r- 
 
Words and Sentences 
 
 INCLUDING 
 
 A Review of Grammar 
 
 BY 
 
 ALFKED M. HITCHCOCK 
 
 Hartford Public High School 
 
 NEW YORK 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
BV THE SAME AUTHOR 
 
 Hitchcock's Practice Book in 
 English Composition 
 
 226 pp. 12 mo. 80 cents 
 
 Eennetll Beal, Salem {Mass ) High School:— 1\. is the first 
 case of a book on that subject that I know of where the writer 
 has had the courageous good sense to limit his effort rigidly to 
 actual possibilities for the average boy and girl. . . . You 
 may put me on record as liking the wholesome, live good sense 
 of the composition, 
 
 Helen Marshall, Free Academy, Norwich, Conn.:— I have 
 been experimenting with the Practice Book in English Com- 
 position in one of my classes, and find it is one of the most 
 practical books I have seen for teaching much of the rudiment- 
 ary work. It is just what it professes to be, and is very helpful. 
 
 A. J. George, Newton {Mass.) High School: — After examin- 
 ing the book, 1 have decided to recommend it for trial. 
 
 R. W. Bowles, Phillip's Exeter Academy:—! am glad to 
 say that Mr. Hitchcock's little book has impressed me more 
 favorably than any other work of this kind that I have seen. 
 The author's treatment of the subject seems to be unusually 
 fresh and interesting. I shall turn it over to our teacher in 
 Junior ^vork with my earnest recommendation that he give it 
 a trial. 
 
 Mary R. "Willai'd, Jam-stcwn yN. F.) High School:— Ut. 
 Hitchcock's understanding of the faults of young students, and 
 his appl*c£.ficn of '.hepyoper remedy, amounts to positive 
 
 ge'niv^' :■';,':'.. ':;'.,; /•'•,, . 
 
 Henry Holt and Company 
 
 Publishers New York 
 
 Copyright, 1908, by HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 

 MA^f^' 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The exercises here collected are the result of a 
 strong conviction that just now, in these days of 
 slovenly, lawless speech, we teachers need to say to 
 our pupils, Come, before it is too late let us go back 
 to dictionary and grammar. No matter what else is 
 left undone, we must learn to spell and pronounce com- 
 mon words correctly; we must learn how to construct 
 sentences that obey the laws of syntax. 
 
 At what point in the course may such exercises as 
 these be introduced with profit? In most schools, it 
 is safe to say, drill in accuracy of speech is needed 
 every year. We have all too little of it and — this 
 is heresy — far too much theme-writing, too much 
 and too elaborate study of heavy classics. The 
 foundations are neglected. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to acknowledge in detail my 
 indebtedness to Archbishop Trench and to the recog- 
 nized authorities on English grammar. A book of 
 this sort cannot hope to be original, except, perhaps, 
 as ingenuity may occasionally be shown in setting 
 forth principles clearly, or in devising exercises to 
 drive them home. 
 
 iii 
 
 241052 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 I 
 WOEDS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Getting Acquainted with the Dictionary 1 
 
 II. Pronunciation 11 
 
 III. Word-building and Spelling 17 
 
 II 
 A BRIEF REVIEW OF GRAMMAR.. 35 
 
WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 PART I 
 
 WORDS 
 
 I.— GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH THE 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 The English language is made up of hundreds of 
 thousands of words. Not all of these are in use to- 
 day; some are found only in very old books, and still 
 others are slowly dying. When the spinning-wheel 
 went out of use, a small group of spinning-wheel 
 terms slipped away because there was nothing for 
 them to do. When the stage-coach disappeared, 
 along with it went a little vocabulary pertaining to 
 stage-coach things. Every important invention, we 
 may almost say every change in fashion, retires, some- 
 times permanently, a few words — renders them ob- 
 solete. 
 
 Related in a way to obsolete words are not a few 
 terms that are in every-day use, yet are found in some 
 small province only. The English-speaking people 
 
2 AVOKDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 are widely scattered; and though all have the same 
 names for most things, still each country, each sec- 
 tion of a country, each community even, has a few 
 words that are not found elsewhere, or if found else- 
 where, then with different meanings. There are 
 terms peculiar to the English colonies in Africa, for 
 example. New Englanders employ a few terms that 
 sound strange to the ear of the Southerner. Pro- 
 vincialisms, as such stay-at-home words are called, 
 are to be found everywhere, doing good service, but 
 in a narrow field. 
 
 Every art, trade, occupation, science has its sepa- 
 rate vocabulary of technical terms. The lawyer em- 
 ploys many expressions that are meaningless to most 
 of us; so too does the doctor. It is said that the 
 student of zoology who reads all that has been written 
 on this branch of science will find over one hundred 
 thousand terms employed, comparatively few of 
 which are in common use. Every line of manufac- 
 ture, every branch of sport even, has its technical 
 terms. They do not stay at home as do provincial- 
 isms, but each group is of special service to some 
 one class of individuals. 
 
 A recently published dictionary defines over three 
 hundred thousand terms, all of which, it is claimed, 
 are in active use to-day or are to be found in books 
 that English-speaking people may care to read. 
 This number is amazing, especially when we bear in 
 mind that many obsolete and provincial words and 
 a far greater number of technical terms have been 
 
ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 3 
 
 excluded. The dictionary is even more select than 
 this. Every day new words come into existence. 
 When things are discovered or invented, they must 
 be named. How many terms associated with steam 
 and electricity were unknown a century ago! Ex- 
 ploration, trade, manufacture, science, all are con- 
 tributing each year a large number of new words. 
 But not all these find their way at once into the 
 dictionary. They must first be tried, passed about 
 from mouth to mouth for a time, experimented with, 
 till it is reasonably sure that they are really needed. 
 
 Not only is the dictionary cautious in accepting 
 newly coined words, as they are called; it is careful, 
 though perhaps not sufficiently so, about admitting 
 many expressions commonly heard on the street or 
 wherever people talk loosely — words that are ex- 
 ceedingly coarse and vulgar, others that are what we 
 know as^ang. Such colloquial or loose expressions 
 are seldom found in print. They dwell on the out- 
 skirts of respectability, unfit to appear in good 
 societ}^; or we may think of them as vagrants. 
 Occasionally a word of this sort works its way out 
 of the slums of speech and at last gains admittance 
 to the dictionary; yet where one succeeds in living 
 down its low origin, hundreds remain but mouth- 
 words, without respectability. Most of them live 
 but a short time. 
 
 The immensity of the English language, even when 
 we exclude the relatively unimportant groups of 
 words just considered — the obsolete, the provincial, 
 
4 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 the technical, the newly coined, the colloquial or 
 loose— is difficult to reahze, except as one compares 
 it with his own scant vocabulary. Shakespeare, we 
 are told, used at least fifteen thousand different words, 
 Milton eight thousand. The average man of to-day, 
 it is estimated, employs about five thousand. But 
 how about you? How much of the English language 
 do you possess? In a way, it is all yours; in a truer 
 sense, no one really owns a word till he has mastered 
 i^_can pronounce it, spell it, and knows precisely 
 what it means. If you were to attempt to make a 
 dictionary and record in it simply the words you have 
 thoroughly mastered, the words which you really 
 own, what would be the result? 
 
 Fortunately no one will ever set a task so unreason- 
 able. Every schoolboy knows that his vocabulary 
 is a s^;iall one, that he misspells, mispronounces, mis- 
 uses many of the terms he commonly employs. It is 
 no disgrace to be young; most of the blunders, care- 
 less mistakes which fall from the lips of schoolboys 
 and schoolgirls, or slip from their pens in writing 
 letters, are pardonable. Yet a time should come, 
 and usually does come, when the average youth be- 
 gins to feel ashamed when he blunders in his speech. 
 He wants to put away childish errors. He prefers 
 not to misspell, mispronounce, and misuse words. 
 Perhaps someone has laughed at him for spelling 
 college with a d, or for pronouncing gentlemen as if it 
 were spelled genlemnn, or for writing Mary's voice 
 was edible as jar as the corner, or for closing a letter 
 
ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 5 
 
 •a i^Jii <?]... 
 
 with Yours respectively. It is not pleasant to be 
 laughed at. 
 
 t^eforming one's speech, however, is not an easy 
 matter. Many of the words found in the youth's 
 vocabulary have been picked up by the ear, on the 
 street, on the playground; the eye may never have 
 seen them in the printed page. And many words are 
 so commonly mispronounced, or indistinctly uttered, 
 or improperly employed, that the ear does not re- 
 ceive what is correct. Other terms are acquired 
 from reading; but the young reader rushes along so 
 rapidly that the eye merely glances at words and 
 does not hesitate to skip whatever looks difficult in 
 the way of long or strange expressions. In this most 
 natural manner the mind receives many words which 
 have been imperfectly seen ; the memory is crowded 
 with wrong or indistinct impressions. It is indeed 
 difficult, where so much needs correcting, to de- 
 termine where and how to begin. Here are a few 
 simple suggestions.] 
 
 First, be convinced that the undertaking is worth 
 while. Every word mastered is a word owned; it is 
 so much power. We need all the power we can get, 
 in this busy age. A large vocabulary may not be re- 
 _£uired for the work you are to do, but a fully mas- 
 tered vocabulary is necessary. Mistakes in speech 
 are costly; they cause delays and misunderstand- 
 ings. Have too a little pride in the matter. In- 
 correct speech is the badge of illiteracy. 
 
 Second, be more careful about what you read and 
 
6 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 how you read. Form the habit of reading aloud ten 
 minutes every day, scanning each word closely, pro- 
 nouncing distinctly, bringing out clearly the mean- 
 ing of each sentence. No book is better for this 
 kind of drill than the Bible, but any good book will 
 do, or even the daily newspaper. Memorize a short 
 poem , now and then, or a paragraph of vigorous 
 prose . \The purpose of exercise of this sort is to train 
 the eye and the ear and the tongue to do their work 
 more carefully. \ 
 
 Third, take pains to use language correctly when 
 talking and writing. Break yourseK of the habit of 
 careless expression. The little training received in 
 school will amount to nothing, if you permit your- 
 self to abuse language w^hen you are on the street or 
 at home. Correct expression conies through habit. 
 Keep in training all the time. 
 
 Finally, try to become interested in words; learn 
 to respect them. Studying coins or stamps is not a 
 foolish fad, neither is collecting picture postals; but 
 words are more interesting than coins or stamps or 
 postals, and are better worth studying. On the 
 Study of Words, by Archbishop Trench, though 
 written years ago, is a most delightful book for 
 present-day readers. Words and their Ways in Eng- 
 lish Speech, by Greenough and Kittredge, a more re- 
 cent work, contains many interesting chapters. But 
 the best book of all is the dictionary itself. By all 
 means own a good one and learn how to use it. 
 
 Looked at in one way, the dictionary is a vast 
 
ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 7 
 
 collection of condensed compositions, each telling all 
 that the average person needs to know about some 
 word: how it is spelled and pronounced, and what 
 are its meanings. Frequently a quotation containing 
 the word properly used will be given ; and sometimes 
 a group of synonyms, or terms which have nearly the 
 same meaning. The dictionary does more than this. 
 Whenever possible, it tells the life-story of a word — 
 where it came from, what it meant originally; for 
 many words change in meaning from age to age, just 
 ^s a person'^ character changes during his lifetime. 
 
 But there is another way of regarding the diction- 
 ary. It is a great law book. Ours is a free country, 
 yet we are not free to do as we please. We must en- 
 dure, for the common good, restraint of many kinds. 
 Words are free; but when we misuse them we be- 
 come law-breakers. One has no more right to abuse 
 or misuse his country's language than he has to de- 
 stroy his neighbor's property. The dictionary, stem 
 book, lays down laws regarding spelling, pronuncia- 
 tion, meanings, which word-respecting people obe)^ 
 
 Form the habit, then, of consulting a good, un- 
 abridged dictionary. See what the law says about 
 this and that term which you are using commonly, 
 yet with a suspicion that you may be using it im- 
 properly. Lay down the book you are reading, now 
 and then, and look up the meaning of some new word. 
 If an expression has an odd sound to your ear, and 
 you find yourself wondering where it came from, how 
 it got its present meaning, turn to the dictionary .j 
 
i. 
 
 8 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Perhaps it will tell you precisely what you wish to 
 know. Practice of this kind soon becomes fascinat- 
 ing, for words are wonderful when studied. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Reread Chapter One to see if it does not contain a 
 few words about whose meanings you are uncertain. 
 Before consulting the dictionary, try to reason out for 
 yourself what each word must mean. 
 
 II. Open the dictionary at random and select an in- 
 teresting word. Give, in complete sentences, all the 
 information the dictionary supplies concerning it. . 
 
 III. Without consulting a dictionary, try to discover 
 how the following terms became a part of the English 
 language: grunt, hiss, mew, snarl, twitter, whiz, click, 
 chatter, chirp, crackle. What other words of this sort 
 can you suggest? 
 
 IV. The following are representatives of a class of 
 words which have come into the language in an inter- 
 esting way. Try to discover their origin, consulting for 
 this purpose an unabridged dictionary. Italics, canary, 
 champagne, meander, worsted, cologne, copper, atlas, 
 herculean, tantalize, martial, phaeton, volcano, cereal, 
 panic, macadam, guy, babel, tawdry, quixotic, bedlam, 
 lynch, mackintosh, gingham, damask, dimity, dollar, 
 calico, cambric, boycott, derrick, artesian, guillotine, pidl- 
 man, pompadour, dunce, namby-pamby, colossal. 
 
 V. Nearly one-third of our language is, directly or 
 indirectly, of Latin origin; but every nation has con- 
 tributed a few terms. Where did each of the following 
 
ACQUAINTANCE WITH DICTIONARY 9 
 
 originate? First guess, then consult the dictionary. 
 Wigmam, potato, tea, candy, yacht, sabbath, soprano, 
 adieu, postscript, telephone, chess, snob, perk, lad, bun- 
 galow, mosquito, tulip, ambassador, daisy, czar, canoe, 
 physics, minister, crag, dairy. 
 
 VI. Often words become doubly interesting when 
 their derivation is known. Thimble, for example, comes 
 from an old Anglo-Saxon word thunia meaning thumb. 
 Was the thimble once worn on the thumb? Squirrel is 
 from a Greek word meaning shadow-tail. So a squirrel is 
 an animal that casts a shadow with its tail? Look up 
 the derivation of the following: Emma, Margaret, silly j 
 lunatic, cranberry, miser, witch, cunning, salary, style, 
 indent, pope, curfew, linen, acrobat, villain, sophomore, 
 dandelion, buxom. 
 
 VII. Sometimes the full force of a word is not appre- 
 ciated until its derivation is known. Dilapidated, for 
 example, is from a Latin word lapis meaning a stone, 
 and the prefix dis meaning apart. Knowing this, the 
 word presents to the mind a picture of a stone building 
 tumbled down. Consulting a good dictionary, try to 
 discover the original meaning of the following: December, 
 manuscript, bisect, phonograph, quadruped, bicycle, Flor- 
 ida, subterranean, centennial, accumulate, manufacture, 
 error, eradicate, circus, valedictory, alderman, journey, 
 neighbor, arduous, wealth, mayor, Sunday, Monday, 
 Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday. 
 
 VIII. The first ten words in the group below are 
 Saxon; the rest are Norman-French. At one time the 
 Saxons and the Normans lived side by side in England. 
 Which were the conquerors and which the conquered 
 people? Scepter, throne, royalty, court, castle, prince, 
 
10 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 ^palace, treasurer, hall, duke; spade, rake, scythe, rye, oats, 
 house, home, hearth. 
 
 IX. Explain the meaning of the following terms as 
 applied to words: obsolete, provincial, technical, newly 
 coined, slang, colloquial. Try to think of examples of 
 each kind. You will find in the Bible many words no 
 longer used in common speech. Strictly speaking, 
 however, they are not obsolete, but archaic. Archaic 
 means out of fashion but still understood. If you have 
 a friend who has at some time lived in a distant part 
 of the country, you will notice, probably, that he has 
 in his vocabulary a few provincial expressions. 
 

