wires, representing subscribers, trunks, and public
stations. The switching arrangements are peculiar, and probably
even unique.- On the ground floor are installed two Schaffler
multiples of the respective capacity of 2,400 and 3,000 lines, and
on the first floor another of 3,000 lines. Each is complete in
itself, but connections between the respective sets of subscribers
have to be made by junction wires and jacks, just as non-multiple
boards were Worked in the old days. Roughly, two-thirds of the
calls have to be transferred in this way, a fact which naturally
militates against the attainment of the highest degree of rapidity
in switching (intercourse between the boards being conducted by
indicators, and not viva voce), although each operator looks after
only fifty subscribers. It must be allowed, however, that the
Vienna service is markedly better and quicker than that of Paris or
Berlin ; on this point there seems to be unanimous agreement.

Austria

42 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

On receiving a call for a line not at her command an operator
switches the caller through to the proper board, where he must
repeat his order to a young lady who has duplicate jacks before
her for the whole of that board. Talking is done through two
ring-off drops, which both fall when the end of a connection is
signalled. The Schaffler boards have jacks in series. The test
is managed by completing a circuit through one of the ring-off
drops, and not by the ordinary click. If a line asked for is
engaged, the application of the calling plug to the jack tumbles
the drop. This would be by no means a bad plan, were it not
that indicator flaps are so many Humpty Dumptys, unable to pick
themselves up after a fall. Every operator has before her fifty
signalling drops with answering jacks for the subscribers, together
with transfer jacks and nine ring-off drops with their correspond-
ing cords, plugs, and switches. The switches have black and
white handles for operating the right and left cords respectively ;
the cord in connection with the white handle is short, and will
reach only to the answering jacks ; the other is three meters long,
and is used for testing and connecting the lines called for. The
jacks are in rows of twenty-five, thirty rows making a vertical
division, and four divisions comprising a repeat of 3,000 jacks>
of which there are fifteen in the latest board installed, a view
of which is given in fig. i. When full, the boards will contain
134,000 spring-jacks and seat a total of 168 operators. The wiring
is effected by twenty-six cables containing wires of thirteen different
colours, each twisted with a white one. The calls dealt with are
said to sometimes amount to fourteen per subscriber per day. The
cost of the 3,ooo-line board last installed is stated, with its cables
and all fittings, to have been i9,537/., and exclusive of these,
i5,ooo/. The workmanship is undoubtedly good and substantial,
and so, happily, is in thorough accord with the price.

HOURS OF SERVICE

These coincide, as a rule, with the hours of telegraphic service,,
which in Vienna, Trieste, Prague, and other chief towns is con-
tinuous day and night. In the smaller towns the exchanges open
at 7 or 8 A.M. and close at 8 or 9 P.M.

A ustria

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

There has been considerable variety in these since the early
days of telephony in Austria. The Vienna Private Telegraph
Company commenced with a modification of the Blake as a
transmitter in Vienna and Briinn, and ordinary Bell receivers ;
while the Telephone Company of Austria adopted the Gower-
Bell with a magneto ringer, in Prague, and Blake-Bells in their
other towns, all their instruments being supplied by the Consoli-
dated Telephone Construction and Maintenance Company of
London. The Linz - Urfahr
Undertakers went in for a
modified Edison lamp-black
button transmitter. It speaks
well for the foresight of all the
Austrian telephone engineers
that they strictly avoided
battery ringing, adopting
magnetos from the outset, and
have thus saved themselves
from the embarrassment and
expense now being experienced
in connection with batteries
in France and Germany. Lat-
terly the Vienna Company has
adopted the set shown in fig. 2.
The transmitter is sometimes
of the Schaffler and Korner
types, but is now generally the well-known Deckert, which was
introduced into the United Kingdom by the General Electric
Company of London in 1891 as the * Runnings Cone,' and adopted
by the author for the Mutual Telephone Company's exchange in
Manchester with happy results. It has since been largely used
by the National Telephone Company in London. The Vienna
set of instruments cannot be commended as comprising the best
possible arrangements. The magneto has no automatic cut-in
for the generator coils, so the button g must be pressed when a

FIG. 2

44 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

subscriber would ring, thus needlessly occupying both hands and
rendering the use of papers or pencil difficult, especially as no
scribbling desk is provided. The magneto crank is inconveniently
placed on a level with the subscriber's mouth, and in a position
which renders it liable to be knocked against and damaged.

There must be a separate
battery-box, on the floor
or elsewhere, with the ex-
pense of long connecting
wires. The phones are
hung up by looped cords
in a manner calculated to
fray both the cords and the
users' tempers. Trembling
bells are employed in con-
junction with magnetos ;
in fact, every practicable
sin against convenience and
teachings of experience is
committed. The combina-
tion is the more extraor-
dinary, seeing that the
Vienna Company's engi-
neers have had the Con-
solidated Company's sets,
comprising magneto bell,
desk, battery-box, crank at
right-hand side, automatic

FIG. 3

cut-in, forked lever for holding phone all on one back-board
before their eyes for years, in Prague, Trieste, and other towns.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

The greater part of the work in Vienna is underground, the cables
extending in some directions as far as four and a half kilometers
from the exchange. The subscribers, however, in the immediate
neighbourhood of the central station are served by overhead wires :
these number some 300 only. The underground conductors are

Austria

of i mm. copper, insulated with gutta-percha covered with cotton.
They are spiralled together, and macie up into cables, containing
5, 10, 15, and 20 pairs, by being wound with waterproofed, and
then with tarred, tape. The cables are laid in larch troughs which
are filled in with a mixture of asphalt and hydraulic lime, and

FIG.

then closed with strips of wood. The asphalt mixture never
completely hardens, and forms no fissures through which moisture
can reach the cables. The success of this method is reported to
be complete, the cables suffering no appreciable deterioration after
several years' service. There has certainly been plenty of oppor-

46 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

tunity for deciding the point, for at the end of 1893 the cables
many of which have been manufactured by Mr. O. Bondy, of
Vienna measured 154 kilometers, while the conductors reached
a total of 35,493 kilometers. The wires are led to the subscribers
overhead by the aid of distributing poles or standards on which
the cables terminate, and the aerial lines (which are of 1*25 mm.
silicium bronze, supported on double-shed insulators) commence.
The immunity of the cables is the more remarkable inasmuch as
there are no lightning guards at the junctions with the open wires,
although protectors are provided at the exchange and on the

FIG. 5

subscribers' instruments. The overhead work is extensive in the
suburbs and down by and across the river, attaining a total length
of wire (in 1893) of 6,000 kilometers. Wall-bracket supports of
the forms shown in fig. 3 are extensively used. The same style
of bracket is also attached to poles, and makes a very presentable
design. Along the river at Vienna a handsome route of octagonal
poles so fitted (fig. 4) exists. A form of wall-bracket used by the
State is shown at fig. 5, together with a method of leading wires
into a house, which is largely practised in Austria and Germany.
From the terminal insulator A the wire goes to a smaller bracket and
insulator B, whence it is taken through a hole, c, in the wall, a cover

FIG. 6

48 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

D, which for one or two wires is generally a porcelain tube with a
bell mouth, being provided to protect the point of entrance from
the weather. The Telephone Company of Austria employed
standards, manufactured by the Consolidated Telephone Con-
struction and Maintenance Company, of the design (due, the
author understands, to Mr. Howard Krause, late Manager of the
Austrian Company) shown in fig. 6. The arms consist of flat iron
bars pierced for the insulator bolts, and
fastened to the tube in the manner shown in
plan. These standards are also frequently
made double, with long arms carrying ten
insulators, and long footboards. The local
wires in the provinces are all single and of
1-25 mm. bronze, supported on double-shed
insulators, the bolts of which are fixed in with
tow. There is no underground work outside
Vienna, and no aerial cables have yet been used in Austria. Fig. 7
shows a form of insulator much used in Austria, Wiirtemberg, and
Germany, for dropping open wires from a roof to a window ; the
grooved projection forms a much better fastening for a vertical
wire than does an ordinary upright bell.

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

The trunk lines are of bronze of 3 mm. and 4 mm. diameter,
according to length. They are all metallic circuits, and as a rule
are crossed every sixteen spans to counteract induction. There is
nothing special about the supports. The Austrian section of the
International line to Berlin is of 4 mm. bronze. When there is
more than one metallic circuit between the same points they
generally follow different routes ; thus Vienna has three loops to
Prague, measuring respectively 307, 308, and 354 kilometers.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen receive i/. &s. 4^. per week ; skilled wiremen, i/. ; and
labourers, from i$s. to i6s. %d. The sleeping allowance is io</.
per night. A day's work is ten hours in summer and eight in winter.

A ustria 49

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

When first taken on, girls receive i/. 135-. ^d. per month ; which
is increased to 2/. is. 8*/. when passed as quite competent. Sub-
sequently they are advanced by stages to a maximum of 2/. iSs. 4^.,
attained in three years. Lady superintendents receive 4/. 3-f. 4^. per
month. The girls' duty never, except at night and under very
special circumstances, exceeds six hours per day. One watch takes
duty from 8 A.M. till 2 P.M. ; the second, thence till 9 P.M. At
that hour the night staff, consisting of six young ladies, arrives and
continues the service until 8 A.M. They watch and sleep by turns.
The Vienna staff, all told, comprises 334 girl operators.

STATISTICS

In March 1895 the subscribers in Vienna numbered 7,700.
For the other towns no figures are obtainable later than Decem-
ber 31, 1893, when there were 80 exchanges belonging to the State
(including 10 taken over from the companies on the preceding
January i), comprising 177 public stations and 7,483 subscribers.
Vienna thus possesses a good half of the total number of sub-
scribers. At the same date there were 40 metallic circuit trunks,
of a total length of 3,302 kilometers, in operation. The principal
exchanges were as follow :

Town Number of subscribers

Prague ...... 1,070

Trieste 692

Graz 598

Briinn 568

Lemberg . . . . . .518 Taken over from the

Reichenberg . . . . .427 companies

Linz-Urfahr 221

Bielitz-Biala ..... 191

Pilsen 182

Czernowilz 1 1 }

50 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Town Number of subscribers

Cracow 214

Carlsbad 176

Salzburg 133

Aussig-on-Elbe . . . . 131

Teplitz 1 10

Troppau ...... 109

Warnsdorf 107

Commenced by the
State

The capital expenditure, receipts, and working expenses for
i892_are given as follow :

STATE

Capital to date 41,289

Receipts for 1892 33^75

Expenses ,, ...... 10,700

VIENNA PRIVATE TELEGRAPH COMPANY

Capital expenditure to date .... 498,000

Receipts for 1892 64,290

Expenses ,, 3^989

II. BAVARIA

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

LIKE Wiirtemberg, Bavaria has preserved the autonomy of its Posts
and Telegraphs, and consequently conducts its telephonic business
without interference from Berlin. In the early days of telephony
it steadily declined all applications for concessions, and everything
has been done by the State itself since, in 1882, it opened the first
Bavarian exchange at Ludwigshafen on-Rhine. Until recently the
opinion was held that single wires were adequate for local con-
nections, but it is satisfactory to learn that a complete change of
opinion in this respect has been brought about, and that all new
work is now designed with a view to the ultimate adoption of
metallic circuits. Munich, Nuremberg, and Wiirzburg are the
three chief telephonic centres of Bavaria, each being surrounded
by quite a galaxy of satellite switch-rooms. Lesser groups are Hof,
Miinchberg, and Berchtesgaden, while Augsburg stands by itself.
In the detached left-Rhine palatinate, Ludwigshafen forms the
centre of a group consisting of Speyer, Kaiserslautern, Neustadt,
and Lambrecht. With the exception of this last, with which
communication can only be had via Stuttgart and Mannheim, or
via Frankfort-on-Main and Mannheim, the different groups are
joined by trunk lines belonging to the Bavarian Government.
When it is stated that Munich (population 350,594) has close on
5,000 instruments connected to its exchange, and that Nuremberg
{population 142.590) has over 2,500, while Wiirzburg (61,059).
Augsburg (75,629), Fiirth (43,206), and Bamberg (35,815) have
800, 750, 620, and 400 respectively, it will be understood that
Bavaria is a very long way in advance of the United Kingdom in

52 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

respect to its telephones. The fact is due, no doubt, in the first
place to the facilities given, and in the second to 'the moderate
tariff, which, although somewhat high (y/. IDS.) for a first con-
nection, is remarkably low (^L i$s.) for second and subsequent
instruments. A consequence is that a larger proportion of the
subscribers go in for more than one instrument than in any other
country with which the author is acquainted. The length of line
allowed for the subscription is very liberal 5 kilometers (3*1 miles).
One objection to the rate is that it is uniform for all places,
capital and village alike -treatment which is neither economically
just nor calculated to encourage development. The obstacles
imposed in the neighbouring kingdom of Wiirtemberg, in the
Imperial postal territory and in France, to free communication
between a town and its suburbs are absent in Bavaria, there being
but two classes of charges for internal trunk communication, viz.,
between towns of the same telephonic group, and between one
group and another.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

1. Local exchange communication between the subscribers
and public stations of the same town.

2. Trunk communication between towns of the same group.
The distances separating towns of the same group are often con-
siderable, especially in the case of the Nuremberg group, which
comprises Fiirth, 5 miles ; Anspach, 25 miles ; Bamberg, 33 miles ;
and Amberg, 35 miles off. The joining of the Amberg and
Bamberg trunks therefore produces a circuit of sixty-eight miles,
for which the charge is 5^. per five minutes.

3. Trunk communication between towns of different groups.
All the groups are joined, there being only one isolated exchange,
Kempten, which has not been reached by the trunks. Munich
and Nuremberg are connected by two widely-differing routes, via
Ratisbon and via Weissenberg, with the view of diminishing the
chance of total interruption.

4. International trunk communication. The principal inter-
national line is that between Munich and Berlin, over which the
other chief Bavarian towns also obtain connection ; but the line to

Bavaria 5 3

Ulm and Stuttgart is also an important one. Besides these, there
is communication with Frankfort-on-Main and Southern Germany,
including Baden. The Bavarian lines also cross the Austrian
frontier at Salzburg and Lindau, but in these cases talking is
restricted to towns not far removed from the border.

5. Telephoning of telegrams. This is restricted to the
German and French languages. No charge is made for the
service, the State taking the sensible view that the telephone
constitutes a natural feeder of the telegraph, and as such should
be encouraged as much as possible. The facilities given are very
good, as reply-paid messages may be forwarded, and paid replies
to telegrams received by messenger may be telephoned to the
telegraph office. No deposits in advance are required, a signed
promise to pay monthly the accounts rendered being considered
sufficient.

6. Telephoning of messages for local delivery. This service
is confined to subscribers, and not extended, as in some countries,
to the users of public stations. The sender of a telephonogram
may undertake, when dictating his message, to pay for a reply, in
which case the messenger who delivers it to the addressee will, if
possible, bring back the answer to the central office, whence it is
immediately telephoned to the sender. This service is an impor-
tant one, for it makes a subscribers telephone a channel which
leads not only to every other subscriber, but to every non-sub-
scriber as well. Dictation of difficult words is helped by a code
of numbered letters published in the subscribers' lists, but this code
is not so comprehensive as the Austrian, as it provides for only
twenty-eight letters.

7. Telephoning of mail matter. Subscribers may dictate
messages to the central office to be mailed as letters or post-cards.
In the former case they are written in pencil on telegram forms,
enclosed in an envelope, addressed, stamped, and posted im-
mediately. A post which would be missed in the ordinary way
may thus frequently be saved. A slight drawback is that such
letters cannot be registered ; but then it is certain that they do
not often contain bank-notes or other valuables.

8. Public telephone stations. These are almost invariably
located at post or telegraph offices, and are (airly numerous, there

54 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

being thirty-five in Munich, thirteen in Nuremberg, eight in
Wiirzburg, and at least one in every town. An attendant is always
provided, who collects the fees and obtains the connections asked
for.

9. Fire service. In such towns as do not enjoy a night
service the lines of those subscribers who pay a small extra annual
subscription are switched through to the fire station at closing
time. A full description of this service will be given in the
Wiirtemberg section, at page 422.

TARIFFS

1. Local exchange rates.

Per annum

s. d.

An ordinary subscriber's station within 5 kilometers 7 10 o

Excess charge for distances beyond 5 kilometers, per 100

meters . . . . . . . . .030

A second instrument on the same line, but not in the

same building . . . . . . .3150

Second and subsequent instruments in connection with

the same line, and in the same building . . .100

An instrument used by a tenant which can be switched
on to a line rented by the proprietor of a building
let off in flats or workshops . . . . . 2 10 o

An extra bell .- . . . . . .050

Government and municipal offices enjoy a reduction of one
half. All distances measured as the crow flies. Agreements for
lines not exceeding five kilometers, one year ; exceeding that
distance, two years. This tariff applies to all towns, irrespective
of size.

2. Trunk communication between towns of the same group.
Subscribers may pay per conversation, or by annual subscription.

s. d.

Per conversation of 5 minutes . . . . .005
The right to call any subscriber in any town of a group,

per annum . . . . . . . .2100

3. Trunk communication between towns of different groups.

5. d.

Up to 100 kilometers, per 5 minutes . . . . .05
All distances beyond, ,, ,, . . . . .10

Express or urgent talks are admitted at triple fee.

Bavaria 5 5

4. International trunk communication.

s. d.

Munich and other chief towns to Berlin, per 3 minutes . 2 o

Bavaria to \\iirtemberg, per 5 minutes . . . .10

,, Austria, per 3 minutes . . . . .10

,, Switzerland, vi& Austria, per 3 minutes . .12

,, towns in the south-west of the Imperial Post

Office territory, per 3 minutes . . .10

There are a few rates of $d. and ^d. in operation between
towns situated close together, but on different sides of the frontier,
as Ludwigshafen and Mannheim, Lindau and Bregenz, and Bad
Reichenhall and Salzburg.

5. Telephoning of telegrams. This service is free.

6. Telephoning of messages for local delivery. For each tele-
phonogram delivered by messenger the charge is id. plus 'id. per
word. Thus a ten-word message costs 2d., and a twenty-word $d.

7. Telephoning of mail matter. The charge for this service
is the same as for telephonograms, plus the value of the post-card
or postage-stamp required.

8. Public telephone station rates. Time unit, five minutes.

Local talks : A subscriber, member of his family, partner, or

employee ...... id.

All other persons ...... 2-$J.

A non-subscriber may, however, put himself on an equality
with a subscriber by buying a book containing fifty penny tickets,
each of which will entitle him to a local talk if presented within
one year from date of purchasing.

Trunk talks, as from subscribers' offices.

9. Fire service charge. For connection with the fire station
after an exchange is closed for the night, per annum, los.

WAY-LEAVES

The Government has no right to fix supports and wires on
private property without the owner's permission. Subscribers can
only give leave to attach wires intended for their own use to
premises they lease or rent.

56 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

Hitherto ' standard ' boards of the Western Electric Company
have been used at the principal switch-rooms, so it may be
imagined that smart management has been requisite at Munich,
with its 5,000, and Nuremberg, with its 2,500 subscribers, in order
to provide an acceptable service. But multiple switch-boards
have been ordered for, and will soon be fitted at, both these
centres. They are of the same company's manufacture, with self-
restoring drops of the type already installed at Zurich, and which
is described in the Swiss section (p. 390). Fig. 8 is a plan of a
recent Bavarian switch-board for small centres, showing how both
single and double subscribers' lines and trunk wires are dealt with.
The bar commutator is for cross-connecting and joining any wire
temporarily to the testing apparatus. This bar commutator is
sometimes replaced in the larger exchanges by a cross-wire
commutator invented by Mr. J. Baumann, an engineer of the
Royal Bavarian Telephone Department, which, for a large number
of lines, is far cheaper to construct, while it occupies less space
and is simpler to manipulate. Mr. Baumann's cross-connecting
board consists of a strong rectangular iron frame encased in
beechwood, and arranged to receive a number of silicium bronze
wires of 8 mm. diameter, strung, some horizontally and some
vertically, so as to cross each other at right angles at a distance of
some two centimeters. The wires are insulated at the frames,
and provided with tightening screws, similar to those of a violin
(a tension of from thirteen to sixteen kilogrammes is kept normally
on the wires), and connection terminals, by which the horizontal
wires are joined to the subscribers' lines and the vertical wires to
the switch-board. Under the tension applied, the wires remain
so taut that it is not found necessary in practice to allow a greater
clearance between parallel conductors than from three to five
millimeters. The necessary connections between the horizontal
and vertical wires are effected by small brass plates, each bearing
two hooks about one centimeter apart, one hook adjusted to hold
a horizontal, the other a vertical, wire. When two such wires,

Bavaria

FIG. 8. BC, bar commutator; T, translator; TR, trunks; MB. transmitter battery ;
NB, night bell ; os, transfer jacks; LG, lightning guards; 3 to 14, subscriber*'
double lines ; ij to 20, subscribers' single lines.

58 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

tightly stretched and separated by a space of two centimeters, are
hooked together so that the clearance between them is reduced
to one centimeter, they exert such a considerable pull on the
connecting plate that the electrical contacts brought about are as
perfect and permanent as those due to binding screws. The
connector is shown in fig. 9. A number of spare vertical wires
is kept in reserve, by means of which any two of the horizontals
can be connected together, or any one
of them to earth, to the testing-room,
or to a speaking instrument. A cross-
connecting board on this system for 800

^ *) lines occupies, including the lightning-
/ guard board, 5*6 meters in length and

2 '4 in height. Reverting to fig. 8, the
transmitter shown is of a type used a
good deal in Bavaria. The diaphragm
is of wood, backed by a carbon plate.

To the back of the box are fixed two separate blocks of carbon,
each block containing four slanting holes in which a corresponding
number of carbon pencils lie loosely with their lower ends resting
against the carbon diaphragm plate. This plate is then inter-
mediate between the two blocks, which receive the transmitter
battery wires. The translators employed consist of primary and
secondary bobbins of equal resistance 200 ohms wound on a
closed magnetic circuit ring. They are made by Mr. F. Reiner,
Munich. The subscribers, both in Munich and Nuremberg, are
divided between two principal switch-rooms, and in each town
the subscribers' list numbers are preceded by a switch-room
number, which must be mentioned without fail by the caller,
together with the list number and name. Called subscribers are
rung by the operator, and callers are required to stand with phone
to ear until the reply is forthcoming. Talkers are not instructed
to say ' please answer ' after every remark, as in the Imperial Post
Office system, but on bringing a conversation to an end they are
expected to call out ' finished ! ' prior to ringing off. This last
signal has nothing to differentiate it from a ring through, so that the
Bavarian subscribers, in common with all others on the Continent,
cannot leave their instruments during a talk. During a thunder-

Bavaria

FIG. io. v, lightning guard ;
M, transmitter ; a, magneto
crank ; a', generator cut-in ;
/, magneto box ; \v, bell ;
T, receiver ; h. automatic
switch ; h', hook for spare
phone ; B, battery box.

6o Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

storm operators retire from the switch-tables, and subscribers are
instructed not to touch their instruments. The operators use
watches to time trunk talks, and not sand-glasses. It is worthy of
remark that Bavarian operators are invariably of the male sex,
although it is in contemplation to introduce girls at Munich and
Nuremberg simultaneously with the multiple switch-boards now
on order.

HOURS OF SERVICE

Munich, Nuremberg, and Fiirth are open day and night ; the
nine next most important towns from 7 A.M. till n P.M. ; nine
more from 7 A.M. till 9 P.M. ; and the rest according to the dura-
tion of the duty at their respective telegraph offices.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

These usually comprise the modified De Jongh transmitter
already described, manufactured by F. Reiner, of Munich ;
Bell receivers, magneto, trembling bell, battery box, and back-
board ; and, although not so neat and businesslike in appearance
as the English, American, or Swedish sets, are well and substan-
tially made, and give good results. The chief drawback is that
the generator coils have to be cut into circuit by means of a push-
button instead of by an automatic contact, an arrangement which
compels the use of both hands in ringing, and causes the sub-
scriber to incontinently transfer to his mouth, as to a third hand,
any papers or pencils he may be carrying. Figs. 10 and n give
a good representation of the subscribers' wall and table sets
respectively.'

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

All local wires are now run with silicium bronze of 1-5 or
2 mm. diameter. In the towns the supports are generally on the
houses. Three designs of Bavarian standards are shown in figs.
12, 13, and 14. The first is a single wooden pole bolted to the

Baiwria

62 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

roof timbers and provided with an angle-iron frame carrying a
number of angle-iron arms. The second is also of wood, but
double, and supporting angle-iron arms of greater capacity. The
third, which is entirely of angle- iron, bears a strong resemblance
to, without being identical with, the Belgian design of standard,
which is not excelled anywhere for ability to withstand success-

FIG. 12

FIG.

fully the many vicissitudes to which roof-supports of large capacity
are subject. Ground poles are usually of wood and in no wise
noteworthy for size or design ; but there are also a few iron columns
of the Ziirich type (see Swiss section, fig. 147). A few aerial cables
manufactured by Felten and Guilleaume are in use, but only in
special circumstances. In Munich, Nuremberg, and Landshut
there is some underground work, consisting partly of iron pipes,

Bavaria

J t.

13 2

64 Telephone Systems of tlie Continent of Europe

into which cables may be drawn from suitably placed boxes, and
partly of iron troughs, access to which can only be had by breaking
the streets. The original cables laid were of the anti-induction
type single wires wrapped in foil ; but now nothing is used but
paper insulation and twisted pairs. The most recent work is that
just completed (February 1895) at Landshut, which consists of
cables containing twenty-eight pairs. The conductors are wrapped
in perforated impregnated paper, one red and one white for each
pair, arranged in three concentric circles containing respectively

500 mm -

;;o::

FIG. 15

three, ten, and fifteen pairs. Some of the wires in each circle are
tinned to aid identification. The pairs, being cabled and wrapped
in impregnated cotton, are covered with lead of 2 mm. thickness^
which is in turn protected by a layer of jute, making up a total
diameter of 33 mm. The copper resistance is 22*6 ohms per
kilometer, and the capacity 'i microfarad when all other wires
are earthed. The insulation resistance is 2,000 megohms per
kilometer, and is guaranteed not to fall below 500 megohms for
two years. This cable, which has been supplied by Franz Clouth,

Bavaria 65

of Cologne-Nippes, is reported to give every satisfaction. Some
of the Munich and Nuremberg cables are from the factory of
Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume.

OUTSIDE WOKK (TRUNK)

The Bavarian trunks are for the most part constructed of
silicium bronze of 3 to 4 mm. diameter, according to the distance
to be covered. Wherever practicable, one loop only is run on a
route of poles, the wires being arranged in a vertical plane and
crossed at long intervals. This plan is found to secure a suffi-
ciently silent line. An iron frame to attach to poles, with the
object of facilitating the running and accurate spacing of trunk
wires, is shown at fig. 15. It is used on the Munich-Berlin line
within Bavarian territory, and on other routes.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen receive from 6o/. y. to i2o/. per annum, according
to length of service. When working away from their homes they
have is. 3</. per day extra, and when obliged to sleep away, 35-.
Skilled wiremen are paid from 35". 8d. to 4^. per day, with no
extras ; and labourers from 2s. $d. to 35-. 2d. The working day
averages ten hours, less meals.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

These are all youths. They receive about 2s. a day for a duty
which varies from six to eight hours.

66 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

III. BELGIUM

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

THE original exchange systems in Belgium were established by the
International Bell Telephone Company under concessions, granted
September 22, 1883, from the Government. Subsequently these
-were acquired by the Compagnie Beige du Telephone Bell, which,
until the transfer to the Government at the end of 1892, operated
in Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroy, Verviers, and La Louviere.
Liege was worked by a separate company, the Compagnie Liegois
du Telephone Bell, while several of the smaller towns were granted
to individuals. Thus a Mr. J. Ryf, a Swiss from Zurich, esta-
blished exchanges in Louvain, Namur, and Mechlin ; and a M.
Cahen in Mons and Courtray. All these, with the exception of
Namur, Mechlin (Mr. Ryf), and Courtray (M. Cahen), the con-
cessions for which do not expire until during the current year,
have now come into the possession of the Belgian Government.
The State had itself established exchanges in four different areas
Ostend-Bruges, Termonde-St. Nicholas-Alost, Hasselt-Landen,
and Tournay. After 1895 the State will possess a monopoly of
telephonic as well as of telegraphic communication within the
kingdom, and intends to preserve it. All the exchanges con-
structed by companies were on the single wire and earth return
system, while all those of the State were on the metallic circuit
plan. All exchanges were built, and still consist of, overhead
wires. The State, recognising the inadequacy of single wires for
the general purposes of a telephone system, intends to gradually
convert the whole of the exchanges taken over from the com-

Belgium 67

panics to double wires, and, furthermore, to place all main routes
of wires in towns underground.

Belgium is at present, for telephonic purposes, divided into
seventeen areas, each having one or more towns for a nucleus,
and comprising together all the chief centres of commercial
.activity. The areas have not been apportioned arbitrarily, but
with due regard to the business relations and exigencies of the
several districts. The shapes and superficial measurements of the
areas differ widely, as the requirements and convenience of the
telephoning public have in each case been the paramount con-
sideration, and the idea has been to avoid the creation of vexatious
barriers between neighbouring towns and villages. A considerable
portion of the country is still left unallotted, that is to say, is not
included in any of the areas ; but this portion is mostly agri-
cultural, or of such small industrial development that no great
demand for telephonic communication has as yet arisen within it.
The Government, however, is prepared to inaugurate new areas,
and provide trunk communication with the old ones, on receiving
sufficient evidence of a demand. In the meantime, persons out-
side the areas are connected to the nearest exchange on payment
of an extra subscription proportionate to the length of the line
required. Once connected, they partake of all the privileges of
subscribers located within the area, both as regards local and
trunk services.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

i. Intercourse between the subscribers and public telephone
stations of the same area. A subscriber paying the prescribed
annual rental for connection to his exchange is entitled to free
communication with all other subscribers within the area in which
that exchange is situated. In estimating the reasonableness of
the Belgian rates, some of which superficially appear considerably
dearer than those of Switzerland, Sweden, Wiirtemberg, and some
other countries, it must be borne in mind that they apply not to
a single town, but to a considerable district, which often comprises
two or more towns of notable size. Thus the Brussels area
measures, roughly, fifteen miles from west to east, and eight miles

F 2

68 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

from south to north ; the Termonde-St. Nicholas-Alost area, thir-
teen miles from east to west, and thirty miles from south to north ;
and the Ostend-Bruges, twenty-seven miles from west to east, and
twelve miles from south' to north. In the Ostend-Bruges area, a
three-year subscriber located within one kilometer of the Ostend
exchange is entitled for his payment of 6/. per annum to speak
without restriction or extra charge to Bruges, thirteen miles ; to
Blankenberghe, eleven miles ; to Heyst, sixteen miles ; to Nieu-
port, ten miles. And a Nieuport subscriber can speak to Heyst,
twenty-six miles, for his 61. per annum. These distances are-
measured direct ; as the wires go by the railways they are usually
greater. In the Termonde-St. Nicholas-Alost area the distances
available for 67. per annum are even longer.

When a subscriber removes to new premises within the same
telephonic area his wire and instrument are shifted gratis. He
is held responsible for the safety of his apparatus under all cir-
cumstances ; if it is destroyed by fire, or otherwise, he must pay
its full value to the State. The Government has the right to-
suspend any part of or all the telephonic communication at its
discretion, in which case the subscribers cannot claim any refund
of subscription.

The burning question of the use of telephones by non-sub-
scribers has been settled liberally in Belgium by formal permission-
being given to subscribers to allow strangers to use their instru-
ments provided no payment or other consideration is received.
Hotel, restaurant and club telephones are free to all and sundry.

It is rather singular that in spite of the immense traffic at the
port of Antwerp no ships are fitted with telephones for the purpose
of enabling them to use the exchange when in harbour, as is
often done in Sweden and sometimes in Great Britain.

2. Internal trunk line communication. The seventeen areas
are already connected by trunk lines, so that practically all the
merchants and manufacturers in the kingdom are within hailing
and talking distance of each other. The rule is that a subscriber
in any area may call up and talk to a client in any other area for
five minutes for one franc (9-6^.). Nothing could be simpler,
and nothing could be more effective. If five minutes does not
prove sufficient the conversation may be extended to ten minutes

Belgium 69

for an additional half charge. Expert users of the telephone can
easily talk at the rate of 100 words per minute, so that a conversation
of 1,000 words can be got through in ten minutes. The greatest
distance that can be talked over at present is 156 miles, from
Nieuport-Bains in the Ostend-Bruges, to Spa in the Verviers area.

3. International trunk line communication. At present the
only international connection is with France, but an agreement
has been signed with the Dutch Government for a line to
Rotterdam and Amsterdam. An understanding has twice been
arrived at with the German Government, but as often cancelled by
the Berlin authorities prior to actual signature. A line from
Brussels to London is also in contemplation. Experimental talking
has been carried on between the two cities via Paris and Calais.
The French frontier is crossed at five different points : by the
direct Brussels -Paris lines ; by a line from Charleroy to
Maubeuge by a line from Mons to Valenciennes ; by a line
from Tournay to Lille ; and by one from Courtray to Lille. The
Brussels-Paris line has been a great success, there being now three
circuits between the two capitals. From noon till 3 P.M. all lines
are engaged without intermission, twenty-six connections per hour
being got through, on an average, on each ; this could not of course
be done if each connection occupied its maximum time of three
minutes. The receipts are consequently 26 x 3 x 3 francs = 234
francs (Q/. 75. 2d.) per hour during the busy time. The telegraph
traffic between the Brussels and Paris Bourses, formerly very con-
siderable, has been practically killed by the telephone, yet the tele-
graph receipts as a whole continue to grow. It is a curious fact,
as illustrating forcibly the superiority of the telephone for certain
purposes, that during the total interruptions of the Brussels-Paris
telephone lines which have twice or thrice occurred, the stock-
brokers have not reverted temporarily to the telegraph, formerly
in incessant use between the two bourses, but have waited for
the re-establishment of the talking facilities.

4. Telephoning of telegrams. Subscribers may telephone tele-
grams to the telegraph offices and receive telegrams by telephone.
In the latter case a copy of the message telephoned is mailed,
postage paid, to the addressee by the next delivery. No charge is
made for this service (the State regarding the telephone system as

70 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

a feeder to the telegraph, and as such to be encouraged, not
despised), which is very largely taken advantage of. Its value
as a feeder may be estimated from the fact that the number of
special clerks engaged at the telegraph offices receiving and
transmitting telegrams through the telephone exchanges during,
the day is nine at Antwerp, eight at Brussels, five at Ghent, three
at Liege, two each at Namurand Charleroy, and one each at Mons
and Tournay. The growth of the traffic has been continuous and
rapid. During the month of August 1894, 45,646 telegrams were
received from and 39,637 forwarded to subscribers throughout
Belgium. Of this total of 85,283, Antwerp had 24,556 ; Brussels
14,081 ; Ghent 7,273 ; Liege 6,790 ; and Charleroy 5,710. The
telephone is thus made to bring the telegraph to the merchant's
desk and to the family fireside, rendering the employment of
messengers to take despatches to perhaps distant telegraph offices,
and others to bring them from the telegraph offices to the addressees,,
unnecessary. Under such circumstances it is natural to expect
that telegrams will be more freely sent, and experience shows that
it is so. The State also saves considerably in cost of delivery.
For instance, in August 1894 no less than 39,637 journeys were
saved to the telegraph messengers, or at the rate of 475,644, nearly
half a million, per annum. This means that the staff of boys,,
wear and tear of boots and uniforms, c., may be greatly
economised, while the deliveries themselves are markedly
accelerated. The clerks employed at the telegraph offices are
competent to receive and telephone messages in French, Flemish,
English, German, and Dutch. To avoid mistakes between words
and letters of similar sound, each subscriber is furnished with
a printed table showing the letters of the alphabet numbered
from i to 26. A doubtful word is spelt, and a doubtful letter
referred to by its number in the table. The French numerals
* six ' and ' dix ' are liable to be confounded by some speakers.
When this is the case, ' six ' is dubbed F and ' dix ' J. In Flemish
a similar uncertainty is apt to arise between one and two, which are
then referred to as A and B. With these precautions (which are
likewise adopted with modifications suitable to the language in>
most continental countries) mistakes occur but rarely, and the
service grows continually in popularity.

Belgium

VYWYYW1

FIG. 16

5. Public telephone stations. Several of these conveniences
exist in every town, mostly at the post offices, railway stations, and
bourses. The principal ones are open all

night. There are ten in Brussels, eight in
Antwerp, five in Ghent, four in Liege, &c.
They may be used for all classes of com-
munications admitted by the regulations.
To facilitate payments at the public stations
a series of adhesive stamps, similar to those
introduced by the author in this country in
1884, of the values of "25, '30, '50, '90, i'oo,
and 3 'oo francs, have been issued. The
25-centime stamp is shown in fig. 16.

6. Call notices to non-subscribers. In
connection with the public stations a service

of call notices (Avis telephoniques) is in operation, which enables
a person to summon to a distant public telephone station any
non-subscriber with whom he wishes to speak. He does this by
telegraph (at specially reduced rates), specifying the place and time
of the requested attendance.

7. Railway station service. This provides for the switching
on of subscribers (or of non-subscribers at public telephone
stations) to any railway station in the area to enable official in-
formation as to the movements of goods or trains to be obtained.
An extra subscription is charged for this service, payment of
which also confers the right on a subscriber, or on his agents or
friends, to use the railway station telephone, even when there is
no public station there, for the purpose of communicating through
the exchange.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for exchange communication within an area.-
There is considerable divergence in the local rates. For the most
part the system still consists of exchanges taken over from the
different companies and individual concessionaries, whose prac-
tice was by no means uniform, and whose rates were, as a rule,
higher than those imposed by the State in the areas such as
Ostend-Bruges, Termonde-St. Nicholas-Alost, and Tournay

72 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

which it had itself initiated. But in taking over the concessionary
single-wire systems in January 1893 the State determined to leave
the rates unaltered, at least in the meantime, as in view of the
great expense involved in the determination to ultimately convert
everything to metallic circuit and to abolish overhead wires in
the centres of towns it was' felt that a reduction, until some
further experience had been gained, was unadvisable.

TARIFF IN AREAS EXPLOITED BY THE STATE

All double wires

is. = i'2$ francs
Radius

3-year contracts i-year contracts
Per annum Per annum

^.yearly contracts
extending over 3
consecutive years

Per half-year

Within I kilometer
,, i kilometers .

,,2 ,, .

2 |

3
Each additional \ kilometer

s. d. s. d.
600 6 16 o
696 7 10 o
6 19 o 840
7 ii 2 8 18 o
832 9 12 o
o 14 o o 14 o

s. d.
400

4 8 5
4 16 10
5 5 2
5 13 7
o 8 5

TARIFFS IN AREAS TAKEN OVER BY THE STATE
(BEING THE ORIGINAL TARIFFS CONTINUED IN FORCE)

Principally single wires

Antwerp .-,, , , r . n '
and i ^ a^J'fa'

Mons

Louvain

Liege

Per ann. I Per ann.

Per ann.

Within i\ kilometers

s. |

_,.

Within 3 kilometers
Each additional kilometer .

10 o 1 9

20 1 2

6
i i

5 o
i 4

9 o

2 O

Extra instrument
Extra bell .
2-way switch
2-way switch with indicator
3-way switch with two indi-

20 j 2

06 ; o

04 ! o

6 o

4 i o

; 2
| o

2 O

o 6
o 4
o 4

o 8
o 8

cators . .

08 o

8 ! o

o 8

o 16

The half-yearly contracts are intended to meet the require-
ments of subscribers who, like the hotelkeepers in Ostend, desire

Belgium 73

communication during part of the year only. In view of the fact
that metallic circuits are given everywhere and that the subscription
covers, not a single town, but an area of many square miles, often
comprising several towns, these rates are unquestionably liberal.

Half-yearly subscriptions, taken for three consecutive years,
are charged :

s. <i.
In Mons area . . . . . . . . 3 12 o

In Charleroy and La Louviere areas . . . .4160

In all other areas taken over by the State, three-fifths of the annual rate.

In Antwerp, Brussels, Charleroy, Ghent, Verviers, and La
Louviere a reduction of 2/. is made when more than one line is
subscribed for by the same person or firm ; in Louvain and Mons
the reduction is only 10 per cent.

Subscribers may have double wires instead of single, to enable
them to obtain better communication over the long-distance
trunks, 1 for 50 per cent, above the normal rate. Thus a metallic
circuit would cost in Liege io/. IQS. if one and a half kilometers long,
and i3/. los. if three kilometers long ; in Brussels and Antwerp, 157.
for three kilometers or any shorter distance ; while in Louvain the
same length of double line would cost only y/. ios., just the half;
and in Mons only 9/.

It will be seen that the retention of the old tariffs leads to
considerable want of uniformity in practice, the subscription, for
instance, in Charleroy being higher than in the far more important
towns of Lie"ge, Ghent, and Verviers. But having applied still
lower rates in areas quite as extensive, and, moreover, provided
therein double wires without extra charge, the State can scarcely
hope to maintain the old companies' tariffs permanently. The
subscriptions in every case cover the supply and maintenance of
wires and apparatus.

2. Rates for internal trunk lines. Here the liberality of the
Belgian Government becomes conspicuous, for there is only one
trunk rate throughout the country. A subscriber in one area can

1 The number of subscribers taking advantage of this arrangement was, in
December 1894, in Brussels, 91 ; Antwerp, 37 ; Lige, 13 ; Ghent, 5 ; Verviers,
9 ; Mons, 13 ; and Charleroy, i.

74 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

speak to another located in any other for five minutes for i franc
(9'6</.), and for ten minutes for 1-50 francs (i4'2^.).

Ten minutes is the longest time permitted to a pair of talking
subscribers should others be wanting the line. Otherwise, there is
no limit, but the charge is based on the assumption that a new
communication is commenced every ten minutes. Thus the
charge for 15 minutes is 1-50 + i = 2-50 francs ; for 20 minutes,
1*50 -f i + '50 3 francs ; for 25 minutes, 3 + 1=4 francs^
c.

Subscribers using the trunks have to deposit in advance the
estimated value of their monthly traffic. On these deposits
interest at the rate of 3 per cent, per annum is allowed. This
rule applies equally to the telegram service.

Instead of paying per conversation, it is open to subscribers (or
to non-subscribers making use of public telephone stations) to pay
monthly in advance for the right to occupy a specified trunk line
for any length of time, but not less than ten minutes, every day.
The rates are :

Per month
s. d.

10 minutes or less per day . . . . .180
10 ,, to 15 minutes per day . . . .220
15 ,, 20 ,, ,, . . . .2160

20 ,, 25 ,, ,, . . . .380

25 30 ..'..400

Each additional 5 minutes ,, . . . .0120

It is not possible for one man to retain possession of a line to the
exclusion of others, since he must split his time into two or more
periods of ten minutes if the wire is wanted. The subscriber is
not obliged to use up all the daily time for which he has paid at
once, nor with the same correspondent, but unutilised time cannot
be carried forward to the next day.

No distinction is made in the trunk line charges between sub-
scribers and strangers. The former may use his own instrument
or a public station at his option ; a stranger is restricted to the
public station.

In the event of a trunk line being interrupted for more than
twenty-four hours, the subscriber is reimbursed one-thirtieth of his.
monthly rate for each succeeding twenty-four hours.

Belgium 75

In all cases the time unit of five minutes is reduced to three
between the Brussels and Antwerp Bourses during business hours.

Formerly, internal trunk rates were doubled from 9 P.M. till
7 A.M., but this was found to kill traffic during the hours when it
was most wanted, and there is now no distinction between night
and day.

3. Rates for international trunk lines. Communication is
now established between most of the Belgian areas and Paris, as
well as to Lille, Arras, Dunkirk, Douay, Cambray, Roubaix,
Tourcoing, Valenciennes, Maubeuge, and other towns in the
north-east of France. Subscribers with double wires naturally
possess a great advantage when using this service, and the State
accordingly recommends their use, but the single wires in Brussels
and elsewhere are put through by means of translators at the sub-
scribers' risk. As in the case of the internal Belgian trunks, each
conversation may be paid for separately, or a specified line may be
engaged for a stated number of minutes each day. As telephone
trunk lines are usually very much occupied during business hours,
and very much the reverse during the evening, night, and early
morning, an attempt has been made, and with some success, to
distribute the traffic better by granting reduced rates, approaching
half-price, between the hours of 9 P.M. and 7 A.M. The result
has been that the lines are kept as constantly busy during the day
as of yore, while the night traffic has sensibly increased. The
simplicity of the Belgian uniform rate between areas is replaced
in the French communications by a tariff regulated by distance,
which is as follows :

Up to 50 kilometers .
50 ,, 150

d. d.

14-4 8-6

19-2 1 1 -5

150 ,, 250 23-1 14-4

2 5 t 350 ,, 28-8 17-3

Each additional 100 kilometers or fraction

thereof . d'8 2 -88

The time unit is five minutes, with no reduction for extended
talks ; but to Paris the time unit is only three minutes, the charge

76 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

being 28-8^. during Bourse hours at Brussels, Antwerp, and Paris
{11.51 A.M. till 3.1 P.M.). On Sundays the time unit is uniformly
five minutes.

The monthly subscription tariff is as follows :

FOR TEN MINUTES' DAILY OCCUPANCY OF A SPECIFIED LINE

s. d.

Up to 50 kilometers . . . .1160 per mensem
50 ,, 150 ,, . . . .280

150 ,, 250 ,, . . . .300

250 350 - 3 I2

350 ,,450 ,, . . . .440

450 550 .4*160

Longer periods of occupancy are charged proportionally by in-
crements of five minutes.

In case of interruption, monthly subscribers are reimbursed
one-thirtieth of the subscription for each twenty-four hours after
the first. Monthly subscribers may not occupy the Paris line
during Bourse hours.

The rate agreed upon for the Belgo-Dutch trunk line unde r
construction is 28*8^. between Brussels or Antwerp, and Rotter-
dam or Amsterdam.

4. Kates for telephoning of telegrams. Every telephone
exchange is connected to the nearest telegraph office for the
despatch and receipt of telegrams. No charge is made for the ser-
vice, but subscribers availing themselves of it have to deposit the
estimated value of a month's traffic, on which deposits interest at
the rate of 3 per cent, per annum is allowed. Copies of the tele-
grams dictated by subscribers through the telephone are furnished,
if desired, to the* senders at '96^. each, which is also the charge
for a formal receipt.

Copies of telegrams telephoned to subscribers are sent on by
the next post free. If desired, copies may also be delivered by
special messenger at a cost of 2 -4^. each.

5. Rates applicable at public telephone stations. Non-
subscribers are charged 2 '^d. for five minutes' talk within the area in
which the public station is situated. The time unit is, however,
reduced to three minutes between Brussels and Antwerp during
Bourse hours. The distances comprised within the areas are, as

Belgium 77

already stated, very considerable, so that from twenty to thirty
miles may be talked over for 2 '^d.

The rates for internal and international trunk talks are the
same as those from subscribers' offices, already given.

Subscribers, on producing cards of identity and signing their
names, may use the public stations free within the limits of their
subscriptions. Beyond such limits, or if they do not produce
cards, they pay exactly like non-subscribers.

A non-transferable public station card is supplied gratuitously
to each subscriber, who is also entitled to a second one in favour
of a partner, employee, or member of his family. If more than
two cards are required an annual charge of i6s. is made for the
third, and of Ss. for each additional one. Each card must bear
the signature of the person to whom it is issued, and when using a
public telephone station he must sign a sheet kept there for the
purpose. The attendant must see that the signatures correspond.
These regulations are identical with those introduced by the
author in Scotland in 1884 in connection with the issue of tele-
phone stamps.

Monthly public station cards for local use only are also issued
to non-subscribers at a charge of 4^.

Automatic slot boxes for checking payments are not used.

6. Charges for call messages. The charge for a telegram to
a non-subscriber requesting his attendance at a specified public
station at a certain time, is 2-4^. within an area, and 3 '$6d.
without.

7. Rates for the railway station service. For this a supple-
mentary subscription of 4/. per annum, or 2/. 8s. per half-year, has
to be paid.

WAY-LEAVES

The State has no right to place telephone poles or fixtures on
lands or buildings without the consent of the proprietors. Under
the Telegraphs Law (No. 593) of June u, 1883, proprietors and
tenants may not refuse to allow unattached wires to hang over
their lands and buildings, but they are entitled to compensation
for their presence. No work of any kind must be done over or

78 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

under private property without the previous consent of the pro-
prietor, and tenant if there is one. With respect to poles,
standards, and other attachments, the absolute right to refuse
exists and is often exercised. Actually, the State pays frequently
as much as "48^. to '^6d. and i '44^. per wire per annum for their
standards. Sometimes a free connection is asked and given in
consideration of a standard. Iri 1893 the way-leaves paid for
standards alone throughout Belgium was 40,000 francs (i,6oo/.).
On one occasion a proprietor in Brussels consented to the erection
of a standard conditionally on its colour and that of the insulators
attached to it harmonising with his building. To meet his ideas
of harmony the State had to go to the expense of having the
necessary number of porcelain insulators of a peculiar tint specially
manufactured. The Government has the right to erect poles and
wires along railways which, like the Grand Central Beige, are still
in the hands of companies, but only on payment of a way-leave
to be agreed upon.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

These are not noteworthy for any speciality in design or
arrangement. In the larger centres Brussels, Antwerp, Ver-
viers, &c. one or other of the older forms of Western Electric
single-wire, double-cord, series, multiple switch-board is employed ;
in the smaller, Gilliland and Western Electric ' standard ' non-
multiples. The leading idea everywhere has been to concentrate
as much as possible in one switch-room in each town. Thus in
Brussels and Antwerp, the two largest cities, there is practically
but one switch-room, the outlying ones (Vilvorde, Hal and
Nivelles in Brussels, and Boom in Antwerp) being of quite insig-
nificant size and several kilometers away. As a rule, each
operator manages 100 local subscribers' lines. Trunk line switch-
ing is effected at a separate table upon which the local lines are not
multipled. At Brussels thirty-eight trunks are shared by four girls
during the busiest time, and the three Paris circuits are looked
after by one operator, Fig. 1 7 is a plan of the trunk board at
Brussels, which, with a few modifications of detail, is also used in
the other towns excepting Mons and Namur. The Van Ryssel-

Belgium

berghe system compels the adoption of a few special features, such
as the phonic call and alarm, wi W2 are the two wires of a metallic
circuit coming from the condensers of a Van Rysselberghe tele-
graph line, wi leads through the jack ji and thence through the
coil PI of the phonic call to the plug FI and, by its base contact,
through the secondary coil TI of the translator to earth. W2 goes

FIG. 17

through the jack J2, the coil P2 of the phonic coil, the plug F2 and
its base contact to the other secondary T2 of the translator to
earth. A calling current from a distant station splits between
the two wires and follows the course indicated. A branch is
taken off at a through the Dewar key DI to the indicator MI
(which is wound to 1,000 ohms and is unaffected by the phonic
call currents) and the base contact strip of the plug FI. De-

8o Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

pressing the key DI cuts the indicator out and the operator's set
os in. F3 is a plug connected to earth through the indicator M4,
the calling key KI, the vibrator v, and the battery B. This is for
calling on the Van Rysselberghe circuits ; for use on ordinary
lines there is another plug F4 and key K2 which brings a magneto
generator G into play, c is a wire common to all the sections of
the local multiple, by which all communications between the local
and trunk operators are exchanged, ci is one of the wires of a
metallic circuit subscriber connected to earth through the jack J3.
02 03 are two junction wires going to one of the local sections ;
they are connected through the two jacks 14 J5, which are within
reach of all the trunk operators, four in number. The local
operators communicating with the trunk table are provided with
the apparatus shown in fig. 18, in which D2 is a Dewar key in the
circuit of the common wire c coming from the trunk table ; K3 a
key which when depressed puts the magneto G in connection with
c ; 03 another Dewar key in circuit with the wire 03 ; M5 an in-
dicator, one side of which is joined to 02 and the other to earth.
F5 is a double plug the inner contact of which is in permanent
connection with 03, while its outer contact connects with C2. A
calling current from the line wi W2 (fig. 17) operates the phonic
call which drops an indicator not shown in the diagram. To
reply, the button KI is pressed, which brings the vibrator v into
action through the primary TP of the translator and earth, currents
being transferred to the line by induction through the secondaries
TI T2. The speaking set os is then cut in by pressing the key DI.
When a single-wire subscriber wants a trunk connection he drops
his indicator and states his demand. The local operator rings the
trunk on c by pressing K3 (fig. 18), and immediately puts down
the Dewar key D2. The trunk girl, on the fall of indicator M3
(fig. 17), depresses her key and finds herself speaking with the
other. On hearing the demand she indicates which junction wire,
say 03, is to be used. The local girl then puts the plug F5 (fig. 18)
into the local subscriber's jack. The trunk girl calls the distant
station by pressing the button KI (fig. 17), and inserts the plug
F3 into one of the jacks J4 75 and says ' speak.' By pressing
her key DI she can hear by induction the commencement of the
talk. When finished, each subscriber rings off and the indicator

Belgium

M4 falls. The presence of these ring-off indicators (one at each
end of the line), which, as well as the phonic call coils, have to be
talked through, is a bad feature of the system. The plug F5 (fig.
1 8) is in connection with the wire 02 by its second contact, and
through a i,ooo-ohm indicator M5 to earth. Therefore when F5
is in a trunk jack the test line of the local subscriber is in con-
nection with C2, now insulated, and through the indicator M5 to

JVI5

FIG. 18

earth. When the calling subscriber has a double line, the con-
nection when established comprises (if the operators have agreed
to use junction wire 03) F5, 03, to jack J3 (fig. 17), plug F2, jacks
J4 15, plug FI, coils PI P2 of phonic call, jacks ji J2 and wi W2.
In this case the indicator MI, which is in shunt with the phonic
call coils, acts as ring-off, The test is managed as before. The
translator is cut out, but the phonic call coils still have to be

82 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

spoken through. When two trunks are connected the phonic call
and the indicator of one of them are cut out, leaving the remain-
ing indicator to act as ring-off,

At Mons and Namur a more simple arrangement, devised by
M. Delville, is in use, the plan of which is shown in fig. 19. The
wires of the trunk wi W2 come to the Dewar key D and the jacks
ji J2. The spring of ji is connected to the contact a of jack J3,

FIG. 19

while that of J2 is joined to one end of the translator secondary
TI. The other end of the secondary goes to the contact b of J3,
which is normally insulated from a. The frame of 73 is connected
to earth through the primary TP of the translator. When D is up,
the phonic call PI P2 is in circuit with the line ; when depressed,
the operator's phone and the secondary of its transmitter induction
coirare cut in. The primary circuit of this coil is closed through

Belgium 83

the microphone, transmitter battery, and the top stop of a Morse
key K. When this is depressed it closes the circuit of the ringing
battery B, and by making and breaking contact impulses are sent
into line by induction to the secondary coil sufficiently powerful
to start the phonic relay at the distant station. The wires (one
pair of which is shown at ci 02) coming from the local table end
in plugs FI F2, of which FI is an ordinary single plug, while F2
has a metallic tip insulated from the piece which is in connection
with the cord. This tip brings a and b into contact when inserted
in J3, and so closes the translator secondary circuit. FI rests on
a metallic earth strip when out of use. On the phonic relay in-
dicating a call, the operator depresses D and is then enabled both
to ring and speak to trunk. If the connection demanded is with
a single-wire subscriber the insertion (after the necessary com-
munication with the local operator) of F2 in J3 completes it, since
by this movement the translator secondary is brought into use
through the contacts a and b, while the junction wire C2 utilised
for the connection finds circuit through the main contact of F2,
the socket of J3, primary TP of translator, and earth. The phonic
relay PI P2 remains in shunt (key D being up) across the loop and
serves as ring-off. Two metallic circuits are joined direct by in-
serting a double-conductor cord terminating in two single plugs
at each end in the jacks ji J2 and the corresponding jacks of the
second metallic circuit. The indicator M between the earth stop
of FI and earth serves for calling from the local to the trunk
operator ; the latter has also a battery push or generator for calling
the former. There can be no doubt of the superiority of this
plan over that in use at Brussels, since there are no coils to speak
through, while the contacts are fewer and the arrangements
simpler in every way. M. Delville evidently understands that in
telephony, as in most things, the shortest road with nothing to
jump over is the best.

Several patterns of phonic relay are used. One of the best
that designed by M. Sieur, is shown in fig. 20. It consists of two
coils P having soft-iron cores polarised by the permanent magnet
M. A soft-iron diaphragm D placed in front of, and close to, the
cores, is furnished with a platinum disc d, on which rests the light
metal hammer H provided with an adjustable counterpoise A, by

G 2

84 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

which the pressure of H on d can be varied. Normally the battery
B is short-circuited through H and d ; but when the intermittent
calling current from line traverses the coils p, the diaphragm D is-
vibrated and momentarily casts off the hammer H, breaking the
circuit or greatly increasing its resistance, whereupon the battery
current traverses the coils of the ordinary indicator i and brings
down its shutter. The work is severe on the battery, which is
almost continuously on short circuit ; but as the Van Rysselberghe
system necessitates signalling through two sets of condensers in

FIG. 20

series, something delicate and at the same time certain in its
action is a necessity.

The translators employed are of the form designed by Van
Rysselberghe (fig. 21), and consist of two induction coils fixed at
right angles on a base-board. Each coil has a core of split soft
iron tube, a primary of 80 ohms, and a secondary of 300 ohms,
resistance, the two coils being usually joined in series. The ratio
of the primary to the secondary, i : 375, is practically that which
the author found to be best when experimenting with the original
translator, but the actual resistances are very much greater. The
subscriber's single wire is brought to the terminal s and earth to si,
while the trunk wires are connected to TI and T2. The remaining
terminals are joined by a short piece of wire.

Belgium

There are no specialities in cross-connecting, but the lightning-
guard boards at Bruges, Tournay, and elsewhere are on a plan
designed by Mr. H. Frenay, Engineer to the Belgian Telephone
Administration. They comprise a long earth strip separated from
plates, to which the line wires are connected, either by paraffined
paper or an air space. Beneath the earth strip every line passes
through a testing jack the upper spring of which is elongated
forward and curved upwards. Above the row of jacks and nor-
mally clear of them, extends
.a long metal cylinder turn-
ing on an eccentric axis,
which is in permanent con-
nection with the earth. One
turn of a crank suffices to
bring the cylinder against
the elongated springs, so
putting every line to earth
instantaneously. Sometimes
the crank is placed in a
switch-room on the ground
floor and connected with
the cylinder in an attic by
means of a long spindle,
an arrangement which en-
ables an operator, on the
-approach of a storm, to
ground all the wires with-
out outside assistance. The erection of a magnificent new tele-
phone building is proceeding at Brussels, and Mr. Frenay is at
present occupied in settling the details of the new switch-room
.and other arrangements. Whatever plans may be decided upon,
it may safely be left to the Belgian technicians to provide their
Administration with an installation that will rank second to none.
The connections at Brussels average eight per subscriber per day ;
Antwerp is understood to be busier, but records of the ordinary
calls are not kept.

In Brussels, Antwerp, and Verviers, subscribers are asked for
by their list numbers only ; in Ghent, Liege, and elsewhere, by

FIG

86 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

their names and addresses, although furnished with numbers in
the list. On receiving a call from a subscriber the operator
always says 'I hear No. - ,' mentioning the list number of
the caller, who thereupon gives the number (or name and address)
of the person he wants, which the operator repeats. The caller
then hangs up his phone and awaits a ring from the exchange,
which in Brussels, &:c., signifies that his correspondent is there.
In Ghent, &c., the operator both rings and speaks to notify the
establishment of a connection. In all cases, the switch girl rings
the called subscriber. On the termination of a conversation the
caller rings off by giving his crank several turns. It will be seen
that the operators have plenty to do, and that the usual uncer-
tainty (although the Belgian method of using the instruments
reduces it to a minimum) between a ring-through and a ring-off
exists.

In trunk-line switching the calling subscriber in the first place
asks his exchange for the town in which his prospective corre-
spondent is located. Thus, a Charleroy subscriber wanting one
in Louvain, rings the Charleroy operator and says 'give me
Louvain.' Charleroy rings and connects Louvain, to the operator
at which place the Charleroy subscriber gives his order direct.
On finishing a trunk conversation both subscribers are expected
to ring off.

HOURS OF SERVICE

The service is continuous day and night at all the principal'
towns \ the smaller ones are open from 5 A.M. till n P.M. ; 7 A.M.
till 1 1 P.M., and in some cases 7 A.M. till 9 P.M.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

The sets now fitted consist of magneto with base-board and
battery-box; a Runnings, or 'solid-back' transmitter modified
somewhat from the original American design ; and double-pole
receiver. The magnetos are provided with a lightning-guard con-
sisting of two metal plates separated by paraffined paper ; in some
cases this is combined with a point discharger, and mounted on a

Belgium 87

separate base-board fixed above the instrument. Test-plates or
lightning-guards at the point of entry into a building are not em-
ployed, the outside lead of guttapercha-covered and braided wire
being soldered direct to the inside lead of cotton-covered wire.
The instruments are by different makers, but appear to be of
uniformly good quality. Many instruments have a second receiver
attached.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

The wire used for local work is of bronze, 1*4 mm. gauge,
30 per cent, conductivity, and 114 kilogrammes breaking strain,
the insulators being small double-shed in white porcelain. The
insulator groove often contains a thick india-rubber ring, and
sometimes also a strip of lead, with the object of stopping vibra-
tion. For junction lines the gauge is 1*6 and 40 per cent, con-
ductivity : these are always metallic circuits. All wires are at
present overhead, although extensive underground work is in con-
templation in connection with the new exchange in Brussels.
Aerial cables are not employed in the capital, but there are a few
short lengths at Antwerp, Blankenberghe, and other provincial
centres. All joints are soldered. The standard and pole work is
exceedingly good in Belgium, both as regards design and execution,
and constitutes the most striking feature of all to an English eye.
The standards are built of angle and bar iron riveted together, and
generally consist of uprights with widely-spread struts on both
sides, the uprights and struts being rigidly connected by cross
pieces. The whole is bolted to an iron base-plate or wooden
platform made to suit the contour of the roof. The base-plate is
generally separated by thick layers of felt sandwiched between
thin leaden sheets from the rafters on which it rests, with the view
of intercepting the vibrations from the wires. The whole forms
such a rigid structure that stays are generally dispensed with,
even on angles. In the event of a storm or fire suddenly destroy-
ing a bed of wires and throwing a heavy strain on one side of a
standard, there is no danger of its yielding and allowing the
damage to spread beyond the particular space involved. In fig. 22
are given front and side views, with details, of a standard, carrying

88 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Belgium

H 350-350 -350*350 *350 -
I I - I I I I

FIG. 23. Dimensions in meters.

90 TelepJione Systems of the Continent of Europe

1 08 wires, erected on 101 Rue Neuve, Brussels. There is room
for two additional arms, and when full the support will carry 144
wires. In Antwerp a similar but taller standard with six uprights
carries nearly 600 wires. Figs. 23 and 23A show the plan of a

50x5C

FIG. 23A

smaller standard, erected on the locomotive shed at the Station du
Midi, Brussels, intended for an ultimate capacity of six arms and
sixty insulators. Fig. 24 is the top of a Liege standard, showing
the method of fixing the insulator bolts. The long bolts on the

Belgium

upper arm are for large
double-shed insulators
carrying trunk wires.
The top of a bolt is
wrapped tightly with
tow and the insulator
cup forced down upon
it : the resulting fixture
appearing everything
that can be desired. The
ornamental finials e are
in galvanised iron. Each
upright of a standard is
connected to earth by
an iron wire of 5 mm.
diameter. With earthed
single wires this is a
somewhat superfluous
precaution, but as me-
tallic circuits multiply
its utility will increase.
All zinc, lead, and other
metal about the roof is
put in connection with
the ground wire. No
accidents from lightning
are recorded in the ten
years of telephonic ex-
perience in Belgium,
although there have been
violent storms during
that period and many
buildings have been
struck. Single standards,
except when intended
to carry three or four
wires only, are usually of
lattice construction and

3C/D

92 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

practically resemble the top portion
of the iron ground pole shown in
fig. 25, the junction with the roof
being as in fig. 22. It will be seen
that the Belgian standards are both
substantial and handsome. Their
first cost is doubtlessly higher than
tubes stuck into sockets and held
up by wire ropes, but then they
do not collapse under the various
misfortunes to which standards in
all countries are subject, and their
maintenance (unless they have to
be bodily shifted) is a bagatelle.
The ground poles, when of small
capacity, are usually of wood ;
when designed to carry many wires,
or when located where appearance
is an object, usually of iron lattice.
Fig. 25 shows a ground pole carrying
sixty wires, typical of the practice
in Liege, with its details. It is built
with two splices, the angle-iron of the

top section being 3~ * ^-, of the

SPLICING PLATES

middle 8 ->i- 80 ,

and of the bottom

millimeters. The foot is

CONCRETE

IRON BASE PLATE )

10 <ym THICK
HEIGHT Or POLE .95-14 FEET
2 METERS

o so 100 soo

FIG. 25

90 x 90

embedded in concrete. Such a pole
will stand on a sharp angle without
stays and without visible deflection.
Fig. 26 shows the plan, with details,
of a somewhat similar pole designed
to carry eight ten-wire arms. Such
poles, which are common along the
quays at Antwerp, at Namur, and
elsewhere, are 62 feet high and

Belgium

93*

IRON BAR IN
ONE PIECE - 1

PLAN SIDE OF POLE
ABOVE B

DETAILS SIDE Of POLE.
ABOVE B

IRON BASE PLATE

PLAN AT GROUND LINE

HEIGHT OF POLE =101-7 FEET.

FIG. 26. Dimensions in meters.

94 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

weigh a
eluding

FIG. 27

little over four tons. They cost about r$d. per lb., in-
erection. There is one at Termonde which measures
in feet over all, of which 96*5 feet
are above ground : it carries fifty
wires and cost about i6o/. Ex-
'6 pensive as such structures appear

"* -- J T. as regards first cost, they arc, when

350. j kept properly painted, practically

-Dimensions in millimeters everlasting.

Wires are usually led into sub-
scribers' premises by open spurs dropped when possible at the

FIG. 28. Dimensions in millimeter'

backs, out of sight from the street. Fig. 27 shows a handy insu-
lator spike for this purpose. The insulator, which is fixed with

Belgium 95

tow, stands at a convenient angle for receiving the drop wire.
Fig. 28 shows a neat bracket standard, useful for running a few
wires along walls or houses. There is a twelve-wire route of this
nature along the Fosse-aux- Loups, Brussels.

With one exception, that of Louvain, none of the exchange fix-
tures in Belgium offer novel points. The Brussels central standard,
soon to be superseded, has 3,000 wires already attached, with space
for 400 more. It is the original American erection, square, with
wooden uprights and arms. At Antwerp the fixture is built of
angle iron in the same way essentially as the ordinary standards.
At Antwerp the site of the central station was not too wisely
chosen, being adjacent to the great cathedral, which blocks it
entirely on one side. As a consequence, very heavy routes have
to be crowded on the old houses on either side of the cathedral.
An elevation of the handsome octagonal tower of the new com-
bined telegraph and telephone office at Louvain is given in fig.
29. Belgium has always been celebrated for its steeples ; now
here is a new variation of that architectural embellishment which,
in time to come, may share with the ecclesiastical variety the
admiration of antiquaries. The accommodation provided for
wires is far in excess of present requirements at Louvain, but
then the end is not yet. In Antwerp some immense lattice iron
arches were erected astraddle of some of the principal streets for
the purpose of supporting the conductors in connection with the
projected travelling balloon at the 1894 Exhibition. These have
since been acquired by the State for use as telephone wire supports.
As a general rule the outside work in Belgium is so well designed
and so thoroughly well executed that it is difficult to suggest
where there is room for improvement.

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

As far as supports are concerned there is nothing special about
the Belgian trunk work. The poles, away from the towns, are
generally creosoted wooden ones, sharpened at the tops and with-
out roofs. For the most part they are carried along the railways,
but where exposed to stone-throwing the insulators, which for
trunk work are large double-sheds, are of brown or slate-coloured

2 METERS

100

200

FIG. 29

98 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

porcelain, it having been found, as in this country, that dark or
dull insulators offer far less enticing targets than brilliant white.
With a few exceptions the Belgian trunks are telegraph wires made
up into metallic circuits with condensers and induction coils
on the well-known Van Rysselberghe system. Consequently the
lines are used simultaneously for telegrams and telephonic talk-
ing. The communications, nevertheless, appear quite satisfactory
the distances in Belgium are not of course great and free from
telegraphic noises. The author spoke perfectly between Brussels
and Ostend (76 miles) on wires which were at the same time
transmitting Hughes telegraph signals between London and
Brussels via the Dover-Ostend cable. It is, however, admitted
that slight faults on the wires, which would have no sensible effect
on a telephonic metallic circuit pure and simple, upset the balance
of resistance and capacity which it is absolutely necessary to
maintain in order to avoid telegraphic interference with the tele-
phoning ; and until such faults are removed the communications
suffer. Another weak point is the facility with which the con-
densers used are pierced by lightning, an occurrence which is
calculated to stop both telegraphing and telephoning. But, in
spite of these drawbacks, the Belgian engineers conduct practically
seven-tenths of the trunk work of the kingdom on the telegraph
wires with results that give satisfaction to the subscribers, and
which, according to the author's observations, are superior to those
obtained in some other countries not saddled with such compli-
cations. Unquestionably the Van Rysselberghe system has had a
stimulating effect on telephony in Belgium, for had the State been
compelled to face the cost of erecting special wires for telephonic
purposes at the outset, the linking up of the various towns would
have been seriously delayed. The Brussels-Paris trunks, three in
number, are exclusively telephonic and are composed on the
Belgian side of 3 mm. bronze wire of 95 per cent, conductivity.
The wires are revolved on the Moseley - Bottomley system
adopted by the British Post Office. The revolutions on the
Brussels-Paris lines are in Belgium made by aid of the fixtures
shown in fig. 30, the former effecting the vertical and the latter
the horizontal changes. Such fixtures require the tops of poles ;
consequently their definitive adoption would limit the number of

Belgium

trunks to that of existing pole lines. As a fact, the three
Brussels-Paris trunks follow different routes for a considerable
portion of the way. If placed alongside each other on a cross-
arm and crossed every kilometer at the same places, all three
would have been got on the same poles and been equally effective.

d 1.

-K25

1" >

-5

\
J -

FIG. 30. Dimensions in millimeters.

As it is, the speaking between Brussels and Paris is practically
perfect.

The same twisting plan was originally employed on other
trunks, but has since been discontinued, the simple horizontal
crossing introduced by the author on the Dundee- Arbroath trunk
line in 1884 being found equally effective. The non-use of cross-
arms on telegraph poles in Belgium, as in other continental

H 2

ioo TelepJione Systems of the Continent of Europe

countries, brings about curious complications whenever the sim-
plicity of the normal line has to be departed from. Fig. 31
shows the crossing, devised by M. Saboo, most in favour in
Belgium, and at the same time gives a good idea of a Belgian pole
and insulators.

There are eight trunks between Brussels and Antwerp, four of
which are exclusively telephonic. Brussels has three trunks to
Liege and two to Verviers, all on Van Rysselberghe's plan. Of the

FIG. 31

three trunks between Brussels and Ghent only one is exclusively
telephonic. The wire used for the Belgian trunks (excepting the
Brussels-Paris) is 2 mm. bronze of 95 per cent, conductivity.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen receive from 6/. 8s. to 8/. per month, with an
allowance of is. 8^/. per day when working away from home.

Belgium '- 101

Workmen commence as lads at is. tod. per day, j \yh^iijremp
to go on the roofs, they get 2s. per day, afterwards rising to 25. 2d.
and 2s. ^d. Assistant foremen get 2$. id. per day. All workmen
are allowed lod. per day when engaged away from home. In the
summer the men are supplied with cocoa, and in winter with
brandy, a pint to every ten men daily, gratis. They are expected
to make grog of the brandy, which, with the cocoa, is supplied
partly with the object of preventing the men drinking unboiled
water of bad quality. The hours are ten per day, less one hour for
dinner and half an hour for breakfast, making a working day of
eight and a half hours. Carpenters, masons, plumbers, and other
skilled workmen incidentally required receive 2s. 8</. per day.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

Girls are taken on at eighteen years of age and commence with
32$. per month, rising gradually to a maximum of 685-. per month.
On entry they have to pass an examination in common subjects.
The daily duty is from seven to eight hours. Night duty is
performed by men.

