'•%' >y is} S ^ rx is£s/mi t //// /.,//'//■// « THE PLOUGH-WRIGHT'S ASSISTANT ; OR, A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS EMPLOYED IN AGRICULTURE. Illustrated by Sixteen Engravings. BY ANDREW GRAY, AUTHOR OF " THE EXPERIENCED MILL-WRIGHT. EDINBURGH: Printed by D. Willison, FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE Sf CO. EDINBURGH* JOHN MURRAY, AND JOHN HARDING, LONDON. 1808. TO SIR JOHN SINCLAIR OF ULBSTER, BARONET, M. P. AND PRESIDENT OF THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 8fC. %c. 8fC. SIR, The object of the following Treatise is to exemplify and facilitate an improved construction of va- rious implements used in Agriculture. That I should be honoured with permission to usher it into the world under the sanction of a name, with which all that is estimable in public spirit and genuine pa- triotism has long been associated, cannot but be re- garded by the public as a presumption, that, in point of utility of design at least, if not of felicity of exe- cution, it is not without claims to their attention. If, indeed, it be in any degree calculated to answer the purposes intended, — to no individual can it with more propriety be inscribed, than to the zealous pro- moter IV moter and patron of every useful art, and particular- ly the most important of all arts, that of Agricul- ture, — the grand source of wealth, and the strength of nations. With every sentiment of respect and gratitude, I have the honour to be, SIR, Your much obliged, Most obedient, And most humble Servant, ANDREW GRAY. SH, "J 1. September, Edinburgh, 7 r, 1808. J CONTENTS. The Old Scots Plough - - - p. 15 The Plough with a Convex Twisted Mouldboard - 37 The Plough with a Concave Twisted Mouldboard - 67 The Chain Plough - - - 87 The Double or Two-Furrow Plough - - 101 Of Harrows in general - - - - 106 The Break Harrow - - - - 10S The Common Harrow - - - - 111 A Machine whereby Land may be Harrowed in a Wet Season 117 The Roller - - - - - 127 The Drain or Mole Plough 137 Plan or Bird's-Eye View of a Drill Machine - - 143 Plan or Bird's-Eye View of a Drill Machine with Indented Cylinders 151 The Cultivator or Horse-Hoe - - - - - 161 A Sowing Machine - - - - - - 171 Of Wheels in general - - - - - - 176 Of Cart Wheels 179 Of Carts or Carriages in general - - - - 189 Of Placing the Bushes into the Wheel - - - 191 Of the Method of Finding the Dish of a Wheel - 192 Of the Axle-Bed 195 Of Contracting the Wheels before - - - - 199 Of Wheel-Carriages used in Husbandry - 200 Plan, Elevation and Section of a Trashing Machine - 215 PREFACE. 1 he art of tilling and pulverizing the ground is of very remote antiquity ; coeval with, if not prior to, history itself. With the instruments, how- ever, which the antients employed for that purpose, we are not well acquainted, as their construction has not been clearly transmitted to posterity ; so that mankind, it would appear, had, for many ages, been much more eager to learn and practise the destruc- tive arts of war, than the useful arts of peace ; his- tory furnishing us with descriptions and figures of various warlike engines, w T hich were antiently em- ployed in battering down castles and fortified cities, whilst the useful implements of husbandry have been greatly overlooked, or rather almost entirely neglected. Hence we are far more familiar with the form and arms of the Grecian phalanx and Ro- man legion, with the ballista and battering rams of those nations, than with their ploughs, their harrows, and other useful instruments of Agriculture ; from which we are naturally led to conclude, that those among the antients, most conversant in mechanics, had either not turned their attention to the construc- a tion VI tion of the various implements necessary in cultivat- ing the ground ; or else imagined, that however im- perfect the instrument might be, it would answer suf- ficiently well for so rude a purpose as breaking up the soil, or turning over a furrow. Thus, the construction of those implements, so va- luable, so necessary, and even indispensable to man- kind, seems to have been left to persons, most of whom have been ignorant both of their principles and mode of operation ; and though the plough has always held the chief place among the implements of agriculture, yet this valuable machine has been gene- rally constructed almost at random, or by guess ; lew, till of late years, having any fixed plan or pro- per rule whereby to operate. Hence, the forms of ploughs came to be nearly as various, as were the per- sons by whom they happened to be constructed. The prejudices, as well as the poverty of the greater part of agriculturists, added to the ignorance of their mechanicians, long proved an insuperable bar to im- provement in the implements of husbandry of every description. And though, indeed, of late years, many of them have been greatly improved, much still re- mains to be accomplished, before that degree of eco- nomy, convenience and utility, can be generally at- tained, of which those instruments are susceptible, and which the nature and importance of the art they are employed in require. Valuable Vll Valuable additions to this branch of rural economy are daily introduced ; so that there is scarcely any de- partment of the extensive and important science of Agriculture that has received greater improvement, within these last thirty or forty years, than that which relates to the construction of the different instruments and machines necessarily employed in the various pro- cesses connected with the cultivation of the soil. Since a taste for this most important of all arts has fortunately been diffused in this country, men of great knowledge and fortune have been induced to pa- tronize it; so that persons of ingenuity and mechanical talents have been brought forward, and encouraged to exert themselves, either in the improvement of the more useful sort of old instruments, or in the inven- tion of new T ones. Among the variety of implements thus presented to the attention of the agriculturist, some may have appeared that are too expensive, and also too compli- cated in their construction, to be generally adopted. Others, perhaps, from want of practical inform in the inventors, have not been properlv adapted to the particular purpose for which they were designed. In general, however, they have been such as to con- tribute most essentially to the improvement of the art. The backwardness observable, and justly so much .complained of, with respect to the state of cultivation a 2 in Vlll iii several districts of Scotland, would seem to de- pend, in some degree, on the people's attachment to such implements as they have heen in the habit of using, however imperfect, in preference to su- perior ones that have been recently invented or im- proved. This, in some cases, has probably arisen from the unwillingness (by no means unnatural) of the labouring servants, to take the trouble, by a fair trial, of acquiring the same facility in managing the improved instruments, as that which they had at- tained in managing those to which they had been so long accustomed : Or, perhaps, it may be owing to the farmers themselves being unacquainted with the improvements that have been made, or not sufficient- ly convinced of the advantages to be derived from the use of superior implements. Be this however as it may, it is unquestionably evi- dent, that in constructing all machines, especially in- struments for the purpose of husbandry, the principal object ought to be, that of rendering them more com- plete, easy, and expeditious, by introducing a system of economy in regard to the labour and expense which necessarily attend agricultural operations. Care should likewise be taken, that all farming utensils possess suffi- cient strength arid firmness for the purposes to which they are to be applied. Again, many instruments em- ployed in husbandry, in various districts, would admit of improvement, on the principle of diminishing their weight without abating their strength. For it is well known, IX known, that the same piece of wood, or of iron, can be made to bear much greater stress, in one posi- tion, than it possibly can do in another. It should therefore be carefully observed, that the different parts of any machine (subject either to strains or pressure) be placed in that position wherein they are capable of bearing the greatest stress, provid- ed that the best form of the machine admits of its se- veral parts being placed in such a manner as to insure the greatest degree of strength. Mortises, or holes, cut in wood, into which tenons are to be driven, should also be carefully attended to ; because, if improperly placed, they tend very much to weaken the machine: and while the importance of having every part firm and compact, in any instrument subjected to jolts or shocks, is univer- sally admitted, still this is a circumstance often entire- ly overlooked. Although these considerations are extremely plain and obvious, they nevertheless seem to have been very much disregarded by those generally employed in constructing implements of husbandry. No doubt, situation, the state of the ground to be tilled, and other circumstances, render a difference with regard to strength requisite ; but it cannot escape notice, that in many parts of Scotland agricultural implements are made so unnecessarily strong, as thereby to be render- ed clumsy, and, for real utility, by far too weighty. And though, indeed, the nature and purpose of these machines machines render it necessary that the materials of which they are constructed be comparatively light and durable, yet, at same time, particular attention ought to be paid to their being as moderate in price as possible ; nothing having operated more unfavour- ably to the introduction of new invented machines and implements for agricultural purposes, than the heavy expense of their original purchase, particularly when brought from a distance. There are a variety of implements used in the art of Agriculture. Those generally employed in the field are, the Plough, the Harrow, the Roller, &c. &c. Of these instruments there are various forms. Dif- ferent soils, the particular state of the soil, and in- clination of surface, require different forms of ploughs ; so that no one sort of plough can, for every purpose, be superior to all others. It is evident, however, that some sorts are capable of much more general applica- tion than others. There are several kinds of ploughs used in Scot- land, such as, the old Scots plough, the plough with a curved mouldboard, the chain-plough, the wheel- plough, &c. In forming and constructing a plough, be its par- ticular purposes and properties what they may, there are a few general principles invariably applicable to every description of them ; such as, giving the sock, or XI or share, and those parts which enter and cut up the furrow slice, that equal tapering, or sharpened form, which shall occasion least resistance in passing through the soil ; and to the mouldboard, that regular twist which not only lessens friction, but also places and leaves the furrow slice in the most proper posi- tion. The beam and muzzle, or bridle, should like- wise be so constructed, that the cattle may be most advantageously attached to the plough in the proper line of draught. .These remarks premised, we proceed to give de- scriptions of sundry implements employed in the sci- ence of Agriculture ; and, in so doing, shall endeavour to use such simple and concise terms as we conceive sufficiently clear and properly adapted for affording a satisfactory explanation of the various plates or en- gravings necessarily presented. The article that seems to deserve our first attention is the Old Scots Plough, which is supposed to be the most antient form of that implement, and is still suc- cessfully made use of in many parts of North Britain. THE THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. IN treating of ploughs, it perhaps may be proper to begin with the Old Scots Plough, which, for various purposes, may probably be the best or most useful, where one kind only is used. Some other forms or constructions may be better adapted for particular purposes ; but few, if any, it is humbly apprehended, are fa for so many different ones. This may ap- pear surprising to some persons ; and therefore, it is necessary to observe, that we speak of this implement neatly executed, and not clumsily constructed. Be- cause some workmen make this plough awkward and heavy, some people have imagined that these circum- stances are owing to the sort of plough ; but it is well known to practical men, mechanics as well as farmers, that this implement can be made as light and neat, in proportion to its strength, as any sort of plough what- ever. In soils where all the natural obstructions to aration have been removed, several other sorts of ploughs will be found more economical, and superior A in 14 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. in different respects ; but on soils unimproved, or on strong rough grounds to be broken up from old lea or pasture, incommoded with the roots of rushes and furze, and with stones, this plough, it is humbly pre- sumed, if properly constructed, will be found the most efficacious of any other form of plough that has hi- therto appeared in Scotland. PLATE PI, I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 15 PLATE I. The Old Scots Plough. c ' Fig. 1. represents the beam, which is that part of the plough to which the cattle are attached when ploughing. C is a tenon that is driven into a mortise in the larger handle, (see L in fig. 6.) This connects the larger handle to the beam. D a mortise, into which the upper tenon of the sheath is fixed, (see M in fig. 3.) E a mortise for receiving the upper part of the coulter. These two mortises should be placed in the middle of the thickness of the beam, in order to obtain the greatest strength; for, at these mortises, the beam is readiest to break. As the upper part of the coulter ought to be placed in the middle of the beam's thickness, the plane of its left-hand or land side should be in the same plane with the land side of the sheath D, and in a line with C F, the land side of the fore and back ends of the beam. This advantage cannot be obtain- ed, if the beam be tapered equally on both sides, which is often practised ; for, in that case, the upper part of the coulter would be removed to the right- hand of the land side of the plough, half the thick- A 2 ness 16 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL I. ness of the beam : The beam, therefore, should be straight on the furrow or right-hand side A B, and tapered on the land side ; and that from the coulter mortise E, to the fore end at F ; and from the sheath mortise D, to the back end at C. By the beam's being formed in this manner, the coulter's upper part will be in the middle of the beam's thickness, and the plane of its land side exactly in the same plane with the land side of the plough, which is understood to be its best position. Fig. 2. The head, which is that part of the plough that goes wholly under ground. It is fixed on the lower ends of the sheath and larger handle ; I being the mortise which receives the tenon on the lower end of the sheath, (see L in fig. 3. and 4.) ; and K the mortise that receives the tenon of the larger handle, (see C in fig. 6.) The end of the head G I is for fixing the share or sock on. Fig. 3. The sheath seen sideways. L the tenon that is driven into the mortise in the head, (see I in fig. 2.) ; and M the tenon which is fix- ed in the beam, (see D in fig. l.) N O is a shoulder that extends between the upper side of the head and lower side of the beam, (see N O, fig. 4.) This shoulder is of such a size as to make the land side of the sheath in a plane with the land side of the head and larger handle, Fig. 4* PI, I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 17 Fig. 4. An edge view cf the sheath. Fig. 5. A side view of the head, with the sheath N O fixed into it, and placed in such a position, that its fore edge L M makes an angle of about fifty-five degrees with P R the lower side of the head, havin^ its land side N O in the same plane with the land side of the head. P L is that part of the head on which the sock is fixed ; and at R, near the other end, the lower part of the larger handle is fastened. Fig. 6. A B the larger handle ; C a tenon which is driven into a mortise in the head, (see K, fig. 2.) ; L a mortise for receiving the tenon on the back end of the beam, (see C, fig. i.) In this manner, the beam, the larger handle, the sheath, and the head, are all connected together : the left hand or land side of the fore end of the beam should be placed in a line with the land side of the head, the sheath, and the larger handle, and also in the same plane, (see A B G H, fig. 10.) Fig. 7. The lesser handle ; its lower end E is fix- ed to the furrow side of the head, and its upper parts attached to the larger handle by two rungs or rods, (see D O, fig. 10.) Fig. 8. A piece of wood, out of which the moulds- board is to be formed. It should be of sufficient length, breadth and thick- ness, IS THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL 1. ness, that the designed twist of the mouldboard may be complete in every part. If the corners or angles G A G and B D H be cut off, then A B C D will represent the land side of the mouldboard, and E F the wrest placed along its lower edge. When this piece of wood is joined to the plough, it will stand in the angle I R, fig. 9, with the line A B, the land side of the head. Then I K L M will be its lower edge, and P R O T its upper edge, the an- gular corner I L O being hewed off to a perpendi- cular face, and that perpendicular face joined close to the furrow side of the sheath, all the way from I to O. The point C in fig. 8. must be placed on the point I in fig. 9, and the inside, at the same time, fitted to the lower part of the lesser handle. Then, if the mould O R be drawn on the upper edge of the piece of wood, and the mould I M on its lower edge in the proper angles or positions to each other, and the wood PG K properly hewed off between these draughts from the lower to the upper edge of the wood, straight along the furrow side, from the back end R M to the fore end I O, in the direction of the horizontal parallel lines A B C D in fig. 8, which parts are equally di- vided as 1, 4, 8, on the line I O on the fore end, and the line R M on the back end of this piece of wood, these two lines being drawn in their proper po- sition between the mould I M on the lower edge, and O R the upper edge of it, as in fig. 9. ; by this means, the furrow side of the mouldboard will be formed to a regular twist, from its one end to the other j Pi. I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 19 other ; but the fore end I O of the mouldboard must be at an equal angle with the fore edge of the sheath, (see L M in fig. 5.) ; and its lower point I, by forming an acute angle, will enter easily in below the furrow slice raised by the sock, as the plough advances. It is evident, therefore, that according to the position of the sheath and fore end of the mouldboard, the earth of the furrow will be more suddenly turned over, or raised higher and turned over more gradually ; for, if the fore edge of the sheath be set nearly upright, the furrow slice, in rising up from the back part of the sock, will soon be resisted by the sheath and fore part of the mouldboard, and be turned over suddenly ; but if the sheath is placed in such a position, that its fore edge makes an angle of about thirty-five degrees with the lower side of the head, then, by this inclina- tion of the sheath, the furrow slice will be sufficient- ly raised up on the fore end of the mouldboard, before it is turned over. The furrow side of the wrest or lower side of the mouldboard, as I G in fig. 9, in ge- neral, is placed so as to make an angle of between sixteen and twenty degrees with the line A B, the land side of the plough, at same time that the upper edge O R of the mouldboard forms an angle of betwixt thirty- four and thirty-eight degrees with the land side of the plough. There is, then, a difference of eighteen de- grees between these two angles, which divide the breadth of the mouldboard into eighteen equal parts or degrees : The lower edge being at an angle of eigh- teen degrees, the second will be nineteen, the third twenty, 20 THE 0LI3 SCOTS PLOUGH. PL I. twenty, the fourth twenty-one, the fifth twenty-two, and so on, until it reaches the upper edge of the mouldboard : By this means, the mouldboard, form- ing a regular twist, recedes gradually and equally from the land side of the plough ; and if the back end of the mouldboard be cut to the same angle with the fore end, then, it being of equal length both at top and bottom, its furrow side, being equally twisted, will gradually and regularly turn over the furrow slice, as the plough advances, and leave the earth of the fur- row in any position that may be required. Therefore, whatever difference there is between the angles of the lower and upper edge of the mouldboard, there is of course a variation in its twist, which will turn over and leave the furrow slice in any position, according to the form of the mouldboard. Fig. 10. represents the under side of the plough completed, by all its parts being fixed together. A B is the beam ; B C the larger handle fixed to the beam at B ; D E the lesser handle attached to the large one by the two rungs or rods D O, which hold the two handles or stilts together ; G H the head, which is fixed at H to the larger handle, and at K to the sheath ; G I K the share or sock, fastened on the fore end of the head ; G L the coulter fixed at G in the beam ; M N K S the mouldboard, which is fasten- ed to the furrow side of the sheath at K M, and at S N to the lesser handle; P R the muzzle or bridle to which the cattle are yoked when ploughing, which is attached to PL L THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 21 to the plough by two bolts A R, passing through its arms and the fore end of the beam. Fig. 11. An elevation of the plough completed. A B the larger handle, fixed to the beam at C, and its lower end fastened into the head at D. The left- hand or land side of the plough B G being in one plane, it will meet with little resistance from the firm ground on that side, when the plough is going straight forward. E F the lesser handle fastened to the large one by the rungs I M N that pass between them. GHIK the mouldboard ; the fore end I G is fasten- ed to the furrow side of the sheath, and its other end to the lesser handle. The land side of the plough being all in the same plane, and the mouldboard re- ceding gradually from that plane (see fig. 9.), the up- per part of the mouldboard at H is at a greater dis- tance from the plane of the land side B G, than L the wrest, or K its lower edge. It is this casting out of the mouldboard that turns over the earth of the furrow ; and the mouldboard may have such a cast outwards above, as either to place the furrow slice on its edge, or turn it quite over on its back, or leave it in any intermediate position that may be required. Fig. 12. A bird's eye view of the plough com* pleted. AB the beam; BC the larger handle fixed at B to the beam ; B D the lesser handle, which is fastened by the rods or rungs E E to the larger one, which ? rungs 22 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL L rungs also hold the handles at a proper distance from each other ; F the place of the coulter ; G the sheath; H I K L the mouldboard, which is fastened to the sheath at K H, and to the lesser handle at I L ; M N the bridle by which the plough is drawn, in the fore part whereof are several notches or holes, into any of which the draught may be placed and shifted at pleasure, according as the furrow slice is wanted broad or narrow. Fig. 1 3. Profile of the right-hand or furrow side of the plough. A B the beam ; C D the lesser handle ; E F the sheath fixed in the beam at E, and into the head at F ; G K the head, and F G H the sock fixed on its fore end ; W N the coulter fixed in the beam at W ; M L T F the mouldboard fixed to the furrow side of the sheath at L F, and at C R to the lesser handle ; G T the wrest fixed to the head at G, and to the lesser handle at R. The principal design of this nar- row piece of wood called the wrest, placed along the lower edge of the mouldboard, is to defend from waste the lower edge of the mouldboard, which, by receiving the greatest pressure below, would be soon worn away, and require to be often renewed ; to prevent this, the wrest, being a small piece of wood, can be easily taken off when much worn, and a new one put in its place, of such figure or size as may be necessary for making the furrow wide or narrow belowj PL I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 23 below, or for placing the furrow slice in any posi- tion that may be thought proper. Fig. 14. Profile of the land or left-hand side of the plough. A B the beam to which the larger handle B D is fixed at B ; its lower end is fastened at C into the head, while its upper end at D is raised about three feet two inches above the lower side of the head, that is, from S to D. When the beam is fixed to the larger handle at B, its fore end A must be so far raised above the lower side of the head, that when the plough is going at the proper depth, the beam may not be incommoded by any thing on the surface of the land ; but it ought to be no further raised than is necessary for that purpose ; because the nearer it is to the head, the sheath will be the shorter, of course the plough will be more firm and compact. Let the perpendicular line P B be raised, so that B may be about twelve inches above the lower side of the head ; then the point B is the place where the beam is to be fixed. The distance from P to B will be more or less, according to the curve at U of the beam. The position of the beam also depends, in 6ome measure, on the number of cattle employed in the plough, and the manner in which they are yoked ; and it must be set higher or lower at A according to the line of draught. Thus, to determine the position of the beam when there are two horses yoked abreast, extend the line P E to T, so that the distance from B 2 ? 24 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL I, P to T be thirteen feet, thereby allowing six feet for the length of the beam, and seven feet for the distance from the line W M the end of the beam : raise the perpendicular T R, which should be about four feet six inches from T to R, the horses' shoulders, or supposed point of draught ; then de- termine as exactly as possible what point in the line E P is the centre of gravity of the plough, which, when finished, will in general be found to be near the point O behind the sheath : join R to O : bring the end of the beam A to touch the line of draught O R, and this will be found the true position of the beam when two horses are employed yoked abreast. Again, when the beam is placed in this manner, the perpendicular from W to A will be found to be about eighteen inches ; so that, if a rule be laid along the lower side f E of the head, and extended forward to W, the beam, being so placed as to make the distance from the point A to the rule at W about eighteen inches, will thus also be found in its proper position when two horses are in the plough yoked abreast. To determine the position of the beam when there are four horses in the plough yoked two and two abreast : If the line P E is extended nine feet forward from T, that is, sixteen feet from the end of the beam A, which is allowing nine feet for the distance of the shoulders of the first two horses from the shoulders of the last two, then, as M R, the draught line of the last two horses, makes an angle of about twenty-four degrees - jth P E tlx9 lower side of the head, the draught line PL I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 25 line O Z of the first two horses will make an angle of about fourteen degrees with P E. Two forces are now applied to the plough, in different directions, the one in the line O R, and the other in the line O Z. Bisect or divide the angle O R Z by the line O L, which is the direction of the two forces united, conse- quently the line of draught. Bring the point A of the beam to touch the line O L, which is the proper position of the beam, either when two horses arc yoked the one before the other, or when four horses are in the plough yoked two and two abreast. Let us suppose, that the end of the beam cuts the line L O at L ; then the beam is in the position B L, and the perpendicular L W about sixteen inches in height. The true position of the beam may be found in the same manner, whatever number of cattle are in the plough, and whichever way yoked. Though a plough be right made, yet in some lands it will go too deep, and in others too shallow. This is owing to the oblique position of the coulter meeting with resistance in different places ; for, if the land is soft and free above, and hard below, the resistance which the point of the coulter and sock receives, gives the plough a tendency to rise out of the ground ; and when the land is firmer above than below, as is the case when there is a tough sward of grass upon soft land, the resistance w r hich the plough then meets with above, more than below, makes the plough go too deep. It is therefore found very difficult to make a plough go well in land of this kind at an equal depth, 26 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL f, depth, without having a wheel at the fore end of the beam. The beam is in general so curved as to make the perpendicular 1 : 2 about five inches long ; for when there is any stubble, or a sward of grass on the surface, or any roots in the land, they are raised up by the plough in going ; and if the beam is placed near the surface, immediately before the coulter, then the grass, &c. raised up, being entangled in the angle between the lower edge of the beam and the fore edge of the coul- ter, or at U the fore edge of the sheath, the plough is thereby much incommoded ; but the more that the beam is curved, that is, the longer the perpendicular 1:2 is, the less will the plough be interrupted in work- ing ; because any thing raised up by the coulter, not being so soon resisted by the beam, will be turned to a side along with the earth of the furrow, instead of being entangled betwixt the beam and the fore edge of the coulter or the sheath. The longer, however, the line 1 : 2 is, the beam will be the easier broken ; and the coulter and sheath being in fact longer, are rendered weaker, and, of courfe, will not bear fo much {train as if they were shorter ; but if the beam is curved in such a manner as to make the line 1 : 2 about five inches, the impediments before mentioned, which the plough is apt to meet with, will be easily put to a side ; therefore, according to the language of the ploughman, a beam of this form is well redd, and at same time sufficiently strong. The position of the beam also depends in some degree upon the way of yoking PI. I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. yoking the cattle, and on the direction of the line in which they draw ; for it is evident, that, by placing the cattle at a greater distance from the plough, or put- ting their traces lower on their shoulders, and length- ening their backhands, the line of draught will be brought nearer to a horizontal direction, of course the plough forced deeper into the ground. In like man- ner, by placing the cattle at a less distance from the plough, and raising the traces on their shoulders, or by shortening their backhands, the plough is pulled out of the ground, and goes shallower. E G is the sheath fixed into the beam at U, and into the head at F. Its fore edge is placed so as to form an angle of about thirty-five degrees with the low- er side P E of the head, which is nearer the perpen- dicular than the fore edge of the coulter ; by which means, the diftance between the coulter and sheath is greater below than above, which allows sufficient space for the length of the sock between the point H of the coulter and the sheath at F ; it also allows the sock to have a long taper, which enables it to enter in be- low the furrow slice, and raise the earth of the furrow gradually and unbroken before it is turned over by the mouldboard. E F Y is the sock fixed upon the fore end of the head. In fitting this kind of sock to the head, its point should be turned a little to the right-hand of the land side of the head, (see A B, the land side of the head, and C, the point of the sock, in fig. 15, No. 1.) j because, were its land side placed in a line with the land side of the head, it would not, in that 23 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL L that position, raise up all the earth of the furrow, espe- cially when the plane of the coulter is in a plane with the land side of the plough, which is its proper posi- tion. Care, therefore, should be taken, in fixing the sock on the head, to place it in the proper direction ; because, by turning its point too much to either side, an alteration is made in the going of the plough ; for to that side to which the point of the sock is turned, the plough naturally tends, from the resistance it meets with from the earth on the opposite side. H I is the coulter fixed in the beam, and should be placed in a sloping position, so that its fore edge form an angle of about forty-five degrees with . P E, the lower side of the head. The coulter is made thin on the fore edge for cutting, and broad and thick on the back edge for strength. The point of the coulter H should be placed a little before, also a little above the point Y of the sock, (see L G H in fig. 10.) This oblique position of the coulter makes it cut easier as it moves forward, than if it were placed more perpen- dicular ; besides, by this oblique position, if it meets with roots or any other obstructions in the ground that intercept its going, it will throw them up out of the land, which requires less strength than cutting or pushing them forward, which it must do if placed nearly upright. The coulter should also be so placed that the plane of its land side be in the plane of the land side of the sheath, the head and larger handle, which makes it cut the furrow slice from the firm land, and open the earth of the furrow in such a manner PI. L THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 29 manner as to make the resistance less than it would be if the coulter were placed more to the right hand or furrow side ; for, if it is placed to the right of this plane, then the left side of the sock and head rubs hard upon the firm ground ; but if the plane of the land side of the coulter be placed exactly in the plane of the land side of the head, then the sock and head meet with little resistance on that side, except from the earth that may fall betwixt the coulter and sock. On the other hand, if the plane of the land side of the coulter is placed to the left of the land side of the head, a greater load of earth will be forced upon the sock ; which, too, in this position, will meet with more resistance, and be in greater danger of breaking, or be- ing put out of its proper direction. From this it may readily be inferred, that the well-going of a plough de- pends in a great degree upon the position of the coulter. As the fore edge of the coulter is made thin for cutting, and its back edge thick for strength, being something in the form of a knife, it should be quite flat on the land side, with all the taper on the furrow side. This form will assist in turning the furrow slice towards the right hand or furrow side of the sock ; at same time, its land side should be in a line with the land side of the head, so that it may cut the earth of the furrow slice from the firm land in a direction pa- rallel to the line of draught ; for, if the coulter be placed in such a manner that the plane of its land side cuts the plane of the head backwards, or, if its fore edge be turned to the left hand, then the resistance it C meets 30 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL L meets with from the opposite side, will make the plough tend to the left hand or land side. On the other hand, if the coulter be placed so, that the plane of its land side cuts the plane of the head forwards, then the resistance the coulter meets in that position, makes the plough incline to the right hand or furrow side. It is therefore evident, that placing the coulter in any of these positions, is a great obstacle to the well-going of the plough. It may likewise be observed, that if the coulter is placed in the beam too near the sheath, the plough will be in danger of being choked (as the ploughmen term it) when going in land that is full of the roots of quicken-grass, or having rank stubble on its surface. Any person taking the trouble carefully to observe a plough going in land in these situations, will soon find that the roots, or the stubble which the plough may push before it, are sometimes entangled betwixt the coulter