Technical Drawing Sc. ooC FREE-HAND LETTERING DANIELS ifornia Dnal LIBRARY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA IN MEMORIAM MRS. ALFRED W. INGALLS TECHNICAL DRAWING SERIES A TEXT-BOOK OF FREE-HAND LETTERING BY FRANK T. DANIELS, A.M.B. V AUTHOR OF "A TEXT-BOOK OF TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWING" REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 1909 COPYRIGHT, 1895 AND 1907, BY FRANK T. DANIELS. UCSB LIBRA PREFACE THE changes in this edition of " Free-hand Lettering " are so numerous and radical that the result is a new book, rather than a revision of the old one. The text has been entirely rewritten, and new plates and figures have been drawn. The proportions of letters have been greatly improved, and a distinctly higher standard has been set for the student. At the same time, he is given careful directions to enable him to approach the standard. These directions have been made as explicit and clear as possible, for the author is well aware that the time which can be given to this work in the technical schools is very limited. Throughout the book there is a constant attempt to present principles which will appeal to the student's reason, rather than to give rules which will only tax his memory ; that is, an effort is made to show that the details, which at first sight may seem numberless and involved, have a logical basis. When this basis is once understood, no effort of memory is necessary for the proper handling of details. On the other hand, teachers should remember, especially in the first stages of the work, that it is not sufficient for students to understand reasons. In order that they may attain the object of their work in this subject, they must acquire skill in execution ; wherefore the definite directions for performing exercises. There is repeated insistence in the text that lettering belongs in the realm of design. If the work is approached with this idea, it will be done with pleasure, and with a sense that it is a means of expressing individuality. The definite examples and exercises for practice constitute a complete minimum course, which can easily be extended by those who can give additional time to the subject. These iv PREFACE definite examples, exercises, and directions for work save the time of both instructor and student, and constitute an important feature of all the books in the Technical Drawing Series. Plate XIII was made directly from a drawing of the Massachusetts Metropolitan Water Works, and Plate XV from the tracing of a drawing from the same source. Plate IX was drawn by the author from the " Ephemeris Epigraphica," Vol. I, and all other plates and the figures in the text were devised and drawn by the author. BOSTON, August, 1907. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY EXERCISES ART. PAGE 1. General Requirements 1 2. Paper 2 3. The Pencil 2 4. Pens 3 5. Triangle and Scale 3 6. Limiting Lines 3 7. General Directions, Exercise 1 . . . .3 8. Estimation of Distance and Direction . . 4 9. Comparison of Lines and Spaces ... 4 10. Comparison of Widths 4 11. Comparison of Vertical with Horizontal Dis- tances 4 12. Backward-sloping Lines 7 13. Slopes to Right and Left 7 14. Effect of Diagonal Lines, Exercise 2 7 15. Effect of Many Angles 7 16. Two Diagonals 7 17. Two Slopes and a Vertical .... 7 18. Unsymmetrical Figure 8 19. Effect of Small Angles . . . . .8 20. General Directions, Exercise 3 . . . .8 CHAPTER II GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL STYLES OF LETTERS 21. Principles governing Form 22. Optical Illusions 23. Effect of Acute Angles 24. Relative Heights of Lower-case Letters 25. Limiting Lines VI TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER III UPRIGHT AND INCLINED GOTHIC LETTERS 26. A Simple but Useful Style .... 13 27. No Standard Proportions 13 28. Printers' Types not to be taken as Models . 14 29. Proportions to be followed in Practice . . 14 30. Laying out the Sheet 14 31. The Scale for measuring Widths . . .17 32. The Proper Use of the Scale . . . . 17 33. The Scheme of Plate II 18 34. Thickness of Stems of Upright Gothic . .18 35. Special Details of Form 18 ART. PAGE 36. Weight of Pencil Lines 20 37. Gothic Letters and Figures for Reference . 23 38. Use of Inclined Gothic 23 39. Amount of Inclination 23 40. Transition from Upright to Inclined Gothic . 24 41. Curves of Letters are Portions of the O . . 27 42. Thickness of Steins of Inclined Gothic . . 27 43. Modified Inclined Gothic . . . . . 27 44. Exercises .28 CHAPTER IV SPACING 45. The Problem .29 46. Some Guiding Principles in Spacing . . 29 47. All the Words in a Line must be Considered . 32 48. Summary of Hints on Spacing . . . .32 49. Equivalent Areas and Forms of Letters . . 33 50. Spaces between Words 34 51. Spacing in Connection with Punctuation . 34 52. Examples 34 CHAPTER V WORD SKETCHING AND TITLE BUILDING 53. The Value of Preliminary Sketching 54. The Title taken as an Example 55. Nature of the Title . 56. Arrangement of Words Titles TABLE OF CONTENTS vn 57. Means of giving Prominence . 58. The Outline of the Title as a Whole 59. Methods of Grouping Parts of Titles 60. Exercise, Plate V PAGE 39 45 CHAPTER VI ROMAN LETTERS AND FIGURES 61. Comparison of Modern Roman with Gothic Letters 46 62. Width of Letters 46 63. Width of Stroke 49 64. The Fillet 49 65. Order of Light and Heavy Lines . . .50 66. Special Method of drawing W and M . 53 67. Italic Roman ... 53 68. Lower-case Italic 53 69. Roman Old Style 54 70. Lower-case Letters and Figures . . .57 71. Old Roman for Architectural Work . . .58 72. Design of Letters in Roman Inscriptions . . 58 73. Stump Writing 61 74. Examples 62 CHAPTER VII SINGLE-STROKE AND MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS 75. The Use of Single-stroke Letters ... 65 76. The Pen . . . . . ~. ... 65 77. Direction of Strokes . . . ' . . .66 78. Special Treatment 69 79. Practice " . 69 80. The Slope 70 81. Titles composed of Single-stroke Letters . . 73 82. The Centering of the Lines 83. Single-stroke Figures 84. The Height of Figures 85. De Vinne .... 86. Open-faced Gothic . 87. Block Letters . 