STATISTICS

The continuous growth of the telephonic telegram traffic is
illustrated by the following figures :

Number of telegrams ; Number of telegrams

telephoned throughout telephoned throughout

Year Belgium Year Belgium

1887 ...... 469,823 1891 ...... 873,266

1888 ...... 587,383 1892 ...... 900,933

1889 ...... 691,098 1893 ...... 946,168

1890 ...... 800,269 1894 ...... 1,023,396*

* Estimated from August traffic.

The 1894 traffic means receipts for the Telegraph Department
amounting to at least 2o,ooo/., which the officials consider more
than balances any loss through trunk-line competition. As the
telegraph revenue continues to increase year by year, this view is
no doubt correct.

Systems of the Continent of Europe

" L At c hkend ?f 1^94 the particulars of the areas, exchanges, and*
subscribers stood as follows :

Name of Area

Names of Exchanges

Number of
subscribers

Total
subscribers

Ostend

119

Bruges

114

Le Littoral .

Blankenberghe
Heyst

18
6

- 269

Middelkerke

Nieuport

/ Termonde

Termonde St. Nicholas Alost

Alost . . . . , St. Nicholas

1 Lokeren

rr> i ' Tournav
Tournaisis .
1 Peruwelz

1 02

; -33

Land en

Waremme

La Hesbaye

St. Trond
Tirlemont

\ "3

H annul

Hasselt

( Brussels

2,474

)

Brussels . . . J Hal

2,506

Vilvorde

)

Antwerp ....

Antwerp
Boom

1,832

j- 1,840

Verviers Jerviers

i Spa

649

} 659

Louvain .... Louvain

129

Liege Liege

1,073

Charleroy .... Charleroy

328

Ghent Ghent

865

La Louviere ... La Louviere

5 1

Mons Mons

400

Total for State . . 31 exchanges

8,43

Still in hands of concessionaries at December 31, 1894

Courtray Roulers . . Courtray

Mechlin .... Mechlin

Namur .... Namur

198

Total for Kingdom

8,757

The growth of the internal trunk traffic has been as
follows :

Belgium 103

1889 j 1890 j 1891 1892 i 1893 1894

Number of con-
versations . i 46,720 53,621 61,575 i 80,120 | 108,459 ! 131,189 150,436
; Receipts in francs 49,489 56,344 65,172 i 88,399 ; 125,415 156,818 187,259

The lines carrying this traffic numbered and measured at
December 31, 1893 : Sixty-four metallic circuits, each made up
of two telegraph wires, measuring in total length 8,408 kilometers,
and worked by Van Rysselberghe's apparatus ; eleven ex-
clusively telephonic metallic circuits, measuring 1,124 kilometers
of wire.

The actual receipts by the State for the telegraph and telephone
services respectively for the five years 1889-93 were as follows :

Telegraph receipts Telephone receipts

Year (fiancs) (francs)

1889 3,463,267 136,359

1890 3,614,930 l8l,6l2

1891 3,721,805 242,971

1892 3,650,146 36,53

1893 3,684,068 1,845,010'

It will be observed that in 1891, the year of the greatest
development of the telephonic trunk lines, the number of trunk
talks increasing from 80,120 in 1890 to 108,459 in 1891, the
telegraph revenue was better than ever before. During 1892,
however, in face of 131,189 trunk talks and a trunk revenue of
156,818 francs, it dropped 71,659 francs. This reads a large sum
in francs, but reduced to English money it means only some
2,866/., a small matter for a State department, which was partly
made up by the increase of 1,2567. in the telephone trunk receipts.
In 1893 the telegraph had recovered to within 1,5097. of its 1891
figure, in face of an increase in the telephone trunk revenue of
1,2177. over 1892. In 1893 the telegraph receipts had decreased
1,5097., and the telephone trunk receipts increased 2,4737. over
1891, while the telegraph had resumed its upward course. It
must be concluded therefore that the new service had in 1893
drawn 187,259 francs (7,4907.) from the pockets of the Belgian
people without sensibly affecting the old one.

1 The State acquired most of the companies' systems at the beginning of 1893.

104 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

IV. BOSNIA-HERZOGOVINA

No telephone exchanges exist. So far, the telephone has been
employed exclusively for military purposes.

V. BULGARIA

TELEPHONE exchange work is a Government monoply. All lines
are, and are to be in future, metallic circuits. The development
attained at date of writing (February 1895) is but modest, the
total number of subscribers in the country being only 151, of
which the capital, Sofia, possesses 90. The total length of local
lines is 47 J kilometers ; of trunk lines actually working, 160
kilometers ; and of trunk lines under construction, 330 kilometers.
For these lines silicium bronze of 3 mm. diameter is being used,
while the local connections are run with wire of the same kind,
but of 2 mm. diameter only. Sofia has also telephonic com-
munication with Philippopolis by means of the Van Rysselberghe
system fitted to ordinary telegraph wires. Switch-boards with
indicators and cords are used in the three exchanges open : these
have been supplied by Messrs. Jenisch Bohmer, Berlin ; M.
Hipp, Neuchatel (Switzerland) ; and Deckert and Homolka,
Vienna. It is obvious that the Bulgarians are making a good
beginning with metallic circuits and bronze wire everywhere, and
may be cordially wished success.

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS

i. Local exchange communication. For a subscriber located
within the town limits :

First year ......... 8/.

Subsequent years ....... 6/

These rates are inclusive of installation, maintenance, and all
charges.

io6 TelepJione Systems of the Continent of Europe

2. Internal trunk line communication. Time unit, five
minutes. Charge, any distance, 9-6^. Express or urgent
conversations are admitted at triple rates.

3. Public telephone stations. Time unit, five minutes.

LOCAL TALKS

Subscribers . . . . . . . . free

Non-subscribers ....... 4-8^.

Express talks, triple fee.

TRUNK TALKS

Subscribers and non-subscribers .... 9 -6d.
Express talks, triple fee.

VI. DENMARK

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

Ix Denmark, as in Holland and Norway, and at first in Sweden,
telephonic development has been left in the hands of conces-
sionary companies and individuals, and to an even greater extent,
for it is only within the last two years that the Government
Telegraph Department has taken any part, directly or otherwise,
in telephone exchange work. The plan has been for munici-
palities and other local authorities to grant licences for the areas
under their control, and exchanges have been thereupon esta-
blished, usually with locally-subscribed capital. This system, open
as it doubtless is to the reproach of want of uniformity and
homogeneity, has had, wherever brought into use, a most bene-
ficial effect in stimulating telephonic development and in bringing
the new mode of communication within the reach of the masses.
It has placed Holland and the three Scandinavian countries
telephonically far in advance of Great Britain, where the alterna-
tive of doing without telephones at all is apparently preferred to
allowing the people any opportunity of acting for themselves, or
of breaking loose from the fetters forged, in the name of public
policy, by the Post Office. In Denmark, as a consequence, a
country not much larger than some of our English counties, there
exist and flourish that is to say, are worked at a profit some sixty-
six telephone exchanges, which means that not only every town,
but almost every townlet and village in the country, possesses one.
Copenhagen, the capital, a city with a population rather exceeding
that of Islington, boasts (November 1894) of 4,510 instruments in
connection with its exchange, and outside Copenhagen, in the same

io8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

small island of Zealand, there are 900 more. How many are
there in Islington? Possibly 100, although that is extremely
doubtful.

The International Bell Telephone Company commenced work
in Copenhagen in 1880, and held the ground without competi-
tion until the sale in 1882 of the system to a local association
called the Copenhagen Telephone Company, which, under the
able management of Mr. E. B. Petersen, has not only preserved
the monopoly, but has extended its system until the highly-
creditable development mentioned above has been reached. The
absence of competition has prevented the low rates enjoyed by
the subscribers in Stockholm and Christiania being attained, and
the handsome figure, redolent of telephonic clover, of 87. 6s. 8d.
per annum is still maintained in the Danish metropolis. It is
not, therefore, surprising to learn that the company maintains a
dividend of about 7 per cent, on its capital of ii2,ooo/., a capital
which has not only sufficed to construct the Copenhagen exchange,
but to cover Zealand with trunk lines too. And it must be
clearly understood that the rate of 87. 6s. %d. covers not only
communication within Copenhagen itself, but with every sub-
scriber in the island of Zealand, whether a member of the
Copenhagen company or any other. As Zealand measures some
eighty miles from north to south and sixty miles from east to
west, and contains some 900 subscribers outside the limits of
Copenhagen, the liberality of this arrangement is beyond question.

The geographical character of Denmark has not favoured the
erection of long-distance trunks. Within the three chief divisions,
Zealand, Funen, and Jutland, the country has long been well
telephoned, the local companies being left to construct what
trunks they chose free from Government interference. It was
not until the question of joining up the three divisions and of
making a connection with Sweden, works necessitating the use of
submarine cables, came to the front, that the State bestirred itself.
The Royal Telegraph Department then announced that it would
itself undertake the construction and maintenance of these through
main lines ; and accordingly it has recently established commu-
nication with Sweden by utilising an old telegraph cable, and
opened a line to Funen, which is to be extended as soon as

Denmark 109

practicable to Jutland, and eventually thence to Hamburg. For
the purposes of these trunks the Government has established a
small switch-room at the Central Telegraph Office in Copenhagen,
but, with the exception of one public station, there are no other
connections to it, the company's subscribers supplying the neces-
sary customers. To enable them to make the best use of the
trunks, those subscribers who are willing to pay 2/. 15^. ^d. down,
a first and last payment, are being supplied with metallic circuits.
The company, being gifted with the faculty of rightly interpreting
the signs of the times, intend to gradually convert the whole of
its system to 'double wires, and all new work and alterations are
designed accordingly, especially its grand new central station at
Copenhagen, which is being fitted throughout for metallic circuits.
Underground work has already been undertaken in Copenhagen
on an extensive scale, and much more, with paper insulation and
twisted pairs, is in contemplation. Altogether, Denmark may be
complimented on being a practical, advancing, and exemplar} 7 mem-
ber of the telephonic family, and one which may be safely trusted
to look after its own interests, both technically and financially.

Although comparatively high rates prevail in the capital, the
provincial towns enjoy subscriptions which range from i/. iSs. 8^.
to 4/. Ss. iid. per annum. As in Norway, the subscribers some-
times supply or pay for their instruments, but in the majority of
cases the subscription is an inclusive one. There are some fifty
independent companies in Denmark, all, or nearly so, having
rules which differ in some or other respect from those of their
neighbours. An exhaustive account of these small concerns
would be equally tedious and unprofitable, but, thanks to the
courtesy of the managers of some of them, the author is enabled
to present herewith a tabulated statement in which their chief
characteristics are set down. It will be noticed that the sub-
scriptions rule higher than in Norway, but that, on the other hand,
the members are seldom called upon for any supplementary
payments, while the distances over which they are entitled to
speak are often considerable. The full accounts for 1893 of the
Aarhus Telephone Company, which afford an insight into the
methods prevalent in Denmark generally, are printed at the end
of this section.

STATISTICS OF SOME PROVINCIAL DANISH EXCHANGES

v- be

ITS 2

Jt M
~l! ; %i

TOWN

H'c

J5 V
i'S

|| |j|

III

(S*9| G*

Aalborg . . 19,500

April,

1884

Syndicate i Central,
of three 7 Branch

394

No No

3/. i2j. zd.

members

Aarhus(a) . . 33,000

July,

1883

Company

i Central,
9 Branch

500

No No 4/. 3-r. $d. for
town ;
5/. i6s. jd.
whole district

Esbjerg . 1,529 Sept.,

I' 885

Syndicate 3, Esbjerg,
of four Kibe, Fano
members

220

No 1 Yes

Esbjerg,
2/. 15^. "jd. ;
Ribe, Fano,

Fredericia . . 10,042 Dec.,

Company i

116

No : No

3 3>. I ; sif

1889

Frederikshavn . 2,891

Jan.,
1885

Hjorring
County
Telephone

i Central,
7 Branch

218

No , No

Town,
2/. 155. jd. ;
whole county,

Hillerod . Jan.,

Company
Mr.T.

i Central,

1 02

No In towns,

&&?8&

1889

Schaffer

5 Branch

no ; in

locally ;'

country, yes

8/. 6s. &d.

whole of Zea-

land

Horsens . . 12,654 Jan.,

Company , i

203

No No

1885

Korsor . Jan.,

Company i

9 6

No , No

i/. i8s. 8d.

1895

Middelfart . July,

Company i Central,

No Yes

1885

2 Branch

Odense . . 30,268 March,
1884

Company i Central,
; 12 Branch

500

No No

Town,
4/. ay. -i-id. ;

suburbs,

5/. n^. ~id.

Randers (l>) . 16,617 Nov.,

Company i Central,

345

No No

i 1883

i 14 Branch

Ringkjobing . Oct.,

Company 7

112

No No

2/. 155. "jd.

1890

Skive ... i Feb.,
' 1888

Co-operative
Company

i Central,
i Branch

103

No No

3t. ,,.<. id.

Soro and Ringsted ' 1887 Mr. Charles
Heidemann

-.3

No No

3' '

(a) See full accounts for 1893 at end of this section. (b) Multiple switc

Central. Town wires, 1*5 mm. bronze ; country wires, 2 mm. steel.

h- board at

FOR THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1894

Distance' of
radius to
which sub-
scription ap-
plies

ii PI

-3 r-<

annual
revenue
Annual amount
of working ex-
penses and
maintenance

1 i* ' 2.1i

0) ^ tj O

1 - 1 1 = s

Description of
instrument
used by
subscribers

S 2

14 hours 00 i

,420 (c)

1 2 per cent. (c) ioo,ooc

Magnetos

kilometers

summer ; 13

on the

winter

subscribed

capital

About 20
kilometers

Day and 8,241 2,307 Not yet
night ascer-

Not yet Reserve fund
ascer- and share-

Magnetos

tained

tained for holders

for 1894

1894

About 9

7 till 9 ' 3,309

658 275

383 Shareholders 30,000 Battery

kilometers

summer ; 8 i

calls

till 9 winter

15 miles to

8 till 8 1,318

302 152

150 6 per cent, on

Magnetos

Veile ; 4 miles

capital to

to Middelfart,

shareholders ;

through a sub-

rest to reserve

marine cable

Towns and

7 till 9 3,57i

879 549

^30 Half to share-

Magnetos

county re-

summer ; 8

holders, half

spectively

till 9 winter

to reserve

About 20

(d) 2,200

594 (<0

00 00 00

Magnetos

kilometers

Town and

Not stated 2,047

659 385

274 Half to share- 1^,000 Magnetos

vicinity

holders, half

to reserve

Town and

12 hours (e)

00 00

00 To be divided

Battery

vicinity

between share-

calls

holders, sub-

scribers, and

reserve fund,

according to

fixed rules

Not stated ;

8 till 8 1,099

176 99

77 Divided be- 4,500 Battery

submarine

tween share-

calls

cable to

holders, re-

Fredericia

serve, and em-

ployees' fund

8 till 10 5,aoo

r,757 879

878 to sharehol-

Magnetos

kilometers

ders ; J to re-

serve ; j to em-

ployees' fund

About 20

Day and 5,824

988 430

538 6 per cent, to

Ericsson's

kilometers

night

shareholders ;

magnetos

rest to reserve

22 Danish

14 hours . 1,819

385 186

199 6 per cent, to 9,000 Battery

miles

shareholders ;

calls

rest to reserve

8 miles

13 hours 1,540

439 181

258 Profit is used

for new works ;

paid-up capital

tirL - t r _ -

is only 3847.

Whole Scro ; 8 till 8 (/) 395 275
country

1,500 Magnetos

present owner having bought a part of the system subsequent to its construction.

112 TelepJwne Systems of the Continent of Europe

SERVICES RENDERED BY THE COPENHAGEN
TELEPHONE COMPANY

1. Intercourse between the subscribers and public telephone
stations for the same town or district. A Copenhagen subscriber
is entitled to free communication with every other subscriber in
the island of Zealand, even when the exchange of which this
latter is a member belongs to another company. This means that
Korsor (63 miles), Elsinore (34 miles), Slagelse (56 miles),
Naestved (57 miles), Praesto (53 miles), Kioge (25 miles), are all
covered by the Copenhagen subscription. Conversely, however,
subscribers in these and other Zealand towns (most of which are
in the hands of local concessionaries) must pay extra for the right
to originate communication with Copenhagen. Thus in Korsor,
Elsinore, Roskilde, Kioge, Soro, Slagelse, &c., there are three
tariffs in operation : (i) for local town communication only ; (2)
for communication within the limits of the same county (there
are five counties in Zealand) ; and (3) for communication with the
capital. The Copenhagen subscribers are at present, pending the
completion of the new central station, scattered amongst twelve
switch -rooms, four of which are in the town and eight in the
suburbs. The number of junction wires which connect these last
to the main offices is insufficient to always ensure getting through
without waiting, in consideration of which the subscribers whose
wires go to the suburban switch-rooms are charged only 5/. us. id.
per annum. Apart from having to wait their turn for the junction
wires, their privileges are on a par with those of the city subscribers.
The liberal policy of the Copenhagen Company receives another
demonstration in its treatment of subscribers changing offices or
residences, whose telephones are shifted gratis,

2. Internal trunk communication. This practically extends
from Copenhagen to every town and village in Zealand and in the
island of Funen. The exchanges in Jutland and in Laland are in
communication with each other locally. Funen is connected to
Zealand by a cable, twelve miles long, across the Great Belt,
between Korsor and Nyborg, which cable touches in passing at
the famous island and lighthouse of Sprogo. It is an old tele-

Denmark 113

graph cable. As the Copenhagen local subscription covers the
use of the Zealand inter-town wires, the company has no trunk
revenue if certain express fees and charges for inserting provincial
subscribers' names in the Copenhagen list be excepted. As in
Norway, the cost of constructing and maintaining the trunks is
apportioned between the companies using them. The Govern-
ment has not interfered in any way, and has even granted way-
leave facilities freely when required. The Swedish and Norwegian
practice of booking talks over the trunks in advance is not per-
mitted in Denmark.

3. International trunk communication. The lines intended
for this purpose are constructed and maintained by the Govern-
ment. Communication is at present limited to Sweden, with the
southern portion of which Denmark has necessarily extensive
commercial relations. The distance being short (10^ miles) two
wires of an old four-wire telegraph cable, touching at the island of
Hveen, have been utilised with sufficiently satisfactory results,
communication between Copenhagen and Stockholm (375 miles)
being good enough for all purposes. That there is a fair demand
for the Swedish connection is evidenced by the fact that 100
Copenhagen subscribers have already paid 2/. 15^. ^d. and had
their lines converted to metallic circuits in order that they may
use it. The company has, with the same object, also provided
eight of the public stations with double wires. The long-distance
trunk connections are made through three metallic circuit junction
lines which join the telephone central to the State telegraph office.
It is the intention to follow up the connection of Zealand with
Funen (completed) and Jutland (constructing) by a line to Ham-
burg, which will be made up as follows :

Miles
Copenhagen to Korsor ...... 63

Korsb'r to Nyborg (cable) . . . . .12

Nyborg to Strib ....... 45

Strib to Fredericia (cable) ..... 2

Fredericia to Hamburg . . '. . . -155

277

4. Telephoning of telegrams. There are two distinct forms
of this service. Firstly, telegrams can be forwarded and received

114 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

by the subscribers by means of wires connecting the telephone
exchange with the Government telegraph office. In this case
subscribers availing themselves of the facility have to enter into
an agreement direct with the State authorities regarding the pay-
ment of the charges accruing on their traffic. Secondly, the tele-
phone company undertakes the duty, for those who desire it, of
writing down messages dictated by their subscribers and sending
them by messenger to the nearest telegraph office, where they are
handed in and paid for, the charges being afterwards collected from
the senders. Similarly, subscribers can order the telegraph people
to deliver telegrams addressed to them at a telephone station,
whence they are telephoned. The second plan obviates any formal
agreement with the State, although it is necessarily less rapid. It
is noteworthy that the company exacts no deposits from its sub-
scribers to cover telegram and trunk charges and yet suffers no loss,
an experience which agrees with that of the author in Scotland
during 1885-1890. A simple undertaking to pay was then found
sufficient, and in no single instance led to loss. In Copenhagen
accounts for these extra charges are rendered monthly, but are
collectable oftener at the company's discretion. Copies of tele-
grams telephoned to subscribers are afterwards delivered by mes-
senger in the usual way.

5. Telephoning of messages for local delivery. With this
telephonogram service the Copenhagen Company scores a good
point. It amounts, in effect, to a twopenny ten -word telegram
rate for the city and a 3-3^. rate for the suburbs. The State tele-
graph department, although legally invested with a telegraphic
monopoly, has not interfered, and is apparently content to let the
company provide the citizens with a cheaper service than the de-
partment itself sees its way to. The company accepts written
messages addressed to non-subscribers at all its offices, switch-
rooms, and public stations, and transmits them by telephone to the
nearest points, delivering them thence by messenger. The sub-
scribers can likewise call the head office and telephone such
messages. The only restriction is in the matter of language,
Danish being obligatory, as the mass of the employees understands
no other. Still, it is to be apprehended that the Londoners or
Glaswegians would not absolutely refuse to use a twopenny

Denmark 115

telegram service even though restricted to English. The traffic in
these twopenny telephonograms amounted in 1892 to 40,266 ;
in 1893 to 44,249 ; and in 1894 to 47,069.

6. Public telephone stations. These are numerous, and are
available for local and trunk talks, and for the transmission of both
long-distance and local telegrams. The company sells books con-
taining ten tickets, each of which entitles the presenter to a free
local talk at a public office, or from the premises of any subscriber
who may allow his instrument to be used. . Such a subscriber, on
sending the tickets he collects to the telephone office, is paid
'66d. on each by way of remunerating him for his trouble. A
subscriber may go in regularly for the public station business by
paying an additional subscription of 2/. 155. id. per annum, in
which case the company supplies him with a signboard and
allows him to keep all he can manage to take. There is another
arrangement, by which a person occupying suitable premises pays
only 2.1. 4s. $d. by way of annual subscription, and is charged by
the company 2d. for each talk had from his instrument. On
talks had by strangers he collects zd. and pays over to the company
only 1*33^. Automatic slot boxes (Schaffer's patent) are used in
about fifty public stations and give satisfaction.

7. Messenger service. As in some other countries, non-sub-
scribers are called to public stations to converse with subscribers
who want them. Nothing is charged for the service. The
company's messengers do not run ordinary errands or carry
parcels, there being a separate organisation (Adam & Co.) in
Copenhagen for this purpose.

TARIFFS

t .-

i. Rates for communication within Copenhagen and Zea-
land:

Per annum.
s. d

One instrument on a direct line to central exchange .868
For a second connection . . . . . .6134

One instrument on a direct line to a suburban ex-
change 5 n I

Extra instruments . . . . . . . I 7 10

I 2

1 1 6 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

There is also an elaborate tariff for several instruments on the
same line. Contracts are for one year only. Subscriptions are
payable quarterly in advance. The difference of rate between the
central and suburban exchanges is due to the small number of
junction wires employed, which necessitates occasional waiting for
connections by the suburban subscribers.

The tariff covers connection in any part of the town or suburbs,
and includes the right to originate communication with any tele-
phone subscriber in Zealand.

2. Pates for Zealand and Funen trunk communications.
As the local rates cover the Zealand trunks, the company has no
trunk revenue except that derived from the express fees, there
being a rule that any subscriber who wants immediate connection
may speak out of his turn on payment of 4*6^. As the provincial
subscribers are entitled to be called up from Copenhagen, it is
important for them to have their names in the Copenhagen
Company's list, although they may themselves be members of a
local exchange owned by another association. For this service
the Copenhagen Company charges us. i\d. per annum per
insertion. To these two sources of income must be added the fees
4'6*/. per five minutes payable by strangers at public telephone
stations for talks to Zealand towns. The tariff for trunk talks to
Funen and Jutland has been fixed at is. i\d. and is. M. per three
minutes respectively, these charges going to the State. At date
of writing (February 1895) the Jutland line had not been com-
pleted.

3. Rates for international trunk communication :

s. d.

To Malmo i 8

,, Stockholm . . . . . . . 2 2\

,, Gothenburg . . . . . . . 2 2\

Time unit, 3 minutes.

4. Rates for the telephoning of telegrams :

When the message is telephoned direct between the sub-
scriber's office and the State telegraph office, in either
direction, per message ....... 2 -6d.

When dictated to the company's office for handing to the
State, or a message is received by the company from the
State to be telephoned, per word .....

Denmark 117

5. Rates for written messages accepted, telephoned, and
delivered by the company. Within the limits of Copenhagen :
a first charge of *66^., with '133^. per word ; minimum charge,

Within the suburbs : a first charge of '66</., with '266d. per
word ; minimum charge, 3'3^/.

A town telephonogram containing ten words therefore costs
66 + -133 x 10= 1-99^

And a suburban, '66 + '266 x 10 = 3-32^.

Subscribers may telephone similar messages from their own
offices at the same rates. Accounts for these are rendered
monthly ; no deposits.

Were it not for the Spanish rate for a corresponding service in
Madrid, &c. (Spanish section, p. 329), of i'g2d. for twenty words,
the country of the Dane would have been fairly entitled to a
record in this matter.

6. Rates levied at public telephone stations :

s. d.
Five minutes' local talk . . . . . . .002

Five minutes' talk with any town in Zealand connected

by trunk . . . . . . . .00 4-6

Books containing ten 2d. tickets are sold for . . . o I i^
Annual rate, covering free use of all public stations for

local talks ........ 245

The police are entitled to use the public stations gratis.

Subscribers are allowed to use a number of the public stations
without charge. These free stations include the Bourse, where
there are eight sound-proof compartments containing instruments,
and the Custom House, where there are three instruments. At
these last two stations messengers are kept who fetch (without
charge) non-subscribers wanted by subscribers to the instruments.
From eight of the public stations the international line to Sweden
may be used at the usual rates (p. 116).

7. Messenger service. This is performed by the company
gratis.

1 1 8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

WAY-LEAVES

The author is not aware whether Denmark is one of those
fabled regions, about which partisans wax eloquent whenever any-
body complains of high rates, wherein way-leave grantors are sup-
posed to cease from troubling and monopolists enjoy halcyonian
rest. If so, he is sorry to dispel the illusion once more. None
of the Danish companies possess any way-leave rights other than
they bargain and arrange for. In Copenhagen especially (and
this city is certainly one of the worst on the Continent in this
respect) overhouse way-leaves are difficult, and in some quarters
even impossible, to procure. For a standard of any size a free
telephone has generally to be given. So thorny grew the
company's path that, at a very early date, it obtained a concession
from the municipality permitting the laying of wires under the
streets, a privilege for which 3887. per annum is at present paid,
a tribute which is liable to be revised i.e. increased every five
years. The country authorities have, however, been easy-going
in respect to the roads, since permissions to erect the trunk line
poles have generally been accorded at reasonable rates. The
Government, too, although owning the railways and telegraphs, has
not played the dog-in-the-manger, and has lent the companies a
helping hand where difficulties, otherwise insurmountable, have
presented themselves.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

At the present central station the switch-board is an ordinary
-Western Electric single-wire double-cord series multiple ; at the
branches Gilliland boards are still employed. The test, lightning-
guard and cross-connecting boards are neatly arranged round the
interior walls of small rooms or cupolas. The number of con-
nections asked for by each subscriber daily averages eleven, is
frequently twelve, and sometimes as high as fourteen. The operators
attend to from 50 to 100 lines each. Called subscribers are rung
by the operators. For this purpose a magneto generator, driven

Denmark 119

by an electro-motor supplied with current from the municipal
lighting mains, is employed. But the present arrangements are to
vanish in a few months, as soon as the company's new building is
ready. In May 1893 Messrs. Ericsson & Co., of Stockholm,
delivered a sample single-cord, parallel-jack board, manufactured
to the designs of Mr. J. L. W. V. Jensen, the Copenhagen Tele-
phone Company's chief engineer, which was put into use for the
trunk and other metallic circuits converging at the present central
station, and being found entirely satisfactory, an order was placed
with Messrs. Ericsson for a complete installation on the same plan
for (ultimate capacity) 10,200 subscribers' metallic circuits and
480 trunks and junctions for the new central station. The board,
which is equipped at present for 6,240 lines only, has been
delivered, and is only waiting the completion of the switch-room.
It presents several new features, and will be clearly understood
with the help of fig. 32. The main idea has been to keep only
one indicator in shunt across the metallic loop when two sub-
scribers are coupled, and this has been effected by the combined aid
of the jacks, the plugs, and of the special relays sr. / { and / 2 are
the subscribers' two lines through the multiple system ; / the test
wire. j*j >ni show jacks at different boards, _/" at the subscriber's
own board, j shows a jack with a plug inserted, causing the line
springs s l and s. 2 to make contact with the head and tube of the
plug respectively, while the test spring ts is insulated from the jack
and thrown into connection with the testing battery, which, in the
manner explained below, cuts out the subscriber's drop, //is the
intermediate field, sd is the subscriber's drop, also acting as a
ring-off drop, having a very high self-induction, sr is the sub-
scriber's relay, which cuts out the sd when a plug is inserted in
one of the jacksy'V 11 . The relay and drop are shown separate ;
if preferred, they may be combined. Although the armature of
sr is shown inserted in one of the branching wires to the drop,
and thus leaves the drop coils connected to one side only of the
loop when a connection is on, it could as easily have been placed
midways if the wire on the drop-magnet had been wound in two
halves. Experience shows, however, there is no advantage in
doing so, because the exceedingly small capacity of the drop does
not perceptibly disturb the balance of the metallic circuit, sp is

I2O Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

the subscriber's plug with flexible cord ; /j and p* are the head
and tube of the plug respectively, pc is the subscriber's plug
contact, cutting out the relay sr, when the plug sp is removed,
and at the same moment joining the battery to the test wire /, so
causing the subscriber to test ' busy.' sk is the line key. When
this is pressed down, the operator's telephone apparatus is cut in
between /j and / 2 . sk and sp are for convenience placed in close
proximity. The operator's apparatus consists of kp and >/, keys
for speaking to plug or to line respectively. These keys are not
used under normal conditions, and only when it is necessary to
speak to one side, insulating at the same time the other side, cp
and cl are calling keys for effecting the ringing to plug or to line
respectively. When one is depressed, it is at the same time
possible to speak to the other side. Under normal conditions
only cp is used, g is the generator for the ringing current. / and
mb the microphone and telephone combined into a microtelephone
set, suspended and balanced by a counterpoise. The apparatus
is connected by a flexible cord to a four-way plug and jack (only
shown in the figure by dots), so that a new microtelephone set
may be immediately inserted, me is the microphone battery
contact, and tc the test contact, giving a road to earth through a
self-induction coil (not shown in the diagram) for the test current
when this has passed the telephone. These contacts, me and tc t
may be left out if another four-way plug, connected to a second
microtelephone set without such contacts, or to a head telephone
and microphone, be inserted. The connecting wire between tc
and ground might then be connected to a wire in the telephone
between the magnet spools, the test current going in this
manner through only one of the coils, which is quite sufficient for
the testing.

The mode of operating is as follows : When sd falls, sk is
depressed and sp lifted by practically the same movement with the
right hand, while the number of the wanted subscriber is received
through the telephone. After testing by touching the jack of the
line called for with the plug head and pressing at the same time
tc with the left hand, the plug is inserted in the jack and cp is
depressed for calling. When the connection is through, sk is
released and sd replaced. When sd falls again, in response to

FIG. 3*

FIG. 33

122 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

the ring-off, sp is pulled out, and sd replaced. This practically
means eight motions for each connection, viz. :

1. Depresses line key and lifts plug.

2. Tests.

3. Plugs in.

4. Depresses calling key.

5. Releases line key.

6. Replaces indicator shutter (through).

7. Plugs out.

8. Replaces indicator shutter.

Twenty-six sections, each of 240 subscribers' metallic circuits,
are to be fitted. Each section has space for three operators, and
may be served by one, two> or three girls as required. Each
operator's calling key cp is connected with a counting machine,
so that the number of connections attempted to be got through
may be registered. By allowing a percentage determined by
experience for non-replies and repeated rings, a good idea of the
volume of passing traffic is deducible. In the circuit between
the generator and each operator's calling key an optical and
acoustic signal is inserted which gives warning if anything is
wrong with the generator or calling circuit, as well as notice of a
disconnection on the subscriber's loop over which it is attempted
to ring. Each operator has within reach several pairs of double
cords and keys, arranged according to fig. 33, which enable her
to help her neighbours if necessary. The microphone, testing
and relay local circuit current will be supplied by accumulators,
and the present arrangements for ringing from generators driven
off the electric lighting mains will be maintained.

The arrangements for the local and trunk inter- switching a
very important matter in Copenhagen have not yet been finally
matured.

Fig. 33 shows Mr. Jensen's adaptation of his idea to a
double-cord parallel multiple board. Ij is the local jack ; cl.d the
ring-off drop \p\ and / 2 tne pl u s > & the nne switch ; k { and / 2 >
ck\ and ck^ keys for speaking and ringing to either side. Nor-
mally, when /, is used as answering plug, only k and ck^ are
brought into play.

Mr. Jensen has further modified his system to act with self-

Denmark

123

restoring drops. Fig. 34 shows the alterations made on the
fig. 33 arrangement in order to bring this about, sd is the self-
restoring drop and cutting-out relay combined in one piece, while
cl.d is the self-restoring ring-off drop without a relay.

FIG. 34

Pending the introduction of the metallic circuits, the sub-
scribers are connected to the Zealand trunks through translators
of the author's construction, manufactured by Messrs. L. M.
Ericsson, of Stockholm.

124 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

HOURS OF SERVICE

The Copenhagen central station is open day and night ; the
suburban ones from 6 or 8 A.M. till 8 or 10 P.M., which are also
about the hours of the provincial exchanges.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

Magneto ringers are employed, the instruments now put in
being made by the Great Northern Telegraph Company of
Copenhagen. Transmitters and double-pole receivers of Ericsson's
make are now exclusively used. A good many of the older sets
are by the Bell Manufacturing Company, Antwerp, and the
Norske Elektrisk Bureau, Christiania. A peculiarity is the use of
the Lorentz induction coil for the transmitters. It consists of a
ring, three inches in outside diameter, of soft-iron wire, on which
is wound a primary of "36 of an ohm and a secondary of 360
ohms resistance, the whole enclosed in a radially and closely-
wound layer of soft-iron wire of 9 mm. section. It is stated to
yield better results than the ordinary coil. Certainly the speaking
in Copenhagen is very good.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

The wire used locally is 1*25 mm. bronze, supported on small
double-shed porcelain insulators. There are still, however, some
single-shed glass insulators, relics of the International Bell Tele-
phone Company, in use. The Macintyre tube joint (fig. 99,
Norwegian section) is employed, and is said, on the faith of many
years' experience, to be quite satisfactory. When well made, the
resistance of this joint is no more than that of the unjointed wire ;
the twisting brings the metal in contact at many points, and the
copper sheathing apparently is quite efficient in protecting these
points of contact from the weather, so that the metal remains un-
corroded and even bright after prolonged exposure of the joint.
Mechanically, the joint is stronger than the wire. Solder could
not produce better results than these, and the elimination of
the soldering bolt in any form is a decided gain. Of course the

125

126' Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

joint to be effective must be well made, but so must soldered
ones. There are no single standards in Copenhagen, all having
two or more uprights. They are built of channel and angle iron ;
are well stayed, and generally strong and well constructed. Fig. 35
shows a typical Danish standard with its details. All house-
top fixtures are protected from lightning by a conductor and
special earth-plate. The pole routes are substantially built, and
many of the ground poles erected within the city limits are of
highly ornamental design. In this respect it is strange how far
the Danes, in common with most continental peoples, are in
advance of us. In Great Britain the mere mention of a telegraph
pole conjures up visions of something offensive, both to the eye
and the nose ; in many cities on the Continent, on the contrary,
such a structure evokes no disagreeable feeling because, by
means of a graceful outline and regularly-renewed paint, it is
made to harmonise with its surroundings. It appears, when so
treated, to drop into its natural place, and nobody thinks of
objecting to it any more than to a lamp-post. To find anything
more obtrusively ugly than a British telegraph pole, it is necessary
to view a French railway telegraph or cross the Atlantic to the
dominions of Uncle Sam. The present central station fixture is
the original wooden one of American design. It will be replaced
on the new building by an iron tower with attachments for 4,000
wires. An important feature of the Copenhagen system is the
underground work. By virtue of its agreement with the muni-
cipality, for which it pays 388/. per annum, the company is
allowed, under supervision, to open the streets and put down
conduits and cables. The original conduits consist of cement
troughs of rectangular section, covered with an arched lid which
fits, and is cemented, into grooves formed along the tops of the
trough walls. The custom has been, when additions or repairs
are necessary, to open the ground, remove the lid section by
section, lay in the cable, replace the lid, and make good the
ground. This plan, although it permits of the cables being laid
neatly in the trough without friction or chafing, necessitates long
lengths of open trench and frequent disturbance of the streets.
On these grounds the municipal authorities have objected, and in
future the conduits will be permanently buried, and the cables

Denmark 127

drawn in. The conduits now being laid have an ultimate capacity
of 8,000 metallic circuits, and consist partly of cement blocks,
with ducts for the cables, and partly of small iron tubes stacked
together, the object being in each case to provide a separate
channel for each cable, an object which cannot be too strongly
commended. The cables, which in the centre of the town convey
nearly one-third of the total number of subscribers, have hitherto
been chiefly of the ' anti-induction ' type, i.e. the single wires are
insulated with india-rubber and sheathed with metal foil joined
to earth ; but in connection with the new exchange the cables
will be all paper-insulated, with conductors of '8 mm. copper,
and a capacity of '05 microfarad per kilometer, the wires being
laid up in twisted pairs. There are a few aerial cables, each con-
taining fifty-two twisted pairs of copper conductors, '8 mm. copper,
insulated with paper, capacity '05 microfarad per kilometer, pro-
tected by lead, and hung from stranded steel suspenders.

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

The trunk lines which radiate from Copenhagen to every
town and village of Zealand are mostly metallic circuits built of
2 mm. hard-drawn copper, the wires being crossed at intervals to
counteract induction. The poles are wood, and the insulators
double-shed ; as a rule, the routes, which follow the country roads,
are both substantial and neat. The Government line to Sweden,
via Vedbok, is of 3 mm. high conductivity bronze wire, twisted
on the Moseley-Bottomley plan. On the Swedish side the con-
struction is with 3 mm. hard copper, the two sections being
joined by an old four-line telegraph cable with parallel wires. The
Danish section of the projected line to Hamburg is to be of
4 mm. high conductivity bronze with twisted wires, but the
twelve-mile submarine section between Zealand and Funen will in
this instance also be an old telegraph cable.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

The foremen receive 8/. 6s. 8</. per month ; skilled wiremen
4*. 5^., and labourers 3$. 4^. per day, hours being from 7 A.M. till

1 28 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

7 P.M. in summer, with one and a half hours for meals ; in the
winter the men work only from daylight to sunset, but their pay is
not reduced.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

Girls are taken between the ages of eighteen and twenty-four
only. After a month or two of probation and a successful
examination in common subjects, they begin with 22.$-. \d. per
month, with four hours per day duty. The next step is to 385-. %d.
per month, with six hours' daily duty. The maximum to an
ordinary operator, attained after five years' service, is 555-. ;</. per
month. The day's duty never exceeds six hours. Night and
Sunday duty, for which extra payment is given, is performed by
the girls. The chief operators, of course, receive better pay still,
but it is subject to no rules.

STATISTICS, &c.

ACCOUNTS OF THE AARHUS TELEPHONE COMPANY FOR 1893

i krone

i/. = kr.i8-2

Cr.

Working Account 2)r,

Kr. Ore Kr. Ore

Town subscribers' rentals
Suburban ,, ,,
Country ,, ,,
Corporation ,, ,,
Subscriptions for suburban
lines . . .

24,001 43 Manager's salary .
1,448 76 Wages, lady operators .
8,470 26 Bookkeeping and audit
1,381 oo Messengers' wages
Firing and light .
2,639 46 Rates, and repairs to pro

800 oo

4.9 06 75
400 oo

222 76

492 60

Talks over suburban lines

810 oo perty.

157 22

Night talks .

334 oo .Fire insurance

182 oo

Interest on bank balance

29 38

Contribution to the Jutlam

United Telephone Societ]
Cleaning, travelling ex

102 50

penses, advertisements

printing, books, postage

393 58

Interest on mortgage .

776 25

Other interest

363 90

Superintendence at the

following branch stations

Hammel. Haselager

Morke, Ronde, Tranbjerg

Vrinders .

822 08

Repairs to town lines .

4,129 73

,, suburban lines

4,312 IQ

Reserve for reconstruction of

various country lines . 1,500 oo

Balance, being net revenue . 19,552 73

Kr. 39,114 29

Kr.

39,114 29

Gr.

Balance from last year .
Balance from Working Ac-
count as above

Denmark

Profit and Loss Account

Kr. Ore

368 14

19,552 73

Kr. 19,920 87

Value of the com-
pany's telephone
system at Jan. i, Kr. Ore
1893 . . . 72,298*99

New lines in 1893 9,599-86

Kr. 81,898-85

10 per cent, written off in
accordance with bye-laws

Written off the company's
building, standing at
Kr. 29,36s '86 in the books

Written off furniture and
fixtures ....

Commission to the manager,
5 per cent, on Kr. 11,302-84

Directors' fees, 6 per cent,
on same amount

Dividend to shareholders,
5 per cent, on Kr. 60,000=
Kr. 3.000, to which is added
Kr. 3,000 under Bye-law 14

Placed to reserve fund under
Bye-law 14

Balance to next year .

I2 9

Kr. Ore

60 oo

565
678

1 6

6,000 oo

3,ooo oo
427 68

Kr. 19,920 87

BALANCE SHEET

Assets

Kr. Ore

Liabilities

Kr. Ore

Construction account

73,7o8 96

: Capital

60,000 oo

Building ,,
Stores ,,

28,365 86
7,824 14

Mortgages .
Loan from Aarhus Privat

16,500 oo

Aarhus Private Bank

102 97

Bank

10,000 CO

Sundry debtors .
Fixture account .
Cash in hand

1,977 66
500 oo
629 72

Sundry creditors .
Profit and Loss Account
Reserve fund ,,

9,148 94
6,000 oo

9,532 69

^ -~

Repairs ,,

1,500 oo

- "~

Balance from Profit and Los

Account to next year

427 63

Kr. 113,109 31

AARHUS: December 31, 1893.

[Signed] OTTO MONSTEA, Kjen.

JOH. BAUME, Springborg.

The undersigned, auditor, has examined the books and accounts of the
company, and has no remarks to make.

J. H. FRANK.
AARHUS : February 20, 1894.

NOTE. Since going to press, the accounts for 1894 have been received.
They show an amount available for dividend of Kr. 7,200 ; Kr. 2,700 carried
to reserve, and Kr. 399-55 to 1895. The value of the system at January I,
1895, wa s Kr. 90,828-80.

1 30 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

VII. FINLAND

LIKE the other northern continental countries, the Grand-Duchy
of Finland has become the scene of great telephonic activity.
There would seem to be something in the Scandinavian blood, to
which the inhabitants of the capital and all the more important
coast towns mostly belong, which renders the possession of many
telephones an essential to their owners' happiness. Wherever two
or three Swedes, or Norwegians, or Danes, or Finns of Scandi-
navian descent, are gathered together, they almost infallibly pro-
ceed to immediately establish a church, a school, and a telephone
exchange. Whatever else in life that is worth having generally
comes after. Thus the inhabitants of Mariehamn in the Aland
Islands (the whole group of 300 islands contains only 18,000
souls) support and find uses for a flourishing exchange, while our
own islands of Wight, Jersey, Guernsey, Arran, &c., incomparably
richer and better peopled, show no sign of consciousness of even
the existence of such a facility.

The telephonic development has been conducted on Scandi-
navian lines that is to say, by local companies and co-operative
societies, which have been formed in every town in the country
under concessions from the Finnish Government, which has not
dabbled directly in telephones at all. The telegraph lines in
Finland belong to the Russian Posts and Telegraphs Department,
the only telegraphs owned by the Grand Duchy being those erected
along the State railways. The first telephone exchange was opened
in Helsingfors in 1882. As a general rule, a member pays for the
cost of his line and instrument and for his share of the exchange

Finland

K 2

132 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

apparatus, and afterwards contributes a modest annual amount to
cover the cost of working and maintenance. In the capital,
Helsingfors, where, with a population of 64,641, there are, in
March 1895, 2 > I 5 subscribers, and also in Abo (population
31,671, subscribers 575) and Wiborg (subscribers 670), there is
competition between co-operative societies and companies which
work on an inclusive annual subscription. Free intercommuni-
cation is, however, allowed between the subscribers to the rival
systems. The rates in force in these towns are as follow :

TOWN

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

COMPANIES

Entrance fee

Annual
subscription

Inclusive
annual
subscription

Wire

Instrument

Helsingfors . . 61.
Abo . . . i 61.
Wiborg ... 8/.

4 /.

2/. 1 6.T.

2l. Ss.
2!.

4/. to 4/. l6r.
4/. 1 6s.
3/- 4*.

The co-operative rates in the last two towns may be taken as
typical of those prevailing in the remaining thirty-two exchanges
of Finland, the most northern of which is Uleaborg.

It will be seen that the telephones in Helsingfors number 3*3
per 100 inhabitants, a proportion which gives it a prominent place
amongst the best-telephoned cities of the world. There is no
telephoning of telegrams, as the Russian Posts and Telegraphs
Department cannot be induced to concur in the necessary linking
up with the various companies. The telephonogram service is
also wanting. Helsingfors and Wiborg exchanges are always
open, and several others can be used at night on payment of a fee
to the attendant.

Enterprise is not confined to local exchanges, for a company,
bearing a name which means, being translated, the Southern
Finland Interurban Telephone Company, acting under a Govern-
ment concession, has connected by metallic circuit trunk lines all
the coast towns from Wiborg to Abo, nine in number, and spread
over a distance of 400 kilometers, the actual length of the circuits

Finland

133

1 34 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

used being 900 kilometers. The company's charges are, the time
unit being five minutes,

o to TOO kilometers . . . "19 pennis per kilometer

100 ,, 200 ,,.... -18 ,, ,,

Exceeding 200 ,, . . . '17 ,, ,,

Thus a talk between Helsingfors and Borga, a distance of 59
kilometers (36-6 miles), costs 59 x -19 = 11-2 pennis; and one
between Helsingfors and Wiborg, 300 kilometers (186*4 miles),
300 x '17 = 51 pennis. As ten pennis make one penny, it
follows that 36 \ miles can be spoken over for 1-12^., and i86J
miles (practically London to Manchester) for 5-1^. This is even
slightly cheaper than in Sweden. All the other towns, with the
exception of seven of the most northerly ones and Mariehamn in
the Aland Islands, have been connected to the capital and to the
Interurban Company's lines by other concessionaries, so that
Finland is actually covered with an almost perfect network of
telephone trunk wires which bring the shores of the Baltic into
instantaneous communication with those of Lake Ladoga, and the
far-off interior with both. The Finnish trunk lines extend to the
Russian frontier and to within a few miles of St. Petersburg, but
the establishment of communication with the Russian systems
has not yet been permitted.

Although the trunks are double, the subscribers' wires are
single, so that translators must be used when connecting them
together. The town wires are usually of 2*2 mm. galvanised steel,
as bronze is reported to be too liable to be affected by the forma-
tion of frost, which frequently proceeds with great rapidity and
adheres to and breaks down the wire by sheer weight. Some
bimetallic wire steel coated with copper of i'8 and 2 mm.
diameter, is also being tried experimentally. The trunk lines are
partly of copper and partly of the same bimetallic wire of
2-2 mm. gauge. The insulators have a bolt right through fastened
by a nut at the top, like a single shackle bell used as an upright.
The standards are built up of angle iron, and closely resemble
the Russian fixture shown in figs, nc and no A (Russian
section). Fig. 37 is a view of the exchange fixture at Helsingfors.

The subscribers' instruments are all of the magneto type, the

Finland 135

Finnish engineers having been wise enough to eschew galvanic
batteries for ringing purposes. Originally the instruments were of
American manufacture, but latterly the market has been monopo-
lised by Messrs. Ericsson & Co., of Stockholm, and by one or
two Christiania firms.

The exchange of the Helsingfors Telephone Company, of
which a view is given in fig. 36, is fitted with a Western Electric
multiple for 1,400 lines ; the other switch-boards are non-multiple
and of varied design and manufacture.

136 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

VIII. FRANCE

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

UNLIKE some other countries, France was prompt, on the ap-
pearance of the telephone, to determine how to treat the intruder.
By the law of 1837, confirmed by that of 1851, the monopoly of
telegraphic communication rested with the State, and the French
authorities had little difficulty in pronouncing the telephone a
telegraph. But it was a new-fangled one, nevertheless ; and who-
was to be at the trouble, risk, and expense of proving its suitability
for the sphere claimed for it by its introducers, and of sampling
the public taste and estimate of the commercial and social value
of the innovation ? Soon the Government decided that that was
eminently the function of the sponsors themselves, so as early as
1879 three five-year concessions, comprising between them the
whole of Paris, were granted. But the town council naturally
took exception to the arrangement, and brought pressure to bear
on the concessionaries to force a fusion, so that Paris might be
worked as a whole, and not split into, possibly hostile, camps.
Thereupon the concessionaries, very wisely, determined to join
hands, a resolution which led to the formation on December i o,
1880, of the afterwards powerful association, the Societe Generate
des Telephones. The Societe found that it had to a certain
extent to dance in fetters, since the State claimed a royalty of 10
per cent, on the gross receipts, and stipulated that the Department
of the Posts and Telegraphs should construct and maintain the
company's system, so far as the outside wiring was concerned, at
prices which might appear fair and reasonable to that depart-
ment. Moreover, the State claimed a general control, including

France 137

the right to fix the charges, and reserved power to buy the
system at the value of the material employed on the termination
of the five-year concession. The exchange rate approved of was,
for Paris 2\L per annum, and for the provinces i6/. And so the
quest for the telephonic chestnuts was embarked upon, the
position at the start being that the company was willing to risk
its money and hoped to gain experience, while the State was
willing to risk nothing but still hoped for experience. Not
content with Paris, the company soon undertook the concessions
for Marseilles, Bordeaux, Lyons, Havre, Rouen, Lille, Nantes,
and several other leading towns, while it was not till 1883 that
the Department of Posts and Telegraphs timidly took its maiden
telephonic dip by opening exchanges at Tourcoing, Roubaix, and
Rheims. The plan adopted in these three towns was to make
the subscribers pay for their lines and instruments in consideration
of a reduced annual subscription. Paris was opened on Sep-
tember 30, 1879, an d ft i nere necessary and just to award to
our neighbours the credit of being the first to recognise the merits
of the metallic circuit (first pointed out by Hughes) for practical
exchange work by constructing Paris on that system. It is
probably true, since its provincial exchanges were made single-
wire, that the company was driven to metallic circuits in Paris by
the necessity it was under of going for the most part underground
by means of cables laid in the sewers (in which position, in those
days, before the ' anti-induction ' type of cable was known, the
overhearing between single wires would have been intolerable) ; but
nevertheless it remains a fact and a most important and credit-
able one it is that the first double-wire exchange was opened and
systematically developed in France.

The Paris exchange soon acquired respectable proportions,
but those in the provinces hung fire, and even in Lyons and
Marseilles the increase was remarkably slow, doubtless due in a
large measure to the high rate of i6/. This rate, too, like the
Parisian one, was exclusive of the subscribers' transmitters and
receivers, which, strangely enough, it was decreed that they
should buy themselves. The intention of the State in authorising
this system is believed to have been a desire to obtain the most
perfect type of instrument possible by encouraging competition

138 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

between manufacturers ; but the only concessionary, the Societe
Gene'rale des Telephones, was also primarily a maker of instru-
ments, and owner of some of the most important patents connected
with them. It worked out, therefore, that practically the Society
sold its own telephones to the subscribers, and thus made a
manufacturer's profit first, and collected a liberal subscription
to cover the exchange service afterwards. The first concessions
expired in September 1884, at which time the State possessed
exchanges in six of the smaller provincial towns Roubaix,
Rheims, Tourcoing, Troyes, St.-Quentin, and Halluin. The experi-
ence gained in these places was not considered sufficient to justify
the taking over of the concessionary's systems by the State, and a
prolongation of the licence for another five years was accordingly
granted. The rates of subscription were not altered, but per-
mission was given to open public telephone stations, to connect
the exchanges with telegraph offices for the despatch and de-
livery of subscribers' telegrams, and to establish communication
between town and town by means of trunk lines constructed by
the State, which also again reserved to itself the erection and
maintenance of all outside wires, the Society's staff being confined
strictly to work in the exchanges and subscribers' premises. It
was ordained that the Society's employees should be all of French
nationality, and subject to the oath of secrecy imposed on all
servants of the Posts and Telegraphs Department. The original
royalty payable to the State was continued at 10 per cent, of the
gross receipts, with a minimum of 4o/. per annum for each
provincial exchange opened. During this second term of five
years the Paris exchange increased rapidly, those in the provinces
very slowly ; a few internal trunk lines of inconsiderable length
were erected, and the first metallic circuit between Paris and
Brussels put into use. Early in the second term in 1886 a
step was nearly taken which would have totally changed the
history of French telephony. The Minister of Posts and Telegraphs
signed a concession for thirty-five years, giving a telephonic
monopoly to a new company, with a capital of i,ooo,ooo/. sterling,
which was to acquire not only the business of the Societe Generate,
but also the exchanges already opened by the State. At the end
of the thirty-five years the company's system was to lapse to the

France 1 39

State without payment. But the House of Deputies would not
endorse the project, which was accordingly shelved.

In the autumn of 1889 the second term came to an end, and
the State, which had opened some twenty-five additional pro-
vincial exchanges since 1884, decided to assume possession of
the concessionary's system in the terms of the licence. This it
did on September i, 1889, eight days before the concession had
expired, but not without friction. The Societe Generate des
Telephones had conceived the impression that the Government
did not intend to treat it fairly, and not unnaturally objected to
give up possession before its concession had expired. It asked
that the amount to be given for the property should be at least
fixed, if not paid, before possession was yielded ; pointed out
that the leases of the various switch-rooms belonged to it, and
that there was nothing in the concession compelling it to part
with leases or anything beyond the plant and instruments. This
ingenious contention that the Societe had sold the kernel but
not the shell, and that the State must take the former, if it wanted
it, without touching the latter was, however, treated with scant
consideration, for on the date named a Sunday a State
engineer, attended by a commissary of police, took possession of
each of the Society's exchanges, in spite of protests by the officers
in charge, who declared they submitted only to main force. At
each switch-room a sheriff's officer was in attendance, who
served writs on the Government engineers as soon as they had
taken possession, in which damages for breaches of concession
were claimed and protests against confiscation set forth. It was
stated that the Government had appointed their own arbitrators
to fix the amount due to the Societe, and had refused to admit
any representative of the latter, while the Press expressed a
conviction that the haste to take possession was due to the
Government's anxiety to have the telephone system under its
control during the approaching general election. Whether this
was so or not, is not material ; the Cromwellian coup was success-
ful, and thenceforward the French telephones belonged to the
State. Since then the atmosphere of the law courts has been
heavy with rumours of claims and counter-claims, in which
millions figure as freely as do units in the transactions of ordinary

140 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

mortals. At the date of writing (January 1895) the judges have
not succeeded in evolving order from the chaos arising from the
circumstance that the Societe claims over fifteen millions, while
the arbitrators award ten millions, and the State is only willing to
pay five.

The first act of the Government was to reduce the rates of
subscription, a process for which there was certainly plenty of
room. The Parisian tariff came down from 247. to i6/., and the
provincial from i6/. to 8/., with the reservation, however, in the
latter case that the subscriber should not only find his own trans-
mitter and receiver, but contribute 15 francs (125-.) per 100 meters
of single wire towards the cost of his line ; that is to say, practically
pay its entire cost and to spare. Further, in towns possessing any
considerable amount of underground work the provincial subscrip-
tion was to be i2/. It cannot, therefore, be contended for a
moment that telephone rates are low in France. They were very
high during the reign of the company (but with the State's
connivance, since it reserved power in the concessions to fix rates),
and the reductions and alterations made since do not put the
French subscribers on such good terms as those of most other
continental countries. For instance, the French provincial sub-
scriber finds the capital for his line and instrument, and yet pays
some IQS. per annum in subscriptions more than his German
competitor, whose line and instrument are found for him, and who
gets off, everything included, for 7/. icxr. per annum. It is true
that the Frenchman generally gets a metallic circuit, but so do the
Swedes and Belgians, and at a much lower charge. Even some
of the British provincial subscribers have easier terms than the
French ; and this fact of universal dearness may perhaps account
for the slow progress made by the telephone everywhere in France
outside Paris. Not even the great towns of Le Havre, Marseilles,
Lyons, and Bordeaux yet count, after some fourteen years' develop-
ment, more than from 1,000 to 1,200 subscribers each, and,
compared with many in Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, &c., &c.,
rank as third- and fourth-rate centres. They are beaten even by
provincial Italy (Milan) and provincial Spain (Barcelona), so that
there is evidently something in the French Government policy that
fails to commend it to the multitude. Would-be subscribers may

France 141

possibly be deterred not only by high rates, but by their complexity,
and by the multiplicity of the rules which regulate exchange
connections. The French bourgeois is a cautious individual who
likes to understand exactly what he is undertaking, and it is quite
comprehensible how even a business man possessing no previous
knowledge of the subject may be fogged into indifference on the
threshold of his investigations. There is nothing like simplicity
both for fostering and administering business. The French
machine would move more freely if it had fewer wheels, for
additional wheels mean friction, and friction expense.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

i. Intercourse between the subscribers and public telephone
stations of the same town. The local rates apply without modifi-
cation, whatever the lengths of the lines may be, sometimes within
the octroi limits, sometimes within the free telegram delivery radius,
and sometimes within the boundaries of a commune or parish.
Occasionally even several neighbouring communes are banded
together and treated as a local area. The subscribers fall under
numerous categories, which will be detailed under the heading
Tariffs. Briefly, it may be said that the French regulations are
marked by a decided lack of liberality towards the public. The
acknowledged idea is to make subscribers find the capital for their
own lines, besides buying their own instruments, either in the
form of a slump payment at the rate of 125-. per 100 meters of
single line, or in that of an amortissement or half-yearly payment
in excess of the tariff until the cost of the line has been paid off.
This system is carried out everywhere except at Paris and Lyons,
where the cost of the line is considered to be included in the
subscription. The cost of overcoming any exceptional difficulties
in construction must also be borne by the subscriber. That
individual, besides buying his transmitter and receiver, has to find
any extra bells, indicators, or switches he may require, and to pay
the State 1 5 per cent, on their value annually for maintenance, with
a minimum of 4^. Thus, 45. per annum may be charged for
maintaining a trembling bell, value $s. or 6s., which is, moreover,
the subscriber's own property. New exchanges are not taken in

142 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

hand, too, unless the local chamber of commerce, town council,
or a syndicate of persons interested advances the necessary
money to the State without interest, these advances being refunded
out of the subscriptions when collected, or by mortgaging the
subscriptions. Subscribers changing premises have to bear the
cost of shifting the lines and instruments. When a subscriber
is located outside the local area he has to pay, besides an initial
charge of \s. per 100 meters of single wire, an extra subscription
of 24-r. per annum per kilometer if his line is underground, and of
1 2s. if overhead, in addition to paying the railway or other fares of
the inspectors who look after his apparatus. The subscription for
clubs and public establishments is increased 50 per cent. Under
such circumstances as these, it is not surprising to read in the
Finance Reports that the provincial exchanges are worked at a
large profit ; but the meagre proportions attained by them show
that the State regulations operate to the restraint of trade.

2. Intercommunication between a town and its suburbs.
Subscribers connected to suburban or branch switch-rooms in the
neighbourhood of a town are not on the same footing as those
located in the town itself. A town subscriber's rate includes the
right to call up the suburbs, but the member of a suburban
exchange can only originate communication with the town by
paying $'%d. per five minutes, unless he likes, instead of paying
the local suburban subscription, to pay the town rate plus 8^.
per annum for each kilometer of single wire separating the two
exchanges. The policy of discriminating against suburban sub-
scribers is a most unwise one ; it reacts on the town itself by
deterring shopkeepers and other candidates for suburban custom
from joining, and puts a brake on the whole machine. Branch
switch-rooms subject to this differential treatment are known as
annexes. St.-Denis, near Paris, is an annexe. The distance is
five and a half kilometers, equal (as all junction lines are metallic
circuits) to eleven kilometers of single wire. The local rate is
8/., which gives communication only with those subscribers who
are attached to St.-Denis switch-room. To be free to call up
Paris and the other suburbs the rate becomes 2o/. 8s., that is to
say, the Paris subscription, i6/., + n kilometers of single wire
x 8^. St. -Germain is worse off still, having to pay i6/. + 22 kilo-
meters of single wire x 8^. = 2/j./. i6s.

France 143

3. Internal trunk line communication. The French internal
trunk service has recently experienced a wide extension. Some
of the lines date from 1885, when the system was commenced by
the connection of Paris to Rouen, Le Havre, Lille, and Rheims.
In 1888 Lyons and Marseilles were added, and now there are but
few of the leading provincial towns without communication with
Paris. No fewer than fifty-four long-distance trunks meet (January
1895) at the Paris Central Station in the Rue Gutenberg. The
rates are based on distance, being 4-8^. per 100 kilometers, and
so considerably cheaper than those proposed by the British Post
Office. Thus the rate from Paris to Marseilles (560 miles) is
y. -]d. for five minutes, while for a similar distance the British
would be TS. 6d. for three minutes a vast difference. The French
have, too, reduced rates during the night, and a system of monthly
subscriptions which secures a specific line to the subscriber every
night at a cost of less than one half of the normal tariff. Un-
questionably the French trunk line policy is more liberal and
better adapted to actual requirements than their local. In Algeria,
which telephonically is also administered by the French Posts and
Telegraphs Department, there is a trunk line between Oran and
Sidi-Bel-Abbas. The number of trunk communications in France
is certainly very large, but the officials scout the idea that the trunk
service has injured the telegraph revenue.

4. International trunk line communication. At the present
time this is opened to England, between Paris and London ; to
Belgium, between Paris and most of the towns in the north-east
of France, and Brussels and the chief Belgian cities ; to Switzer-
land, via Besangon, and from St-Julien to Geneva ; and to Monaco,
from Nice and Mentone. A trunk to Madrid is spoken of, but
nothing has yet been heard of lines to Italy or to Germany.

The receipts of the Anglo-French trunks are pooled, and
divided between the two Governments in the proportion of eleven-
twentieths to France and nine-twentieths to England. Similarly,
France receives three-fifths of the total receipts derived from the
Franco-Belgian intercourse.

5. Telephoning of telegrams. This is the one matter in
which the French have shown a commendable liberality, for, as
a rule, they charge nothing for the telephone- telegraphic service.

144 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Were it not that they make exceptions in the cases of Paris and
Lyons, the two most active telegraphic centres in France, where the
subscribers who want their telegrams telephoned have to pay an
additional subscription of 2/. per annum, one would have imagined
that the necessity of compensating for the draining effects of the
trunk lines on the telegraphic system by encouraging the telephone
as a feeder had been duly recognised. Outside Paris and Lyons
the only obligation imposed on the subscriber is a deposit to cover
the value of his telegrams ; but everywhere the language used
must be French, and no message must exceed fifty words in
length. In Paris, copies of telegrams telephoned to subscribers
are posted ; elsewhere, delivered by messenger.

6. Telephoning of messages for local delivery. Subscribers
from their own instruments, and non -subscribers from the public
stations, between the hours of 7 A.M. (8A.M. in winter) and 9 P.M.,
may telephone messages in French to the telegraph office to be
written out and delivered by messenger to addresses in the same
town. The charge is not by word, as in most other countries,
but by the time occupied in taking down the message, the rate
being 4'8^. per five minutes or fraction thereof. The service is
consequently dearer than elsewhere, at least for short messages.
Matter for mailing, as letters and post-cards, cannot be telephoned.

7. Public telephone stations. There are some 350 of these
in France, generally situated at post and telegraph offices. Sub-
scribers may use them for local talks without charge on producing
a card of identity bearing a photograph of the person to whom it
is issued. Payments are managed exclusively by the aid of
telephone tickets, which are on sale at the public stations and
elsewhere. The right to use the public stations for local talks
may be acquired, if desired, by a non-subscriber for an annual
payment, which varies with the town. Messages for local delivery
may be telephoned from these stations, but long-distance telegrams
cannot be sent.

8. Municipal telephone stations. Towns or communes
desiring telegraphic or telephonic communication which the State
is not willing to undertake may demand a connection to the
nearest telegraph or telephone office on advancing the money
necessary to defray the cost of the installation. This is fixed at

France 145

io/. per kilometer of line as a maximum, and i2/. for supplying
and fitting the instrument. The local post-office is generally used
as the station, and the employee in charge is repaid for the extra
work involved by an allowance of i'^d. on each message
forwarded, and ~^6d. on each received. The advance is gradually
repaid, without interest, out of the proceeds of a surcharge of 2 '^d.
on each telegraphic or telephonic message transmitted, which
surcharge ceases as soon as the cost of the line has been wiped
out. In the middle of 1 894 there were but ten municipal telephone
stations in operation, and these appear, for the most part, to be
essentially telegraph offices with telephones in lieu of the ordinary
apparatus. The results achieved by the Swiss parochial stations,
which these to some extent resemble, are certainly not attained.

9. Special exchanges, or connection of groups of subscribers
to an existing trunk line. When several persons located near
the route of a trunk line wish to avail themselves of telephonic
communication they are formed into a * special exchange.' Each
subscriber has to pay 2/. per annum, in addition to the cost of his
line, which may, at his desire, be spread over several years, but
this entitles him to nothing except actual connection to the
system and to be rung up by anybody who may want him. If he
originates a conversation, even with his next neighbour, he must
pay at the rate of 4-8^. per five minutes' talk. All such special
exchanges are connected to the trunk line which passes near, so
that communication to and fro over it is available to the sub-
scribers on payment of the trunk rates. This system has its
analogue in Switzerland, but there the subscribers may talk freely
locally, and only have to pay when the trunk line is brought into
requisition.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for local exchange communication. Paris. Within
Paris proper the annual rate is i6/., the subscriber finding his
own transmitter and receiver and any extra bell or switch that
may be required, but paying nothing towards the cost of his
line.

An extra instrument in the same building costs 2/. per annum.

146 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

A second instrument, not in the same building but on the
same line, can be attached for 61. 8s. per annum. This second
instrument may, by agreement with the original subscriber and
permission of the State, be used by a person unconnected with
the original subscriber.

If any special difficulties are encountered in installing a line,
the subscriber has to pay the actual cost of overcoming them, plus
5 per cent. The subscription covers maintenance of line and
apparatus, including the transmitter and receiver supplied by the
subscriber, but not of any extra bell, indicator, battery, or switch-
board. These have to be furnished by the subscriber at his own
expense, but he is not allowed to maintain them. That is done
by the State at an annual charge of 15 per cent, on their value,
with a minimum charge of 4s.

A subscriber whose line extends beyond the free limits must pay
extra at the rate of 24^. per annum per kilometer of additional length.

The foregoing payments entitle a subscriber to speak all over
Paris and with the suburbs.

Clubs, and establishments where the public have admittance
to the instrument, pay 247. per annum.

Lyons. Owing to the amount of underground work in this
city, the rate is dearer than in Marseilles or Bordeaux. Within
the limits of the Lyons telegram free delivery the rate is 1 2/. per
annum, the subscriber supplying his transmitter and receiver and
any extra apparatus, but paying nothing towards the cost of his
line. An extra instrument in the same building is charged 2/.
per annum. A second instrument on the same line, but not in
the same building, costs 4/. 165-. per annum ; this second instrument
may, by arrangement, be used by a person not connected in business
with the original subscriber. The cost of overcoming any special
difficulties in constructing a line must be defrayed by the subscriber,

The subscription covers maintenance of line and all apparatus
except extras required and supplied by the subscriber. The State
maintains these too, but at an annual charge of 1 5 per cent, on
their original value, no charge being less than 4^.

A subscriber whose line extends beyond the free limits must
pay extra at the rate of 245-. or i2s. (according to whether his line
is underground or aerial) per kilometer per annum.

France \ 4.7

Clubs, and establishments where the public have admittance
to the instrument, pay i8/. per annum.

All other towns with a population of over 25,000. The rate
within the free limits is 8/. per annum; beyond the limits, 12$.
per kilometer additional is exigible. Subscribers supply their own
transmitter, receiver, extra bells, &c., and pay for their line at the
rate of I2S. per hundred meters of single wire, equal to about
io/. 45-. for single and 2o/. 8s. for metallic circuit per mile. If
the line extends beyond the limits and requires a special route of
poles, the cost per 100 meters of single wire is increased to i6.f.
Clubs and public establishments pay i2/. per annum.

In all other respects the rates are the same as those charged
at Lyons.

Towns with a population of less than 25,000. The rate
within the free limits is 61. per annum for ordinary subscribers,
and 9/. for clubs and public establishments. In all other respects
the rates and regulations are the same as in the larger towns,
Paris and Lyons excepted.

General. Rates are everywhere reduced 50 per cent, for
Government and 25 per cent, for municipal connections.

Agreements are for one year dating from January i or July i
after connection. Subsequently they are subject to three months'
notice on either side.

It would seem that some subscribers join for the purpose of
using the trunks only. In such a case only half the usual local
subscription is charged.

When there are several switch-rooms in the same town, a
subscriber joined to one who has frequent communication with a
subscriber joined to another may arrange to retain the use of one
of the junction lines between the two switch-rooms, and to be left
through permanently to his correspondent (unless a special dis-
connection signal is given), for an extra annual subscription of 6/.
in Paris and Lyons, and of i/. los. elsewhere, per kilometer of
junction line involved.

Subscribers located outside the free limits of a town have to
pay the fares and expenses of the inspectors who attend to their
instruments.

The State reserves the right to disconnect any subscriber at

L 2

148 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

any time without notice. . In such a case the proportion of sub-
scription paid in advance for the unexpired period is refunded.

Subscribers are held responsible for all apparatus belonging to-
the State placed on their premises.

In some towns, busy during a season only, half-yearly sub-
scriptions at half rates are admitted for the whole or part of the
subscribers. In this case the subscriber must pay for his line in-
one sum when the first six-monthly subscription becomes due.

Subscriptions are payable half-yearly in advance at the
telephone office, but will be collected at the subscriber's on pay-
ment of 2 *4</.

When a subscriber's line becomes interrupted for more than-
fifteen days he is entitled to a proportionate refund of his sub-
scription.

2. Rates for suburban connections. The rates set forth in the
preceding paragraph cover the right to originate communication
with subscribers connected to suburban switch-rooms, but such
subscribers are on a different footing, as they cannot call up the
town subscribers without incurring extra charges.

The local suburban rates follow the provincial according to-
whether the population is over or below 25,000. Thus the
rate (the cost of their lines being defrayed by the subscribers)
at Versailles (population 51,000) is 8/. ; at St.-Denis (population
50,000), 8/. ; at St.-Germain-en-Laye (population 14,000), 67. ;
which rates secure communication within the respective towns
only. A St.-Germain subscriber calling up a client in Paris,,
Versailles, or St.-Denis must pay 4-8^. per five minutes' talk, and
he will not be connected at all unless he has made a deposit in
advance to cover such charges. Alternatively, he can make him-
self free of Paris and all its suburbs by paying, instead of his local
subscription, the Paris one, plus Ss. for each kilometer separating
his local switch-room from the Paris central. As already pointed
out, this means 24/. i6s. per annum for a St.-Germain subscriber,
a heavy impost for a suburban tradesman or residenter. The
same system applies throughout France wherever suburban ex-
changes or annexes exist.

3. Rates for internal trunk communication. The time unit
for internal trunk talks is five minutes. The duration of a con-

France 149

\rersation between the same persons must not' exceed ten minutes
if others are waiting. The tariff is simple 50 centimes, =4'&/.,
per 100 kilometers or fraction thereof, measured by the actual
length of the line. This is very high compared with the German
universal rate of is., and very low compared with the proposed
rates of the British Post Office.

Between the hours of 9 P.M. and 7 A.M. in summer and 8 A.M.
in winter, the rate is reduced to 2*88^. per 100 kilometers.