 II.— PRONUNCIATION 
 
 Clear enunciation does not make a gentleman, 
 but it is a sign of good breeding. Educated people, 
 refined, courteous people, those who respect lan- 
 guage and are thoughtful of the comfort of others, try 
 to speak distinctly and correctly. They consider it 
 ill-mannered, when reading aloud or talking, to mum- 
 ble their words, misplace accents, clip syllables, or 
 otherwise abuse language. 
 
 Mispronunciation is due principally to carelessness. 
 We know how most of the commoner words should 
 be pronounced, but we are slaves to habit — the habit 
 of reading and talking too rapidly. Ruskin, a great 
 English essayist, once said, ''If you read ten pages of 
 a good book, letter by letter, that is to say, with real 
 accuracy, you are for evermore in some measure an 
 educated person." This kind of careful reading, the 
 eye noting every syllable, every letter, must form the 
 Jbasis of all serious effort to learn how to pronounce. 
 Butthe ear must help the eye, intently listening when 
 those whom it is safe to imitate are reading aloud 
 _or Jalking. And the vocal organs must be trained to 
 
 11 
 
12 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 obey; for it is one thing to know how a given word 
 should be pronounced, and quite another thing to be 
 able to pronounce it. Training the eye, the ear, and 
 the tongue to take pams: that is the secret of the 
 whole matter^ 
 
 The following exercises are exceedingly simple. 
 Their purpose is tc call attention to a few of the many 
 words commonly mispronounced. To run through 
 them once or twic3 will accomplish little; they call 
 for repeated practice, day after day. 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Pronounce the following, making sure that the ac- 
 cent falls where it should. If in doubt, consult a good 
 dictionary. 
 
 Address, recess, discourse, influence, express, illustrate, 
 character, finance, mischievous, deficit, precedence, prece- 
 dent, mustache, romance, herculean, exquisite, alloy, alias, 
 combatant, reputable, infamous, condolence, caricature, 
 comparable, interesting, incomparable, disreputable, formi- 
 dable, gondola, chastisement, clandestine, irremediable, 
 hyperbole, idea. 
 
 II. In careless speech perhaps becomes praps, usually 
 contracts into usally. All the words in the following 
 group suffer from this kind of abuse. Pronounce care- 
 fully, giving each syllable due attention. 
 
 General, several, persorml, temperance, regular, reason- 
 able, laboratory, difference, singidar, perhaps, calaihte, 
 usually, naturally, governor, original, parenthesis, inci- 
 dentally, superintendent, delivery, enthusiasm, miserable, 
 
PRONUNCIATION 13 
 
 reverend, bravery, machinery, battery, restaurant, sentinel, 
 military, curiosity, cardinal, artistically, boisterous, il- 
 literate, miniature, vulnerable, sarsaparilla, poem. 
 
 III. Ath el etics, sawr, drownded, and naow are com- 
 mon mispronunciations of athletics, saw, drowned, and 
 now. Occasionally a silent letter is sounded, as in ojten . / 
 and herb. Be careful not to make mistakes of this sort 
 when pronouncing the following words: 
 
 Brethren, draw, business, down, often, height, umbrella, 
 sword, cow, Wales, spasm, saw, salmon, found, herb, 
 house, ought, athletics, soda, straw, intellect, law, mountain, 
 how, persevere, caught, column, drowned, drama, com- 
 plainant, spasm, extra, thought, soften. 
 
 IV. Punkin and cunni^i are common mispronuncia- 2r^cw'^4-ii 
 tions of pumpkin and cunning. Pay especial attention 
 
 to consonants when pronouncing the following words: 
 
 Fact, government, perfect, speaking, quarter, orphan, 
 connect, including, arctic, particular, adjacent, pumpkin, 
 partridge, expect, leaving, except, extract, February, in- 
 ferring, anarchy, instinct, recognize, tract, anything, 
 recognition, attract, cunning, subtract, reading, object, 
 doing, accept. Harvard. 
 
 V. Pronounce, taking pains to give full value to the 
 vowel in each final syllable. Do not turn object into 
 objict, nor judgment into judgmunt. 
 
 Providence, statement, sentiment, professor, benevolence, 
 gentlemen, object, similar, amusement, admittance, govern- 
 ment, regular, parliament, difference, reverend, singular, 
 independent, rudiments, audience, prominent, reverence, 
 restaurant, vehement, countrymen, irrelevant, judgment, 
 disconsolate, argument, jurymen, extravagance, battlement, 
 accomplishment, accident, intemperance. 
 
14 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 YI. Italian should not be pronounced as if spelled 
 Eyetalian, nor American as if it were Amurican. Pay 
 particular attention to all the vowels in this group of 
 words: 
 
 Foreigner, nominate, get, educate, rather, visible, Ameri- 
 can, capability, candidate, animal, complication. Coli- 
 seum, engine, yet, Italian, solemn, definition, ceremony, 
 genuine, separate, barbarism, clemency, representative. 
 
 VII. Give the vowel p its full sound. Do not sub- 
 stitute the sound of some other letter. Do not insert 
 the letter r. 
 
 Innocent, eloquent, society, siualloio, accommodate, com- 
 position, provide, tomatoes, mosquito, diagonal, professor, 
 fellow, oyster, proposition, mountain, decoration, apolo- 
 gize, chocolate, borrow, apoplexy, sorrow, sonorous, intro- 
 duction, potatoes, piano, process, cow. 
 
 VIII. Perhaps no vowel is more commonly mispro- 
 nounced than u. Seldom should it be given the sound 
 of 00 as in the word 600^. 
 
 Blue, student, truth, tube, Tuesday, duke, gratitude, 
 suit, stupid, produce, tutor, tune, dutiful, attitude, avenue, 
 destitute, stimulate, rudiments, picture, educate, genuine, 
 institute, speculate, juice, natural, occupy, durable, argu- 
 ment, altitude, culinary, figure, cruel. 
 
 IX. The vowel a^ represents a number of different 
 sounds. Are you sure that you pronounce the following 
 words correctly? 
 
 Ask, half, gape, catch, canH, parent, haunt, laugh, 
 chaste, launch, extra, calf, path, psalm, patent, calm, be- 
 cause, father, vaunt, alternate, 
 -^ X. Th, ngth, sph, and similar combinations are diffi- 
 cult for some tongues. Master the following: 
 
PRONUNCIATION 15 
 
 Length, depths, Thursday, sphere, strength, thousand, 
 drouth, diphthong, architecture, naphtha, twelfth, chasm, 
 drought, eighth, trough, eleventh, thought, architect. 
 
 XI. Each word in this group presents some difficulty. 
 When in doubt, do not guess; consult a dictionary. 
 
 Amateur, juvenile, victuals, debris, bestial, viscount, 
 fianc4, docile, deaf, epitome, cayenne, detour, suite, leisure, 
 odious, courtesy, irrelevant, hundred, decrepit, column, 
 again, sesame, sergeant, pantomime, forehead, tedious, 
 chimney, coffee, clapboard, creek, enmity, immediate, 
 representative, apron, spoon. 
 
 XII. The following are selected from the preceding 
 groups. Pronounce them slowly and with distinct 
 enunciation. Go through the list again and again; 
 master each word. 
 
 Tuesday, February, Italian, American, pumpkin, quar- 
 ter, psalm, governor, solemn, illustrate, strength, laboratory, 
 character, stupid, Arctic, government, detour, fellow, 
 several, often, rather, influence, discourse, forehead, Wales 
 laugh, drowned, swalloiu, height, length, gentlemen, ridic- 
 ulous, sentiment, willing, deaf, intellect, sword, superin- 
 tendent, fiance, recess, engine, sphere, tract, catch, object, 
 professor, avenue, saiv, column, partridge, architect, inter- 
 esting, decorous, debris, chimney, suite, twelfth, miserable, 
 romance, difference, potatoes, pantomime, produce, creek, 
 hundred, umbrella, genuine, subject, temperance, mis- 
 chievous, address, express, athletics, recognize, patent, 
 illustrate, mustache, gratitude, student, juvenile, speaking, 
 gape, coffee. 
 
 XIII. Make a list of words you have discovered, 
 through your study of the preceding exercises, that you 
 have been unconsciously mispronouncing. 
 
16 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 XIV. Make a list of words you hear commonly mis- 
 pronounced by your associates. 
 
 XV. Write, as if to a child, a fifteen-line paragraph 
 explaining the dictionary's way of indicating the correct 
 pronunciation of words. This is a difficult task; do it 
 well. 
 
III.— WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 
 
 Horse and shoe, when combined, form the com- 
 pound horseshoe. Add the suffix ness to the adjective 
 good and we have the noun goodness. Regain is but 
 the word gain plus a prefix. In returnable, three ele- 
 ments are discoverable, a simple word, a prefix, and a 
 suffix; in ungentlemanly there are four elements. Even 
 a superficial examination of the dictionary reveals the 
 fact that comparatively few words are simple; that 
 there are scores of prefixes, scores of suffixes, by 
 means of which our language multiplies. 
 
 The words examined in the paragraph above are 
 readily analyzed; a glance shows how they are put 
 together. But analysis is not always so simple. 
 Words adopted from a foreign language do not, as a 
 rule, retain their original form; only the vital part of 
 each — the root or the stem, as it is called — is retained. 
 Jacere, for example, is a foreign word meaning to 
 throw. Its root is ject, as seen in interjection. With- 
 out some familiarity with foreign languages, it is not 
 always easy to detect word-roots. Many prefixes 
 too are from languages other than our own. Some 
 
 17 
 
18 WORDS ANi) SENTENCES 
 
 are so commonly employed that we recognize them 
 readily enough and know what they mean; yet oc- 
 casionally one is so changed in the process of joining 
 it smoothly to a root that to determine where the pre- 
 fix ends and the root begins is not a simple matter. 
 
 So many words are of Latin derivation — our pon- 
 derous dictionary would shrink at least one-third if 
 they were all dropped from it — that some educators 
 believe the best way to master English is to master 
 Latin first. Whether this indirect method is best or 
 not, it is for several reasons an exceedingly good one. 
 Those who are unable or unwilling to adopt it should 
 at least master the more commonly employed Latin 
 prefixes. For frequently a prefix furnishes a hint of 
 what the word it introduces means, and sometimes 
 it throws the door wide open, revealing at once the 
 entire secret. Familiarity with the Latin prefixes 
 also helps one to spell correctly. A large proportion 
 of words commonly misspelled are of Latin origin. 
 The trouble lies in the joint, where the prefix is neatly 
 attached to the root. If one knows the prefixes 
 thoroughly and understands word-joinery, there is 
 little danger of tripping; a moment's thought will 
 tell what the spelling must be. 
 
 Ab or abs signifies from. Norma is the Latin word 
 for rule; hence the English word normal, meaning 
 according to rule or natural. Abnormal, then, means 
 away from the rule or unnatural. Abstract is made up 
 of abs and the root of a Latin word meaning to draw; 
 hence to abstract is to draw from. 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 19 
 
 abduct 
 absolute 
 
 abhor 
 abrupt 
 
 abdicate 
 absent 
 
 abolition 
 abstain 
 
 Ante signifies before. This prefix is seen in ante- 
 date and antecedent. Sometimes it changes to anti, 
 as in anticipate. There is a Greek prefix anti mean- 
 ing against. It is seen in antislavery and antidote. 
 An antidote is something given to counteract or work 
 against a poison or a disease. 
 
 anterior 
 antediluvian 
 
 anteroom 
 antiquity 
 
 anticipation 
 antiquary 
 
 antique 
 antechamber 
 
 Circum signifies about or around. It is found in 
 but few words and is easily recognized. 
 
 circumference 
 circumvent 
 
 circumnavigate 
 circumlocution 
 
 circumspect 
 circumscribe 
 
 De signifies from or down. Caput is Latin for 
 head; decapitate, then, means behead or take the head 
 from the body. Deposit is made up of de meaning 
 down and a Latin word signifying to place or to put. 
 
 degrade deform debate deliberate 
 
 detest deflect debar delirium 
 
 deduce decrease demerit declivity • 
 
 decamp decay defect degrade 
 
 Inter signifies between, together, or among. 
 easily recognized and presents no difficulties. 
 
 It is 
 
 interval 
 interweave 
 
 interhide 
 international 
 
 interregnum 
 interpose 
 
20 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 intercollegiate interfere intermpt 
 
 intermediate interview intersect 
 
 interchange interlace intermission 
 
 Non signifies not. It presents no difficulties. 
 
 nonsense non-combatant nondescript 
 
 nonconformity nonentity nonpareil 
 
 noncommittal non-resident 
 
 Per signifies through or by. 
 
 perforate perpetual percent perusal 
 
 perpetrate permeate persevere perennial 
 persecute perspire permission perspective 
 
 Post signifies behind or after. 
 
 posterior postscript postgraduate posthumous 
 postpone posterity postlude post-mortem 
 
 Pre signifies before. Judicium is a Latin word 
 meaning judgment. A prejudice, then, is a judg- 
 ment formed without careful examination. Pre is 
 a very useful prefix, appearing in a great many 
 words. 
 
 prelude preamble prefix prepaid 
 
 preface preposition presage premature 
 
 precede precaution precipitate preliminary 
 
 predominate prehistoric premium predecessor 
 precept premeditate precocious president 
 
 Pro signifies forward, before, or instead of. Videre 
 is the infinitive form of a Latin word meaning to see. 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 21 
 
 To provide, then, is to look ahead or make ready for 
 what is to come. A great many words contain this 
 useful prefix. 
 
 proceed 
 
 prologue 
 
 prostrate 
 
 promise 
 
 procession 
 
 program 
 
 promote 
 
 professor 
 
 protect 
 
 protrude 
 
 promenade 
 
 proclaim 
 
 project 
 
 product 
 
 prosecute 
 
 pronoun 
 
 Re signifies back or again, and appears in a multi- 
 tude of words. 
 
 rebate 
 
 recollect 
 
 retail 
 
 reiterate 
 
 recess 
 
 reconcile 
 
 reduce 
 
 remember 
 
 remunerate 
 
 repeal 
 
 resign 
 
 reply 
 
 retract 
 
 revenge 
 
 retreat 
 
 reflect 
 
 Se signifies 
 
 apart. It 
 
 appears in 
 
 but few words. 
 
 secede 
 
 seclude 
 
 secret 
 
 secrete 
 
 select 
 
 separate 
 
 seduce 
 
 secretion 
 
 Super signifies above. It presents no diflSculties. 
 
 superb superlative superficial 
 
 superintend superstructure superstition 
 
 superfluous supernumerary 
 
 Trans or tran signifies across, beyond, or through. 
 
 transfer trans- Atlantic transient transpose 
 transplant translate transform transact 
 
 transparent translucent transom transgression 
 
22 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 The fourteen prefixes considered thus far are sim- 
 pler than the six to be examined next, in that they 
 are unchangeable. Re remains re and se remains se, 
 no matter to what root they may be joined. This is 
 not true of the following : 
 
 Ad signifies to. It is recognized at once in adhere 
 and adjacent. In many words, however, ad changes 
 to ah, af, ag, al, an, aj), ar, as, or at, before h, f, g, I, 
 n, p, r, s, and t. That is, for the sake of ease in pro- 
 nunciation the final letter of the prefix changes to 
 the first letter of the stem. Words containing ad in 
 a disguised form are misspelled frequently. The 
 troublesome ones, it will be seen, contain the double 
 consonant. It is almost safe, when in doubt, to 
 double the consonant J 
 
 abbreviate application admission affluence 
 
 ^ accent arrogant affection attempt 
 
 ?^ affix assert accompany appearance 
 
 ^y alliteration attend attribute apparatus 
 
 annihilate adapt arrive array 
 
 Con signifies with or together. Other forms of this 
 suffix are com, col, cor, and co. Col is found before 
 stems beginning with I, cor before stems beginning 
 with r, com before m, con before n. Com and col ap- 
 pear before other letters too, but not in words one is 
 inclined to misspell; so when in doubt, it is safe to 
 double the consonant. Carefully note the spelling 
 of the following. Observe, too, how strong the idea 
 of with or together is in most of the words. 
 