88. "Shadow Letters" . FREE-HAND LETTERING CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY EXERCISES 1. General Requirements. A draftsman should be able to letter his drawings not only neatly but rapidly. To secure speed and well-balanced proportion, he must be able to do good lining free-hand, and to estimate accurately both distance and direction. The following exercises are designed to secure such results. Many combinations of lines deceive the eye, not only as to the extent and form of the areas they include, but also as to the relative directions of the lines. The degree of deception varies under different conditions; and as these conditions in the various forms, propor- tions, and combinations of letters are unlimited, it is impossible to give rules to . cover all cases of proportion, spacing, etc., in individual letters, and in words and combinations of words. Hence the importance that the general principles governing good taste and propor- tion be learned, in order that the draftsman may have a basis for solving the differing prob- lems as they arise. The execution of good lettering requires considerable manual skill, therefore practice as well as careful observation is necessary. The remarks upon each exercise should be read carefully before practice is begun, and suggestions should be followed. It is carefulness rather than amount of practice that is of value. The elementary things are few, but they must be thoroughly learned first. 1 2 INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY EXERCISES 2. Paper. For the preliminary exercises and for any work that is not to be inked, use a paper with a moderately soft surface, such as Whatman's cold-pressed, architects' detail paper, or German drawing paper. For work that is to be finished in ink, a hard, smooth surface must be used, such as Bristol board, Keuffel & Esser's Normal paper, or Weston's linen record paper. Most of the drawings for this book were made on the Weston paper. The exercises are intended to be executed upon sheets 7 by 10 inches. These sheets should be tacked, with the long edges horizontal, to a small drawing board. 3. The Pencil suitable for this work will depend somewhat on the paper. Grade 2 H will be found well adapted for papers of medium rough surface. Paper with a hard surface, which has also considerable " tooth," or roughness, will require a 3 or 4 H grade pencil. Whatever the degree of hardness, the pencil must be of the best quality, made especially for drawing. Probably the best pencils now on the market are Hardmuth's. The care of the point is of prime importance. With a sharp knife cut away the wood, beginning the cut an inch back from the end, leaving bare at least one-fourth inch of the "lead." The point cannot be properly finished with the knife, but must be ground upon a piece of fine sandpaper fastened to a flat strip; or, better still, upon a file such as is sold for that purpose. Rub the pencil upon the file, holding the latter in the left hand. The point must be long, smooth, and conical, but not quite so sharp as it can be made. When drawing, hold the pencil about 2| inches from the end, and be careful that the forefinger is but slightly bent. Exercise constant care not to pinch the pencil, otherwise the muscles will soon tire, and good lines cannot be made. At frequent intervals roll the pencil slightly in the fingers to prevent the point from being worn flat. Sharpen frequently. EXERCISES 3 4. Pens. A variety of pens will be needed. Those most generally useful are Gillott's Nos. 170, 303, and 404; Spencerian " Epistolaire " No. 12; and Leonardt & Co.'s ball-pointed Nos. 506 F and 506 EF. The skilled draftsman will find a lithographic or mapping pen use- ful, but these pens are too fine and flexible for most students to use, as they require a very light touch. No pen is at its best when new, and pens that are once " broken in " should be given as great care as any other drawing instrument. When used only with India ink, which does not corrode them, pens will remain in good condition for a long time, in some cases for years, 5. A Triangle and a Scale will be useful, the former for testing the direction of lines, and the latter for laying off distances between limiting lines and for testing distances that have been estimated. 6. Limiting Lines are ruled lines to limit the height of letters. A T square is most con- venient for drawing them. They must be light, fine, and accurately parallel. When it is necessary to erase part of a limiting line, it must be drawn in again before work is resumed, for these lines cannot be dispensed with, even by skilled letterers. PLATE I, EXERCISE 1 7. General Directions. Draw limiting lines according to dimensions given. Each line of each exercise is to extend across the sheet, except that a space of about one inch is to be left at each end; thus each exercise will fill a sheet. The blank line at the end of each exercise is for additional practice upon such portions of the exercise as shall have proved most difficult. 4 INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY EXERCISES 8. Line 1, Estimation of Distance and Direction. Make a dot upon the upper line where the work will begin, then another vertically below it upon the lower line. Draw from the upper to the lower point a fine, light line with one stroke of the pencil. Go over the line as many times as need be to make it straight and firm, but always with a stroke the full length of the line. Now place another pair of points at an estimated distance of one- fourth inch from the first pair, and draw the second line. After having drawn several lines, test to see if they are vertical and one-fourth inch apart. If not, do not erase them, but seek to correct the errors in the following lines. In the latter half of the exercise, seek to dispense with the points upon the limiting lines. 9. Line 2, Comparison of Lines and Spaces. Draw in pairs. A dash on the upper line forms a pair with the one below it. Draw the upper line of a pair first, and finish each pair before drawing the next. Be careful that the pairs are at the correct distances apart. 10. Line 3, Comparison of Widths. Make the angle between vertical and horizontal lines sharp and decided. Some difficulty may be experienced in estimating the distance from L to T, as we must here pass from the lower to the upper line. When the L is finished place a point vertically above its right-hand limit, and from this estimate the distance to the beginning of the T. Notice that when these letters are of the same width the T looks the narrower; notice also that while there is the same horizontal distance between the letters, they do not appear evenly spaced. 11. Line 4, Comparison of a Vertical with a Horizontal Distance. Place a point for the lower end of the first line. Point vertically above this, arid to the right upon the upper line point a distance equal to the distance between the limiting lines. Join the last point with the first at a single stroke. TT |:flin: inzfsi: M* 4 TUT: :::x , 1 1 urn rii*iir *isiri r Exercise 1 Exercised Exercises Plate I EXERCISES 7 12. Line 5, Backward- si oping Lines. Point as suggested in the Plate, and draw from the top downward, resting the hand upon the paper between the work and the right-hand edge of the sheet. 13. Line 6, Slopes to Right and Left. Point carefully as follows: on the lower line estimate the extreme width of figure, and bisect it. Point upon the upper line vertically above the bisecting point; or a square may first be very lightly outlined, and its upper side bisected. The latter half of the line may consist of Vs. Note that with equal height and width of figure the width appears less. PLATE I, EXERCISE 2 14. Line 1, Effect of Diagonal Lines. Draw the vertical lines first. Note that when the diagonal line is added, the figure seems to have been slightly widened. Omit pointing in latter half of line, but always draw vertical lines first. 15. Line 2, Effect of Many Angles. The figure is made considerably wider than those pre- viously given ; otherwise the presence of three acute angles would cause the figure to look pinched and out of proportion. Draw vertical lines first, and draw all lines downward. 16. Line 3, Two Diagonals. This combination of lines requires some care to secure a sym- metrical figure, leaning neither forward nor backward. 17. Line 4, Two Slopes and a Vertical. Be careful that the figures in this line are like one another. Note that this combination of lines causes the figure to appear a little narrower than the figure of line 3 ; hence the greater width assigned to the figure of line 4. 8 INTRODUCTION AND PRELIMINARY EXERCISES 18. Line 5, Unsymmetrical Figure. The effect of this combination is to cause the figure to look a little wider than it is high. Draw the lines in the order indicated, and always down- ward. 19. Line 6, Effect of Small Angles. This combination of lines gives more acute angles than does the combination in line 2, with the result that the figure must be considerably widened to escape a decidedly pinched appearance. PLATE I, EXERCISE 3 20. 'General Directions. Detailed directions for this exercise should not be needed if the following hints are heeded : Note that each figure is a quadrant, or a combination of quadrants, and that it occupies either a square, or a rectangle whose length is twice its width. So far as possible, draw each figure with a single continuous stroke, rather than with a series of short dashes. Use a draw- ing instrument occasionally to test the curves. In line 6 draw the vertical lines first, then add the curve. CHAPTER II GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS APPLICABLE TO ALL STYLES OF LETTERS 21. Principles governing Form. It is important that the principles governing the forms of letters, whether of the Gothic, Roman, or other style, be understood before any attempt is made at drawing even the simplest letters. While no alphabet is made upon anything like a mathematical basis, yet there are a few principles which by common consent apply in the con- struction of letters of whatever style. FIRST, letters should have an appearance of both stability and grace. In letters with a narrow base, as F and P, it is impossible to avoid a top-heavy effect, but in general the correct form with respect to stability and grace is secured : 1. By making the lower part of the letter wider than the upper, as in B, E, K, R, S, X, and Z. 2. By placing some horizontal members above the center, as in B, E, F, H, and R. Some letters, as B and E, exhibit both the above principles. In a few cases, notably in A, the horizontal line is placed below the center for reasons which can best be explained later (Art. 49). SECOND, since letters are used in combinations to form words, it is not sufficient to secure a graceful form for the individual letters, considering each by itself, but they must be so pro- portioned that when compared with one another the effect of the combination will be pleasing 10 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ALL STYLES OF LETTERS to the eye. It is quite apparent that the I cannot be as wide as the H, nor would any one draw the J as wide as the W, and the reasons for these differences would not be far to seek ; but why the O need be wider than the E is not so plain. 22. Optical Illusions. Referring to Fig. 1, it is seen that the converging lines form a figure whose width at the base is apparently considerably less than the width of the square, _ although these widths are really equal. This apparent difference in A extreme width is due to the fact that in the first case the width is con- I stantly changing, while in the other case it is everywhere the same. In the first case the eye does not discriminate between the width at the base and the width taken all along from base to top, but attempts to accept their average for the extreme width, and partly succeeds ; while in the case of the square the width at the base is the same as at any other _. . ' point, and there is no deception concerning this dimension. No amount of study of the figure will cause this apparent difference in widths to disap- pear ; hence the deception is not due to an untrained eye, but to psychological reasons. When similar combinations of lines occur in lettering or other design, allowances must be made to overcome such unbalanced appearances ; for instance, in Plate II the A is made wider than the H. Referring again to Fig. 1, it will be noted that the O, although of the same width and height as the E, looks both narrower and shorter, because the eye (or rather the mind) tends to accept the average width and height for the extreme. Hence the necessity of making the O wider and higher than the E of the same alphabet. These considerations lead us to the gen- eral rule that when the width or height of a letter is constantly changing, these dimensions must be Creased. I ' RELATIVE HEIGHTS OF LETTERS 11 Some exceptions to this rule must be made, as in the case of the B. If the width as com- pared with the height be so great that portions of the top and bottom lines are straight and horizontal, as is generally the case, no increase in height is necessary. The width needs no increase, partly because of the straight line which limits it at the left, but principally because of the middle horizontal line, which breaks the outline into two loops, each wider than it is high. 23. Effect of Acute Angles. There is little deception of appearance in the width of the M, yet this letter is drawn considerably wider than, for instance, the H. The reason is that the angle between adjacent lines must not be very acute; otherwise the letter will have a squeezed, uncomfortable, and unpleasing appearance. Hence the M is spread out to give suffi- ciently wide angles between its lines. For the same reason, and also because its extreme lines are converging, the W is drawn much wider than E or H. 24. Relative Heights of Lower-case Letters. The lower-case, or " small " letters, may be divided into three groups : first, those like b and d which have the same height and limiting lines as the capitals with which they would be combined in words ; second, those like a and c which have their bases drawn on the same lower limiting line with the capitals, but which are much shorter than the latter ; third, those like g and j which extend below the lower limiting line of the capitals. The t might form a fourth class, as its height is less than that of the first group, and greater than that of the seconck In proportioning the lower-case alphabet the first question to be settled is the actual height of the letters in the second group as compared with the height of the capitals with 12 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR ALL STYLES OF LETTERS which they are to be used. Different designers use different ratios. In this book the short letters are made two-thirds as high as the others, as this is believed to be the ratio which most nearly suits all cases. 25. Limiting Lines. The height of capitals having been fixed by their limiting lines . 1 and 2, Fig. 2, the height of the first group of f j the lower-case letters will be fixed by the same l w I lines. Line 3 drawn above 2 at two-thirds the dis- tance from 2 to 1 will limit the height of the letters of the second group, while those of the third group =>' will be limited at the top by line 3, and at the bottom by line 4, which is drawn as far below 2 as 3 is below 1. CHAPTER III UPRIGHT AND INCLINED GOTHIC LETTERS 26. A Simple but Useful Style. The Gothic alphabet is the simplest style, and when well drawn is suitable for almost any purpose. Its simplicity renders it especially useful as the first alphabet to be studied, for with the fewest possible strokes in each letter to deal with, it is easier to give due attention to proportion, without which no letters are well drawn, however well they may be executed in other respects. Moreover, the Gothic letters may be regarded as a basis for all the other styles considered in this book. 27. No Standard Proportions. By reference to Plate II it will be seen that the height of letters is assumed to be divided into six equal parts, or units, and that each letter and figure is assigned a certain number of these units for its width. It should be plainly understood that the proportions thus indicated are not standard. Lettering is a matter of design, and each de- signer is at liberty to follow his own ideas, just as an architect follows the dictates of his taste in proportioning. But in both cases there are certain fundamental principles which will govern the general matter of design. No one can state that the M should be exactly 6 units wide for 6 units in height, or that the H should be 5 units wide. Both of these letters are often drawn with quite different proportions. But the principle of design recognized as governing the relation of H and M is that, whatever width be given to the H, a greater width must be given to the M of the same alphabet. 13 14 UPRIGHT AND INCLINED GOTHIC LETTERS Furthermore, since letters are combined to form words, the proportion of each letter must be considered with reference to its effect upon its neighbor. As the architect varies the proportions of doors, windows, and ornamental features so that each will contribute to the harmony of the whole, so the designer proportions each letter in a word with due regard to the forms of the neighboring letters. Thus, in such a word as CARTWRIGHT the tail of the first R will extend a little farther to the right than will that of the second R, in order to close up what would be a wide space at the left of the stem of the T. 28. Printers' Types not to be taken as Models. From the foregoing it will be seen that printed letters should not be taken as models, and that types cannot be used to good advantage to print titles or other lettering on drawings, for the fixed forms and limited means for adjusting the spaces between letters render it impossible to make the result a design. 29. Proportions to be followed in Practice. The proportions given on the Plates should be regarded as good average proportions, and the draftsman should adhere rigidly to these proportions in the practice work, although he ma} r use somewhat different proportions after his taste has become adjusted to the principles of design. 30. Laying out the Sheet. The sheet should be 7 by 10 inches in size, with no border line; or, if a border line is desired, it should inclose a space 7 by 10 inches, the margin ex- tending beyond. In either case the distances given on the Plates for laying out the sheet are to be measured from the sides of the 7-inch by 10-inch rectangle. Draw the limiting lines in accordance with the dimensions given at the left of the Plate. These lines should be firm but fine lines, drawn with a pencil of about 4 H grade. They will be continuous, GOTHIC-FOR PRACTICE 4* 5* 1 SEHEDffictonfcseBS si ci jS ' ' ' c 4- f ERQDQanc;SGEQQSS- So ^ 5 VL VV !AX^ ^i 1^ wl I'l-l I III II |^_ ^| I W_l _. ... 5 5 - 5 r-T- 5 ;-j|--- --g- - -j- "_;iT;rjniV32""22 f t t 4 4? 5 4| 5 Plate II THE PROPER USE OF THE SCALE 17 or " full," lines, and not dotted as shown in the plate. The figures by which the limiting lines are placed should not be copied on the practice sheet, as they, and indeed the limiting lines also, are but means to an end, the real problem being the drawing of the letters in their correct proportions. 31. The Scale for measuring Widths. The space between the lines limiting the height of the capitals, and also that between the lines limiting the height of i, v, x, etc., in the lower-case letters, should be divided into six equal parts, not by actual measurements Jbut free-hand. First bisect the space, then divide each of the half-heights thus formed into three equal parts. Next bring the edge of a card near the points of division and copy them upon it, as shown in Fig. 3, extending the number of divisions to eight. This scale will be used in measuring the widths of letters. Fig. 3 32. The Proper Use of the Scale. The scale will prove to be either a help or a hindrance, according to its proper or improper use. Always remember that the formation of letters is a problem in free-hand design, and not one in mechanical drawing. The scale will then be used as little as possible, and when used it will be after a letter has been drawn, in order to test the accuracy of its proportion, rather than to lay out the proportionate width before drawing the letter. When the designer knows that his proportions are right by looking at the letters 18 UPRIGHT AND INCLINED GOTHIC LETTERS and feeling a sense of harmony, then the scale may, and indeed should, be dispensed with. Until that time is reached, it will be useful in correcting errors of judgment, and so help the designer to a sense of proportion. 33. The Scheme of Plate II. The letters are arranged in the progressive order of the difficulty of drawing them. First, those composed of straight vertical and horizontal lines ; second, those containing inclined straight lines ; and finally, those consisting partly or wholly of curved lines. Two of each of the capitals are to be drawn. Estimate the width of the first letter of each pair in accordance with the number of units shown. After the sketching of the letter is completed, measure its width with the scale. Note carefully the defects. Do not correct them in the first letter of the pair, but seek to do so as you draw the second, still refraining from using the scale until the outlining is finished. If necessary, make erasures and corrections in the second letter of each pair; but this should not be necessary if the defects in the first are carefully noted. 34. Thickness of Stems. The thickness of the lines composing the capital letters and figures is one-ninth of the total height, or two-thirds of a unit, as shown by the I. For the lower-case letters this thickness is three-fourths of a unit. 35. Special Details of Form. In many cases the first letters of pairs are shown with dotted lines calling attention to details of form. For instance, the X and S are shown to be narrower at the top than at the base (as would be expected from Art. 21), but the dotted lines show that the narrowing is all at the right-hand side, while in the Z it is all at the left- hand side. SPECIAL DETAILS OF FORM 19 When two lines join at an acute angle, as in the A, M, N, V, W, and Z, the junction is made so that the lines combine at the limiting line in a width equal to the standard thickness of stem. Thus the V is not pointed at the base, but is as wide at that point as is the F, T, or Y. It is perfectly easy to bring about this result except in the case of the W. Although this letter has no more lines and angles than the M, the requirement that the third line shall be parallel to the first, and the fourth to the second, introduces a condition \vhichmakes the letter a difficult one to outline , ~]"l 7T~ in a predetermined total width, unless some special measures be taken to locate the position of the angles. Fig. 4 shows how this may be done. Having fixed the total width, as shown by dotted lines, place points at 1 and 2, fixing the required thickness of the extreme branches of the letter on 3 : = i M-v (^ the upper limiting line. Then place points at 3, bisecting the space between 1 and 2. Bisect again the spaces between A "f^I "JC^ ~ T ^f (!< ROMAN OLD STYLE I A IB C D E F G H ! I K L M N O fee ' 5? i ! 4? i ,' 6 1151 : 5 i i 4i ! i 6 ; I5I $ ( t/; i 4? i i 5 i i 5? i i 4j i i 6 : l_ T- K:2:73::^ 8 Q P in s v b.'l ; 5^ ;.-*_/]-.. ;_-.lj-A_y ; ; 4 ! !/ , ', 4 i !-^j J4 ! *J PLAN OF |:FIREPLACE FILTER BEDS TME FOR ROUND POND 1908 Plate VIM LOWER-CASE LETTERS AND FIGURES 57 The thin lines, including the spurs, are not hair lines. This style was used for inscrip- tions, to be read from a distance, and very fine lines were not used as they produced letters not easily read; the fine lines would be lost and only a jumble of heavy lines would be visible. The Modern Roman lettering is now sometimes used in street signs, but it is obviously illegi- ble as compared with the more solid Old Roman and the still more solid Gothic. The thick lines, on the other hand, are less heavy than those of the modern style, being but three-fourths of a unit wide. The spurs are short, and the fillets run to the ends of the spurs, but are not quite tangent. Fillets are introduced on both sides of the stems, a treatment that goes far to relieve the letters of an angular appearance. The kerns are drawn at a considerable angle with the vertical, and this also reduces the sharpness of some corners. The lower ends of C and G do not follow the corresponding curve of O, but are slightly flattened. 70. Lower-case Letters and Figures. These were unknown to the ancient Romans, as the lower-case letters are an invention of modern times, and numbers were expressed by combina- tions of letters with a line drawn horizontally above the combination. The full alphabet of the lower-case letters is not given in the Plate; but the letters shown on line 3 show types of variation from the lower-case letters on Plate VI, and by noting the following points of difference the whole alphabet can be drawn readily: Heavy strokes ending in a curve at the lower limiting line, as at the base of a, taper gradually to a point. 58 ROMAN LETTERS AND FIGURES The bulbs terminating the upper ends of a, c, etc., are elongated and irregularly pear- shaped. Spurs at the upper ends of vertical stems, except in q, slope slightly downward to the left. 71. Old Roman for Architectural Work. The Old Roman style is much used by architects for all classes of lettering. Large titles are formed of capitals carefully executed and made solid faced, while for minor titles and sub-titles the letters are often left in outline as shown in the lower left-hand portion of Plate VIII. Even the small lettering in the body of draw- ings is often based on this style, the capitals only being used. Sometimes the heavy strokes are brought out slightly; sometimes a single uniform stroke is used for all parts of the letters, the ceriphs and kerns alone serving to identify the letters with the Old Roman style. Note also in the title composed of outline letters that the lines of the title begin on a common vertical, an arrangement by which the problem of centering the lines about an axis of symmetry is avoided. This arrangement is often used (especially in architectural drawings) for titles of minor importance, the proper position in this case being in one of the left-hand corners of the drawing. 72. Design of Letters in Roman Inscriptions. Plate IX. The alphabets given in Plate VIII, commonly called Old Roman, depart somewhat from the designs as shown in the ancient Roman inscriptions. These departures are partly for the purpose of meeting the exigencies of printing from type, but they show also radical differences in design. During the fifteenth century several Italians made detailed studies of the lettering in the best Roman inscriptions. Among these was Felicianus of Verona, who, in the latter part of that century, published an alphabet which in his opinion embodied the best designs. His Plate IX STUMP WRITING 61 alphabet, as shown in the Ephemeris Epigraphica, Vol. 1, is given in Plate IX. The proportions of many of these letters are quite different from those of Plates VI and VIII. The lines are graceful, and much more free and elastic than those of the Modern Roman style (Plate VI). An inspection of inscriptions by architects and artists of repute on modern buildings and monuments will show that the forms found in the ancient Roman carvings are still the model. Such inspection shows also that the proportions of letters are varied to suit different conditions. Note, for instance, the two R's of Plate IX. The first is used when such letters as T, V, and Y follow the R, the extended tail serving to fill the large blank area which would otherwise exist between the letters. The second form of R is used when followed by B, L, etc., where there is no large area between the letters. When R is followed by A, the tail of the R should be drawn in even more closely, to avoid a large area between the tops of the R and A. For similar reasons, the L may be narrower when followed by A or O than when followed by T, V, or Y. The idea that good lettering is a matter of design rather than adherence to fixed rules of proportion, is emphasized by the fact that the typical alphabet shown by Feliciauus and his contemporaries differed from each other. 73- Stump Writing is -the name given to a modification of Italic letters. The lower-case alphabet is given in lines 5 and 6 of Plate VII. The capitals are those of the ordinary Italic alphabet, with the exceptions noted in line 5. Stump writing is much used in government topographical work for notes and other data which may be written in small letters. For the best result, stump writing is executed with single strokes of a very fine and flexible pen, such as Gillott's mapping pen, the heavy strokes 62 ROMAN LETTERS AND FIGURES being formed by spreading the nibs. This requires great skill and constant practice, but when properly done, gives a finish to the letters which cannot be equaled by any other method. 74. Examples. 1. Draw Plate VI. 2. Make a title of the following : Grading plan for Golf Links at Riverside Park. Scale 60 ft. to 1 in. Date. Use Modern Roman letters one-half inch high for " Golf Links " and " Riverside Park," and Gothic for the remainder of the title. 3. Make a suitable arrangement of the following for a title : Pratt Library. Detail of Main Hall. (Scale.) Date. Use Roman Old Style, all capitals for the main portions, capitals and- lower-case for the date. Show a "graphical" scale of 4 ft. to 1 in. See Plate XV for an example. 4. Draw the words Hall of Records in two lines, using Ancient Roman letters (Plate IX) as large as will be well accommodated on a standard sheet. Sing/e-stroke Gof/j/c. .. '@ ' f&W'V'J ^ ? Z" $?&&'$ A B C'D 2f FG H/J K r LM NO P Q 7?5 TU V W X YZ & abode g h k / m n op q r ' / 3^ ^ J7O- */"* 5 t it v w x y z &$'&$ f? > &&0r- IZ3456789O Plate X CHAPTER VII SINGLE-STROKE AND MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS 75. The Use of Single-stroke Letters. By far the greatest amount of lettering found on most plans, especially working mechanical drawings, is that used in descriptive notes, sub-titles, etc., formed by single, uniform, and usually light strokes of the pen, without preliminary pen- ciling. Such lettering is shown on Plates X, XI, XII, and XIII, and is usually called single- stroke lettering. It is simply small Gothic lettering of either the upright or the slant form, but its successful execution requires some special study. 76. The Pen. It is of the utmost importance that the pen be well adapted to the work and that it be held and used in a proper manner. Each member of the letters must be made with a single clean stroke of the pen without any subsequent touching up, and the members must be of uniform thickness. This means that the pen must be of the right degree of coarse- ness to yield a line of the proper thickness without spreading the nibs; that the point be smooth ; that the pen be " broken in " so that the ink will flow freely ; and finally, that it be held with both nibs squarely on the paper with a light uniform touch. Plate XII will give an idea of the character of lines obtained by the use of several pens adapted to this work. Pens are best " broken in " to work freely by long-continued use. A new pen may be improved by drawing it many times over the surface of some hard rough paper, using consid- 65 66 SINGLE-STROKE AND MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS erable pressure as if drawing ver} r heavy lines. When held to the light, the nibs should be seen to be very slightly separated, otherwise the thick India ink will not flow freely. If the separation is not obtained by the process just described, the nibs may be bent backward with the fingers (both nibs being bent at .the same time), or they may be hammered very slightly on the convex side. The pen must be cleaned frequently, a piece of bleached cotton cloth being most suitable for this purpose. 77. Direction of Strokes. In Plate X the alphabet is analyzed as to the order and direc- tion of strokes, the small figures indicating the order, and the arrows the direction. It must not be supposed that no other order of strokes is permissible ; for instance, of the four strokes composing E, those marked 2, 3, 4 may be drawn in any order with respect to each other. It is obviously best, however, to draw stroke. 1 first. The coarseness of the pen and the freedom with which the ink flows will change conditions considerably, a coarse pen and very freely flowing ink necessitating great care to avoid making a blot. With a fine pen, trouble of this sort is less likely to occur, and the strokes as given on the Plate may be somewhat simplified. For instance, the C, J, O, and S may be drawn with single strokes. Many expert letterers form the habit of always making the letters as if under the worst conditions, and use the same number of strokes whether or not conditions are favorable for neat work. The general considerations governing the order and direction of strokes may be stated as follows : 1. For long upright lines the pen works much better (especially if it is fine) when drawn downward rather than upward. This is one teason for drawing the right side of O with a downward stroke. ABCDEFGrt/JKL M/VOPQtf 5TUYWXYZ & /^3456789 aotbcdefg/i/Jk/mnopqrsfurwxyz P/aned cedar Posts 8"* 8* 6-?j"/ong. A BCD Upright for SUB TITLES "Extended" Letters 23579 "COMPRESSED" LETTERS CLAY & GRAVEL. 3 Bolts. Drirtngfit. tf"* Plate XI PRACTICE 69 2. Ink is likely to run from the pen and form a blot if the pen is moved upward to the left ; hence, the short stroke to the right and slightly downward at the top of C, G, S, and 6, and at the bottom of J and S. 3. Ink tends to run into an acute angle between two lines, especially if the second line is drawn away from the vertex. This filling-in of angles must be studiously avoided. Special care is needed in forming the angles at the top of A, M, N, and W, since the second stroke forming these angles is directed away from the vertex. It is well to allow the first stroke to dry before the second one is drawn. Less trouble will be experienced with the equally acute angles at the bottom of M, N, V, and W, since the lines are drawn toward the vertex in each case. The reason will now be apparent for strokes 2 and 4 in m, and for similar strokes in sev- eral other lower-case letters. 78. Special Treatment. Some letterers avoid the possibility of a disagreeable filling-in at angles by leaving a very small open space between the ends of the lines forming the angles. For instance, the top of A may be treated as shown in the analysis of that letter on Plate X, rather than as shown in the finished form below it. Even in such places as at the top and bottom of O, where there is but slight danger of trouble, a space is often left between the ends of strokes. The effect is far preferable to a filled-in angle, or to the inaccurate meeting of two strokes. 79. Practice. Since single-stroke lettering must be done without going over the lines repeatedly to make corrections and without preliminary penciling, considerable informal 70 SINGLE-STROKE ANT) MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS practice is usually necessary to overcome the difficulties suggested above, to form the letters well, and to preserve a uniform slant. ////////// I I I I I I I I I I Flg ' n giV6S S me su gg estions for informal practice. ////////// I I I I I I I I I I The ends to be attained in drawing the straight lines are (~ (~ Q Q (~) C) C\ P * ^ OO smo th ness > uniform weight, equal length, and uniform direction. Note cai . e f u n y the special features of curves in the Bolt Cam Dot inclined letters as shown at (s 404 Pen Light Stroke- G/llott'5 303 Pen ' Very light Stroke- Oi/loff's 170 Pen The most generally Figures, when written used letters are the with lower-case letter, light stroke slant or have the height of T. upright letters about ' Finished Weight=35 * this size. 12345678 Length overall ?5'-4i" Plate XII CENTERING THE LINES 73 81. Titles composed of Single-stroke Letters. Single-stroke letters are often used for the titles of simple working drawings. Plate XIII shows such a title taken directly from an actual drawing. It is somewhat reduced in engraving, the length of the longest line of the original being 7| inches. 82. The Centering of the Lines may be accomplished by one of the methods of Art. 59, but the skilled draftsman usually reaches the result by even a simpler method, as follows : The limiting lines for all lines of words having been drawn, the longest line is penciled in with extreme roughness, the sole purpose being to determine that the line, when finally lettered in ink, will end at about the desired distance from the edge of the sheet. This longest line hav- ing been inked, a vertical pencil line is drawn through its center, to mark the required center of the remaining lines. One of the lines adjacent to the longest line is next roughly penciled, the only object being to find out about how long the line will be when finally inked. Some attempt is made at the same time to center the penciled line. No erasure is made, however, even though the line may prove to be very much off center. The draftsman then measures with his eye the distance to right or left at which the line should have been started to be accurately centered, and, at the point thus determined, begins his lettering in ink. As his work along the line progresses, he compares his inked work with the pencil draft to make sure that the inked and penciled lines will be of the same length, and that therefore the inked line will be centered about the vertical pencil line. It will sometimes happen that, in the rough pencil draft, the line is estimated longer or shorter than is desirable for the height of letters to be used. This fact will be discovered 74 SINGLE-STROKE AND MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS when the inking of the final letters is well under way. Unless the error is great, it will not be necessary to erase work already done, for by a discreet compression or extension (as the case may require) of letters and spaces, a correction of the original error of judgment may be made. 83. Single-stroke Figures. Nothing more effectually defeats the purpose of a working drawing than illegible figures. It is always desirable that figures be not only legibly, but also neatly drawn. Moreover, on many draw- ings the dimensions are so numerous that the careful execution of the figures becomes as important as that of the small lettering. Fig. 12 shows an example of dimensioning. Figures must stand out clearly by themselves. They must never be written directly on lines of the drawing, but should be separated from them by a clear space. This precaution is especially important if the drawing is to be reproduced by "blue-printing" or by a photo-engrav- ing process. The break in the dimension line should not be greater than is necessary to admit the figures comfortably; otherwise a ragged ap- pearance is given to the dimensioning. Valve Rod Head I- Ma/teab/e Iron Fig. 12 84. The Height of Figures for use in conjunction with letter- ing is the height of t for that lettering ; that is, figures are intermediate in height between the capitals and the class of lower-case letters which contains a and c (Art. 24). Commonwealth of Massachusetts Metropolitan Water Works Wachusett Reservoir Details of Railing for Quinepoxet and Stillwater River Bridges Scales, Full size, half size and lins.= lft May 25,1904. For spacing of posts see Sheef No. II for Quinepoxet railing, " " 7 " Stillwafar Plate XIII BLOCK LETTERS 7V 85. De Vinne. Plate XIV. This modern face is a modification of Old Roman which has found some favor among draftsmen. No lines are very light ; hence lettering in this style "blue-prints" well, and is well adapted to photo-reduction. The letters may be extended or compressed, and may be used with good effect in conjunction with the Gothic style. See Plate XV. 86. Open-faced Gothic. Plate XVI. Line 1 shows an open-faced or outline letter which has a limited legitimate use ; namely, the indication of certain features among other details, in such a manner that the lettering may be found easily but not be disagreeably prominent. For instance, a state map may contain so much lettering to show towns, rivers, etc., that the county names in small letters would not be readily found, nor would they cover sufficiently the areas occupied by the counties. On the other hand, letters large enough to cause the county names to extend across the desired area might, if of solid face, look disagreeably prominent. In this case an open-faced letter will serve the desired purpose while avoiding the undesirable features. 87. Block Letters. Plate XVI. Lines 2 and 3 show a device by which prominence may be given to letters without increasing their size. Open-faced letters may have heavy lines added to the right-hand and lower sides of their members, or a line or lines may be drawn near these sides of black-faced letters. In either case the effect is that of letters cut from material of considerable thickness, and fastened to a background. The value of this treatment is doubtful. Block letters may be justified where there is a real need of prominence, with but limited room for the lettering. Otherwise plain letters, well designed and carefully executed, are more likely to be satisfactory. 78 SINGLE-STROKE AND MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS 88. ''Shadow Letters." Plate XVI, line 4, shows an application of "shadow" letters which may be derived from the block letters of line 2 by omitting the light lines of the block letters. These shadow letters should be used with caution. They are not well adapted to use in titles, but may be employed to a small extent to indicate some prominent feature in the body of a drawing. They should be used only when Roman or plain Gothic letters have been used for other features so freely as to necessitate a change for the sake of variety. DE VINNE HiA B Q D E F; G H ! J K LM1VJ |: OPQRSTUVWXYZ& 5^ 5 V 6 5 5j 5 5 8 5 L Z 55 65 -IM 5f plab c defghijklmnopqrst | : 12345 uvwxyz 67890 I 4j 4j 4j 4? %/ 41 4r 4? 4e 5 MS Diagram Showing 1 HYDRAULIC ELEMENTS for 9-FT. CIRCULAR SECTION Plate XIV COMMONWEALTH E MASSACHUSETTS METROPOLITAN WATER WORKS SLJDBLJRY DAJU SOUTHBOROUGH RECORD DRAWING 0' 8' 16' 24' 1899 Plate XV D 17 F IPLAINI OF W BRIDGE ELM BROOK WATER WORKS DETAILS OF WASTE WEIR DAM A N0.3 T Plate XVI 7/ University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it w UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY iliiil A A 000106283 5 Univers: Soutl