A particular trunk line may be engaged for any length of time
daily by paying in advance a monthly subscription based on the
unit rate of \'^2.d. per 100 kilometers per five minutes. Thus a
Parisian subscriber holding a five-minute talk with Lyons (600
kilometers) every evening would pay 1*92^. x6 x 30 = i/. 8s. q\d.
per month. Such talks are limited to the night hours.

4. Rates for international trunk communication. To
England : Time unit, three minutes. Charge Ss. Only two
consecutive periods of three minutes allowed between the same
correspondents if others want the line.

To Switzerland : see Swiss section, p. 385.
To Belgium : see Belgian section, p. 75.

5. Rates for telephoning of telegrams. In all centres except
Paris and Lyons this service is free. In those towns, owing to a
large portion of the system being underground and consequently
more expensive, subscribers using the telegram facilities have to
pay an additional subscription of 2/. per annum. The telegram
charges are deducted from deposits made in advance.

6. Rates for messages telephoned for local delivery. The
charge is 4-8^. per five minutes or fraction thereof occupied in
transmitting the message, irrespective of its length.

7. Rates levied at public telephone stations. The time unit
for local and internal trunk talks is five minutes. A local talk
costs 4'8</. in Paris and 2 '<\d. in the provinces. Annual
subscriptions are accepted for the local use of all the public
stations in a town at the following rates : In Paris, 3/. 45-. ; in
Lyons, 2/. Ss. ; elsewhere, i/. i2s.

The trunk rates are the same as from subscribers' offices.
Messages for local delivery may be telephoned from the public
stations at the same rates as from subscribers' offices. Payments

150 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

at public stations must be made in telephone tickets. These
tickets are perforated, and on presentation one half is retained by
the attendant, and the other is stamped and given to the user as a
receipt. Subscribers use the public stations free on producing
a photographic card of identity. Long-distance telegrams are not
accepted.

8. Charges levied at municipal telephone stations. These
are used also as telegraph stations. All transactions under both
the telephone and telegraph tariffs are subject to a surcharge of
2 -4^. until the cost of installing the station and its connecting
line has been wiped out.

9. Rates for special exchanges or connection of groups of
subscribers to an existing trunk line. Each subscriber pays the
cost of his line, in addition to finding his transmitter and receiver,
and 2/. annually. Local conversations originated by him are
charged 4-8^. per five minutes, and trunk conversations according
to the tariff.

WAY-LEAVES

Subscribers are bound by their agreements to obtain the
consent of their landlords to the fixing of their wires and instru-
ments, and to bear the cost of all dilapidations caused by the
installing or eventual removal. Although this is made part of
the contract with each subscriber, the State claims the right to-
erect standards without charge on any building that lies on a
route of wires, provided it is not surrounded by a boundary wall ;.
similarly, to erect poles on any unenclosed ground, private or
otherwise. A fence or hedge does not constitute an enclosure
a regular wall is alone competent to turn aside State telegraph or
telephone wires. In executing work on private property the State
is only responsible for dilapidations brought about. This is the
only instance which the author has been able to find in Europe of
compulsory way-leave powers being vested in the State, and it is
at least singular that it should occur in the Republic of France,,
where private rights are theoretically more inviolable than in
other and more autocratic countries. The influence on rates,
which partisans in the United Kingdom so freely ascribe to-
compulsory way-leave powers, is shown by this example to be

France 151

practically non-existent. Such powers exist only in France, and
what do we find? That the French telephone rates are the lowest
in Europe ? Not at all. On the contrary, with the sole exception,
and that only a partial one, of Russia, the French rates (bearing
in mind that the subscribers have in the first place to pay for their
wires and instruments) are the dearest.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

Transition is the present state of these. In Paris there are
ten switch-rooms within the fortifications, which serve (January
1895) about 12,500 subscribers. The chief room is at the Rue
Gutenberg, and is situated in a special building of ample pro-
portions, made fire-proof throughout. The basement contains
the access to the sewers, in which, with the exception of a few
junction routes between the switch-rooms, practically all the
Parisian telephone lines are laid. The cable wires, after being
opened out, pass through test and cross-connection boards, and are
carried to the switching department upstairs. Here, in a lofty,
well-ventilated and well-lighted room, is a Western Electric
Company's double-cord, series multiple table for 6,000 metallic
circuits, of which some 5,500 are already connected, together with
a junction line section of 1,000 lines and a long-distance trunk
switching section communicating with the trunk-line switch-rooms
on another floor, where are located fifty-four long-distance and
ninety-four suburban and short-distance trunks divided between
twenty tables. At the Rue Gutenberg more than half the con-
nections asked for have to be got through over trunks or junctions.
There is nothing special in the construction of the table, the test
arrangement only being slightly modified to permit of the use
of single- instead of double-wound receivers for the operators.
There are three girls to each table of 240 subscribers. A sub-
scriber requiring a trunk notifies his operator, who has a service
jack to each of the long-distance operators. As each long-
distance girl has only one indicator from all the local ones, the
service jacks being multipled along the board, the local operator,,
before calling, must test. The trunk wanted being free, the long-
distance operator asks the trunk switching section of the local

152 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

board, on which all the subscribers' lines are multipled, for the
calling subscriber. The junction lines are divided into 500 out-
going and 500 in-coming, the subscribers' lines being multipled
also on the junction tables. When a calling subscriber wants a
client on another switch-room, the local operator advises the
junction girl, who obtains the connection from the other switch-
room and completes it through the caller's repeat jack. When a
demand comes from another switch -room the junction operator
can, of course, satisfy it herself. Junction lines must not be
occupied longer than ten minutes for one connection if other
subscribers are waiting. At the expiry of that time the talkers

EARTH

FIG. 38

are invited to cease, and if they do not comply are summarily
disconnected. Special sections are provided for the accommoda-
tion of 150 public telephone stations, and for the theatrophone
lines to the Opera-Comique and Louis-le-Grand. The trunk
switching is somewhat complicated by the special appliances
necessary for the systems of simultaneous telephony and telegraphy
so much used in France. Three systems are employed Van
Rysselberghe's, Cailho's, and Picard's. The first is too well known
to require description. The second is a modification of the plan
generally associated in this country with the name of Mr. Frank
Jacob, although M. Cailho is understood to claim that he described

France

153

the system in the l Annales Telegraphiques ' prior to the date of
Mr. Jacob's patent. The arrangement used in France is shown
in fig. 38, in which s 1 s 2 respectively represent the telephone and
telegraph stations. At s 1 , K is a calling key, v a calling battery,
j 1 j 2 jacks for the loop and single line switching, and T a translator.
At s 2 , R is a double-wound bobbin of small resistance and high
self-induction, in derivation with the two wires of the metallic
circuit trunk line, and connected so that currents passing through
the equally-wound coils oppose and kill each other. The other
terminals are joined to the telegraph instrument i and the
.adjustable condenser c. M. Cailho, whose plan, it will be seen,
differs only from Mr. Jacob's in the character and connection of
the resistances, states that the thick wire and opposite winding

FIG. 39

allow the telegraphic currents to pass uninfluenced by resistance
and self-induction, while the bobbin acts as a choke coil for the
telephonic currents. The calling battery v may be too weak to
operate the indicator at the distant end directly, as it is found that
the return or extra current from the double-wound bobbin at the
further station which follows the lifting of the key K, is always
strong enough to actuate the drop.

M. Picard's plan depends on the use of a differential trans-
lator as indicated in fig. 39, which is a plan of the connections
used at the Rue Gutenberg. The currents arriving from the tele-
graph office split between the equal branches of the translator
secondary TS and produce no effect on the primary TP ; they also
neglect the double-wound indicator i. The calling is done hy
inserting a battery plug in the jack j 1 , while subscribers are con-

154 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

nected through j 2 ; consequently, the talking is done by translation,
although the subscribers' lines are double. At Paris the trans-
lator primary could be dispensed with, the secondary replaced by
a pair of balanced resistances on Jacob's plan, and the talking
done direct through the jack j 1 ; but this would not be so at
single-wire centres.

Of the three systems the Cailho seems to be preferred, as being
the most trustworthy under adverse influences. Of course, both
the Cailho and Picard are far simpler than the Van Rysselberghe,
but, on the other hand, they furnish only one telegraphic circuit
from each telephone trunk, while Van Rysselberghe makes two.

In the Belgian section the phonic call designed by M. Sieur
has been described (fig. 20), and it is pointed out that its use
involves much waste of chemicals, since
the battery is permanently short-circuited
through the diaphragm and lever contact.
M. Picard, by a simple modification of the
connections, interposes a resistance in the
circuit and so saves the batteries to a con-
siderable extent. His arrangement is shown
in fig. 40, in which A is a pivoted lever, with
adjustable weights ww, resting normally in
contact with the diaphragm D. M is an
electro-magnet with coils of equal resistance,
joined in parallel, which oppose each other
in respect to the armature ; and v is a battery, the current from
which splits between the diaphragm, lever and coil c, and coil c 1 .
Whilst the diaphragm remains quiescent the two opposing circuits
are of equal resistance, and no effect is produced on the armature ;
when it vibrates, the intimacy of the contact between it and the
lever is destroyed, circuit c becomes of greater resistance than c 1 ,
and the battery, acting through the latter, actuates the armature,
which is generally arranged to release a shutter. At night the
shutter closes another local circuit and rings a bell.

An excellent plan for the speedy determination of disputes and
complaints is in operation in Paris. Apart in a small room, at
a switch-board provided with 20 indicators, sits an inspector. To-
the switch-board are brought two lines from each of the ten switch-

FlG.

Prance 15$

rooms in Pans. When a subscriber at any switch-room prefers a
complaint, the chief operator puts him through on one line to the
special switch-board at the central and gets through herself on the
other. The inspector then switches them together, and listens
while the subscriber states his grievance and the chief operator
makes her defence. If necessary, the working operator respon-
sible for the subscriber's line is allowed to give evidence. Having
heard both sides, the inspector delivers judgment and enters the
proceedings and result on a form which is sent to headquarters.
In this miniature court of justice 90 per cent, of the complaints
are settled in about four minutes each, a rate of progress which
has not, the author understands, yet been equalled in any court
in Britain. In this instance Justice is truly blind, but is provided
with particularly long ears. Ultimately, perhaps, there will be no
going on circuit the judges and juries will sit in London, and
loud-speaking transmitters and receivers will bring to them and
an inquisitive audience the evidence and speeches, and convey to
the litigants the verdicts and decisions. There is nothing impos-
sible in this it could be done to-morrrow.

The use of voltaic batteries for ringing is a grave disadvantage ;
but a worse exists. That is, that subscribers must be asked for
by their names and addresses, not by numbers. In Berlin the
service suffers from a plethora of numerals ; in Paris they have
none at all. This was the original way, and for a long time it
resulted in no inconvenience, as the operators learned the names
and switch-board numbers of new subscribers as they came on ;
but, now, when the Paris system comprises some 14,000 sub-
scribers and several hundred operators, including necessarily
many juniors, and when, moreover, old switch-rooms have been
closed and their lines concentrated at new ones, it may well be
imagined that confusion must result. The subscribers, however,
resent any suggestion that they should be numbered the lists
at present contain names, trades, and addresses only and the
Government is weak enough to refrain from making the change.
Imagine the long formula that must be spoken by a calling sub-
scriber in order to discriminate between seventeen Rousseaus,
fifteen Bertrands, and thirteen Blancs ; the mistakes likely to be
made by an operator who thinks she knows the number of the

156 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

person asked for ; the delay caused by an operator who knows
she doesn't know and accordingly refers to the list !

As an inevitable consequence the service is slow, although
the speaking, when once through, is excellent. The service
instructions are simple, and probably the best for the circum-
stances. A caller pushes his button several times and then puts
the receiver to his ear and waits for the exchange's reply, which
obtaining, he states the name and address of his client which is
repeated by the operator and again waits with the receiver to
his ear until he hears his friend's voice. On receiving a call, a
subscriber lifts his phone and speaks without ringing back. The
ring-off is a pressure of both buttons. There being no discrimi-
native disconnection signal, subscribers must refrain from touch-
ing their buttons during intercourse, a disadvantage, great and
grievous as it is, which prevails everywhere on the Continent.
The easy-going temperament of the Gaul in telephonic matters is
further evidenced by his tolerance of the rule that no new con-
nection must be demanded within half a minute of a ring-off.
Fancy a subscriber brought up on the Mann system standing that !
He would expect to obtain and get rid of at least two connections
in the time. It is but fair to state, however, that the engineers
fully recognise the shortcomings of the system, especially in regard
to ringing batteries and calling by name, but have to submit to the
inevitable, which decrees their continuance. The average number
of calls per subscriber in Paris is stated to be 5-5 per day ; in the
suburbs it rarely exceeds two per day. The traffic to be dealt with
is consequently comparatively small. In Paris, all the work being
underground, it has not been found necessary to fit lightning pro-
tectors at the exchanges, but in the suburbs and provinces this is
never omitted. The protector which seems to find the most
favour consists simply of a strip of paper, silvered on one side
only, 3 mm. wide and 30 mm. long, inserted in the line by means
of two metal clips. It is found to invariably fuse and save the
coils during a discharge, but it of course never acts without
interrupting the communication with the exchange of the line
affected, a grave disadvantage.

At Rouen an American multiple with parallel jacks and self-
restoring drops, essentially similar to that at Zurich (see Swiss

France

157

section), has recently been fitted. Another board of this kind
has been ordered for Le Havre from M. Aboilard, the Western
Electric Company's agent in Paris. M. Portel Vinay, of Paris, is
building a multiple for Bordeaux according to the patents of M.
Adhemar. It is said to comprise parallel jacks and indicators
which are restored in the act of making a connection, while their
coils are automatically cut out, leaving only the ring-off drop in
circuit. This is the same idea which has been given effect to in
Stockholm and Copenhagen. (See Swedish and Danish sections.)

At Marseilles there is a multiple designed jointly by MM.
Berthon and Ducousso, of which a promised description has not
reached the author in time for inclusion in the present work.

To Lille the Societe Generate des Telephones supplied, some
three years back, a multiple on the patent principle of M. Berthon,
which presents several points of divergence from ordinary practice.
Especially has the inventor aimed at compactness, screening of
jacks from dust, and accessibility. The jacks are moulded while the
metal is hot in steel dies, so as to insure absolute uniformity. The
insulator used is ivorine, a composition which, it is said, possesses-
the good qualities of ebonite, combined with greater toughness
and workability. The jacks are only 10 mm. thick, which is one
millimeter less than the Stockholm Brunkeberg jacks, to be
described in the Swedish section. The rows of jacks are very
accurately fitted in their frames, and may be pulled out for repairs
from the front almost like tiers of drawers. A diagram of the
connections is given in fig. 41, and a plan and front view of the
jacks and plugs in fig. 42. In this latter, the two wires of the
subscriber's loop, or one wire and earth if the system be single,
are joined to the springs v v' through the screws z z'. Normally
the springs are in contact with studs a a', from which they are
lifted by the nose of an inserted plug. The jack sockets are
divided into two halves r r', of which r is joined permanently to
the studs and r' to the test wire. The plugs are also in two-
halves, and shaped to fit into the divided sockets. Referring now
to fig. 41, s 1 s- are two subscribers joined to the exchange by the
metallic circuits L I L 2 . T T I are two operators' sets with calling
keys c and c 1 , which may, as required, direct the current from
the battery r through the plug FT. or Fi 2 , and calling keys cz

I $8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

France

159

.and C2 2 which send it through FZ or rz*. A lever switch z>, when
in the upright position, puts the two plugs FI and Fi 2 in circuit
with a relay E, which is arranged to close a local circuit through
the coils of the ring-off drop r. When D is turned down, E is
short-circuited, and the speaking set cut in. Each operator has
a test battery H. When a line is free, the test wire and the socket

(2)

FIG. 42

halves r to which it is connected are insulated, and the application
of a test plug, as F2, to the sockets produces no result, since H
finds no circuit. But if a connection is on at another section, the
socket halves r and r' are in communication through the inserted
plug and the line, and a current will now circulate when F2 is
applied. Figs. 43 and 44 give a front view and end section of
the Lille board.

160 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

France 161

M. Berthon has likewise devised a novel self-restoring drop,
in which the solenoid principle is utilised, perhaps for the first
time in telephonic work. The plan has not, however, received a
practical application.

HOURS OF SERVICE

These, as a rule, correspond with the hours of telegraphic
service, which are continuous in Paris and eleven of the other chief
towns, and generally extend from 7 or 8 A.M. till 8 or 9 P.M. in
the smaller places. But Aix, St.-Etienne, and Chalons are open
till midnight, and Rheims and Pauillac till 10 P.M.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

The arrangement by which subscribers were left to purchase
their own instruments has produced some curious results. Except
within very wide limits the type was not denned until recently,
anything that would work in with the existing switching arrange-
ments being at first admitted. The methods of switching prac-
tised by the Societe Generale des Telephones required battery
and not magneto ringers at the subscribers' offices, so that that
system obtained such a hold that it has had perforce to be con-
tinued, much to the dissatisfaction of the present engineers, who
would change it if they could on account of the great expense of
maintaining so many voltaic cells scattered over a large area.
There being 14,000 subscribers in Paris and suburbs, each using six
Leclanche cells, it follows that there are 14,000 x 6 = 84,000 cells
to maintain. This would be bad enough if they were collected
in one building, but when distributed irregularly over some sixty
square miles, the task is recognised as a formidable one. While
the Societe Generale held the ground, the subscribers' choice of
instruments was limited, since it would not allow any but those
of its own manufacture to be used ; but this restriction vanished
when the State took over the system, and the field was thrown
open to all. The wide market thus created gave rise to keen
competition between manufacturers and to a great multiplication
of types of instruments. Each maker had a type of his own,
which he pushed as the best, so that the uninstructed subscribers

1 62 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

were greatly exercised as to the respective merits of the Ader r
Maiche, Pasquet, Journaux, Dejongh, Crossley, Breguet, Roulez r
Ochorowicz, Bert, D'Arsonval, Mors-Abdank, Milde, Runnings,
and twenty others, each of which was represented as the only one
worthy of attention. The State has the fixing and maintaining
of the instruments, although the subscribers buy them, and, after
a long time, began to recognise the fact that it had a vast number
of cheap and defective instruments on its hands to maintain, and
that the operation threatened to become a serious one in respect
to cost. So, in 1893, the State issued a specification, intended to-
secure good workmanship, to be observed by all makers, under
pain of having their instruments rejected ; and subscribers were
required at the same time to submit the instruments they bought
to the telephone authorities to be tested and passed prior to fitting.
These regulations have brought about a great improvement in
quality, but a vast mass of the older material remains in use, while
the diversities of type have not been lessened. The instrument
fitters and inspectors have consequently to be familiar with the
mechanism and connections of some forty different kinds of appa-
ratus, many of widely diverging patterns. This must lead to delay
in removing faults. The hope of the French Government that
competition between makers would in time develop an instrument
of exceptional merit has scarcely, so far, been realised, since the
best transmitters, if not receivers, have originated outside France.
Space will not permit of the diversities of design being particularly
referred to here, and it must suffice to say that while the battery
ringer is universal, and the Ader receiver continues to occupy the
position of first favourite, which it won in the days of the Societe
Generate, the latest tendency in transmitters is towards one or
other form of Runnings. The French instruments now supplied
are, as a rule, both well made and tasteful in design and decora-
tion. An ingenious instrument which, although at present em-
ployed almost exclusively for private lines, may become more
familiar in exchange work later on, when the time for the inevitable
change from batteries to magnetos arrives, is the magneto-electric
call of M. Roulez, shown in figs. 45 and 46. The soft-iron
cores c l c 2 of the electro-magnets E 1 E 2 are clamped between
the poles of the same name of the powerful permanent magnets

M 2

164 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

M I M 2 . The cores have curved pole-pieces p 1 p 2 , between which
revolves the soft-iron armature A driven by a pinion, toothed
wheel and crank as shown. The wheel is loose on the crank
spindle until caught by the pin T engaging with the recessed
collar R, when it is revolved, the spring s compressed, and spring
contact o removed from the fixed contact i to the fixed contact
j, the result being that the bell is cut out from the line when the
crank is in motion, and the generator coils when it is at rest.
Each revolution of the soft-iron armature induces currents in the
coils, the direction of which is determined by the approach or
retrogression of the armature to or from the pole-pieces. It will be
seen that the connections are arranged so that the currents of the
same name generated simultaneously in the two coils join at x, and
go out to line together. As a departure from ordinary practice in
a direction which has proved singularly sterile in innovation, this
magneto is interesting, while the abolition of moving coils and
contacts should operate on the side of economy in maintenance.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

As regards Paris, the whole of the work practically is under-
ground, chiefly in the sewers. In the centre of the city, overhead
wires do not exist at all, and there are but few to be seen anywhere
within the fortifications. But immediately these are passed, pole
routes begin, and in the suburbs aerial work is exclusively used.
Formerly, wires insulated with gutta-percha were twisted in pairs
and made up into small cables, which were hung on brackets from
the sewer roofs or walls. These were found liable to various
interferences, attacks by rats, &c. ; and now the cables, which are
as a rule much larger than the older ones, and mostly insulated
with paper, are always laid in strong sheet- iron troughs with
tightly fitting lids, for which there is fortunately room. A good
many Fortin-Hermann cables exist, and have proved exceedingly
satisfactory in service for the long-distance connections. Each
conductor is strung throughout its length with birch beads, the
wood being sound and dry, one centimeter long and three centi-
meters in diameter. Two conductors are then twisted together,
and as many pairs as are required drawn into a leaden tube to

France 165

form a cable. From the size of the beads it will be seen that the
Fortin- Hermann system conduces to a very bulky cable ; six pairs,
which is the size commonly used in Paris, occupying a space of
over an inch. For this reason, and in 'spite of its electrical
qualities, which are excellent, its use is not being materially ex-
tended. The insulation obtained is never less than 200 megohms
per kilometer, while the capacity does not exceed '05 microfarad
per kilometer. The cable now chiefly employed is insulated with
paper, and made in the workshops of M. Georges Aboilard,
Avenue de Breteuil. While possessing (with No. 20 wire) a
capacity of '055 mf. per kilometer, fifty-two twisted pairs occupy
a diameter of only forty-three millimeters, including the leaden
protection. An insulation resistance of 6,000 megohms per kilo-
meter is easily attained. The paper employed is of French
manufacture, and before being used is severely tested for strength,
a strip fifteen millimeters wide and one meter long being required
to support a weight of seven kilogrammes and to resist twisting
round eight times. The paper strip is very rapidly wound
spirally on the conductor by special machinery in such a way
that an air space is left between the wire and its covering. A
second spiral in the reverse direction is then added, the process
resulting in the formation of an almost perfect paper tube, round
which a light cotton thread is wound to keep it in position. The
conductors are then twisted in pairs, and made up into cores
containing two, seven, twenty- eight, or fifty-six pairs, which are
kept together by a spiralling of cotton threads. The core is
wound on iron drums and dried in an oven at a temperature of
no Centigrade for twenty-four hours before receiving its coating
of pure lead. This it does by means of an hydraulic press, through
which the cable passes, the molten lead which is fed to the press
being somewhat cooled by water. The finished cable emerges
cased in a leaden tube three millimeters thick, which lies directly
on the core, the intervening layers of jute, &c., employed by
British and German makers being dispensed with, as is also the
usual steel armour. But then it must be remembered that this
French cable is laid in troughs or trenches, and not drawn into
conduits. The different-sized cores are employed according to
the distance from the switch-room : thus a 5 6 -pair cable leaves

1 66 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

a station and drops, say, twenty-one pairs at the first junc-
tion box ; thence it is continued by a 28-pair and a seven-pair,
and finally by a seven-pair alone, until all the pairs have been
disposed of. Cable of this kind is used for the interior wiring of
the central station at the Rue Gutenberg, as well as for the out-
side work. Capacious as the sewers are, their resources are not
inexhaustible, while the necessity of protecting the cables laid
therein in costly iron troughs renders sewer work somewhat ex-
pensive. These considerations have led to cables containing
junction lines between some of the switch-rooms being laid in
trenches beneath the street pavements. In one such trench, one
meter deep, twenty 5 2 -pair lead-covered cables are laid without
any protection other than a galvanised iron netting placed some
inches above them, designed to give warning of their existence to
strange workmen who may open the ground. An admirable
feature of these paper cables is the fact that they cannot be spoiled
by access of moisture. The ends are not sealed in any way, and
should water get in through a fault, even to the extent of short-
circuiting all the wires, it may be driven out and the insulation
raised again to its normal figure of 6,000 megohms per kilometer
by forcing dry air, not necessarily warm, into one end of the
cable, under a pressure of two kilogrammes per square millimeter.
This air gradually makes its way through the cable, whatever its
length may be (from seven to eight kilometers have actually been
operated on), carrying with it to the further end all the moisture
within it. For some hours after the application of the pressure
no improvement is noticeable ; then the insulation begins to go
up slowly, but at an ever-increasing ratio, until at the end of some
twenty-four hours the mending proceeds with great rapidity, so
that thirty hours of pressure usually suffices to restore what had
appeared to be a hopelessly bad cable to full working efficiency.
If it is not convenient to look for and remove the fault, the appli-
cation of pressure continuously, or for a few hours every day, will
keep the cable going without disturbing the subscribers. When
the fault is looked for, its position is first determined as nearly
as possible by electrical test, and the pressure then turned on.
Usually the workmen find the fault by the sound of air issuing
from it, or by simple inspection, and it may then be effectually

France

1 6 7

cured by wrapping a piece of sheet lead round, and soldering i:
to, the tube. The air is dried by being forced through tubes con-
taining sodium chloride before entering the cable ; if made to
pass through similar tubes at the further end, the amount of
moisture removed may be ascertained by weighing the salt. It
is said that a pint of water was on one occasion poured into a
cable and all removed in a few hours. This process, which was
invented by M. Aboilard, is so commonly employed in Paris that
nozzles have been fitted to the cable-heads at the different switch-
rooms, so that air pressure may be applied to any cable at any time.
Of course, it is not necessary to disconnect any wires or stop any
communications, and therein lies the great utility and beauty of
the plan.

At Lyons, where sewers similar to the Parisian ones exist,
the work is mostly underground, and generally on the same plan
.as in the capital ; in Bordeaux there is a certain amount of under-
ground wiring, but in all other towns the construction is either
entirely aerial or nearly so.

In Versailles, St.-Ouen, St.-Denis, and other suburbs of Paris,
the overhead wires are of n mm. bronze, supported on small
double -shed insulators which, like most
of those used in France, are provided
with projections or ears (fig. 47) for
the purpose of retaining the wire should
it break from its fastenings. An exten-
sive use of bracket standards attached
to the fronts of the houses is made ;
indeed, it would seem that it was at one
time thought that such contrivances
would prove permanently sufficient, as
even the original exchange fixtures at
Versailles and St.-Denis were of this
type ; but standards attached to gable
ends, chimneys, and roofs are now being Fic 47

erected in Versailles. The attachments

to fronts of houses are naturally of restricted capacity, thirty to
thirty- six insulators being carried at the most, while the wires are
subjected to interference from the windows, and the low elevation at

1 68 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

which they cross the side streets must impede the transit of fire-
escapes. Some of these bracket standards are of wood, round or
square, but the more recent ones are built up of two lengths of
channel iron, placed back to back and bolted together at intervals,
with a space of two or three centimeters between them, through
which the insulator stalks are passed. Fig. 47 shows the details
of this arrangement, A A 1 being the two pieces of iron kept together
by the bolts B. The insulators are fixed in pairs on reverse sides,,
the stalks passing through iron plates, P p 1 , which have generally
a leaden sheet sandwiched for the purpose of moderating vibration,
and being screwed up by the nuts N N. Figs. 48 to 51 show
different forms of bracket standards in use ; when fixed to houses
the short-stalked insulators are always on the inside, as in figs. 48
and 49 ; but when they project above the roofs the insulators
usually alternate, as in figs. 50 and 51. In some cases a small
platform or stand for the workmen is attached to the lower bracket.
On crowded routes, double standards of the form shown in fig. 52
are beginning to appear ; they are simply two uprights like that in
fig. 51 tied together by two horizontal rods. Standards are never
fixed to a roof if a gable, wall, or chimney is available, as vibration
is still a serious bugbear in France ; when a roof fixture cannot
be avoided the standard is bolted to the rafters. These standards,
which never exceed ten or twelve feet in height, are, as a rule,
only stayed against the pull on angles, but occasionally one with
four equally spread stays is observed. The staying is always
done with judgment, and the work generally is commendable for
neatness and good maintenance. In the country towns exploited
by the State this form of construction also obtains, with occasional
deviations due to the local engineers. Such a deviation is shown
in fig. 53, which seems a needlessly roundabout way to accommo-
date thirty wires. Frenchmen never resort to cross-arms if they
can help it, but M. Andre has erected at Rheims double standards
with cross-arms as shown in fig. 54. At Lille and Amiens
the author also observed iron double standards with arms sand-
wiched between the uprights, but not quite like those of M. Andre.
At Lille, a town exploited in the first instance by the Societe
Generate des Telephones, most of the standards are of wood,
generally with two or three uprights with cross-arms of planks, to

France

i6 9

170 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

which the insulators are attached as in fig. 55. The planks are
sometimes sandwiched between double uprights. These fixtures
cannot by any stretch of courtesy be termed beautiful ; indeed,
the French sense of the artistic has therein signally failed. At
Lille the handsome slated dome of the central post and telegraph
office has been adapted to telephonic needs by being surrounded
by ten circles of wooden arms, bent to the contour of the dome,
and supported on brackets attached to its framework. Commencing

-9

d-p

Vir 5 '

'zip

FIG. 52 FIG. 53

near the top, the circles described gradually increase in diameter,
and space is afforded for a large number of insulators. The arms
are stiffened on the outside by angle irons. In the crown of the
dome there are eight recesses, each containing the sculptured
head of a satyr leaning forward and looking down on the insu-
lators and wires beneath, as though engaged in a perpetual watch
for contacts. Surmounted by a flagstaff, and of graceful pro-
portions, the dome looks well from a distance ; near at hand it

France

"is seen that the arms have warped, and are no longer symmetrical.
At Amiens the central station fixture is one of the towers designed
by M. Belz, a specimen of which was shown at the Paris Exhibition
of 1889, erected on a red brick turret. Taken as a whole, the
French overhouse construction must be adjudged deficient in
capacity, although strong and well executed. When the French
subscribers begin to come on more freely than they have (outside
Paris) hitherto done, present methods will not suffice, and a new
departure will have to be taken. The ground pole work in

FIG. 54

FIG. 55

France, so far as the authors observation went, has attained no
abnormal development whatever. The poles are simply the
familiar erections of the French Telegraph Department and the
French railway companies. A common form of suburban tele-
phone route is composed of two 18 or 20 feet wooden poles
tied together as in fig. 52, with insulators arranged in precisely
the same fashion. When the poles are straight, well dressed,
and well matched which is not always the case, however with
the insulators properly spaced, such a route is not wanting in
picturesquer.ess, but it is wofully deficient in carrying capacity.

172 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

The wire used for the trunk line in France was at first
galvanised iron of 4 to 5 mm., but recently nothing but high con-
ductivity bronze or hard copper has been erected. This varies
from 3 mm. diameter on the shorter lines (Paris-Brussels, 320 kilo-
meters) to 5 mm. on the longer (Paris-Marseilles, 1,000 kilometers ;
and Paris- London, 501 kilometers). Trunk lines are crossed, not
twisted, but the non-use of cross-arms leads to the adoption of
clumsy and space-sacrificing devices. Fig. 56 represents the
crossing adopted on the Paris-Marseilles trunk. In the space
occupied by this single metallic circuit two or even three arms, each

FIG. 56

carrying six wires, could easily be got, and nine metallic circuits
obtained, each superior in symmetry to the Paris-Marseilles. In
Paris the trunk lines have to traverse considerable distances in the
sewers, the Paris-London having an underground course of this
nature of nearly eight kilometers ; but, thanks to the low capacity
of the Aboilard and Fortin-Hermann cables, no inconvenience
results. Many of the French trunks are worked simultaneously
as telegraph lines on the Van Rysselberghe, Picard, and Cailho
systems, but notwithstanding this, the speaking attains a high
figure of merit.

France 173

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

The workmen are divided into ' commissioned ' and ' non-
commissioned,' the former class being retained in the service
under all circumstances, the latter only while sufficient work exists.
The two classes do not differ materially in skill and experience.
In Paris (where the rates of pay are higher than in the country)
foremen receive from 927. to ii2/. per annum, with 467. extra for
expenses. Commissioned wiremen get from 567. to 88/. per
annum, with 327. extra for expenses. Non-commissioned men
are paid by the week at the rate of from 4*. ^\d. to 65-. per day,
according to skill. In the provinces these rates are reduced by
10 per cent, to 20 per cent., according to locality.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

After successfully passing a probationary period, during which
nothing is paid, girls, who must not be younger than seventeen,
receive is. \\\d. per day, with <)'6d. for luncheon. The next step
is to 507. per annum in Paris and 407. in the country, also with a
luncheon allowance of y6d. Subsequently they rise by incre-
ments of 87. every three years to a maximum (in Paris) of 747.
per annum. Lady superintendents are selected for ability, not by
seniority. The working hours are eight per day, out of which
one is allowed for luncheon and recreation.

STATISTICS

The latest detailed return of the number of centres and sub-
scribers in France is dated as far back as the end of 1891, but a
return of the collective numbers up to the end of 1892 has been
issued. The only figures obtainable for 1893 and 1894 are the
budget estimates for those years. This is a pity, since the de-
velopment prior to 1893 was insignificant compared with the pro-
gress made since, especially in the provinces. At the end of 1892
the number of exchanges in operation was 207, with a total of
220 switch-rooms, 201 public stations, and 22,918 subscribers'
instruments. The length of the local routes was, underground
7,585 kilometers, and aerial 4,415 kilometers ; and of the local

174 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

wires, underground 43,239 kilometers, aerial 16,389 kilometers.
The excess of underground mileage is due to the preponderance
of Paris, which at this date had nearly three- fourths of the total
subscribers. Of internal trunks there were 201, of international
trunks 8 ; with a total length, in routes of 11,428, and in wire of
22,856 kilometers. It will be noticed that the length of wire
is that of the routes doubled, which throws doubt on the ac-
curacy of the return, there being certainly more than one metallic
circuit in the Paris-Brussels and Paris-London routes if nowhere
else. The number of local conversations between subscribers is
returned at 19,000,000 ; between public stations and subscribers
at half a million : over trunk lines, 542,910. The number of tele-
grams telephoned was, outward 385,785, homeward 200,993 > ar) d
of messages telephoned for local delivery, 1,354. The receipts
from all sources amounted to 10,307,823 francs, and the expenses
to 9,869,108 francs, leaving a profit of 438,715 francs, or
17,5487.

The number of subscribers in the principal towns was stated
by a high official to be roughly as follows, in January 1895 :

Paris (town) . . 12,500 Marseilles . . . 1,000

Paris (suburbs) . . 1,500 Le Havre . . . 1,000

Lyons . . . 1,200
Bordeaux . . . 1,200

Rou^n . . . 600

With the exception of the capital, therefore, it is evident that
the French cities are far behind even the English in develop-
ment.

175

IX. GERMAN EMPIRE

(EXCLUSIVE OF BAVARIA AND WURTEMBERG)

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

BAVARIA and Wiirtemberg are the only members of the German-
Empire which have preserved their posts, telegraphs, and telephones
in any way independent of the Imperial Post Office ; Saxony,
Baden, Hesse, and the rest being, in this respect, as essentially
Prussian as is any suburb of Berlin. As securing uniformity of
practice over a vast area this arrangement commends itself to the
practical man, but it of course depends upon the quality of the
uniformity obtained as to whether the results to the public are
beneficial or otherwise. On this point it must be said that in many
respects the arrangements, especially in regard to tariffs in the
larger cities and to services rendered, are distinctly good and
liberal ; on the other hand, it is impossible to pretend that the
technical and engineering plans (with a few exceptions) are other-
wise than rudimentary and disappointing.

The history of telephony in Germany bears a certain resem-
blance to our own. At first the Imperial Post Office doubted
both the utility and practicability of telephone exchanges. The
next stage was the refusal of licences to the International Bell
Telephone Company. Time went on, and public opinion calling
for exchanges, the Government itself undertook the work. The
official appreciation of the nature of the problem and of what was
required for a smart telephonic service may be gauged by the fact
that the first exchange operators were recruited from the ranks
of the superannuated postmen. For many years after starting, the

176 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Government engineers declined to have anything to do with micro-
phonic transmitters, arid until 1888 insisted upon supplying their
subscribers with nothing but a push-button and battery, a trembling
bell, and two receivers, one to speak to, the other to listen by, in
spite of the fact that all the lines were single and subject to in-
inductive disturbances. These receivers were both attached by
long cords, so that a subscriber had to hold one to his ear and the
other before his face, somewhat in the attitude of mermaid and
looking-glass. With both hands so engaged, the taking of notes or
holding of papers was of course impracticable. When at last, in
1888, they were compelled by public clamour to provide micro-
phones, the type chosen was a kind of Crossley mounted vertically,
and known as the Mix & Genest transmitter. Magneto ringers
they would not have at any price until last year, when Berlin
and Hamburg were provided with them, all the rest of the Imperial
towns being still worked with batteries and pushes. In Berlin
and Hamburg the old battery instruments have to a large extent
been converted to magnetos at an expense said to amount to 65
marks (shillings) per instrument exceeding the cost at which new
magneto instruments of really efficient design could have been pur-
chased. The Imperial Post Office still adheres to single wires with
earth return, and has not expressed, or given evidence of the
latest multiple boards being made for single wires any inten-
tion of an ultimate conversion to double, although the speak-
ing over the trunk lines, as between subscriber and subscriber, at
least, is already far from satisfactory. The enormous expense
of such a change is assigned as a reason, but it is an inade-
quate and ludicrous one in face of the facts that the General
Telephone Company of Stockholm has actually converted its
system within the last two years, and that its example is being
followed by other companies and by several Governments. At
least, new exchanges might be run with metallic circuits, and
the area over which the inevitable change will have to be made
thereby limited. As it is, subscribers are crowding on in all
parts of Germany, and the public money is being spent in
connecting them in a manner which is already recognised
nearly everywhere else even in Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumania
as obsolete. In a few years more the machine will have

German Empire 177

become so huge and clumsy, and the trunk-line speaking so
immeasurably inferior to that which will prevail in neighbouring
States, that an entire reconstruction will have to be undertaken
at enormous cost.

The author visited several of the principal cities both in the
north and south of the Imperial postal district, including the
chief towns of Baden, Hesse, Alsace-Lorraine, Saxony, and Han-
over, with the view of obtaining a just idea of the whole and of
avoiding the danger of generalising from only local experiences.
There were but few differences to note. The outside construction
is practically the same everywhere, better done in some of the
towns than in others, but always on the same plan ; the sub-
scribers' instruments (excepting in Berlin and Hamburg) are
identical. Only the switch-boards and exchange fixtures differ.
In all the towns the author took great pains and disbursed divers
marks with the object of testing the service, especially that over
the trunk lines, from a subscriber's point of view. All the hotels
of any note are connected in the various towns, the instruments
being usually under the care of the hall porters, invariably men
of intelligence and practised in the manipulation of their tele-
phones. Under these circumstances it was found a good plan to
get through to hotels in other towns and inquire after supposi-
titious letters. This was not an expensive amusement, inasmuch
as a three-minute talk between any two connected parts of the Im-
perial postal district costs only one shilling (this is one of the
points on which the Administration is deserving of earnest com-
mendation) ; but it required a good fund of perseverance and
patience, since the lines, when first asked for, were invariably
engaged, and the precincts of the instrument had to be haunted
until perhaps after some twenty or thirty minutes the notifica-
tion of connection came. The result of this experience (October
1894) was decidedly disappointing, for on no single occasion did
the author succeed in obtaining a trunk communication that was
even tolerably good. The best (and yet indifferent) were between
Frankfort-on-Main and Mannheim, and between Leipzig and
Berlin. The worst between Berlin (Central Hotel) and Hamburg
(Hamburger Hof), excepting that between Berlin and Cologne,
which had to be abandoned as hopeless. To compare any Imperial

1/8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

German speaking (as between subscribers) with that between
Brussels and Paris, Paris and Marseilles, or Stockholm and
Gothenburg, would be absurd : there is no similitude. The local
service in Berlin is slow, but faster than that of Paris. The
Central Hotel, Berlin, has a telephone-room, in charge of an
attendant, containing three instruments in connection with the
exchange, which, during the busy hours, especially the forenoon,
are in incessant request by commercial travellers and others stay-
ing in the house, would-be users waiting their turns sometimes
several deep. It is under such circumstances as these that a good
system shines and a bad one breaks down. In that Berlin tele-
phone-room the only thing that shone was the patience, under
long suffering, of the attendant and customers. At the same
time it must not be overlooked that the Berlin exchange is the
largest in Europe, if not in the world, counting, as it does, some
25,000 connected instruments in the city itself and nearly 3,000
more in the suburban area. The problem that presents itself for
solution in the Prussian capital is consequently unique, and it
would be unfair and ungenerous to underrate its difficulties.
But it is reasonable to argue that methods which give bad results
with 500 subscribers cannot possibly prove satisfactory with
25,000, and it is on the score of persistence in rudimentary forms
when an advanced stage of development has been reached that
fault may most justly be found with the Imperial Post Office.
The overhearing on some of the single wires is very pronounced.
At Frankfort-on-Main, the hotel porter, in describing his telephone
and the uses he put it to, remarked that before ringing for a con-
nection to his fishmonger he always lifted the telephone off its
hook and listened, because if the fishmonger was talking to
anybody else he could always distinguish his voice and so knew
that it was useless to ring just then. If, on the other hand, the
familiar tones were absent, he knew that the connection could be
got.

There is some official predilection in Germany towards an
eventual abolition of inclusive annual subscriptions in favour of
the Swiss plan of a small annual payment and a fee for each con-
nection asked for over a certain number. It is considered that
an automatic register of the communications had, to be placed in

German Empire 179

the subscriber's office, is necessary to the success of such a plan,
and some experiments are being conducted with meters invented
by Messrs. Mix & Genest and by an official of the Imperial
Administration. Such registers, however, unless very complicated
(in which case the expense of their introduction and maintenance
would outweigh all advantages), could not supersede the operators'
notes, since they would not differentiate between the numerous
classes of connections, local, suburban, short- and long-distance
trunk, telegrams, matter to be mailed, &c., that may be asked for.
A simple record of the number of connections would help but
little, and if the operators' notes must be preserved at all, they had
better accomplish the whole task as in Switzerland and Stockholm.
In the latter city these reasons have led to counters, efficient as
such, being abandoned after extensive use. The Imperial Ad-
ministration deserves praise for the manner in which it has con-
sistently supported home manufacturers. It has taken as little of
its apparatus from abroad as possible, even multiple switch-boards,
the most complicated of all telephonic mechanism, having been,
whenever possible, procured in Germany. The gratifying result
is that, although the native instruments may be somewhat lacking
in design, a school has been founded which is rapidly becoming
equal to all demands. At present it is traversing ground which
has been already exploited elsewhere, making the same mistakes
and acquiring the same experience. As regards workmanship,
the productions of the three chief firms Siemens & Halske,
Mix & Genest, and R. Stock & Co. leave nothing to be
desired.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

i. Intercourse between the subscribers and public stations
of the same town. The rate is universally 7/. IQS. per annum,
irrespective of the size of the town, and includes connections of
any length up to five kilometers. This rate is too high, notwith-
standing the lon fc ength given without extra charge, for small towns.
In such places the vast majority of the lines are much less than
half a mile in length, and 90 per cent, less than one mile. A more
equitable figure would be 4/. or, at most, 5/., for connections not

N 2

i8o Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

exceeding one and a half kilometers, with an ascending scale for
the exceptionally longer lines. On the other hand, for cities like
Berlin and Hamburg ;/. los. may be admitted as reasonable ; but
the fact only accentuates the injustice done to the inhabitants of
small towns and villages, whose telephones must necessarily be
much less valuable than those of the Berliners and Hamburgers.
When a 5/. rate is found sufficient in Stuttgart, the capital of a
German State, there is certainly ground for complaint under the
Prussian rule. The efforts made in Wiirtemberg to restrict the
user of telephones to their actual hirers are not made by the Im-
perial authorities, whose official instructions to the subscribers are
silent on the point, perhaps wisely, for when such restrictions are
imposed they soon become dead letters. The subscribers get
annoyed at what they regard as an unjust and unreasonable regu-
lation, while the officials become tired of trying to enforce rules
which produce nothing but ill-temper and friction. Imperial
subscribers are simply prohibited from accepting payments from
outsiders for the use of their telephones. Subscribers are bound
to insure their instruments, together with all leading wires and
fixtures connected with them, against fire. Would-be subscribers
must produce a written way-leave from their landlord authorising
the fixing of all necessary wires and apparatus ; in the absence of
such a way-leave no person is accepted as a subscriber. Sub-
scribers whose communication has been interrupted for more
than four weeks are allowed a proportionate rebate. Subscrip-
tions will also be refunded should the Administration, in the
exercise of the powers conferred by Parliament, close any ex-
change or line permanently or temporarily. Subscribers removing
are liberally dealt with, no charge being made unless the new
premises come under a more expensive section of the tariff.
Peremptory powers to remove instruments are possessed in the
event of non-payment of subscriptions when due, damage to
apparatus, and improper language addressed to the operators.
The proprietor of a building let off as dwellings or workshops to
different tenants may pay for a wire to the exchange under the
usual tariff, and by providing an attendant at his own expense to
operate a switch-board supplied by the Administration is allowed
to have instruments fixed in any or all of his tenants' places and

German Empire 181

to give them exchange communication through this switch-board.
There is a special tariff (see Tariffs] for such extensions. The
proprietor renders himself responsible for all payments, and col-
lects subscriptions from his tenants. If any of them neglects to
pay he is the loser.

2. Intercommunication between a town and its suburbs
and, in some cases, other small towns not very far removed. For
example, the Berlin suburban intercourse includes Spandau (8
miles), Kopenick (9 miles), and Potsdam (15 miles) ; the Leipzig
includes Markranstadt (8 miles) ; the Frankfort-on-Main includes
Homburg (10 miles), Hanau (13 miles), and Mayence (20 miles).
For this suburban intercourse an additional yearly subscription or
a fee per communication has to be paid. The connecting lines
between these district centres are metallic circuits.

3. Long-distance internal trunk communication. Herein
the policy of the Imperial Administration must be acknowledged to
be most liberal and praiseworthy. The charge for three minutes is
50 pfennige (5^.) up to about thirty kilometers the exact distance
varying in different districts and i mark (is.) for any distance
beyond. This means that between any two connected points of
the German Empire (excepting Bavaria and Wiirtemberg) a three
minute conversation may be had for one shilling. The trunk
system is already very extensive, and is growing every month. It
has penetrated to every corner of Germany, from the Baltic to the
Neckar, and from Saxony to the North Sea and the frontiers of
France. Already the distances which may be spoken over exceed
450 miles.

The Imperial Administration admits urgent or express talks
over the trunk lines at triple the unit charge. No talk may be
prolonged beyond three minutes if the line is wanted by others.
When orders given for trunk communications cannot be executed
for reasons beyond the control of the Administration the caller
must pay a whole unit fee. Such reasons include the failure of
the called subscriber to answer, or the absence of the caller at the
moment when the connection is ready. When a communication
cannot be given at once, the caller may cancel it at any time before
the operator has asked the distant station for it ; if that stage has
been reached, the caller must pay whether he speaks or not.

1 82 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Subscribers have, as a rule, to accept the operators' records as to
duration of talks, &c., as correct ; but complaints of error or over-
charge are investigated, and if discovered to be reasonably well
founded, admitted.

4. International trunk communication. The telephone has
crossed the frontiers at several points. Reichenberg-Zittau and
Warnsdorf-Grossschonau, both in Saxony, have communication
with a few of the nearest Austrian towns. Wiirtemberg and
Bavaria (see those sections), which, although members of the
German Empire, possess independent postal and telegraph ad-
ministrations, have both effected junctions the former, via
Pforzheim and Heidelberg, with Baden and the south-west of Ger-
many ; the latter with Frankfort-on-Main and the south-west of
Germany via Aschaffenburg, and with Berlin via Hof. The
isolated Bavarian Palatinate of the Rhine, which possesses ex-
changes at Ludwigshafen, Kaiserslautern, Neustadt, and Speyer,
is also connected to the Imperial Post Office territory, via Mann-
heim. The tariff from Berlin to Bavaria is two marks, or shillings,
per three minutes, double that which obtains within the limits
of the Imperial Administration. The distance from Berlin to
Munich, in the direct air line, is 310 miles, for which the charge
under the proposed British Post Office scale would be 4^. 6d.
The speaking on the loop is loud. Berlin is also connected with
Vienna, distant 616 kilometers. At present the communication
is limited to the Bourses and to such lines as are metallic circuits.
Communication existed for a time between Mulhouse and the
south of Alsace and Switzerland, but was discontinued by orders
from Berlin. An agreement has twice been all but concluded
with Belgium, but broken off at the instance of the German
Political Bureau. A trunk line from Berlin and Hamburg to
Copenhagen is now spoken of. Urgent talks at triple fee are
admitted to Munich and Vienna.

5. Public telephone stations. These are fairly numerous.
There are twenty-nine in Berlin itself, and thirty-one in its suburbs,
all at post or telegraph offices. Other towns are not so well provided,
but still one can always be found at the central, and mostly also at
the chief branch, post offices. Automatic boxes for checking pay-
ments are not used, attendants being always provided, to whom

German Empire 183

fees are payable. Complaints have been made of delay in obtain-
ing communication from these stations, due to the amount of
preliminary ceremony that has to be gone through. A would-be
talker has to fill up a form with the name, list number, and switch-
room number of the person he wants. To this form, which he
must also sign, he has to affix postage-stamps to the value of the
communication demanded. The attendant then checks the form,
enters the particulars in a book, and finally permits access to the
instrument. In some towns local subscribers may use the public
stations free for local talks in the absence of any paying customer ;
a demand for the line from such a person leads to the free talk
being interrupted without ceremony. The attendants are in-
structed to receive complaints of interruption, &c., from sub-
scribers, and to telephone them on to the proper office. The
services from the public stations are limited to speaking over the
local, suburban, and trunk lines, telephoning of telegrams and
mail matter being inadmissible. They are consequently of less
public utility than those, for instance, of Denmark and Switzer
land ; but yet they are recognised public institutions which the
people know where to find and how to use. Germany is conse-
quently far in advance of Great Britain, where the Post Office has
ever made it a rule to forbid the establishment of public telephone
stations at the post and telegraph offices, or anywhere within the
bounds of the postal authority.

6. Telephoning of telegrams. Subscribers may telephone
their telegrams to the local telegraph office to be forwarded,
and also receive those arriving for them through their own instru-
ments.

7. Telephoning of mail matters-Subscribers may telephone
messages -to the central office to be written down and put in the
post as letters or post-cards. This is a very handy and useful
arrangement, as it virtually extends the time of closing the mail,
which may frequently be caught by a telephoned message when an
ordinary letter posted by hand would certainly miss. More
especially is this the case with suburban subscribers, who may
neglect the hour of closing of, say, the English mail at their local
post office, and get a telephoned message through to the head
office in Berlin two or three hours later in time to be included.

1 84 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

The fees charged being in addition to the ordinary letter postage,
it pays the Administration as well as benefits the subscribers.

8. Telephoning messages for local delivery. As in most con-
tinental countries, subscribers may dictate messages for non-sub-
scribers resident in the same town to the central office, where
they are written down and delivered immediately by messenger.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for local exchange communication. Uniformity in
this respect prevails throughout the Imperial Administration. For
a distance not exceeding five kilometers (2 miles 1,480 yards)
measured direct, the charge, per annum, is y/. los. When the dis-
tance exceeds five kilometers the annual charge is increased by
35. per 100 meters. When the distance exceeds ten kilometers a
further additional charge, payable only once, not annually, of los.
per 100 meters is exigible. Should it be necessary to employ cables
or other works of a specially expensive character, power is reserved
to make such further charges as may be deemed equitable.

A second instrument attached to the same line is also charged
7/. i os. per annum, provided the deviation necessary to include it
does not exceed 500 meters ; if more wire is necessary, the excess
rate of 3^. per 100 meters comes into play.

For extra instruments let out to tenants of one proprietor and
communicating with the exchange through that proprietor's line,
5/. per annum per instrument, with a minimum of io/.

Extra instruments for the use of one subscriber :

If within the same building as the exchange instrument, per

instrument per annum ....... 2/.

If in another building, but on the same property . . 5/.

Extra bells are charged 5*. per annum. Any special works or
deviations from ordinary practice desired by a subscriber have to
be paid for, and become the property of the subscriber.

Charges are usually payable annually in advance, but the
Administration may collect quarterly if it judges expedient.

Agreements are for one year only, and continue from year to
year, subject to three months' notice.

German Empire 185

2. Rates for suburban connections. Suburban subscribers
pay the local rate for connection to their local exchange, and com-
munication within their own suburb or group of suburbs (each
large town has two or more groups in its vicinity, particulars of
which are given in the local lists) ; but in order to communicate
with the town, or with other suburbs not scheduled as being within
their own group, they must pay an additional annual subscription of
5/., or 3</. or $d. per three minutes' talk. These charges are equally
due by town subscribers who wish suburban communication.
Any person paying the extra 5/. annual charge is not only entitled
to call any subscriber on the list, but also to be rung up freely by
everybody, whether they also pay the extra rate or not. The three-
minute rate depends on the distance of the suburban group from
the town. For instance, the charge is 3^. between Berlin and
Group I., which comprises Charlottenburg, Rixdorf, Friedenau,
Pankow, Rummelsburg, Schoneberg, Weissensee, and Westend,
none of them very far away ; and 5^. between Berlin and Group
II., or between Groups I. and II. The latter includes Potsdam,
Spandau, Kopenick, and some twenty other places comprised with-
in a radius of fifteen or sixteen miles. In the case of Leipzig there
are three so-called suburban groups, the most distant comprising
Chemnitz, 48 miles away. $d. per three minutes, or 5/. per annum, is
the uniform rate. Under such a rule at home, Brighton would be
considered a suburb of London and brought within the scope of
an extra 5/. annual payment. The arrangements at Frankfort-on
Main are equally liberal, the $d. per three minutes, or 5/. per annum,
covering Mayence (20 miles), Rudesheim (33 miles), Hanau,
Homburg, and many other towns.

3. Rates for long-distance internal trunk communication.
These are simplicity itself. For distances up to about thirty
kilometers (the practice varies somewhat in different districts, and
is sometimes modified by the inclusion of towns nearly fifty miles
distant in suburban groups) the charge per three minutes is $d. ;
for all other distances, is. Express talks are allowed at triple
rate. No talk may exceed three minutes if others are waiting to
use the line. If a communication asked for cannot be got
through from some cause beyond the control of the Administration,
the caller is charged a unit fee.

1 86 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

4. Rates for international trunk communication :

S. (i.

Between Berlin and Vienna, per three minutes . . .26
,, ,, Munich, ,, ,, ...20

,, Mannheim or Heidelberg and Wiirtemberg, per three

minutes . . . . . . . .10

,, other places in Baden and Wiirtemberg, per five

minutes . . . . . . . .10

Between Mannheim and Ludwigshafen (Bavaria), 5/. per annum, or
3</. per three minutes.

Urgent or express talks are allowed on payment of triple unit
charge.

5. Rates affecting public telephone stations :

*. d.
Three minutes' local talk . . . . . . .02^

,, suburban talk . . . . . .05

,, short trunk talk (up to about 30 kilometers) . o 5

,, long trunk talk (any distance exceeding 30

kilometers) . . . . . .10

In Frankfort-on-Main and some other towns subscribers may
use the public stations locally free of charge in the absence of any
paying customer.

6. Rates for telephoning of telegrams. For each telegram
forwarded or delivered by telephone, a foundation charge is made
of id., with -fad. per word added. Telegram accounts must be
covered by deposit and settled monthly, or, if desired by the
Administration, as soon as they amount to ics.

7 and 8. Rates for telephoning of mail matter and of
messages for local delivery. In addition to the postage or cost
of special messenger, the telegram charge of id. for each message,
with -^ G d. for each word, applies also to these services.

WAY-LEAVES

The Imperial German Administration has been specially
credited in Great Britain with being possessed of quite Gargan-
tuan powers in the direction of autocratic way-leaves. On ex-
amination, however, the fairy vision vanishes. The plain fact is
that, apart from the clause, which, like the National Telephone
Company, it inserts in its subscribers' agreements, the German

German Empire 187

Government has no control over private or municipal property
whatever. No subscriber is connected to the exchange unless he
undertakes to give (or, if the property is not his own, obtain)
permission to erect on his building fixtures and wires for the
common use of the exchange as well as his own. That is an
inflexible rule, which is acted upon, and naturally produces good
results. The National Telephone Company compels its sub-
scribers to sign a similar agreement, but does not press for its
observance if any reluctance to comply with it is shown ; the results
obtained are consequently inferior to the German. A new Tele-
graph Act was passed as recently as April 6, 1892, by which the
Government was given various additional powers in connection with
telegraphs and telephones. The last clause of this Act declares,
' The Imperial Government does not acquire through this law
any powers in excess of those presently existing with regard to
private lands or public roads and streets.' The Administration
has to take property owners and public authorities along with it in
everything it does. The author has been informed by German
subscribers that once telephonic communication has been esta-
blished a subscriber cannot be deprived of it, even if he gives
notice to take away any standard or wires that have been erected
on his property other than for his own accommodation, unless the
Government can show to the satisfaction of the proper tribunal
that no other means exist of getting his wire in. Subscribers
have been known, it is said, to consent to the Government way-
leave clause, get in their telephones, and as soon as practicable
thereafter to give the stipulated notice to take away all fixtures
but their own, and to have, nevertheless, succeeded in retaining
their connections. The German Government is stated (in Great
Britain) to make a practice of coercing property owners who
refuse the use of their roofs by planting enormous poles opposite
their doors, or by suddenly discovering that their drains are faulty
and must be renewed ! The author could not succeed in hearing
of such a case in Germany. Apart from the unlikelihood of such
undignified proceedings being permitted by the Government,
such poles could not be erected under the Act without the co-
operation of the local authorities, who would scarcely connive at
an outrage on a townsman. In the matter of way-leaves Imperial

1 88 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Germany is less autocratic than Republican France. Certainly
the possession of most of the railways gives the State a great pull
in way-leave facilities over an English telephone company, but
that is a matter apart from streets and private houses.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

The multiple switch-boards in use are of three types, manu-
factured respectively by the Western Electric Company, Mix :
Genest, and R. Stock & Co. The former company has supplied
single-cord boards of a total capacity of 24,200 lines to six of the
Berlin switch-rooms, and a single-cord board for 5,400 lines to
Hamburg. Double-cord boards have been supplied to Frankfort -
on-Main (2,800 lines), Cologne (2, 200 lines), Breslau (2,000 lines),
and Mannheim (1,000 lines).

Messrs. Mix & Genest, of Berlin, have supplied their type of
board to Hamburg (2,800 lines), Stettin (2,000 lines), Diisseldorf
(1,600 lines), Crefeld (1,200 lines), Barmen (1,200 lines), Cassel
(1,000 lines), Dortmund (600 lines), and Bochum (600 lines).

Messrs. R. Stock & Co., of Berlin, have supplied boards to
Berlin Moabit (6,000 lines), Dresden (5,000 lines), Leipzig
(3,200 lines), Altona (2,000 lines), and Hanover (2,000 lines).
Messrs. Stock have also supplied two single- cord boards, each of
2,000 lines, to Hamburg, and have extended the Western Electric
board at Frankfort-on-Main to 6,000 lines. Experimentally, a
flat board has been fitted up at Berlin Moabit by the same firm.

The Western Electric boards are of that company's well-known
type, and call for no special mention.

The original form of Messrs. Mix & Genest's multiple,
which was designed by Mr. D. Oesterreich, has also been often
described and illustrated. Its principal feature was the saving of
the usual test wires by causing a voltaic current, too weak to
actuate the call bells, to flow from a central battery at the ex-
change continuously over all the subscribers' lines to earth. The
jacks being in series, it was discovered whether a wire asked for
was engaged or not by inserting a double-contact plug in one of
the jacks. A sensitive galvanometer was looped in the test cord,
and, if the wire was free, revealed the test current circulating ; if,

German Empire

'on the other hand, the line was engaged, no current passed the
galvanometer, since, if the connection had been made in front of
the jack tested, one side of the galvanometer was insulated,
although the other was joined to the battery ; while if the con-
nection was on behind the test point, the galvanometer was cut
off from the battery altogether. As now used, in addition to the
test battery at the exchange, there is a Daniell cell in each
subscriber's office, which sends a current to line as long as the

FIG. 58

FIG. 57

receiver is off the hook, but not at other times. The connections
are arranged as in fig. 57, in which L 1 L 2 are two subscribers' lines
joined through the series jacks i, 2, 3, and to earth through the
calling indicators K. In the circuit of each pair of plugs and
cords there is a switch u (in practice combined in a single lever),
making contact with A and c or with B and D, according to position.
When on A, c, the speaking set is brought into play, together with
a ringing key Y and battery v ; when on B, D, the ring-off drop R

190 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

is looped into the cord. There is also a Morse key switch M,
having its lever connected through the cord to the tip (which is
insulated from the body) of the plug s 1 ; its back stop to a test
battery of one Daniell cell v 1 through an adjustable resistance G,

FIG. 59

and its bottom stop to earth through a i5o-ohm galvanoscope z.
Subscriber L 2 , in taking his receiver off its hook when making a
call, puts his test cell in connection with the line and immediately
blocks it against intrusion, since an operator testing by applying
the tip of plug s 1 to any of his jacks and pressing the key M

German Empire

191

would get a current on the galvanoscope z. L 1 , the line asked
for, being found free by pressing the tip of the plug s 1 against a
jack and depressing the key M, is connected by pushing the plug
home ; when this has been done, the portion of L I to the right of
the connection is guarded by the test battery v 1 acting through
its separate conductor in the cord and the insulated tip, but
until the subscriber takes off his phone, his line to the left of
the connection is not guarded, and another connection may

consequently be unwittingly popped on in

the interval between the call and the reply.
When L I has answered, the switch u is put
over to B, D, and the subscribers left talking
through the ring-off drop R. The insulated
tip of the plug s 2 has no connecting wire in
the cord, for, as this plug is always used
with the answering jack, the function of the
tip is simply to cut off the calling indicator
K and earth. After connection, the whole
of L' 2 and the portion of L 1 to the left of
the jack used is guarded by the subscribers'
test cells, and the portion of L 1 to the right
of the jack used by the exchange test cell
v 1 . A section and top plan of the Mix
& Genest spring-jack are shown in fig. 58,
and a view and end section of their table
in figs. 59 and 60.

A front view and cross section of
Messrs. Stock & Co.'s latest Berlin Moabit,
single-wire, double-cord board are shown

in figs. 61 and 62, which explain themselves. It will be seen
that it differs in plan from a Western Electric board only in
matters of detail. Each switching section accommodates 200
subscribers, and can be served by three operators. The return
cables go to the intermediate field, thence to the answering jacks,
and finally to springs against which suitable contact pieces in
connection with the indicator coils press when the drops are in
place. This absence of soldering greatly facilitates the with-
drawal of drops for inspection and repair. There is nothing

FIG. 60

192 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

German Empire

193

194 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

special about the indicators, which are of the familiar American
pattern. They are not provided with a night-bell circuit, which
seems to show that there is no present intention of inaugurating
a continuous service in Berlin. The jacks,* all the contacts of
which .are of platinum, are joined in series by soldered wires.

The form of jack used
is shown clearly in fig.
63, and of lever switch
in figs. 64 and 64A. A
general plan of the con-
nections is given in fig.
65. As will be under-
stood from the platinis-
ing of all the contacts,
no expense has been
spared in the construc-
tion of this board ; and,
in fact, its workmanship
is excellent. A few sec-
tions of this 6,ooo-line
multiple have been fitted
up experimentally in the
form of a horizontal
table as shown in fig. 66.
The position of the plugs
and cords does not strike
one as being happily
chosen ; they would

Bottom pl(

an.

FIG. 64A

have been much better
overhead, as in the au-
thor's Mutual board at
Manchester. As arranged at Berlin, the cords must cover up the
jacks nearest the edges, and require to be continually pushed
aside to allow of the insertion of fresh plugs.

A general plan of the connections of Messrs. Stock & Co.'s
single-cord boards, as supplied to Hamburg, is given in fig. 67.
This system is worked with test cells at the subscribers' offices,
which are cut in when the phones are lifted off the hooks, as

German Empire

-a.

if*

il
SS?5

^ -

n_ n

O 2

1 96 Telephone Systems of the Continent

I !

German Empire 197

described in connection with Mix & Genest's board, in addition
to a test battery at the exchange. A calling current (fig. 67)
passes by a b, K/., plug L.S. to earth. When the plug is lifted the
phone K/. is cut in via c d e k /, J.R., key TV., test key CT, test
battery, and earth. Test is made by applying L.S. to the socket h ;
line being free, connection is established by pushing L.S. home in
the desired jack. The calling battery W.B. is divided into two
parts for short and long line ringing. To ring on a short line the
key u. is depressed, bringing / in contact with g and the cord of
the plug L.S. For a long line the key G.B.T. is depressed
simultaneously, and the whole battery brought in. After con-
nection is ascertained to be satisfactorily through by the presence
on the line of a current from one or both of the subscribers' test
cells, the phone is cut out by pushing down u., and so separating
the contacts i and k. Key CT is used to cut out the exchange
test cell momentarily when currents from the subscribers' cells
are being tested for. In addition to the single cords, there are a
few double cords with ring-off drops and keys kept in reserve.
These are shown at SK/., u., T.', T". Each pair of double cords
has a jack ;// to receive connections from the next table when
necessary, n is in connection with the calling battery, and the
key K.B.T. is used for ringing through the plug c.s.

The multiple boards in the remaining six Berlin switch-rooms
are of Western Electric Company's manufacture. One of them
is, for want of room for lateral extension, arranged in two tiers or
stories, the operators of the upper tier sitting some six feet above
the level of the heads of those below. This is ingenious, and
saves space, but is not conducive to health. The lady superin-
tendents, familiar in other countries, are dispensed with ; the
girl operators, who, as German State officials, are of course in
uniform, being kept up to the mark by mature gentlemen of
severe and martial aspect. Should the British Post Office take
over the telephone exchanges in 1897, a new field for employ-
ment would be open to the army reserve men were Parliament
to sanction the adoption of the Prussian corporal plan. When
located in old buildings, the German switch-rooms sometimes
lack cubic content and ventilation ; but when opportunity offers,

198 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

German Empire

199

as at Moabit, Breslau, Frankfort-on-Main, &c., the architecture,
decorations, and accommodation are worthy of all praise.

There are seven switch-rooms in Berlin, arranged in an
irregular circle round
the centre of the city.
Each has direct junction
lines to every other,
there being some 700
wires so employed, with-
out counting those going
to the suburban rooms.
All these junctions are
single and erected over-
head. The trunks all
come into one switch-
room, and are multi-
pled over small tables,
divided from each other
by partitions, each of
which accommodates
two trunk lines and is
attended to by one
operator. These trunk
tables are a speciality of
Messrs. Mix & Genest,
who have supplied nearly
300 to the Imperial Ad-
ministration for use in
different towns. Fig. 68
shows their general ap-
pearance. Each section
is fitted with answering
jacks for the trunk and
intermediate board wires,
together with forty repeat
jacks and the necessary indicators ; also a metallic circuit on which
branch switch-rooms may be put through to the trunks without
the intervention of a translator. The local operators notify trunk

FIG. 68

2OO Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

calls to the small boards, and the connections are completed
through an intermediate section on which all the local lines are
multipled. The trunk tables are provided with sand-glasses on
the Swiss plan for checking the duration of conversations. The
arrangements are very carefully devised, but the speed and
economy obtained would be greater, and the chance of error less,
if the trunk girls had the local repeats directly at command. One
operator to two trunks appears superfluously luxurious. The
translators used are of the double- coil type with yoked cores, the
resistance of both primary and secondary being 1 70 ohms.

To those who understand the possibilities of telephonic
switching in the direction of rapidity, and are accustomed to
think of demand and connection as a matter of three or four
seconds only, the methods adopted in Berlin appear strange, even
to the verge of incomprehensibility. The seven switch-rooms are
numbered from i upwards, and a subscriber is represented in
the list by two numbers, firstly that of his switch-room, secondly
that of his line, so that in the same town the same series of
numerals is repeated seven times and distinguished by an index
number, like so many logarithms. Indices, consisting of short
words differing widely in pronunciation such as the names of
colours, of jewels, of rivers, anything would be much more dis-
tinctive and less liable to be misunderstood than a constant
repetition of numerals. That confusion is apt to arise is obvious
from the rule which enjoins the calling subscriber to mention the
number and name of the switch -room to which the person he
wants is connected. Thus, to quote the rule, No. 3 switch-room
must be asked for in a ten-syllable formula, ' Amt drei, Oranien-
burgerstrasse.' The following indicates the steps of a Berlin con-
nection through one switch-room when the fates are propitious
and the course of telephony runs smooth. A wants B.

Operation i. A takes one of his two telephones off its hook
and applies it to an ear.

[He is instructed to do this, but is not told which. If he happens to take
the left-hand one and a stranger would be as likely as not to do so he cannot
ring the exchange, and naturally does not get any answer. It is true that in
another part of the instructions he is advised to leave both telephones in their
places when not corresponding, and in any case to leave the one on the

German Empire 201

movable hook, as otherwise the bell cannot be rung ; but this is not in the
specific directions for obtaining a connection.]

Operation 2. A turns the crank of his magneto ' slowly and
at most once.'

[The instructions are emphatic as to the necessity of ringing slowly and
only once, 'in order not to hurt any officers or subscribers.' It seems that
some of the instruments are arranged so that people handling them are apt to
get their bodies into circuit, and that when the magnetos were first put in,
divers subscribers were unwittingly almost electrocuted by their friends. One
is said to have gone to answer a call from a debtor whom he was pressing for
payment and received a shock, which for a time he persisted in regarding as
intentional and designed to close the account even more summarily than he
was proposing to do.]

Operation 3. A takes off the second telephone and applies it
to his other ear.

[The Berlin telephones weigh nearly two pounds each.]

Operation 4. Fraulein (answering ring) : ' Here office.'
[The operators are habitually addressed as ' Fraulein. ']

Operation 5. A (who has all the time kept both phones to
his ear) : '9014, Verwaltung des Ritterguts.'

[The subscribers are directed to state the number and name of the person
they want.]

Operation 6. Fraulein : ' Please call.'

Operation 7. A hangs up one phone, keeping the other to his
ear.

Operation 8. He turns his crank 'slowly and at most
once.'

[As it is the left phone he must hang up, and is instructed to keep the
other to his ear, he is necessarily compelled to turn the crank with his left
hand.]

Operation 9. B : 'Here Verwaltung des Ritterguts; who
there ? Please answer.'

[Subscribers are recommended to close every remark with the words
' please answer ' until they reacn the final one, which should be followed by
' finished.']

Operation 10. A takes off his second phone and commences
talk. "

-2O2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Operation n. (After conversation.) A and B hang up both
their phones.

Operation 12. A and B now each turn their cranks 'three
times, by jerks, very quickly.'

[This they do regardless of consequences to officers and to each other, and
yet with fear and trembling, for have they not been already told in plain
German black and white that * in order not to hurt officers and subscribers '
they must ring ' slowly and only once ' ? Is it possible that, like Genesis,
the Berlin book of instructions has been written by two authorities, the one
oblivious of what the other has said ?]

When, as in about five cases out of seven, the connection has
to pass through two switch-rooms, A has to ask his operator for
the room to which his client is joined in these terms : ' Office
three, Oranienburgerstrasse,' or 'Office seven, Blankenfelden-
strasse.' The first operator thereupon rings the second upon one
of the junction wires between the two rooms, and A, upon finding
himself through, prefers his request for the person he wants to the
second girl.

If on the completion of a conversation another connection is
wanted, half a minute must (according to the regulations) elapse
after the ring-off is given before the operator can be rung up
again. Such a regulation is a practical admission of the unsuita-
bility of the system employed for a busy telephone exchange.
With the Mann system, as used by the Mutual Telephone
Company at Manchester, two separate connections could be
obtained and got rid of within the half-minute so lightly wasted
at Berlin, a short conversation being held on each occasion. But
in practice, according to the author's observation, this regulation
is neglected. In the telephone-room at the Central Hotel,
already alluded to, a fresh customer seizes the crank, and
oblivious of consequences to officers and subscribers alike, begins
to twirl it vigorously as soon as the place is vacated by his
predecessor, although much more than half a minute frequently
elapses before any tangible result is obtained.