and the sheath, whereby the plough is in- terrupted ; for this reason, the coulter ought to be placed at a proper distance from the sheath, which will in a great measure prevent the plough from being so often choked when going in rough land, or where there are weeds of any kind. U F K L is the mouldboard, which is fixed at F U to the furrow side of the sheath, and its other end to the lesser handle ; M N the muzzle or bridle to which the cattle are attached when ploughing, which is fastened on the fore end of the beam by two iron bolts passing through its arms and the beam. On the bridle arms is a cross, N, on each PL I. THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 31 each side of the beam. In these crosses are several holes through which one of the bolts passes, while the bridle turns on the other. When the bolt is put through the highest holes in these crosses, then the beam will be de- pressed by the draught of the cattle, and the plough forced deeper into the ground ; and when the bolt is put through the lowest holes, then the beam is raised up by the draught ; of course the plough is made to go shallower. There are likewise several holes or notches in the fore part of the bridle at M, into either of which the draught may be placed, according as a broad or nar- row furrow is required. By these notches the line of draught may be shifted, at pleasure, either to the right or left-hand side of the point of the beam. Hence the plough may be made to take off a broad or nar- row furrow slice from the firm land, and to go deeper or shallower as required. By this means, also, a small error in the original form of a plough may in seme degree be corrected. Fig. 15. No. 1. A B represents the head with the sock A C D fixed on its fore end, Particular care should be taken that the sock be placed in a proper di- rection; because, if its point be turned too much to ei- ther side, it not only makes an alteration in the going of the plough, but it also makes it more difficult to draw. This sort of sock should be fitted to the head, so as its point C be directed a little to the furrow side D F of the head, or nearly in a line with the middle of C 2 t]l ^ 32 THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL L the head ; socks of this kind not having a fin or feather on the furrow side. Were its land side A C placed in a line with the land side A B of the head, its point being too much to the left-hand, would not, in that case, raise up the earth of the fur- row in a proper manner. D E is the wrest or lower edge of the mouldboard, fastened to the head A B at D, and so placed, that its furrow side D E makes an angle of between sixteen and twenty degrees with A B "he land side of the head. At same time, if the point of the sock be turned either upwards or down- wards, it will tend to make the plough go deeper or shallower in the ground. Fie. 15. No. 2. I H is the lower side of the head, and G L I the sock fixed on its point, having its un- der side G I in a straight line with I H the lower side of the head. In this position the point of the sock will open the furrow to its full depth, and little resistance will be given to it, except on its upper side, by raising the furrow ; but if the sock, instead of being in the di- rection I G, were in the direction I K, the beam and head being in the same position as before, the plough must then move forward in the direction H I. Thus, it is evident, that the plough would meet with greater resistance when the sock is in the direction I K, than in that of I G ; for, in this direction, little resistance is given but by the raising of the soil on the upper side of the sock ; but if its lower side were in the direc- tion I K, resistance would not only be given to the upper TL L THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. S3 upper side, but also a much greater resistance would be given to the lower side, by the manner of its opening the furrow ; because, as K is higher than I, the furrow is not opened to its full depth by K. the point of the sock. The furrow must therefore be made deeper and deeper by the under side K I as the plough advances ; which unavoidably tends to retard the plough's motion, and augment the labour of the catde. If the construction of a plough is carefully attend- ed to, the best mode of separating, raising, and turning over the furrow slice, will appear evident ; for, if re- moving the earth of the furrow to the right-hand were all that is required, then the most proper form of the plough would seem to be a half wedge, or an inclined plane moving forward on its edge in the cut made by the coulter, having its base pressed to the firm land : such a form would remove all the furrow slice to the right-hand, the whole breadth of the back of the wedge, leaving the same surface uppermost as before. But as the earth of the furrow must be raised up a little, shifted to a side, and turned over, by which the former surface is buried, and a new one substituted in its place ; to give it all these three motions, the wedge must be of a different form from that now described. Therefore, suppose A B C D, (ig. 1 6. to represent a tri- angular block of wood, the hindermost and back edge A B of which is perpendicular, and its lower back edge B D lies in the angle formed by the land side of the plough and lower side of the wedge, the base of which 34- THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. PL I. which BCD forms a triangle, square at B, and sharp at D, its breadth B C being the breadth of the lower part of the plough behind : If this block is cut through at the height I K, then the lower part of it will form a sort of wedge, I K L being its upper, and B C D its lower side. When this wedge is drawn or pushed forward in the direction C D, having its back surface I K B D pressed close to the firm land, then the fore surface LKCD will shift the earth of the furrow to the right-hand, and at the same time raise it. This is very near the form of the mouldboard often made use of in the old Scots plough ; but nei- ther of these wedges will turn over the furrow slice in a proper manner. It appears, therefore, that the threefold motion which must be given the earth of the furrow, namely, raising, shifting to a side, and turning over, cannot be properly performed by means of a straight sided mouldboard, in whatever position it may be placed ; on which account it is necessary that the mouldboard should have a twist, in order to enable it to perform its office in the best man- ner. Accordingly, mouldboards have been long made with a twist or curve ; these curves have been various, as they come from the hands of different workmen. This could not but happen ; because these persons having no certain or fixed rule to work by, it could not be expected they would all follow one method. It was observed formerly, that the old Scots plough, when well made, is the best general plough that has yet appeared for ploughing rough, stony, uncultivated ground, PL L THE OLD SCOTS PLOUGH. 35 ground, and, on that account, preferable to any other form. It was not intended, however, to assert that it is perfect; for, whoever attends to the structure of the common plough made use of in many parts of this country, will easily discover some defects* The sock is frequently made high in the middle, and round- ed on each side ; the mouldboard almost straight, or nearly a plane surface, having little or no twist ; while the plane of the coulter is often placed in an oblique direction, and not in the plane of the land side of the plough. These defects tend to make the plough heavy to draw ; nor is the earth of the furrow turned over in a proper manner. Besides, when the lower end of the coulter is pointed so much to the land, it makes the plough improper for hoeing, as the loose earth cut by the coulter falls to the left hand, and buries the young plants in the rows. Thus have we given figures of the different parts, with a short description, of the old Scots plough ; likewise pointed out some of its defects ; and, at same time, attempted to show how, in some respects at least, several of these may be remedied. PLATE PL II. THE PLOUGH, &C. 37 PLATE 1L The Plough with a Convex Twisted Mouldboardi "&• If one form of plough is preferable to another^ it must be for one of these two reasons ; either that it raises, shifts, and turns over the earth of the furrow more correctly, or that it is easier drawn. Whatever form of a mouldboard may be preferred fcr answer- ing these purposes, it is evident that the land side of the plough should be a flat, plain surface, without any twist or projecting parts. The beam to which the catde are yoked should be strongest in those parts where it is liable to receive the greatest strain, viz. the coulter and sheath ; therefore the mortises for re- ceiving these should be placed in the middle of the thickness of the beam. This cannot be done if the beam be tapered equally on both sides ; as is seen by fig. 1., on which the dotted line extends from the back end of the land side B, along to the land side of its fore end at A ; from which it is evident, that the mortises C for receiving the coulter, and D for re- ceiving the sheath, being placed in the middle of this beam, are too much removed to the right of the larger handle. To remedy this, the beam should be made straight on the right hand or furrow side, as is seen. D by S8 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL IL by fig. 4., and tapered only on the land side, from the mortise E of the coulter forward to C, and from the mortise F of the sheath backwards to D. By the beam being formed in this maimer, the coulter may be placed in the middle of the beam, having at same time the plane of its land side in the same plane with the land side of the head and larger handle. This is apparent from the dotted line which extends from C to D along the land side of the mortises E & F, fig. 4. Fig. 2. The head, which is fixed on the lower end of the sheath. Fig. 3. The sheath, that connects the head and beam together. Fig. 5, The larger handle, which is fixed on the tenon B of the beam, (see D, fig. 4.) Fis;. 6. The lesser handle. Fig. 7. A B C D represent a piece of wood, out of which the mouldboard is to be formed, which must, when applied to the plough, stand in the position of fig. 8., L B being its upper edge, and CD its lower edge. For this purpose, the angle or corner L C E, must be hewed away to a flat or plain face, and that face joined close to the furrow side of the sheath, all the way from C to L, so that the point C in fig. 7- must be placed on C in fig. 8., and the point B in fig. 7. will then fall on B PL IL TWISTED MOULDBOARD. S9 in fig. 8. At same time the inside of the mouldboard must be fitted to the lesser handle, (see fig. 11.) The wood I K must be regularly hewed off between the mould L B, on the upper edge of the piece of wood, and C D, the mould on its lower edge, by which trie mouldboard will be formed to a gradual convex regu- lar twist, as L B C D. The plough with this form of mouldboard has in general no wrest, the mouldboard being of such a breadth as to serve for both ; and its under edge, which serves in place of the wrest, as it approaches the lesser handle, becomes nearly parallel to the plane of the head ; and sometimes the back end of the mouldboard, below, is made to turn a little in- wards, its fore part being curved more and more from the lower to the upper edge. Fig. 9. B C D is the head, and A B D the sock or share fixed upon its fore end. This kind of sock should be placed in such a position that its point A be a little to the right hand of the line B C, the land side of the head. D E is the furrow -side of the lower edge of the mouldboard. Fig. 10. B C is a side view of the head ; D E the sheath fixed into it ; E the tenon which is driven into a mortise in the beam, (see F in fig. 4.), whereby the head and beam are fastened to each other. A D B is the sock fixed on the head, and should be so fitted that its lower side A B be in a straight line with B C, tjie lower side of the head ; though some arc of opi- D 2 nion. 40 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL IL nion, that the plough would go steadier, were the point A of the sock a little below the line B C, the under- side of the head. Fig. 11. A bird's eye view of the plough completed. With respect to the position of the coulter, its inclination forward should form an angle of about forty-five degrees with the under side of the head and sock. The plane of its land side should be in the plane of the land side of the sheath, the head and the larger handle. There are often defects in the form of the plough's land side, and in the improper position of the coulter. This may be observed, both when the spear sock and plain mouldboard are used, and when the feathered sock and curved mouldboard are made use of. These errors will appear in ploughs thus con- structed when compared with those of a more perfect form. The plough, as has already been observed, may be considered as a half wedge or cutting instrument, of which the coulter forms the sharp edge. This instru- ment is employed in cutting a small slice of earth •from the firm land on the left-hand, and removing that slice a certain space to the right-hand ; the great- est resistance is therefore exerted on that side of the instrument which removes the furrow slice, because its base, or land side, is pressed to the firm ground, and by that means becomes the director of its mo- tion. From this it is evident that the land side of the plough should be all of one flat surface ; for if it is of any other form, when pressed hard to the firm ground, it? Tl. II TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 41 its projecting parts must sink into it, and these un- equal parts will tear off the earth as the plough ad- vances ; which earth, falling in betwixt the coulter and sheath, or into any hollow on the land side, must interrupt the motion of the plough, and be apt to turn it from the land to the furrow side. This is a very- common defect in the form of the old Scots plough ; which shows the advantage that arises from the land side of a plough being of one plane surface ; and is attained by covering the void space betwixt the sheath and larger handle either with thin boards or iron plates. This plane surface of the land side of a plough should be in the direction of the plough's motion, so that a straight line drawn from the back part of the head to the point to which the cattle are attached, must touch the plough's land side all along. If the surface of the land side of the plough, and plane of the coulter, point to the right of the fore end of the beam, then the plough will always be thrown from the land by the resistance it meets with on that side ; and if the plane of the coulter point to the left of the beam's fore end, then the contrary effect will be produced ; but when the land side of the plough and plane of the coulter are in the same plane, the plough will go on smooth and steady. If the beam be of an im- proper form, and too much inclined to the right hand of the land side of the head, at that part where the coulter is placed, this defect is sometimes attempt- ed to be remedied, by placing the plane of the coul- ter with its lower end pointing to the left-hand, and projecting 42 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL IK projecting beyond the land side of the plough, as in fig. 12., where K L M P represent a cross section of the plough seen from the fore end of the beam. We shall now describe the form of the land side of this plough, and compare it with fig. 1 3. and 1 5. which appears to be the most proper construction. The line S P in fig. 1 2. represents the land side of the sheath placed in the middle of the beam ; and the land side of the larger handle is represented by the line T P ; making the angle S P T the twist of the land side of the plough. From this it is evident, that the land side will point to the right hand or furrow side of the fore end of the beam, by which the plough will have a tendency to quit the land, or turn to the furrow side. In this form of a plough, the coulter, by being placed obliquely in the beam at M S, so that its lower end R projects beyond the land side of the plough, cannot, in this position, clear the land side of the plough equally in all its parts ; because the plane of the coulter intersects the plane of the sheath a little below the beam, and cuts the plane of the larger handle much lower, whereby the lower part of the plough is more than sufficiently cleared, and the upper part is not cleared at all. From all this it is obvious, that a plough of this construction is con- stantly in a state of twisting, by its different parts being unequally pressed to the land. This twist is varied, by changing the position of the coulter, so as to point its lower end more or less to the land, or by placing the point R at a greater or less distance from JPL II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 43 from P. But, by making the land side of the plough in the direction of its motion, all its parts will be e- qually pressed to the firm land ; by which means it must sink less in any one part; be made steady in its motion, and easier to be drawn ; because the coulter, when placed in the plane of the land side of the sheath, and of the head and larger handle, relieves the land side of the plough equally in every part. This will appear by considering fig. 11.; in which T K is a line drawn on the land side, from the back end of the head through the point of the coulter ; and S M is a line drawn from the back end of the land side, one foot up from the lower side of the head, and along the land side of the coulter. T L is the line that is parallel to the line of draught or the plough's motion at a medium ; the other two lines, S M and T K, are nearly equidistant on each side of T L ; and, although the direction of the plough's motion should be always in this line, it cannot be so in this form of a plough, except at one particular depth ; because, according to the different depths of furrow, the plough will cut off a broader or narrower slice from the firm land, by the coulter's lower end projecting in a sloping direction to the land side. These defects, on account of others more evident in the implement, often pass unobserved ; and some think they are compensated by the greater quantity of work this fort of plough seems to perform. But this is a mistake ; for, when the point of the coulter is placed at too great a distance from the land side of the sock, part of the furrow slice cut by the 44 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL it the coulter is not raised up by the sock, but is broken on the corner of the sock and sheath ; and, fall- ing in between the coulter and sock, interrupts the plough's motion, even sometimes throwing it out of the ground. This obstruction is plainly seen in the plough with a feathered sock ; because the furrow slice strikes on the land side of the sock at its first rising, when it should press most upon the upper side. This pressure on the land side, either of the spear or feathered sock, tends likewise to turn it to the furrow side ; and thus the plough is exposed to two contrary strains, the coulter turning it to the land side, and the sock pressing it to the furrow side. Although these different inclinations may be made to balance each other, they always give an additional resistance to the plough, of course more labour to the cattle. All these errors seem to be corrected in the form of plough here recommended, which makes a furrow considerably dif- ferent from that made by a plough with the plane of its coulter so far pointed to the land side. This will appear, by comparing fig. 12. and 14. with fig. 13* and 15. Fig. 12. K L M P is a cross section of a plough, having the coulter S R placed in the middle of the beam, with its surface in a sloping direction to the )and side below, In this position, it will not cut the furrow slice square, which is seen, fig. 14., where A G represents the coulter of fig. 12., and G I the lower side of the plough, G R is a section of PL II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 45 of the mouldboard ; and A B C D represents the firm ground. R S T H the furrow slice cut from the firm land on the left-hand, removed to the right-hand, and turned over ; H R the part of the slice that was joined to G C ; and S R the surface that was join- ed to A C. This slice is made to stand upon the corner T, with its former upper side S T leaning over to the ploughed land. We shall next consider fig. 1 3. and 1 5, in which the coulter B C is placed per- pendicular in the beam. Fig. 15. F G represents the coulter of fig. 13.; E F the under side of the plough ; A E a sec- tion of the mouldboard ; G I F L the firm ground. A C B D is the furrow slice cut off by the coulter from the firm ground, removed to the right-hand, and twisted over ; A D is the under surface of the slice that formerly was joined to E F ; and A C is the surface that was joined to F G. Thus, the furrow- slice is made to stand on one corner B, with the former upper surface C B leaning upon the next fur- row slice. In these figures, the land side of the plough is supposed as going perpendicular to the horizon, which is its most proper position. The situation in which this last furrow slice is left by the plough, is that which is approved of by the most intelligent agri- culturists. From these two figures it appears, that the upper and under corners A B of the furrow slice made by the plough of fig. 13. and 15, are right angles, or square; whereas the two corners R T of the furrow slice E made 46 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL II. made by the plough of fig. 12. and 14. are acute angles, several degrees above the square. In order that the furrow may stand in this position, it either must lean on the former slice, or be support- ed by loose earth, which tumbles in below, and fills up the vacancy represented by B D E of fig. 15, or GHT fig. 1 4. It is however evident, that this va- cancy will be easier filled up in fig. 1 5. than in fig. 1 4. Although this position of the furrow slice is not al- ways required, it being sometimes thought proper to leave it standing on its edge B D, fig. 15, or on T H, fig. 14, it is obvious that, even in this case, the plough of fig. 1 5. will have the advantage ; for the furrow slice it makes, being rectangular, will stand, if ne- cessary, upright ; whereas the slice made by the plough of fig. 1 4. must lean a little to the ploughed land, else it will hardly be possible to prevent it from falling back into its former position, especially in ploughing with a broad shallow furrow. It is likewise evident, that the plough of fig. 15. will leave the surface of the ploughed ground flatter than the plough of fig. 1 4. It may here be observed, that we always consi- der the left-hand or land side of the plough, when going, as kept perpendicular to the horizon ; for it is often a practice to lean the plough over to the left- hand, which is not a good position, because it leaves the bottom of the furrow higher on the right-hand side, and, by this means, some of the earth is left neither raised nor turned over. Thus it appears, that PL II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 47 that whether we consider the working of a plough, or the work which it performs, the plough of fig. 1 5. having its land side all of one flat plane surface, standing in the direction of the plough's motion, with the land side of its coulter in the same plane, is in every re- spect preferable to the plough of fig. 14, having its land side twisted, and the plane of its coulter sloping to the firm land on the left-hand side. Fig. 16. Profile of the plough. C D represents the bottom of the furrow; and, as the .plough advances, its fore part and furrow side are ex- posed to resistance upon different parts. The coulter is pressed down by the earth it is cutting ; and the sock pressed down, and to the left-hand, by the earth it is raising. The fore part of the mouldboard is also •pressed down, and to the left-hand, by the earth which it raises; shifts to the right-hand, and turns over. The hinder part of the mouldboard is pressed to the left- hand by the earth which it is forcing to the right-hand, and likewise pressed upwards by the earth it is turning over. These obstacles, taken together, give the plough an inclination to go deeper in the ground, and to twist the point of the sock down to the right-hand ; the back part of the mouldboard upwards, and to the left-hand. Therefore, if the plough were drawn forward by a rope fixed to the point of the sock, and level with the bottom of the furrow, or line T C, it would then certainly sink at the fore end, rise behind, and twist over to the right-hand ; but the plough, not E 2 being 48 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL II, being drawn in this manner, but ,in an oblique direc- tion, as in the line F B, from the fore part of the bridle A F to the point B, this direction of the draught must tend to pull the plough out of the ground. That this may not happen, the point of draught should be so regulated as to counteract the plough's inclina- tion to go too deep. Thus, suppose A B the direction of draught; produce the line B A backwards until it meet the coulter at the point L, the sock at P, and the lower side of the head at R ; it is hence evident that the motion of the plough will be the same, whether the draught be fixed at A, L, P, or R. As the line R A B is the direction of the draught so A L R is the direction of the resistance, the labour of the cattle being the same as if the plough were not resisted by the earth, but kept back by a rope fixed either at R, P, L, or A, accompanied by a power pull- ing it in the direction A R. There must therefore be some point between A and R, where all the resistance may be supposed to unite ; which may be termed the centre of gravity, or point of resistance. And as the pressure of the earth on the back part of the mouldboard tends to raise it up, so that the plough does not swim fair, as the ploughmen term it, but rises at T ; therefore, if the point N of the coulter or sock meet with any extraordinary obstacle, this effect will be the more increased. In such a case, if the draught be fixed at R the centre of gravity, or any where betwixt it and T, then the back part of the head will rise from the line C D, or bottom of the PL II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 49 the furrow. But if the draught be fastened at A, this rise of the head will soon stop ; as thereby the fore end of the beam at A would be raised by the draught, and the back part of the plough, of course, depressed. This rising of the head behind may be prevented by fixing the draught to some point, as at F, a little below the straight line B R, which passes through the centre of gravity at or near R. By this means the plough becomes a kind of lever, of which the centre of gravity at R is the prop ; the fore end of the beam at F is pulled upwards ; and the plough being supported at R its fulcrum, the back part of the plough will be depressed, and the lower part kept steady in the bottom of the furrow, giving it rather an inclination to go deeper in the ground than to rise out of it. It is evident, therefore, that this circumstance in the trim of a plough is of the utmost consequence to the perfection of the implement. It is also plain, that the plough may get more or less hold of the ground, by raising or lowering the point F to which the draught is fixed. This is the use of the shifting parts of the bridle placed on the fore end of the beam, by which the ploughman can trim or temper the plough at plea- sure. Placing the draught F too low, causes the plough to rise out of the ground before. It also makes the back end and upper part of the mouldboard press too hard on the furrow slice when quitting it, which produces bad effects in moist clay land, by pressing the earth too close together. The draught, therefore, should always be so placed, that the lower side of the sock and 50 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL It, and head may press equally on the bottom of the furrow. From the operation of the plough and the opposite resistance it is exposed to, it is very obvious that the proper place of the point of draught on the fore end of the beam must in a great degree depend on the form of the plough. A plough, of which the sheath has •little inclination forwards at the lower end, being less pressed down before, will require the point of draught to be higher than if the sheath were more sloped. Thus, it appears, that when a plough is in all re- spects ready for use, its hold of the ground may be regulated by the manner of fixing the draught to the beam ; but if the point of draught is fixed, or cannot be sufficiently altered, the hold may be regulated by the make or form of the sock, and of the fore part of the mouldboard ; the place of the point of draught, and the form of the plough, having a reciprocal de- pendence and necessary connexion with each other. By the sock being pointed downwards, the hold of the plough will be increased, and, by raising the point of the sock, it will be diminished ; in like manner, by sloping the sheath, or by making it stand more up- right, the hold of the plough will also be increased or diminished. Thus, a plough may have more or less hold of the ground by the form of the sock and of the plough itself; and it appears that these may be so adjusted, as to give the plough a proper hold of the ground. But, although the excess or want of hold by the plough's make, may be balanced by excess of hold by the sock, so that the plough may be made PL II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 51 made to have a proper hold ; yet this exposes the plough to opposite strains, and also increases the la- bour of the cattle. The plough will therefore be more perfect, when the hold by the sock and the form agree ; and, besides the advantage of making the upper part of the sock and the mouldboard of one regular twist, the furrow slice will be more easily turned over, and be left in a better position. At first sight, it would appear that the best position of the sock is, to have its under surface straight with the plane of the lower side of the head, as H S T in fig. 1 6. It is however thought by some, that the plough goes steadier when its point projects a little below that plane. The reason given is this : When the sock and lower side of the head are in the same plane, if the point of the sock strike on a stone, it cannot get be- low it, because the head is then on the firm ground ; and as the plough must necessarily pass over this stone, in so doing it loses part of its hold ; or, if the resist- ance of the stone against the upper part of the sock forces down its point, the back end of the head in- stantly rises; whereas, if there be a small projection downwards, a hollow is left under the fore part of the head which allows the sock to sink a little deeper, and thus throws up the stone, without forcing up the back end of the head. All this may be done with a sock of the proper length and regular twist. I N, the coulter, which cuts the furrow slice from the firm land, and also assists in giving the plough a proper hold of the ground. Its operation depends very much on its foxm and position; and, being exposed to 52 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL IT. to resistance from different quarters, though it must be sharp for cutting, it must at same time be strong, so as not to be easily bent or broken, These two pro- perties can only be obtained by making it thin and broad, in the form of an acute or sharp wedge. Its land side should be flat, and a little rounded on the furrow side, from the fore edge to the middle. As was before observed, the plough may be consider- ed as a kind of wedge employed in removing a certain quantity of earth from one place to another, or from the land side and bottom of the furrow ; both these to be made straight. For this purpose, the plane of the coulter ought to be placed in the plane of the land side of the plough. By this position, the cut which it makes forms the land side of the furrow in the direction of the plough, to which its land side is pressed by the resistance acting upon the furrow side of the sock and mouldboard. When the plane of the coulter has any other position, there will constantly be a resistance acting on the plough, tending to change its direction. This must be continually opposed by the ploughman, or by varying the form of some other part of the plough, so as to give it a contrary tendency. The first is certainly improper ; the last is no less so : because, although these different inclinations may be so regulat- ed as to balance each other, yet they increase the la- bour of the cattle. In fitting the coulter into the beam, the mortise should be made parallel to the line in which the plough moves, and not pointing to the land side, as is often practised. PL II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 53 practised, which is a great defect ; for it always gives the plough a tendency to turn towards the land; while the form and position of the coulter here recommend- ed, causes it to cooperate with the sock and mould- board in removing the furrow slice to the right-hand, which must be an advantage. With respect to the slop- ing direction of the coulter, it would seem, at first sight, that its fore edge, as well as its land side, should be placed perpendicular to the horizon ; but this po- sition would not be so proper for cutting ; because, in any operation with a cutting instrument, less po\vca* is required when the cutting edge is placed oblique to the direction of its motion. This is plain, from draw- ing a stroke with a knife in a sloping direction ; where- by much greater effect will be produced, than could be obtained from the direct action of its edge. It has been said, that a loss is sustained by the point of the coulter cuttina; the furrow slice so much forward below, before it is cut above ; but it plainly appeal's that this is rather an advantage ; for the point of the coulter, by being projected forward, cuts the ground partly upwards ; and though, when opposed by any obstacle, such as tough roots, &c. it does not cut these instantly; yet, in pressing forward, it strains and tears them with much greater ease than if its fore edge were nearly upright : From this direction too, all the roots that remain uncut, are made to slide up the fore edge of the coulter, until they come to its top ; by which means, the coulter is cleared of them in that pan. which is employed in cutting the furrow slice. But if the fore edge of the coulter were placed perpend' :u- F lar, &4 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL If. lar, it would then carry along with it all the roots, &c. it did not cut ; which would greatly increase the re- sistance it meets with, and the plough would oftener in this position be choked and intercepted in its motion. Besides, if the coulter encounters a stone, it will force the stone upwards; in which direction, it is easier mo- ved than forced straight forward. Another advantage attending the sloping position of the coulter, is its as- sisting to keep the plough steady in the ground ; for,, that some force is necessary for this purpose, will ap- pear, if w r e consider the direction of the draught. The point B, or horses' shoulders, to which the draught is in general fixed, is about four feet six inches above C D the bottom of the furrow, the line B Pv making an angle of about twenty-four degrees with C R the lower side of the plough ; which direc- tion of the draught always tends to pull the plough out of the ground ; and even if the fore edge of the coulter were perpendicular, it would afford no check to this tendency. Though, then, the coulter were sloped twenty-four degrees, this inclination would have little or no effect. It must therefore incline still more, so that it may cut the ground more easily, and also, that the re- sistance of the earth on its cutting edge may cooperate with the sock and fore part of the mouldboard in op- posing this effect of the ascent of the line of draught. The most proper inclination of the coulter for obtain- ing all the purposes already mentioned, seems to be an angle of about forty-five degrees, or the diagonal of a right angle. The advantage of this position will be seen by fig. 1 6, where the line A B represents the line of PL IT. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 55 of draught, making an angle of about twenty-four de- grees with the line C R the bottom of the furrow. This line of draught is supposed to pass through the centre of gravity of the plough near R. It will in- tersect the coulter at the point L, which generally is four or five inches up from the lower side H S of the sock. If the line G H be drawn through the point L at a right angle to the line BR; then, if the edge N I of the coulter makes an angle of forty-five degrees with the line C R, it will form an angle about twenty-two degrees with G H, there being nearly the same quantity of earth cut by that part of the coulter below L, as there is by the part above it. The coulter will then be equally pressed on each side of the line of draught, and, in this respect, can have no tendency to force the plough, either out of, or into the ground. This position of the coulter will be the most proper when the sock is at the longest, and will admit of be- ing changed, so as to bring the point of the coulter nearer to the sock when it is shorter. If the sock be of such length as to make the coulter more inclined than I N, it will always assist to keep the plough in the ground; in which case, the point of the coulter N should be placed a little before the point of the sock, and nearly in the plane S H of its lower side. By thus advancing the point of the coulter before the sock, it cuts the fur- row slice from the firm ground before it is raised by the sock ; so that the furrow will be soonest cut in the very place where it is to be soonest raised. If the point N of the coulter were placed behind the point of the sock, then the earth of the furrow would be raised up be- F 3 fore o6 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL II. fore being cut, which would increase the labour of the cattle ; but by the furrow slice being cut at some distance before the point of the sock, it is easier turn- ed or twisted over. It has been alleged by some people, that the coulter, by being advanced before the sock, its point is more liable to strike on stones, without having any support from the sock ; and that the plough is thereby more liable to be broken, or the coulter bent out of its pro- per position : But it is evident, that a stroke on the coulter does net tend so much to break the plough, as a stroke on the sock ; because the plough will bear more strain from a stroke on the one than on the other. Besides, when the coulter is no more advanced than the sock, and placed at an improper distance from the land side, it is as apt to strike on a stone as if it were more advanced, and in its proper place. Neither will it in this position receive any support from the sock, which may at the same time receive a shock from the same or another stone ; and such being the case, the chance of these shocks is doubled ; because, if the stone be struck by both coulter and sock at same time, it must be carried forward through the firm ground, and not be so easily turned aside as if only struck by one of them. For all these reasons, advancing the point of the coulter a little before the point of the sock, is still preferable ; but as the coulter is exposed to these shocks, it may be supported against them by an iron stay 1 K, that turns en a bolt put through the coulter at I, and passes through a hole in a bolt fixed in the beam at K, the upper part of this stay being secured PL II, TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 57 secured by a screw nut, so that the coulter may easily be raised or depressed at pleasure. This stay also serves another good purpose, as it prevents stubble or grass from being pressed up into the angle formed by the coulter and under side of the beam, from which it is not easily removed by the ploughman. By this posi- tion of the coulter, having its land side in the plane of the land side of the plough, and by its thickness increasing to its back edge, the furrow slice is brought exactly on the furrow side of the sheath and fore part of the mouldboard. Little or no earth falls in be- tween the plough and the firm land in loose or wet soils, and equally small is the quantity which strikes the fore edge of the sheath in hard soils; and as the fur- row slice takes a regular rise with its corner on the land side of the sock, so that no roots can pass be- twixt the coulter and sock without being cut ; so, the whole land side of the plough being equally pressed to the firm ground, the plough is prevented from run- ning into it by any sudden resistance on the furrow side. If the coulter and sock are in their proper posi- tions, and the plough have too much or too little hold of the ground, either of these defects will, in general, be corrected by the shifting parts of the bridle, which can be varied by the ploughman at pleasure, accord- ing to the nature of the soil he is ploughing ; but if the plough cannot be brought to a proper trim in this way, it must be tempered by the coulter and sock. As was already observed, however, such a plough is defective in some of its parts. This may easily be known, by fixing the point of draught as high as the shifting 58 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PI. IL shifting parts of the bridle will allow ; in which case, the back end of the head should not press on the ground, but even rise a little; and thus, the point of draught be- ing placed as low as the bridle will admit, the hinder end of the head should press hard on the bottom of the furrow, and the fore part of the plough should even have some inclination to rise out of the ground. If these things do not happen by the point of draught being altered, it is then certain that the position of the beam is not properly adjusted to the make of the plough, and the position of the coulter and sock. This defect, therefore, must be corrected by altering the position of the coulter and sock, which will bring the plough to a proper trim. It may in general be observed, that in order to make a plough go steady in the furrow, the point of draught should be fixed a little below the straight line B R, because, in most ploughs, the centre of gravity is near R, behind the sheath ; and the distance between the lines at A F should not exceed three or four inches ; for, if the draught at F is placed too low, it tends to raise the plough out of the ground. With respect to the breadth of the lower side of the plough, from outside to outside, and the best position of the furrow slice, different opinions are entertained ; but if the operation of a plough be attentively considered, it will appear plain, that the flice of earth which the plough cuts off from the firm land must be shifted to a side, turn- ed over, and left in a sloping position, or at least placed on its edge. To perforin this in a proper manner, the furrow slice must be removed its whole breadth PI. II. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 59 breadth to one side, as may be seen by inspecting fig. 15., where F G I L represent the firm ground from which the furrow slice is to be cut. Let its breadth from G to H be eight inches. The coulter must come down perpendicular in the line H K, and the furrow slice G H F K must be turned over upon the corner B, so that the former under side F K of the slice may incline over to the next furrow, or at least stand on the side B D, witli its edge A D facing the unploughed ground. Now it is evident that, when this is done, the whole furrow slice is removed eight inches to a side. It is likewise obvious, that this is ef- fected by no other means than by giving the lower side of the plough that breadth behind when the mould- board leaves the slice, because then there is nothing else to press the earth of the furrow to the right-hand. Thus, the turning over, and placing the furrow slice in any desired position, is performed by the breadth of the plough behind, and shape of the mouldboard. When the soil is loose, and cannot be turned over like close, firm earth, it will always be completely removed from its former place by a plough having its lower side equal in breadth with the furrow slice cut off by the coulter from the firm land. Hence, it would seem, that no greater width of the plough below is requisite. It has been, however, erroneously supposed, that if the lower part of a plough is broader than the fur- row slice which it takes off, the soil will be removed further to a side, and thus there will be more room for the next furrow slice to stand on. But this will evidently 60 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL it evidently appear to be a mistake, on comparing two ploughs together, one of them eight inches broad below, and another twelve inches. Let both be em- ployed in cutting off a furrow slice eight inches broad and eight inches deep. The narrow plough removes the first slice eight inches to a side, and places it, we shall suppose, on its edge. A second slice is cut off, also removed eight inches, and set on its edge ; which second slice is here pressed close to the first, because its thickness across, as it now stands, is also eight inches. The broad plough, again, removes the first slice twelve inches, and sets it on its edge. The second slice is remov- ed also twelve inches, and placed on its edge close to the first slice, and has no more room to stand on than the first slice had. Hence, it is not the breadth of the plough below, or the shifting of the furrow slice to a side, that gives more room for the earth of the furrow to stand on. This depends on the proportion betwixt the breadth and depth of the furrow slice; for, when the breadth and depth of the furrow are equal, the slices will be pressed close together, whatever is the breadth of the lower side of the plough, because there is no more space than its thickness will fill up. If the slice is deeper than its breadth, it will be pressed still closer to the former slice, and part of it forced up to a greater height than it would rise to if it had more room. But when the furrow slice is broader than it is deep, which in general is the case, it will have more space when raised on its edge than it can fill up, by which means it does not press so hard on the back end of PL tl. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 61 of the mouldboard, but falls more easily away ; and if the breadth of the furrow slice be much greater than its depth, it then falls over, and is made to lye upon its back, which is thought to be a defect in ploughing, and, it is said, is peculiar to the plough with a feather sock and curved mouldboard. No doubt, this is oftener seen in working the plough just notic- ed, than the one with the spear sock and plane mouldboard ; but this arises, not so much from a de- fect in the form of the plough, as from inattention, sometimes, of the ploughman ; for the feather sock, by raising a greater breadth of earth or furrow slice than the spear sock, makes the furrow slice too broad in proportion to its depth, and will certainly lay it on its back, unless the ploughman be very careful ; but to prevent this in some measure, the plough with a feather sock and twisted mouldboard may, and indeed ought, to be so formed, as to turn the earth of the furrow no further over than to place it in a sloping position, or make it stand on edge, by the mould- board having the proper twist, and the feather not being too broad. However, as different soils and the number of cat- tle attached to the plough require various breadths and depths of furrow, no certain rule can be given for the breadth of the lower side of the plough, so that it may answer all soils and situations, because the furrow should always be adapted to the power employed. When two ordinary horses are in the draught, the breadth of the plough below should G not 62 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL II. not be less than seven or eight inches, nor greater than nine or ten, reckoning from outside to outside behind, square over from the land side. The only ad- vantage arising from a plough having a great breadth below, is the giving more space in the bottom of the furrow for the ploughman and cattle to walk in. At the same time, it is improper to increase the breadth more than is necessary ; because removing the earth of the furrow so much further to a side, gives so much more resistance to the plough, of course more labour to the cattle. It has been supposed, that by making the fore part of the mouldboard round or curved, as fig. 8. 9. and 1 1 , that it would require less force to draw it for- ward. However, it is evident, if one form of mould- board is preferable to another, it must be, either be- cause it raises, turns over, and places the furrow slice in a more proper position, or makes the plough easier drawn. We shall examine the curved mouldboard with respect to both these advantages, and compare it with the plane twisted mouldboard. It was observed, that the earth of the furrow cut off by the coulter from the firm ground, is raised by the sock, and, as the plough moves forward, is turned over to one side. Now, the use of the mouldboard is to receive the furrow slice from the sock, raise it up, turn it over, and shift it to a side. The common mouldboard with the wrest, if well made, performs these operations ; for it gradually raises up the earth of the furrow, and, as it raises the slice, turns it over, and, while turning it over, PL II TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 63 over, shifts it to a side, and leaves it either standing on its edge in a sloping position, or turned over on its back. The rounded or curved mouldboard acts differ- ently. As it is cast out above in the fore part, it prevents the furrow slice from rising ; turns it over more suddenly; and the slice is shifted to a side after it is turned over. In land that easily breaks to pieces, the common mouldboard seems to have the advantage ; for, as it raises the earth of the furrow- higher than the other, it leaves it also more loose and open to the influence of the air. But in land that is not easily broken, the rounded or curved mouldboard seems to have the advantage ; for, by turning over the furrow slice suddenly, it is more apt to break the slice asunder than the common mouldboard, (which turns it over more gradually), and, by removing it to a side after it is turned over, is apt to bruise it. Thus, it is evident, that the earth of the furrow, by being raised and turned over gradually, and shifted to a side as it turns over, continues whole in many soils, but will be broken if turned over suddenly, and bruised if removed after being turned over. But if one form of mouldboard makes a plough more easily drawn than another, the common mouldboard in this respect has the advantage; for, although it may be allowed that the friction or pressure on the hind part of the mouldboard is lessened by its being curved on the fore part, yet the friction in general is rather increased, and more than balanced, by the greater resistance which it meets with, from its fore G 2 par 64 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONVEX PL It part turning over the earth of the furrow suddenly. Some persons have been led to imagine, that the plough having a curved mouldboard is easier drawn, from the resemblance it bears to the form of a ship ; but there certainly is a great difference betwixt the motion of a body impelled through a fluid by the wind acting upon sails raised above that body, and the motion of a body drawn through the soil by animal force ; there can therefore be no just reasoning from any analogy betwixt them. It is evident, that the curved mouldboard, by turning the furrow slice sud- denly over with its fore part, will meet with more re- sistance than the common mouldboard in that part; and if the slice is shifted to a side after it is turned over, then the mouldboard must press upon it as the plough advances, which makes the friction on the hinder part of the mouldboard perhaps nearly equal to that upon the common mouldboard, when it turns over the fur- row more gradually. To illustrate this, let A B fig. 1 7. represent the firm ground, and C D the earth of the furrow already laid up to the ploughed land ; E F the earth of the furrow which the plough is taking from the firm ground ; G H the same earth laid up to the ploughed land ; I R the furrow made when the plough laid up the earth C D ; and K the furrow made when it laid up the earth G H. Then, suppose R to represent the place where the curved mouldboard turns over the furrow slice. It is obvious, that this mouldboard, in moving forward, must press hard on the earth at G R in laying it close to the earth C D ; whereas, PL 77. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 65 whereas, if the furrow slice is not turned over at R, but only raised up and turned over gradually as it ap- proaches the earth C D, it thereby has freedom to move, and does not give such resistance to the mould- board as when turned over at R. In this respect, then, the curved mouldboard seems to have no ad- vantage over the common mouldboard, but, on the contrary, gives more resistance, and of course makes the plough heavier to draw. It may be necessary further to observe, that in com- paring these two mouldboards with each other, it is supposed the sheaths to which they are fixed are placed in the same position; because the effects of both are different, according to the position of the sheath. It appears, that if the sheath to which the curved mouldboard is fixed slope much forward below, it will have nearly the same effect as the common mould- board with a more upright sheath. We shall next proceed to describe the Plough with a Concave Twisted Mouldboard. PLATE PL III. THE PLOUGH, &C. 67 PLATE III. The Plough with a Concave Twisted Mouldboard. i ©' Although the plough is of vast importance to man, yet it has long been very much neglected. In- deed, it would seem to have been considered as unworthy the attention of persons skilled in ma- chinery, who perhaps were ready to imagine, that no rule was necessary for forming so simple an instru- ment. It was, therefore, long left in the hands of workmen, who, in general, gave themselves little trouble in examining its nature and operations, so that it was constructed merely by guess; because these persons, having no proper or fixed principle to di- rect them, could neither judge of its defects, nor of the means to be employed for removing them. As far as the author knows, Mr Small was the first me- chanic in Scotland who published rules for the forma- tion of its different parts ; likewise directions for con- necting them together. Since that period, the Scots plough has been greatly improved in many places of this country ; while in others, even to this day, it is as much neglected as ever, its construction being no better executed, perhaps worse, than that of the com- mon plough was, in some places, forty or fifty years ago. But 68 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE Pi. IIL But although the plough appears to be a very simple instrument, nevertheless, it is in reality a very nice and complicated machine. And as the raising, shifting, turning over, and placing the earth of the furrow in a proper position, depends in a great measure on the form of the mouldboard, it must be of great conse- quence to have a certain method or rule by which the mouldboard may be formed agreeable to any given principle. The twist of the mouldboard must be determined on some certain length of furrow slice. Thus, suppose a plough to have entered a field or ridge of land, the end of which is square, and that the plough has advanced until the back end of the head has just en- tered the ridge, then E F D in fig. 3. will represent the furrow slice as it then lies on the sock and fore part of the mouldboard. F D is the side of the slice cut by the coulter from the firm ground, being square at F; and the angle DEF is about fourteen degrees with- in the square, when the length from the point of the sock at D to the back end of the head at E is about thir- ty-four inches, and the breadth of the plough at E about nine inches, which is nearly the medium dimensions of ploughs of this kind. This angle DEF continues the same from the time that the point of the sock be- gins to raise and turn over the furrow slice, until the back end of the head pass the end of it at E F. As the plough advances, this angle approaches nearer to the square ; but the alteration is very small from the time the sock begins to raise the earth of the furrow slice, until PL III. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 60 until the plough quits it. This supposition is very near the truth, and will afford several easy and cer- tain rules for forming the sock and mouldboard ; whereof we shall point out three. The first of these is exemplified by the protractor and scale. The protractor, a well known and useful instrument, is a semicircle divided into one hundred and eighty equal parts or degrees, represented by fig. J , and is sometimes furnished with an index or pointer C D E, moveable round the centre D, as in the figure. The use of this instrument is similar to that of the common bevel or suit stock. If the point C of the index be set to any number of degrees, sup- pose forty-five, then the angle formed by the edge A D E D will likewise be forty-five degrees ; so that a piece of wood may easily be worked to this angle, by applying the protractor square over its edge ; by which means also a block of wood can be form- ed to any twist. For example, if it be required to twist a block of wood in such a manner that it may be square at one end, and half square at the other ; let one side of the block be made plane or flat, having a straight edge ; let this edge be divided into forty-five equal parts, and place the mark 90 at that part where the block is to be made square ; then place 89 at the first division, 88 at the second, S7 at the third, 86 at the fourth, and so on to the end, which will be 45 ; thus, if the point C of the index be placed at 90, the edges A D E D will form a right angle or, square, which being applied to the block of wood square H with 70 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL IIL with its edge, and the wood wrought or hewed off until it fit this angle, the wood will then be square at that part. In like manner, the point C of the index being placed at 89, the edges A D E D will form an angle of eighty-nine degrees. - If this angle be applied on the block of wood at the mark 89 square over its edge, and the wood hewn away until it fit the angle of the protractor, the wood will thus be formed into an angle of eighty-nine degrees at that point. Proceeding in this manner with the different degrees of the protractor, between ninety and forty-five, and the corresponding numbers on the edge of the block of wood, it is obvious, that the block will be so formed, that its surface will have a twist from the square to the half square, increasing gradually from the one end to the other, each part having a regular increase. Thus the twist can be varied at pleasure, so that it may be made more sudden at one place than at another, by the divi- sions on the straight edge of the block of wood being unequal, that is, shorter at the place where the twist is designed to be more sudden, and longer where it is intended to be less so. The other instrument is the scale represented in fig. 2, which is a straight piece of wood divided into any num- ber of parts, equal or unequal, according to the nature of the twist that the block of wood is intended to have. The use of this scale is to save the. trouble of dividing the edge of every piece of wood to be twisted. It is very convenient, therefore, when several blocks of wood, of the same dimensions, are to have the same twist. PL 111. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 71 twist. When this scale is to he used, the block of wood must be made flat on one side, and straight on the two edges ; at same time, of such a thickness^ that there may be sufficiency of wood to complete the twist intended. The scale G D is then placed on the edge of the piece of wood, as in fig. 3, when its dif- ferent graduated divisions will direct the workman to form the twist accordingly. It was before observed, that when the plough has advanced in the soil the whole length of the sock and head, the furrow slice D E F, as it then lay up- on the sock and mouldboard, did not make a right ano-le with E D, the lower edge of the mouldboard, but fell about fourteen degrees within the square, as from E to F, making an angle of about seventy-six degrees : So, when the index is applied to the scale G D fixed to the lower edge of the mouldboard, the radius of the protractor will not be square with that edge, but make an angle D E F of seventy-six de- grees. For this purpose, the tail E D of the index must be bevelled to seventy-six degrees, as is repre- sented in fig. 1, No. 2, where P R S T is the tail of the index seen endways, having its two angles R and S of seventy-six degrees each ; and the protractor C E, placed in the middle of the index, goes sloping through it, and turns on the centre pin A B, which ought to be at a right angle to the sides P S and R T ; so as the protractor may form an angle of seventy-six de- grees with P R the upper edge of the index. If the index be placed at the different degrees of H 2 angle, 72 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL III. angle, and applied square with the outside of the lower edge of the mouldboard, as B S L, it will always give a regular twist for turning over the furrow slice. Thus, let A, fig. 3. be the backmost point of the mould- board above, and D G the scale placed upon its lower edge ; then let G, the point to which the index of the protractor is applied, be one hundred and twenty-five degrees, the protractor at the same time touching the point A on the upper edge of the mouldboard ; the distance from G to the point of the sock at D, is the length of the scale fig. 2., which is divided into one hundred and twenty- five equal parts or degrees. This scale is fastened to the lower edge of the mouldboard, as in fig. 4, where A B is the land side of the sock and head, B the point of the sock, B F K the scale, and D E the upper edge of the mouldboard. The protractor being properly applied to the scale, will regulate the mould- board to one uniform twist, from its back end D to the point of the sock B, forming not only the mould- board, but also the fore edge of the sheath and up- per surface of the sock. In using these instruments, care must always be" taken that the index be applied square with the lower edge of the mouldboard ; and that the part G L of the scale, which projects beyond the back part of the mouldboard, must not be bent from the straight when applying the protractor to it. Inattention in either of these particulars may produce great errors in the twist of the mouldboard. From the directions given above, for forming a piece of woo4 PL III. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 73 wood to any twist, it is obvious that, whatever opinion the agriculturist may entertain concerning the par- ticular size and form of the furrow slice, a mould- board can be made, by the proper application of these instruments, to any twist that may be required. By this method, likewise, the back or upper sur- face of the sock, and fore edge of the sheath, is form- ed. But as it is necessary to know, nearly, the incli- nation and curve of the sheath before it be fixed in- to the beam, the sheath is therefore represented by fig. 6. No. 1. where A E is its perpendicular height from the sole A B to the under side of the beam at E, and E F is the tenon which is driven into the beam ; A C its inclination forwards, its straight edge F G forming an angle about fifty- five degrees with the line A B. The fore edge of the sheath is often formed to the segment of a circle as at C E, having the radius C D between eighteen and twenty inches, its centre D being perpendicular to B. This sheath is seen edge- ways in fig. 6. No. 2., where A B is the tenon to be driven into the beam, and B C the shoulder on its land side, by which its surface is placed in the same plane with the land side of the larger handle. The tenon A B ought, at same time, to be placed in the middle of the beam's thickness, in order to give the greatest strength. The mouldboard may also be formed to a regular twist, by a very simple instrument, called a bevel or suit stock, which is represented in fig. 5. It consists of a piece of straight wood, MN, which is commonly termed the 74 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL IIL the stock or handle, with a rod, K L, fixed into it, so as to form an angle equal to that which the cross line E F of the furrow slice, as in fig. 3, makes with the lower edge D E of the mouldboard, which is an an- gle of about seventy-six degrees. There is likewise a lath, or thin slip of wood, O P, fixed to the upper edge of the handle, M N, parallel with its edge, so as to form a shoulder that can be applied to the mould- board sole. This is represented in fig. 5. No. 2. where L N exhibits the handle seen endways, and the angle or shoulder L with the rod K L fixed in the handle. In using this instrument for giving the mouldboard a regular twist, let us consider fig. 7. No. 2., in which I is the point of the sock, I K the land side of the plough, and DFRa line drawn parallel to I K a- cross the furrow side of the sheath ; D E is the fur- row side of the lower edge of the mouldboard, and A F its upper edge. Now, let a piece of wood be chosen sufficiently large to form a mouldboard such as fig. 7. No. 1., K L representing the upper, M N the under edge, and the fore end, L N, being placed on the furrow side of the sheath. This piece of wood, when joined to the plough, should stand in the position of fig. 7. No. 2., C D E H being its lower edge, and ABFG its upper edge. To effect this, the triangle, CDF, must be cut off, so as to make a perpendicular face on the land side, in such a manner that, when joined to the furrow side of the sheath, the lowest point N of fig. 7. No. l. ehould be PL III. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 75 be placed at D in fig. 7. No. 2., in which case the point K of fig. 7. No. 1. will fall on A of fig. 7. No. 2. But the perpendicular face already mentioned must be fitted close to the furrow side of the sheath all the way from D to T, so that the edge of the piece of wood, or line A D, shall form an angle of about thirty degrees with R D ; and if the intended thickness of the mouldboard be drawn on the under edge of the piece of wood, and also on its upper edge, the lower edge or line D E forming an angle between fourteen and sixteen degrees with I K the land side of the plough, the edge or line A F will, in that case, form an angle between forty-four and forty-six degrees with the land side. The fore end of the mouldboard should be form- ed according to fig. 7. No. 1. ; and the handle of the bevel should always be laid along the line IDE, with its end N towards I; the check or shoulder L in No. 2. fig. 5. being applied close to the side IDE. Then, if the bevel be moved back towards E until the rod K L touch the fore edge of the sheath on the furrow side, the wood on that side must be sloped off un- til the rod touches the fore edge of the sheath on the land side. If the suit stock or bevel be applied in this manner, always moving the stock along the line D E, and hewing off the wood on the furrow side of the sheath, until the rod K L can touch its fore edge on the left-hand or land side; by this means, the mould- board will be formed backwards equal with F, the up- per part of the sheath. In like manner, by proceeding, and always applying the stock of the bevel along the edge 76 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL lit edge D E, and hewing off the wood, until the rod K L touch the line F A drawn on the upper edge of the mouldboard, in its different parts backward to A : this being completed, if the stock be moved gradual- ly along the edge D E, and the rod applied to the surface of the mouldboard, the rod will slide along the mouldboard, and touch its surface equally in every part from A to D, by which means the mouldboard will be formed to one regular twist. The mouldboard made in this way will be very lit- tle different from that formed by the scale and pro- tractor, and may likewise be varied at pleasure, by altering the draughts A F on the upper edge, and D E on the under edge of the mouldboard, and by form- ing the fore edge of the sheath, or placing it in a greater or less angle with the lower side of the plough. Therefore, whether by means of the scale and protrac- tor, by die bevel, or by dividing the breadth of the in- tended mouldboard into any number of parts, it is evi- dent that, by either of these methods, a mouldboard may be formed to any regular or irregular twist, ac- cording as the scale and piece of wood intended for the mouldboard is divided into equal or unequal parts, or according to the angles to which the lines are drawn on the lower and upper sides of the wood. The last property to be taken notice of respecting the mouldboard, is the form of its back end, which has been greatly varied by different ploughmakers. But surely there must be one way of forming it, pre- ferable to every other, which is humbly supposed to be that PL HI. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 77 that which shall leave the furrow slice all in one inclined plane. This it will nearly perform, by the back end being of the same angle or curve with the fore end, as in fig. 3., which makes the mouldboard all of one length ; yet, if the mould- board be of any other form, its back end may still be made to leave the earth of the furrow in one regular position. Thus, if two parallel lines be drawn upon a plane surface, at the distance of the extreme point of the back end of the mouldboard sole from the land side of the plough, which is represented in fig. 7. No. 2. by the lines I K and L M ; let the plough be set with the heel of its mouldboard at L, with its land side placed along the line I K, perpendicular to the horizon ; then, if a straight thin board, of equal breadth with the mouldboard, be set on its edge along the line L M, but leaning over to the furrow side, having li- berty to move on the line L M, as if on a hinge, and its flat surface touching the back end of the mould- board, which must be cut away until the plane of the board touches it from the lower to the upper edge. By observing the fore-mentioned rules and directions, any workman may make mouldboards, with absolute certainty, in whatever form or twist they may be re- quired. When the different parts of a plough are prepared, and marked for the mortises and tenons, they must then be laid in that position which they are to have when the plough is completed. But the position of the beam which gives the plough a proper hold of the I ground, 73 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL HL ground, depends on its length, on the height of its fore end above the plane of the sole or lower side of the head, and on the inclination of the line of draught. If it were necessary that all ploughs should be of one length, from the fore part of the beam by which the cattle draw, to that part which turns over the furrow slice, then the rule for giving them all the same hold of the ground must be, to place the fore end of the beam at the same height above the plane of the sole. But as this rule will not apply when the beam varies in length, the following method may be useful. Let fig. 9. represent the framing of a plough, in which B E is the larger handle, G H the sheath, and S T the beam. These several parts being made to the in- tended form, and placed in their positions, take a straight rule, or batten, as C D, extending the whole length of the plough ; and let there be a bracket, or other mark, G, placed about three feet from R; make a point B, about six inches further from R, which, in most well-made ploughs, is nearly the distance from the point G of the sheath, where the line of draught intersects the lower side of the plough ; then let the line G R be extended to F, about seven feet from R, in a straight line with the lower side of the plough ; from the point F raise a perpendicular to A, four feet six inches, which in ge- neral is the height of that point where the draught is fixed on the shoulders of the cattle ; then the line A B will be the inclination of the line of draught passing from A, through the fore end of the beam at S to the point B, forming the angle A B F about twenty-four degrees \ PL HI. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. T'J degrees ; make A K between five and seven inches, and draw the line B K ; place a straight batten, as L M, in the line K B, and fix it to the upright rod R N, the lower end of which is fastened at R to the rule C D. By this means, the sloping batten L M will be kept steady in its place. The sheath G H being formed to the proper curve, as in fig. 6, No. I, having its lower end cut to the pro- per angle, let it likewise be marked at H, the height of its shoulder, or where the tenon that goes through the beam is to begin. The stilt or larger handle B E must also be cut to the proper length and form ; then let the lower end or sole of the sheath be placed on the edge of the rule C D, with its point at the mark or bracket G. The larger handle B E must also be placed in its proper position, having its end E raised about three feet two inches above the upper edge of the batten at D : then place the beam S T, with the under part of its fore end on the upper edge of the sloping batten L M, and its under side on the tenon mark H, or shoul- der of the sheath : then let the point S of the beam be shifted forward or backward, along the upper edge of the batten L M, and its under side always kept close to the tenon mark H of the sheath, until the other end of the beam at T has sufficient length of tenon for passing through the larger handle. The tenons and mortises must now be marked while the different parts are in this position, and, when joined together, the plough, will have a proper hold of the ground. For as the line K B is the inclination of the I 2 draughf 80 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL III. draught when two horses are in the plough yoked abreast ; if two horses are yoked, the one before the ether, the line of draught from the foremost horse will be in the direction of the line B W, which, forms an angle about fourteen degrees with the line D F, or the sole of the plough, while the draught line B K of the hindermost horse makes an angle of about twenty- two degrees with the line D F. Thus, two powers are applied to the plough in different positions ; so that the proper line of draught, in that case, will be the line B X, where these two powers unite, which line makes an angle of about eighteen degrees with the line D F. Hence, when two powers are applied to the plough, the fore end of the beam should be placed at the point N on the line B X, in order that the plough may have a proper hold of the ground, and cause it to move steadily on its sole. The larger handle may be of such a form as is represent- ed in Plate 1, fig. 14, where its lower end is fix- ed into the head. The form, however, represented by B E in fig. 9, is certainly to be preferred ; because its lower end supports the sheath, having an iron bolt passing through it in the direction of the dotted line B H, and secured by a screwed nut on the upper side of the beam at P, which keeps the beam, the sheath, and lore part of the larger handle, firm- ly together. By this means, the plough is fortified against any sudden shocks it is liable to in passing through the soil. This form of a plough may be used either with a spear or feather sock, at plea- sure. PL III. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 81 sure. The spear sock is represented by fig, 10; and No. 1. is a cross section of the head and back end of the sock. D E is the lower side of the head ; B E the land side : A B C D is the sock fixed on the head, with its upper surface B C sloping to the furrow side, which is the form it ought to have, when the mouldboard is made according to fig, 4. The feather sock is re- presented by fig. 1 1» No. 2. is a cross section of the back end of this sock : D E is the sole ; A B the land side ; B C the upper surface ; and C D is the feather. The back or upper surface of both these socks will have very nearly the same inclination with the mould- board of fig. 4, at that part where the back end of the sock and the fore part of the mouldboard meet. But the difference between the spear sock and the feathered sock, will best appear by comparing them together ; for it is evident, from the construction of the feather sock, that in stony land it meets with greater resistance than the spear sock, by reason of its breadth and sudden taper. It is not so, however, in every case ; for, when the land is free of stones, this plough takes the furrow slice off broader than that part of the sock which goes on the head, which makes it more easily drawn than with the spear sock, because the firm earth which the spear sock leaves to be opened by the lower edge of the mouldboard, is previously cut from its bed by the feather sock, and consequently raised up more easi- ly. At same time, the feather must not have too great a breadth, but should be in proportion to the breadth of the under side of the plough, and of the furrow slice cut off by the coulter. Its breadth also S2 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL IIL also depends on the nature of the soil ; because, when the land is free of stones, and full of tough roots, it requires a broad feather. On the contra- ry, a stony soil, with a few roots, requires a narrow one ; so that the breadth of the feather ought to be regulated according to the nature of the soil. But as, in general, the sole of the plough is between eight and nine inches broad, the breadth of the feather should be betwixt six and seven inches. It has, how- ever, been thought by some, that to make the feather equal to the full breadth of the sole, is an improvement in the plough ; because, when of that breadth, it cuts the whole breadth of the furrow slice off from the earth below it. But this great breadth of the feather seems to be rather a disadvantage ; for the slice, be- ing completely cut off from the bottom, is apt to break from the firm ground before it begins to rise on the sock and mouldboard ; by which means, it often hap- pens that the earth of the furrow is not turned over, but only shifted to a side, and the same surface left uppermost as formerly ; but, when the feather is about two or three inches narrower than the fur- row slice, then that part of the slice next the open furrow is not cut, but is kept fast, until the land side of the furrow slice be raised on the back of the sock and fore part of the mouldboard ; and when the slice is raised nearly on its edge, this corner will be easily broken by the mouldboard. Thus, the slice does not slide to the furrow side, but is properly and regularly twisted over as the plough advances. The tearing of this part of the slice gives very little resistance to the plough ; PL III. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 83 plough ; and the resistance it occasions is perhaps less than if it were wholly cut by the feather ; because the greater breadth of feather, with an equal length, would present a more obtuse angle in cutting the slice, by which the resistance must be increased. However, in some soils, a greater breadth of feather may perhaps be necessary, that is, in land free of stones, but abounding with tough roots or strong quicken-grass, or, in fact, any thing that lyes deeper than the plough penetrates, it be- ing much easier to cut than to tear these up or asunder, which must in part be done, when the feather is too narrow, and more so when the spear sock is used. In this case, therefore, the broad feather seems to have the advantage, especially if the length of the feather be in proportion to its breadth, which, in ge- neral, ought to be as two to one ; so that, if the ex- treme point of the back end of the feather is six inches from the land side of the sock, then the whole length of the feather, from the point of the sock, should at least be twelve inches. Its cutting edge will then form an angle of about twenty-eight degrees with the land side of the plough ; so that, if the fea- ther is required seven inches broad, its length ought to be fourteen inches, and so on in proportion, by which its edge will always cut at the same angle. But it is the opinion of some experienced farmers, that the feather should not be much narrower than six inches; because, when too great a part of the furrow slice is left uncut, it will require more strength to tear it asunder ; and the work is not so neatlv perform- ed. 84 THE PLOUGH WITH A CONCAVE PL III. ed. Therefore, it appears that the plough with a fea- ther sock, is not only easier drawn than the plough with the spear sock in some soils, but that, in some lands, it makes better work. In ground where there are root weeds, the feather destroys them much more effectually; because many of the roots which the spear sock slips past, or passes over, are cut by the feather sock, and thereby eradicated. But then, it is to be ob- served, that the spear sock has greatly the advantage in stony land ; for, by the sharpness of its point, and the acuteness of its sloping form towards the head, it escapes many shocks from stones, which would put the plough with a feather sock out of its proper direction, and even endanger its being broken to pieces. Fig. 8. A bird's eye view of this plough, when finished. A B represents the beam ; B C the larger handle ; D E the lesser handle ; F & G, two rods, by which the lesser handle is connected with the large one, and kept at a proper distance from each other ; H I is the lower edge of the mouldboard ; and K L its upper edge, fastened at L I to the sheath, and at E to the lesser handle. Fig. 8. No. 2. Profile of the furrow or right-hand side of this plough, where A B represents the beam ; C D the lesser handle ; E F the coulter fixed in the beam ; R G the sheath, having its upper end fixed at R in the beam j and G H I the sock fastened up- on PL III. TWISTED MOULDBOARD. 85 on its lower end ; C L K H the mouldboard, the fore end of which, L H, is fixed to the furrow side of the sheath, and its hinder parts fastened at C K to the lesser handle. As mouldboards are in general made of cast-iron in one whole piece, and as their Lower parts are soonest wore away from the proper form, by the great pressure of the furrow slice on these parts, they are, on this account, commonly made thickest below. Still, that does not prevent them from wear- ing out of their proper shape ; for the under edge is often wore through, when the upper parts are little worse. Therefore, if the mouldboard were made of two or three different pieces, the undermost part would not require to be so thick ; of course, the plough would be considerably lighter, and any of these pieces could be taken off, and replaced by a new one. But the upper piece, being little exposed to much pressure, seldom has occasion to be removed, and will in all probability be the last part of the plough which shall require any sort of repairs. K PLATE PL IV, THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 87 PLATE IV. TJie Chain Plough. ■©• Fig. 1. A B is the beam ; B C the larger handle fixed at B to the back end of the beam ; D E the lesser handle, fastened at the lower end, by the rod D, to the larger handle ; and F G are two stretchers or rods, which connect its upper parts to the larger handle : By these two handles, the plough is directed when at work. D H is the under edge of the mould- board, and I K the upper edge. The fore end, H I, of the mouldboard, is fastened to the furrow side of the sheath, and the hind part to the lesser handle. L M is the coulter ; N P the muzzle or bridle placed at A on an iron bolt that passes through its arms and the fore part of the beam ; O is the chain by which the plough is regulated to have a proper hold of the ground, (see K, fig. 2.) Fig. 2. Profile of the left-hand side of the chain plough. A B represents the beam ; C D the larger handle fixed at B, upon the hinder part of the beam, having its end D raised about three feet two inches above the point O, or plane of the sole ; E F is the coulter ; G H 1 the sock jRSHT the mouldboard. K 2 The 85 THE CHAIN PLOUGH. PL IV. The form of this plough is somewhat different from that where no chain is made use of, as the fore part of the beam at A, in the chain plough, is raised higher above the plane of the sole, and the line of draught is regulated by the chain. The point K of the bridle, to which the draught is attached, is kept in its proper po- sition by the chain M K, which is hooked on a staple in the beam at M, fixed by a screw-nut at N on the up- per side of the beam. This chain may be made longer or shorter at pleasure, and the point K of the bridle kept at any point in the segment K L, by its moving on the bolt at A ; so that, according to the chain's length,, the plough will have more or less hold of the ground. In this form of a plough, greater changes in the line of draught are obtained, than by the bridle without a chain ; because the bridle arms can be made longer from the bolt A on which it turns, without danger of breaking, it being supported by the chain K M. The part of the beam, also, between A & R, is partly se- cured from breaking, by extending the chain from M to P, where it is placed on a bolt fixed in the beam, since at the mortises of the coulter and sheath the beam is most apt to break. The coulter may like- wise be strengthened by the chain, one end of which is placed on a bolt passing through the coulter at O, and the other hooked into the chain M P. By this chain, the coulter can also be placed at a greater or less inclination, as circumstances may re- quire. PL IK THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 89 Fig. 3. No. 1. represents a piece of wood, out of which the mouldboard is to be formed. This piece of wood must be sufficiently thick to admit the twist be- ing complete in all its parts. The corners 8. 9. 10. and 1.7. 10. being cut off to the proper angle, and one end of the piece of wood being joined to the plough, it will stand in the position of fig. 3. No. 2. ; then 1. 2. 9. will be its lower edge, and 3. 7. 10. its upper edge. For this purpose, the corner 4. 9. 10. must be hewed off to a perpendicular face on the land side, in such a manner that the lowest point 9. in No. 1 . may- be at 9. in No. 2, and the highest point 10. in No. 1. fall on 10. of No. 2.; also, the perpendicular face before mentioned, must be joined close to the furrow side of the sheath all the way from 9. to 1 0. Now, let the in- tended twist be drawn on the fore end 9. 10, and on the back end 1. 10, and each of these ends be divid- ed into any number of equal parts, suppose ten, and numbered as 1,5, 10, that is, from one to ten ; thus, if the extra wood at 2. 3. be carefully hewed away, either in straight or curved lines, from the different divisions on the end 9. 10. to the corresponding num- bers on the end 1. 10., then the furrow side of the mouldboard will have the intended twist from end to end. By this, or either of the two methods above no- ticed, the furrow side of a mouldboard can be formed to any regular or irregular twist, in proportion as the wood is divided into equal or unequal parts. Either the spear or feather sock will suit this plough, according to the nature of the soil, If the soil is stony, the spear sock 90 THE CHAIN PLOUGH. PL IV. sock is certainly to be preferred ; because its point be- ing small, and its taper long, it passes these stones easier than the feather sock. But where the land is free of stones, and full of root weeds, the feather sock is preferable ; because its sharp edge cuts up the weeds. The feather sock is represented by fig. 4, where A B is the land side of the plough ; A C E the sock, the land side of which should be in a straight line with the land side of the plough, likewise at a right angle or square with its lower side or sole ; at same time, the upper surface of the sock should be twisted from A to C, the land side, all the way from its point C to E, in proportion to the twist of the mouldboard. C D is the feather ; E F the position or inclination of the lower edge of the mouldboard, B F being the breadth of the sole or lower side of the plough be- hind, where it leaves the furrow slice. Fig. 5. A plough for turning the furrow slice to either side. This plough is very useful for ploughing along the sides of steep hills, or in a diagonal direc- tion, where the furrow slice must be always turned to the lower side. The labour, both to men and cattle, is greatly in- creased, when ploughing steep grounds straight up hill. In some cases, where the declivity is great, a furrow can be taken down hill only, which is a very tedious operation, and attended with great labour and much loss of time ; whereas a plough of this form, in which the mouldboards are easily shifted to any side, may be PL IV, THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 91 be employed with less labour to the cattle, and with greater expedition ; because the ploughman, hav- ing it in his power to turn the furrow slice either to the right or left-hand, according as it answers his purpose, can always turn the earth of the fur- row to the lower side, whether he is ploughing in a diagonal direction, or straight along the side of a steep hill. The form of this plough is somewhat different from that of the common plough, and may be made different ways. But the beam, head and sheath, must always be placed in the direction of a line pass- ing along their middle, and the two handles must be placed equidistant on each side of that line. A B re- presents the beam 5 CDD the two handles, which are supposed to be made of a piece of wood having a proper form, and of such toughness, that, when slit or sawn along the middle near to C, where the beam is fixed, will surfer to be bent aside to the neces- sary width without breaking ; or a piece of wood, as B C, being fixed on the beam, and having its lower end fastened to the sheath and head, the two handles may be fixed to it at B C with screwed bolts. Or, again, a piece of wood may be taken, having two branches of a natural form suitable for that purpose. E F G H are the two mouldboards, the fore ends of which are joined together at U, in such a manner, that their upper edges EF&GH form an angle be- tween forty-eight and fifty-two decrees. But it is neces- sary, in order to raise, shift, and turn over the furrow slice. 92 THE CHAIN PLOUGH. PL IK slice, that these mouldboards be curved or twisted, so that the angle which the upper edge of each board makes with its under edge may be about seven- teen or eighteen degrees, both edges being straight, (see fig. 7.), where the line A B represents the lower edge of the right-hand mouldboard, and A C its up- per edge. The angle formed between the mould- boards below should be the same with that made by the land side and mouldboard sole of the common plough, which, in general, is from fourteen to sixteen degrees. The two mouldboards are kept in their pro- per position and angle, and are also strengthened a- gainst the pressure of the soil, when ploughing, by an iron segment Z Z fixed in them near their upper edge, and by iron rods at B near their lower edge, (see F G, fig. 10.) As this plough turns the earth of the furrow to either side, it requires two coulters, one on each side of the beam. P Q is the right-hand coulter, and R the left-hand one. They are both placed on an iron bolt at P, which passes through the beam. V W the muzzle or bridle, which is fastened to the beam at A by two iron bolts going through its arms and the fore end of the beam. In ploughing along the sides of steep hills, it is necessary that all the horses walk in the bottom of the furrow, be- cause they will not find firm footing on the unplough- ed ground, but will be apt to slide down into the fur- row. To admit of this, the fore part V W of the bridle is made straight, and without any notches ; so that the stretchier or swing tree Y Y, to which the horses PL IV. THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 93 horses are attached, may be easily moved from either side of the bridle by the chain X, one end of which is fastened to the stretcher, and the other end, having an eye, slides from side to side on the fore part of the bridle, at each turning of the plough. In this plough, the line of draught and mouldboards can be easily and quickly shifted to either hand ; at same time, one of the coulters is raised up clear of the land, and placed along the side of the beam, while the other coulter is put down, and placed in a proper position for cutting off the furrow slice from the firm ground. All this is performed at once, with ease and expedition, by means of the two levers KL&I W, the lever W I turning on an iron bolt fixed in the beam at U, and the lever L K turning on a bolt at M, which bolt is placed in a cross piece of wood fastened between the two handles. By these levers, the mouldboards F & H, which turn on an iron bolt near- U (see P, fig. 6, where this bolt W X passes up through the head, the mould- board, and the beam), are shifted from side to side. The coulters are raised or depressed ; and the chain X, by which the plough is drawn, shifted on the fore part of the bridle, and kept in the proper line of draught. The end K of the lever, being at the plough- man's hand, can be easily pushed to either side ; for example, if the end K of this lever be moved from O to N, the end I of the other lever, being connected with it by an iron bolt, is carried along with it ; and as the lever I W turns on the bolt U fixed in the beam, its other end, W, is moved to the opposite side I, of 94 THE CHAIN PLOUGH. PL IV. of the beam ; and the chain X slides on the fore part of the bridle from V to W. By this means, the chain X is placed in the proper line of draught ; and at same time, the lever L K, by turning on a bolt at M, and its end L moving upon a bolt fixed in the middle of the iron segment Z Z, the mouldboards are shifted to the left hand, the board E F becoming the land side of the plough, and the board G H the fur- row side alternately, as they are moved by the lever K L either to the right or left hand ; thus, the coul- ters are shifted, the one taken up clear of the land, and laid along the side of the beam, the other put down in its proper position for cutting the fur- row slice from the firm land. This is performed by means of an iron plate having three branches, as ELS, which turns on an iron bolt fixed in the beam at T. In the longer arm L of this plate, is a hole or slit that moves upon a bolt in the iron segment Z Z at L ; so that, when the segment Z Z and mould- boards are shifted by the lever K L to the right or left hand, this arm L is moved by it from side to side. The plate having liberty to turn on the bolt at T, the ends E & S of the cross arm are moved in different di- rections ; the left-hand coulter R being connected with the end of the cross arm at S by an iron rod, and the right-hand coulter P O is in the same manner connected with the other end of the cross at E ; so that, when the mouldboards and longer arm L are shifted to ei- ther hand, one of the coulters will be raised up, and the other depressed. Thus, if the end K of the lever be PL IV. THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 9S be moved from N to O by turning on the bolt at M, the end L of this lever will shift the mouldboards to- ward F ; while the coulter R, by turning on a bolt at P that passes through the beam, will be depressed, the coulter O raised up, and the chain X shifted from W to V by the lever I W, which turns on a centre bolt at U, and is connected at I with the lever K L. It is evident from the figure, that when the end K of the lever is moved to the left-hand, the mouldboards and the line of draught will be moved to the right, the left-hand coulter put down, and the right-hand one raised up. . In like manner, when the end of the lever K is moved to the right-hand, the mouldboards and the line of draught will be shifted to the left, the right- hand coulter put down, and the left-hand one raised up alternately, as the lever K is moved from one hand to another. As the mouldboards F and H, the coulters R and Q, and the draught chain X, are thus shifted easily and quickly when requisite, they must also be kept steady in these positions when ploughing. For that purpose, the iron rod N O turns on its pivots in the handles D D, near to the ploughman's hand. Up- on this rod are two notches or brackets, one of them at N, which holds the lever K at the right-hand ; of course, the mouldboards and chain of draught are kept to the left-hand, and the coulter Q kept in its proper position for cutting the furrow slice, which in this case is also turned to the left-hand. When the mouldboards and line of draught are to be shifted to the right-hand, or towards F, the lever K must L 2 be 96 THE CHAIN PLOUGH. PL IV. be disengaged at N, by turning the rod N O a little round on its pivots ; and the catch at N will be rais- ed up clear of the lever K, which, if moved to the left-hand, the mouldboards H and F, and the chain X, will be shifted to the right-hand, the coulter R put down, and the coulter Q raised up ; at same time, the notch at O falls instantly down, and holds the le- ver firm ; so that the shifting parts of the plough are all kept steady by the two notches N & O on the iron rod. Again, we shall suppose the end, K, of the lever K L to be placed in the middle between N and O, and a coulter fixed at P in the middle of the beam, as in the common plough : the plough will then turn a furrow to each side at the same time ; so that this form of plough may be used to advantage as a double mouidboard plough, in hoeing or in water-furrowing wet lands. Fig. 6. Profile of the same plough. A B represents the beam ; B D the handles fixed to the beam at B, (see D D C, fig. 5.) The handles are raised at D, about three feet two inches above the point O, or the plane of the lower side, W C, of the plough ; G U is the left-hand coulter, in its position for cutting the furrow slice from the firm land. The dotted lines T U represent the right-hand coulter rais- ed up to the side of the beam, clear of the ground ; and C E is the sock fastened on the fore part of the head, (see T R, fig. 9.) The two coulters turn on an iron bolt at U that goes through the beam, (see P, fig. 5.) and they PL IV, THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 07 they are also supported against the resistance they may meet with in the ground, by an iron plate fixed with screw-bolts on each side of the beam, as Y H Z. In these plates 16 an opening outwards, as at H, which re- ceives the left-hand coulter G U when put down, and holds it steady in its proper position for cutting the firm ground. In like manner, when the right-hand coul- ter U T is put down, it is secured by a plate of the came form fixed on the right-hand side of the beam. IKEF represent the left-hand mouldboard, which is joined to the right-hand one at E I ; both of them turning on an iron bolt, W X, that passes through the head and beam. This bolt has a head, which is sunk into the head of the plough below at W ; and its other end, X, is secured by a screw-nut that rests on the upper side of the beam. In order that the mouldboards may be easily shifted, and either of them become the land or furrow side of the plough alternately, it will be necessary that the cor- ners on the upper side of the head be sloped oft down- wards about one inch and a fourth, (see E R D, fig. S.), the lower edge of the mouldboards being equally slop- ed off on the inside ; so that, when they are placed for ploughing, the land side board fits close into the slope on the upper side of the head : By this means, earth or small stones are prevented from lodging between the lower edge of the mouldboards and head, when the plough is at work ; and thus the land side of the plough becomes one uniform surface. L 1YI and Q R are the two levers described in fig. 5., for moving the shifting 33 THE CHAIN PLOUGH. PI. IK shifting parts of the plough ; M V Z are the iron rods and cross, which raises and depresses the coul- ters, being connected with the lever at M, and with the coulters at V. These are described in fig. 5. S is the chain connected with the fore part of the bridle, by which the plough is drawn : there are se- veral holes in the cross part, on the back end of the bridle, for a bolt to pass through ; by shifting of which, the draught chain S may be fixed either above or below the fore end of the beam, and regulate the plough in going either deeper or shallower in the ground. Fig. 8. An elevation of the plough, seen from be- hind. A B C D, the mouldboards, the fore parts of which are joined together, (see CD, fig. 10.); EFG the handles fixed at O, on the back end of the beam, (see C D D, fig. 5.) ; H I K the lever, which turns on a bolt at I, and moves the shifting parts of the plough, by pushing its end K to either side ; L M the iron rod that turns on its pivots in the handles F and G, On this rod are two notches, which keep the lever and shifting parts of the plough steady in their pro- per positions : R D P is the head, fastened at E to the lower part of the handles : N is an iron bolt put through the handles, a little above the beam-mortise, to prevent the wood from splitting when the handles F G are pressed asunder to their proper distance from each other. Fig. PL IV. THE CHAIN PLOUGH. 99 Fig. 9. R S represent the head, with T R the sock, placed on its fore end. The point T of the sock must be in a straight line with the middle of the head, having no inclination to either side. Fig. 10. A bird's eye view of the mouldboards, with the sock placed on the head. A B, the back ends of the mouldboards, and C D their fore ends joined close together : when they are moved to either side, they turn at C on an iron bolt. D E is the sock ; D L the head ; F G two iron bolts fixed near the lower edges of the mouldboards, to strengthen them against the pressure of the ground below ; H an iron segment, fastened at I and K near the upper edge of the mouldboards to keep them at a proper angle ; while at same time it supports them against the pressure of the furrow slice when raising, shifting to a side, and turning it over. PLATE jP/. r. THE TWO-FURROW PLOUGH. 101 PLATE V. The Double or Two-Furrow Plough. 'c' This plough is an implement that has not perhaps been fully tried in different soils, although, certainly, when well made, it may in many soils be advantage- ously employed. It produces two furrows at once, and has been found to perform its work in a tolerably neat manner, especially in light soils. It however requires greater power of draught than the common plough, especially in soils that are strong, dry, or stony ; and in these states of the soil, it must be al- lowed, this implement does not answer well ; but, for ploughing in light or sandy land, it may answer the end better, and prove very useful, though it is obviously more limited in its range of utility than the single plough. The chief and most important ad- vantages attending its use, are, its saving the attend- ance of one man, and in doing double work in the same time, when only a shallow furrow is required. Fig. 1. A bird's-eye view of the two-furrow plough. A B is the beam ; B C the larger handle, fixed at B on the back end of the beam j D E the lesser han- M dle 7 102 THE DOUBLE OR P/. Fl die, fastened at H to the furrow side of the head, and attached to the larger handle by the iron rods D, X and Y, which keep them at proper distances from each other. F G is the mouldboard of the right- hand plough, fastened at F P to the right-hand or fur- row side of the sheath, and fixed at U to the furrow side of the beam ; P the coulter mortise, and S a mortise into which the upper tenon of the sheath is fixed ; Q is a mortise for the left-hand coulter, and T a mortise for the left-hand sheath. V, W, D, are iron screw-bolts that fix the piece of wood U D, to strengthen the bended part of the beam. H I is the left-hand mouldboard, fixed at H T to the fur- row side of the sheath, and at D to the lesser handle ; R Z an iron chain for strengthening the beam. One end of this chain is placed on an iron bolt that passes through the beam near T (see S, fig. 2.), and the other end is hooked into a ring on the fore part of the muzzle, (see P, fig. 2.) K is the sock cr share of the right-hand plough, and L Z the sock of the left-hand one ; M N a frame, fixed on the fore end of the beam, in which the pivots of the wheel R turn ; which wheel rolls on the firm land, and regu- lates the depth of furrow, (see M N, fig. 2.) The muzzle O, to which the cattle are yoked, is fixed to the beam by an iron bolt passing through its two arms and the fore end of the beam. 1 : 1 represent the bottom of the furrow which was previously made by the left-hand plough ; and 2 : 2 the furrow slice turned over into it by F G the right-hand mouldboard. M PL V. TWO-FURROW PLOUGH. 103 MNKL represent the firm ground ; 3 : 3 the furrow slice laid up or placed close to the slice 2 : 2, by H I the left-hand mouldboard ; and 4 : 4 the bottom of the furrow made by the left-hand plough. These furrows may be made broad or narrow at pleasure, by the fore part of the mouldboards turning on hinges, and their back ends, G and I, being secured with screw-bolts. By this means, the mouldboards may be set at a greater or less distance from the land side of the plough ; and by shifting the line of draught on the muzzle, the furrow slices may be made either broader or narrower, as circumstances require. Fig. 2. Profile of the left-hand side of this plough. A B the beam ; C B the larger handle, fastened at B to the end of the beam ; D E the coulter of the right-hand plough, placed in the beam at E. The share or sock, I G H, is fastened at H I on the fore part of the head and lower end of the sheath ; F H the sheath, the upper tenon of which goes through the beam, and that on its lower end through the head. F K I L the right-hand mouldboard ; O N is an upright frame that goes through a piece of wood fixed on the fore part of the beam, (see M N, fig. ].) ; P S an iron chain for strengthening the beam ; the fore end of which is hooked into the bridle-ring P, and its other end attached to an iron bolt at S, fixed in the beam for that purpose. There are also other two iron chains fixed to the beam at T and X, having their lower ends hooked into the chain P S, to prevent it M 2 from 104 THE DOUBLE OR PL V, from falling downwards at any time when the cattle cease drawing. E Y an iron bolt that passes through the head, the sheath and the beam. Its under end is sunk into the head at Y, and the upper end at E se- cured by a screw-nut on the upper side of the beam. This bolt keeps all the fore part of the plough com- pact and firm together. No. i. 2. is the coulter of the left-hand plough ; 3. 4. 5. its sock or share ; 5. 6. the sheath ; 7. 8. 4. 9. the mouldboard ; 7. 1 0. a bolt that passes through the head, the sheath and beam : its un- der end is secured in the head at 1 0, and the upper end at 2, by a screw-nut on the upper side of the beam. M a wheel, the pivots of which revolve at O in the upright frame, while its circumference rolls on the surface of the unploughed land. This wheel regulates the plough in the ground ; for, by shifting the frame O N either up or down in its mortise, the plough will take a shal- lower or deeper furrow. Fig. 3. Profile of the right-hand side of this plough. A B is the beam ; A C the lesser handle ; D the coulter of the left-hand plough ; G the sheath ; I K L the share or sock ; PROI the mouldboard. E F the coulter of the right-hand plough j H the sheath ; M N O the sock or share, and S T L N the mould- board ; X W an iron chain for strengthening the beam. It is fixed at X, on a bolt that passes through the beam, and hooked at W into the ring on the fore part of the muzzle, which is attached to the beam at B, by an iron bolt passing through its arms PL V. TWO-FURROW PLOUGH. 105 arms and the fore end of the beam. These arms have liberty to turn on this bolt, so that the fore part W of the muzzle may be raised or depressed, and the draught placed either above or below the fore part of the beam, as found necessary. The chain X \V is also supported by means of two chains Y Y, fastened to the beam by two iron bolts, which prevent its falling down when the cattle cease pulling. Z U is a frame, on the fore part of the beam, in which the pivots of the wheel V revolve at Z. The cir- cumference of this wheel rolls on the land. By it the depth of furrow is regulated, as the frame U Z can be easily shifted either upwards or downwards in the mortises ; by which means, the wheel V may ei- ther be raised up or depressed, according as the fur- row is wanted deeper or shallower. In the shifting arms U Z are several holes to receive iron-bolts above and below the frame which is fixed on the fore part of the beam. These bolts hold the arms U Z, and of course the wheel V, at any distance from the lower side of the beam that may be required. Fig. 4. A back end view of the same plough. A B represent the larger handle ; C D the lesser one, fixed at D to the head ; P P are two rods that con- nect the handles ; E K D L is the mouldboard of the left-hand plough, and MNLO the mouldboard of the right-hand plough. The mouldboards K D L and N L O are kept in any required extension, by means of screw-bolts and nuts ; so that the furrows O L and L B can be made broad or narrow at pleasure. Harrows 106 HARROWS IN GENERAL. PL V m Harrows in General. Implements of this description are useful and ne- cessary in the practice of husbandry, both for cover- ing the seed, and preparing the land for its reception ; though, as yet, they have, in their forms, received little improvement. The chief circumstances by which they have been rendered more convenient, are, the direction of the bulls, or frame in which the tines or teeth are fixed, and in the way of attaching the horses. It must appear to every one in the least ac- quainted with harrowing, that no one harrow, of whatever form, can be suitable to every soil, or state of the land ; but that these implements ought to be adapted to the particular purposes intended to be ac- complished. In the lighter grounds, light harrows having short teeth may answer ; but, in strong soils, or such as have been newly broken up from old leas, or from a state of nature, a harrow which possesses much greater weight and strength, furnished with long and strong teeth, is absolutely necessary : and where the land abounds in roots and weeds, it may be requisite, to prevent the harrow's being easily choked, not to set the bulls too thick with teeth ; for, when a harrow has too many teeth, it is not only soon choked up, but prevented from operating in a proper manner, be- ing confined too much to the surface, by which the soil is imperfectly pulverized. In harrowing, much time is lost when turning at the end of the ridge, especially where there are two or PL V. HARROWS IN GENERAL. 