Jolin 3\vett 
 
 .v- .." 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELfc 
 
 A TEXT- BOOK OF HEALTH FOR USE IN THE LOWER GRADE OF 
 
 SCHOOLS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE EFFECTS 
 
 OF ALCOHOLIC DRINKS, TOBACCO AND 
 
 OTHER NARCOTICS ON THE 
 
 BODILY LIFE 
 
 ALBERT F. BLAISDELL, M.D. 
 
 AUTHOR OF " OUR BODIES, AND HOW WB LIVB," " CHILD'S BOOK 
 OF HEALTH," ETC., BTC. 
 
 REVISED EDITION 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS 
 1893 
 
34 
 
 B5< 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1891, 
 BY LEE AND SHEPARD 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1893, 
 BY GINN AND COMPANY. 
 
 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 (Cfc SCtbetueum press 
 
 GINN & COMPANY, BOSTON, U.S. A 
 
PREFACE 
 
 REVISED EDITION 
 
 THE author has aimed in this little book to present clearly 
 and tersely the simplest facts concerning our bodily life. 
 
 Physiology is of little value to pupils in the lower grade of 
 schools merely as a scientific study : it is of interest only so 
 far as it treats in an attractive style of simple matters of 
 every-day health. Yet, to understand even the plainest rules 
 of health, we need to know something about the structure 
 and use of the various parts of " the house we live in." 
 
 To this end, a few facts about anatomy and physiology 
 have been presented in each chapter. To make the book 
 more attractive and interesting, the author has used a familiar 
 style, weaving into the text such incidental matter as will 
 serve to arouse the interest and rivet the attention of the 
 young pupil. 
 
 The real object of studying physiology in our schools is 
 to teach young folks how to keep well and strong ; and to 
 avoid evil habits that destroy character as well as health. 
 Hence special emphasis has been laid upon such points as 
 have a practical bearing upon the personal care of health. 
 
 Special reference has been made to the nature and effect 
 
 54*1258 
 
iv PREFACE 
 
 of alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and other narcotics upon the 
 human system. Such facts concerning their physiological 
 action have been discussed as can be easily understood by 
 those for whom these pages have been written. 
 
 This book has been thoroughly revised. A new chapter 
 on the subject of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics has 
 been added, together with much additional material on the 
 same subject. 
 
 The new chapter on Practical Experiments will commend 
 itself both to the teacher and the pupil. Nothing can take the 
 place of a systematic series of practical experiments in teach- 
 ing physiology, even with the youngest class of boys and 
 girls. 
 
 In the preparation of this revised and enlarged edition, 
 the author and publishers are under deep obligations to 
 Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, the Superintendent of the Department 
 of Scientific Instruction of the National Woman's Christian 
 Temperance Union, who has carefully revised the work. 
 
 ALBERT F. BLAISDELL. 
 PROVIDENCE, R.I., November 1891. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 THE MUSCLES 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK . 46 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS. ... 56 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON ...... 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE ...... 89 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE ....... I 
 
Vi CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 How OUR BODIES ARE COVERED ...... "6 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: How IT GOVERNS THE BODY . - 132 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE ..... 153 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 HELP AT HAND: OR, WHAT TO DO IN ACCIDENT OR ILL- 
 
 NESS ............ l66 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS ........ l & 2 
 
 TEXT QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW ....... 2I 5 
 
 GLOSSARY ........... 22 9 
 
 INDEX .... ..... 2 33 
 
FOR ADVANCED SCHOOLS 
 
 YOUNG FOLKS' PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 A REVISED EDITION OF 
 
 "OUR BODIES AND HOW WE LIVE" 
 
 An elementary treatise on Physiology and Hygiene for families 
 and schools, with especial reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, 
 tobacco, and other narcotics on the human system. Illustrated. 
 
 FOR LOWER SCHOOLS 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR BOYS AND GIRLS 
 
 A REVISED EDITION OF 
 
 "HOW TO KEEP WELL" 
 
 A text-book of health for use in the lower grades of schools, with 
 special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and 
 other narcotics on the bodily life. Illustrated. 
 
 FOR PRIMAR Y SCHOOLS 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY FOR LITTLE FOLKS 
 
 A REVISED EDITION OF 
 
 "THE CHILD'S BOOK OF HEALTH". 
 
 In easy lessons for younger scholars. Illustrated. 
 
 INDORSEMENT 
 
 This series of books having been revised under our advice and 
 supervision, and containing a full and fair treatment of the nature 
 and effects of alcoholic drinks, tobacco, and other narcotics, in con- 
 nection with relative Physiology and Hygiene, expressed in lan- 
 guage which pupils in the grades for which the books are 
 intended .can readily comprehend, we take great pleasure in 
 recommending the same for use as SCHOOL TEXT-BOOKS. 
 
 National and International 
 
 Albert IT. Plumb, D.D. Superintendent Department 
 
 Daniel Dorchester, D.D. of Scientific Instruction of the 
 
 Womans Christian J emper- 
 
 Hon. William E. Sheldon. ance Union. Life Director of 
 
 National Educational Associ- 
 Kev. Joseph Conk. at ion. 
 
 DECEMBER 5, 1891. 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 i. What the Book is about. When we get used to 
 any common event, as, for example, to seeing a boy or 
 girl moving, talking, and breathing, we forget to wonder 
 at it, simply because it is so common a sight. But, 
 when one does think about it, how very wonderful it is 
 to be alive ! 
 
 One begins to ask, How do we manage to move our 
 bodies ? When one has hurt his foot, how does his 
 head know that he has done so ? Why do we breathe 
 and eat ? How do we think ? and how do we speak ? 
 
 All these things this little book will try to explain to 
 you. There will not be room to tell you about all the 
 wonders of our bodies, but you will be able to learn the 
 beginning of the story. There is much more to learn. 
 When you have learned all that is told you here, you 
 will feel so much interested, we hope, that you will 
 wish to learn more. 
 
 The study of our bodies will not only make us ac- 
 quainted with many wonderful things, but will also tell 
 us how to get good health and how to keep it. 
 
; | ^OW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 3et\us^do our best to learn as much as 
 possible about our bodies, and how we live. 
 
 2. Our Bodily Life. We need not be told that em- 
 bodies are made of flesh and bone, whose substance we 
 see and handle every day of our lives. Even a child 
 knows that certain parts of his body, as the walls of 
 his chest, and his heart that he feels beating within it, 
 are always moving of themselves. 
 
 We can move of our own free will from one place to 
 another. The wind may rustle the leaves, and a breeze 
 may sway a strong oak ; but the leaves and the oak 
 have no power to move themselves. We need not 
 wait, like the trees of the forest, for the wind to blow 
 us to and fro, or, like the pebbles by the roadside, for 
 some one to stir us. Like the horse, the dog, the bird, 
 or any other animal that has life, we can move from 
 place to place. 
 
 Again : every child cannot but notice that he is 
 always warm. Even in the coldest day of midwinter, 
 let the stones and trees be as cold as the winter wind, 
 our bodies, except perhaps the tips of the fingers and 
 toes, are always warm. The horse, the dog, and even 
 the birds and the bees, are warm ; all animals, in fact, 
 are more or less warm as long as they are alive. 
 
 3. The Body compared to a Steam-Engine. Our 
 bodies are in some ways very much like a steam-engine. 
 The bones and the muscles resemble the machinery of 
 the engine, while the motive-power is produced by the 
 food we eat. 
 
 We put fuel into the furnace. The water in the 
 boiler is heated, and expands into steam. Then the 
 
INTRODUCTION 3 
 
 piston-rod begins to work to and fro : this moves the 
 wheels, joints, and levers, and so the whole engine is 
 set in motion by the fuel in the furnace. 
 
 Now, just the same thing occurs in our bodies. We 
 take food, and that food passes into the stomach and is 
 changed into blood. By reason of that food we are 
 kept warm, strength is developed, and the levers and 
 joints within us are set working, as we see in the steam- 
 engine. 
 
 There is, however, this important difference between 
 the two : The engine is all the time wearing itself out : 
 it works badly now and then, so it must be stopped, 
 taken to pieces, and repaired. 
 
 Our bodies, too, are all the time wearing out ; but 
 they are continually repairing themselves, even while 
 in constant use. Hence we take food, not only to 
 warm us, but also to build up and repair our bodies. 
 
 4. The Body and its Nervous System. Every 
 child knows that when he cuts his finger with a knife, 
 touches a hot stove, or has eaten unwholesome food, 
 as an unripe apple, pain is produced. Silvery-white 
 cords, called nerves, start from the brain, and are 
 spread all over the body ; and, when anything wrong 
 happens, these little nerves, like telegraph-wires, carry 
 special despatches to the central station (that is, to the 
 brain), and thus the feeling of pain is there made 
 known. In this way every part of our bodies is watched 
 over and protected. 
 
 If it were not so, we should be continually hurting 
 ourselves, and not know it. For example, a drunken 
 man, whose nerves had been deadened by alcoholic 
 
4 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 liquors, once went to sleep by a camp-fire ; and, when 
 he woke up, his feet were so horribly burned that they 
 had to be cut off. If his brain and nerves had not 
 been benumbed, he would have felt the alarm of pain 
 and saved himself. 
 
 If we exert our will, or " make up our mind," as we 
 call it, to write with a pen, to pick a flower, or to call 
 the name of some friend, we can do it. The mind, or 
 brain, wills to do this or that thing. It sends out its 
 order by the tiny white nerves, and the muscles are put 
 in motion to do whatever the brain has willed them to 
 do. This mind, which feels and thinks, but which we 
 cannot see, forms the real part of our being. It is the 
 power to feel, to know, to reason, and to will, that 
 makes us what we are. 
 
 When we stop to think about it, how wonderful it is ! 
 Indeed, the more we think of it, the more we shall 
 realize the fact that the all-wise Creator, in his goodness 
 and wisdom, has given us bodies which, in the words 
 of the Psalmist, are "fearfully and wonderfully made." 
 
 5. Some Hard Words explained. Before we can 
 reach the more interesting part of our study, we have 
 to do something like cracking the shell of a nut to get 
 at its kernel : we shall have to learn the meaning of 
 a few hard words which must be used in talking about 
 this subject, and will be often used in this book. 
 
 Before we can tell how plants and animals live, we 
 must know what plants and animals are. A watch- 
 maker could not describe the working of a watch unless 
 he first carefully learned the various parts. So it is 
 with the study of our bodies : we must learn their 
 
INTRODUCTION 5 
 
 structure before we can understand the manner in 
 which they act and move, or, in short, how they 
 live. 
 
 The science which tells us about the structure, form, 
 and position of the different parts of our bodies, is 
 called Anatomy. It tells us what these parts are, where 
 they are, and how they look. 
 
 The science which explains the uses of the different 
 parts of the body is called Physiology. 
 
 Now, after we have learned something about the 
 structure and the uses of different parts of the body, 
 we ought to learn how to take care of them and to keep 
 them in health. 
 
 We do this by the study of Hygiene, or the science 
 which tells us about health. 
 
 Take the skin for an illustration. If we learn what 
 it is, how it looks, its various parts, this would be its 
 Anatomy. Now, if we learn for what special purpose 
 it is made, just what its different parts do, and how 
 they do it, this would be its Physiology. Finally, if 
 we learn how each part is kept in good order, what will 
 injure its health, and what will do it good, this would be 
 its Hygiene. 
 
 A tissue is the simplest form in which any part of the 
 body can exist. 
 
 We thus speak of the skin as a tissue, bony tissue, 
 muscular tissue, fatty tissue, and so on. Each tissue 
 has certain features about it which mark it wherever in 
 the body it is found. They may be compared to the 
 brick, stone, iron, mortar, glass, and other materials 
 which, properly arranged, make up a house. 
 
6 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Any part of the body which does a special work is 
 called an organ. 
 
 It is simply several tissues working together as a 
 whole, and specially fitted to do a certain thing : thus 
 the eye is the organ of sight, the nose of smell, the 
 ear of hearing, the stomach of digestion, and so on. 
 
 When there is a series of organs scattered through 
 the body, similar in structure, and all doing the same 
 work, we call it a "system:" thus we speak of the 
 arterial system, the nervous system, and so on. 
 
 The special work which an organ has to do is said to 
 be the function, or use, of that organ : thus it is the 
 function of the eye to see, and of the stomach to digest 
 food. The word "glands " will be often used. 
 
 Glands are curious organs, of various shapes and sizes, 
 whose special work it is to make out of the blood some- 
 thing to be used again, or to rid the blood of something 
 to be cast out of the body. Thus the salivary glands 
 make saliva, or spittle, and the sweat glands make 
 sweat. The liver, which weighs about five pounds, is 
 a single gland, and secretes bile ; while the glands in 
 the intestines cannot be seen by the naked eye. 
 
 6. General Parts of the Body. --If we look at 
 our body, we see that it is made up of a middle, 
 barrel-shaped part, called the trunk. Above this is 
 placed a kind of round ball, called the head; while two 
 pairs of branches, called the limbs, are attached to the 
 upper and lower corners of the trunk. 
 
 Again, we see that the whole body has an outer 
 covering, the skin. Underneath the skin lie long 
 bundles of red flesh, called muscles. These are 
 
INTRODUCTION 7 
 
 mostly fastened at each end to the hard parts or 
 bones. 
 
 The bones make up the framework or skeleton of our 
 bodies. 
 
 The limbs are solid, but the head is hollow, and 
 holds an organ called the brain, the centre of the 
 nervous system. A cheesy-like substance, called the 
 spinal cord, passes from the brain down the middle of 
 the backbone, and sends its thread-like branches, called 
 nerves, all over the body. It is through the nervous 
 system that we are able to think or feel, or, in fact, to 
 know anything. 
 
 Most of the organs of the body are in the trunk. 
 Suppose we take away the skin, the muscles, and the 
 ribs, which hide the inside of the body from us, and 
 what shall we see ? Perhaps you have wondered how 
 your heart, your lungs, and all the other parts which 
 you know you have in your body, are arranged. 
 
 You may be able to see, very likely, the body of 
 some dead animal, such as a rabbit or a pig, cut open. 
 If you can, this will give you a better idea of your own 
 self than any picture can do. The inside of our body 
 is very nearly like that of one of the lower animals. 
 They have the same organs we have, doing the same 
 work. If you can see the inside of any animal, you 
 will be sure to notice how closely and carefully the 
 organs are packed in the trunk. There is no space for 
 any one of them to move about ; if one ever is pushed 
 from its place, it must crowd upon and hurt another. 
 
 One of the first things you will notice in Figs. 
 i and 2 is a partition, in the form of an arch, separating 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 the top part of the trunk from the bottom. This is 
 
 called the diaphragm. 
 
 It makes the trunk a two-story house, the abdomen 
 
 down-stairs, and the heart and lungs in the chamber. 
 
 Above the diaphragm that is, in the chamber, or 
 chest [thorax] are the heart 
 and the two lungs. 
 
 Below the diaphragm that 
 is, down-stairs, or in the abdomen 
 are the stomach, the liver, the 
 pancreas, the spleen, the intes- 
 tines, and the kidneys. These 
 last-named organs lie behind the 
 intestines, and you cannot see 
 them in the picture (Fig. 2). 
 
 You can see neither the 
 whole of the stomach nor its 
 exact shape. The same is true 
 of the liver and spleen and the 
 pancreas ; for these are behind 
 the stomach, next to the back- 
 bone. But you can see the 
 position in which most of them 
 lie beside each other, and you 
 should study the two pictures 
 (Figs, i and 2) till you can 
 
 remember their arrangement very well. 
 
 7. Why the Care of our Health is a Duty. - We 
 
 ought to keep ourselves in good health as far as we 
 
 are able, that we may do well the duties of life, and 
 
 be useful to others instead of being a burden to 
 
 FIG. i. Side View, showing the 
 
 Diaphragm separating the 
 
 Chest and Abdomen. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 them. Few people can be happy or very useful if 
 they are not well. Every one has some work to do 
 in the world : no one is made to be idle. Some have 
 to work with their hands, others with their heads ; but 
 
 FIG. 2. Contents of the Chest and Abdomen. 
 
 no kind of work can be done well unless the body and 
 the mind are healthy. 
 
 To keep ourselves alive, we must have two things, 
 
 food and air. But to keep ourselves healthy, the 
 
 food must be of the right sort, and the air must be 
 
IO HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 pure ; we must be cleanly and temperate ; we must 
 have plenty of exercise in the daytime, and plenty of 
 sleep at night. 
 
 If we know the use of the different parts of our 
 bodies, as the lungs, the heart, and the stomach, we 
 shall understand better how to keep them in good 
 order ; just as a man can take better care of his watch 
 if he learns the use of the different wheels and 
 springs. 
 
 We cannot be ill without giving trouble to those 
 with whom we live, and causing them expense and loss 
 of time. We cannot prevent all sickness and disease, 
 but a great deal may be prevented when people learn 
 to take care of their health. 
 
 Even children may learn many things about the 
 wonderful structure of their bodies. When they grow 
 older they can learn more ; and the more they learn 
 the more they will see that it is a duty they owe both 
 to themselves and to others to do all in their power to 
 keep well. 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK II 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 8. The Framework of the Body. The bones are 
 the framework of the body. 
 
 They are to the body what whalebones are to an um- 
 brella, what timbers are to a house, or ribs to a vessel. 
 They are the framework of the engine, while the chest 
 and abdomen are the boiler and tender ; our food being 
 the coal. 
 
 The brain is like the engineer, who directs all. When 
 he moves a lever, the steam rushes into the machinery, 
 and puts it in motion. When we wish to move, a 
 message goes from the brain to the muscles along the 
 nerves, and the muscles move the bones. 
 
 But bones are something more than a framework. 
 They serve many useful purposes. They protect the 
 soft parts which lie beneath them. Thus the bones of 
 the skull shut up the soft and delicate brain in a box 
 of bone, and the ribs protect the heart and lungs in a 
 barrel-shaped cage of bone. Little cups and tunnels 
 are hewn out of hard bone to shield vital organs. 
 Grooves and canals are made in solid bone to shelter 
 tiny blood-vessels and delicate nerves. Even the out- 
 side of bones is fitted with little knobs, grooves, and 
 sharp edges, to which muscles and cords are fastened. 
 
12 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 In short, the bones are, as it were, a foundation upon 
 which our bodies are securely built. 
 
 How many bones do you think we have ? Let me 
 tell you. There are in all about two hundred separate 
 bones of various sizes and shapes. Taken together 
 they make the skeleton. We are all familiar with the 
 picture of the human skeleton. 
 
 9. How Bone is made up. Bones are very hard 
 and strong. On examining a ham or mutton bone, we 
 would hardly believe there is any soft matter in it. In 
 reality, every bone is made up both of a soft, jelly-like 
 substance, called gelatine or animal matter, and a hard 
 substance, earthy matter, made largely of the mineral 
 known as lime. 
 
 Let us show this by two simple experiments. Soak 
 a chicken's leg-bone for three days in a mixture of two 
 ounces of muriatic acid and one pint of water. On 
 taking it out, while the shape of the bone is the same, 
 we find we can easily bend it, like a piece of rubber, or 
 even tie it into a knot. What has taken place ? Why, 
 the acid has eaten out the bits of lime, and left only the 
 soft gelatine. 
 
 Again : put a soup-bone on the hot coals, and let it 
 burn for three hours. Take it out carefully, and 
 examine it. What do you see ? The shape of the 
 bone is the same ; but it is brittle, and will easily 
 crumble between the fingers. Why so ? The heat has 
 burned out the soft gelatine, and left only the bone- 
 earth. 
 
 In childhood the bones have more animal matter than 
 earthy salts, while in old age they have more lime than 
 
THE BOXY FRAMEWORK 13 
 
 gelatine. Hence the bones of children often bend 
 rather than break in the many severe falls they meet 
 with ; while the bones of old people, being brittle, often 
 snap like a pipe-stem with very slight injuries. 
 
 The bones are elastic. Thus the Arab children, it is 
 said, make excellent bows with the ribs of camels. 
 The power of bone to resist decay is remarkable. 
 The gelatine enough to make good glue will last 
 in a bone for hundreds of years. 
 
 Spongy Substance. 
 
 Compact Substance 
 
 FIG. 3. End of a Bone sawed open, showing the Spongy and Compact Portions. 
 
 10. General Structure of Bones. If we take a 
 long bone, like that from a sheep's leg, or even one 
 end of a soup-bone, and saw it lengthwise, we see 
 that the ends are soft and spongy, while the rest is as 
 hard as a rock. The bone is hollow inside, and filled 
 with a soft, oily substance, called marrow. It is this 
 which makes the flavor and richness of soup. 
 
 Crush one end of a bone, and hold it over a hot fire. 
 The heat will soon melt the marrow, which will sputter 
 and burn like tallow. The marrow is the life of the 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 bone. When people speak of a person wanting in energy, 
 they say, " He has no marrow in his bones." The Bible 
 tells us that the "bones are moistened with marrow." 
 
 Achilles was a famous Greek warrior of olden times. 
 His teacher, a fabled giant, it is said, fed his pupil upon 
 the marrow of the lion to make him brave. The bones 
 of some animals, like lobsters, are, as you know, on the 
 
 outside. All our bones 
 are, of course, inside, 
 and are covered with 
 muscles and fat ; and 
 over all is the skin. 
 
 Again : while we do 
 not cast off our skeleton 
 for a new one every 
 year, as the lobster does, 
 yet our bones are all 
 the time being changed. 
 They are never the same 
 throughout any single 
 hour of our lives. The 
 bones are supplied with 
 millions of the tiniest 
 holes, through which 
 hair-like blood-vessels wind their way, bringing food 
 for the bone, and carrying away waste matters. Thus 
 the blood, " the river of life," oozes its way through 
 every bit of bone as freely as through any other living 
 tissue. 
 
 Bones are of many different shapes, according to the 
 uses to which they are put. Some are long and 
 
 FIG. 4. Section of Bone as it looks under 
 
 the Microscope, showing Openings 
 
 of Canals. 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 hollow, as the bones of the arm and leg ; while others 
 are short, as the bones of the ringers and toes. Some 
 are flat, to cover exposed places, like the knee-pan and 
 shoulder-blades ; while others are of various odd shapes, 
 as the bones of the ankle and wrist, and the backbone. 
 
 ii. The Head. The skeleton, or bony framework of 
 the house we live in, a house far more wonderful 
 than any king's palace, since it can walk, and the walls 
 are living, consists of the bones 
 of the head, the trunk, and the 
 limbs. The bones of the head 
 make a very strong box of 
 bone, commonly called the skull. 
 When we speak of the head we 
 mean the head and face. 
 
 The top part of the head, 
 which is sometimes called the 
 brain-case, is a kind of bony 
 shell which holds the brain. It 
 is made up of several bones 
 tightly locked together by seams 
 something like the dovetailing 
 used by a carpenter. Put your hand on the head of a 
 babe just above the forehead, and you will find a soft 
 space, called a "little fountain." Why is this? 
 
 Simply because, in very young children, these bones, 
 which grow on their edges, do not yet meet, and the 
 throbbing of the brain is easily seen and felt through 
 the thin scalp. Now, as the bones of a child's head 
 are thus dovetailed into each other, they yield a little, 
 and do not break even if he tumbles and bumps his 
 head every day. 
 
 FIG. 5. Cross Section of Bone, 
 highly magnified; the Canals 
 are left white. 
 
1 6 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 All the bones of the head, except the lower jaw, 
 the only movable bone of the head, are firmly 
 locked together by these dovetailed stitches, or sutures 
 as they are called. The dome shape of the skull makes 
 it stronger. If you have ever tried the strength of an 
 egg-shell, you can understand what hard blows the head 
 will bear. 
 
 Let us see what this box of bone, the cupola of our 
 
 FIG. 6. The Skull. 
 
 bodily house, holds : our eyes, with which we see ; our 
 ears, with which we hear ; our mouths, into which we 
 put our food ; the nose, with which we smell ; and then 
 our brain. Indeed, it is a very precious box, we think. 
 
 12. The Trunk. The trunk is the central part of 
 the body. Let us describe its bones, as those of the 
 backbone, the ribs, and the hips. 
 
 The backbone, or spine, the main pillar of the building, 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
i8 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 is a tapering pile of separate bones put one on top of 
 the other. The bottom of each fits ex- 
 actly into the top of the next Between 
 the bones are little cushions of gristle. 
 They help break the force of any shock 
 or injury to the spine, just as the 
 springs of a carriage lessen the jolting. 
 They also save any wear or tear of one 
 bone on another, and yet allow of their 
 moving pretty freely. 
 
 You would hardly believe it, but peo- 
 ple who stand or walk much are really 
 a little shorter at night than they were 
 in the morning. A day's work presses 
 together these magic springs ; while a 
 night's rest allows them to expand, so 
 that by the next morning we are as tall 
 as ever. The story is told of a young 
 man who, being just the exact height 
 for military service, walked all night 
 before going up for examination. He 
 gained his point, for he was no longer 
 tall enough to serve as a soldier. 
 
 Each bone of the spine has a large 
 hole through it. Imagine a number of 
 spools piled end on end, with the holes 
 exactly over each other. Then there 
 would be, of course, one long hole 
 through the whole string of spools. 
 This is somewhat the way the bones of the spine arc 
 arranged. From each bone of the spine project thorns 
 
 FIG. 8. The Backbone. 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 1 9 
 
 of bone, to which are fastened muscles which keep the 
 back erect, and lift the head and shoulders. 
 
 We can feel these bony ridges by running the fingers 
 up and down the middle of the back. The next time 
 you see a fish on the dinner-table, ask to be shown the 
 large middle bone. It is the fish's backbone ; and it 
 will give you an idea of your own, for it is built on the 
 same plan. 
 
 The spine is really one of the most curious things in 
 
 FIG. 9. The Pelvis. 
 
 nature, so firm and yet so elastic, giving the body its 
 graceful form. Think of the great weight which a man 
 can carry on his head with ease and safety. Circus- 
 performers will bend their heads back until they almost 
 touch their feet, thus bringing this curious pile of bones 
 nearly into the shape of a bow. 
 
 The ribs, twelve on each side, spring from the back- 
 bone, and pass round the chest somewhat like the hoops 
 of a barrel, and are united in front to the breast-bone. 
 
20 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 The upper ribs are fixed ; the lower ones bend and 
 move when we breathe. If we press our hands on our 
 sides, and take a deep breath, we can feel how much 
 the ribs move. 
 
 Every child knows how to rest his hands on the hips, 
 the two large, strong bones which make up the lower 
 part of the trunk, the sills of the house, as it were. 
 Each of these bones has a deep, cup-shaped cavity on 
 
 its side, about as large as a 
 toy china teacup, into which 
 the round head of the thigh- 
 bone fits. 
 
 13. The Shoulder and 
 Arm. The shoulder con- 
 sists of the collar-bone and 
 the shoulder-blade, the braces 
 of the upper part of the body, 
 one before and one behind. 
 We can easily feel the 
 collar-bone running across 
 the top of the chest, like a 
 slender cross-beam, over and above the first rib. It is 
 fastened at one end to the shoulder-blade and at the 
 other to the breast-bone. 
 
 The shoulder-blade is easily found. Put your hand 
 to your shoulder where officers wear their epaulets, and 
 move your arm up and down. You will feel a bone 
 which seems to dance with every movement of the arm. 
 This is the shoulder-blade. It has a cup-like cavity, 
 into which the round head of the arm-bone fits, and in 
 which it moves with the greatest ease. 
 
 FIG. 10. .Back of Right 
 Shoulder-Blade. 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 21 
 
 The main bone of the arm extends to the elbow, 
 where it meets the two bones of the fore-arm. 
 
 Now comes the wrist, made up of eight little bones 
 wedged together like the stones of a pavement, only 
 not quite so firmly. From the wrist come the bones 
 of the hand, ending with the thumb and fingers. The 
 hand enables us to take hold of anything, as a cane, or 
 to strike a blow when the fist is doubled up. The 
 
 B8* 
 
 FIG. ii. Bones of Right Hand. 
 
 bones of the hand, wrist, and fingers are held in place 
 by strong but flexible bands and cords. This gives, as 
 you may imagine, a great variety to their motions ; 
 so that the hand can do almost anything that we wish 
 it to do, from grasping heavy hammers, to holding a 
 pen, and threading the finest needle. 
 
 It is very curious, that, although the hand of the 
 monkey and the orang-outang seems very much like 
 yours and mine, yet his thumb is on a line with his 
 fingers, and bends in the same direction they do ; while 
 
22 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 our thumbs are opposite our fingers, giving us a wonder- 
 ful advantage in grasping and holding objects. Man is 
 the only animal that has his thumb opposed to his 
 fingers. 
 
 How wonderful it is that the deaf and dumb talk with 
 ^heir hands, and the blind read with their fingers ! 
 Even the most common things that we do with our hands 
 every day are really wonderful. In brief, the arm and 
 hand, with their fifty different muscles and thirty bones, 
 supplied with cords, nerves, blood-vessels, covered with 
 skin, and furnished with nails, make a wonderful set of 
 machinery. 
 
 14. The Legs. How useful are the legs to every 
 other part of the body ! Without bones in our legs we 
 could not stand or walk. They are made so strong that 
 they can support the weight of the body, and so light 
 that they are capable of a great variety of movement. 
 
 The upper bone of the leg, the thigh-bone, the longest 
 and strongest bone in the body, reaches down to the 
 knee. It is so large and so heavy that, in handling it, 
 one might imagine it to be a club ; in fact, the warriors 
 of savage tribes sometimes wear the thigh-bones of 
 slain enemies, as a weapon, at their waists. 
 
 At the knee-joint the thigh-bone meets the bones of 
 the lower leg, to which it is united by stout cords and 
 bands. A flat, three-sided bone, called the knee-pan, fits 
 over the knee-joint in front. You know, if we fall in 
 running, we are apt to strike on the knee. This little 
 heart-shaped bone keeps the joint from getting hurt. 
 
 There are two bones in the leg below the knee, the 
 shin-bone and the splint-bone, connected with the foot at 
 the ankle-joint. 
 
THE BOXY FRAMEWORK 23 
 
 The ankle contains seven queer-shaped bones, some- 
 thing like those of the wrist, but rather larger. They 
 are bound firmly together, and are strong enough to 
 bear the weight of the body. 
 
 The foot forms an arch known as the instep, not 
 unlike the arch of a bridge, with the heel at the back 
 
 14 PHALANGES 
 EOBM.'Nfl TOLS 
 
 FI3U1.A' 
 
 7 TARSAl. BONES 
 FORMING ANKLE 
 
 5 MCTATARSAC 
 
 BONES 
 
 ASTRAGALUS 
 HEEL-BONE) 
 
 FIG. 12. Bones of Foot and Ankle. 
 
 and the toes in front. On this arch the body rests. 
 It is not only very strong, but, owing to the toes being 
 formed by several bones, the whole foot is elastic, and 
 forms a spring by which the body is thrown forward 
 without the other bones being shaken or jarred against 
 each other. 
 
 In animals which leap after their prey with a jump or 
 
24 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 spring, this elastic character is increased ; and they are 
 provided with pads under each joint, which serve to 
 break the shock they would otherwise receive. You 
 know how quietly and nimbly a cat runs. Now, if you 
 look at her paws when she has "gloves on," you will 
 see that this is owing to the little black cushions under 
 them. 
 
 We have, as every one knows, ten toes, five on 
 each foot. The toes help us spring in walking. Gristly 
 bands and cords bind the twenty-six little bones of the 
 foot firmly together, and yet allow of many different 
 motions. It is wonderful what habit and necessity will 
 make the foot do. We who cramp our feet in tight 
 boots can hardly believe it when we hear of persons 
 carving, writing, and even painting, with the toes. 
 
 A few years ago a French artist used to paint with 
 his toes pictures worthy of a place in the French Exhi- 
 bition. Some savage tribes in Australia, it is said, walk 
 into shallow streams, and catch fish with their toes. 
 Travellers tell us that certain African tribes steal with 
 their toes as easily as with their fingers. Chinese 
 mechanics will pick up tools with their toes, and work 
 with them while using other tools with their hands. 
 The Arabs use their fingers and toes at the same time 
 in braiding ropes. 
 
 15. How Bones are joined together. The place 
 where one or more bones meet and move upon each 
 other is called a joint. 
 
 Get a knuckle of ham or mutton at the market, open 
 the joint by cutting into it, and study what you see. 
 Our own joints are made exactly after the same general 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 plan. The ends of the bones, shaped, as you will see, 
 according to the needs of each joint, are moist, and 
 tipped with a smooth, glistening layer of gristle. The 
 next time you have a 
 piece of roast veal on 
 the table examine it 
 carefully, and you will 
 see at the end a white 
 substance, which crack- 
 les under your teeth : 
 this is gristle. 
 
 Joints are bathed with 
 a sticky fluid something 
 like the white of an egg : 
 the common name for 
 it is joint oil. It allows 
 the rubbing surfaces to 
 move smoothly one on 
 another, thus saving 
 much wear and tear. 
 Think of a man who 
 could build a machine 
 which would last " three- 
 score years and ten " 
 or more, and keep its 
 own joints oiled all the FlG . I3 . __"7 he Right Knee . Jolntf showing bow 
 
 time ! firmly it is bound about by ligaments. 
 
 Some of our joints are real hinges. At the elbow 
 there is a hinge-joint. All the time a carpenter ham- 
 mers, he uses the hinge-joint at his elbow. All our 
 fingers and toes have hinge-joints. The most curious 
 
26 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 joints are called ball-and-socket joints. The head of 
 the arm-bone, as you know, fits into a cup in the 
 shoulder-blade. When we move our arms round and 
 round at the shoulders, we use this joint. A boy uses 
 this joint all the time he turns a grindstone, or swings 
 a bat in playing base-ball. 
 
 The round head of the thigh-bone, as you already 
 
 know, fits into the cup-like 
 socket of the hip-bone, 
 thus giving the legs great 
 freedom of motion. All 
 these joints are liable to 
 be put out of their place. 
 This often happens to the 
 shoulder-joint, and occa- 
 sionally to the hip-joint. 
 Those who play ball, often 
 put their finger-joints out 
 of place. We should be 
 careful not to play at too 
 violent and rough games, 
 by which we may not only 
 
 FIG. ,4. - The Right Hip-Joint. ^ ^ .^^ ^ Qf ^^ 
 
 but may also break the bones and sprain the cords. 
 Many children have the habit of pulling the finger- 
 joints, to make them "crack." This is a foolish cus- 
 tom : it disfigures the hand by enlarging the knuckles, 
 and, besides, may cause permanent injury. 
 
 16. How Bones are tied to Each Other. If we 
 pick up two bones that have lain for years, perhaps, 
 bleaching in the sun and rain, we find that the ends 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 are smooth, and may fit exactly into each other. Put 
 the ends together, and they will not stay a moment 
 unless tied together by strings or something of the 
 
 FIG. 15. Showing how the Wrist- Bones are tied together. 
 
 kind. How, then, are the joints held in their places ? 
 How are bones kept together in the living person ? 
 Simply by strong straps. 
 
 Some of them are as narrow as a piece of tape ; others, 
 as at the side of the knee or at the shoulder, are quite 
 
28 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 wide. Some cross each other, as at the knee-joint ; 
 while others shut in a joint, like a bag or sack, thus 
 saving it from being easily slipped out of place. You 
 will find out some day that it takes some skill to carve 
 a turkey or a fowl, because we have to cut round these 
 cords to disjoint it neatly, and serve it out in pieces for 
 the plate. 
 
 17. The Health of the Bones. The bones of an 
 infant will easily bend, and even grow out of place, 
 because they are soft and gristly. Stories are told of 
 Indian tribes, the Flatheads, who used to tie small 
 pieces of board, with bands and bandages, firmly on 
 the soft and tender heads of their babies, to flatten 
 them, thinking that a flattened skull of this shape is 
 beautiful. Bones, especially in children, are readily 
 changed by long-continued pressure or strain. You 
 may have heard of the distorted feet of Chinese 
 women. These people think it is low-bred for women 
 to be useful, and have natural feet ; so they bind the 
 baby's feet, if it is a girl, with strong bands, to prevent 
 them growing. When these poor children become 
 women, they are scarcely able to move about. 
 
 Did you ever think how hurtful and silly is the 
 fashion of wearing tight and high-heeled boots and 
 shoes ? Why so ? Because high heels throw the 
 weight of the body forward, and force the foot down 
 on the toes. This tends not only to crowd the toes 
 out of shape, causing tender feet, corns, bunions, in- 
 growing nails, and swollen joints, but makes the 
 natural gait stiff and ungainly. 
 
 Knowing the practical importance of having com- 
 
THE BONY FRAMEWORK 2Q 
 
 fortable feet, Frederick the Great kept a servant whose 
 foot was exactly his size, and made him wear his 
 new shoes till he himself could wear them with 
 comfort ; and, poor fellow, he sometimes wore them 
 too long, and got kicked by his royal master for his 
 pains. The Duke of Wellington, being asked once as 
 to the most essential article of a soldier's clothing, 
 replied, "A good pair of shoes." "What next?" 
 " A spare pair of shoes." And even thirdly, "A spare 
 pair of soles." 
 
 Children should not be allowed to walk too early, 
 before their legs are strong enough to bear the weight 
 of the body. The soft bones may bend, and cause 
 11 bow-legs," so commonly seen on the street. Chil- 
 dren should not get into the habit of taking hurtful 
 positions, such as sliding down into the seat, or sitting 
 on the foot. Bending over too much while reading, 
 writing, sewing, or otherwise at work, is apt to cause 
 round shoulders. 
 
 At school the desks should not he too low, thus 
 causing a forward stoop ; or too high, thereby throw- 
 ing one shoulder up too much, and giving a twist 
 to the spine. If the seats are too high, the feet have 
 no support, and injury to the thigh may result ; if 
 too low, there is undue strain on the shoulder and 
 backbone. Round shoulders and curvature of the 
 spine may result from long-continued positions of this 
 kind. Seats should be regulated according to the size 
 of the pupil, and frequent changes should be made. 
 
 18. Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Bones. 
 As the bones grow they need material for building 
 
30 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 them up. This material has to be carried to them by 
 the blood. If the blood is made poor or poisoned with 
 alcohol or tobacco, the bones are deprived of the 
 matter they need for their growth. Physicians are 
 agreed that tobacco tends greatly to stunt the growth 
 of the bones. 
 
 Many boys are dwarfing their bodies as well as their 
 minds, by smoking cigarettes. No boy can afford to 
 lose a part of his growth, for the sake of a habit that 
 does him no good, and that makes him an object of 
 disgust to cleanly people. 
 
THE MUSCLES 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE MUSCLES 
 
 19. Our Muscles. We move and walk from place 
 to place by means of our muscles. Our limbs are 
 moved by the muscles. Muscles move not only the 
 limbs, but the skin. Watch the horse, and see him 
 shake his hide to get rid of the biting flies. Our 
 bones, our fingers, and toes, our mouth, our eyelids, 
 all are moved by muscles. 
 In short, all motion in our 
 bodies is dependent upon 
 them. 
 
 Muscle is simply lean 
 meat or flesh. When we 
 beefsteak or lean 
 
 for dinner, We FIG. 16. - A Muscular Bundle teased out to 
 
 are eating muscle. show its fibres. 
 
 When corned beef is boiled very tender, so it falls 
 apart, we can easily divide it into strings : these 
 strings are muscular fibres. See how they are glued 
 together, into bundles of various shapes, by a very 
 thin web not unlike the thinnest of thin tissue-paper. 
 Each bundle is called a muscle. We may compare a 
 muscle to a handful of tiny skeins of silk packed into 
 bundles, and dividing again and again until they are 
 
 eat 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 a thousand times finer than the finest hair on our 
 heads. 
 
 Muscles are of all sizes and shapes. Some are 
 large, others very small ; some are shaped like fans, 
 others like quill pens ; many are broad and flat in the 
 middle, and taper down at each end. In brief, the 
 shape of muscles varies according to the place where 
 they are put and the work they have to do. 
 
 Sometimes we can see the shape of the muscles 
 through the skin, especially in 
 the arm and shoulder of a man 
 who does hard work. See the 
 brawny arm of the blacksmith 
 as he works at his forge. Look 
 at those large muscles, strong 
 as iron bands, that swell out as 
 he brings his hammer down on 
 his anvil. 
 
 20. How the Muscles do 
 their Work. Muscles have a 
 
 FIG. 17. Portions of Muscular Fibre peculiar power of their OWn 
 
 which no other kind of tissue 
 
 in the body has. This is the power to become shorter 
 and thicker. We see something like muscular action 
 in a piece of india-rubber. If we take a piece of 
 this, and pull it out longer, we see that it becomes 
 thinner ; and when we let it go, it snaps back, and once 
 more becomes short and thick. This is very much like 
 the action of our muscles ; but muscular tissues do 
 this by their own peculiar power, without being pulled 
 by some one else, as a piece of india-rubber must be. 
 
THE MUSCLES 
 
 33 
 
 FIG. 18. Showing Principal Muscles of the Front of the Body. 
 
34 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Now, let us see how this power in our muscles enables 
 us to move. Let us notice what happens when we 
 bend the arm, as boys do "to try their muscle." You 
 will understand that all similar actions such as clos- 
 ing the hand, opening the mouth, lifting the leg, and so 
 on are done practically in the same way. Stretch 
 out your right arm, and grasp it above the elbow with 
 your left hand, half way to the shoulder. Now bend 
 your right arm briskly up and down, and feel the big 
 
 FIG. 19. This figure shows the Biceps Muscle contracting so as to draw up the arm. 
 When the arm is again straightened the Triceps has a swollen appearance, because it 
 has contracted and become thicker. 
 
 muscle on the front of the arm swell and harden as you 
 hold your hand upon it. What has happened ? Let 
 me tell you. 
 
 When we wish to draw up our hand toward our 
 shoulder, the brain sends a message to the muscle ; and 
 the muscle at once becomes thicker and shorter, and 
 pulls up the fore-arm towards the shoulder. Watch the 
 
THE MUSCLES 35 
 
 bare arm of a strong man while he pulls up his hand to 
 his shoulder, and you will see the muscle swell up as it 
 becomes thicker and shorter. In this way almost all 
 our movements are made. 
 
 This is muscular action ; and this growing thicker 
 and shorter, by which the action is done, is called the 
 contraction of a muscle. 
 