In the other towns the method of procedure is much the same,
but (except in Hamburg) the battery press-button takes the place
of the magneto.

In the suburban intercourse the calling subscriber is put

German Empire 203

through to the town in which his client is located, and asks the
connection from the operator there. In the trunk service he gives
all the particulars to his own operator, and is rung up by her as
soon as the connection is ready.

During thunderstorms traffic is suspended. The subscribers
are recommended not to touch their instruments, and the
operators are forbidden to answer any calls while a storm
continues.

HOURS OF SERVICE

In this matter Germany is very far behind Great Britain and the
age generally, Berlin being open only from 7 A.M. till 10 P.M. The
principal suburban switch -rooms have the same service ; others
are open from 7 A.M. till 9 P.M., and others again from 7 or 8 A.M.
(according to the season) till 9 P.M. In the provinces, the hours
in the larger towns are from 7 A.M. (summer) or 8 A.M. (winter) till
9 P.M. These arrangements mean that for nine or ten hours out of
every twenty-four the vast capital sunk in the German exchanges and
trunk lines is lying idle and unproductive, while the subscribers are
deprived of some of the most important of all the applications of
the telephone. Other countries can find traffic for their lines
during the night, and so, no doubt, could Germany, if the effort
were made, or even if the opportunity were afforded and the effort
left to the public.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

These generally consist of a battery-push and trembling bell
microphonic transmitter, two spoon-shaped double-pole receivers
(weighing from 23 ozs. to 2 Ibs. each), and a separate battery-box
OT- cupboard ; but in Berlin and Hamburg magneto ringers have re-
placed the battery-pushes to a large extent, although the trembling
bells are for the most part still retained. The general appearance
and internal arrangements may be gathered from figs. 69, 69A,
and 70, which represent wall- and table-instruments respectively.
The battery instruments are similar in appearance, a push-button
occupying the place of the magneto spindle. The instruments
represented are by Messrs. R. Stock & Co., but the design is that

2O4 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

of the Imperial Post Office, and Messrs. Siemens & Halske, Mix &
Genest, C. F. Lewert, and others supply instruments of exactly
the same type. The workmanship in every case is superior ; let
the design make such impression as it may on telephone engineers.
Many of the instruments have been converted from the battery
form at a cost, the author was told, of 65 marks (37. 5*.) apiece.

The German Govern-
ment could have been
supplied with new and
complete instruments,
comprising magneto,
battery-box, backboard,
good carbon transmitter,
double-pole receiver and
cord, of better design
and equal workmanship
from England, America,
Belgium, or Sweden, de-
livered free in Berlin,
for 37. 3.$-., or even less.
Sometimes the conver-
sion has been effected
by placing a magneto in
a separate box on the
top of the battery instru-
ment ; in these cases
the crank-handle is at
the right-hand side of
the instrument, as it
should be, but too high
up, while the appearance
is ungainly. The introduction of magnetos was strongly objected
to by the subscribers, who found that they often got unpleasant
shocks from them. That there was something more than imagi-
nation in this appears evident from the instruction in the Berlin
list, already quoted, to ' ring slowly and only once to avoid injur-
ing officers and subscribers ' ! It is not often that the comic
element intrudes into telephone subscribers' lists, and we are here

FIG. 69

German Empire

205

.206 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

under a distinct obligation to concede a ' record ' to our Berlin
friends. As the difficulty is not one that causes trouble elsewhere,
it is presumably due to faulty arrangement of parts in the German
instruments. When ringing batteries are used, the cells, eight to
twelve in number, are contained in a small cupboard placed on the
floor immediately below the instrument. The cupboard is about
two feet high, and has a veneered front of decorative wood, with
ornamental mouldings, so as to look somewhat like a piece of
ordinary furniture. The automatic switch is of Morse-key
pattern, with top and bottom anvil contacts, a form which, it
will be remembered, was adopted in the American instruments of
1879 and 1880, and which was speedily abandoned in favour of
rubbing surfaces owing to the facility with which the original
ones choked with dust. The transmitters are most often of the
familiar Mix & Genest type, two carbon blocks, mounted on a
vertical wooden diaphragm, carrying three horizontal pencils
backed by silk or felt packing and an adjustable spring ; but
there is also a transmitter by Siemens & Halske, which consists
of a flat disc of carbon, about one and a half inches in diameter,
attached to a vertical diaphragm and touching a similar disc
placed behind it, but with its face cut into lozenge pattern so as
to offer thirty-four flattened points to the pressure of the front disc.
The intimacy of contact between the two plates is adjustable by a
screw behind the back disc. This transmitter speaks loudly, but
the tone is inclined to be harsh. The receivers are universally of
Siemens & Halske's admirable double-pole type (but supplied
by all the firms), which has been often described, and which for
many years served the German Post Office as transmitters also.
It was this instrument which enabled the Mutual Telephone Com-
pany, Limited, to open its Manchester exchange in 1891, before
the expiry of the transmitter patents, and to obtain better speak-
ing on its metallic circuits than the National Telephone Com-
pany could manage with Blake microphones and single wires.
But when used as a receiver its weight (23 ozs.) and shape do not
commend it to those who have been accustomed to light receivers
of more elegant form. It will be noticed that no desk on which
a writing pad can be placed is provided, so that notes of a con-
versation cannot be taken, and the use of reference books or papers

German Empire

207

is rendered difficult. The instruments have the following resis-
tances : Induction coil, i and 200 ohms ; receiver, 200 ohms ;
generator armature, 200 ohms ; trembling bell, 170 ohms.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

A feature of the German outside work is the manner in which
the central stations are often adorned, or at least made striking in
appearance, by special and
costly domes and towers
in iron or steel, the number
of which is constantly in-
creasing as new stations are
opened or old ones rebuilt.
Fig. 71 represents a wire
fixture of this nature, and
gives a good idea, although
there is some differences in
detail, of the telephone
dome at the Oranien-
burgerstrasse switch-room,
Berlin. It is erected on a
tasteful brick turret at the
corner of the Artillerie-
strasse. Painted green
picked out with gold and
studded with white insu-
lators, the whole produces
an effect which is decidedly
pleasing. At the Moabit
switch-room there is a
somewhat similar fixture,
but the ironwork is in the
form of a square steeple and not domed. The remaining five
central station fixtures in Berlin are ordinary affairs enough ;
the only one worthy of any remark, and that only on account
of its size, is at Blankenfeldenstrasse, which is an immense oblong,
containing forty-two wooden uprights connected by iron bars.

208 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Fig. 72 shows the telephone tower at the new postal buildings at
Frankfort-on-Main, which few, perhaps, will consider beauti-
ful. It is not quite certain whether the attachment of hundreds

FIG. 72

German Empire

of aerial wires to the summits of brick
or masonry towers is not open to ob-
jection. The vibration is not only
great, but incessant, while it is difficult,
in most cases impossible, to secure an
equal stress all round. When this
cannot be done there is a permanent
strain on the tower. The great struc-
ture at Stockholm is built on steel
pillars carried down to the ground in
order to avoid trusting to brickwork or
masonry.

Having given the Imperial Adminis-
tration every credit for the enterprise
and ability which stand revealed in its
exchange fixtures, the author is con-
strained to lament that the same class
of work has not been considered neces-
sary for the ordinary overhouse stan-
dards. These are decidedly wanting in
the most important of all qualities
strength. Figs. 73,73.*, 7 4, and 7 4A show
the single and double standards respec-
tively 'with their fittings and details to
scale. There are also standards with
three and even four uprights, but these
are simply extensions of the double.
The standards consist of iron or steel
tubes, three inches in external diameter,
which are bolted or clamped to the
rafters or other suitable portions of the
roof. The arms are formed of two flat
iron bars riveted together, the rivets
passing through spacing rings, and
having a stiffening piece cut out to fit
the circumference of the tube, fas-
tened at the middle by two rivets
which pass through the stiffening

20 -40 60 80 100
FIG. 73. Scale of 200 centimeters.

2io Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

r
i

OJ <-

1 1 f I.I 1 .1. i J i l I fl

i i i i i

(T. 20 40 60 80 .100 200

YIG 74. Scale of 200 centimeters.

P 2

2 1 2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

and arm plates alike. An iron strap terminating in threaded bolts
passes round the tube and between the plates of the arm, the bolts
ultimately projecting through a separate plate bearing against the
front of the arm. Nuts are then placed on the bolts, and being
screwed up the strap embraces the tube tightly and fixes the arm.
After erection the arm is further stiffened by the insulator bolts,
which pass through spacing rings between the two plates, and
are screwed up tightly from beneath. Sometimes these arms are
replaced by simple lengths of angle -iron pierced to receive the

6 a, 4b'ubb Too me

FIG. 74A. Scale of 200 millimeters.

insulator bolts. Arms of this nature can be seen on the standard
in the right-hand bottom corner of fig. 72. The German standards
are seldom, if ever, provided with climbing clips, but most have a
wooden platform, as shown in the figures, on which the man stands
when attending to the wires. The platform is generally, but not
always, supported on a clip, so that its height can be readily
lessened as the standard fills. The details of the double standard
(fig. 74A) are precisely similar, the arms, however, being connected
together by three vertical bracing rods. The platform extends
the whole width. Often, but very far from universally, the cross-

German Empire 213

braces shown are added, but with variations, as they frequently
do not extend up nearly so far as shown. In Mannheim and
Frankfort-on-Main cross-braces are generally present ; in Berlin
and Leipzig they are mostly wanting. The standards, which seldom
exceed eighteen or twenty feet in height, have a neat appearance
when newly erected, but they are always most inadequately stayed
and frequently have no stays at all, although loaded sometimes
with over 200 wires. They are kept straight at first by adjusting
the tension of the wires on either side, but often, as might be
expected, fail out of shape. There is (October 16, 1894) a single
three-inch tube on 23 Kaiserstrasse, Frankfort-on-Main, carrying
seven arms and thirty wires, without a stay of any kind ; it contains
more curves and angles than a box of drawing instruments. A few
roofs off, on No. 27, there is another, carrying two arms and seven
wires, almost as bad. On 34 Franzosischestrasse, Berlin, there is a
triple standard, carrying eleven long and three short arms and 336
wires, provided with only two inadequate and wrongly-placed stays.
The tubes are badly bent and leaning in various directions, and
the arms are all awry. As seen from 49 Markgrafenstrasse, this
standard reminds one of the human figure there is not a straight
line in it. Such instances might be multiplied. He would be a
bold man who would insure the Prussian overhouse system against
a winter's storm accompanied by damp snow, or even an hour's
downfall of damp snow unaccompanied by wind. A visitation of
damp snow followed by a gale would certainly lay the whole in
ruin. There is no provision against the destruction of a span by
fire or tempest. The wires are made to balance, one span against
another, and there is nothing to save the standards in the event of
the stress on one side becoming suddenly much greater than that
on the other. In such a contingency the three-inch tubes would
collapse like paper and crumple up. The Dutch, who use the
same type of fixture, are much wiser in this respect (fig. 83, Dutch
section). The work is, nevertheless, very pretty to see. On 31
Kl. Fleischergasse, Leipzig, there is a double standard carrying
ten long and one short arm and 202 wires, practically without
stays, which is perfectly straight and regular. In Berlin, where
the overhead wires are necessarily extremely numerous, junction
standards consisting of eight or twelve three-inch tubes arranged in

2 1 4 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

a square and connected by long arms are sometimes placed at the
meeting of two or more routes, the wires being joined through
between the different sides of the square by insulated leads going
down boxing on one side and up on the other. These structures
are necessarily much stronger than simple double or triple
standards, but the tubes are unstayed and not braced together
except by the arms, so that the sudden destruction of several
hundred wires on one side would probably cause a collapse or at
least a severe distortion. Trunk lines are frequently carried on
short arms attached to one or both tubes of a double standard
above the long arms. The standards are sometimes connected
to earth as a precaution against lightning. Noise and vibration
seem to be experienced in the houses carrying standards, as the
wires are frequently provided with dampers in the form of pieces
of lead clamped on the wires two or three feet from the support.
This may be due to the bolting of the tubes rigidly to the rafters,
instead of allowing them to sit in a socket without any rigid
fastening as is practised in Great Britain. The appearance of a
standard carrying, perhaps, 200 dampers on either side of the
insulators is more peculiar than pleasing. In ground pole work
the author saw nothing striking in Germany. The poles appear
to be uniformly of wood ; frequently, when additional height is
wanted, a tube is fastened to the top of a wooden pole, and in
some instances double fixtures are treated in the same way, as
shown in fig. 75. The top of the pole is grooved out for some
two feet, the tube is laid in the groove, and iron clamps placed
round both and tightly screwed up with bolts and nuts. Arms
are either of the double-bar type (fig. 7 3 A), or simple lengths of
angle-iron. Ground poles are not earth-wired. Bronze wire of
1*25 mm. to 1*5 mm. gauge, supported on small double-shed white
porcelain insulators, is now used for town work. Wires are led
into subscribers' premises at the back whenever possible, joint
cups being sometimes used. Underground work is being under-
taken in Berlin, Hamburg, Cologne, Frankfort-on-Main, and other
towns. The conduits are simply iron pipes, into which the cables
are drawn, connecting draw-boxes and manholes placed from 100
to 150 meters apart. Numerous types of cable have been tried,
mostly insulated with india-rubber or gutta-percha served with

German Empire

215

metal foil for earthing. In some cables the wires have been
placed parallel, but in later types
twisting in pairs or in fours has been
Introduced, together with, in some
cases, paper insulation. The under-
ground work, so far, is understood
not to have been an unalloyed suc-
cess, which is not surprising when
the plan usually followed has been
to suppress one evil overhearing
by exaggerating another capacity.
The growing importance of the trunk
system will eventually force a resort
to metallic circuits, and then the
want of foresight which has prevailed
will be deplored. The cables have
been supplied chiefly by Siemens
& Halske, Felten & Guilleaume,
Western Electric Company, and
Franz Clouth ; the workmanship in
every case may be pronounced ex-
cellent. One of the cables employed
has a conductor composed of three
tinned copper strands of '5 mm. dia-
meter, insulated with one layer of
white Para rubber and one layer of
vulcanised, then wrapped in prepared
tape, and all vulcanised together.
Afterwards, each wire is taped with
tin-foil. The cable consists of seven
bunches of four wires, coloured blue,
green, red, and white, each bunch
arranged round a bare copper wire

of i mm. diameter, with which the , ? ? , ? ^ T ? .pro*
foil comes in contact. The whole
is wrapped in impregnated tape and

drawn into a leaden tube of i'5 mm. thickness. The copper
resistance per kilometer is 31 ohms ; capacity, '25 mf. ; and insula-

216 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

tion, 250 megohms. Mr. Clouth has recently supplied several
cables of this nature for use under the streets of Cologne, which
are stated to show a capacity of only '075 mf. per kilometer,
although the wires are wrapped in tin-foil. The foil is the thinnest
procurable. The results are said to be excellent. There is no
overhearing between wire and wire, and a distance of sixty kilo-
meters is said to have been spoken over. This cable contains
fifty-six conductors of a resistance of 21-5 ohms per kilometer.
Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume's cable of this type has generally four
uninsulated wires strung through it (fig. 76) for the purpose of
connecting the tin-foil to earth. This latter firm has also sup-
plied the German Government with cable of the kind illustrated in

FIG. 76 FIG. 77

fig- 77> which is a compromise between the anti-induction single
wire and metallic circuit classes. Each insulated conductor is-
wrapped in tin-foil, and four such conductors are twisted round an
uninsulated copper wire, which is earthed when the cable is used
for single wires. When metallic circuits are required the opposite
wires of the same group are looped. Cables for the German
Government are generally sheathed in flat iron wires or some
other form of armouring.

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

There is little calling for remark about the trunk line work.
The wire used is generally 3 mm. copper, but for the long lines,
like the Berlin-Cologne, Berlin-Munich, Berlin-Vienna, and

German Empire 217

Berlin-Memel, the gauge is 4 and 4/5 mm. The insulators are
large double-shed of white porcelain of German manufacture. The
trunks generally follow the railways and are supported on ordinary
wooden poles, the wires being crossed at intervals.

STATISTICS

The union of the telephone with the telegraph is so intimate
in Germany that no separate account is kept, or at least published,
of the exclusively telephonic receipts and working expenses. It
is consequently impossible to know whether the system is re-
munerative or the reverse.

December 31, 1893, is the date of the following the latest
figures relating to lines, instruments, and volume of traffic.

Exchange areas ....... 366

Switch-rooms ....... 384

Exchange subscribers . . . . . . 75, I2 i

,, subscribers' instruments . . . 80^82

Official and service instruments .... 12,349

Exchange instruments of all kinds in connection . 93> I 3i

Public telephone stations . . . . . 164

Instruments in stock exchanges .... 106

Trunk lines ....... 432

Length of local or town routes, kilometers . . 13,162

,, wire of all descriptions, kilometers . 142,269

Number of talks for year

Local ..... 313,628,062]

Trunk 59,082,178 1 372,710,240

At the end of 1894 the exchange instruments working in the
chief towns numbered approximately :

Berlin .
Breslau
Cologne
Dresden

25,000

Frankfort-on-Main

. 2,700

2,300

Hamburg

. 9,200

2,800

Leipzig

. 3,320

3,300

2 1 8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

X. GREECE

To date of writing (March 1895) no telephone exchange has been
opened for public use in Greece, but a small one exists for police
purposes only between Athens and the Piraeus. A law was,
however, passed in 1893 reserving the establishment of a public
exchange in Athens and the Piraeus to the State, but authorising
the granting of concessions for the other towns to individuals or
private companies.

219

XI. HOLLAND

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

TELEPHONICALLY, as in other respects, Holland is one of the
most interesting countries on the Continent. The industry and
the proverbial ability of the Dutch to adapt means to ends have
resulted in the telephone being brought, and that without State
intervention, within the reach of all, for surely that point has been
nearly approached when annual subscriptions have been reduced
.as low as 2/. gs. yd., including the supply and maintenance of
wires, apparatus, and all expenses. For a parallel it is necessary
to go to Scandinavia, and it is worthy of remark that the lowest rates
are everywhere associated with companies, not with Government
administrations. The sole exception is the case of Switzerland,
but in that instance the rates are low only for those who use their
telephones but little : for the busy firms the ^d. per call mounts
up during the year to a total that exceeds anything known in
Holland or Scandinavia. That is, of course, as it should be ; the
important firms paying, as they can well afford to do, in proportion
to their actual needs. When an all-round rate exists the poorer
folk are really taxed for the benefit of their richer brethren, and
such a rate possesses no other merit than convenience.

The Dutch Government, until the advent of the era of trunk
lines, did not attempt to participate at all in the telephonic game.
It granted concessions to companies and, in some instances, to
private firms and even individuals, for definite towns and districts,
within which they were secured from competition. The Inter-
national Bell Telephone Company obtained Amsterdam, which
it subsequently handed over to a local association, the Nether-

22O Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

lands Bell Telephone Company, to which fifteen of the other
chief towns have since been conceded. Messrs. Ribbink, van
Bork & Co., manufacturing electricians of Breda and Amsterdam,
hold and work' concessions for eleven of the smaller towns, the
exchanges in which, under the fostering influence of a 2/. I'js, lod.
rate, have obtained respectable proportions. The historic town
of Zutphen, population 17,004, has a model exchange of 141 in-
struments on the same subscription. Maastricht is worked by
the Maastricht Telephone Company, also on 2/. 17^. lod.
Nijmegen, which, with a population of 34,128 and a 2/. 17^. lod.
rate, has 450 subscribers, belongs to Mr. J. W. Kaijser. Alk-
maar and Helder are in the hands of Mynheer Jan Sot, who
carries off the palm for low subscriptions with 2/. qs. *jd. per
annum, everything included. It is perhaps superfluous to remark
that Mynheer Jan Sot possesses none of those autocratic powers
in respect to way-leaves which apologists in this country have so
liberally, if gratuitously, endowed foreign telephonists generally
by way of accounting for the low rates on which they are able to
live and thrive.

The concessionaries have to obtain licences both from the
State and the local authorities, power being reserved to the State
to revoke its grant at any time. The municipal licences are for
from fifteen to twenty- five years. The concessionaries' tenure is
therefore somewhat uncertain, but so far the State has not inter-
vened anywhere. No royalty is payable to the Government
unless a subscriber's line exceeds five kilometers in length.
It is then deemed to partake of the nature of a trunk line,
and the State makes an annual charge of i/. 13^. for the sixth
and 16-5-. 6d. for each additional kilometer. The municipalities
generally stipulate for a few free connections in return for their
licence (which, however, usually carries with it valuable way-leave
privileges) ; the Town Council of Amsterdam alone exacts a
money payment, and this is no less than 2/. is. yd. per annum on
every primary subscription of Q/. i^s. 2\d. obtained by the
company in Amsterdam. If a subscriber for any reason pays
more than the unit rate, the company keeps the whole of the
excess. In addition, the company has to give the Amsterdam
Corporation no less than thirty- one free connections and a

Holland 22 1

reduction of 50 per cent, on any above that number. In return,
way-leave is granted for the streets and public buildings.

The history of the Dutch trunk lines is rather involved. The
Government had conceived the idea at an early date that trunks
meant ruin to telegraphic traffic, and fell into the usual fallacy
that because the telegraph system belonged to the public it was
necessary and essential to protect it against the public. That is
to say, that which was no longer the best and fittest for certain
purposes must, in the interests of the nation, be fostered and
protected by artificial means to the damage of the new and
worthier method of communication, because, forsooth, the public
had originally paid for the obsolete system.

As a consequence, the action of the Dutch Government was
not encouraging. Owing to financial or other reasons it was not
at that time deemed politic for the State to undertake the con-
struction of the trunks ; but it was not till 1887, when the com-
mercial community had long been clamouring for communication,
that it \vas resolved to allow the Netherlands Bell Company to
connect Amsterdam with Haarlem. The conditions imposed
were sufficiently onerous. The company was to erect and main-
tain the line, pay over half the profits to the State, and, moreover,
undertake to make good the full value of any diminution of
telegraphic traffic that might occur between the points connected.
The telegraphic traffic was further protected by the imposition of
high rates. Messages were not to be paid for singly, but all users
of the trunks were to pay an annual rate equal to the local
subscription in the towns to which they spoke. Did not the trunk
make a Haarlem man virtually a member of the Amsterdam
exchange, and an Amsterdam man a participator in that of
Haarlem ? Then let the Haarlem subscriber pay the Amsterdam
rate and the Amsterdam subscriber the Haarlem rate in addition
to his own, and ends would meet. Notwithstanding these
conditions traffic flourished and, strange to say, without pro-
ducing any marked effect on the telegraphic revenue. At the end
of the first year the company paid a small sum to the State to put
the telegraphic receipts on a level with those of the previous year ;
but during the second year the telegraph recovered itself, and no
further payment was demanded. Then the Government acquired

222 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

a little courage and consented to Amsterdam being connected:
with the Hague and Rotterdam, a work which the company
successfully achieved in the face of considerable difficulties. The
local authorities along the route raised many objections to the
planting of the poles, and no less than seven submarine cables had
to be laid across the intervening rivers and canals. Experience
again demonstrated that, although the telephonic traffic was con-
siderable, the effect on the telegraphic revenue was both slight
and transitory, and the Government at last determined to yield
to public opinion and bring about the linking up of the other
principal towns. But, although the company had proved at its;
own expense and risk the existence of a telephonic demand and
the practicability of satisfying it, the Government determined to-
keep the trunks so far as possible in its own hands. Apparently
there were obstacles to such a policy being given effect to openly
and without reserve ; so it was decided to allow the Netherlands-
Bell Company to continue constructing and working, on the
understanding that the State should supply the material and the
company the labour, the company receiving 4 per cent per annum
on the cost of their share of the work by way of interest, and
agreeing to make over the lines to the State at any time on
reimbursement of their outlay, the amount of which was to be
determined and certified on the completion of each trunk. This
is a good bargain for the company, since it gets back the full
value of its work, whatever the state of the lines may be when
eventually taken over. At the same time (November 1889) the
annual trunk subscriptions were abolished and the present pay-
ment per time unit substituted. The trunk lines go straight inte-
rne company's exchanges and are worked by its employees without
interference of any kind. The lines, however, are maintained by
the State. The receipts are divided, 75 per cent, going to the
State and 25 per cent, to the company. This policy has resulted
in the linking up of all the sixteen towns conceded to the
Netherlands Bell Company and one other.

The trunk traffic is large, but the State officials are not now
disposed to say that it has any bad effect on the telegraph
revenue. The impression rather prevails that the efficacy of the
telephone as a general feeder and stimulant over the whole system-

Holland 223.

compensates for any diversion of traffic between particular points.
Exact comparisons are not possible, as, since the telephone trunks
came into operation, the telegram tariff has been reduced and
receipts have fallen, although messages have multiplied. The
Dutch internal telegram tariff is 4'95</. for ten words, with "59^. for
each additional word ; but for telegrams passing between parts of
the same town the charge is only 2-97^. for ten words, with '198^.
for each extra word.

The subscribers' lines in all the large towns are single, but the
Netherlands Bell Company recognises the superiority of the metallic
circuits, and some of its recently constructed exchanges have been
fitted with it, as all future ones will also be. The Zutphen
Company has adopted the metallic circuit ; but the other con-
cessionaries continue to run single wires. In Amsterdam there is
a considerable amount of underground work, the extent of which
is growing rapidly. To date of writing, no international trunk
lines actually exist, but an agreement has been signed with
Belgium by which the Dutch and Belgian centres will be brought
into communication at as early a date as possible. The rate
agreed upon, as between Amsterdam and Rotterdam on the one
hand, and Antwerp and Brussels on the other, is 2s. $d. per three
minutes. Last autumn experiments were tried with the view of
establishing telephonic communication with England by means of
a direct cable, the Dutch being averse to adopting a route via
Belgium. It was found possible to telephone fairly well, using
ordinary instruments, through the old telegraph cables between
Lowestoft and Zandvoort and Benacre and Zandvoort, so that,
given a special telephonic cable, the practicability of the scheme
is beyond doubt. The Dutch Government has given the promise
of a concession to Dr. Hubrecht, managing director of the Nether-
lands Bell Telephone Company, for the works on the Dutch side, and
that gentleman proposes that an Anglo- Dutch company shall be
formed to lay a cable between Aldborough in Suffolk and the Hook
of Holland, and establish the necessary connecting lines on both
sides. But nothing can be done without the consent of the
British Post Office, which now has several memorials on the:
subject before it.

224 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

SERVICES RENDERED BY THE NETHERLANDS BELL
TELEPHONE COMPANY

1. Local intercourse between the subscribers and public
telephone stations of the same town,

2. Internal trunk line communication. Seventeen towns,
with a total of 4,700 subscribers, had been put into communica-
tion at the end of 1894, these, with the exception of Nijmegen,
being all those conceded to the Netherlands Bell Company. The
number of trunk messages exchanged during 1892 was 71,833 ;
during 1893, 79,424 ; and during 1894, 85,142. The trunk regu-
lations are in some respects peculiar to Holland. For instance,
subscribers who use the trunks pay an annual subscription
of i6.r. 6\d. in addition to the charge per connection, which, for
the distances spoken over, is high 9 "yd. per three minutes
compared with that which obtains in some other countries. When
a called subscriber does not answer within one minute, the caller
is debited with half a fee, 4'g$d. Express talks are allowed, a
subscriber being given precedence over any others who may be
waiting their turn in return for a double fee ; but no connection
must exceed six minutes in duration if others are waiting.
Deposits to cover conversations must be made in advance, the
minimum deposit accepted being 4/. 25. $\d.

3. Public telephone stations. Of these there are eight in
Amsterdam, six in Rotterdam, six in the Hague, four each in
Groningen and Utrecht, and from one to two in each of the smaller
towns. These stations are frequently situated in the booking halls
of the railway stations and at the post and telegraph offices, and
are available both for local and trunk talks. Automatic boxes for
checking payments are not used, the charges being payable to an
attendant in cash or in tickets. At the Amsterdam and Rotterdam
Bourses messengers are in attendance to fetch to the telephone
station members who may be asked for. Persons so called, if
they come, have to pay the tariff charges. To facilitate this
fetching system a plan of the Bourse, on which each member's
place is indicated by a number, is printed in the subscribers' lists,
and the number of the member wanted must be mentioned when
asking for him. The messenger hands the member called a dated

Holland 225

and timed ticket bearing the name and telephone number of the
person who wants him. Trunk talks are subject to the same
charges and regulations as those made from subscribers' offices.

4. Telephoning of telegrams. This is an important service,
but, owing perhaps to the higher charges and less elastic regulations,
the traffic does not attain the proportions reached in the neigh-
bouring kingdom of Belgium. In 1894 the total number of tele-
grams handled by the Netherlands Bell Cofcnpany was 104,367, of
which Amsterdam was responsible for 66.348. Senders of telegrams
have to deposit the estimated value of their traffic in advance, and
are not allowed to outrun their deposits. The company's operators
attend at the telegraph office to receive and transmit telegrams by
telephone ; the State charges nothing for the space occupied, nor
for lighting or warming. In connection with the State telegraphs
there is a little facility granted to the public which appears peculiar
to Holland. Senders of telegrams from any of the Dutch towns,
when addressing a telephone subscriber in any of those towns in
which the telegraph office is connected to the telephone exchange,
may order their message to be telephoned on its arrival to its
addressee even when the latter does not subscribe to the ordinary
telegram service. To take advantage of this regulation it is only
necessary to write the letters T. B. in brackets before the address
and pay for them as two words. Should it not be possible to get
the addressee to answer his bell, the message is delivered by
messenger in the ordinary way.

5. Time service. All the Netherlands Company's exchanges
receive the correct time from Amsterdam Observatory once a day.
Subscribers wishing to regulate their clocks are told the time on
demand. Nothing is charged for this service. It is nevertheless
not without an importance to those subscribers who use the trunks
a good deal and like their monthly accounts, made up from the
operators' registers, to tally with their own notes.

TARIFFS l

i. Rates for local exchange communication. The rates
levied by the Netherlands Bell Company were approved by Royal
1 One florin = is. j^d.

226 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Resolutions in 1881 and subsequent years. Instead of increasing
in proportion to the mileage beyond a defined radius, as in most
countries, a system of division into districts has been effected,
and a definite rate allotted to each district. Thus in Amsterdam
there are three grades of subscription :

s. d.

Subscribers located within Amsterdam proper . 9 14 2|

,, in Nieuwer-Amstel . . . 12 6 io

Ouder-Amstel . . . . 20 11 5|

In Rotterdam :

Within the city 9 *4 2 ^

In Kralingen 12 6 loj

In Dordrecht :

Within the town 4 3 * !

In Zwijndrecht . . . .847

The remaining towns of the Netherlands Bell Company have a
single tariff. They are :

Per annum Per annum

s. d. . * d.

The Hague . .911 Schiedam . . . j

Arahem. . -> Utrecht . . - -4 19 4

Baarn . . . Zaandam . . . J

Bussum. . , Amersfoort .)

Groningen . . ' Hilversum . .368

Haarlem . . I Vlaardingen . . )
Maassluis . '

The towns worked by Messrs. Ribbink, van Bork & Co. are :

Per annum Per annum

s. d. s- <t-

Breda . . -\ Leyden . . .-,

Deventer . . | Middelburg

Enschede . - i-2 17 10 Tilburg . . . ;-2 17 10

s'Hertogenbosch . I Flushing . . i

Leeuwarden . . ' Xwolle

Mr. Kaijser has one exchange :

Per annum
s. d.
Nijmegen 2 17 10

Holland 227

The Zutphen Telephone Company has one exchange :

Per annum
s. d.

Zutphen 2 17 10

The Maastricht Telephone Company has one exchange :

s. d.
Maastricht . . . . . . 2 17 10

Mr. Jan Sot has two exchanges :

Alkmaar . . . . . . . .

Helder

The Dutch rates cover all expenses of installation and main-
tenance. They do not, at least to an unprejudiced or disin-
terested outsider, appear remarkable for extravagance or oppressive-
ness ; but such is the frailty of human nature, which for ever yearns
for something not yet within its grasp, the subscribers are not
satisfied, and hope to obtain better terms when the present con-
cessions expire. On the other hand, the concessionaries appear
quite satisfied. The Zutphen Company is making money, and
Messrs. Ribbink, van Bork & Co. deplore the fact that Holland,
telephonically speaking, is, at least pending the reclamation of the
Zuyder Zee, nearly used up, and but few towns worth mentioning
remain to be telephoned. This firm assured the author that their
rate of thirty-five florins (2/. i js. io</.) pays them satisfactorily, and
that they are willing to take as many new towns as they can get
on the same terms, and would even agree, if the Government
wished, to put in metallic circuits. It is well to state, however,
that the firm are manufacturing electricians and, there being no
patent laws in Holland, make all the switch-boards and instru-
ments they require in their own shops. Something, the manu-
facturer's profit, is saved in this way on the first cost of their
exchanges. But the Zutphen Company without this advantage,
and with first-class construction and instruments, contrives to make
a profit on the same rate.

2. Rates for internal trunk communication. To acquire the
right to use the trunks a subscriber must agree to pay i6s. 6\d.
per annum in advance in addition to his local subscription.

Q 2

228 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Besides, each trunk talk must be paid for at the rate of 9-9^
per three minutes, irrespective of distance.

Express or urgent communications, by which the caller is given
precedence of any others who may be waiting, are charged double
rates. A half-fee is exigible for a connection asked for, but which
cannot be had through no fault of the company. The right to
use the trunks for a stated daily period may be acquired by annual
subscription. Fifteen minutes' daily use costs 41 /. i$s. ^d. per
annum ; some newspapers subscribe as much as 5007. in this way.

3. Rates at public telephone stations. No distinction is.
made between subscribers and strangers.

Local talk, 5 minutes ......

,, 10 ,, ...... 9'90./.

13 ...... 14-85^.

Each additional 3 minutes ...... 4 '95^.

Talks must not last longer than ten minutes if others are
waiting their turn.

Trunk talk, per 3 minutes ...... 9*9^.

The charge is irrespective of distance. Talks must not exceed
six minutes in duration if the line is otherwise wanted. If the
called subscriber does not answer within one minute, or if the
connection cannot be had through no fault of the company, the
caller must pay half-fee. Payments may be made in cash, or by
tickets which are sold by agents appointed by the Company at a
reduction of 20 per cent. Express talks are admitted on payment
of double rate.

4. Rates for telephoning telegrams.- To enjoy this service,
subscribers must pay 8^. 3^. annually in addition to their ordinary
subscriptions ; this charge is, however, remitted to those who
subscribe to the trunk service.

Each telephone despatched or received by telephone is charged
99^., irrespective of the number of words. Copies of telegrams
telephoned to subscribers are not delivered unless specially desired.
In that case a copy is posted and the addressee debited with -495^.
If he does not care to wait for the post, he can have a copy
immediately by sending to the telegraph office and paying '495^.

Holland 229

WAY-LEAVES

Neither the Netherlands Bell Telephone Company nor any
other of the concessionaries possesses compulsory powers : they
have to beg and pay their way in the same fashion as the English
companies. The Netherlands Bell Company inserts a clause in
its agreements by which subscribers bind themselves to grant way-
leave facilities on their premises, but it has not been found politic
to enforce it strictly. The same company pays the Amsterdam
Municipality no less that 2/. is. ^d. per subscriber per annum, and
provides no less than thirty-one free connections for the right to
erect poles and lay cables in the streets and public places and to
fix wires on public buildings. This does not obviate the necessity
of going on private property, a privilege which has to be bought
occasionally with a free exchange connection or payment of one
florin (is. 7$d.) per wire per annum. The provincial towns deal
more liberally with the company than Amsterdam does, and cor-
responding rights-of-way are usually granted in return for a few
free connections to the municipal offices.

ROYALTIES

None are payable to the State unless a subscriber's line exceeds
five kilometers in length. In such a case i/. i^s. is charged for
the sixth, and i6s. 6d. for each succeeding kilometer per annum.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

The switch-boards in Holland are not of the latest type ;
Amsterdam with nearly 1,700, and Rotterdam with nearly 1,000
subscribers being still worked with Gillilano. boards. The reason
is the company's undefined position in respect to the State. A
new post and telegraph office is to be built in Amsterdam, to
which it is proposed that the telephone exchange shall be removed.
With such a shift in prospect, it is not to be expected that the
company would go to the great expense involved in fitting a
modern multiple board on its old premises. Much the same
state of matters exists at Rotterdam. At Amsterdam, where the

230 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

trunks chiefly concentrate, there is a special trunk table fitted for
fifty lines. The key-board is shown in fig. 78. It is mounted
with ten pairs of double-conductor plugs and cords, i to x, each
pair being connected to a key i to 10. Six of these keys i, 2,
3, and 8, 9, 10 are joined to the keys TI T2 T3 and T8 TQ Tio r
which bring the translators (of the Landrath pattern) into circuit.
By turning down the switches A and c the key-board is divided
into two sections and may be attended to by two operators ; when
A and c are up and B down one operator can control the whole.
LI to 14 are listening keys, and cut off one side of a connection
when the plugs are in ; RI to R4 are ringing keys. Fig. 79 (with

O1O

QUO

A B C

omo oivo ovo ovio ovco coo OKO

oxo

3456789

Ta Ts T9

Tio

~IU

FIG. 7

the same reference letters) is a diagram of the general connections.
The spring-jacks may have attached to them either metallic
circuits or single earthed wires ; thus w v z are metallic trunks
and x an earthed wire going to the main switch-board for joining
to the subscribers' single lines. It will be seen that the table
allows of all necessary combinations i.e. direct connection of two
metallic circuits, of two single wires, and of a metallic with a single
either through a translator or direct.

Subscribers are asked for by numbers ; after receiving the
operator's intimation that the connection has been made, the
caller hangs up his phone, and himself rings his client's bell.
After the talk is over he rings off in the ordinary way. When a
subscriber is called he takes down his phone and speaks without

Holland

231

ringing back. It is hard to accept this system as satisfactory. If
a called person does not answer immediately, the caller continues

i] Jj

i' J |T i ill
11 G 11

FIG. 79

to ring, and the operator, after a minute or two, mistakes one of
these rings for a ring-off and disconnects, with the usual effect on
the tempers of all concerned. If by force of tapping she learns

232 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

the true position of affairs and does not disconnect, she has the
useless labour of restoring the ring-off shutter every time it falls,
labour which is more than thrown away, since it is subtracted from
that which could be usefully bestowed in other directions the
young lady telephonist capable of doing several things properly
at the same moment not having yet been successfully evolved,
although perhaps she is on the road. A distinctive disconnection
signal is the only solution of the difficulty, and that will have to
be evolved too. These remarks do not apply to Amsterdam or
Holland alone ; the same difficulty exists in Sweden, in Germany,
and wherever the caller is made to do his own ringing. In trunk-
line switching the calling subscriber rings through to the operator
at the distant town and asks his connection from her. The
smaller concessionaries have nothing special to show in the way
of switching apparatus. The Zutphen Company has a nicely-
.made i6o-line board by Ericsson & Co., Stockholm.

The Amsterdam subscribers are divided between three switch-
rooms in addition to the central viz. Haarlemmer-Houttuinen,
Rapenburg, and Kerkstraat. The central has twenty-five junction
wires to each of the others, and these are also directly connected
by from five to ten junctions. The junction wires follow different
routes, so that it is impossible for one fire or accident to sever
the whole communication between any two switch -rooms.

HOURS OF SERVICE

The anomaly is presented of the capital having shorter hours
than some of the provincial towns. Amsterdam exchange is open
only from 8 A.M. till 10 P.M. (6 P.M. on Sundays). These are also
the hours at Rotterdam and the Hague for general work, but in
each of these towns an operator paid by the municipality attends
all night to answer any calls to or from the fire and police offices.
Such a service is not considered necessary in Amsterdam, where
an extensive fire- and police-alarm system exists independently
of the telephone exchange. Dordrecht, Arnhem, Haarlem, and
Utrecht are open day and night. Others of the smaller towns are
closed during the day to allow the operator away for meals ; thus
at Zaandam the hours are 8.30 A.M. till noon, i P.M. till 5 P.M.,

Holland 233

and 7 P.M. till 9 P.M. ; and at Hilversum, 8 A.M. till 5 P.M., and
7 P.M. till 8.30 P.M. Messrs. Ribbink, van Bork & Co.'s exchanges
are open from 7 or 8 A.M. till 9 or 10 P.M., according to local require-
ments. They all have, however, a night service for the fire and
police offices and doctors. The Zutphen exchange is kept open
continuously for all kinds of traffic.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

The Netherlands Bell Company now employ magneto ringers
of substantial, but not uncommon, design, together with double-
pole receivers and the Groof form of Runnings transmitter, all of
Antwerp manufacture. There is, however, a goodly number of
Blake transmitters and single-pole receivers still in use. Messrs.
Ribbink, van Bork & Co., at their centres, use magneto ringers,
double-pole receivers, and a modified form of Berliner trans-
mitter, all manufactured by themselves. The Zutphen Telephone
Company use magneto ringers, double-pole receivers, and trans-
mitters manufactured by Messrs. Ericsson & Co., Stockholm.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

i '5 mm. bronze wire, supported on small double-shed porce-
lain insulators, is now used in the towns instead of the original
galvanised steel. With few exceptions, the subscribers' lines in
Amsterdam and the other principal towns are single with earth
return ; but Vlaardingen and Amersfoort, the two latest centres of
the Netherlands Bell Company, are metallic circuit, and it has been
determined that all future ones shall be so likewise. The pole work
of the Netherlands Bell Company is exceedingly well executed.
In Belgium and Switzerland much attention is given to the design
of poles of the largest size from 50 to 80 feet which are often
both handsome and substantial, while their smaller work partakes
of the commonplace ; in Holland the design of the small poles
receives as much attention as that of the large, with the result that
the citizens do not complain of being affronted by ugly and evil-
smelling creosoted posts, such as are mostly affected in the United
Kingdom. Along the canals in Amsterdam and in the suburbs
(as well as in most of the other towns) one sees far- stretch ing routes

234 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

of supports of the design shown in figs. 80 and ST. Essentially
the poles are but the familiar iron lattice signal-post of the

FIG. 80

British railways ; their attractiveness lies in the tasteful arrange-
ment of the cross-arms, insulators, and finials. When nicely

Holland 235

painted, with clean insulators and well-regulated wires, they look
extremely well, and give one the impression that the company in.

FIG. 81

erecting them has done its duty, both to the citizens and to its
shareholders for they are strong and durable withal, and go far

236 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

to disarm grumblers. To give a firm hold on the ground the
inside of the pole is filled to just above the ground level with
concrete. The taller poles are of quite a different type, although
they too are handsomely got up. They are of wood, painted with
preservative compound ; the pole is encased in a square wooden
box from the butt to some three feet above the ground level, the
space between the pole and the box being tightly rammed with
clean dry sand. The box is closed with a moulded lid, and lends
a finish to the appearance of the pole ; but it is intended primarily
by its deviser, Dr. Hubrecht, the general manager of the Nether-
lands Bell Telephone Company, to prevent the decay which in-
variably attacks wooden poles at or near the ground line. When
so fitted it is the box, which can be readily renewed, which decays ;
while the pole, embedded in dry sand, lasts an indefinite period.
The square box furthermore affords the pole a better hold in the
ground than the rounded butt could give. Fig. 82 shows such a
pole, 75 feet high and carrying 150 bronze wires. The climbing
steps on these poles are riveted to long strips of iron, which are
spiked or screwed to the poles on either side ; this form of con-
struction was adopted owing to steps working loose when fastened
individually direct to the wood. In the suburbs light telescopic
iron tubular poles are employed for branch routes of six or eight
wires ; they occupy little room and look well. The Dutch do not
earth-wire their wooden poles. The more recent standards are of
German type, consisting of one or more tubes fastened rigidly
at their lower extremities to some part of the roof, and fitted with
cross-arms consisting of strips of iron connected by rivets and
by the insulator bolts. Such arms are cheap one to carry six
insulators costing 80 cents (is. 3^.), and one to- carry twenty
insulators only i'8o florins (2s. <)d.) They are not, however,
nearly so strong as the channel-iron arms designed by the author
for the National Telephone Company, and now exclusively
employed in the United Kingdom. The details of these
standards are given in figs. 73 and 74 (German section). But,
although identical in design, there is an important difference
between the methods of erection in Germany and Holland. In
the former country stays are rarely employed, and scarcely ever in
an efficient manner, even when there are 200 wires attached ; but

Holland

237

in Holland there is no false economy in the matter of stays, and
the standards are treated as though the destruction of the span of

wires on one side by fire or storm is not altogether an impossible
contingency. In a word, the Dutch work is far superior to the

2 $8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

German. At the same time, it must be said that the Dutch
standards are not nearly so well calculated to withstand the
vicissitudes of accident and tempest as are the Belgian ; but that is
a fault of the design, not of erection. They are not earth-wired.
Fig. 83 gives a good idea of an Amsterdam double standard.

The numerous rivers and canals in Amsterdam and else-
where compel the frequent use of lengths of submarine cable.
Originally, indiarubber-covered wires encased in lead were put
down, but did not stand. Now a regular type of armoured sub-
marine cable containing guttapercha-covered wires is employed.

Underground work has not been neglected, there being 11*6
aniles of cable already down in Amsterdam. It is chiefly designed
to get past the crowding of overhouse wires around the exchange,
and the cables usually lead to a terminal pole in some secluded
corner whence the wires are distributed overhead. No attempt
has been made to serve the subscribers directly underground ; the
Dutch towns do not lend themselves to such a method, the cost
of which would be prohibitive. The cables usually contain
fourteen pairs of twisted wires insulated with paper, each pair
being spiralled with metal foil for earthing. One wire of each pair
is tinned, and the identification of the pairs is assisted by two
-adjacent pairs in each layer being coloured respectively blue and
pink. The cable is first covered with plain linen and then by a
leaden tube, which in its turn is covered by a layer of impregnated
jute and another of impregnated linen, the whole being protected
by flat steel wires laid on spirally. These cables are supplied by
Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume. It will be seen that the ultimate
adoption of the metallic circuit is borne well in mind. The cable is
laid in sand contained in a closed trough of creosoted wood, access
boxes being placed every fifty meters or so, to facilitate distribution
should it be found desirable at any future time to erect addi-
tional poles and terminate thereat some of the spare cable wires.
The engineers appear to have confidence in this method of
laying, no accidents from the picks of strange workmen having
been experienced, and the cables maintaining their electrical
conditions well. The plan involves the reopening of the ground
whenever the spares on a route become exhausted, so a good
deal of capital has to be buried in the shape of wires that may
not be required for a considerable time. Great pains are taken

Holland

239

at the junction of the underground with the overhead wires.
Whenever space permits, a small hut (fig. 84) is built at or
near the base of the distributing pole and fitted most efficiently

240 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

FIG. 84

Holland

241

with cross-connecting terminals and lightning-guards. The
cable ends are of course sealed in insulating material, the

FIG. 85

junction between underground and overhead being effected by
an intermediate cable insulated with india-rubber or gutta-percha.

242 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Fig. 85 shows a public telephone station of the Netherlands
Company at Baarn.

Messrs. Ribbink, van Bork & Co.'s methods of construc-
tion are in no wise noteworthy. Although some bronze wire has
been erected, their subscribers? lines are run chiefly with steel
of r8 mm. gauge, of a breaking strain of 300 kilogrammes per
square millimeter.

The Zutphen Telephone Company is remarkable in many
ways. Its rate, 2/. 17^. io^/. per annum, is not the lowest in
Holland Mynheer Jan Sot takes care of that but no attempt
has been made elsewhere to give metallic circuits, the best of
modern instruments, and a perpetual service for such a mo-
derate sum. But they do it at Zutphen, and, what is stranger
still, find it pays. The originator of the company and its
present manager, Mr. C. J. van Bueren,
a retired (Dutch) East Indian merchant,
resident at Zutphen, applied, in conjunc-
tion with Mr. Carel Henny, for the con-
cession (as much with the idea of passing
the time as anything else), and having ob-
tained it for the town and five kilometers
around, succeeded in forming a company
to work it. Mr. van Bueren knew nothing

about telephone work at the time, but determined that he
would have the best system and best workmanship procurable
for his exchange, and, after due inquiry, placed a contract
with the Netherlands Bell Telephone Company for its construc-
tion. All materials were to be of the best, and, with a view to
ultimate connection with the Dutch trunk wire system, all lines
were to be double and of 1*5 mm. bronze, having a breaking
strain of 120 kilogrammes and a conductivity of 60 per cent, of
pure copper. The exchange was opened on July i, 1893, with
107 subscribers (the population of Zutphen is 17,004), and
as these all had Ericsson transmitters, double-pole receivers, and
metallic circuits, the speaking was as near perfection as well
could be. By December 31, 1894, the instruments connected
had increased in number to 141, with many more in prospect.
The company enjoys free premises at the town hall, with the use

Holland

243

>--350 --^I

I I I

I I

475

475--->-

of the roof, in return for four free connections given respec-
tively to the burgomaster, town
hall, and to the fire and police
offices. As all these are con-
tained within the walls of the

300

town hall, the company may be
adjudged to have made a very
good bargain. Owing to the con-
figuration of the town hall roof
and the existence of a steeple, two
separate fixtures had to be erected.
These are substantially built of
angle-iron, the larger consisting of
eight uprights arranged in a square
of 3-3 meters and connected by
nineteen cross-arms. The uprights
are fastened solidly to the roof, and
the whole stands without the aid of
stays. The fixtures are joined to the
lightning conductor of the neigh-
bouring steeple, and, in addition,
have a special conductor and earth
of their own. All the other standards
in the town are carefully earthed
and each metallic circuit has a
lightning-guard, not only at the ex-
change, but at the premises of the
subscriber served by it. Fig. 86
shows the method of attaching the
insulators to the exchange cross-
arms. Fig. 87 shows one of the
standards used through the town,
with dimensions. The tubes are
continued through the roofs, and
are bolted or strapped to the wood-
work. The finials are provided with
holes through which, when sub-
scribers exist in a building on which FlG . 87 ._ Dimensions in m iiH me ters.

& 2

1OOO --

244 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

a standard is erected, the leading-in wires may be taken, passing
thence into the house through the tube and roof. Some of
the standards are double, the tubes then being connected by
long arms as in fig. 83. All fixtures are carefully painted, and
every roof, besides being strengthened under the standard, is
protected by substantial foot-boards. The spans are short, and
to reduce as much as possible the chance of contact, no joints
are made in the running wire ; when a coil of wire, during
construction, chanced to end in the middle of a span the
odd piece was sacrificed, and the joint made at the preceding in-
sulator as shown in fig. 88. There are no joints, therefore, in the
line wires themselves to help them to hang together during a gale.

All joints throughout the sys-
tem are soldered with resin.
Standards are used only when
it is impossible to manage
with poles. Of these last there
are a good many, ranging from
fifty-eight to seventy-five feet
in height. They are of fir,
pickled, and in every case well
erected and carefully fitted.
The climbing steps, as in
Amsterdam, are riveted to

iron strips which are screwed to the poles. Fig. 89 shows the
method of attaching the arms, which differs in several respects from
the English. At the exchange the wires are first led by twisted pairs
to cross-connecting and lightning-guard boards placed in an attic
and carefully protected from dust by wooden casing with glass doors,
and then, also by twisted pairs, to the switch -room on the ground
floor. Here there is a i6o-drop table by Ericsson, of Stockholm,
beautifully made and neatly fitted, no detail, however trifling,
being overlooked. There is, however, nothing special about the
arrangements of the table, which has the usual indicators, call-
ing and ring-off, speaking and ringing keys, and weighted
cords. Alongside it is fixed a testing galvanometer with keys and
battery, so that a suspected line may be tested for earth or dis-
connection at once. Adjacent to the switch-room is a public

Holland

245

telephone station containing an American { long-distance ' desk
set of the kind designed by Mr. Thomas D. Lockwood, of Boston,
in 1888. It consists of an elegant table, on which are conveniently
mounted the transmitter, receiver, and ringer, with every conveni-
ence for writing. There is not a bit of scamped work from
beginning to end, and Zutphen constitutes a really model exchange,
to which it would pay certain telephone administrations and
companies, English not excepted, to send their engineers as to
a school. To the date of opening, the installation, including
the preliminary expenses, had cost 20,000 florins (1,6507.).

j 3

3 3

3 5 mu 3

3.3

3 j

<<_

>o>

3 9

Is 9

f 3 3

I '

FIG. 89. Dimensions in centimeters.

As there were 107 subscribers to start with, this amounts to
1 5/. 8s. $d. per line, but plenty of spare room for future expansion
was provided at the exchange fixture and on the poles and
standards. Inspection and repairs have cost since the open-
ing from 2/. is. $d. to 2/. gs. 6d. per month. Way-leaves cost
about 24/. per annum. Day operating costs i2s. 6d. per week
(one girl relieved for meals by a younger under-study who is
competent to take her place on holidays or in case of sick-
ness) ; and night operating, i6/. 9^. od. per annum This is
performed by a young man, otherwise engaged during the day,
who sleeps in the switch-room with an alarm bell worked by

246 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

the indicator shutters over his head. The manager receives
only 24/. 13-r. 9^. per annum by way of salary, but he is en-
titled to a preferential percentage of the profits, and is, besides,
a shareholder. At Deventer and Enschede, neighbouring small
towns in which similar but single-wire exchanges exist, the
managers are a master plumber and an insurance agent respec-
tively. New construction and repairs are contracted for with
the Netherlands Bell Telephone Company at fixed rates. In-
spection and testing is performed by the manager. As a result
of the first year's working, to June 30, 1894, all expenses to
date were paid, and the costs of obtaining the concession and
forming the company written off.

By December 31, 1894, the profits realised justified the de-
claration of a dividend of 4*2 per cent. A translation of the
company's report and accounts for 1894 is given at the end
of this section in order that some inkling of the secret (in
Britain) art of running a model telephone exchange on an in-
clusive annual subscription of 2/. i^s. lod. may be obtained.

In considering the cost of construction, it would not be correct
to imagine that the work was performed by underpaid or un-
skilled men. It was done by contract by the Netherlands Bell
Telephone Company, who sent some of their best men, paid
according to the scale on page 248. As they would be working
in a strange town, each man would get sleeping allowance in
addition to his pay ; and to all must be added the Netherlands Bell
Company's profit on the contract. The author does not profess
to regard the manager's salary as sufficient, nor the provision for
reserve and deterioration adequate, but an advance of the sub-
scription to 4/. 5*. per annum would afford ample margin for these
items. With this reservation there is no reason why, under similar
conditions, the Zutphen results should not be obtained in English
towns of the same size ; and the author does not doubt its prac-
ticability in many cases, especially if undertaken by the municipal
authorities.

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

There is not much to remark about the Dutch trunk line work
except that it is generally very well done. The first lines were

Holland

247

erected along the roads, the railways being avoided, as it was
feared that the strong currents in the telegraph wires would inter-

FIG. 90. A Dutch trunk line.

fere in a degree even with metallic circuits. That theory is, of
course, now disproved, and was known to be groundless in Great

' ':"** -B^vr

248 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Britain at least as early as 1881, six years before any trunks were
erected in Holland. Advantage has been taken of the railways
for the later extensions. The Netherlands Bell Company likes tall
poles for its trunks, and on some routes there are long stretches of
5o-feet poles, which lift the wires well above the trees. Fig. 90
shows a Dutch trunk route with 54-feet poles. The wire used
is 3 mm. hard copper, and the insulators are large double-shed
white porcelain. The wires are crossed, not twisted, but the
Dutch Government is understood to contemplate the twisting of
the projected international trunk line to Belgium as far as the
frontier. The Netherlands Bell Company, which is to construct
the line, well aware of the uselessness and drawbacks of such a pro-
ceeding, has protested and may succeed in getting the intention
altered. The speaking over the trunks is very good, but the
distances are not, of course, great.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen receive from 3 to 4 florins (4$. \\d. to 6s. 7^.) per
day ; skilled wiremen, 4^. zd. ; and labourers, 3*96^. per hour.
When working away from home the men's actual expenses are
paid. Working hours are from 7 A.M. till 6 P.M., with one and a
half hours off for meals.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

Girls, when taken on at the age of seventeen years, receive
6s. 7</. per week, and rise by degrees to gs. io\d. as ordinary
operators. The average pay of this class at Amsterdam is at
present Ss. $d. per week. - The trunk operators and those who
attend at the telegraph office for the telephoning of telegrams are
required to understand English, German, and French in addition
to their own language, and are paid from i6s. 6d. to 195. 9^.
per week, according to length of service. These amounts include
a small premium payable on each telegram handled without error.
Applicants for vacancies must produce high-school certificates of
intelligence and industry.

Holland 249

STATISTICS

At the end of 1894 there were in Holland 7,263 subscribers
distributed as follows :

Owner Town

Number of
subscribers

Population

, Amsterdam

1,752

426,914

Arnhem .

28 4

51,105

Amersfoort

I4,l82

Baarn

Bussum .

Dordrecht

252

34,125

Netherlands Bell
Telephone Com-<
pany .

Groningen
Haarlem
^ Hague .
Hilversum

173
165

381
47

57,967

55,3"
169,828
12,199

Maassluis

Rotterdam

961

222,233

Schiedam

25,280

Utrecht .

214

89,436

Vlaardingen .

. I 24

12,059

^ Zaandam

14,545

4,373

Breda .

202

22,987

Deventer

198

Enschede

196

2 5',664

s' Hertogenbosch

200

27,594

Ribbink, van Bork &

Leeuwarden .

197

30,712

Co. . . .<

Leyden .

300

44,198

Middelburg .

. ; 150

i6,455

.Tilburg .

195

35,o68

Flushing

. ; loo

12,565

Zwolle .

200

27,706

1,938

J. W. Kaijser . Nijmegen

34,128

^^h'one^omplny 6 ." [ Maa stricht

225

32,757

ZU Com n an rdeph0ne / Zut P hen

141

17,004

Alkmaar

14,048

Jar ' Helder .

23,H5

250 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

The number of local connections is unfortunately not given,
but the chief exchanges are undoubtedly very busy. In Amster-
dam as many as 254 connections have been given to one instru-
ment in one day. On January 29, 1895, seven Amsterdam
subscribers asked for over 200 connections each, an eighth for
184, and a ninth for 167 ; and this traffic is not exceptional.
During 1893 100,311 telegrams were forwarded from, or received
at, subscribers' offices by telephone. For the year 1894 the
number of trunk connections was 85,142. The Netherlands Bell
Telephone Company has a capital of 600,000 florins (49,375/.) r
the whole of which, together with its reserve fund, has been
expended in constructing its system. A special reserve fund is pro-
vided, out of which the cost of improvements and renewals is
defrayed. Last year a dividend of 9 per cent, was paid. Seeing
that the company's effective rate in its chief centre, Amsterdam,
is only ;/. i2s. g\d., this result must be admitted as very satisfac-
tory.

SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE ZUTPHEN
TELEPHONE COMPANY

It was with much pleasure that I acquainted the shareholders last year that
the company's undertaking had been successfully launched. On the present
occasion I also feel satisfaction in being able to report that the favourable
expectations held out last year have been realised ; that the number of sub-
scribers has gradually increased, whilst the establishment and its working
have been satisfactorily maintained.

The number of faults has been small and less than last year, viz. :

Disturbances of wires ....... 68

,, ,, instruments . . . . . .46

Total

114

The company's system now comprises :

Free connections given in terms of concession ... 4
Service connections . . . . . . .3

Free connections in part payment of way-leaves . . 2

complete ,, ,, . . . 6

Paying subscribers 126

Total 141

Holland 251

In the course of the year nineteen new subscribers joined and four gave
notice, two on account of leaving the town. At the commencement of the
current year two more also gave notice. The construction of a connection to
the Waterworks has been commenced, and one to the Netherlands Industrial
School will also be put in hand shortly : these are certain to lead to further
developments.

For these and other new lines some additional capital will be necessary, in
connection with which proposals will be laid before the shareholders.

Although the number of calls is liable to be influenced by several circum-
stances, a steady increase is observed, viz. :

Total calls for second half of 1893 . . . -30,653
,, whole of 1894 73,270

The telegraph station has not yet been connected ; this, however, may be
expected shortly.

The costs of repairs and maintenance of lines and instruments amounted
toFl. 315.

It will be seen from the small number of faults that the company's system
is very efficient ; also that the repairs have been done very cheaply. The
shareholders will remember that repairs are done for us by the Netherlands
Bell Telephone Company from its Arnhem centre.

I am also pleased to report that the employees have done their duty with
diligence and exactitude. Efficient substitutes are provided against sickness
or holidays.

For the financial position of the company I have the honour to refer to the
annexed accounts.

[Signed] C. J. VAN BUEREN, Managing Director.

ZUTPHEN : Februajy 18, 1895.

VALUE OF THE COMPANY'S PROPERTY AT DECEMBER 31, 1894

I florin = \s. 'J^d.

Fl.

Exchange system . I9>994'3 85

Central office 621 -44*

Office furniture 27976 s

Materials on hand 473 ' 2 5 5

Tools 81-99

Fl. 21,450-84

252 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

PROFIT AND Loss ACCOUNT

Gr.

Fl.

Debit from 1893 . . 300-24
Capital Account . . 977-26
Head office . . . 29-71
Office furniture . . . 13 '87*
Materials . . . I3"3 8

Tools . . . . 2-21
Interest Account . . 22-27
Stationery . . . 8 1 -6 1
General expenses . .401 -09
Salaries .... 1,070-50
Repairs to system . . 3i5'34 5
Advertisements ... 67 -45
Way-leaves . . . 237-50
Dividend . . . .900-00
Balance, Profit and Loss,

1893 .... 15-38

Fl. 4,447-82

Subscriptions and various

receipts . . . 4,447-82

Fl. 4,447 '82

BALANCE SHEET, DECEMBER 31, 1894

Assets

Fl.

Cash in hand .

57-53

Value of exchange s

lys-

tern .

I9,994'38 5

Head office .

62 1 -44 s

Office furniture

279-76*

Materials

Tools .

81-99

At Banker's .

156-63

Fl. 21,665-00

Liabilities Fl.
Capital .... 20,000-00
Netherlands Bell Tele-
phone Company . 655 -92*
Sundry creditors . . 93 '69*
Dividend . . . 900-00
Profit and Loss iS"?8

Fl. 21,665-00

The above dividend of Fl. 900 to be divided according to Article 21 of
the Rules, and will be payable at the company's office at the rate of Fl. 4-20.

C. J. VAN BUEREN, Managing Director.

C. SCHILLEMA

CAREL HENNY
ZUTPHEN : Febmary 18, 1895.

253

XII. HUNGARY

THE establishment and working of telephone exchanges has
been declared a privilege of the State in Hungary ; but before the
Government had determined to enter the field actively, some con-
cessions for thirty years had been granted to private persons, and
the telephone system of the country is now divided between the
Government and several companies. Trunk lines between Buda-
Pesth and the chief towns have recently been commenced, and in
some instances completed, and these belong exclusively to the
State, and are, indeed, intended primarily for State use, public
traffic being only a secondary consideration. There is also a
trunk route consisting of seven metallic circuits from Buda-Pesth
to Vienna, over which Szegedin, Temesvar, Arad, Raab, Pressburg,
and a few other towns can communicate with Austria. An
international line to Odessa has been proposed.

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS

i. Local exchange intercommunication. Subscriptions are of
two classes : (i) for instruments located actually within a town,
and (2) for instruments located in the suburbs.

In Buda-Pesth the annual rates are :

Per annum
s. d.

CLASS i 12 10 o

CLASS 2. If not more than \ kilometer beyond the

town boundary . . . . . 12 13 4
If between | kilometer and 5 kilometers . 12 18 4
For each additional kilometer . . .018

254 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

In Other tOWnS I Per annum

s. d.

CLASS i 5o

CLASS 2. If not more than \ kilometer beyond the

town boundary . . . . -534
If between | kilometer and 5 kilometers . 584
For each additional kilometer . . .018

These rates cover all expenses of installation and maintenance.
Hotels, restaurants, clubs, and other places where the public have
access to the instruments are charged 50 per cent, extra ; on the
other hand, State, municipal, church, and charitable institutions
enjoy a reduction of one-half.

2. Rural exchange communication. This corresponds to the
German ' vicinity ' intercourse and the French * annexes,' and is
intended for extra-suburban villages in the neighbourhood of
towns which possess an exchange. The subscription depends on
the facilities required. A subscriber desiring only power to call
the other subscribers in his own village pays 5/. per annum if
he wishes to ring up the town subscribers also, he is charged io/.
This, however, only applies when the State owns both the town
and the village exchange. When a company owns the town
exchange the village subscriber who wants the town subscribers
must pay io/. + i/. 5^. = n/. $s. if the town is a country one,
and io/. + 5/. = i5/. in the case of Buda-Pesth.

3. County or departmental exchanges. These serve the
purely country districts, and are intended to connect one or more
villages with the chief village of a parish or ward. Such an
exchange may be connected with a similar one situated in another
parish or ward, whether of the same or of an adjoining county
or department, and also with a town exchange within its own
county. It is likewise permissible to join it to a town exchange
in a neighbouring county, provided this town is situated near the
boundary between the two counties. Subscriptions vary with the
service required. A subscriber calling only those connected to
his own village switch-room pays 2/. los. per annum ; if he would
be free to call through all the village exchanges in his group he
pays double 5/. ; if he would wander telephonically at will over
villages of the adjoining county also, his rate is 6/., which also

Hungary 255

entitles him to originate conversations with one town exchange,
situated either in his own county or near its boundary. For all
other connections (except trunk ones, which are denied him under
any circumstances) he must pay per five minutes' talk according
to the public telephone station scale, but speaking from his own
instrument. Town subscribers who would call through the
county village exchanges must pay i/. per annum in addition to
the town subscription.

4. Internal trunk line communication. A uniform trunk rate
of is. M. per three minutes has been fixed for the whole country.
Express or urgent talks are admitted at double rates.

5. International trunk line communication. These actually
exist only with Austria, the rates being the same as for the interior
of Hungary.

6. Telephoning of telegrams. The Buda-Pesth subscribers
may forward and receive their telegrams by telephone at a charge
of 2d. per message, irrespective of length. A similar facility is
accorded to some of the provincial towns, and even to some of
the villages, at id. per message.

7. Public telephone stations. These exist in the towns and
departmental districts, but not in the rural. The time unit is five
minutes. A town subscriber or non-subscriber pays 2d. for a
local talk. In the departments the charge is id. for speaking
within the same ward ; 6d. for a call to other wards of the same or
adjoining department ; and lod. for communicating through a
town exchange of the same department, or of a neighbouring
department if situated near the boundary.

WORK

No information of importance can be given on this head,
promised details not having arrived in time for inclusion. The
Buda-Pesth exchange is worked with two double-cord, single-wire,
series multiples supplied by the Western Electric Company. The
Hungarian system is, with the exception of the trunks, single wire
throughout. It is, for the most part, aerial ; but some under-
ground work, with cable supplied by Messrs. Felten & Guilleaume,
exists in the capital.

256 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

STATISTICS

No figures dealing with a later period than 1892 are available.
At the end of that year the State owned 14 out of a total of 23
exchanges; 16 out of 25 switch-rooms; 59 out of 71 public
stations ; and 2,988 out of 3,952 subscribers. There were then
no trunk lines in operation.

257

XIII. ITALY

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

THE Italian telephone system is worked entirely by concessionary
firms or companies under the regulations imposed by rhe law of
April 7, 1892. This law reserves absolute power to the State to
forbid the erection of even private wires, unless confined entirely
to the property of the constructors, without its formal sanction,
and empowers it to exact an annual payment of i6s. for each
private wire, and 4^. for each instrument in excess of two used in
connection with it, besides an extra charge if such a private line
should exceed three kilometers in length.

With regard to exchange communication, the State reserves right
to work exchanges itself, and to grant more than one concession for
the same town or district should it deem such a course desirable.
The maximum term for any concession is twenty- five years, but the
State may purchase the system after twelve years on giving one year's
notice. In such a contingency the price, failing mutual agreement,
is to be fixed, without right of appeal, by three arbitrators, named
respectively by the Government, the concessionary, and the presi-
dent of the court by which such a dispute would ordinarily fall
to be tried. But in any case the price is not to exceed the mean
of the last three years' profits multiplied by the unexpired years
of the concession. Profits are defined as meaning the gross
receipts less the ordinary working expenses and Government
taxes. Should the Government not purchase at the end of twelve
years, the concessionary will retain possession for the whole term
of twenty-five years ; but on the expiry of that period the system
becomes the property of the State without any payment whatever.

258 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Concessionaries must therefore arrange matters, if they would
avoid loss, so as not only to make a living out of the business
during their term of occupancy, but to get back the whole of the
capital invested before the time for relinquishing comes. This is
unquestionably a bad system. It simply means that the sub-
scribers pay both principal and interest, and that during the con-
cluding years of the concession improvements will be tabooed
and the service starved.

On local exchange communication an annual tax of 10 per
cent, on the tariff charges is imposed, plus an annual charge of
2/. for each public telephone station opened. On trunk commu-
nication the tax is 5 per cent, of the gross receipts. These taxes
are payable by the concessionary. The Italian Government
appears to have taken the British Post Office as its model in this
matter, although the Italian tax is not quite so onerous as the
British, which is 10 per cent, on the trunk as well as on the local
gross receipts. The law further provides that should the Govern-
ment itself undertake the construction and working of trunk lines
the whole of the receipts will belong to it, giving the companies
nothing for the use and operating of the terminal wires. When
trunk lines are erected and worked by concessionaries, the
receipts less 5 per cent, will belong to them, but they must
guarantee the Government the average of the previous three
years' receipts for telegrams between the two points connected.
Parishes which erect telephone lines to Government telegraph
offices at their own expense, with the object of participating in the
telegraph service, are exempt from all these payments.

The maximum tariffs which concessionaries may charge to
their subscribers are fixed by the law, but these have proved too
high for the pockets of the people, and except in the largest
towns Venice, Turin, Genoa, and Milan are not applied. In
Rome there is competition between a company and a co-operative
society, and the rates are consequently lower than in the towns
just mentioned. The legal maximum tariff is as follows :

For each subscriber's line within a radius of three kilometers of
the central station, 8/. per annum if aerial, and i2/. if underground.
Excess distance to be charged at the rate of ^s. q\d. and 6s. $d.
respectively for each additional 200 meters or fraction thereof.

Italy 259

For each conversation from a public telephone station, 2-88^.
over a line not exceeding three kilometers in length, the charge
to be increased at the rate of '48^. for each additional kilometer.
The time unit to be five minutes.

For trunk communication the charge fixed is 2s. $d. for dis-
tances not exceeding 500 kilometers, with increments of 576^. for
each additional 100 kilometers or fraction thereof, the time unit
being five minutes.

The only reduction authorised to ordinary subscribers is one
not exceeding 20 per cent, on each instrument taken in excess of
the first. Concessionaries are authorised to require from each
subscriber a first-and-last payment, not exceeding one-fifth of his
annual rental, as a contribution to the cost of his line. This
regulation is permissive, not obligatory. Concessionaries are
bound to connect Government, municipal, and parochial offices
at half-rates, but such connections are freed from the usual taxes.
They are also bound to permit Government, at its own expense,
to join its post and telegraph offices to their exchanges free of
charge.

The chief fault of this tariff is that it possesses no elasticity.
The rates are made the same for the capital and the villages, and
there is no distinction between trunks fifty kilometers long and
five hundred.

The lot of the telephone concessionary in Italy is not, on the
whole, a happy one. In addition to the legal obligations already
enumerated, he has to deposit, as security for due payment of the
Government taxes, a sum equal to 10 per cent, of the maximum
legal tariff multiplied by two for each thousand inhabitants of
the locality to which his concession applies. Should he contem-
plate dabbling in trunk lines he must deposit a further sum equal
to 50 per cent, of the annual telegraphic receipts between the two
points connected, based on the average of the last three years.
He must pay his taxes monthly at the nearest telegraph office.
If the concession is worked by a company, copies of its articles
of association, proceedings at its general and special meetings, of
its balance-sheets, and of its directors' and auditor's reports, must
be regularly furnished to the Minister of Posts and Telegraphs.
Then the concessionary is bound to reimburse to his subscribers

s 2

260 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

charges collected for conversations that could not be held. If a
line is interrupted for more than three days from any cause what-
soever, a proportionate part of the annual subscription must be
returned to the subscriber ; if the interruption is one which
might have been avoided by care and attention, the subscription
for its whole duration must be refunded. If such an interruption
continues more than ten consecutive days, the subscriber may
claim damages to the tune of double his subscription for the
period of the interruption ; and if it lasts fifteen days he may, if
he chooses, terminate his agreement as well. These regulations
are certainly calculated to engender a sense of responsibility and
to conduce to careful construction and good maintenance, but at
the same time their enforcement in the case of interruptions due
to fire, floods, snow, or extraordinary tempests is unjust to the
concessionaries, and cannot be productive of good.