 ^K 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 23 
 
 convene 
 
 connect 
 
 combine 
 
 commerce 
 
 conference 
 
 concrete 
 
 compete 
 
 corrupt 
 
 conspire 
 
 concord 
 
 compare 
 
 correspond 
 
 continent 
 
 complex 
 
 command 
 
 collide 
 
 co-education 
 
 cohere 
 
 conspire 
 
 collection 
 
 Dis usually signifies apart, though sometimes it 
 has the force of a negative. Dif and di, other forms 
 of dis, are found in a few words. There is a tempta- 
 tion to substitute diss for dis in disappear and all 
 other words in which the root begins with a. The 
 opposite tendency is seen when the root begins 
 with s, as in dissatisfy. Most words introduced 
 by dis are familiar; a moment's thought is all 
 that is necessary to determine the root, and 
 this once determined, the correct spelling becomes 
 obvious. 
 
 disability 
 
 dissect 
 
 dissolve 
 
 discomfort 
 
 disadvantage 
 
 dissemble 
 
 dissuade 
 
 digress 
 
 disapprove 
 
 dissent 
 
 discharge 
 
 dilute 
 
 disappoint 
 
 dissimilar 
 
 disengage 
 
 difficulty 
 
 disallow 
 
 dissipate 
 
 disjoin 
 
 diffident 
 
 Ex signifies out, off, or beyond. E and ef are other 
 forms. Words introduced by ex present few diffi- 
 culties; there is no temptation to double the final 
 letter. E and ef are sometimes troublesome because 
 the Latin stems they introduce are unfamiliar; or 
 because we forget that ex changes to ef before a stem 
 
24 
 
 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 beginning with /. Note with care the first eleven 
 words below : 
 
 efface 
 
 emigrant 
 
 elapse 
 
 explain 
 
 effect 
 
 emissary 
 
 excavate 
 
 explode 
 
 effeminate 
 
 enervate 
 
 excellent 
 
 export 
 
 effervescent 
 
 eloquent 
 
 excursion 
 
 express 
 
 effort 
 
 elocution 
 
 exliaust 
 
 extort 
 
 In signifies in, into, or not, without. It is exceed- 
 ingly common, and exceedingly troublesome to poor 
 spellers, who forget, or do not know, that in changes 
 to il, im, ir, before /, m, r. Study the following words 
 faithfully, first noting the form of the prefix, then de- 
 termining the significance of the prefix. 
 
 illegible 
 
 immaterial 
 
 irrational 
 
 uTfOse 
 
 illiterate 
 
 inamediate 
 
 irreducible 
 
 innovation 
 
 illiberal 
 
 immense 
 
 irregular 
 
 inoculate 
 
 illogical 
 
 immigrant 
 
 irreligious 
 
 inquisitive 
 
 illumine 
 
 immoral 
 
 irresolute 
 
 inhale 
 
 illustrate 
 
 immunity 
 
 irreverence 
 
 inherit 
 
 Sub signifies under. It changes to sue, suf, svg 
 sum, sup, sur, before c, /, g, m, p, and r. Let the 
 poor speller remember this double consonant arrange- 
 ment; it will save him many slips. 
 
 success 
 suffix 
 suggest 
 suffer 
 
 surreptitious subcontract suppress 
 
 summar}^ subscribe suppose 
 
 support subdivide suburb 
 
 subconscious sul) jugate suffice 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 25 
 
 In the following table the prefixes are, for con- 
 venient reference, arranged alphabetically. 
 
 Ab (abs) 
 
 signifies from. 
 
 Ad (ab, af, ag, al, an, 
 
 
 
 ap, ar, as, at) 
 
 (C 
 
 to. 
 
 Ante 
 
 u 
 
 before. 
 
 Circum 
 
 u 
 
 about, around. 
 
 Con (co, col, com, cor) 
 
 u 
 
 with or together. 
 
 De 
 
 cc 
 
 from or down. 
 
 Dis (di, dif) 
 
 u 
 
 apart or not. 
 
 Ex 
 
 (( 
 
 out, off, or beyond. 
 
 In (11, ini, ir) 
 
 11 
 
 in, into, or not, with- 
 out. 
 
 Inter 
 
 li 
 
 between, together, or 
 among. 
 
 Non 
 
 (( 
 
 not. 
 
 Per 
 
 (C 
 
 through or by. 
 
 Post 
 
 cc 
 
 behind or after. 
 
 Pre 
 
 cc 
 
 before. 
 
 Pro 
 
 cc 
 
 forward, before, or in- 
 stead of. 
 
 Re 
 
 cc 
 
 back or again. 
 
 Se 
 
 cc 
 
 apart. 
 
 Sub (sue, suf, sug, sum. 
 
 
 
 sup, sur) 
 
 CI 
 
 under. 
 
 Super 
 
 cc 
 
 above. 
 
 Trans (tran) 
 
 iC 
 
 across, beyond, or 
 through. 
 
26 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Suffixes, more numerous than prefixes, and fully 
 
 as useful, appear in so many of our conmionest words 
 
 that their significance is learned almost unconsciously. 
 
 ' It will not do to pass them b}^ however, without 
 
 noting certain rules w^hich tell how suffixes are joined 
 
 , to stems. These rules should be learned. 
 
 Final silent e is kept before an added syllable be- 
 ginning with a consonant, and dropped before a suflix 
 beginning with a vowel ; but words ending in ce or 
 ge retain the e before a and o. Words ending in ie 
 drop the e and change the / to j^ before ing. 
 
 Love + ly makes lovely, love + able makes lovable. 
 Change + able makes cliangeahle and service + able 
 makes serviceable; otherwise there would be a 
 temptation to give g and c the hard sound as in rang 
 and cuj). Tie_^\-ing makes tying. The e is dropped, 
 since it is final silent e, and i changes to y to prevent 
 the doubling of i. Singeing and dyeing retain the e 
 to distinguish them from singing and dying. Truly, 
 duly, shoeing, hoeing, toeing, awftd, argument, and 
 judgment are other exceptions to the rule. 
 
 hoping advertisement subduing amazement 
 
 excitement infringement advantageous tracea])le 
 salable tying engagement blamable 
 
 peaceable tasty coming conceivable 
 
 movable spongy dining flying 
 
 Words ending in a single consonant preceded by a 
 single vowel double the consonant before an added 
 syllable beginning with a vowel, if the word formed 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 27 
 
 is to be accented on the syllable preceding the suffix ; 
 otherwise the consonant is not doubled. 
 
 This rule, like the preceding one, is to prevent mis- 
 pronunciation. Hop + ing makes hopping. If the 
 consonant were not doubled, we should have no way 
 of distinguishing it from hoping, a very different 
 w^ord. 
 
 goddess 
 
 deference 
 
 occurrence 
 
 usually 
 
 literally 
 
 baggage 
 
 redden 
 
 permitting 
 
 deferred 
 
 slipped 
 
 planned 
 
 nutting 
 
 preference 
 
 beginning 
 
 beginner 
 
 gripping 
 
 preferring 
 
 stopped 
 
 swimming 
 
 compelling 
 
 When preceded by a consonant, final y is generally 
 changed to / before an added syllable not beginning 
 with /; otherwise it remains unchanged. 
 
 Holy -{-day makes holiday, and plenty -rjul makes 
 plentiful] but joy -^ Jul makes joyful, and toy+ing 
 makes toying. There are a few exceptions to the 
 rule, among them being shy, sly, and dry, which re- 
 tain the y before ness and ly; but these we are not 
 apt to misspell. 
 
 pitiful volleying modifying compliance 
 
 denying modifier defiance joyous 
 
 EXERCISES 
 
 I. Without referring to the table, explain the signifi- 
 cance of each of the following: ab, ad, ante, circum, con, 
 de, dis, ex, in, inter. 
 
28 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 II. Explain the significance of each of the following: 
 non, per, post, pre, pro, re, se, suh, super, trans. 
 
 III. Without referring to any book, write down all 
 the words you can think of which contain the prefix ah 
 in any of its forms. Do the same with each of the 
 twenty prefixes. (This may be made a class contest.) 
 
 IV. What prefixes appear in the following words? 
 Give the original form of each. Apparel, commence, 
 illegible, suppress, attribute, alliteration, aggregate, supply, 
 immigrant, communicate, irreligious, illiterate, suffix. 
 
 V. In which of the following words has the prefix the 
 force of in or into, and in which has it the force of 7iot or 
 without! Illogical, illuminate, imbibe, impediment, ir- 
 regular, immigrant, involuntary, insomnia, inspiration, 
 inoculate, insane, inquisitive, independent, infamy, in- 
 debted, incendiary. 
 
 VI. Open the dictionary at random and note how 
 many words containing Latin prefixes there are on a 
 single page. Do the same with a column from the edi- 
 torial page of any newspaper. Do the same with a page 
 from a magazine. 
 
 VII. Ceive and cept are roots from a Latin w^ord mean- 
 ing to take. Form as many words as you can by adding 
 prefixes and suflftxes. 
 
 VIII. Cede, ceed, and cess are roots meaning to go or 
 to yield. Form from these roots as many words as you 
 
 can. 
 
 IX. In the same manner form words from the roots 
 due and dxict, which are from a Latin word meaning to 
 
 lead. 
 
 X. Feet is from a Latin w^ord meaning to do or to make. 
 
 Form words from it. 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 29 
 
 XL Jed is from ix Latin word meaning to throw. 
 Form words from it. 
 
 XII. Junct is from a Latin word meaning to join. 
 Form words from it. 
 
 XIII. Mit and miss are roots meaning to send. Form 
 words from them. 
 
 XIV. Pon and fosit are roots meaning to place. Form 
 words from them. 
 
 '.-^-XV. Tract means to draw. Form words from it. 
 
 XVI. State the rule for adding syllables to words 
 ending in silent e. 
 
 XVII. State the rule for adding syllables to words 
 ending in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel. 
 
 XVIII. State the rule for adding syllables to words 
 ending in y. 
 
 XIX. Give the rule governing each of the words in 
 the Ust below. 
 
 dying 
 pitiful 
 preference 
 truly 
 
 XX. Study with great care the spelling of the follow- 
 ing words, paying particular attention to prefixes. 
 With what letter does the stem of each word begin? 
 
 goddess 
 
 subduing 
 
 deference 
 
 serviceable 
 
 advantageous 
 
 purity 
 
 shammed 
 
 lying 
 
 hungriest 
 
 hoeing 
 
 shying 
 
 judgment 
 
 dissect 
 
 effervescent 
 
 emergency 
 
 emigrant 
 
 accuracy 
 
 disobedience 
 
 irregular 
 
 opponent appoint 
 disappear aggregate 
 misspell correspondent 
 
 immense 
 
 access 
 
 disagree describe 
 adjacent apparatus 
 suppress effeminate 
 
 immediately 
 
 affirm 
 
 addict 
 
 accidentally 
 
 ascertain 
 
 dissimilar 
 
 interrupt 
 
30 
 
 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 XXL The following are troublesome because of their 
 suffixes, in each case there being a temptation to use a 
 wrong ending. Master them. 
 
 affirmative visible forcible dictionary 
 
 spherical bachelor connotative audible 
 
 contemptible conservative coincidence identical 
 
 experience popular comparatively obedience 
 
 burglar infinite spontaneous purity 
 
 imperative penitentiary independence resistance 
 
 participle secretary correspondent conspirator 
 
 XXII. Words containing the diphthongs ei and ie are 
 troublesome until one learns that when the diphthong 
 has the sound of long e, / comes first except when 
 the diphthong is preceded by c. Weird, seize, neither,, 
 and leisure are important exceptions. With this rule 
 in mind, study the following words: 
 
 yield niece receive 
 
 shrieve perceive fiend 
 
 receipt deceit shriek 
 
 relieve besiege achieve 
 
 conceive 
 
 pierce 
 
 wield 
 
 apiece 
 
 XXIII. The following are commonly misspelled be- 
 cause commonly mispronounced. Are you sure that 
 you are accustomed to pronounce them correctly? 
 
 embroidery 
 
 recognize 
 
 ransacking 
 
 artistically 
 
 tournament 
 
 sophomore 
 
 athletics 
 
 cemetery 
 
 quarter 
 
 temperament 
 
 cartridge 
 
 farthest 
 
 intellect 
 
 laboratory 
 
 lightning 
 
 literally 
 
 strategy 
 
 tragedy 
 
 tremendous 
 
 accidentally 
 
 XXIV. The following, frequently misspelled, are very 
 simple when analyzed. Often a long word is but a 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 31 
 
 short, famihar word to which prefix and suffix have 
 
 been added. A moment's thought should clear away 
 all difficulty. 
 
 recollect preparation imagination incidentally 
 
 agreeableness recommend undoubtedly handsome 
 narrative criticism ridgepole condescend 
 
 sensibility miraculous graphically analysis 
 
 XXV. Here are groups of words arranged in pairs. 
 Put each pair into a sentence or two so constructed as 
 to show without doubt that you know what each word 
 means. 
 
 admission 
 admittance 
 
 affect 
 effect 
 
 allusion 
 illusion 
 
 ascent 
 assent 
 
 altar 
 alter 
 
 bare 
 bear 
 
 berth 
 birth 
 
 brake 
 break 
 
 breath 
 breathe 
 
 bridal 
 bridle 
 
 calendar 
 calender 
 
 canon 
 cannon 
 
 canvas 
 canvass 
 
 capital 
 capitol 
 
 ceiling 
 seaUng 
 
 cereal 
 serial 
 
 cession 
 session 
 
 chandelier 
 chanticleer 
 
 cite 
 site 
 
 clothes 
 cloths 
 
 coarser 
 
 courser 
 
 colonel 
 kernel 
 
 complement 
 compUment 
 
 conservator}^ 
 observatory 
 
 council 
 counsel 
 
 creak 
 creek 
 
 currant 
 current 
 
 deceased 
 diseased 
 
 desert 
 dessert 
 
 dual 
 duel 
 
 dyeing 
 dying 
 
 eligible 
 legible 
 
32 
 
 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 emerge 
 
 emigrant 
 
 fain 
 
 faint 
 
 immerge 
 
 immigrant 
 
 feign 
 
 feint 
 
 feat 
 
 formally 
 
 fort 
 
 forth 
 
 fete 
 
 formerly 
 
 forte 
 
 fourth 
 
 gait 
 
 gilt 
 
 grease 
 
 hail 
 
 gate 
 
 guilt 
 
 Greece 
 
 hale 
 
 heal 
 
 hew 
 
 humerus 
 
 lead 
 
 heel 
 
 hue 
 
 humorous 
 
 led 
 
 leaf 
 
 lightening 
 
 lose 
 
 mantel 
 
 lief 
 
 lightning 
 
 loose 
 
 mantle 
 
 meat 
 
 medal 
 
 miner 
 
 partition 
 
 mete 
 
 meddle 
 
 minor 
 
 petition 
 
 peace 
 
 peal 
 
 pedal 
 
 persecute 
 
 piece 
 
 peel 
 
 peddle 
 
 prosecute 
 
 pillar 
 
 prescribe 
 
 principal 
 
 prodigy 
 
 pillow 
 
 prqscribe 
 
 principle 
 
 progeny 
 
 prophecy 
 
 real 
 
 respectfully 
 
 ring 
 
 prophesy 
 
 reel 
 
 respectively 
 
 wring 
 
 role 
 
 sewer 
 
 shear 
 
 sleight 
 
 roll 
 
 sower 
 
 sheer 
 
 slight 
 
 soar 
 
 stake 
 
 stationary 
 
 statue ^ 
 
 sore 
 
 steak 
 
 stationery 
 
 statute 
 
 stile 
 
 tail 
 
 team 
 
 waist 
 
 style 
 
 tale 
 
 teem 
 
 waste 
 
WORD-BUILDING AND SPELLING 33 
 
 XXVI. Here is a final list of words, some of which we 
 have already examined, calling for careful study. Ana- 
 lyze them syllable by syllable. Master them once for 
 all. 
 
 pronunciation 
 
 belligerent 
 
 prejudice 
 
 apparent 
 
 divine 
 
 among 
 
 imitate 
 
 arriving 
 
 salary 
 
 around 
 
 muscle 
 
 dissolve 
 
 control 
 
 brilliant 
 
 arrange 
 
 together 
 
 speech 
 
 proceed 
 
 altogether 
 
 equip 
 
 mysterious 
 
 beseech 
 
 business 
 
 whether 
 
 vegetable 
 
 surprise 
 
 gas 
 
 rummage 
 
 galloped 
 
 separate 
 
 variegated 
 
 melancholy 
 
 professor 
 
 similar 
 
 privilege 
 
 announce 
 
 artillery 
 
 divide 
 
 appetite 
 
 rhythm 
 
 catarrh 
 
 color 
 
 sleeve 
 
 malady 
 
 difficult 
 
 across 
 
 caterpillar 
 
 excel 
 
 sovereign 
 
 embarrass 
 
 restaurant 
 
 essential 
 
 acquisition 
 
 pamphlet 
 
 precede 
 
 villain 
 
 accord 
 
 expel 
 
 terrestrial 
 
 allow 
 
 hospital 
 
 undoubtedly 
 
 agreeable 
 
 grammar 
 
 writer 
 
 acquaintance 
 
 luscious 
 
 twelfth 
 
 burglary 
 
 callous 
 
 syllable 
 
 until 
 
 exaggerate 
 
 abolish 
 
 parliament 
 
 drowned 
 
 nymph 
 
 college 
 
 soliloquy 
 
 accommodate 
 
 consonant 
 
34 
 
 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 persevere 
 
 committee 
 
 possess 
 
 academy 
 
 sympathy 
 
 finally 
 
 career 
 
 repetition 
 
 artificial 
 
 reverend 
 
 warrior 
 
 annual 
 
 agree 
 
 annex 
 
 messenger 
 
 paradise 
 
 opportunity 
 
 career 
 
 odor 
 
 drudgery 
 
 resurrect 
 
 duchess 
 
 amateur 
 
 achieve 
 
 noticeable 
 
 assassin 
 
 graphically 
 
 pursue 
 
 literary 
 
 barbarous 
 
 commencement 
 
 milHonaire 
 
 shepherd 
 
 negotiate 
 
 remedy 
 
 accustomed 
 
 marriage 
 
 bereave 
 
 sergeant 
 
 accordingly 
 
 collapse 
 
 fascinate 
 
 milliner 
 
 feminine 
 
 discourtesy 
 
 gasoline 
 
 cylinder 
 
 disapprove 
 
 image 
 
 physical 
 
 hypocrisy 
 
 Italy 
 
 discipline 
 
 trespass 
 
 incandescent 
 
 genius 
 
 appeal 
 
 fiery 
 
 implement 
 
 haggard 
 
 describe 
 
 crystal 
 
 enemy 
 
 necessity 
 
 kerosene 
 
 complexion 
 
 crescent 
 
 different 
 
 dissipate 
 
 approach 
 
 coincide 
 
 unanimous 
 
 phase 
 
 etiquette 
 
 all right 
 
PART II 
 
 A BRIEF REVIEW OF ENGLISH 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 Words are but feeble things except when properly 
 arranged in groups and set to work. , They resemble 
 in this respect the parts of a machine, a typewriter 
 for instance, which must be assembled with care, 
 each part properly fitted in its place, before the 
 machine becomes serviceable. The dictionary, which 
 we may call first of the great law-books of lan- 
 guage, considers words singly, telling what each one 
 means, how it should be spelled, how pronounced. 
 Grammar, correctly speaking, includes all, or nearly 
 all, that the average dictionary contains. As the 
 term is commonly employed, however, the special 
 province of grammar is to record what is good usage 
 among language-respecting people as regards words 
 when grouped for service — what forms they take 
 and how they are arranged^ It may well be called 
 the second great laT^^-book. \ The following review 
 is much too brief to be complete. It touches but 
 lightly upon many things and passes by others 
 
 35 
 
36 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 altogether, the purpose being merely to freshen the 
 memory in regard to such matters as are of real 
 importance to one who is trying to learn to speak 
 and write correctly. 
 
 The simplest complete word-group, it will be re- 
 called, is the sentence, with its two vital parts, sub- 
 ject and predicate. The former names that concern- 
 hig which the sentence tells something; the latter is 
 the part which does the telling. There are four kmds 
 of sentences: the declarative, used in making an 
 assertion; the interrogative, used in asking a ques- 
 tion; the imperative, used in entreating, commandj^ 
 ing, and in giving directions f^ the exclamatory, used 
 in expressing deep feeling. 
 
 Declarative : The tide has turned. 
 Interrogative: Has the tide turned? 
 Imperative: Seek the truth. 
 Exclamatory: How gallantly they ride! 
 Another set of names is used to indicate the struc- 
 ture of sentences. If made up of one subject and 
 one predicate, a sentence is called simple. If made 
 up of two or more independent clauses, it is called 
 compound. A sentence made up of one independent 
 ' clause and one or more dependent clauses is called 
 complex. Compound-comple x is a name applied to 
 a^_seritimiifi-madfi_U£_of_Jndepe^ or 
 
 more of whic h are^ &omplex. \ By "clause; as used in 
 Iheabove definitions, is meant a group of words con- 
 taining a subject and a predicate and forming part 
 of a sentencc.j It differs from a^hrase^ which is a 
 
 e%^ 
 
,v-^ 
 
 REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 37 
 
 
 group of related words that does not contain subject ^'^ 
 '^ and predicate. It resembles a phrase in that it is 
 often used as if it were a single word. 
 
 Phrase : in the morning 
 
 Clause : where I had determined to spend the night 
 / Simple sentence: We reached the village. 
 ' Compound sentence: The stars fade and dawn 
 appears. 
 
 Complex sentence : In the evening we reached the 
 village where I had determined to spend the night. 
 
 A Compound-co m plex sen tence: We_discQYacfid_tha± 
 
 wejiadjorg otten the -p ack e t and Pierre was sent-io^ 
 JL 
 
 Thus we have the following display : 
 
 ■ Declarative making an assertion 
 Interrogative asking a question 
 Purpose - Imperative commanding, directing, 
 or entreating <'->'■' '■'■' 
 Exclamatory expressing deep feeling 
 
 Sentences 
 
 .^-. 
 
 Structure 
 
 Simple having but one subject 
 
 and one predicate 
 
 Compound made up of two or more 
 independent clauses 
 
 Complex containing one or more 
 
 dependent clauses 
 
 There are eight kinds ofjwords: nouns, pronouns, \ 
 verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunc- 
 tions, and interjections. It should be remembered, ( 
 however, that just a^ upon occasion a lawyer may 
 become a lecturer, or a schoolboy a fisherman, so a 
 given word may be now one ^^part of speech", now 
 
38 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 another. What a word is doing determines what it 
 should be called. If used to name something, it is a 
 noun. If used as a substitute for a noun, it is a pro- 
 n oun . Nouns an cl __Qronouns^ indeed all words or 
 word-groups used like nouns, are called substantives. 
 A verb^a word oFphrase used to assert something 
 concerning that which a substantive names or desig- 
 nates. Adjectives are words used to modify the 
 meaning of substantives, and adverbs are words used 
 to modify the meaning "of verbs, adjectives, or other 
 adverbs. Adjectives and adverbs, and all words or 
 word-groups used like adjectives or adverbs, are 
 called modifiers. Prepositions connect substantives 
 with other words and show how they are related; 
 conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. Prepo- 
 sitions and conjunctions, and other parts of speech 
 when used like them, are called connectives. An_in-__ 
 terjection js ^ w-nrd-^ a_cr y or an e xclamation-^used 
 tQ_expressj££pJBeling. These definitions are not in 
 every instance complete; but they serve sufficiently 
 well to point out in a general way the service per- 
 formed by each part of speech . 
 
 Noun : The day is done. ^ 
 >-^ Pronoun: They nm. 
 
 Verb : The birds have floivn. 
 
 Adjective: A soft answer turneth away wrath. 
 
 Adverb : The sentinel walked softly. 
 -^Preposition : Two of the ships were lost. 
 ^•Conjunction : Come and trip it as ye go. 
 
 Interjection: Alas! 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 39 
 
 Thus we have the following display : 
 
 
 
 words used as nam^s 
 
 
 Nouns 
 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 words used as substitutes for nouns 
 
 
 Verbs 
 
 words used in making assertions , Yyf'^'^ic^^ t^ZJi^ 
 
 
 Adjectives 
 
 words used to modify substantives 
 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 words used to modify verbs, adjec- 
 tives, adverbs 
 
 irts of 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 words used to connect substantives 
 
 Speech 
 
 
 with other words and show how 
 they are related 
 
 
 Conjunctions 
 
 words used to connect words, phrases, 
 clauses 
 
 
 Interjections 
 
 cries and exclamations used to ex- 
 press deep feeling 
 
 Studyins; this table for a moment, one cannot fail 
 to see that the various parts of speech enjoy but little 
 independence; they must work together just as the 
 individuals of a community must; all are needed, 
 none is self-sufhcient. Nouns are helpless without 
 verbs, and verbs helpless without nouns. Pronouns, 
 great time-savers that enable us to take short cuts, 
 and to push ahead without too often retracing steps, 
 are meaningless when by themselves. Adjectives 
 and adverbs must have something to cling to, other 
 words to work for; and connectives, when by them- 
 selves, are like mortar without bricks, bridges with- 
 out banks to join, or signboards where there are no 
 cross-ways. Interjections, of all the parts of speech, 
 enjoy a degree of lonely independence; yet a page of 
 interjections and nothing else would be unintelligible.j 
 The Ohl Alas! or ^lercy! means nothing until some 
 
40 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 complete sentence explains what has produced the 
 emotion represented by the exclamation.^ 
 
 In the second place it may be noted that though no 
 word is wholly independent, the eight parts of speech 
 are of different value or rank; which suggests again 
 a parallel between words and individuals. The noun 
 is easily the most important, in numbers as well as 
 in service. If w^e could have but this one part of 
 speech w^e should manage somehow, though lamely, 
 without the other seven. Next comes the verb, 
 without which there could be no complete sentence. 
 A workaday world might get along fairly w^ell with 
 these two parts of speech alone. Adjectives and 
 adverbs are plainly inferior to nouns and verbs, and 
 the connectives are of a still lower order; yet vigor, 
 precision, and beauty of expression depend so largely 
 on a command of these minor groups of words that 
 they are entitled to our full respect and merit close 
 study. The relative hnportance of each part of 
 speech may be tested in an interesting way by taking 
 a paragraph from any book and removing from it 
 in turn the nouns, the pronouns, and so on. 
 
 Finally comes the thought that though there is no 
 such thing as independence among words, and though 
 some parts of speech may be considered of higher 
 rank than others, nevertheless each term in the lan- 
 guage enjoys a kind of supremacy, each is a specialist 
 doing some one thing better than it can be done by 
 any other. 
 
 In tcrj ej?tions an d prepositi ons do not change hi 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 41 
 
 for m^nor ca n iht^ y he. subdivided iiitQ_ x l a sses or 
 varieties according to the se rvice th e3^_j 3ert'orm. 
 OHTer parts o7~speech may be subdivided, and with 
 the exception of the conjunction they may be ''in- 
 flected" more or less; that is, they may be bent into 
 this or that shape to express shades of meaning and 
 to show the relationship of word to word, much as 
 some machines may be ''adjusted" to perform 
 different kinds of work. F or example, hoys^ js^axi 
 inflecte d form of hoy, and wo rked an inflected form oi 
 worlc. Centuries ago, our language was much more 
 highly inflected than it is to-day. Many forms have 
 dropped out of use, and others are gradually dis- 
 appearing. Yet the shades of meaning and the re- 
 lationships they once expressed still remain, and 
 often the names of these are retained even though 
 the inflected forms are gone. \ We will now take up 
 each part of speech separately, considering its sub- 
 divisions, its inflections, and the service it performs. 
 Kinds common, proper 
 
 number: singular, plural 
 Forms -I gender: masculine, feminine, neuter 
 
 case: nominative, possessive, objective 
 
 Nouns 
 
 (1) subject of verb, (2) object of verb, (3) 
 indirect object of verb, (4) object of prep- 
 osition, (5) denoting possession, (6) ap- 
 . How used \ positive to a substantive, (7) predicate 
 nominative, (8) nominative absolute, (9) 
 nominative by address, (10) adverbial 
 objective 
 
 A common noun is a name which may be applied 
 to any one of an entire class of things; a proper noun 
 
42 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 designates a particular one^^ distinguishing it from 
 others of the same class. Ijlliterate people some- 
 times fail to begin the proper noun with a capital, 
 and frequently begin with a capital a word, especially 
 the name of a plant or an animal, with which they are 
 not familiar. Do^ is a common noun; so too is 
 zc/i%osawni.s, notwithstanding the fact that it has 
 many syllables and sounds strange to the ear. 
 
 The regular way of forming the plural is by adding 
 s or es to the singular, observation rather than hard 
 and fast rules teaching which ending is correct in a 
 given case.1 It is well to remember, however, that 
 nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant change 
 the y to I and add es; that a few, though not all, 
 words ending in fe change the f to v and add s; and 
 that a few, though not all, ending in o preceded by a 
 consonant add es. Foreign words are troublesome 
 in that many of them have plural endings not found 
 in our language. The oddest rule is that which bids 
 us indicate the plural of figures, letters, and signs by 
 adding 's. (See exercise VI on page 72.) 
 pony ponies valley valleys 
 
 knife knives potato potatoes 
 
 vertebra vertebrae 6 6's 
 
 t t's + +'s 
 
 Few nouns have sep arate forms to indicate j liffer: 
 ^enceJn^^^derTiburt^^ 
 
 liaye gender, so we may speak of no uns as mascu line^ 
 femimh(?paRfHTCirteT.~~"lt^ 
 case as itls~witii gender. One form now suffices for 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 43 
 
 both nominative and objective; the only inflection 
 is that which denotes what is loosely called posses- 
 sion. The regular way of forming the possessive is 
 by adding 's to the singular and to all plurals not 
 ending in s. Plurals ending in s add the apostrophe 
 only. When a noun of more than one syllable ends 
 in axi s or z sound, some writers prefer to indicate the 
 singular possessive by adding simply the apostrophe; 
 others, and they are to be commended, follow the 
 regular rule.; Ulysses's voyages, Xerxes' s exercises, 
 and similar phrases have an unpleasant sound. Per- 
 haps the sanest way is to avoid such ugly combina- 
 tions by writing, the voyages of Ulysses and the exer- 
 cises of Xerxes. \ | If two or more nouns joined by and ^ 
 show joint possession, as in the sentence This is John 
 and Henry's boat, the sign of possession is needed 
 with the last noun only; but we write correctly 
 This is either John's or Henry's, and This is neither 
 John's nor Henry's. \ (See exercise VII on page 72.) 
 
 man's mens' Dickens's masterpiece 
 
 lady's ladies' The deeds of Themistocles 
 
 Brown and Green's harness shop (joint possession) 
 
 Goldsmith's and Burns's poems (separate posses- 
 sion) 
 
 Is this Monday's or Tuesday's Tribune? 
 
 It is neither Monday's nor Tuesday's. 
 
 The ways in which nouns are used will be better 
 understood later on when the other parts of speech 
 have been examined. Since this is a review of 
 grammar, the following examples should not prove 
 
44 
 
 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 wholly unintelligible. The numbers correspond to 
 
 those found in the table on page 41. 
 
 1. Fire burns. 2. Obey the law. 3. They 
 offered Ccesar a crown. 4. He lives in Savannah. 
 5. Great Expectations is the title of one of 
 Dickens's best novels. 6. We followed the Ohio 
 River, a branch of the Mississippi. 7. This is my 
 native land. 8. The day being clear, we had an 
 extended view. 9. In thee, Lord, do I put 
 my trust. 10. Good-bye, proud world, I'm going 
 home, 
 
 Personal: I, you, thou, he, she, it; myself, 
 yourself, etc. 
 
 Relative or Conjunctive: who, which, what, 
 that; whoever, whosoever, etc. 
 
 Demonstrative: this, that 
 
 Interrogative: who, which, what, whether 
 
 Indefinite or Adjective: each, either, neither, 
 some, any, many, few, all, both, aught, 
 naught, one, some one, any one, every one, 
 no one, such other, each other, one another 
 
 Pronouns ■ 
 
 Kinds 
 
 Forms 
 
 Person: first, second, third 
 
 Number: singular, plural 
 I Gender: masculine, feminine, neuter 
 [Case: nominative, possessive, objective 
 
 How used: (1) To take the place of the noun, serving 
 in all save the last of the ten 
 ways mentioned in connection with 
 nouns; (2) to take the place of a 
 noun and at the same time serve 
 as a connective (relative pronouns 
 only) 
 
 Personal pronouns, so called because some always 
 represent the ''first" person or the one speaking, 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 45 
 
 others the '^second" person or the one spoken to, 
 and others the ''third" person or the person or thing 
 spoken of, are so commonly misused that it seems 
 l)est to give their inflections in full. 
 
 Sing. Plu. Sing. Plu. 
 
 Nom. I we you you 
 
 Pos. my or mine our or ours you or yours your or yours 
 
 Obj. me us you you 
 
 Nom. thou ye he she it they 
 
 Pos. thy or thine your or yours his her its their or theirs 
 
 (or hers) 
 Obj. thee you him her it them 
 
 Singular 
 
 Nom. myself thyself or yourself himself herself itself 
 
 Pos, — — _ _ _ _ 
 
 Obj. myself thyself or yourself himself herself itself 
 
 Plural 
 
 Nom. ourselves yourselves themselves 
 
 Pos. — — — 
 
 Obj. ourselves yourselves themselves 
 
 Notice that there are no such forms as ourn, youer, 
 yourn, hisn, hern, theirn, theirselves, itsself, and that 
 in no form is the apostrophe used. ^'ouWe, a con- 
 tracted form of you are, is often confused with yo^ir. 
 ' The relative pronouns are so calledbecausethey_ 
 /'relate^ or reterto^s ubstantlYfi&l Since at the same 
 time they introduce clauses, thus serving as con- 
 -^.nectives, they are also called conjunctive pronouns. 
 Of all the conjunctives, who alone is inflected. | 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 who 
 
 who 
 
 Pos. 
 
 whose 
 
 whose 
 
 Obj. 
 
 whom 
 
 whom 
 
 U^ 
 
 4- 
 
46 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Notice that there is no such form as whoes or ivhos. 
 Who's is a contracted form of who is. 
 
 The interrogatives, so called because used in ask- 
 ing questions, are not inflected, with the exception 
 of who, which differs in no respect from the relative 
 who. 
 
 The dem cjnstratives this and that, w ith th<^ir pInrRi — 
 forms the se and those, direct attention to pm isoa^ or_ 
 thin gs, pointing them out. Be careful not to use 
 the personal jpronoun as if it^ere a demonstrative. 
 Look at them hoys should be Look at those hoys. Re- 
 member too that these and those are plural forms, 
 while sort and kind are singular. These kind, those -/;' 
 sort, and similar vulgarisms are very common .T 
 
 The hidefinites, so called because they do not 
 definitely represent particular persons or things, are 
 a low order of pronoun, more often used as adjec- 
 tives. Indeed, many pronouns do double duty, 
 serving now as pronouns, now as adjectives; and we 
 have seen that relative pronouns serve as conjunc- 
 tions. , This leads to confusion, which disappears 
 only when we apply to a word in a given sentence the 
 name which best describes the service it performs in 
 that sentence. 
 
 In the first group of sentences given below, the pro- 
 nouns are used like nouns, serving as subject, object, 
 etc., the numbers corresponding to those in the 
 noun table. Notice that the pronoun is not used as 
 an adverbial objective, iln the second group, the 
 pronouns take the place 6? nouns and at the same 
 time serve as connective's, i 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 47 
 
 1. This is the forest primeval. 2. Take it, if 
 you wish. 3. Please give him my cane. 4. May 
 we go with him'f 5. My courage weakens, and 
 so, I suspect, does yours. 6. A few fortunate 
 ones, those who had clear records in deportment, 
 were permitted to go. 7. This is he. 8. This 
 having been attended to, w^e retired for the 
 night. 9. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 
 
 1. Let him who standeth take heed lest he fall. 
 2. This is the malt that lay in the house that Jack 
 built. 
 
 articles: a, an, the 
 
 numerals: one, two, first, sec- 
 ond, etc. 
 
 pronominals : my, thy, his, her, 
 its; this, that; which, what; 
 each, every, either, neither, 
 some, any, many, few, all, 
 both, other 
 
 r Kinds ■ 
 
 Adjec- 
 tives 
 
 limiting 
 
 descriptive 
 
 proper 
 
 Forms: positive, comparative, superlative 
 
 How used: To modify substantives attributively, 
 appositively, and predicatively 
 
 Adjectives present few difficulties, except as they 
 change to indicate degrees of comparison. In some 
 cases degree is indicated by an entire change of 
 word, as in good, better, best; in others -erand -est are 
 added to the positive form, as in siveet, sweeter, sweet- 
 est; and in still others the comparative and the super- 
 lative are indicated by placing more and most or less 
 
48 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 and least before the adjective. No rule covers all 
 cases; what is right must be learned through obser- 
 vation. Uneducated people sometimes forget that a 
 proper adjective — that is, an adjective derived from 
 a proper noun, as Roman derived from the proper 
 noun Rome — should begin with a capital. The dis- 
 tinction between a pronoun and a pronominal adjec- 
 tive is not troublesome if we remember that the 
 adjective always modifies a substantive. 
 Pronoun: This is my book- 
 Adjective: This book belongs to me. 
 The three ways in which an adjective may be used 
 — perhaps we should say four ways, since an adjec- 
 tive is sometimes used as a noun — are here illustrated. 
 1. The green fields invite us. 2. The crowd, 
 heedless, rushed into danger. 3. The fields are 
 green. 4. The wicked shall perish. 
 
 f 1 . Transitive, intransitive 
 Kinds I 2, Strong conjugation, weak^conjugation 
 
 Voice: active, passive 
 
 Mood: indicative, subjunctive, potential, im- 
 perative 
 
 Verbs 
 
 Forms -I Tense: present, past, future, perfect, past per- 
 fect, future perfect 
 Person: first, second, third 
 Number: singular, plural 
 .Verbals: infinitives, participles 
 
 How used: (1) To form the essential part of the predi- 
 cate; (2) to serve as a substantive (in- 
 finitive); (3) to serve as an adjective 
 (participle) 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 49 
 
 The verb is a difficult part of speech to master. 
 Very few — perhaps it is safe to say not more than 
 one in a hundred — ever do master it. Grammarians 
 cannot agree perfectly on all points relating to it, and 
 they differ widely in regard to the names which should 
 be applied to its various forms and relations. We 
 shall try, without going too deeply into matters, to 
 get hold of such essentials as are needed in order to 
 talk about verbs intelligibly and use them with a 
 reasonable degree of correctness. 
 
 A verb is used transitively when it requires an ob- 
 ject to complete its meaning; that is, when it requires 
 a substantive to ^'receive its action", as in the sen- 
 tence Jack huilt a house. A verb is used intransi- 
 tively when it does not require an object, as in the 
 sentence The sun shines. Some verbs are always 
 used intransitively, others may be used either way. 
 (See exercise XIII on page 78.) 
 
 Verbs are said to be of the strong or the weak con- 
 jugation according to the way they are inflected. 
 Weak verbs regularly add d or ed to the root to form 
 the past tense and the past participle. Strong verbs~| — - 
 regularly change the vowel of the root, either in the 
 past tense or in the past participle or in both, and 
 sometimes add n or en to form the past parti- 
 ciple. 
 
 Weak conjugation : work, worked, worked. 
 Strong conjugation : speak, spoke, spoken. 
 
 Many verbs, both strong and weak, are inflected 
 more or less irregularly, and some irregularities are 
 
50 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 so misleading that it is often difficult to tell what 
 conjugation a verb belongs to even though its prin- 
 cipal parts, as the present, past, and past participle 
 forms are called, are familiar to us. It is a comfort 
 to reflect that knowing the principal parts of a verb 
 is of more importance than being able to tell to what 
 conjugation it belongs. (See exercise X on page 76.) 
 Perhaps the best way to get at the many difficulties 
 presented by voice, mood, and tense will be to display 
 a complete verb. Pronouns will be used for the pur- 
 pose of showing the various forms called for by sub- 
 jects in the first, second, and third person, singular 
 and plural; for a verb ''agrees" with its subject in 
 person and number. It should be remembered that 
 the pronoun is not a part of the verb. 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 
 Simple Form 
 
 Emphatic Form 
 
 Progressive Form 
 
 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 
 I love 
 
 
 I do love 
 
 I am loving 
 
 you love or 
 
 thou 
 
 you do love or thou 
 
 you are loving or 
 
 lovest * 
 
 
 dost love 
 
 thou art loving 
 
 he loves 
 
 
 he does love or he 
 doth love 
 
 he is loving 
 
 we love 
 
 
 we do love 
 
 we are loving 
 
 you love 
 
 
 you do love 
 
 you are loving 
 
 they love 
 
 
 they do love 
 
 they are loving 
 
 * The older forms for the second person are given in the 
 present and past tenses only, though they are found in other 
 tenses as well. 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 51 
 
 I loved 
 
 you loved or thou 
 
 lovedst 
 he loved 
 we loved 
 you loved 
 they loved 
 
 I shall love 
 you will love 
 he will love 
 we shall love 
 you will love 
 they will love 
 
 I will love 
 you shall love 
 he shall love 
 we will love 
 you shall love 
 they sliall love 
 
 I have loved 
 you have loved 
 he has loved 
 we have loved 
 you have loved 
 they have loved 
 
 I had loved 
 you had loved 
 he had loved 
 we had loved 
 you had loved 
 they had loved 
 
 PAST 
 
 I did love 
 you did love or 
 
 thou didst love 
 he did love 
 we did love 
 you did love 
 they did love 
 
 SIMPLE FUTURE 
 
 I was loving 
 
 you were loving or 
 
 thou wast loving 
 he was loving 
 we were loving 
 you were loving 
 they were loving 
 
 I shall be loving 
 you will be loving 
 he will be loving 
 we shall be loving 
 you will be loving 
 they will be loving 
 
 VOLITIONAL FUTURE 
 
 I will be loving 
 you shall be loving 
 he shall be loving 
 we will be loving 
 you shall be loving 
 they shall be loving 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 PAST PERFECT 
 
 I have been loving 
 you have been loving 
 he has been loving 
 we have been loving 
 you have been loving 
 they have been loving 
 
 I had been loving 
 you had been loving 
 he had been loving 
 we had been loving 
 you had been loving 
 they had been loving 
 
52 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT 
 
 I shall have loved I shall have been loving 
 
 you will have loved you will have been loving 
 
 he will have loved he will have been loving 
 
 we shall have loved we shall have been loving 
 
 you will have loved you will have been loving 
 
 they will have loved they will have been loving 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 Simple Form Emphatic Form Progressive Form 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 (if) I, you, he love (if) I, you, he do love (if) I, you, he be 
 
 loving 
 (if) we, you, they (if) we, you, they do (if) we, you, they be 
 love love loving 
 
 PAST 
 
 (if) I, you, he loved (if) I, you, he, did (if) I, you, he were 
 
 love loving 
 
 (if) we, you, they (if) we, you, they (if) we, you, they 
 
 loved did love were loving 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD ^ c,^^^i\.i\\^<^~' j 
 Simple Form Progressive Form -^r^^JLY ii>yt^ 
 PRESENT 
 
 I, you, he may * love I, you, he may be loving 
 
 we, you, they may love we, you, they may be loving 
 
 PAST 
 
 I, you, he might f love I, you, he might be loving 
 
 we, you, they might love we, you, they might be loving 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 I, you, he may * have loved I, you, he may have been loving 
 we, you, they may have loved we, you, they may have been 
 
 loving 
 
 PAST PERFECT 
 
 I, you, he might f have loved I, you, he might have been lov- 
 ing 
 we, you, they might have loved we, you, they might have been 
 
 loving 
 * Can and must are other potential auxiliaries, 
 j- Could, would, and should are other auxiliaries. 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 53 
 
 love 
 
 to love, loving 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 do love 
 INFINITIVES 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 to have loved, having loved 
 
 loving 
 having loved 
 
 Simple Form 
 
 I am loved 
 you are loved 
 he is loved 
 we are loved 
 yon are loved 
 they are loved 
 
 I was loved 
 you were loved 
 he was loved 
 we were loved 
 you were loved 
 they were loved 
 
 I shall be loved 
 I will be loved 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 PRESENT 
 PERFECT 
 
 be loving 
 
 to be loving 
 
 to have been loving 
 
 having been loving 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 Progressive Form 
 PRESENT 
 
 I am being loved 
 you are being loved 
 he is being loved 
 we are being loved 
 you are being loved 
 they are being loved 
 
 PAST 
 
 I was being loved 
 you were being loved 
 he was being loved 
 we were being loved 
 you were being loved 
 they were being loved 
 
 SIMPLE FUTURE 
 VOLITIONAL FUTURE 
 
54 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 I have been loved 
 
 PAST PERFECT 
 
 I had been loved 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT 
 
 I shall have been loved 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 (if) I be loved 
 
 PAST 
 
 (if) I were loved (iO I were being loved 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD 
 PRESENT 
 
 PAST 
 
 I may be loved 
 I might be loved 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 I may have been loved 
 
 PAST PERFECT 
 
 I might have been loved 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 be loved 
 
 INFINITIVES 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 to be loved, being loved 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 to have been loved, having been loved 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 PRESENT 
 
 being loved 
 
 PAST 
 
 loved 
 
 PERFECT 
 
 having been loved 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 55 
 
 As we study this display, we note first of all that 
 though the verb has a few inflections— Zoves, loved, 
 loving^iis conjugation is made up largely of phrases 
 inwhich am, have, do, shall, mill, may, etc., appear. 
 These words, verbs all of them, are called auxiliaries, 
 because they are used principally in combination 
 with other verbs, helping to express various shades 
 of meaning. It is good mental exercise to dissect 
 a long phrase like may have been loving and try to 
 determine what each word does toward completing 
 the idea; but ordinarily it is better for the young 
 student to think of the phrase as if it were all a 
 single word.'^ (See exercise XII on page 77.) 
 
 The indicative mood is used in plain, straight- 
 away assertion and question. It presents no diffi- 
 culties except in two tenses, the past and the future, 
 and these must be examined with great care. 
 
 Was is singular, loere is plural. It is therefore in- 
 correct to write They was all present. We loas pleased 
 to see him; for the verb should agree with its subject 
 in number. But note that nowhere is loas found in 
 the second person singular. It is you were loving and 
 not you was loving, you were being loved and not you 
 was being loved. It is odd that the plural form luere 
 should be used with the singular pronoun you, but it 
 is so used by those who speak correctly. Those who 
 say you vms instead of you were belong, as a rule, to 
 the large, unfortunate class who use aint and haint 
 for am not and haven't. Aint and haint are forms 
 unknown to grammar. 
 
56 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Shall and vnll are troublesome because each per- 
 forms a double service, sometimes indicating plain 
 futurity and sometimes volition, or an act of the will. 
 They cease to give trouble when the meaning of the 
 words futurity and volition is clearly understood and 
 a few simple rules have been mastered. When one 
 says / shall he twenty to-morrow, or Friday will he the 
 thirteenth, he does not mean that he is determined to 
 be twenty on the morrow, or that he promises to 
 make Friday the thirteenth, for these are matters 
 over which he has no control; he simply states a 
 future certainty. On the other hand / will give you 
 a dollar for your knife is a promise; and He shall suffer 
 for this is a threat or the expression of a determina- 
 tion. Promises, threats, resolves, and the like, are 
 acts of the will; they come under the general term 
 volition. Three rules cover nearly all troublesome 
 cases : 
 
 I. To express a simple future, use shall with the 
 first person, will with the second and the third. 
 
 II. To express volition, use will with the first per- 
 son, shall with the second and the third. 
 
 -^ III. In an interrogative sentence, use shall with the 
 first person always. With the second person and the 
 third use shall when shall is expected in the answer 
 and will when will is expected in the answer. (See 
 exercises XVI and XVII on pages 79 and 80.) 
 
 The subjunctive mood is used most commonly in 
 conditional clauses to imply that the contraiy of that 
 which is stated is true, as in the sentence // to-day 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 57 
 
 were to-morrov), we should know all about it. It is 
 also used sometimes to express a wish, as in the sen- 
 tence that I were home ! But the subjunctive mood 
 has almost disappeared from our common speech. 
 [The idea of extreme doubt, supposition, condition 
 contrary to fact, etc., remains, but it is no longer ex- 
 pressed by a separate system of forms such as we 
 have in the indicative mood. The indicative and] 
 potential forms, helped out not a little by the con-'i 
 junctions if, though, unless, except, lest, and whether, [ 
 now do most of the work formerly done by the sub- 
 junctive. Little attention, therefore, need be paid 
 to this mood, except in a single case where it still 
 performs an important service. Notice carefully the 
 indicative and subjunctive past tense progressive ^ 
 forms of the verb love: 
 
 Indicative 
 I was loving we were loving 
 
 you were loving you were loving 
 
 he was loving they were loving 
 
 Stibjunctive 
 if I were loving if we were loving 
 
 if you were loving if you were loving 
 
 if he were loving if they were loving 
 
 The if is not a part of the verb; it appears in con- 
 nection with the subjunctive merely because some 
 such conjunction is frequently, though not always, 
 used with that mood. It may be used with the in- 
 dicative too; but if I was loving and if I were loving 
 do not mean the same thing. The former expresses 
 
58 WORDS AND SENTENCPE 
 
 a simple condition in past time; the latter has nothing 
 to do with past time, but sets forth a state of affairs 
 contrary to fact or merely thought of. Note the 
 following sentences: 
 
 If the day was pleasant, they must have en- 
 joyed the drive. 
 
 If the day were pleasant, they might enjoy 
 the drive. 
 In the first sentence the speaker tells simply what 
 must have happened under a given condition. The 
 sentence has to do with past time. It does not sup- 
 pose something which is not true; it is a pure con- "^ 
 ditional sentence. In the second there is an element 
 of make-believe. The day, we know at once, is not 
 pleasant, but the speaker imagines what might 
 happen were the day different. The sentence has 
 nothing to do with past time. The rule covering 
 the use of the two moods in the past tense is as 
 follows : 
 
 Use the past tense of the indicative to express simple"' 
 condition in past time. Use the past tense of the sub- 
 junctive to express the idea of uncertainty, extreme 
 doubt, or condition contrary to fact in present time. 
 (See exercise XV on page 79.) 
 
 Potential is a term, old-fashioned and very much 
 too narrow but still convenient, applied by some to 
 all verb phrases containing the auxiliaries may, can, 
 must, might, could, would, or should, auxiliaries which 
 help the verbs they accompany to express a variety 
 of ideas such as obligation, power, possibility, liberty. 
 
REVIEW (3F ENGLISH GRAMMAR 59 
 
 Many granimarians 1 elieve that there is no potential 
 mood and that the so-cahed potentials are indicatives 
 and subjunctives. It is of more importance that we 
 learn to use may, can, and the rest of the auxiliaries 
 correctly than it is that we settle this disputed point. 
 May, can, would, and should are the four auxiliaries 
 most commonly misused. Can denotes ability to do. 
 May sometimes denotes a wish, as in the sentence 
 May you have a pleasant journey; and sometimes 
 possibility, as in the sentence It may rain] and some- 
 times permission, as in the sentence You may go now. 
 The point to be remembered is this : 
 
 Can denotes ability to do ; may denotes permission. 
 Hence You can go means You are able to go; You 
 may go means / give you permission to go. (See ex- 
 ercise XIX on page 81.) ^ 
 Should is sometimes used to express the idea of 
 duty or obligation, and would to express the idea of 
 accustomed action, as in the sentences We should he 
 just to our enernies and We would hear the swallows 
 chattering in the big chimney whenever the mother bird 
 brought food. But they are used also like shall and 
 will and in a general way follow the same rules, 
 should corresponding to shall, and would to will. This 
 is seen when a sentence in direct discourse is turned 
 into indirect discourse. He said, "I shall be home 
 to-morrov)'' becomes He said that he should be home 
 to-morrow. He said, "I will help pay for the boat'' 
 becomes He said he would help pay for the boat. In a 
 conditional clause, shoidd is used with all three per- 
 
60 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 sons to express futurity and loould with ail tliree per- 
 sons to express volition; but in the principal clause 
 of a conditional sentence, should and loould follow 
 the rules for shcdl and will. 
 
 Simple future: If he should call, I should be 
 glad to see him. 
 
 Volition: If he should need money, T would 
 send him a draft. 
 All this is quite puzzling; but we may simplify mat- 
 ters a little by remembering two rules which cover 
 nearly all troublesome cases : 
 
 I. In indirect discourse use should where shall 
 would be used in direct discourse; use would where 
 will would be used in direct discourse. 
 
 II. In the principal clause of a conditional sentence, 
 use should with the first person and would with the 
 second and third persons to express simple future. 
 Use would with the first person and should with the 
 second and third persons to express voUtional future. 
 (See exercise XVIII on page 81.) 
 
 Infinitives are verb forms that are used like nouns, 
 and participles are verb forms that are used like ad- 
 jectives. They retain the essential idea of the verb 
 from which they are derived; like verbs they have 
 voice and tense; and they may be modified as verbs 
 are modified, and may govern the objective case. 
 At the same time they have the force of nouns and 
 adjectives. 
 ^ The verb always forms the principal part of tlie 
 predicate, stating or asking something concerning the 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 61 
 
 substantive which serves as its subject. The prin- 
 cipal ways in which infinitives and participles are 
 used are illustrated below. Note that while the in- 
 finitive commonl}^ serves as a substantive, the sub- 
 stantive idea is lacking in the last three examples in 
 the first group. The last sentence in the second group 
 shows the participle in what is called the absolute 
 construction. 
 
 1. To give is more blessed than to receive. 
 2. Ask him to wait for us. 3. I purchased this 
 before seeing the others. 4. Winning a battle 
 is not always gaining what one desires. 5. It 
 is never too late to mend. 6. We went to the 
 beach to gather driftwood. 7. It was a victory 
 to he "proud of. 8. I am glad to hear such good 
 news. 
 
 1. There is a familiar adage about lohistling 
 girls. 2. I left him standing by the road. 3. 
 The dog, harking furiously, soon frightened them 
 . away. 4. Having sung till we could sing no more, 
 we covered up the embers and prepared for 
 bed. 5. The bell having rung, we formed in line. 
 
 Simple 
 
 r hence, how, however, now, so, 
 Conjunctive \ then, thence, wlien, whence, 
 
 I where, whither, why, etc. 
 Expletive: there 
 Responsives: yes, no 
 
 r Kinds ■ 
 
 Adverbs 
 
 Forms: positive, comparative, superlative 
 
 How used: To modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
 adverbs; to serve as conjunctions 
 
62 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Adverbs are easily recognized, especially the sim- 
 ple ones indicating time, place, motion, manner, etc. 
 A few are compared like adjectives. 
 
 much, more, most 
 
 soon, sooner, soonest 
 
 quickly, more quickly, most quickly 
 Conjunctive adverbs are so called because they in- 
 troduce subordinate clauses much as relative pro- 
 nouns do, at the same time serving as modifiers. 
 Where have they gone? 
 They have gone ivhere we cannot follow. 
 In the first sentence, where is plainly an adverb. 
 In the second, it serves not only as an adverb but 
 as a conjunction joining They have gone and ive cannot 
 jollow; hence it is a conjunctive adverb. The ex- 
 pletive there, seen in such sentences as There loas 
 mounting in hot haste, is so called because it ^' fills 
 out". Since it stands first, oftentimes, where we 
 naturally expect to find the subject, it is frequently 
 mistaken for the subject and made to govern the 
 verb. Thus we have such errors as There loas four 
 of us; for the thoughtless person assumes that the 
 expletive must be singular and so should be followed 
 by a verb in the singular number. Yes and no, almost 
 always used independently, are not, strictly speaking, 
 adverbs at all, since they modify nothing. 
 
 The following sentences show how adverbs are 
 used : 
 
 1. Go quietly. 2. What could be more beau- 
 tiful! 3. She sleeps 7nost soundly now. 4. He 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 63 
 
 will come lohen we are ready. 5. There are 
 many reasons why we should go. 6. Yes, let us 
 be patient. 
 
 Prepositions 
 
 Kinds: All of the same kind 
 
 Forms: No changes in form 
 
 How used : To connect words and show the re- 
 lation between them 
 
 ' Prepositions form but a small group, a hundred or 
 so, not more than fifty or sixty of which are in com- 
 mon use. All are of the same kind, do the same 
 thing; they introduce phrases, connecting sub- 
 stantives with other words and showing the relation- 
 ship between them. The object of a preposition is in 
 the objective case. When a prepositional phrase 
 modifies a substantive, it is called an adjective phrase; 
 when it is used like an adverb, it is called an ad- 
 verbial phrase. (See exercise III on page 68.) 
 
 Adjective: He wore a badge of blue ribbon. 
 
 Adverbial: They will come in the morning. 
 
 f Kinds: Coordinate, subordinate 
 Conjunctions ■! Forms: No changes in form 
 
 I How used: To connect words, phrases, clauses. 
 
 Conjunctions differ from prepositions in that the 
 former are usually employed to connect clauses, while 
 the latter are always employed to connect single 
 words. When a conjunction is used to connect sin- 
 gle words, the words are in the same construction; 
 that is, they are used alike, are of the same rank. 
 
64 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 The two words joined by a preposition are always of 
 unequal rank : 
 
 The house and the barn were burned. 
 
 The hay was stored in the barn. 
 In the first sentence house and ham are in the same 
 construction; that is, both are subjects of the same 
 verb. Was stored and ham, in the second sentence, 
 are in different constructions; ham modifies ivas 
 stored adverbially. It is not difficult, therefore, to tell 
 whether a given connective is a preposition or a con- 
 junction ; but it is sometimes puzzling to tell whether 
 a conjunction is coordinate or subordinate. Coor- 
 dinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and 
 clauses which have the same grammatical relation; 
 that is, are in the same construction. Subordinate 
 conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses, and are 
 found, therefore, in complex sentences only. There 
 are three kinds of subordinate or dependent clauses: 
 adjective, adverbial, noun. If one can learn to 
 recognize these three kinds, he should have no diffi- 
 culty in distinguishing between the two kinds of con- 
 junctions. A noun clause is used like a noun, an 
 adjective clause is used like an adjective, and an 
 adverbial clause is used like an adverb. The first 
 three illustrations given below contain subordinate 
 conjunctions introducing noun clauses, the remain- 
 ing ones contain subordinate conjunctions introduc- 
 ing adjective and adverbial clauses. 
 
 1. That the steamship is lost is beyond all 
 question. 2. They report that the steamship is 
 
REVIEW OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 65 
 
 lost. 3. It all depends on where the steamship 
 went ashore./- 4:. The steamship struck ivhile the 
 passengers were at dinner. 5. // it had not been 
 foggy, the accident would not have happened. 
 6. Do unto others as you woidd have them do 
 unto you. 7. Return to the place whence you 
 came. 8. There was a time ivhen we could 
 have escaped. 
 All connectives — prepositions, relative pronouns, sim- , 
 pie conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs — are exceed- 1 
 ingly important in that they bind together the various 
 parts of a sentence. (See exercises IV and XXI on 
 pages 69 and 82.) 
 
 Selecting items here and there from the preceding 
 paragraphs, combining and condensing them, we 
 have the following summaiy concerning how words 
 are used in the building of sentences : 
 
 I. Every sentence must have a subject and a predicate, 
 the former naming that concerning which something is 
 asserted or some question asked, the latter asserting or asking 
 something concerning that which the subject names. The 
 vital part of the predicate is always a verb. The vital part 
 of the subject is always a noun or some word or word-group 
 that is used like a noun. 
 
 II. The meaning of a verb may be modified (i) by a noun 
 or pronoun objective, (2) by a predicate noun or adjective 
 qualifying the subject of the verb, (3) by an adverb, an 
 adverbial phrase, or an adverbial clause. The meaning of 
 a noun may be changed (i) by an adjective, (2) by a noun or 
 a pronoun in the possessive case, (3) by a phrase or a clause. 
 An adjective may be modified by an adverb, an adverb by 
 another adverb. 
 
66 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Several of the rules governing person, number, 
 gender, and case have been given or implied in earlier 
 paragraphs. Supplementing these we have the 
 following : 
 
 I. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case. 
 II. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. 
 
 III. A noun or pronoun the object, direct or indirect, of a 
 
 verb is in the objective case. 
 
 IV. A predicate noun or pronoun agrees in case with the 
 
 subject it qualifies. 
 V . A word in apposition with another word agrees with it 
 
 in case. 
 VI. A noun or pronoun governed by a preposition is in the 
 
 objective case. 
 VII. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, num- 
 ber, and gender. 
 VIII. A noun or pronoun with an appositive adjective or its 
 equivalent is sometimes used in the nominative case 
 absolutely. 
 
EXERCISES 
 
 I. Point out the subject of each sentence. If the sub- 
 ject is made up of more than one word, analyze it, show- 
 ing how the bare subject is expanded. How many kinds 
 of modifiers do you find? 
 
 I, Clouds will intervene. 2. Honor and shame from 
 no condition rise. 3. A pleasing countenance is a silent 
 recommendation. 4. A fool's bolt is soon shot. 5. 
 The proof of the pudding is in the eating. 6. What 
 cannot be cured must be endured. 7. He who arrives 
 first at the mill should first have his grist. 8. To be 
 poor without being free is the worst state into which 
 man can fall. 9. In the lexicon of youth, which fate 
 reserves for a bright manhood, there is no such word 
 as fail. 10. It is better to fall from the window than 
 from the roof. 11. Count not your chickens before they 
 are hatched. 12. Avarice, mother of all wickedness, 
 always thirsty for more, opens wide her jaws for gold. 
 
 13. The Sunflower, thinking 'twas for him foul shame 
 To nap by daylight, strove t'excuse the blame; 
 It was not sleep that made him nod, he said, 
 But too great weight and largeness of his head. 
 
 — Cowley. 
 
 II. Point out the predicate of each sentence. If the 
 verb is modified, analyze the predicate, showing how it 
 
 67 
 
68 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 is expanded. How many kinds of modifiers do you 
 find? 
 
 1. Time flies. 2. Make haste slowly. 3. Light gains 
 make a heavy purse. 4. A thing of beauty is a joy for- 
 ever. 5. At night all cats are gray. 6. Strike while 
 the iron is hot. 7. Give us this day our daily bread. 
 8. Young folks tell what they do, old ones what they 
 have done, and fools what they intend to do. 9. A 
 soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous words 
 stir up anger. 10. A bad workman always quarrels 
 with his tools. 11. When the fox is asleep, nothing 
 falls into his mouth. 12. All is not gold that glitters. 
 13. When beechen buds begin to swell. 
 
 And woods the l)luebird's warble know. 
 The yellow violet's modest bell 
 
 Peeps from the last year's leaves below. 
 
 — Bryant. 
 
 III. Point out the phrases and tell what each one 
 modifies. Analyze each phrase. How many kinds do 
 you find? 
 
 1. A hare is not caught by a drum. 2. Look not a 
 gift-horse in the mouth. 3. It is necessary to wait for 
 the lame man. 4. A sparrow in the hand is better than 
 a goose in the wing. 5. Unto the pure all things are 
 pure. 6. Burning the candle at both ends is folly. 7. 
 To be or not to be — that is the question. 8. It is more 
 blessed to give than to receive. 9. He who follows two 
 hares is sure to catch neither. 10. We all have suffi- 
 cif^nt strength to bear the misfortunes of others. 11. 
 Frightening a bird is not the way to catch it. 12. It is 
 great folly to think of being wise alone. 13. Please ask 
 
EXERCISES 69 
 
 him to remain a minute. 14. By following the trail we 
 easily found the cabin. 15. I do not enjoy benig left 
 alone 16 The brook, winding in and out, at length 
 reaches the river. 17. All hope having been abandoned . 
 the boat was allowed to drift. 18. Having been warned 
 of their danger, the girls turned back. 19. The snow, 
 sweeping across the open fields, piled high agamst the 
 cabin. 20. Many a tale is lost in telhng. 
 21. And then there w^as a little isle 
 Which in my very face did smile. 
 
 The only one in view; 
 A small green isle, it seemed no more. 
 Scarce broader than my dungeon door. 
 But in it there were three tall trees. 
 And o'er it blew the mountain breeze, 
 And by it there were waters flowing. 
 And on it there were young flowers growing 
 Of gentle breath and hue— Byron. 
 