107 or more harrows employed together ; for, by their pitching on one another, or turning over, time is lost in putting them again in their proper places. To remedy this, harrows have been connected by hooks and eyes, by which they are left at liberty to rise and fall, and at same time prevented from pitching above, each other. To prevent any two teeth of the harrow moving in the same track, has also been attempted by different methods. The most simple seems to be, making the harrow of a rhomboidal form, according to the num- ber of teeth, or distance between these teeth, in each bull, so that they may divide the ground that the har- row covers into equal parts, and move in lines equi- distant from each other. But as the harrow com- monly made use of, is formed square, and attached to the horses by one corner, so that it moves in a dia- gonal direction, seme of the teeth in its hinder part move almost in the same track with those going be- fore. Some persons are of opinion, that in the large or break harrow, the teeth should incline a little forward ; others think it of little consequence, if they be put square into the bulls ; but all agree that every tooth should move in its own line of direction, and at equal distances from one another, which enables the implement to do more work in the same time, and to better purpose. It may be an advantage to have the teeth, at least of large harrows, fastened into the bulls, either with screw-nuts, or b) making the heads of the teeth square that are put up through the bulls, having oblong holes in that part of 10S THE BREAK HARROW. PL V. of the teeth which rises above the bulls ; and into these holes square wedges may be put, in order to keep the teeth fast, and to prevent their being lost. The latter method seems the best; for screw-nuts are liable to rust, consequently not easily taken ofE Harrows are also formed with teeth of unequal lengths, the first row being a half or three fourths of an inch longer than the second, and so on. These have been said to do more work, and to be easier cleaned of weeds and other roots which choke them. Harrowing, in general, is best performed, by the driver walking behind the harrows, which enables him to clean them when requisite, and to proceed in his business with more despatch. In attaching harrows to the power intended to draw them, the common method is, by fixing a sta- ple in one corner of the harrow ; but it would seem a better method, to fix a bar of iron in the points of three of the bulls, having different holes through it, into either of which the draught chain can be fixed, and shifted when necessary. Fig. 5. A bird's eye view of a break harrow. It is formed of two parts ; the fore part is of a tri- angular form, and the last part of an oblong form. A C B D E represent the part with the triangular form. It is composed of three bulls fixed together by a screw-bolt passing through their ends near E A, and by the cross sheaths l . 2. 3. passing through the bulls A C, A B, and D E. In this part of the break there are eleven teeth or tines; in each of the outside bulls five; and in the middle bull PL V. THE BREAK HARROW. 109 bull one. D C is an iron rod which passes through the back end of the three bulls, by which the ob- long harrow is attached to the triangular one, and has liberty to move up or down, by means of the three iron rods R, B, P, having eyes in the hasps, by which they revolve on the cross bolt. These three rods pass through the two bulls, K H, M L, of the oblong part of the harrow, and are secured on the outside by screw-nuts S, T, O. The two bulls are also fixed together by the sheaths 4<. 5. 6. 7. pass- ing through them. In this part of the harrow are ten teeth, four in the bull K H, and six in M O, making in all twenty-one teeth in both harrows. They are placed in the bulls in such a manner, that they divide the space which the harrow covers into equal parts, (see the dotted lines at V U), and move in lines parallel to one another. O N, the two han- dles fixed to the oblong harrow, by screw-bolts at X Y. By these handles being pressed down, the teeth of the break will go deeper in the ground ; and, when lifted up, the contrary effect is produced ; which makes it an useful implement for levelling steep ridges or rough land. W is the chain and bridle fixed at A E, by which the break is drawn. Fig. 6. Profile of the same break harrow. C E, the handles fixed to the upper side of the bulls of the oblong part by screw-nuts ; A B that part of the harrow which is of a triangular form ; and C D that part of it which is of an oblong form. M N the 110 THE BREAK HARROW. PL V. the iron bolt that passes through the bulls of the tri- angular part of the harrow, by which the oblong part is connected to it, and on which it revolves by means of the iron rods M D passing through the bulls from C to D, where they are secured by screw-nuts (see R P, fig. 5.), the oblong part having liberty to move up or down on the bolt M. The tines or teeth, K L, pass through the bulls, and are secured on their upper side by screw-nuts. They are formed sharp on the fore edge, made broad for strength, and thick behin x. tapering gradually from the lower side of the bu'ls to their points. N O is the bridle, to which the draught chain P is fixed by a bolt and key. In the bridle are several holes, into any one of which the draught may be placed. A is a screw-bolt that passes up through the middle of the bull and the two arms of the bridle, secured above by a screw-nut. By this means, the bridle, to which the draught chain is attached, is fixed to the fore end of the break- harrow. PLATE PL VI. THE COMMON HARROW. 11 1 PLATE VI. The Common Harrow. The harrow is that instrument by which the sur- face of the land is made smooth after ploughing. One horse is sufficient to draw the harrow commonly made use of for covering the seed after sowing j and, when harrowing, sometimes three horses go abreast, each horse pulling one harrow unconnected with the others ; but when the surface of the ground is very rough, two horses are as many as one man can well manage, because, in land in this state, the harrows often pitch on the top of one another, so that the greater the number working together, the more dif- ficult will it be to keep them clear of each other, which consumes much time, and greatly retards the work : but it is thought preferable to use three har- rows when they can be conveniently employed toge- ther. To prevent the harrows from pitching on the top of each other, sometimes a piece of wood is fixed to the outside of the bulls, and raised above the surface N 2 °f 112 THE COMMON HARROW. PL VI. of the harrow. But it seems preferable to couple the J: uTows together by iron hasps and hooks, so as to allow each of them liberty to rise or fall, according to the inequality of the ground. This mode of connect- ing the harrows has in some respects the advantage of the mode above suggested ; because, by this means, they are kept at a regular distance from each other ; and are also prevented, by their mutual weight, from starting over the clods. At same time, this method of connecting harrows is attended with one disad- vantage, viz. if the driver be not very attentive, some of the horses may have more than one har- row to draw. Harrows are used of different forms. Two kinds are represented in this plate ; but, to judge which is the most proper form, will best be done by a compa- rison. Fig. 1. ABCD&EFGH represent two of the old Scots harrows. The chains by which the horses draw are commonly fixed at the corners of these harrows, as at A & C. The teeth are placed equidistant from one another in the bulls ; and the inequality of their operation is evident, from the dotted lines extending from the teeth pa- rallel to the line of draught, and intersecting the lines K L ; from which it appea.rs, that several of these teeth move nearly in the same track, and others at too great u distance from each other, which must prove PL VI. THE COMMON HARROW. 113 prove an obstacle to the complete execution of, the work. M N is the cross-tree to which the horses are yoked ; and AGO the chains that connect them to the harrows. Fig. 2. Profile of the same harrows. P & R represent the harrows with their teeth ; and R S the chain and end of the cross-tree by which they are drawn. Fig. 3. ABCD&EFGH represent two im- proved harrows, which are coupled together by the iron hasps K L, N O, and the hooks L M, OP, fixed in the bulls in each harrow. By these the harrows are connected ; and the same distance from each other is preserved, as takes place in the spaces between any two bulls in the harrow ; and though the teeth are placed equidistant from one another in the bulls of this, as well as in the bulls of those in fig. 1, they nevertheless move in lines equidistant from one another ; which is obvious by the dotted lines drawn from the teeth parallel to the line of draught, cutting the lines R S into equal parts ; so that not any two of the teeth of these harrows move in the same track ; and, by dividing the surface of the land into equal parts, they make better and quicker work. This is effected by forming the harrow to an angle, ac- cording to the number of teeth fixed into it. Thus, if there are five teeth fixed in each bull, as in B F, then the 114 THE COMMON HARROW. PL VI. the angle must be such as to divide the space F G into four equal parts, so that the foremost teeth in the bull at B move in a line four of these parts distant from F ; of course, it follows, that if these two harrows have forty teeth, they will divide the space which they cover, into thirty-nine equal parts, being about two inches distant from each other. There is an iron plate, as at A T & C U, fixed in the fore part of each harrow. In these plates are se- veral holes, into which the draught chains W V may be shifted a little to either side, when found ne- cessary. Fig. 4. A B represent the edge of the same har- rows, having the teeth F G put up through the bulls, and fixed by screw-nuts at D E. On the upper side, A G is the draught chain and cross- tree by which the cattle draw the harrow. Fig. 5. represents the coupling irons which con- nect the harrows. A B & C D are the hasps. The openings at B are made oblong, to allow the hooks liberty to move up and down when the surface of the land is un- equal. E F & G H are the hooks, each of which has a shoulder like that at E, which rests on the outside of the bulls, when placed in the harrow. They are also secured in the bulls, either by screw- nuts, or small wedges, that go through holes in their PL VI. THE COMMON HARROW. 115 their points, as at E F. There is also a small wedge that goes through the point of the hooks at D, which prevents the hasps and hooks separating when the harrows move up or down. PLATE PL VIL A MACHINE, &C. 117 PLATE VII. A Machine whereby hand may be Harrowed in a Wet Season. The sowing of wheat, under existing circumstances, is one of the most important branches of the corn farm- er's labour. In some seasons, it is almost impossible, in this climate, to get wheat land harrowed according to the common method, especially land that has been re- duced by summer-fallow, without subjecting it to poaching from the horses, and occasioning a great waste of seed. Hence it often happens, that a less quantity of wheat is got sown than was intended, or requisite for the supply of the market. But were this machine to come into general use, no such deficien- cy would be felt ; because wheat might be sown, and the land properly harrowed by this implement, per- haps in the most adverse seasons, and an adequate and regular supply furnished for the increased and in- creasing demand of that article. Fig. 1. A A represent the ridge, supposed fifteen feet broad ; B B and C C are three harrows and a half, of the ordinary dimensions, which cover the breadth O of 118 A MACHINE FOR HARROWING PLVIL of the ridge. In each harrow are twenty iron teeth, and in the half harrow ten, making in all seventy teeth, which divide the breadth of the ridge A A in- to sixty-nine equal parts ; and, when moved along the ridge, proceed in lines nearly two inches and one eighth distant from one another, and parallel to the line of draught. D D the furrow's on each side of the ridge, in which the horses walk when drawing the ma- chine and harrows : this prevents them from poach- ing the land in the process of harrowing. E E are iron hasps and hooks by which the harrows are con- nected, and kept at a distance from one another equal to the space between any two bulls in the har- row ; by which means, the teeth are equally divid- ed on the ridge. The openings in the hasps require to be made long, in a right angle to the surface of the harrow, so that the hooks may have freedom to move up or down in them, and allow the harrows to rise or fall, according to the inequality of the surface of the land. P P and RR are iron bars, fixed near the points of the bulls in both ends of each harrow. In these bars are different holes, in which the points of the iron rods L L are fastened by screw-nuts, so that the rods may be easily shifted a little to either side, as found necessary. F F a beam of wood that ex- tends the whole breadth of the ridge. It is made of two pieces (see H I, fig. 3.) joined together by sliders in the groove G G, and fastened by screw-bolts, in such a manner that it may be made suitable to answer any ridge from twelve to eighteen feet. This beam is PL VII. LAND IN A WET SEASON. 119 is supported at each end by the frames H H and I I, which are carried along by two wheels turning on their pivots in the lower part of the frame, (see G I in fig. 2. and G L in fig. 3.) These wheels roll in the bottom of the furrows D D behind the horses. The harrows are attached to the beam F F, by the chains K K and hasps X X, fixed on the beam by plates and screw-nuts on its upper side, (see S T, fig. 10.) ; so that they can be easily shifted and placed upon any part of the beam, according to the number of harrows required for the breadth of the ridge. In each of the draught-chains K K, where they join the harrows, is a small roller (see R in fig. 10), which, when the horses and shafts are turned to pull the harrows the other way, runs along the rods L L, as from Y to S, and in some degree prevents the rods from wearing. M N the shaft, in which the horses are yoked when drawing the machine. When the harrows arrive at the end of a ridge, it is diffi- cult to turn them and go over the same ridge again, although they can easily pass to the next ridge; but in order that they may return on the same ridge, and save the trouble of turning the whole machine, the shafts are made to turn on iron bolts, at T and Z. These bolts pass through the stretcher of the shafts, the frames H H & 1 1, and the ends of the cross-beam F F; so that, when the horse, with the shafts M, turns round to the right-hand into the same furrow near Q, and the horse, with the shafts N, turns to the left-hand in- to the same furrow near O, they regain their former O 2 track, 120 A MACHINE FOR HARROWING PL VIL track, and move on, drawing the frames H and I, with the beam F F, to which the harrows are attached by the chains K K ; then the rollers on the end of these chains roll along the rods L L, as from Y to S. By this means, the harrows return along the same ridge as often as is found necessary for harrowing it sufficient- ly. One man walking on the middle of the ridge, or standing on the platform W, can direct the horses on each side, and turn them round either way, by the bridle-reins passing on two sheeves, or whorls, placed on each side of the centre bolts T and Z, in the middle of the cross- stretchers H H and 1 1, which are fixed in the shafts. The ends of the cross-beam F F go in- to mortises in the stretchers of the frames H and I ; and they have liberty to move on the bolts T and Z, which pass through their ends, (see C O in fig. 3.) ; so that, if the horse on one side of the ridge should happen to go a little before the horse on the other side, and the beam not keep at right angles to the lines of draught, the wheels carrying the frames and beam will nevertheless follow the horses, keeping straight in their track, without going to any side, or rutting the edges of the ridge ; as would certainly be the case, if the ends of the beams were fixed in the frames in which the wheels turn, and had not free- dom to play on the bolts in the frames. Fig. 2. Section of the machine and harrows. A B represent the shafts by which the horses pull die machine, with the harrows attached to it j CD the P/. VII LAND IN A WET SEASON. 121 the frames which carry the shafts, and support the ends of the beam to which the harrows are connect- ed. In these frames, the wheels G L turn at I, when rolling in the furrow. E F the harrows with their teeth, which are equally tapered on both sides, and placed square in the bulls, so that the harrows may be drawn by either end ; G H the chain that con- nects the harrows with the cross-beam, (see K X, fig. 1.); H I the iron rod fixed at each end of the harrow, on which the roller in the chain at H rolls when the horses turn round to the right and left-hand with the shafts B to draw the machine and harrows back again upon the same ridge. The shafts are attached to the frames at K by an iron bolt that passes through the ends of the cross-beam ; and upon it they turn round either way, when found necessary. Fig. 3. End view of the same machine ; in which A A and B B represent the harrows with their teeth ; C C the cross-beam, which consists of two pieces of wood joined together by screwed bolts, and may be made long or short as occasion requires ; M N, iron chains, one end of which is fixed to the beam, and the other end to the harrows ; D D and E E the shafts placed on the frames H H and 1 1, in the middle of which are the iron bolts O & O, which go through the shafts, the frames, and ends C C of the cross-beam ; K K and L L two wheels that turn on their pivots in the frames at F B and F G, and roll in the furrows on each side of the ridge, carrying the frames, the cross 122 A MACHINE FOR HARROWING PLVH. cross-beam and shafts, (see H H & 1 1, fig. 1.) ; ST a platform fixed on the middle of the beam, on which the driver can stand and direct the horses on each side of the ridge by the bridle reins. Figc 4. represents the framing of a plough having two mouldboards, intended for water-furrowing land after it is harrowed, which operation may sometimes be found necessary. To this plough a small harrow may be attached, for smoothing the surface of the soil turned up on each side by the plough. There may also be attached to the back end of this harrow a roller, to smooth the bottom of the furrow after the harrow. A B the beam; C L the handle, fixed on its back end at B, (see C D, fig. 6.); D E the coulter, which should be placed in the middle of the thickness of the beam ; E F S the sock fixed on the fore end of the head S T, having its point placed in the same plane with the coulter, and in a straight line with the middle of the head and centre line of the beam ; F G the sheath, which connects the head and beam together ; H K a harrow, attached to the plough near H by an iron chain ; N a box made of thin boards, for contain- ing weights, by which the harrow can be made heavier or lighter at pleasure. This box is fastened to the han- dles of the plough at I, by two iron rods or chains (see C C, fig. 7.); which not only keep the harrows and box from going to a side, but also allow the harrow to rise or fall according to the inclination of the land. PL VII LAND IN A WET SEASON. 123 Fig. 5. Profile of the same plough completed. A B the beam ; B C the handles, (see A B, fig. 7.) ; D E the coulter ; E F the sock ; I G and H F the right-hand mouldboard ; RH the harrow ; A T the muzzle, fixed to the beam at A by two bolts. In the fore part of the bridle are different holes, by which the draught can be placed higher or lower, according as the furrow is wanted deeper or shallower. Fig. 6. A bird's eye view of this plough and har- row. A B represent the beam ; C D the handles fixed at A to the beam ; E F the mouldboards, which are joined together at the fore end (see M N in fig. 9.), where two iron hinges are fixed, which hold the mouldboards together. On these hinges they turn, when their back ends E and F are put to a greater or less distance from each other. For this purpose, there is a segment fixed near the upper edge of the left- hand mouldboard at R, and another fastened in the right-hand one at S. These segments pass over each other, so that the back ends of the mouldboards, by this means, may be expanded or contracted at plea- sure, and likewise kept at the requisite distance by the ' segments, in which are several holes to receive an iron bolt that passes through them into the beam, and holds the mouldboards steady in their positions, so that the furrow may be made wider or narrower as found necessary. As this plough turns part of the earth of the furrow to each side, it may likewise easily be so 124 A MACHINE FOR HARROWING Pl.VlL so made as to turn the furrow slice to either side. For that purpose, the mouldboard must have liberty to turn on an iron bolt that goes through the beam, the mouldboards and head, near their fore end at G (see N, fig. 9.) ; so that, when the back ends E F are shifted to the right-hand, the left-hand board will fall close in on the edge of the head, and form the land side of the plough, while the board F is the furrow side ; or the mouldboards may be shifted to the left- hand, and the board F made the land side, when found necessary. At same time, the bridle L T, having free- dom to turn on a bolt fixed in the beam at B, can be so shifted, that its fore end T may be turned a little to the land side, which enables the plough to take a suffici- ent breadth of furrow, and a proper hold of the ground. H I the harrow, which smooths the surface of the furrow turned up on each side by the plough. The fore end of this harrow turns on a hinge, and the back ends are connected by a hasp and hook at K, on which they have freedom to move up or down. Fig. 7. Elevation of the same plough and har- row. A B the two handles ; F and G the mouldboards ; D E the harrow ; I I a box placed on the upper side of the harrow, in which weights can be put to make the harrows heavier or lighter at pleasure ; C C two iron rods that attach the box 1 1 to the handles of the plough, having liberty to turn at C, and allow the har- row to rise or fall according to the inequality of the surface* PL VII LAND IN A WET SEASON. 12 5 surface. K the lower side of the plough, that goes in the bottom of the furrow. Fig. 8. One of the mouldboards. Fig. 9. The two mouldboards joined together at M N by two iron hinges, on which they turn when the ends K L are placed at a greater or less distance, in order to make a broader or narrower furrow. S S the segments fixed in the mouldboards, for allowing them to expand or contract, also for holding them steady in whatever position they may be placed. PLATE PL VIII. THE ROLLER. 127 PLATE VIII, The Boiler. The roller is an implement often made use of in agriculture. Like the harrow, it breaks the clods, and smooths the surface of the land. They are, in general, made of wood, of stone, or of cast-iron. But the one that is easiest procured, is made by an axle having two or three rows of spokes placed through it, according to its length. On the points of these spokes are fixed felloes in the manner of a cart-wheel ; and on these felloes are fastened boards, or planks of wood, all round, forming a cylinder. The only essential difference in rollers are their weight; because, in some cases, a light, and, in others, a heavy one is necessary. Nevertheless, the roller always ought to be made in such a manner, that weight can easily be added or taken away. If the roller be of a large diameter, a greater weight should be added ; for the larger the roller, the more of its surface rests on the ground ; which, consequently, must lessen its impression on the land when rolling. It is therefore necessary that its weight be proportion- P 2 al 128 THE ROLLER. PL VIIL al to its diameter, so that its full effect may be pro- duced. It would appear, that the roller should not be less than twelve, or greater than thirty inches in diameter ; for, if it is too small, it is apt to push the hard clods before it ; and, if too large, it has little effect in break- ing the clods, or in smoothing the surface of the soil. In general, rollers are made from five and a half to six feet long.- This length is very severe on the cattle when turning at the ridge end ; because, in turning, the roller does not move round on its pivots, but is dragged along the surface of the ground. To re- medy this great inconvenience, it would seem prefer- able to have two rollers, about three feet long each, and placed both in one frame, so as to be clear of each other. These would answer the same purpose in smoothing the land, and be much easier turned at the end of the ridge ; because, when turning, each roller moves round its own axis or gudgeon, the one rolling forward, while the other rolls back- ward ; which is of much advantage, and greatly les- sens the labour of the cattle. A small roller, with the same weight on it as a large one, will produce a greater effect, besides being at- tended with a considerable saving of expense in the construction of the implement. All large rollers should have double shafts, in order that they may be drawn by two horses abreast j and such as are employed PI. VIII. THE ROLLER. 129 employed on arable land may have a scraper attach- ed to them, to clear them of any earth that may stick to the circumference. The frames should be pretty strong, and have a box placed above for con- taining additional weight or ballast. The spiked roller is formed in the manner de- scribed above, having a number of spikes fixed into it. They are principally used where the soil is so ob- durate, that a common or plain roller is insufficient to reduce it. The drill roller is formed from a piece of hard wood of a cylindrical form ; on which are placed rims of cast-iron, at small distances from each other ; which are so made as to shift on the roller at pleasure, that the drills may be made narrower or wider when required ; and, the intermediate parts between the rims rising into ridges, the corn of course falls into the drills, and is better deposited in the earth, be- sides being better covered than it would have been, if sown in the common broadcast manner. The drill roller may likewise be employed for reducing stifY clay lands in dry seasons ; for which purpose, it is perhaps better calculated than the spike roller. Fig. 1. Plan of a machine for rolling land. A B C D represent the shafts by which the cattle draw the machine, which are fixed on the roller frame at E B F D by screwed iron bolts. GHIK the wooden frame, in which the rollers revolve on their pivots 130 THE ROLLER. PL VIII. pivots at N and P, in bushes of brass or cast-iron, and at O O in an iron frame, (see fig. 2. No. 1. & 2.) This iron frame goes up through the wooden frame at L and M, and is secured by screw-nuts on the up- per side. Ficr. 2. No. 1. & 2. are an end and side view of the iron frame, in which the two middle pivots of the rollers revolve. ABR are those parts of the iron frame that pass up through the wooden frame ; which iron frame is secured by screw-nuts on the upper side of the wooden one. The two iron branches A and B are also fixed together at C by two screw-bolts ; whereby the bushes in which the gudgeons of the rollers turn are kept steady. D and E represent the ends of the axles on which the rollers are built, hav- ing the pivots or gudgeons whereon they revolve placed in the bushes of the iron frame at L. The points of these two pivots touch one another in the bush, in order to keep the ends F G and H I of the rollers at a little distance from one another, so that the rollers may have liberty to roll either backwards or forwards, when the machine is turned round at the ridge end. Fig, 3. Profile of the same machine. ABC represent the shafts ; the ends B C being fix- ed on the upper side of the frame D E, F G H are hanging pieces of wood, having tenons that go up through PL VIII. THE ROLLER. 131 through the horizontal frame at F and G. In the lower end at H is fixed the bush, in which the pivot of the roller turns ; I K is the roller, in the axle of which are the spokes or arms L L, on whose extremities are fixed felloes ; and upon these felloes boards or planks are fastened all round, forming a cylinder or roller. Although the weight of the frames D E and F G II, and the back part B C of the shafts, rest on the pivots of the roller, still the roller may be too light for its purpose ; so that a box, as L M, made of boards, is fastened on the up- per side of the frame, into which additional weight can be put if necessary. Fig. 4. A view of the same machine from be- hind. ABC represent the two rollers, (see fig. 5.) D E is the horizontal frame, on which the shafts arc fixed at I and K, and on it the box L M, for containing additional weight, is also fastened. D F and E H, pieces of w r ood fastened at D and E into the ho- rizontal frame (see fig. 3.) ; in the lower ends of which, at F and H, the pivots on the outer ends of the rollers turn, and the pivots of the two in- ner ends revolve at G in the iron frame, (see fig. 2. No. 1.) The iron frame is secured at N by screw- nuts on the upper side of the horizontal frame. Al- though the harrow and roller are of great use for smoothing the surface of land, and covering the seed, 132 THE ROLLER. PL VIII. seed, yet sometimes, in stiff clay land, when plough- ed dry, or having been much trod upon ; in either of these cases, the furrow or land slice will rise in large lumps or hard clods, which the harrows can- not break, so as to cover the seed properly. In this state of the ground, rolling must be of great use. However, the rollers commonly used, or such as those just now described, will have very little effect in breaking these large hard clods. Indeed, the seed is often buried in the ground, by these clods being press- ed down upon it by the weight of the roller. To re- medy this, the spike and the drill rollers are very useful. A roller, however, may be made, such as is represented in fig. 6, which will perhaps answer this purpose better than either the spike or drill roller ; and which, at same time that it breaks the clods, will smooth the surface of the land. On the circumfer- ence of this roller are fixed several rows of sharp pointed darts made of forged or cast-iron ; these, by striking the hard clods in a sloping direction, will cut or split them into small pieces. For a description of this machine see fig. 6, where A B C D represent two rollers, which turn on their pivots in a frame U V Z. Upon the circumference of these rollers are placed, at a small distance from each other, darts or cutting instruments, (see fig. 8. No. 1. & 2.) EFG'H represent a frame, in which the pivots of these rollers revolve when at work ; I K the limber or shaft by which the machine is direct- ed : PL VIII. THE ROLLER. 1S3 ed ; F L and M H are two diagonal pieces of wood that support the pole against the pressure of the cattle when they turn round with the machine ; E Y and X G are iron hasps fixed on the fore part of the frame, to which the cattle are attach- ed when drawing. In order to smooth the sur- face of the land after the cutting roller, two plain rollers may be connected, as R S and S T, for that purpose. The frame F N I O H P is attached to the other frame by coupling hinges at F I and I H ; so that when the cutting rollers split the clods, the plain ones follow, and smooth the surface. Fig. 7. Profile of the same machine* A B represent the cutting rollers; E F G the frame in which they revolve at E ; and H C D the pole by which the machine is directed, having coup- ling hinges at D, (see F I H, fig. 6.), the fore end at H I having liberty to move up or down, and giving the rollers freedom to rise or fall according to the inequality of the surface on which they roll. M N is the smoothing roller, which revolves on its cud- geons in the frame G W O, fastened to the other frame by iron coupling hinges at D C, in such a manner, that the frames can easily be fixed together or separated, when found necessary. By this means, the cutting rollers may be used cither alone, or ac- companied by the smoothing ones, as circumstances may require. K L is a box or receptacle, placed on Q the 134 THE ROLLER. PL VIIL the frame of the cutting rollers, for containing addi- tional weight, in order to make the rollers heavier or lighter, as found necessary. S T is a box fixed on the frame of the smoothing roller, for the same purpose. Fig. 8. No. 1. represents one of the instruments for cutting the clods, which may be made of cast- iron. G H are branches that go into grooves on the circumference of the wooden axle, and prevent them from turning round on its surface. Fig. 8. No. 2. A B E F are three of these cut- ters fixed on the axle C D. They can be placed at any distance from each other that may be judged proper. Fig. 9. No. l. & 2. represent the iron arms which are placed between the two rollers, (see G S S, fig. 10.), in which their pivots revolve at B B, the lower end of the arms. A A A is the part of these iron arms which goes into the frame that rests upon the shoulders of these arms, and is secured on its upper side by screw-nuts. Fig. 10. A back end view of the same machine. A B C D, the frame in which the rollers turn, and by which they are carried forward. T S and R S are the two rollers. The pivots, in their outer ends, revolve at C and D in brass bushes fixed in the per- pendicular PL VIIL THE ROLLER. 135 pendicular pieces of wood A C and BD, and the two middle pivots turn at S S in the iron frame GSS, (see fig. 9. No. 1. & 2.), fixed at G into the hori- zontal frame. E F the box for containing the weight to be added to the rollers as occasion requires. O 2 PLATE PL IX. DRAIN OR MOLE PLOUGH. 137 PLATE IX. 'Drain or Mole Plough. Fig. 1. Profile of a drain or mole plough for cut- ting small drains in wet land, a very useful imple- ment. A B is the beam ; C D the coulter ; M N the han- dle, (see M M, fig. 2.), fastened to the beam at A N by screw-bolts ; E F the sheath ; T the cone fixed on its lower end. This cone moves under ground, and opens the drain after the coulter. The sheath goes up through a mortise in the beam, and is fixed by an iron bolt above, and another below the beam, by which means it may be shifted up or down, and the drain made deeper or shallower in the soil as neces- sary. It is kept steady in its position by the iron rod O P, fixed on a bolt passing through the beam at P, and to the sheath at O by another bolt, which supports it against any resistance it may encounter in passing through the ground. G K are the wheels that carry the back and fore ends of the beam when rolling on the surface of the land, and keep the cone E at an equal depth in the ground. The wheels at G revolve on an axle fixed in an iron frame that goes through the beam, and is secured on the upper side by screw- nuts. At same time, the wheels K turn on the axle I, on J3S DRAIN OR MOLE PLOUGH. PL IX. on which the frame L is fixed by an iron bolt pass- ing through them and the beam, to B, where it is se- cured by a nut. S represents iron staples fixed in the fore part of the frame I L, (see P P, fig. 2.) ; and to these the cattle are attached when pulling the machine. Fig. 2. A bird's eye view of the same machine. A B represent the beam ; M M the handles fixed to the beam at N N by screwed-bolts ; K L the wheels that carry the back end of the plough ; E the sheath of the cone F G, and D the place of the coulter in the beam ; H I the wheels that carry the fore end of the beam, and turn on the axle on which the frame C P P is placed. This frame is connected to the beam by an iron bolt passing through them at O, the frame having liberty to move on it when the machine is turning. P P are two iron staples fixed in the frame, to which the cattle are yoked j S an iron rod, that keeps the two handles steady. Fig. 5. Elevation of the same machine. A, the end of the beam ; B C the two handles ; G H the wheels that carry the fore end of the beam, and I K the wheels that carry its back end ; E F the sheath that passes through the beam, on the lower end of which is fixed the cone D for opening the drain ; L M, the frame by which the machine is drawn when at work. Fig. 4. Profile of a wheel plough sometimes em- ployed in tillage, The wheel is supposed to roll on PL IX. DRAIN OR MOLE PLOUGH. 