A Swiss company, with headquarters at Zurich, is the owner
of thirteen concessions, while a good many have been taken up
by French companies, and a few by co-operative societies. The
capabilities of the telephone, as measured by the services rendered
to the public, have not yet been exhausted in Italy. The internal
trunks are yet on paper ; the international ones have scarcely
reached even that stage ; there is no telephoning of messages for
local delivery or for mailing ; the public telephone stations are
few, and there appears to be no messenger organisation. With
the exception of Brescia, all the Italian exchanges are run on the
single-wire plan, and, again with the exception of the Brescia, are
exclusively overhead.

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS

i. Local exchange communication. The rates charged by
the different concessionaries vary greatly. Some of them have
made a uniform price for connection within the legal three-kilo-
meter radius ; others have divided that radius into two, and others
again into three zones, taking care that the maximum charge does
not exceed that fixed by law.

Italy

261

TOWN

Population

Annual subscription

Remarks

Two competing sys-
tems : Societa Ro-

Rome . . 1

, j

407,936

f 67. 145, 5</.
( 57. ID*. 5</.

mana di Telefoni
and Societa Ano-

nima Co-operativa

dei Telefoni

Naples

536,000

87.

Milan .

426,500

; 87.

Palermo

273,000

87.

Reduced to 67. Ss.

Turin .

230,183

8/.

for private houses,
doctors, and drug-

gists

i Genoa .

212,500

8/.

Florence

197,000

61. 8*. ; 7/. 4*. ; 8/.

Three zones

Venice

149,500

87.

Bologna

I47,OOO

67. Ss. ; 67. 16*. ; 87.

Three zones

Messina

I42,OOO

7 7. is.

Leghorn

106,000

67. Ss. ; 77. 4s. ; 87V

Three zones

Padua .

79,5oo

67. ; 7/. 4*.

Two zones

Verona

69,500

4/. 1 6s. ; 67.

Two zones

Bari .

58,266

67.

Parma .

44,492

67.

Brescia

43,354

57. I2J-. ; 67. ; 77. 4*.

Three zones

Pisa .

37,704

47. i6j.

Pavia .

29,836

4/. 1 6s.

.
I

Vicenza

27,694

67.

Mantua

28,000

4 7.

Perugia

17,395

4/.

Piacenza

35,ooo

47.

Casale Monferrat .

17,096

37. I2T.

Biella .

(?)

27. i6s.

It will be seen that competition has given the capital lower
rates than prevail in the chief provincial towns ; also that the
endeavours of the concessionaries to adapt themselves to local
circumstances have brought about a nearly regularly descending
scale of subscriptions in sympathy with the population, until, in
the small towns, the point reached is almost Norwegian or Dutch -
like in its moderation.

2. Public telephone stations. These are not numerous in
Italy, the Government tax of 2/. per annum for each station
deterring the concessionaries from opening any that are not quite
certain to pay. In Rome there are eight ; in Milan two ; in

262 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Turin four ; in Verona four ; in Venice five ; in Genoa three.
In Naples, Bologna, Palermo, Messina, and many other towns
there are none at all. The legal maximum tariff is 2 '8&/. for five
minutes, but this is imposed in two towns only, Leghorn and
Venice. In other towns possessing public stations five minutes'
local talk costs as follows :

Rome : i Turin . . . 2-4^.

Societa Romana . i '44^. Genoa . . . -96^.

Societa Co-operativa -96^. Padua . . .

Milan . . . 1-92^. Verona . . .

In some towns subscribers use the public stations free of
charge, but the more usual plan is to make everybody pay.

3. Internal trunk lines. These have, so far, attained but
little development. Milan is connected with Monza, and a line
from Milan to Legnano is in course of erection. At the date of
writing (February 1895) none of the chief towns are in regular
telephonic correspondence, but the Italian Government has
prepared a very large scheme which, when given effect to, will
place all the business centres in communication. The trunk rates
have been fixed in anticipation by law, as already stated (p. 259).

4. International trunk lines. The Italian Government has
approached the French, Austrian, and Swiss Governments with
proposals for international lines, but the schemes have yet to be
matured.

5. Telephoning of telegrams. This traffic is not large. The
direct connection of telephone exchanges with telegraph offices
for the transaction of the subscribers' business appears not to be
practised. Thus at Milan, the second largest telephone centre in
Italy, the subscribers' telegrams are taken down at the central
office and sent across to the telegraph station by messenger ;
conversely, telegrams arriving for subscribers are delivered at the
telephone office and thence dictated to the addressees. For this
service the company charges 1-92^. per message, irrespective of
the number of words.

WAY-LEAVES

The law of 1892, which hits the concessionary very hard in
most directions, comes to his aid a little in the matter of way-

Italy 263

leaves, for it decrees that telephone wires may be passed without
fixing over both public and private lands and properties, or in
front of buildings provided the view from windows or other
openings is not interfered with. But no wires may be fixed to a
building without the consent of the proprietor interested, while
the local authority is given power to rate such fixtures for the
benefit of its funds. Concessionaries are warned that when it is
necessary to fix telephone wires to public monuments which have
an artistic or historical value, it will be necessary to take steps to
protect the said monuments from damage, and to preserve their
artistic effect. Evidently all faith in human nature has not
departed from the Italian Parliament when it is willing to trust
its public monuments to the artistic taste of telephone men, even
though they be countrymen of Michael Angelo, in want of a way-
leave.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS'
INSTRUMENTS

With a separate company in almost every town, the practice
as regards switch-boards and instruments is naturally very mixed.
French apparatus is used to a considerable extent, many of the
concessionary companies being of French origin ; but there is
also much of English, American, Swiss, Belgian, and German
manufacture. The Societa Telefonica Lombarda (Telephone
Company of Lombardy), one of the largest and most progressive
of the companies, has a multiple board for 1,600 single lines,,
supplied by the Western Electric Company, at its Milan exchange.
The board, which possesses no special features, is now (February
1895) nearly full, there being 1,450 subscribers connected to it.
The same company at its Como and Monza exchanges has non-
multiple boards made by the Officina Elettrica de Milano after
English models. The subscribers' instruments in these towns
comprise magneto, back-board, battery-box, Blake transmitter and
Bell receiver, all of the type and arrangement familiar in Great
Britain. Called subscribers are rung by the operator. At Brescia,
where there are metallic circuits, the Hipp form of Runnings
transmitter, without induction coil, is used. The operators are

264 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Italy 265

usually girls by day, and men by night ; but at Palermo, Catania,
and Messina, males are exclusively employed.

HOURS OF SERVICE

The Telephone Company of Lombardy gives a perpetual
service in all its exchanges, a good example which is followed in
most of the larger towns. In the smaller, the hours vary from
7 or 8 A.M. to 8 or 9 P.M.

OUTSIDE WORK

The Telephone Company of Lombardy uses galvanised steel
wire of 1-8 mm. diameter for its local, and galvanised iron wire of
3*17 mm. for its trunks to Monza and Legnano. Other companies
follow the same practice, but bronze wire is nevertheless ex-
clusively used in some places and partially in others. As its
merits come to be better understood, bronze will doubtless oust
iron and steel in Italy as it has already done in most other
countries. The sole objection to bronze is its tendency, owing
to the superior heat conductivity of the metal, to favour the
formation of frost on its surface ; but this should not weigh against
it much in Italy. The wall-bracket form of construction is much
in vogue, and it must be confessed, on the testimony of figs. 91
to 94, that the Italians have a pretty fancy in wall-brackets.
Figs. 91 to 93 represent the practice of the Telephone Company
of Lombardy. It will be perceived that the insulators are of a
kind that would be altogether insufficient in our damp climate to
prevent leakage overhearing between wire and wire, being merely
short tubes of porcelain slipped over the bolt and fastened by a
nut at the top. A strong, well-designed standard, built up of
angle-iron on the Belgian plan, is shown in fig. 95 as an example
of the Lombardy Company's roof work. The same company
also employs tall iron-lattice ground poles very similar to those
illustrated in the Belgian section. Two of its smaller poles are
shown in figs. 96 and 97 as being of a more special design. They
are formed of three parts, socketed one into the other, and, while
providing a good carrying capacity, are far more ornamental than

266 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Vn a

Italy

u jfl

2 6 7

pi Q

FIG. 96

FIG. 97

268 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

any we are accustomed to see in England. The exchange system
at Brescia is noteworthy as being largely composed of underground
work on a system devised by Dr. von Wurstemberger. Berthoud-
Borel cables, well cased in lead, are laid directly in trenches
excavated under the pavements, and protected by a layer of coal-
tar, sand, and tiles. At suitable points the cables are brought up
the sides of buildings and opened out in junction boxes, whence,
after passing test terminals, the wires are carried in smaller cables
along the fronts of the houses to the subscribers' instruments.
To avoid crossing streets with the secondary cables, a junction
box served by an underground cable is provided for every block
in which subscribers occur. That such a system is practicable in
Brescia speaks much for the good nature of the inhabitants : a
few cantankerous persons would spoil it to a great extent.
Altogether, it is a pretty system, the most questionable point
about which is the durability of the cables. Simple casing in lead
is scarcely calculated to ensure them a long life, and their renewal
several times in twenty- five years would mean disaster to the
company. So far, the Brescia Company has paid good dividends,
averaging between 4^ and 5 per cent., while the extension of its
system has also been partly paid for out of profits.

STATISTICS

In January 1895 tne Telephone Company of Lombardy had
1,518 subscribers, with 1,585 instruments joined to its three
exchanges of Milan, Como, and Monza. During 1894 the
number of local talks was 1,775,000 ; of trunk talks, 4,380 ; and of
telephoned telegrams, 1,100. The receipts for the same period
amounted to 255,598 francs ; and the working expenses, including
taxes, bad debts, deterioration fund, and all liabilities, to 154,017
francs, leaving a profit of 101,581 francs, or 4,0637. The capital
expenditure for the year was 34,244 francs, but the total capital
of the company is not stated. No statistics are forthcoming for
the other companies of a later date than December 31, 1892. At
that date the total number of systems in operation was 51, with
53 switch-rooms, 34 public stations, and 11,980 subscribers. The
length of wire in use was 20,076 kilometers. The number of

Italy 269

local talks for 1892 is returned at 17,748,559; of talks from
public stations, 75,250 ; of telephoned telegrams, 2,022 ; and of
trunk talks, o. At the end of 1893 Rome had 2,350 subscribers
divided between the Societa Romana di Telefoni (1,750) and the
Societa Anonima Co-operativa dei Telefoni (600) ; Florence, 860 ;
Genoa, 780 ; Turin, 762 ; Naples, 721 ; Palermo, 455 ; Leghorn,
370; Venice, 351 ; and Bologna, 300.

270 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XIV. LUXEMBURG

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

ONE of the smallest States of Europe, with an area (998 square
miles) and a population (211,088 in 1891) practically the same
as that of Dorsetshire, with a capital, too, counting only 18,187
souls, Luxemburg is nevertheless also one of the most telephoni-
cally active. In January 1895' the capital with its 18,000 people
had 621 exchange instruments working, or 3*4 for each 100 in-
habitants, while the whole Grand Duchy boasted 85 exchanges
and 1,315 instruments, or '62 of an instrument for each 100
inhabitants. Fancy Dorsetshire with 85 telephone switch-rooms
within its borders !

By the law of December 17, 1884, the establishment of tele-
phone exchanges was made a Government monopoly, and the
existing regulations and charges were fixed by the law of March 9,
1887. The first exchange was opened in Luxemburg city in
1885.

The Luxemburg system differs from all others in Europe in
one essential respect : there are no trunk rates. While all the
villages (there is only one town, the capital) possess exchanges
and are joined together by numerous trunk lines, the subscribers
have nothing to pay beyond the subscription (a very moderate one
as will presently appear) to their local exchange, and may call up
any other subscriber within the limits of the Grand Duchy at
will. That they are not backward in availing themselves of this
privilege appears from the fact that in 1892 the inter-town talks
numbered 671,937, considerably more than in the neighbouring
republic of France for the corresponding period, while the local

Luxemburg 271

talks reached the total of 922,692, scarcely 50 per cent. more.
This is a good traffic to develop within the area of one of the
smaller English counties and amongst a population, scarcely
equalling that of Edinburgh, chiefly employed in agriculture. It
bears out the opinion so often reiterated by the author that the
telephone possesses a sphere of usefulness all its own, which is at
present but little understood in the United Kingdom a sphere of
usefulness that it will fill without artificial fostering, as it were
spontaneously, whenever left to be introduced on its natural merits
and at its legitimate price. The different methods of treatment
pursued by the respective legislatures of the United Kingdom
and Luxemburg produce the result that in London, the greatest
commercial city in the world, there is about "14 of a telephone to
each hundred persons ; and in Luxemburg, one of the poorest
countries in Europe and possessed of no commercial importance
whatever, the ratio is "62. The British system would have been
simply prohibitive in such a country, just as it has proved to be
in many of the poorer British and Irish districts, which are to-day
as innocent of telephones as they were in the reigns of Caractacus
and Brian Boru.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

1. Intercourse between the subscribers to the same ex-
change.

2. Intercourse between all the exchanges. Twenty of the
chief villages have direct wires to Luxemburg ; the remainder
communicate through an intermediate switch-room.

3. Telephoning of telegrams.

4. Telephoning of messages for local delivery or posting.

5. Public telephone stations. There are some sixty-five of
these, which subscribers use without charge on producing a card
of identity.

6. Calling non-subscribers to the public stations. This
facility is not confined as in other countries to the subscribers :
a non-subscriber may go to one public station and have a non-
subscribing client fetched to another.

7. Parochial or communal stations. As in France and Swit-
zerland, a local authority wanting a telephone station where the

272 TelepJione Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

Government is not disposed to establish one, at its own expense
may arrange to contribute to the cost. In Luxemburg this is
done by an annual subscription and by providing an office and
operator at the charge of the commune. In January 1895 there
were thirty-four such stations in operation.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for local and (2) trunk intercourse. Within the
limits of any town or village in which an exchange exists the
annual subscription, which is payable half-yearly in advance, is
3/. ^s.

It is important to note that the State erects the lines, supplies
the instruments, and maintains everything at its own expense.
The 3/. 45-. per annum covers all charges and includes the right
to communicate freely all over the Grand Duchy, which measures,
roughly, 44 miles by 30.

When the subscriber is located at a distance from an exchange
the tariff is modified. When his place lies not more than one
and a half kilometers from an existing route of telephone wires
the subscription is maintained at 3/. 4^. ; for each additional
kilometer it is increased by 2/. But the subscriber has, in any
case, to reimburse the State the cost of his wire, at the rate of 4/.
per kilometer, between its point of junction with the main route
and the exchange. If he is located actually on an existing trunk
route, but outside the radius of any exchange, the same system
obtains : he bears the cost of so much of his line as lies outside
the radius at the rate of 4/. per kilometer, and pays the usual
local subscription of 3/. 45". This rule, which, so far as the author
is aware, has not its counterpart elsewhere, is by no means a bad
one : it enables the distant subscriber, for one reasonable payment
down, to bring out the exchange, as it were, to the nearest point
on a main route to his dwelling, and puts him thenceforward on a
par as regards annual subscription with his urban competitors.

Extra instruments are charged i/. and extra bells 45-. per
annum. In calculating distances the actual course of a wire is
taken. Contracts are for three or five years, according to the sub-
scriber's distance from the exchange. The use of instruments is

Luxemburg 273

restricted to the subscribers, their families, servants, and em-
ployees. Proprietors of hotels and other public places pay the
ordinary rate and are allowed to place their instruments at the
disposal of their customers, but are limited to 2,000 communica-
tions per annum. Any over that number are charged 3*36^. each,
which charge the subscriber, if he likes, may collect from the
person making the call.

In the event of a subscriber removing he must bear the cost
of the labour, but not of the material, involved in shifting his
instrument. Subscribers are entitled to a proportionate refund
when an interruption lasts longer than thirty days.

3. Rates for telephoning telegrams. For each telegram
transmitted to, or received from, a telegraph office by telephone,
a charge of "98^. is made, irrespective of the number of words.
The arrangement for ensuring payment of charges under this and
the following heading is ingenious, and peculiar to Luxemburg.
No deposit in advance is exacted, so that every subscriber can
profit by the service without previous notice or agreement, but
the subscription which he has paid in advance for his exchange
line is debited with the costs of telegrams forwarded or received.
At the end of the month a memorandum of the amount of this
debit is presented, which the subscriber is expected to make good
immediately : should he not do so, his exchange agreement is
considered curtailed by the number of days represented by the
amount of the debit, and his instrument may be taken out that
number of days before the expiration of the period for which he
had paid.

4. Rates for telephoning local messages and mail matter.
The charge is '98^. per message, irrespective of length, plus the
cost, 3'36</., of the messenger employed to effect delivery, or of
the postage, as the case may be.

5. Rates at public telephone stations. The charge to non-
subscribers is 3 -36^. for five minutes' talk with any subscriber
within the limits of the Grand Duchy. Two non-subscribers
conversing together from different public stations are charged
double fee. Subscribers, on showing a card furnished by the
administration, use the public stations free.

274 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

6. Rates for fetching non-subscribers to public stations.
When called by a subscriber :

3*36</. if resident within the telegram free delivery limits

4*&/ ,, i \ kilometers beyond the limits

T2d- 3

9'6^ 5

i -92^. for each kilometer above 5

When called by a non-subscriber :
3-36^. in addition

7. Bates applicable at parochial telephone stations. The
local authority desiring the station pays the State 4/. per annum
as rental for the line and instrument, and finds house room and
attendance. The charge, which goes to the State, is, to all users,
subscribers or non-subscribers, 3'36^/. per five minutes.

WORK

Phosphor bronze wire of i -4 mm. is used for the local ; and
of 2 mm. for the trunk lines, of which there are about seventy-six.
Many of these are still single wires, but the more important are
metallic circuits. The system is entirely aerial. There are, as yet,
no multiple switch-boards employed. There is no night service, but
any two or more subscribers who desire it are left plugged through
during the close hours. Magneto instruments made by Messrs.
Schafer & Moutanus, Frankfort-on-Main, are used throughout
the Duchy ; the generator coils have to be cut in by pressing a
button when ringing. Two receivers are provided to each instru-
ment. Service is suspended during thunderstorms, and subscribers
are required to earth their lines by means of a cord and plug
attached to each instrument for the purpose.

STATISTICS

The latest available for telephones, apart from posts and tele-
graphs, are those for 1892. In that year Luxemburg possessed 50
exchanges, 54 kilometers of local routes, 531 kilometers of trunk
routes, and 1,306 kilometers of trunk lines, used by 1,003 sub-

Luxemburg 275

scribers and 61 public stations. The local talks numbered
922,692 ; the trunk talks, 671,937 ; and the telegrams telephoned,
2,838. The capital expenditure amounted to 808,802 francs
(32,3527.). The receipts for the year were :

Francs

Local subscriptions . . . '. . . . 60,989
Public stations and telegram service .... 3,505
Sundry receipts ........ 4,717

Total ...... 69,211

The working expenses amounted to 61,762 francs, leaving a
profit of 7,449 francs (2987.) as evidence of the sufficiency of a
3/. 4-r. rate.

Statistics for 1893, furnished to the author by M. F. Neuman,
Director of Posts and Telegraphs, Luxemburg, give the following
figures :

Number of centres ....... 52

,, subscribers ...... 1,203

Length of routes, in kilometers . . . . . 617

wire 2,333

Number of local talks 963,005

trunk 765,929

,, public station talks ..... 9,780

,, telegrams telephoned .... 2,661

Receipts for subscriptions, in francs .... 66,400

,, at public stations, ,, . . . . 3,8 1 6

,, sundries, in francs 2,517

Unfortunately the working expenses for 1893 are not shown
separately from those of posts and telegraphs.

In January 1895 the exchanges and instruments connected
throughout the Grand Duchy were as follow :

Ex-

Instru-

Ex-

Instru-

changes ments

Luxemburg town . 2

621

Brought forward .

645

Andorf . . I

Beckerich

Aspelt . .1

Befort .

Bad-Mondorf . . i

16 Beles

Bauschleiden . . i

4 Berburg .

Carried forward . 6 645 Carried forward . 10 660

T 2

276 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Ex- Instru-

Ex-

changes ments ;

changes

Brought forward . 10 660

Brought forward . 48 i

Bettborn . . . I I

Medernach

Bettemburg . . i 19

Mersch .

Bettingen

Mertzig .

Bissen . . .

Mutfort .

Boegen .

Niederanven .

Bcevingen . .
Bourscheid

Niederfeulen .
Niederkerschen

Clerf

Petingen .

Consdorf

Rambruch

Consthum

Redingen

Cruchten

Reisdorf .

Dalheim .

Remich .

Diekirch .

Rodingen

DifFerdingen .

Roodt .

Dommeldingen

Rosport .

Diidelingen

Rumelingen .

Echternach

S*ul

Esch-on-Alzette

Sandweiler

Esch-on-Sauer .

Schrondweiler .

EttelbriAck

Simmern

Pels

Stegen .

Frisingen

Steinfort .

Garnich .

Strassen .

Grevenmacher .

Tuntingen

Grosbous

Ulflingen

Harlingen

Useldingen

Heinerscheid . , .

Vianden .

Hellingen

Vichten .

Hesperingen .

Wahl

Hobscheid

Wasserbillig

Hoscheid

Wecker .

Hosingen

Weiler (Piitscheid) .

Itzig

Weiswampach .

Junglinster

Wiltz .

Kap

Wilwerwiltz

Kehlen .

Wormeldingen

Koerich . . .

Walferdingen .

Mamer .

r> _.

Carried forward . 48 1,050

277

XV. MONACO

THE Principality possesses a telephone exchange which in March
1895 numbers just seventy connections. It is conducted in
every respect on the French plan, the instruments and mode
of construction being French, and the tariff identical with that
applicable to French towns of less than 25,000 inhabitants (see
French section, p. 147). The list of subscribers is printed in
Paris ; the conditions of subscription, regulations, and instructions
how to use the instruments are all copied verbatim from the
French ; so, when it has been stated that a trunk line gives
Monaco communication with Antibes, Cannes, Grasse, Mentone,
and Nice, there is nothing further to be said about the telephonic
system of Albert I., Sovereign Prince of Monaco.

278 Telephone Systems of tlie Continent of Europe

XVI. MONTENEGRO

No steps have yet been taken to provide this principality with
telephonic exchange system.

2/9

XVII. NORWAY

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

NORWAY, with a capital about the size of Dundee, half a dozen
towns which may rank with Colchester, a multiplicity of villages,
and a total population of 2,000,917, could not have presented
itself to the imagination of the original pioneers of Bell's wonder-
ful speaking trumpet precisely as a fountain of telephonic milk
and honey. But it is rarely given to pioneers to realise the
ultimate importance of their work ; and when the International
Bell Telephone Company went to Christiania in 1880 intent on
inducing the hardy Norseman to have his ears lengthened as it
alone (as was then thought) could lengthen them, the task must
have appeared (in view of the inertia exhibited in many far
wealthier and more populous countries) an up-hill one indeed.
It looked like sowing in ice with a prospect of reaping in snow-
balls ; but the event proved otherwise, for the Norse spirit of
enterprise, which erstwhile discovered America, peopled Green-
land and Iceland, and conquered Normandy and England, proved
quite equal to the assimilation of the telephonic exchange idea.
America may have discovered the telephone indeed, but had not
Norway discovered America ? So it came about that, within a
year of the International Bell Company's start in Christiania, a
local company was formed to oppose it, and oppose it it did in a
hammer-and-anvil fashion that was all Norwegian. Indeed, so
energetic was the battle so frequent the encounters of legions of
wiremen on the roofs so exasperating the 'cross-talk' (both on
the roofs and on the wires) to which it gave rise, that the
Municipality intervened and threatened to cancel the concessions
it had granted to the combatants unless peace could be success-

280 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

fully invoked. The subscribers, too, were tired of the incessant
interruptions to which their wires were subjected, while the way-
leave granters began to think that no telephone company was surely
better than two which, usurping the time-honoured privileges of
both proprietors and Tom cats, fought out their differences on
the roofs. So in 1885, when the rival systems possessed 995 and
634 subscribers respectively, both were purchased by a new local
association, the Christiania Telephone Company, which has since
carried on the business, under Mr. Knud Bryn's able management,
with marked satisfaction to both its subscribers and shareholders.
Starting with 1,493 subscribers in its first working year, it had
increased to 3,150 in 1890, 4,210 in 1892, and 4,624 in October
1894. The capital cost has been just 5o,ooo/., or nearly u/. per
subscriber practically the same as that of a similar system in
England. The rate is 4/. 8s. \\d. per annum, everything in-
cluded, which has sufficed to pay dividends of 5 and 5^ per cent,
(the company's concession limiting dividends to 6 per cent.) per
annum. The company possesses no special way-leave privileges,
and its construction work has been superior, as a rule, to that of
the United Telephone Company and its subsidiaries in England.

The International Bell Company started in only one other
Norwegian town Drammen which it continued to work until
1889, when the business, then comprehending 147 connected
instruments, was transferred to the Drammen Telephone Com-
pany. In February 1895 the number of instruments connected
had risen to 401. The population of Drammen being only 20,000,
the development here, on the, same inclusive rate (4/. 8^. n^.) as
in Christiania, must be considered satisfactory. It covers con-
nections up to two kilometers in length. The Drammen Company
has paid good dividends. At the end of 1894 the capital ex-
pended was 4,01 1/. The receipts amounted to 1,4837., and the
management and maintenance to 6597., leaving a profit which
enables a dividend of 7 per cent, to be paid after placing a
substantial amount to the reserve fund. The dividends have
always ranged from 5 to 7 per cent. At December 31, 1894, the
company's system comprised 507 kilometers of line, of which 479
kilometers were single wire.

The Drammen Telephone Company declined to extend its

Norway 281

lines beyond the immediate precincts of the town, a policy which
gave umbrage to the country folk, who wanted to share in the
benefits flowing from telephonic communication, and ultimately
led to the formation of the Drammen Uplands Telephone Com-
pany, which obtained a concession for a tract of country around
Drammen measuring 230 kilometers from north to south and
extending over five counties, forming the largest concessionary
tract in Norway. It began business in June 1890, and at
December 31, 1894, owned 24 switch-rooms, 2,500 kilometers
of routes, comprising 770 kilometers of poles and i, 080 kilometers
of metallic circuits, all for the benefit of 292 subscribers. The
principal places within its area are the townlets of Kongsberg
and Honefros. The annual subscription, which is inclusive, and
covers lines not exceeding two kilometers in length, is 5/. i is. id.,
for which sum free communication over the whole of the com-
pany's area is allowed. Up to December 31, 1894, the system
had cost 9,8 1 5/., and the receipts for 1894 amounted to 2,3327.,
the repairs to 373/., and the net profit to 7527. Since its com-
mencement the company has regularly paid a dividend of 6
per cent. Last year 900 kilometers of new line were run. The
success of this Drammen Uplands Telephone Company is most
interesting, and most creditable to the managers. The company
has shown how a large tract of sparsely populated country,
containing nothing larger than a village, can be telephoned and
maintained year after year at a handsome profit. It is a lesson
which the author fears will nevertheless be quite without effect on
the British Post Office. It should be added that the whole of
the Uplands system is in trunk communication with Drammen
town, Christiania, and the network of lines radiating therefrom.

The third exchange established in Norway was that of
Trondhjem (population 30,000), commenced in 1881 by a private
concessionary, and worked by him until 1889, when it was pur-
chased by the Town Council for 1,6507. At that time it numbered
315 subscribers ; in October 1894 these had increased to 700.
The rate, which is an inclusive one and represents all the expense
for which a subscriber is liable, is only 27. IQS. per annum for
business connections, and i7. 55. for private houses within a
radius of one and a half kilometers. At the end of 1892 the total

282 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

capital expenditure was 6,ooo/. ; the annual income, 1,2407. ; the
working expenses and maintenance, i,ooo/. ; and the profits 2407.,
equal to 4 per cent, on the capital. This is a good specimen of
what may be done by a municipality owning its own telephones.
It cannot be said that the cheapness is due to indifferent work,
because the lines are well constructed of bronze wire strung on
substantial wooden and iron poles and standards, while the
switch-boards are Ericsson's make, as are also most of the sub-
scribers' instruments. The municipality, as controlling the roads
and streets, may have some advantage over a company in the
matter of way-leaves, but it possesses no rights over private
property. It must be remembered, too, that, unlike the practice
in many of the Norwegian systems, the Trondhjem subscribers'
instruments are provided by the exchange and are included in
the subscription.

The Bergen (population 53,000) exchange was begun in 1882
by a local company, and is noteworthy as being the first in
Norway in connection with which the subscribers were required
to pay for their own instruments. These are sold to them by the
company, and their purchase amounts in effect to an entrance
fee, similar to that payable in Sweden, of some 2/. ics. The
maintenance of the instruments after erection is included in the
annual subscription. In Bergen itself the company finds and
maintains the lines, but subscribers located outside the town have
to pay the first cost of their wires according to a distance scale.
The annual subscription, which, with the above-noted exceptions,
is an inclusive one, is 3/. 8s. ioj^7. per annum, both in town and
country. For this, day and night service is given, and the
company can afford to assign its girl operators a maximum
duty of six hours daily. At December 31, 1894, the number of
subscribers was 1,439, renting 1,516 instruments, of which 35
were connected to country branch switch-rooms. The capital
expended on construction to the same date was io,46o/. In 1893
the total income was 4,2447. ; in 1894, 4,6217., out of which, after
paying all expenses and providing for the maintenance of the
system, the usual dividend of 6 per cent, per annum was paid to
the shareholders. The instruments used are magnetos of the
best type, and the equipment generally is creditable. A con-

Norway 283

siderable extension, notwithstanding the present ratio of 2*9
instruments to every 100 souls, is looked for, and an order has
been placed with Messrs. Ericsson & Co. for a multiple switch-
board comprising the latest improvements. It is usual for
partisans to asseverate that, even if -very low subscriptions do
exist, they are applicable to very small exchanges only. Here,
however, is an instance of a system, surpassing in size the vast
majority of those belonging to the National Telephone Company,
paying a 6 per cent, dividend year after year on a subscription
of 3/. 8s. \v\d. \ The fact speaks eloquently of the competency
and conscientiousness of the Bergen managers, as well as of the
enterprise of the population.

Besides these five chief exchanges, there are about one
hundred and seventy others in Norway, mostly worked quite
independently (although many of them are joined by trunk lines)
by concessionary companies, co-operative societies, or individuals,
but occasionally by municipalities or rural authorities. The rates
charged are, from a British point of view, absurdly small ; but two
facts cannot be gainsaid : that this system of concessions enables
the Norwegian citizens and even peasantry to enjoy facilities
which are denied to the English public ; and that, low as the rates
are, the companies succeed in more than making ends meet.
The following statistical table, which the author has been enabled
by the courtesy of the companies and gentlemen named therein
to compile, abundantly demonstrates these facts, and also gives
some idea of the constitution and mode of working of enterprises
which contrive to do so much for so little. One of them, that of
Hammerfest, is well within the Arctic circle, being situated in
latitude 71 '6 and within a few miles of the North Cape. The
population of Hammerfest is some 2,500, yet telephonically it is
far in advance of some of the London suburbs with populations
counted by the fifty thousand, and of a greater number of British
towns than could be tabulated in a day's work. There is another
small exchange, that of Tromso, within the Arctic circle. With
these exceptions, nowhere does the midnight sun obtain a glimpse
of a telephonic switch-board. Two of the towns named in the
list Christianssand and Hammerfest were destroyed, together
with their telephone exchanges, by fire a few years since ; but the

STATISTICS OF SOME PROVINCIAL NORWEGIAN

TOWN

Population

By whom
owned

sl Wi

Ji? Ill

B-8 IS

3_*i 3,0

f|j

Do subscribers
pay for their
lines ?

Ii
11

i. Christianssand a

12,813

Oct.

1883

Company

i Central
4 Branch

230

In town,
21. 15*. 7 d. ;

in suburbs,

\ .

2/. 4-y. id. j

2. Christianssund

10,381

1888 Co-operative
Society

i loo Yes

2 /. gs. 7 d. (b)
3/. is. id.

3/. i2.y. zd. \

Flekkefjord .

Sept.
1894

Co-operative
Society

Yes

i/. 13-r. zd.
shareholders ;

2/. 4,S. id.

Others

4. Fredrikstad ,

11,217

May

1883

Company

2 2 77

No '

3/. 6s. 8d.
business place ;

2/. 15*. 7 d.

residence

5. Grimstad

3,000

Nov.
1891

Co-operative
Society

3 "9

Not, in town ;
outside sub-

i/. 13^. 2d. for
one, 2/. 9-y. jd.

scribers pay a

for two, and

proportion of

3 /. 6s. 8d. for

cost

three instru-

ments

6. Hammerfest .

2,500

1887

Mr. H.

Yes

2/. 4S. id.

Wingaard

Friis

7. Haugesund .

Oct.

Company

i 104

Yes

Entrance fee

1888

4 /. 8s. nd. ;

annual sub-

scription,

i/. 7 s. iod.

8. Mortens .

Feb. Company

1 20

Not, in town ;

Entrance fee

1889

in country, yes

1 2/. 15^. 7 d. ;

Country mem-

annual sub-

bers also pay

scription,

maintenance

I/. 1 3 S. 2d.

of their lines

outside town

Mandals .

June

Company 5

Yes

2 /. is. id.

1892

10.

Roros .

Oct.

Company i Central

Yes

i/. 1 3 j. 2d.

1894 ! 5 Branch

ii.

12.

Skien .
Stavanger

24,000

June
1883
Oct.

Co-operative
Society
Messrs.

i
i

1 80
304

Yes

Yes
Yes

zl. is. id.
il. 8s. old.

1881

Grene &

Egends

13-

Tromso . .

5,409

April

Mr. Andr.

7 6

Yes

21. 1 S S. 7 d.

1886

Risock

(a) Shareholders mostly subscribers. Lines measure 250 kilometers. Central station was
destroyed by fire in 1892. (b) According to island on which subscriber lives, town being

built on three islands.

EXCHANGES FOR YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1894

ls s " : ^"

,gj;

i's

'o*

.al|

- lilt

o >

0_>

"ill"

iii ii&

o 5 > > - "

11
||

||| '

If]

58-5

Is*

ffi !|

* * "ills 5 *

< 2

rt 3 M

i. Town and

14 hours

1,923

549

384

165

One-third to

25,000

Not

vicinity

' extension '

stated

fund ; one- '

twentieth to (

shareholders ;

balance to j

reserve

2. -2\ kilometers

8 till 9

305 ' Not yet
ascer-

Not yet
ascer-

5 per cent, of
profits to re-

8,000

Magnetos

tained

serve ; subse-

for 1894

quently, not

exceeding 8

per cent, to

subscribers

3. 5 kilometers

1 1 hours ;

(*)

(a)

(*)

Reserve fund

1,300

Magnetos

but exchange

can be called

all night for

extra pay-

ment

4. 3 kilometers

Day and

night

2,692

846

Not yet
ascer-

5 per cent, to
shareholders ;

42,000

Magnetos

tained

balance to

for 1894

reserve

5. District ex-
tends to about

13 hours

1,044 ' 143 143

(*)

10,500

Battery
calls

30 kilometers

6. i kilometer ;

10 hours

192

(c)

1,400

Magnetos

one subscriber

2 kilometers

off, pays

7. 6 square
kilometers

14 hours

I93/. in 230 S5
_i888;

175

At discretion
of shareholders

4,5oo

Magnetos

since, en-

trance fees

have paid

for con-

struction

8. i Town and
vicinity

Day and

night

935

248

170

General
meeting de-
cides

11,500

Magnetos

12 hours

823 256

100

137

General meet-

6,000

Magnetos

ing decides

10. 3 kilometers

9 till 5

329 (d) (d)

' (d)

5 per cent, to
shareholders ;

1,200

Battery
calls

rest to reserve

ii. Town and

; 14 hours

395 395 ()

(fi)

65,100

Not

vicinity

stated

12. i kilometer

Day and
night

1,980

494 340

154

Not
stated

Some
magnetos,

some bat-

tery calls

13. i kilometer

i _ \_ hours

Not

164

Owner

6,445

Magnetos

stated

(a) New society. Uses bronze wire. (b) Subscriptions adjusted to cover all expenses,
leaving no profit to divide. (c) Receipts are made to balance expenses. Instruments

and lines are bought from Mr. Friis. (<t) New company.

286 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

exchanges have been re-established, and are worked at a profit.
At the end of this section will be found the accounts and balance-
sheet of the Christiania Telephone Company for 1893, which
cannot fail to be instructive to telephone managers who doubt
the vitality of a 4/. 8s. \\d. rate.

The Norwegian Government held aloof from matters tele-
phonic until a proposal was made to connect Christiania with
Drammen, when, in 1881, it passed a law conferring on the State
the exclusive right to establish inter-town communication. This
effectually put a stop to the projected trunk lines, as the State had
no funds available wherewith to undertake the construction itself,
and, influenced by the usual bogle of competition with the Go-
vernment telegraphs, refused to license the companies to do the
work. It granted permission for each to operate within a radius
of eleven kilometers of its central office, and so secured reasonable
facilities for communication between a town and its suburbs and
immediate surroundings, but no two such radii were allowed to be
joined ; and if two eleven-kilometer radii each containing a telegraph
office chanced to overlap, the radius of each was to % be restricted
on the overlapping side in such a manner that two kilometers of
neutral ground were to intervene between them. However, by
1885 the local telephonic systems had multiplied and grown to
such an extent that the Government was no longer able to escape
from the necessity of either constructing or licensing, and in that
year it allowed the local telephone companies of Skien and
Porsgrund to join their systems by a trunk line conditionally on
their paying to the State an annual sum of 257., the estimated loss
of telegraphic revenue between the two places. Other trunks soon
followed, and it was not long before Christiania had joined ears
with Drammen, Gjovik, and twenty other towns in its vicinity. To
show how groundless was the fear for the telegraphic revenue, it
may be mentioned that in 1891 the amount payable to the Go-
vernment (on its own valuation be it remembered, as the companies
had to pay whatever the State demanded) was only 489^ for the
twenty-two trunk lines radiating from Christiania, some of which
extended to a distance of 120 kilometers. On only one of these
trunks, that to Drammen, the conversations had averaged 100 per
working day, which, at the tariffof 6^., meanta telephonic revenue

Norway 287

of 8477. per annum. It consequently became obvious that the
two systems of communication could exist side by side. It
should, however, be noted that the Norwegian Government had
acted wisely from the first in availing itself of the telephonic
exchanges as feeders of the telegraph ; and had even inserted a
clause in the companies' concessions binding them to allow their
lines to be used for the transmission of telegrams. The British
Post Office, on the other hand, moved heaven and earth to pre-
vent the English telephone companies doing anything of the
kind ; thereby proving itself far less enlightened, and appreciative
of the new state of affairs that had arisen, than that of Norway.
In 1894 the Norwegian trunk system has grown to such an extent
that space cannot be spared in the present work for a mere
enumeration of the lines.

In Norway, particularly in the north, many telegraph lines
exist which, prior to the advent of the telephone, were used only
during the fishing season, the traffic during the rest of the year not
sufficing to pay the cost of skilled operators, lighting, warming,
&c. As the towns and villages concerned were nevertheless
desirous of enjoying a service all the year round, the Govern-
ment determined to utilise the telephone the employment of
which does not call for any special skill for this purpose; and, on
the towns agreeing to bear the cost of warming and lighting and
to find persons satisfactory to themselves to act as operators, some
of these fishing wires were brought into acceptable use during the
winter. Others, which happened to connect towns or districts in
which local telephone exchanges had been established, were
handed over to the telephone companies to serve as trunk lines
conditionally on the companies agreeing to transmit telegrams
for non-subscribers, when required, at the State tariff rates. In
this matter again the Norwegian Government showed a happy
adaptation to special circumstances and a freedom from red-tapeism
which cannot be too highly commended.

The latest telephonic development in Norway is the inter-
national trunk line to Stockholm.

The subscribers who use this are already on metallic circuits ;
all others throughout Norway are as yet connected with their
exchanges by single wires, but the Christiania Company has

288 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

definitely resolved to convert its system to metallic circuit, and the
alteration will be commenced as soon as the new switch -board
has been installed.

As being by far the most important and at the same time
typical of all, the system of the Christiania Telephone Company
is particularly referred to (unless otherwise stated) in the following
description. The concessions of all the companies are much on
the same lines, and the services rendered to the public, except
when modified by special local conditions (as the fishing wires
already mentioned), are essentially of the same nature. They all
have the right to telephone telegrams, to open public telephone
stations, and to use trunk lines ; but the international line to
Sweden is at present only available from Christiania and towns
which, like Drammen, are joined to it by metallic circuit trunks ;
and Kongsvinger, where the Norwegian Post Office has opened
a public station.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC BY THE
CHRISTIANIA TELEPHONE COMPANY

1. Intercourse between the subscribers and public tel: phone
stations of the same town or district.

2. Internal trunk communication. There are several groups of
trunk lines, at present unconnected with each other, but the only
one of importance is that having Christiania for its centre. This
is, however, very extensive. Not a town, and scarcely a village,
on both coasts of the Christiania fjord, down to Sarpsborg and
Fredrikshald on the one side and to Skien and Fredriksvsern on
the other, but has its trunk ; while to the north of the capital five
main routes exist, embracing Gjovik, Hamar, Elverum, and Lille-
hammer, with every place of importance for some 400 kilometers,
making a total distance of about 500 kilometers (284 miles) that
may be spoken over from south to north. The trunks are erected
under agreement between the companies concerned, each asso-
ciation sharing in the traffic of a particular trunk contributing
equal proportions to the cost of erecting and maintaining it,
irrespective of the mileage within its own specific area. Each
company retains the whole of its receipts for trunk talks, but may
not demand two consecutive connections if another partner com-

Norway 289

pany wants the wire. The payment to the State to compensate
for loss of telegraph traffic is borne by the different companies
proportionately to the number of messages originating with each.
Trunk talks may be booked several hours in advance, and this
plan is in common use. If a called subscriber proves not to be
in, the caller has to pay the unit trunk charge all the same, but is
allowed a second inquiry later in the day, when, if his man is then
in, he obtains a connection without further payment.

3. International trunk line communication. This is at
present, and, owing to the geographical situation of Norway, is
likely to be for a long time, restricted to the metallic circuit trunk
line to Stockholm. The length of the line is about 325 miles,
and the tariff 15-. >d. per three minutes, a rate which is found to
produce a satisfactory traffic. The line has been erected by the
Norwegian and Swedish State telegraph departments within their
respective territories, but on the Norwegian side it is worked
by the Christiania Telephone Company. By agreement with the
State, only those subscribers who have special metallic circuits
are allowed to be connected to the trunk. There are already
seventy such metallic circuits (for which an additional subscription
of 3/. 6s, 9</. per annum is charged) in Christiania. To cover
operating and administrative expenses the State pays the company
\'()d. on each international trunk talk originating in Norway;
but, on the other hand, the company must make all connections
demanded from Sweden gratis.

4. Telephoning of telegrams to the State telegraph office.
This is practised very largely, and is conducted by the company's
employees, who attend at the State telegraph office for the pur-
pose and who are sworn to observe secrecy. They write down
and hand to the Government clerks messages dictated to them
through the telephone, and receive from the Government clerks,
and telephone on, messages destined for the subscribers, copies of
which are afterwards delivered by messenger. Non-subscribers
may forward telegrams in this manner from the public telephone
stations, which thus become branch telegraph offices, the use of
which, however, entails payment of the company's charges in
addition to the ordinary telegram tariff. The State pays the
Christiania Company an annual subsidy of 27 /. 15^. 5^. in respect

290 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

to this service ; but in all other places the proprietors of the tele-
phone exchanges have to rely entirely on the charges they impose
on their subscribers, although they too, as a rule, have to furnish
the necessary attendants at the telegraph offices.

5. Telephoning of messages for local delivery. Subscribers
(and non-subscribers using public telephone stations) may ring
up the central office and dictate messages to be delivered
direct by company's messenger without the intervention of the
State.

6. Public telephone stations. There are 71 of these in
Christiania and 45 in the suburbs, making 116 in all. Many are
at subscribers' offices. In this case the keepers pay the ordinary
tariff for their connections and are permitted to retain 30 per
cent, of the receipts. In a good many instances automatic slot
boxes are employed to receive the initial payment of ten ore (\"$d.\
without which no service is rendered ; in others, a simple box is
hung up into which the user drops the coin. The charges for
trunk talks and telegrams are paid to the keeper, these being too
variable and complicated to be dealt with by automatic boxes.
The slot machine favoured, after several years' experimental trial
of many different patterns, is that of Mr. Jakobsen, of Christiania.
Subscribers pay the same as strangers when using the public
stations ; but quarterly, half-yearly, and yearly tickets, covering
the use of one or more stations, are issued.

7. Messenger service. Messengers are kept at, or within call
of, the central station and some of the public telephone stations,
who, on demand, are sent round to subscribers' offices or houses,
or utilised to summon to a public station non-subscribers with
whom subscribers wish to speak.

TARIFFS
i. Bates for local exchange communication :

Per annum
s. d.
For one instrument on a direct line not exceeding 1,500

meters in length . . . . . . .4811

For each additional 500 meters . . . . .084

Norway 29 1

For additional instruments on the same line and in the same
building :

Per annum
s. d.

Per instrument, if to the same subscriber . . .123
,, ,, other persons . . . . i 13 4

For additional instruments on the same line but in different
buildings :

s. d.

Per instrument, if to the same subscriber . . .1134
,, ,, other persons . . . . .245

For an extra bell or extra microphone . . . -057
,, receiver . . . . . . .034

A second person, unconnected with a subscriber in business,
may use his instrument and have his name printed in
the subscribers' list for . . . . .0113

When one person or firm takes more than one connection the
tariff rate of each is reduced by us. id. Thus a subscriber can
have his private house joined up for 3/. 6s. &/., being 225. $d. less
than the tariff for his two connections. Three exchange lines
would cost such a person n/. i$s. 6*/., and four 157. us. 4^., per
annum. Lines that are only used six months out of the twelve are
charged 3/. 6s. &/. per annum.

Contracts for one year only. There is no payment down on
connection as practised in Sweden. The subscribers do not find
their own instruments, and the rates are inclusive of all expenses
of installation, maintenance, and service.

2. Rates for internal trunk communication. The time unit
is five minutes.

Rates from Christiania to Gjovik, Toten, or Gran . . 3 -3^.
,, ,, any other town connected . . 6~$d.

3. Rates for international trunk communication. The time
unit is three minutes. Rate between Christiania and Stockholm,
is. 8*/.; Drammen and Stockholm, is. lod.

4. Rates for the telephoning of telegrams. This important
traffic may be paid for per single message, or by annual subscrip-
tion.

For each message telephoned to the State telegraph office from

u 2

29 2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

a subscriber or a public telephone station, or telephoned from the
State telegraph office to a subscriber :

If not exceeding 20 words ...... 2-6d.

For each additional 10 words ..... -66</.

Telegrams may likewise be telephoned to a public telephone
station in the neighbourhood of which there is no telegraph office
and delivered by messenger on payment by the sender of 2'6d. per
telegram, without regard to the number of words ; if the addressee
is not a telephone subscriber, a similar amount is collected from
him also.

Subscribers who telegraph often, obtain a decided advantage
by paying annually as follows :

J r J J Per annum

s. d.

For 100 telegrams . . . . . . . o 1 1 i

,, 101 to 300 . . . . . . . o 16 8

301 600 123

,, 601 ,, 1,000 . . . . . . . i 7 10

,, each additional 5 C 5 7

Messages containing over twenty but under forty words are
counted as two ; over forty but under sixty words, as three tele-
grams ; and so on.

Deposits to cover the cost of despatched telegrams are not
obligatory, but the company can demand them if not satisfied
with the standing of subscribers ; usually the company pays for
the messages, and charges the subscribers 2 per cent, on the cost
for the accommodation. Accounts are rendered once a month to
subscribers of acknowledged position, or oftener, at the company's
discretion. Accounts for telegrams emanating from hotels are
rendered the same day.

The foregoing particulars apply to Christiania only ; in the
provinces the charges for telephoning telegrams vary very much
between limits of 2d. to 6 '$d. per message.

5. Rates for messages telephoned for delivery by the
company :

If addressee is located within i kilometer of central station . 4</.
,, ,, ,, 2 kilometers ,, ,, . 5 '3^.

> ?> >> 3 >> 5> 6'5</.

Norway 293

These charges cover thirty words, exclusive of address and
signature, and are increased, irrespective of distance, by m i$2d. for
each extra word. A person receiving such a message may send
back by the messenger a written reply at half-price if not exceeding
thirty words, with -132^. for each extra word.

6. Bates applicable at public telephone stations. Persons
using a public station must pay a first charge of ten ore, or i'$d.
This covers a five-minute talk with a subscriber within Christiania.
If any other service is taken advantage of, the following additional
charges are made :

For a five-minute talk to a suburban subscriber (according

to distance) . . . . . . . . 2d. to 3 -3^.

For a five-minute trunk talk ...... b'$d.

For a telegram to the State telegraph office, 2-6d. for
20 words, with -66</. for each additional 10 words .

For a message for local delivery by the company (according

to distance of addressee from point of delivery) 4^., 5'3</. , and 6 '5^.

Habitual users of public stations may obtain some reduction
on the tariff charges by subscribing for quarterly, half-yearly, or
yearly tickets.

7. Rates for messenger service :

For fetching a non-subscriber to a public station (payable by

person called) ........ 2'6d.

For sending a messenger to a subscriber's premises . . i -$d.

WAY-LEAVES

None of the companies possesses any compulsory powers, and
way-leaves have to be arranged by negotiation with the proprietors
and local authorities concerned. In Christiania facilities have, as
a rule, been obtained on favourable terms, the maximum con-
sideration given being a free telephone connection, corresponding
to 4/. Ss. i \d. per annum. Many buildings are roofed with iron,
which is not nearly so susceptible to damage as slates or tiles, a
fact which has helped the company to obtain and keep its way-
leaves.

294 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

The existing switch-board at Christiania is an ordinary Western
Electric Company's single-wire, double-cord, series multiple, with
an ultimate capacity of 6,400. The test employed differs, however,
from the usual one, inasmuch as the testing-cord includes a make-
and-break, the effect of which is to give the operator a vibrating
signal instead of a single click when a line proves to be engaged.
The number of connections averages about nine per subscriber per
diem, and each operator attends to 100 lines. The arrangements
for trunk-line switching comprise a special section to which each
operator has a sufficient number of junction lines to meet the
requirements of her own set of subscribers, these junction lines
being used indiscriminately for up and down traffic. In case of
need, an operator can borrow additional junctions from the sections
to her left and right. At the trunk section four lines are allotted
to each girl, who, in addition to the actual switching, has to make
the necessary notes for the subscribers' accounts. The testing,
lightning-guard, and cross-connecting boards are of an ordinary
pattern, and call for no remark. The present switching arrange-
ments are to give way during 1895 to a new switch-board by the
Bell Manufacturing Company of Antwerp, comprising parallel
jacks, self-restoring drops, and accommodation for 9,000 metallic
circuits. The new installation is to cost some TO.OOO/., a fact
which does not seem to augur any lack of confidence or of ex-
pectation on the part of the Christiania Telephone Company in
the sufficiency or possibilities of a 4/. Ss. \\d. rate.

Called subscribers are rung by the operator, and much of
the confusion attendant on the frequent dropping of the ring- off
shutters avoided. The service is smartly performed, and the
speaking generally very good.

In the neighbourhood of Christiania there are a few groups of
subscribers working by means of automatic commutators (Ceder-
gren and Ericsson's patent), placed generally at or near a railway
station. These groups, and some others who subscribe amongst
themselves for the housing and operating of an ordinary switch-
board, communicate with the capital by a single junction wire,
and are admitted at very low rates of subscription.

Norway

296 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

HOURS OF SERVICE

Christiania and the other chief exchanges in Norway, together
with many of the smaller ones, are kept open permanently ; in the
others the hours of service vary from 6, 7, or 8 A.M. till 8, 9, or 10
P.M. on week days, with, sometimes, shorter hours on Sundays.

' SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

These comprise magneto ringers. Usually the transmitter and
receiver are attached to the same handle, in * micro-telephone '
form, so that when the receiver is held to the ear the transmitter
is before the mouth. The magneto, bells, and switches are
mounted on a cast-iron frame and protected by a sheet-iron casing
which forms a writing-desk, and is so elaborately enamelled in
imitation of ornamental and inlaid woods as to defy detection
by the eye. The instruments, which are handsome in appearance
and of good workmanship, are made by the Norske Elektrisk
Bureau, Christiania. Their general appearance is shown in fig.
98. The transmitter is usually the Oyan modification of the
Runnings. When transmitters are mounted separately, double-
pole receivers of the Bell type are employed. Subscribers in
Christiania may, on demand, have Ericsson's Swedish instruments
fitted ; but as these are dearer than the Norwegian, an extra payment
down of 135. \d. for a wall-, and i/. js. lod. for a table-set has to
be made.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

The wire employed in the towns is usually 1-25 mm. phosphor
bronze, carried on small double-shed white porcelain insulators
in which the bolts are fixed with tow. Soldered joints are still
exceptional in the local wires the danger of softening the bronze
by the application of heat, and the undesirability of using fire on
housetops, being the reasons assigned. The unsoldered joints are
generally made on the Macintyre plan by poking the two ends in
opposite directions through about two inches of double soft copper
tubing. The free end of each wire is then lapped round its
companion, and several turns given by means of pliers to the

Nonvay

297

whole joint, the effect being to twist the soft copper tubes into
reversed spirals, within which the line wires are so tightly grasped
that the parts in contact are permanently protected from the

DOUBLE COPPER TUBE BEFORE TWISTING

COPPER TUBE AFTER TWISTING

FIG. 99

weather. This joint is shown in fig. 99. When it is considered
desirable to solder, the form of joint shown in fig. 100 is used :
the heat being applied at the point A, can have no effect on the

FIG. 100

running wire.^ When too much vibration is set up in the houses
it is damped by placing several inches of wire on each side of the
insulator (fig. 101) in a split vulcanised rubber tube, and then

LEADEN WIRE

INDIA-RUBBER TUBE

FIG. ioi

tightly twisting over all two spiral layers of heavy leaden wire or
strip. The central station fixture is a large and substantial structure
built up of channel and angle iron, but devoid of decorative preten-

298 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

sions. From this fixture a great many of the subscribers' wires
are carried in aerial cables, each containing twenty single wires

100 C1R

FIG. 102

insulated with india-rubber and made up on the so-called anti-
induction principle that is to say, the wires are enveloped in

Norivay

299

metal foil connected to earth. The cables are slung by galvanised
iron hangers from stranded steel suspenders, and at their junctio
with the open wires, which takes place as soon as the crowded
vicinity of the central station is cleared, are passed through joint
boxes fitted with lightning arresters. The standards are well
designed, and carefully erected with due regard to safety in the

FIG. io2A

face of untoward fires or storms. The single form (figs. 102 and
I02A) consists of a wrought-iron tube fitted with English angle-iron
cross-arms. The foot-plates and fastenings are all of Swedish iron.
The standard is sometimes placed on the slope of a roof (fig. I02B)
instead of on the ridge. A triple standard for 300 wires, with its
details, is shown in figs. 103 and 103 A. In this case the uprights-

300 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

are each composed of two pieces of Belgian channel-iron bolted
together, and the cross-arms are also of channel-iron arranged so
as to form a shelter for any insulated wires that may be used for
cable or cross connections. The uprights, when extra strength is
called for, are strutted on one or both sides with riveted channel-
or angle-iron. The uprights are riveted to iron foot-plates adapted
to the slope of the rafters to which they are bolted. The ground
pole work is also good. The larger poles (fig. 104) are of the best

FlG. 102E

fir ; their butts are usually soaked in boiling creosote to above the
ground line, and the weather is excluded by roofs of the English
pattern. The arms are of angle-iron (wooden arms are quite
exceptional in Norway) made into a frame by riveting to four
vertical bars, the frame being fastened to the wood at three points
by strong straps and wood screws. This plan secures a neat job,
since the frame is constructed before attachment to the pole, and
it is easy to make the arms truly parallel ; on the English plan it

Norway

301

is difficult to secure parallelism when so many long arms have to-
be notched for and attached individually, perhaps at different
times and by different men. On the other hand, the English
method permits of arms being added exactly as they are wanted ;
while a frame must contain a certain number of spare arms,
representing unremunerative capital, to allow for developments.

FIG. 103

But if the Norwegians with microscopic tariffs can afford to invest
capital in neat and pleasing workmanship, such poles should not
be absolutely beyond our own reach. There is at present no
underground work in existence in Norway, but it is proposed to
make a beginning with it in connection with the change to metallic
circuits shortly to be commenced in Christiania.

3O2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

<> (35x6X60x6)*%,

Norway

303

T 1

I ! I I

i ~ i I! i i i

I I II I I llliilll I ! I

FIG 10

304 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

The internal trunk lines are, as a rule, of hard-drawn copper
of from 2 to 2 '5 mm. diameter. They are metallic circuits, and
are crossed, not twisted : the crossing is properly carried out,
and the lines are consequently quite free from overhearing and
inductive noises. Translators are, of course, placed between
the metallic circuits and the subscribers' single wires. The inter-
national trunk to Stockholm, unlike all the others, was erected
and is maintained by the Norwegian Government on the Norse
side of the frontier. Unlike all the others, too, it is twisted so
as to complete a revolution at every eighth pole. On the
Norwegian side it is wholly composed of 3*3 mm. hard-drawn
copper. The line is understood to be quite silent and the speak-
ing very good.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

In Christiania the foremen receive 4^. 6^/., the skilled wire-
men from 35. to 4-i\, and the labourers from 2s. 6d. to 3^. per
working day of nine hours.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

After two years of training and occasional employment as
reserve operators, during which time they are paid by the hour,
girls are appointed to the permanent staff at a salary of 2/. 15^. *jd.
per month ; after two years' service the pay is advanced to
3/. is. \d. per month ; and subsequently, by two-yearly increments
of $s. 6d. per month, to 3/. ijs. &/,, which is the maximum for a
simple operator. The daily work is six hours. They take turns
at night and Sunday duty without extra pay.

STATISTICS

In Christiania town there are (November 1894) 4,174 instru-
ments in connection with the exchange, of which 3,786 are on
direct wires. Including the suburbs, the number of instruments
is 4,627.

Norway 305

No statistics for the whole of Norway of later date than 1892
are forthcoming. In that year the total number of subscribers
was returned as 9,490, making use of 10,437 instruments. The
total length of their wires was 11,878 kilometers, of which
Christiania possessed 4,210, Bergen 1,322, Drammen 355, and
Trondhjem 350 kilometers ; and of the trunk lines, 4,908 kilo-
meters. The number of exchanges was 175 ; of public telephone
stations, 546. The trunk talks numbered 391,966 ; and the tele-
grams telephoned 78,323, of which 43,594 were credited to
Christiania. The total amount of receipts was 31, 1367. ; of work-
ing expenses and repairs, 19,7627. ; and of capital expended in con-
struction, 118,7907. The cost of connecting each subscriber, even
adding in the cost of the trunks, which we must do as it is not
returned separately, was consequently only a little over i2/., truly
a marvellous result when it is borne in mind that most of the
material and apparatus used had to be imported and to pay duty
at the Norwegian Custom House. The figure of 1 2/. per subscriber,
however, tallies well with experience in Great Britain when
results have not been vitiated by incompetence and mismanage-
ment.

In order to show how a \l, 8s. n</. inclusive rate can be made
to pay in a capital city, the accounts of the Christiania Telephone
Company for 1893 are, with the kind permission of Mr. Knud
Bryn, annexed.

306 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

CHRISTIANIA TELEPHONE COMPANY'S ACCOUNTS, 1893
i krone = is. i\d. i/. = 18*2 kroner

5>r.

Management Kronor

Salaries . . . 18,350*11
General office expenses

and advertising . 5,474*12
Messengers' wages and

uniforms . . . 4,614*46

Central stations
ivorking expenses

Salaries ; watchmen ;
central station mes-
sengers . . . 61,934*10

Contribution to the
lady operators' bene-
volent fund - 2,342*06

Subscribers' lists and
supplements, includ-
ing distribution . 4,3 21 ' 82

Working expenses
outside system

Engineers' salaries __ . 7,409*74

Inspection and im-
provements . .21,311*60

Maintenance . . 61,628*58

Roof repairs and way-
leaves . . . 9,!? 1 " 21

Tools and instruments 1,688*51

Contribution to the
workmen's benevo-
lent fund .

Revenue Account
Kroner

28,438*69

68,597*98

Sundry expenses
Rent, central station,

offices and stores
Wharfage, lighting,

firing, and cleaning . 7,046*78
Building account
Royalties
Sundry expenses in the

suburbs .

Insurance and taxes .
Bad debt reserve fund . 1,500*00
Sundry expenses
Interest
Directors' fees

1,640-69

102,850*33

6,000*00

,046*78
876*18

>'3I

4,066*34
5,000*00

Central station
newals

43,162*58
25,000*00

. 25,000*00
Written o
Fixtures account, loper

cent, of value . . 1,005*08
Building capital ac-
count . . . 10,000*00
Telephone system ac-
count . . . 5, 39 6 '4 1

16,401*49

Dividend at rate of 5%
per cent. (2,847/0 . 51,821*00 51,821*00

Kr. 336 272-07

Kronor
Subscriptions collected

during the year . 333,781*65
Less proportion carried

forward of unearned

rentals

Cr.

Kronor

Receipts at public tele-
phone stations . . 5,644*05

Receipts, messenger
service . . . 394*49

Receipts for telephon-
ing and delivering
local telegrams . 2,912*27

Receipts, trunk lines . 24,008*68

Sale of snares . . 530 'oo

30,999*07

- 302,782*58

Kr. 336,272*07

Norway

BALANCE

SHEET

Liabilities Kroner

Kronor ;

Assets

Share account .

942,200*00 i

Construction account .

Last year's dividends

Trunk line account

unclaimed . . 3,165*00

Buildings capital account .

Dividend for 1893 . 51,821*00

Stock of instrumentsand material

54,986*00

Sundry" debtors, arrears of sub-

Set aside for central
station renewals
Christiania Savings

25,000*00

scriptions .....
Cash in hand ....
Christiania Bank, cash balance .

Bank loan

100,000*00

Mortgage on building

No. 12 Slotsgade .
Lady operators' bene-

40,000*00

volent fund

10,644*39

Workmen's benevo-

lent fund

i,594'47

307

Kroner

56,010*00-
125,000*00

33,296*85

Sundry account

Sundry creditors . 19,057*49
Less for sundry

debtors . . . 6,507*65

Proportion of rentals
for 1894 paid in ad-
vance

12,549*84

30,999*07
Kr. 1,217,973*77

Kr. 1,217,973*77

Signed by the Directors of the Christiania Telephone Company.
EVALD RYGH. N. A. EGER. A. M. LUND. E. SUNDE.

KNUD BRYN, General Manager.
February 10, 1894.

I hereby certify that the above balance sheet is in conformity with the
company's books.

TH. HAMMOND, Auditor.
CHRISTIANIA : February 20, 1894.

Note. Since going to press, the accounts for 1894 have been received.
They show subscriptions collected for the year Kr. 337,564, and the amount
available for dividend Kr. 56,325 (3,O95/.); the assets having increased to
Kr. 1,368,703, and the share capital to Kr. 1,125,000. The usual dividend of
5^ per cent, was paid.

308 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XVIII. PORTUGAL

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

THAN Portugal few European countries possess shorter or
more uneventful telephonic histories. In 1882 a concession
was granted by the Government to the Edison-Gower-Bell
Telephone Company of Europe, in virtue of which exchanges
were soon established in Lisbon and Oporto. In 1887 the busi-
ness was taken over by an English company formed for the
purpose, the Anglo-Portuguese Telephone Company, Limited, of
53 New Broad Street, London, E.G. On this occasion the con-
cession was renewed to the new company for a period of thirty
years. The two exchanges have thrown out branches to the
suburban towns in their immediate neighbourhood, but are not
yet themselves in connection ; while the remainder of Portugal
remains, so far, an unexplored territory. Rumours have been
heard of an international trunk line to Madrid, but the scheme
has not yet assumed any solidity. All lines in Portugal are still
single. Practically the only service rendered to the public is the
local exchange connection, since there is no telephoning of tele-
grams, no telephonograms, no trunk lines, and no public tele-
phone stations. There are call offices for the use of subscribers
only on the production of a ticket of identity, but this can
scarcely be considered a public convenience. In January 1895
the number of subscribers was returned at 763 for Lisbon and
720 for Oporto, including the suburban exchanges in each case.
Lisbon has three, and Oporto five suburban switch-rooms.

Portugal 309

SERVICES RENDERED AND TARIFFS

i. Local exchange intercommunication between the sub-
scribers in Lisbon and Oporto and their respective suburbs.

The tariff depends on the length of line and nature of the
connection, as follows :

Distance

- 1

Business places

cton

and

j First connection

Subsequent
connections

private houses

</.

j I kilometer, per annum .

When private houses are joined as an extension from a
business place considerable reductions are made, as follow :

Extension Instrument s. d.

In the same building, per annum . . ..259

500 meters distant ,, . . . .3150

1 kilometer ,, ,, . . . . 4 10 o
1 1 kilometers ,, ,, . . . . 5 12 6

2 ,, ,, ,, ....600
2| .... 6 7 2

3 .... 7 4 6

In considering these tariffs it must be borne in mind that in
the terms of its concession the company pays three per cent, of
its gross revenue to the State, and that they are considerably
below the maximum permitted to the company by the terms of
its concession.

WAY-LEAVES

Considerable difficulty was at first experienced in obtaining
attachments, but this has now in great measure been happily
overcome. The company possesses no exceptional privileges,
and is wholly dependent on the good will of the proprietors.

310 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Ettrope

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS AND SUBSCRIBERS'
INSTRUMENTS

The necessity for multiple boards has not yet been felt
[traffic is small in Portugal, the calls averaging only two per line
per day at Lisbon, and four at Oporto], and the service is carried
on by simple boards manufactured by the Consolidated Tele-
phone Construction and Maintenance Company, London. These
are of three types : (i) a 5o-line modified cross-bar, peg com-
mutator, mounted vertically, with the indicators above ; (2) a

FIG. 105

FIG. 106

FIG. 107

ioo-line board of the same nature, but mounted horizontally,
with the indicators on a vertical board at the back ; (3) a ioo-line
spring-jack and plug and cord board, the general arrangement
of which resembles that of the Western Electric Standard board,
but without ring-off indicators. The first and third are used at
Lisbon, the second at Oporto. In all three speaking has to be
carried on through two indicators, which both fall when a ring
through or ring off is given. Each operator usually attends to
seventy-five subscribers, but in Oporto during the busy hours this
number is reduced to fifty. Magneto ringers are exclusively used.

Portugal 3 1 1

Originally the subscribers' sets consisted of Gower-Bell instru-
ments, combined with magnetos and battery-boxes on a common
back-board (fig. 105) ; later, the Gower-Bell receiver and tubes
were replaced by Bell receivers, the transmitter being retained
(fig. 1 06) ; later still, the Blake transmitter succeeded the Gower,
and the instrument assumed the aspect which was so long
familiar in Great Britain (fig. .107). All the instruments have
been manufactured by the Consolidated Telephone Construction
and Maintenance Company. The most recent form of trans-
mitter supplied by this company is a Runnings of the construc-
tion shown in fig. 108, in which A is an ebonite mouthpiece,
which directs the sound waves to a ferrotype diaphragm F, having

FIG. 108

behind, and in true contact with it, a thin carbon disc G. B is
a rigidly fixed carbon block furnished with a conical pocket, which
is nearly filled with truly-spherical carbon balls. The electrodes
are the carbon disc and carbon block respectively, and form their
connections through the screws D, which also serve to clamp the
transmitter to the magneto. When used with two or three cells
and a good receiver, the loudness of the transmission obtained is
very remarkable, while its clearness leaves nothing to be desired.

HOURS OF SERVICE

The Portuguese exchanges enjoy a perpetual day and night
service.

312 TelepJione Systems of the Continent of Europe

OUTSIDE WORK

The wire generally employed is 1*25 mm. phosphor bronze,
although there is also some 1*5 mm. bronze and 2 mm.
galvanised iron. With the exception of a few short lengths of
aerial cable, used where way-leaves were difficult to obtain, the
whole of the system is open wire. No commencement has been
made with underground work. The Lisbon roofs are not well
adapted for the erection of standards, and the fixtures are mostly
of the wall-bracket kind illustrated in the French, Italian, and
Austrian sections. These fixtures and their wires are erected and
attended to by the aid of telescopic fire-escape ladders. In
Oporto single iron standards on the roofs and ground poles are
also employed ; these carry from twenty-five to a hundred wires,
but their constructive details are not in any wise noteworthy.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen receive 6s. 8^., wiremen 35-. 6^., and labourers 25.
per day ; the hours of duty being from 7 A.M. till 6 P.M.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

Girls commence as probationers, and give their services gratis
until competent. Thereafter they receive 30^., rising to 2/., and
finally to 2.1. los. per month. Lady superintendents receive 3/.
The hours of daily duty are eight. The service between 6 P.M.
and 8 A.M. is performed by men.

313

XIX. ROUMANIA

THE Government has assumed the exclusive care of telephone
exchanges in Roumania, and has most wisely determined to adopt
the metallic circuit throughout. Exchanges have been opened in
Bucharest, Braila, Galatz, and Crajowa ; but development halts,
there being only some 100 members at Bucharest after nearly two
years' working. This disappointing result may perhaps be most
reasonably ascribed to the tariff in operation, which, everything
considered, is probably the most illiberal in Europe. Three trunk
lines have been put into use between Braila and Galatz, one
being an exclusively telephonic metallic loop, and the other two
adaptations of Van Rysselberghe's system to existing telegraph
wires. Braila and Galatz also speak to Bucharest on a duplex
line. The capital has likewise communication with Ploesti and
Sinaia, in which towns there are public telephone stations, but no
exchanges. The subscribers' sets of instruments comprise trans-
mitter, two receivers, bell, and lightning protector.

SERVICES AND TARIFFS

i. Local exchange communication. Payments come under
three headings : (a) contribution to the cost of the line and instru-
ment ; (b) annual subscription ; (c) charge for conversations
originated exceeding 1,000 per annum. These again vary with
the location, inside or out of the fortifications, of the subscriber.

The contribution on joining amounts to 6/., which is payable
in four quarterly sums of i/. IDS.

314 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

The annual subscription, which franks only 1,000 communi-
cations not exceeding five minutes in duration each, per annum,
is :

Within the fortifications 8/.

Without the fortifications, but within three kilometers of

the exchange ........ 2O/.

When more than 1,000 conversations per annum are originated
by any subscriber the excess must be paid for at the rate of 165-.
per 100 or fraction thereof if he is located within the fortifications,
and of 4os. if without. Contracts are accepted for three years
only on first joining, which are subsequently renewable from year
to year

2. Internal trunk line communication. The time unit is three
minutes.

For the first 100 kilometers or less .... 14 '^d.

Each additional 100 kilometers ..... 9 '6d.

A considerable reduction may be had by paying for fifty talks
in advance, thus

* d.

100 kilometers or less, 50 three-minute talks . .200
Each additional 100 kilometers, extra . . . I 10 o

3. Public telephone stations. The time unit for local talks
is five minutes.

Non-subscribers ........ y6d.

Subscribers to local exchanges, or persons who have paid for

50 trunk talks in advance ...... 4'&/.

Trunk talks are charged as from subscribers' offices.

4. Telephoning of telegrams :

Per telegram forwarded or received by a subscriber . . '<)6d.
In addition, for each five words contained in the telegram . '4&/.

Messages must be in a language understood by the telegraph
clerk who receives or dictates them by telephone. Copies of
telegrams telephoned to subscribers are subsequently delivered
by messenger without charge.