 IV Point out and analyze each clause. Which ones 
 are subordinate? Which of the subordinate clauses are 
 substantive? adjective? adverbial? 
 
 1 Adversity makes men and prosperity makes mon- 
 sters 2 He who has good health is rich, though he 
 may not know it. 3. What is well done is twice done 
 4 Go where glory waits. 5. Ask what ye will and it 
 shall be granted. 6. Honor the old, instruct the young 
 consult the wise, and bear with the foolish. 7. He that 
 gathereth in summer is a wise son; but he that sleepeth 
 in harvest is a son that causeth shame. 8. If the sky 
 falls, we shall catch larks. 9. One does not always 
 know who may be trusted. 10. Tell me what you read 
 
70 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 and I will tell you what you are. 11. All philosophy, 
 says Epictetus, lies in the two .words sustain and ab- 
 stain. 12. We must expect to work for what we get. 
 13. Where no wood is, there the fire goeth out. 14. 
 Much may be made of a Scotchman, Johnson once re- 
 marked, if he be caught young. 15. Make hay while 
 the sun shines. 16. Keep thy shop and thy shop will 
 keep thee. 17. Let another man praise thee, and not 
 thine own mouth; a stranger, and not thine own hps. 
 
 18. For of all sad words of tongue or pen. 
 
 The saddest are these: '^It might have been.'* 
 
 — Whittier. 
 
 19. Breathes there the man with soul so dead, 
 Who never to himself hath said, 
 
 "This is my own — my native land!" — Scott. 
 
 V. Attention has been called to the fact that many 
 words are used now as one part of speech, now as an- 
 other. Note carefully each italicized word in the sen- 
 tences below. What duty does it perform? What part 
 of speech is it? What other part of speech may it be 
 at times? 
 
 1. Good, quickly, with, or, himself, and laughed are 
 common words. 2. Three cheers for the red, white, and 
 hlue\ 3. The French were victorious. 4. The captain 
 made a home run. 5. Six of the boys consented. 6. 
 Waiting is tiresome, even in this cool waiting-room. 7. 
 To go is better than to perish. 8. The tongue of the 
 just is as choice silver. 9. Be just to your enemies. 
 10. It called, just then, a second time. 11. They say 
 he lives in a glass house. 12. The imiidering clouds go 
 by. 13. Why do you drive so fasti 14. Oh, young 
 
EXERCISES 71 
 
 Lochinvar is come out of the West. 15. Call me early, 
 for I must take an early train. 16. The under part next 
 received attention. 17. The last shall be first. 18. He 
 pitched an in curve. 19. He must be there by 7iow. 
 20. Wait till the clouds roll by. 21. Yonder shepherd 
 beckons. 22. Look yonder I 23. Try hard to break 
 this hard stone. 24. Good-bye, proud world, I'm going 
 home. 25. Please black the stove. 26. The public 
 made known their wishes. 27. We walked about the 
 garden. 28. The wind blew so strong that they turned 
 about and walked the other uny. 29. Who called urith- 
 in't 30. We shall be there loithin an hour. 31. I am 
 about through. 32. Since then, we have been careful to 
 lock the door. 33. Where shall you house your canoe, 
 this winter? 34. The culprit was brought before the 
 judge. 35. The judge had never seen him before. 36. 
 He escaped before he had served his sentence. 37. Do 
 not remain out after dark. 38. The after effects were 
 unpleasant. 39. We purchased a to let sign. 40. I 
 will come after I have finished my letter. 41. Slow up, 
 please! 42. That is too bad. 43. That boy is an 
 athlete. 44. The errand that we were to do is now un- 
 necessary. 45. I think that we may go now. 46. Now 
 what part of speech is the word that'i 47. My ship 
 rides at anchor. 48. This is mine. 49. This boy was 
 called Leonidas. 50. Let each take one. 51. Each 
 girl may take two. 52. Whose name was mentioned 
 firsfi 53. The one whose name is called first must go. 
 54. Who calls? 55. He goes last who once was first. 
 56. Why are you so quiet? 57. The train was late, so 
 we went for a walk. 58. When shall their glory fade! 
 59. When the cats are away, the mice will play. 60. 
 
72 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Why should we complain. 61. He asked why we were 
 so merry. 62. Thank her for her kindness. 63. We 
 have waited since eleven. 64. Since we must remain, 
 let us make the best of it. 65. Where are the reapers? 
 66. Go where glory waits. 67. The stag at eve had 
 drunk his fill 68. We lost the way and had to foot it 
 home. 
 
 VI. Write the plural forms of ally, alley, volley, val- 
 ley, cry, lady, folly, fairy, gypsy, reply, turkey, pulley, 
 galley, soliloquy, journey, attorney, chimney, colloquy, 
 caddy, chief, dwarf, loaf, scarf, staff, cloth, wife, self, 
 himself, myself, gulf, calf, roof, leaf, proof, motto, 
 buffalo, domino, dynamo, cargo, veto, hero, portico, 
 zero, potato, piano, echo, solo, tomato, alumna, alumnus, 
 larva, formula, focus, nebula, phenomenon, stratum, 
 bacterium, medium, erratum, dictum, oasis, antithesis, 
 thesis, axis, analysis, crisis, parenthesis, hypothesis, 
 corps, tableau, beau, genus, radius, Norman, Northman, 
 Frenchman, German, merchantman, daughter-in-law, 
 bill-of-fare, hanger-on, handful, James, Heiuy, Mary, 
 Dr. Jones, Miss Stone, Mrs. Grundy, Mr. Grundy, Master 
 Grundy, 6, m, +. 
 
 VII. Write the singular possessive forms of ally, alley, 
 fairy, caddy, oasis, daughter-in-law, Mr. Grundy, I, you, 
 he, she, it, who, Dickens, Jones, Wiggs, Themistocles, 
 the King of England, Dickens and Thackeray (joint 
 possession), Edward Clark, Esq., Byron and Scott 
 (individual possession), Addison or Steele (as in the 
 
 sentence This is or ), Keats, Holmes, 
 
 Clarke the hardware merchant. 
 
EXERCISES 73 
 
 Write the plural possessive form of ally, alley, lady, 
 fairy, caddy, hero, oasis, corps, beau, calf, daughter-in- 
 law, they, Henry, Miss Stone, Jones, Wiggs, Dickens, 
 King of Sweden. 
 
 Which of the two forms enclosed in parenthesis is 
 correct? 1. Think of (me, my) asking such a question! 
 2. The (train, train's) being late resulted in (them, their) 
 faihng to make connections. 3. There is some talk of 
 (Mr. Taylor's, Mr. Taylor) being made president. 4. 
 What sense is there in a (boy, boy's) losing his temper! 
 
 5. I never heard of (him, his) doing anything cowardly. 
 
 VIII. The sentences below illustrate common errors 
 in the use of pronouns and pronominal adjectives. 
 Correct the errors, in each case telling why the pronoun 
 as used is incorrect. 
 
 1. The contrast between he and Macbeth is marked. 
 2. Whom do they think I am? 3. Let's see who'll get 
 there first, you or me. 4. If I were him, I'd accept the 
 offer. 5. Everyone except she applauded the speaker. 
 
 6. Yourself and your family are invited to attend our 
 opening Friday evening. 7. Who is you're friend? 8. 
 We have been waiting this two hours. 9. Who'se to 
 blame? 10. They must look out for theirselves. 11. 
 Let he who standeth take heed lest he fall. 12. I am 
 sure it was them. 13. He shot hisself accidentally. 
 14. Who are you going to invite? 15. I think it's wing 
 is broken. 16. The weather will not permit of me stay- 
 ing out late. 17. Please pass me some of them grapes. 
 18. I know who I like and who I don't like better than 
 him. 19. He was less clumsy than myself. 20. This 
 isn't ourn; it must be theirn. 21. The three Clarke 
 
74 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 boys and myself went in the automobile. 22. It must 
 have been us you saw. 23. There is no use in me trying 
 for the prize. 24. They called upon a man whom they 
 thought would surely know all about it. 25. I wonder 
 who he means. 26. It lies between you and I. 27. 
 Why should we not enjoy what is our's? 28. The boat 
 righted it's self instantly. 29. He allowed my brother 
 and I to take his gun. 30. I think you are as tall as 
 her. 31. Here is the gentleman who you wished to see. 
 
 32. Between you and I, the game was not won fairly. 
 
 33. Do you like these kind better? 34. I do not know 
 who to turn to. 35. He is the one who I consider the 
 strongest candidate. 36. Us girls have great larks. 37. 
 I thought you said their were good boats. Are these 
 them? 38. Neither John nor Arthur brought their 
 lunch. 39. No one should allow themselves to be de- 
 ceived. 40. When any one is going camping, they 
 should take warm clothing. 
 
 IX. The simplest rule in sentence-building, and un- 
 questionably the rule most frequently violated, states 
 that a verb should agree with its subject in person and 
 number. He don't, you uns, they was, and / says are 
 expressions commonly used even by those who think 
 that they speak correctly. Point out the bare subject 
 of each of the following sentences. Point out the bare 
 predicate. Point out the error in agreement. Try to 
 give a clear explanation of how, in all prol^ability, the 
 error came about. Was it due to failure to see that 
 the subject was a collective noun or the plural form 
 of a foreign term? Did the writer assume that tJiere, 
 coming immediately before the verb, was a substantive 
 
EXERCISES 75 
 
 in the singular number? Did he mistake for the subject 
 some noun standing nearer the verb than the real sub- 
 ject? Did he forget that ivith is a preposition, not a 
 conjunction? 
 
 1. In back of the grapes was two pineapples. 2. 
 There was so many attending the game that we could 
 not get a good seat. 3. If each of the boys are closely 
 watched, the trick will soon be apparent. 4. First the 
 girl's name is given, then follows her age and birthplace. 
 5. This house don't look quite as old-fashioned as the 
 other. 6. Under these was two basket-balls and a pair 
 of boxing-gloves. 7. On the north side is a door and 
 two windows. 8. He don't know any better than to 
 say they aint\ 9. There was but two girls present. 10. 
 The phenomena was most singular. 11. The papers 
 tell where and when there is to be bargain sales. 12. 
 Two of us remained at home, so there was but two to 
 go in the boat. 13. The father with his three sons were 
 saved. 14. Every one of the articles were sold. 15. 
 There's no two ways about it! 16. Tales of a Wayside 
 Inn were written by Longfellow. 17. Fifteen minutes 
 were soon gone. 18. No one Ijut Edward and George 
 were absent. 19. It happened when you was away. 
 20. More than one has made the same mistake. 21. 
 Quickness as well as strength are needed. 22. A hun- 
 dred feet of hose were rapidly paid out. 23. To the 
 captain and the manager of the team are due most of 
 the credit. 24. We was having the time of our lives. 
 25. Honesty, as well as cleverness, count. 26. Two- 
 thirds of the roof were shingled before the rain fell. 27. 
 My favorite study are mathematics. 28. The binding 
 of the books were insecure. 29. Home, with all its 
 
76 
 
 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 many comforts, were soon forgotten. 30. I says 
 ''walk"; he says ''ride". 31. On the platform even 
 with the sill is three cages. 32. Thirty thousand dollars 
 were paid for the mansion. 33. Each of the sticks were 
 given a coat of walnut stain. 34. Was you surprised to 
 see your mother? 35. Which of the two boys were 
 John? 36. It will clear before eleven; you see if it 
 don't. 
 
 X. Learn the following table so thoroughly that if a 
 principal part of any verb be given you can without 
 hesitation supply the remaining parts. Words starred 
 are of the new or weak conjugation. 
 
 arise 
 
 arose 
 
 arisen 
 
 awake 
 
 awoke 
 
 awaked 
 
 bear 
 
 bore or 
 
 born or 
 
 beat 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten 
 
 
 bare 
 
 borne 
 
 begin 
 
 began 
 
 begun 
 
 bend * 
 
 bent 
 
 bent 
 
 bid 
 
 bade or 
 
 bidden 
 
 bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten 
 
 
 bid 
 
 
 break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken 
 
 bring * 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come 
 
 cost * 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 drunk 
 
 drown * 
 
 drowned 
 
 drowned 
 
 eat 
 
 ate or eat 
 
 ; eaten 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought 
 
 flee* 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung 
 
 flow* 
 
 flowed 
 
 flowed 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown 
 
 forbid 
 
 forbade 
 
 forbidder 
 
 I forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten 
 
 freeze 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen 
 
 give 
 
 gave 
 
 given 
 
 go 
 
 went 
 
 gone 
 
 grow 
 
 grew 
 
 grown 
 
 hear* 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 
 
 hit* 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 
 
 hurt* 
 
 hurt 
 
 hyrt 
 
 knit * 
 
 knit 
 
 knit 
 
 lay* 
 
 laid 
 
 lain 
 
 lead * 
 
 led 
 
 led 
 
 leap * 
 
 leapt 
 
 leapt 
 
 let* 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lain 
 
 lie* 
 
 lied 
 
 lied 
 

 
 EXERCISES 
 
 
 7 
 
 loose * 
 
 loosed 
 
 loosed 
 
 lose* 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 
 
 put* 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 rid* 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 run 
 
 ran 
 
 run 
 
 see 
 
 saw 
 
 seen 
 
 set * 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 shrink * 
 
 shrank 
 
 shrunk 
 
 sing 
 
 sang 
 
 sung 
 
 sit 
 
 sat 
 
 sat 
 
 slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 sling 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 speak 
 
 spoke 
 
 spoken 
 
 spring 
 
 sprang 
 
 sprung 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 string 
 
 strung 
 
 strung 
 
 swear 
 
 swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 swim 
 
 swam 
 
 swum 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn 
 
 think * 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown 
 
 wake 
 
 waked * 
 
 waked * 
 
 wear 
 
 wore 
 
 worn 
 
 
 or woke 
 
 
 wet* 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 
 
 wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 wrung 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 XI. Notice that there are no such forms as brung, 
 busted, costed, drowndedj growed, hitted, hurted, runned, 
 swored, sivimmed, wored. Write sentences in which the 
 past tense and past participle forms of the following 
 verbs are used: bring, burst, cost, drown,' grow, hit, 
 hurt, run, wear, swim, swear. 
 
 XII. Give the active and passive past perfect of 
 beat; the active past, simple and progressive forms, of 
 begin; the passive past progressive of bite; all the in- 
 finitives and participles of bring; the active past of 
 come, eat, and fling; the passive past progressive of hear; 
 the active past progressive of lie (to recline); the active 
 potential past of see; the active present and past sub- 
 junctive of sing; the participles of swim; the active 
 present progressive of slay; the passive present pro- 
 gressive of slay; the active simple future of write. Give 
 a synopsis (all first person forms in all moods and tenses, 
 all imperative, infinitive, and participial forms) of love. 
 
78 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Conjugate work in the active progressive. Conjugate in 
 full the verb help. 
 
 XIII. Which of the verbs found in Exercise X are 
 always used transitively? intransitively? Which may 
 be used either way? 
 
 XIV. Lie and sit are intransitive verbs; lay and set 
 are transitive. Supply the correct forms in the follow- 
 ing sentences: 
 
 1. The tree has there many years. 2. Let the 
 
 book where it is. 3. I think I have here 
 
 long enough. 4. We at anchor till the storm 
 
 blew over. 5. In which direction does our camp 
 
 ? 6. The grounds were beautifully out. 
 
 7. When the culprits were caught, they the 
 
 blame on others. 8. Speckle has an egg in the 
 
 box that by the stable door. 9. I think the 
 
 town now to the east. 10. Will you not 
 
 down? 11. He said that he would — down for a 
 
 while; so we his blankets in the shade. 12. 
 
 His only fault, they said, in the one word am- 
 bition. 13. Where the tree falleth, there must it 
 
 1. He was in the room. 2. We had 
 
 up most of the night. 3. After the sun had 
 
 the air grew chilly. 4. Please down 
 
 minute. 5. After we had there a long time, the 
 
 door opened. 6. The house, he said, back a 
 
 little from the street. 7. Old wives a-sunning . 
 
 8. The little bird at his door in the sun. 
 
EXERCISES 79 
 
 XV. Complete the following sentences by inserting 
 was and were where needed, in each case giving a reason 
 for your choice. Remember that the indicative is used 
 to denote simple condition in past time, the subjunctive 
 were to denote a mere supposition or to present a state 
 of affairs contrary to fact. 
 
 1. We looked to see if it still raining. 2. If 
 
 he coming, he would be here now. 3. If he 
 
 tardy, he should bring an excuse. 4. If I 
 
 you, I should start at once. 5. Would that it 
 
 true! 6. If he asked, he would come. 
 
 7. If he asked, I knew nothing of it. 8. I wish 
 
 that I with you. 9. If he strong, w^e 
 
 should take him with us. 10. If it true then, it 
 
 must be true now. 11. He would seem stern ■ — 
 
 it not for a twinkle in his eye. 12. If it he, I 
 
 failed to recognize him. 13. Suppose you asked 
 
 to go; what should you say? 14. We used the cottage 
 
 as freely as if it our own. 15. Why, man, if the 
 
 river — dry, I am able to fill it with my tears; if 
 
 the wind down, I could drive the boat with my 
 
 sighs. 
 
 16. Love Virtue; she alone is free. 
 
 She can teach you how to climb 
 
 Higher than the spiry chime; 
 
 Or, if Virtue feeble — — ^ — ," 
 
 Heaven itself would stoop to her. — Milton. 
 
 XVI. Supply shall or will, whichever is correct, in 
 each of the following sentences: 
 
 1. I hope to see you often. 2. I am deter- 
 mined that he have a pleasant time. 3. If you 
 
80 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 call at eight, you find me at home. 4. 
 
 I be greatly obliged if you bring the 
 
 books with you. 5. We know that we have to 
 
 work hard, but we think it do us no harm. 6. 
 
 John is determined that he be first. 7. John 
 
 tells me that he be able to join the party.* 8. 
 
 He writes that he be sixteen to-morrow. 9. If 
 
 you go, I want to go too. 10. I think we 
 
 be asked to remain. 11. The weather forecaster says 
 
 that we have a fair day to-morrow. 12. I think 
 
 ^Q see land before night. 13. you be 
 
 able to accompany us? 14. When we reach 
 
 Dallas? 15. we have time to purchase tickets? 
 
 16. What I do if it rains? 17. you be 
 
 sorry to see the snow come? 18. How I know 
 
 where to go? 19. we be permitted to take 
 
 books home? 20. there be a bonfire, do you 
 
 think? 21. they know which road to take? 
 
 XVII. Show very clearly that the meaning of each of 
 the following sentences changes according as shall or 
 mill is supplied. 
 
 1. you attend the concert? 2. We 
 
 not disappoint you. 3. There be no laughter. 
 
 4. they wait for us? 5. He read the 
 
 book. 6. he provide lunch? 7. I be 
 
 king. 8. I drown, if you do not help me. 9. 
 
 He drown, if you do not help him. 10. You 
 
 drown, if no one helps you. 11. We 
 
 * Where shall would be used in direct discourse, use shall in 
 indirect discourse; where ivill would be used, use will in the 
 indirect. 
 
EXERCISES 81 
 
 reach New York before eight. 12. I contribute 
 
 ten dollars. 13. -^-^ — you try for honors? 14. He 
 reports that the train wait for us. 
 
 XVIII. SupjDly should and would where the sense 
 requires in the following sentences: 
 
 1. I like to help you, and I if I could. 
 
 2. I hoped that I ^^-— - not be asked. 3. I know I 
 
 enjoy golf, but I think I prefer tennis. 
 
 4. I -^ — be afraid to ride such a spirited horse. 5. 
 
 If you will permit me, I like to add a word. 6. 
 
 If you rescued the crew, you be rewarded. 7. 
 
 He said that I go if there was room. 8. He 
 
 asked if I take him too. 9. I be sorry to 
 
 see him fail. 10. I send him aid if I thought he 
 
 would accept it. 11. What we do with a white 
 
 elephant if we had one? 12. I thought I fail. 
 
 13. If you speak to him, he give you a 
 
 courteous answer. 14. Had I been in his position, I 
 
 have done the same. 15. We planned that he 
 
 — go by train. 16. If you be in town, we 
 
 be pleased to have you call. 17. He promised 
 
 that the next lesson — be better prepared. 18. 
 
 He thought that he find it. 19. We returned it 
 
 lest he -^ think it had been stolen. 20. He thought 
 
 he ^^-^^^ be forced to tell the secret, in spite of all he 
 
 could do. 21. Had we delayed a moment longer, we 
 have lost everything. 
 
 XIX. Show clearly that each sentence changes in 
 meaning according as may or can is supplied: 
 
 1. I help you? 2. we tell all that we 
 
82 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 know? 3. we not find our way back to the 
 
 boat? 4. He says you go. 5. we have 
 
 the pleasure of your company? 6. What more 
 
 be done? 7. This not be done; it is against the 
 
 rules. 
 
 8. Now my task is lightly done, 
 I — fly and I run. 
 
 XX. Tell very clearly why each of the following sen- 
 tences is incorrect: 
 
 1. He thinks he must of left it in the train. 2. This 
 was the first time I was ever elected to office. 3. I 
 should be pleased if he will call at my home. 4. Do 
 you know when he come to town? 5. We done the best 
 we could. 6. They, thinking him to have been with 
 the others, did not worry about his absence. 7. You 
 had ought to have seen us! 8. It was enough to have 
 discouraged any one. 9. I intended to have written 
 long ago. 10. If I permit you to go, I should have to 
 ask you to return before nine. 11. I am not sure where 
 they went, but I think they may have went shopping. 
 12. They must have forgot all about it. 13. When the 
 storm broke, we all run for shelter. 14. Probably they 
 would have drove on for another hour, had not darkness 
 overtaken them. 15. We were to have sailed yesterday. 
 16. Don't it look dark! 
 
 XXI. Point out the connectives and tell what part 
 of speech each connective is. Which ones do double 
 duty, serving not only as connectives but as modifiers 
 or substantives? Which of the conjunctions are co- 
 ordinate and which are subordinate? 
 
EXERCISES 83 
 
 1. He who hesitates is lost. 2. We sailed above the 
 clouds. 3. Time and tide wait for no man. 4. Neither 
 this nor that is precisely what I wish; but I will take a 
 little of each unless you can show me something else. 
 5. Notwithstanding the weight of the anchor, the yacht 
 continued to drift. 6. Let him who standeth take heed 
 lest he fall. 7. Underneath his faults were virtues little 
 dreamed of. 8. Let us accept whatever comes and be 
 of good cheer. 9. Although we have failed twice, a 
 third time we may succeed. 10. Before breakfast, take 
 a brisk walk through the fields. IL The paths of glory 
 lead but to the grave. 12. I go where the winds take 
 me. 13. Do you know why the harebell hangs its head? 
 14. We do not know whether to go or to remain; but 
 since it matters little which we do, we will decide the 
 matter by lot. 15. If thou faint in the day of adversity, 
 thy strength is small. 16. Can you imagine what has 
 happened that the train is so late? 17. Though he fall, 
 he shall not be utterly cast down. 18. I do not see how 
 we could have missed our way. 19. Between the hills 
 lay a peaceful valley through which ran a sober little 
 stream. 20. The undertaking is hazardous; still all 
 may go well provided we are careful. 21. Notwith- 
 standing all that has been said, the prisoner is blame- 
 less. 22. Throughout the night came cries of distress 
 from many quarters. 23. All except honor is lost. 
 24. Therefore, since the whole is equal to the sum of all 
 its parts, the angle A equals the angle B. 25. Wait 
 till you have heard both sides. 
 
 XXII. Point out the errors in the following sentences: 
 1. We had neither food or shelter. 2. I got this book 
 
84 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 off of James. 3. The reason we did this was because 
 we knew no better. 4. 1 am not sure but what we had 
 better go now. 5. We arrived at about six in the 
 evening. 6. He says he don't want no dinner. 7. We 
 have no money nor no means of procuring it. 8. He 
 looks like he was lame. 9. How nicely this tastes! 
 10. He has an itaUan accent. 11. Can you not make 
 it a Httle rounder at the top and squarer at the base? 
 And make this edge a Uttle straighter. 12. It will not 
 rain before noon, I don't think, 13. We reached shore 
 easy enough. 14. He returned in a very different spirit 
 than he once had. 15. Would he not comply to your 
 wishes? 16. No sooner had she said this when she be- 
 gan to cry. 17. Strike out boldly like me! 18. This 
 is very different than what we expected. 19. It was 
 not as bad as we expected. 20. Like as not we'll meet 
 them. 21. This is very pretty, but I think the other 
 more preferable. 22. Any one would have done the same 
 had he been frightened like John was. 23. As quick as 
 the twigs kindle, put on the heavier wood. 24. Now 
 pour enough water in the pan to cover the dishes. 25. 
 These kind are hard to catch. 26. A dollar doesn't 
 last long when divided between six hungry boys. 27. 
 I don't know as I can say much more, gentlemen. 28. 
 I shall be unable to go without I get my lessons first. 
 29. By eight we were near starved. 30. Scarcely had 
 we fallen asleep than the fire-bell began to ring. 
 
 XXIII. Analyzing a sentence means taking it to 
 pieces and pointing out how its parts are related. First 
 we should tell whether the sentence is simple, com- 
 pound, or complex. If it is compound, the clauses 
 
EXERCISES 85 
 
 should be pointed out and the word or words connecting 
 them; if complex, the principal clause should be pointed 
 out first, then the subordinate members. Next we 
 should analyze each clause, pointing out subject and 
 predicate and the modifiers of each. Analyze the sen- 
 tences in exercises I, II, III, IV, and XXI. 
 
 XXIV. Parsing a word means telUng (1) what part 
 of speech it is, (2) what inflected form it represents, (3) 
 how it is used, (4) what rule it obeys. The things to 
 be told of the different parts of speech are as 
 follows: 
 y Noun: Kind (common or proper), number, gender, 
 case, how used, rule. 
 
 Pronoun: Kind (personal, relative, demonstrative, 
 interrogative, or indefinite), antecedent if the pronoun 
 is a relative, gender if it is a personal pronoun, person if 
 it is a personal or relative pronoun, number, case, how 
 used, rule. 
 
 Adjective: Kind (article, numeral, pronominal; com- 
 mon or proper), degree if the adjective can be com- 
 pared, how used. 
 
 Verb: Kind (transitive or intransitive), conjugation 
 (old or new), principal parts, voice, mode, tense, person, 
 number, rule. 
 
 Adverb: Kind (simple, conjunctive, expletive, re- 
 sponsive), degree if the adverb can be compared, how 
 used. 
 
 Preposition : The word it governs, the words between 
 which it shows relation. 
 
 Conjunction: Kind (coordinate or subordinate), the 
 words, phrases or clauses it connects. 
 
86 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 Interjection : Definition. 
 — Infinitive or Participle : To what verb it belongs, 
 voice, tense, how used. 
 
 Parse each word found in exercises I, II, III, IV, 
 and XXL 
 
 XXV. Analyze the following sentences and parse 
 each word: 
 
 1. Geography explains history. 2. Death lays his 
 icy hands on kings. 3. Unto the pure all things are 
 pure. 4. And when his armour-bearer saw that Saul 
 was dead, he fell likewise on the sword and died. 5. 
 Heaven lies about us in our infancy. 6. A man with- 
 out a sense of humor, some one has said, is occasionally 
 to be respected, often to be feared, and nearly always 
 to be avoided. 7. Facts in the mind, says Sir Oliver 
 Lodge, are not dead things in a portmanteau; they are 
 Uve things in a pond. 8. Truth makes all things plain. 
 9. Patience is bitter but its fruit is sweet. 10. A good 
 name is better than a girdle of gold. 11. Labor rids us 
 of three great evils: tediousness, vice, and poverty. 
 12. In vain do you lead the ox to the water, if he is not 
 thirsty. 13. Many generations have come and gone 
 since the little Mayflower lay rocking in yonder bay, 
 with the Pilgrim mothers and sisters looking out wist- 
 fully over the then lonely waters, and the children, 
 cooped up for many a weary week, asking when at last 
 they would be put on shore. 14. A wise man thinks 
 before he speaks; but a fool speaks and then thinks of 
 what he has been saying. 15. Disputes would not con- 
 tinue so long, if the wrong lay but on one side. 16. It 
 avails little to know what ought to be done, if you do 
 
EXERCISES 87 
 
 not know how it is to be done. 17. The most original 
 modern authors, says Goethe, are not so because they 
 advance what is new, but simply because they know 
 how to put what they have to say, as if it had never 
 been said before. 18. As soon as the house was full 
 and the candles lighted, my old friend stood up and 
 looked about him with that pleasure which a mind sea- 
 soned with humanity naturally feels in itself at the sight 
 of a multitude of people who seem pleased with one an- 
 other and partake of the same common enjoyment. 
 19. We remain shackled by timidity till we have learned 
 to speak with propriety. 20. The earth opens her bosom 
 to receive impartially the beggar and the prince. 21. 
 I know not what course others may take; but as for me 
 give me liberty or give me death! 22. The planter, who 
 is man sent out into the field to gather food, is seldom 
 cheered by any idea of the true dignity of his ministry. 
 He sees his bushel and his cart and nothing beyond, and 
 sinks into the farmer instead of the man on the farm. 
 23. It is a pleasing sight, of a Sunday morning, when 
 the bell is sending its sober melody across the quiet 
 fields, to behold the peasantry in their best finery, with 
 ruddy faces and modest cheerfulness, thronging tran- 
 quilly along the green lanes to church; but it is still 
 more pleasing to see them in the evenings, gathered 
 about their cottage doors and appearing to exult in the 
 humble comforts and embellishments which their own 
 hands have spread around them. 24. After these 
 words, the dragon, awful monster, flashing with blaz- 
 ing flames, came on all wroth a second time to meet his 
 hated foemen. 
 
88 WORDS AND SENTENCES 
 
 XXVI. Analyze the following sentences and parse 
 
 each word: 
 
 1. The moon was afloat 
 
 Like a golden boat 
 On the sea-blue depths of the sky 
 I When the miller of Dee 
 
 With his children three 
 On his fat, red horse rode by. 
 2 Who lacks the art to shape his thought, I hold, 
 Were little poorer if he lacked the thought. 
 
 — Aldrich. 
 
 3. The evil that men do lives after them; 
 The good is oft interred with their bones. 
 
 — Shakespeare. 
 
 4. Errors, like straws, upon the surface flow; 
 
 He who would search for pearls must dive below. 
 
 — Dryden. 
 
 5. The stars look very cold about the sky, 
 
 And I have many miles on foot to fare. — Keats. 
 
 6. I read whatever bards have sung 
 
 Of lands beyond the sea; 
 And the bright days w^hen I was young 
 Come thronging back to me. — LongfelloWo 
 
 7. In Xanadu did Kubla Khan 
 
 A stately pleasure-dome decree 
 Where Alph, the sacred river, ran 
 Through caverns measureless to man 
 
 Down to a sunless sea. — Coleridge. 
 
 8. In the moonlight the shepherds, 
 
 Soft lulled by the rills. 
 Lie wrapt in their blankets. 
 Asleep on the hills. — Arnold. 
 
EXERCiSES ,,,;,,, 89 
 
 9. Yonder in the heather' tfiere^s a bed for sleeping, 
 Drink for one athirst, ripe blackberries to eat; 
 Yonder in the sun the merry hares go leaping, 
 And the pool is clear for travel-weary feet. 
 
 — Ada Smith. 
 
 10. The hare limped trembhng through the frozen 
 
 grass; 
 And silent was the flock in woolly fold; 
 Numb were the Beadsman's fingers while he told 
 His rosary, and while his frosted breath, 
 Like pious incense from a censer old. 
 Seemed taking flight for heaven, without a death, 
 Past the sweet Virgin's picture, while his prayer 
 
 he saith. — Keats. 
 
 11. While you converse with lords and dukes, 
 I have their betters here — my books; 
 Fixed in an elbow-chair at ease, 
 
 I choose companions as I please. 
 
 I'd rather have one single shelf 
 
 Than all my friends, except yourself; 
 
 For, after all that can be said. 
 
 Our best acquaintances are the dead. — Sheridan. 
 
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