139 on the surface of the unploughed land ; and, by means of a segment, the wheel can be easily raised up or let down, according as the plough is wanted to go deeper or shallower in the ground. A B the beam ; A K the lesser handle ; L O the coulter fixed at L in the beam ; MNO the sock placed on the fore end of the head ; S the sheath fixed in the beam at Q, and at N in the head ; PQRN the mouldboard fixed to the sheath at O N, and its back end fixed to the handle; C D a frame, fixed at C to the beam by an iron bolt, on which it has liberty to turn. In this frame, the pivots of the wheel Y F revolve, when its circumference is rolling on the surface of the land, and regulating the depth of furrow. G H the muzzle or bridle, fixed on the fore end of the frame by a bolt at G passing through its arms, (see K, fig. 5.) To this bridle the horses are yoked, by a hook at H, to draw the machine. T U a segment, fixed in the frame at U, which passes through the fore end of the beam near B. In this segment are several holes, by which the wheel and frame can be elevated or depress- ed by means of two iron bolts, one going through the segment above, and another below the beam, so that the furrow can be made to any depth necessary. Fig. 5. A bird's eye view of the same plough. A B represent the beam ; A C the larger handle ; D E the lesser handle ; EFH the mouldboard ; l : 2 are iron rods for keeping the handles together ; I K the frame, placed on a bolt at I, passing through its end and 140 DRAIN OR MOLE PLOUGH. PL IX. and the beam, on which it has liberty to move. In this frame the wheel T R, which regulates the depth of furrow, revolves on a bolt at K. L M the muz- zle or bridle, fixed on the fore end of the frame at K, by a bolt passing through its arms. N a hook, to which the cattle are attached when ploughing. Fig. 6. Elevation of the same plough. A C the larger handle ; E D the lesser one ; I K the frame in which the wheel turns that regulates the depth of furrow ; L the end of the segment, by which the wheel is regulated to any depth of furrow ; B the tenon of the beam, fixed in a mortise in the larger handle ; FGHE the mouidboard, fixed to the sheath before, and to the lesser handle behind ; M iron rods, that keep the handles at a proper distance from each other. Fig. 7. A bird's eye view of another form of an under drainer. E N a frame, to which the handles C D are fasten- ed by screw-bolts at E, and in which the roller M turns on its pivots at N T, in a plate fixed to the fore end of the frame. There are also two cutting wheels, I, that turn on their pivots at L K, for cutting the turf, or any tough sward on the surface, and may be both used, or only one at a time, as found necessary. F G are two wheels that carry the back end of this machine, and turn on the iron axle H, which is fixed to the under side of the frame, and L the cone that PL IX. DRAIN OR MOLE PLOUGH. HZ that opens the drain : it is fixed on the lower end of the sheath, (see I K, fig. 8.) R the muzzle or bridle by which the machine is drawn, which is fastened to the frame by a bolt at B. Fig. 8. Profile of the same under drainer. A B the frame ; L M the handles, fastened to it at A M by screw-bolts ; F G wheels or rollers that turn on their pivots in iron plates fixed on the frame, and, when rolling on the surface, carry the frame, and regulate the depth of the drain ; P the bridle to which the cattle are attached ; C E the cutting wheels, that revolve on their pivots at E, in the lower end of the iron rod D, on which is a screw-nut below, and another above the frame, for regulating the depth to be cut by the wheel ; IK a sheath that passes up through the frame, on the lower end of which is fixed the cone H for opening the drain below. The depth of the drain may be regulated by the sheath being shift- ed up or down in its mortise in the frame, and kept steady in any given position, by an iron bolt passing through the sheath above, and another below the frame. N an iron plate, fixed on the frame by a bolt at S, and to the sheath on a bolt through one of its holes ; by which it can be easily altered, according as the sheath and cone require to be raised or depressed. Fig. 9. Elevation of the same under drainer. D B represent the frame ; E F the handles, which are fixed to the frame at their lower ends by screw- R bolts J 42 DRAIN OR MOLE PLOUGH. PL IX. bolts and nuts ; H the sheath that passes through the frame, having the cone G for opening the drain fixed to its lower end ; X an iron rod that connects the handles together ; L K the wheels that carry the frame ; S T an iron axle on which they turn, when rolling on the surface of the ground ; A C the cut- ting wheels fixed on an iron axle, the pivots of which revolve in the frame D B, PLATE PL X. PLAN OR BIRD'S EYE VIEW, &C. 143 PLATE X. Plan or Bird's-Eye View of a Drill Machine. Fig. 1. A B represent two wheels, which roll on the surface of the land, carrying a frame, the seed- hopper, and seed-wheels, in which the spoons or ladles are fixed that convey the seed into the con- ductor. D O a wheel, fastened on the inner end of the nave of the wheel B, which, as the cattle move forward, gives motion to the seed-wheels, the wheel D O having teeth to turn the wheel O E, which is fixed on an iron spindle or axis W Z, upon which the wheels G H, with the seed-spoons, are placed. By this means, the spoons are carried round, and, dipping among the seed in the trough, convey the seed into the conductors, through which it drops into the open- ings made by the coulter when the machine is in motion. X and Y, iron arms fixed by screw-bolts on the ends of the wooden axle. Upon these arms the wheels A and B revolve when rolling on the sur- face of the ground. IKLM represent the frame that supports the seed-hopper with the troughs. On this frame the pivots of the iron spindle W Z turn in R 2 cods 144 PLAN OR BIRD'S EYE VIEW PL X. cods of brass. N N the shafts, in which a horse is yoked to pull the machine. These shafts are fixed by screw-bolts near O O on the wooden axle, and at P P to the horizontal frame. The conductors for re- ceiving the seed from the spoons, are represented by the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, which are fixed on the frame K M by iron clasps, having screw-nuts, so that they may easily be fixed or unfixed, and any num- ber of them brought into use, according to the dis- tance between the drills. The wheels G H and seed- spoons are also fastened upon the iron spindle by screws, in order that they may be conveniently re- moved, and fixed on any part, or at any distance, so that a less or greater number can be employed as found necessary, when the machine is at work. As it is requisite that the ladles for lifting the seed into the conductors should be stopped when turning at the ridge end, or when removing the machine from place to place ; to effect this, it is necessary that the wheel E O be cleared from the wheel D O ; likewise, that the coulters and seed-conductors be taken out of the land. To accomplish this, the lever M Z turns on a bolt fixed in the frame at F ; so that, if its end M be put down, the end Z, with' the wheel E O, is raised up, and its teeth cleared from the teeth of the wheel D O. The coulters and seed-conductors also are taken out of the ground by the lever S Q, which is fixed on an iron rod at T, that turns on its pivots in the handles R R. If the end S of this lever be put down, the coulters and seed-conductors are put down PL X. OF A DRILL MACHINE. 145 down also. When raised up, the coulters and seed- conductors are likewise raised up clear from the ground, (see L M and K H, in fig. 2.) The catch V, at same time, falling into a notch on the rod T, prevents their going down ; but before they can again be let down, this catch must be raised up out of the notch, when they are at liberty to fall into the land in a position for working. Fig. 2. represents the left-hand side of the machine. A B is one of the wheels that carries the seed-hep- per, the movement-wheels, the frames, and the coul- ters with the seed-conductors. C is a wheel fixed on the inner end of the nave X of the wheel A B. On the circumference of the wheel C are teeth to turn the wheel D, on the axle of which are placed wheels with spoons or ladles, that, when carried round among the seed, throw it into the conductors, by which it is conveyed into the drills made by the coul- ters, (see D U R, in fig. 3.) E F the frame that supports the seed-hopper. To this frame also, the left-hand shaft W U, and the handle F G, are fasten- ed by screw-bolts. I K the coulters ; F K the con- ductors fastened to the coulters by iron clasps and screw-nuts. L M a lever fixed on the iron spindle that turns on the handles at Y, and raises the coulters out of the ground, which are fixed to the rail of wood that turns on its pivots at I in the frame E F. When this lever is moved from N to L, its other end is pushed towards M. This being connected by an iron rod to the J 46 PLAN OR BIRD'S EYE VIEW PL X, the upper part of the conductors, the conductors and coulters are by this means turned up from K to H, so that, at any time, they may be raised up clear of the land, either when the machine is to be turned, or conveyed from one field to another. 2 3 is a lever that turns on an iron bolt at 2. When its point 3 is depressed, the other end at D is raised up, and lifts the wheel D clear of the wheel C whenever requi- site. S P is the left-hand side of the seed-hopper ; T P the lid or cover, which turns at P on a hinge ; O is the cover of the seed-troughs. W V is an iron segment that supports the fore part of the seed- hopper. It is fixed at W in the horizontal frame E F, and, by turning a screw-nut at V, the fore side of the seed-hopper may be either raised or depressed. P is a pinion fixed on an iron axle. By turning this pinion, the shutters that stop the openings in the lower parts of the hopper are pushed up or down, and re- gulate the quantity of seed passing from the hopper to the seed-troughs. Upon the axle of the pinion P is also fastened the sheeve O, round which the cord or band POR goes. When the end R of this cord is pulled, the shutter is pushed up, and a greater quan- tity of seed allowed to pass from the hopper down into the troughs. In like manner, by pulling the end O, the shutter is depressed, of course a lesser quanti- ty of seed will run from the hopper into the troughs ; so that the quantity of seed required can be regulated, or the sowing stopped, at any time, when necessary. fig. PL X OF A DRILL MACHINE. 147 Fig. 3. is a transverse section of this drill machine. A B the right-hand wheel ; X the axle on which this wheel revolves ; E F is a horizontal frame fasten- ed to the wooden axle X. This frame supports the seed-hopper, the seed-wheels, seed-boxes, coulters, and conductors. G H the seed-hopper ; H T the shutter that moves up or down in grooves in the inside of the hopper, and regulates the quantity of seed to be sown. H I O the pinion, the teethed rod, and sheeve, round which the cord K L goes ; by pulling the different ends of which, the hopper-shutter is either raised or depressed. D one of the seed-wheels, with ten spoons or ladles placed on its circumference, and fixed on the inside by screw-nuts. These wheels may be taken off the iron spindle or put on at pleasure. When the machine is at work, these wheels and their spoons are carried round amongst the seed within the trough. By this means, they are filled with seed, carry it round to D U, where it is dropped into the conduc- tors at S, and dropped by them at R regularly into the ruts made by the coulters, as the machine moves forward. F N a handle or lever fixed on an iron rod at Y. This rod turns on its pivots in the two handles (see fig. 1.) ; and, when pushed from M to N, by its turning on the bolt at Y, and the coulter-rail turning on its pivots near S, the end of the lever F pushes in the conductor close to the seed -boxes, while the position S B of the coulters is turned down to the position Q R, where it makes a rut for the reception of the seed. V part of the right-hand shaft fixed to I e frame 143 PLAN OR BIRD'S EYE VIEW PL X, frame at E, and to the wooden axle at X. The right- hand handle S Wis also fastened to the frame at S, and at X to the wooden axle. X E an iron segment that supports the fore part of the seed-hopper 5 and also regulates its position. This segment is fixed in the frame at E, and has a screw-nut at X, by turning of which, either way, the hopper is raised or de- pressed at any time. Fig. 4. A longitudinal section of this machine. A A the two wheels which roll on the land, carry- ing the horizontal frame that supports the seed-hopper, the movement-wheels, the coulters, and conductors ; E E iron arms, on which the wheels A A revolve. These arms are fixed by screw-bolts on the two ends of the wooden axle G H. Upon this axle, the va- rious parts of the machine are placed, B D, a wheel fixed on the inner end of the nave of the left-hand wheel to turn the wheel D T, which is fixed at S on an iron axle S F. This axle revolves on its pivots in the frame at S and F, carrying the wheels 1, 2, 3, 4, ,5, 6, 7, 8, or any number, according to the distance between the drills. Into these wheels are fixed the seed-spoons I K (see fig. 5. & 6.) When the ma- chine is in motion, the wheel D T is turned round, on the axle of which the seed-wheels with their spoons are placed, which being carried round among the seed, are filled, and drop it into the hoppers I K, by which it is guided into the conductors G H, that convey it in between the wings L M, being that part of PL X. OF A DRILL MACHINE. 149 of the conductors that enters the land, and deposits the seed in the bottom of the drills, G H, a frame that supports the coulters against the pressure of the land when the machine goes forward. Fig. 5. A section of one of the seed-wheels placed in the axle C, having one row of seed-spoons, A B, iixed into it by screw-nuts in the hollow or inside of the wheel. Fig. 6. also represents a seed-wheel fixed on the axle F, in which there are two rows of seed-spoons D E, fastened by screw-nuts, as in fig. 5. Thus, one or two rows of seed-spoons may be fixed on the wheels, as found convenient. Fig. 7. Profile of one of the partitions that separate the seed-troughs from one another, (seeGH, fig. i.) The piece of wood, H I, is placed across the up- per sides of all the partitions in the seed-troughs, by which means they are kept fast together. Fig. 8. ABC, profile of the seed-hopper ; B C D E one of the inner partitions of the seed-troughs ; L a groove, in which the shutter moves up or down, for allowing a greater or lesser quantity of seed to pass from the hopper into the troughs ; G an opening in the partition, wherein is fixed a brass code at E,' on which the pivots of the axle that carry the seed- wheels revolve when the machine is working. S Fig. 150 PLAN OR BIRD'S EYE VIEW, &C PL X, Fig. 9. A B is one of the coulters ; A C D one of the seed-troughs and conductors, for conveying the seed into the openings made by the coulter ; G E F iron clasps, having screw-nuts for fixing the coulters and conductors together. Fig. 10. K L represent the back edge of one of the seed-troughs and conductors ; OPS the clasps, having screw-nuts that fasten them to the coulter ; S L profile of the wings fixed to the lower part of the conductor, which is sharp on the fore edge for cutting the soil. The wings spread a little behind, forming an acute angle, and, being open, the seed is regularly dropped into the drill between these wings, without any interruption, when the machine is moved for- ward. PLATE PI. XL PLAN OF A DRILL MACHINE, &C. 151 PLATE XI. Plan or Bird's-Eye View of a Drill Machine with Indented Cylinders. c This is a very simple and useful machine, is easi- ly managed, and not liable to be soon put out of or- der. Its framing differs very little from the machine represented in plate X. Fig. 1 . A and B are two wheels which roll on the land, carrying the horizontal frame, seed-hopper, movement-wheels, and seed-cylinders ; CD is a ho- rizontal frame, which is fixed by two iron bolts on the axle of the wheels ; E F represent the seed-cylinders, placed on an iron spindle, the pivots of which turn in the horizontal frame ; G a wheel, fixed upon the inner end of the nave of the wheel A, to turn the wheel H, which is fastened on the iron spindle of the cylinders. By this means, these cylinders are turned round, and carry the seed from the hopper into the conductors, and by them it is dropt into the soil when the machine is in motion ; ZFa wooden axle, upon the ends of which the iron arms I and K are fixed by screw-bolts. Upon these arms, the wheels A and B revolve. L Y and L M the shafts or limbers, by S 2 which 152 PLAN OF A DRILL MACHINE PL XL which the cattle draw the machine. These shafts are fastened on the wooden axle at Y M, and fixed by- screw-bolts at N and O to the fore rail of the hori- zontal frame. E F conductors that receive the seed from the cylinders ; P and R are the two handles fas- tened by screw-bolts at H and D to the frame ; S T a lever fixed upon the iron rod U, which turns on its pivots in the frame at 1 & 2. By means of this le- ver, the coulters and conductors are raised up clear of the ground, when the machine is turning at the ridge end, or passing from one field to another. V is a branch fixed on the iron rod U, which keeps the coul- ters and conductors clear of the ground, being secured by an iron bolt placed through the frame near V; which bolt being easily shifted, allows the lower ends of the coulters and conductors to fall into the soil, by which means they are placed in a proper position for working. Fig. 2. Profile of the same machine. A B represent the right-hand land wheel, upon the nave of which the wheel C is fixed, having teeth in its circumference to turn the wheel D. This wheel is fixed on the end of the axle, on which the seed- cylinders are placed, (see H, in fig. 1.) E F is the hopper that contains the seed ; X its cover ; G the cylinders for conveying the seed from the hopper down into the conductors ; H L I is one of the coulters and conductors in the working position. These coul- ters and conductors are so made, that they can at any time be easily raised up clear of the land, For this purpose. PL XL WITH INDENTED CYLINDERS. 153 purpose, they are fastened together by iron hasps near L and I, their upper ends being attached by iron clasps and screw-nuts to a wooden rail, in each end of which is a pivot, and on these pivots it has liberty to turn in the frame T S. There is also an iron rod that connects the lower end L of the lever L M to the upper end of the conductor at S. This lever turns on a bolt at N ; and, by being moved from M to P, the coulters and conductors are put down in the position L H I. But when the lever is moved from P to M, they are raised up from I H to K, clear o£ the ground. R S the shafts by which the cattle draw the machine ; T S the frame that carries the seed- hopper, movement-wheels, seed-cylinders, coulters, and conductors ; P Z the handles, fixed at Z by screw- bolts to the frame T S, (see P R, fig. l.) ; F. the handle of the regulator, which is easily moved upward or downward in the hopper, so that more or less seed is admitted into the hollows of the cylinder G. The seed boxes have a cover Y, which turns on a hinge at G, in order to discover whether or not the seed drops equally into the conductors. Fig. 3. A back end view of the same machine. A and B are two wheels that carry this machine ; P R a wooden axle, on which the frame is placed ; P U and R V are iron arms fixed to the wooden axle by screw-bolts ; on these arms the wheels A & B revolve. G H the hopper for containing the seed ; C is a wheel fixed on the inner end of the nave of the 154 PLAN OF A DRILL MACHINE PL XL the wheel B, which turns the pinion D, fastened on the end of the spindle or axle, on which the seed- cylinders E F are placed ; I K the boxes in which the seed-cylinders revolve, and convey the seed down from the hoppers 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. into the conduct- ors N O, which is by them dropt at L M into the ruts made by the coulters in the soil ; 1,4, 8, the handles of the regulators ; PRNOa frame fixed to the ho- rizontal frame, for supporting the coulters against the resistance they meet with in cutting the ruts in the land, into which the seed is to be dropt. Fig. 4. A section of the coulters and conductors, where 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. represent the fore edges of the coulters, and A B the wings of the conduct- ors, which are fixed to the back edge of the coulters, and prevent all loose earth from falling into the ruts made by the coulters, so that the seed has liberty to drop freely into the bottom of the rut. Fig. 5. No. l. A profile of a seed-cylinder. B the spindle on which it is fixed. This cylinder is intended for sowing different kinds of seed. For that purpose, the excavations or hollows on its cir- cumference are of different dimensions. The largest are 1. 2. 3. 4. in the portion or part A E, which divide the circumference of the cylinder into twelve equal parts. The portion A C, or 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 9 divide the circumference into fifteen equal parts j and the PL XL WITH INDENTED CYLINDERS. 155 the portion C E, or 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. C, divide the cir- cumference into eighteen equal parts. Fig. 5. No. 2. A longitudinal view of one of the seed-cylinders. D E F G the cylinder placed on the spindle H N, and kept steady by the small iron bolts, 1 K L, pass- ing through the axle. When the cylinder is placed with its end E G at K, the excavations or hollows on its surface No. 3, for receiving the seed, are exactly under the openings in the under boxes. When the end E G is shifted from K to L, the hollows No. 2. are placed below the openings in the boxes ; and, when shifted from K to H, the hollows No. 1. are placed under the openings of these boxes. Fig. G. A bird's-eye view of a drill plough hav- ing an indented cylinder. This machine is allowed to be a very useful and simple one, as it may be placed on the furrow side of a common plough, and sow the seeds at any given depth or distance which may be thought proper. A B is the beam of this plough ; B C the larger handle ; D E the lesser handle ; R the place for the coulter ; L the sheath ; N the muzzle or bridle by which the plough is drawn, and is fixed to the beam by two screw-bolts through its arms ; F a wheel that rolls on the unploughed land. It is fixed on an iron axle B, on the other end of which is fixed the teethed wheel G, which gives motion to the wheel D, fixed on the axle of the cylinder, (see C, fig. 8.) H 156 PLAN OF A DRILL MACHINE PL XL H I is a frame that carries the hopper O P, and the seed cylinder. It is fixed to the lesser handle at I by a screw-bolt, and to the beam by the screw-bolt K L, which has an opening at K, that admits the frame ; so that, by turning the nuts of these bolts, the seed- cylinder can be placed at a greater or less distance from the plough's land side. M the opening in the bottom of the seed-hopper, through which the seed is- sues into the cylinder. The wheel F is fixed on the axle B, which revolves in the bended rod R S. This rod, at the end R, passes through the beam, where it has liberty to move. Its other end, S, is supported by a bolt at T passing through the larger handle. At this end it can be heightened, which raises up the wheel F from the land, and prevents sowing, when the ma- chine is turning at the ridge end, or passing from one field to another. Fig. 7. Profile of the left-hand or land side of this machine. A B represent the beam of the plough ; C D the larger handle fixed to the beam at B, and at C to the head and sheath ; E F the coulter ; O U the sheath ; F G U the sock, fixed on the head U H ; O P R the mouldboard, fixed on the furrow side of the sheath and lesser handle ; S T the muzzle or bridle, fixed to the beam at A by a bolt on which it has liberty to turn, and regulates the depth of furrow, by the bridle having on its arms a cross at T, in which are several holes, through any of which, and the beam, a bolt may be pur, to allow the draught to PL XL WITH INDENTED CYLINDERS. 157 to be either above or below the beam. I B is a wheel that rolls on the unploughed land, on the axle of which is the teethed wheel K, that gives motion to the wheel, on the axle of which the seed-cylinder is fixed. L M is the hopper that contains the seed ; V N is the coulter that makes the rut for the seed. On the back side of this coulter is fastened the con- ductor, by which the seed is conveyed from the cylin- der down to the rut made by the coulter. O W is an iron rod, on which the axle of the land-wheel re- volves. Its end O passes through the beam, and has liberty to turn when the other end is lifted up to raise the wheel off the land, whenever occasion requires. There are several holes through the larger handle, for receiving a bolt that supports the iron rod with the wheel I B when raised off the ground, (see T in fig. 6.) Fig. 8. A front view of the seed-hopper and cy- linder. A B the hopper ; C the cylinder fixed on an iron axle that revolves in the frame E F. Upon this axle is also fixed the wheel D, that receives motion from a wheel on the axle of the land-wheel, (see G, fig. 6.) I, a screw-nut fixed on the hopper in which the screw H turns, for raising or lowering the' brush G in the hopper, by which means a greater or less quantity of seed is allowed to pass from the hopper into the cv- ■ linder C, from which it drops into the soij. Fig. 158 PLAN OF A DRILL MACHINE PL XL Fig. 9. Profile of the seed-hopper, cylinder-frame, and mouldboard. A B is the seed-hopper ; C D the frame ; O the cylinder ; F G the coulter and conductor ; B E the regulator, on the lower end of which a brush is fix- ed for clearing the holes of the cylinder ; HIKL is the mouldboard of the plough. Fig. 10. A horizontal view of a drill-barrow. A B is a wheel fixed on the axle P, the pivots of which turn at C and D in the frame or handles C E D F, fixed together by cross sheaths ; G is the aper- ture, through which the seed from the cylinder drops into the conductor. Fig. 11. A horizontal view of the same machine, with the seed-cylinder placed upon it. A B is the wheel ; G H C I the two handles ; E the seed-cylinder, the pivots of which turn in the iron frame, (see S and T, fig. is.) In the circum- ference of the cylinder are several holes, through which the seed drops into the soil. D is a sheeve fixed on the axle of the wheel A B. Upon this sheeve is placed either a band, belt or chain, G, that passes round the sheeve F, fixed on the axle of the seed-cylinder. By this means, the seed-cylin- der is turned round when the machine is in motion, and drops the seed regularly into the drill. Fig. 1 2. Profile of the same machine, AB PL XL WITH INDENTED CYLINDERS. 159 A B the land-wheel fixed on an axle that turns on its pivots at C in the frame C D. To this frame the handles D K are fastened by screw-bolts. E the seed-cylinder fixed on an iron spindle or axle that turns on its pivots in an upright iron frame ; C is a sheeve fixed upon the axle of the land-wheel A B, round which the belt, band, or chain F passes, and communicates motion to the seed-cylinder, by pass- ing round a similar sheeve fixed on its spindle ; L is a cover for the seed-cylinder ; S T is the coulter, having its upper end fixed in the frame CD; and the conductor T G is fastened to the back of the coulter. Down this conductor the seed is conveyed from the cylinder into the rut made by the coulter in the soil. H is a roll- er that turns on its pivots in a frame, and smooths the ground after sowing : it also regulates the depth of furrow to be taken by the coulter. O I an up- right frame, in which the pivots of the roller turn. This frame passes up through the frame C D, and has in it several holes, through any of which a bolt may be put, and thus raise or depress the roller, accord- ing as a deep or shallow furrow is found necessary. Fig. 13. Elevation of the same machine. A B the two handles ; C D the frame in which the pivots of the roller F K revolve ; E the wheel that carries the fore part of the barrow, (see A B, fig. 12.) ; I the seed-cylinder fixed on an iron spindle that turns in the frame at T S ; G a sheeve fixed on the axle of the land-wheel that conveys motion to the seed- T 2 cylinder, 160 PLAN OF A DRILL MACHINE, &C. PL XI. cylinder, by means of a belt passing round it and the sheeve H fixed on the axle of the seed-cylinder. Fig. 14. Section of the same machine. L M the two handles ; C K the iron frame in ■which the pivots of the seed-cylinder F revolve ; R S the conductor that receives the seed from the cylinder F, and drops it at S into the rut made in the soil by the coulter ; P and T are the two wings of the con- ductor, that keep the rut made by the coulter open for the reception of the seed. PLATE PL XII. THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. 161 PLATE XII. The Cultivator or Horse- Hoe. The cultivator or horse-hoe is a very useful and necessary machine in the art of husbandry, both for breaking and dividing the surface of land ; likewise for destroying weeds, and pulverizing the soil be- tween the rows of any kind of plants that are set in straight lines, or loosening and stirring the mould be- tween the rows of grain, or any sort of seeds that have been sown in drills at a proper distance from one another. These implements are of various forms, and different dimensions, according to the purpose for which they are designed. Fig. 1. A plan or horizontal view of an expanding horse-hoe with a harrow attached. A B represent the beam ; C and D the directing handles fixed at B to the beam with screw-bolts j U is an iron rod that connects the directing handles, and keeps them at a proper distance from each other ; E the front or leading share, the handle or arm of which is fixed at V into the beam (see D, fig. 2.) ; F V and G 162 THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. PL Xlf, G V represent the expanding shares fixed to the lower edge of the mouldboards H O and I O. The fore part of these two shares are attached to the hinder part of the front or leading share E, by an iron bolt that goes through them and the beam, and is secured on its upper side by a screw-nut, (see I, fig. 2.) Upon this bolt the fore ends of the shares and mould- boards have liberty to move, when their hindermost ends are either expanded or contracted. H K and I are two iron segments, one of which is fixed to the mouldboard at H, and the other to the mould- board at I. These segments pass through separate mortises in a piece of wood fixed in the beam, (see N, fig. 2.) In the segments H K I, are several holes to receive iron bolts ; by which means the mouldboards and shares are kept firm, for hoeing at any breadth to which they may be expanded. L M and P N repre- sent the expanding harrow fastened to the middle bull at B by iron hinges, on which they turn when the ends M and N are either extended or contracted ; R and S are two segments, one of which is fixed in the bull M, and the other in the bull N. These segments go through separate holes in the middle bull at Z ; and in these are a number of holes, by means of which the extension of the side bulls can be either increased or diminished at pleasure ; T is the muzzle or bridle fastened to the machine by an iron bolt that passes through a hole in its arms and the fore end of the beam ; T Y a wheel or roller, the pivots of which turn in a frame that supports tjie fore end of the beam, and PL XII. THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. 163 and regulates the depth to be cut in the land by the shares. Fig. 2. Profile of the same implement. A B represent the beam ; B G the handles fixed to the beam at B by screw-bolts, (see L P, fig. 1.) ; E F the front or leading share welded to the lower end of the iron arm D F, which arm is fixed in a mortise through the beam. In the upper part of this arm are several holes, by means of which the arm, and of course the share, can be either raised or de- pressed, in order to hoe deeper or shallower as may be found requisite. The arm is kept firm by an iron bolt that passes through any of its holes, and the whole thickness of the beam. S T an iron rod, one end of which is placed on a bolt that passes through a hole in it ; and the arm D F, its other end, goes up through the beam, and is secured at S by a screw-nut. This rod supports the arm against the strains that the share E meets with in opening the soil. G H the ex- panding mouldboards ; and K H the shares fixed to their lower edge, (see A B and C D, fig. 1. No. 3.) I K an iron bolt on which the fore end of the shares and mouldboards turns. This bolt extends from K to I, and is secured by a screw-nut at I on the upper side of the beam. G X Y represent the middle bull of the expanding harrow; L M one of the side bulls; and L W are iron teeth, which go up through the bull, and are secured on its upper side by screw-nuts. N a sheath or piece of wood fixed in the beam, with its lower 164 THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. PL XII. lower end fastened into the middle bull of the harrow at X. By this means, the middle bull is kept steady- in a straight line with the beam, while the side bull can be expanded or contracted at pleasure. O P a wheel, the pivots of which turn in the frame P R. This wheel and frame support the fore end of the beam, and keep the shares at an equal depth in the land, (see A B C, fig. 1. No. 2.) U V is the bridle to which the cattle are attached when pulling the ma- chine. It is placed on an iron bolt that passes through its arms and the fore end of the beam at A. In the fore part of this bridle are several holes, by means of which the draught can be fixed higher or lower as may be found necessary. Fig. ]. No. 3. A back end view of the expand- ing shares and mouldboards. A and B represent the two mouldboards ; C and D the shares fixed to their lower edge ; E is the front or leading share. Fig. 3. Plan or horizontal view of a hoeing ma- chine, that can be used either with a greater or lesser number of shares. A B represent the beam ; C and D the directing handles fixed to the beam at B Y with screw-bolts ; S T an iron rod, by which the two handles are con- nected and kept at a proper distance from each other ; K V & L V are two pieces of wood, or bulls, fixed to the beam at V, and connected by the two sheaths or cross pieces PI, XII. THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. 16J pieces B and &, which pass through mortises in the beam ; E and F represent the middle share, the arm of which is fastened at O into a mortise in the beam ; G and H are two shares, having their arms placed up through mortises in the bulls or side pieces K and L. These arms are secured in the bulls by screw- nuts, so that they can be easily put in or taken out at pleasure. In each of the side bulls are four mortises, as J , 2, 3, 4, in the side piece K V, and 5, 6, 7, 8, in the side piece LV. Into any of these mortises the arms of the shares can be placed and fixed with screw-nuts ; by which means, either one, three, five, seven, or nine shares, can at once be employed, according to the dis- tance between the rows of the plants, or any kind of seeds that are sown in drills. A and R is the bridle placed on an iron bolt that passes through a hole in its arms and the fore part of the beam ; rVI is the arm of an iron frame, in the lower part of which the pivots of an axle turn, to carry a wheel that rolls on the surface of the land, and keeps the fore end of the beam equidistant from the ground, and, of course, the shares at an equal depth in the soil, (see N, fig. 4.) ; N and O are two wheels, which revolve on the iron axle P. This axle is fixed in the lower end of a frame, the arm of which goes up through the handles, and carries the back part of this machine, (see P and Q, fig. 4.) Fig. 4. Profile of the same machine. A B represent the beam ; B and C the direct- or ing 166 THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. PL XII. ing handles, fixed to the beam by screw-bolts ; D E and G H are the shares fixed to the lower ends of the iron arms E K and H L. These arms pass up through the beam and side-bulls, and are secured in the wood by screw-nuts. T O and U R are iron rods, the under ends of which are fastened to the arms of the shares, and their upper ends fixed in the beam. By this means, the arms are supported against the re- sistance that the shares have to encounter in hoeing or opening the soil. S is a wheel fixed upon an iron axle, the pivots of which turn at N in the lower end of a frame, the arm of which goes up through the beam, (see fig. 1. No. 2.) W represents the wheels which revolve upon the arms of the iron axle P, (see NOP, fig. 3.) As the arm M N goes up in a mor- tise through the fore end of the beam, to carry it equally from the surface of the land, so, the arms P O go up through the handles at B, to carry the hinder part at the same height or distance from the surface. By this means, the shares are made to cut at equal depth in the soil ; and as the arms have liberty to shift up or down in the beam, they can be easily fixed at any required height, and cause the shares cut either deeper or shallower in the land, as circumstances may require. V Z is the bridle to which the cattle are at- tached. It is placed on an iron bolt that passes through its arms and the fore part of the beam. The bridle having liberty to turn on this bolt, the line of draught can be fixed higher or lower at the fere end of the beam, as may be found necessary. PL XII. THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. 167 Fig. 5. Horizontal view of a pulverizer, containing seven shares. A B and C D represent the shafts or limbers by which the cattle pull the machine ; G H is a wooden axle on which the shafts are fastened with iron bolts ; E and F two wheels that revolve on the iron arms Q and Z, which are fixed to the wooden axle at the ends G and H with screw-bolts ; I K is a beam of wood, one end of which is fastened to the wooden axle. To this beam the two side-bulls L N and M N are fixed. They are also connected by the cross- sheaths R S and V X, which pass through mortises in the beam I K. In this beam is a mortise at N, into which the arm of the front share No. 4. is placed, and in each of the bulls are three mortises to receive the arms of the shares, as 1,2, 3, in L N, and 5, 6, V, in M N. These arms are secured in the beam and side-bulls by screw-nuts above and below, (see H I and K L, fig. 6.) 13 W and D Y are two iron chains iixed to the shafts at B and D, their other ends pass- ing through the side-bulls at W and Y, where they are secured with screw-nuts. These chains support the bulls against the resistance which the shares meet with in passing through the soil. R Q and S P are the two handles fixed in the side-bulls at R and S and fastened upon the cross-sheaths at T and U by screw-bolts. Fig. 6. Profile of the same implement. A B represent the shafts to which the cattle are U 2 yoked: 168 THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. PL XII. yoked ; C and D are two wheels that revolve on the axle, to which the back ends of the shafts are fasten- ed ; D E the shares fixed to the lower ends of the iron arms K L M F G. The lower part of these arms should be thin or sharp for cutting the ground and weeds, and thick on the back part for strength. The upper part of the arm F K is placed into a mortise through the beam, and the arms MLG through the side-bulls, (see fig. 5.) These arms are made fast in the beam and side-bulls by screw-nuts above and be- low, as at H I and K L ; by means of which, the arms can be easily raised or depressed, and cause the hoes to go deeper or shallower in the soil. B I M repre- sent iron bars, one of which is fixed on each side of the beam at B, and their other ends to the side- bulls at I. In these iron bars are openings outwards, that receive the arms of the shares, and support them against the resistance of the ground in hoeing. I N the handles by which the machine is directed, (see T O and U P, fig. 5.) Fig. 7. Plan or bird's-eye view of a hoeing ma- chine with shifting shares. A B represent the beam ; P and R the directing handles fixed at B to the back end of the beam, and connected by an iron rod which keeps them at a pro- per distance from each other ; C D is a piece of wood placed across on the back end of the beam at right angles to its sides, and secured on it by screw-bolts ; E and F are the two shifting shares, the arms of which are PL XII. THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. 169 are placed in the mortises G and H through the piece of wood C D. In these mortises the arms have liberty to shift, either further from, or nearer to the beam, as cir- cumstances may require. They are served with screw- nuts above and below the wood ; by means of which they can be fixed at different heights. I is the front or leading share, the arm of which is placed in a mor- tise up through the beam at K, and can be raised or depressed by screw-nuts ; M N O are two iron rods fastened to the arms at N and O, having their other ends fixed on the beam at M by a screw-bolt ; L the bridle attached to the beam by an iron bolt that passes through a hole in its arms and the fore end of the beam. Fig. 3. Profile of the same implement, in which A B represent the beam ; B C the handles fix- ed to the back end of the beam ; D E the front share ; I F the arm, on the lower end of which it is welded. This arm is placed in a mortise up through the beam. G and H are the shifting shares welded to the lower end of their arms, which pass up through the cross piece of wood on the beam. These arms are all secured by screw-nuts above and below at K L. They are also supported by the iron rods O and P against the strains the shares meet with in cutting the soil. N, a wheel fixed on an iron axle, the pivots of which turn in the lower end of a frame, the arm M of which goes up through a mortise in the fore end of the beam, and supports the beam at an equal distance from the 170 THE CULTIVATOR OR HORSE-HOE. PL XII. the surface of the ground to regulate the depth of the shares in the soil when hoeing ; R the bridle fixed to the fore end of the beam. Fig. 9. Elevation of the same implement. ABC are the handles fixed at D to the beam ; E F is a piece of wood fixed across the beam, hav- ing mortises into which the arms K and L of the two shares C and I, are fixed by screw-nuts above and below the wood. H is the fore share, having its arm up through a mortise in the beam, and is also fastened by screw-nuts. Fig. 10. A back end view of the hoeing shares and arms, in which A C and B D represent the shifting shares ; E F the front or leading share welded to the lower end of its arms. The shifting shares C and D are fixed on the lower ends of their arms A and B, the lower part of which are made sharp on the fore edge for cutting the weeds and soil. The front or leading share must be fixed on its arm at right angles, or square to its sides. But the two shifting arms may be made so as to cut either oblique or perpendicular, while the shares fixed on their lower ends ought al- ways to cut in a horizontal direction. PLATE PL XIII. A SOWING MACHINE. 171 PLATE XIII. A Sowing Machine. Though many new and useful implements, for the various purposes of agriculture, have of late years been introduced into practice, yet the means of seminating land exactly with grain or pulse in the broadcast manner, is still a desideratum in modern husbandry. Few farmers but have experienced difficulty in put- ting in seed-corns equally by the hand, particularly in windy weather, and limiting or regulating the pro- posed quantity of seed per acre, to the state of the soil and season of sowing. To obviate these difficulties, the following plan and description are humbly sub- mitted to the public, not as an approved perfect im- plement (for, as far as the writer knows, his design has not been brought to the test of experience), but as a ground- work, on the principles of which a more complete machine for that purpose may perhaps be constructed. Fig. 1 . A bird's-eye view of a machine intended for sowing different kinds of graia ia the broadcast manner. A 172 A SOWING MACHINE. PL XIII. A A two wheels that roll on the land, and carry a frame with the sowing parts of the machine ; F G a wooden axle, to each end of which iron arms are fixed by screw-bolts, on which the wheels revolve; D E is a horizontal frame fixed on the axle F G by two screw-bolts ; B and G are two pair of shafts into which the horses are yoked to work the machine. One end of these shafts is fixed into the axle F G, and fastened by screw-bolts at H I to the horizontal frame. K is a wheel fixed on the inner end of the nave of one of the wheels A, which turns the wheel L fixed on the square of the gudgeon of the axle O N, that turns in the frame D E. On the extremi- ties of the arms of this axle brushes are fixed, wmich revolve amongst the seed in a circular tube of milled iron ; by means of which, the seed is regularly and equally dropt into the soil, through the holes in the under side of the sowing tube. There is also a shift- ing screen placed on the outside of the sowing tube, which is easily shifted by means of a toothed rack, and a pinion on each end of the iron spindle O P. When its handle R is turned a little round, the holes in the lower side of the tube may cither be shut or opened at pleasure ; so that different sorts of seed can be sown, by shifting this screen, which enlarges or con- tracts the holes in the under side of the tube. S T two harrows connected together by iron hasps and hooks, and attached to the axle F G by two iron chains hooked into staples fixed in the axle by screw- nuts at U V. These harrows can either be attached and PL XIII. A SOWING MACHINE. 17 Z and made use of with the machine or not, as found necessary. Fig. 2. Profile of the same machine. A B represent one of the wheels that carries one end of the shafts, the frame, the seed-hopper, and sowing tube ; C D are the shafts, one end of which is fixed into the wooden axle R, and fastened to the horizontal frame at S by screw-bolts ; S T the horizontal frame ; E F G the seed-hopper ; HI a wheel fixed on the nave of the wheel A B. This wheel turns another which is fastened upon the gudgeon in the axle K, (see K L, fig. 1.) By these wheels, the axle R with its brushes are driven round among the seed in the in- side of the sowing tube, through holes in the under side of which the seed drops upon the surface of the land when the machine is in motion. F is a regulator that slides easily up or down in grooves in the inside of the hopper, allowing a greater or lesser quantity of seed to pass from the hopper into K the sowing tube ; G is a screw-nut by which the regulator is governed ; L N is a shifting screen that turns round on the out- side of the sowing tube, by shifting of which the seed- holes may be enlarged or contracted, according to the size or kind of seed to be sown. This is performed by the handle M, which is fixed at N on the axis of a small pinion that acts on the teeth of the segment L, and turns the screen round on the outside of the sow- ing tube, when found necessary. O P are the harrows attached to this machine by the chain O H. X Fig. 174 A SOWING MACHINE. PL XIII. Fig. 3. Profile of the outside of the same machine. A B one of the wheels ; C D the shafts ; S T and H I the frames that support the seed-hopper ; E F G and K L the sowing tube ; M N are the harrows at- tached to the machine, (see S T, fig. 1.) Fig. 4. A S T B is a longitudinal view of the sowing tube ; E C D F represent the holes in its lower side, through which the seed drops on the sur- face of the soil when the machine is moved forward. Fig. 5. E P F R represent the shifting screen which passes round the under side of the sowing tube. When this screen is turned round, so that the open- ings K L between the spars are placed upon the holes (C F of fig. 4.) in the under side of the sowing tube, then the whole diameter of these holes will be open to admit the largest seed to pass ; but if the spars S and T be placed upon the holes C and F in fig. 4., then they will be wholly shut. If the spars are only a little shifted round, part of each hole will be uncovered and admit small seed to pass through. G H is an iron spindle, upon each end of which a small pi- nion is fixed to act on the teeth of the rack P R. The handle I of this spindle being a little turned round, either shuts or opens the holes in the sowing tube, by shifting the screen ; so that the holes in the tube can be adapted tc the kind of seed to be sown. Fig. 6. K U V L, an inside view of the hopper ; M N is the opening in its bottom, through which the seed PL XIII. A SOWING MACHINE. 175 seed passes into the sowing tube ; O P the regulator which is moved up and down in grooves in the hopper by screw-nuts at R and S, (see G, fig. 3.) ; whereby the opening in the bottom of the hopper may be made greater or less, according as circumstances require. Fig. 7. P S R T, an end view of the sowing tube. The opening at S is placed close under the opening in the bottom of the seed-hopper for receiving the seed ; and in its under side at T, are the holes through which the seed drops on the surface of the land. Fig. 8. BCD, an end view of the sowing tube and shifting screen ; A is the gudgeon of the axle, on the arms of which the brushes are fixed, (see K, fig. 2.) ; E is a small pinion fixed upon an iron spindle or axle, having a handle P. When this han- dle is moved a little round, the pinion E acting on the segment D, shifts the screen round on the out- side of the sowing tube. By this means, the holes in the lower side of the tube, through which the seed drops, are opened or shut at pleasure. Fig. 9. F G, an end view of the axle that turns on its gudgeons in the horizontal frame, (see T N, fig. l.) j I K L M are brushes fixed on the extre- mities of the axle-arms, which revolve among the seed within the sowing tube. By this means, the holes in the under side of the sowing tube are kept clear, and permit the seed to pass through regularly and equally. X 2 Of 176 OF WHEELS IN GENERAL. PL XIII, Of Wheels in General. Wheels are applied to carriages constructed for various purposes ; and they are of very great utility to the farmer, not only for despatch, but for dimi- nishing labour to the cattle. But whether high or low wheels be fittest for the purpose, or more easily drawn, has long been a subject of dispute, even among persons skilled in mechanics. It is evident, however, that whatever difference there is between the diameter of two wheels, if their centres are on a level with the moving power, the one will require as much force to roll it along upon a hard, smooth surface, or hori- zontal plane, as the other ; so that the high wheel, in this case, has no advantage over the lower one. It is only, then, in different circumstances, that one diameter of wheels is preferable to another ; for, in some situations, the high wheels have the advantage, and in others the lower ones. It is however obvious, that the higher a wheel is, the more easily it will pass over any obstacle, if the moving power is not placed below its centre. It therefore appears, that carriages ought to have wheels whose centres are nearly the height of that point on the shoulders of the cattle where the draught is fixed. This, however, will on- ly hold good when the carriage is upon a horizontal road ; for, in going up a steep path, the distance of the point of draught from the ground is lessened ; because, when a horse is pulling up hill, his height is inclined to the declivity of the road, although it be perpendicular PL XIII. OF WHEELS IN GENERAL. 177 perpendicular to the horizon. For which cause, the centres of the wheels ought to be a little less than the height of the point of draught ; but the exact differ- ence depends on a variety of circumstances, which those persons making use of wheel-carriages must un- derstand best. It is however thought, that from four feet to four feet eight inches, is a very convenient height for cart-wheels ; and, in general, the different heights between these two have been preferred to any other for common purposes. The great disadvantage of very high wheels is in going down hill ; for the load being high raised, causes the greater pressure upon the cattle, because the support which the cattle can then give the carriage will be too low placed ; therefore, the low wheels, in this case, have the advantage over the higher, if the de- clivity is such that the weight of the carriage is suffi- cient to overcome the friction ; for the greater the friction is, the less force is necessary to resist the weight when going down hill. In going up hill, the weight and friction act on the same side of the centre ; therefore, the less the friction is, the less force will be required to overcome it. But, in going down hill, the weight and friction act on different aides ; therefore, the less that the friction is, the greater power is necessary to resist the weight. From which it ap- pears, that, in going down hill, the lower wheels have greatly the advantage ; for the weight being lower placed, the catde have more power to resist the pressure, by the power being applied in a proper direction. PLATE Tl. XIV. CART-WHEELS. 179 PLATE XIV. In 'which are represented the different Parts of a Cart- Wheel; and also the Wheel completed. Fig. 1. A B represent the nave prepared for the spokes ; C D the mortises into which one end of the spoke is driven. These mortises should not stand at a right angle to the line A B, but slope towards B, in proportion to the intended dish of the wheel. They should also be widest on the edge C, and ta- pered towards D ; which form assists in keeping the spokes to the proper inclination. Fig. 2. D E an end view of the nave. The dot- ted lines F F represent the direction of the mortises. Fig. 3. L M the spokes prepared ; N O the parts that are driven into the mortises in the nave. Fig. 4c G H a side view of the spokes ; I K the ends that are to be fixed in the naves, which must have a little taper from I to L, so that they may be securely fixed when driven into the mortises. Fig. 5. P P the felloes which form the ring of the wheel. They are fixed on the outer ends of the spokes, (see 180 CART-WHEELS. PL XIV. (see A B, fig. 10.) RR are small roundles or douls fixed into an auger-hole in the ends of the felloes, which connect them together when placed on the spokes. Fig. 6. S S an edge view of the felloes ; T T the mortises that take in the tenons of the spokes. Fig. 7. A B the nave ; C D and E F the spokes fixed into the mortises of the nave ; G H I, an instru- ment for regulating the inclination of the spokes, by resting at A and B on a small round iron spike placed in the centre of the nave. In its longer arm, B H, is a square rod that goes through the arm at H, its point touching the spokes on the side D, by which means they are all placed in the same angle from the centre line A B of the nave. RST iron hoops fixed on the nave, to prevent it from splitting by any strain it may be exposed to ; RLM N, a strong frame of wood sunk (commonly) in the ground, on which the nave rests while the spokes are driving into its mor- tises. Fig. 8. OP the nave ; R R S S represent the spokes fixed in its circumference, on the extremities of which the felloes are fixed, and complete the wheel, (see fig. l o.) Fig. 9. Profile of the nave and spokes. A B the nave ; C D E F the spokes fixed into it ; G H I a machine, by which the tenons C F of the spokes PL XIV. CART-WHEELS. 181 spokes are regulated in one plane surface, perpendicular to the centre line of the nave. Fig. 10. The wheel completed. A B the iron hoop embracing its circumference. Fig. 11. Profile of two wheels placed on their axle. It would seem natural for the axle of a cart to be straight, and its arms, which the wheel turns on, without any taper ; also, that the spokes of the wheel should be placed at right angles to the axle. By this means, they are made to stand perpendicular to the sur- face of a plane road; of course, abler to support a greater weight. It is found, however, from long experience, that such a form of wheels is liable to several defects. When rolling in wet, soft roads, for instance, all the loose earth and sand carried up by the wheel falls on the nave, and part of it also goes in between the bushes and the axle ; whereby, not only the bushes are socn worn, but likewise the axle-arms on which they revolve. Such a form of wheels likewise re- quire a greater length of axle, in order to allow room between them for containing the cart and its load. They also bear hard on the inner part of the lower side of the axle-arm ; by which severe pressure, the spokes are forced back in the mortises of the nave. The wheels then have a dish, or become hollow on the side next to the cart ; and as the sides of roads are in general sloped, it often happens that Y the 1S2 CART-WHEELS. PL XIV. the one wheel is lower than the other, either by get- ting into a hollow, or rolling on the lower side of the road. The greatest part of the load then presses upon the lower wheel. In this position, that part of the wheel which bears on the ground is not perpendicu- lar below that part of the nave which the spoke sup- ports ; and, in this situation, the spoke which bears the greatest weight inclines outward above, and is apt to break inward : it also bears hard on the inner edge of the mortise. By this pressure, the nave below bears hard on the inner end of the under side of the axle- arm. It has been found by experience, however, that all these defects in the cart-wheel may in a great degree be prevented, by the spokes being placed obliquely in the nave, by which the wheel will have what is term- ed a dish, the spokes forming a concave or hollow sur- face. If two such wheels are placed upon an axle, the arms of which >have no taper, the extremities of them would be equally distant from each other, above as well as below, the lower spokes always inclining inwards above. Now, if the outer ends of the arms be bent downward, the two wheels will be turned inwards be- low, and outwards above ; and the bend of the arms be such, that the spoke which bears the greatest weight will be perpendicular to the horizon. But placing the wheels on an axle of this shape, will remove some of the fore-mentioned defects ; for, by the wheels' face sloping outwards above, the loose earth and sand they carry up will not fall so much on the inner ends of the naves, and there will also be more space for ad- mitting PL XIV. CART-WHEELS. 183 mitting the cart between the wheels. But one great defect still remains ; for if one of the wheels get into a hollow, the spoke that is supporting the greatest weight from the carriage leans outward, in which po- sition it bears hard on the inner edge of its mortise ; of course, the nave will bear hard upon the inner end of the axle-arm below. To obviate this, the axle- arms should be formed in such a manner, that when dished wheels are placed upon them, the outer edges of the two spokes immediately below their centres shall not then be parallel to each other, or stand at right angles to the horizon ; and the arms should be so fitted into the bushes in the nave, that, when the wheels are on a level, the lower spokes are inclined a little outward below. This is rendered the more ne- cessary, as the greatest jolts a wheel receives are from the outside ; but the spoke, thus placed, will be in the best position to resist these shocks. For this, and several other reasons already mentioned, it is evident that the spokes of carriage- wheels should be placed into the mortises of the nave in a sloping direction, so that the outer surface of the wheel be concave, or have a dish. For experience has taught that, notwithstand- ing all the dish given to wheels, they still incline to lose part of it, that is, the spokes stand more upright as the wheel fails, and, consequently, loses its cavi- ty. From this, it would seem expedient to give wheels a much greater dish than what is generally prac- tised. But this- is restricted by other circumstances ; for the spokes must be very firmly driven into the Y 2 nave, 184 CART-WHEELS. PL XIV, nave, in order that they may be secure ; and that part of the spoke which goes into the nave must not be very much tapered, else they will soon work loose, by the strains to which they are exposed. The spokes, therefore, should not be placed in the nave too much sloped ; for the wood of the nave would then be rea-* dy to split outwards from the centre, by the pressure of the spokes on the inner ends of the mortises. The spokes of a wheel may however be safely placed at an angle of between eight and nine degrees from a right angle to a line passing along the centre of the nave, which is about one inch and three fourths of dish on every foot of radius ; so that a wheel four feet diameter, will be three inches and a half hollow, or concave, and so on in proportion to the diameter of the wheel. It is thought an advantage to place the spokes into the nave, so as a perpendicular, from the lower extremity of the wheel to the under side of the axle-arm, may fall betwixt one and two inches without the middle point between the two bushes, so that the wheels, when on a level road, may have the greatest pressure on the outer bush ; for the inner part of the axle-arm being larger than the outer part, of course it has the more friction, and should therefore have the less pressure. When one wheel sinks be- low the other, the pressure is increased on the inner bush of the lower wheel. Both these effects will in a great degree be prevented, by fixing the spokes in the nave at the proper angle from a line passing; through its centre. There PL XIV, CART-WHEELS. 185 There are still persons of opinion, however, that the spokes of cart-wheels should be set at right an- gles, or square to the centre line of the nave, so that the wheel will have no dish ; and, to prevent the un- equal pressure on the inner and outer ends of the axle- arm, insist on placing the spokes, not in the mid- dle of the nave, but at a greater distance from its in- ner than its outer end. But this will only in part re- move the defect, the other imperfection, mentioned above, still remaining ; for it has on trial been found, that wheels of this form are much weaker, and fail sooner. They also incline inward at their extremi- ty ; and the surface next to the carriage becomes con- cave, or has a dish. This shows, at once, the great advantage that arises from placing the spokes of car- riage-wheels in a direction sloping outwards ; but this not being the most natural position, it certainly owes its discovery, either to accident, or the ingenuity of some man of superior genius : and long experience has fully ascertained its utility. If the wheels A C B D, having a dish, were placed upon axle-arms without a taper, still the supporting spokes O C and P D should be nearly perpendicular to the horizontal line E F ; in this case, it would be necessary to bend the axle-arms dowmwards at the outer ends. But this is a very improper position ; for if the arms are much bent when the carriage is going on a level or plane road, the wheels continually slide in upon the axle-arms ; and the under part of the nave presses hard on the shoulder of the axle : besides, 186 CART-WHEELS. PL XIV. as sand and mud are most apt to get in between the arms and bushes at that part, the friction is thereby greatly increased, and both the bushes and axle-arms very soon worn out. This improper form of the axle-arms will have the greatest effect on that wheel which gets into ruts or hollows in the road ; since, in that position, it has the greatest part of the load to support. This defect may in a great degree be removed, by tapering the axle-arms, which will prevent the dished wheels from pressing in upon them. The lower side of the arms G R, and S H, which rests on the bushes, should be in a straight line j for were they higher at the inner ends R S, than at G H their outer ends, the bushes would press on the shoulders of the axle at R and S ; and if they were higher at G and H than at R and S, then the wheels would press outwards on the linch-pins. Therefore, the axle-arms should be so formed, that the spokes C O and P D, which are sup- porting the carriage and load, should either be perpen- dicular to the horizon, or incline outwards a little be- low ; while the planes of the surfaces of the wheels A C and B D must be at right angles to the lines I K and K L, which pass along in the centres of the bushes. T M and M N are the directions of the taper on the axle-arms, which being horizontal, or in a straight line below, the whole taper is on the upper side ; by which means, the inclinations of the planes of the faces of the wheels A C and B D, form the angles ACE and BDF, the lines A E B F being perpendicular. Thus, PL XIV. CART-WHEELS. 187 Thus, by means of the taper on the upper side of the axle- arms, the plane of the face of these wheels is inclined inwards below each wheel about three and a half inches ; or the upper parts A B of the wheels are removed seven inches further distant from each other, than C D the under parts. These circumstances will determine the degree of taper that ought to be given the bushes and axle- arms, according to the diameter of the wheels. PLATii PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 1ST' PLATE XV. Carts or Carriages. Fig. 1. ABCD represent the taper hole through the middle of the nave. The lower side C D of this hole must be level or parallel to the horizon. F is that part of the wheel which rests on the ground ; I K the centre line of the nave-hole, or the axis round which the wheel revolves. From the point F, raise the perpendicular line F G ; this line will inter- sect the centre line at O. Let H be the uppermost part of the wheel. Directly opposite to F, draw the line H E, which will also cut the centre line at O. Now, as the line F G is at a right angle to C D, the lower side of the nave hole ; in like manner, the line H E is at a right angle to A B its upper side. If a line be drawn from H to F, cutting the centre line in the point L, then L O is the true dish of the wheel. The lines A, B, C, D, if extended, will meet in M ; then, because the two triangles O L F and M O G have a common angle at O, and equal angles at L and G, the angles at M and F are equal also. The half taper, therefore, of the bushes and axle- arms forms the very same angle as the true dish of the wheel, and is in the same proportion - f for, as the radius Z or 190 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL AT. or half diameter of the wheel is to its real dish, so is the length of the nave to half the taper of the axle- arms, or to half the difference between the diameters of the inner and outer bushes. The true dish of the wheel may likewise be found from the taper of the bushes and axle-arm ; for, if the line D N be drawn parallel to the centre line I K, then I N will be equal to L D, which is half the dia- meter of the outer bush ; and N C will be half the difference of the diameter of the inner and outer bushes, or half the taper of the bushes and axle-arm, suitable to the length of the nave, wmich is always reckoned from the centre line I K of the nave. Hence, D N is equal to I L ; and D N is to N C, as F L is to L O ; that is, the length of the nave is to the half taper of the bushes and axle-arm, as the radius or half the diameter of the wheel is to the true dish. In this manner, from the dish or concavity of the wheel, a pair of bushes may be chosen to suit that dish ; also, from the taper of the bushes, a wheel may be made with a proper dish for answering the bushes. It was observed, before, that the supporting spoke should incline a little outwards below, which is thought the most proper position. This can be accomplished, either by diminishing the taper of the axle-arm, or by giving the wheel a greater dish. On PL XV, CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 191 On Placing the BusJies. The bushes must be very correctly fixed in the middle of the nave, and placed so that the centre line of the two bushes make one straight line, and that line to stand at a right angle to the face of the wheel. To explain this, suppose the nave of a carriage-wheel to be represented by H I K L, fig. 2, and let C D be the line drawn along its centre ; it is evident, that if the inner bush A B"F G be placed further down at F than at A, it will be nearer the centre line at G than B ; so must grate on the axle-arm at G, and not only w T ear a rut in the axle-arm, but also cause more friction, and obstruct the motion of the wheel : like- wise, if the outer bush be more set down at R than at T, it will be nearer the centre line at P than at S, by which it will have the same effect on the axle- arm. In these positions of the two bushes, their cen- tre lines cannot fall in with the centre line C D of the wheel, but will stand at the angles C Pi and D E ; for if both the bushes have the same taper, their in— sides A R and F T should run in straight lines, and the centre line of the two bushes be perpendicular to the plane of the outer face of the felloes, in order that the wheel may revolve truly on the axle-arm. For if the centre line of the bushes point to either side, the wheel will, in turning round, twist in pro- pel tion, and its circumference will not roll straight forward on the road. This defect may be perceived, Z 2 bv 192 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV. by turning the wheel round on an axle-arm that fits the bushes, holding a steady mark to the face of the ring, which will touch the felloes all round, without any twist, if the face of the wheel be true, and the; bushes placed in a proper position. To find the Dish of a Wheel. What is found most convenient, in practice, to be considered as the dish or concavity of a carriage- wheel, is different from what is termed the true dish, Fig. 3, Profile of a cart-wheel, with its sole, or the extremity of its ring K L, standing on a plane surface. Let T I represent the lower side of the axle-arm, parallel to the horizon, or to the line K L ; then the line DIM will be parallel to the plane of the face of the wheel R L ; S T parallel to F G, the cen- tre line of the nave ; and I N perpendicular to the horizon. Now, as the distance of the perpendicular line I N from K, the inner side of the sole or ring, is generally termed by workmen the dish of a wheel ; it is evident, that the distance of the point N from the correspondent point in the other wheel, is the dis- tance between the inner ends of the two naves or shoulders of the axle, and consequently the length of the axle-bed. Therefore, the dish of a wheel may be found by either pf the following methods. Figr PI. XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 193 Fig. 4. Let A B and E F represent the ring or felloes of a wheel, and I K L a square. If the stock K L of the square be applied through the eye of the wheel, close to the inner end of the bushes, and its blade K I applied to the inner end D of the nave, extending to A B the extremity of the wheel ; then the distance between the inside of the square at C, and the inside of the ring of the wheel at A, is the dish sought. Another method : Let A B, fig. 3, be a straight rule applied to the face of the wheel R L close to the nave ; then, if a rod C D E be put through betwixt two of the spokes at a right angle to the rule A, this gives the distance D E from the in- ner end of the nave to the face of the wheel ; and as this distance is to half the taper of the bushes, so is the height of the lower side of the axle-arm (be- ing horizontal) to a fourth quantity ; for it is evident that M L is nearly equal to S T, which is equal to D E, and that T S I, and I N M, form equal an- gles ; so that N K is the difference between M L, and the sum of M N and K L. Thus, if the line I T, which is the lower side of the axle-arm, be two feet above K L the sole of the wheel, and the taper of the bushes be two inches ; let the distance from D the inner end of the nave, to E the face of the wheel, be one foot or twelve inches, and K L, the breadth of the sole or ring, two and a half inches ; then, 1 2 : 1 : : 24 : 2 ; for M N and K L make four and a half inches. This, subtracted from twelve, the length of the nave, there remain seven and a half inches, the 194 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XP. the distance betwixt N and K, which, in practice, is commonly called the dish of the wheel. This calcu- lation may be performed at once by the sliding-rule, that useful instrument to workmen. Thus, set 1 2 to 24, and then 1 will stand opposite to 2 for the distance M N ; and so on. Of the Axle-Bed. The distance between the inner ends of the two naves is commonly termed the axle-bed. To find its length, when the lower side of the axle-arms are in a straight line : If the dish of the two wheels be sub- tracted from the proposed distance betwixt the inner side of the wheels on the road, the remainder will be the length of the axle-bed. Fig. 5. Suppose C D an axle ; let A B, the dis- tance between the wheels within on the surface of the road, be four feet six inches ; and A E and F B, the dish of both wheels, be one foot three inches ; then G H, the axle-bed, will be three feet three inches in length. Thus, the distance between the two wheels within on tke road A B being - And the dish of both wheels A E & F B - Then the length of the axle-bed G H will be Feet. In, 4 6 1 3 3 3 Of PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 19^ Of the Bended Axle. It is generally allowed, that