Roumania 315

5. Messages telephoned for local delivery. For a message
containing twenty words telephoned by a subscriber located within
the fortifications to the central office for delivery locally to a non-
subscriber, the charge is 4'8*f. plus \'^id. for each twenty words in
excess. For a subscriber situated beyond the fortifications, or for
a non- subscriber telephoning from a public station, these charges
are doubled.

3 1 6 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XX. RUSSIA

THE first exchanges in Russia those of St. Petersburg and
Moscow, opened in 1881 were due to the enterprise of the Inter-
national Bell Telephone Company, which subsequently obtained
concessions for, and commenced business in, Lodz, Odessa, Riga,
and Warsaw. The rates charged by this company in the two
first- named towns (in which it is secured by the terms of its con-
cession from competition for a long term of years) have the dis-
tinction of being the highest in Europe 257. per annum, out of
which it has, in common with all other concessionaries, to pay 10
per cent, to the Government. In other towns, however, rates are
much more reasonable. In RostofT-on-Don (680 subscribers)
and Reval (no subscribers), for instance, for which places Mr.
C. Siegel of St. Petersburg holds the concessions, the annual
subscriptions are i2/. los. and io/. respectively. The radius
allowed is, however, liberal, extending to 3 versts (2^ miles) from
the exchange, within which area no extra charge is made. For
many persons i2/. or io/. applied in this manner may mean a
better bargain than a 5/. rate restricted to one mile. The State
has also opened a good many exchanges, and contemplates the
construction of an extensive system of trunk lines.

At date of writing (January 1895) tne Odessa-Nicholaieff is the
only one of importance reported finished, although Sebastopol is
connected with Simferopol by railway wire, and other inter-town
lines have been established for military purposes.

The system of construction adopted is the single wire, run
overhead on roof standards and poles. Way-leaves are reported
to be readily obtained on reasonable terms, but no information is
forthcoming as to the status of the Government in this connection
in the towns it itself exploits.

Russia

317

FIG 109

3 1 8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

The International Bell Company employs American apparatus
exclusively, and their subscriber's set is identical with that
rendered familiar by the National Telephone Company in this
country, the transmitter used being generally the Blake. On
the other hand, the Government and the other concessionaries fit
up almost exclusively the instruments of Messrs. Ericsson & Co.,

of Stockholm (see Swedish section, p. 358), supplied through
Mr. Charles Bell of Glasgow, who is Messrs. Ericsson's agent for
Russia as well as for the United Kingdom. Mr. Bell has also
furnished a large number of Ericsson switch-boards for use in the
various switch-rooms, comprising one multiple of 600 lines for
Kieff.

Russia

319

The International Bell Company have Western Electric
multiples at St. Petersburg (1,400 lines), Moscow (1,400 lines), and
Warsaw (800 lines), with Gilliland boards at Lodz, Odessa, and
Riga.

The principal Government exchanges are at Charkoff, Gatschina,

FIG. no

Kazan, Libau, Nicholaieff, Nijni-Novgorod, Novorosisk, Novo-
tcherkask, Pavlovsk, Selo, Taganrog, and Zarsko.

Through the kindness of Mr. C. Siegel the author is enabled
to give some idea of the designs of Russian wire supports. Figs.
109 and IOQA represent, in elevation and plan, the central station

Fie; no A

FIG in

Russia

321

standard at Rostoff-on-Don. Figs, no and IIOA show a strongly
constructed double standard, and figs, in and 1 1 2 respectively
a single standard and a wall-bracket.

FIG. 112

STATISTICS

No returns later than 1892 are available,
figures relate to that year.

State

Number of exchanges . . . 18

,, ,, switch-rooms ... 18

,, ,, public stations ... 19

,, ,, subscribers' lines . . 2,2 1 6

Length of wire in use, in kilometers . 5,568
Number of conversations between sub-
scribers, for year .... 3,033,139

Number of conversations from public

stations, for year .... 2,744

Number of telegrams telephoned, for

year ...... 19,106

Receipts, for year . . . . 32,3177.

The following

Companies
II
14

5,148
15,436

7,631,016

80,06I

Not stated
Y

322 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XXI. SERVIA

THE State has reserved to itself the power to establish and work
telephone exchanges, but, so far, none has been opened. Still
a law regulating tariffs and general conditions has been prepared,
and as soon as it has received the sanction of the legislature a
commencement will be made with a central station at Belgrade.
But the State, for official purposes, has erected metallic circuits
of 3 mm. bronze between Belgrade and Nisch (250 kilometers),
which line is in course of extension to Sibervcz, a further distance
of 125 kilometers. These lines and a few others, which bring the
total existing length up to 322 kilometers, will be available as
trunks when the exchange system comes into operation. Most of
the work has been carried out for the State by Mr. J. Berliner, of
Hanover, through his agent in Vienna, Mr. Hax Hahn ; and the
instruments used are the Berliner transmitter with double-pole
Bell receivers and magnetos. There are also twenty-four kilo-
meters of private lines in Servia. Such lines require a licence from
the Minister of Commerce, and have to pay an annual tax of i/. i2s.
for every three kilometers, or less, of wire erected, and of 2/. Ss.
if the length exceeds three and is not more than eight kilometers.

323

XXII. SPAIN

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

A ROYAL decree, dated August n, 1884, made telephonic ex-
change communication a Government monopoly ; but the experi-
ence gained during the next two years was so little to the taste of
the officials that in June 1886 another decree entirely reversed
the first one and provided that the exploitation of telephones in
Spain should henceforth be left to private enterprise. In explana-
tion of this change of front the decree said, ' So long as the tele-
phonic service is administered by the State it can never develop
and attain the proportions demanded by the necessities of modern
life. Private enterprise, on the other hand, while adapting itself
to public requirements, will find in this novel means of communi-
cation a vast field for activity in which apt initiative will be repaid
by satisfactory development.'

While it is undoubtedly rather amusing to find the Spanish
Government naively confessing itself so much behind the age as to
be impotent to deal with the exigencies of modern life, there was
certainly a strain of good sense in its argument. Government de-
partments are generally very inelastic affairs, averse to innovation
and desirous of running on in the grooves to which they have been
accustomed. Such exceptions as may be cited are explainable by
the unquestionable fact that good and energetic men wishful to
earn laurels for themselves and their country, and of force of
character sufficient to overcome the inertia which pertains to
Governments must now and then come to the surface, even in a
Government department and in defiance of its humdrum traditions
and training. But such a good man, after having animated the

Y 2

324 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

mummy for a series of years, with results creditable to himself and
beneficial to the public and all concerned, may be succeeded by
one of quite another stamp, desirous only of pursuing as unevent-
ful a career as is compatible with the retention of his office ; or,
worse still, by one who expends his energy in combating instead
of fostering the requirements of the community. It is not con-
ceivable that the principles of promotion by seniority, or seniority
tempered by patronage, which prevail in so many countries can
produce any other result, for they open the doors to dullards,
routine-worshippers, red-tape and sealing-wax champions, and
others who, good enough men in their own small way, are not de-
signed by nature to lead or initiate. On the other hand, commer-
cial companies which have to contend with competition, which can
only exist by earning dividends, and which have a day of reckoning
at least once a year cannot afford to tolerate triflers or idlers. Pro-
motion with them should be, and generally is, by seniority tem-
pered by proved ability to keep abreast of the times : if inadver-
tently a round peg gets into a square hole he cannot catch on,
and is soon shunted by the force of the circumstances which
he cannot control. The smart official looks after the shareholders'
dividends, and the competition looks after the public. The only
exception is when a company has a rich monopoly which cannot
be spoiled even by bad management. Such a company, by force
of its monopoly, may do well for itself ; but it will not, unless
directed by an enlightened and superior man, do well for its cus-
tomers, whom, as likely as not, it will regard in the light of
enemies, to be snubbed and repressed on every occasion : it is,
in fact, liable to all the abuses and drawbacks of a Government
department.

When a commencement was made with the new order of
things in Spain it became apparent that the Government's idea of
how to foster a telephonic development commensurate with the
exigencies of modern life was to put the various towns up to
auction and knock them down to the company or person willing
to part with the greatest proportion of the gross receipts to the
State, no offer of less than 10 per cent, being entertained under
any circumstances. At the same time, to safeguard the interests
of the public (so it was said), a scale of maximum charges was pre-

Spain 325

pared, and regulations for the conduct of the traffic some of which
were distinctly worthy of commendation drawn up, to which the
concessionaries had to undertake to conform.

Under this decree concessions for thirty-five exchange systems
were granted, the State proportion of the gross receipts varying
from 10 per cent, in Valladolid, Seville, Granada, and Alicante, to
20 per cent, in Madrid and Saragossa, 31^ per cent, in Valencia,
33i P er cent, in Barcelona, and 34 per cent, in Bilbao ; and
averaging 20-66 per cent, all round.

The principal maximum rates, payable quarterly in advance, as
fixed by law were as follow :

Per annum
s. d.

Subscriber to a local exchange located within the muni-
cipal boundary', with the instrument in his private
office or house . . . . . . 12 o o

For a telephone connected to the local exchange, but
fixed in a casino, club, hotel, cafe, theatre, railway
station, or other place where it could be used by
strangers . . . . . . . . 40 o o

Three-minute local talk from a public telephone station . o o I -44

This local rate of 1 2/. payable by the subscriber meant that the
concessionary companies had to earn dividends

Per annum

s. d.

In Madrid on I2/. 20 per cent. . . . . .9120

,, Bilbao on I2/. 34 per cent. . . . . .7185

., Barcelona on I2/. 3375 per cent 7 19 o

,, Valencia on I2/. 31 -5 per cent. . . . . 845
,, Valladolid, &c., on 1 2/. 10 per cent. . . .10160

and so, providing subscribers were forthcoming in any decent
number, were in clover, even the lowest net rates being ample for
the purpose. How Swedish, Swiss, and Dutch telephone managers,
accustomed to work on 5/., 4/., and even 2/. gs. id. rates, would
revel in such exuberant figures ! Imagine Mynheer Jan Sot (see
Dutch section, p. 220) established on the banks of classical
Guadalquivir with net rates ranging from 8/. to io/. i6s. ! Spain,
to him, would be a telephonic El Dorado indeed.

But a telephone company without subscribers gets on but in-
differently well. The anticipated rush of hotel and casino keepers and

326 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

railway managers anxious to pay 407. a year for a local telephone
connection developed but slowly, and even the stream of ordinary
twelve-pounders who did not keep casinos bore more resemblance
to a Ravensbourne than to a Mississippi. A concession was
granted for Felanitx, the inhabitants of which town were assumed
to be eager to get level with the necessities of modern life on the
1 2/. a year terms. An exchange was built and declared opened
in October 1888, at which time the only connection to it was a
public telephone station. At December 31, 1891, the date of the
last report, the system had neither grown nor decreased but was-
still open. At the end of 1890, after more than four years' de-
velopment, the exchanges in Madrid and Barcelona having been
opened in 1886, the number of subscribers in all Spain was 8,680,
connected to thirty-two exchanges, giving an average of 271 sub-
scribers per exchange. The total annual subscriptions actually
collected in 1890 amounted to 1,726,284 francs, or 198 francs
(7/. iSs. 5*/.) per subscriber. These results were, rightly enough,
considered unsatisfactory, and a third royal decree made its
appearance in November 1890 and came into operation on
January 2, 1891. The decree set forth that the State, instead
of being, as the royal decree of 1886 had alleged, a perpetual
obstacle to the development of telephoning, had, in Spain, proved
its greatest supporter. That opinions were now divided as to the
better method of control, State or company, so that it was deemed
judicious to recall the decree of 1886 in order that the State might
again be free to undertake exchange work where expedient. At
the same time, it was proposed to give future companies a greater
degree of freedom. This it certainly did in various ways. The
auction system was abandoned, and the royalty reduced from as
much as could be screwed out of the concessionaries to 10 per
cent, on the net earnings, with a minimum payment for each town
based on the number of inhabitants. Thus a town of 10,000
inhabitants or less must pay a minimum royalty of 4o/. per annum ;
10,001 to 20,000, 8o/. ; 20,001 to 50,000, 2oo/. ; increasing by steps
to 2,ooo/. for a town of 200,001 or more inhabitants.

The rates were generally reduced, even the unhappy casino-
keepers being remembered, and new regulations issued. As
these rates and regulations represent the conditions under which

Spain 327

the telephonic industry in Spain is now pursued, they are given
rather fully below. With regard to trunk lines, concessions have
been granted for connecting Madrid to Saragossa, Barcelona, Pam-
peluna, St. Sebastian, Vittoria, Bilbao, Valencia, Tarrasa, and Saba-
dell. Of these, only the Madrid-Barcelona and the Bilbao-Vittoria
are at the date of writing (February 1895) reported finished.

The new policy has, it is understood, been attended by con-
siderable development. The last official report only extends to
the end of 1892, when the number of exchanges was forty- six, and
of subscribers 10,984. Practically the whole of the increase over
1890 had been won by the companies, for although the State had,
in pursuance of the new policy inaugurated by the decree of 1890,
opened no less than ten exchanges, its subscribers, after two years'
working, only numbered 135 ! The State management appears to
be on less liberal lines than that of the companies, since the
statistics show that it possesses no public telephone stations, and
that there is neither a telegram nor telephonogram service in con-
nection with its exchange.

The Spanish system, although now modified on decidedly
liberal lines so liberal as to include the cheapest rate for tele-
grams in the world is defective in one important particular.
The concessions are for twenty years only, after which the whole
system becomes the property of the State without payment to the
concessionaries of any kind, unless the State is willing to take over
the switch-boards and subscribers' instruments (a most unlikely
contingency, seeing that most of this apparatus will be of old
design and well worn), which will then be paid for at a rate to be
settled by arbitration failing friendly agreement. This means that
the concessionaries have not only to earn adequate interest on
their capital, but are to get back the principal too, and that within
twenty years. Such an arrangement must be bad for the sub-
scribers during the latter half of the concessionary term, for it
may be taken for granted that no improvements will be introduced
and the service starved in every conceivable way. And eventually
the State will come into possession of a system the upkeep of
which has been so neglected that a thorough reconstruction will
be the first thing it will have to set about. Technically, the future
in Spain is not bright ; for although metallic circuits prevail, we

328 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

may be sure that Cheap Jack will rule the roast wherever possible.
The concessionary system cannot produce the best, or even
passably good, results with the bogle of confiscation growing
bigger and more imminent every year.

SERVICES AND TARIFFS

i. Rates for local exchange connections :

CLASS i. Connection to a private residence for the use of the
subscriber, his family, and servants only.

CLASS 2. Connection to a place of business for the use of the
subscriber, his partners, and employees only.

CLASS 3. Connection used by several occupants of the same
building.

CLASS 4. Connection to a casino, club, place of amusement,
cafe, theatre, or railway station, where it may be used by customers
or visitors.

er annum, quarterly in advance

Cla

ss r Class 2

Class 3 i Class 4

s. s.

\ In a town of less than 10,000 inhabitants 4

16 ; 5 12

68 8

10,001 to 20,000 5

12 ! 6 8

7 4 12

20,001 ,, 50,000 6

8174

80 16

50,001 ,, 100,000 7

4 80

9 12 20

100,001 ,,200,000 8

o 8 16

114 24

200,001 and more 10

14 o 32

These rates apply to subscribers located within three kilometers
of the central exchange or of a branch switch-room. Beyond that
distance an excess rate of 2s. $d. per 100 meters must be paid.
An extra set of instruments connected to the same line by a
switch is supplied for i6s. per annum. The Government and
provincial and municipal authorities enjoy a reduction of 40 per
cent, on all local rates. A subscriber is entitled to deduct from
his next payment in advance the proportion of his subscription
proper to the number of days (if any) on which his line has been
interrupted during the preceding quarter. On the other hand, he

Spain 329

may be required to deposit 75 francs (37.) to cover the value of
his instrument.

2. Rates for internal trunk lines. Time unit, three minutes.

Up to 50 kilometers

d
5"?

5i ioo .

101 ,, 200 ,, .
201 ,, 300 ,, .
3OI ,, 4OO ,, ...

. o

67
4-8

Q-6

401 ,, 500 . . .

5OI ,, 6OO ,, .

For each additional ioo kilometers

. 2
. 2
. O

y v

2-4
7-2
4-8

The State has reserved the right to use each trunk line for
public purposes one hour every day free of all charge, and for a
second hour at a reduction of 40 per cent, on the above rates.
The concessionary has to pay a royalty of 10 per cent, on his net
receipts i.e. his profits with a minimum payment of i6s. per kilo-
meter of trunk line per annum. He has also to deposit with the
Government a sum equal to i/. i2s. per kilometer.

3. Rates for public telephone stations. For local talks :

Subscribers ......... free

Non-subscribers, per three minutes or less . . . I -92^.

For trunk talks : Subscribers and non-subscribers, as per trunk
tariff above.

4. Telephoning of telegrams. There is no provision in the
authorised tariff's for this service, but the statistics (see p. 331) show
that it exists.

5. Rates for the telephoning of messages for local delivery
(telephonograms). The exchanges write down and deliver by
messenger to non-subscribers located in the same town messages
which may be dictated from a subscribers' office or from a public
telephone station, or written and handed in at a public telephone
station. This really constitutes a local telegram service. The
rates are :

For a message of 20 words or less . . . . . i '92^.

,, each additional 5 words ...... 480'.

When a message is addressed to more than one person :

each extra copy . ...... '96^.

330 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

The Spaniards may well be congratulated on having established
a record in telegraphic rates. Twenty words for rather less than
twopence is calculated to stir up feelings of envy in less fortu-
nate people, such as those, for instance, who may not send written
messages by telephone at all and have to pay 6d. for twelve words,
however short the distance covered.

WOEK

The author has not had an opportunity of personally inspecting
the Spanish exchanges, which are, to a large extent, in the hands
of French companies. The character of the work is, as is natural
under such circumstances, decidedly French. In fact, the Societe
Generale des Telephones, of Paris, supplied practically the whole of
the material used up till 1891, when the customs war between the
two countries interposed a barrier to the importation of French
apparatus, which practically killed the trade. The business is
now supplied, but principally on French models, from workshops
established in Spain itself, although Belgian instruments are not
unknown. The prevailing type of subscribers' apparatus comprises
Ader transmitters, Ader receivers, push-buttons, trembling bells,
and Leclanche cells. The usual class of switch-board is that
designed by M. Berthon and used in Paris during the reign of
the Societe Generale des Telephones, and which has been oftert
described. An exception is the case of Madrid, which has
recently been provided with a multiple board of the Western
Electric Company's ordinary type. In regard to outside work,
that at Madrid is remarkable as consisting chiefly of aerial cables,
a form of construction necessitated by a municipal decree which
forbids the employment of any open wire for a greater distance
than 500 meters. The cables usually contain twelve wires, of a
resistance of forty ohms per kilometer, insulated with rubber
and wrapped in waterproofed tape. They are suspended from
galvanised steel wires of 3 mm. diameter by steel hooks placed
one meter apart. The Spanish system is, however, a model in
one of the most important of all respects it is metallic circuit
throughout.

Spain 331

STATISTICS

At December 31, 1892, the date of the last published return,
the position of Spanish telephones was as follows :

State Companies

Number of exchanges ..... 10 36

,, subscribers 135 10,849

Length of wire in use, in kilometers . . 390 22,432

Number of public stations .... 28
Number of local talks between subscribers, for

y ear 73,258 1,237,235

Number of local talks from public stations, for

year 26,538

Number of telegram? telephoned, for year . 13,088
Number of telephonograms from subscribers,

for year 12,143
Number of telephonograms from public stations,

for year 2,356

332 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XXIII. SWEDEN

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

IN Sweden at the present day one may gain a glimpse of what
telephony in the future will be everywhere, and an inkling of the
kind of problem which awaits the coming telephone engineers.
In population Stockholm is about n,ooo souls behind Edinburgh
(Edinburgh, 1891, 263,646; Stockholm, 1892, 252,574). Both
are capitals. In Stockholm at the end of 1894 there were 11,534
exchange instruments in operation ; in Edinburgh about 1,000.
In Stockholm each hundred inhabitants, including women, chil-
dren, and babies, had 4*57 instruments between them one and a
fraction over to every twenty-five souls. In Edinburgh each
hundred inhabitants had "37 a little more than a third part of a
telephone between them. Taking the population of London as
5,600,000, and imagining that London telephonically were on a
par with Stockholm, what should we find? Why, that London
would then possess

exchange instruments ! What is the present number ? About
8,000, or "14 per hundred inhabitants.

The credit of the Swedish development is unquestionably due
in a large measure to Mr. H. T. Cedergren, the managing director
of the Allmanna Telefonaktiebolag (General Telephone Company)
of Stockholm. He has truly been the Hotspur of telephonic
warfare ever in the front with extensions and improvements ;
ever devising new uses and applications for the telephone ; ever
appealing to the public for support, and, what is a great deal

Sweden

333

more to the purpose, ever deserving it. Mr. Cedergren was
amongst the first to perceive the sufficiency of a low rate of sub-
scription, and to appreciate its fostering power on the telephonic
industry. At first a theory only, the keen competition which
ensued in Stockholm when the original monopoly of the Inter-
national Bell Telephone Company was attacked, provided the
opportunity for its practical demonstration. The result of the
low rates and Mr. Cedergren's unceasing energy has been to place
Sweden in the foremost telephonic position in the world. ' And
what,' the advocates of high rates will ask, ' and what about
the poor unfortunate shareholders ? ' Well, as will be seen further
on, those commiserated personages have received year after year
better dividends than telephone shareholders in the United King-
dom ever did, 1 or are ever likely to. 'But,' say the advocates,
* Cedergren had everything his own way no opposition free
way-leaves low-priced labour a benevolent corporation a free-
handed and complaisant Government.' Nothing of the kind
a mere collection of red herrings.

The pioneer in Sweden was the International Bell Telephone
Company, which opened in Stockholm and Gothenburg in 1880 and
soon afterwards in a few other towns. But the rates were high and
development was slow until opposition appeared in Stockholm in
1883 in the guise of a local Mr. Cedergren's company, and in
Gothenburg in the form of a co-operative telephone society, the
idea of which was that each member should pay for the cost of
his line, instrument, and proportion of switch-room apparatus,
and contribute 3/. 6s. M. per annum towards the working and
upkeep of the system, which contribution would be reduced, after
the formation of an adequate reserve fund, whenever circum-
stances permitted. The idea was found to work out well in prac-
tice, and Sweden was soon dotted with co-operative telephone
exchanges, even villages with names undiscoverable in the best
gazetteers indulging in what was at first looked upon partly as a
scientific curiosity and partly as a luxury, but which soon proved
to be a useful adjunct of everyday life.

The extent of the mine waiting to be worked was soon demon-

1 With the exception, perhaps, of those of the Dundee and District Telephonic
Company, Limited (see page 7), which worked on a s/. los. rate.

334 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

strated by Mr. Cedergren's methods. Instead of a yearly rental
of 8/. 17 s. 9</. (the Bell Company's rate) the new competitor asked
2/. 155-. yd. down on connection, and thereafter an annual inclusive
subscription of 5/. us. \d. The Bell Company was, of course,
convinced that Mr. Cedergren had simply discovered a royal road
to ruin for himself and friends, and that all that was necessary to
bring about his self-immolation was to allow him sufficient room
to caper about in. So when at the end of 1883, after seven
months' working, his exchange had 785 instruments connected, as
many as the Bell had after three years, it was felt that he was
advancing towards his inevitable goal with satisfactory rapidity.
But when at the end of 1884 he had 2,288 against the Bell's
900 or so, and was moreover paying dividends, it was perceived
that there was a certain or rather uncertain, for it was not easily
understood method in his madness. Then the Bell Company
began to wake up, but it was too late ; and it never afterwards
played but a secondary part in the telephonic game. Ultimately
its Stockholm system, with the exception of the Ostermalms
district in the north-east of the town, was bought and incor-
porated by the General Company. The Ostermalms exchange
has preserved a separate organisation, but practically it forms part
of the General system, since free intercommunication between the
two prevails. As early as 1884 the General Company began to
extend its operations to other towns in the neighbourhood of
Stockholm and to erect trunk lines between them. This was
found to be a remunerative undertaking, and in the next suc-
ceeding years was pushed to such an extent that the Government
began to take alarm for its telegraph revenue, more especially
after an application by the General Company for a concession to
run trunk lines to Gothenburg, Malmo, and other of the prin-
cipal towns. The question of the proposed concession became a
burning topic in Parliament ; special committees took it in hand ;
and deputations headed by Mr. Cedergren carried it even to the
foot of the throne. Ultimately, it was decided to give the State
post and telegraph department the exclusive right to erect inter-
town wires except within a radius of seventy kilometers (43^ miles)
around Stockholm, within which area the General Telephone
Company was left free to do as it liked. Mr. Cedergren's long-

Sweden 335

distance ambition was thus baulked ; but the inhabitants of the
yo-kilometer radius have no reason to lament the fact, for his
energies, being concentrated within that circle, have led to its
becoming, without any exception, the best-telephoned bit of
country in the world.

But the jealousy of the telegraph department had now been
thoroughly aroused. It was no longer content to erect trunks for
the use of local companies and co-operative societies. It was
felt that by doing so and nothing more it was taking most of the
expense and risk and least of the profit, profit moreover gained
{as was then imagined) by competing with, and murdering, its
own telegraph revenue. So the State determined to go in for
the better paying part the local exchanges also ; and began by
purchasing the Gothenburg and other provincial exchanges of the
International Bell Telephone Company. In Stockholm there
was already existing at the central telegraph office a small tele-
phone exchange for the use of the Government departments, and
this was made the nucleus of a public system. The Swedish
State telegraph department having definitely entered the lists,
determined to do its work well. It made metallic circuits an
inexorable rule, and underground work an end to be aimed at
wherever possible. The experience of the General Company had
demonstrated the feasibility and potency in developing custom of
low rates, and the State started in Stockholm with a first payment
of 2/. 155. yd. on connection, and an annual subscription there-
after of 4/. Ss. i id., or i/. 2s. 2d. below that of the General Com-
pany, which was to cover free communication not only in Stock-
holm, but within a radius of seventy kilometers around ! It was a
programme metallic circuits against single wires, underground
wires against overhead, direct connection with the long-distance
trunks, all combined with an appreciably lower rate and a free
7o-kilometer radius that deserved success and was calculated
to alarm the General Company. But Cedergren was used to
competition. He had at this period over 5,000 subscribers work-
ing in Stockholm alone, and his service was as good as is com-
patible with single wires. But that was not enough ; and the
State had scarcely got its exchange in operation before the
General Company began to convert its system to metallic circuit,

336 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

section after section of the multiple switch-board at the central
station being altered to meet the new requirements, communica-
tion between the two sets being kept up by means of translators,
until in 1894 there was not a single wire left in Stockholm.
Probably the State had intended to intimidate the company into
selling its system, and had there been a nervous man at the helm
that result would probably have been brought about ; but Cedergren
picked up the proffered gauntlet and set about fighting the State
as vigorously as he had done the Bell Company. He did not
even reduce his subscription of 5/. 1 1 s. id. to meet the State's
4/. 85-. \\d., simply notifying that all subscribers' lines would be
changed to metallic circuit without extra charge, and that the
subscription would henceforth cover communication with all
the company's subscribers within the yo-kilometer radius. The
results are curious. The State opposition began to be pushed
with energy in 1890, at the end of which year the General Com-
pany had 5,186 instruments connected. At the end of 1894,
after four years of active rivalry, the General Company had 8,336
instruments and the State 2,400 that is to say, a respective in-
crease of 3,150 and 2,000 since the end of 1890. Both systems
have consequently found a field, just as the starting and rapid
increase of the Mutual Telephone Company's exchange in Man-
chester took place without arresting the development of the
National Telephone Company's system in the same town. The
success of the General Company in its opposition is the more
surprising since its subscribers are placed at a disadvantage (see
Tariffs], as compared with those of the State, both in the use of
the trunks and in telephoning telegrams. The result tends to
confirm the often-expressed view that Government departments
cannot successfully compete with properly directed private enter-
prise, a view which has also received practical illustration outside
the precincts of Sweden.

In all the chief provincial towns the State now owns the tele-
phone service, either by acquiring it from its original proprietors
or in virtue of its own initiative. In some towns, Gothenburg
for instance, there is opposition ; but this is growing more and
more feeble because the State declines (except in Stockholm) to
allow its competitors to use the trunk lines, participate in the

Sweden

337

telegram service, or even, in some cases, to intercommunicate on
any terms with its own subscribers in the same locality.

In many of the smaller towns and villages co-operative
societies still afford the only means of telephonic communication,
but they are gradually disappearing under the encroachments of
the State. At the end of 1892, the latest available statistic, there

* f Of

STOCKHOLM

' Primary Exchange
Secondary

1. The North ..

2. The Exchange for the
Central part of Stockholm
-.5. The South Exchange

FIG. 113

were 158 co-operative exchanges, of which thirty were in towns
and the rest in villages and rural communes. At the same date
there were 466 telephone exchanges and 27,658 subscribers in
Sweden. When it is recollected that the population is under five
millions ; that there are only eight towns of more than 20,000
inhabitants, and eleven more of between 10,000 and 20,000, this

338 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

development is little short of^ marvellous. Compare the National
Telephone Company's return for 1893 a year later of 540
exchanges and 53,784 subscribers for the whole of the United
Kingdom with its population of thirty-eight millions ! The consti-
tutions of the Swedish co-operative societies are very similar. In
the first place a member pays the whole cost of his connection
to the exchange, and is annually assessed with his share of the
working and maintenance expenses of the system, together with a
contribution to the reserve fund. In the towns (as in Gothen-
burg) this assessment is sometimes as high as 3/. 6s. 8^/., but in the
villages it may be as low as 255-. or 30^.

In the Ostermalms district of Stockholm, which is still worked
by the Bell Company, the Swiss method of charging is in opera-
tion, the subscribers paying an annual subscription of i/. iqs. 9^.,
which entitles them to a hundred free calls every three months
each call over that number being charged i "$d.

The success of the low rates in Stockholm, both State and
company's, is rendered more surprising by the fact that the use
of numerous submarine cables is rendered absolutely unavoidable
by the geographical character of the locality. Not only is Stock-
holm itself built on several islands (fig. 113), but between the city
and the Baltic, the islets, nearly all of which contain villages or
at least summer residences, are several hundreds in number. A
large proportion of them is in connection with either one or both
telephonic systems, necessitating constant attention to submarine
cable work. The General Company, in fact, keeps a small
steamer specially for the purpose.

SERVICES RENDERED IN STOCKHOLM BY THE GENERAL
TELEPHONE COMPANY AND THE STATE TELEGRAPH
DEPARTMENT

1. Local intercommunication between its own subscribers
and public stations and those of the rival system.

2. Communication within a 70-kilometer radius around
Stockholm.

3. Internal trunk service. Every Swedish town of note and
many villages are in trunk connection.

Sweden 339

4. International trunk service. This exists to Norway and
Denmark only. A line to Finland or Russia is not yet spoken of.

5. Telephoning of telegrams. The State's own subscribers
are switched through to the central telegraph office for the trans-
mission of their telegrams, but this . facility .is denied to the
General Company's supporters. But Mr. Cedergren has esta-
blished an office adjacent to the central telegraph station where
his subscribers' telegrams are written down by company's clerks
and immediately handed in over the counter for transmission.
Conversely, telegrams for his subscribers are delivered at the
special office and telephoned to the addressees. This rnay,
perhaps, be a little less rapid than direct connection with the
telegraph department, but the difference is not great, and the
subscribers are reconciled to it by enjoying the service free, while
the State's subscribers have to pay '66d. per message.

6. Local message (telephonogram) service.

7. Messenger service.

8. Public telephone stations. In Stockholm a public tele-
phone station belonging to the State or to the General Company
is met with about every hundred yards in the principal streets,
as nearly every hotel, restaurant, and tobacco-shop keeps one.
These keepers pay the full tariff for their instruments and are
allowed to retain all local receipts in the case of the company, and
25 per cent, of the receipts in the case of the State. Public
stations are also numerous in the provincial towns. The company
has tried and abandoned many forms of automatic slot machines ;
the State is now about to experiment with them. The General
Telephone Company's services Nos. 3 and 4 have to be conducted
through the intermediary of the rival exchange and paid for.

The State renders similar services in the other towns in which
it is established, except that the international wires are not yet
available from all points. The yo-kilometer radius is, of course,
an arrangement peculiar to Stockholm, Gothenburg, Malmo, &c.,
having lacked local Cedergrens at the critical moment. The
General Telephone Company is conducted on similar lines in
Upsala and the other towns within the yo-kilometer radius in
which it does business.

z 2

34O Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

TARIFFS

i. General Company's exchange. Rates for local exchange
communication. Subscribers are divided into four classes.

Admission Annual

fee subscription

s. d. s. d.
CLASS I. For a direct metallic circuit to any

of the three principal switch-rooms 215 7 511 i
II. Two subscribers on one metallic
circuit or on separate metallic cir-
cuits joined to one jack and indi-
cator at the exchange, each .2157 4811
,, III. Three subscribers on one metallic
circuit or joined to one jack and

indicator, each . . . .2157 368
,, IV For a direct metallic circuit to one
of the branch switch-rooms with
restriction to 100 free calls every
three months, every extra call
being paid for on the Swiss system
at i'3</. per call . . . o n \\ i 19 9

In addition there is a ship tariff :

For one vessel on a direct metallic circuit .2157 4811
For each additional vessel using the same

metallic circuit . . . . .2157 2157

There is no extra charge if a line exceeds a kilometer in
length. Contracts are generally for five years. The admission
fee may, at the subscriber's option, be paid down on the con-
nection being completed or spread over the five years of the
contract. Classes I., II., and III. are allowed unlimited communi-
cation with all the General Company's subscribers in Stockholm
and within the yo-kilometer radius, and with all subscribers to the
Bell Telephone Company as well.

Communication with the State exchange subscribers in Stock-
holm or seventy kilometers around, i "$d. per talk, no time limit,
within the town ; 1*3^. per five minutes beyond. This charge is
paid over to the State.

2. General Company's exchange. >jo-kilometer radius. The
local rates, Classes L, II., and III., cover free and unrestricted com-

Sweden 341

munication with any part of the yo-kilometer radius, in which, at
the end of 1894, the company possessed 2,012 subscribers, besides
the 8,334 within Stockholm city. Two subscribers located on
opposite sides of the radius may consequently converse at will
without extra charge over a distance of 140 kilometers (87 miles).

3. General Company's exchange. Internal trunk rates.
Same as those of the State, plus i -3^. per connection, which also
goes to the State. Accounts are collected every three months.
The record of connections on which money is payable by the
company to the State is kept by the State operator, and, as a rule,
this record must be accepted as correct. The State pays the
General Company 1-3^. for each conversation originated by a
State with a company's subscriber.

4. General Company ' s exchange. International trunk rates.
The company's subscribers do not participate in this service.

5. General Company's exchange. Rates for the telephoning
of telegrams. This service is free, but subscribers using it must
keep a deposit balance of not less than 55-. 6d. with the company.

6. General Company's exchange. Local message service rates.
Same as the State's, which see.

7. General Company's exchange. Messenger service rates.
Same as the State's, which see.

8. General Company's exchange. Public telephone station
rates. For communication with any company's subscriber in
Stockholm or seventy kilometers around, \"$d. Time may be
limited to five minutes if necessary. Connections to State sub-
scribers, 2'6d. Trunk rates those of the State, plus 1-3^. per
connection. Subscribers have no advantage over strangers in
using the public stations.

i. State exchange. Rates for local exchange communication.

Admission Annual

fee subscription

s. d. s. d.

For a business connection not over two kilo-
meters from the nearest switch-room .215 7 4811
For a private house connection, the State
reserving the right to put two houses

on the same line .... 368

Members of Parliament (four months in the

year only) ...... 1132

34 2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Ship-owners who have their vessels fitted with telephones, so that
they can connect with the exchange on coming alongside the
quay at their usual berth, are charged 2/. 155-. ^d. per annum in
addition to the cost of the ship and shore connections. Con-
tracts are for five years.

Communication with the General Company's subscribers,
i'3*/. per talk, no time limit, within the town; i'3^. per five
minutes beyond.

2. State exchange. ^Q-kilometer radius. The local charges
named above cover communication with any State subscriber
within seventy kilometers of Stockholm.

3. State exchange. Internal trunk rates.

Per 3 minutes or
fraction thereof

Up to 100 kilometers ...... 2d.

100 ,, 250 ,, ...... ^d.

250 ,, 600 ,, 6-6cL

600 ,, 900 ,, ...... 9'9</.

Over 900 . . . . . . . . 13-25^.

Talks may be extended indefinitely so long as the line is not
wanted by others. There are no ' express ' or ' urgent ' connec-
tions, and the tariff is not reduced at night. Unless a caller's
request can be met and satisfied, he is not charged anything,
notwithstanding that the operators and wires are sometimes
engaged a considerable time in vainly trying to arrange the con-
nection ; but a subscriber who engages a trunk for a certain time
and fails from any reason to use it, is debited with the cost of a
conversation.

4. State exchange. International trunk rates.

Per 3 minutes

.s-. d.
Stockholm to Christiania . . . . . . .18

,, ,, Drammen, Drobak, Lillestrommen, &c. . i 10

,, ,, Copenhagen 2 2\

Malmo ,, ,, . . . . . . .18

5. State exchange. Rates for telephoning of telegrams. The
charge for a telephoned telegram is '66d., irrespective of the number
of words. Subscribers are not required to make a preliminary
deposit, but the State charges 2 per cent, on the amount of
accounts to cover the cost of keeping them.

Sweden 343

6. State exchange. Local message set vice rates. A sub-
scriber may telephone a message of not more than forty words
to a telegraph office, where it is written down and delivered by
messenger ; or any person may hand in a written message of
similar length at a telegraph or public telephone station and have
it telephoned to a subscriber for 3*3^.

7. State exchange. Messenger service rates. A non-sub-
scriber may be called by messenger to a public station for 3-3^.

8. State exchange. Public telephone stations rates.

Within Stockholm ........ i -^d.

Beyond Stockholm, but within 7O-kilometer radius . . I 'f)^i.

Time unit, three minutes. Subscribers have to pay equally with
non-subscribers. The trunk rates are the same as from the sub-
scribers' offices. When a General Company's subscriber is called
from a State public station the charge is doubled.

BELL TELEPHONE COMPANY

This company has but one rate, which is identical with the
General Telephone Company's Class IV. It covers free com-
munication with the latter company's subscribers.

WAY-LEAVES

The Government enjoys no special advantages except in
respect to the State railways and the State lands, which, however,
are very extensive. With private owners and with municipalities
agreements have to be negotiated. In 1892 the Stockholm Town
Council, owing to a difference of opinion about the laying of the
State underground mains, withdrew a previously granted permission
to open the streets, and the Government had to submit pending
adjustment of the dispute. The Town Council has recently
granted a corresponding way-leave for underground conduits to
the General Company. The companies may not even cross the
State railways and lands with their wires without permission ; in
other respects they enjoy equal facilities. When the number of
wires fixed is small, a nominal acknowledgment only is paid ;
when large standards carrying one hundred wires or over are

344 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

wanted, it is usual to give a free exchange connection .in return
for the accommodation.

The obtaining of way-leaves in Stockholm is much facilitated
by the mode of roofing buildings. Slates or tiles are rarely em-
ployed, the buildings being covered with sheet iron, painted,
which is not readily damaged by workmen. Complaints, so
common in England, of leakage are consequently rare. Most
buildings have also a common stairway from the street level to
the roof, so that access can be had without passing through the
interiors. Way-leaves are consequently not so difficult to obtain
and retain as with us ; moreover, the mode of joining the squares
of sheet iron results in a series of ridges which afford a hold to
the linemen, and render the roof safer to work on.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

General Telephone Company's system. Originally working
with one central station, and after its fusion with the International
Bell Company with two, the General Company has within the last
two years entirely changed its plan, and simultaneously with its
change to metallic circuits remodelled its switching arrangements.
Fig. 113, which is a map of Stockholm city divided into eight
switching districts, gives a clear idea of the existing arrangement,
which, it will be seen, bears a strong resemblance to the plan
originally suggested by General Webber advocated in the author's
British Association paper of August 24, 1891, and which, had it not
been for the death of the late Duke of Marlborough, would have
come into operation in London on January i, 1893. The adoption
of some such plan is inevitable in the future, both on the score of
expense, of accommodation for wires and of switching space. A
central station may conceivably be arranged to take 30,000 or even
36,000 subscribers, if the wires could be got to it, but beyond that
number the complications involved would be too costly to be faced.
And even 36,000 is not enough, as it has already been shown that
London, on the example of Stockholm, may reasonably be expected
to require accommodation for 250,000 subscribers in the not dis-
tant future. The existing arrangements are ludicrously deficient as
it is, and no extension of them could possibly meet the tenth part

Sweden 345

of such a demand ; so the ultimate adoption of the British Associa-
tion, or divisional, plan is inevitable. That such an authority as
Mr. Cedergrenhas recognised the fact and adapted it to the needs
of the most telephonically advanced city in the world, affords
gratifying confirmation of the author's convictiqns.

The backbone of the Stockholm system is the line of what
are called primary switch-rooms, known as Brunkeberg, Stortorget,
and Maria. Subscribers of Classes I., II. and III. are only con-
nected to these, so that they obtain amongst themselves a service
which never brings into requisition any of the branch switch-rooms.
Of these branch rooms there are four belonging to the General
Company and one to the Bell Company ; but as the working
agreement between the two concerns is of the most intimate
character, the Bell room practically forms part of the General
Company's system. The only difference is that, whereas the
General Company uses Ericsson's instruments for all its sub-
scribers, the Bell Company supplies magnetos of the American
type, Bell receivers, and Ericsson transmitters. To these five
branch rooms only members of Class IV. are joined, it having
been found by experience that it is only the smaller people who
do not make frequent use of their instruments who choose this
mode of subscribing ; but this class is also joined to the three
primary rooms when they happen to be the nearest. The three
primary switch-rooms are connected together by a large number
of junctions 1 , and each branch or secondary room possesses
junctions to every other room, both primary and secondary.

On December 31, 1894, the instruments connected to this
extensive system numbered 9,136, divided as follows :

General Company, Class I. ..... 3>359

II 1*847

HI 1,482

IV. ... .684

Extension lines .... 964

Bell Company (all like Class IV. ) . . . . .800

9,136

By adding the 2,400 instruments of the State exchange, with
which all are also in connection, the telephonic circle of Stock-
holm city is found to possess a total membership of 11,536.

346 TelepJione Systems of the Continent of Europe

The largest switch-room is at the General Company's old
central in the Brunkeberg division, where there are 5,547 sub-
scribers actually connected. The board was originally a Western
Electric single-wire, double-cord, series multiple of twenty tables
and an ultimate capacity of 7,000. It was altered section by section

in the General Company's
workshop during the conver-
sion to metallic circuit, and
made to conform in pattern
to eleven new tables, which,
when added, raised the ulti-
mate capacity to 12,000 lines.
This great capacity is achieved
by reducing the size of the
jacks and by sloping some of
them over the operators' heads
in the manner shown at j in
fig. 114, which is an end sec-
tion of the board. The ex-
periment is interesting, but a
stretch above the floor of two
meters (6 ft. 6| in.) will be
required when the table is full.
The length of each table, which
takes 300 subscribers' lines and
three operators, is 1*62 meters.
The dimensions of the jacks
are : each jack 1 1 x 1 1 mm., and
each set of 100 jacks (five rows
of twenty), with necessary space
for screws, is 55 -x 249 mm.
The capacity of 1 2,000 is made
FlG - "4 up of 6 x 20 sets of 100 jacks.

During conversion to metallic circuits, a portion of this board
was altered to single-cord, but, after some experience, changed
again to double.

In the Southern, or Maria, exchange a switch-board, of six
tables of 3oo-line capacity, possessing several novel features has

Sweden

347

recently been fitted. It is a metallic circuit, double-cord, parallel-
jack multiple, with self-restoring drops of a new design. With
the exception of these drops, which are manufactured by Ericsson
& Co., the whole table was made in the workshops of the
General Telephone Company. The self- restoring drop is shown
in fig. 115. The signalling magnet M I is placed in front of the
restoring one M 2 (see also fig. 117). The armature is a bent lever
L 1 pivoted at /, which, when unattracted, engages with and
holds up the shutter s working on the pivot pi. On dropping the
shutter, its base B strikes against a pin which runs in a guide the
whole length of the magnets and terminates at the back in a
shoulder Y and a pointed head z ; forces the pin back, and closes
the contacts c 1 c 2 of the night-bell and 'attention' indicator circuit.
On operating the restoring magnet M 2 , the armature L 2 is attracted,
and its point, striking against the shoulder Y, forces back the pin,

which in its turn lifts the shutter s to its position of rest. At the
back of the drop will be seen another pair of contacts c 3 c 4 and
an ivory pin I attached to the armature L 2 . While L 2 remains
attracted under the influence of the restoring, which is also the
test, battery (three Tudor accumulators of 175 amp hours), the
pin i presses the contacts c 3 c 4 apart and breaks the circuit of the
M 1 coils, thus cutting out the signalling indicators during con-
nection, and leaving only the ring-off drop in derivation across
the loop. The ring-off drops are also automatically restored, but
mechanically. Fig. 116 shows the arrangement. L is a lever
pivoted at /, which, when unrestrained by the weight of the plug
p or pressure on the finger stud A, allows the plunger D to fall.
The plunger presses against a spring c placed under the electro-
magnet M. The shutter s is provided with a curved base piece B,
which, on the shutter falling, depresses the spring and closes the
circuit of the night-bell and ' attention ' indicator. The restora-

348 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

tion is effected by replacing the plugs or depressing the finger
stud. The general arrangement of the jacks, test and restoring
circuits is shown in fig. 117, which explains itself. The attention
signal, included in the night-bell circuit, is intended to assist the
lady superintendent. Each operating section has two one with
a white flag in connection with all the signalling indicators of that
section, the other with a red flag in connection with all the
ring-off drops of that section. Small white and red glow lamps

FIG. 116

have been tried instead of indicators with coloured shutters ; they
answer perfectly, and as self-restorers cannot be surpassed. By
their position the superintendent can see whether any signalling
drop has fallen and remains unanswered, or any ring-off has been
given and left unnoticed. To enable operators to detect a dis-
connection on a subscriber's line, a polarised electro-magnet
working a visual signal is included in the ringing circuit, the
armature of which oscillates during ringing if the line is right.

Sweden

349

Fig. 118 shows the operating connections, with details of the
keys. It will be seen that the operator replies to a call by pressing
the key and speaking on the right-hand cord, and that the desired
subscriber is called by merely pressing the same key lower down
while the operator is still speaking to the caller. None of the
metallic parts of the keys can be touched. A connection counter,
or at least a counter of the number of times the connection key
is operated, is included in the arrangements. There are already
over 1,000 subscribers working on this board, the ultimate
capacity of which is 6 x 18 sets of 100 jacks = 10,800, and the
designers are perfectly satisfied with the results obtained. The
general outline of the board resembles that shown in fig. 114,

REPEAT JACKS

ta
ANSWERING JACK

ACCUMULATORS^

SELF RESTORED
DROP

FIG. 117

without the overhanging projection. The measurements of tables
and jacks are the same.

The Stortorget switch-board, by Ericsson & Co., consists of
six tables of 300 lines, and is designed for an ultimate capacity of
7,800. It is on the single-cord principle, with jacks measuring
ii x 13 mm., the set of 100 occupying 70 x 249 mm.

The Bell Company's board, also by Ericsson & Co., has
only two tables, each for 300 subscribers and three operators.
The subscribers' lines are arranged for double-cord switching, but
the inward junction lines terminate in separate cords. The jacks
are of the same dimensions as those at Brunkeberg, and the board
may be expanded to take 3,600 lines ultimately.

FIG. it8 MK, magneto key RO, ring-off drop ; BK, battery key ; T, test ; TS, answering
switch ; TR, transmitter ; CK, connecting and calling key ; R, receiver ; RC, right-hand
cord ; TB, transmitter battery ; LC, left-hand cord ; cc, connection counter ; u, magneto

Sweden

351

The traffic between the two Stockholm systems is large, both
for local and trunk work, and the junction wires are consequently

GENERAL EXCHANGE STOCKHOLM.

MULTIPLE DOUBLE -CORD SWITCHBOARD.
CAPACITY, 12.000 SUBSCRIBERS

JACKS

Do.

DO.

ANNUNCIATORS

DO.

GOVERNMENT EXCHANGE STOCKHOM

MULTIPLE SINGLE -CORD SWITCHBOARD
CAPACITY. 10 ooo SUBSCRIBERS <5o TABLES EVENTUALLY.)

JACKS Do.

Do.

ANNUNCIATORS! Do.

Do.

"o COT

FIG. 119

very numerous. A general idea of the trunk arrangements
between the two exchanges is given in fig. 119. The trunk
connections are managed from a special section of the board on

352 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

which all the local subscribers are represented by multiple jacks.
From this special section proceed calling wires, operated by plugs
and indicators, to each of the operators in the trunk switching-
room of the State exchange, as well as a sufficient number of
metallic circuits reserved for switching through subscribers. The
trunk tables at the State exchange, marked i to 6 in the figure,
are situated in a separate room and accommodate only four trunks
each. A General Company's subscriber wanting a State sub-
scriber in another town is plugged through by his own local
operator to the special trunk section, where his demand is dealt
with by one of several trunk operators. If an immediate con-
nection is wanted, it is obtained, if possible, from the State
operator at once ; if the subscriber wishes to engage one of the
trunks for a certain specified time later in the day, the company's
operator negotiates the matter with the State operator and
subsequently notifies the caller as to the result.

The junction wires to the branch switch-rooms, and to the
State exchange for Stockholm communications, do not pass
through the special trunk section of the board, but each operator
at the main board has several direct lines to each of the other
switch-rooms through which she obtains the connections asked
for by her own set of subscribers. Fig. 120 shows the general
arrangements at both the State and the company's exchanges.
Effectively, the main difference between the General Company's
(double-cord) system and the State's (single-cord) is that no local
jack or drop is needed in the latter, the Qoo-ohm indicator serving
for both calling and terminating. On the other hand and this
complicates and renders the construction much more expensive
the key A, with a plug and cord, is needed for every subscriber.
The mass of mechanism required for a io,ooo-line board may
therefore be imagined. The key A, on being lifted from its
normal position of rest, makes a contact which puts on the
engaged test. The General Company's connections are much
more numerous than those of the State, averaging at least ten per
day. Each operator takes one hundred subscribers. As in the
State system, the subscribers ring each other and drop the ring-off
indicators at least once every connection. The time saved in
shunting the ringing from the switch- room to the subscriber's

Sweden

353

FIG. 120

A A

354 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

office is thus lost in manipulating shutters. At one time the
company employed a number of automatic commutators (Ceder-
gren and Ericsson's well-known patent) for groups of from three
to twenty-five subscribers ; but as the number of daily connections
grew these ceased to give satisfaction, while their operation
necessitated special arrangements at the exchange. During the
conversion to metallic circuit they were all consequently swept
away within Stockholm and vicinity, and only a few left working
in the remoter villages. Subscribers of Class IV. were originally
provided with connection counters, with the idea of facilitating
the charging of communications in excess of those covered by the
annual subscription ; but, although satisfactory as counters, they
sensibly increased the expense of installing and maintaining the
subscribers' instruments, and, after all, did not obviate the neces-
sity of keeping registers at the exchange, since they did not
discriminate between the different classes of connections. They
have now been taken out, and accounts are rendered from notes
taken by the operators.

State system. The State Stockholm system is worked with
only one central station, in which a metallic circuit, single-cord,
series jack board with an ultimate capacity of 10,000 has been
fitted. The board has a separate test wire and is practically on
the Western Electric Company's plan, but it was made by
Ericsson & Co., Stockholm. The workmanship leaves nothing
to be desired, while the care and neatness with which it has been
fitted up are worthy of all praise. The jacks are arranged so that
they can be unfastened and partially withdrawn from the front for
inspection or repair. While admiring the workmanship and the
skill displayed in the fitting, the author sees no reason to depart
from the opinion he has always held that the single-cord system,
at least as applied by the Western Electric Company, is
emphatically a fish that is not worth frying. The additional cost
and intricacy of construction are out of all proportion to the
advantage gained, which, indeed, is mostly imaginary. This
Stockholm board is stated by the engineers in charge to have
cost about 50 per cent, more than an ordinary double-cord
Western Electric would have done, against which they set an
estimated gain of ten minutes in the hour in rapidity of working.

Sweden 355

But on analysis it is difficult to understand where this gain comes
in, the movements required from the operator for the double-cord
being nine and for the single-cord eight, or a saving of one
movement per connection. If it is true that the saving of one
movement per connection equals ten minutes in the hour, what
would be the saving accruing from the use of a board requiring
only two movements per connection (and there are such) ? The
arrangements for trunk switching are of a familiar type. The
trunk lines are brought to separate tables (which in Stockholm
are in another room and out of sight of the local board), each
table dealing with four trunks, and being under the charge of
two operators, which means that each operator takes only two
trunks (fig. 119). Actually, one girl operates four trunks, while
the second keeps the very voluminous registers which are necessi-
tated by the system of negotiating connections in advance. All
the trunks are represented by jacks on each table. In addition
to six separate trunk tables there is a special section of the local
board through which all trunk connections must pass and on
which all the subscribers are represented by multiple jacks, this
special section also possessing ample communication with each
of the trunk tables. A subscriber wishing trunk communication
is turned on by his local operator to one or other of the trunk
operators, who ascertains his wants and negotiates the necessary
connections. A communication from a trunk to a local sub-
scriber is obtained by the trunk operator concerned through
the special section. The wires used by the operators for their
communications are independent ones, special loops being
reserved for the subscribers. Communications between operators
are all conducted by dropping of shutters and plugging-in, no
attempt being made to expedite matters by continuous listening,
as to the practicability of which the Swedish engineers entertain
serious doubts. The incessant dropping and replacing of shutters
and movements of pegs must render this plan slower than a viva
voce system of communication between operators. The fact that
it necessitates an operator to every two trunks, besides those at
the special section, must make it very costly.

There is no doubt that the practice of booking trunk talks
in advance which prevails largely in Sweden adds greatly to the

A A 2

356 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

difficulties inherent in trunk and junction operating. A subscriber]
say in Stockholm, at 10 A.M. will call the exchange and book a
talk to Gothenburg at 11.30 A.M. and another at 5.20 P.M., and:
perhaps other talks to Malmo and elsewhere at other stated times.
The operator consults the list of booked talks already existing, and
if the lines mentioned are not already engaged enters the orders.
Then it is the business of the chief operators to have the lines,
ready for the caller at the times arranged. When the exchange
wanted is intermediate with several others on one trunk line the
difficulties multiply, and frequently the telegraph has to be used
to transmit switching orders to stations that cannot be got at by
telephone without interrupting talks in progress, and this in spite
of the fact that when several stations exist on the same line each
has fixed minutes in every hour for communicating with each of
the others. The booking system has, however, become the rule,
and the difficulties involved have to be fought and overcome. A
noticeable feature of the State exchange is the arrangement of
the lightning-protectors, and of the cross-connecting board, which,,
like the switch-board, is designed for 10,000 double lines. The
protectors are made of carbon plates, kept from touching by
thin strips of insulating material. The Swedish engineers were
convinced that the carbons spark more freely than does any form
of metal protector adapted for telephonic work, a conclusion the
author has since confirmed by experiment. The cross-connecting
board consists of two iron-tube frames arranged in concentric
circles, the whole forming a neat and accessible arrangement.

The average number of daily connections dealt with is 5-5.
Three operators are allotted to each 200 subscribers. The
subscribers ring each other after being put through, a system
which, owing to the absence of a discriminative ring- off indicator,
increases the operators' work (restoring the shutters dropped by
the ring through) and conduces to tapping.

HOURS OF SERVICE

Both the State and the General Company give a continuous
service, night and day, in their principal towns. In the smaller
places hours vary from 7 or 8 A.M. till 8, 9, or 10 P.M.

Sweden

357

FIG. 121

358 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

Both the State and the General Telephone Company now use
the instruments of Ericsson & Co. exclusively, although they have
a good number of American and Belgian manufacture in the older
centres. The Stockholm Bell Company uses Belgian magnetos
and receivers and Ericsson carbon transmitters. Fig. 121 shows
the more usual types employed. Their construction is too
familiar to need description here. Recent improvements in detail
have been the mounting of the battery terminals, in the second
wall instrument, on long insulating pillars so as to bring them to
the front of the battery space, where they are much more acces-
sible than when placed on the back-board ; and the addition of
a fourth magnet to the generators of instruments used habitually
for long distances, which enables them to give a loud ring through
20,000 ohms. The duplicate crank on the first desk instrument
is a convenience when the instrument is used indifferently from
both sides of a table.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

General Telephone Company's system. The most prominent
feature of this is undoubtedly the Bessemer steel tower (see
frontispiece) at the Brunkeberg primary exchange, which is the
largest telephone fixture in the world. It rests on special pillars
built up from the ground, and rises 75 feet above the exchange
roof. Its cost, 3,2587., might well appal the telephonic financiers
of Little Lilliput, but Mr. Cedergren is of opinion that no expen-
diture incurred by his company has ever yielded such a good
return. Its building attracted attention to the telephone from one
end of Sweden to the other ; and when, in its finished state, it
proved to be one of the landmarks of Stockholm and one of the
best points from which to view the city, the identification of the
General Company with the telephone became complete in the
public mind, and is so yet, in spite of the State's opposition and
lower rates. Figs. 122, 123, and 124, which show specimens of
the company's smaller exchange fixtures, indicate a creditable
fertility of design on the part of its engineers. Fig. 125 shows a

Sweden

359

360 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Sweden

standard, with eight uprights, designed to carry 1,000 wires. The
numerous other fixtures the presence of which a close examination
of the picture reveals, and the manner in which the neighbouring
buildings are dotted with insulators, afford some notion of the
extent to which the upper air of Stockholm is netted with telephone
wires. The system of roofing with iron plates which prevails in
Stockholm is also clearly shown. Fig. 126 shows a type of
standard employed at the junction of several routes, and fig. 127

FIG. 124. Telephone turret at So Jermalm.

one of the aerial cable rests that have become somewhat numerous
since the reconstruction consequent on the change to metallic cir-
cuits and the re-grouping of the exchanges compelled a rather
extensive resort to that mode of construction. The company's
ground poles are not so noteworthy as its standards : indeed, there
is nothing to pit against those of Belgium, Holland, or Switzerland,
although solidity and strength are not wanting. Cross-arms on
ground poles are often of angle-iron and not unfrequently of the

362 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Sweaen

363

FIG. 126

364 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Sweden 365

German double flat-bar type. In Stockholm the wire used is
i mm. phosphor bronze of 30 per cent, conductivity and a break-
ing strain of 90 kilogrammes per square millimeter. Outside
Stockholm, in Upsala and the other towns within the yo-kilometer
radius, No. n B.W.G. galvanised iron wire is employed for the
subscribers' lines. The insulators are small double-shed, fastened
to their bolts with tow plugging. Joints in local wires are rarely
soldered, the Macintyre dry joint (fig. 99) being found satisfactory
enough for all purposes. Vibration in the houses is prevented or
reduced by slipping a length of rubber tube on each wire and bind-
ing it tightly with leaden strip or wire (fig. 101). The aerial cables
lately introduced to the extent of some twenty-five kilometers have
been supplied by the Fowler-Waring Cables Company, Limited ;
W. T. Henley & Co., Limited ; the Western Electric Company ;
Felten & Guilleaume, and Franz Clouth. The general specification
of all these cables is 102 metallic circuits insulated with paper and
enclosed in a leaden tube 2-25 mm. thick and 39 mm. exterior
diameter. The conductors are copper of -8 mm. diameter and
95 per cent, conductivity. The capacity of each single wire, all
others being earthed, is "05 mf. per kilometer. The company's
underground system is intended to be of an extensive nature.
The conduits are of the type invented by Mr. Axel Hultmann,
formerly chief engineer of the State telephone system (see p. 369) ;
the cables contain a hundred metallic circuits, with copper conduc-
tors of -8 mm. enclosed in a leaden pipe 3 mm. thick and 50 mm.
exterior diameter. They all have paper insulation and a capacity
of '05 mf. per kilometer. M. Aboilard, of Paris, has supplied
some of the cable which has been so successful in the Parisian
sewers for this underground work. On leaving the exchange,
each route will consist of Hultmann concrete conduits containing
eighty-six ducts of 75 mm. diameter, each duct capable of easily
taking a loo-pair cable. The capacity of each route will be, con-
sequently, 8,600 metallic circuits, which does not look as though
Mr. Cedergren nourished any intention of hauling down his flag
to the State, or had any misgiving of Stockholm's capacity and
willingness to continue supplying him with subscribers ad lib.
As they recede from the centres the conduits gradually decrease
in carrying power, the successive sections having seventy-six, sixty-

366 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

two, thirty-eight, and finally twelve ducts. Manholes occur about
every 100 meters ; they are cast in concrete of an elliptical shape
and fitted with suitable cast-iron covers. This underground scheme,
like all Mr. Cedergren's notions, is conceived on a grand scale, and
will assuredly succeed. The submarine work necessary in and
near Stockholm is usually done with armoured cable containing
from four to fourteen pairs insulated with vulcanised rubber.

State system. The State local work is very similar to the
General Company's, except that the phosphor bronze is of i -25 mm.
diameter. The insulators are the same, and joints are not soldered.
The standards, too, bear a family likeness, and fig. 128 will serve
to illustrate those of both systems. The uprights are of double,
the arms of single, channel steel. The fastening is done by sole-
plates adapted to the slope of the roof and bolted through to the
rafters. Sometimes, heavily laden standards are strutted in the
Belgian fashion (figs. 22 and 23, Belgian section) ; if not so
strutted they are carefully stayed. The Swedish and Norwegian
mode of construction with channel iron or steel is unquestionably
stronger, if heavier, than the tubular methods employed in Great
Britain, Germany, and Holland. Tubes collapse when subjected
to a sudden and heavy strain, such as is likely to result from the
failure of a span of wires or of an adjacent standard, and crumple
up beyond repair ; the channel steel, being solid, may bend, but
cannot collapse, and is consequently better adapted to withstand
accidents, and, if injured, may be readily straightened again. On
the other hand, it is more costly to make and transport, heavier to
handle during erection, and permanently severer on the roofs.
Fig. 129 shows a typical Swedish double ground pole, fitted with
angle-iron arms, of solid and good construction. It is not the
practice in Sweden to earth-wire either standards or ground poles.
The State, like the General Company, has recently taken to
aerial cables. Those erected are by Felten & Guilleaume, and con-
tain thirty-eight pairs covered with jute and then with lead. The
submarine type of cable is insulated with vulcanised rubber and
armoured in the usual way.

A considerable proportion of the State local work is under-
ground. The conduits are those originally designed for the pur-
pose by Mr. Axel Hultmann, late engineer to the State telephone

Siveden

367

=1 -I

368 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Sweden 369

department. They consist of cement blocks, pierced with a varying
number of circular ducts, 75 millimeters in diameter. The blocks,
which are from one to one and a half meters in length, are laid
in the ground with the joints resting on cement base pieces of
trough form, which keep them truly end- to end.. The blocks are
made with three longitudinal depressions or furrows, into which,
after the blocks are laid, strong iron bars are fitted. Thin plates
of bitumen, having circular holes corresponding to the ducts, are
placed between the blocks, several of which are forcibly clamped
together, end to end, so as to compress the bitumen plates. The
furrows containing the iron bars are then filled with cement, which,
when set, binds the blocks rigidly together. Section after section
is thus treated until a very solid conduit is produced, which, with
the earth removed from beneath, is said to bear a direct weight
of two tons without collapsing. The joints are made finally tight
either with bitumen or cement. The ducts are made to correspond
prior to clamping by inserting round rods made to fill them accu-
rately through the blocks under treatment, the rods being with-
drawn when the cement has set. No difficulty is stated to be ex-
perienced in obtaining correspondence between the ducts or in
subsequently drawing in cable of a diameter of 52 millimeters to
a length of 200 meters. The joints are said to be perfectly water-
and gas-tight. The details of this system are made clear in
fig. 130, in which M 1 M 2 M 3 are respectively cross, longitudinal,
and horizontal sections of a concrete manhole with conduits and
cables in position. The conduits are shown in cross-section at
c l c 2 , while B B B represent three blocks jointed together, as de-
scribed, at j j, T T being the cement base pieces and R R the iron
clamping rods. D D 2 D 3 are corresponding views of a draw-box
adapted for a five-duct conduit. The General Company's conduit,
while being essentially of the same construction, differs somewhat
in form, the cross-section being as shown in fig. 131, with the iron
rods passed through channels R R R R made in the interior instead
of on the exterior of the blocks. Mr. Hultmann has unquestionably
produced a strong and efficient conduit which has already stood
the test of several years' service most successfully. The separate
duct plan is almost essential to underground cable work, as it
enables repairs and alterations to be carried out easily, which

37O Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

would be simply impossible when many heavy cables are super-
imposed in one large pipe. The General Company's 86-duct
conduit measures 100 x no centimeters, or a little over three feet
square, and contains accommodation for 86 x 100 = 8,600 metal-
lic circuits ; that is to-
say, all the telephone
subscribers now existing
QOOOOO in London, and more,,

OO CO

oooooooooo

could be provided with
metallic circuits and
concentrated within one
such conduit. At the
same time, the conduit
is not so easily diverted
for the purpose of avoid-
ing obstacles as iron
pipes are, and this would
militate against its em-
ployment in London, at
all events very near the
surface. The cables used by the State were originally of the
Pattison type ; now all are insulated with paper. Fig. 132 shows
a junction between an underground and an overhouse route, the
test-box containing both terminals for testing and cross-connection
and lightning-guards. The box illustrated is one of the General
Company's, but the State's practice is essentially identical.

FIG. 131

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

General Company's system. The company's trunks are of
course restricted to the yo-kilometer radius, but are still very
numerous. They are constructed of 2 mm. phosphor-bronze wire
of 60 per cent, conductivity and a breaking strain of 80 kilo-
grammes per square millimeter. The wires are crossed at intervals
to neutralise induction, with results that are completely satis-
factory.

State system. Much of the State trunk work was formerly run
with the so-called bimetallic wire, steel coated with copper, of

Sweden

371

i -9 mm. gauge ; but this has lately given way generally to high-con-
ductivity bronze, although the Copenhagen trunk has been run in

FIG.

Sweden with 3 mm. hard copper. The shorter trunks are crossed
and the longer revolved or twisted on the Moseley-Bottomley plan.
Special fixtures are used to facilitate the twisting. They consist

B B 2

3/2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

of iron frames, as in fig. 133, A and B, which, being made all exactly
alike, secure the maintenance of perfect distance between the
wires. When two loops run on the same poles the frames are
modified as at c and D. The twisting system is reported to have
given much trouble after breakdowns due to snow, the workmen,
finding it impossible to restore the twist promptly, having had to

FK;. 133

run the wires straight through in order to re-establish communica-
tion, and to subsequently retwist them at leisure.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

General Company. Foremen, 4.5-. $d. ; skilled wiremen, 3^. ^d. ;
labourers, from 2s. 2\d. to 2s. S^d. per day. Country allowance,
2s. 2\d. per day.

State. Foremen, 35. 6d. skilled wiremen, 2s. yd. labourers,
is. nd. to 2s. 2\d. per day.

Sweden

373

Hours worked : in summer, 7A.M. till 7 P.M., with one and a half
hours for meals ; in winter, sunrise to sunset, with one hour for meals.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

General Company. 2/. 4*. id. to 2/. 155-. *]d. per month, ac-
cording to experience. Extra pay is given for night duty, which is
performed by the girls in rotation. The hours worked are nor-
mally seven per day, divided into two watches with an interval of at
least three hours between. Exceptionally the duty may be ex-
tended to eight hours, but never more. The girls, who are taken
on at eighteen years of age, get fourteen days' holiday on full pay
annually, and incase of sickness receive full pay for the first fortnight
and half pay for a second. The lady superintendents receive
from 3/. i -js. Sd. to 8/. 6s. Sd. per month, according to length of
service and the importance of their charge.

State. i/. 135-. 2d. to 2/. 4-$-. id. per month for ordinary, and
2/. 155-. 7</. for trunk operators. Extra pay is given for night
duty. Girls are taken on at eighteen ; no examination is imposed.

STATISTICS

An enumeration of the exchanges in Sweden would be practi-
cally a list of the names of all the towns and chief villages in
the country. At the end of 1894 the General Company, in addi-
tion to its Stockholm switch-rooms, possessed 113 exchanges
within the 7 o-kilometer radius, having between them 2,012 sub-
scribers. Of these, Upsala (population 21,000), with 363 sub-
scribers, was the most important ; and Sodertelge, with 145, the
second. At both these towns the State is also established. The
Upsala rate is 2/. i$s. yd. per annum, without any admission fee.
At Sodertelge and the majority of the other places, the rate is the
same, but with an admission fee, also of 2!. i$s. -]d. In a few
instances this subscription covers only one hundred free connec-
tions per quarter, all over that number being charged i'$d. each.
In other cases, principally where submarine cable work is ne-
cessary, the admission fee is 2/. 155. -]d. and the annual subscrip-
tion 4/. 8s. i id. A few of the smaller places are worked at an

374 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

admission fee of iu. o^., an annual subscription of us. o\d,
and a charge of i -3^. for every connection had.

Within the yo-kilometer radius the State also possesses
seventy-five exchanges in addition to its Stockholm system, making
a total for the radius of 188 exchanges, exclusive of the metropolitan,
and entitling the area to the distinction of being by far the best
telephoned piece of country in the world. The area represented
by seventy kilometers round London is, on the other hand, pro-
bably the worst in the neighbourhood of an important city. The
State's provincial tariff is the same as in the town.

For the rest of Sweden there are no statistics later than the end
of 1892. At that time the State owned 288 exchanges and co-
operative societies 158, but a number of these last have since been
absorbed by the State. At the same date the State owned 15,416
kilometers of trunk lines. At the end of 1893 the General Com-
pany had 9,031 instruments working in connection with 95 switch-
rooms, 15,259 kilometers of lines (not wires). The number of
connections in Stockholm alone for the year was 25,060,715, or
9-05 per subscriber per day, dealt with by a total staff of 200 lady
telephonists. The value of the company's Stockholm system at
December3i, 1893, was 2, 006,693 kronor, an d of its country system
i, 01 8, 5 10 kroner, making a total of 3, 019,203 kronor, or 165,8907.
Adding the value of premises, workshop plant, stores, and raw
materials in hand, the assets were brought up to 3,742,801 kronor,
or 205,6487. All this had been brought into existence with a
share capital of only 32,9667., and the surplus of profits remaining
after paying 8 per cent, per annum to the shareholders and
creating a reserve fund, a renewal or deterioration fund, a fire in-
surance fund, an accident fund, an employees' benevolent fund, and
a general purposes fund. At December 31, 1893, these several
items stood as follows :

Reserve fund ....... 9,890

Renewal fund ....... 70,747

Fire insurance fund . . . . . . 1,257

Accident fund ....... 1,362

Employees' fund ...... 21,978

General purposes fund ..... 3,177

,108,411

Sweden 375

The net profits each year since 1883 have been :

Kroner Kroner

1883 6,528-68 1888 62,418-96

1884 36,059 ; 22 1889 64,780-04

1885 49,559-82 I89Q ... . ... 79,579-26

1886 56,005-94 1891 81,819-57

1887 58,843-86 1892 ... ... IOO,285-28

1893 113,198-79 kroner (6,2I9/.)

These profits have sufficed to pay a steady dividend of 8
per cent per annum (the maximum allowed) on the share capital,
to extend the business to an extent unprecedented elsewhere, to
convert the system from single to double wire, and to lay by money
against deterioration and almost every possible contingency.
And all on a maximum rate of 5/. us. id. operative over 140 kilo-
meters !

376 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XXIV. SWITZERLAND

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

THE Swiss Government at an early date determined to control
the telephones within its jurisdiction, and in 1885 took over the
only exchange, that at Zurich, which it had permitted a company
the International Bell Telephone to establish. For about
nine years the administration has consequently been in the hands
of the State, and the development attained is certainly most im-
posing, there being at the close of 1894, with a population of
about three millions, nearly 20,000 subscribers.