 All muscles act in this way by contraction, though, 
 of course, all the muscles are not fastened to bones. 
 Thus the tube by which food passes from the mouth to 
 our stomach is made of rings of muscle. These rings 
 contract, one after another, and so the food is pushed 
 by a worm-like motion into the stomach. So one of the 
 muscles of the mouth is in the shape of a ring. This 
 enables us to pucker our lips. 
 
 21. Some Muscles not under the Control of our 
 Will. There are some muscles in our bodies, how- 
 ever, not under the control of our will. We do not 
 mean to say that they are not controlled by the nervous 
 system, but simply that they are not directed by our 
 brain at first hand. In brief, these muscles do not 
 need to have a message come from the brain telling 
 them what to do. 
 
 Let us study this a little. The stomach, for instance, 
 which digests our food, is made of this muscular 
 tissue which our will does not control. As soon as we 
 swallow a mouthful of food, and it passes into the 
 stomach, the nerves feel that it is there, and cause the 
 muscles to begin to act in the proper manner for digest- 
 ing it. Thus food is digested whether we are willing 
 or not. 
 
36 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 The heart, which pumps the blood, is another of 
 these muscles which serve to show us the reason why 
 they act without our will having to order them. We 
 know that the heart is always beating. If we lay our 
 hand on our left side, there it is, thud, thud, never stop- 
 ping so long as we live. If it stops, we shall die. Now, 
 if we had to will every beat of our heart, how dreadful 
 it would be ! We should not be able to think about 
 anything else. Years ago a man lived in Ireland who 
 could, by an effort of his will, cause his heart to stop 
 beating for a few moments. He at last lost his life in 
 the act. 
 
 Remember, then, that many important organs, made 
 of muscular tissue, but intended always to do some 
 special work, are under the management of nerves, but 
 not of that part of the brain through which our will 
 acts : while other muscles which have to do different 
 things at different times, such as those of our hands, 
 our feet, our eyes, and our lips, are under the control 
 of our will, and do what we bid them. 
 
 22. The Tendons. Some of the muscles are fas- 
 tened directly to the bones, and grow, as it were, into 
 them. As a general thing, however, muscles are not 
 themselves fastened to bones, but taper into white, 
 tough cords, called tendons. 
 
 Put your hand in the hollow of the knee, and you 
 will feel something like cords which you would almost 
 mistake for bones when they stiffen. If we put our 
 fingers on the front part of our wrist, and then work 
 our hands and fingers, we feel some cords just beneath 
 the skin. These are tendons, the little ropes with 
 
THE MUSCLES 37 
 
 which the muscles in the fore-arm pull the hand and 
 fingers. 
 
 Again : if we bend our fingers to and fro, we can see 
 the tendons move on the back of the hand. Children 
 at Thanksgiving time often amuse themselves by pull- 
 ing the white cord in the leg of the turkey, and seeing 
 
 FIG. 20. Showing the Muscles and Tendons of the Hand. 
 
 its toes move. Tendons are most numerous about the 
 joints, especially the larger ones, like the knee and 
 elbow. They save a great deal of space, and allow 
 great freedom of movement where muscles large 
 enough to do the work would be bulky and clumsy. 
 What a large and clumsy foot we should have if all the 
 muscles which are needed to pull the toes were in the 
 foot! 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 ORIGIN OP 
 CAUF MUSGUB8 
 
 The longest and strongest tendon in the body is just 
 back of the ankle. It is called the tendon of Achilles, 
 after the Greek hero of that name. According to one 
 story, Achilles received his death-wound in the heel, no 
 other part of his body being liable to injury. 
 
 23. Why we need Exercise. Every part of our 
 bodies ought to be used if we wish to be vigorous and 
 healthy. You know what stout, 
 strong arms a blacksmith has : 
 that is because he uses them 
 so much. Constant use, instead 
 of wearing them out, as it would 
 if they were tools, does them 
 good. 
 
 It is just the same with other 
 parts. A person who uses his 
 eyes as he ought has good eye- 
 sight, and sees many things 
 another person cannot see. A 
 person who uses his ears as he 
 ou g nt comes in time to hear 
 many things another person 
 does not hear. We are told 
 that savages, who are always 
 FIG. 21. Bones of Leg and Foot looking and listening with all 
 
 and Muscles of Calf. 
 
 or game, have parts of their eyes actually larger than 
 ours, just as a blacksmith's arms grow larger by con- 
 stant use. 
 
 Any part of our body that we do not use finally 
 becomes weak and helpless. Let the blacksmith 
 
THE MUSCLES 39 
 
 change his work for that of a clerk, and the once 
 brawny arms become smaller and weaker. We read of 
 certain people in India who, as an act of worship, keep 
 one arm raised above the head until the muscles 
 shrivel and become useless. 
 
 All the parts of the body have so much to do with 
 each other that each one has some effect on all the 
 others. Now, what we commonly call taking exercise 
 that is, walking, running, and jumping not only 
 strengthens our arms and legs and backs, but makes 
 our blood flow faster and brisker. It makes us breathe 
 in a great deal more fresh air, it helps us to get rid of 
 more waste matter, it makes us warm and comfortable, 
 and it keeps our digestive organs in good order. 
 
 In brief, exercise makes us stronger and better all 
 over. 
 
 What a good thing it is for boys and girls that they 
 are so fond of play ! Playing base-ball, running races, 
 skipping with a rope, all these games help them to 
 grow up into active, healthy men and women. The old 
 adage says, "Change of work is as good as play." 
 There is a sense in which it is quite true. If we have 
 been sitting and reading a long time, it rests us to get 
 up and take a walk. If we have taken a long walk, it 
 rests us to sit down and read. In these ways change 
 of work is as good as play, because it is a real change, 
 and exercises quite a different part of our bodies. 
 
 24. Time for Exercise. The best time to take 
 exercise is about two hours after a meal. It is not best 
 to do hard work or take severe exercise before break- 
 fast. Those who go to work, or study, before breakfast, 
 
4O HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 should first eat a little plain food, or even drink a glass 
 of milk, just enough to " stay the stomach." Just 
 after a full meal the stomach is busily doing its duty : 
 
 FIG. 22. Muscles of the Face and Neck. 
 
 hence severe exercise at this time is apt to hinder its 
 action, and results sooner or later in ill digestion. 
 
 The evening is not the best time for exercise, because 
 the body is tired after the labor of the day. It is 
 
THE MUSCLES 4! 
 
 useless to make any exact rule for any one person. 
 Ordinary work or moderate exercise, as walking, is 
 healthful at almost any time, except just after a full 
 meal. 
 
 25. Different Kinds of Exercise. The kind of 
 exercise depends very much upon one's daily work. 
 Persons who sit at desks, stand at counters, or work in 
 close rooms, as clerks, teachers, tailors, and printers, 
 are apt to suffer from a lack of bodily exercise and 
 from foul air. Every person should learn by careful 
 observation to know his own needs and his own 
 dangers. All sound persons should every day do some 
 work or take some exercise with both body and mind. 
 To get and to keep vigorous health, it is not at all 
 necessary to increase the size of our muscles very 
 much, or to do great feats of strength. 
 
 Walking is the best of all exercises. It takes us 
 into the open air and the bright sunlight ; it puts new 
 life into many important muscles of the chest, abdomen, 
 and limbs. With a brisk walk every day, taking care 
 to keep warm and dry, no one need suffer from lack of 
 proper exercise. 
 
 Running, leaping, climbing, and other vigorous sports, 
 are well enough if we do not get over-tired. Violent 
 sports, such as base-ball and foot-ball, are severe 
 exercises, and occasionally dangerous. 
 
 Rowing is admirably suited to most persons of either 
 sex. Horseback riding, coasting, swimming,- and skat- 
 ing are important helps to increase bodily vigor. 
 
 The quick and graceful gymnastic exercises prac- 
 tised in many of our schools are especially healthful, 
 
42 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 and should be more generally used. Growing children 
 should be trained every day, at home or in school, in 
 the use of light wooden dumb-bells, light clubs, or 
 wands. A daily exercise of ten minutes will do much 
 to develop feeble and narrow chests, to check a tendency 
 to curvature of the spine and round shoulders, so com- 
 mon with young people, and to give strength and vigor 
 to all parts of the body. 
 
 One of the simplest and most useful modes of light 
 
 FIG. 23. Exercise on the Swinging Bar. 
 
 gymnastics is to fasten a broomstick in some suitable 
 place in your house, suspending it securely over your 
 head as high as you can reach. Exercise several times 
 every day in this way : swing, hanging by both hands ; 
 after a while with one hand, and drawing the body up 
 to the stick. 
 
 Rubber straps and rings, sold in the shops for this 
 purpose at a trifling cost, are convenient helps in light 
 gymnastic exercises. 
 
THE MUSCLES 43 
 
 26. Effect of Alcohol on the Muscles. The 
 
 muscles are connected with the brain by nerves, and 
 through these nerves the brain controls the action of 
 the muscles. Now, as we shall learn hereafter, alcohol 
 deadens the nerves. Therefore when a person drinks 
 more or less alcoholic liquor, the muscles are acted upon 
 in a peculiar way. Why so ? Because the nerve-force 
 that governs the muscles is weakened, and they show a 
 lack of control. 
 
 The nice movements required in the handling of fine 
 tools for delicate work, or for gymnastic feats, need 
 steady and well-trained muscles that are under perfect 
 control of the brain. Tippling with alcoholic liquors 
 deadens the nerves that connect the brain and muscles, 
 and thus impairs this control, and, therefore, injures a 
 man's ability to do fine work. This injury results in 
 proportion to the amount of alcohol taken. The 
 drinker may know the right way of making each move- 
 ment, but he cannot make his muscles move as they 
 ought. He is clumsy, and lacks precision. 
 
 Thus we see that under the influence of alcohol, the 
 trained muscles become feeble and trembling, and are 
 no longer wholly under the control of the will. The 
 degree of this loss of control varies greatly with the 
 individual, with the kind of liquor, the rate at which 
 it is taken, and many other circumstances. 
 
 This same lack of control is shown in the act of 
 speech. After drinking alcohol, there is less control 
 of the muscles of the tongue and throat : hence words 
 are left out, cut short, or misplaced. 
 
 If the person continues to drink until he reaches the 
 
44 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 point of intoxication, his nerves become more and more 
 deadened, and he gradually loses more and more of 
 the control of his muscles, until finally even clumsy 
 movement is impossible, and he is said, to be dead 
 drunk. 1 
 
 27. Effect of Alcohol on Strength. A drink of 
 beer, rum, or any other alcoholic liquor, cannot in- 
 crease one's strength for extra hard work, as some 
 people seem to think. Trials made with the "health 
 lift '' and in other ways show that alcoholic drinks 
 weaken instead of strengthen the muscles. ' 
 
 A number of workmen were once divided into two 
 companies, each engaged in the same kind of work. 
 For a week the men in one company took no alcoholic 
 drinks of any kind : the men in the other drank as 
 usual. Before the end of the week the men who were 
 using no alcohol found they could do more work with 
 less fatigue than when they drank beer. The next 
 week the other company of men made the same trial, 
 and with the same result. 
 
 The recent war in the Soudan showed that the 
 British soldiers could endure the hardships of war in 
 that hot country better without alcohol than with a 
 regular ration of strong drinks. Experience has 
 taught the same lesson to the Indian porters of South 
 America. When they travel upon their hard journeys 
 with heavy loads upon their backs, they are careful to 
 take no alcoholic drinks with them. 
 
 Men who are in training for boat-racing, base-ball, 
 foot-racing, and other sports where great exertion is 
 called for, are not allowed to use alcoholic liquors. 2 
 
 1 See note i, page 229. 2 See note 2, page 229. 
 
THE MUSCLES 45 
 
 28. Effect of Tobacco on the Muscles. Tobacco 
 causes weakness and unsteadiness of the muscles. 
 Applicants for the position of book-keeper are fre- 
 quently rejected because of the tobacco habit, which 
 shows itself in their unsteady handwriting. One of 
 the first things demanded of a young man who is going 
 into training for a foot-race is to stop smoking. 1 
 
 1 See note 3, page 231. 
 
46 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 
 
 29. Why we need Food. Our bodies, as you have 
 been told before, are in some respects like a steam- 
 engine. Our food is to us what coal is to the engine. 
 Like the locomotive, our bodies move about, and are 
 warm, because a fire is always burning in them. This 
 fire, like that of the engine, needs fresh fuel from time 
 to time. Without fuel and air, the fire in the engine 
 will go out. 
 
 So it is with our bodies : without food and air, the 
 bodily fire would soon go out, and we should die for 
 want of them. When coal or wood is burned, we get 
 ashes. So, too, in our bodies : we produce not exactly 
 ashes, but something like them, which must be got rid 
 of, else the fire would flag. 
 
 Again : each and every part of the steam-engine is 
 always wearing out. So it is with our bodies : we are 
 all the time wearing out. Every beat of the heart, 
 every movement of a muscle, the wink of an eyelid, and 
 the twist of the tongue, even our very thoughts, all 
 these lead to waste. Every step we take, every word 
 we speak, wastes a little bit of our bodies. In short, 
 we are working and wasting all the time, at the expense 
 of some tiny portion of the body. 
 
WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 47 
 
 Then, why do we not waste away ? We weighed this 
 morning just as much as we did three days ago ; some 
 of us, we hope, a little more. How can this be ? Why, 
 we have been doing something else, part of the day, 
 besides working and wasting. This something was to 
 eat our dinner yesterday and our breakfast to-day. 
 This is the whole story. What we eat and drink takes 
 the place of what is used up or wasted. If we are 
 young and growing, we must take in a little more than 
 the actual waste. 
 
 Nearly all this waste is made good by our food and 
 drink ; the rest of it comes from the air we breathe. 
 
 The food we eat, you will think, does not look much 
 like our bodies, of which it is to make a part. Perhaps 
 we may think the meat is rather like it ; but how about 
 bread, milk, butter, and potatoes ? How are all these 
 things turned into flesh, hair, and bone ? How, indeed, 
 does it ever get to them, to our knees, fingers, toes, 
 and eyes, for instance ? 
 
 Let me tell you in four words : the blood carries it. 
 The blood not only carries away the waste matter from 
 every part of the body, but also brings nourishment to 
 every part. In brief, as the Bible says, " The blood is 
 the life." 
 
 30. Tissue Foods : the Albumens. What a great 
 variety of articles we eat and drink ! Is this a good or 
 a bad thing ? A good thing, as we shall soon see. 
 Many unnatural things are eaten for food in certain 
 parts of the world. Thus certain tribes of Indians in 
 South America eat a peculiar kind of clay. 
 
 Beetles were eaten by Roman epicures, and are said 
 
48 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 also to be eaten by Turkish women to make themselves 
 fat. Bees, moths, ants, mice, and many small animals, 
 form staple articles of diet in other countries. Hum- 
 boldt, the great traveller, tells us that centipedes are 
 eaten eagerly by some of the natives of South America. 
 Locusts and grasshoppers are eaten by the Digger 
 Indians in the West. 
 
 We can easily put all ordinary foods into three great 
 groups. First, we have certain kinds of food to make 
 up for the wear and tear of the body ; that is, tissue foods, 
 or albumens, so called because they build up the tissues. 
 
 They are called albumens because they contain a 
 whitish substance called albumen. The white of an 
 egg is a familiar illustration : it is almost wholly made 
 up of albumen. Lean meat, the cheesy part or curd of 
 milk, pease, and beans are rich in albumen. Wheat, 
 barley, oats, rice, and corn also contain albumen. All 
 these foods hold something which our muscles and 
 blood especially need, and which we are using up and 
 getting rid of it every moment. Hence, to make good 
 this loss, we must eat tissue-making food", or else we 
 should slowly starve to death. 
 
 31. Fuel Food: the Sugars and Starches. Now, 
 while some foods are chiefly useful as flesh-formers, - 
 that is, they mainly go to make new flesh and new 
 bone, other foods more especially make heat, and 
 enable us to do work. These fuel or heat-giving foods 
 we may divide into two classes, the sugars and starches, 
 and the fats. 
 
 We might, perhaps, think that all our sugar comes 
 from sugar-cane, and must be bought at the grocer's ; 
 
WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 49 
 
 but this is quite wrong. There is a little sugar in 
 wheat, and a good deal in some other things we eat, 
 such as pease, oatmeal, beets, honey, milk, grapes, 
 watermelons, and many other articles. Sugar is very 
 easily digested ; it is dissolved in the mouth by the 
 saliva, and then passes down the food-pipe into the 
 stomach, where it is taken up by the blood-vessels. In 
 the blood parts of the sugar combine with other sub- 
 stances in the body and make heat. 
 
 The sugars and starches form a large part of all those 
 plants commonly used as food. Wheat, barley, rye, oats, 
 rice, corn, arrowroot, sago, and potatoes are rich in 
 starch. In its natural state starch is useless as food 
 until it has been acted upon by the digestive fluids. 
 
 When starch is well chewed, it is changed into 
 sugar by the action of the saliva. This is why a 
 piece of bread tastes sweeter after it has been in the 
 mouth for a few minutes. Old people with poor teeth, 
 and young people too, indeed, often like the crust of 
 bread, or the heel of a loaf, especially if it is soaked in 
 milk or tea. Why ? Because it is sweet ; and it is 
 sweet because, having been baked harder, the starch 
 has been partly changed into sugar. We seldom, how- 
 ever, keep the food long enough in the mouth to change 
 all the starch of our food into sugar ; this is done 
 farther along in the act of digestion, as we shall soon 
 see. 
 
 32. The Fats. Some people, especially children, 
 do not like fat ; some of us may have a feeling of 
 disgust at the mere thought of it. But we all must eat 
 fat in some form or other. We are familiar with this 
 
50 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 class of food, under the names of pork, fatty meat, suet, 
 lard, butter, olive-oil, and cod-liver oil. 
 
 Fat is a heat-giving or fuel food. For this reason, 
 fatty foods are much used by people who live in cold 
 countries. The Esquimaux, who live in Greenland, 
 drink one or two quarts of oil, and eat several pounds 
 of tallow candles, every day. Their children, it is said, 
 have as keen a relish for tallow candles as our children 
 have for bananas or ice-cream. Sir John Franklin once 
 tried to find out how much fat an Esquimau boy could 
 eat. Fourteen pounds of tallow candles quickly dis- 
 appeared ; and Sir John, feeling alarmed for his stores, 
 closed the experiment with a large piece of fat pork. 
 
 Oil is a luxury greedily devoured by the Northern 
 races, as was amusingly proved in a seaport town some 
 years ago. The town was lighted with oil-lamps, and it 
 was noticed that they went out early for several suc- 
 cessive nights. At last it was discovered that some 
 Russian sailors in the harbor climbed the lamp-posts 
 and drank the oil. 
 
 Once upon a time some English sailors made a 
 "Christmas-tree" for some Esquimau children by 
 tying together some walrus-bones, and hanging on 
 them balls of whale-blubber, instead of bonbons. This 
 was a rare treat for the children, who ate the balls of 
 fat as eagerly as we would eat chocolate-creams. 
 
 33. The Mineral Foods : the Salts and Iron. All 
 the foods we have just studied come from living things, 
 as animals and vegetables. Besides these, we must eat 
 certain things which have no life, and never had. We 
 will call these mineral foods. First of all, water is a 
 
WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 51 
 
 mineral food ; but this will be described -more fully 
 hereafter. 
 
 We cannot do without common salt as an article of 
 food. All nations, both civilized people and savage 
 tribes, eat it daily, both by itself and along with other 
 food. The lower animals like it too. Farmers put 
 lumps of salt in their fields for the sheep and cows to 
 eat. Wild animals flock in great numbers to places 
 known as salt-licks. 
 
 Men have risked their lives to get even a taste of 
 salt. In olden times untold tortures were inflicted 
 upon prisoners by feeding them on bread alone, and 
 that made without salt. In most countries it " is as 
 cheap as dirt," while in parts of Africa it is worth its 
 weight in gold. Salt has always been the symbol of 
 life, hospitality, and wisdom ; and the Scriptures tell 
 us, " Salt is good. Have salt in yourselves, and have 
 peace one with another." 
 
 How much salt do you suppose we have in our bodies? 
 About half a pound, but we are all the time losing it. 
 Tears, we know, contain salt ; and it is also found in 
 the sweat. Some may think they do not eat any salt, 
 because they do not eat it by itself. But we must 
 remember that many foods we eat, as meat, oatmeal, 
 and cheese, have just a little of it. 
 
 Now, we need some other salts to help purify the 
 blood. These are the salts of potash, found in the vege- 
 tables, especially lettuce. Sailors who have been 
 forced to go for a long time without fresh vegetables 
 always surfer much from a fearful disease called scurvy. 
 In Lord Anson's celebrated expedition round the world, 
 
52 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 which left England in 1740, four out of five of the 
 original crew died of scurvy. Again, we all need, 
 especially growing children, salts of lime to make the 
 bones harder and stronger. This is one reason why 
 children should eat plenty of bread and milk. 
 
 Would you think that we need any iron in our food ? 
 Well, we do ; for it is iron that helps to make good 
 blood, and to color it a bright-red hue. Iron in small 
 amounts is found in many of the foods we eat. 
 
 34. Water as a Food. Pure water is our great 
 natural drink. Many savage nations know no other 
 drink, and require no other. Water helps to change 
 our food into the blood, dissolving it in the stomach 
 just as it would in a glass. A lump of sugar put into 
 a glass of water soon disappears, but we know it is still 
 in the water by its sweet taste. 
 
 Not only is the greater part of our drink water, but 
 bread, meat, potatoes, fruits, and other foods, also have 
 water to make them easy to digest. Nearly three- 
 fourths of the weight of our body is made up of water ; 
 in fact, every tissue and organ in the body is watery. 
 
 How important it is, then, to have the water we 
 drink pure and fresh ! We are all the time getting rid 
 of a great deal of water, nearly two quarts every day, 
 through the skin, lungs, and kidneys; hence we 
 must take in water every day to make up for this loss, 
 besides what we drink. Certain foods, as lettuce, cab- 
 bage, apples, fish, potatoes, and lean meat, are more 
 than three-fourths water. Water alone will prolong life 
 if nothing else can be had. 
 
 A few years ago, as some of us remember, it was 
 
WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 53 
 
 claimed that Dr. Tanner lived forty days without taking 
 any other food or drink than water. There is a well- 
 known case of a miner who lived twenty-three days, 
 buried in a coal-mine, without swallowing anything but 
 water sucked through a straw. 
 
 35. Important Articles of Diet. The most impor- 
 tant food is bread, " the staff of life," without which we 
 should indeed be poorly off. There is no single food 
 in the world which meets so many real wants of the 
 body. Bread may be made from the flour of many 
 kinds of seeds, such as wheat, oats, barley, rye, and 
 Indian corn ; but in this country it is nearly always 
 made from wheat. 
 
 Wheat-flour gives us starch, sugar, and a kind of 
 albumen called gluten ; hence wheat has nearly every- 
 thing to support life, except fat. When we eat bread 
 and butter, we have nearly a perfect food. 
 
 Corn-meal is a highly nutritious and cheap article of 
 food. Oatmeal and milk is a very cheap and nutritious 
 article of diet. The famous Dr. Johnson once spoke of 
 oats as " food for men in Scotland, and horses in Eng- 
 land ; " and a sturdy Scotchman added, " Yes, indeed ; 
 and where will you find such men and such horses ? " 
 
 Rice, though rich in fat-making food, is one of the 
 least nutritious of all the cereals. Pease and beans 
 contain more tissue-making food than any of the cereals, 
 and are as rich in starch as is wheat-flour. The common 
 or Irish potato is a most important article of diet ; 
 although it is more than two-thirds water, and has little 
 nutriment, yet it is easily digested, and is a cheap and 
 economical article of diet. 
 
54 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Ripe fruits, such as apples, pears, peaches, melons, 
 grapes, and oranges, though not of much nutritious 
 value, are prized for their agreeable flavor. Sugar and 
 molasses are both largely used in cooking and confec- 
 tionery. 
 
 Among animal foods milk is the simplest and best. 
 It is, indeed, a model food. It has flesh-forming, bone- 
 making, and heat-giving material in the right propor- 
 tions, especially for children. What a wonderful thing 
 is an egg ! It has a great amount of nutriment packed 
 away in the smallest space, and is easily digested. Its 
 value as food is equal to that of the same weight of 
 meat. 
 
 Meats, for the most part, consist of the muscles of 
 the various animals. The most common are beef, 
 mutton, lamb, veal, and pork. Meat is rich in albu- 
 men, and has more or less of fat. It is* a most impor- 
 tant article of diet, and, as a whole, is easily digested, 
 except, perhaps, veal and pork. Fish is at once a cheap 
 and nourishing food. Poultry is easy to digest, and 
 gives a deal of nourishment, especially for the sick. 
 Like all fats, butter is almost entirely a heat-giving 
 and force-making food. Cheese is nutritious, but is 
 not easily digested. 
 
 36. Artificial Drinks. Man has always contrived 
 many ways to flavor his drink. The greater portion of 
 almost every drink is water, but in various ways other 
 substances are mingled with it to give it a i/^asi. 
 taste. Tea, coffee, cocoa, beer, wine, and distilk 
 liquors are the more common artificial drinks. 
 
 Some persons, however, cannot drink a single cup 
 
WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 55 
 
 coffee or of tea without feeling the worse for it ; head- 
 ache, indigestion, heartburn, wakefulness at night, are 
 the most common effects. 
 
 Strong tea in large quantities should never be used. 
 Hard-working women and others too often make their 
 meals of dry toast and several cups of strong tea. 
 Such a habit is sure to result in indigestion. Taken 
 in large quantities tea may weaken the action of the 
 heart, and produce the peculiar beating, after much 
 exertion, known as palpitation ; hence we have the 
 "tea-drinker's heart." Coffee and tea are hurtful 
 articles of diet for growing boys and girls, and doubt- 
 less all would be in better health without them. 
 
 How often do we see people, over-heated and over- 
 tired, drink glass after glass of ice-water ! Such a fool- 
 ish habit often leads to serious results. Ice-water 
 quenches thirst only for a moment. Sooner or later it 
 weakens the strongest stomach. If you must drink it, 
 sip a little very slowly. 
 
 As you already know, the most common artificial 
 drinks are alcoholic liquors. In the next -chapter we 
 shall learn a great deal about their origin and nature. 
 
56 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS 
 
 37. Sweet Apple-Juice. When the juice of apples 
 is first pressed out it is sweet. A kind of sugar forms 
 in apples while they are ripening. This gives the juice 
 its sweet taste. Very soon after the apple-juice is 
 pressed out, unless it is kept very cold, it begins to 
 change and to lose its sweetness. Why ? Because 
 the sugar of the juice is being changed into something 
 else which is not sweet but strong and poisonous. 
 
 38. Ferments and what They do. What causes the 
 apple-juice to change ? Let me tell you : it is due to 
 minute forms of plant life called ferments. These rest 
 on the skins and stems of the fruit. When the apples 
 are ground up these ferments are washed into the juice. 
 If our eyes were strong enough we might see them on 
 the outside of the apples before they are ground, or 
 floating about in the air ready to fall into the juice as 
 soon as it is pressed out. 
 
 A single ferment could not do much harm ; but when 
 one gets into fruit juice in a moderately warm air it 
 begins to produce rapidly new ferments like itself. 
 Thus in a few hours after the juice is pressed out it 
 will contain countless numbers of ferments, each rapidly 
 putting out little buds that become new ferments, while 
 
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS 57 
 
 they at the same time change the sugar of the juice 
 into two substances entirely different from sugar. 
 
 The gas which you can see coming up out of the 
 liquid in little bubbles is one of these substances ; the 
 other is alcohol, a poison. You do not see the alcohol 
 because it mixes with the apple-juice and remains in it. 
 
 39. Alcohol. Alcohol is a poison 1 which in suffi- 
 cient quantities will cause death ; in small quantities, 
 its poisonous effects may show themselves more slowly, 
 and thus escape notice for a time. 
 
 40. Alcohol and Water Contrasted. Alcohol 
 looks like water, but its nature is very different from 
 that of water. Water will not burn ; alcohol will. 
 Water poured on a plant will cause it to grow and 
 thrive ; alcohol poured on a plant will kill it. A fish 
 which lives all its life in water would die at once if put 
 into alcohol. Every part of our bodies needs water ; 
 we should soon die if we could not get it. No part of 
 the body needs alcohol ; thousands of people die every 
 year from taking it into their bodies. 
 
 Water softens our food and helps it to digest ; 
 alcohol hardens many kinds of food. Water soothes 
 and refreshes the body, outside and inside ; alcohol 
 inflames and irritates every part of it. Water quenches 
 thirst ; alcohol creates thirst. It is the nature of 
 alcohol to create in one who takes it a desire for more. 
 This is as true of small quantities as of large. 
 
 41. The Appetite for Alcohol. Alcohol has the 
 power to create an appetite which will lead a man to 
 sacrifice health, property, ability to work, the respect of 
 his friends, and everything that makes life worth living, 
 
 1 See note 4, page 232. 
 
58 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 for the sake of obtaining drinks that contain the deadly 
 poison. This is called the alcoholic appetite. This 
 appetite is not like the ordinary appetite for food. It 
 is a diseased craving, the result of injuries that the 
 alcohol itself has caused. 
 
 The appetite for food is a natural appetite. When 
 enough food is taken to supply the wants of the body 
 for the time, the appetite is satisfied. The same is true 
 of thirst. When enough water is drank to supply the 
 need of the body in health, no more is wanted. But 
 every drink taken to satisfy x the craving for alcohol 
 leaves behind a worse craving for more. 
 
 Men who have devoted years to trying to rescue those 
 who have become victims of the appetite for alcohol 
 say that, with all their efforts, only a few are finally 
 saved. Men who have abstained for months or even 
 years may be suddenly overpowered by the slightest 
 taste or even smell of an alcoholic drink. 
 
 Drunkenness is due more to the nature of the drink 
 than to the weakness of the drinker. The greatest 
 weakness of the drinker is in beginning to take the 
 drink that has the power to make him its slave. 
 
 42. Alcohol as a Flavoring for Food. It is the 
 custom of some housekeepers to use wine or brandy as 
 a flavoring for jellies, pudding-sauces, mince pies, and 
 other delicacies. Knowing what we do of the nature of 
 alcohol, it is easy for us to see how wrong and danger- 
 ous is such a practice. It may create a taste for 
 alcoholic drinks, or arouse an inherited or acquired 
 taste in one who is trying to overcome it. 
 
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS 59 
 
 43. The Law of Fermentation. The process by 
 which the sugar of a sweet fruit or plant is changed to 
 alcohol is called vinous fermentation. There are other 
 kinds of fermentation, produced by other kinds of fer- 
 ments. Each fermentation has its special kind of fer- 
 ment, but one law holds good for every kind. It is this : 
 
 FERMENTATION ENTIRELY CHANGES THE NATURE OF 
 THE SUBSTANCE FERMENTED. 
 
 Thus if cider is left standing in a warm place, another 
 kind of ferment gets into it, and changes the alcohol 
 into a new substance, entirely different from alcohol or 
 sugar. This new substance is acetic acid, and the 
 liquid containing it, which was first sweet apple-juice, 
 and then cider, is now vinegar. There is no alcohol in 
 vinegar. 
 
 44. The Evils of Cider-drinking. The fermented 
 drink made from the juice of apples is called cider. 
 
 - When the juice is first pressed out, it is said to be 
 "sweet cider." As it grows older, more and more 
 alcohol forms in it, and it is then said to be growing 
 " hard." Hard cider is often one-tenth alcohol. 
 
 A mistaken idea very commonly held is that cider 
 only a few days old contains such a very small quantity 
 of alcohol as to be practically harmless. Experience 
 proves that even such cider has enough alcohol in it 
 
 -to arouse the thirst for stronger drinks in one who is 
 trying to break off from their use. In moderately 
 warm weather, alcohol is found in cider in about six 
 hours after it has been pressed out. We need not go 
 far to find those who have been led to drunkenness by 
 cider, for a little alcohol in cider or in any other drink 
 has the power to create an appetite for more. 
 
6O HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Cider seems also to have the power to make the 
 drinker ill-tempered. It is a marked trait of cider- 
 drinkers that they are cross and ugly in their disposi- 
 tions. 
 
 45. Wine a Dangerous Drink. Ferments are found 
 upon the skins and stems of grapes as they ripen. If 
 the juice of the grapes is then pressed out, the ferments 
 are washed into it, and turn the sugar of the juice into 
 gas and alcohol. The gas will escape in bubbles while 
 the alcohol will remain in the liquid. Such a liquid is 
 called wine. We do not see the alcohol in the wine ; but 
 it is there, and can be separated from it as we shall soon 
 learn. We can also trace its presence by its effects 
 upon those who drink the wine. 
 
 We must remember that wherever alcohol is found 
 its nature is the same, and that it gives its harmful 
 qualities to any liquid containing it. 
 
 It is an error to suppose that because grapes are 
 good, a drink made by fermenting their juice is also 
 good. We have learned that fermentation changes the 
 nature of the substance fermented. Vinous fermenta- 
 tion changes healthful grape-juice into poisonous wine 
 by changing its sugar, which is a food, into alcohol, 
 which is a poison. 
 
 The alcohol in wine is capable of creating an appetite 
 for more alcohol. In Persia, France, Switzerland, 
 California, and other countries where wine is made, 
 drunkenness is a great scourge, especially during the 
 wine-making season. It has been claimed that the use 
 of " light wines," i.e., wines containing only a small 
 amount of alcohol, prevents drunkenness ; but in coun- 
 
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS 6l 
 
 tries where such "light wines " are as free as water, the 
 drunkenness resulting from their use shows that there 
 is no foundation for such a claim. 
 
 The tendency of drinking wine, or any other liquor 
 containing alcohol, is to lead to drunkenness. 
 
 46. Beer and its Dangers. Fermented drinks con- 
 taining alcohol are made from liquids having in them a 
 certain kind of sugar like that in fruit juices. This 
 kind of sugar can be obtained from starch by keeping 
 it warm and moist for a certain time. Barley and other 
 grains containing starch are therefore used to make 
 one kind of fermented liquors called "malt liquors." 
 In making these barley, or whatever grain is used, is 
 kept warm and moist until it begins to sprout, which 
 is the sign that its starch has turned to sugar. 
 
 It is then heated to kill the sprouts, ground, and 
 soaked in water ; and in this way a sweet liquid is 
 obtained. Yeast, which is one kind of ferment, is then 
 put in, and hops which give the liquid a bitter taste. 
 The yeast changes the sugar of this grain-juice to 
 alcohol and a gas. The gas bubbles up to the top 
 where it leaves a froth. The alcohol remains in the 
 liquid, which is now called beer. 
 
 Beer is used as a drink by many people who do not 
 understand its real nature, or who have only learned its 
 nature after having formed such a liking for it that they 
 cannot easily give it up. It has been called "liquid 
 food " because it was thought that the substances 
 which make the grain good for food were in the beer. 
 But, as we have seen, fermentation changes the nature 
 of the sugar obtained from the starch of the grain. 
 
62 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 In this change nearly all the food value of the grain is 
 destroyed and a poison is left in its place. The man 
 who eats the bread he could buy for the price of a glass 
 of beer, and drinks pure water, gets real nourishment 
 and no poison. 
 
 47. Beer no Preventive of Drunkenness. It has 
 been urged that a more general use of beer would pre- 
 vent the drunkenness caused by drinking the liquors 
 that contain more alcohol, such as rum, whiskey, 
 brandy, and gin. We have only to look to the coun- 
 tries where beer is used in nearly every family, to see 
 that it is no preventive of drunkenness. True to its 
 nature, the alcohol in the beer makes the drinker crave 
 more beer to get more alcohol. In Germany, Belgium, 
 and other countries where beer is almost a universal 
 beverage, drunkenness is becoming more and more a 
 curse to the land. What is lacking in quantity of 
 alcohol in the beer is made up by the quantity of beer 
 drank. 1 
 
 48. Beer gives a False Appearance of Health. A 
 stout, healthy-looking brewer's drayman boasted that 
 he had drunk a gallon of beer every day for the last 
 thirty years, and that he was never in better health 
 than at that moment. The next day he died of 
 apoplexy. It is a fact well known to physicians and 
 surgeons that a small cut, which on a healthy person 
 would heal in a short time, on the beer-drinker, who 
 may look the very picture of health, often becomes a 
 dangerous wound from which blood poisoning and death 
 may result. A prominent London physician says, " A 
 copious beer-drinker wears his heart on his sleeve, bare 
 
 1 See note 5, page 233. 
 
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS 63 
 
 to a death wound even from a rusty nail or the claw of 
 a cat." 1 
 
 49. Beer-drinking from a Moral Point of View. 
 Facts gained from wide observation show that beer 
 more than any other liquor tends to make the drinker 
 brutal. It seems to deaden conscience and blunt the 
 finer sensibilities, and thus prepare a man for commit- 
 ting crime. 
 
 The fact that beer contains less alcohol than some 
 other drinks is no argument in its favor when we re- 
 member that the nature of alcohol is the same wherever 
 or in whatever quantity it is found. The alcohol in 
 even the weakest beer has the same power of creating 
 an appetite for more that an equal quantity of alcohol 
 in any other liquor has. 
 
 50. Fermentation in Bread-making. Fermentation 
 is employed in making bread. The flour from which 
 the bread is made contains a small quantity of free 
 sugar. Yeast is mixed with the flour and water, and 
 the dough is kept warm and moist until the yeast 
 changes this free sugar to alcohol and gas. 
 
 But the fermentation is soon stopped, and the alcohol 
 is driven out by the heat of the oven in which the bread 
 is baked, while the gas, pushing its way up through the 
 dough, makes the bread light. To get this light 
 sponginess is the purpose for which the yeast is used. 
 
 Thus we see that no one need to be afraid to eat 
 bread raised with yeast, through fear of its containing 
 alcohol ; for well-baked bread contains no alcohol. You 
 may be sure that bread never gave any one an alcoholic 
 appetite. 
 
 1 See note 6, page 234. 
 
64 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 51. Distilled Liquors. When water is heated to a 
 certain temperature it begins to turn into steam. 
 Alcohol will turn to vapor at a lower temperature than 
 water. Therefore, by heating a fermented liquid the 
 alcohol in it can be readily driven off in the form of 
 vapor. This is condensed in a cool receiver, and the 
 result is a liquid containing much more alcohol than 
 the one heated. Some water will follow the alcohol, 
 for alcohol has a special liking for water. This process 
 is called distillation. 
 
 Brandy is distilled in this way from wine. Rum is 
 distilled from the fermented juice of the sugar-cane ; 
 whiskey from a fermented liquid made from corn and 
 rye ; gin from rye or barley. Distilled liquors all con- 
 tain a large proportion of alcohol, often as much as one- 
 half. They lead to the swift destruction of whoever 
 drinks them. 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 65 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 
 
 52. What is meant by Digestion. When a sick 
 person is very feeble indeed, especially from the loss 
 of blood, the doctors sometimes do a remarkable 
 surgical operation : they open the sick person's vein, 
 and inject warm milk or beef-tea, or perhaps fresh 
 blood directly from another person's veins. They 
 inject enough of this to revive the sick man, and 
 thus perhaps save his life. But no one would ever 
 think of feeding a person many days in this unnatural 
 way. Of course, the best way to be fed is by the good 
 old mode of eating and drinking. 
 
 A part of what we eat is not nutritious, and would 
 clog up the body instead of feeding it. The waste 
 part of the food, therefore, must be got rid of ; but 
 the nourishing part, after it has gone through many 
 changes, and has had some things added to it, be- 
 comes at last the living fluid called blood. Can any- 
 thing be more wonderful than that flesh and vegeta- 
 bles, and bread and water, and other things that have 
 no life in themselves, should, when once taken into 
 the body, change into living flesh, living bone, living 
 skin ? 
 
66 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 The process by which food is thus made fit to mix 
 with the blood is called digestion. 
 
 In a general way, we may compare this process to a 
 vegetable-garden, where side by side, from the same 
 
 soil, grow pease, corn, tomatoes, 
 pungent horse-radish, and sharp 
 peppers, and poisonous weeds 
 by the fence on the edge of the 
 garden. 
 
 53. What takes Place in the 
 Mouth. The Teeth. The food 
 is broken into pieces in the 
 STOMAOH mouth by the teeth, valuable 
 little jewels, of which the jaws 
 are the jewel-cases. During our 
 lifetime we have two sets of 
 teeth. The first set, twenty in 
 number, begins to appear when 
 a child is about six months old. 
 A child may really be born with 
 teeth. Some day you will read 
 in your history that Louis XIV., 
 a great king of France, Richard 
 III., a wicked king of England, 
 canal. and Mirabeau, a famous French 
 
 orator, were born into the world with teeth. 
 
 When we are about six years old, the first set, com- 
 monly called the milk-teeth, drops out ; and the second 
 or permanent set of teeth, thirty-two in number, gradu- 
 ally takes its place. Each tooth is set down into a 
 socket in the jaw-bone, like a post in a hole. The teeth 
 
 FIG. 24. Diagram of the Digestive 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 
 
 6 7 
 
 are coated with a thin layer of a very hard substance, 
 called enamel. Each tooth has inside a fine tube filled 
 with blood-vessels and nerves. When a tooth is de- 
 cayed, and the nerve is open to the air, it makes it 
 ache. As some of you know, it hurts to have a tooth 
 pulled out. 
 
 54. Mixing the Food with Saliva. The food, 
 chewed by the teeth, is rolled around by the tongue, 
 
 The teeth of one-half Jhe jaw separated. 
 
 CUSPIDS J^INCISOR9 
 
 CEMENT 
 
 FIG. 25. Vertical Section through 
 a Tooth lodged in its Socket. 
 
 FlG. 26. The Teeth. 
 
 hard pressed against the roof of the mouth, and then 
 swallowed. During this time the food is well mixed 
 with the fluid of the mouth, called saliva, which flows 
 from a number of little spongy organs inside the 
 mouth. Probably you have had the "mumps," or at 
 least have seen some friend who has had the disease. 
 What is it ? Why, sometimes these little organs, of 
 
68 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 which there is one under each ear, become inflamed, 
 and grow large ; and this is known as the "mumps." 
 
 The saliva wets the food, and so makes it easier to 
 swallow. It has, besides, another very important work 
 to do : it acts on the starchy part of the food, chan- 
 ging some of it into sugar. You know that a piece of 
 bread grows sweet in the mouth when it is well wet 
 
 FIG. 27. Section of Jaws, showing the Milk and Second Teeth. 
 
 with saliva. This work of the saliva is important, else 
 starch could not be dissolved, and therefore would do 
 us no good as food, while sugar is readily dissolved. 
 