the best form of a cart-axle is, that the lower side of its arms be in a straight line. Sometimes, however, the axle-bed is confined to a certain length ; and, in this case, it may be necessary to bend the axle-arms down- wards, in order that the supporting spokes may stand nearly perpendicular to the horizon, or make the wheels roll at a proper distance from each other on the road. If a certain length of axle-bed be given, and also a certain distance between the wheels on the road ; to find the necessary bend of the axle, or how much the lower side of the axle-arms requires to be bent down from the straight at the outer ends of the naves, the following rule may be suggested. Rule. — Find the length of the axle-bed, when the arms are straight on the lower side, that will give the wheels the required distance from each other on the road ; take half the difference between the giv- en length of bed and the length found. Then, as the distance of the lower side of the straight arm, from the extremity of the wheel, is to this half dif- ference, so is the length of the axle-arm to the bend required. Again, if the length of the axle-bed given be three feet three inches, and the distance between the wheels on the road four feet six inches, the wheels being of the same dimensions as those of the last example, that is, one 196 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XK one foot three inches of dish, and the lower side of the axle- arms two feet, or twenty-four inches from the extremity of the wheel, and the length of the axle- arm one foot, or twelve inches ; then the length of the axle-bed will be three feet three inches, by the last rule. Thus, the difference being three inches, the half of which is one and a half inch ; then, twenty-four is to one and a half as twelve is to three fourths of an inch, which is the bend downwards of the axle-arm required. This will appear, by considering Fig. 6., where A B represent an axle, the arms of which are straight on the lower side. Let C D be the given length of the axle-bed ; G H the given distance of the wheels on the road ; I K the length of bed which would give the wheels that distance on the road when the axle-arms are straight on the lower side ; let A I and K B be the length of the straight arms ; draw the lines I L and K M perpen- dicular to the horizon, or at right angles to A B ; then L G and M H will be the dish of the two wheels. Again, if the axle-arms I A and K B are bent down to the position I N & K N, the lines I G & K H will then take the position I R & K S ; so that the angles A I G and B K S will be equal to the angles N I R, N K S ; and the angles A I N and B K N will be equal to the angles G I R and H K S. Hence, G E and H F will be the quantities by w T hich the distance between the wheels is diminished, by bending down the axle-arms from I A to I N, and from KBtoKNj therefore, if PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 197 if C I be made equal to G E, D K equal to H F, C O parallel to I N, and D P parallel to K N ; then the wheels placed on the bended axle-arms O C and P D, will have the same distance from each other on the road, as when on the straight axle-arms A1RB; so that C I and K D will be the difference of the lengths of the two axle- beds. For example, if the arms be bent three fourths of an inch downwards, and the distance between the two wheels on the road four feet six inches ; then, 12 \\ : : 24 : 1-| 4 which ly is C I. Now this, add- ed to K D, makes three inches ; so that, as I K is three feet three inches, therefore C D will be three feet six inches. In the preceding calculation, the distance between the lower side of a straight axle from the extremity of the wheel, must always be un- derstood as one of the number to work by. To find this, let us examine fig. 3, by which it will appear, that I M is equal to T L, which is the radius or half diameter of the wheel, deducting half the dia- meter of the bush at T ; when we shall have T S parallel to F G, the centre line of the bush. T [ is the lower side of the straight axle, and T L or I N the distance of the lower side of the axle-arm from the extremity of the wheel. It may be observed, that if two axles having arms of equal length, and the taper of the one less than the other, then the arms having the least taper must be furthest bent down, so as to preserve the same distance between the wheels below, and still to retain them in the same position. For this purpose, the ad- A a ditional 198 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV, ditional bend required to the arms of least taper, is exactly equal to one half of the difference between the tapers on the arms of the two axles. Fig. 7. Thus, let HI KL represent the arm of an axle straight on the lower side, having a taper of two inches; A B the centre line of this arm, and A C a line pa- rallel to K L. Let the line I D be the face of the wheel, and the line B E perpendicular from the centre of the outer bush ; it is evident that C B is equal to half the taper of the arm, or the difference between the dia- meters of the bushes. It is also obvious, that A B is to B C, as B E is to E D, which is half the inclination of the wheel inwards below. Fig. 8. Again, suppose M N O T, another axle- arm of the same length as fig. 7, being also straight on the lower side, and having only a taper of one inch ; P R will therefore be the half of the taper of this arm, and the one half of B C in fig. 7. ; and E F will be the half of D E in fig. 7» : so that, in order to make the angle E O G equal to the angle D L E in fig. 7, the arm must be bent to the position of the dotted line T U its lower side, so as to make O U equal to the taper P R. By this bend, the centre line R of the arm will be brought down as much further as it now is below the level of the line P S. The wheel P G will then stand in the same position as the wheel B D in fig. 7. ; of course, both will be at equal angles to the horizon, or have the same inclination inwards below. Of PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 199 Of Contracting the Wheels before. Experience has ascertained, that cart-wheels will roll with greater freedom when they are contracted be- fore, or their faces inclined a little inwards to the fore side of the axle ; because the axle-arms, being tapered, their fore side does not stand at a right angje to the line of draught, or to the face of the wheel ; and as the wheels are forced or rolled forward by the axle- arms, they of course must be forced outward by the taper on the fore edge of these arms ; so that this ten- dency of the wheels outward, must be balanced by giving them an inclination inwards before ; for the more the axle-arms are tapered, and the less that the wheels are inclined inwards below, a greater contrac- tion of the wheels inwards before becomes necessary. It is found, too, by experience, that a contraction in- ward before, of about one inch and a half, is sufficient for wheels four feet six inches diameter, when their axle-arms are straight below, and have a taper of two inches in twelve, the medium length of a nave. Fig. 9. Thus, let A BCD represent the lower side of an axle, and F H I L a straight line along its mid- dle ; let F E be the distance set forward at one outer end of the axle-arms, and L K the distance set forward at the other ; then, as the middle line of the axie- arms corresponds with the centre line of the bushes, and the faces of the wheels intersect that line at right A a 2 angle; 200 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV. angles, if the centres of the outer ends of the arms were continued in the straight line F and L, the faces M S and P T of the wheels would cut that line at right angles. But when the centres of the outer ends of the arms are placed in E and K, then the planes of the faces of the wheels will intersect the lines H E and I K at right angles, and the angles E F H and MNG will be equal ; while the angles RGS and TUG, also KlI and O P G, will likewise be equal. Therefore, as M G, the radius or half dia- meter of the wheel, is to M N a half of the contrac- tion, so is FI F, the length of the axle- arm, to F E the distance sought ; and so of O P O G and I L L K, the other arm. On Wheel-Carriages used in Husbandry* The wheel-carriages employed in husbandry are of various dimensions and of different forms, and are often constructed without sufficient attention to the materials to be carried, or the nature of the roads, and are commonly too clumsy to be convenient. The first carts used in Scotland were small, and drawn by one horse. In the low countries, however, larger ones have since been introduced, drawn by two, some- times by three horses, and large wains drawn by two or four oxen or horses. A person who has not made exact trial of these different carts and wains, if he would judge from experience, must attend to the practice of those PL XV, CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 201 those who are chiefly employed in carrying goods from place to place. Among these people a cart drawn by three horses is seldom to be seen. Indeed, in many places of the country, where two horses were former- ly employed, one-horse carts are now preferred, and very frequently two of them driven by one man. It becomes, therefore, a proper inquiry, whether one cart drawn by two horses, or two carts, each drawn by one horse, be most advantageous. One large cart can be easier purchased than two small ones ; but the small ones, carrying less weight, will last longer, and require less repair. The expense of working them is the same ; for both require two horses and a driver. Indeed, if there be any difference, the small ones ap- pear to have the advantage ; at least, in this, that they are easiest loaded and unloaded, of course more con- venient. It may be observed, however, that in the larger cart, the two horses have only the friction of two wheels to overcome ; whereas, the same number of horses have the friction of four wheels in the small carts. But the friction may not be so great perhaps as at first sight appears ; for the small carts, having less weight to carry, the axle-arms may be made smaller in proportion, by which the friction will be lessened : and it is evident, that when the axle-arms are equal, the friction will be in proportion to the weight ; so that the two lesser carts, having smaller axle-arms, and less weight upon them, it is probable will carry a greater weight than one large cart 3 and have no greater friction. The 202 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV. The most material difference between these carts con- sists in this. The power applied to the lesser carts can always be properly directed, which is not the case with the larger ; because, in the smaller carts, there is but one force applied, which may easily be directed in the proper line of draught ; but, in the larger carts, there are two or more forces applied, and these frequently in different directions ; for both or all the cattle sel- dom draw equally : so that, when these disadvantages are considered, it will appear prudent in those who are employed in carrying goods from place to place, to make use of the single-horse cart, in place of those with two or more horses. In fact, the most intelli- gent farmers are fully convinced, that great advantages arise from using single-horse carts. Indeed, this cart has been examined, in different points of view, by ac- curate observers, and found, in almost every instance, greatly superior either to the two, or to the three-horse cart. But this is to be considered of the cart when pro- perly constructed; for nothing can be more injudicious, than the enormous bulk and clumsiness of the farm- carts frequently used in some places ; to say nothing of the great weight of wheels that are often attached to them. To load these large carts is also attended with considerable difficulty; while the damage they occasion upon a wet soil, by cutting the surface into deep ruts, is a consideration of no small importance. In fact, the lightness of carriages is a property of the first import- ance to the business of a farm. Besides, it is thought that two horses yoked in single carts will draw as much as three of equal strength yoked in one cart. From this it PL XV, CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 203 it appears, that waggons or wains cannot be so useful to the farmer, since the same number of horses yoked in single-horse carts will draw considerably more in proportion, than when yoked six or eight together ; besides, they are easier managed, loaded and unload- ed ; in short, they are more handy for almost every purpose. In the single-horse carts, likewise, the height of the wheels can be adapted to the height of the horses with the greatest exactness, and be placed with more convenience in regard to the centre of gravity of the load, by which the draught will be considerably les- sened. In the most improved carts of this sort, the bottom, when placed on the axle, projects on each side over the inner heads of the naves, so as to be on- ly a little clear of the spokes of the wheels ; this pre- vents sand, soil or mud, from falling on the axle- arms at the inner ends of the naves. A very intelligent farmer, who paid much attention to the importance of carts in husbandry, found, in constructing single-horse carts, that the capacity of waggons was no just rule to walk by ; for waggon?, drawn by four horses, generally contain ninety-six cubical feet, being twelve feet long, four feet wide, and two feet in depth. From this it was supposed, that to give one horse the fourth of the load of the four horses, it would only be necessary, to allow a space of twenty-four cubical feet, or to make the cart four feet by three, with a depth of two feet ; but it was soon observed, that the power of a horse was much 204 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV, much greater when working by himself, than when in a team, and that they might be so made as to contain thirty-two cubical feet. This places the advantage which small carts have over large ones, or waggons, with respect to the quantity of work performed, in a very striking point of view. Where small carts are employed, it is the custom to have different sorts for different purposes ; those of the close kind being principally used in carrying dung-compost, and such materials as are heavy j while others are made of a kind of frame-work, and are occasionally placed on the same wheels and axle, to be used for bulky loads, such as corn in the straw, hay, or other similar substances, and are generally termed corn or hay-carts. Some of the close carts, however, have frames, or what is called hay-tops, occa- sionally fixed upon them, which may be conveniently employed in carrying unthrashed corn, hay, &c. Where carts are intended for the quarry, and : of consequence carrying heavy weights of solid mate- rials, they ought to have very low ledges, in order that they may be loaded ar.d unloaded with ease : they should also be made pretty strong, to prevent their giving way under the load. But, notwithstanding the evident advantages of em- ploying single-horse carts, in preference to heavy carts and waggons with more horses than one, yet, in many places, from the nature of roads and grounds, as well as other circumstances, they cannot be always had re- course to ; for the construction and strength of carts and PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 20 J and waggons, as well as of most other implements made use of by the husbandman, must be regulated according to the circumstances under which they are to be used. Some ingenious and very useful improvements have lately been made on carts, in order to prevent the great rapidity of motion in going down hill, and for adjust- ing the centre of gravity of the load, so as to preserve an equable bearing on the animal which draws it. The first has been effected by means of friction on the sides of the wheels, by the application of what they term a friction-drag, instead of the usual dan- gerous and inconvenient method of locking the wheels ; and the second by a toothed rack fastened to the front or fore part of the cart by a screw, work- ed by a pinion and handle fixed to the shafts. By this rack, the fore part of the cart may be elevated in proportion to the steepness of the declivity ; whereby the weight of the load is thrown more upon the axle, and the backs of the cattle employed in the draught are consequently relieved. Another and more simple method of accomplishing this, is by a piece of iron fixed on the fore part of the cart, and perforated with holes, for the admission of an iron pin or bolt, by which the fore part of the body of the cart is kept at any desired inclination with the shafts into which the cattle are yoked. As the parts of the neck and shoulder-blades, on which the collars rest in draught horses, have a tie- gree of slope or inclination that forms an angle with Bb the 206 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV. the perpendicular, of from twelve to eighteen degrees, it is plain that the line in which they draw should form the same angle with the horizon ; as, in that case, they will pull in a direction by which the different parts of their shoulders w T ill be equally pressed or acted upon by the collars. Horses, from their particular formation, are capable of drawing a greater load in a sloping, than in a horizontal line of direction ; and the power or advantage which they have in overcoming the resistance of obstacles on the road in this direction, is likewise great, as may be easily demonstrated. On these principles, single-horse carts are certainly more advantageous than teams, or where horses pull in a line before each other ; because, in the latter case, many of the horses must draw in a horizontal direc- tion, consequently in a way that is inconsistent with their form, and the established principles of mechani- cal science. This likewise places, in a most clear and satisfactory point of view, the necessity of having the wheels, in all sorts of carts, properly adapted to the size of the horses or other animals employed in draw- ing them. Fig. 10. A B C D represent the lower side of a close cart, for carrying lime, dung, &c. &c. ; E G and F H the shafts to which the cattle are attached when drawing the cart. It is thought most conveni- ent that this sort of cart should have liberty to rise up at the fore end, in order that the load may be easily discharged without disengaging the cattle. For that PI. XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 207 that purpose, the shafts E and F are fixed on the axle at S and T by two iron bolts passing through it. I K and L M are two pieces of wood fixed with screw- bolts to the frame A B C D of the cart. There is an iron rod that passes through the back ends of the shafts at G and H, and the two pieces of wood I K and L M. Upon this rod the cart turns when the load is to be thrown out. As the fore end of the cart should be easily and expeditiously fastened to the shafts E and F, and also quickly disengaged at pleasure ; for this purpose, there is an iron hook fixed at I, and another at C, in the frame of the cart. There is also a lever, I O L, which turns on an iron bolt fastened at O in the cross- stretcher of the shafts. When the fore end A C of the cart is to be raised up, this lever must be shifte J from the position C I to that of the dotted lines A L, by which the lever is disengaged from the hooks I and C, and leaves the cart at liberty to turn on the iron rod at G H ; so that, by shifting this lever a little forward from I to A, it is cleared of the hooks ; and, by moving it from A towards I, the fore part of the cart remains firmly secured to the shafts at I and L ; at same time, a catch falls in, which prevents the lever from shifting, (see G, fig. 14.) O N is a bearer fixed in the middle of the cart-frame, which, by rest- ing on the axle, supports the bottom-boards : these are placed across, in order to afford the greater strength. Fig. 1 1. The mode of placing the carriage on the wheels. Bb 2 C 208 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV. C E D F represent the body of the cart placed on the wheels R P, which are of such radius, A S, as to require no packing on the axle to raise the cart. If this cart were placed on the wheels U T, whose half diameter is S B, so that they would require the pack- ing A B in order to raise the carriage to the same height with the other wheels ; on a plane horizontal road, this would .make no difference of pressure on the horse's back ; but, when the carriage is going down a steep road, the difference will be very con- siderable. For, let N O represent such road or de- clivity ; then, if a line be raised to the centre of the higher wheel perpendicular to the horizon, or at a right angle to the line G H, it will cut the cart at » K ; whereas an upright line, passing through the centre B of the low wheels, will intersect the cart at L M. By this it is obvious, that the higher any cart is raised above the centre of its wheels, the greater will be the pressure thrown on the backs of the horses or cattle ; and, in going down hill, the horse will have to support too much weight on his back ; in going up hill, too little. It would partly remove these bad effects, if the shafts or limbers of the cart were low- ered when going up hill, and raised when going down hill, which may easily be done, by altering a few Jinks of the back chain. If an axle is properly fitted into the bushes of the wheels, particular care ought to be taken that it be kept in its proper position when fixed to the cart or carriage. The axle is sometimes fastened to the body of PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 209 of the cart, and sometimes to the shafts, as in the folding or coup-carts ; but, in whatever manner the axle is fixed, it must not be turned out of the posi- tion for which it was lined out. Therefore, if the axle be fixed to the frame of the cart, and that frame so placed as to be horizontal when the wheels are roll- ing on a level road, then the axle should be fastened with the plane of its upper side parallel to the lower side of the body of the cart. But if the axle be fix- ed to the shafts, and the shafts are raised up at the point of draught, then it must be found how much higher the shafts will be at that point than at the axle, when the wheels are rolling on level ground. This may easily be known from the radius of the wheels, and the height of the horse's shoulders, where the draught is placed. Let P R S, fig. 1 2, represent one of the shafts ; W P the height of the horse at the point of draught ; U T a horizontal line passing through the upper side of the axle ; it is evident, that to keep the axle in the position for which it was lined or drawn, that its upper surface must be kept in the direction of the line U T ; because, if the shafts were fixed on the upper side of the axle in the line U T, and the fore end U raised to P the point of draught, then the wheels would be brought too near one another before ; so that that part of the axle Z, where the under side of the shaft or limber is placed, must either be formed to the angle S P T, or the shaft must be let down to that angle. 210 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV. angle. By this means, when the point P of the shaft is raised from U to P, the axle will, in that case, still retain its proper position, or stand in that direction it was lined or drawn out to ; for, as P R is to P U, so is R T to T S. From this it is obvious, that the dis- tance between the wheels forward may either be in- creased or diminished, by the manner in which the axle is fixed to the under side of the shafts, after the axle has been properly fitted into the wheels ; and, at the same time, a difference in proportion will be made of the distance betwixt the wheels on W K the hori- zontal road. Fig. 1 3. An elevation of a coup or turn-up cart placed on its axle. A C B D represent the two wheels placed on the axle-arms L N and T M. This axle is straight on the under side, and all its taper on the upper side, from the inner ends of the naves to the outer ends ; by which, the wheels are thrown inward below, in such a man- ner, that their outer faces, when standing on a level road, will be in the position A C and B D, causing the lower spokes to stand in the position at O C and P D ; so that, when the road is sloped, or if one wheel falls into a rut, then the spoke that supports the greatest weight becomes nearly perpendicular to the horizon ; for, as the severest jolts which a cart or car- riage wheel receives, proceed from the outside, the spoke, when placed in an oblique direction, has more Dower to resist these jolts. If PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES. 211 If the axle-arms are fitted properly into the bushes of the wheels, the dotted diagonal lines G D and C H will be of equal length, as well as the lines E G and D F. This may be proved by means of a square, or two straight rods fixed together at a right angle, as A B F. Place the rod A B across upon the upper part of the wheels, the rod B F reaching to the lower part of one wheel ; then measure from the inside of the rod at F to the face of the wheel at D ; and, by placing the square in a like position on the other wheel, the space E C will be found the same with the space D F, if the axle be right fitted into the bushes. I K represent the fore end of this cart placed on the axle N T. The principal use of this construction of carts is for conveying manure to the fields. It is made close, for the purpose of retaining small substances. For convenience and expedition in emptying the load, it is made to turn or fold up on the iron rod N T that passes through the back end of the shafts, and two pieces of wood, called false rails, are fixed with screw-bolts on the under side of the cart I K, so that it can be easily emptied at pleasure. The fore end of the cart, being locked to the shafts (see A C L, fig. 10.), is by this means kept firm, and at the same time easily unlocked when the load is to be thrown out. Fig. 14. Profile of the same cart. 212 CARTS OR CARRIAGES. PL XV, A B represent one of the wheels ; O the axle-arm on which this wheel revolves ; C D the shafts or limbers, the back ends of which are fastened to the axle by two iron bolts that pass down through both of them at S (see R S, fig. 13.) • E F and G H is the box or body of the cart, having four sheaths on each side, as 1,2, 3, 4. The lower tenons of these sheaths are fixed into the under frame G H, and their upper tenons into the frame E F. By this means, the two frames are fastened together, their inner sides being also covered close with thin boards. The back end board F H is made so as to be easily taken off when the cart is to be emptied of its load. Near the fore end C of the shaft, is fixed a long staple ; and on this staple is fixed the hook K, on which one end of the draught chain is placed. L is another hook fixed on this staple, and on this hook the back band or chain is placed ; and N is also a hook, on which the chain of the breeching is placed. These chains may be made longer or shorter, by means of the links and hooks, when found necessary. It has been observed by some people, that the al- most universal practice of bending down the axle-arms of a cart or carriage, would make a person ready to imagine that there must have been some better reason for this practice, than seems to be generally given by workmen. Nevertheless, it must be admitted, that experience is superior to theory ; and that any theory which experience contradicts ought to be rejected, how- ever specious it may appear. But, in this case, both experience PL XV. CARTS OR CARRIAGES 21S experience and theory agree, which will plainly ap- pear by considering the direction of the pressure, and the sloping or conical form of the axle- arms. Thus, let G H I, fig. L5, represent a heavy body pressing upon the sloping surface or inclined plane K L, the lower side L M being parallel to the ho- rizon ; it is evident that the body K. L M will natural- ly be pressed or pushed from L towards M. There- fore, an axle-arm, when tapered on the lower side, presses on the bush and centre-block or nave in this direction ; which pressure must of course cause the wheel to fly outwards. Again, suppose a heavy body, as D E, fig. 16, pressing on another body, as F G, both being straight, and the surfaces of both, where they unite, hori- zontal, it is evident that the body F G will be pressed directly downwards, without any inclination either towards F or G. Therefore, when the axle-arms are straight below, thev will neither press the wheels in- ward nor outward, if acted on by no other force than the downward pressure. But if the axle T S (fig. 1 7.) have its arms, as N R, bent downwards, and K L be that part of the bush on which the under part of the arm presses, it is obvious that the wheel, when revolving upon this form of axle- arm, will constantly be pressed inwards upen the should- ers of the axle at N, and occasion much friction. C C PLATE PL XVI. PLAN OF A THRASHING MACHINE. 215 PLATE XVI. Plan, Elevation, and Section of a Thrashing Machine* There is sufficient evidence to conclude, that ma* chines for separating the corn from the straw are of very remote antiquity; Their particular construc- tion and forms cannot now, however, be accurately ascertained. The period is not far distant, when machines fof that purpose were introduced into Britain ; but, since that time, they have received great improvement, and may be expected still to arrive at greater perfection. As a proof of their great utility, they are now e-^ rected in almost every part of the United kingdoms J it being found that they can be worked by the farm- servants, without materially obstructing the field oper- ations, as, in bad weather, they may often be em- ployed when labour in the fields cannot be proceeded in. Besides, they enable the farmers to answer the demands of the market at any time ; and perform the work to greater perfection than is commonly done by the flail. Cc2 Thrashing 216 PLAN, ELEVATION AND SECTION PL XVI. Thrashing machines are worked in various ways, viz. by water, wind, horses, and cattle ; or by two of them jointly, as water and horses, or wind and horses; or horses can assist occasionally when there is little wind, or a small supply of water. The machine represented in this plate is so con- structed as to admit of being worked by from three to six horses. Fig. 1. is a plan of the barn, and a bird's-eye view of the machine. A B C D denote the house or barn that contains the thrashing parts of the machine ; M H K L N the stone pillars that support the roof of the course or track in which the horses walk when the ma- chine is at work ; O the shaft in which the arms RVUTS are fixed, and the horses attached when they work the machine. Upon these arms is fas- tened the wheel P O, containing two hundred and seventy teeth or ccgs, to drive the pinion No. 1. having forty teeth, which is fixed on the end of the horizontal shaft X Y. On the other end of the same shaft is the wheel No. 2. containing eighty-four teeth, which turns the pinion No. 3. having twenty- four teeth, which pinion is fixed on the axle Z ; and upon this axle is also fixed the wheel No. 4. contain- ing sixty-six teeth, that turns the pinion No. 5. hav- ing fifteen teeth, and is fastened on the gudgeon in the axle of the thrashing drum or scutch, which, to insure clean work, should at least make three hundred PI. XVI. OF A THRASHING MACHINE. 217 hundred revolutions in a minute, supposing it to be three feet diameter, including the four thrashers or beaters fixed on its circumference. In order to find the velocity at which any particular part of a machine moves, divide the product of the number of teeth in the driving wheels by the number of teeth in the driven pinions ; and the quotient is the number of revolutions made by the last pinion, for every revolution of the first wheel. No. 6. is a wheel fixed upon the gudgeon in the axle Z, containing twenty-five teeth, to act on the intermediate wheel having twenty-four teeth, which conveys motion to the pinion No. 7. having twenty- three teeth, and is placed upon an iron axle connect- ed with the gudgeon in one of the feeding rollers, No. 1 4, to turn them round. The wheel No. 7. is made so as to be easily taken off its axle, in order that a larger or lesser one may be put in its place, to move the rollers with a greater or less velocity, according as the com requires to be fed into the thrashing drum. F the platform or feeding board, on which the corn is spread, and introduced betwixt the feeding rollers. E the thrashing drum, having four beaters fastened on its arms by screw-bolts. No. <), a wheel contain- ing twenty-three teeth, and driven by the wheel No. '2, whereby motion is conveyed to the two straw-shakers. No. 8, an iron spindle on which are fixed two wheels, each of them containing eighteen teeth, to turn the two wheels which are fastened on the pivots of the straw-shakers, G and \V, each of these wheels hav- ing; 218 PLAN, ELEVATION AND SECTION PI. XVI. ing twenty-one teeth. Nos. 10, II, 12, and 13, de-^ note a frame that carries the feeding rollers, thrashing drum or scutch, and straw-shakers, the pivots or gudgeons of which revolve in cods or bushes of brass fixed in the frame. Fig. 2. Elevation of the same thrashing machine* A B, the upright shaft or axle, in which the arms C D, called the horse-poles, are fixed, to which the horses are attached by the hanging pieces of wood E F G fastened to the arms to which they are yoked when working the machine. Upon the arms C D is also fastened the, wheel H K, containing two hundred and seventy teeth, to turn the pinion No. 1. having forty teeth fastened on the horizontal shaft K Z, on the other end whereof is fixed the wheel No. 2. containing eighty- four teeth, to turn the pinion No. 3. having twenty- four teeth ; which is fastened on the same axle with the wheel No. 4. that contains sixty-six teeth, to drive the pinion No. 5. having fifteen teeth, and is fastened on the gudgeon in the axle of the thrashing drum, whereby the drum is turned round. On the gudgeon of the wheel No. 3. is likewise fixed a pinion having twenty-five teeth, that acts on an intermediate pinion containing twenty-four teeth, that turns the pinion No. 6. having twenty-three teeth, and is fixed on the spindle of one of the rollers, from which they receive motion. W is a sheeve fixed on the axle of the fans, round which, and a sheeve placed on the axle of one of the straw-shakers, a leather belt or band passes, giving PL XVI, OF A THRASHING MACHINE. 219 giving motion to the fanners ; X V is the hopper for conducting the grain down from the scutch to tbe fanners V, where it is separated from the chaff; L L M, frames on wmich the feeding rollers, thrashing scutch, and straw-shaker, turn ; T S the stair that leads up to the loft in which the machine stands, and where the unthrashed corn lyes ; H I the barn walls ; O R a part of the roof ; M N the pillars that support the roof P O of the horse-course. Fig. 3. Section of the same thrashing machine. A B is one of the end walls or gables of the barn that contains the thrashing parts of the machine ; C D a part of its roof; E F the loft that contains the un- thrashed corn ; G H I are the pillars which support the roof S U T of the horse-course ; K the upright shaft, in which the arms or horse-poles L M are fix- ed, to which the cattle are attached when working. Upon these arms the wheel N O, containing two hun- dred and seventy teeth, is fixed, and gives motion to the thrashing part of the machine, by acting upon the pinion No. J . having forty teeth fixed on the end of the horizontal shaft, (see Z, fig. 1.), having fixed on its other end the wheel No. 2. containing eighty- four teeth, that turns the pinion No. 3. having twenty- four teeth, and is fixed on the same axle with the wheel No. 4. which contains sixty-four teeth, that turns the pinion No. 5. having fifteen teeth, and is fixed on the gudgeon of the thrashing drum. The straw-shakers No. G. and 7, as well as the feeding rollers, 220 PLAN OF A THRASHING MACHINE. PL XVI. rollers, receive their respective motions from the wheel No. 2. (see 8. and 9, fig. 1.) R the cover of the drum and straw-shakers, made so as to be easily taken off at any time when found necessary ; P O the frames wherein are fixed bushes or cods of brass, on which the gudgeons or pivots of the thrashing drum and straw-shakers revolve when the machine is at work ; W and V represent two doors in the side-wall of the barn or mill-house that contains the thrashing part of the machine. finis. Edinburgh, Printed by D. Willison. I V. C Feet - } '"ir 1 ""'' 1 —a : V P I. V T K II . ri-ATE Y r r r\ l'i. in: IX r PLATE X. r~ I lg. 13 m a F K .M. Scale of Feel PL n E \l r. 1' L vn; \1| n ri r- r i. a ik vi v. r* Plate \\ . r> i'l.ATK Wl r University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. 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