The Swiss telephone system is remarkable in many ways.
From the beginning of its management the Government has
endeavoured to bring the telephone within the reach of all and
to render the service as complete and satisfactory as possible.
Originally, the annual subscription for an ordinary line and instru-
ment within a radius of two kilometers was 150 francs (6/.),
without restriction as to the number of communications ; but Dr.
T. Rothen, then director of the Swiss telegraphs, as early as 1883
pointed out in the * Journal Telegraphique ' that it was not more
logical to accept an annual payment from a merchant to cover all
his telephonic communications than to cover all his telegrams.
The system, notwithstanding its convenience and almost universal
application, is, in fact, inequitable for a busy merchant, to whom
telephonic communication is a necessity, obtains much greater
value for his annual subscription than does a person whose
business relations are neither so extensive nor so important. Dr.
Rothen proposed, as the only just solution, to charge subscribers
a fixed sum for every connection asked for and had, just as tele-

Switzerland 377

grams are charged for separately according to the tariff. The
practicability of this plan was disputed on several grounds, and
not without plausibility. Its probable effect on the revenue was
feared, and the discontent of those busy subscribers whose pay-
ments would no longer be covered by 61. per annum dreaded.
However, by the 'Loi Federate' of June 27, 1889, the principle
was definitely adopted in Switzerland with the modification that
a foundation or first payment to cover 800 connections per annum
was prescribed, all subsequent communications having to be paid for
on Dr. Rothen's plan. The annual charge was fixed at 4/. i6s.,
4/., and 3/. 4^., for the first, second, and third and subsequent years
respectively, while the connections had in excess of the 800 were
rated at 4^. per hundred, or five centimes (-48^.) each. This law
came into operation on January i, 1890, and has led to an
immense increase in the number of telephonic subscriptions.

Subscribers' wires are generally single with earth return, but
all trunks and many of the junction lines to parochial stations are
metallic circuits, translators being employed for the connections
between the two. It is pleasant to know, however, that the Swiss
are alive to the inadequacy of the single-wire system as a perma-
nent institution, and have decided to gradually supersede it every-
where by metallic circuits. A very earnest and creditable begin-
ning has already been made at Zurich, and similar changes are to
follow immediately at Berne, Geneva, and Lausanne.

The cost of keeping the voluminous and complex accounts
rendered necessary by recording the subscribers' calls and charging
each individual every month for his local calls above a certain
number : for his trunk calls ; for his telegrams forwarded and
delivered ; and for his telephonograms, is unquestionably very con-
siderable ; and the question whether an automatic counter in each
subscriber's office would not be a useful addition is being debated.
Many such counters have been devised and tried, but a really
trustworthy one has not yet been forthcoming, while the first cost
of installing 20,000 such instruments would not be a negligible
quantity. But the chief difficulty lies in the diversity of traffic
which is liable to emanate from the same office. A counter that
could not differentiate between telephonograms, telegrams for-
warded and received, local calls, and trunk connections, would at

378 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

best serve as a rough check, and the operators' records would still
have to be relied on and the present laborious system of accounts
preserved. On the other hand, the mind rather shrinks from the
idea of fitting four or more counters in each office, and especially
from the expectation that the subscribers would use them properly
if fitted.

In Switzerland the adaptation of the telephone and telegraph
to popular requirements has undoubtedly received its widest appli-
cation. The consequence is that the country is covered with
trunk wires altogether out of proportion it must be remembered
that there is not an ounce of native coal in Switzerland to its
industrial importance. One pauses in wonder at the idea of what
might be done in the United Kingdom to facilitate intercourse
under similar intelligent (not benevolent, because it pays) manage-
ment.

But the Swiss public was not yet satisfied. It was held
a grievance that a subscriber should be compelled to pay for 800
communications per annum whether he had them or not, and
many found that they could manage with less. As a result of repre-
sentations of this nature, a committee of the Federal Council was
appointed, and after hearing evidence, reported in favour of a
reduction of the first or foundation annual charge to 4/. for the
first, 2/. i6.f. for the second, and i/. \2S. for the third year, the
abolition of the free margin, and the rating of all connections at 4*.
per hundred, or -48^. each. According to this plan, a subscriber
making two calls per day exclusive of Sundays, or 616 per annum,
would pay after the expiration of his second year of membership
only i/. \2S. + 616 x '48^. = 2/. i6.r. *]d. per annum (a sum which
has been proved remunerative in Holland) in lieu of the present
minimum of 3/. 45. If he can manage with one call per day his
annual telephonic disbursement would be only i/. 1 2s. + 308 x "48^.
= 2/. 4J-. 4^. The committee's recommendations were adopted by
the Federal Council and embodied in a law on June 13, 1894, which
received the sanction of the Council of States on December 7, 1894.
It is still liable to challenge until March 26, 1895, by a demand
for a national vote on the subject, but no steps have been taken
in this direction ; and as the measure is a popular one it is con-
sidered certain to pass the critical date successfully, and to be

Switzerland 379

added definitely to the statute book. In this case it will come
into operation on January i, 1896, at the latest. Switzerland
will then enjoy the cheapest and, at the same time, the most
rational telephonic tariff in the world ; for after subscribing i/. 125-.
annually, a charge sufficient to maintain -his line and instrument
in good order, every man will pay exactly in accordance with the
use he makes of his connection. By the same law the existing
charges in connection with parochial telephone stations (see p. 386)
are abolished, and the parish councils put on exactly the same
terms those just cited as ordinary subscribers. The new
charges, like the present, are to cover lines not exceeding two
kilometers in length ; excess rates for longer distances, both single
wire and metallic circuit, are to remain unaltered. The present
charges for telephoning telegrams, telephonograms, and public
stations stand. It must be clearly understood that the new tariff,
like the existing, covers erection, maintenance, and all expenses.

SERVICES RENDERED BY THE STATE TELEPHONE
ADMINISTRATION

1. Intercommunication locally between the subscribers and
public telephone stations of a town or district.

2. Internal trunk line communication. There is scarcely a
town or village of any size that does not participate in this service.
The system is at present somewhat wanting in direct trunks between
the more distant towns, intermediate switching i.e. the joining of
two or more short trunks to make up a temporary long-distance
line being requisite ; but this defect is being gradually removed
as traffic develops. The longest distances at present talked over
are (as the wires go, the mountains, and lakes, which are too deep
and uneven for cables, preventing direct routes in many cases)
1 66 miles, Geneva to Schaffhausen ; 178 miles, Geneva to St.
Gallen ; and 239 miles, Geneva to St. Moritz. One of the regu-
lations relating to trunks forbids the engagement of a line in
advance for a conversation at a specified time, which is directly
opposed to the Swedish practice of booking talks a long time
beforehand.

380 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Etirope

3. International trunk communication. The Swiss wires
have already broken bounds in several directions by connecting
with France, Baden, Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, and Austria. These
international lines are not, however, with perhaps the exception of
the French, of much importance as yet, communication on the
German side being restricted to the Swiss towns St. Gallen,
Romanshorn, and one or two others nearest the frontier. Conse-
quently, when subscribers at Berne, Zurich, and of other exchanges
west of St. Gallen wish to communicate beyond the frontier they
must find somebody in one of the border towns to act as inter-
mediary. These restrictions are understood to be due to objections
raised by the Imperial Political Bureau at Berlin. Communication
was also established via Basle with Alsace-Lorraine, but after a time
had to be discontinued by orders from Berlin. The junction with
the French lines is at Besanc.on ; with the Baden, at Constance ;
with the Austrian, at Bregenz ; and there is communication via
Bregenz with Lindau in Bavaria, and Friedrichshafen in Wiirtem-
berg.

4. Telephoning of telegrams. Subscribers are afforded every
facility for forwarding and receiving their telegrams by telephone,
as the State regards the telephone system as the natural feeder of
the telegraphs, in the same manner as light railways are collectors
for the heavier main lines, and accordingly cultivates an intimate
connection between the two. All the exchanges have a connection
with the nearest telegraph office, which is given to a subscriber
who wishes to forward a telegram, and used by the telegraph
office for obtaining communication with a subscriber for whom a
telegram has arrived. The Swiss, however, are not so liberal in
this particular matter as the Belgians and Bavarians, since the
subscriber has to pay '96^. for each telegram, in or out, trans-
mitted by telephone. Copies of the telegrams telephoned to
subscribers are afterwards delivered by messenger. This is not
such a shrewd arrangement as that existing in Belgium, where
copies are posted instead of delivered (unless the subscriber
specially wishes otherwise). The Swiss plan saves nothing in
messengers, and wins very little popularity, since in the vast
majority of cases the receivers are quite content with the version
telephoned. Telegrams for telephoning must be in the German

Switzerland 381

or French languages except in the Italian-speaking cantons, where
Italian is also admitted.

5. Telephonogram service. This facility, unknown to the
National Telephone Company's subscribers in Great Britain, but
largely patronised in many continental countries, is in Switzerland
called officially the ' phonogram ' service. It enables any sub-
scriber using his own telephone, or any non-subscriber from a
public one, to dictate a message to the operator addressed to any
non-subscriber resident in the same town or district, which is
written down like a telegram and delivered to the addressee by
messenger. Telephonograms are subject to the same regulations
respecting language as telegrams.

6. Parochial telephone stations. An important feature of the
Swiss telephone system is the parochial or communal office. It is
no longer peculiar to Switzerland, having been adopted, with
modifications, by France ; but it originated there in the anxiety
of the Government to make the people, as far as economically
possible, participators in the public institutions, and in pursuance
of the idea of utilising the telephone as a feeder of the telegraph.
It enables a parish or commune without a telegraph or telephone
station to provide itself with these conveniences in the following
manner: The parish council undertakes to pay the State 120
francs (4/. i6s.) per annum for a wire to the nearest telegraph
station or telephone exchange, the charge being increased by
25-. 5*/. for each 100 meters in excess of two kilometers. The
council provides a suitable room or office for its station, and pays
the wages of the necessary operators and messengers, both office
and servants being subject to approval by the State. The public
may use the station as an ordinary telegraph or telephone office,
paying 1*44^. on each telegram sent or conversation had, in addi-
tion to the ordinary tariff, which 1-44^. is the property of the
parish council and goes towards covering its expenses. No charge
is made on delivered telegrams within the ordinary free delivery
radius. The facility is largely taken advantage of, there being nine
parochial stations in the vicinity of Berne alone. When the traffic
has grown sufficiently to justify such a course, the State takes over
the station, and relieves the parish council of further responsibility.

382 Telephone Systems of tJie Continent of Europe

7. Connection of private groups of subscribers to an existing
trunk or junction wire. This is another service which owes its
initiation to the anxiety of the Government to bring the telephone
to, or rather within, the doors of all. It provides for the wants
of a community which has not yet attained to the dignity of a
parish council. One or more persons resident on, or near to, a
route of poles carrying trunk or junction telephone wires, except-
ing trunks intended for the direct service of important towns,
may, if not numerous enough to justify the establishment for their
benefit of a regular exchange, claim a connection with the system,
either by means of an automatic commutator looped into, or
tapped off, a wire going to the nearest ordinary exchange, or by
means of a small switch-board placed in the house of one of them,
or in that of a competent person, and attended to at the expense
of the subscribers participating in the benefits secured. The
State erects the wires, switch-board, instruments, &c., in return
for the usual subscriptions, while the subscribers find house room,
and do, or pay for, their own switching. They may talk amongst
themselves without stint, but conversations over the connecting
wire to the nearest regular exchange are subject to the 800 com-
munications per annum rule. This service is widely patronised.
It is not by any means a desirable one from the point of view of
the telephone engineer, as it introduces complications and deriva-
tions inimical to the best talking and promptest switching ; but
when the convenience of the people living in out-of-the-way
localities is considered, it is worthy of the highest commendation.
The automatic commutators are not so numerous (there are only
some fifteen in use) as ordinary switch-boards operated by hand,
but they are the best of their kind (Cedergren and Ericsson's).

8. Public telephone stations. These are very numerous, and
may be divided into two classes : (i) those provided specially by
the State at telegraph and railway stations, and the premises of
non-subscribers ; and (2) those at the orifices of subscribers who,
after having their premises approved as suitable, have contracted
with the State to place their instruments at the disposal of all
applicants in consideration of a commission on each sum collected.
The public stations are available not only for speaking to sub-
scribers in the same or other towns, but for the forwarding of

Switzerland 383

telegrams and telephonograms to all and sundry. What a boon
it would be in Great Britain if it were possible to pop into a shop
or office bearing the sign ' Public Telephone Station ' and
several such should be found in every long street and not only
call up a telephone subscriber, but forward telegrams and tele-
phonograms to anybody ! And how the Post Office telegraphs
would benefit, too, could the officials but see it.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for local exchange communication. These are
uniform throughout the country, and include every expense.
Within two kilometers of an exchange a subscriber pays :

s. d.
First year . . . . . . . 4 16 o 1

Second year . . . . . . .400'

Third and subsequent years . . . .340'

If the local connections he asks for do not exceed 800 * in
number per year, there is nothing more to pay. All in excess of
800 are charged 4^. per hundred, or '48^. each. Trunk line talks,
telegrams, and telephonograms are not reckoned in the 800 talks
allowed. The chief Government office in each canton, and the
chief office in each commune, is entitled to a simple connection
to the nearest exchange as soon as it counts thirty paying mem-
bers, for which nothing is paid unless the communications asked
for exceed 800 per annum, in which case the usual fees are col-
lected for talks in excess of that number. Institutions of public
utility, not working for profit, pay 3/. 45. per annum from the
beginning, without restriction as to number of talks. Fire brigade
stations pay i/. i2s. per annum, and -48^. per talk. Subscriptions
are payable half-yearly in advance on January i and July i.
When a subscriber's distance from the exchange exceeds two
kilometers he pays 2s. 5^. for each 100 meters in excess. When
it is considered desirable, to prevent annoyances from overhearing,
that a subscriber should have a metallic circuit, no extra charge
is made up to t\vo kilometers, but beyond that distance the sub-

1 These charges are altered by the new law soon to come into force (see p. 378).

384 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

scriber has to pay $s. ^d. instead of 2s. $d. for each additional
100 meters.

A subscriber wishing to have a second instrument in connec-
tion with his exchange line pays i6s. per annum, with 2s. $d. for
each 100 meters of extra wire required. In such a case, the
annual talks from the two instruments together must not exceed
800 without the extra charge being incurred. A drop indicator
in connection with the subscriber's instrument, to show whether
he has been called in his absence, costs is. *]d. per annum ; a
two-indicator switch 8s., and a trembling bell 3^. 2\d. per annum.

The areas that may be spoken over without incurring trunk
line charges are much more restricted than in Belgium. As a
rule, communications outside the limits of a town and its suburbs,
if obtained through a second exchange, are regarded as trunk
messages. Should an interruption of a subscriber's wire continue
for a longer period than five days, he is entitled to have his sub-
scription refunded for every subsequent day that he is without com-
munication. Government and police calls take precedence of all
others. Subscribers may allow outsiders to use their instruments,
but as all conversations go to extinguish the 800 free talks per-
mitted, it obviously does not pay to admit much latitude in this
respect. An outsider may arrange to use a subscriber's instrument
and to have his name printed in the list on payment of Ss. annually
to the State. He is left free to make his own arrangements,
monetary or otherwise, with the subscriber, the latter being held
responsible for all payments except the Ss.

There is no limit set to the duration of local talks. The
shifting of subscribers' instruments is charged for. For a shift
within the same building the actual expense incurred falls to be
paid ; a removal to another house, whether within the same
exchange area or another, is subject to a fixed charge of 165., with
excess mileage if the new line exceeds two kilometers in length.
Each subscriber is furnished free with a list of members within
his own district, but must pay 2 '88^. for each copy of other district
lists. Non-subscribers must buy all lists at 4*8^. per copy. When
a subscriber wishes to figure in his list under more than one letter
or denomination he can do so on payment of is. id. per additional
entry.

Switzerland 385

2. Rates for internal trunk lines. The time unit in Switzer-
land is three minutes. No person may retain a line longer than
six minutes if it is otherwise wanted.

The trunk rates are :

Up to 50 kilometers . . . .- 2-88</.

50 100 4-8</.

Over loo ,, . . . . . . 7 ' -2.il.

As previously mentioned, 239 miles may already be spoken
over. Trunk charges, and all others involving the trusting of sub-
scribers, must be covered by deposit on which no interest is
allowed. Accounts are rendered monthly. Non-subscribers pay
the same trunk rates as subscribers, but must of course make
use of a public telephone station.

3. Rates for international trunk lines. The rates between
Switzerland and France were determined by the convention of
July 31, 1892, and are regulated by the distance talked over.
Within a radius of ten kilometers of the frontier the charge is
4*8^. per three minutes ; within a radius of 100 kilometers, g'6d. ;
within a radius of 200 kilometers, i6'8dT. ; for each 100 kilometers
of additional radius, 9-6^. extra. There is no restriction imposed
as to the distances talked over, so that, electrical conditions
permitting, all Swiss may converse with all French subscribers.

On the German side there is communication at $"j6d. per three
minutes between Kreuzlingen and Constance (Baden).

On the Austrian side, St. Gallen, Romanshorn, and a few other
Swiss towns near the frontier may speak with Bregenz, Dornbirn,
and Feldkirch (Austria) at 15-. per three minutes.

The same towns may likewise speak, via Bregenz, to Lindau
(Bavaria) and Friedrichshafen, Ravensburg and Langenargen
(Wiirtemberg), at 14' <\d. per three minutes.

Before the communication was discontinued by order of the
Imperial German Government the rate between Basle and St.
Ludwig and Mulhouse (Alsace) was is. per three minutes.

4. Rates for telephoning of telegrams. Each telegram
dictated to a telegraph office through a telephone exchange by a
subscriber from his own office, or handed in by a non-subscriber

c c

386 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

at a public or parochial office, is charged '96^. in addition to the
tariff cost of the telegram.

Each telegram dictated by a telegraph office to a subscriber is
charged '96^., and a copy is forwarded to his address by messenger.

5. Bates for telephonograms. Each telephonogram is charged
1-92^. plus -096^. (! centime) per word, odd centimes being
counted as five.

If the addressee is located within one kilometer of the nearest
telegraph office or other available point of distribution, no charge
is made for delivery ; if beyond, the usual excess rate is collectable.

6. Rates affecting parochial telephone stations. The parish
council pays the State for installing the line and instrument
4/. i6^. 1 for the first, 4/. 1 for the second, and 3/. 4-r. 1 for the
third and subsequent years, increased by 2$. $d. for each 100
meters over two kilometers. The parish council provides and
furnishes a suitable house or room rent free, and pays the wages
of the necessary operators and messengers.

As a set-off against these expenses the parish council is
authorised to collect for its own behoof from persons using its
station, in addition to the tariff charges :

96^. on each three-minute local talk had at its station up to 800
in number ; if the talks in one year exceed 800, the balance
must be charged only -48^. each.
96^. for each three-minute trunk talk.
96^. for each telephonogram forwarded.
2-^d. for each telegram despatched forward.
g6d. ,, ,, received (collectable from the addressee).

If the delivery is effected beyond a distance of one kilometer,
excess charges are made as follow :

Up to i^ kilometers . . . . . . 2-4^.

2 .... 4'8</.

For each additional kilometer .... 2-88c/.

7. Rates for private groups of subscribers looped into or
tapped off an existing trunk or junction wire. Each subscriber
pays the State the ordinary subscription of 4/. i6s., 4/., and 3/. 45-.,
for the^first, second, and third years respectively, for which he

1 These charges are altered by the new law soon to come into force (see p. 378).

Siuitzerland 387

may talk to any extent amongst his own group, but is restricted
in the usual way to 800 free conversations per annum through
the ordinary exchange to which the group is connected. If the
line by which the connection is effected exceeds two kilometers
in length, each member pays an equal share of the extra annual
charge of 2^. $d. per 100 meters.

The State erects and maintains all wires and instruments ; the
subscribers find a free location for the switch-board, and pay for
all operating.

If the group is not composed of more than five subscribers
the switch-board and operator may be replaced by an automatic
commutator, which occupies little room and can be fixed in the
house of one of them. When the automatic commutator can be
placed centrally in respect to the group, so that none of the lines
exceed two kilometers in length, the usual subscription is reduced
by i6s., and becomes 4/., 3/. 45-., and 2/. 8.T., for the first, second,
third and subsequent years respectively. If one or more of the
subscribers happen to be over two kilometers off, the extra distance
is paid for on the usual scale, which also comes into operation if
the commutator cannot be placed centrally. An extra annual
charge, which is shared equally by the subscribers, of 3/. 4?. for a
five-line and i/. 125-. for a two-line commutator is made.

It is rather curious that the State makes a reduction in favour
of automatic commutators, which are more liable to get out of
order and require more attention than ordinary switch-boards.
If the cost of operating these last fell on the State instead of on
the subscribers, such a course might be justifiable ; but as it
does not, the wisdom of the procedure is not very apparent. The
first cost of the automatic instruments is much greater than that
of ordinary switches, and they are not so quick or so effective in
action, yet the State encourages their use by accepting lower
subscriptions.

8. Rates affecting public telephone stations :

Local talks (per three minutes) '96</.

Internal trunks . . "i

, , , -Qocf. in addition to the usual rates

Telegrams forwarded . V 7
. for these services.

Telephonograms . J

C C 2

388 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Subscribers who permit their instruments to be used as public
stations are remunerated by being allowed to retain of these
charges the whole of the amount for local talks up to 800, and
half thereafter, together with the whole of the surcharges accruing
on internal trunk talks, telegrams, and telephonograms. When the
State arranges for a public station on the premises of a non-sub-
scriber, that person keeps half the receipts for local talks and the
surcharges on the others. Keepers of public stations may, if they
make satisfactory arrangements for the purpose, also receive, write
down, and deliver telegrams and telephonograms addressed to per-
sons in their neighbourhood, in which case they get '96^. for each
message delivered. Public stations are never established in inns
or restaurants. Automatic boxes for checking payments are not
used. Subscribers enjoy no preferential treatment. Telegrams
and telephonograms have to be handed in written out, and are tele-
phoned forward by the attendant, not by the sender personally.

WAY-LEAVES

The position of the State in the matter of way-leaves is defined
by the law of June 26, 1889, which provides :

1. That the State has the right to use all public lands and

places for the placing of telephone wires on paying for
damage done, but must not do anything inconsistent with
the purpose to which such public place is devoted.

2. That the State may pass wires without attachments over

private property, provided the presence of such wires does
not prejudicially affect the property.

3. No work must be done on public or private property with

out arriving at an understanding with the authorities or
proprietors concerned. In the event of dispute the Federal
Council will decide, if necessary on the advice of indepen-
dent experts.

4. Proprietors of trees must cut any branches which interfere

with State telephone lines. Notice that cutting is neces-
sary to be given to proprietors through the local authority.
If no notice is taken within eight days, the State may itself
cut the branches.

Switzerland 389

5. Authorities or proprietors under Articles i and 2 may

require removal of any wires calculated to interfere with
projected building or other lawful operations. If the State
removes wires to make room for such proposed operations,
the proprietor will be debited with the cost if he does not
begin to build within a year of such removal.

6. The State may build telephone lines along railways belong-

ing to companies, provided such lines do not prejudice the
railway in any way, nor interfere with the security of exist-
ing works. The company to be compensated for any
damage done, but to be entitled to no payment in name
of way-leave.

7. The State must carry out at its own expense such changes

as may from time to time become necessary owing to
alterations in the railways.

8 to 15 Deal with installations of electric light and trans-
mission of power as affecting telegraphs and telephones,
and the procedure to be followed in event of disputes.
The application of this law appears to have given rise to mis-
understandings, for it was supplemented on December 7, 1889, by
a rider which declares that Article i of the law is not to apply to
buildings or to property not accessible to the public ; on such
buildings no supports may be placed without the consent of the
authorities or proprietors ; and that the right to pass -over refers
only to wires suspended in the air, and does not include the
placing of supports. Proprietors of trees cut by the State to have
a right to compensation, which must not exceed five francs per
tree without the express approval of the Telegraph Administra-
tion.

It will be seen that the Swiss Government possesses no auto-
cratic powers in respect to way-leaves. In effect, it can do nothing
without the consent of the proprietors affected, and has to pay its
way just like a telephone company in the United Kingdom. The
way-leaves paid average one franc per wire per annum, and some
standards cost as much as 400 francs (i6/.) per annum. In one
disputed case the Telephone Administration took advantage of
the arbitration clause in the law, but was disgusted to find that
the award was five francs per wire per annum in addition to the

3QO Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

cost of the reference. Trouble was caused by the railway com-
panies objecting to Article 6 of the law, and it was found advisable
to pay them to watch the telephone lines and report faults. The
State also pays full carriage and fares for all material and work-
men, so that the railways do not suffer appreciably after all. The
right to go along the railways is a most important one in connec-
tion with the extension of the trunk line system.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

The most recent switch-board in Switzerland is that lately
installed at Zurich. It is an American-made (Western Electric
Company) metallic- circuit, parallel-jack, multiple board w r ith an
ultimate capacity of 5,400 lines, but fitted at present for 3,400

only. Including the cross-connecting and lightning-guard boards
it has cost 9,6oo/., or 2/. i6s. 6d. per subscriber. The parallel
connection of the jacks presents several advantages, such as the
avoidance of multiple contacts, which are apt to become dirty, in
the speaking circuit ; the reduction in number of soldered joints ;
and the saving in length of the connecting wires. The scheme
of the Zurich jacks is shown in fig. 134. A ; s a brass ring, in con-

Switzerland

391

nection with the test wire T, which is touched in testing by the
point of the plug. Behind this ring, and insulated from it, is a
socket B, smaller than the ring in diameter, and in connection
with one of the wires of the subscriber's loop. Behind the socket
again are two springs c and D, c being in connection with A and
with the test wire T, while D is permanently connected to one pole
of the test battery v. Further back still is a third spring E, joined
to the second wire of the subscriber's loop. The plug is divided
into three conducting parts separated by insulating material viz.,

M :

FIG. 135

F and H, which are in connection with the conductors of the cord ;
and G, which is a simple metallic ring. When inserted, the con-
nections are effected as indicated in the figure, H and F making
contact with the line through B and E, while G establishes connec-
tion between D and c, joining the battery v to the test wire T.
The indicators are of the self-restoring kind, and are constructed
as shown in fig. 135. There are two electro-magnets, i and j,
mounted one behind the other : i, which is linked into the sub-
scriber's loop, being wound to 600, and J, which is in circuit with

392 Telephone Systems of the Continent o/ Europe

the test wire T (fig. 134), to forty ohms. When a ringing current
arrives from line and traverses the coil i, the armature K is attracted
and the lever L attached to it lifted, releasing in the ordinary way
the heavy iron shutter o turning on the pivot M. The shutter
falls, however, only a short distance, about five millimeters, just
far enough to strike against a small projection on the aluminium

FIG. 13

plate P, which is cocked up to a horizontal position by the shock
and discloses the number on the shutter o which it had pre-
viously covered. In the back of the shutter o is a hole into
which the projecting and sloping end of the core of the electro-
magnet j fits when o is upright. It does not fall far enough to
remove it from the attractive influence of j, so that when a plug is

Switzerland

393

inserted and the test line and battery joined (fig. 134), J is excited
and draws o back to its upright position, the aluminium plate P
then falling and covering the number. This plan relieves the
operator of the work of restoring shutters after use ; it also enables
the shutters to be removed out of reach, thus affording more
space for the jacks. Once adjusted, the drops act well, probably
better than ordinary ones, which are subjected to careless and
sometimes rough handling by
the operators. Figs. 136 and
I36A represent front and end
plans of the table. The indi-
cators are mounted above in
sections of 120 lines, having
below them a strip of fifteen
ring- off indicators for each
operator. Then come the
repeat jacks in sets of 100,
each operator having 1,800
before her ; and below, the local
jacks. Fig. 137 gives a good
idea of the general appearance
of the table. Owing to the
length of cord necessary to
reach over so many jacks, the
shelf supporting the keys and
plugs is one meter above the
floor, and the operators' seats
have consequently to be very
high 80 centimeters. Fig. 138
shows the connections of an
operator's apparatus. The left
and right keys are for ringing in either direction, the middle one
for cutting in the operator's phone. The ring-off indicators, like
the calling ones, are in parallel between the cord conductors, so
that when a connection is on there are three indicators in deriva-
tion across the circuit. But when a ring-off comes, only the
proper drop falls, as the two others are held up by the test current
circulating through their restoring coils. The ring-off drops are

FIG. 136 A

394 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

restored by depressing the operator's speaking key, which, by
means of a special contact, sends a momentary current through

FIG. 137

the restoring coils. The ringing and cutting-in keys are of ordi-
nary make ; they are mounted on hinged flaps which are ordinarily

Switzerland

395

locked down, but can be turned up for the purpose of inspection
or repair. The telephone and its induction coil are each wound
in two equal parts, the middle point being earthed, When the
telephone is cut in, the connections are as indicated in the figure.
The condenser stops the test current from going to the plug used
for answering calls. For answering, the left plug must always be
used, while the right is employed for testing and completing the
connection.

The wiring is effected with flat cables, 3 mm. thick and 60

FIG. 138

deep, each containing sixty wires. As the ranges of spring-jacks
have a height of 13 mm., three superimposed cables are not so
thick as a row of jacks. As each series of jacks occupies six
vertical divisions, two beds, placed one behind the other, each of
three flat cables, suffice. This arrangement allows of rows of
jacks being withdrawn from behind for cleaning or repair. With
this view, the rows of jacks are kept in place by circular nuts
having a rectangular notch cut in each. By turning the nuts
until the notches coincide with the square end of the strip, it is

396 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

freed and may be withdrawn. Fig. 139 shows this arrangement.
When it is desired to withdraw one of the lower strips it is
necessary to lift the superincumbent layers of cables on a steel
stirrup or frame.

All modern boards are provided with means for distributing
the work with some approach to equality amongst the operators,
for when this cannot be done it frequently happens that several
very busy subscribers are grouped together on the board and
provide more work for the operator of that section than she can
properly attend to, while her neighbour may be almost idle owing
to the presence on her section of many quiet subscribers. At
Zurich the indicators and the corresponding local jacks are
numbered i to 119 in each working section throughout the board,

FIG 139

while the repeat jacks are numbered o to 5,399, being the list
numbers of the subscribers. When a drop falls, the operator plugs
into the corresponding local jack, and having ascertained the
number wanted, completes the connection through the repeat
jack which bears it. She has no occasion to know the list number
of the calling subscriber unless the connection demanded cannot
be given at once, when it must be asked for in order that he may
be rung up later. In a busy exchange this may, however, become
an important point, and it would be an improvement to add a
second number (which might be movable) to the indicator show-
ing the true list number of the caller. The equalisation of work
is effected by an intermediate field in the following manner. The
repeat jacks of each group of subscribers are connected in parallel

Switzerland 397

in the ordinary way ; then, from one or the other end of the
table is brought what is called a return cable to the section occu-
pied by the indicators and local jacks of the group. Behind the
table, below the level of the jacks, are groups of terminals,
Q and s (fig. i36A), divided by a horizontal box or channel R. The
wires in the return cable are soldered to the terminals of Q, while
those of s are in connection with the indicators and local jacks.
If no distribution is necessary to equalise the work, the two
groups of terminals Q and s are simply joined across with short
pieces of wire ; if otherwise, any desired adjustment can be
effected by long wires laid in the box R. There are cross-con-
necting and lightning-guard boards of familiar types. Notwith-
standing the self-restoring drops, the number of movements
required to make and undo a connection is only one less than
that necessary on the old Western Electric double-cord board.
They are as follow :

1. On receiving call, operator plugs into caller's local jack.

2. Turns down key and speaks.

3. Tests line called for.

4. Plugs into called subscriber's jack.

5. Rings called subscriber.

6. Turns up key (connection completed).

7. Removes both plugs.

8. Depresses speaking key to restore ring-off drop.

It will be seen that, good as this type of board is in several re-
spects, the chief advantage generally claimed for it that it reduces
the number of movements necessary on the part of the operator-
is chimerical. Another grave drawback is that subscribers cannot
ring through to each other without dropping the ring-off indicator
and running the risk of getting disconnected. The switch-board
that finally comes to stay will have to meet this difficulty, for there
is no privilege more appreciated by subscribers than the power to
hold one another within call until their conversation is finished.

The switch-room is lighted with incandescent lamps, the
current for which, together with that required for the operators'
transmitters, ringing keys, test, and replacement of indicator drops,
is furnished by two batteries of accumulators, one of sixty-one
cells for the lighting and ringing, and one of two cells for the trans-

398 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

mitters, test, and drops. The accumulators, which have a capacity
of 127 ampere-hours, are charged by a i2-h.p. gas-engine driving
a i4o-volt dynamo. The smaller battery is used in parallel for
the transmitters, and in series for its other work. The necessary
alternating current for ringing the subscribers' bells is provided
by means of an electro-motor driven by the accumulators. Two
opposing segments of the commutator are connected to two
insulated metal rings on the other end of the motor spindle, on
which rings collectors in connection with the ringing keys are
always pressing. As the opposing segments come alternately
under the + and brushes, the current in their rings is
reversed and the necessary alternations produced. This arrange-
ment is shown in fig. 140. The voltage required for ringing

FIG. 140

being only 60, resistance has to be interposed between the motor
and the keys.

Zurich is the most important telephonic centre in Switzerland,
although it is run closely by Geneva and Basle. At the end of
October 1894 there were 2,769 subscribers, together with thirty-five
trunk lines, operated by the switch -board. The population being
about 130,000, there are thus 2-13 telephones for each hundred
inhabitants. The operators are thirty-two in number, or one to
every eighty-six lines, besides which there are three girls occupied
in registering calls of various kinds that are subject to special
charges. The number of local connections from January i to
June 30, 1894, was only 809,807, while the trunk communications
mounted up to 233,213 more than a fourth. The number of
telegrams telephoned to the telegraph office was 8,842. It thus
seems that the effect of the Swiss local tariff is to reduce the
traffic, since during the period named the local talks amounted to

Switzerland

399

only 630 per subscriber per annum, just over two per subscriber per
working day. Many of them were, of course, far busier than that ;
but the majority were evidently trying not to exceed their 800
free talks per annum. On the other hand, the trunk connection
average was very good.

The switch-board is placed in a large and well-ventilated
room, and everything is arranged in readiness for the ultimate and
inevitable advent of metallic circuits.

/ ' V '-i V V \ V V v V * V V / '' V* V v V w V V V V V- :
tAAAAAAAAAAAAA \AAAAMAAAA;

I i ; v \ , V ' i .' v V / . / V v^ v v V rf v 1 '': i/ V i

T' 1 . \\^\M M ^ ; A /. , '^A A ;;>,;.; U\'.y
r '-j V v' V v V / c / V V V -; *' j 7 V V V V V v'VV V j/V

, \ ;. i r i ;. A < A ;. A f i i A A r U A A xi .*

i vVVVv VVvVv v VVv VvVtYVVV.-vVvl

FIG. 141

The arrangements for the trunk line service have severa
features of interest. Translators are interposed between the
trunks and subscribers' lines, even when these last are metallic
circuits. A peculiar arrangement (figs. 141 and 142) of translator
is adopted with the view of excluding from the circuit all other
coils and electro-magnets. The translator itself is of the
Landrath pattern, and consists of two bobbins, B B, with iron
wire cores, placed side by side, the cores being joined by a yoke

4OO Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

at one end, and at the other furnished with pole pieces P. The
primary and secondary circuits are of the same resistance, 170
ohms, and are equally divided between the two bobbins. An
armature, F, hangs from the support s, and is adjusted to make
contact normally with one of two stops, c c 1 , which closes the
circuit of the local battery and the relay R, the armature of which
is kept attracted against the dead stop D until a magneto current
traversing the coils of the translator sets the armature F oscillating

between its stops. The relay
armature being momentarily
liberated between the oscilla-
tions, touches its second stop
D 1 , and closes another local
circuit through a battery and
an indicator of ordinary type,
which consequently falls. The
terminals A 1 to A 4 are for the
trunk and subscribers' lines, R '
for the relay, and K for the in-
dicator local circuits (see also
fig. 142). This plan is essen-
tially the same as that indicated
in the author's original trans-
lator patent of 1881. Fig. 142
shows the connection of the
translators with the trunk sec-
tion of the multiple board.
One translator circuit is joined
to the wires of the trunk ; the
other, on the single-cord plan,
to a double-conductor cord and plug. On inserting this latter
in the spring-jack of the local wire, translation between the
two lines is effected. The double-conductor cord is provided
with two switches, A and B, for ringing and speaking respec-
tively. The ring-off drop c is worked by the translator as
described, but as it is only wanted after a connection has been
put through, two springs, F, are provided which keep apart so
long as the plug is in its idle position, but which touch and loop

FIG. 142

Switzerland

401

FIG 143

D D

4O2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

in the drop as soon as the plug is removed for insertion. On the
intermediate section of the board there are no indicators excepting
fifteen ring-offs for each operator, below which are repeat jacks for
all the subscribers' wires, and a set of special jacks the use of
which will appear later on. Each operator has fifteen cords and
plugs, with the usual speaking and ringing keys. The arrange-
ments, so far, have reference only to the connection of subscribers
with the trunks. For joining different trunks together when re-
quired ; for booking the duration of talks ; and for generally manag-
ing the trunk service, special tables (fig. 143) placed in a separate
room are provided. There are five of these, multipled one with
the other, and each intended for ten trunks. Each table has twenty
indicators ten for its trunks (these are in
the local circuit worked by the translator, and
serve both for calls and for rings off ; they are
in parallel with the ring-off drops [c, fig. 142]
on the trunk section of the big multiple) ; five
for ring-offs when two trunks are directly
connected : these are iron-clad, wound to
1,000 ohms ; and five for junction wires from
the main table. Above the indicators are
ten sand-glasses (s, fig. 143), adjusted to run
out in three minutes and used for measuring
the duration of talks.

Each table has also seventy spring-jacks,
viz. fifty repeats, ten for answering calls, and ten for connec-
tions to and from the local table. The distribution of the
trunks to the different tables is effected similarly to that of
the subscribers on the big table as already described. The
trunk jacks are of the construction shown in fig. 144, their
frames and orifices being in connection with the test wire. The
trunk jacks are of course multipled in parallel, and their con-
tacts are so arranged that the translators are cut out by the
insertion of a plug. This renders it necessary to provide a
special jack for tapping purposes, as an operator plugging into a
parallel jack would interrupt any existing communication ; this
special jack is therefore looped into one of the metallic circuit
wires. The procedure in trunk switching is as follows : A local

FIG. 144

Switzerland 403

subscriber, A, wanting a trunk, rings and says ' long distance,'
whereupon he is joined through to an operator in the trunk room,
who makes a note of the name or number and town of the person
wanted and sends it to the operator controlling the trunk affected.
When A's turn arrives, this operator rings the intermediate section
of the multiple and asks for him. While A is being rung, the
person he wants is demanded of the operator at the distant town.
As soon as the two subscribers reply, the lines are joined, a
sand-glass reversed, and the operators turn up their keys. When
a request for a local subscriber comes from a trunk line, the
trunk operator rings the trunk section of the local multiple, asks
for the person wanted, and joins the trunk to the junction wire.
As all the local subscribers have jacks on this section, the operator
there has only to ring, and when a reply comes to go off the line,
the duration of the talk in this case being noted at the distant end.
The system appears to work well and smoothly, but the communi-
cation between the operators at the local multiple and those in the
long-distance room, and consequently the service, would certainly
be accelerated if it were conducted on the listening plan instead
of by the constant dropping of indicators. Much work would be
saved, too, if the subscribers, or, at all events, those among them
who habitually use the trunks, had repeat jacks on the trunk tables.
At present, when a connection is ready the caller has to be notified
through the intermediate operator, which means a certain loss of
time repeated hundreds of times a day. When three trunks exist
between two towns, A and B, it is found advantageous to use one
for the calls from A to B, a second for those from B to A, and
the third for communications between other towns whose traffic
passes by that route. When the third line is otherwise free, it is
used as a service wire between the operators at A and B, who
are, by its aid, able to get through more connections on the
other two than would be otherwise possible.

The installation at Zurich, both as regards the switch-room
and the outside work to be described later on, undoubtedly reflects
the greatest credit on Dr. Wietlisbach, director and chief
technician to the Swiss Telephone Administration, and Mr.
Homburger, the local manager and engineer.

In obtaining connections, the subscribers ring the exchange

D D 2

404 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

and put the telephone to the ear without waiting for a ring back,
On hearing the operator's voice, the number and name, or (in the
small centres) the name only of the person wanted is given. He
is rung by the operator, and, taking down his telephone, replies
without ringing, so that the caller, who is still listening, hears his
voice. As soon as she finds them in touch, the operator retires
from the line. When finished, the caller rings off in the ordinary
way. This is no doubt the best form of procedure when ringing
through is liable to give rise to mistakes. In trunk switching the
caller is put through to the town wanted and asks the operator
there for his client. Sometimes a caller must speak to three ex-
changes, as in getting through from Zurich to Lausanne : Ziirich
gives him the Berne operator, who gives him the Lausanne
operator, who gives him the Lausanne subscriber.

HOURS OF SERVICE

All exchanges possessing two hundred or more subscribers
are open all night and on Sundays. The smaller ones close at
9 or 10 P.M., but where a caretaker resides on the premises he is
not prohibited from answering calls and giving connections after
hours. Such calls are charged extra at the rate of 2*4^. each
if made within one hour of closing time, and 4-8^. each after-
wards. These surcharges apply to all the different kinds of con-
nections.

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

These consist, in all the larger centres, of magneto, base-board
and battery-box of Swiss manufacture ; a granular transmitter,
usually of Western Electric Company's type ; and a double-pole
receiver. In a few of the smaller towns, battery calls are still
employed. The instruments are solidly constructed and well
fixed. Sand-glasses are attached to some of the subscribers^
instruments for the purpose of measuring the duration of trunk
talks. Lightning-guards are also supplied to the subscribers'"
offices. The leading- in wire is of 1-3 mm. copper, insulated with
vulcanised india-rubber and protected by a braided covering
steeped in preservative compound. From the lightning-guard to

Sivitzerland 405

the instrument the wire has a skin of india-rubber covered with
braided paraffined cotton. The earth-wire is covered with
paraffined cotton only. In connection with the lightning- guard
there is a fusible wire calculated to go at one ampere ; this is
to protect against the consequences of possible .contact with an
-electric light or power system.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

In Zurich there is much to remark, for the double problem of
metallic circuits and underground wires has been boldy and ably
tackled. The desire to keep to one central station led to a great
convergence of overhead wires at one spot, and it became more
and more difficult to find room on the houses for the rapidly
augmenting number. Besides this, electric lighting on the high-
tension alternating system is rife in Zurich, and with an overhead
electric tramway, a duplicate of that at Leeds, tended to make
things more lively than agreeable for the single-wire earth-return
subscribers. The disturbance from the tramway was greatly
reduced by laying a 7 mm. copper wire between the rails to help
the return, and by removing (at the cost of the tramway company)
all wires running parallel to the tramway route. But extensions
of the latter are promised, and parallelism cannot be avoided
indefinitely ; so it was determined to place all telephone wires in
the centre of the town underground in cables containing twisted
pairs, and to distribute overhead to the subscribers from suitably
placed towers or columns made as sightly as possible. A con-
siderable portion of this work has already been completed with
most satisfactory results. The town council objecting to cement
conduits, cast-iron pipes of thirty, forty, fifty, and sixty centimeters
diameter are used to contain the cables, the joints being made
tight with lead caulking. The pipes are laid at depths varying
from -8 to 1-5 meters, sometimes under the street and some-
times under the footpaths ; they are kept straight and horizontal,
manholes being provided at each change of direction or of
level. On the straight, manholes are placed every 100 meters.
These manholes are of concrete, are generally one and a
half meters square and two meters deep, arched at the

406 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

top, and closed by a disc of cast iron roughened at the top.
Figs. 145 and 145 A show the construction of the holes for the
road and footpath respectively. The cables are drawn in by a
capstan and iron wire having a breaking strain of 3,500 kilo-
grammes, rollers being temporarily fixed in the intermediate
manholes to lessen friction. The length drawn in at one time is
600 meters as a maximum. The cables used for the main routes.

FIG. 145

contain twenty-seven and fifty-two twisted pairs, the wires being
8 mm. gauge, loosely insulated with paper, so as to leave plenty
of air space. The protection consists of cotton yarn dried at a
high temperature ; then a leaden tube about 2 mm. thick ;
then a serving of jute tape impregnated with preservative com-
pound; and finally an armour of flattened steel wire laid on
spirally. Each flat wire has an external width of 47 and an

Switzerland

407

internal width of 4*3 mm., and is 1*7 mm. thick. The outside
diameters of the finished cables are 40 and 50 mm. respectively.
The copper resistance is 34-4 ohms, the insulation 5,000 megohms,
and the capacity '055 microfarad per kilometer, and the cable
stands a pull of eight tons with an elongation of only i per cent.
The maximum strain sustained in drawing in has been ascer-
tained not to exceed two tons, and the elongation to be only
3 per cent. Such a cable as this, if perfect to start with, once

FIG. i45A

properly laid, should remain serviceable for a long term of years.
Fig. 146 is an end section of a cable of this construction. The
underground work at Zurich already comprises ten kilometers of
conduits, containing eighty-two cables and 1,107 metallic circuits,
made up of 4,000 kilometers of single wire. The overhead wires
in Zurich still measure 5,200 kilometers. When certain sub-
scribers are connected, as much as six kilometers of underground
line is spoken through, the transmission being indistinguishable

408 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

from that over a corresponding length of overhead metallic
circuit. The only criticism that need be offered in respect to this
underground work is that, when a mass of cables has been laid in
an iron pipe, the weight of the upper ones will render it impos-
sible to safely withdraw any of the lower ones that need replace-
ment. The engineers expect that as many as 3,000 metallic
circuits, say fifty-seven 52-pair cables, can be placed in the
6o-centimeter pipes. Perhaps so ; but once there they are fixtures.
The cables used at Zurich were supplied by Messrs. Felten &
Guilleaume. These underground routes are carried to convenient
spots, where are erected handsome and substantial iron-lattice
columns set in concrete (fig. 147), from thirty to seventy-five feet
in height. They carry from 256 to 400 insulators on iron arms
arranged in the form of a cage, one face
to each point of the compass, of similar
construction to that shown in fig. 150.
The base of the lattice column is enclosed
in a hollow plinth of cast iron, which
forms a commodious house for the junc-
tions of the underground with the aerial
wires. These houses contain test-terminals
and lightning-guards for each pair of wires,
FlG 6 together with a set of speaking instru-

ments in connection with the exchange.
The underground wires terminate at the test-board, and are
carried up the column by lighter cables disposed in the corners,
where they are out of sight. These lighter cables end at the level
of the different arms, where soldered connections are made with
the overhead wires. At present, as the exchange continues to be
worked on the single-wire plan, the second wire of each under-
ground metallic circuit is earthed at the distributing columns,
the subscriber's current going to the exchange by one wire and
returning to earth at the column by the other, the indicator being
looped in between the two wires, and cut off from earth at the
exchange. The officials at Zurich appear to think that this plan
of doubling back to earth helps to reduce disturbance materially.
It no doubt assists in reducing disagreeable inductive effects,
but, except to subscribers doubling back to the same column and

Switzerland

409

FIG. 147

FIG. 148

4 1 o Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

earth-plate, it can scarcely afford relief from the results of polari-
sation of earth-plates, which is likely to be as marked at two
different columns, some of which are close to the electric tramway,
as at two different subscribers' stations. With an ordinary single-
wire switch-board it would be altogether useless, since when two
subscribers are connected their doubling back wires would be
cut off at the exchange, and when they are not connected the
amount of disturbance present is immaterial. In such a case
it would answer equally well to earth the second wire of each
metallic loop at the columns, preserving the usual working earth
at the exchange. The columns need no staying, however
unequally they may be loaded. Fig. 147 shows the column
erected at Stadelhofen Platz, Zurich ; it is seventy-five feet in
height, and weighs seven tons. Such columns are certainly more
expensive to erect than creosoted poles, but once up, a yearly
coat of colour will preserve them indefinitely. The Zurich
columns are nicely painted, and, so far from being eyesores, are
considered to be ornamental by the public and residents in their
neighbourhood, and with reason. Fig. 148 gives an idea of three
other distributing fixtures in Zurich, located respectively on a
railway shed, a church, and a warm-spring house. The same
system of underground work and distribution has already been
commenced in Berne and Lucerne ; and Lausanne, Geneva, and
Basle are being arranged for. The overhead work in the Swiss
towns consists no aerial cables are used of 1-25 mm. bronze
wire, supported on small double-shed insulators. All joints are
soldered. The standards are built up of U, L, and T iron. A
single standard for thirty wires is shown in fig. 149. The upright
is of two U irons bolted together, while the T iron arms are
stiffened by two vertical pieces of smaller U section, which are
likewise connected to the main upright by L iron brackets.
Fig. 150 shows one face and plan of a four-faced junction
standard employed at the meeting of several routes. There are
also double and triple standards, amplifications in all essential
details of Fig. 149. The Swiss standards are always taken through,
and rigidly fastened to, the roofs ; they are of strong construction,
well stayed, and of neat appearance. They are usually connected
to earth as a precaution against lightning. None of the exchange

Switzerland

411

SCALE OF 50 CENT/METERS.

FIG 149

4L2 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

SCALE OF 50

CENTIMETERS

fixtures are of exceptional size
or special design, except per-
haps a neat little skeleton
turret at Lucerne. The cen-
tral telegraph station at Berne
is being rebuilt and raised
with the view of a complete
reorganisation of the system
on the Zurich plan ; this
building when ready will be
fitted with a large standard
designed by Dr. Wietlisbach.
New telephone administrative
offices, together with stores and
workshops on an extensive
scale, have recently been com-
pleted at Berne at a cost of
4o,ooo/.

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

The wire used for trunk
work is 2 mm. copper for dis-
tances up to fifty kilometers,
and 3 mm. beyond. The insula-
tors are double-shed, of a larger
pattern than those employed
for the local lines. All trunks
are metallic circuit, the wires
being crossed at intervals, the
twist plan having, after trial,
been abandoned as unneces-
sarily complicated. The poles
are generally wood, injected
with sulphate of copper, with
iron cross-arms. Fig. 151 shows
a common form. It will be
noticed that, contrary to the

FIG. 150

Switzerland

413

SCALE OF SO CEA/r/MTE/?S

FIG. 151

414 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

usual continental practice, the English pole-roof is used. The arms
are of T iron made into a frame and bolted to the pole together.
In districts subject to thunderstorms, every fifth of a line of ground
poles is usually provided with an earth wire.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen get $s. 7^. per day in Berne, and from 41. 6d. to
$s. zd. in the other principal towns ; experienced workmen from
35. yd. to 45., and labourers 25. y\d. Sleeping allowance when
away from home, is. jd. per night. Hours of work, exclusive of
meals, nine per day.

PAYMENT OF OPERATORS

Lady superintendents, 6/. per month ; operators, when fully com-
petent, 3/. 45. Girls are taken on from sixteen to twenty-one years of
age. They have to pass examinations in composition and dictation
in their maternal language, geography and arithmetic. Those who
receive and transmit telegrams or telephonograms by telephone
must have a knowledge of German, French, and Italian. Hours of
duty, eight per day. At those exchanges which are open all night
the girls take their turn at night duty, but as the switch-rooms in
such cases are always located in the telegraph stations where male
clerks are on duty the two rooms being connected by a message
tube or shoot the nervousness attendant on isolation in a large
building is not experienced.

STATISTICS

At December 31, 1893, the date of the last complete official
report, there were 155 telephone exchanges in Switzerland, with
14,675 subscribers, 16,929 instruments, and 33,266 kilometers of
wire. Since then there has been a very considerable increase,
the number of subscribers at October 31, 1894, being 19,300, an
increase of 2,371 in ten months on a population of just over three
millions. At the same date the nine principal exchanges were :

Switzerland

415

Town

Number of
subscribers

Population

Number of
telephones per
100 inhabitants

Zurich .

2,769

I3O,OOO

2-13

Geneva .

2,648

78,777

336

Basle .

2,075

- 73,958.

2-8

Berne

1,190

47,270

2'5

Lausanne

1,070

33,340

3-2

St. Gall

825

28,000

2-9

Lucerne

649

22,000

2-9

Chaux-de-Fonds

60 1

26,OOO

2-3

Neuchatel

439

I7,OOO

2-58

In 1889, the last year of the 61. inclusive tariff, the total receipts
of the telephone system amounted to 1,275,906 francs (51,0367.)
Under the new tariff, which involved a very serious reduction,
they had risen in 1891 to 65,3407., having recovered lost ground
and gained 14,3047. into the bargain. For the last two years the
receipts have been

1892

74,0917.

1893

m,74O/.

* Very good,' a Post Office protectionist will doubtless cry ; ' but
how about the poor telegraphs ? They were built with the Swiss
people's money, and the Swiss people have a right to be guaranteed
against the ruin of their property.' Well, here are the telegraph
receipts :

1891 ... 110,1717. j 1892 ... 111,0347. j 1893 116,6237.

Notwithstanding the enormous increase of telephone ac-
commodation, the telegraphs have continued to gain ground. In
1893 the telephone receipts had increased 37,6497. over the
previous year, and for the first time equalled and surpassed the
telegraph, yet the telegraph receipts increased also ! The reason
was that everywhere the telephone fed the telegraph, and the
telegraphs of the world were brought to the firesides of nearly
20,000 Switzers.

The following statistics from the last available official returns
are of interest as showing the comparative extent of the different
classes of traffic and the rate of growth :

4 1 6 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Traffic

Local talks:

Free (i.e. included within
the 800 covered by the
annual subscription) .

Charged at -$>d. each .

Trunk talks :

Up to 50 kilometers

Si ii I0 ,,
Beyond 100 ,,

International talks (those
originating in Switzer-

1892

1893

Increase Decrease

5,588,556
1,535,188

6,480,488
1,902,277

891,932
367,089

7,123,744 8,382,765

1,259,021

655,647 954,628
156,878 231,718
21,149 38,307

298,981
74,840
17,158

833,674 1,224,653 j 390,979 !

land only) .
Telephonograms
Telephoned telegrams

Total of communications 1
of all classes . . J

2,594
7,377
170,771

2,801
6,526
181,758

207
10,987

851

8,138,160

9,798,503

1,660,343

The increase under all headings for 1894 is understood to be far
in excess of that in 1 893, but the exact figures cannot be learned
until the middle of 1895.

417

XXV. TURKEY

No telephone exchange work has yet been undertaken in Turkey,
nor is likely to be, as a prejudice against it for political reasons
is said to exist in high quarters. Many efforts have been made
by French and other continental financiers to obtain a concession
for Constantinople, but, so far, absolutely without success, the
terms proposed by the Government being, most probably in-
tentionally, altogether prohibitive.

E E

41 8 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

XXVI. WURTEMBERG

HISTORY AND PRESENT POSITION

THE ubiquitous International Bell Telephone Company tried
hard to win a concession for the telephone system of Wiirtemberg,
but the policy of all the German States was to preserve the new
means of communication to the Governments, and the company's
efforts made no more impression here than in Berlin or Munich.
But the Government, notwithstanding, had no idea of burking the
telephone, and soon set about the business themselves, with results
that cannot in any sense be deemed unsatisfactory. The rates
have been reasonable and the service fair, while the linking up of
the various towns to the capital, with one another, and with neigh-
bouring States, was commenced early and carried out systematically.
The consequence has been a very extensive exchange in Stuttgart
and a satisfactory development throughout the country. It may
be regretted that the single wire has heretofore been considered
good enough for the subscribers' lines, but the necessity of a
change is now recognised, and in future every development will
be effected with the inevitable triumph of the metallic circuit in
view. The extension of the trunks and the growing necessity, in
Stuttgart at all events, for underground work, leaves no alternative
possible to thinking men.

SERVICES RENDERED TO THE PUBLIC

i. Local exchange communication. The local rate is 5/. per
annum, including all charges, for any distance not exceeding three
kilometers from the central station. In the case of Stuttgart,

WiirUmberg 419

seeing the extent of the exchange, this is remarkably liberal. In
many countries the attempt to confine the use of subscribers'
iustruments to those who pay for them has been abandoned either
openly or tacitly as impracticable, but in Wiirtemberg the
strictest regulations still exist on the subject. Subscribers are
not allowed to use their instruments except for their own affairs,
nor to permit strangers to use them on pain of disconnection
without return of money paid in advance unless in the case of
sudden illness in a lonely locality, or of accident. Even then the
circumstances have to be explained to the operator, who may give
or withhold permission. If the talk is allowed to take place, the
subscriber whose instrument is used has to pay the amount that
would have been collectable at a public telephone station. A
subscriber becomes entitled to the refund of a proportionate part
of his subscription when his line has been interrupted longer than
four weeks from the date of notice. Subscriptions will also be
refunded should the State at any time exercise its right to per-
manently or temporarily close the whole or any part of the tele-
phone system. When subscribers change offices or houses, their
new premises are connected 1 to the exchange without charge if
situated within the three-kilometer radius.

2. Intercommunication between the town and its suburbs.
In the case of Stuttgart this means Cannstatt, Feuerbach, Unter-
tiirkheim, Zuffenhausen, Waiblingen, Degerloch, Backnang,
Vaihingen, and Boblingen. The town subscribers may ring up
any suburban subscriber without additional charge, but, con-
versely, the suburban man has to pay i/. 5^. per annum extra for
the privilege of initiating conversations with the town. The
excess charge is small, but it seems rather unjust to saddle the
suburban subscriber with it. He necessarily cannot use his
connection locally to the same extent (the largest suburban ex-
change is Cannstatt, with 190 subscribers ; the others are much
smaller) as can a subscriber in Stuttgart ; consequently it is of
less monetary value to him, and it would be more equitable to
put him on the same footing exactly, especially in view of the
desirability of encouraging the connection of suburban residences.
The same arrangements apply between Heilbronn and Sontheim,
Reutlingen and Pfullingen, and Ravensburg and Weingarten.

E E 2

420 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

3. Intercommunication between town and suburbs and more
distant exchanges within the district or vicinity. No hard and
fast radius is imposed in determining the limits of such a district,
as trade and other local requirements are taken into consideration.
The group round Stuttgart comprises Esslingen, Ludswigsburg,
Sindelfmgen, Hohenheim, and Castle Solitude. Other ' vicinity r
groups are Reutlingen with Pfullingen and Tubingen ; Ulna
and Waiblingen ; Friedrichshafen and Langenargen. The con-
necting lines are all metallic circuits, and are really extra-suburban
or short-distance trunks. The charge for utilising them is
generally 3^. per five minutes, but for some there are also annual
subscriptions. (See Tariffs.}

4. Long-distance trunk communication within the limits of
the kingdom. Every town and many villages are in telephonic
communication. The time unit is five minutes, and the charge is
uniformly $d. As the distances talked over are considerable (as
Trossingen to Langenargen, 166 miles ; Heilbronn to Friedrichs-
hafen, 129 miles), this is one of the most liberal trunk rates in
Europe. Talks are limited to five minutes if the line is wanted
by another. There is a system of express talks by which a sub-
scriber can take precedence of all others by paying triple the ordinary
rate. A subscriber in one town may likewise demand simultaneous
connection with two or more in another town in order that he may
give them the same message or that all may consult together.
Twopence per five minutes per extra subscriber connected in com-
pliance with such a demand is the not extravagant charge levied.
The records of the telephone operator must be taken as decisive
as to the duration of talks, but complaints are inquired into, and
any reasonable grievance that may be proved, rectified. Within
Wiirtemberg itself, talks which are not, for any reason, actually
held are not usually charged for, even if the wires are in order
and the telephone officials have done everything that it was
necessary to do to effect the connection. In the interest of good
discipline amongst the subscribers this rule is more liberal than
politic, since it permits a man who has asked for a trunk con-
nection and caused the line to be occupied with the necessary
communications between the operators, to change his mind or to
leave his instrument and neglect the connection signal. In con-

Wiirtemberg 42 1

nection with the Wiirtemberg trunk service some subscribers have
sand-glasses timed to run out in five minutes attached to their
instruments. This assists them to regulate their talk and to
check the accounts rendered.

5. International trunk communication. This already exists
with Baden, Bavaria, Austria, and Switzerland, but the intercourse
is not unrestricted, and is subject to seemingly strange limitations
and variations, especially with Austria and Switzerland. All
subscribers in Wiirtemberg may be connected with those in
Pforzheim and Mannheim (Baden), and in Augsburg, Munich, and
Lindau (Bavaria). The subscribers in Heilbronn may also talk
to Heidelberg. Stuttgart and Ulm may alone speak with Stamberg,
Tutzing, and Feldafing (suburbs of Munich). Again, only the
subscribers in Ravensburg, Friedrichshafen, and Langenargen
may converse over the Swiss frontier to St. Gallen, Romanshorn,
&c. These restrictions are understood to be due to the Imperial
Political Bureau at Berlin, and no doubt are justified by excellent,
if inscrutable, reasons. The time unit with Baden and Bavaria
is five minutes, except with Heidelberg and Mannheim, where it
is only three. Three minutes is also the unit with Austria and
Switzerland. The rates are uniform, being is. per unit to Baden,
Bavaria, and Austria, and is. zd. to Switzerland. With Baden all
talks that are asked for are charged, whether had or not, unless
the line or apparatus is at fault. Thus a subscriber at Stuttgart
asking for one at Pforzheim who does not answer when called has
to pay the fee all the same. He is also mulcted if, after asking,
he leaves his instrument and the connection is made in his absence.
The first rule is calculated to discourage the use of the trunks,
since it fines the caller, who is not to blame ; it would be better
for the State to take the risk of the occasional absence of a called
subscriber. But the second is quite justifiable, and its enforce-
ment tends to foster that spirit of attention and intelligence
amongst the subscribers which is so helpful towards a satisfactory
service. A stupid or careless person who either cannot or will not
(and there are plenty such) learn the rules for using his telephone
is an abomination, and more to be dreaded than half a dozen
busier men who know exactly what they are about. The author
has known several directors of telephone companies who did not

422 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

know, after years of experience, how to use their instruments, and
who, with all seriousness, persisted in blaming the operators for
the consequences of their own shortcomings. Being directors,
they perhaps considered it superfluous to read the rules.

6. Public telephone stations. These are not so numerous as in
some other countries, and are invariably located at the State post,
telegraph, and railway offices, no subscribers being licensed to
keep stations. There are five in Stuttgart, two in Ulm, Heilbronn,
and Ludwigsburg respectively, and one in each of the smaller
places. These stations are sometimes, for the convenience of
residents in the locality, converted into branch switch-rooms, a
small switch-board being fitted up and operated by the attendant.
This plan enables persons located not more than one kilometer
from an outlying public telephone station to escape the excess
mileage rate to the central ; on the other hand, they have to pay
the public telephone station fees for all talks they originate in
addition to the usual annual rental, the public station line to the
central being utilised as a junction wire. No automatic check-
payment boxes are used, an attendant being always provided.

7. Telephoning of telegrams. Subscribers may telephone
telegrams to the telegraph office for despatch to all parts, and
receive by telephone telegrams arriving for them.

8. Telephoning of mail matter. Subscribers may telephone
messages to the central station, which are written down and posted
as post-cards or letters, as may be directed.

9. Telephoning of messages for local deli very .Such written
messages, instead of being posted, may be sent out at once by
special messenger if the subscriber so instructs. A local tele-
gram or telephonogram service is thus created.

10. Fire service. The exchanges in Wiirtemberg being closed
at night, special means have to be adopted to bring the fire-
brigade within call when wanted after hours. Rather unwisely, it
may be thought, this important service, so fraught with weal or
woe to the community at large, is confined to those subscribers
who pay an extra annual fee of ten shillings. The telephone
system still being on the single-wire and earth-return system, it
would not do to simply plug all the subscribers entitled to the
service through to the fire-station at night, since the number of

Wilrtemberg 423

derived circuits so created would render the action of the fire
indicator uncertain ; so each subscriber is provided with an
earthing peg, with which he grounds his instrument by day, keep-
ing it in a non-contact hole at night. So, normally, the fire-station
is connected to a number of lines insulated at their further ends.
When an alarm has to be given, the subscriber shifts his peg from
its dummy hole to the earthing contact, and is enabled to ring
the fire-station without loss of current through other subscribers'
lines and instruments. In the morning all pegs have to be shifted
to the earth contacts before communication with the exchange can
be had ; in the evening, at closing time, all pegs must be shifted to
the dummy holes. Before joining to the fire- station the operator
tests each line, and any found still to earth are left unconnected
unless the subscriber can be got to answer his bell and remedy
his mistake, or unless the subscriber has instructed the central
office beforehand to advise him by special messenger at his
expense of the occurrence of such an omission. There is little
to be said in favour of such a system as this. It is too compli-
cated, requiring apt attention at many hands and at stated
hours. A clerk's forgetfulness overnight may deprive his em-
ployers of the prompt assistance of the fire-brigade, and in the
morning (through leaving the line insulated) of important messages.
A far more satisfactory plan, and one to which Wiirtemberg will
no doubt come before long, is to arrange for an all-night service
at the exchanges. It costs little, and enhances the usefulness and
popularity of the telephone immensely. It is not surprising to
find that the State disclaims all responsibility for the failure of the
system to act.

TARIFFS

i. Rates for local exchange communication. If within three
kilometers (1-7 miles about) the rate is 5/., payable annually in ad-
vance, although the State may, if thought fit, demand payment
every six months. For this the State finds, instate, and maintains
the line and instrument. Beyond the limit an excess rate of
i/. 5-r. per kilometer or fraction thereof is levied.

424 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe
Extra instruments on the same line :

Per annum
s. d.

If in one building or in the same locality . . .100
,, different buildings widely separated . . . 2 10 o
When a building let off in flats is in connection with the
exchange, extra instruments may be placed in each flat
at an annual charge of I/. 5.5-., but with a minimum

of 2/. ICtf.

The owner of such a building may have instruments fixed in
all the flats, offices, workshops, &c., and put in communication
with the exchange through a switch-board suitably placed and
operated at his expense. On paying to the State the whole of the
tariff charges, he is permitted to let such instruments out to his
tenants. Table instruments are charged i/., and extra bells 55. per
annum.

The State specially reserves the right to debit the subscribers
with any special way-leave charge that may be incurred in
reaching their premises. It is understood, however, that this is
rarely, if ever, done.

New subscribers have to sign for two years if within the three-
kilometer radius, and for four years if without ; subsequently the
contracts run year by year, subject to three months' notice.

2. Kates for suburban exchange connections. Within a
radius of three kilometers :

Per annum
s. d.

To cover communication in suburb only . . . .500
,, ,, with town and other suburbs .650

3. Rates for district or ' vicinity ' exchange connections :

Between town or suburban subscribers and district subscribers,

per five minutes ........ 3^.

Between Stuttgart, with suburbs, and Esslingen, free intercourse
can be had for an annual payment of 2/. los. This payment en-
titles a Stuttgart or Esslingen subscriber to ring up and be rung up
by any person in the opposite town. Similar arrangements are in
force between Stuttgart and Ludwigsburg, and Stuttgart and Sin-
delfingen.

Wiirtemberg 425

4. Rates for internal trunk communication. Between any
two exchanges in Wiirtemberg outside the suburban and district
limits, a uniform charge of $d. per indivisible unit of five minutes
is levied. Longer talks are allowed if no one else wants the line.
When several are waiting their turns, a subscriber may gain pre-
cedence of them all by demanding an ' express ' or ' urgent' talk, for
which he is charged triple the usual rate. A subscriber may be
connected simultaneously to two or more in another town on pay-
ing 2d. per five minutes extra for each additional connection.
Trunk charges, and all others involving the giving of credit by the
State, must be covered by deposit. Accounts are rendered monthly,
but may be required to be settled sooner if the amount reaches

2.1. I OS.

5. Rates for international trunk communication. The time
unit with Baden (except Heidelberg and Mannheim) and Bavaria
is five minutes ; with Austria, Switzerland, Heidelberg, and Mann-
heim, three minutes.

The rates between such places as are permitted to talk (see
p. 421) are is. to Baden, Bavaria, and Austria, and is. 2d. to Swit-
zerland.

Express talks are not allowed with Austria and Switzerland.
When an intermediate country is traversed, as is Bavaria when
Wiirtemberg talks to Austria, and as are Bavaria and Austria when
Wiirtemberg talks to Switzerland, a proportion of the through rate
is paid to those countries for the use of their lines, apparatus,
and operators.

6. Public telephone station rates. Payments may be by talk,
or by monthly or annual subscription.

Five-minute local talk, subscriber . . . . id.

,, ,, non-subscriber . . . . 2d.

Subscription entitling to use of all public telephone stations in
Stuttgart and its suburbs :

s. d.
Per month . . . . . . . .040

,, annum . . . . . . . .200

Five minutes' district talk, no distinction between

subscribers and non-subscribers . . . .003

426 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

Trunk line talks per unit time (see p. 425), no reduction to sub-
scribers :

*. d.
Within Wurtemberg . . . . . . .05

Out of Wurtemberg, excepting Switzerland . . .10
To Switzerland . . . . . . . .12

When an outlying public station is fitted with a switch-board
for the use of one or more subscribers in the locality who want
telephones in their own premises, the station line to the central is
used as a junction wire, and the above fees are payable by such
persons in addition to 5/. per annum for the use of an instrument
and one kilometer of wire, longer distances being charged i/. 5*.
per kilometer or fraction thereof extra.

7. Rates affecting the telephoning of telegrams. Each tele-
gram dictated to a telegraph office by a subscriber is charged one
pfennig per word, with a minimum charge of ten pfennige (\d.\
in addition to the tariff cost of the telegram. Odd pfennige are
counted as five.

Arriving telegrams dictated to subscribers through their tele-
phones are taxed \d. each, irrespective of the number of words.

8 and 9. Bates affecting the dictating of mail matter, and
of messages to be delivered by special messenger. Messages
dictated to the central to be written down and posted as post-
cards or letters, or delivered by special messenger, are also charged
one pfennig per word, with a minimum of ten pfennige, the total
number of pfennige being divisible by five in all cases. The
postage or charge for messenger is of course added.

10. Rates in connection wit lithe fire service :

s. d.
For connection with the fire-station after the telephone

exchange is closed, per annum . . . .100
Advising a subscriber by special messenger when his

earth peg has been left in . . . .03

WAY-LEAVES

Contrary to what has often been alleged and believed, the
Government of Wiirtemberg possesses no compulsory powers to
place poles, standards, and wires on private property. It simply

Wurtemberg 427

does what the National Telephone Company practises in this
country that is to say, inserts a clause in its agreements by which
the subscriber binds himself to allow the erection of fixtures and
wires, not only for his own accommodation, but for the general use
of the exchange. If a would-be subscriber refuses to sign the
agreement he does not get his telephone. The difference between
Wurtemberg and England, if there is any, consists in the fact that
the Wurtemberg Government adheres rigidly to the rule ' no way-
leave, no telephone,' while the company only enforces it when it
thinks itself strong enough to do so. In respect to lands and
buildings beyond the control of its subscribers, the Government
has to ask, and frequently to pay, for permission in the usual way.

SWITCHING ARRANGEMENTS

The only multiple switch-board is an ordinary Western Electric
series double-cord at Stuttgart. It has been quite full for some
time, and is temporarily supplemented by some ordinary boards.
A new switch-room for 7,200 subscribers is in contemplation, but
the plans have not yet been got out. Everything will be arranged
for metallic circuits, however. There is only one switch-room in
each town (excepting a few subscribers connected here and there
to outlying public telephone stations), and it is intended to adhere
to that plan as far as possible. The trunk-line switching is effected
at a separate table, but the arrangements are in no wise remark-
able. Two types of translators are used, those of Siemens &
Halske and Zippernowsky, the latter being wound with two equal
circuits of sixty ohms resistance. During thunderstorms the ope-
rators leave the tables and the service ceases, although every wire
is provided with a lightning-guard. Subscribers are also recom-
mended to leave their instruments alone until the storm has
passed. The distribution and lightning-guard boards are of
ordinary type. The connections asked for at Stuttgart average
20,000 per day, or eight per subscriber.

Subscribers are asked for by number and name, and are called
by the operator, the caller meanwhile standing with his telephone
to his ear. The called man replies to the ring by taking his tele-
phone off its hook and speaking. This plan minimises the ringing.