 When we are not eating, the saliva flows only in 
 small quantities, just enough to keep the mouth com- 
 fortably moist ; but when we begin to eat, these little 
 factories do a brisk business, and pour into the mouth 
 a large quantity, about half a pint, it is said, at a single 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 69 
 
 meal. The sight, or even the thought, of a savory 
 dish, will make the saliva flow, or, as we say, "make 
 the mouth water." The sight of a piece of meat will 
 make the saliva run out of a hungry dog's mouth. Run 
 your finger to and fro in the mouth several times, and 
 notice how quickly the saliva flows. 
 
 Smoking and chewing tobacco cause an undue 
 amount of saliva to flow from these glands, thus 
 making the mouth dry. The constant spitting of 
 tobacco-juice wastes the saliva needed to digest the 
 food, and after a time causes ill digestion. Fear will 
 stop the flow of saliva : hence in India they try some- 
 times to detect a thief by making those who are sus- 
 pected chew rice. The person from whose mouth it 
 comes out dryest is judged to be the thief. 
 
 We can now understand how necessary it is to 
 chew our food well with our teeth before swallowing 
 it. If we eat very fast, and bolt our food nearly whole, 
 we get little good from it. It does not digest easily, 
 and sooner or later we shall suffer for our negligence. 
 
 55. How the Food is swallowed. The food is now 
 ready to be swallowed. The soft, moist mass, pushed 
 into the back of the mouth, is forced down the gullet, or 
 food-pipe, by a peculiar m.otion something like the wav- 
 ing of the skin of a worm's body when it is crawling. If 
 you watch a horse's neck when he is drinking, you 
 will see the peculiar motion along his food-pipe. A 
 wave of motion follows just behind the food and pushes 
 it down. 
 
 Another hollow tube, in front of the gullet, opens 
 into the back of the mouth, for you know it is as 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 necessary to breathe air into our lungs as it is to take 
 food into our stomach, and this other tube, or wind- 
 pipe as it is called, is therefore for the air to go down. 
 If the food were to slip down the wind-pipe instead 
 
 of the food-pipe, 
 we should be 
 choked to death. 
 We all know, when 
 a bit of food goes 
 " the wrong way," 
 how we have to 
 cough until we get 
 it up. In order, 
 then, to prevent 
 mistakes, the top 
 of the wind-pipe is 
 protected by a 
 trap-door. 
 
 A very clever 
 
 fellow this little trap-door is. 
 When we are just going to swal- 
 low a morsel of food, down it 
 goes quick and tight, and keeps 
 the food out of the wind-pipe ; 
 FIG. 28.-section showing Passages but, as soon as the food is down, 
 
 to the Gullet and Windpipe. 
 
 up jumps the trap-door, so as to 
 let air pass down to the lungs. This wonderfully use- 
 ful little servant does not have any common name, but 
 is called the epiglottis, meaning "upon the tongue." 
 
 56. What takes Place in the Stomach. The food, 
 a moistened, partly digested mass, has now reached the 
 
 LOWER JAW 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON Jl 
 
 stomach. The stomach is a pear-shaped bag, capable of 
 holding about two quarts. It lies across the upper part 
 of the abdomen, a little toward the left side. The size 
 of the stomach depends upon what there is in it. As 
 we fill it with food, it swells out larger, like a toy bal- 
 loon, which becomes smaller or larger according to the 
 amount of air in it. 
 
 The stomach has two openings, the gullet end, 
 through which the food enters, and the out-going end, 
 a kind of muscular 
 ring. This out-going 
 end, called the " gate- 
 keeper," is made in 
 such a wonderful 
 manner that any food 
 trying to get through 
 too soon is sent back 
 again, so that only 
 properly digested 
 food is allowed to FlG " 29 ' ~ The Stomach ' 
 
 pass. Would not that carpenter be called a very clever 
 man who could make a door which would open and shut 
 of itself at the right time, which would let only the 
 right sort of people go in, and would crowd away the 
 wrong ones ? 
 
 As we begin to eat, the walls of the stomach stretch 
 themselves out to make room for the food, and begin to 
 move gently with a wavy motion, which carries the food 
 round and round, as if it were being churned. This 
 churning motion is slow and gentle at first, but gets 
 faster and faster as digestion goes on. 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 As soon as the food arrives in the stomach, thou- 
 sands of tiny glands in its walls pour out on the 
 food a fluid called the gastric juice. This flows in great 
 abundance several quarts, probably, every day, 
 and has in it a peculiar substance, called "pepsin," 
 which is necessary to the digestion of food in the stom- 
 ach. The gastric juice dissolves, and thus helps digest, 
 that part of food which has albumen in it, the lean 
 meat, gluten of flour, and so on. A part of the con- 
 tents of the stomach, 
 being easily dissolved, 
 and so already suffi- 
 ciently digested in the 
 stomach, need not go 
 any farther, but passes 
 at once into the blood. 
 The way in which it 
 gets from the stomach 
 into the blood is very 
 curious indeed. All 
 over the walls of the 
 
 stomach on the inside are thousands of very small 
 blood-vessels with very thin walls. The dissolved food 
 soaks out of the stomach through these very thin walls 
 into the blood-vessels and so reaches the blood. The 
 food not dissolved in the stomach, and needing further 
 digestion, passes into the intestines. 
 
 If we could only see all these wonderful things going 
 on inside of us, especially in the stomach ! It would 
 be more instructive than watching the bees make honey 
 through the glass windows of their hives. Well, do 
 
 FIG. 30. Section of Stomach. 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 73 
 
 you know that the inside working of a man's stomach 
 has really been watched through an opening in his side ? 
 About sixty .years ago a Canadian named Alexis St. 
 Martin was accidentally shot in the left side. After 
 much pain and suffering he recovered ; but the opening 
 into the body never quite healed up, but remained a 
 kind of window through which his doctor could look in 
 and see what was going on in his stomach. The doctor 
 saw the gastric juice 
 pour in upon the 
 food, and he found 
 that some things 
 were much more 
 easily digested than 
 others. He also dis- 
 covered that, when 
 the young man ate 
 things which were 
 unwholesome, the in- 
 side Of the Stomach FIG. 31. The inside of the Stomach, shbwing the 
 became red and in- Opening of the Glands, highly magnified. 
 
 flamed, and did not do its work properly. Thus we see 
 that the stomach has a great deal of hard work to do ; 
 it is a busy workshop, where all that is eaten is partly 
 made ready for the use of the body. It was a favorite 
 saying of Frederick the Great, that " an army moved 
 on its stomach." 
 
 57. How the Intestines do their Work. When 
 the food has been properly prepared in the stomach, 
 the gate-keeper of the stomach opens the gate for the 
 partly digested food to pass out into the long tube 
 
74 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 known as the intestines, or the bowels. This tube is 
 about thirty feet long, but it is so rolled up and folded 
 away in the body that it takes up very little room. In 
 the first foot of the intestine, the food is mixed with 
 two fluids which flow into it through two little pipes. 
 
 One is of a greenish-yellow color, called the bile, 
 which is made in the liver. 
 
 The other, called pancreatic juice, by the pancreas, or 
 sweetbread, as we call it in animals. 
 
 The liver is so important a part of our bodies, that 
 we must learn a few things about it. It is the largest 
 organ in the body, and weighs about five pounds. It 
 is on the right side, in the upper part of the abdomen, 
 and its lower edge is sometimes easily felt just below 
 the ribs. 
 
 The bile is made by the liver, and stored up in a 
 little pear-shaped bag attached to the liver, called the 
 gall-bladder. This little bag is made aware, in the 
 twinkling of an eye, when the food enters the first 
 part of the intestines, and straightway pours out its 
 greenish fluid. The next time the cook cleans a fowl, 
 ask her to show you the little greenish bladder which 
 she calls the gall, and which she takes care not to 
 burst, because it holds a bitter fluid which, if spilt upon 
 the fowl, would quite ruin its flavor. 
 
 The liver is a very busy workshop ; in fact, it does 
 double duty. It is the great rag-picker of the body. 
 It makes, out of the waste matter of the blood, the 
 bile which is so necessary to our health. Again, the 
 liver is a storehouse, storing up a kind of sugar, which 
 is gradually doled out to the blood as it is needed for 
 the use of the body. 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 75 
 
 The fat we eat is not digested in the -mouth or 
 stomach, but in the first part of the intestine. The 
 bile helps divide the fat into the tiniest pieces, and 
 so fits it to be taken up by the blood. The fluid 
 from the sweetbread also aids in the digestion of fat, 
 finishes the digestion of the starchy foods not already 
 changed into sugar by the saliva, and carries on the 
 digestion of other foods which the stomach has failed 
 to do. 
 
 58. How the Blood feeds on the Food. Now 
 that the food has been acted upon by the digestive 
 fluids, and has become a thick, creamy mass, it remains 
 for us to see how the rich, nutritious part is to get into 
 the blood. 
 
 This is done chiefly by two sets of vessels, the 
 blood-vessels and the lacteals or lymphatics. 
 
 The process by which the digested matters are taken 
 into the blood is called absorption. 
 
 The inner lining of the digestive tube is richly 
 supplied with blood-vessels. Certain parts of the food 
 can readily soak through the delicate walls of these 
 vessels, and so are taken directly into the blood. 
 
 The inside lining of the intestines is not smooth, 
 like the outside, but has a velvety appearance. Mil- 
 lions of short, velvety threads, called "villi," meaning 
 tufts of hair, hang down, like very small tongues, into 
 the inside of the intestines. They are tiny affairs, 
 about one-thirtieth of an inch long, and a five-cent 
 piece would cover five hundred of them. They have 
 the look of the pile on plush. We are, of course, 
 familiar with this appearance in tripe. 
 
76 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 In each one of these villi is a network of the finest 
 blood-vessels, and a tube called a lacteal, meaning 
 "milky," because it carries a white, milky fluid. Mil- 
 lions of these lacteals dip down into the intestines. 
 
 JUNCTION OF 
 THORACIC DUCT WITH 
 LEFT SUBCLAVIANYE1N 
 
 HORACIG 
 DUCT 
 
 FIG. 32. Lacteals ending in Thoracic Duct, which empties into a Vein in the Neck. 
 
 like little root-fibres, and suck up, like so many open 
 mouths, the fatty matters of the food from its creamy 
 contents. The lacteals, after passing through a num- 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 77 
 
 ber of glands in the abdomen, like way-stations on a 
 railroad, unite into larger tubes, and finally open into 
 a little sac in the loins. 
 
 Leading upward from this is a tube about eighteen 
 inches long and about as large as a lead-pencil, called 
 the thoracic duct, which carries the fluid upwards beside 
 the backbone, and pours it into a large vein situated 
 close to the heart. 
 
 Now we must remember that absorption has really 
 to do with a work of far wider character than that of 
 merely keeping the lacteals busy. The lacteals are 
 simply those lymphatics which have their roots in the 
 villi of the intestines. In all parts of the body, except 
 the brain, spinal cord, eyeball, and tendons, we find 
 thin-walled vessels busily at work taking up, and mak- 
 ing over anew, waste fluids or surplus materials derived 
 from the blood and tissues generally. They seem to 
 start out of the part in which they are found, like the 
 rootlets of a plant in the soil. The tiny roots join 
 together, and make larger roots. They carry a color- 
 less fluid called lymph, very much like blood without 
 the red corpuscles. 
 
 The tubes in which this fluid flows are called 
 lymphatics. These tubes have rounded bodies at many 
 points of their course, scattered along like depots along 
 a line of railroad, called lymphatic glands. 
 
 They seem to be factories to make over the lymph in 
 some way, and fit it for renewing the blood. Most of 
 the lymphatics at last unite with the lacteals, and 
 empty their contents into the thoracic duct. Thus, 
 Nature, like a careful housekeeper, uses up even the 
 
78 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 waste matters of our bodies, in providing them with 
 nourishment. 
 
 The nutritive matter thus absorbed from the food 
 leaps into the blood-current, carrying with it a renewal 
 of life and power. The life of the body is thus, as 
 you see, supported by the nutritive part of the food, 
 every drop of which will turn into blood, the blood 
 which flows through our hearts, nourishes our limbs, 
 and is flushed into every nook of our bodies. 
 
 The lower part of the intestines is a kind of tem- 
 porary storehouse for undigested and waste matter, 
 which must be got rid of as speedily as possible. 
 
 59. How much to eat. The quantity of food 
 needed to keep the body in good health varies very 
 much. The greater the amount of exercise, the more 
 food is needed to make up for the waste. During the 
 time of growth, a still greater quantity is needed to 
 build up new tissues : hence growing children generally 
 have a good appetite and a vigorous digestion. The 
 same holds good of persons getting well of some long 
 and wasting sickness. 
 
 The quantity required also depends very much upon 
 one's business. Those who work hard and long, either 
 with the body or mind, as teamsters, blacksmiths, 
 farmers, doctors, and editors, need a goodly amount of 
 nutritious food. Those who work in-doors, as clerks, 
 milliners, students, and bookkeepers, can get along 
 with a smaller quantity. In cold weather and in cold 
 climates, a greater quantity of fuel-food is necessary 
 than in warm weather and in a tropical climate. 
 
 An appetite for plain, well-cooked food is a safe 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 
 
 79 
 
 guide to follow. Every person in good health and 
 with moderate exercise should eat well ; he should 
 
 FIG. 33. Blackboard Diagram of the Digestive Canal. 
 
 have a keen appetite for his food, and enjoy it. Young, 
 growing, and vigorous persons should eat slowly, and 
 until the appetite is fully satisfied. 
 
80 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 It is easy to know when we are eating too much. 
 An overloaded stomach makes itself known by a 
 sense of fulness, uneasiness, drowsiness after meals, 
 and sometimes a real distress. If we keep on eating 
 too much and too rich food, as growing children are 
 apt to do, the complexion becomes muddy, the face 
 marred with blotches and pimples, the breath has an 
 unpleasant odor, and the general look of the counte- 
 nance is dull and unwholesome. 
 
 60. 'What to eat. Food should be both nutritious 
 and digestible. It is nutritious in proportion to its 
 capacity to furnish suitable substances to be taken into 
 the blood. It is digestible according to the ease with 
 which it is acted upon by the digestive fluids. Certain 
 vegetable foods are both nutritious and digestible. A 
 man will grow strong and keep healthy on any of them. 
 
 The splendid races of Northern India live on bar- 
 ley, wheat, millet, and rice as their staple food. In 
 Southern India, millions of people live on pease and 
 rice. Many generations of the hardiest men in the 
 world, in the north of England and Scotland, have 
 lived on oatmeal and milk. The Roman gladiator was 
 trained on barley ; and the Roman soldier endured his 
 long marches and severe fighting on grain boiled in 
 water, when meat could not be had. 
 
 We may safely eat some animal food every day, yet 
 the vegetable albumens supply all that is needed for 
 the nourishment of the body. Solomon briefly puts an 
 important lesson upon this point : " Excess of meats 
 bringeth sickness." 
 
 William Cullen Bryant, one of the hardest literary 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 8 1 
 
 workers of our times, died at the age of eighty-four 
 from an accident. His breakfast was made of hominy 
 and milk, with a little fruit. He ate meat only once a 
 day. For supper, no tea, but bread, butter, and fruit. 
 Yet when he was over eighty he could do more literary 
 work on this simple diet than most ordinary men of 
 middle age. 
 
 Beef, pork, ham, oysters, and rich pastry should be 
 given sparingly to young people. The plainest and 
 simplest diet is the best. It is much better for a child, 
 or any one in fact, to go to bed on a supper of oatmeal, 
 baked apples, or mush and milk, than of hot biscuit, 
 cake, pie, and fried meat ; better to begin a day's work 
 with a breakfast of oatmeal, stale bread, a soft-boiled 
 egg, and a glass of milk, than of strong coffee, sausage, 
 and hot bread. Frying food is the worst possible mode 
 of cooking it, and should never be done when it can be 
 avoided. 
 
 Some persons are made sick by eating certain arti- 
 cles of food which to most people are harmless. Some 
 are thus affected by various kinds of shell-fish, others 
 by eggs or by fruit. The story is told of a lady who 
 could digest hard salt-beef, but who suffered dreadful 
 pain if she ate a single strawberry ; one person was 
 thrown into convulsions whenever he ate onions ; 
 Francis the First, a king of France, could not eat 
 bread ; and there are several cases recorded of people 
 who had to avoid apples and cheese. 
 
 Experience is the only guide for us as to what will 
 disagree with us ; and for this reason we have given 
 only hints, not rules, for selecting our daily articles of 
 food. 
 
82 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Eating too frequently, as well as too much at a time, 
 will cause indigestion. Th stomach is not an organ 
 intended, as is the heart, to be constantly at work ; 
 after it has done its work, it requires a short period of 
 rest. Most articles of food need from three to five 
 hours to digest. 
 
 61. When to eat. Three meals a day, from five to 
 six hours apart, arranged according to our occupation, 
 should be eaten. The stomach, like other organs, 
 does its work best when its tasks are done at regular 
 periods : hence regularity in eating is of the utmost im- 
 portance. Eating out of meal-times should be strictly 
 avoided, for it robs the stomach of its needed rest. 
 
 Children should not be allowed to eat " between 
 meals." Food eaten when the body and mind are very 
 much fatigued is not well digested. Rest, even for a 
 few minutes, should be taken before a full meal. It is 
 a good plan to lie down, or sit quietly and read, fifteen 
 minutes before eating. 
 
 Severe exercise and hard study just after a full meal 
 are very apt to stop digestion. Remember the story 
 of the two hounds. Both were fed alike in the morn- 
 ing. One was taken out on a hunt, the other was tied 
 up at home. When the master came back from the 
 hunt both dogs were killed, and their stomachs exam- 
 ined. It was found that the dog that hunted still had 
 the stomach full of food, while that of the stay-at-home 
 was empty. 
 
 The reason is plain : after a full meal, the vital forces 
 of the body are called upon to help the stomach digest 
 the food. If they are forced, instead of this, to help 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 83 
 
 the muscles or brain, digestion is hindered, and a feel- 
 ing of dulness and heaviness follows. This in time 
 often results in the common form of ill-digestion called 
 "dyspepsia." Healthy persons rarely need food for 
 two or three hours before going to bed, When we are 
 asleep all the vital forces are at a low ebb, and diges- 
 tion is difficult. 
 
 We should make it a point not to skip a meal unless 
 forced to do so. Children, and even grown-up people, 
 often have the bad habit of going to school or to work 
 in a hurry, without eating any breakfast. There is 
 sure to be "an all-gone" feeling at the stomach before 
 another meal-time ; and this, if neglected, is sure, 
 sooner or later, to cause serious injury to the health. 
 
 The state of the mind has a great deal to do with 
 digestion, as with the use of every other part of the 
 body. An old Eastern fable tells of a traveller who met 
 the Plague coming from Bagdad. 
 
 " You have been making great havoc there," said the 
 man, pointing to the city. 
 
 " Not so great," replied the Plague. " I killed only 
 one-third of those who died ; the other two-thirds killed 
 themselves with fright." 
 
 Sudden fear or joy, or any startling news, may take 
 away the appetite at once : hence, so far as we can, we 
 should laugh and talk at our meals, and drive away all 
 anxious thoughts and unpleasant topics of discussion, 
 If hunger is a good sauce, so also is a jolly laugh. 
 
 62. How to eat. Eat slowly, and chew the food 
 thoroughly. It is not only bad manners to eat rapidly, 
 but it is a violation of the simplest law of digestion. 
 
84 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Our teeth were made to chew the food, and the saliva 
 to moisten it and help along digestion. If the food is 
 taken slowly, and well chewed, the saliva and the gas- 
 tric juice act more readily. 
 
 Do not take too much drink with the food. If we do 
 so, the flow of the saliva is checked, and digestion is 
 thus hindered. Do not take the food and drink too hot 
 or too cold. Such substances as very hot bread and 
 coffee injure the enamel of the teeth, and are digested 
 but slowly in the stomach. If the food and drink are 
 taken too cold, undue heat is taken from the stomach, 
 and digestion delayed. If we drink freely of ice-water 
 or cold well-water, it will take a long time for the 
 stomach to regain its natural heat. 
 
 Drinking freely of very cold water when the body is 
 heated, is also a dangerous practice, and, aside from its 
 ill effects on digestion, has occasionally resulted fatally. 
 It is a poor plan to spur on a flagging appetite with 
 highly spiced food and bitter drinks. An undue 
 amount of pepper, mustard, horse-radish, pickles, fancy 
 meat-dressings, and highly seasoned sauces, may stim- 
 ulate digestion for the time, but, used in excess, soon 
 weaken it. 
 
 63. The Proper Cooking of Food. The proper cook- 
 ing and preparation of food is of great importance. It 
 is one of the marked differences between savage and 
 civilized life. It is a serious error to think that the 
 care and labor of the right preparation of food is a 
 degrading work that can be safely left to unskilled, 
 ignorant hands. It requires careful and painstaking 
 intelligence of no mean order. 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 85 
 
 Whoever is intrusted with this duty for themselves 
 and others should study to secure the variety and method 
 of preparation that the general laws of health demand, 
 and also what is best adapted to individual needs and 
 tastes. 
 
 We should not live to eat ; but healthful, well-cooked 
 food, adapted to the physical needs, taste, and power of 
 digestion, of the individual, is one essential to the best 
 kind of life. A neatly set table, with good food, well 
 served, is not only an evidence of civilization, but tends 
 to make us better and happier. 
 
 Young women who work in offices, shops, and fac- 
 tories, and know nothing of cooking or other house- 
 keeping duties, should improve the opportunities offered 
 by cooking-schools, or in other ways fit themselves for 
 such duties, before going into homes of their own. All 
 the difference between a well-ordered, happy home and 
 one where disorder and ill-temper rule, is often due to 
 the possession or lack of such knowledge on the part of 
 one who should be the home-keeper. 
 
 The man who leaves his home after an unsatisfactory 
 meal of poorly cooked food is far more likely to yield to 
 the temptation to step into a saloon and take a drink 
 than the man who starts out well fed. The alcohol will 
 deaden for a time the uncomfortable feeling that results 
 from the poor' food, and thus a bad habit is easily formed 
 of resorting to drinks containing alcohol as a supple- 
 ment for proper food. 
 
 The one whose duty it is to provide, plan, and prepare 
 the meals for a family is often responsible for the habits 
 as well as the health of that family. 
 
86 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 64. Care of the Teeth. We should take the very 
 best care of our teeth, and keep them as long as pos- 
 sible. Teeth are apt to decay. We may inherit poor 
 and soft teeth. Our ways of living may make bad teeth 
 worse. They should be thoroughly cleansed night and 
 morning with a soft brush and warm water. Castile 
 soap, and some simple tooth-powder with no grit in it, 
 may be sometimes used. The brush should be used on 
 the inner or back side of the teeth, as well as on the 
 front side. 
 
 It is also very important to clean the spaces between 
 the teeth, and to remove every particle of food ; and that 
 can be best done by passing floss silk between them. 
 
 The enamel once broken or destroyed is never re- 
 newed ; the tooth is left to decay, slowly but surely : 
 hence we must be on our guard against certain things 
 which hurt the enamel. Picking the teeth with pins 
 and needles is hurtful. We should never crack nuts, 
 crush hard candy, or bite off stout thread, with the 
 teeth. 
 
 Dirty and decayed teeth are a frequent cause of an 
 offensive breath and a foul stomach. We should exer- 
 cise the greatest care to save the teeth. The last resort 
 of all is to lose a tooth by having it taken out. Some 
 one has quaintly remarked, that to lose a grinder is very 
 much like losing an old friend. 
 
 65. Effect of Alcohol on Stomach Digestion. 
 Alcoholic liquors are a mild or a strong irritant of the 
 stomach, just as they are taken raw or diluted, or in 
 small or large quantity. Their habitual use leads to 
 most distressing forms of stomach disease. The color 
 
DIGESTION, AND HOW IT GOES ON 87 
 
 of the inside of a healthy stomach is a deep pink, like 
 the inside of the mouth and throat. Now, if we could 
 look into the stomach, as Dr. Beaumont looked into the 
 stomach of Alexis St. Martin, just after taking raw 
 spirit, we should find that the inner surface would be 
 bright red, far more so than after taking ordinary food. 
 In fact, Dr. Beaumont himself says, that, when Alexis 
 drank brandy and gin, he saw that the inside of his 
 stomach became covered with red patches, and the food 
 he ate was not properly digested. 
 
 Alcohol irritates the lining of the stomach, and dilates 
 the tiny blood-vessels, just as brandy dropped into the 
 eye would make it look red and fiery. 
 
 Alcohol, like any other irritant, also makes the gas- 
 tric juice flow ; but it lessens the power of the gastric 
 fluid to digest food, by checking the activity of its pep- 
 sin, and at the same time makes some kinds of food 
 more difficult to digest by hardening them. 
 
 Now, when this alcohol irritant is poured into the 
 stomach for days, weeks, and even for years, it is no 
 wonder that the stomach becomes altered in its structure. 
 The walls of the stomach become thicker and harder, 
 and after death traces of deep sores are found. 
 
 We must remember, that, when the stomach is unable 
 to digest food properly, many other organs of the body 
 suffer as a result. 1 
 
 66. Effect of Alcohol on the Liver. When alco- 
 hol is taken up by the blood-vessels of the stomach, it 
 is carried to the liver, and filtered through this great 
 organ before it reaches the heart. Hence the poison- 
 ous effects of alcohol are strongly marked in the liver, 
 
 1 See note 7, page 234. 
 
88 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 especially among hard drinkers. The blood-vessels of 
 the liver are overworked, and are engorged with blood. 
 
 Many different diseases are produced, some enlarging 
 and others contracting it, but each serious and fatal. 
 A liver which has become contracted from alcoholic 
 liquors is so common, and its cause is so well known, 
 that it is spoken of in every-day language as the " gin- 
 drinker's liver." 1 
 
 67. Effects of Tobacco on Digestion. Tobacco 
 tends to cause loss of appetite and to weaken the stom- 
 ach. The smoker sometimes fancies he receives an 'aid 1 
 to digestion from his cigar; but in this he is mistaken. 
 The nerves of his stomach are only paralyzed by the 
 nicotine in the cigar and the indigestion which he has 
 is usually the result of weakening his digestive organs 
 by previous smoking. 
 
 In nearly every instance an increase of appetite, a 
 healthier stomach, and a gain in flesh, follow the break- ' 
 ing-off from the tobacco habit. 2 
 
 1 See note 8, page 235. 2 See note 9, page 235. 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE 89 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 
 
 THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LJFE 
 
 68. The Blood: What it is, How it Looks. We 
 
 all know how blood looks to the naked eye. It is a red 
 fluid, which thickens, or clots as it is called, when much 
 of it is shed outside of the body. Let us not be too 
 sure that the blood is red. It is really not red at all, 
 being nearly as colorless as water. 
 
 Then, why does it look red ? Let 
 me tell you. The red color is due to 
 millions of little red bodies, called 
 corpuscles, which are swept along in 
 the blood-current like tiny red fishes 
 in the rapids of a river. There are 
 so many of them that they make the 
 blood look uniformly red. 
 
 Fill a clear glass bottle with t h e FlG - 34 - Blood Corpuscles - 
 smallest red beads, and then with pure water : the 
 water would then look red at a short distance. Imag- 
 ine the clear waters of a brook alive with little red 
 fishes ; suppose the fishes to be very, very small, and 
 closely crowded together through the whole depth of 
 the stream : the water would look red, would it not ? 
 In a single drop of blood there are about five millions 
 
9 o 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 of these bodies ; so you see that they are very tiny 
 affairs, and very numerous. 
 
 If we had fingers delicate enough, we could pack 
 about fifty thousand of them on the head of a pin. 
 The shape of these little corpuscles is something like 
 that of a cent. 
 
 Of what use are these red corpuscles ? All the use 
 in the worfd. They have the power of taking up gases 
 as a sponge can take in water. We shall study in the 
 next chapter something about the oxygen that we 
 breathe in, and the carbonic-acid gas that we breathe 
 out. Now, these red corpuscles are the oxygen-carriers 
 for the blood. 
 
 We may compare them to a countless fleet of little 
 boats, carrying their precious cargoes of oxygen to 
 every part of the body. A very busy life these 
 corpuscles live. Night and day, whether we are asleep 
 or awake, these tiny oxygen-carriers are busy as bees. 
 
 If we beat up some fresh blood in a bowl with 
 an egg-beater, we find entangled some white, sticky 
 threads, which are easily seen after the coloring-matter 
 has been washed away. This is called flbrine, a kind 
 of glue used by nature to stop bleeding, by making a 
 plug for fresh wounds ; otherwise we might bleed to 
 death from even a slight cut. 
 
 Again, if we fill a tumbler half full of fresh blood, 
 and let it stand over night, we shall find in the morning 
 it has separated into two parts. 
 
 One, a sticky, jelly-like mass, called the clot, sinks to 
 the bottom ; the other, a straw-colored, watery fluid, 
 called serum, is on the top. Serum is made up of albu- 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE QI 
 
 men dissolved in a great deal of water. We cannot 
 boil it. Before we get it as hot as boiling water, it 
 "sets " into a solid mass, like the white of a hard-boiled 
 egg. It is the serum which feeds the tissues of the 
 body with nutritive material. 
 
 69. The Circulation of the Blood. To circulate 
 means to go around, and the circulation is so called 
 because the blood goes round and round in the 
 body. It is carried by a number of pipes, starting 
 from the heart, and branching into all parts of the 
 body. 
 
 We know we can draw blood from any part of our 
 bodies if we puncture it with a needle. In fact, 
 there is not a spot on us the size of a needle's point 
 which has not its own little tube filled with blood. 
 Compared with these tiny blood-vessels, our needle 
 is a huge stake, and tears not only one, but a thou- 
 sand, of these little tubes every time we draw blood 
 with it. 
 
 This circulation of the blood has been understood for 
 only about two hundred and fifty years, and the man 
 who made this great discovery richly deserves a few 
 words. 
 
 His name was Harvey. He was an Englishman, and 
 a physician to the King of England. 
 
 For many years before, learned men had a glimmer 
 of light on the subject ; but it was Dr. Harvey who put 
 together all that had been discovered, and really found 
 out the way in which the blood circulates in the human 
 body. The good doctor died in 1657, nearly forty years 
 afterwards ; living long enough to see his discovery 
 
92 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 generally accepted, and himself honored as a benefactor 
 of his race. 
 
 70. The Blood- Vessels. The pipes in which the 
 blood flows from the heart are called arteries, meaning 
 "air-carriers." 
 
 Before the time of Harvey, learned men, not being 
 able to explain the fact that the arteries were found 
 empty after death, supposed that' they carried air, 
 and not blood, throughout the body. The pipes in 
 which the blood flows toward the heart are called 
 veins.- 
 
 Joining these two sets of vessels is another set of 
 little pipes, called capillaries. This long name means 
 hair-like, and probably learned men could think of no 
 better way to describe their size than comparing them 
 to hairs ; still, our delicate hairs, fine as they are, are 
 really cables, and coarse cables too, compared to the 
 capillaries. They form a network which serves as a 
 passage-way between the arteries and veins. We may 
 think of an artery and a vein as like two streets, and 
 the capillaries like a host of .little lanes through which 
 we must find our way to pass from one street to the 
 other. 
 
 Suppose our eyes were sharp enough to watch one 
 of the tiny corpuscles whirling round and round in the 
 circulation of the blood, we should find it sure to get to 
 the heart at last. In brief, the blood-vessels form a 
 sort of ring, a circle without a break in it. The 
 heart is the centre of the circle. 
 
 71. The Heart, trie Centre of Circulation. The 
 heart is the most wonderful little pump in the world ; in 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE 93 
 
 fact, it is two pumps in one, a double pump. There is 
 no steam-engine half so clever at its work, or so 
 strong. 
 
 Most of us know that the heart is in the middle of 
 the chest, between the two lungs, with its pointed end 
 turned towards the left side. Here it is, then, beating 
 like a watch, ticking all day and all night, year after 
 year, never stopping, and never needing to be wound 
 up. 
 
 The heart is somewhat like a strawberry in shape, 
 and about the size of the closed fist. It is a muscle, 
 hence it can contract. When it is cut open, it is seen 
 to be hollow inside, and is divided into four rooms. 
 First, it is divided right down the middle from top 
 to bottom ; and there is no door in the partition, so 
 no blood can go from one side to the other. Then, 
 each one of these halves is divided crossways. But 
 this partition is not quite complete : it has little doors 
 that constantly open and shut, which act like the 
 valves of a pump. They open to let the blood through, 
 and close to prevent its return. 
 
 Let us now learn the names of these four rooms 
 in the heart, and see what is going on in each. 
 The two upper rooms are called the right and left 
 auricles, the two lower rooms the right and left ven- 
 tricles. In each, a blood-vessel either enters or t starts 
 off. 
 
 The largest artery in the body, a big pipe called the 
 aorta, goes out of the left ventricle. Did you ever notice 
 a blackish thread running along the backbone of a fish 
 ready for the table ? Well, this is the fish's aorta. 
 
94 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 This great tube makes a horseshoe bend near the heart, 
 and, clinging close to the backbone, goes down towards 
 the hips, sending out a great number of branches. Ar- 
 rived at the loins, it makes a fork dividing into two 
 great branches, which keep on going down, one on each 
 leg, to the very tips of the toes. 
 
 Like the trunk of a tree, the arteries divide into 
 branches again and again, and these into still smaller 
 branches and twigs, until at last the capillaries are 
 reached. The countless little capillaries then grad- 
 ually join together as brooks unite to form a river, 
 and make larger and larger vessels, called veins. By 
 means of these the blood goes back to the heart 
 through the two largest veins in the body, which 
 empty into the right auricle. 
 
 72. What takes Place in the Lungs. How does 
 the blood get from one side of the heart to the other, 
 since there is no opening in that partition which we 
 told you about ? Why, it goes around through the 
 lungs, where it is changed from a dark color to a bright 
 red, or, in other words, is purified by the oxygen of the 
 air. 
 
 The blood goes out of the lower room on the right 
 side of the heart by a great tube called the lung artery. 
 This divides over and over again into branches, in the 
 substance of the lungs, until it makes a network of 
 lung capillaries. These unite as they do in the body, 
 and grow into veins which, gradually becoming larger 
 and larger, all unite into four great veins, called 
 lung veins, which empty into the upper room on the 
 left side of the heart. From this side of the heart, 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE 
 
 95 
 
 the blood is pumped all over the body through the 
 arteries. 
 
 Thus the blood goes round and round in 'the body, 
 making what is called the circulation; carrying nutri- 
 
 FIG. 35. The Heart and its Large Blood-Vessels. 
 
 ment to all the tissues, and bringing away dead matter 
 from them. 
 
 73. How the Heart does its Work. The heart is 
 not simply the centre of circulation : it is also the 
 power which drives the blood over all the body. It is 
 
96 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 really a vigorous little force-pump. Every time it beats 
 against our side, it pumps into the arteries a fresh quan- 
 tity of blood. 
 
 The force given by this beat of the heart, added to 
 the elastic pressure of the walls of the vessels, drives 
 the blood through all the arteries, all the capillaries, 
 all the veins, and back again to the other side of the 
 heart. 
 
 The heart does this because it is a sturdy muscle, 
 and can draw itself together with wonderful power. 
 If you think for a moment, you will see, that, when 
 the walls of a cavity become at one time shorter and 
 thicker, they draw nearer together, and the space 
 inside becomes very small. This is really what oc- 
 curs in the four rooms of the heart. 
 
 Let us follow a drop of blood in its travels around 
 the body. It returns bright and red from the lungs 
 to the left auricle ; this chamber contracts, and the 
 blood is forced down through the trap-door into the 
 left ventricle ; then this cavity contracts, and pumps 
 the blood into the aorta ; from that forcible impulse, 
 on it rushes through all the arteries, capillaries, and 
 veins, and is at last emptied into the rigbt auricle, a 
 dark, worn-out drop of blood. 
 
 This chamber in turn now contracts, and crowds the 
 blood down through the little swinging doors into the 
 right ventricle ; this cavity now contracts, and drives 
 the drop of weary blood through the lung artery into 
 the lungs to be purified. Then it is ready once more 
 to go on its restless journey. 
 
 More wonderful still ! How long do you think it 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE 97 
 
 takes the little drop of blood to go its grand round 
 in the body? Only while you are counting twenty- 
 two. All the blood we have, say about one-tenth 
 of our weight, makes this complete circuit in two 
 minutes. 
 
 What a wonderful machine the heart is ! It is 
 busily pumping away, without getting tired, night and 
 day, for threescore years and ten, and even a full 
 century, seventy-two strokes every minute, over forty- 
 three hundred times every hour, and nearly thirty- 
 eight million beats every year. Let our heart come 
 to a standstill for one minute, for a second even, and 
 we cease to live. 
 
 At each stroke each ventricle pumps about four 
 tablespoonfuls of blood. Nearly seven pounds of 
 blood are moved every minute. How quietly this 
 rapid stream of life flows on within us, never stopping 
 for a second from birth till death ! We feel nothing 
 of it but the gentle tapping of the heart, and the 
 regular throb of the pulse, as the life-blood goes on 
 its ceaseless round. 
 
 74. The Pulse, and what it tells Us. Press the 
 wrist of a friend, laying three fingers over the outer 
 bone of his arm, or press three of your own fingers 
 over the same bone in your wrist. You can thus feel 
 very easily the pulse or beat of the heart, because there 
 is an artery at the wrist, which tells us exactly how the 
 heart is working. 
 
 By feeling this, doctors can find out whether the 
 blood is travelling through the body too quickly or too 
 slowly, or just as it ought to do in health. You have 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 probably seen an india-rubber tube on a garden-hose 
 move on the grass at each stroke of the pump-handle. 
 That is a pulse, and is exactly the same as the pulse in 
 our large blood-vessels. The pulse is really everywhere 
 
 in the body where an 
 artery comes near the 
 surface, as on the tem- 
 ples, the sides of the 
 neck, and near the 
 ankle. 
 
 The doctor feels your 
 pulse at the wrist simply 
 because it is more con- 
 venient for him to do so. 
 Most of the arteries are 
 more deeply buried in 
 the flesh, where it is 
 not easy to reach them. 
 In a healthy adult, 
 the pulse beats about 
 seventy-two times a 
 minute. In children 
 the pulse is quicker 
 than in adults, and 
 slower in old age than 
 in middle life. Napo- 
 leon's heart, it is said, 
 beat only forty strokes a minute. In certain diseases, 
 especially in fevers, the pulse goes with great sudden 
 leaps, like a galloping horse ; in others it trots in little 
 jerks ; while in a feeble person it moves slowly and 
 
 FIG. 36. Diagram of the Arterial System. 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE 99 
 
 wearily, and its throbs are so weak that we can scarcely 
 feel them. 
 
 75. Good Circulation, and how to promote it. 
 A proper amount of exercise enables all the organs of 
 the body to do their work with more vigor. When we 
 feel cold, a brisk walk or a lively game will "start the 
 blood," make us feel warm. A daily bath, followed 
 by a brisk rubbing of the skin with a coarse towel, 
 promotes the circulation. 
 
 Excessive exercise is, however, to be avoided. Like 
 any machine, the heart may be strained by violent 
 efforts. Gymnasts, oarsmen, base-ball players, and 
 others occasionally wrench the delicate machinery of 
 the heart, causing oftentimes many years of ill health. 
 
 Many of the veins lie so near the surface of the 
 body, that the flow of blood through them is easily 
 hindered by pressure : hence no article of clothing 
 should be worn tight enough to stop the flow of the 
 blood. Tight garters, by checking the circulation, 
 often cause cold feet and chilblains. Tight collars 
 and clothing about the neck may cause dizziness and 
 a feeling of fulness in the head. Bands, belts, and 
 straps, and even boots and shoes, may be worn tight 
 enough to hinder the free circulation of blood in 
 various parts of the body. 
 
 The health of the blood, like that of any other part 
 of the body, may be promoted by a nourishing diet, 
 pure air, and a proper amount of rest and clothing. 
 
 76. How Alcohol gets into the Blood. When one 
 takes an alcoholic liquor into the stomach, some of it 
 at once soaks through the coats of the tiny blood- 
 
100 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 vessels with which the lining of the stomach is covered, 
 and is carried directly into the blood-current. 
 
 Alcohol is also taken up by the lacteals, and is emptied 
 into the blood through the thoracic duct. 
 
 It takes only a minute or two for alcohol to get into 
 the main blood-stream. A glass of strong drink soon 
 "goes to the head," as many people know; showing 
 that its effects are rapidly produced in the remotest 
 tissues of the brain. 
 
 77. Effect of Alcohol on the Circulation. In the 
 walls of the blood-vessels are nerves that cause the 
 blood-vessels to contract or expand just enough to keep 
 the right amount of blood flowing through them all the 
 time. When a person takes an alcoholic drink, these 
 nerves are benumbed by the alcohol. They lose their 
 grip on the blood-vessels, which then expand more 
 than they ought, and let too much blood flow through 
 them at one time. 
 
 The flushed face of a person who drinks ardent 
 spirits is an every-day sight. It may seem to him and 
 to others a sign of health, but it is really one of the 
 many symptoms of alcoholic poisoning. The alcohol 
 has weakened the nerves which regulate the flow of 
 blood in the vessels. The arteries are relaxed, the 
 capillaries are overflowing, and the undue amount of 
 blood makes the skin look red. 
 
 This action we must remember is not confined to 
 the vessels near the surface of the body, but really 
 extends at last to those of every organ and every 
 tissue. 
 
THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF MFE 
 
 78. Effect of Alcohol upon the Heart. The heart, 
 like the blood-vessels, is provided with nerves that con- 
 trol its action. One of these may be compared to the 
 balance-wheel of a watch, or the brake on the wheel of 
 a wagon. Remove the balance-wheel or the brake, and 
 the watch ticks wildly, the wagon dashes down the hill 
 at a dangerous rate. 
 
 Alcohol deadens this controlling nerve of the neart, 
 and allows it to beat too fast. In addition to this, the 
 nerves having lost their grip on the blood-vessels, the 
 heart has less resistance to overcome. Consequently 
 it is forced to beat faster, and work harder, to fill the 
 dilated vessels with blood. This increased frequency 
 of the heart's stroke means more wear and tear, and 
 less rest ; and this often leads to disease of this vital 
 organ. 
 
 With this increased action, there are, to be sure, a 
 flushing of the face, a feeling of warmth, and other 
 marks of increased activity ; but these are not lasting. 
 This effect of alcohol is often called its stimulant 
 action. 
 
 But it is in reality the result of its narcotic action, 
 for alcohol has paralyzed the nerves that should con- 
 trol the beating of the heart. Alcohol is not a stimu- 
 lant, but a narcotic. It would be more exact to call 
 these results the beginning of the poisonous effect of 
 alcohol. 
 
 79. Effect of Tobacco on the Heart. Tobacco 
 has a powerful effect upon the action of the heart. A 
 weak and intermittent pulse, due to the irregular 
 action of the heart, is a common result of its use. 
 
IG2 : _HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 This trouble disappears as soon as the tobacco is aban- 
 doned. Applicants for life-insurance are frequently 
 rejected because of this trouble, called "a tobacco 
 heart." Dr. Bowditch, one of the most eminent physi- 
 cians of Boston, considers tobacco nearly as dangerous 
 and deadly as alcohol, and pronounced a man with " a 
 tobacco heart " as badly off as a drunkard. 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 10$ 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 
 
 80. What is Breathing ? Night and day, without 
 one minute's rest, from the first to the last moment of our 
 lives, we are always breathing. About eighteen times 
 every minute, more than twenty-four thousand times 
 every day, we draw in and send out our breath. 
 
 Most of the time we do not think anything about it. 
 Cats and dogs breathe ; we see their sides move in and 
 out, the same as our chests do. We notice the breath 
 puffing out of a horse's nostrils as he rests after a hard 
 trot. Even plants also breathe, doing it through tiny 
 holes in their leaves, just as truly as animals, though in a 
 different way. 
 
 On cold winter mornings we see our breath like a 
 cloucl of steam. It feels cold as it passes in over the 
 teeth ; but it is warm as it goes out, for you know we 
 can warm our cold finger-tips with our breath. 
 
 Breathing, both by plants and animals, is taking invisi- 
 ble air into the lungs, and sending it out again. Ani- 
 mals breathe by means of a wonderful and beautiful set 
 of machinery, which we will now explain. 
 481. The lungs and how they look. Strike the 
 upper part of your right chest, just below the collar- 
 bone, with the flat of your hand. Now strike the knee 
 
IO4 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 BRONCHIAL 
 
 
 
 in the same way. See what very different sounds you 
 
 get. 
 
 The lungs lie on each side of your chest, just within 
 
 the place you struck. The chest sounds quite hollow, 
 
 about like a drum, because the lungs within it are full 
 
 of air. 
 
 How do the lungs, or 
 " lights " as the butchers call 
 them, look ? They are two 
 large, pinkish, spongy organs, 
 a mass of air-passages, with 
 arteries, veins, and capillaries, 
 which extend to the collar- 
 bone in front and go down 
 below the shoulder-blade be- 
 hind. 
 
 v^ The neXt time y U g t0 
 
 i the market, ask the market- 
 
 I man to show you the lungs, 
 
 S IM^Mll or "lights," of a calf or sheep. 
 
 Cut off a small piece, and 
 examine it at home carefully. 
 Take a piece in your hand, 
 and you find you have some- 
 thing quite light and soft, which sinks under your 
 finger if you press it, and rises again like a sponge. 
 You will also notice a crackling sound caused by air 
 being forced out of the air-cells. 
 
 In fact, the lungs, like a sponge, are made up of ^ 
 countless number of the smallest elastic cavities, into 
 every one of which blood and air keep running, each on 
 
 FIG. 37. Windpipe and one of the 
 Lungs. 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 10$ 
 
 its own side, to bid good-day to each other, shake hands 
 as it were, and then hurry out as briskly as they came 
 in. 
 
 82. The Air-Passages. The air is drawn into the 
 lungs through the mouth, nostrils, and windpipe. 
 
 The nostrils are really the passage-ways for the air, 
 and warm the air somewhat before it gets into the lungs. 
 If you lean your head back, you can easily feel in the 
 middle of the neck, in front, a stiff tube. 
 
 This is the windpipe, which opens into the back of the 
 mouth. 
 
 There is a small lid of gristle in front of the open top 
 of the windpipe, which, as you have been told before, is 
 called the epiglottis. It stands upright when we draw 
 air in, and does not in the least prevent the breath 
 from entering the windpipe. 
 
 The upper part of the windpipe is a kind of box 
 containing the organs of voice. In this box, easily 
 seen and felt in spare people, and the front of which 
 is commonly called " Adam's apple," are the vocal 
 cords. 
 
 These cords are not strings, but elastic strips, with 
 free edges which can be made tight or loose. As the 
 air passes to and from the lungs, through the narrow 
 chink between these cords, it sets them to vibrating, 
 and thus the sound called the voice is produced. Dur- 
 ing ordinary breathing, the vocal cords are widely 
 separated. 
 
 The windpipe runs down through the neck into 
 the chest, dividing into two branches, one going 
 into each lung. It then divides into two others, and 
 
io6 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 MNDPIPE 
 
 each of these into two more, and so on. Thus it goes 
 on dividing into branches, the tubes becoming finer 
 with every division, until the pipes are smaller than the 
 tiniest hair. 
 
 Every one of these little tubes has on its end a little 
 hollow ball, called an air-sac, something like a red cur- 
 rant on its stalk, only much smaller than the smallest 
 grain of sand. They are hollow, like tiny bladders ; 
 
 and around them, inside, 
 are little recesses, like 
 caverns, in their walls : 
 these are the air-cells. 
 
 Imagine a short, thick 
 tree crowded with leaves ; 
 imagine the trunk and 
 all the branches, even 
 the smallest twigs, to be 
 hollow. Suppose the 
 leaves were tiny blad- 
 ders, blown up, and fas- 
 tened to the smallest hol- 
 low twigs, and made up 
 of some delicate but 
 very elastic substance. 
 
 Roughly speaking, so it is with the build of the inner- 
 most parts of the lungs. 
 
 Around such a framework of hollow branches, called 
 bronchial tubes, and hollow elastic bladders, called air- 
 cells, is wrapped a finely woven network of arteries, 
 veins, and capillaries, like a child's ball covered with a 
 fine network of red and blue yarn. As the air fills the 
 
 FIG. 38. The Lungs and Heart 
 (viewed in front). 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE IO/ 
 
 elastic cavities in the lungs, just as a boy blows up his 
 toy balloon, the chest swells up ; as the air is forced 
 out, the chest sinks down again. 
 
 The whole act of breathing is called respiration. 
 Drawing in the breath is called inspiration; sending it 
 out is expiration. 
 
 83. How we breathe. How do we draw our 
 breath ? Let me tell you the simplest things about 
 it. First, the lungs are elastic. The air-tubes and 
 air-sacs make up nearly one-half of the substance of 
 the lung, and nearly the other half consists of blood- 
 vessels. Both the blood-vessels and air-sacs are sup- 
 ported by a framework of elastic tissue. 
 
 You know that you can stretch out a piece. of elastic 
 to a certain length, and then it springs back to its first 
 size. Just so does this elastic tissue of the lungs act. 
 It is stretched by the air being drawn into the air- 
 tubes, but returns to its first size as soon as the inspi- 
 ration stops, and so presses on the larger air-tubes, and 
 forces the air out of them. 
 
 Second, the lungs are fastened, on the under side, 
 to a great muscle called the diaphragm, which you 
 have already been told about. This is, as you know, 
 stretched like a stout piece of rubber cloth between 
 the chest and abdomen. In its natural position it 
 bulges upwards in the middle, like a handkerchief 
 swollen by the wind, and thus occupies a portion of 
 the chest at the expense of the lungs. 
 
 When we breathe air in, its muscular fibres tighten, 
 and make it flat again, just as you make the handker- 
 chief flat by tightening it. When the diaphragm re- 
 
io8 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 laxes, the lungs contract, causing their elastic issue to 
 shrink together again ; and so the air is forced out of 
 the larger air-tubes. These up-and-down movements of 
 the diaphragm are the chief movements in ordinary, 
 quiet breathing. This process is repeated over and 
 over again, as long as we live. 
 
 This faithful old servant, the diaphragm, quietly 
 began his duties the moment we breathed for the first 
 time. Since that time this sleepless guardian of our 
 life has watched over every breath, and his last effort 
 will be our last sigh. The muscles between the ribs 
 
 also contract and relax, and 
 are thus useful helps in the act 
 of breathing. 
 
 84. What takes Place in 
 the Lungs. There are two 
 kinds of gas in pure air. The 
 first is very lively and active, 
 called oxygen. It is very fond 
 of uniting with other things 
 and burning them. The sec- 
 ond gas is a very slow, dull, 
 stupid affair, called iiitrogen; 
 and nothing will burn in it. 
 Oxygen, if quite pure, would be altogether too active 
 a gas for us to live in ; so kind Nature dilutes it for us 
 with nitrogen. When the oxygen reaches the tiniest 
 capillaries in the air-sacs of the lungs, it is almost in 
 contact with the blood itself. There is only a very, 
 very thin membrane between the blood and the air. 
 Now, experiments carried on outside the body prove 
 
 AIR CELLS 
 
 FIG. 39. The Air-Cells and Bron- 
 chial Tubes of the Lungs. 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 
 
 that gases can pass through delicate membranes. If 
 a bladder filled with oxygen is hung up in a bottle 
 filled with carbonic-acid, the two gases will mix with 
 each other. The oxygen will pass out through the 
 walls of the bladder, and the carbonic-acid will pass in. 
 This is called the " diffusion .of gases." 
 
 This is practically what occurs in the lungs. Thus 
 there is an exchange, but no robbery. The red cor- 
 puscles of the blood exchange a poisonous gas for one 
 which gives them new life. 
 
 We may, in brief, look upon the lungs as a kind of 
 market-place or exchange, where two merchants, the 
 blood and the air, meet to exchange their wares. About 
 twenty cubic inches of air pass in and out of the lungs 
 with every breath, or about what would fill sixty barrels 
 every twenty-four hours. Indeed, it is a very busy 
 market-place. 
 
 85. Changes in the Air from Breathing. When 
 we breathe, we do not simply draw in the air and send 
 it back again. We breathe out some things which were 
 not in the air when we took it in. One of these is 
 water. 
 
 On a cold, frosty morning, you know we see the 
 clouds of vapor, or very fine drops of water, coming 
 from our mouths. In hot weather or in a warm room 
 we do not see this vapor, but it is there all the same. 
 If we breathe on a looking-glass, it becomes dim and 
 damp with the water of our breath. There is, of course, 
 a little watery vapor in the air, but hardly any com- 
 pared to what there is in the breath. 
 
 We also breathe out a small amount of animal matter, 
 
I IO HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 little bits of our own bodies, just ready to decay. 
 This gives the air of an ill-ventilated or over-crowded 
 room the close, disagreeable odor we all know so well. 
 Pure air has no smell. 
 
 Again, we send out with every breath a kind of gas 
 called carbonic-acid gas, which we can no more see than 
 we can the air itself. 
 
 Let me tell you of a simple experiment. Pour some 
 clear lime-water into a goblet. Take a straw, or a 
 sheet of stiff paper rolled into a tube, and blow through 
 it into the lime-water. The carbonic-acid gas of our 
 breath will rapidly make the clear liquid quite milky. 
 
 86. How Carbonic-Acid Gas may poison Us. 
 Carbonic-acid gas in its pure state acts as a deadly poi- 
 son. If there is too much of it in the air we breathe, it 
 poisons us. We soon breathe hard, get pale, faint, and 
 dizzy, and after a time would die. 
 
 Every one has read the story of the " Black Hole of 
 Calcutta." In the year 1756, a cruel tyrant in India, 
 having captured a hundred and forty-six Englishmen, 
 crowded them one hot night into a room where one 
 little window did not admit enough air for the poor 
 prisoners to breathe. They struggled and fought for 
 the air, and in the morning only twenty-three were 
 alive. After one of Napoleon's great battles, three 
 hundred prisoners were crowded into a cave for safe 
 keeping, where in a few hours over two hundred died 
 from the foul air. 
 
 In the mines this gas becomes the dreaded " choke- 
 damp." Persons bent on suicide sometimes inhale the 
 carbonic-acid gas from a little charcoal burning in a 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE III 
 
 closed room. This same deadly gas sometimes flows 
 naturally from the earth. Some of us have heard of the 
 " Valley of Poison " in the island of Java. The gas is 
 very abundant in this valley, and, from its weight, sinks 
 to the ground, where may be seen, it is said, the skele- 
 tons of birds and animals which have been suffocated 
 in their attempt to cross this death-trap. 
 
 87. Pure Air, and how it is kept so. One would 
 think that we should soon use up all the pure air, and 
 make it all bad. If we think for a moment what a 
 great number of people there are in the world, how 
 many there are in great cities like New York and Phil- 
 adelphia, breathing out the carbonic-acid gas from 
 their lungs, it seems strange there is any air left fit for 
 us to breathe ; for it is not only men, women, and chil- 
 dren who must have oxygen to support their lives, but 
 also every other animal. 
 
 The little worms that live in their holes under ground 
 want the oxygen of the air just as much as the cows 
 and the sheep. Even fishes could not live if the water 
 did not contain air enough for them to breathe. 
 
 Why does not the supply of oxygen ever fall short? 
 What becomes of the carbonic-acid gas ? First, let me 
 tell you what it is made of : two very good things, 
 oxygen and carbon. 
 
 A great deal of our flesh and blood is made of these 
 two things ; but when they are united, and make this 
 gas, they are of no use to us. We might go to the 
 store and buy salt and sugar ; but, if they got mixed 
 together as we brought them home, we could not use 
 either, unless some good fairy could pick them apart 
 for us. 
 
I I 2 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Now, can anybody pick apart the carbon and oxygen 
 in the carbonic-acid gas, and make them fit for us to 
 use again ? Yes indeed. We have millions of work- 
 men about us that are busily doing this very thing all 
 the time. 
 
 Every plant, every green leaf, every blade of grass, 
 does this for us. When the sun shines on them, they 
 pick the carbon out, and send back the oxygen for us 
 to breathe. They keep the carbon, and make that fit 
 for us and other animals to eat. Is not this a wonder- 
 ful arrangement ? 
 
 How does all the bad air get out of the towns and 
 cities, where men live, and get to the forests and plains? 
 The wind carries it. Air is constantly moving about, 
 rising up, falling down, sweeping this way or that way, 
 and roving from place to place. In brief, as the Bible 
 tells us, "the wind bloweth where it listeth [pleases]." 
 
 88. How People poison Themselves with Bad 
 Air. Let us now see some other ways in which air 
 may be spoiled, besides by breathing it. Not only the 
 little particles out of our breath, but many other things, 
 may make it unwholesome. Even pleasant odors, like 
 roses or lilies, are unwholesome if shut up in a room. 
 
 Dirty walls, ceilings, and floors give the air a musty, 
 close smell ; so do dirty clothes, filthy sinks, and the 
 contents of slop-pails. Some of these ought not to be 
 in the house at all ; others remind us to open our 
 windows wide, and let in pure air. 
 
 While all we have told you about pure air applies to 
 persons in health, it applies still more to sick people. 
 First, because sick people need every possible chance 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 113 
 
 to help them get well. They need good air just as 
 much as they do good food. Second, because every 
 thing that comes from a sick person's body is still more 
 unwholesome than that from a healthy person, and may 
 be a downright poison. 
 
 Many learned men now believe that numerous dis- 
 eases are really sown in our bodies by a kind of very 
 small seeds, or " germs," much as plants are sown in the 
 ground. For instance, scarlet-fever, it is claimed, has 
 its own seeds, or germs, which are shed in countless 
 numbers from the body of a person who is suffering 
 from it. Some of these float in the air ; and, if we 
 breathe them in, they are quite likely to give us the 
 fever. The same may be true of measles, small-pox, 
 whooping-cough, and other diseases. 
 
 Many other things make the air unwholesome. The 
 foul air from chemical works, bone and soap factories, 
 and many other manufacturing places, is more or less 
 hurtful to health. Certain trades shorten life by ex- 
 posure to air loaded with impurities. 
 
 Thus there is the " miner's consumption," due to the 
 dust breathed into the lungs. Those who work on 
 steel, emery, pottery, etc., also breathe in the irritating 
 dust floating in the air. Other impurities are highly 
 injurious to the lungs, as the dust in match-factories, 
 white-lead works, copper and brass founderies, and 
 arsenic in wall-papers. 
 
 89. Ventilation, or how to get rid of Impure Air. 
 How are we to get rid of the bad air in our living- 
 rooms, and to get in fresh air without being too cold ? 
 In summer-time this is quiet easy ; but in winter it is 
 
114 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 more difficult, because it is very uncomfortable and 
 often dangerous to be cold. It is a good plan to open 
 your window at the top, which will let out the bad air. 
 If you have a good fire and proper clothing, it is very 
 seldom that you cannot bear the window open a little 
 way at the top. 
 
 Another excellent plan is to raise the lower sash, 
 putting below it a strip of board two or three inches 
 wide, the length of the window, and shut the sash on 
 it. This leaves at the middle of the window, an open- 
 ing for fresh air. If two such windows are thus set on 
 opposite sides of the room, it gives a constant change 
 of air, and free from direct draughts. 
 
 Good ventilation is just as necessary by night as by 
 day, because, of course, we go on breathing all night. 
 People who take pains to shut in the bad and to shut 
 out the good air, all night long, can never expect to 
 awake refreshed. 
 
 It is very unpleasant to go into the bedrooms of such 
 people before they have left them in the morning. It 
 is not strange that such persons are so often languid, 
 pale, and peevish all the first part of the day. We 
 hardly know why it is people are so afraid of letting in 
 night air, or what harm it is supposed to do. Those 
 who have tried it know very well that they sleep better, 
 and wake fresher, if they keep the air of their bed- 
 rooms clean and sweet all night. As the famous nurse 
 Florence Nightingale aptly says, " What other air can 
 we breathe at night ? " 
 
 There is hardly a night in the whole year when it is 
 not safe to keep a window open an inch or two at the 
 
HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 115 
 
 top, and those who do so are not so apt to catch cold as 
 those who do not. We must have, however, proper 
 coverings on our beds to keep us warm. 
 
 90. Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Air- 
 Passages. Alcohol tends to bring on inflammation of 
 the lung-tissues, and hence to lessen the breathing ca- 
 pacity. The weezy, broken speech of the drunkard is 
 clue partly to an irritation of the air-passages, and 
 partly to the thickening of the lung-tissue. 
 
 Again, the repeated stretching of the lung capillaries 
 tends to make the habitual user of alcohol more liable 
 to attacks of severe colds and pneumonia ; besides 
 making due allowance for the exposure to cold and wet, 
 so common with the intemperate. 
 
 Breathing air full of tobacco-smoke is apt to cause 
 sore throat. The habit of inhaling tobacco-smoke, or 
 breathing it through the nose, is injurious to the throat 
 and lungs. Cigarette-smoke is especially hurtful to the 
 
 air-passages. 1 
 
 1 See note 10, page 236. 
 
Il6 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 
 
 91. Getting rid of Waste Matters. When a fire in 
 a stove or furnace burns, it uses up coal and wood, 
 leaving behind dust and ashes ; which must be got rid 
 of, or before long the fire will go out. Our bodies are 
 doing something very similiar. They are all the time 
 useing up our fuel-food, and all the time making some 
 waste matter which must be got rid of. 
 
 There are three doors or outlets by which the body 
 rids itself of its waste. 
 
 One of these is the lungs, which carry off, as we have 
 seen, carbonic-acid gas, water, and animal matter. 
 
 The second is the kidneys, which filter off water hold- 
 ing a number of salts dissolved in it. The act'ion of 
 the kidneys is explained in more advanced books. 
 
 Let us now see how the third outlet of the body, or 
 the skin, helps rid the body of its waste matter. 
 
 92. How the Skin looks. Our body is covered with 
 a soft, elastic, tight-fitting garment, the skin. It is 
 easily kept clean, and never wears out. Every child 
 knows how to run a fine needle through the outer skin 
 without feeling it or drawing blood ; but push the 
 needle in a little deeper, and the blood will run at 
 once. Why is this ? Simply because there is a lower, 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 
 
 117 
 
 thick layer, full of the finest blood-vessels and nerves, 
 called the true skin. The puncture of a pin, or the 
 sting of the tiniest insect, causes pain. 
 
 We all know how very tender and painful is the 
 delicate pink skin seen when the outer layer of the 
 blister is torn away. This is the true skin. When it 
 
 SWEAT PORES 
 
 EPIDERMIS 
 
 AT CELLS 
 
 \ 
 
 HAIR BULB 
 
 FIG 40. Vertical Section of the Skin. 
 
 is destroyed, a scar results. Look and see if you can 
 find a white scar on your hand, due to a deep cut. 
 
 Over the true skin lies another layer of flat, horny, 
 and lifeless scales, in which are no blood-vessels and no 
 nerves. This is called the scarf-skin, or epidermis. We 
 often give ourselves a little scratch, or pare a corn, with- 
 out making the blood run, or feeling any pain. It is 
 
u8 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 FIG. 41. The Scarf-Skin from the Palm 
 of the Hand, showing the Pores. 
 
 the scarf-skin which is raised into a blister when we 
 burn our fingers. 
 
 The scarf-skin really consists of a countless number 
 of little horny scales, laid one above another, as you 
 
 might imagine the roof of 
 a house would look with a 
 dozen or more layers of 
 shingles. The outer scales 
 are all the time wearing off 
 and rubbing off, and new 
 ones are always forming un- 
 derneath. 
 
 A snake, as you may 
 know, sheds its whole skin 
 at once, as if a boy should 
 crawl out of his clothes ; and 
 sometimes you may find in the fields its cast-off skin 
 turned inside out, just as the snake squirmed out of it 
 and crawled off with a soft new dress on. Now, we 
 shed our skin a little at a time, and in such tiny, 
 powdery scales that we cannot usually see them. 
 
 If we take any garment that has been worn next the 
 skin, and shake it in the sunlight, we see how much 
 dust there is inside of it. This dust is really little 
 bits of the scarf-skin which have dropped off or worn 
 away. Where the skin is pretty thick, as on the palms 
 of the hands or the soles of the feet, we can, when 
 we wash ourselves, see dead skin peeling off in little 
 scales. 
 
 93. The Sweat : what it is, and where it comes 
 from. If we look at the skin on the tip of the fingers 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 
 
 through an ordinary magnifying-glass, we see a great 
 number of little holes called pores. Just think how 
 small they are ! More than five thousand have been 
 counted on the tip of one finger, and there are more 
 than three millions of them in the covering of the 
 whole body. 
 
 Each pore is the end or opening of a tube called a 
 sweat-gland. Each gland is a tiny tube just under the 
 scarf-skin, rolled round and round like a ball of the 
 finest silk. If all the sweat-glands in our body could 
 be unrolled, and laid end to end like a long gas-pipe, 
 they would be about four miles long. 
 
 What work do these sweat-glands do ? Why, a great 
 deal of it. Let me tell you about it. Certain waste 
 matter picked up by the blood is strained out through 
 the thin walls of the blood-vessels into the sweat-glands, 
 up which it rises until it runs out of the openings, when 
 it is called sweat. 
 
 If we hold the tip of our finger very close to a 
 mirror, but without touching the glass, we see the 
 place has become dim and moist. This is because 
 the sweat has oozed out of the pores of our finger 
 on the glass. If the mirror were held to any other part 
 of the skin, it would become dim and moist just the 
 same. 
 
 Thus we see that the sweat-glands, if they are kept in 
 good order, serve as little drain-pipes to rid our bodies 
 of waste matters. When the weather is very hot, or 
 when we are working hard, or are exposed to much 
 heat, the sweat flows so freely that it stands on the skin 
 in big drops ; but at other times it flows more slowly. 
 
I2O HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Still, it is always oozing out, even in the coldest winter 
 weather. About two pints of sweat ooze every day 
 through these busy little glands in the skin. 
 
 The skin is naturally soft, and the hair moist and 
 glossy. What makes them so ? Two little oil glands, 
 attached to each hair, furnish this natural dressing for 
 the hair and the skin. We may call it Nature's hair- 
 oil. 
 
 94. Why -we need to wash ourselves. A great 
 deal of the sweat soaks into our clothing, so that it needs 
 frequent washing ; but most of the moisture dries off 
 into the air, and so cools the body. Some of the oily 
 matter, however, sticks to the skin, and, together with 
 the dirt or dust from the outside, makes a little plug, 
 as it were, over the pores. The waste matter cannot 
 filter through the skin, and has to stay in the body, or 
 find its way out elsewhere. 
 
 Suppose the drain-pipes which lead from a house should 
 get stopped up ; we can imagine what an unhealthy state 
 the house would soon be in. Just so it is in our body 
 if the little pipes which drain the skin get clogged. If 
 a person had his skin varnished all over, so as to stop 
 up all the pores, he would die within a few hours. 
 
 An instance proving this occurred at Rome many 
 years ago, when the body of a little boy was completely 
 covered with gold-leaf, in order that he might play the 
 part of a cherub or an angel in a show. He was after- 
 wards put to bed without the gold having been washed 
 off ; and, when his parents tried to rouse him the next 
 morning, he was dead. 
 
 It is said that the reason why the small-pox was so 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 121 
 
 fatal among the Indians in this country was because 
 they always kept the pores of their skin closed with 
 bear's grease, to protect them against cold, and daubed 
 themselves with earthy paints for the sake of orna- 
 ment. 
 
 How necessary, then, it is to have a clean skin, and to 
 wear clean clothes ! Many people think they have 
 done quite enough if they wash every day their hands 
 and faces, and the parts that are seen ; but it is even 
 more necessary to wash the parts of the body that are 
 not seen, and are covered with our clothes, because all 
 the dirt which comes from inside the body stays on the 
 surface, and is not rubbed off, as it might be on our 
 hands or faces. 
 
 95. The Hair and the Nails. The hair and the nails 
 really belong to the skin. 
 
 The hair grows out from little sacs or bags in the 
 skin, and so do the nails. Every hair has a little bulb 
 or root, which is fixed in the skin, and soaks up the 
 nourishment from the blood-vessels. 
 
 It adds to our health and comfort to keep the hair 
 clean. The oil-glands get clogged ; and the dust and 
 dirt, rapidly making a coating, commonly called " dan- 
 druff," on the scalp, get caught in the hair. Hence the 
 hair should be often washed, combed, and brushed. 
 
 The color of the hair is given to it by little bags 
 filled with coloring-matter. These are found in the hair 
 and in the skin. In some people, especially old persons, 
 this, Nature's paint-stuff, dries up ; and the hair 
 becomes colorless, or, as we say, begins to turn gray. 
 When Nature spatters some extra drops of her paint 
 
122 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 here and there, especially on the face and arms, we call 
 them freckles. Sudden fright or great sorrow will 
 sometimes turn the hair white in the course of a few 
 hours. 
 
 It is said, that, at the time of the cruel Revolution 
 in France, the hair of the poor French queen, Marie 
 Antoinette, turned white in a single night, owing to the 
 distress and agony of mind she suffered for the safety 
 of her husband and her children. 
 
 The nails of our fingers and toes grow out from our 
 skin, like broad, flat hairs and are really only a kind of 
 horny skin. They serve to protect the ends of the 
 fingers and toes. Some people, especially school-chil- 
 dren, spoil the look of their fingers by biting their nails : 
 so that, instead of pretty oval, bright-pink, shell-like 
 ornaments, as they should be, we see only ugly, stumpy 
 fingers, with sore tips to them, which can feel nothing 
 delicately or tenderly. 
 
 The toe-nails require as much attention as the fingers. 
 If we look at a baby's tiny foot before it has worn shoes, 
 we see how pretty the little toes and nails are. 
 
 The finger-nails should be trimmed with scissors once 
 a week, leaving them long enough to protect the ends 
 of the fingers. Nails should never be trimmed to the 
 quick. They should not be cleaned with any thing 
 harder than a brush or bit of soft wood. They should 
 not be scraped with a penknife or scissors, as these hurt 
 their nice polish. To prevent hangnails, the skin 
 should be often loosened from the nail, not with a knife 
 or scissors, but with something blunt, such as the 
 handle of a tooth-brush, or an ivory paper-cutter, 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 123 
 
 96. Baths, and how to take them. It takes very 
 little time, expense, or trouble to take a daily bath of 
 some sort. A hand-basin, a sponge, a strip of cotton- 
 flannel, a piece of castile-soap, a gallon of water, and a 
 towel, are all that are required. 
 
 Even rubbing the body every day, first with a damp 
 towel, and afterwards very briskly with a dry one, will 
 in most cases keep the skin clean enough during the 
 week, provided a bath with soap and warm water is 
 taken once a week. Most persons, especially the young 
 and vigorous, soon get used to cool, and even cold, water 
 baths. 
 
 The first effect of any cold bath is to shrivel up all 
 the vessels of the skin, and make it look like " goose- 
 flesh." Brisk rubbing will soon cause a glow, or bring 
 on a re-action as it is called, after which a feeling of 
 genial warmth is felt all over the person. Coarse 
 towels should always be used if the skin will bear it. 
 
 It is a good time for vigorous persons to take a cold 
 bath just after getting out of bed in the morning. A 
 bath at bedtime is refreshing, and favors sound sleep. 
 There is little risk of taking cold if we go to bed at 
 once. Young and feeble children should bathe two or 
 three hours after breakfast. 
 
 Swimming in running fresh water or in the salt water 
 has a wholesome effect on the skin, and is one of the 
 healthiest of all exercises. So highly did the Romans 
 regard this art, that, to express their contempt for an 
 ignorant person, they would say, "He can neither read 
 nor swim." Young people should be taught to practise 
 it whenever it is convenient. 
 
124 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Never go in swimming when the body is over-heated 
 or very tired. Better sit down quietly, and cool off for 
 half an hour. Many are drowned every year from 
 ignorance or carelessness in this matter alone. The 
 risk is from sudden cramps, which cause even a strong 
 swimmer to sink like a lump of lead. For the same 
 reason, it is not safe to take a swim just after a full 
 meal. Alexander the Great once nearly lost his life by 
 swimming in a very cold river just after a meal. 
 
 Thirst may be relieved by bathing the body in water, 
 and medicines have been taken through the skin. 
 Poisons may also be absorbed by the skin. For this 
 reason, alcohol should not be used for bathing purposes, 
 as it may thus be taken up by the skin into the blood. 
 Common salt, or preparations known as sea salt, are far 
 better to use with the bath. 
 
 97. Why the Body is warm. Every one knows 
 that the outside of the body is warm. If we get into a 
 cold bed on a winter's night, our body soon warms it, 
 and, however cold we feel at first, the heat of our bodies, 
 like a fire always burning, keeps up the warmth of the bed. 
 
 Put a little thermometer in your mouth, and close the 
 lips around it for five minutes. What do we find ? 
 Why, on taking out the instrument, we find that the 
 natural heat of the body is about ninety-eight degrees 
 Fahrenheit, even on the coldest day of winter or the 
 hottest day of summer. 
 
 Where does this heat come from ? How does the 
 body make this heat ? Let me try to help you under- 
 stand this by reminding you of what you have already 
 been told about air in a preceding chapter. 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 125 
 
 Oxygen is, as we know, very fond of joining itself 
 with other things, and burning them. When oxygen 
 joins itself with any other thing, it always makes some 
 heat ; and it is called a burning, whether there is any 
 flame or not. 
 
 We know that we are in some ways very much like 
 a candle. Let me tell you of another way. When a 
 candle is burning, what really takes place is, that the 
 different things of which the candle is made unite with 
 the oxygen to make carbonic-acid gas. 
 
 There is another gas in the candle, called hydrogen, 
 which unites with the oxygen to turn into water. This 
 goes on very fast indeed, and makes the candle very 
 hot. Now, we know there is plenty o'f carbon in our 
 bodies, and also plenty of hydrogen. When the oxygen 
 of the air comes near them, they unite with it, and 
 burn, as a candle does, and turn into carbonic-acid gas 
 and water. This makes us warm. 
 
 The great difference is, that they do not burn nearly 
 as fast in our bodies as they do in the candle ; there- 
 fore we do not flame and blaze up, nor are we nearly so 
 hot as a lighted candle. A piece of fat, for instance, 
 burns rapidly and brightly when put in the fire. 
 
 But, if we eat the piece of fat, it will make just as 
 much heat within our bodies as if we burned it in the 
 fire. True, the burning will not be so rapid, nor the 
 degree of heat produced so great ; but it will last for a 
 much longer time, and the total quantity of heat given 
 out will be the same in both cases. 
 
 Hence our bodies are warm because we are burning 
 away bit by bit, just as a candle does. Every time we 
 
126 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 move, feel, think, or, in fact, do anything at all, this 
 burning goes on. Thus our bodily heat is produced, 
 and life is kept up. 
 
 In brief, Nature warms our bodies on somewhat the 
 same plan by which we warm our houses with a coal- 
 stove in the winter. 
 
 98. How the Heat of the Body is regulated. 
 How is it that the warmth of the body is the same at 
 every season of the year and in every climate ? Let me 
 try to make this plain. 
 
 If we put a drop of water, ether, or alcohol on the 
 back of our hand, we feel the skin there grow colder ; 
 this is because the heat required to evaporate the liquid 
 is taken from the skin. As the sweat evaporates from 
 our skin, it produces cold. Now, the hotter the air out- 
 side of us, the more we sweat ; but, as fast as the sweat 
 comes out of the pores, it evaporates, and so more cold 
 is produced. 
 
 In this way the heat of the skin and of the blood is 
 kept from rising much above ninety-eight degrees 
 Fahrenheit. If the air outside is very cold, the pores 
 contract, and very little sweat comes out of them. 
 
 Thus, in summer and in hot countries the abundant 
 sweating tends to cool our bodies ; while in winter and 
 in cold countries, since little sweating takes place, the 
 body does not lose much heat. 
 
 Men who have to work in the midst of great hot 
 furnaces, such as blacksmiths or workers in iron-found- 
 eries and glass-works, are no hotter inside their bodies 
 than fishermen or teamsters. The blood may become 
 hotter or colder from causes within us, for instance, 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED I2/ 
 
 fevers make it hotter ; want of food makes it colder, 
 but it has such a power of resisting the heat and cold 
 outside the body, that persons have been known to 
 go for a few minutes into ovens hot enough to bake 
 bread. 
 
 Years ago there was a man, called the " Fire King," 
 who could go into a red-hot oven, and stay five minutes. 
 It was found, while he was in the oven, that the heat of 
 his blood was exactly the same as when he entered it. 
 We may be sure that he sweated profusely. 
 
 It is because the blood always keeps at about the 
 same degree of warmth, whatever the heat or cold out- 
 side, that people are able to live in all climates, and to 
 bear all seasons. 
 
 The Esquimau, who lives amidst the ice and snow of 
 polar regions, has as much warmth in his blood as the 
 African, who lives under the scorching sun of the 
 tropics. Man is the only animal that endures and 
 flourishes in every climate of the globe. 
 
 99. Why we need Clothing. A thin and delicate 
 skin is our only covering. Why do we need any other ? 
 Why do we need clothing ? Let me tell you. 
 
 Our bodies are, as you know, much warmer than the 
 air out of doors, so they are continually giving out their 
 heat to the air. When our bare skin is exposed, we 
 lose heat rapidly, and feel chilly and cold : hence we wear 
 clothes to keep the heat of our bodies from escaping 
 too rapidly into the air. 
 
 Is there another reason ? Yes. In hot summer 
 weather, especially in hot countries, the direct rays of 
 the sun would scorch our skin. Again, clothes save 
 
128 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 the skin from being torn or hurt by accidents. They 
 also keep out the wet, so that we can better bear expo- 
 sure to rain or snow. The frequent changes of weather, 
 so common in this country, are a severe tax on the 
 body, against which our clothes are our chief means of 
 defence. 
 
 100. Hints about wearing Clothes. Clothes should 
 be changed according to the climate or season of the 
 year. It is not prudent to leave off winter clothing too 
 early in the spring, for our seasons are most uncertain. 
 Woollen cjothing should be worn next to the skin, 
 whether in summer or winter. 
 
 A most imprudent but common error is to take off 
 our winter flannels early in summer because it happens 
 to be warm. With our sudden changes of weather, a 
 person may thus run great risk of taking severe colds, 
 pneumonia, and even "quick consumption." 
 
 A wise doctor has said, " Never allow yourself to feel 
 cold. Whenever you feel chilly put on more clothing, 
 go into a warmer room, or exercise. In some way get 
 warm and keep warm. Only beggars and fools go cold. 
 The former, because they lack clothes ; the latter, be- 
 cause they do not know enough to wear them." 
 
 To keep our persons neat and clean, we must change 
 our clothes often. This applies not only to garments 
 used for daily wear, but to bed-clothes and night-clothes. 
 No one should sleep in the clothes he wears during the 
 day. Undergarments should be frequently and regu- 
 larly changed. Bed-clothes should be exposed freely 
 to the light and air. 
 
 Young children are less able than grown-up people to 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 1 2Q 
 
 resist cold and sudden changes, hence great' care must 
 be taken as to their clothing. The legs and chests of 
 children should not be exposed to the bitter blasts 
 of winter nor to the cold winds of spring. Hundreds of 
 children die every year from diseases due to ignorance 
 or neglect in this matter. 
 
 Never wear wet or damp clothes one moment longer 
 than possible. Little harm results from wearing wet 
 clothes, provided the person keeps actively moving 
 about while they are drying on him. If you have on 
 wet clothes, take the shortest way home, rub down 
 thoroughly, and put on at once dry warm clothes. Do 
 not let your damp skirts, wet stockings, or shoes dry on 
 you ; but always change them at once. 
 
 Do not wear clothing tight enough to prevent the free 
 movements of the body. See to it that children wear 
 proper outside garments on going out, and that they are 
 taken off on coming in-doors. Pupils should not sit in 
 the schoolroom with outside garments on, such as water- 
 proofs, gossamers, cloaks, rubbers, rubber boots, and 
 leggings. 
 
 101. Alcohol and the Bodily Heat. Soon after 
 taking a small quantity of alcohol, there is a feeling of 
 warmth over the surface of the body. The body is not 
 really warmer, but the skin feels warmer. On the con- 
 trary, we are really colder, because heat is more rapidly 
 lost from the surface. The skin is warmer after taking 
 alcoholic liquor, because the nerves that regulate the 
 hair-like vessels on the surface, being weakened, lose 
 their grip : hence more blood is sent at first from the 
 inner parts of the body to the surface. 
 
I3O HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 There is no real increase of heat ; the surface is 
 warmed for the time, at the expense of the deeper 
 portions of the body. This surface warmth is now 
 rapidly lost, and the general heat of the body is lowered 
 below its natural temperature. 
 
 Experience has proved, time and time again, that 
 alcohol lessens our power to endure extremes of heat 
 and cold. Arctic explorers find that exposure to severe 
 cold can be endured far better without alcohol. Who- 
 ever takes an alcoholic liquor to help him bear the cold 
 makes a great mistake. Such a drink, as we have seen, 
 will reduce the heat of his body, cause him to suffer 
 more, make him more liable to take cold, and to freeze 
 if long exposed. 1 
 
 Army life is, perhaps, the best possible test. It is 
 the almost universal experience of British army officers 
 whc jave led their men through the campaigns in the 
 hottest parts of India and Africa, that alcohol, so far 
 from being a help to resist great extremes of heat, acts 
 as a positive injury. 
 
 The skin depends for its nourishment upon the 
 proper circulation of the blood in the blood-vessels. 
 When this is interfered with by alcohol the skin is not 
 properly nourished. Dark brown blotches appear. 
 The blood-vessels of the face become permanently 
 stretched and can be distinctly seen underneath the 
 skin, while the red and swollen nose is so marked a 
 result of alcohol-poisoning that even children know it 
 by a familiar nickname. 
 
 102. Effect of Tobacco upon the Skin. Tobacco 
 gives the skin a peculiar dry and sallow look. If a 
 
 1 See note 11, page 237. 
 
HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 131 
 
 confirmed tobacco-user be put in a warm bath the odor 
 of the tobacco will be very easily perceived in the room 
 when he comes out, while a fly dropped into the water 
 in which he has bathed will be quickly killed. 
 
 This shows how even the pores of the skin of the 
 tobacco-user become saturated with the poison. But 
 we need not put him in a bath to discover this. The 
 tobacco essence is constantly passing out of his skin 
 through his clothes until they become so filled with it 
 that we can smell it as we pass him on the street. 
 
 The smoker, however, is entirely unconscious of this. 
 His senses are so blunted that he fails to notice the 
 odors that make him offensive to all the cleanly people 
 he comes near. 
 
132 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: HOW IT GOVERNS THE 
 
 BODY 
 
 103. How all parts of the Body work together for 
 its good. We have studied the human body as a kind 
 of living machine. We have examined its various parts, 
 and found each adapted, not only to take care of itself, 
 but to do some special work essential to the well- 
 being of the whole. 
 
 Everywhere organs are working together for the 
 common good. Strike suddenly at the eye, and the lids 
 shut to protect it. Tickle the foot, and the muscles of 
 the leg pull it away. 
 
 Fifty skilled mechanics might do their best at build- 
 ing a house ; but, if each worked as he pleased, the 
 result of their work would be of little value. The 
 master-builder must be at his post, skilful to direct, 
 and quick to act. So with our bodies ; and the wonder- 
 ful agency which governs every part of our bodies is 
 the nervous system. 
 
 Let us learn a few things about its several parts, 
 the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves. 
 
 104. The Brain. The brain is one of the most 
 wonderful and important organs in the body. It fills 
 the inside of the skull, and is a curious, pulpy-looking 
 mass, not unlike blanc-mange. The outer surface is 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 133 
 
 grooved into folds something like the appearance of a 
 crumpled silk handkerchief. 
 
 The brain consists of two parts, one large, the 
 other small. The upper portion, or brain proper, is 
 
 CEREBRUM 
 
 MEDULLA 
 
 03LONQATA 
 CEREBELLUM 
 
 SPINAL COfi 
 
 PIHAL COLUMN 
 
 OUT ENDS OF 
 
 5PIMAJ. NEBVE9 
 
 FIG. 42. Diagram of Brain and Spinal Cord. 
 
 nearly seven-eighths of the whole mass. It is in halves, 
 one on each side, separated from each other by a deep 
 groove. The little brain lies beneath the back part of 
 the brain proper. 
 
134 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 How much do you suppose the brain weighs? Well, 
 about three pounds. As a rule, a large brain is 
 
 the sign of a superior 
 mind. Daniel Webster's 
 brain weighed fifty- 
 three and a half ounces. 
 Agassiz's weighed the 
 same. That of Cuvier, 
 the celebrated natural- 
 ist, weighed sixty-four 
 ounces and a third. An 
 idiot's brain rarely ex- 
 ceeds thirty ounces. 
 
 105. The Nerves. 
 Now, our backbone, or 
 spine, has inside of it a 
 large nerve, about two 
 feet long, of a whitish- 
 gray color, called the 
 spinal cord. This goes 
 from the brain down 
 the back of the neck ; 
 and all along it gives 
 out little white, glis- 
 tening threads, called 
 
 FIG. 43- -Diagram of the Brain Spinal Cord, .^ 
 
 and Nerves, trom behind. 
 
 come off in pairs from 
 
 the spine, one to each side of the body ; sending out 
 many other branches as they go. 
 
 These nerve-branches go to the muscles, to the 
 organs, to the skin, and to the tissues generally. In 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 135 
 
 fact, every part of the body you could touch has nerves 
 in it. 
 
 If you could follow a nerve along its course, you 
 would find, by and by, that you trace it into either the 
 
 FIG 44. Upper Surface of Brain, showing the Convolutions and its 
 Double Structure. 
 
 spinal cord or the brain itself, most likely into the 
 cord, for the greater number of the nerves of the body 
 branch out from it. 
 
 Now, messages pass along these nerves from the 
 brain, and also back to it It is in the brain that we 
 feel and will. No part of the body has in itself any 
 feeling, or any power of willing its own movement. If 
 all the nerves leading from your hand to the brain were 
 
136 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 cut across, you would not feel any pain in your hand, 
 nor could you move it at all. 
 
 106. The Telegraph System in our Bodies. The 
 nervous system is like a complete telegraphic system. 
 The brain is the main office ; and the thousands of 
 nerve fibres, branching off to all parts of the body, are 
 the telegraph-wires. Despatches are constantly being 
 sent to the brain, to tell what is going on in various 
 parts of the body. The brain, on receiving the news, 
 at once sends back its orders as to what must be done ; 
 and the order flies through the nerves faster than it is 
 possible for us to think. 
 
 Thus, if you put your hand accidentally on a hot 
 stove, you would not be long in pulling it away. Yet 
 really this is what happened : a message flashed along 
 the nerves from your hand, through the spinal cord, 
 to the brain, "We are burnt!" The brain at once 
 returned the message to the muscles, " Pull the hand 
 away ! " Then the muscles contracted, and the hand 
 was removed. 
 
 107. What is meant by Reflex Action. Now, 
 every message from various parts of the body does not 
 travel as far as the main office, that is to the brain, 
 but some of them are switched off, or "reflected " as 
 we call it, at some of the little offices on the way. 
 
 These way-stations, located along the spinal cord, 
 receive messages, and send back answers, without con- 
 sulting the brain. If some one should tickle our toes 
 when we were 'fast asleep, we would draw our feet 
 away ; and yet we would know nothing about it when 
 we awoke. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 137 
 
 In eating we sometimes get a crumb into the wind- 
 pipe, and cough hard to get rid of it. We cannot help 
 coughing : it goes on without our will. This is called a 
 reflex action. The impressions made by the tickling 
 and the crumb do not go to the brain ; but the signal 
 of danger or distress is sent to one of the way-stations 
 in the cord, and the order to do something is sent back, 
 or " reflected " to the muscles which control the part in 
 need of help. 
 
 108. The Importance of Reflex Action. Did you 
 ever think how important reflex action is to our health, 
 comfort, and safety ? Ten thousand acts take place 
 which tend to keep us well, and yet we have as little 
 control over them as over the stars above us. If the 
 feet slip, the body tends to recover itself without the 
 effort of the will. We try to brush the flies away when 
 we are asleep. 
 
 The story is told of an old soldier who, while carrying 
 a bowl of soup across the street, suddenly dropped it on 
 hearing some wag call " Attention ! " so used was he, 
 at that word of command, to stand erect with his hands 
 at his side. By an effort of the will, we can stop our 
 breath for a moment or two ; but soon the call for air 
 must be obeyed, whether we will or not. The great 
 work of digestion is going on ail our lives, and we have 
 no control over its complicated movements. 
 
 What is the good of all this ? Why, all the good in 
 the world. By this wonderful provision, our brain is 
 relieved of a vast amount of work. If we were forced 
 to use our will-power to digest our food, the brain would 
 be put to a constant strain. We could not, as now, eat 
 
138 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 and then go about our business. If we had to plan and 
 will every heart-beat, we should soon be tired of life. 
 We could never sleep ; for the brain would be on the 
 
 FIG. 45.- Under Surface of the Brain. 
 
 watch to decide if it were time for the next heart-beat, 
 the next breath, and the proper time for each digestive 
 fluid to flow. 
 
 109. The Health of the Nervous System. The 
 health of the nervous system is woven into the welfare 
 of every organ in the body, just as colored threads are 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 139 
 
 woven through a piece of cloth. An injury to one part 
 affects another part, through the shock to the nervous 
 system. A blow on the head often causes vomiting. 
 An overloaded stomach may make the brain dull and 
 stupid for several hours. Ill digestion may make us at 
 times cross and peevish. 
 
 Let a small artery inside the skull be broken by a 
 fall or a blow, and a clot no larger than a bean may be 
 formed, which presses on the brain ; and complete loss 
 of motion on one side may result. An accidental blow 
 on the head gave a European ruler, a man of limited 
 intellect, ever afterwards a wonderful memory. It is not 
 an uncommon thing for a person to fall and strike his 
 head, and thus produce a fatal disease of the kidneys. 
 
 The brain, or the thinking-part, is a most precious 
 gift. It needs exercise, as well as any other organ. 
 As its office is to think, we should give it good things 
 to think about, just as we give the stomach good food 
 to digest. . How necessary it is to keep it sound and 
 healthy ! 
 
 We should bring the brain into the habit of thinking 
 in earnest, so that it may grow strong and vigorous. A 
 gentleman once asked a boy who was idling about the 
 fields, "What are you thinking about?" "Mostly 
 naught, sir," said the boy; and so it would be with many 
 young people if they were left to themselves, and not 
 taught from their infancy to think. 
 
 The little brain of a child should be trained to all 
 that is true, noble, and good. Children should be 
 encouraged to find out all they can about flowers, birds, 
 trees, and animals, and to learn all about this beautiful 
 
140 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 world. We must learn to use our reason and judg- 
 ment in all that we do. Self-indulgence should be the 
 last object we have in mind. Self-control is one of 
 the greatest victories we can gain in life, and it will 
 help us to many more. 
 
 Unhealthy and evil habits are steady drains upon the 
 limited amount of nervous force that each one has. All 
 forms of sensual gratification that excite pleasure, only 
 to be followed by depression, cause a great waste of 
 nervous energy, and tend to sap the very foundation of 
 health and happiness. 
 
 no. Sleep, and how to get it. Of all the wonderful 
 things about us which we do not wonder at because 
 they are so common, sleep is one of the strangest. 
 How it comes, why it comes, how it does its kind, 
 helpful work, not even the wisest people are able to 
 tell. We do not have much trouble in seeking it : it 
 comes to us of itself. It takes us in its kindly arms, 
 quiets and comforts us, repairs and refreshes us, and 
 turns us out in the morning quite like new people. 
 
 Sleep is necessary to life and health. We crave it 
 as urgently as we do food or drink. In our waking 
 hours, rest is obtained only at short intervals : the 
 muscles and nerves, and the brain are in full activity. 
 Repair goes on every moment, whether we are awake 
 or asleep ; but during the waking hours the waste of 
 the tissues is far ahead of the repair, while during sleep 
 the repair exceeds the waste. Hence good mother 
 Nature at regular intervals causes all parts of the 
 bodily machinery to be run at their lowest rate ; in 
 other words, we are put to sleep. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 141 
 
 Sleep is more or less sound, according to circum- 
 stances. Fatigue, if not too great, aids it ; while idle- 
 
 FlG. 46. Superficial Nerves on the right side of the Neck and Head. 
 
 ness lessens it. Some drinks, as tea and coffee, may 
 prevent it. Anxious thought, and pain, and even 
 anticipated pleasure, may keep us awake : hence we 
 should not go to bed with the brain excited or too 
 
142 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 active. We should read some pleasant book, laugh, 
 talk, sing, or take a brisk walk, or otherwise rest, for 
 half an hour before going to bed. 
 
 The best time for sleep is during the silence and 
 darkness of night. People who have to work nights, 
 and to sleep during the day, have a strained and 
 wearied look. The amount of sleep depends upon the 
 temperament of each individual. Some require little 
 sleep, while others need a great deal. 
 
 Eight hours of sleep for an adult, and from ten to 
 twelve hours for children and old people, is about the 
 average amount required. Frederick the Great and 
 Napoleon were light sleepers, four hours daily being 
 the usual time given to sleep by these tireless warriors. 
 
 Most of the world's great workers have recognized 
 the necessity of a goodly amount of sleep. Sir Walter 
 Scott, the great master of fiction, took much exercise, 
 and always insisted upon having eight hours of sound 
 sleep every night. 
 
 Children naturally need more sleep than grown-up 
 people, because their bodies require more rest during 
 the period of growth : hence children should be put to 
 bed early, and sleep in the morning until they awake. 
 Children should not play too hard during the hour 
 before bedtime ; but the time should be spent in 
 quiet and restful talk, avoiding startling stories. 
 
 When fairly awake, we should get up. Dozing, 
 neither asleep nor awake, is not healthful, especially 
 for young people. The Duke of Wellington used to 
 say, " When it is time to turn over, it is time to turn 
 out." 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 143 
 
 in. Effect of Alcohol on the Nervous System. 
 We must remember that alcohol is a narcotic, 1 that it 
 deadens or paralyzes the nerves and the brain of the 
 drinker, if we would understand its effect upon the 
 nervous system. 
 
 One of the first results after an alcoholic drink has 
 been taken, is the quickened action of the heart ; but 
 even this is caused by the deadening or benumbing of 
 the nerves that, as we have learned in a previous les- 
 son, should hold the heart in check and not let it beat 
 too fast. 
 
 Now we must remember that the brain is very 
 richly supplied with blood-vessels. The nerves in 
 the walls of these blood-vessels that should regulate 
 the flow of the blood are also deadened by the alcohol, 
 and that allows the blood-vessels to stretch too much, 
 and too much blood rushes to the brain. This causes 
 the flushed face and undue excitement. The mind 
 seems for a time to become more active. 
 
 Because thoughts and words flow more rapidly after 
 taking alcoholic liquors, people have supposed that this 
 helps brain work. But this activity is untrustworthy. 
 It is a great mistake to think that alcohol in any form 
 will help brain work. 2 
 
 That faculty of the mind that decides what is good 
 sense, what is right, wise, and best, is called the judg- 
 ment. Alcohol takes the edge off the judgment. A 
 person whose brain is excited with alcohol will laugh 
 and be greatly pleased with what is in reality foolish, 
 silly, and unwise. 
 
 Under this misleading excitement, many persons 
 
 1 See note 12, page 237. - See note 13, page 238. 
 
144 How T0 KEEP WELL 
 
 have uttered words and performed deeds that filled 
 them with shame to recall when the effects of the 
 alcohol had passed off. Many a life that might other- 
 wise have been one of happy usefulness, has been 
 permanently disgraced by some act performed under 
 this first flush, when alcohol had dulled the sense of 
 right. Many and many a success in life has been lost, 
 because he who should have been the man of the hour 
 was unfit for duty from having dulled his brain with 
 alcohol. 
 
 If still more alcohol is taken, those functions which 
 are under the direct control of the spinal cord become 
 disturbed. The power over some of the muscles is 
 lost. The muscles of the lower lip and of the legs are 
 the first to feel this lack of control. The speech is 
 thick, and the gait uncertain. Reason is off duty, and 
 the lower or animal impulses begin to manifest them- 
 selves. The control of the judgment and of the will is 
 lost ; and the emotional, the impulsive, and the purely 
 instinctive parts of the nature are excited and act with- 
 out a master. Cruel deeds and crime are the result. 
 
 In the last stage of all, when the drinker has become 
 dead drunk, the paralysis of the nerve centres and of 
 the brain is carried to its full extent. All the inlets of 
 the senses are closed, consciousness and sensation are 
 lost, and control of the voluntary movements is gone. 
 
 112. Effect of Alcohol upon the Will. When a 
 person with determination does what he undertakes in 
 spite of difficulties, we say he has a strong will. With- 
 out such a will, rightly guided, no one can accomplish 
 much in life. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 145 
 
 Remember this as a golden text all the days of your 
 life : 
 
 ALCOHOL INJURES EVERY FACULTY OF THE MIND, 
 
 AND ESPECIALLY WEAKENS THE WlLL. 
 
 The judgment of the drinker often points to the 
 fact that alcohol is injuring his health and character, 
 that it is making him careless about doing right, about 
 attending to Jiis business, and about caring for those de- 
 pendent upon him. Conscience urges him never to take 
 another drop. He solemnly resolves that he never will. 
 
 In the hours of temptation that are sure to follow, 
 the drinker needs a strong will with which to say No, 
 and to keep on saying No, very determinedly, to the 
 appetite that asks for more. 
 
 But alas ! alcohol has not only the power to create 
 this appetite, as we have seen, but also to weaken the 
 will of the drinker, who is struggling to resist its awful 
 craving. 
 
 The person who stands before his " first glass," as 
 well as the occasional drinker, should remember that 
 this awful appetite and weakened will are the natural 
 consequences of the use of alcoholic liquors in any 
 form, and that the time when a person could stop 
 drinking if he would, leads on to the time when he 
 would stop drinking if he could. 
 
 When the control of the judgment and the will is 
 destroyed by alcohol, cruelty, anger, and other brutal 
 passions are let loose without a master. Thus the 
 drinker becomes an utter slave to his lower nature, 
 and often a terror to those whom he should protect. 
 
 The most brutal crimes are often committed while a 
 
146 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 person is crazed with strong drink. 1 The craving for 
 ardent spirits becomes well-nigh irresistible. Self- 
 respect, honor, conscience, common decency, every- 
 thing is sacrificed to get fresh fuel for the alcoholic fire 
 which is burning up its victim. 
 
 The disease known as delirium tremens, meaning " a 
 trembling madness," is a terrible example of the pro- 
 found effect which alcohol may have upon the nervous 
 system. It is marked by muscular tremors, persistent 
 wakefulness, muttering talk, wild delirium, and all the 
 horrors of hideous delusions which the imagination can 
 possibly conceive. 
 
 These extreme instances of the breaking-up of the ner- 
 vous system are found in " homes for the intemper- 
 ate " and in our insane-asylums, men and women who 
 have lost every better trace of humanity, hopeless, help- 
 less, doomed to a living death until they cease to breathe. 
 
 113. The Inherited Craving for Alcohol. The 
 craving for alcohol may be inherited by its victim's 
 innocent children, just as we inherit mental and physi- 
 cal vigor or weakness, our features, and even our moral 
 traits. The inherited curse from strong drink has caused 
 many a family to " run out," and leave the children and 
 grandchildren pitiable wrecks of humanity. 
 
 There is a marked tendency in nature to transmit all 
 diseased conditions. But of all agents, we must remem- 
 ber that alcohol is the most potent in establishing a 
 heredity that shows itself in the destruction of mind and 
 body. 2 Children often inherit small, weak brains, and a 
 tendency to crime and insanity from the alcoholic habits 
 of their parents. 
 
 1 See note 14, page 239. 2 See note 15, page 240. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 147 
 
 114. The Use of Tobacco. The enormous use 
 of tobacco is well known, whether smoked, chewed, or 
 used as snuff. However used, it is a narcotic and a 
 poison. Its injurious effects are due to its "nicotine," 
 which is one of the most rapidly fatal poisons known, 
 rivalling prussic acid in this respect. 
 
 It takes about one minute for a single drop of nico- 
 tine to kill a full-grown cat, and it has killed a rabbit 
 in three minutes. The application of tobacco to chafed 
 surfaces, and even to the healthy skin, occasions severe 
 and sometimes fatal results. A tea made of tobacco 
 and applied to the skin has caused death in three hours. 
 Soldiers have been known to shirk military duty by 
 making themselves sick with a leaf of tobacco put 
 under the arm or over the stomach. 
 
 The injury done by tobacco varies according to the 
 quantity used. Even in moderate use it is hurtful, 
 especially to young persons, and the tobacco habit once 
 acquired is difficult to break. The appetite for it grows 
 with its use. The fact that the habit is foolish, costly, 
 and ill becoming, needs no physiological proof. 
 
 Tobacco often produces palpitation of the heart, cer- 
 tain forms of dyspepsia, irritation of the throat and 
 lungs, and a general breaking-up of the nervous system. 
 Sometimes, after long smoking, a feeling of dizziness, 
 with a brief loss of consciousness, is produced. At 
 other times, if walking, there is a sense of falling for- 
 ward, or as if the feet were sinking into cotton- 
 wool. 
 
 Tobacco has the power to injure the brain. Ideas 
 lack clearness of outline. The will-power is weakened, 
 
148 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 till it is an effort to do the routine duties of every-day 
 life. 1 The tobacco-user is often cross, irritable, and 
 liable to outbursts of passion. The memory is also 
 often impaired : the nicotine deadens the delicate nerve- 
 tissue, and hinders its nutrition. The nerve centres are 
 no longer able to hoard up the necessary amount of 
 vital energy, hence the many and various nervous symp- 
 toms due to the use of tobacco. 
 
 115. Effect of Tobacco upon Young People. 
 Tobacco in any form has a peculiarly injurious effect 
 upon young people. It seriously impairs muscular 
 growth and mental activity. The profound effect it 
 has upon the nervous system after the first trial of 
 smoking or chewing is well known. 
 
 Even after the system gets used to tobacco, young 
 people continue to suffer from nausea, dizziness, 
 headache, muscular trembling, loss of appetite, and 
 general weakness. No boy can continue the prac- 
 tice of smoking or chewing without becoming physi- 
 cally or mentally injured by the time he is twenty- 
 one. 
 
 This is the whole story in a nut-shell : No person 
 should learn to smoke, or use tobacco in any way, 
 especially if he wishes to keep strong and vigorous, or 
 is ambitious to succeed in life. 
 
 116. Cigarettes and the Harm they do. The use 
 of cigarettes cannot be too severely condemned. These 
 are made of the cheapest materials, which are often 
 adulterated with refuse substances, and even with 
 opium. Cigarettes are so common and so cheap that 
 their use to an injurious extent by thousands of young 
 
 1 See note 16, page 240. 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 149 
 
 people is becoming a very serious matter. Every few 
 days the newspapers contain an account of the death of 
 some boy caused by the use of cigarettes. 
 
 Any honest physician will vouch for the accuracy of 
 the following picture : " A fine healthy boy of from 
 twelve to fifteen years of age, well known for his fine 
 physique, even disposition, and great strength, starts in 
 his career as a cigarette-smoker, and what are the 
 results ? The decay of physical power, emaciation, 
 irritable temper, sallow complexion, drawn and anxious 
 look, unsteadiness of hand, dyspepsia, capricious appe- 
 tite, aversion to parental and other advice, tendency to 
 seek lower companionship. 
 
 " More especially in those predisposed to diseases of 
 the nervous system does this rapid decay make itself 
 apparent, and in varying degrees according to the 
 amount of the indulgence. Physicians daily watch 
 this process with pain and anxiety for those intrusted 
 to their care." 
 
 117. The Use of Tobacco from a Moral Point of 
 View. Tobacco has the power, through its effect 
 upon the brain and nerves, to deaden the user's affec- 
 tion for his family and friends as well as his sense of 
 politeness, or propriety as to the rights of others. All 
 have a right to pure air to breathe. 
 
 The smoker puffs his tobacco smoke into the faces 
 of people on the street-cars and ferries, in waiting- 
 rooms, hotels, and places of amusement, regardless of 
 the fact that it may be very disagreeable. 
 
 The tobacco-chewer, selfishly thinking of no one but 
 himself, defiles the floor, stairs, sidewalks, and even 
 
150 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 stoves and other objects that come within the range of 
 his disgusting habit. 
 
 118. Opium. Opium is the dried juice of the 
 white poppy. Morphine is a white powder made from 
 opium. A solution of opium in alcohol is called lauda- 
 num. Paregoric is a weak form of opium combined 
 with other things. 
 
 Various forms of opium are generally used in lini- 
 ments, cough-killers, soothing-sirups, stomach-bitters, 
 cholera-mixtures, and countless other preparations which 
 people are eager to buy, hoping for relief from some 
 real or fancied ailment. 
 
 Opium is becoming as great a curse to some of the 
 natives of Asia as alcohol and tobacco are to Europe 
 and America. But its use is gaining ground in these 
 countries as well, and for this reason all should know 
 that it is a dangerous narcotic, with power to create an 
 uncontrollable appetite for more. 
 
 A person may begin in the most innocent way to use 
 opium to relieve pain ; little by little the meshes of 
 this fascinating narcotic are woven about him. A per- 
 son cannot leave off its use without the greatest effort. 
 A craving is created, which no one can realize unless 
 he has once felt the power of this drug. Eaten or 
 smoked habitually, to gratify the craving, it makes a 
 living death for its victim. To quit it is untold misery ; 
 to continue it is certain death. 
 
 Opium completely changes its victim. A man once 
 upright and honest will lie, cheat, or commit any 
 crime, to get a dose of the fatal drug. Promises and 
 resolutions to stop its use may be sincerely made, 
 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 15! 
 
 but are no more binding than ropes of sand. The 
 deepest melancholy settles on the opium-eater ; and 
 life, once full of joy and happiness, is indeed a heavy 
 burden. 
 
 119. Practical Points about Opium. Opium is 
 often given to infants and children in the form of the 
 so-called soothing-sirups, cough-killers, and cholera- 
 mixtures. However soothing the effect may be> the 
 child is simply drugged, and not cured. The practice 
 of giving any opiates for summer complaints, and other 
 household ways of using opium, should be sparingly 
 and very cautiously resorted to. 
 
 Children, as a rule, and many grown-up people too, 
 are very susceptible to the action of opium. Young 
 boys have been made stupid, and their health seriously 
 endangered, by smoking cigarettes that have been 
 drugged with opium. 
 
 Above all things, do not give to others, especially to 
 children, any opium mixture that has been prescribed 
 for some one else. 
 
 120. Chloral and other Powerful Drugs. Chloral 
 is a powerful drug, capable of producing sleep. Because 
 it is known to induce sleep, especially in those who 
 suffer from excessive mental strain, from anxiety, or 
 other like cause, it has come of late years to be often 
 used without a physician's advice. Like all narcotics, 
 the dose must be steadily increased to get the required 
 effect. 
 
 The " chloral habit " is soon formed, and the person 
 becomes a slave to a dangerous drug. Without it the 
 chloral-taker cannot sleep : with it his digestion is 
 
152 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 sadly out of order. He suffers from dyspepsia, short- 
 ness of breath, and palpitation of the heart. The 
 habit begets carelessness in its use, and the fatal dose 
 is so uncertain that chloral-takers often die from an 
 overdose. 
 
 The only safe rule is, never to touch so dangerous a 
 drug unless prescribed by a skilful physician. 
 
 Now you must know that the epidemic commonly 
 known as " la grippe," which recently made such sad 
 havoc with life and health of people the world over, 
 brought into use a new group of medicines. They are 
 only known by their scientific names as "antipyrine," 
 " antifebrin," and so on. These powerful drugs have 
 come of late into extensive household use. Let them 
 severely alone. Good physicians prescribe them only 
 with the greatest caution. 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 1 53 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 121. How the Brain learns what takes Place in 
 the Outer World. Some nerves, as we have learned, 
 control the action of the muscles ; others carry a 
 variety of impressions from every part of the body to 
 the brain. When the brain receives a distinct impres- 
 sion through certain nerves, we become conscious of a 
 sensation. Exactly how it occurs is one of the many 
 mysteries of our bodily life. 
 
 Most sensations are produced by something outside 
 of us. Thus, if we hear a child cry or a bird sing, we 
 have a sensation of sound ; if we put sugar on the 
 tongue, hold a rose to the nose, or prick the skin, cer- 
 tain organs receive the impressions, then faithful nerves 
 carry them to the brain, and we thus become conscious 
 of these different sensations. 
 
 There are five "gateways " through which the. brain 
 learns what takes place in the outer world ; in other 
 words, we have five special senses, touch, taste, smell, 
 hearing, and sight. 
 
 122. Touch. The simplest of the senses is touch. 
 It is given to some extent to the whole body ; but it is 
 more delicate in the hands and fingers than elsewhere. 
 When we pass our fingers over an object, we say we 
 
154 HO W TO KEEP WELL 
 
 have felt it, and can tell if it is soft or hard, rough or 
 smooth. 
 
 If we look carefully at the palm of the hand or at 
 the inner surface of the finger or thumb, we see it is 
 grooved in tiny furrows. At the tips of the ringers 
 these furrows form circles, growing larger and larger. 
 If the finger-tips be smeared with ink, an impression 
 can be made on paper, showing these widening circles. 
 In these furrows are the nerves, which are exquisitely 
 sensitive. 
 
 In old times, before the art of writing, and therefore 
 of signing one's name, was common, the old English 
 kings, to sign a document, would ink the end of the 
 thumb and stamp it on the paper : hence the phrase, 
 " my hand and seal." 
 
 This sense can be cultivated to a marvellous extent. 
 Think what blind people can do ! They read rapidly 
 by running their fingers over slightly raised letters, and 
 recognize their friends by feeling their faces. Watch 
 an expert pianist, and see the skill and the precision 
 with which he handles many keys in a few seconds of 
 time. 
 
 123. Taste. The tongue is the principal organ of 
 taste. It has two coverings, an outer layer, and a 
 deep, sensitive layer. In some diseases this outer layer 
 becomes coated with a whitish or yellowish matter. 
 The deep layer is raised up, like the true skin, into tiny 
 hillocks, or papilla, which are abundantly supplied with 
 delicate nerves, the nerves of taste. 
 
 The tip and back of the tongue are supplied with 
 different nerves. Hence it makes a difference whether 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 155 
 
 EPIGLOTTIS 
 
 PAPILLA: 
 
 we put a substance to be tasted, on the tip or back of 
 the tongue. Thus alum tastes acid on the tip, and has 
 a sweetish taste on the back part of the tongue. 
 
 In certain animals these 
 papillae are very large, and 
 give a roughness to the 
 tongue. We know how rough 
 a cat's tongue is. It is this 
 which enables the cat to strip 
 off the flesh from a bone by 
 simply licking it, while the 
 lion strips the skin from his 
 victim with one stroke of his 
 tongue. 
 
 Taste is very much a mat- 
 ter of custom. The Lap- 
 landers drink rancid fish-oil 
 with a relish; the Persians 
 used as an appetizer the 
 offensive assafoetida, which 
 they called the divine perfume 
 their salad with castor-oil. Great acuteness may be 
 gained in the sense of taste. The skill of the "tea- 
 tasters" is something wonderful. 
 
 124. Smell. The seat of the sense of smell is in 
 the cavities of the nose, into which the nostrils open, 
 and which connect behind with the back part of the 
 mouth. The walls of the nasal cavities .are lined with 
 a thick, velvety membrane, over which the nerves of 
 smell are distributed. 
 
 This membrane is kept continually moist by a fluid 
 
 FIG. 47. Upper Surface of the 
 Tongue, showing the Papille. 
 
 and the Chinese season 
 
156 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 FIG. 48. How the Papillae of the 
 Tongue look under the Microscope. 
 
 which it secretes. At the beginning of a cold in the 
 head, this membrane becomes dry and swollen, and the 
 
 sense of smell is lessened. 
 In the roof of the nasal 
 cavities, the sense of smell 
 is most acute : hence, when 
 we wish to detect a faint 
 odor, we sniff up the air. 
 
 The sense of smell varies 
 very much in different in- 
 dividuals ; in some persons 
 it is very dull, while others 
 have a very "sharp nose." 
 In savage races this sense 
 
 is most acute. We are told that the South-American 
 Indians can by their sense of smell detect the approach 
 of a stranger, even in a dark night, and can also distin- 
 guish whether he is white or black. 
 
 Many animals are more highly endowed with this 
 sense than man. A dog will smell the footsteps of his 
 master amid those of a hundred other people, and can 
 trace him for miles, although he has been for hours out 
 of sight. Pointers also scent game at a great distance. 
 The sense of smell is nature's sentinel to guard 
 against taking improper food into the stomach, and 
 impure air into the lungs. 
 
 125. Hearing. Next to sight, hearing is the most 
 important of .the senses. We could get along without 
 being able to taste ; but without seeing and hearing, 
 life would be almost a blank. Our ears have their deli- 
 cate structure securely lodged in the " temple " bones. 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 157 
 
 The outer ear is a piece of gristle covered with skin, 
 and curiously moulded for catching sounds. In animals 
 it is quite movable : hence the timid rabbit and the 
 intelligent horse " prick up their ears " to listen. The 
 
 OLFACTORY NERVE 
 
 BRANCHES Or 
 OLFACTORY NERVr 
 
 INTERIOR OF 
 NOSTRIL 
 
 FIG. 49. Sectional View of the Nose. 
 
 tube in the ear is about an inch long, and guides the 
 sound in just as an ear-trumpet does. 
 
 At the lower end of this passage we find a delicate 
 membrane stretched across, which serves as a partition 
 between the outer and the middle ear. It is thin and 
 elastic, hence easily broken by a blow or by pushing 
 anything into the ear. If once broken or destroyed, 
 deafness results. 
 
 The middle ear is really the " drum," and in form 
 resembles an ordinary drum. Three of the tiniest 
 bones in the body stretch across it. They are so small 
 that you can easily balance them on the tip of your 
 
158 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 finger. One curious thing is, that they are as large in 
 infancy as they ever will be. 
 
 The air reaches the inside of our " ear-drum " through 
 a little tube about an inch long, which leads into it 
 from the throat. It serves to keep the air on both 
 sides of the drum at a constant and even pressure. 
 Hence gunners open their mouths when a heavy cannon 
 is about to be fired, so that the shock may be felt less 
 forcibly. In going up a high mountain or down in a 
 diving-bell, people swallow repeatedly, to save the feel- 
 ing of discomfort and pain in the ears. 
 
 The inner ear is one of the most delicate and com- 
 plex pieces of mechanism in the whole body. It is 
 really a bony case of the tiniest winding chambers and 
 spiral tubes hollowed out in the solid bone. These 
 little passages are lined with a delicate bag of membrane 
 of exactly the same shape as themselves. 
 
 The nerve of hearing passes from the brain, through 
 a little hole in the skull to the inner ear, and- is spread 
 out on this lining. The impression thus perceived is 
 carried to the brain, where it gives rise to the sensation 
 of hearing. 
 
 126. How to take Care of the Ears. The ear is a 
 very delicate organ. It is often carelessly and ignorantly 
 tampered with. It is often neglected when skilled 
 treatment is urgently needed. The ear-canal should 
 never be rudely or hastily washed out, but the utmost 
 gentleness used in cleansing it. 
 
 Children's ears should never be pulled or boxed, for 
 even a slight blow has resulted in deafness. Never 
 use ear-picks, ear-spoons, the end of pencils or pen- 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 159 
 
 holders, pins, hairpins, toothpicks, and so on, to pick or 
 scratch the ear-canal. It is a foolish, needless, and 
 dangerous practice. 
 
 Wads of absorbent cotton may be gently put into the 
 ears to shield them from the cold, or they may be worn 
 
 EUSTACHIAN 
 TUBE 
 
 FIG. 50. Sectional View of the Ear. 
 
 in bathing or diving to keep the water out. Diving in 
 deep water, or bathing in the breakers, often injures 
 the ears. 
 
 If flies, bugs, ants, and the like crawl into the ears, 
 this may cause some pain and fright, and perhaps lead 
 to vomiting and even convulsions. The ear may then 
 be syringed out with a little warm soapsuds, or drop in 
 a few drops of molasses or sweet oil. Cold water should 
 never be put into the ears, but only tepid water. Do 
 not go to sleep with the head in any position that may 
 expose the ears to a draught of cold or damp air. 
 
 127. Sight. Sight, or vision, when we think about 
 it, is a wonderful thing. That we have a means by 
 
I6O HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 which we can learn what is going on in the outside 
 world, miles away from us, is a precious gift. 
 
 We watch a huge balloon from the time it leaves the 
 ground till it is a black speck in the air above us. We 
 watch a vessel sailing along on the dim horizon, and the 
 next instant we are reading the fine print of a news- 
 paper. We are able to recognize the form, size, color, 
 and distance of thousands of different objects in 
 nature. 
 
 This sense is so woven into the countless acts of 
 our every-day affairs, that we scarcely appreciate this 
 marvellous gift, so essential not only to the simplest 
 matters of comfort, but also to the culture of the mind, 
 and the higher forms of pleasure. Sight is well held to 
 be the highest and most perfect of all the senses. 
 
 128. The Eye and its Wonders. The eye, a most 
 beautiful and ingeniously contrived organ, is the instru- 
 ment of sight. It is really one of the greatest wonders 
 of nature. 
 
 All the seeing parts of the eye are held in an egg- 
 shaped bag lodged in a cavity of the skull. It is well 
 protected by the strong bones of the head. Passing to 
 the brain, through a crevice in the bottom of the cavity, 
 is the optic nerve, which gives the power of sight. It 
 spreads itself like a network upon the inner surface of 
 the eyeball, and is then called the retina. It is upon 
 this that the pictures of all objects are thrown. The 
 impression of the pictures is carried to the brain, and 
 causes the sensation of sight. 
 
 We must remember that it is not the eye that sees, 
 but the mind behind it ; it is not the ear that hears, but 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE l6l 
 
 the mind through the ear. This network also takes 
 in the most delicate shades of color ; and by the action of 
 the nerves of both eyes at the same time, we get the 
 idea of the shape of objects, and of their distance from 
 each other. 
 
 , 
 
 FIG. 51. Section of Eyeball. 
 
 Sometimes the optic nerve is diseased, and total 
 blindness results. The great poet John Milton suffered 
 from this disease, and in his blindness dictated to his 
 daughters the immortal poem, "Paradise Lost." 
 
 The eyeball is a bag almost round, thick and dull 
 everywhere but in front, where it has a transparent 
 covering called the cornea, meaning a "horn." This is 
 fitted into the eye just as a watch-crystal is fitted into 
 a watch. 
 
 Sometimes it bulges out a trifle too much, and an 
 imperfect picture is made on the retina. Such a person 
 is said to be near-sighted. Through this watch-glass 
 the rays of light pass into the ball of the eye. Behind 
 
1 62 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 it is a space, called the front chamber of the eye, filled 
 with a watery fluid. 
 
 In this chamber hangs a curtain called the iris, 
 meaning " rainbow." It has through its centre a hole 
 called the pupil, poetically called " the apple of the eye." 
 This curtain gives the color to the eye. 
 
 Behind the pupil is a transparent, jelly-like body, 
 about the size of a French bean, called the crystalline 
 lens. It separates the front chamber of the eye from 
 the back chamber. This beautiful lens helps the cornea 
 to bring the pictures to a point, or "focus," on the 
 retina. The back chamber also holds a jelly-like fluid, 
 called the "glassy humor," which allows the iris-curtain 
 to float and move freely. 
 
 129. How the Eye is protected. The eye is 
 like a precious gem placed in a carefully prepared case. 
 The eyelids, by continually winking, protect the eye 
 from insects and from dust. They are fringed with the 
 delicate hairs of the eyelashes, which are so sensitive 
 that the slightest touch gives warning, and the lids 
 close. 
 
 By means of little muscles the eye is moved up and 
 down, and rolled sideways. Sometimes these muscles 
 do not act properly, and a person is said to squint or be 
 cross-eyed. 
 
 At the upper and outer side of each eye is a little 
 gland which is constantly forming a saltish kind of 
 fluid. Sometimes more of this fluid comes out of the 
 little gland than can be carried away through the nose, 
 and it flows over the eyelids down the cheeks, and is 
 called tears. 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 163 
 
 Tears are constantly passing over the front of the 
 eye, washing it clean, and keeping it moist ; while the 
 eyelid wipes it dry, as it were, by forcing the tears into 
 a little drain-pipe, which carries them ,off into the nose. 
 Nature, however, kindly oils the edges of the eyelids, 
 to prevent, to some extent, the overflow of tears. 
 
 FIG. 52. Muscles of Eyeball. 
 
 130. Color-Blindness. Color-blindness is the in- 
 ability to tell certain colors. It is sometimes produced 
 by sickness, but generally exists at birth. This defect 
 of sight is quite common. It is found that four or five 
 out of every hundred people are color-blind. A person 
 may be color-blind, and not know it until the defect is 
 accidentally revealed. 
 
 It is a matter of the utmost practical importance to 
 those employed on railroads, vessels, and other places 
 where colored signals are used. Some are only partially 
 color-blind, while others are wholly so. The most 
 common form of color-blindness is that in which one 
 fails to distinguish red. 
 
164 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 131. How to take Care of the Eyes. The eye 
 
 is an exceedingly delicate and sensitive organ. It is 
 easy to get it out of order, and very tedious to restore 
 it to health. The eyes are often weak after certain 
 sicknesses, especially measles and scarlet-fever. The 
 habit of reading in the cars or a carriage the daily 
 papers, with their blurred and fine print, is a severe 
 strain on the eyes. 
 
 It is a dangerous practice to read in bed at night, or 
 while lying down in a darkened room. The small type 
 and poor paper of the many cheap books now so popular, 
 are very frequent causes of weak and diseased eyes. 
 
 The direction in which the light comes is an important 
 matter. The worst of all is from in front. The direct 
 light should fall upon the print from above and behind, 
 and from the left side. After reading steadily for some 
 time, we should rest the eyes, even for only a minute, 
 by looking at some distant object. 
 
 A person should never read, write, sew, stitch, or 
 otherwise use the eyes, when they tingle or smart, or 
 the sight is dim or blurred ; for they are weary, and 
 need rest. Using the eyes at dusk, or by artificial 
 light in the early morning, often leads to serious dis- 
 orders of vision. 
 
 The eyes should never be rubbed or handled roughly, 
 much less when they are irritated by some foreign 
 substance. The sooner such is removed, the better. 
 Rubbing the eye, or pulling the eyelids, only makes a 
 bad matter worse. 
 
 Remember this bit of advice : It is not a wise econ- 
 omy to tamper with one's eyes when they are ailing. 
 
THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 1 6$ 
 
 132. Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the 
 Special Senses. Whatever dulls or weakens the 
 nerves, must exert the same effect upon the special 
 senses. 
 
 Hence alcohol and tobacco dull the senses, and also 
 provoke changes in the sense-organs themselves. Thus 
 alcohol often injures the ears by inflaming the throat, 
 and then the tube which leads to the middle ear. 
 
 Tobacco is apt to cause an inflamed state of the 
 throat and nose, and hence ear-disease. Smokers 
 occasionally suffer from a dimmed vision due to a 
 partial paralysis of the optic nerve. Alcohol is said to 
 cause the same disease. 
 
 Tobacco and alcohol often produce an inflammation 
 of the eyes and of the lining of the lids. 
 
 Cigarettes are said to be especially hurtful to the 
 lining of the throat, and the eyes. An atmosphere 
 loaded with tobacco smoke is apt to provoke an in- 
 flammation of the throat, nose, and ears. 
 
 The power of tobacco to injure the eye is not confined 
 to the user himself. Careful observers are of the 
 opinion that much of the weak and imperfect vision in 
 the young to-day may be traced to the smoking habits 
 of their fathers. 
 
1 66 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 HELP AT HAND: OR WHAT TO DO IN ACCIDENTS 
 OR ILLNESS 
 
 133. Accidents and Emergencies. Any kind of 
 accident and emergency may happen. When such 
 arise it is necessary to think and to act at a moment's 
 notice. 
 
 A friend may cut himself with a scythe or a knife ; 
 a child may accidentally swallow some poison ; a boy 
 may be taken out of the river apparently drowned ; one 
 of our own family may be sick with some contagious 
 disease, or may be nearly suffocated with coal-gas. 
 
 All these, and many other things of a like nature, 
 call for a cool head, a steady hand, and some practical 
 knowledge of the best thing to do " till the doctor 
 comes." 
 
 Every one should become familiar with a few of the 
 simplest helps in ordinary accidents, emergencies, and 
 in other matters pertaining to every-day health : it is 
 really the practical application of what we have studied 
 in this little book. 
 
 134. What to do for a Fainting Person. A faint- 
 ing person should be laid flat at once, with the head 
 very low. Give plenty of fresh air ; and dash cold 
 water, if necessary, on the head and neck. Loosen all 
 tight clothing. 
 
HELP AT HAND 167 
 
 135. Frostbite. The ears, toes, nose, and ringers 
 are occasionally frostbitten or frozen. Rub the frozen 
 parts gently with snow or snow-water, in a cold room. 
 The circulation should be restored very slowly. Hot 
 milk with cayenne pepper, and ginger tea, should be 
 freely given as stimulants. 
 
 136. Fits, Convulsions A sufferer from " fits " 
 should be treated much the same as for fainting. 
 There is foaming at the mouth, the eyes are rolled up, 
 and the tongue or lips are often bitten. 
 
 See that the person does not injure himself ; crowd 
 a folded handkerchief between the teeth, to prevent 
 biting the lips or tongue. Persons who are subject to 
 such fits should not go into crowded or excited gather- 
 ings of any kind. 
 
 137. Suffocation. The chief dangers from poison- 
 ing by noxious gases come from the fumes of burning 
 coal in the furnace, stove, or range ; from gas blown 
 out by a draught ; from the foul air often found in old 
 wells ; and from the fumes of charcoal and the foul air 
 of mines. 
 
 The first thing to do is to give fresh air. Remove 
 the person to the open air, loosen all tight clothing, 
 dash on cold water, and, if necessary, use artificial 
 respiration, as stated in Section 151. 
 
 138. Broken Bones. Send for a surgeon at once. 
 Loss of power, pain, and swelling are symptoms of a 
 broken bone, that may be easily recognized. 
 
 Broken limbs should always be handled with great 
 care and tenderness. If the accident happens in the 
 woods, the limb should be bound with handkerchiefs, 
 
1 68 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 suspenders, or strips of clothing, to a piece of board, 
 
 pasteboard, or bark, padded 
 with moss or grass, which 
 will do well enough for a 
 temporary splint. Always 
 put a broken arm into a 
 sling after the splints are 
 on. 
 
 Never move the injured 
 person until the limb is made 
 safe from further injuries 
 by putting it into splints. 
 If you do not need to move 
 the person, keep the limb 
 in a natural, easy position, 
 until the doctor comes. 
 
 Remember that this treat- 
 ment for broken bones is 
 only to enable the patient 
 to be moved without further 
 injury. A surgeon is re- 
 quired to set the broken 
 limb. 
 
 Keep the patient warm. 
 Do not give a drop of alco- 
 holic liquor. 
 
 139. The Sting of Insects. If a piece of the sting 
 remains in the wound, extract it with the fingers or 
 with a pair of tweezers. The best application is diluted 
 ammonia-water, after which a cloth moistened with 
 sweet-oil or cosmoline should be placed upon the part. 
 
 FIG. 53. Showing how a temporary 
 splint and a sling may be put on to a 
 broken arm. 
 
HELP AT HAND 
 
 I6 9 
 
 '///// 
 
 FIG. 54. Showing how a temporary 
 splint may be put on to a broken leg. 
 
 140. Nosebleed. Slight nosebleed requires little 
 treatment. Keep the head erect, place a basin under 
 the chin for the blood to run 
 
 into, and then the patient 
 should take several deep in- 
 spirations, filling the chest 
 fully at each breath. In 
 most cases this will soon 
 stop the bleeding. Ice may 
 be applied to the nose. 
 
 141. Foreign Bodies in 
 the Nose. Children are 
 apt to push marbles, beans, 
 peas, fruit-stones, buttons, 
 and other small objects, into 
 the nose. Sometimes we 
 
 can get the child to help by blowing his nose hard. At 
 other times a sharp blow between the shoulders will 
 cause the substance to fall out. Stop the well nostril, 
 and blow suddenly and forcibly through the mouth. 
 
 Call in medical help at once if you do not meet with 
 success, especially if it is a pea or bean, which is apt to 
 swell with the warmth and moisture. 
 
 142. Foreign Bodies in the Ear. The simplest 
 thing to do is to syringe in a little warm water, which 
 will often wash out the substance. If insects crawl 
 into the ear, drop in a little sweet-oil or molasses. If 
 the tip of the ear is pulled up gently, the liquid will 
 flow in more readily. 
 
 143. Foreign Bodies in the Throat. Bits of food 
 and other small objects sometimes get lodged in the 
 
I/O HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 throat, and are easily got out by the forefinger or 
 by sharp slaps on the back. If it is a sliver from a 
 toothpick, a match, or a fish-bone, it is no easy matter 
 to remove it ; for it generally sticks into the lining of 
 the passage. 
 
 If the object has actually passed into the wind-pipe, 
 and then occur sudden fits of spasmodic coughing, with 
 a dusky hue to the face and fingers, there is great 
 danger of life : surgical help must be called without 
 delay. 
 
 If a foreign body, like coins, pencils, keys, fruit- 
 stones, etc., is swallowed, it is not wise to give physic. 
 Give plenty of hard-boiled eggs, cheese, and butter- 
 crackers, so that the substance may be passed off in 
 the natural way, in a bulky stool. 
 
 144. Foreign Bodies in the Eye. Cinders, par- 
 ticles of dust, and other small substances, often get 
 into the eye, and cause much pain. Do not rub the 
 eye ; it will only make bad matters worse. Often a 
 copious flow of tears will wash the substance away ; it 
 is sometimes removed with the twisted corner of a 
 handkerchief carefully used. 
 
 If it is not removed, or if not found, in this way, the 
 upper lid must be turned back. This requires skilled 
 help. 
 
 145. Sunstroke or Heatstroke. The worst cases 
 of " sunstroke" often happen in places where the sun's 
 rays never penetrate. There is sudden loss of conscious- 
 ness, with deep, labored breathing, an intense, burning 
 heat of the skin, and a marked absence of sweat. 
 
 The main thing is to lower the temperature. Strip 
 
HELP AT HAND I/I 
 
 off the clothing. Apply to the head chopped ice 
 wrapped in flannel. Rub ice over the chest, and place 
 pieces under the arm-pits and at the sides. If there is 
 no ice, use cloths wet with cold water. The body may 
 be partially stripped, and sprinkled with ice-water from 
 a common watering-pot. 
 
 Persons who have once suffered from sunstroke 
 should avoid any risk in the future. 
 
 146. Burns or Scalds. Remove the clothing with 
 the greatest care. Do not pull, but carefully cut and 
 coax, the clothes away from the burnt places. Save the 
 skin unbroken if possible, taking care not to break 
 the blisters. 
 
 The secret of treatment is to avoid chafing, and to 
 keep out the air. Baking-soda, used dry or dissolved in 
 water, is a very good household remedy for burns. 
 Another remedy is to soak strips of old linen in a mix- 
 ture of half linseed-oil and half lime-water. 
 
 Spread cosmoline freely with a table-knife on strips 
 of old linen. Apply to the burnt parts and protect 
 them from the air with bandages, lint, or wads of absorb- 
 ent cotton. A deep or extensive burn should have 
 prompt medical attendance. 
 
 147. Bruises, Cut and Torn Wounds. A bruise is 
 a wound of the soft parts caused by blows. A black 
 eye, and a lip or finger hurt by a base-ball, are familiar 
 examples. Soak the injured part at first in cloths wrung 
 out in cold water. Very hot water is often used to 
 relieve the pain. If the cuts are small, clean the parts, 
 bring the edges together, and stick them with plaster. 
 
 When wounds are made with ragged edges, such as 
 
1/2 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 those made by broken glass, splinters, toy pistols, and 
 
 rusty nails, more skill is called for. 
 
 Such wounds, if neglected, 
 often lead to serious results, 
 from blood-poisoning. The ser- 
 vices of a doctor are generally 
 necessary. 
 
 148. What to do for Bleed- 
 ing. It is very important to 
 know the difference between 
 
 FIG. 55. - showing how a handker- bleeding from an artery and 
 
 chief and a stick may be applied j. J^f- f rom a vein. 
 
 to the arm to stop bleeding. 
 
 If an artery bleeds, the blood 
 
 is of a bright-scarlet color, and spurts in a stream. If 
 a vein bleeds, the blood is of a dark and purple color, 
 and slowly oozes out, or flows in a steady stream. 
 
 Bleeding from an artery is a dangerous matter in 
 proportion to the size of the vessel, and life itself may 
 be speedily lost ; while bleeding from a vein is rarely a 
 serious injury, and generally stops of itself, aided, if 
 need be, by pressure. 
 
 When an artery is bleeding, always remember to 
 make deep pressure between the wound and the heart. 
 Send at once for the doctor. 
 
 Meanwhile there is something to do. Keep cool, and 
 do not be afraid to act at once. A firm grip in the 
 right place with the fingers will do, until a twisted 
 handkerchief, stout cord, shoestring, or suspender is 
 ready to take its place. 
 
 If the artery is of some size, make a knot in whatever 
 is used, and bring the pressure of the knot to bear over 
 
HELP AT HAND 
 
 173 
 
 the artery. If the flow of blood does not stop, change 
 the pressure until the right spot is found. Strips of an 
 old handkerchief, a bunch of moss, underclothing, or 
 cotton-wadding, might be stuffed 
 into the wound, keeping up the 
 pressure all the time ; or seize 
 a handful of dry earth, and crowd 
 it down into the bleeding wound 
 with a firm pressure. 
 
 Let me tell you of the princi- 
 pal places to apply pressure 
 when arteries are injured and 
 bleeding. 
 
 If in the finger, grasp it with 
 the thumb and forefinger, and 
 pinch it firmly on each side ; if 
 in the hand press with the thumb 
 just above, and in front of, the 
 wrist. 
 
 For injuries below the elbow, 
 grasp the upper part of the arm 
 with the hands, and squeeze 
 hard. 
 
 For the upper arm, press with 
 
 the fingers against the inner FIG. 5 6. - showing how a bandage 
 edge of the biceps muscle. 
 
 For the foot or leg, press as 
 before in the hollow behind the knee, just above the 
 calf of the leg. 
 
 149. Apparent Drowning. - Remove all tight cloth- 
 ing from the neck, chest, and waist. Sweep the fore- 
 
 may be used to stop bleeding 
 from an artery in the arm. 
 
174 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 finger, covered with a handkerchief or towel, round 
 through the mouth, to free it from froth and mucus. 
 
 Turn the body on the face, raising it a little with the 
 hand under the hips, to allow any water to run out from 
 the air-passages. Take only a moment for this. 
 
 FIG. 57. The process of artificial respiration : first step. 
 
 Lay the person flat upon the back, with a folded coat 
 or pad of any kind, to keep the shoulders raised a little. 
 Remove all the wet, clinging clothing that is conven- 
 ient. 
 
 If in a room or sheltered place, strip the body, and 
 wrap it in blankets, overcoats, etc. Use bottles of hot 
 water, if at hand, hot flat-irons, or hot sand, round the 
 limbs and feet. 
 
 The main thing to do is to keep up artificial respira- 
 tion until the natural breathing comes, or till all hope 
 is lost. 
 
 This is the simplest way to do it : The person is 
 
HELP AT HAND 
 
 175 
 
 laid on the back. Let some one kneel behind the 
 head. Grasp both arms near the elbows, and sweep 
 them upward above the head until they nearly touch. 
 Make a firm pull for a moment. This tends to fill the 
 lungs with air by drawing the ribs up, and making the 
 chest cavity larger. 
 
 FIG. 58. The process of artificial respiration : second step. 
 
 Now return the arms to the sides of the body until 
 they press hard against the ribs. This tends to force 
 out the air. 
 
 This makes, artificially, a complete act of respiration. 
 Repeat this act about fifteen times every minute. All 
 this may be kept up for several hours. 
 
 When a person can breathe, even a little, he can 
 swallow. Give then hot, strong coffee every few min- 
 utes, a teaspoonful at a time, or a little ammonia and 
 water. Meanwhile do not fail to keep up artificial 
 warmth. 
 
176 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 Do not move a person who is just beginning to 
 breathe again from one place to another, except when 
 forced to do so from cold or some pressing necessity. 
 
 HINTS AND HELPS FOR EVERY-DAY HEALTH 
 
 150. Proper Care of the Bowels. Irregularity in 
 eating, too much finely bolted flour and not enough 
 fruit and vegetables, rich pastry, negligence in attend- 
 ing to a regular evacuation of the bowels, lead to 
 the very common and distressing trouble known as 
 constipation. As we grow older, this trouble generally 
 grows worse. 
 
 We should pay strict attention to the proper action 
 of the bowels. The formation of a regular habit is of 
 the utmost importance. The bowels can be trained to 
 act at a certain time every day. Eat plenty of coarse 
 food, such as oatmeal, corn-bread, vegetables, stewed 
 prunes, dates, figs, etc. Drink a glass of water just 
 after getting out of bed in the morning. 
 
 If these things do no good, consult a physician before 
 unknown medicines are used in a hap-hazard sort of 
 way. 
 
 151. The Habit of taking Unknown Medicines. 
 The habit of taking medicines, especially of an un- 
 known character, is alarmingly common. If we have 
 an ache or pain about us, a friend advises this or that 
 medicine because "it did him good," or we are foolish 
 enough to spend our money for some advertised nos- 
 trum claiming to have wonderful virtues. 
 
HELP AT HAND 1/7 
 
 All people, especially sensible young persons, should 
 have respect enough for their health to let all unknown 
 medicines alone. Rest assured, if the skilful physician 
 cannot help us, medicines made by some "benefactor 
 of mankind," simply to sell, will do us little good. 
 
 152. Hints for the Sick-room. The sick-room 
 should be the lightest and most pleasant room in the 
 house. Take away all extra carpets, upholstered fur- 
 niture,* heavy curtains, etc. : they absorb the impurities, 
 and help keep the room foul. A clean floor, with a 
 few rugs to deaden the footsteps, is much better than 
 a woollen carpet. 
 
 Let the room be open to the sunlight and the fresh 
 air. Guard the patient from the noise of passing steam 
 and horse cars, heavy teams, and playing children. 
 With a little pains any sick-room may be supplied with 
 pure air. 
 
 Do not let the disagreeable odors due to cooking, 
 especially frying fish or pork, cooking cabbage, etc., 
 reach the sick-room. Do not allow a kerosene light, 
 with its flame turned down, to burn through the night. 
 
 Keep a sick-room neat and trim. Remove at once 
 all offensive matters. Never allow such to remain in 
 the room. In many diseases, especially scarlet-fever, 
 diphtheria, consumption, etc., use pieces of old linen 
 instead of handkerchiefs, and burn them as soon as 
 used. Carelessness or ignorance in this matter often 
 spreads contagious disease. 
 
 Change the clothes of the bed and of the patient 
 quite often. Do not let such clothing be put away in 
 a closet with other clothing. Put it to soak at once in 
 
HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 boiling water, with some disinfectant like Platt's chlo- 
 rides. Do not have food left in the room. 
 
 Do not make a great show of bottles of medicines, 
 spoons, glasses, etc., carefully spread out on the. bureau 
 or table. Keep all such things in an adjoining room. 
 To a patient not used to sickness, a great show of 
 drugs and sick apparatus is discouraging. Some sim-i 
 pie thing like an orange, a few favorite flowers, and 
 one or two playthings, may take their place. 
 
 Never get behind the door, in a corner, or in an 
 adjoining room, and whisper. Whatever must be said, 
 say it openly and aloud. Answer a sick person's ques- 
 tions plainly and squarely. Nothing is gained by trying 
 to avoid a straightforward reply. 
 
 If a doctor is employed, carry out his orders to the' 
 very letter. 
 
 153. Sicknesses that spread. We have learned 
 in a preceding chapter (chap, viii.) that the air may 
 be poisoned by the products of respiration, and by] 
 other waste matters thrown off from healthy human 
 bodies. 
 
 The air may be poisoned also by the products of 
 respiration and bodily discharges of diseased persons. \ 
 Thus, in certain diseases, called contagions, there are 
 thrown off in some way from the persons of the sick, I 
 organic matters, which tend to reproduce themselves 
 in the bodies of other persons. 
 
 Small-pox and scarlet-fever are examples of severe 
 and contagious diseases ; while whooping-cough, mea-j 
 sles, and mumps are contagious, but less harmful. 
 
 Again : the air may be poisoned with the foul gases 
 
HELP AT HAND 
 
 arising from the contents of cesspools, water-closets, 
 sewers, and other sources. 
 
 The living particles, or "germs," of such diseases as 
 typhoid-fever and dysentery, are believed to be con- 
 tained or developed in the discharges both from the 
 stomach and bowels of persons suffering from these 
 diseases. Diphtheria and typhoid-fever are believed 
 to be due oftentimes to the foul contents of cesspools 
 and sewers. 
 
 Finally, the air may be poisoned by the decay of 
 organic matters in the ground, and drawn into the 
 house in various ways. Thus there seems to be a 
 connection between typhoid-fever and bad drainage. 
 
 154. Disinfection. With our present knowledge, 
 it is not possible to get rid of the germs of disease 
 after they are once lodged in the body. We are able, 
 however, to a certain extent, to destroy them after they 
 leave the body in the discharges of diseased persons. 
 
 This destruction of the poisons of infectious and 
 contagious diseases is called disinfection, and the 
 means used are called disinfectants. We must remember 
 that disinfection cannot make up for the want of clean- 
 liness or of ventilation. 
 
 Practical directions for the use of disinfectants are 
 given in the more advanced text-books. 
 
 155. Poisons in General. Poisons of various kinds 
 are often used in the trades, and kept about the house 
 and premises as medicines, as disinfectants, for killing 
 insects and animals, and for many other purposes. 
 
 People are often careless about them, and leave them 
 in the cupboard, or on a shelf about the shed or stable, 
 
ISO HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 wrapped in a piece of paper, or in some unlabelled 
 bottle. Children either mistake them, or are urged by 
 some playmate to swallow them. 
 
 The many accidents due to drinking carbolic acid by 
 mistake are a familiar example of how stupid or careless 
 people may be. 
 
 Poisons should always be carefully labelled, and the 
 word " POISON " plainly printed in large letters across 
 the label. 
 
 Fasten the cork firmly to the bottle by wire, 
 twisted into a knot at the top. This would certainly 
 prevent a person from mistaking carbolic acid, ammonia, 
 oxalic acid, etc., in the dark, for medicine. 
 
 Poisons should never be kept in the same place with 
 medicines or other bottled preparations used in the 
 household. Put them in some secure place, and under 
 lock and key. 
 
 Here is a golden rule: Never use the contents of 
 any package or bottle unless you know exactly what 
 it is. Do not guess at it, or take any chances ; but 
 destroy it at once. 
 
 Poisons may be taken when medical help, especially 
 in the country, cannot be had at short notice. They 
 do their work rapidly. Something must be done, and 
 that at once and in earnest. 
 
 The stomach must be emptied as speedily as pos- 
 sible. Make a quart of warm soapsuds. Force the 
 sufferer to gulp it down, a cupful at a time. Run the 
 finger or a feather "down the throat," and hasten 
 the vomiting. 
 
 A good emetic is made by putting a heaping table- 
 
HELP AT HAND l8l 
 
 spoonful of ground mustard into a pint of water. 
 Drink a cupful every ten minutes until vomiting is 
 produced. Stir up a handful of powdered alum in a 
 cupful of molasses, and swallow this, a tablespoonful 
 every ten minutes. 
 
 Vomiting will do no harm, and the poison may 
 destroy life in a few minutes. 
 
 The young student is referred to more advanced 
 text-books than this, for the use of antidotes for 
 particular poisons. 
 
1 82 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 
 
 156. Value of Experiments. To get a proper 
 
 understanding of the elementary principles of physi- 
 ology, it is not enough simply to study the text. The 
 same general principles hold as in any other branch of 
 scientific study. A show of suitable specimens and a 
 series of practical experiments should supplement the 
 intelligent study of the text proper. 
 
 Whatever we see with our eyes, feel with our fingers, 
 and do with our hands, in the matter of experiment and 
 illustration, however simple and homely, is of far more 
 worth than merely studying the printed page. It is 
 more like hard work, to be sure ; but laziness is a poor 
 excuse in this or in any other branch of science. 
 
 It is plain that any series of experiments arranged 
 for use in our common schools must be somewhat 
 crude. We must take many things for granted. The 
 observation and experience of medical men, and the 
 experiments of the physiologist in his laboratory, must 
 be relied upon for important data not otherwise easily 
 obtained by young students. 
 
 Because we cannot make our experiments with that 
 accuracy and detail as in other branches of science, it 
 by no means follows that we cannot use experiments in 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 183 
 
 elementary instruction in the lower grade of schools. 
 The simplest experiments become, in the hands of the 
 enthusiastic and skilful teacher, of the greatest value 
 and interest. Pupils soon gain a far better knowledge 
 and keep up a livelier interest in the subject if, as we 
 have just said, they see with their own eyes, anc' 
 handle with their own hands, that which serves to 
 illustrate the subject. 
 
 This method of instruction rivets the attention, and 
 keeps alive the interest, of the young pupil ; in fact, it 
 is the true method of cultivating a scientific habit of 
 study. Hence the following experiments, however 
 simple and rude the apparatus, may become helps 
 towards gaining a more thorough knowledge of this 
 important branch of scientific study. 
 
 157. Hints and Helps. If we had our choice in 
 the matter, we should depend, for this part of our study, 
 upon four sets of illustrations, 
 
 (1) The Skeleton and Manikin. 
 
 (2) Experiments on the Person. 
 
 (3) Charts, Diagrams, and Blackboard Exercises. 
 
 (4) A systematic series of simple Experiments per- 
 formed by the teacher and the pupils. 
 
 By all means secure a skeleton and manikin, by loan or 
 purchase, if possible. It is better to have some of the 
 separate bones than none at all. 
 
 We have suggested many ways in which our own 
 person, or that of a friend, may be utilized for the pur- 
 pose of experiment and observation. The success of 
 this part of the work will depend upon our skill, tact, 
 and common-sense. How much time and effort it is 
 
184 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 best to devote to this part of the study, depends upon 
 the age and capabilities of the class. Nothing can take 
 its place in getting an accurate and thorough idea of 
 the more essential and practical points of anatomy. 
 
 FIG. 59. BLACKBOARD SKETCH. Right side of the Skull. 
 
 The pupil should be trained to make and to copy 
 sketches and diagrams in his note-book, and repeat them 
 at stated intervals on the blackboard. Such sketches 
 may be somewhat rude, and there will be a great con- 
 trast in the work of different pupils ; but this is of little 
 account. 
 
 The teacher is advised to make for himself a series 
 of diagrams, on a suitable scale for the blackboard, on 
 sheets of manila paper, and have them bound, and hung 
 up for easy reference in the schoolroom, somewhat in 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 185 
 
 the same way that reading charts are now made. 
 These sketches may be used to illustrate the text, and 
 then copied by the pupil in his note-book or on the 
 blackboard. 
 
 In addition to this, a set of physiological charts is very 
 desirable, and should be secured if possible. 
 
 By all means, depend upon a systematic series of 
 rude, homely experiments. Most of the experiments in 
 the succeeding pages are simply suggestive. Do not 
 merely copy, but exercise your wits and ingenuity to 
 make others equally good. Most of these experiments 
 can be done with inexpensive and simple apparatus, 
 which can be picked up about the house, the market, 
 and the drug-store. 
 
 It is not enough for the pupil to see the teacher 
 make the experiments. Each member of the class 
 should be encouraged to make the experiments. 
 
 When specimens of bones, joints, dissections, etc., 
 are carried into the schoolroom, the utmost pains must 
 be taken to keep everything neat and clean. Use large 
 plates, platters, saucers, tissue-paper, with plenty of 
 pins, needles, clean towels, and napkins. Cover every 
 part except what it is necessary to show. 
 
 Keep everything covered until the proper time 
 comes. Every little detail must be arranged before 
 the recitation begins. If the fingers get soiled, remove 
 all traces at once. Strict attention to all these little 
 matters may make the difference between success and 
 failure in making these practical experiments. 
 
1 86 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE BONES 
 
 [CHAPTER II. PAGE n.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT i. To show the Gross Structure of Bone. 
 Saw lengthwise in two a beef bone. Save one-half. Boil, 
 scrape, and carefully clean the other half. Note in the 
 boiled half the compact and spongy parts, shaft, etc. Note 
 on the other half, the pinkish-white look of the bone, the 
 marrow and its tiny specks of blood, etc., in other words, 
 the difference between the fresh (live) bone, and an old, dry 
 one (dead) easily found for the purpose. 
 
 2. To show the Animal Part of Bone. Get a chicken's 
 leg from the kitchen and put it to soak into a mixture of four 
 tablespoonfuls of muriatic acid to one pint of water. A wide- 
 
 FIG. 60. BLACKBOARD SKETCH. Side view of the Lower Jaw. 
 
 mouthed bottle is the best thing to hold it; next, an earthen 
 bowl. Soak from five days to a week. 
 
 It can now be bent, twisted, and even tied into a knot, 
 showing that the earthy matter has been dissolved. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS l8/ 
 
 3. To show the Earthy, or Mineral, Part of Bone. Take 
 the second half of the bone from Experiment i and roast it 
 on a bright, hot, coal fire for three hours. The animal mat- 
 ter has now been burned out. The earthy part, a white, 
 brittle mass, is now seen, showing every outline of the bone. 
 
 Study of the Skeleton. We shall now proceed to study the 
 skeleton in two ways, first, upon the mounted skeleton 
 made for such use ; second, by the examination of the skele- 
 ton or bones of our own person, or that of a friend. Whether 
 a skeleton or a chart is used, this drill on the living body is 
 of the greatest importance. Let a boy stand before the class ; 
 and, as the teacher points out on him the various bones and 
 bony landmarks of the body, each one of the class should 
 stand, and do the same on his own person. 
 
 Do it all with neatness, tact, and a due regard for the feel- 
 ings of all concerned. Drill thoroughly until all become 
 perfectly familiar with the location of the most important and 
 accessible bones and landmarks of the body. 
 
 4. The Skeleton. Its Study as a Whole. Point out head, 
 trunk, and limbs ; long, short, flat, and round bones. Note 
 how some bones protect certain parts, how others are built 
 for use, beauty, and protection. Do the same on the person, 
 so far as it is convenient. Use the chart or skeleton for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 5. Parts of the Skeleton. The Head. Drill on the skele- 
 ton for the bones of the head ; the same on the person. Use 
 the chart. 
 
 6. Show how the bones of the skull are jointed ; the 
 sutures ; the plates of bones ; the rough surfaces for the 
 attachment of muscles; holes and notches for arteries and 
 nerves. If nothing better can be had, get a part or the 
 whole of some animal's skull from the market or even the 
 fields. 
 
1 88 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 7. The Trunk. Note the various bones as before. Trace 
 and count each rib and vertebra. 
 
 8. The Upper Limbs. The upper arm, forearm, hand. 
 Experiment exactly the same as before. Every part can be 
 carefully traced on the person. 
 
 9. The Lower Limbs. Thigh, lower leg, foot. Experi- 
 ment as before. 
 
 10. Repair of the Bones. Ask some pupil who has 
 broken his arm or collar-bone some time previously to show 
 how well the broken parts have united. 
 
 11. Joints. Get a part of a calf's or sheep's leg at the 
 market containing the joint. Open the joint carefully. 
 
 Note the sticky joint-oil ; the synovial fluid ; the glistening 
 surfaces of the ends of the bones ; the gristle ; cartilages ; 
 places where tendons, ligaments, and muscles are fastened. 
 
 12. To show the Various Kinds of Joints. Illustrate on 
 the person the fixed and movable joints ; ball and socket ; 
 hinge ; pivot joints. Try the principal joints of the body, 
 and see just how much and what motion they have. 
 
 13. The Ligaments. In cutting open the joints, note the 
 tough, firm, and gristly bands, which help hold the bones 
 together. These are the ligaments. Try to tear or wrench 
 them off from the bone, to see how firm and tough they are. 
 
 14. Bony Landmarks of the Body. Go over the skeleton 
 or person, and locate with the fingers certain important 
 "bony landmarks," as the angle of the lower jaw; elbow-end 
 of the ulna ; wrist-end of the radius ; highest point of scapula ; 
 lower end of breast-bone ; upper end of tibia; lower end of 
 fibula, etc. 
 
 Other landmarks will suggest themselves. This will make 
 an excellent review-exercise. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 189 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH THE MUSCLES 
 [CHAPTER III. PAGE 31.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 15. To show the Gross Structure of Muscles. 
 Get about half a pound of lean corned beef, a strip with the 
 fibres running all one way. Have it thoroughly boiled. Let 
 it cool, and press it with the weight of several flat-irons. Put 
 it on a firm board or table, and pick it in pieces with two 
 darning-needles. 
 
 Note the connective tissue, the larger muscular fibres. Pick 
 with the needles until the fibres are too small to manage. 
 
 1 6. To show how Muscles look. Get the lower part of a 
 sheep's leg at the market, with the foot or hoof still on ; 
 dissect with a sharp knife one or more muscles, leaving the 
 insertion. Even if it is roughly done, it is no matter. 
 
 17. Use your own biceps and triceps muscles to show 
 how muscles contract and relax, how they oppose each other 
 in action. Repeat the same with other muscles, as the flex- 
 ors and extensors of the fingers and toes, of the leg, etc. 
 
 1 8. To show the Structure and Action of Tendons. Take 
 some of the material from the previous dissection, and exam- 
 ine the tendons. Get the leg of a fowl at the market, to 
 show the tendons which make the toes bend. 
 
 19. Make a study of the tendons on your own person. 
 Grasp the powerful tendons of the hip-muscles under the 
 knee ; of the lower leg ; near the ankle ; of the forearm at 
 the wrist. 
 
 20. To locate some Important Muscles. Locate and de- 
 scribe them on the chart. Do the same, as far as it is pos- 
 sible and convenient, on the person. Clutch tightly such 
 muscles as the biceps, deltoid, great pectoral, muscles of the 
 calf of the leg, etc. 
 
190 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 21. Muscular Landmarks. Use the chart, skeleton, and 
 person, to locate the most important muscular landmarks, as 
 the origin and insertion of the biceps ; tendon of Achilles ; 
 annular ligament ; edges of the great pectoral and biceps ; 
 flexor cords of the forefinger, etc. This may be made an 
 admirable drill-exercise. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON FOOD AND DRINK 
 
 [CHAPTER IV. PAGE 46.] 
 
 A series of most useful experiments may be made on the 
 subject of food and drink. The common articles of diet 
 greet us on every hand. It should be our object to under- 
 stand the principles which underlie the matter of daily food. 
 We should become familiar with the principal substances 
 contained in the three great classes of foods. 
 
 We can do this by exhibiting specimens, and by experiment. 
 Specimens of the various cereals, starches, sugars, oil, etc., 
 should be shown, which should have been carefully collected 
 and kept for class-use in small radish or pickle bottles. Each 
 specimen should be neatly labelled with its exact name. 
 Many interesting facts can be brought out about the practical 
 use of these substances as foods, when we are able to touch, 
 taste, smell, and see the substances themselves. 
 
 22. To show Albumen. The albumens are all rich in 
 one or more of the following organic substances : albumen, 
 casein, fibrine, gelatine, gluten, and legumen. Boil an egg hard. 
 The white is albumen hardened by heat. 
 
 23. To show Casein. Pour some liquid rennet, or vinegar, 
 into some milk. A whitish substance (the curd) separates 
 from it. This is casein, the chief constituent of cheese. 
 
 24. To show Fibrine. Take a piece of lean meat, and 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS IQI 
 
 wash it thoroughly in water, squeezing and pressing it well 
 in a lemon-squeezer. A whitish, stringy mass is obtained, 
 which is \\\tfibrine. The albumen is dissolved in the water. 
 Boil the water after the meat has been washed. The heat 
 coagulates the albumen. 
 
 25. To show Gelatine. Boil a bone a long time. Most 
 of the animal matter will be dissolved. This is gelatine. 
 
 26. To show Gluten. Put a handful of flour into a 
 muslin bag, and squeeze it well in a basin of water. The 
 water becomes milky ; while a sticky, yellowish-white substance 
 remains in the bag. This sticky substance is gluten. 
 
 27. To show Legumen. Boil a few peas or beans in the 
 pod, until they become a sticky, pulpy mass. This is called 
 legumen, and resembles the white of an egg and the gluten of 
 flour. 
 
 28. 2v show the Starches. Specimens of the more com- 
 mon kinds of foods rich in starch, as potato, rice, sago, arrow- 
 root, tapioca, corn-flour, etc., may be used for illustration. 
 The presence of starch is easily proved. 
 
 Boil a small quantity of flour, rice, bread, potato, or arrow- 
 root in a little water in a test-tube. Add a drop or two of 
 the tincture of iodine, and the mixture will turn blue. 
 
 29. To show the Sugars. Cane sugar is familiar as cook- 
 ing and table sugar. Get some raisins and pick out a hand- 
 ful of the little white grains. This is grape sugar. Get a 
 cent's worth of milk sugar at the drug store. 
 
 30. To show the Various Kinds of Fats and Oils. Show 
 specimens of fats that are solid at ordinary temperatures, such 
 as beef-suet, mutton-suet, lard, and butter. Liquid fats are com- 
 monly called oils. The two principal kinds used as food are 
 olive-oil and cod-liver oil. Get specimens of each at the store. 
 
 3 1 . Simple Experiments to show that Milk is a Model Food. 
 Milk is rightly called a compound food, since it is composed 
 
1 92 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 at least five kinds of food-substances. Take some milk 
 " fresh from the cow," and place it in a tall, narrow glass 
 vessel, and allow it to stand for several hours. A quantity 
 of cream rises to the top. Cream is the milk-fat. It is 
 simply made up of tiny bags of fat, each of which has a 
 covering of curd. By churning the cream about a short 
 time, the covering is broken, and the little lumps of fat unite 
 to form the yellow solid called butter. Now skim off the 
 cream : what remains is called skim-milk. Add a teaspoonful 
 of weak vinegar, acid, or liquid rennet, to the skim-milk. 
 Solid whitish lumps of curd will be seen separating from a 
 watery fluid called whey. We have now divided the milk 
 into three parts, cream, curd, and whey. Cream is the fat ; 
 curd is the casein, or nitrogenous part, which, when pressed 
 and dried, is called cheese ; and whey is milk-sugar and mineral 
 matter dissolved in water. 
 
 These simple experiments show that milk contains flesh- 
 forming, bone-making, and heat-giving materials. Remem- 
 ber also, that it contains these in the right proportions, 
 especially for children. 
 
 32. To show Water, the Minerals, and Appetizers. 
 Water is too familiar a food for experiment. 
 
 The mineral matter left from Experiment 3 shows the 
 various kinds of lime 2cc\& potash. An egg-shell is a familiar 
 example of carbonate of lime. Various kinds of salt (forms of 
 soda) can be got from any grocer. The white of an egg con- 
 tains a little sulphur. Leave a silver spoon in it for a short 
 time and the sulphur will blacken it. 
 
 Specimens of the most common appetizers should be shown 
 as vinegar, pepper, mustard, ginger, cloves, nutmegs, cinna- 
 mon, allspice, etc. ; also samples of substances from which 
 the common beverages are made, such as tea, coffee, cocoa, 
 and chocolate. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 
 
 193 
 
 Light 
 the character of the light 
 
 EXPERIMENTS WITH ALCOHOL 
 
 EXPERIMENT 33. Alcohol, and how it looks. Get at the 
 drug-store a four-ounce white-glass bottle, and let the drug- 
 gist fill it for you with the best alcohol. Have it tightly 
 corked, and properly marked with a label gummed on the 
 bottom of the bottle. 
 
 To remember : Alcohol is a thin, colorless liquid, which 
 looks like water. 
 
 34. To show how Alcohol burns. Turn a little alcohol 
 
 into an old-fashioned fluid lamp. 
 
 it, and note 
 
 and the heat. Put a white saucer or 
 
 plate closely down on the flame for a 
 
 few minutes. 
 
 Note that the alcoh.ol burns without 
 soot, giving little light but great heat. 
 
 SUGGESTION. If a fluid lamp is not 
 easily obtained, use a small kerosene 
 lamp without the chimney. A lamp 
 good enough for simple experiments can 
 be made out of a common mucilage bot- 
 tle, using the hollow handle of the 
 metallic brush for the wick. A piece 
 of a bean-blower run through the cork 
 of an empty horse-radish bottle, using a 
 
 rolled piece of kerosene-wick for the wick, will also provide 
 
 the necessary apparatus for an alcohol lamp. 
 
 35. To show that Alcohol and Water unite readily, with a 
 Slight Decrease of Volume. Use a test-tube which will con- 
 tain one fluid ounce (eight teaspoonfuls). Drop in thirty 
 drops each of alcohol and water. Gum a strip of white 
 paper four inches long and one-fourth of an inch wide to the 
 
 FIG. 61. 
 
194 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 side of the test-tube, bringing the lower end on a level with 
 the sixty drops of fluid in the tube. Have the strip of paper 
 marked off into inches and one-eighths of an inch. 
 
 Drop water carefully into the tube until exactly two inches 
 have been added, as shown on the graduated paper ; then drop 
 in alcohol until exactly two inches more have been added. 
 Shake the tube carefully, taking care not to spill any of the 
 fluid. 
 
 Note that the alcohol and water unite with a slight decrease 
 of volume. 
 
 36. To show the Great Attraction of Alcohol for Water. 
 Tie tightly some thin membrane (like the coverings of the 
 sausages sold in the markets) across the mouth of a bulb test- 
 tube. Place the test-tube (bulb downward) in a goblet or 
 beaker. Fill the bulb with alcohol, and pour pure water into 
 the goblet or beaker (Fig. 67). 
 
 The alcohol will soon rise in the tube, thus proving that 
 alcohol has such a liking for water that it has caused the 
 water to filter through the membrane. 
 
 37. To show the Origin of Alcohol in Fermented Liquors. 
 Take a common glass fruit-jar which will hold one pint. 
 Fill the jar one-half full of water, and add molasses until it 
 is of a deep-brown color. Add a teaspoonful of yeast or 
 one-half of a yeast-cake. Cover so as to admit some air, and 
 keep at a temperature of 70 F. for a day or two. 
 
 Note the result : The mixture has the odor of alcohol. 
 What has happened ? Why, the yeast (called a " ferment ") 
 has changed the sugar of the molasses to alcohol. The pro- 
 cess of changing is called " fermentation." 
 
 38. Use the fruit-jar, as before. Fill it one-half full of 
 sweet cider, or squeeze out the juice of a few sweet apples 
 with a lemon-sqeezer. Allow the liquid to stand exposed 
 to warm air for a few days. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 1 95 
 
 Note that the liquid has the peculiar odor of alcohol. 
 This liquid is commonly known as cider. Very minute fer- 
 ments have changed the sugar of the sweet apple-juice to 
 alcohol. If the liquid is left exposed to the air, it will, after 
 a time, change to vinegar, known by its sour, acid taste. 
 
 39. Press out the juice of a few ripe grapes, strain off the 
 skins, and continue as explained in the preceding experiment. 
 
 40. Take two wide-mouthed bottles holding one pint 
 each. Be able to connect the two bottles A and B, as shown 
 in Fig. 62. Let a glass tube run from bottle B, and empty 
 into a glass jar (C). Use a little putty or sealing-wax to stop 
 any leaks made by the tubing running through the corks. 
 
 Fill the bottle A about one-half full of molasses. Add 
 one yeast-cake which has been dissolved in water. Fill the 
 bottle with water, and shake vigorously. Fill the bottle B 
 nearly full of water. 
 
 FIG. 62. 
 
 Keep the apparatus in a warm room for two or more days ; 
 an even temperature of 75 to 80 F. will do. 
 
 The pupil will note that the fluid in the bottle A soon 
 begins to " work," and that a substance called the lees 
 
196 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 settles to the bottom of the bottle. The water in bottle B 
 will pass up the tube and over into the glass jar C. Note 
 also that there is a change in the smell of the liquid. By 
 this change a gas has been formed which has forced the 
 water in B over into the glass jar. This change is called 
 fermentation. 
 
 41. To show the Presence of Alcohol in Distilled Liquors. 
 Heat hard cider or sherry wine in a large-sized test-tube over 
 an alcohol lamp. Run a piece of glass tube, bent at right 
 
 angles, through a cork which fits the test-tube ; let the other 
 end of the tube be fitted into the cork of a wide-mouthed 
 bottle which is set into a basin of cold water to condense the 
 steam. 
 
 The resulting liquid has a marked odor and taste. It is 
 stronger than the fermented liquid. This process is called 
 "distillation," and the resulting liquid, "distilled liquor." 
 
 42. Pour one-half of a pint of hard cider into a common 
 tin coffee-pot. Fasten a piece of rubber tubing to the spout. 
 Have the other end of the tubing run into a wide-mouthed 
 bottle sunk into a basin of cold water. Cloths wrung out 
 in ice-water may be wrapped round the bottle. Heat the 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 
 
 cider in the coffee-pot by an alcohol lamp, placed as shown 
 in Fig. 63. Do not allow the cider to boil. 
 
 Note that the color and odor of the resulting liquor 
 differ from the color and odor of the hard cider. A stronger 
 liquor has been produced by this process. This process is 
 called distillation. The stronger liquor has been separated 
 from the water. It may be necessary to re-distil the result- 
 ing liquor several times before a liquor is found pure enough 
 to burn. 
 
 43. To show the Effect of Alcohol on Albumen. Place in 
 an empty quinine or horse-radish bottle the white of an egg. 
 Pour in some strong alcohol. Stir with a spoon or glass rod. 
 
 Note that the alcohol hardens, or coagulates, the albumen ; 
 in other words, the alcohol has such a liking for the water of 
 the albumen, that it withdraws it, leaving it hard. 
 
 44. Repeat the same experiment, using dilute alcohol 
 (one-half alcohol and one-half water). 
 
 45. Place in the same kind of a bottle as before a small 
 strip of raw beefsteak. Add strong alcohol, and let mixture 
 be set aside for a few days. 
 
 Note that the meat seems hard. The alcohol has coagu- 
 lated the albumen of the meat. The alcohol withdraws the 
 water of the fresh, elastic, muscular tissue, leaving it tough 
 and hard. 
 
 46. Squeeze a piece of fresh beef in a lemon-squeezer 
 over a wide-mouthed bottle. Pour in a little water ; stir it 
 until well colored with blood. Add strong alcohol. Set 
 aside for several days. 
 
 Note that the liquid is full of white particles. The alcohol 
 has coagulated the albumen of the blood. 
 
 47. Repeat the last two experiments, using dilute 
 alcohol. Note the result after a few days. 
 
 Take two bottles, into one of which some days before 
 
IQ HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 were placed weak alcohol and a piece of beef ; into the other, 
 pure alcohol and beef. Take a piece of fresh beef, and you 
 will find that it is as strong as a whip-cord. Now observe 
 these pieces in the bottles. They are dry and brittle. They 
 break like a piece of suet. 
 
 48. To show the Action of Alcohol on Pepsin. Take two 
 ordinary wide-mouthed bottles holding from a gill to half a 
 pint (A and B). Put into the first bottle five grains of pep- 
 sin and two or three ounces of lukewarm water. Make it 
 acid with twenty drops of strong muriatic acid. 
 
 Do exactly the same thing with the second bottle, except 
 add three tablespoonfuls of alcohol. Set bottles in any 
 convenient place sufficiently warm (near a stove or on a 
 mantel near a warm smoke-pipe) to keep the contents of the 
 bottles at about blood-heat. 
 
 After ten hours, note the changes, if any. The pepsin is 
 precipitated in the form of white, stringy particles in the 
 bottle containing alcohol, while the other bottle shows no 
 change ; in other words, the alcohol has precipitated the 
 pepsin of the artificial gastric juice. 
 
 49., Prepare the bottles exactly as before. To the 
 bottle A add two teaspoonfuls of finely minced albumen. 
 Put it in a warm place, as in Experiment No. 48. Shake 
 very often. The pepsin will begin to act upon the albumen, 
 gradually softening it. In actual digestion, albumen is 
 thus made ready to soak through the moist lining of the 
 stomach. 
 
 Do exactly the same thing with the second bottle (j9), ex- 
 cept add three tablespoonfuls of strong alcohol. Expose the 
 bottle to heat, as before. After ten h'ours, note the result. 
 It will be seen that alcohol has coagulated the albumen in 
 bottle B. 
 
 50. Repeat Experiment No. 49. Instead of the white 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 
 
 of an egg, add a teaspoonful of finely cut, cooked, and lean 
 beefsteak or corned beef. In the bottle A the meat will be 
 more or less dissolved or partially digested in twenty-four 
 hours. In the bottle B the effect of the alcohol will be to 
 make the meat seem hard. In short, the alcohol has coagu- 
 lated the albumen of the meat. 
 
 51. Repeat Experiments 48 and 49. Instead of alcohol, 
 use strong beer, whiskey, and rum, to show the action of a 
 more dilute form of alcohol upon the various types of 
 albumen. 
 
 52. Repeat Experiment 36. Instead of plain water, add 
 one-quarter of a teaspoonful of common salt to the given 
 amount of water. This saline solution will represent, in a 
 general way, the plasma of the blood. The alcohol will rise 
 in the tube, as in Experiment 36. Now, if we use very dilute 
 alcohol (one part of alcohol to ten parts of water), we find 
 that the alcohol in the tube falls. 
 
 In other words, when alcohol is sufficiently dilute, it will 
 go towards the fluid representing the plasma of the blood. 
 
 53. To show how Alcohol coagulates the Blood. Get your 
 market-man to carry a clean wide-mouthed fruit-jar to the 
 slaughter-house, and let the butcher fill it with fresh blood. 
 Add at once to the fresh blood a heaping tablespoonful of 
 Epsom salts dissolved in a coffee-cup full of water. This 
 strong saline solution will prevent the formation of a clot. 
 Keep the whole mixture in a cool place, and do not shake it. 
 Draw off two ounces of the mixture, and add to it a pint of 
 water. Set it aside. It remains clear. 
 
 Dilute the same amount of the mixture with a pint of 
 water, and pour in a few tablespoonfuls of strong alcohol. 
 Note that the blood is soon coagulated. 
 
 54. To show the Effect of Alcohol on the Blood Corpuscles. 
 Squeeze the end of the forefinger, and prick it quick with 
 
2OO HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 a fine needle, drawing a drop of blood. Examine it carefully 
 with a microscope. Note carefully the little corpuscles, their 
 shape, and how they are arranged. 
 
 Add the tiniest drop of alcohol. The corpuscles shrink 
 and become of a different or irregular shape. The alcohol 
 has coagulated the albumen of the corpuscles. 
 
 55. To show the Effect of Alcohol on the Circulation of the 
 Blood. Stretch the web of a frog's foot over a hole in a thin 
 board, as fully directed in Our Bodies, Experiment 72, p. 250. 
 Do this carefully to avoid giving pain to the frog. 
 
 Note carefully the circulation of blood through the very 
 small blood-vessels. 
 
 Now put on the web a drop of dilute alcohol, and note the 
 result. The little blood-vessels seem to stretch and to allow 
 the blood corpuscles to pass through more rapidly. 
 
 The alcohol has weakened the nerves which regulate the 
 flow of blood in the capillaries, thus allowing more blood to 
 flow through them. 
 
 56. Repeat the preceding experiment. Instead of dilute, 
 use strong alcohol. Note that the capillaries soon shrivel, 
 and the flow of blood stops. 
 
 The alcohol in this case has paralyzed the nerves which 
 control the capillaries. The tiny blood-vessels now contract, 
 and stop the flow of blood. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON DIGESTION 
 
 [CHAPTER VI. PAGE 65.] 
 
 57. To show the Anatomy of Certain Organs, and Parts of 
 Organs, of Digestion. Have each pupil examine his own 
 mouth, and also that of some friend. Note the lips, tongue, 
 hard palate, soft palate, uvula, tonsils, and upper part of the 
 gullet. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 
 
 2O I 
 
 CROW 
 
 58. The Teeth. Get a specimen of each kind of tooth 
 if possible. A dentist-friend will give you what you need. 
 Use a very fine saw to saw a perfect molar in two lengthwise. 
 Note its structure in a general way, 
 
 its crown, body, cusps, roots, enamel, 
 dentine, pulp-cavity, etc. 
 
 59. Make a blackboard sketch of a 
 tooth on a large scale. 
 
 Use colored crayon to make plain 
 the various parts. 
 
 60. With the help of a mirror, let 
 each pupil locate his own teeth. Note 
 the incisors, eye-teeth, bicuspids, 
 molars, and " wisdom " teeth if any. 
 In the same way, note the teeth of 
 some schoolmate. i 
 
 61. Locate as near as possible the 
 position of each salivary gland. Press 
 on the part of the cheek opposite the 
 second small molar of the upper jaw, 
 and notice the increased flow of saliva. 
 saliva is familiar. 
 
 62. To show Location of Other Organs of Digestion. 
 Make a blackboard diagram, in the rough, of the organs of 
 digestion, beginning at the cardiac end of the stomach, after 
 having studied the digestive organs on the chart. Map out 
 on the person in a very general way the location of the stom- 
 ach, small intestines, and the liver, pancreas, and spleen. 
 The location of the stomach and liver is especially important. 
 
 63. To show how the Wall of the Stomach looks. The 
 wall of a pig's stomach resembles the human stomach. Get 
 from the market a piece of the pig's stomach. Cut off bits 
 of it, and examine it thoroughly. Scrape off the inner or 
 
 FIG. 64. BLACKBOARD 
 SKETCH. Section of a 
 Tooth. 
 
 The appearance of 
 
2O2 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 mucous coat with the edge of a very sharp knife. Use a 
 magnifying-glass ; find the openings of the gastric tubes. 
 Take a small piece of the wall of the stomach and dissect it 
 with a fine needle, and note the muscular coats. 
 
 64. To show the Action of Saliva. Think of some favor- 
 ite article of food and note the flow of saliva. Push a lead- 
 pencil, or the finger, to and fro in the mouth several times, 
 and note the flow of saliva. 
 
 Chew an oyster-cracker, and note carefully how it is moist- 
 ened with saliva. Grind up several crackers rapidly in the 
 mouth, and note how difficult it is to swallow, or even chew, 
 when there is little saliva. 
 
 65. The importance of the saliva in favoring the move- 
 ments of chewing may be illustrated by the experiment of 
 wiping the inside of the mouth perfectly dry with a towel or 
 handkerchief ; when it will be found almost impossible to 
 move the jaws until the saliva is again secreted in sufficient 
 quantity to moisten the surfaces of the tongue, cheeks, and 
 gums. 
 
 66. The importance of the saliva as a solvent may be 
 shown by wiping the upper surface of the tongue quite dry 
 with a napkin, and then placing a small quantity of pow- 
 dered sugar upon it. The sugar will be found to be as des- 
 titute of taste as so much sand ; whereas in its ordinary moist 
 condition the tongue perceives the taste of sweet substances 
 very distinctly. 
 
 This experiment also illustrates the fact that the termina- 
 tions of the nerves of taste can be affected only by substances 
 brought in contact with them in the liquid state. 
 
 67. To show the Action of Saliva on Starch. Chew slowly 
 a piece of fresh bread. Note how sweet it tastes after it is 
 well wet with the saliva. Do the same with a mouthful of 
 paste made of pure arrowroot (almost pure starch), made 
 with boiling water and allowed to cool. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 2O3 
 
 68. To show the Action of Gastric Juice on Albumen. 
 Take an ordinary four-ounce bottle with as wide a mouth as 
 convenient. Put into it the following : Pepsin in scales, 1 one 
 grain, and four tablespoonfuls of lukewarm water. Make it 
 acid with ten drops of strong muriatic acid. Add two tea- 
 spoonfuls of finely minced egg-albumen. 2 Set the mixture in 
 any convenient place sufficiently warm, as in a basin of warm 
 water near the stove, or on the mantel near the warm smoke- 
 pipe, to keep the contents of the bottle at about "blood-heat." 
 Shake every few minutes. As soon as the whole mixture 
 becomes of a proper temperature, the pepsin will begin to act 
 upon the albumen which will be gradually softened and 
 digested. This dissolved mass is now in a condition to 
 readily soak through the moist lining of the stomach. 
 
 69. Repeat the same experiment, using half a teaspoon- 
 ful of finely cut, cooked, and lean beefsteak or corned beef 
 instead of the white of an egg. 
 
 The meat will be more or less dissolved, or partially 
 digested, in twenty-four hours. This experiment is a crude 
 way to show the action of gastric juice on meat-albumen. 
 
 70. To shout the Action of Bile on Fat. - Shake up a little 
 sweet-oil and water. 
 
 " Oil and water will not mix," as the saying goes. Get 
 the butcher to bring you a small bottle of bile (ox-gall), or, 
 better still, ask him to bring the gall-bladder itself. Cut it 
 open, and bottle the contents. Shake up some oil with bile, 
 and a creamy mixture called an " emulsion " results. 
 
 1 Pure pepsin is now made by dealers for medical use; and the necessary 
 amount can be bought of a good druggist for a few cents. Use only/wr^ pepsin 
 in the experiments. 
 
 1 The albumen or the white of an egg is taken as the type of albumen in a 
 naturally pure state, and is well adapted to illustrate the peptonizing action of the 
 gastric ferment. It should be first made ready as follows : Separate the white of 
 a hard-boiled egg, and rub it through a coarse sieve, so as to divide it into small 
 particles. 
 
204 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE HEART AND THE CIRCU- 
 LATION 
 
 [CHAPTER VII. PAGE 89.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 71. Tie a string tightly round the finger, 
 and prick the tip of it with a needle. 
 
 The blood runs freely, is red and opaque. Put a drop of 
 fresh bloocl on a sheet of clean white paper and note that it 
 looks yellowish. 
 
 72. Put a drop of fresh blood on a clean white plate. 
 Cover it with an inverted goblet or sauce-plate. 
 
 Take off the cover in five minutes, and the drop has set 
 into a jelly-like mass. Breathe into the goblet several times 
 to moisten it, and replace it over the blood. Take it off in 
 half an hour, and a little clot will be seen in the watery serum. 
 
 73. To show that blood is really a mass of red bodies, 
 floating in a fluid, which give it the red color. 
 
 Fill a clean clear glass bottle two-thirds full of little red 
 
 beads, and then fill the 
 bottle full of water. At 
 a short distance the bot- 
 tle appears to be filled 
 with a uniformly red 
 liquid. 
 
 74. To find the Pulse. 
 With your right hand 
 grasp the right wrist of 
 a friend, pressing with 
 three fingers over the 
 radius. Press three fin- 
 gers of your right hand 
 over the radius in the left 
 wrist to feel your own pulse. With the aid of a watch, 
 
 FIG. 65. How the Pulse may be studied by 
 Mirror on Radial Artery. 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 2C5 
 
 count the rate of your own pulse per minute; the same 
 with a friend's pulse. 
 
 75. To show how the Pulse may be studied by pressing a 
 Mirror over the Radial Artery. Press a small piece of 
 looking-glass upon the wrist over the radial artery in such a 
 way that with each pulse-beat the mirror may be slightly 
 tilted. If the wrist be now held in such a position that 
 sunlight will fall upon the mirror, a spot of light will be 
 reflected to the opposite side of the room, and by its motion 
 upon the wall will be shown the movements of the artery 
 as the pulse-wave passes through it. Bowditch's " Hints 
 for Teachers of Physiology" 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE LUNGS AND BREATHING 
 [CHAPTER VIII. PAGE 103.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 76. To locate the Lungs. Mark out the 
 boundaries of the lungs by "sounding" them; that is, by 
 percussion as it is called. It simply means, to put one finger 
 across the chest or back, and to give it a quick, sharp rap 
 with another. Note where it sounds hollow ; that is, is res- 
 onant. This experiment can be done only in a very crude 
 way. 
 
 Pupils may be taught to apply their ears to each other's 
 chests in the region of the heart and lungs, and to describe 
 the sounds which they hear. A simple instrument for listen- 
 ing to one's own heart may be made by attaching a piece of 
 rubber tube about eighteen inches long to a small glass 
 funnel. 
 
 77. Get a sheep's lungs, with the windpipe attached, from 
 a butcher or marketman. Ask for the heart and lungs in one 
 mass. Take pains to examine the specimen first, and pay 
 
2O6 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 only for a good one. Parts are apt to be hastily snipped or 
 mangled. 
 
 78. Examine the windpipe. Note the horseshoe-shaped 
 rings of gristle in front, which serve to keep it open. 
 
 79. Examine one bronchus, carefully dissecting away the 
 lung-tissue with curved scissors. Follow along until small 
 branches of the bronchial tubes are reached. Put pieces of 
 the lung-tissue in a basin of water and see if they float. 
 
 80. To show how the Lung may be filled with Air. Take 
 the other lung, and tie a glass tube six inches long into its 
 bronchus. Attach a piece of rubber to one end of the glass 
 tube. Now blow up the lung, and then let it collapse several 
 times. When distended, examine every part of it. 
 
 8 1 . To show that the Air we breathe out is warm. Breathe 
 on a thermometer for a few minutes. The mercury will rise 
 rapidly. 
 
 82. To show that it is moist. Breathe on a mirror, or a 
 knife-blade, or any polished, metallic surface. 
 
 83. To show that the Air we breathe out contains Carbonic 
 Acid. Put a glass tube into a bottle of lime-water, and 
 breathe out into it through the tube. The liquid will soon 
 become cloudy, because the carbonic acid of the expired air 
 throws down the lime held in solution. 
 
 84. To show the Natural Temperature of the Body. Bor- 
 row a physician's thermometer, and take your own tempera- 
 ture, and that of several friends, by putting it under the 
 tongue, closing the mouth tightly, and holding it there for 
 five minutes. 
 
 85. A substitute for a clinical thermometer may be 
 readily contrived by taking an ordinary house thermometer 
 from its tin case and cutting off the lower part of the scale 
 so that the bulb may project freely. With an instrument 
 thus arranged, the pupils may take their own and each 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 2O/ 
 
 other's temperature ; and it will be found that whatever may 
 be the season of the year or the temperature of the room, 
 the thermometer in the mouth will record about 99 F. 
 Care must, of coqrse, be taken to keep the thermometer in 
 the mouth till it ceases to rise, and to read it while it is still 
 in position. Prof. H. P. Bowditch. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE SKIN 
 [CHAPTER IX. PAGE 116.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 86. To show the Gross Structure of the Skin. 
 Examine your own skin in a general way. Stretch and pull 
 it to show how elastic it is. Get some idea of the scarf skin 
 by scraping off some with a sharp knife. Note any white 
 scars, liver-spots, etc., on the skin. Examine the skin with 
 much care, with the aid of a good magnifying-glass. Note 
 the papillae on the palm of the hand. 
 
 87. Hair and Nails. Pull a stout hair from the head, 
 and examine it carefully with the magnifying-glass. Make 
 a study of the finger-nails. 
 
 88. The Sweat-glands. Use a magnifying-glass to study 
 the openings of the sweat-glands, especially on the palms of 
 the hands. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 [CHAPTER X. PAGE 132.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 89. Sensations are referred to the Ends of the 
 Nerves. Striking the elbow-end of the ulna against any- 
 thing hard (" hitting the crazy-bone ") where the ulna nerve 
 
208 
 
 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 is exposed, the little finger and the ring-finger will tingle, 
 and become numb. 
 
 90. Every Nerve is Independent of any Other. Press two 
 fingers closely together. Let the point of the finest needle 
 
 be carried ever so lightly across 
 from one finger to another, and 
 we can easily tell just when the 
 needle leaves one finger and 
 touches the other. 
 
 91. One Part of the Body 
 works for the Good of Another 
 Part. Tickle the inside of the 
 nose with a feather. This does 
 not interfere at all with the muscles 
 of breathing ; but they come to 
 the help of the irritated part, and 
 provoke a sneeze to clear and pro- 
 tect the nose. 
 
 92. To paralyze a Nerve temporarily. Throw one arm 
 over the sharp edge of a chair-back, bringing the inner edge 
 of the biceps directly over the edge of the chair. Press deep 
 and hard for a few minutes. The deep pressure on the nerve 
 of the arm will put the arm " asleep," causing numbness and 
 tingling." The leg and foot often " get asleep " by deep 
 pressure on the nerve of the thigh. 
 
 FIG. 66. BLACKBOARD SKETCH. 
 Showing the Position of the Brain. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPECIAL SENSES 
 
 [CHAPTER XI. PAGE 153.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 93. Cross the middle finger over the fore- 
 finger, and shut the eyes. Hold a marble between the tips 
 of the crossed fingers. There seems to be two marbles. 
 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 2CX) 
 
 94. Shut both eyes, and let a friend run the tips of the 
 fingers first lightly over a hard, plane surface, then pressing 
 hard, and then lightly again, and the surface will seem to be 
 hollowed out. 
 
 These two experiments show that we are easily misled, 
 even by the sense of touch. It is mainly matter of habit and 
 education. 
 
 95. Put a drop of vinegar on a friend's tongue, or your 
 own. Notice how the papillae of the tongue start up. 
 
 96. Rub different parts of the tongue with the pointed 
 end of a piece of salt and gum-aloes, showing that the back 
 of the tongue is most sensitive to salt and bitter sub- 
 stances. 
 
 97. Repeat the same with some sweet or sour substances, 
 to show that the edges of the tongue are the most sensitive to 
 these things. 
 
 98. We often fail to distinguish between the sense of 
 taste and that of smell. 'Chew some pure, roasted coffee, 
 and it seems to have a distinct taste. Pinch the nose hard, 
 and there is little taste. Coffee has a powerful odor, but 
 only a feeble taste. The same is true of garlic, onions, and 
 various spices. 
 
 99. Light helps the sense of taste. Shut the eyes, 
 and palatable foods taste insipid. Pinch the nose, close 
 the eyes, and see how palatable a teaspoonful of cod-liver 
 oil becomes. 
 
 100. The Retina is easily tired. With a hand-mirror 
 reflect the sunlight on the white wall, and keep it fixed. 
 Look steadily at it for a full minute, and then let it suddenly 
 be removed. Its " complementary " color a dark spot 
 will appear. Pin a round piece of bright red paper (large 
 as a dinner-plate) to a white wall by a single pin. Fasten 
 a long piece of thread to it, so it can be pulled down 
 
2IO HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 in a second. Gaze steadily at the red paper. Have it 
 removed while looking at it intently, and a greenish spot 
 takes its place. 
 
 i o i . To illustrate the Action of the Crystalline Lens. Hold 
 a burning-glass in front of an open window in such a way 
 that the image of some object outside will be brought to a 
 focus upon a piece of paper. This miniature image will be 
 upside down. 
 
 102. To vibrate the drum-membrane and the little ear- 
 bones, shut the mouth, and pinch the nose tightly. Try to 
 force air through the nose. The air dilates the eustachian 
 tube, and air is forced into the ear-drum. The distinct 
 crackle, or clicking sound, is due to the movement of the 
 ear-bones and membranes. 
 
 103. The Retina is not sensitive where the Optic Nerve enters 
 the Eyeball. This is called the " blind spot." Put two ink- 
 bottles on a table covered over with white paper, about two 
 feet apart. Close the left eye, and fix the right steadily on 
 the left-hand inkstand, gradually varying the distance of the 
 eye to the ink-bottle. At a certain distance the right-hand 
 bottle will disappear ; but, nearer or farther than that, it will 
 be plainly seen. 
 
 104. Show the same thing in this way: make two black 
 spots, with pen and ink, as large as two peas, upon a white 
 card, about three inches apart, varying the distance as 
 
 FIG. 67. Diagram to show the Existence of the Blind Spot. 
 
 before. At a distance of about six inches the "blind spot " 
 will be noticed. 
 
 105. Impressions made upon the Retina do not disappear at 
 
PRACTICAL EXPERIMENTS 211 
 
 once. Look steadily at a bright light for a moment or two, 
 and then turn away suddenly, or shut the eyes. A gleam of 
 lio-ht will be seen for a second or two. 
 
 & 
 
 1 06. Take a round piece of white card-board the size of a 
 saucer, and paint it in alternate rings of red and yellow, 
 two primary colors. Put it on the sewing-machine wheel, or 
 glue it to a grindstone, and rotate it rapidly. The eye per- 
 ceives neither color, but orange, the secondary color. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON THE THROAT AND VOICE 
 
 EXPERIMENT 107. To show the Anatomy of the Throat. 
 Study the general construction of the throat by the help of 
 a hand-mirror. Repeat the same on the throat of some 
 friend. 
 
 To illustrate the Passage of Air through the Glottis. Take 
 two strips of india rubber, and stretch them over the open 
 end of a boy's " bean blower," or any kind of a tube. Tie 
 them tightly with thread, so that a chink will be left between 
 them. Force the air through such a tube by blowing hard, 
 and a sound will result if the strips are not too far apart. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS ON MATTERS OF EVERY-DAY 
 HEALTH 
 
 [CHAPTER XII. PAGE 166.] 
 
 EXPERIMENT 108. Imagine a pupil with his fingers or ears 
 frost-bitten. Show how friction should be applied. 
 
 Poultices. Bring a small lot of the necessary material 
 into the schoolroom, and show exactly how a small mustard 
 
212 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 paste, a flaxseed poultice, or any other simple poultice, is 
 made. 
 
 109. Fainting. Select several places about the school- 
 room, and show exactly how a person should be placed, sup- 
 posing he has fainted in a crowded room. Go through every 
 detail of treatment in your mind. 
 
 no. Apparent Drowning. Show exactly how artificial 
 respiration is done. Let a boy lie on a settee, and illustrate 
 the process in every detail. It would be an excellent idea 
 for a teacher to meet his boys at their bathing place, and 
 show them in still more detail. Let two boys go through the 
 process on a playmate under the eye of the teacher, and then 
 others might follow their example. 
 
 in. Experiments on the Matter of treating Cuts and 
 Bruises, and of stopping Bleeding. First, on the matter of 
 treating trifling cuts. Let red-pencil marks made on the 
 face, arms, fingers, etc., stand for cuts. Apply suitable strips 
 of plaster in a proper way for a great variety of imaginary 
 cuts. After putting on the plaster, practise on bandaging 
 the parts with strips of cotton cloth rolled for the purpose. 
 Practise on using the handkerchief for a variety of bandages. 
 
 112. To stop Bleeding from the Arteries. Locate the 
 principal arteries on your person and that of a friend. Let 
 red-crayon marks stand for the course of the arteries. Now 
 with strings, cords, shoestrings, handkerchiefs, elastics, strips 
 of clothing, practise tying them so as to press deeply and 
 firmly in the proper place. Let each one in the class prac- 
 tise at the same time on the same artery. Criticise and 
 improve each other's work. 
 
 113. Poisons and their Antidotes. Small samples of the 
 more common and important poisons should be shown. Note 
 carefully the appearance of each one. With each sample of 
 poison arrange its most common antidote. Explain exactly 
 how it should be given. 
 
REVIEW ANALYSIS 
 
 ALCOHOLIC DRINKS, TOBACCO, AND 
 OTHER NARCOTICS 
 
 1. The Bones. 
 
 (Chap. ii. p. n.) 
 
 2. The Muscles. 
 
 (Chap. iii. p. 31.) 
 
 3. What we eat and 
 
 drink. 
 (Chap. iv. P . 4 6.) 
 
 4 Origin and Na- 
 ture of Ferment- , 
 ed Drinks. * 
 
 (Chap. v. p. 56.) 
 
 Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Bones 
 
 (18}* 
 
 Effect of Alcohol on the Muscles (26). 
 Effect of Alcohol on Strength (27). 
 Effect of Tobacco on the Muscles (28). 
 
 Artificial Drinks (36). 
 
 Ferments and what They do (38). 
 
 What Alcohol is (39). 
 
 Alcohol and Water contrasted (40). 
 
 The Alcoholic Appetite (41). 
 
 The Law of Fermentation (43). 
 
 The Evils of Cider-drinking (44). 
 
 Wine and why it should be avoided (45). 
 
 Beer: 
 
 a. Its Origin (46). 
 
 b. Its Relation to Drunkenness (47). 
 
 c. Its Effect on Physical Appearance (48). 
 
 d. Its Effect on the Moral Nature (49). 
 Differences in the Process of Bread making 
 
 and Beer-making (50). 
 Distilled Liquors (57). 
 
 * The figures in full-face type, in the parentheses, refer to the numbers of the 
 sections in the preceding chapters of this book. 
 
 2I 3 
 
214 
 
 REVIEW ANALYSIS 
 
 ( i. Effect of Alcohol on the Stomach Diges- 
 
 5. How Digestion} t ion (05). 
 
 ' 6 | 2. Effect of Alcohol on the Liver (66). 
 
 I 3. Effect of Tobacco on Digestion (67). 
 
 6. The Blood. 
 
 (Chap. vii. p. 89.) 
 
 7. How and Why 
 
 We breathe. 
 
 (Chap. viii. p. 103.) 
 
 i. How Alcohol gets into the Blood (76). 
 Effect of Alcohol on the Circulation (77). 
 
 3. Effect of Alcohol upon the Heart (78). 
 
 4. Effect of Tobacco on the Heart (79). 
 
 Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco upon the Air- 
 Passages (91). 
 
 8. How the Body is 
 covered. 
 
 (Chap. ix. p. 116.) 
 
 1. Alcohol and the Bodily Heat (101}. 
 
 2. Effect of Tobacco upon the Skin (102). 
 
 9. 
 
 The Nervous 
 System. 
 
 (Chap. x. p. 132.) 
 
 1. Effect of Alcohol on the Nervous Sys- 
 
 tem (///). 
 
 2. Effect of Alcohol on Will (112). 
 
 3. Inherited Craving for Alcohol (113). 
 
 4. Tobacco and its Use (114). 
 
 5. Effect of Tobacco upon Young People ( / 15) . 
 
 6. Cigarettes and the Harm They do (116). 
 
 7. Tobacco from a Moral Point of View (117). 
 
 8. Opium (118). 
 
 9. Practical Points about Opium ( 119). 
 0. Chloral and Other Poisons (120). 
 
 10. 
 
 The Five Gate- 
 ways of Knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 (Chap. xi. p. 153.) 
 
 Effect of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Special 
 Senses (132). 
 
 How to Keep Well. 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 
 
 INTRODUCTORY 
 
 [CHAPTER I. PAGE i.] 
 
 1. In thinking about our bodies, what questions 
 
 should we naturally begin to ask ? 
 
 2. Tell in a general way what this book will try to 
 
 explain. 
 
 3. Tell in your own words some of the good to be 
 
 got from this study. 
 
 4. How may a child get some idea that his body 
 
 moves ? 
 
 5. How may a child know that he is warm ? 
 
 6. How would you compare our bodies to a steam- 
 
 engine ? 
 
 7. What happens when the child touches a hot stove, 
 
 pricks his fingers, or eats some unwholesome 
 fruit ? 
 
 8. Explain how nerves act somewhat like telegraph- 
 
 wires. 
 
 9. What is the real or essential part of our life ? 
 
 10. Why is it necessary to know the meaning of cer- 
 
 tain words at the very beginning of our study ? 
 
 1 1. What is meant by anatomy ? physiology ? hygiene ? 
 
 organ ? a tissue ? Illustrate. 
 215 
 
210 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 12. What is meant by the function of an organ? 
 
 Illustrate. 
 
 13. What are glands ? Illustrate. 
 
 14. What can you say of the general parts of the 
 
 body ? 
 
 15. State in a general way the names of the most 
 
 important organs in the trunk, and locate each 
 one. 
 
 1 6. Why is it a duty to take care of our health ? 
 
 17. What are some of the ill results of neglecting 
 
 our health ? 
 
 THE BONY FRAMEWORK 
 
 [CHAPTER II. PAGE 11.] 
 
 1. To what may the bones be compared ? 
 
 2. What useful purposes do they serve ? 
 
 3. What do you mean by the skeleton ? 
 
 4. Describe the composition of bone. 
 
 5. Give experiments showing the composition of 
 
 bone. 
 
 6. Explain the general structure of bone. 
 
 7. In describing the skeleton, into what divisions 
 
 will you divide the bones for convenience ? 
 
 8. Tell what you can about the bones of the head. 
 
 9. What can you tell of the dovetailed joints, or 
 
 sutures ? 
 
 10. What is meant by the trunk ? 
 
 11. Tell all you can about the backbone. 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 
 
 12. What are the ribs ? 
 
 13. Describe the collar-bone. The shoulder-blade. 
 
 14. The bones of the arm. What are they ? 
 
 15. Describe the wrist and the fingers. 
 
 16. Describe the bones of the leg. The knee-pan. 
 
 17. Describe the ankle and the foot. 
 
 1 8. What is a joint ? Mention the different kinds of 
 
 joints. 
 
 19. How are the bones tied to each other ? 
 
 20. Give some hints about wearing boots and shoes. 
 
 21. What may cause round shoulders and curvature 
 
 of the spine ? 
 
 22. What is the effect of alcohol on the bones ? 
 
 23. How does tobacco affect the bones ? 
 
 THE MUSCLES 
 
 [CHAPTER III. PAGE 31.] 
 
 1. What do muscles enable us to do ? 
 
 2. Give some familiar illustrations. 
 
 3. Describe the structure of muscle. 
 
 4. How do the size and shape of muscles vary ? 
 
 5. What peculiar power do muscles have ? 
 
 6. Illustrate this power of contraction by a piece of 
 
 india-rubber. 
 
 7. Explain how muscles act to bend the fore-arm. 
 
 8. Show how muscles act that are not under the 
 
 control of the will. 
 
 9. Illustrate by the stomach and the heart. 
 
2l8 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 10. What are tendons ? Where are they found ? 
 
 What are their uses ? 
 
 1 1. Exercise : What is it ? Why do we need it ? 
 
 12. What are some of the advantages of exercise ? 
 
 13. What is the best time for exercise ? 
 
 14. Describe the different kinds of exercise. 
 
 15. What are the advantages of walking as an exer- 
 
 cise ? Of light gymnastics ? 
 
 16. What is the effect of alcohol on the muscles ? 
 
 17. How does alcohol affect the speech ? 
 
 1 8. What is the effect of alcohol on the strength ? 
 
 19. What proofs have we of this effect of alcohol ? 
 
 20. What can you say of the effect of tobacco on the 
 
 muscles ? 
 
 WHAT WE EAT AND DRINK 
 
 [CHAPTER IV. PAGE 46.] 
 
 1. To illustrate work, waste, and repair, how may 
 
 you compare the body to a steam-engine ? 
 Explain fully. 
 
 2. Why do we need food ? 
 
 3. What is meant by the tissue foods ? 
 
 4. Give some familiar examples. 
 
 5. What are the sugars and starches ? Give exam- 
 
 ples. 
 
 6. Describe the fats and illustrate. 
 
 7. What is meant by the mineral foods ? 
 
 8. Illustrate the value of salt as a food. 
 
 9. What can you say of water as a food ? 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 2IQ 
 
 10. Give in detail the more important articles of 
 
 diet. 
 
 11. In a general way what can you say of artificial 
 
 drinks ? 
 
 12. What are some of the more common artificial 
 
 drinks ? 
 
 13. What can you say of the effect of drinking tea? 
 
 14. How does coffee affect the health ? 
 
 15. Mention some of the ill effects of drinking too 
 
 much ice-water. 
 
 ORIGIN AND NATURE OF FERMENTED DRINKS 
 
 [CHAPTER V. PAGE 56.] 
 
 1. What is meant by sweet apple-juice ? 
 
 2. What change takes place soon after it is pressed 
 
 out ? 
 
 3 What causes the change in the pressed-out fruit- 
 juices ? 
 
 4. What is meant by a ferment ? 
 
 5. Where are the ferments before the apples are 
 
 ground ? 
 
 6. What effect has warmth on a ferment ? 
 
 7. Give a definition of alcohol. 
 
 8. Mention the main points of contrast between 
 
 alcohol and water. 
 
 9. What is meant by the alcohol appetite ? 
 
 10. How does it differ from a natural appetite ? 
 
 11. What proves the strength of the alcoholic appe- 
 
 tite ? 
 
220 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 12. To what is drunkenness due? 
 
 13. Why should not alcohol be used as a flavoring in 
 
 cooking ? 
 
 14. What is vinous fermentation ? 
 
 15. What is the law of fermentation ? 
 
 16. How is this illustrated when cider changes to 
 
 vinegar ? 
 
 17. Tell of some of the evils of cider-drinking. 
 
 1 8. Explain how wine is made. 
 
 19. How may we know there is alcohol in wine ? 
 
 20. What changes the nature of the grape-juice when 
 
 wine is made ? 
 
 21. In what does this change consist ? 
 
 22. Why is wine a dangerous drink ? 
 
 23. Illustrate by its use in foreign lands. 
 
 24. Explain how beer is made. 
 
 25. Show how the law of fermentation applies to the 
 
 process of beer-making. 
 
 26. What are the dangers in drinking beer? 
 
 27. How does beer-drinking give a false appearance 
 
 of health? 
 
 28. What can you say of beer-drinking from a moral 
 
 point of view ? 
 
 29. Show how bread is made by fermentation. 
 
 30. What is meant by distilled liquors ? 
 
 31. Mention some of the more common distilled 
 
 liquors. 
 
 32. Why are they so destructive to health ? 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 221 
 
 DIGESTION AND HOW IT GOES ON 
 
 [CHAPTER VI. PAGE 65.] 
 
 1. Explain how food is made ready to mix with the 
 
 blood. 
 
 2. What is meant by digestion ? 
 
 3. Describe the two sets of teeth. 
 
 4. Tell something about the structure of a tooth. 
 
 5. What takes place in the mouth during digestion ? 
 
 6. What is the saliva ? and what is its action ? 
 
 7. Describe the process of swallowing. 
 
 8. What prevents the food from going into the 
 
 windpipe ? 
 
 9. Tell what you can about the stomach. 
 
 10. What is the gastric juice, and what is its action? 
 
 11. What can you tell of Alexis St. Martin? 
 
 12. What is meant by the intestines? 
 
 13. Tell what you can about the liver. 
 
 14. In what two ways is the nutritious part of food 
 
 taken into the<blood ? 
 
 15. What is meant by absorption ? 
 
 16. Explain the action of the lacteals. 
 
 17. What is the thoracic duct ? 
 
 1 8. What are the lymphatics, and what do they do ? 
 
 19. How muck should we eat ? 
 
 20. What general rules to guide as to what we should 
 
 eat? 
 
 21. Describe in some detail when we should eat. 
 
 22. Explain in a general way how we should eat. 
 
 23. Why is the proper cooking of food a matter of 
 
 great importance ? 
 
222 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 24. Give what hints you can about the care of the 
 
 teeth. 
 
 25. What is the effect of alcohol on digestion in the 
 
 stomach ? 
 
 26. How does alcohol affect the liver ? 
 
 27. What is the effect of tobacco on digestion ? 
 
 THE BLOOD, THE RIVER OF LIFE 
 
 [CHAPTER VII. PAGE 89.] 
 
 1. How does blood look to the naked eye ? 
 
 2. Is it really red ? 
 
 3. What gives it its red color ? 
 
 4. Illustrate by some familiar thing. 
 
 5. Describe the blood corpuscles. 
 
 6. Give some familiar illustrations to show their 
 
 size. 
 
 7. What do you mean by fi brine ? serum ? clot ? 
 
 8. What is meant by the circulation of blood ? 
 
 9. What can you tell of D^ Harvey and his dis- 
 
 covery ? 
 
 10. What is an artery ? a vein ? a capillary ? 
 
 11. Describe the heart. 
 
 12. What is meant by auricle ? ventricle ? aorta ? 
 
 13. Describe in detail the circulation of a drop of 
 
 blood, starting from the left auricle 
 
 14. What can you say, in a general way, of the work 
 
 done by the heart ? 
 
 15. What is the pulse ? What does it tell us ? 
 
 16. What is the effect of exercise on the circulation ? 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 
 
 17. How may the heart be injured by violent effort ? 
 
 1 8. How does tight clothing affect the circulation ? 
 
 19. In what two ways does alcohol get into the 
 
 blood ? 
 
 20. What effect does alcohol have on the circulation ? 
 
 21. Explain the action of alcohol on the heart. 
 
 22. What is the effect of tobacco on the heart ? 
 
 HOW AND WHY WE BREATHE 
 
 [CHAPTER VIII. PAGE 103.] 
 
 1. What is meant by breathing ? 
 
 2. What is it that we breathe ? Give some familiar 
 
 illustrations. 
 
 3. Describe the lungs. 
 
 4. What can you tell about the windpipe ? 
 
 5. Show how the voice is produced. 
 
 6. Describe the inner structure of the lungs. 
 
 7. Define inspiration ; expiration ; respiration. 
 
 8. Describe in detail the process of breathing. 
 
 9. Tell something about the work of the diaphragm. 
 
 10. What is meant by oxygen and nitrogen ? 
 
 11. Describe in detail what takes place in the lungs. 
 
 12. Mention the most important changes in the air 
 
 from breathing. 
 
 13. Tell what you can about carbonic-acid gas and 
 
 its poisonous effects. 
 
 14. How is the air kept pure ? 
 
 15. How is the air we breathe made impure? about 
 
 the house ? in various trades ? 
 
224 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 16. Why and how should we ventilate? Give some 
 
 practical plans. 
 
 17. What can you say of the ventilation of bedrooms ? 
 
 1 8. Explain the effect of alcohol upon the air- 
 
 passages. 
 
 19. How does tobacco affect the air-passages ? 
 
 HOW OUR BODIES ARE COVERED 
 
 [CHAPTER IX. PAGE 116.] 
 
 1. In what three ways does the body get rid of its 
 
 waste matter ? 
 
 2. The true skin ; describe its structure. 
 
 3. Describe the structure of the scarf-skin. 
 
 4. What is the sweat ? and where does it come 
 
 from ? 
 
 5. Why do we need to wash ourselves ? 
 
 6. Describe the hair and the nails. 
 
 7. What gives the hair its color ? Give some illus- 
 
 trations. 
 
 8. What will cause the hair to change its color ? 
 
 9. What care should be taken of the nails ? 
 
 10. Baths ; why, when, and how should they be 
 
 taken ? 
 
 1 1. How is the body kept warm ? Explain in detail. 
 
 12. How is the heat of the body regulated? 
 
 13. Why do we need clothing? 
 
 14. Give some hints about the use of clothing. 
 
 15. Describe the effect of alcohol upon the bodily 
 
 heat. 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 225 
 
 1 6. What effect does alcohol have upon the power of 
 
 the body to endure extremes of heat or cold ? 
 
 17. How does tobacco affect the skin? 
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 [CHAPTER X. PAGE 132.] 
 
 1. Show how the different parts of the body act in 
 
 harmony. 
 
 2. What is meant by the nervous system ? and what 
 
 are its parts ? 
 
 3. Tell what you can about the brain. 
 
 4. What can you say of the spinal cord and the 
 
 nerves ? 
 
 5. How would you compare the nervous system to 
 
 the telegraph ? 
 
 6. Give some familiar illustrations. 
 
 7. Describe in detail what is meant by reflex action. 
 
 8. Show the importance of reflex action. Illustrate. 
 
 9. What can you say about the importance of keep- 
 
 ing the nervous system in good health ? 
 10. What is sleep? Show how necessary it is to 
 
 health, 
 n. Give some practical hints about getting proper 
 
 sleep. 
 
 12. What is the first result after alcohol is taken ? 
 
 13. What is the effect of alcohol on the brain ? 
 
 14. How does alcohol affect the judgment ? 
 
 15. What is the effect of alcoholic liquors on the will ? 
 
226 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 16. To what disease of the nervous system may 
 
 alcohol finally lead ? 
 
 17. Show how the craving for alcohol may be inher- 
 
 ited. 
 
 1 8. What can you say of the use of tobacco ? 
 
 19. What is the effect of its continued use ? 
 
 20. Why is tobacco especially hurtful to young people ? 
 
 21. What will you say of cigarettes, and the harm 
 
 they do ? 
 
 22. What can you say of the use of tobacco, from a 
 
 moral point of view ? 
 
 23. What is opium ? Describe the opium habit. 
 
 24. Give some practical points about opium. 
 
 25. What can you say of the chloral habit ? 
 
 THE FIVE GATEWAYS OF KNOWLEDGE 
 
 [CHAPTER XL PAGE 153.] 
 
 1. What is meant by the "five gateways of knowl- 
 
 edge " ? 
 
 2. Name the five special senses. 
 
 3. Describe the sense of touch. 
 
 4. Tell what you can about the sense of taste. 
 
 5. To what extent may this sense be cultivated? 
 
 6. Describe the sense of smell. 
 
 7. Tell what you can about the outer ear. 
 
 8. Describe the middle ear. 
 
 9. Tell something about the inner ear. 
 
 10. Give some practical hints about the care of the 
 ear. 
 
TEST QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW 22/ 
 
 11. What can you say of the great importance of 
 
 sight ? 
 
 12. Describe the general structure of the eye. 
 
 13. Show how the eye is protected. 
 
 14. What is meant by color-blindness? 
 
 15. Show how it is a matter of practical importance. 
 
 16. How would you take good care of your eyes ? 
 
 17. Describe the effect of alcohol on the special 
 
 senses. 
 
 1 8. What effect does tobacco have on the special 
 
 senses ? 
 
 WHAT TO DO IN ACCIDENTS AND ILLNESS 
 
 [CHAPTER XII. PAGE 166.] 
 
 1. Mention some accidents and emergencies likely 
 
 to occur any day. 
 
 2. What would you do for a fainting person ? 
 
 3. What is the treatment for frostbite ? 
 
 4. Describe fits, and tell what to do for them. 
 
 5. What is suffocation ? What would you do for it? 
 
 6. What can you say about broken bones ? 
 
 7. What is the treatment for the sting of insects ? 
 
 for nosebleed ? 
 
 8. What would you do for a foreign body in the 
 
 nose ? in the ear ? in the throat ? in the eye ? 
 
 9. What is the treatment for sunstroke or heat- 
 
 stroke ? 
 10. What would you do for burns or scalds ? 
 
228 HOW TO KEEP WELL 
 
 11. What can you say of bruises? of cut and torn 
 
 wounds ? 
 
 12. How would you stop bleeding from an artery? 
 
 from a vein ? 
 
 13. Describe in detail how you would manage a case 
 
 of apparent drowning. 
 
 14. Give some hints about the proper care of the 
 
 bowels. 
 
 15. What can you say of the habit of taking unknown 
 
 medicines ? 
 
 1 6. Give in detail how you would take care of a sick- 
 
 room. 
 
 i/. Mention the various ways in which the air may 
 be poisoned from diseases that spread. 
 
 1 8. What is meant by disinfection? 
 
 19. What can you tell in a general way of poisons ? 
 
 20. What golden rule can you give concerning 
 
 poisons ? 
 
NOTES 
 
 NOTE i. "If by the aid of the microscope we examine 
 a very fine section of muscle taken from a person in good 
 health, we find the muscle firm, elastic, and of a bright red 
 color, made up of parallel fibres with beautiful crossings or 
 striae ; but if we similarly examine the muscle of a man who 
 leads an idle, sedentary life, and indulges in intoxicating 
 drinks, we detect at once a pale, flabby, inelastic, oily 
 appearance." Dr. Henry Monroe. * 
 
 " It [alcohol] greatly lessens muscular tone and power. 
 There is no evidence that it increases nervous influence, while 
 there is much evidence that it lessens nervous power." 
 Dr. E. Smith in Philosophical Transactions for 1859. 
 
 ** I found that alcohol weakens the muscular contraction and 
 lessens the time during which the contraction can continue 
 active." Dr. B. W. Richardson. 
 
 NOTE 2. "A soldier was experimented upon by being 
 given a certain amount of work to do. first when his system 
 was free from the effects of alcohol, and second when under 
 the influence of certain measured doses of brandy. The 
 result is summed up as follows: The brandy seemed to give 
 him a kind of spirit which made him think he could do a 
 great deal of work, but when he came to do it he found he 
 was less capable than he thought. The experience of this 
 
 229 
 
230 
 
 NOTES 
 
 man harmonizes with the advice that is given by guides and 
 others who are in the habit of ascending mountains. Spirits, 
 they say, take away the strength from the legs, and should 
 therefore be avoided during a fatiguing expedition." F. W. 
 Pavy in "Food and Dietetics'' 1 
 
 " It was quite remarkable to observe how much stronger 
 and more able to do their work the men were when they had 
 nothing but water to drink." Sir John Ross in an account of 
 his Arctic explorations. 
 
 The Army of the Potomac, in the spring of 1862, was sub- 
 jected to great hardships in labor, and exposed to the ex- 
 tremely wet and malarious region of the Chickahominy. 
 There was, consequently, much sickness and suffering. 
 Under these circumstances the commanding general issued 
 an order on the igth of May, allowing every officer and sol- 
 dier one gill of whiskey per day, half to be served in the 
 morning and half in the evening. The results were so man- 
 ifestly injurious to the sanitary condition of the army that in 
 just thirty days the order was countermanded by the same 
 general. Concerning this experiment in the Army of the 
 Potomac, Dr. Frank Hamilton, one of the most eminent sur- 
 geons serving with that army, says : " It is earnestly desired 
 that no such experiment will ever be repeated in the armies 
 of the United States." 
 
 The following story was told by a sea-captain to a lady whose 
 name is a household word in many parts of this country : 
 
 "When I was yet a lad before the mast I had a memorable 
 adventure. It was winter, and we were off a rocky lee-shore 
 with a tremendous storm upon us. We tacked off and on, and 
 with every tack we had to break the icicles off the ropes, it was 
 so fearfully cold. Of course one of the first things was to 
 serve out gin. This made the men work well a little while 
 after each drink, and then they would flag and call for more 
 
NOTES 231 
 
 gin. Gradually they grew worse, and finally they could not 
 be made to work at all. Before morning every one of them 
 was laid up and helpless. I did not drink, and there were 
 two lads with me whom I persuaded not to drink. At last 
 we were the only ones who were able to do anything, and it 
 was all we could do to keep the vessel on her way until the 
 storm abated." " And what if you had drunk with the rest ? " 
 he was asked. " We should all have gone to the bottom to- 
 gether ; no possible help for it," he replied. 
 
 NOTE 3. " The idea that tobacco gives increased power 
 to endure either physical or mental hardships is one of the 
 greatest delusions of the age. Tobacco and alcohol, though 
 unlike in many respects, have many points of resemblance, 
 and argument5 against one are usually valid against the 
 other. Both are poisons, and both are regarded by many as 
 necessities. It was formerly thought that alcohol augmented 
 strength, but it has been found by experiments that the man 
 who drinks it cannot lift so heavy a weight as those who do 
 not, though he feels as if he could lift a much heavier one. 
 Tobacco may for a short time make a man less conscious of 
 his fatigue ; but the truth is that his strength is diminished 
 rather than increased by its use." Thomas G. Roberts, M. D. 
 
 "The winning boat of Harvard University, and the loos- 
 ing boat of Yale, were not rowed by smokers. One of the 
 first things demanded of a young man who is going into 
 training for a boat race is, stop smoking. And he himself, 
 long before his body has reached its highest point of purity 
 and development, will become conscious of the lowering and 
 disturbing effects of smoking one inch of a mild cigar. No 
 smoker who has ever trained severely for a race, or a game, 
 needs to be told that smoking reduces the tone of his system 
 and diminishes all the forces of his body. He knows it. 
 
232 
 
 NOTES 
 
 He has been as conscious of it as a boy is of the effects of his 
 first cigar." James Parton. 
 
 " Its [tobacco's] power of causing relaxation of the mus- 
 cular system is great." Appletorfs Cydopczdia, vol. xii. p. 
 784. 
 
 NOTE 4. " Alcohol is classed among the poisons by 
 medical writers on poisons. I do not know of an excep- 
 tion among physicians. It is ranked among the poisons 
 from its effects on the body analogous to those of the other 
 poisons. What is said of the effect of alcohol must be true 
 of all doses, large or small, although the effect of very minute 
 doses may be imperceptible. Arsenic may be administered 
 in doses so small as to produce no apparent ill effects ; yet 
 no one doubts that arsenic is a poison. ... If a person dies 
 of delirium tremens it is not the last glass that kills him, but 
 every dose or glass he has taken in his life has conduced to 
 the result." Dr. Reuben D. Mussey, Professor of Anatomy 
 and Surgery, Dartmouth College. 
 
 " We believe that alcohol is ever a poison." Editor of the 
 Revue Stientifique of France. 
 
 " Alcohol is universally ranked among poisons by physiol- 
 ogists, chemists, physicians, toxicologists, and all who have 
 experimented, studied, and written upon the subject, and 
 who, therefore, best understand it. It is not necessary to 
 the action of poisons that they be always swallowed in fatal 
 doses." Professor W. J. Youmans, in his work on Alcohol. 
 
 " Is alcohol a poison ? I reply, yes. It answers to the 
 description of a poison. It possesses an inherent, deleterious 
 property, which, when introduced into the system, is capable 
 of destroying life, and it has its place with arsenic, bella- 
 donna, prussic acid, opium, etc. Toxicologists divide poisons 
 into three classes : Irritants, Narcotics, and Narcotico-Irri- 
 
NOTES 233 
 
 tants. Alcohol belongs to the latter class. In its effects 
 upon the living system it is first an irritant, and afterward 
 when it has entered the circulation it becomes a narcotic. 
 Were alcohol an irritant only, a man would as soon poison 
 himself with arsenic or aquafortis. The narcotic element is 
 the Siren that leads him on to ruin and to death." Dr. 
 Willard Parker. 
 
 NOTE 5. Professor W. F Wessen, who resided seven years 
 in beer-drinking Germany, said of the students in the uni- 
 versities of Berlin and Halle, " One-third of the students are 
 once a week what you would call drunk. As regards the 
 people, I can only say that during the last five years drunken 
 people have gone past my house, I suppose, every even- 
 ing, sometimes boisterously drunk and sometimes reelingly 
 drunk." 
 
 The Reichanzeiger, of Berlin, published, Oct. 7, 1891, 
 in full, the Emperor's proposed law against the " abuse of 
 spirituous liquors." and presented in a long article of nearly 
 eleven columns the reason for its passage. Among these 
 were the following : " The intemperate use of spirits in- 
 creases the mortality, causes many cases of sickness, is the 
 fountain of pauperism, undermines morality, and ruins the 
 family life. The cases of chronic alcoholism and delirium 
 tremens in Germany, which have been treated in public 
 institutions, have increased from 4,272 in 1877 to 10,360 in 
 1885. Among the latter number were 673 females. 
 
 Still clearer is the percentage of such cases treated when 
 compared with other patients. The alcoholic cases furnish 
 nearly twenty per cent of all the cases treated in the public 
 hospitals. The insane asylums received 1,161 patients in 
 1885 ; 1,213 men and 121 women died of delirium tremens 
 in 1886. Of the prisoners in German penitentiaries con- 
 
234 NOTES 
 
 victed of murder, forty-six per cent used liquor, and of these 
 again forty-one per cent were habitual drunkards. Of those 
 who committed manslaughter, sixty-three per cent were 
 drinkers. Violent assaults were in seventy-four per cent of 
 the cases committed by drunkards, and the other crimes 
 varied from forty to sixty-eight per cent. 
 
 NOTE 6. " The diseases of beer-drinkers are always of a 
 dangerous character, and in the case of an accident, they can 
 never undergo the most trifling operation with the security of 
 the temperate." Dr. Edwards. 
 
 NOTE 7. " Alcohol inflames the stomach, weakens the 
 power of digestion and assimilation, and cannot be long 
 continued without disastrous results. ... It takes but a 
 small quantity of alcohol to inflame the stomach and brain 
 of persons who have not been accustomed to its use." 
 Dr. R. Greene. 
 
 11 1 support the statement of the late Dr. Cheyne that 
 nothing more effectually hinders digestion than alcohol. I 
 hold that those who abstain from alcohol have the best 
 digestion; and that more instances of indigestion, of flatu- 
 lency, of acidity, and of depression of mind and body, are 
 produced by alcohol than by any other single cause." 
 Dr. B. W. Richardson. 
 
 " Alcohol is a poison forever at war with man's nature, 
 and in all its forms and degrees of strength produces irrita- 
 tion of the stomach, which is liable to result in inflammation, 
 ulceration, and mortification, a thickening and indurating of 
 its coats ; and finally malignant cancer, and other organic 
 affections ; and it may be asserted with confidence that no 
 one who indulges habitually in the use of alcoholic drinks, 
 whether in the form of wine or more ardent spirits, possesses 
 
NOTES 
 
 235 
 
 a healthy stomach." Dr. Thomas Sewell, Professor of Path- 
 ology and Practice of Medicine in Columbia College, D. C. 
 
 NOTE 8. " The organ of the body most frequently injured 
 by the use of alcohol is the liver. As in poisoning by 
 arsenic, strychnine, and other such drugs, it is found that the 
 liver is the place where they are mostly deposited ; so it is 
 with alcohol. The liver of the confirmed drunkard is prob- 
 ably never entirely free from its influence and is often fairly 
 saturated with it.* The action of alcohol upon the liver is 
 similar to its action upon the stomach. It first becomes 
 enlarged, and its activity is increased, and then it becomes 
 shrunken, hardened, and roughened, and its' action is per- 
 verted and decreased. It, in some cases, looks as if it had 
 been driven full of round-headed nails. Hence it has 
 received the name of ' hob-nailed liver ' or ' gin-drinker's 
 liver.' " Dr. D. A. Robinson. 
 
 NOTE 9. " The effects of tobacco on the stomach are 
 twofold and arise from two distinct poisons. . . . The bitter 
 extract which so readily excites vomiting in the young smoker 
 appears to act at all times with more or less violence on the 
 mucous lining. At first it produces great irritation and red- 
 ness. After a time these changes are subdued, but are not 
 entirely removed. The membrane secretes irregularly, and, 
 as a general rule, does not produce the due amount of gastric 
 fluid ; hence, digestion is impeded. After digestion an acrid 
 fluid is left in the stomach, which irritates and gives rise to 
 heartburn, eructations, frequent nausea with an almost con- 
 stant sensation of debility of the stomach, and sometimes to 
 cravings for particular foods, especially for those that have 
 an acid reaction, such as pickles and fresh fruit. 
 
 " The muscular portion of the stomach is acted upon by 
 
236 NOTES 
 
 the nicotine. In small quantities the nicotine excites a 
 slight movement in the muscular fibres. . . . Carried to 
 excess it produces a palsied condition of the muscular fibres, 
 leading to increased debility in the digestive organs, to a 
 serious impairment of their functions, and to constipation. 
 
 " So long as the digestive organs are functionally dis- 
 turbed, so long the whole of the body, looking to them as it 
 does for the sources of supply, is held, proportionally, in 
 want and exhaustion. If at the same time waste were not 
 to a certain extent prevented, that exhaustion would soon 
 be increased even to danger." Dr. B. W. Richardson. 
 
 "A professor connected with a prominent medical college, 
 while lecturing on disorders of the liver, stated that the use of 
 tobacco in even the smallest amount impairs the functional 
 action of the liver on the blood passing through it and that 
 the abnormal state of the blood thus caused will manifest 
 itself by disturbance in the brain." Quoted by C. W. 
 Lyman in an article on Tobacco in the New York Medical 
 Journal, Sept. 8, 1888. 
 
 NOTE 10. " The vessels of the lungs are easily relaxed by 
 alcohol ; and as they of all parts are most exposed to vicissi- 
 tudes of heat and cold, they are readily congested when, 
 paralyzed by the spirits, they are subjected to the effects of a 
 sudden fall of atmospheric temperature : thus the sudden 
 fatal congestions of the lungs which so easily befall the con- 
 firmed alcoholic during severe winter seasons." Dr. B. W. 
 Richardson. 
 
 " There can be no question but that inhalation of smoke 
 induces disease of the mucous membrane with which it comes 
 in contact ; it will produce a catarrhal state of the nose and 
 throat where none exists, and it may awaken a new one in 
 a patient who has been cured of the disease. It may pro- 
 
NOTES 237 
 
 duce a cancerous tumor of the throat or tongue, which may 
 become very serious." Dr. Orlando Mixter. 
 
 " Tobacco causes irritation of the mucous membrane of 
 the mouth and throat, more especially in the case of cigarette 
 smoking." Z>r. E. O. Otis. 
 
 NOTE ii. The Cincinnati Medical Repertory, in a recent 
 article, gives an account of a company of twenty-six men 
 who were travelling across a western plain and lost their 
 way as night came on. The weather was intensely cold, 
 and they had no means of making a fire. They had each 
 two blankets, plenty of food and whiskey. This last they 
 were advised by the leader of the party not to take, but to 
 eat a good supper and wrap themselves up in their blankets 
 and lie close together. Two besides himself heeded his 
 advice ; and, though they were cold, they did not suffer nor 
 freeze. Three others drank a very little. They suffered 
 greatly, but were not frozen. Seven others who drank consid- 
 erable had their toes and fingers frozen, but got over it in a few 
 weeks. Six who drank still more were badly frozen and never 
 got over it. Four who got intoxicated were so bady frozen 
 that they died in a few weeks, while three who got dead 
 drunk were found dead in the morning. Thus all who drank 
 the whiskey suffered in proportion to the amount they drank. 
 
 NOTE 12. "Alcohol, when taken in small quantity, is in 
 general said to act as a direct cardiac stimulant, and its 
 stimulating effect is supposed to be due to its possessing the 
 faculty of increasing the muscular power of the heart. I 
 take an entirely different view of the matter, and shall 
 endeavor to show how the increase in the force of the heart's 
 movement, the quickening of the pulse, the flushing of the 
 face, the congestion of the retinal blood-vessels, as well as 
 
238 NOTES 
 
 all the other visible appearances of accelerated cardiac func- 
 tional activity are in reality in no wise due to the stimulating 
 action of alcohol, either on the heart's muscular tissue or the 
 nerves supplying it, but actually to the very reverse, namely, 
 its paralyzing effect on the cardiac nerve mechanism." Dr. 
 George Harley, in London Lancet, March, 1888. 
 
 Dr. James Barr, of the Northern Hospital, London, in a 
 clinical lecture reported in the London Lancet, January, 1881, 
 said that Dr. Samuel Wilkes over twenty years ago " showed 
 that alcohol was not a stimulant in the proper sense of the 
 term, but a sedative " [or narcotic], and that " not one word " 
 of what Dr. Wilkes then stated " had ever been since seri- 
 ously controverted and, certainly, never disproved." 
 
 " In general, let it be understood that all the workings of 
 alcohol in the system which usually are considered as excite- 
 ment or stimulation are only the indications of paralysis." 
 Prof. G. Bunge, of the Chair of Physiological Chemistry in the 
 University of Basle, Switzerland. 
 
 " Alcohol has clearly no right to be called a stimulant. It 
 is a narcotic from first to last." Dr.J.J. Ridge, England. 
 
 As long ago as 1830, Dr. Beaumont, who made the cele- 
 brated " Observations " on the stomach of Alexis St. Martin, 
 said, "The whole class of alcoholic liquors maybe consid- 
 ered as narcotics, producing very little difference in their 
 ultimate effects on the system." 
 
 Dr. John Higginbottom, F.R.S., after more than fifty 
 years of practice, said, " Alcohol is neither food nor physic, 
 for alcohol, in all its forms, instead of nourishing, poisons ; 
 instead of strengthening, it weakens ; instead of stimulating, 
 it narcotizes and paralyzes ; instead of increasing the vital 
 forces, it diminishes force, produces disease, and is an agent 
 of degeneration and death." 
 
NOTES 239 
 
 NOTE 13. "The more purely intellectual qualities of the 
 mind rarely escape being involved in the general disturbance. 
 The power of application, of appreciating the bearings of 
 facts, of drawing distinctions, of exercising the judgment 
 aright, and even of comprehension, are all more or less im- 
 paired. The sense of right and justice which the individual 
 may have had is so weakened or destroyed that he will lie, 
 steal, murder, or commit other outrages, even when there is 
 no provocation. . . . The perceptions, the emotions, the 
 intellect, and the will are all implicated to a greater or less 
 degree." Dr. William A. Hammond, in Diseases of the Ner- 
 vous System. 
 
 NOTE 14. A document published by the Legislature of 
 the State of New York, entitled "The Twentieth Annual 
 Report of the Prison Association of New York," contains 
 the following record : " There can be no doubt that of all the 
 proximate sources of crime the use of intoxicating liquors is 
 the most prolific and the most deadly. Of other causes it 
 may be said that they slay their thousands ; of this it may be 
 acknowledged that it slays its tens of thousands. The Com- 
 mittee asked for the opinion of the jail officers in nearly 
 every county of the State as to the proportion of commit- 
 ments due either directly or indirectly to strong drink. The 
 judgment of these jail officers varied from two-thirds, the 
 lowest estimate, to nine-tenths as the highest, and on redu- 
 cing the several proportions to the average, seven-eighths 
 was the result obtained." 
 
 "I have practised law for forty years, have been engaged 
 in over four thousand criminal cases, and on mature reflec- 
 tion I am convinced that more than three thousand of them 
 originated in drunkenness alone, and that a great proportion 
 of the remainder could be traced either directly or indirectly 
 to this source." Hon. A. B. Richmond. 
 
240 
 
 NOTES 
 
 When the Hon. E. C. Delevan, of Albany, was in Rome. 
 Cardinal Acton, the Supreme Judge, assured him that nearly 
 all the crime in Rome originated in the use of wine. 
 
 NOTE 15. " The hereditary influence of alcohol manifests 
 itself in various ways. It transmits an appetite for strong 
 drink to the children, and these are likely to have that form 
 of drunkenness which may be termed paroxysmal ; that is, 
 they will go for a considerable period without indulging, 
 placing restraint upon themselves, but at last all the barriers 
 of self-control give way ; they yield to the irresistible appe- 
 tite, and then their indulgence is extreme. The drunkard 
 by inheritance is a more helpless slave than his progenitor ; 
 and the children that he begets are more helpless still, unless 
 upon the mother's side there is ingrafted upon them untainted 
 stock. But its hereditary influence is not confined to the 
 propagation of drunkards. It produces insanity, idiocy, epi- 
 lepsy, and other affections of the brain and nervous system, 
 not only in the transgressor himself, but in his children, and 
 these will transmit predisposition to any of these diseases. 
 . . . When alcoholism does not produce insanity, idiocy, 
 or epilepsy, it weakens the conscience, impairs the will, and 
 makes the individual the creature of impulse and not of 
 reason." Dr. Willard Parker. 
 
 " The appetite for strong drink is frequently transmitted 
 from parents to the children, just as other traits of the mind 
 or body. Sometimes it develops early, sometimes late in life ; 
 as a rule, this hereditary propensity shows itself at an early 
 age, and is apt to be intensified at the age of maturity." 
 Dr. James C. Wilson, in Pepper's System of Medicine, Vol. v., 
 p. 634. 
 
 NOTE 1 6. "Tobacco deranges the whole nervous sys- 
 tem." Dr. B. W. Richardson. 
 
NOTES 241 
 
 " Tobacco reduces the intellectual power of a boy. It 
 does this either by opposing mental application and effort, or 
 else by producing deterioration of the intellect, probably 
 both to a greater or less degree." Dr. Edward O. Otis, in 
 Boston Medical and Surgical Journal. 
 
 " I believe the use of tobacco by cadets induces difficulty 
 of concentrating the mind upon study." Medical Inspector 
 Gorgas, of the U. S. Naval Academy. 
 
 " Smoking tobacco weakens the nervous powers, favors a 
 dreamy, imaginative, and imbecile state of mind, produces 
 indolence and incapacity for manly or continuous exertion, 
 and sinks its votary into a state of careless or maudlin inac- 
 tivity and selfish enjoyment of his vice." Dr.J. Copeland, 
 F.R.S. 
 
 " It is our deliberate opinion that the unsatisfactory recita- 
 tions and consequent failures at final examination, so inju- 
 rious to the interests of this establishment, are to be attributed, 
 in great measure, to nervous derangement caused by the 
 common use of tobacco by the students. It becomes our 
 duty to recommend some stringent measures to correct this 
 practice." Medical Report on the Use of Tobacco by the Cadets 
 at the U. S. Naval Academy. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Ab-do'men. See Sect. 6. 
 
 Ab-sorp'tion. The process of 
 sucking up nutritive or waste 
 matters by the blood-vessels. 
 
 A'cid. A substance usually sour, 
 sharp, or biting to the taste. 
 
 Ad'am's Ap'ple. An angular pro- 
 jection of cartilage in the front 
 of the neck. 
 
 Al-bu'men. An animal substance 
 resembling the white of an egg. 
 
 A-nat'o-my. See Sect. 5. 
 
 A-or'ta. The largest artery of 
 the body. 
 
 A'que-ous Humor. The watery 
 fluid occupying the space be- 
 tween the cornea and crystalline 
 lens of the eye. 
 
 Ar'ter-y. A vessel by which 
 blood is carried from the heart. 
 
 Au'di-to-ry Nerve. The special 
 nerve of hearing. 
 
 Au'ri-cle. A cavity of the heart. 
 
 Bile. The gall ; a secretion of 
 the liver. 
 
 Bronch'i. The first two branches 
 of the windpipe. 
 
 Bronch'i-al Tubes. The smaller 
 branches of the windpipe. 
 
 Ca-nal'. In the body, any tube or 
 passage. 
 
 243 
 
 Cap'il-la-ry. The " hair-like " 
 
 blood-vessels. 
 
 Car-bon'ic A'cid. The gas 
 which is breathed out from the 
 lungs; a waste product of the 
 animal kingdom, and a food of 
 the vegetable kingdom. 
 Car-di'ac. The orifice of the 
 
 stomach, near the heart. 
 Car'ron Oil. A mixture of equal 
 parts of linseed-oil and lime 
 water. 
 
 Car'ti-lage. A tough but flexible 
 material, forming a part of the 
 joints, nostrils, ears ; gristle. 
 Ca'se-ine. The albumen part of 
 milk ; forming the basis of 
 cheese. 
 
 Cer-e-bel'lum. The little brain. 
 Cer'e-brum. The brain proper. 
 Chlo'ral. A powerful drug used 
 
 by physicians to induce sleep. 
 Cir-cu-la'tion. The course of 
 the blood through the blood- 
 vessels of the body. 
 Co-ag-u-la'tion. Applied to the 
 process by which the blood clots 
 or becomes solid. 
 
 Con-ges'tion. An unnatural 
 gathering of blood in any part 
 of the body. 
 
244 
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Con-sti-pa'tion. Costiveness ; 
 tardiness in evacuating the 
 bowels. 
 
 Con-vul'sion. A more or less 
 violent agitation of the limbs or 
 body ; a fit. 
 
 Corn. A portion of the outer 
 skin, of horn-like hardness. 
 
 Cor'ne-a. The transparent sub- 
 stance which covers a part of 
 the front of the eyeball. 
 
 Cor'pus-cles, Blood. The small 
 bodies which give to the blood 
 its red color. 
 
 Crys'tal-line Lens. A double- 
 convex body situated in the front 
 part of the eyeball. 
 
 Cu'ti-cle. The scarf-skin ; also 
 called the epider'mis. 
 
 Cu'tis. The true skin, lying be- 
 neath the cuticle ; also called 
 the der'mis. 
 
 De-lir'i-um. A state in which 
 the ideas of a person are wild, 
 irregular, and unconnected. 
 
 Di'a-phragm. See Sect. 6. 
 
 Dis-in-fect'ants. Agents used to 
 destroy the causes of infection. 
 
 Dis'til-la'tion. Consult Webster's 
 International Dictionary. 
 
 Duct. A canal or tube. 
 
 Dys-pep'si-a. Indigestion. 
 
 El'e-ment. One of the simplest 
 parts of which anything consists. 
 
 E-met'ic. A medicine which 
 causes vomiting. 
 
 E-mul'sion. Oil in a finely di- 
 vided state, suspended in water. 
 
 En-am'el. The dense material 
 which covers the crown of a tooth. 
 
 Ep-i-glot'tis. See Sect. 55. 
 
 Ex-cre'tion. The separation from 
 the blood, of the waste matters 
 of the body. 
 
 Ex-pi-ra'tion. The act of forcing 
 air out of the lungs. 
 
 Ex-ten'sion. The act of restor- 
 ing a limb, etc., to its natural 
 position after it has been flexed. 
 
 Fer'ment. Consult Webster's 
 International Dictionary. 
 
 Fer'men-ta'tion. See " Fer- 
 ment." 
 
 Fi'bre. One of the tiny threads 
 of which many parts of the body 
 are composed. 
 
 Fi'brine. A substance like albu- 
 men, found in the blood. 
 
 Flex'ion. The act of bending a 
 limb. 
 
 Func'tion. The special duty of 
 any organ of the body. 
 
 Gas'tric. Pertaining to the 
 stomach. 
 
 Gel'a-tine. An animal substance 
 which dissolves in hot water, 
 and fofms a jelly on cool- 
 ing. 
 
 Germ. A living particle detached 
 from already existing living mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Gland. See Sect. 5. 
 
 Glu'ten. The albumen-like part 
 of wheat. 
 
 Gym-nas'tics. The practice of 
 athletic exercises. 
 
 Hy'gi-ene. See Sect. 5. 
 
 In-spi-ra'tion. The act of draw- 
 ing in the breath. 
 
 In-tes'tines. The bowels. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 245 
 
 I 'tis. The thin curtain between 
 the cornea and crystalline lens, 
 giving the eye its color. 
 
 Lac'te-als. The absorbent ves- 
 sels of the small intestines. 
 
 Lig'a-ment. A strong, fibrous 
 material, binding bones or other 
 parts together. 
 
 Mar 'row. The soft, fatty sub- 
 stance contained in bones. 
 
 Mas-ti-ca'tion. Act of chewing. 
 
 Mi'cro-scope. An optical instru- 
 ment which assists in the exam- 
 ination of minute objects. 
 
 Mu'cous Mem'brane. The thin 
 layer of tissue which covers 
 those parts which communicate 
 with the external air. 
 
 Mu'cus. The glairy fluid which 
 is secreted by mucous mem- 
 branes, serving to keep them in 
 a moist condition. 
 
 Nar-cot'ic. A drug which in 
 sufficient doses produces stu- 
 por, convulsions, and sometimes 
 death. 
 
 Na'sal. Pertaining to the nose. 
 
 Nic'o-tine. The poisonous oil 
 extracted from tobacco. 
 
 Nos'trils. The two outer open- 
 ings of the nose. 
 
 Nu-tri'tion. The processes by 
 which the nourishment of the 
 body is accomplished. 
 
 Ol-fac'to-ry. Pertaining to the 
 sense of smell. 
 
 Op'tic. Pertaining to the sense 
 of sight. 
 
 Or'bit. The bony socket in which 
 the eveball is situated. 
 
 Or'gan. A portion of the body 
 having some special duty. 
 
 Pal-pi-ta'tion. A violent and 
 irregular beating of the heart. 
 
 Pa-pil'la. The name of the 
 small elevations found on the 
 skin and mucous membranes. 
 
 Pa-ral'y-sis. Loss of motion or 
 feeling ; palsy. 
 
 Pep'sin. The active principle of 
 the gastric juice. 
 
 Per-spi-ra'tion. The sweat. 
 
 Pha-lan'ges. The bones of the 
 fingers and toes. 
 
 Phys-i-ol'o-gy. See Sect. 5. 
 
 Plas'ma. The liquid part of the 
 blood. 
 
 Poi'son. Any substance which, 
 when applied externally, or taken 
 into the stomach or the blood, 
 produces disease or death. 
 
 Pul'mo-na-ry. Pertaining to the 
 lungs. 
 
 Pulse. See Sect. 74. 
 
 Pu'pil. The opening in the iris 
 through which light passes into 
 the eye. 
 
 Py-lo'rus. The outlet from the 
 stomach into the small intestine. 
 
 Re'flex. The name given to cer- 
 tain involuntary movements. 
 
 Res-pi-ra'tion. Breathing. 
 
 Ret'i-na. The innermost of the 
 coats of the eyeball, being an 
 expansion of the optic nerve. 
 
 Sa-li'va. The spittle. 
 
 Se-cre'tion. The process of sepa- 
 rating from the blood some essen- 
 tial fluid, which is also called a 
 secretion. 
 
246 
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 Sen-sa'tion. The perception of 
 an external impression by the 
 nervous system. 
 
 Se'rum. The clear, watery fluid 
 which separates from the clot of 
 the blood. 
 
 Sock'et. An opening into which 
 anything is fitted. 
 
 Spasm. A sudden, violent, and 
 involuntary contraction of one 
 or more muscles. 
 
 Spe'cial Sense. A sense by 
 which we receive particular sen- 
 sations, such as those of sight, 
 hearing, taste, and smell. 
 
 Sprain. An injury to the liga- 
 ments or tendons about a joint. 
 
 Stim'u-lant. An agent which 
 causes an increase of vital ac- 
 tivity in the body or any of its 
 parts. 
 
 Sut'ure. The union of certain 
 bones of the skull by the inter- 
 locking of jagged edges. 
 
 Ten'don. The white, fibrous 
 cord, by which a muscle is at- 
 tached to a bone ; a sinew. 
 
 Tho'rax. The chest. 
 
 Tis'sue. See Sect. 5. 
 
 To-bac'co. A plant used for 
 smoking and chewing, and in 
 snuff. 
 
 Tra'che-a. The windpipe. 
 
 Vein. A vessel by which blood 
 is carried to the heart. 
 
 Ven-ti-la'tion. The introduc- 
 tion of fresh air into a room or 
 building in such a manner as to 
 keep pure the air within. 
 
 Ven'tri-cles of the Heart. The 
 two largest cavities of the heart. 
 
 Ver'te-bra. One of the bones 
 which make the backbone. 
 
 Ver'te-bral Col'umn. The back- 
 bone ; also called the spinal 
 column, and spine. 
 
 Vil'li. Minute thread-like pro- 
 jections found upon the inner 
 surface of the small intestine, 
 giving it an appearance like 
 plush. 
 
 Vit're-ous. Having the appear- 
 ance of glass ; applied to a 
 fluid in the cavity of the eye- 
 ball. 
 
 Vo-cal Cords. Two elastic bands 
 in the windpipe; the essential 
 parts of the organ of voice. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abdomen 8 
 
 Absorption 75 
 
 Absorption by blood-vessels . . 75 
 
 by the lacteals 75 
 
 Accidents and emergencies . . . 166 
 
 Air, Changes in, from breathing . 109 
 
 Carbonic acid in no 
 
 Impurities in 112 
 
 renovation by ventilation . . 113 
 
 Pure in 
 
 Air-passages 105 
 
 Albumens 47 
 
 Alcohol - 57 
 
 how it gets into the blood . . 99 
 
 and work 44 
 
 and bodily heat 129 
 
 appetite for 57 
 
 as a flavoring 58 
 
 Effect of, on bones .... 29 
 Effect of, on digestion ... 86 
 Effect of, on muscles ... 43 
 Effect of, upon the circula- 
 tion 100 
 
 Effect of, upon the heart . . 101 
 Effect of, upon the air-pas- 
 sages 115 
 
 Effect of, upon the liver . . 87 
 Effect of, upon nervous sys- 
 tem 143 
 
 Effect of, upon special 
 
 senses 165 
 
 Effect of, on will 144 
 
 Experiments with .... 193 
 
 Inherited craving for ... 146 
 
 and water contrasted ... 57 
 
 Alexis St. Martin . . . . . 73, 87 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Anatomy defined j 
 
 Ankle 23 
 
 Aorta 93 
 
 Apple-juice, sweet 56 
 
 Arm 20 
 
 Arteries 92 
 
 Artificial drinks 54 
 
 Backbone 16 
 
 Baths, and how to take them . . 123 
 
 Beer 61 
 
 its dangers 61 
 
 and drunkenness 62 
 
 and health 62 
 
 from moral point of view . . 62 
 
 Bile 4 .V,y. . . 74 
 
 Bleeding, how stopped .... 172 
 
 Blood 89 
 
 Circulation of 91 
 
 Circulation of, in lungs . . 94 
 
 corpuscles 89 
 
 vessels 92 
 
 Body, General parts of .... 6 
 
 compared to steam-engine . . 2 
 
 and its nervous system ... 3 
 
 framework of the .... 1 1 
 
 Bone, how made up 12 
 
 General structure of ... i3 
 
 Bones, Health of . ..... . 28 
 
 how joined 24 
 
 how tied together .... 26 
 
 Broken 167 
 
 Experiments on 186 
 
 Effect of tobacco on ... 19 
 
 Bony framework n 
 
 Bowels, Care of the 176 
 
 Brain 132 
 
 247 
 
248 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bread-making 63 
 
 Breathe, How we 107 
 
 Breathing, what it is 103 
 
 Bruises, how treated 171 
 
 Burns 171 
 
 Capillaries 92 
 
 Carbonic-acid gas exhaled from 
 
 the lungs no 
 
 in the air no 
 
 Chest 8 
 
 Chloral 151 
 
 Cider 59 
 
 Evils of 59 
 
 Cigarettes 148 
 
 Cigarette-smoking, Effects of . . 149 
 
 Circulation of the blood .... 91 
 
 through the heart .... 96 
 
 through the lungs .... 94 
 
 How to promote 99 
 
 Clothing, Why we need .... 127 
 
 Hints about wearing . . . 128 
 
 Coffee, Effects of 55 
 
 Collar-bone 20 
 
 Color-blindness 163 
 
 Contraction of muscles .... 35 
 
 Convulsions 167 
 
 Corpuscles, Blood 89 
 
 Diaphragm 8 
 
 Movements of the, in respi- 
 ration 107 
 
 Diet, Important articles of . . . 53 
 
 Digestion 65 
 
 Experiments on 200 
 
 Effect of tobacco on ... 88 
 
 Disinfection 179 
 
 Distillation 64 
 
 Drowning, Apparent 173 
 
 Ear 157 
 
 Care of the 158 
 
 Epidermis 117 
 
 Epiglottis . . 70, 114 
 
 Exercise, Different kinds of . . 41 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Exercise, Time for 39 
 
 why we need it 38 
 
 Experiments, Hints and helps 
 
 on 183 
 
 Value of' 182 
 
 on bones 186 
 
 on muscles 189 
 
 on food and drink .... 190 
 
 with alcohol ...... 193 
 
 on digestion 200 
 
 on heart and circulation . . 204 
 
 on lungs and breathing . . . 205 
 
 on the skin 207 
 
 on nervous system .... 207 
 
 on special senses 208 
 
 on throat and voice . . . . 211 
 
 on ever y-day health . . . . 211 
 
 Expiration ........ 107 
 
 Eye 160 
 
 how protected 162 
 
 Care of the 164 
 
 Fainting 166 
 
 Fats 49 
 
 Ferments 56 
 
 Fermentation, Law of .... 59 
 
 in bread-making 63 
 
 Fibrine of the blood 90 
 
 Fits 167 
 
 Food, Water as a 52 
 
 why we need it 46 
 
 Proper cooking of .... 84 
 
 Experiments on 190 
 
 how it is swallowed .... 69 
 
 how much to eat 78 
 
 Food, what to eat 80 
 
 when to eat 82 
 
 how to eat 83 
 
 Foods, Tissue 47 
 
 Mineral 50 
 
 Fuel 48 
 
 Foot 21 
 
 Foreign bodies in throat ... 196 
 
INDEX 
 
 249 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Foreign bodies in nose .... 169 
 
 in eye 170 
 
 in ear 169 
 
 Frostbite 167 
 
 Function defined 6 
 
 Gall-bladder 74 
 
 Gases, Interchange of, in the 
 
 lungs 108 
 
 Gastric juice 72 
 
 Glands 6 
 
 Oil 120 
 
 Salivary 67 
 
 Sweat 119 
 
 Lymphatic 77 
 
 Gristle 25 
 
 Gullet 69 
 
 Hair 121 
 
 Hand 21 
 
 Harvey, Dr. . . - 91 
 
 Head 15 
 
 Bones of, how joined ... 15 
 
 Health, Care of 8 
 
 Hearing, Sense of . ... . 156 
 
 Heart 92 
 
 Beating of the 93 
 
 Cavities of the 93 
 
 Circulation through the . . 96 
 
 Experiments on 204 
 
 Work done by the . . . . 95 
 
 Effect of tobacco on ... 101 
 
 Heat, bodily 124 
 
 how regulated 126 
 
 Heatstroke 170 
 
 Hips 20 
 
 Hygiene defined 5 
 
 Inspiration 107 
 
 Intestines 74 
 
 Villi of the 75 
 
 Iron in the blood 50 
 
 Joints 24 
 
 Kinds of 25 
 
 Kidneys , 116 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Knee-pan 22 
 
 Lacteais 75 
 
 Legs 22 
 
 Liquors distilled 64 
 
 Liver 74 
 
 Liver, Effects of alcohol upon . . 87 
 
 Lungs 104 
 
 Experiments on 205 
 
 What takes place in . . . . 108 
 
 Lymphatics 77 
 
 Marrow of the bones 13 
 
 Medicines, unknown, Habit of 
 
 taking 1 76 
 
 Mouth 66 
 
 Muscles 31 
 
 Muscles, Structure of 31 
 
 Experiments on 189 
 
 how they act 32 
 
 Contraction of 35 
 
 Effect of alcohol on .... 43 
 
 Effect of tobacco on ... 45 
 
 Not under control of will . . 35 
 
 Nails 121 
 
 Nerves 134 
 
 Spinal 134 
 
 Nervous system 132 
 
 Experiments on 200 
 
 and the body 3 
 
 compared to telegraph sys- 
 tem 136 
 
 Health of the 138 
 
 Effect of alcohol upon . . . 143 
 
 Nosebleed. 169 
 
 Oil glands 120 
 
 Opium 150 
 
 Practical points about . . . 151 
 
 Organ defined 6 
 
 Pancreas 74 
 
 Pancreatic juice 74 
 
 Physiology defined 5 
 
 Poisons in general 179 
 
 Pulse 97 
 
250 
 
 INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Reflex action 136 
 
 Importance of 136 
 
 Respiration 107 
 
 Ribs 19 
 
 Saliva, Mixing food with ... 67 
 
 Saliva 67 
 
 Effect of tobacco upon . . 69 
 
 Salt, Importance of 51 
 
 Sensation 153 
 
 Senses, Special 153 
 
 Serum 90 
 
 Shin-bone 22 
 
 Shoulder-blade 20 
 
 Sick-room, Hints for 177 
 
 Sicknesses that spread . . . . r}8 
 
 Sight, Sense of 159 
 
 Skeleton 7, 12 
 
 Skin, how it looks 116 
 
 Experiments on 199 
 
 Scarf 117 
 
 True 117 
 
 Effect of tobacco on ... 130 
 
 Care of the 120 
 
 Skull 16 
 
 Sleep 140 
 
 Smell, Sense of 155 
 
 Special senses 153 
 
 Experiments on 208 
 
 Effect of tobacco on ... 165 
 
 Spinal cord 134 
 
 Spinal nerves 134 
 
 Spine 19 
 
 Splint-bone 22 
 
 Starches 48 
 
 Stings, Insect 168 
 
 Stomach 71 
 
 Effects of alcohol upon . . 93 
 
 Suffocation 167 
 
 Sugars 48 
 
 Sunstroke 170 
 
 Sutures of skull 16, 184 
 
 Sweat . .118 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Taste, Sense of 155 
 
 Tea, Effect of 55 
 
 Tears 163 
 
 Teeth 66 
 
 Teeth, Care of 86 
 
 Tendon of Achilles 38 
 
 Tendons 36 
 
 Thigh-bone 22 
 
 Thoracic duct 77 
 
 Throat, Experiments on . . . . 211 
 
 Tissue denned 5 
 
 Tobacco 147 
 
 Effect of, on bones 29 
 
 Effect of, on muscles ... 45 
 
 Effect of, on saliva .... 69 
 
 Effect of, on digestion ... 88 
 
 Effect of, on heart .... 101 
 
 Effect of, on skin 130 
 
 Effects of, upon young . . 148 
 
 Effects of, upon air-passages, 115 
 Effects of, upon special 
 
 senses 165 
 
 Use of, from moral point of 
 
 view 149 
 
 Tongue 155 
 
 Touch, Sense of 153 
 
 Trunk 6, 7, 16 
 
 Veins 92 
 
 Ventilation 113 
 
 Villi of the intestines 75 
 
 Absorption by 76 
 
 Vocal cords 105 
 
 Voice 105 
 
 Warm, Why the body is . . . . 124 
 
 Wash, Why we need to .... 120 
 
 Waste matters, Getting rid of . . 116 
 
 Water 52 
 
 Windpipe 105 
 
 Wounds, cut and torn .... 171 
 
 Wrist 21 
 
 Wine . 60 
 
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