428 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

the tapping, and the risk of a premature disconnection that is such
a grave defect when the subscribers ring through to each other in
the absence of a proper ring-off system. Subscribers who have to
leave their instruments for a few minutes to consult books, &c.,
are warned against touching their bells when ready to recom-
mence ; and after having rung -off are counselled not to ring for a
new connection before the lapse of half a minute. To help the
operators tapping to ascertain the stage which a conversation has
reached, subscribers are requested to terminate every question or
sentence that is not the final one with the words ' Please answer,'
and at the end of the talk to say ' Finished ! ' In asking for suburban
and short-trunk talks the caller first mentions the switch-room to
which his client is connected, and keeps his telephone to his ear
until he finds himself in communication with that switch-room ;
he then gives the number and name of the person wanted, and again
waits with his telephone to his ear until he hears his friend's voice.
In long-trunk talks the subscriber mentions the town, number and
name of the person he wants, and hangs up his telephone till
his bell sounds. The plan of waiting with telephone to ear
is no doubt tiring and trying to the patience, but it is probably
the quicker, and more satisfactory in the long run than such a
perpetual sounding of bells, mostly without any ascertainable
significance, as prevails, for example, in London. At all events it
saves the generators and bells from needless wear and tear. But
there will be no approach to perfection in telephone switching
in Wiirtemberg or anywhere else without a disconnection
signal that cannot be confounded with a call or a ring-
through.

HOURS OF SERVICE

In this particular Wiirtemberg lags behind many other
countries conspicuously. Stuttgart exchange is open from 7 A.M.
till 10 P.M. all the year round ; the other exchanges, from 7 A.M. in
summer, or 8 A.M. in winter, till 6 P.M. This limitation of the ser-
vice is regrettable, seeing the many uses to which the telephone
is put at night.

Wurtemberg 429

SUBSCRIBERS' INSTRUMENTS

These comprise magnetos, Berliner transmitters, and spoon-
shaped double-pole receivers. Some are fitted with sand-glasses
to enable subscribers to time their trunk conversations. The
magnetos are made in the State telegraph workshops at Stutt-
gart which are extensive and well appointed and are strong,
well-made, and handsome instruments. The generator coils are
cut into circuit when required for use, not automatically as in most
other countries, but by means of a button contact in the front
of the instrument which the subscriber has to press while he
rings. Subscribers are responsible for any damage that may
happen to their instruments, but are not called upon to insure
them against fire.

OUTSIDE WORK (LOCAL)

The wire used for local work is galvanised steel, 2-2 mm. in
diameter. The reason assigned for adhering, or rather for re-
verting, to steel is the bad behaviour of bronze during a
severe snowstorm in Stuttgart some winters back, on which
occasion it was found that the steel spans stood much better
than the bronze. This was not, of course, a unique experi-
ence, although the difference in behaviour between the two
metals under such circumstances is not generally held suffi-
cient to disqualify bronze from an employment for which its
other good qualities specially recommend it. But in the clear
atmosphere of Stuttgart steel lasts for many years ; so one of the
strongest original reasons for introducing bronze the rapid de-
cay of iron and steel in the atmosphere of our manufacturing
towns does not apply there. The local insulators are small
double-shed. There are some twenty aerial cables in Stuttgart, each
containing twenty-seven wires. One of these, erected in 1884,
manufactured by Felten & Guilleaume, has still every wire working ;
another of the same date, by Siemens &: Halske, is still serviceable,
although several of its wires are useless. The great feature of the
overhead work in Stuttgart is the handsome dome of iron ribs
erected at the central post office (fig. 152). It is capable of

43 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

carrying 14,000 wires and is of graceful design, harmonising
well with the building on which it is erected. Its designer, Herr
Ockert, the State architect, may well be congratulated on having
produced a telephone-wire support which is not only strong and
suitable, but ornamental into the bargain. There is, however, no
intention to attach 14,000 wires to the dome, since, of the 2,500
subscribers which Stuttgart boasts, no less than 1,000 are already
wired underground by means of cables containing twenty-five
or twenty-eight twisted pairs each, placed in cement conduits.

FIG. 152

These conduits are of rather special design. To avoid the evils
attendant on pipes or conduits of large diameter containing a pile
of cables the lowermost of which are rendered immovable by the
weight of those above them, it was determined to construct the con-
duits in stories or divisions one above the other, each capable of
containing five cables laid side by side. The removal and replace-
ment of any particular cable becomes therefore a matter of easy
accomplishment. The details of the conduits, which have proved
satisfactory in every way, are shown in figs. 153 to 155. They are
built up of inverted cement troughs 270 mm. wide, 75 mm. deep,

Wiirtemberg

431

and i meter long, piled one above the other. These dimensions
are varied somewhat on different routes. Fig. 153 shows the end
section of such a trough, with the method of joining two lengths.
Fig. 154 shows a complete conduit for thirty cables, composed of
six such troughs superimposed. A trench is dug, and lined at
the bottom with concrete which is slightly raised along the
middle so as to afford a hold to the sides of the first inverted
trough. Subsequent troughs are added till the desired capacity
is attained. When laid under the footpath, the trench is then filled

- :s.\rv ~

FIG. 153

in with soil, and a layer of concrete added immediately below the
flags. This construction is shown in the left-hand half of fig. 154.
When laid under the roadway, as in the right-hand half of the
figure, injury from the weight of the traffic has to be provided
against, and the trench itself is filled up with concrete, between
which and the paving stones a layer of sand or gravel intervenes.
When a conduit of very large capacity is required, two tiers of
troughs are laid side by side. Fig. 155 shows the manholes and
draw-boxes, in plan and section, as arranged for a conduit of two

432 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

tiers. When passing a manhole the cables are diverted round the
oval walls, on which they are supported by brackets. About the

.K- 25 -

- -25 Hj

FIG. 154

superiority of such a system as this, when room can be found for
it, over pipes or simple channels, there can be no doubt, as the
facilities afforded for handling the cables are perfect. The work

Wilrtemberg

433

at Stuttgart is very well done, and reflects great credit on its de-
signers and constructors. The cables laid in these conduits are
some of twenty- five, others of twenty-eight pairs. Each trough can
contain therefore 28 x 5 = 140 pairs, and a six-trough conduit 840
pairs. The cables themselves are of various types.

Lightning-guards, contained in weather-tight iron boxes and
provided both with fine fusible wires and toothed dischargers, are
always placed at the junction of overhead with cable lines. Fig. 1 56
is a cross- section of such a box, showing the connections of one

MAN -HOLE

DRAW-BOX

FIG. 155

wire. The cable end is sealed with insulating material, the wires
spreading out, each to its lightning-guard, the other side of which
(the box being fixed to the standard) is joined by a rubber-
covered wire to the open wire beyond the insulator. All joints are
soldered. Instead of making the junction between the copper
and steel in the running wire as shown, where voltaic action to
the detriment of the galvanised steel is bound to take place, it
would be better to leave a long tag of steel wire after making
off the turn round the insulator, thread it through a vulcanised

F F

434 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

india-rubber tube, and take it straight to the binding screw in the
box, where no weather could reach it. The standards and cross-
arms are strongly constructed of angle-iron. Ground poles are
generally of wood and present no unusual features. Subscribers'
wires are usually led down the front of the houses by means of
open wires and insulators. As is commonly practised in Ger-
many, the joint between the bare and covered wire is made inside

RIAL WIRE

FIG. 156

an ebonite cup, which protects it from the weather and prevents
surface leakage over the exterior of the insulated wire. The cup
is light and hangs on a tag of the line wire. The covered wire
is usually led into the building by means of an ebonite or
china tube let into a hole made through the wall. The drop wires
and insulators, which are specially shaped to receive them, are very
neatly arranged and are by no means unsightly.

I Viirtemberg 43 5

OUTSIDE WORK (TRUNK)

As the Wiirtemberg railways belong to the State, the telephone
trunk lines naturally follow them for the most part, and, except for
the crossings, are indistinguishable from'the telegraph wires. The
wire used is 2*5 mm. high-conductivity bronze for the short, and
3 mm. for the long distances, strung on large double-shed insu-
lators. All trunks are metallic circuits crossed at intervals ; the
twist has never been employed. There are three circuits between
Stuttgart and Ulm, and one between Stuttgart and Munich. The
trunk traffic is considerable and continues to increase, but without
prejudicially affecting the telegraph revenue, which likewise con-
tinues to grow, although not so rapidly as it did before the advent
of the telephone. This satisfactory result is no doubt owing to the
fact that the telephone is utilised, as in most other continental
countries, as a feeder to the telegraph, and not treated as a perni-
cious rival to be discouraged and, wherever possible, excluded or
suppressed. The telegraph tariff in Wiirtemberg is 50 pfennige
($d.) for ten words, each additional word being charged 5 pfennige
(%d.), the minimum being $d. This is the same charge as for a
five minutes' long-distance telephonic conversation ; but in the
latter case the payer obtains a great number of words and also a
reply for his money, and probably, in the majority of instances,
greater speed. The speaking over the trunks is good, and undis-
turbed by external noises. The steel local wires do not appear to
influence the service deleteriously, but, of course, the distances,
even to Bavaria and Munich, are not great. The trunks are ex-
clusively telephonic, no attempt being made to utilise them simul-
taneously for telegraphy.

PAYMENT OF WORKMEN

Foremen are paid 4*. per day ; the men from 2s. 6d. to 3^ 6*/.,
according to length of experience. Sleeping allowance u., and
day allowance when working away from home, 6d. Hours of
work, 6 A.M. till noon, with half an hour's interval for breakfast,
and noon till 6 P.M. This gives a long working day of eleven and
a half hours.

f :

436 Telephone Systems of the Continent of Europe

PAYMENT OF OPERATOES

Girls are taken on at seventeen years of age. If they have
passed the usual school course no examination is enforced. They
work eight hours per day, and are paid from 2S. 6d. to $s. accord-
ing to length of service. The lady superintendents get from
3-f. 6d. to 35. lod. per day.

STATISTICS

The Wiirtemberg exchanges and their subscribers, at the end
of 1894, were :

Stuttgart (population 140,000)

Backnang

Boblingen . !

Cannstatt

Degerloch

Feuerbach

Untertiirkheim

Vaihingen -

Waiblingen

ZufTenhausen

Diirrmenz-Mlihlacker

Ebingen

Esslingen

Friedrichshafen

Gmiind .

Goppingen .

Hall

Heilbronn

Sontheim

Ludwigsburg .

Ravensburg .

Reutlingen

Pfullingen

Rottweil 1 ' f .

Oberndorf

Schramberg . .

Schwenningen

Trossingen

Schorndorf

Sindelfingen .

Tubingen

Ulm

2,500

3
6

190
20

20
10
10
12

I 10

170

320

140

20
12
12
20
J 5

32 switch-rooms and 4,430 subscribers

Spottis-woode & Co. Printers, New-street Square, London.

CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE

SCIENTIFIC WORKS

PUBLISHED BY

MESSRS. LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.

LONDON: 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, E.C.

NEW YORK: 15 EAST 16th STREET.

CONTENTS.

A D VANCED SCIENCE MANUALS -
AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING -
ARCHITECTURE -
ASTRONOMY
BIOLOGY -

BOTANY

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION -

CHEMISTRY

DYNAMICS

ELECTRICITY -

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE MANUALS

ENGINEERING -

GEOLOGY -

HEAT

HEALTH AND HYGIENE

HYDROSTATICS -

LIGHT

LONDON SCIENCE CLASS-BOOKS -

LONGMANS' GIVIL ENGINEERING

SERIES -

MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN
MAGNETISM -
MANUFACTURES-

. 1

10
15
19

METEOROLOGY -

MINERALOGY

X A VTfi ATTOV

j. 1 *
20
14
15

20 OPTICS

PHOTOGRAPHY -

PHYSICS - - -

PHYSIOGRAPHY -

PHYSIOLOGY

PROCTOR'S (R. A.) WORKS -

13 SOUND

17 STATICS

8 STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

TECHNOLOGY

TELEGRAPHY

TELEPHONE

TEXT-BOOKS OF SCIENCE -

THERMODYNAMICS

TYNDALL'S (JOHN) WORKS-

WORKSHOP APPLIANCES

Scientific Works published by Longmans , Green, 6 Co.

CHEMISTRY.

ADDYMAN Agricultural Analysis. A Manual of Quantitative Analysis
for Students of Agriculture. By FRANK T. ADDYMAN, B.Sc. (Loud.),
F.I.C. With 49 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 5s. net.

CARNEGIE Law and Theory in Chemistry: a Companion Book for
Students. By DOUGLAS CARNEGIE, sometime Scholar and Demon-
strator in Chemistry of Gonville and Caius, Cambridge. Cr. 8vo. 6s.

COLEMAN & ADDYMAN Practical Agricultural Chemistry. For

Elementary Students, adapted for use in Agricultural Classes and
Colleges. By J. BERNARD COLEMAN, A.RC.Sc., F.I.C., and FRANK
T. ADDYMAN, B.Sc. (Lond.) F.I.C. With 24 Illustrations. Crown
8vo. Is. 6d. net.

CROOKES Select Methods in Chemical Analysis, chiefly Inorganic.
By WILLIAM CROOKES, F.K.S., &c., Editor of the Chemical News.
Third Edition, Rewritten and Enlarged. With 67 Woodcuts.
8vo. 21s. net.

EARL The Elements of Laboratory Work : a Course of Natural Science.
By A. G. EARL, M.A., F.C.S., late Scholar of Christ's College, Cam-
bridge. With 57 Diagrams and numerous Exercises and Questions.
Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Boa
With 65 Illustrations and 155 Experiments. " Crown 8vo. 2s.

HALL First Exercises in Practical Chemistry. By A. D. HALL, M.A.,
Oxford University, Extension Lecturer for Surrey. Crown 8vo. Is. 6d.

HJELT Principles of General Organic Chemistry. By Professor E.
HJELT, of Helsingfors. Translated from the German by J. BISHOP
TINGLE, Ph.D., Assistant in the Laboratory of the Heriot Watt
College, Edinburgh. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d.

JAGO Works by W. JAGO, F.C.S., F.I.C.

Inorganic Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. With an

Introduction to the Principles of Chemical Analysis Inorganic and
Organic. With 196 Experiments, with 49 Woodcuts and numerous
Questions and Exercises. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. 6d

An Introduction to Practical Inorganic Chemistry. Crown

FURNEAUX Elementary Chemistry, Inorganic and Organic. By

FURNEAUX, F.R.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, London School Board.

8vo. Is. 6d.

Inorganic Chemistry, Theoretical and Practical. A Manual

for Students in Advanced Classes of the Science and Art Department.
With Plate of Spectra and 78 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

KOLBE A Short Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry. By Dr. HER-
MANN KOLBE. Translated and Edited by T. S. HUMPIDGE, Ph.D.
With 66 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, 6 Co. 3

MENDELEEFF The Principles of Chemistry. By D. MENDELEEFF,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of St. Petersburg. Trans-
lated by GEORGE KAMENSKY, A.R.S.M., of the Imperial Mint, St.
Petersburg, and edited by A. J. GREENAWAY, F.I.C., Sub-Editor of
the Journal of the Chemical Society. With 97 Illustrations. 2 vols.
8vo. 36s.

MEYER Outlines of Theoretical Chemistry. By LOTHAR MEYER,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Tubingen. Translated by
Professors P. PHILLIPS BEDSON, D.Sc., and W. CARLETON WILLIAMS,
B.Sc. 8vo. 9s.

MILLER Introduction to the Study of Inorganic Chemistry. By

WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. With 71 Woodcuts.
Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

MUIR The Alchemical Essence and the Chemical Element : an Episode
in the Quest of the Unchanging. By M. M. PATTISON MUIR, M.A.,
Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. 8vo. 4s. 6rf.

NEWTH Works by G. S. NEWTH, Royal College of Science, South
Kensington.

Chemical Lecture Experiments. With 224 Diagrams. Crown

8vo. 10s. 6d.

A Text-Book of Inorganic Chemistry. With 146 Illustrations.

Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d.

ODLINGr A Course of Practical Chemistry, arranged for the Use of

Medical Students, with express reference to the Three Months' Summer
Practice. By WILLIAM ODLING, M.A. With 71 Woodcuts. Crown
8vo. 6s.

OSTWALD Solutions. By W. OSTWALD, Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Leipzig. Being the Fourth Book, with some Additions,
of the Second Edition of Ostwald's * Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Cheniie '.
Translated by M. M. PATTISON MUIR, Fellow of Gonville and Caius
College, Cambridge. 8vo. 10s. 6c?.

PATEN Industrial Chemistry. A Manual for use in Technical Colleges
and Schools, based upon a Translation of Stohmanu and Engler's
German Edition of PAYEX'S ' Precis de Chimie Industrielle '. Edited
by B. H. PAUL, Ph.D. With 698 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s.

REYNOLDS Experimental Chemistry for Junior Students. By J.

EMERSON REYNOLDS, M.D., F.R.S. , Professor of Chemistry, University

of Dublin ; Examiner in Chemistry, University of London. Fcp. 8vo.

with numerous Woodcuts.
Part I. Introductory. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d.
Part II. Non-Metals, with an Appendix on Systematic Testing for

Acids. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Part III. Metals and Allied Bodies. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6rf.
Part IV. Carbon Compounds. Fcp. 8vo. 4s.

4 Scientific Works published by Longmans ; Green, <&> Co.

SHENSTONE Works by W. A. SHENSTONK, Lecturer on Chemistry
in Clifton College.

The Methods of Glass-Blowing. For the use of Physical and

Chemical Students. With 42 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. Is. 6d.

A Practical Introduction to Chemistry. Intended to give a

Practical Acquaintance with the Elementary Facts and Principles of
Chemistry. With 25 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s.

THORPE A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry. By T. E. THORPE,
B.Sc. (Viet.), Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal College of Science, South Kensington. Assisted by Eminent
Contributors. 3vols. 8vo. Vols. I.&II. 42s. each. Vol.111. 63s.

Quantitative Chemical Analysis. By T. E. THORPE, Ph.D.,

F.R.S. With 88 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

THORPE and MUIR Manual of Qualitative Analysis and Laboratory

Practice. By T. E. THORPE, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., and M. M. PATTISON
MUIR. With 57 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

TILDEN Works by WILLIAM A. TILDEN, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.C.S.

Introduction to the Study of Chemical Philosophy. The Prin-
ciples of Theoretical and Systematic Chemistry. With 5 Woodcuts.
With or without the ANSWERS of Problems. "Fcp. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Practical Chemistry. The Principles of Qualitative Analysis.

Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d

WATTS' Dictionary of Chemistry. Revised and entirely Rewritten by
H. FORSTER MORLEY, M.A., D.Sc., Fellow of, and lately Assi.stant-
Professor of Chemistry in, University College, London ; ami M. M.
PATTISON MUIR, M.A., F.R.S.E., Fellow, and Prselector in Chemistry,
of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Assisted by Eminent
Contributors. 4 vols. 8vo. Vols. I. & II., 42s. each. Vol. III., 50s.
Vol. IV., 63s.

WHITELEY Works by R. LLOYD WHITELEY, F.I.C., Assistant Lecturer
and Demonstrator in Chemistry in the University College, Nottingham.

Chemical Calculations, with Explanatory Notes, Problems and

Answers, specially adapted for use in Colleges and Science Schools.
With a Preface by Professor F. CLOWES, D.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. Crown
8vo. 2s.

Organic Chemistry. [Nearly ready.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, <&> Co. 5

PHYSICS.

ARNOTT The Elements of Physics or Natural Philosophy. By NEIL
ARNOTT, M.D. Edited by A. BAIN, LL.D., and A. S. TAYLOR, M.D.,
F.R.S. With numerous Woodcuts. Cr. 8vo. 12s. 6d.

COOK Physics. (Specially adapted for Indian Schools and Students.)
By J. COOK, M.A., Principal, Central College, Bangalore. With
Examination Questions and 206 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

EARL The Elements of Laboratory Work: a Course of Natural
Science. By A. G. EARL, M.A., F.C.S. With 57 Diagrams and
numerous Exercises, etc. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

GAEOT Works by Professor GANOT. Translated and Edited by E.
ATKINSON, Ph.D., F.C.S.

Elementary Treatise on Physics, Experimental and Applied.

With 9 Coloured Plates and 1028 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 15s.

- Natural Philosophy for General Readers and Young Persons ;

a Course of Physics divested of Mathematical Formulae, expressed in
the language of daily life. With 7 Plates, 569 Woodcuts, and an
Appendix of Questions. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6rf.

GLAZEBROOK and SHAW Practical Physics. By R. T. GLAZEBROOK,
M.A., F.KS., and W. N. SHAW. M.A. 134 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 7s. 6d.

GUTHRIE A Class-Book of Practical Physics. Molecular Physics and
Sound. By F. GDTHRIE, Ph.D. With 91 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6rf.

HELMHOLTZ Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects. By HERMANN
VON HELMHOLTZ. Translated by E. ATKINSON, Ph.D., F.C.S.,
foimerly Professor of Experimental Science, Staff College. With 68
Illustrations. 2 vols., crown 8vo. 3s. 6d. each.

Contents Vol. I. The Relation of Natural Science to Science in

General Goethe's Scientific Researches The Physiological Causes of Har
mouy in Music Ice and Glaciers The Inter-action of the Natural Forces
The Recent Progress of the Theory of Vision The Conservation of Force
The Aim and Progress of Physical Science.

Vol. II. Gustav Magnus. In Memoriam The Origin and Significance

of Geometrical Axioms The Relations of Optics to Painting The Origin
of the Planetary System Thought in Medicine Academic Freedom in
German Universities Hermann von Helinholtz. An Autobiographical
Sketch.

WORTHESGTOX A First Course of Physical Laboratory Practice.

Containing 264 Experiments. By A. M. WORTHINGTON, F.R.S., M.A.
With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

WRIGHT Elementary Physics. By MARK R. WRIGHT, Normal De-
partment, Durham College of Science. With 242 Illustrations. Crown
8vo. 2s. 6d.

6 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, &> Co.

MECHANICS AND MECHANISM.

BALL A Class-Book of Mechanics. By Sir R. S. BALL, LL.D. 89
Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo. Is. Gd.

GOODEYE Works by T. M. GOODEVE, M.A., Professor of Mechanics at
the Normal School of Science, and the Royal School of Mines.

Principles of Mechanics. With 253 Woodcuts and numerous

Examples. Crown 8vo. 6s.

The Elements of Mechanism. With 342 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo.

A Manual of Mechanics : an Elementary Text-book for Students

of Applied Mechanics. With 138 Illustrations and Diagrams, and 188
Examples taken from the Science Department Examination Papers,
with Answers. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. 6d.

GRIEVE Lessons in Elementary Mechanics. By W. H. GRIEVE,
P.S.A., late Engineer R.N., Science Demonstrator for the London
School Board, &c. Stage 1. With 165 Illustrations and a large number
of Examples. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d. Stage 2. With 122 Illustrations.
Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d. Stage 3. With 103 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d.

MAGNUS Lessons in Elementary Mechanics. Introductory to the
Study of Physical Science. Designed for the Use of Schools, and of
Candidates for the London Matriculation and other Examinations.
With numerous Exercises, Examples, and Examination Questions.
With Answers, and 131 Woodcuts. By Sir PHILIP MAGNUS, B.Sc.,
B.A. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d. Key for the use of Teachers only, price
5s. 3%d. net, post free, from the publishers only.

TAYLOR Works by J. E. TAYLOR, M.A., B.Sc., Central Schools, Sheffield.

Theoretical Mechanics, including Hydrostatics and Pneumatics.

With 175 Diagrams and Illustrations, and 522 Examination Questions
and Answers. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Theoretical Mechanics : Solids. With 163 Illustrations, 120

Worked Examples, and over 500 Examples from Examination Papers,
&c. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

- Theoretical Mechanics : Fluids. With 122 Illustrations, numer :
ous Worked Examples, and about 500 Examples from Examination
Papers, &c. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

THORNTON Theoretical Mechanics : Solids. Including Kinematics,
Statics, and Kinetics. By ARTHUR THORNTON, M.A., F.R.A.S., late
Scholar of Christ's College, Cambridge ; Senior Science Master, Bradford
Grammar School. With 220 Illustrations, 130 Worked Examples, and
over 900 Examples from Examination Papers, &c. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Scientific Works published by Longmans , Green, &> Co. 7

TWISDEN Works by the Rev. JOHN F. TWISDEN, M.A.

Practical Mechanics ; an Elementary Introduction to their Study.

With 855 Exercises and 184 Figures and Diagrams. Crown 8vo.
10s. ML

Theoretical Mechanics. With 172 Examples, numerous Ex-
ercises, and 154 Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 8s. 6d.

WARREN An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics; for the use of

Schools and Students in Universities. By the Rev. ISAAC WARREN.
Part I. Statics. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
Part II. Dynamics. Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd.

DYNAMICS, STATICS, AND HYDROSTATICS.

BURTON An Introduction to Dynamics, including Kinematics,
Kinetics, and Statics. With numerous Examples. By CHARLES V.
BURTON, D.Sc. Crown 8vo. 4s.

GELDARD Statics and Dynamics By C. GELDARD, M.A., formerly
Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge, Mathematical Lecturer under
the Non-Collegiate Students' Board, Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 5s.

GROSS Elementary Dynamics (Kinematics and Kinetics). By E. J.
GROSS, M.A., Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
Crown 8vo. 5s. 6d.

MAGNUS Hydrostatics and Pnenniatics. By Sir PHILIP MAGNUS
B.Sc. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d., or, with Answers, 2s.

*** The Worked Solutions of the Problems. 2s.

ROBINSON Elements of Dynamics (Kinetics and Statics). With
numerous Exercises. A Text-Book for Junior Students. By the
Eev. J. L. ROBINSON, B.A., Chaplain and Naval Instructor at the
Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Crown 8vo. 6s.

SMITH Works by J. HAMBLIN SMITH, M.A., of Gonville and Caius
College, Cambridge.

Elementary Statics. Crown 8vo. 3s.

Elementary Hydrostatics. Crown 8vo. 3s.

Key to Statics and Hydrostatics. Crown 8vo, 6s.

WILLIAMSON Introduction to the Mathematical Theory of the

Stress and Strain of Elastic Solids. By BENJAMIN WILLIAMSON,
D.Sc., D.C.L., F.R.S., Fellow and Senior Tutor of Trinity College,
Dublin. Crown 8vo. 5s.

8 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, &* Co.

WILLIAMSON and TARLETON An Elementary Treatise on Dyna-
mics. Containing Applications to Thermodynamics, with numerous
Examples. By BENJAMIN WILLIAMSON, D.Sc., F.R.S., and FRANCIS
A. TARLETON, LL.D. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

WORMELL The Principles of Dynamics : an Elementary Text-Book
for Science Students. By R. WORMELL, D.Sc., M.A. Crown 8vo. 6s.

WORT HINGTON Dynamics of Rotation : an Elementary Introduction
to Rigid Dynamics. By A. M. WORTHINGTON, M.A., F.R.S., Head
Master and Professor of Physics at the Royal Naval Engineering
College, Devonport. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.

SOUND, LIGHT, HEAT & THERMODYNAMICS.

ALEXANDER Treatise on Thermodynamics. By PETER ALEXANDER,
M.A., Lecturer on Mathematics, Queen Margaret College, Glasgow.
Crown 8vo. 5s.

GUMMING Heat. For the use of Schools and Students. By LINNAEUS
GUMMING, M.A., late Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge ; Assistant
Master at Rugby School. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
4s. 6d.

DAY Numerical Examples in Heat. By R E. DAY, M.A. Fcp. 8vo.
3s. Qd.

HELMHOLTZ On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis

for the Theory of Music. By HERMANN VON HELMHOLTZ. Royal
8vo. 28s.

MAD AN An Elementary Text-Book on Heat. For the use of Schools.
By H. G. MADAN, M.A., F.C.S., Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford ;
late Assistant Master at Eton College. Crown 8vo. 9s.

MAXWELL Theory of Heat. By J. CLERK MAXWELL, M.A., F.R.SS.,

L. & E. With Corrections and Additions by Lord RAYLEIGH. With
38 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. 4s. Qd.

SMITH (J. Hamblin)-The Study of Heat. By J. HAMBLIN SMITH,
M.A., of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Cr. 8vo. 3s.

TYNDALL Works by JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S. See page 12.

WORMELL A Class-Book of Thermodynamics. By RICHARD WOR-
MELL, B.Sc., M.A. Fcp. 8vo. Is. Qd.

WRIGHT Works by MARK R. WRIGHT (Hon. Inter., B.Sc., London).

Sound, Light, and Heat. With 160 Diagrams and Illustrations.

Crown 8vo. 2s. Qd.

Advanced Heat. With 136 Diagrams and numerous Examples

and Examination Papers. Crown 8vo. 4s. Qd.

Scientific Works published by Longmans ; Green, &Co.

STEAM AND THE STEAM ENGINE, &c.

BALE A Handbook for Steam Users; being Notes on Steam Engine
and Boiler Management and Steam Boiler Explosions. By M. Powis
BALE, M.I.M.E., A.M.I.C.E. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. Qd.

BOURNE Works by JOHN BOURNE, C.E.

A Catechism of the Steain Engine, in its Various Applications

in the Arts, to which is added a chapter on Air and Gas Engines, and
another devoted to Useful Rules, Tables, and Memoranda. Illustrated
by 212 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. Is. Qd.

Recent Improvements in the Steam Engine. With 124 Wood-
cuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

CLERK The Gas Engine. By DUGALD CLERK. With 101 Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo. 7s. Qd.

HOLMES The Steam Engine. By GEORGE C. V. HOLMES (Whit worth
Scholar), Secretary of the Institution of Naval Architects. With 212
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 65.

RANSOM Steam and Gas Engine Governors. By H. B. RANSOM.

[7?i preparation.

RIPPER Works by WILLIAM RIPPER, Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers ; Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the
Sheffield Technical School.

Steam. With 142 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s. Qd.

Steam and the Steam Engine. An Advanced Course.

[In preparation.

SENNETT The Marine Steam Engine. A Treatise for the Use of

Engineering Students and Officers of the Royal Navy. By RICHARD
SENNETT, R.N., Enyineer-in-Chief of the Royal Navy. With 261
Illustrations. 8vo. 21s.

STROMEYER Marine Boiler Management and Construction. Being
a Treatise on Boiler Troubles and Repairs, Corrosion, Fuels, and Heat,
on the properties of Iron and Steel, on Boiler Mechanics, Workshop
Practices, and Boiler Design. By C. E. STROMEYER, Graduate of the
Royal Technical College at Aix-la-Chapelle, Member of the Institute
of Naval Architects, etc. With 452 Illustrations. 8vo. 18s. net.

io Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, &> Co.

ARCHITECTURE.

GWILT An Encyclopaedia of Architecture. By JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A.
Illustrated with more than 1100 Engravings on Wood. Revised (1888),
with Alterations and Considerable Additions, by WYATT PAPWOBTH.
8vo. 52s. 6d.

MITCHELL The Stepping-Stone to Architecture : explaining in
simple language the Principles and Progress of Architecture from the
earliest times. By THOMAS MITCHELL. With 22 Plates and 49
Woodcuts. 18mo. Is. sewed.

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.

Adranced Building Construction. By the Author of * Rivington's Notes
on Building Construction '. With 385 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
4s. 6d,

BURRELL Building Construction. By EDWARD J. BURRELL, Second
Master of the People's Palace Technical School, London. With 303
Working Drawings. Crown 8vo. 2s. Qd.

SEDDON Builder's Work and the Building Trade. By Colonel H.
C. SEDDON, R.E., Superintending Engineer H.M.'s Dockyard, Ports-
mouth ; Examiner in Building Construction, Science and Art Depart-
ment, South Kensington. With numerous Illustrations. Medium
8vo. 16s.

RIVINGTON'S COURSE OF BUILDING CONSTRUCTION.

Notes on Building Construction. Arranged to meet the requirements of
the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department of the Committee of
Council on Education, South Kensington. Medium 8vo.

Part I. First Stage, or Elementary Course. With 552 Woodcuts. 10s. Qd.

Part II. Commencement of Second Stage, or Advanced Course. With
479 Woodcuts. 10s. 6d.

Part III. Materials. Advanced Course, and Course for Honours. With
188 Woodcuts. 21s.

Part IV. Calculations for Building Structures. Course for Honours,
With 597 Woodcuts. 15s.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, &> Co. 1 1
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

CUMMING Electricity treated Experimentally. For the use of Schools
and Students. By LINNAEUS GUMMING, M.A., Assistant Master in
Rugby School. With 242 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4s. Qd.

DAY Exercises in Electrical and Magnetic Measurements, with
Answers. By R E. DAY. 12mo. 3s. Qd.

DE TUNZELMAO A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. By

G. W. DE TUNZELMANN, B.Sc., M.I.E.E. [In Preparation.

OORE The Art of Electro -Metallurgy , including all known Processes
of Electro-Deposition. By G. GORE, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 Wood-
cute. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

JENKIN Electricity and Magnetism. By FLEEMING JENKIN, F.R.S.S.,
L. & E., M.I.C.E. With 177 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. Qd.

LARDEN Electricity for Public Schools and Colleges. By W. LARDEN,
M.A. With 215 Illustrations and a Series of Examination Papers with
Answers. Crown 8vo. 6s.

POTSEK Works by A. W. POYSER, M.A., Grammar School, Wisbech.

Magnetism and Electricity. With 235 Illustrations. Crown

8vo. 2s. 6d.

Advanced Electricity and Magnetism. With 317 Illustrations.

Crown 8vo. 4s. Qd.

SLINGO and BROOKER Electrical Engineering for Electric Light

Artisans and Students. By W. SLINGO and A. BROKER. With 307
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 10s. Qd.

TYND ALL Works by JOHN TYNDALL, D.C.L., F.R.S. See p. 12.

TELEGRAPHY AND THE TELEPHONE.

OULLEY A Handbook of Practical Telegraphy. By R. S. CULLEY,
M.I.C.E., late Engineer-in-Chief of Telegraphs to the Post Office.
With 135 Woodcuts and 17 Plates. 8vo. 16s.

HOPKINS Telephone Lines and their Properties. By WILLIAM
JOHN HOPKINS, Professor of Physics in the Drexel Institute of Art,
Science and Industry, Philadelphia. Crown 8vo. 6s.

PREECE and SIYEWRIGHT Telegraphy. By W. H. PREECE, C.B.,
F.R.S., M.I.C.E., &c., Engineer-in-Chief and Electrician to the
Post Office ; and Sir J. SIVEWRIGHT, K.C.M.G., General Manager,
South African Telegraphs. With 255 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

1 2 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, &> Co.

WORKS BY JOHN TYNDALL,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

Fragments of Science : a Series of Detached Essays, Addresses and Re-
views. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. 16s.

VOL. I. : The Constitution of Nature Radiation On Radiant Heat in relation to the
Colour and Chemical Constitution of Bodies New Chemical Reactions produced by Light
On Dust and Disease Voyage to Algeria to observe the Eclipse Niagara The Parallel
Roads of Glen Roy Alpine Sculpture Recent Experiments on Fog-SignalsOn the Study
of Physics On Crystalline and Slaty Cleavage On Paramagnetic and Diamagnetic Forces
Physical Basis of Solar Chemistry Elementary Magnetism On Force Contributions to
Molecular Physics Life and Letters of FARADAY The Copley Medalist of 1870 The
Copley Medalist of 1871 Death by Lightning. Science and the Spirits.

VOL. II. : Reflections on Prayer and Natural Law Miracles and Special Providences
On Prayer as a Form of Physical Energy Vitality Matter and Force Scientific Materi-
alismAn Address to Students Scientific Use of the Imagination The Belfast Address-
Apology for the Belfast Address The Rev. JAMES MARTI NEAU and the Belfast Address-
Fermentation, and its Bearings on Surgery and Medicine Spontaneous Generation
Science and Man Professor VIRCHOW and Evolution The Electric Light.

New Fragments. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

CONTENTS : The Sabbath Goethe's ' Farbenlehre' Atoms, Molecules and Ether Waves
Count Rumford Louis Pasteur, his Life and Labours The Rainbow and its Congeners
Address delivered at the Birkbeck Institution on -22nd October, 1884 Thomas Young Life
in the Alps About Common Water Personal Recollections of Thomas Carlyle On Un-
veiling the Statue of Thomas Carlyle On the Origin, Propagation and Prevention of
Phthisis Old Alpine Jottings A Morning on Alp Lusgen.

Lectures OH Sound. With Frontis-
piece of Fog-Syren, and 203 other
Woodcuts and Diagrams in the Text.
Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.

Heat, a Mode of Mption. With

125 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Cr.
8vo. 12s.

Lectures on Light delivered in

the United States in 1872 and 1873.
With Portrait, Lithographic Plate
and 59 Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 5s.

Essays on the Floating Matter of

the Air in relation to Putrelactiou
and Infection. With 24 Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.

Faraday as a Discoverer-

8vo. 3s. 6rf.

Crown

Researches on Diamagnetism and

Alagnecn stall ic Action ; including
the Question of Diamagnetic Polarity.
Crown 8vo. 12s.

Notes of a Course of Nine Lectures

on Light, deliveied at the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, 1869.
Crown 8vo. Is. b'rf.

Notes of a Course of Seven Lec-
tures on Electrical Phenomena and
Theories, delivered at the Royal In-
stitution of Great Britain, 1870. Cr.
8vo. Is. 6d.

Lessons in Electricity at the

Royal Institution, 1875-1876. With
58 Woodcuts and Diagrams. Crown
8vo. 2s. 6d.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, 6 Co. 13
LONGMANS' CIVIL ENGINEERING SERIES.

Edited by the Author of 'Notes on Building Construction'.
Tidal Rivers : their Hydraulics, Improvement and Navigation. By W.

H. WHEELER, M.Inst.C.E., Author of ' The Drainage of Fens and

Low Lands by Gravitation and Steam Power'.. With 75 Illustrations.

Medium 8vo. 16s. net. [Ready.

Notes on Docks and Dock Construction. By C. COLSON, M.Inst.C.E.,

Assistant Director of Works, Admiralty. With 365 Illustrations.

Medium 8vo. 21s. net.
Railway Construction. By W. H. MILLS, M.Inst.C.E., Engineer-in-Chief,

Great Northern Railway, Ireland. [In preparation.

Calculations for Engineering Structures. By T. CLAXTON FIDLER,
M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the University of Dundee ;
Author of * A Practical Treatise on Bridge Construction '.

[In preparation .

The Student's Course of Civil Engineering. By L. F. VERNON-
HARCOURT, M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineering at University
College. [In preparation.

ENGINEERING, STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, &c.

ANDERSON The Strength of Materials and Structures : the Strength
of Materials as depending on their Quality and as ascertained by
Testing Apparatus. By Sir J. ANDERSON, C.E., LL.IX, F.R.S.E.
With 66 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

BARRY Railway Appliances: a Description of Details of Railway
Construction subsequent to the Completion of the Earthworks and
Structures. By JOHN WOLFE BARRY, C.B., M.I.C.E. With 218
Woodcutsfc Fcp. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

STONEY The Theory of the Stresses on Girders and Similar Struc-
tures. With Practical Observations on the Strength and other Pro-
perties of Materials. By BINDOX B. STONEY, LL.D., F.R.S., M.I.C.E.
With 5 Plates and 143 Illustrations in the Text, Royal 8vo. 36s.

UNWIN Works by W. CAWTHORNE UNWIN, B.Sc., Mem. Inst. Civil
Engineers.

The Testing of Materials of Construction. Embracing the

Description of Testing Machinery and Apparatus Auxiliary to Me-
chanical Testing, and an Account of the most Important Researches
on the Strength of Materials. With 141 Woodcuts and 5 folding-out
Plates. 8vo. 21s.

On the Development and Transmission of Power from Central

Stations : being the Howard Lectures delivered at the Society of
Arts in 1893. With 81 Diagrams. 8vo. 10s. net.

WARREN Engineering Construction in Iron, Steel, and Timber. By

WILLIAM HENRY WARREN, Whitworth Scholar ; Member of the Insti-
tution of Civil Engineers, London ; Challis Professor of Civil and
Mechanical Engineering, University of Sydney. With 13 Folding
Plates and 375 Diagrams. Royal 8vo. 16s. net.

14 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, 6 Co.

WORKSHOP APPLIANCES, &c.

JAY and KIDSON Exercises for Technical Instruction in Wood-
Working. Designed and Drawn by H. JAY, Technical Instructor,
Nottingham School Board. Arranged by E. R. KIDSON, F.G.S.,
Science Demonstrator, Nottingham School Board. 3 sets, price Is.
each in cloth case. Set I. Plates 1-32. Set II. Plates 33-64. Set III.
Plates 65-87.

JCORTHCOTT Lathes and Turning, Simple, Mechanical and Orna-
mental. By W. H. NORTHCOTT. With 338 Illustrations. 8vo. 18*.

SHELLEY Workshop Appliances, including Descriptions of some of
the Gauging and Measuring Instruments, Hand-cutting Tools, Lathes,
Drilling, Planing and other Machine Tools used by Engineers. By
C. P. B. SHELLEY, M.I.C.E. With 323 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.

UN WIN Exercises in Wood -Working for Handicraft Classes in Ele-
mentary and Technical Schools. By WILLIAM CAWTHORNE UNWIN,
F.R.S./M.I.C.E. 28 Plates. Fcp. folio. 4s. 6d. in case.

MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, &c.

BAUERMAN Works by HILARY BAUERMAN, F.G.S.

Systematic Mineralogy. With 373 Woodcuts and Diagrams.

Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Descriptive Mineralogy. With 236 Woodcuts and Diagrams.

Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

BLOXAM and HUNTINGTON Metals : their Properties and Treatment.
By C. L. BLOXAM and A. K. HUNTINGTON, Professors in King's
College, London. With 130 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.

OGRE The Art of Electro -Metallurgy, including all known Processes
of Electro-Deposition. By G. GORE, LL.D., F.R.S. With 56 Wood-
cuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

LUPTON Mining. An Elementary Treatise on the Getting of Minerals.
By ARNOLD LUPTON, M.I.C.E., F.G.S. , etc., Mining Engineer, Professor
of Coal Mining at the Victoria University, Yorkshire College, Leeds.
With 596 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 9s. net.

MITCHELL A Manual of Practical Assaying. By JOHN MITCHELL,
F.C.S. Revised, with the Recent Discoveries incorporated. By W.
CROOKES, F.R.S. With 201 Illustrations. 8vo. 31s. 6d.

BUTLEY The Study of Rocks; an Elementary Text-Book of Petrology.
By F. RUTLEY, F.G.S. With 6 Plates and 88 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo.
4s. 6d.

TON COTTA Rocks Classified and Described : A Treatise on Lithology.

By BERNHARD VON COTTA. With English, German, and French
Synonyms. Translated by PHILIP HENRY LAWRENCE, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Crown 8vo. 14s.

Scientific Works published by Longmans ', Green , 6 C0. 15

MACHINE DRAWING AND DESIGN.

LOW and BEVIS A Manual of Machine Drawing and Design. By

DAVID ALLAN Low (Whitworth Scholar), M.I. Mech. E., Headmaster
of the Technical School, People's Palace, London; and ALFRED
WILLIAM BEVIS (Whitworth Scholar), M.I. Mech.E., Director of
Manual Training to the Birmingham School Board. With over 700
Illustrations. 8vo. 7s. 6d.

LOW Improved Drawing Scales. By DAVID ALLAN Low. d. in case.

LOW An Introduction to Machine Drawing and Design. By DAVID

ALLAN Low, Headmaster of the Technical School, People's Palace,
London. With 97 Illustrations and Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 2s.

UNWIN The Elements of Machine Design. By W. CAWTHORNB
UN WIN, F.R.S., Part I. General Principles, Fastenings and Trans-
missive Machinery. With 304 Diagrams, &c. Crown 8vo. 6s. Part II.
Chiefly on Engine Details. With 174 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

ASTRONOMY, NAVIGATION, &c.

BALL Works by Sir ROBERT S. BALL, LL.D., F.R.S.

Elements of Astronomy. With 136 Figures and Diagrams, and

136 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

A Class-Book of Astronomy. With 41 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d.

BCEDDICKER The Milky Way. From the North Pole to 10 of South
Declination. Drawn at the Earl of Rosse's Observatory at Birr Castle.
By OTTO BOSDDICKER. With Descriptive Letterpress. 4 Plates, size
18 in. by 23 in. in portfolio. 30s.

BRINKLEY Astronomy. By F. BRINKLEY, formerly Astronomer Royal
for Ireland. Re-edited and Revised by J. W. STUBBS, D.D., and F.
BRDNNOW, Ph.D. With 49 Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 65.

CLERKE The System of the Stars. By AGNES M. CLERKE. With 6
Plates and numerous Illustrations. 8vo. 21s.

GIBSON-The iinateur Telescopist's Handbook. By FRANK M.
GIBSON, Ph.D., LL.B. With 1 Plate and 13 Diagrams. Cr. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

HERSCHEL Outlines of Astronomy. By Sir JOHN F. W. HERSCHEL,
Bart.,K.H.,&c. With 9 Plates and numerous Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 12s.

MARTIN Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. Compiled by Staff-
Commander W. R. MARTIN, R.N. Royal 8vo. 18s.

MERRIFIELD A Treatise on Navigation for the use of Students. By
JOHN MERRIFIELD, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Crown 8vo. 5s.

WEBB Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes. By the Rev. T. W.
WEBB, M.A., F.R.A.S. Fifth Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged,
by the Rev. T. E. ESPIN, M.A., F.R.A.S. (2 vols.) Vol. I., with
2 Plates and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6s. Vol. II., with
Illustrations and Map of Star Spectra. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d.

1 6 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green^ & Co.

WORKS BY RICHARD A. PROCTOR.

Old and New Astronomy. 4to. 36s.

Myths and Marvels of Astronomy.

Crown 8vo. 5s. Silver Library
Edition. Crown 8vo. 3s 6d.

The Moon : Her Motions, Aspect,
S"enery, and Physical Condition.
With many Plates and Charts, Wood
Engraving, and 2 Lunar Photographs.
Crown 8vo. 5s.

The Universe of Stars : Researches

into, and New Views respecting, the
Constitution of the Heavens. With
22 Charts (4 coloured) and 22 Dia-
grams. 8vo. 10s. Qd.

Other Worlds than Ours: the

Plurality of Worlds Studied under
the Light of Recent Scientific Re-
searches. With 14 Illustrations ;
Map, Charts, &c. Crown 8vo. 5s.
Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.

Treatise on the Cycloid and all

Forms of Cycloidal Curves, and on
the Use of Cycloidal Curves in dealing
with the Motions of Planets, Comets,
&c. With 161 Diagrams. Crown
8vo. 10s. 6d.

The Orbs Around Us : Essays on the

Moon and Planets, Meteors and
Comets, the Sun and Coloured Pairs
of Suns. Crown 8vo. 5s. Cheap
Edition. Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd.

Light Science for Leisure Hours :

Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects,
Natural Phenomena, &c. 3 vols. Cr.
8vo. 5s. each.

Our Place among Infinites : Essays

contrasting our Little Abode in Space
and Time with the Infinites around
us. Crown 8vo. 5s.

New Star Atlas for the Library,

the School, and the Observatory, in
Twelve Circular Maps (with 2 Index-
Plates). With an Introduction on the
Study of the Stars, Illustrated by 9
Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 5s.

Larger Star Atlas for Observers and
Students. In Twelve Circular Maps,
showing 6000 Stars, 1500 Double
Stars, Nebulae, &c. With 2 Index-
Plates. Folio, 15s.

The Stars in their Seasons : an Easy
Guide to a Knowledge of the Star
Groups. In 12 Large Maps. Im-
perial 8vo. 5s.

The Star Primer : showing the Starry

Sky, Week by Week. In 24 Hourly
Crown 4to. 2s. 6d.

Chance and Luck ' a Discussion of
the Laws of Luck, Coincidence,
Wagers, Lotteries, and the Fallacies
of Gambling, &c. Crown 8vo. 3s.
boards. 2s. Gd. cloth.

Rough Ways made Smooth. Fami-
liar Essays on Scientific Subjects.
Crown 8vo. 5s. Cheap Edition.
Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd.

Pleasant Ways in Science.

8vo. 5s. Cheap Edition.
8vo. 3s. 6d.

Crown
Crown

The Great Pyramid, Observatory,

Tomb, and Temple. With Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. 5s.

Nature Studies. By R. A. PROCTOR,
GRANT ALLEN, A. WILSON, T. FOSTER
and E. CLODD. Cr. 8vo. 5s. Cheap
Edition. Cr. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

Leisure Readings. By R. A. PROO-
TOB, E. CLODD, A. WILSON, T. FOSTER
and A. C. RANYAKD. Cr. 8vo. 5s.

The Expanse of Heaven : Essays on j Lessons in Elementary Astro-

the Wonders of ilu* Firmament. Cr. | nomy ; with Hints for Young Tele-
8vo. 5s. Cheap Edition. Cr. 8vo. I scopists. With 47 Woodcuts. Fcp.
3s. 6d. 8vo. Is. 6d.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, &> Co. 1 7

MANUFACTURES, TECHNOLOGY, &c.
ARNOLD Steel Manufacture. By J. 0. ARNOLD. [In preparation.

LUPTON Mining : an Elementary Treatise on the Getting of Minerals.

By ARNOLD LUPTON, M.I.C.E., F.G.S., &c., Mining Engineer, Certifi-
cated Colliery Manager, Surveyor, &c. Professor of Coal Mining at
the Victoria "University, Yorkshire College, Leeds, &c. With 596
Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 9s. net.

MORRIS and WILKINSON Cotton Spinning. By JOHN MORRIS and
F. W. WILKINSON. [In preparation.

SHARP The Manufacture of Bicycles and Tricycles. By ARCHIBALD
SHARP. [In preparation.

TAYLOR Cotton Weaving and Designing. By JOHN T. TAYLOR,
Lecturer on Cotton Weaving and Designing in the Preston, Ash ton -
under-Lyne, Chorley, and Todmorden Technical Schools, &c. With
373 Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.

WATTS An Introductory Manual for Sugar Growers. By FRANCIS
WATTS, F.C.S., F.I.C., Assoc. Mason Coll., Birmingham, and Govern-
ment Chemist, Antigua, West Indies. With 20 Illustrations. Crown
8vo. 6s.

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY.

BIRD Works by CHARLES BIRD, B.A., F.G.S., Head-master of the
Eochester Mathematical School.

Elementary Geology. With Geological Map of the British Isles,

and 247 Illustrations. Crown Svo. 2s. 6d.

Geology : a Manual for Students in Advanced Classes and for

General Readers. With over 300 Illustrations, a Geological Map of
the British Isles (coloured), and a set of Questions for Examination.
Crown Svo. 7s. 6d.

GREEN Physical Geology for Students and General Readers. With
Illustrations. By A. H. GREEN, M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in
the University of Oxford. Svo. 21s.

LEWIS Papers and Notes GH the Glacial Geology of Great Britain

and Ireland. By the late HENRY CARVILL LEWIS, M.A., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
and Professor of Geology in Haverford College, U.S.A. Edited from
his unpublished MSS. With an Introduction by HENRY W. CROSS-
KEY, LL.D., F.G.S. With 10 Maps and 82 Illustrations and Diagrams.
Svo. 2U

1 8 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, 6- Co.

THORNTON Works by JOHN THORNTON, M.A.

Elementary Physiography : an Introduction to the Study of
Nature. With 10 Maps and 173 Illustrations. New Edition, with
Appendix on Astronomical Instruments and Measurements. Crown
8vo. 2s. Qd.

Adranced Physiography. With 6 Maps and 180 Illustrations.

Grown 8vo. 4s. Qd.

HEALTH AND HYGIENE.

BRODRIBB Manual of Health and Temperance. By T. BRODRIBB,
M.A. With Extracts from Gough's 'Temperance Orations '. Revised
and Edited by the Rev. W. RDTHVEN PYM, M.A. Crown 8vo. Is. Qd.

BUCKTOtf Health in the House ; Twenty-five Lectures on Elementary
Physiology in its Application to the Daily Wants of Man and Animals.
By CATHERINE M. BUCKTON. With 41 Woodcuts and Diagrams.
Crown 8vo. 2s.

CORFIELD The Laws of Health. By W. H. CORPIELD, M.A., M.D.
Fcp. 8vo. Is. Qd.

FRANKLAND Micro-Organisms in Water, their Significance, Identifica-
tion, and Removal. Together with an Account of the Bacteriological
Methods involved in their Investigation. Specially Designed for
those connected with the Sanitary Aspects of Water Supply. By
Professor PERCY FRANKLAND, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.), F.R.S., and Mrs.
PERCY FRANKLAND. 8vo. 16s. net.

NOTTER Hygiene. By J, LANE NOTTER, M.A., M.D. (Dublin), Fellovr
and Member of Council of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain,
Examiner in Hygiene, Science and Art Department, Examiner in
Public Health in the University of Cambridge and in the Victoria
University, Manchester, &c. ; and R. H. FIRTH, F.R.C.S., Assistant
Examiner in Hygiene, Science and Art Department, Assistant Professor
of Hygiene in the Army Medical School, Netley, &c. With 93
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 3s. Qd.

POORE Essays on Rural Hygiene. By GEORGE VIVIAN POORE, M.D.
Crown 8vo. 6s. Qd.

TVILSOX A Manual of Health-Science : adapted for use in Schools and
Colleges, and suited to the Requirements of Students preparing for the
Examinations in Hygiene of the Science and Art Department, &c.
By ANDREW WILSON, F.R.S.E., F.L.S., &c. With 74 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 2s. Qd.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, 6 Co. 19

OPTICS AND PHOTOGRAPHY.

ABXEY A Treatise on Photography. By Captain W. DE WIVELESLIE
ABNEY, F.R.S., Director for Science in the Science and Art Depart-
ment. With 115 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

GLAZEBROOK -Physical Optics. By E. T. GLAZEBROOK, M.A., F.E.S.,

Fellow and Lecturer of Trin. Coll., Demonstrator of Physics at the
Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge. With 183 Woodcuts of Apparatus,
&c. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

WRIGHT Optical Projection : a Treatise on the Use of the Lantern
in Exhibition and Scientific Demonstration. By LEWIS WRIGHT,
Author of ' Light : a Course of Experimental Optics '. With 232
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6s.

PHYSIOLOGY, BIOLOGY, &c.

ASHBY Notes on Physiology for the Use of Students preparing

for Examination. By HENRY ASHBY, M.D. With 141 Illustrations.
Fcp. 8vo. 5s.

B ARNETT The Making of the Body : a Children's Book on Anatomy
and Physiology, for School and Home Use. By Mrs. S. A. BARNETT,
Author of 'The Making of the Home'. With 113 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. Is. 9d

BIDGOOD A Course of Practical Elementary Biology. By JOHN
BIDGOOD, B.Sc., F.L.S. With 226 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 4s. Qd.

BRAY Physiology and the Laws of Health, in Easy Lessons for
Schools. By Mrs. CHARLES BRAY. Fcp. 8vo. Is.

FURNEAUX- Human Physiology. By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With
218 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

HUDSON and GOSSE The Rotifera, or < AYheel- Animalcules . By

C. T. HUDSON, LL.D., and. P. H. GOSSE, F.R.S. With 30 Coloured
and 4 Uncoloured Plates. In 6 Parts. 4to. 10s. 6d. each ; Supple-
ment, 12s. 6d. Complete in 2 vols. with Supplement, 4to. 4 4s.

MACALISTER Works by ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.D., Professor of
Anatomy, University of Cambridge.

Zoology and Morphology of Yertebrata. 8vo. 10s. 6d.

Zoology of the Invertebrate Animals. With 59 Diagrams.

Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d.

Zoology of the Tertebrate Animals. With 77 Diagrams. Fcp.

8vo. Is. 6d.

MORGAN Animal Biology: an Elementary Text-Book. By C. LLOYD
MORGAN, Professor of Animal Biology and Geology in University
College, Bristol. With numerous Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. 8s. Qd.

THORNTON Human Physiology. By JOHN THORNTON, M.A. With
267 Illustrations, some of which are coloured. Crown 8vo. 6s.

2O Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, & Co.

METEOROLOGY, &c.

ABBOTT Elementary Theory of the Tides : the Fundamental Theorems
Demonstrated without Mathematics, and the Influence on the Length
of the Day Discussed. By T. K. ABBOTT, B.D., Fellow and Tutor,
Trinity College, Dublin. Crown 8vo. 2s.

JORDAN The Ocean : a Treatise on Ocean Currents and Tides, and their
Causes. By WILLIAM LEIGHTON JORDAN, F.K.G.S. 8vo. 21s.

SCOTT Weather Charts and Storm Warnings. By ROBERT H. SCOTT,
M.A., F.R.S., Secretary to the Meteorological Council. With
numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 6s.

BOTANY.

AITKEN Elementary Text-Book of Botany. For the use of Schools.
By EDITH AITKEN, late Scholar of Girton College. With over 400
Diagrams. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6rf.

BENNETT and MURRAY Handbook of Cryptogamic Botany. By

ALFRED W. BENNETT, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St.
Thomas's Hospital ; and GEORGE MURRAY, F.L.S., Senior Assistant
Department of Botany, British Museum. With 378 Illustrations.
8vo. 16s.

EDMONDS Elementary Botany. Theoretical and Practical. By HENRY
EDMONDS, B.Sc., London. With 319 Diagrams and Woodcuts. Crown
8vo. 2s. 6d.

KITCHENER A Year's Botany. Adapted to Home and School Use.
With Illustrations by the Author. By FRANCES ANNA KITCHENER.
Crown 8vo. 5s.

LINDLEY and MOORE The Treasury of Botany: or, Popular
Dictionary of the Vegetable Kingdom : with which is incorporated
a Glossary of Botanical Terms. Edited by J. LINDLEY, M.D., F.R.S.,
and T. MOORE, F.L.S. With 20 Steel Plates and numerous Wood-
cuts. 2 Parts. Fcp. 8vo. 12s.

McNAB- Class-Book of Botany. By W. R. McNAB. 2 Parts. Morpho-
logy and Physiology. With 42 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo. Is. Gd. Classifi-
cation of Plants. With 118 Diagrams. Fcp. 8vo. Is. 6d.

THOME and BENNETT -Structural and Physiological Botany. By

Dr. OTTO WILHELM THOME and by ALFRED W. BENNETT, M.A.,
B.Sc., F.L.S. With Coloured Map and 600 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo.
6s.

WATTS A School Flora. For the use of Elementary Botanical Classes.
By W. MARSHALL WATTS, D.Sc., Lond. Cr. 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green, & Co. 21

AGRICULTURE AND GARDENING.

ADDYMAN Agricultural Analysis. A Manual of Quantitative Analysis
for Students of Agriculture. By FRANK T. ADDYMAN, B.Sc. (Lond.),
F.I.C. With 49 illustrations. Crown 8vo. 5s. net.

COLEMAN and ADD YM AX Practical Agricultural Chemistry. For

Elementary Students, adapted for use in Agricultural Classes and
Colleges. 'By J. BERNARD COLEMAN, A.R.C.Sc., F.I.C., and FRANK
T. ADDYMAN, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C. Crown 8vo. Is. Qd. net.

LLOYD The Science of Agriculture. By F. J. LLOYD. 8vo. 12s.

LOUDON Works by J. C. LOUDON, F.L.S.

Encyclopaedia of Gardening; the Theory and Practice of

Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture and Landscape Gardening.
With 1000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s.

Encyclopaedia of Agriculture ; the Laying-out, Improvement and

Management of Landed Property ; the Cultivation and Economy of
the Productions of Agriculture. 'With 1100 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s"

Encyclopaedia of Plants; the Specific Character, Description,

Culture, History, &c., of all Plants found in Great Britain. With
12,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s.

RIVERS The Miniature Fruit Garden; or, The Culture of Pyramidal
and Bush Fruit Trees. By THOMAS T. F. RIVERS. With 32 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. 4s.

YILLE The Perplexed Farmer: How is he to meet Alien Competition?
By GEORGE VILLE. Translated from the French by WILLIAM
CROOKES, F.R.S., V.P.C.S., &c. Crown 8vo. 5s.

WEBB Works by HENRY J. WEBB, Ph.D., B.Sc. (Lond.) ; late Principal
of the Agricultural College, Aspatria.

Elementary Agriculture. A Text-Book specially adapted to the

requirements of the Science and Art Department, the Junior Examina-
tion of the Royal Agricultural Society and other Elementary Examina-
tions. With "34 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s. Qd.

Advanced Agriculture. With 100 Illustrations and a set of
Questions for Examination. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.

22 Scientific Works published by Longmans \ Green , & Co.

TEXT-BOOKS OF SCIENCE.

(Adapted for the Use of Students in Public or Science Schools.)

Photography. By Captain W. DE WIVE- i
LESLIE ABNEY, C.B., F.B.S., 105
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. Gd.

The Strength of Material and Structures :
the Strength of Materials as depend-
ing on their Quality and as ascertained
by Testing Apparatus; the Strength
of Structures, as depending on their
form and arrangement, and on the
materials of which they are composed.
By Sir J. ANDERSON, C.E., &c. 66
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

Railway Appliances A Description of
Details of Railway Construction sub-
sequent to the completion of Earth-
works and Structures, including a
short Notice of Railway Rolling Stock.
By JOHN WOLFE BARRY, C.B., M.I.C.E.
218 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 4s. Qd.

Introduction to the Study of Inorganic
Chemistry. By WILLIAM ALLEN
MILLER, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 72
Woodcuts. 3s. 6d.

Quantitative Chemical Analysis. By T.
E. THORPE, F.R.S. , Ph.D. With 88
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Qualitative Analysis and Laboratory
Practice. By T. E. THORPE, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., and M. M. PATTISON MUIR,
M.A., F.R.S.E. With Plate of Spectra
and 57 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. Qd.

Introduction to the Study of Chemical
Philosophy. The Principles of The-
oretical and Systematical Chemistry.
By WILLIAM A. TiLDEN,D.Sc. , London,
F.R.S. With 5 Woodcuts. With or
without Answers to Problems. Fcp.
8vo. 4s. 6d.

Elements of Astronomy. By Sir R. S.
BALL. LL.D., F.R.S. With 136 Wood-
cuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Systematic Mineralogy. By HILARY
BAUERMAN, F.G.S. With 373 Wood-
cuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Descriptive Mineralogy. By HILARY
BAUERMAN, F.G.S. , &c. With 236
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Metals, their Properties and Treatment.
By C. L. BLOXAM, and A. K. HUNT-
INGTON, Professors in King's College,
London. 130 Woodcuts. Fcp.8vo. 5s.

Theory of Heat. By J. CLERK MAXWELL,
M.A..LL.D., Edin., F.R.SS., L. and
E. New Edition, with Corrections
and Additions by Lord RAYLEIGH.
With 38 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Practical Physics. By R. T. GLAZEBROOK,
M.A., F.R.S., and W. N. SHAW, M.A.
With 134 Woodcuts. Fcp.Svo. 7s. Qd.

Preliminary Survey. By THEODORE
GRAHAM GRIBBLE, Civil Engineer. In-
cluding Elementary Astronomy, Route
Surveying, Tacneometry, Curve-rang-
ing, Graphic Mensuration, Estimates,
Hydrography, and Instruments. 130
Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Algebra and Trigonometry. By WILLIAM
NATHANIEL GRIFFIN, B.D. 3s. 6d.
Notes on, with Solutions of the more
difficult Questions. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

The Steam Engine. By GEORGE C. V.
HOLMES, Secretary of the Institution
of Naval Architects. 212 Woodcuts.
Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Electricity and Magnetism. By FLEEM-
ING JENKIN, F.R.SS., L. and E. With
177 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

The Art of Electro-Metallurgy, including
all known Processes of Electro-Deposi-
tion. By G. GORE, LL.D., F.R.S.
With 56 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Telegraphy. By W. H. PREECE, C.B.,
F.R.S., M.I.C.E., and Sir J. SIVE-
WRIGHT, M.A., K.C.M.G. 265 Wood-
cuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Physical Optics. By R. T. GLAZEBROOK,
M.A., F.R.S. With 183 Woodcuts.
Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

Technical Arithmetic and Mensuration.
By CHARLES W. MERRIFIELD, F.R.S.
3s. 6(7. KEY, by the Rev. JOHN
HUNTER, M.A. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.

The Study of Bocks, an Elementary Text-
Book of Petrology. By FRANK RUTLEY,
F.G.S. With 6 'Plates and 88 Wood-
cuts. Fcp. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Workshop Appliances, including Descrip-
tions of some of the Gauging and
Measuring Instruments Hand-Cut-
ting Tools, Lathes, Drilling, Planing,
and other Machine Tools used by-
Engineers. By C. P. B. SHELLEY,
M.I.C.E. With 323 Woodcuts. Fcp.
8vo. 5s.

I Elements of Machine Design. By W.
CAWTHORNE UNWIN, F.R.S., B.Sc.
Part I. General Principles, Fasten-
ings, and Transmissive Machinery.
304 Woodcuts. 6s.

Part II. Chiefly on Engine Details.
174 Woodcuts. Fcp. Svo. 4s. &d.

Scientific Works published by Longmans, Grten, & Co. 23

BENNETT, M.A.
600 Woodcuts.

TEXT-BOOKS OF SCIENCE Continued.

Plane and Solid Geometry.

WATSON, M.A. Fcp. 8vo.

Structural and Physiological Botany. B

Dr. OTTO WILHELM THOME", and A.

B.Sc., F.L.S.
Fcp. 8vo. 6s.

With

By H. W.
3s. 6d.

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE MANUALS.

Written specially to meet the requirements of the ELEMENTARY STAGE OP
SCIENCE SUBJECTS as laid down in the Syllabus of the Directory of the
SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.

Practical Plane and Solid Geometry, in-
cluding Graphic Arithmetic. By I.
H. MOBBIS. Fully Illustrated. Cr.
8vo. 2s. 6d.

Geometrical Drawing for Art Students.
Embracing Plane Geometry and its
Applications, the Use of Scales, and
the Plans and Elevations of Solids, as
required in Section I. of Science Sub-
ject I. By I. H. MOBBIS. Crown 8vo.
Is. 6d.

Being the First Part of Morris's
Practical Plane and Solid Geometry.

Text-Book on Practical, Solid, or Des-
criptive Geometry. By DAVID ALLEN
Low. Parti. Crown 8vo. 2s. Part
II. Crown 8vo. 3s.

An Introduction to Machine Drawing and

Design. By DAVID ALLEN Low. With

97 Illustrations Cr. 8vo. 2s.
Building Construction. By EDWARD J.

BUBBELL, Second Master at the

Technical School of the People's

Palace, London. With 308 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.
An Elementary Course of Mathematics.

Containing Arithmetic ; Euclid (Book

I. with Deductions and Exercises);

and Algebra. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.
Theoretical Mechanics. Including Hy-
drostatics and Pneumatics. By J. E.

TAYLOB, M. A. , B. Sc. With numerous

Examples and Answers, and 175

Diagrams and Illustrations. Crown

8vo. 2s. 6d.
Theoretical Mechanics Solids. By J.

EDWABD TAYLOB, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.).

With 163 Illustrations, 120 Worked

Examples, and over 500 Examples

from Examination Papers, &c. Crown

8vo. 2. 6d.
Theoretical Mechanics Fluids. By J.

EDWABD TAYLOB, M.A., B.Sc. (Lond.).

With 122 Illustrations, numerous

Worked Examples, and about 500

Examples from Examination Papers,

<fec. Crown 8ro. 2*. Qd.

A Manual of Mechanics : an Elementary
Text-Book for Students of Applied
Mechanics. With 138 Illustrations
and Diagrams, and 188 Examples
taken from the Science Department
Examination Papers, with Answers.
By T. M. GOODEVE. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Sound, Light, and Heat. By MABK E.
WEIGHT. With 160 Diagrams and
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s. &d.

Physics. Alternative Course. By MABK
E. WBIGHT. With 242 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Magnetism and Electricity. By A. W.

POYSEB, M.A. With 235 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 2s. 6<2.

Inorganic Chemistry, Theoretical and

Practical. With an Introduction to
the Principles of Chemical Analysis.
By WILLLA.M JAGO, F.C.S., F.I.C.
With 49 Woodcuts and numerous
Questions and Exercises. Fcp. 8vo.
2s. 6d.

An Introduction to Practical Inorganic

Chemistry. By WILLIAM JAGO, F.C.S. ,
F.I.C. Crown 8vo. Is. M.

Practical Chemistry : the Principles of
Qualitive Analysis. By WILLLVM A.
TILDEN, D.Sc. Fcp. 8vo. Is. M.

Elementary Chemistry, Inorganic and Or-
ganic. By W. S. FUBNEAUX, F.E.G.S.
With 65 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Elementary Geology. By CBABLES BIBD,
B.A., F.G.S. With Coloured Geo-
logical Map of the Bi'itish Islands, and
247 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Human Physiology. By WILLH.M S.
FUBNEATIX, F.E.G.S. With 218 Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Elementary Botany, Theoretical and

Practical. By HENBY EDMONDS, B.Sc.,
London. 319 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo.
2s. &d.

24 Scientific Works published by Longmans, Green,

ELEMENTARY SCIENCE MANUALS Continued.

Steam. By WILLIAM EIPPEK, Member
of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers. "With 142 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Elementary Physiography. By J. THORN-
TON. M.A. With 10 Maps and 173
Illustrations. With Appendix on As-
tronomical Instruments and Measure-
ments. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.

Agriculture. By HENRY J. WEBB, Ph.D.,
late Principal of the Agricultural
College, Aspatria. With 34 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. 2s. &d.

A Course of Practical Elementary Biology.

By J. BIDGOOD, B. Sc. With 226 Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

ADVANCED SCIENCE MANUALS.

Written specially to meet the requirements of the ADVANCED STAGE OF
SCIENCE SUBJECTS as laid down in the Syllabm of the Directory of the
SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.

Agriculture. By HENRY J. WEBB, Ph.D.,
late Principal of the Agriciiltural
College, Aspatria. With 100 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. net.

Magnetism and Electricity. By ARTHUR
WILLIAM POYSER, M.A., Trinity
College, Dublin. With 317 Diagrams.
Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Inorganic Chemistry, Theoretical and

Practical. A Manual for Students in
Advanced Classes of the Science and
Art Department. By WILLIAM JAGO,
F.C.S., F.I.C. With'Plate of Spectra,
and 78 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Physiography. By JOHN THORNTON, M.A.
With 6 Maps, 180 Illustrations, and
Plate of Spectra. Cr. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Heat. By MARK B. WRIGHT, Hon. Inter.
B. Sc. , (Lond.). With 136 Illustrations
and numerous Examples and Ex-
amination Papers. Cr. 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Building Construction. By the Author
of ' Eivington's Notes on Building
Construction '. With 385 Illustrations,
and an Appendix of Examination
Questions. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

Human Physiology. By JOHN THORNTON,
M.A. With 258 Illustrations, some of
which are coloured. Crown 8vo. 6s.

Theoretical Mechanics Solids. In-
cluding Kinematics, Statics, and
Kinetics By ARTHUR THORNTON,
M.A., F.E.A.S. With 220 Illustra-
tions, 130 Worked Examples, and over
900 Examples from Examination
Papers, &c. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d.

TH5 LONDON SCIENCE CLASS-BOOKS.

Edited by G. CAREY FOSTER, F. R.S., and by Sir PHILIP MAGNUS, B.Sc.,
B.A., of the City and Guilds of London Institute.

Zoology of the Vertebrate Animals. By

ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.D. With
77 Diagrams. Is. 6d.

Astronomy. By Sir ROBERT STAWELL
BALL, LL.D., F.B.S. With 41 Dia-
grams. Is. 6d.

Mechanics. By Sir EGBERT STAWELL
BALL, LL.D., F.K.S. With 89 Dia-
grams. Is. Qd.

The Laws of Health. By W. H. CORFIELD,
M.A., M.D., F.E.C.P. With 22 Illus-
trations. Is. 6d.

Molecular Physics and Sound. By
FREDERICK GUTHRIE, F.E.S. With 91
Diagrams. Is. Qd.

Geometry, Congruent Figures. By O.
HENRICI, Ph.D., F.E.S. With 141
Diagrams. Is. 6d.

Zoology of the Invertebrate Animals. By
ALEXANDER MACALISTER, M.D. With
59 Diagrams. Is. 6d.

Hydrostatics and Pneumatics. By Sir

PHILIP MAGNUS, B.Sc., B. A. With 79
Diagrams. Is. 6d. (To be had also
with Answers, 2s. ) The Worked Solu-
tion of the Problems. 2s.

Botany. Outlines of the Classification
of Plants. By W. E, McNAB, M.D.
With 118 Diagrams. Is. Qd.

Botany. Outlines of Morphology and
Physiology. By W. E. McNAB, M.D.
With 42 Diagrams. Is. 6d.

Thermodynamics. By EICHARD WOR-
MELL, M.A. , D.Sc, With 41 Diagrams.
Is. Gd.

(500010/94.

9*3945

r %.

U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES