',j*HJ«*S*to«»<.i' tftfWWft ^ «», ** v **, «l v * j* t j f /"> ? f nill/LiOOiu l\fJlUi\lvni lllatyill Or i t\ni . «HM«mMMIOiJCK:MMIi'Xli:K'- f f^ !£/ 1 -^.r.wirwwiTiinr i iTtni * 3> UBR4RY UNIVERSITY OF CAUFOftNM WErc&Diojr IIBB, pa fc B N «* | OF RLEM A.D. 800 ^ w School History OP FRANCE. Illustrated with Numerous Engravings and Maps. By JOHN J. ANDERSON, Ph.D., Author op a " Grammar School History op the United States," a " Pic tgrial, School History op the United States," a " Manual op General History," a " School History op England," etc., ETC. NEW YORK : Mayhard, Merrill, & Co., Publishers, 43, 45 & 47 East Tenth St. 1893. Anderson's Historical Series. A Junior Class History of the United States. Illustrated with hundreds of portraits, views, maps, etc. 306 pages. 16ino. A New Grammar School History of the United States. Sup- plemented by maps, engravings, chronological summaries, tabulated analyses, review questions, appendix, etc. 360 pages. 12mo. A Grammar School History of the United States. Anno- tated ; and illustrated with numerous portraits and views, and with more than forty maps, many of which are colored. 340 pages. 16mo. A Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully Illus- trated with maps, portraits, vignettes, etc. 439 pages. 12mo. A Popular School History of the United States, in which are inserted, as a part of the narrative, selections from the writings of eminent American historians, and other American writers of note. Fully illustrated with maps, colored and plain; portraits, views, etc. 381 pages. 12mo. A Manual of General History. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with beautifully colored maps showing the changes in the political divisions of the world, and giving the location of important places. 500 pages. 12mo. A New Manual of General History, with particular attention to Ancient and Modern Civilization. With numerous engravings and colored maps. 685 pages. 12mo. Also, in two parts. Part I. Ancient History : 300 pages. Part II. Modern History : 385 pages. A School History of England. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with colored maps showing the geographical changes in the country at different periods. 378 pages. 12mo. A Short Course in English History. With numerous engravings and maps. 215 pages. 12mo. A School History of France. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings, colored and uncolored maps. 373 pages. 12mo. A History of Rome. Amply illustrated with maps, plans, and en- gravings. 554 pages. By B. F. Leighton, Ph.D. (Lips.). A School History of Greece. In preparation. Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History. Illustrated with engrav- ings, colored maps, and a chart. 445 pages. 12mo. The Historical Reader, embracing selections in prose and verse, from standard writers of Ancient and Modern History ; with a Vocabulary of Difficult Words, and Biographical and Geographical Indexes. 544 pages. 12mo. The United States Reader, embracing selections from eminent American historians, orators, statesmen, and poets, with explanatory obser- a'ions, notes, etc. Arranged so as to form a Class-manual of United States History, niustrated with colored historical maps. 436 pages. 12mo. MAYNARD, MERRILL, & CO., Publishers, 43, 45 & 47 East Tenth Street, New York. Copyright, 1672, by John J, Anderson. mo\ ; ) GIFT- -- DC 39 A 5$ EDUC. UBRARY PKEFACE. The work here presented to the public is an addition to the author's series of school text-books of history, which has already attained a wide popularity among teachers and school officers. The same plan has been followed in its preparation as in the other books of the series, this plan having received the general approval of practical educators. Maps and geographical references constitute its most promi- nent feature ; but, besides this, there are copious exercises for topical review, chronological and genealogical tables, and other auxiliaries useful in the work of giving instruction. The dates are generally inserted so as not to form an essen- tial part of the narrative, but still with sufficient frequency and prominence to keep the proper sequence and relation of the events before the mind of the pupil. While the arrangement is essentially by dynasties, as being the simplest and most interesting for young students, con- siderable space has been given to an account of the state of society, including the literary history, at different periods. In this connection, the numerous biographical notices in- serted will be found interesting and attractive. As in the author's other historical text-books, the pronun- ciation of all difficult proper names has been carefully indi- cated, as far as was possible. This is an important feature in an elementary manual of French history, abounding, as it must, in names puzzling to the English reader. The mode of representation employed is such as seemed best adapted to render the pronunciation of the word at once obvious to the pupil, without the employment of any special system of diacritical marks. Of course, in many cases, the indicated pronunciation of the French word can be only an approximation to the correct mode. This volume is copiously supplied with explanatory notes, the author being convinced that this not only constitutes a source of information of great value to both pupil and teacher, but supersedes, to some extent, the need of laborious research, for which the means are not always at hand. It also obviates the necessity for putting a larger text-book into 139 3 PREFACE. the hands of pupils, and thus enables the teacher to cover the ground well in a single school term. These notes, being chiefly from standard writers, serve also to impart a knowledge of the most important historical literature per- taining to the subject. The full index of persons, places, and subjects will be found a valuable addition to the book, not only for the purpose of convenient consultation, but as a pronouncing vocabulary of proper names. While the treatment is necessarily brief, on account of the small size of the book, it will yet be found sufficiently com- prehensive to give the pupil a clear conception of the great events of French history, so rich in interesting and instruc- tive lessons. The author trusts that this volume may meet with a part, at least, of the favor and patronage which the other books of his series have so liberally received. MAPS. PAGE 1. Empire of Charlemagne (Progressive Map No. 1), Frontispiece. 2. Gallia, or Gaul 18 3. Gaul, in Provinces 21 4. Gaul, about 500 a. d 27 5. France, after the Treaty of Verdun 43 6. France and the Neighboring Countries 54 7. Christian Kingdoms in Syria and Palestine 61 8. France under Hugh Capet (Progressive Map No. 2). .facing 99 9. France at the Time of Valois (Progressive Map No. 3) .facing 99 10. Southern Europe (Progressive Map No. 4) .facing 152 11. Ireland 222 12. Modern France and the Neighboring Countries (Progressive Map No. 5). facing 353 GENEALOGICAL TABLES. page 1. Of the Merovingians »• 32 2. Of the Carlovingians 51 3. Of the Capetians 97 4. Of the House of Valois * 51 5. Of the Valois-Orleans Branch 192 6. Of the House of Bourbon 257 7. Of the Bouaparte Family. S 60 CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION (Geography of Gaul or France) 7 PART L— ANCIENT GAUL. SECTION I.— Early Inhabitants of Gaul 9 Appearance and Manners and Customs of the Gauls (11) ; Re- ligion, etc. (12) ; Progress of the Gauls in Civilization (14) ; Gallic Migrations and Invasions (14) ; Conquest of Gaul by the Romans (15) ; Chronological Recapitulation (17). SECTION II.— Gaul under the Romans 18 Roman Policy in Gaul (18) ; Introduction of Christianity (21) ; Invasions by the Barbarians (22) ; Great Invasion of the Huns (22) ; Clovis becomes King (23) ; Chronological Recapitulation (25) ; Review Questions (25). PART II.— FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. SECTION I.— The Merovingian Dynasty 26 The Mayors of the Palace (30) ; State of Society (31) ; Chrono- logical Recapitulation (32) ; Genealogical Table of the Mero- vingians (32) ; Review Questions (32). SECTION II.— The Carlovingian Dynasty 33 Pepin le Bref (33) ; Charlemagne (35) ; The Diet of Paderborn (36) ; Charlemagne Emperor (38) ; Louis I. (40) ; Charles the Bald (44) ; Louis the Stammerer (44) ; Charles the Fat (45) ; Charles the Simple (46) ; Louis IV. (47) ; Lothaire (47) ; Louis V. (48) ; The Feudal System (48) ; Condition of the People (49) ; The Church (50) ; Chronological Recapitulation (50) ; Genealogi- cal Table of the Carlovingians (51) ; Questions for Topical Review (52). SECTION III.— The Capetian Dynasty 53 Hugh Capet (53) ; Robert (54) ; Henry I. (56) ; First Pilgrimage (56) ; Philip I. (57) ; Conquest of England (58) ; First Crusade (59) ; The Commune (63) ; Louis VI. (65) ; Louis VII. (66) ; Second Crusade (67) ; Suger (71) ; Philip II. (72) ; Third Crusade (73) ; The Albigenses (75) ; Louis VIII. (78) ; Louis IX. (79) ; Philip III. (82) ; Philip IV. (84) ; Battle of Courtray (85) ; Aboli- tion of the Templars (85) ; Louis X. (88) ; Philip V. (88) ; Charles IV. (89) ; State of Society (90) ; Chronological Recapitu- lation (96) ; Genealogical Table of the Capetian Dynasty (97) ; Review Questions (98). 5 6 CONTENTS. PAGB SECTION IV.— The House of Valois 99 Philip VI. (99) ; War with England (100) ; War in Brittany (101) ; Second Invasion of the English (101) ; John (105) ; War with England (106) ; The Jacquerie (110) ; Charles V. (113) ; Charles VI. (119) ; Great Schism (121) ; Armagnacs and Bur- gundians (123) ; Charles VII. (127) ; Joan of Arc (128) ; Conquest of Normandy (132) ; Louis XI. (134) ; League of the Public Good . (135) ; Charles VIII. (140) ; State of Society during the Valois Period (144) ; Chronological Recapitulation (150) ; Genealogical Table of the House of Valois (151) ; Questions for Topical Re- view (152). PART III.— FRANCE IN MODERN TIMES. SECTION I.— The Valois-Orleans Branch 153 Louis XII. (153) ; Holy League (157) ; Gaston de Foix (157) ; Francis I. (161) ; Holy League (168) ; Massacre of the Vaudois (170) ; Henry II. (171) ; Francis II. (175) ; The Huguenots (175) ; Charles IX. (177) ; Civil War (177) ; Massacre of St. Bartholo- mew's Day (182) ; Henry III. (184) ; State of Society under the Valois-Orleans Branch (187); Chronological Recapitulation (191) ; Genealogical Table of the Valois-Orleans Branch (192) ; Ques- tions for Topical Review (193). SECTION II.— The House of Bourbon 194 Henry IV. (194) ; Louis XIII. (199) ; Louis XIV. (210) ; War of the Fronde (210) ; War of the Spanish Succession (225) ; Louis XV. (230) ; War of the Austrian Succession (235) ; Seven Years' War (238) ; State of Society during the Bourbon Period (242) ; Chronological Recapitulation (255) ; Genealogical Table of the House of Bourbon (257) ; Questions for Topical Review (258). SECTION III.— Revolutionary France 259 Louis XVI. (259) ; The Great Revolution (264) ; The National Convention (277) ; The Directory (289) ; Revolution of the 18th and 19th Brumaire (297) ; The Consulate (299) J The First Em- pire (304) ; Restoration of the Bourbons (322) ; Louis XVIII. (322) ; The Hundred Days (322) ; Second Restoration (324) ; Charles X. (327) ; Bourbon-Orleans Family (329) ; Louis Philippe (329) ; Second Republic (336) ; Second Empire (340) ; Napoleon III. (340) ; Third Republic (347) ; State of Society (353) ; Chrono- logical Recapitulation (358) ; Genealogical Table of the Bona- parte Family (360) ; Questions for Topical Review (361). INTRODUCTION. Geography of Gaul, or France. 1. I*r ancient times, the Alps and the river Rhine (Rhenus) formed the eastern boundary of the country known as Gal'- H-a, or Gaul. On the south were the Mediterranean Sea and the Pyrenees (Pyrencei Monies), the latter separating Gaul from His-pa'ni-a (now called Spain) ; and on the north and west were the waters of the Atlantic Ocean. (See map, page 13.) 2. Of the region embraced within these limits, the most striking natural feature is the long mountain chain which begins at the Pyrenees and extends in a north-easterly di- rection to the Rhine. This chain, in part, is parallel to the Alps, from which it is separated by a valley through which flows the river Rhone (Rhodanus). The southern portion of the range is now called the Oevennes {sd-ven') ; the middle, the Cote d'Or (cote dor). In the north, the range makes a short, sudden bend to the east, and then resumes its north- erly direction, ending at the river Rhine. (See Map, p. 353.) 3. The great range which thus extends entirely across the country divides it into two parts quite different in character. The larger of these, that north and west of the range, is a long gentle slope which stretches from the moun- Questions.— 1. What, in ancient times, formed the eastern boundary of Gallia, or Gaul ? The southern boundary ? The northern and western ? 2. What is the most striking natural feature of this region ? Describe this moun- tain chain. What is the southern portion called ? The middle ? Where does this chain end ? 3. How does this range divide the country? Describe the larger division. What four rivers flow through it ? Describe each. 7 8 INTRODUCTION. tains to the shore of the ocean. Down this slope four great rivers flow. The first (beginning in the east) is the Rhine, already mentioned. The second is the Seine {sane), an- ciently called Seqiiana, on which the present city of Paris is situated. The third is the Ligeris, or Loire {livar), which flows west, and is separated from the Seine by a long line of high hills and table-lands beginning in the Cote d'Or and extending to the most westerly part of France. Another, though much shorter, range separates the valley of the Loire from that of the Garumna, or Garonne (gah-ron'), which is the most southerly of the four rivers. 4. The area of France, at present, is 204,090 square miles ; and its population, according to the census of 1876, is 36,905,788. Its colonies and dependencies, including Algeria, in Africa, embrace an area of about 237,000 square miles, and a population of over 6,500,000. In literature, the arts, and general culture, the French nation stands among the foremost in the world ; and its history is of the greatest importance and interest, for ite instructive lessons in political and social life. 4. What is the area of France at present ? Its population ? What is the extent of its colonies and dependencies ? The population ? What is said of the French nation and its history ? HISTORY OF FRANCE. PAET I. ANCIENT GAUL. section i. Early Inhabitants of Gaul. From the Settlement of Massilia (600 B. C.) to tJie Conquest of Gaul by the Romans (50 B. C.) 1. Nearly twenty-five hundred years ago, a company of Grecian adventurers, coasting along the northern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, cast anchor near the mouth of the Ehone, in the country now known as France, but then called Gaul.* Here was founded (600 b. c.) the Grecian colony Massil'ia, now called Marseilles (mar-sah). This was, as far as is known, the first permanent settlement made by any civilized race in Gaul ; though the Phoenicians had * The Seg-o-brig'-i-ans, a tribe of the Gallic race, were in occupation of the neighboring country. Nann, their chief, gave the strangers kindly welcome, and took them home with him to a great feast which he was giving for his daughter's marriage, who was called Gyp'tis, according to some, and Pet'ta, according to other historians. A custom, which still exists in some parts of France, would that the maiden should appear only at the end of the banquet holding in her hand a filled wine-cup, and that the guest to whom she should present it should become the hus- band of her choice. By accident, or quite another cause, sav the ancient legends, Gyptis stopped opposite to Eux'e-nes (the Greek captain), and handed him the cup. Great was the surprise, and, probably, anger amongst the Gauls who were present. But Nann, believing he recognized a commandment from his gods, accepted the stranger as his son-in-law, and gave him as dowry the bay where he had landed, with some cantons of the territory around.— Guizot's History of France. Map Questions.— Into what three parts was Ancient Gaul divided ? (See page 13.) Where were the Belgae ? The Celtae ? The Aqnitani ? Where was Provincia (the Roman province) ? What country to the east and northeast of Gaul ? Where was the country of the Helvetii ? Where was Aquae Sextise ? Massilia ? 1 . When and by whom was Massilia founded ? Give an account of its settlement. Who previously sailed along the coast of Gaul ? 1* 9 10 EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. [B. C. 600. previously made voyages along the coast, and had sailed up the Ehone. 2. At the time Massilia was founded, three great races inhabited Gaul. The oldest were the Iberians or Basques (basks), who came from the north of Africa and from Hispa nia, and crossing the Pyrenees, settled in the valley of the Garonne. Afterward, they gradually extended their sway beyond the northern boundary of this valley into the valley of the Loire. This region formed the greater part of what was afterward known as Aquitania. The Iberians are described as a people of medium height, dark hair, and somewhat re- served in manner. They were obstinate in battle, and so tenacious of their customs that traces of these, as well as of their language, still survive in the country they inhabited, after the lapse of more than two thousand years. 3. North of these people were the second race, the Celts or Gael, who came from Asia, moving westward in vast numbers, some establishing themselves in the country they entered, while others continued on their journey till they reached the western coast of Ireland. As the Celts entered Gaul, they pressed the Iberians back from the valley of the Loire, and confined them to that of the Garonne. The Gael, like the Iberians, were of medium height, but were more slender in figure, with blue eyes and yellow hair. 4. The third of these races, and the last to enter Gaul, were the Belgae (bel'-je). They appear to have come from the forests of Germany, about the time of the foundation of Massilia, and crossing the Rhine, gradually established them- selves in Gaul from the Rhine to the Loire, driving back the Gael, in great measure, to the hill country of the south- east, or to the extreme western part of Gaul, which is now called Brittany. The Belgae were taller than the Gael, and differed from them chiefly in their character, which 2. How many races inhabited Gaul at that time ? Who were the Iberians or Basques ? Describe their character. Where was Hispania ? (See map, page 13.) 3. What is said of the Celts? Their appearance ? 4. Who were the third race ? Their origin f Describe the Belgae. How were these races subdivided ? EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. 11 was more savage. Kesembling each other as they did in complexion and color of eyes and hair, the constant inter- mingling which took place between the two races soon pro- duced a similarity which made it difficult to distinguish them from eacli other. Together they formed the ruling race, and were known under the common name of Gauls. These three races were subdivided into many tribes, several of which rose to special prominence in the early history of Gaul. 5. Appearance and Manners and Customs of the Gauls. — The Gauls were of powerful build, with fair com- plexion, blue or gray eyes, and yellow or red hair. They had loud, harsh voices, and were fond of ornaments and bright colors in dress, their favorite cloth being a coarse plaid. They were simple in their manners, brave and hospitable, of lively imagination, impetuous in battle, but easily dis- couraged. In the earliest times they fought naked, but at a later period they adopted the war dresses of their more civilized neighbors, and protected themselves with cuirasses of iron mail, and bucklers and helmets, the latter orna- mented with the horns of the ox or stag. They wore two- handed swords, and carried hooked spears and long javelins which they threw as they approached their foes, and then charged upon them, either on foot or in two-horse chariots armed with scythes. 6. They delighted in single combat, and cut off the heads of their enemies, wearing them, or nailing them on their houses as trophies. Sons were not permitted to associate with their fathers till they were able to bear arms, and the men had the power of life and death over their wives and children. When a chief or noble died, a funeral pile was built, and every thing which the dead had held dear — slaves and animals, as well as inanimate things — was sacri- ficed. 5. Describe the Gauls. What was their mode of warfare ? 6. In what did they delight ? How did they treat their enemies ? What other customs are mentioned ? 12 EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. 7. Religion, etc. — The Gauls worshiped the powers of nature, having names for the gods of the sun, the ocean, the thunder, the wind, the stars, rivers, and lakes. Their priests were the Druids,* a sect specially chosen for their intelligence, who introduced among them the worship of moral and intellectual forces, and taught them to believe in the rewards and punishments of a future life. The Druids were divided into three classes — bards, prophets, and high priests. The bards were poets who chanted, to the accom- paniment of a rude harp, the bounty of their employers, the exploits of heroes, or the beauty of women. The prophets were a lower order of priests who professed to reveal the future. They conducted, also, the ordinary religious cere- monies. 8. The high priests were the most powerful of the three orders, and lived in seclusion in forests of oak, where they guarded with jealous care the secrets of their peculiar faith. Many of their ceremonies were attended with cruelty and awful mystery. \ The sacrifice of human victims was of SPECIMEN OP DRUIDICAL REMAINS. common occurrence. Great circles of stone were set up on the plains or in the forest, in which were erected altars, * The name Druids is derived from a Celtic word meaning oak, and hence signifies men of the t Thus the feast of Teutates, the god of commerce and the inventor of the arts, was celebrated on the first night of the new year, by the light of torches, in the depths of the forest. The sacred tree of the Druids was the oak ; and, at such a time, the chiefs of the Druids gathered from its branches, with a golden sickle, the sacred mistletoe, a plant held by them in the greatest rev- 7. Whom did the Gauls worship ? Who were the Druids ? Into what classes were they divided ? Who were the bards ? The prophets ? 8. Who were the high priests? What kind of sacrifice was common? WhaJ structures were set up ? Where are there remains of these ? EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. 13 called cromlechs, consisting of two upright stones support- ing a horizontal one, on which victims were- laid for sacri- fice. The priest smote the victim, and professed to fore- tell the future from the manner of his fall or the flow- ing of his blood.* Many of the structures erected by the Druids, and consisting of immense stones arranged in vari- ous ways, still remain in the south of France. ,9. The rival of the priest, in the esteem of the people, was the warrior, who was the head of the only political organization known among the Gauls — the clan. This was formed at first by the union of several families of blood * " Some erect colossal figures constructed of wicker-work, which they fill with men, and then set fire to them, thus destroying their victims.'' — Caesar's Commentaries on the Gallic War. 9. Who was the rival of the priest ? What is said of the clan ? What did the clan 3 form ? The cantons ? 14 EAKLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. [B. C. 390. relatives, and was afterward increased by marriage and con- quest, till the various families, with their retainers, depend- ants, and slaves, constituted a large community. Several clans constituted a canton ; and several cantons, a state. 10. Progress of the Gauls in Civilization.— The Gauls lived in conical houses built of poles and rushes, plas- tered and thatched. They had fortified towns, which dis- played sufficient knowledge of engineering to excite the admiration of the Romans. They cultivated the soil, rais- ing barley, wheat, and flax, and many kinds of live stock, and planting vineyards. They understood, to some extent, dyeing, and the art of working metals, and were accustomed to use the froth of beer as yeast for raising bread. They car- ried on, also, considerable commerce with other nations, establishing depots along the principal rivers or on the sea- shore. The countries with which they traded were princi- pally Italy, Greece, and the island of Britain. 11. Gallic Migrations and Invasions. — The restless, warlike nature of the inhabitants of Gaul always made them a terror to their more peaceful neighbors. Their wars and incursions form a part of the history of the earliest times. One of these invasions was that into Iberia or Spain, where they established themselves so firmly that, many hundred years later, the most stubborn obstacle to Roman conquest there was the race which was formed by the union of the Iberians and the Celts — the Celtiberians. The northern part of Italy, however, was more frequently the scene of bloody battles in which the Gauls were actors, the history of their struggles with the Romans on this ground extend- ing back to a very early period. 12. In one of these invasions (390 b. c.) they defeated the Roman army, captured and pillaged Rome, and held it for 10. Describe the houses of the Gauls. The towns. What did they cultivate? What arts did they practice ? Wnat commerce did they carry on ? With what coun- tries ? 1 1 . What war did they carry on ? Mention one of their invasions. What was its result ? Who were the Celtiberians ? What other country did the Gauls invade ? 'tVhat struggles were the consequence of this ? 12. When was Rome captured ? Give an account of this event. How was Rom$ ransomed? What did this give rise to ? B. C. 123.] EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. 15 seven months till a ransom in gold was promised, which was increased at the last moment by the action of their chief, Brennus, who threw his sword into the scales while the gold was being weighed, with the famous exclamation, "VceVic- tis" — " Woe to the vanquished." * This defeat, and the fnsult which accompanied it, were the cause of those frequent and bloody wars which were waged between Rome and Gaul hundreds of years. 13. Conquest of Gaul by the Romans. — The Grecian colony of Massilia had long been regarded with suspicion by the native tribes of Gaul. War being declared, the Mas- silians sought the aid of Rome, which sent an army to their assistance (154 B. c). A Roman army invaded the south of Gaul about thirty years later, and established a Roman province there, whose capital was called Aquae Sextiae, on the site of the present city of Aix, in Provence (123 b. a). This was the first Roman settlement in Gaul ; but it was followed by others, which maintained themselves, notwith- standing the attacks made upon them by the native tribes and by vast hordes of barbarians, prin- cipally from beyond the Rhine. One of these invasions was that of the Helvetians, who inhabited cmosar. the country now called Switzerland. The governor of the Roman province in Gaul, at that time, was Julius Caesar. * This invasion was made by a Gaulish tribe called the Sennones. Some accounts state that Camillus, the Roman dictator, arrived in time to prevent the payment of the ransom ; and, with the exclamation that " Rome should be ransomed only with steel," he ordered the gold to be taken away, and immediately attacking the Gauls defeated them with great slaughter. There is, how- ever, no historic evidence of the truth of this account. The public records having been destroyed, no authentic annals of the previous events of Roman history exist. 13. What led to the invasion of Gaul by the Romans ? What other invasion oc- curred ? What was established by the Romans ? What other settlements were made? What, account is given of the Helvetians and their invasion ? How were they re- pelled. Wliat did this lead to ? 16 EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. [B. C. 58* Hastily gathering some legions from Italy, he gave battle to the invaders, and defeated them (58 b. a). This vic- tory led to alliances between the Eomans and some of the weaker tribes against the stronger tribes with which they were at war, and was the beginning of that policy which, eight years later, brought the territory of Gaul into sub- jection to the Koman power. 14. Caesar next gained a signal victory over the Germans under their great chief, Ar-i-o-vis'tus, who had crossed the Rhine and invaded the territory of Gaul. He then defeat- ed the combined forces of the confederacy of the tribes of northern Gaul, under the leadership of the Belgae ; subdued the martial tribe called the Nervii (ner've-l), who bravely withstood the Koman invader. He next invaded Britain, because the brave inhabitants of that island had sent assist- ance to the struggling Gaulish tribes. The gallant barba- rians made a vain attempt to oppose Eoman skill and valor, and Caesar gained several victories" over them ; but he had no time to complete the conquest of the island. Indeed, this was not accomplished until more than a century after- ward. 15. The last great struggle of the native tribes against the Romans was that entered into by a league under the command of a native chief named Ver-cin-ge'to-rix.* After a campaign in the open field, in which the Gallic chief dis- played great ability, and in which the Roman army was many times placed in desperate straits from which nothing but the genius of Caesar, its great commander, could have rescued it, Vercmgetorix withdrew to a fortified town, and construct- ing an intrenched camp outside of its walls, awaited the attack of the Roman army. Caesar threw a double line of fortifications around the place, and after repelling an army of more than two hundred thousand Gallic warriors, which had come to its relief, returned to the siege. * This is the Latinized form of the name as given by Caesar in his Commentaries. It signifies in the Celtic language, " The chief of a hundred chiefs." 14. Over whom did Caesar next obtain a victory ? What confederacy did he de- feat ? What tribe did he subdue ? Give an account of the invasion of Britain. 15. Give an account of Vercingetorix aud his struggle with the Romans. B. C. 50.] EARLY INHABITANTS OF GAUL. J 7 16. Hunger, and despair of receiving any aid from with- out, soon led to the surrender of the town, which Vercinge- torix came to offer in person, hoping, in this way, to soften the heart of Caesar and thus obtain more favorable terms for his army. Wearing his richest armor, he rode alone into the Roman camp, alighted before the tribunal of Caesar, and threw on the ground his spear, his helmet, and his sword. He was sent a prisoner to Rome, and, six years afterward, was led through its streets in chains, as a part of Caesar's triumph. Some feeble attempts after this were made to throw off the Roman yoke, but the vigilance of Caesar rendered them of little avail, and thus Gaul was completely conquered (50 B. a). 17. The cruel policy of Caesar in Ganl was now entirely changed. All violent measures were abandoned, but the conquered tribes were obliged to pay a tribute of 40,000,000 ses'-ter-ces (about $1,400,000). The wisdom of this policy was soon apparent. The country which had required such strenuous efforts to subdue, became, in a short time, a sub- missive Roman province, from whose warlike people were recruited some of the choicest legions afterward employed by Caesar in the civil wars of Rome.* * " He allured their best warriors into his legions by high bounties: and even formed an entire Gallic legion, the soldiers of which bore the figure of a lark on their helmets, and which was thence called Alauda."—Michelet , s History of France. 16. Describe the surrender of Vercingetorix. What was his fate ? 17. What policy did Caesar afterward pursue ? What was the result of this ? CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. B.C. 600. Settlement of Massilia by the Greeks. 390. Taking of Rome by the Gauls. 123. Settlement of Aquae Sextiae by the Romans, 58. Defeat of the Helvetians by Caesar. 50. Conquest of Gaul completed by Caesar. 18 GAUL fJKDER THE ROMANS. tB. C> 50, ' section ii. Gaul under the Romans. From the Roman Conquest (50 B. G.) to the Baptism of Clovis (A. D. 496). 1. Roman Policy in Gaul. — The efforts of the Romans were now directed to the extinction of the national feeling in Gaul, by the substitution of their own laws, customs, and religion. The first step was the division of all the ter- ritory, except Narbonnen'sis, into three great provinces : Aquitania, which comprised most of the country south of the Loire and west of the Oevennes ; Lugdunensis, chiefly situated between the Loire and the Seine; and Belgica, which extended nearly to the Rhine. Narbonnensis was the old province, and comprised principally the valley of the Rhone, from the present city of Geneva south to the Medi- terranean Sea and the Pyrenees.* 2. The jiext step was the abandonment of cities or towns at which Roman arms had suffered defeat, and the estab- lishment of new ones in their stead. The ancient names of cities, also, were changed, the names of clans and of Roman emperors being given to some of the more important. By this means, dangerous memories were obliterated, and tribes which had formerly acted together against the Romans were separated, and, in some cases, found themselves associated * A general census taken in 28 b. C. showed that the number of Roman citizens in Gaul, at that time, was 4,163,000. ' Map Questions.— (See page 21.) Where was Narbonnensis situated ? Aquitania ? Lugdunensis ? Belgica ? Where did the tribe called Parisii dwell ? What city de- rives its name from them ? What was the ancient name of Paris ?— Arts. Lutetia. What does this word mean ?— Ans. A mud-walled city. 1. To what were the efforts of the Romans directed? How was Gaul divided? Describe the situation of each. 2. What was the next step taken by the Romans ? What other measures did they take to strengthen their rule ? B. O. 43.] GAUL UNDER THE ROMANS. 19 with ancient enemies in the same province. These great provinces were again subdivided into states, with diverse privileges, the highest being conferred as rewards for special services rendered to the imperial government. A spirit of rivalry between the states was thus aroused, which led them to forget, in the eagerness of present strife, their an- cient wrongs. 3. The city of Lug-du'-num (Lyons), at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone (son), was founded (43 b. a), ROMAN AMPHITHEATER AT ARLES (INTERIOR). and afterward, under the emperor Augustus, became the Roman capital of Gaul. From this four great military roads were opened : one to the Rhine at what is now Cob'lentz ; another to the northern coast ; a third to the mouth of the Garonne ; the last running south, and branching near the mouth of the Rhone to Massilia and Narbo, now Narbonne (nar-bon'). The names of the gods of the Druids were changed, each new name being a compound of the original Celtic name and that of the corresponding Roman god. Human sacrifices were forbidden, and certain privileges 3. When was Lugdnmim founded? See map, page 21. i What did it become? What roads led from it? Where is Coblentz ? (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) What changes were effected in religion ? 20 GAtTL UNDER THE ROMANS. [B. C. 43. were denied and penalties attached to those who adhered to Druidism. 4. Under such influences Gaul became rapidly Koman, though traces of the ancient religion lingered for centuries in some parts of the country remote from cities. The prog- ress made in the arts of civilization was marked and gen- eral. The old savage way of living was abandoned ; the people devoted themselves to agriculture and commerce, and schools and colleges were established, which soon became famous throughout the civilized world. Evidences of the ROMAN AMPHITHEATER AT N1ME3 (EXTERTOR). extent to which the Roman influence prevailed are found in the literature of those early times, and in the architectural remains still existing in many parts of France. The latter are most numerous in the south and east ; the ruins of gate- ways, aqueducts, circuses, and temples at Toulouse (too- looz'), Aries (arlz), and many other places, being some of the most remarkable.* * One of these, a temple of exceeding beauty at Nimes, or Nisraes (neem), served as the model for the famous Madeleine church in the present, city of Paris. 4. What did Gaul become? What progress was made ? What evidences of Roman influence exist ? Where is Toulouse ? Aries ? (See Progressive Map, No. 2.) A. B. 244.1 GAUL UNDER THE ROMAN'S. 21 5. Introduction of Christianity. — One of the most important events that happened during the Roman rule in Gaul was the introduction of Christianity, in the second century. The first Christian church was established at Lyons, but here also terrible persecutions took place (a. d. 177). The new religion, coming as it did from the East, was confined for a long time to the older Rdman settlements in Gaul, no decided movement being made for its general establishment till the reign of the emperor Philip (a. d. 244): At that time seven bishops were sent from Rome into Gaul. Notwithstanding the persecutions to which they were subjected, they established centers of religious influence from Lu-te'-ti-a (Paris) to To-lo'sa (Toulouse), and 5 . When was Christianity introduced ? Where was the first Christian church estab- lished ? Give a further account of the establishment of Christianity. 22 GAUL TODER THE ROMANS. [A. B. 419. in three generations nearly all Gaul had embraced the new faith. 6. The Invasions by the Barbarians.— With the decline of the Roman power, a new danger threatened Gaul — the invasion of the country by the barbarous tribes beyond the Rhine. These incursions occupy a period of -about 170 years. At the end of that time, three tribes were found es- tablished permanently in Gaul : the Franks,* the Burgun- dians, and the Visigoths. The first incursion was that of the Franks (a. d. 256). They laid waste the province of Belgica, and finally settled there (a. d. 358). The Burgun- dians next established themselves in the east of Gaul, the territory being demanded by them from the Roman em- peror Honorius, who feared to refuse it (a. d. 413). The Visigoths, having crossed the Alps from the valley of the Danube, and descended into northern Italy, turned west- ward into southern Gaul, and settled in Aquitania (a. d, 419). 7. The Great Invasion of the Huns. — Great and numerous as these invasions of the tribes beyond the Rhine had been, however, they were followed by a much greater one. For fifty years the nations of Europe had watched with apprehension the westward progress of the Huns, a fierce and mighty tribe of savages from Asia, whose sway had gradually been extended from the Black Sea to the Baltic. Over this vast horde of savages, cunning and fero- cious in character and grossly superstitious, one man reigned supreme. This was At'ti-la, sometimes called the " Scourge of God," on account of the dreadful devastations which he caused. 8. Crossing the Rhine, he entered Gaul with 500,000 men, * " On the lower Rhine, a still more powerful confederacy than the Saxons, called the Franlen or freemen, was formed out of the valorous races which had so long maintained both peaceful and warlike relations with Rome."— Godwin. 6.- What new danger threatened Gaul ? During what period did the incursions of the Germans take place ? What tribes obtained a permanent foot-hold in Gaul ? What is said of the Franks ? The Burgundians ? The Visigoths ? 7. What greater invasion followed ? Who were the Huns ? Who was Attila ? 8. Give an account of the invasion of Gaul by the Huns. By whom were they op- posed ? What battle was fought ? The result ? A. D. 486,] GAUL UNDER THE ROMANS. 23 burning cities and carrying terror and desolation in his path. All Gaul united against the. common foe. The city of Orleans checked his progress into southern Gaul. While besieging this, the opposing army, consisting of Romans and Goths, under A-e'tius and The-od'o-ric, appeared. Attila withdrew to the Catalaunian plains, near the river Seine, where a battle was fought the following day. All day and far into the night the battle raged; and, on the fol- lowing morning, more than 200,000 corpses strewed the plain. So great was the confusion that neither army claimed the victory ; but the power of Attila was broken, and he re- crossed the Rhine with the remnant of his army (a. d. 451).* 9. Olovis becomes King. — When the Roman empire fell (a. d. 476), the Christian bishops, who had gradually become a ruling power in Gaul, turned to find some tem- poral ruler who could help them to strengthen and per- petuate their sway. The most promising was Olo'vis,f the young, ambitious leader of die Salian Franks. He was a descendant of Mer-o-vae'us, the sea-king, J whose wonderful, half -fabulous exploits had been for many years a subject of admiration to the simple Franks. At the age of fifteen, Clovis had been proclaimed king of his tribe. Fearing the Roman influence among the Frankish tribes, he determined, if possible, to destroy it ; and, to that end, attacked the Ro- man General Sy-a'gri-us at Soissons (swaw'song), and defeated him (a. d. 486). Syagrius was the last Roman governor of Gaul.§ After the battle of Soissons, Olovis moved his capital * "It was a battle," says the old Gothic chronicler (Jornandes), " fierce, multiform, terriUe, obstinate ; such a battle and such a slaughter as the world had never seen, and will never see again. The little stream which traversed the field, almost dry till then, was swollen beyond its banks by the blood which mingled with the water. When night drew on, the carnage was still continued, and far into the darkness was heard the shock of bewildered steeds, the clash of in- discriminating swords."— Godwin. t Called in his native tongue Chlodomg. % It is from Merovaeus that Clovis and his successors have received the name Merovingians, or the Merovingian Dynasty. The Salian Franks inhabited the country near the month of the Rhine. § "An Incident which occurred after one of the incursions of the Franks illustrates in a forcible manner the extent to which brute force was used by Clovis in maintaining his authority. At the sacking of the Cathedral of Rheims, some of the sacred vessels had been carried off, among them a vase of great beauty which formed a part of the booty that, according to the custom of the Franks, was placed in the middle of the camp to be distributed by lot. The bishop of Rheims sent a messenger to reclaim it, and Clovis promised to return it. When the day came for the i ^vision of the spoils at Soissons, Clovis asked that the vase might be allotted to him as his Miare. A young Frankish soldier, however, angry at this infringement of custom, and perhaps 9. Who was Clovis ? Whom did he attack and defeat ? Who was the last Roman ^vernor of Gaul ? What city did Clovis make his capital ? 24 GAUL UKDER THE ROMAKS. [A. D. 496. to Lutetia, the chief city of the Parisii,* which by this act became the capital of the Franks, under the name of Paris. 10. The power of Clovis was still disputed by many tribes, and several years were passed in war to establish his supremacy. The marriage of Clovis with Clotilda was an event of great importance (493). This princess was the daughter of Gun'de-bald, King of Burgundy, and had em- braced the orthodox Christian faith ; and, through her means, Clovis obtained the support of the Gallo-Koman Church in carrying out his schemes of conquest. Clotilda, for some time, earnestly sought to effect the conversion of her hus- band ; but he refused, although permitting his eldest son to be baptized. 11. At length, however, an incident occurred which brought about this event. The powerful tribe of the Ale- manni f crossed the Ehine, and attacked the Franks J at Cologne (496) ; and Clovis marched to their assistance. In the fierce battle that ensued, the result was for some time doubtful ; when at length Clovis, raising his hands to heaven, invoked the God of the Christians, and offered a solemn vow that, if he should gain the victory, he would embrace the faith of Clotilda, and permit himself to be baptized. He then continued the battle, rushing into the thickest of the fight, and inspiring his soldiers with cour- age and enthusiasm. At length, the King of the Alemanni being slain, victory declared for Clovis ; and in fulfillment of his vow, he, his sister, and three thousand of his warriors, besides a large number of women and children, were baptized coveting the vase, told the king holdly that he should have only what fell to him, at the same time defacing the vase by a heavy blow from his battle-axe. The king said noth- ing, but took the vase and returned it to the bishop. Some time after, at a review of his forces, he stopped before the young warrior, reproved him for the ill appearance and condition of his arms, and seizing his battle-axe, threw it upon the ground. As the owner stooped to pick it up, Clovis buried his weapon in the soldier's skull, saying, ' Thua didst thou to the vase of Soissons ! ' "—Guizot's History of France. * A Celtic tribe. Hence the modern name of the city, Paris. t "Clovis was still only chief of the petty tribe of the Franks of Tournai, when nu- merous bands of Suevi [Germans], under the designation of All-men (Alemanni), threat- ened to pass the Rhine."— Michelet. % This tribe was called the Ripuarian Franks, as the followers of Clovis were called the Salian Franks. 10. By whom was Clovis opposed ? Whom did Clovis marry ? Who was Clotfi. da? What support did Clovis obtain by this marriage? What did Clotilda seek to accomplish ? 11. What led to the conversion of Clovis ? Who received baptism ? A. D. 496.1 GAUL UNDEK THE ROMANS. 25 with great pomp and magnificence in the temple at Kheims (A. D. 496). CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 177. Persecution of the Christians at Lyons. 256-358. First invasions of Gaul by the Franks. 413. Establishment of the Burgundians in Gaul. 419. Settlement of the Visigoths in Aquitania. 451. Defeat of Attila by Aetius. 486. Defeat of Syagrius by Clovis. 496. Conversion of Clovis to Christianity. REVIEW QUESTIONS. PART I. PAGE 1. What races inhabited Gaul when Massilia was founded ? 10 2. Give an account of each 10, 11 3. Describe the manners and customs of, the Gauls 11 4. Give an account of the Druids 12 5. From what is the name Druid derived ? 12(note) 6. What progress had the Gauls made in civilization ? 14 7. Give an account of the Gallic migrations 14, 15 8. Give an account of the conquest of Gaul by the Romans 15, 16, 17 9. By what policy was the conquest completed ? 17, 18 10. Mention the divisions of Gaul, and state the situation of each 18, 19 11. What city was made the center of the Roman domain in Gaul, and in what way ? 19 12. What progress was made in civilization in Gaul under the Romans ? 20 13. Give an account of the introduction of Christianity 21 14. What barbarous nations invaded Gaul in the 3d, 4th, and 5th centuries ?. 22 15. Give an account of the invasion of the Huns 22, 23 16. Give an account of the defeat of Attila 23 17 How did Clovis become king ? 23 18. Give an account of his reign 24 19. Why are Clovis and his successors called the Merovingians ? 23 (note) 20. From what is the name Paris derived ? 24 (note) PAET II. FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES. section i. The Merovingian Dynasty. Extending from the baptism of Clovis (A. B. 496) to the accession of Pepin le Bref(A. B. 752). 1. The north of Gaul had now a Christian king and queen, the first in its history. The clergy saw in Clovis their only hope, and gathered around him. The people in the other provinces of Gaul, weary of petty wars, and bound together by a common faith, turned toward Clovis as to their natural king ; and, only a few years after his baptism, he succeeded in uniting all Gaul in one great dynasty. Anastasius, also, the emperor of the East, desiring his alli- ance, sent him a golden crown and a purple robe, making him, by that act, a Christian prince and a Koman consul. He made Paris his capital, and died there (a. d. 511). Modern France dates its foundation as a kingdom from the reign of Clovis, his consecration at Eheims being an exam- ple which succeeding kings, for many centuries, followed. 2. The changes wrought in the politics, society, and laws of the country at this time were marked and lasting. Chief among these was the introduction of the feudal system, the 1 . What was the condition of Clovis and his kingdom at this time ? W~»iat did he accomplish? What did Anastasius do? Where and when did the death of Clovis occur ? From what does modern France date its foundation ? 2. What changes took place at this time ? What system was introduced ? What does feud mean ? How did Clovis divide the conquered territory ? What were the features of this system ? What was the Salic law ? 26 THE MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY, 27 word feud meaning property held as a reward.* Clovis divided the territory which he conquered among his chiefs as a reward for services rendered, and a pledge for similar services in the future. Each chief, called a feudatory, be- came thus a petty king, possessed of a large extent of coun- try, containing many towns and castles, with hundreds, and, in some cases, thousands of tenants or vassals, and many more serfs or bondsmen who cultivated the soil, and were not permitted to leave it, but were sold with it, like cattle. A natural offspring of this system was the salic laiv, the name of which is thought to be derived from the Salians, the branch of the Franks from which Clovis came. By this * According: to this system, the tenure of lands depended upon the vassalage of those by whom they were held. Every vassal was bound to do homage to his superior. Unarmed and bare- headed, he knelt before him, and putting his hands in those of his lord, promised to be "hig man " thenceforward, and to serve hira faithfully for the lands which lie occupied. 28 THE MEKOVINGIAK DYNASTY. [A. ». 558. law, no woman could inherit the lands of a feudatory, nor conld she be made queen. (See note, page 49.) *— ^3. From the earliest times, the Franks had been accus- tomed to assemble annually in general council, in the open air, on the 1st of March, which was then considered the beginning of the year. These assemblies were called the Fields of. March. Here the chiefs discussed affairs of state, made an estimate of the number and condition of their fighting men, and planned new expeditions. Now, how- ever, the great chiefs being separated, and each established in the, center of an extensive territory over which he was ruler, lost their interest in these general assemblies. Prop- erty now became the ruling thought in the mind of the chief, and only when this was threatened was he inclined to take up arms. 4. The kingdom of Clovis was divided, at his death, in 511, among his four sons, — The-od'o-ric, Clo'do-mir, Chil'de-bert, and Clo-taire'. In those days of craft and blood, such an arrangement only prepared the way for fresh quarrels. Plots were constantly formed by the brothers against each other ; and, after forty-seven years of domestic broils and foreign war, Clotaire, the youngest and last-surviving son of Clovis, became king of all the Franks (a. d. 558). He, however, enjoyed his new honor only three years.* 5. The four sons of Clotaire divided their father's king- dom among themselves ; but one of them dying soon after- ward, it was again divided among the survivors, and with so much regard to natural boundaries and the distinctions of tribes and languages that the divisions then made con- *One of the wives of this king, Radegunda, deserves a passing mention for her saintly virtues in these stormy times. She was the daughter of the King of Thuringia and was taken prisoner by Clotaire, who, struck with her beauty, caused her to be educated and married her. Her power over him, however, was of short duration. Shocked at his crimes, she finally left the court, entered a cloister, and passed her days in deeds of charity and love. 3. What were the "Fields of March" ? What was their ohject ? What change occurred at this time ? 4. How was the kingdom of Clovis divided ? What was the consequence ? Who finally became king of all the Franks ? How long did he reign as such ? 5. How was the kingdom divided after the death of Clotaire? W T hat permanent divisions were afterward formed ? Describe the situation of each. (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) A. ©. 714.] THE MEKOVItfGIAlS" DYNASTY. 29 tinued for a long time. The north-eastern part, along the Rhine, with a small part of Germany, was called Aus-tra'- sia ; the north-western part, from the Loire to the ocean, was known as Neus'tria ; while the third, called Burgundy, comprised the mountainous region east of the Rhone and south as far as Provincia, or Provence (pro-vahns). (See Progressive Map No. 1.) 6. The brothers ruled severally over these divisions, but Aquitania was claimed by all three. Occasions for war be- tween the brothers soon arose, growing out of domestic troubles ; and the history of many years is chiefly composed of accounts of wars, intrigues, and murders, caused by the wives of these princes. The kingdoms of Austrasia and Burgundy were united for a time (593), and the three di- visions were reigned over by Clotaire II. as sole king of the Franks (613), but his character was insignificant and his reign unimportant. 7. Before his death, his son Dagobert, then fifteen years of age, was made king of Austrasia ; and on the death of Clotaire (628), Dagobert asserted his right to the whole kingdom. With this king, the glory of the " Meroving ian line departed. After him, the struggles of the nobles, who were constantly increasing in power, with the effeminate kings (derisively called ro is faineants (fa-na-6ng) , do-nothing kings), were usually successful ; till, at last, Pepin d'Heristal, mayor of Neustria and Burgundy, virtually became king, under the title of Duke or Prince of the Franks (687). 8. His successor was his son Charles, afterward styled Martel, a powerful Duke of Austrasia, and Mayor of the Palace. On his father's death (714), he raised the standard of revolution, and by his boldness and vigor, attached many chiefs to his cause. His title of mayor was disputed, and only established after several battles, in which he had many 6. What caused war among the brothers ? What kingdoms were united ? Who reigned as sole king of the Franks ? His character ! i. Who hecame Kinj? of Austrasia ? With whom did the glory of the Merovingian line end ? What were most of his successors called ? Who virtually hecame king ? 8. Who succeeded Pepin d'Heristal i How was the title of Charles established ? What did he display ? 30 THE MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY. [A. B. 752. opportunities to display the military talents which subse- quently gained for him so brilliant a renown. 9. When, therefore, the Saracens invaded France, his constant practice in war, joined to his native energy of character, pointed him out as the natural leader of the Franks in the threatened struggle. Charles acted with characteristic courage and dispatch ; gathering an immense army, he met the invading host near Poitiers (poi-teerz), and, after a terrific battle, completely routed them, gaining by his personal strength and prowess the title of Martel (the Hammer), and justly deserving the more distinguished title of Savior of Christian Civilization (732).* 10. This victory also gave him the undisputed possession of the kingdom of the Franks, in the strengthening and consolidation of which he spent the remaining years of his life. Having promised assistance to the Pope, in his strug- gle with the Lombards, he was marching to his relief when he died (741). After his death, the kingdom was divided among his sons ; but the most energetic of these, Pepin (styled le Bref, or the short) soon became sole king of the Franks (752). 11. The Mayors of the Palace.— During the Mero- vingian dynasty, a new order of men, known as Mayors of the Palace, had risen into pow r er and prominence. Their origin is lost in obscurity. They are supposed to have been orig- inally guardians or stewards of the king's estate ; and, after the fall of the Koman empire, this estate being vastly in- creased, the office became much more important. The mayor was chosen from among the feudatories of the king, and soon became his chief adviser. The mayors were the guar- *" There ' the young civilizations of Europe and Asia ' stood face to face. There the horse- men of the East met the footmen of the West ; the Semitic race made trial of strength with the Germanic. The battle was worthy of the cause ; it was long and bloody. The chroniclers are not sparing of their numbers. Three hundred thousand Arab corpses, say they, marked the point at which the flood-tide turned."— Kitchins History of France. 9. Who invaded Prance ? What course did Charles pursue ? When was a battle fought ? Its result ? What titles were conferred on Charles ? 10. What did this victory give him ? When did he die ? Under what circum- stances ? How was the kingdom then divided ? Who became sole king ? 1 1 . Who were the Mayors of the Palace ? What was their origin ? How chosen ? What guardianship and powers did they have ? A. D. 573.) Till: MKROVINGIAN DYNASTY. 2& diansof the kings during their minority, and then exercised almost full kingly powers. In this way, they finally set aside the legitimate prince, and obtained permanent pos- session of the throne. 12. State of Society. — The prospects of civilization, during this period, were gloomy in the extreme. The bar- barous condition which, for a time, had been changed, by the introduction of the arts, science, and literature of the Romans, suddenly returned at the downfall of the empire and the invasions of the Germans. Old rivalries were re- vived, murders were frequent, and property and the rights of the weak were insecure. Only the strong arm ruled. One hopeful ray alone illuminates the darkness — the grow- ing respect for the Church, which stood between the barba- rians and the Bomanized inhabitants of Gaul, and, number- ing its adherents in both, lifted up its voice in the interest of humanity. 13. Churches, monasteries, and convents were built, pre- serving to some extent, in their construction, the architec- tural beauty of Greece and Italy, and affording, by the awe which attached to their sanctity, a refuge to the oppressed against violence and wrong. In the leisure and seclusion of their service, also, the literary models of a higher civiliza- tion were preserved. 14. Among the names which have come down to us from this period is that of Gregory of Tours, whose History of the Franks though showing traces of the childish superstition common in that age, has been an invaluable source of infor- mation to students and historians. He was born in Auvergne in 539, and chosen bishop of Tours in 573. In all the strug- gles and disorders of the troubled time in which he lived he discharged the duties of his high office with firmness and discretion, acting always in that spirit of humanity which forms the distinctive feature of the religion he professed. 12. What was the state of civilization during this period? What was the only hopeful feature ? 1 3. What were built ? What did they preserve ? -v ->- 14. What distinguished personage is referred to? What is said of Gregory ol Tours ? THE MEROVINGIAN DYNASTY. [A.». 752c CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A.D. 511. Death of Clovis. 558. Olotaire I., king of the Franks. 613. Clotaire II., king of the Franks. 687. Pepin d'Heristal becomes king. 714. Death of Pepin d'Heristal. 732. Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel. 741. Death of Charles Martel. 752. Accession of Pepin le Bref. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE MEROVINGIANS. Clovis. 1 Theodoric. 1 Clodomir. 1 Childebert. ~1 Clotaire. 1 ! Charibert. 1 Gontran. 1 Sigebert. 1 Chilperic. 1 Clotaire II. 1 Dagobert. 1 1 Sigebert II. 1 Clovis II. 1 r Clotaire III. 1 Childeric. 1 Chilperic II. 1 Chilperic III. (742-752) x>sed by Pepin le I 1 Theodoric. 1 De] I Clovis III. Iref. "~1 Childebert. 1 Dagobert III, 1 Theodoric IV, REVIEW QUESTIONS. PAGE 1. Why was the reign of Clovis important ? 26 2. Mention the chief events of his reign 26 3. Describe the feudal system 27 4. What was the Salic law ? ; 28 5. What assemblages were held by the Franks ? 28 6. Mention some of the successors of Clovis 28, 29 7. How was the French territory divided at different times ? 28, 29 8. What was the office of Mayor of the Palace ? 30 9. Who were the most distinguished of the officers ? 29, 30 10. Who obtained the title of Savior of Christian Civilization ? In what way }. . 80 11. What was the state of society under the Merovingians ? 31 12. How many centuries did this dynasty last ? : 30 13. Give an account of Gregory of Tours 31 752.] THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. 33 SECTION II. The Carlo vitfCxi an Dynasty. Extending from the Accession of Pepin le Bref (752) to that of Hugh Capet (986). 7 -n 1. Pepin le Bref was the first king of the Car- to lovingian line. His surname le Bref (the Short) was * 68 given him on account of his stature, which was such that he appeared almost like a dwarf among his stalwart warriors.* Nothing could have saved him from the con- tempt of these men but his undoubted physical strength and courage, and his ability to command. He gave ample proof during his life that he possessed all these qualities, f The influence of the Church at this time was very great, and hence an alliance with it was eagerly sought by kings who were at war with each other. Winifred, or St. Boni- face, archbishop of Mayence, had devoted himself to the spread of Christianity, and aided by Pepin's father, had gone as a missionary into the wilds of Germany. He had also anointed Pepin with holy oil at his coronation. Influ- enced largely by Winifred, therefore, Pepin enlisted on the side of the Pope, who was then attacked by the Lombards. \ * He is said to have been only four and a half feet high, while his son Charlemagne was seven feet in height. t An incident which happened at the beginning of his reign will serve to illustrate his strength and courage. While watching a fight between a lion and a bull one day— the spectacle of com- bats of wild animals being an amusement common in that rude age— the king asked his attend- ants who among them dared to rescue the bull, which was being strangled by the lion. No one answered. Pepin himself, it is said, then leaped down into the arena, and with one blow of his sword struck off the head of the lion, and even gashed the neck of the bull. Then turning to his nobles, he said, " Now am I worthy to be your king?" t The Lombards were a race of barbarians who in the sixth century entered Northern Italy and founded a powerful kingdom there. Map Questions.— (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) How far did the empire of Charle- magne extend from east to west ? What river was its eastern boundary ? How far did it extend toward the south ?— Am. To Gaeta, in Italy. How far did it extend toward the north ?— Am. To the Baltic Sea. What state occupied the northern part of France ? Eastern part ? The south-eastern part ? What the southern part ? The north-western part ? The south-western part ? What monarchy occupied both sides of the Lower Danube ? What people dwelt in the districts of the Upper Danube T What people occupied the country near the Elbe ? 1 . Who was the first king of the Carlovingian line ? His surname ? Why given to him? His physical strength, etc.? What is said of the influence of the Church ? Of Winifred or St. Boniface ? What cause did Pepin espouse ? 2* 34 THE CARLOVIN-GIAK DYNASTY. [A. ». 771. 2. He made two expeditions against the Saxons, but his principal victories and conquests were in Italy and in the countries south of his own. Pope Stephen II. fled to Gaul (754) to ask the aid of Pepin against the Lombards, who had seized the exarchate* of Ravenna and marched on Rome. Pepin, therefore, crossed the Alps with his army, attacked and defeated the Lombards, and regained posses- sion of Ravenna. The Lombards then promised to give to the Church the lands they had taken in northern Italy, but their promise was not fulfilled. Pepin, therefore, marched against them the following year, and wrested from them the exarchate, which he gave to the Pope (755), who thus assumed the office and power of a temporal monarch. 3. Three years after, the country lying between the Ce- vennes and the Gulf of Lyons was conquered by Pepin, and the kingdom of the Franks was thus extended to the Pyr- enees (759). Still warring in the name of religion, he de- manded of the Duke of Aquitaine a return of the property he had taken from the Church, and the surrender of Prank- ish fugitives who had found shelter in his dominions. This demand was refused, and Pepin entered upon a war'which lasted nine years, during which the rich dukedom of Aqui- taine was ravaged with remorseless cruelty. The duke was finally assassinated, and Aquitaine was attached to the kingdom of the Franks (768). The same year Pepin died, leaving his kingdom to his sons, Carloman and Charles, afterward entitled Charles the Great, or Charlemagne (shar'le-mahn). The former died at the end of three years, and the Franks, who, according to their old law, were per- mitted to choose their king, set aside the two infant sons of Carloman, and chose Charles (771). * Exarchate, a portion of country ruled bv an exarch, an officer appointed by the Emperor of the East. * 2. What expeditions did Pepin make ? Why did he attack the Lombard* ? What was the result ? 3. What was Pepin's next conquest ? Why did he invade Aquitaine ? What ended the war ? Who succeeded Pepin f How came Charlemagne to be king 1 A. ». 776.] THE CARLOVINGIAtf DYHASTY. 35 y 6g 4. Charlemagne was called to rule over a king- to dom larger than that of any. of his predecessors, coinciding nearly with modern France. The de- posed children of his brother, Car'loman, had taken refuge with Des-i-de'ri-us, the king of the Lombards, who was an enemy of the Franks. The daughter of Desiderius had been the wife of Charlemagne for a single year, but at the end of that time Charlemagne had divorced her and re- turned her to her father, who felt himself grossly insulted by this act. 5. Desiderius, therefore, besought the Pope (Adrian) to consecrate the children of Carloman as kings ; but the Pope informed Charlemagne, who immediately marched against the Lombards, conquered their territory, except the cities of Pavia (pah-ve'ah) and Vero'na, to which he laid siege, and went in person to Rome, on Easter day (774), where he confirmed the Pope in his title to the possessions given him by Pepin. The Lombards in Verona surrendered after a short siege, but the defense of Pavia was more obstinate. It was finally reduced by famine, Desiderius and his family were imprisoned in a monastery, and Charlemagne assumed the title of King of Lombardy, the Pope placing on his head- at his coronation, the famous iron crown of the Lombards. Shortly afterward he appointed his second son, Pepin, to rule over Lombardy (776). 6. The kings of the Franks had now been for many years the special champions of the Church. So accustomed had they become to do battle in its defense that its quarrel was easily assumed by them, often on slight pretexts. The Saxons, taking advantage of the absence of Charlemagne in Italy, rose in arms, threatened the Christian missionaries in their midst, and burned the church at Deven-ter, which 4. Over what kingdom was Charlemagne called to reign ? What became of the children of Carloman ? Why was Desiderius hostile to Charlemagne ? 5. How did Desiderius show his enmity? What did Charlemagne do? What were the results of this war ? 6. What acts of the Saxons brought on a war with Charlemagne ? Where is Deventer ? (See Progressive Map, No. 1.) Why was Charlemagne absent in Italy ? 36 THE CARLOYINGIAtf DYNASTY. [A. ». ?**. had been built by the Franks. Charlemagne marched against them, and reduced them to subjection (775).* The following year he returned with his army to Italy, con- quered the Lombards who had again risen, and hurrying back to Germany assembled the Field of May at Paderborn (777). 7. The Diet of Paderborn.— This council was held in the ravaged country of the Saxons. Along the frontier several strongly-fortified places had been built, and Charle- magne, hoping on this occasion to bind the Saxons by an oath too solemn to be broken, spared no pains to make the ceremony imposing. All the Saxon tribes were summoned to attend, many nations which were anxious to remain on terms of friendship with Charlemagne were represented, even the Saracens from Spain sent deputies. The Saxons professed allegiance under the severest penalties in case of disobedience, and many were baptized, f 8. As the defender of the Church, but more perhaps to se- cure the southern frontier of his kingdom, Charlemagne now gathered his forces to attack the Saracens in Spain. Cross- ing the Pyrenees in two divisions, his army united before Saragossa, which surrendered. While the army of the Franks was crossing the Pyrenees on its homeward march, a band of Basques fell upon the rear guard in a high and gloomy pass called the gorge of Eoncesvalles (ron-ses-val'les), and over- whelmed it with an avalanche of rocks and trees. Among the killed was Roland, the nephew of Charlemagne. This disaster, from the suddenness of the onset, the almost total an- nihilation of the force attacked, and the romantic character of the spot where it occurred, has been lifted into a singular and undue prominence. So many different accounts have * One of the acts of the Franks, at this time, which roused the anger of the Germans, was the destruction of the statue of Hermann, which had been erected on ed (that is, adopted). The lord rose up, went to him and gave him three blows with the flat of the sword on the shoulder or nape of the neck, and sometimes a slap with the palm of the hand on the cheek, saying, ' In the name of God, St. Michael, and St. George, I make thee knight! ' "—GuizoVs History of Civil- ization in Franc/;. 25. What was the commune ? How established ? 64 THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. soon led to the building of a rude church in every village, and this was encouraged by the priests and bishops. The next step was the demand of the serfs and villains for the possession of a portion of the land they cultivated. The more prosperous found it easy to buy of the nobles, many of whom found the sale of their lands an easy way to meet the lavish expenditures made necessary by their journeys to Pal- estine. With the possession of property came the demand to be represented, in the making and administering of laws affecting such property, by magistrates of their own choice. 26. The right of the great lords to impose oppressive taxes soon began to be questioned. This was particularly the case in cities and towns which had been founded by the Romans, and in which remnants of the old Roman laws still lingered in the shape of special grants or privileges. Charters were from time to time granted to them, which af- terward could not be recalled. This silent revolution led to the downfall of the feu- dal system, and the king* used all the arms of the hth centuky. means he properly could to aid it, since he saw that the decrease of the power of the nobles would probably end in the increase of his own. * * A striking illustration of the decrease of the kind's authority is fou&d in an incident which happened about this time. Leading his son Louis to r window, the k/ngV>inted to the ca.stle of Montlhery imon-lay-rSe), which stood only eight miles from Paris/and $iid, " My son, watcb well that castle which has given me so much trouble; I have growji old in the attempt to c;ij>- ture it." ' f 26, How did city charters come to be granted ? A.D.I 119.] THE CAPETIAK, DYNASTY. 65 27. William the Conqueror died while invading France, and William Rufus succeeded to the English throne. The war between the king of England and his brother, Robert of Normandy, was continued for several years ; but neither in this, nor in any of the great movements which occurred during his reign, did Philip I. take any active part. Wearied with the cares of royalty, he finally crowned his son Louis, then twenty-two years of age, resigned to him the charge of the kingdom, and went to live in retirement (1100). Eight years afterward he died in the habit of a monk. li08 28. Louis VI. {le Gros—the Fat).— The first to efforts of the new king were directed to checking the aggressions of the nobles. In these contests, he was aided by the Church and the people. He assailed and captured some of the castles, which had become scarcely setter than the strongholds of robbers. Hugh the Fair, the owner of one of these, was especially feared and detested by the peasantry, being described as a "hungry wolf who ravaged the country of the people of Orleans." In these contests with the lords, the king was also assisted by the serfs,- who at this time began to be formidable as militia.* 29. While Louis was thus gradually gaining strength, he made an attempt to wrest Normandy from the grasp of Henry I. of England, by declaring for William Cliton, a lineal descendant of William the Conqueror, as the rightful heir to Normandy ; but in the battle which followed he was defeated (1119). The Pope, who was then holding a coun- cil at Rheims, reconciled Henry and Louis ; and Normandy was retained by the English king. The strength of Louis was next felt in the south, where he was called to act as um- * " It is usual to say that the king was wisely inclined to defend the poor, to side with the Church, to encourage the communes in cities. The first and second of these state- ments are quite true, hut of the third there are no real proofs. Indeed, it assumes a state of things which had as yet scarcely begun to exist."— Kitchin's History of France. 27. What events occurred at the close of Philip's reign ? To whom did he resign the crown ? 28. To what were the first efforts of Louis VI. directed ? By whom was he aided ! What did he accomplish ? 29. What else did he undertake ? What followed ? How were Louis and Henrj reconciled ? Where else did the king show his strength ? 60 THE CAPETIA^ DYNASTY. [A. ». 1137. pire between William of Aquitaine * and the bishop of Cler- mont (112JB) ; and again in the north, where he avenged the murder of Charles the Good of Flanders, and appointed his successor (1127). 30. An accident, which happened at this time, led to an alliance which was followed by important results for France. The son of Henry I. of England was drowned while at- tempting to cross from France to England. Henry's only daughter Matilda thus became his heir. She had married Geoffrey Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and by this mar- riage a league was formed between England and the prov- inces of Normandy and Anjou, which seriously threatened the kingdom of France. 1137 «M • Louis VII. (le Jeune — the Young). — The to following year, Louis convened a great council at Eheims, at which he caused his son Louis to be crowned as his successor, with the title of Louis VII. ; he was also known as Louis the Young, Just before the death of his father, and while yet a child, Louis the Young was married to Eleanor of Guienne, the daughter of William of Aquitaine (1137). The new king did not intend to depart from the course marked out by his father ; but his ability, both as a soldier and an organizer, was considerably in- ferior. 32. One of his first failures was an attempt to extend his authority over Toulouse, f In this undertaking, the Count of Champagne refused to aid him. Louis marched into Champagne, therefore, ravaged the country through which he passed, and burned Vitry (ve'tre), 1,300 persons, who had taken refuge in the church, perishing in the flames. This act weighed upon the king's conscience ; and news reaching France, at this time, that the kingdom founded in * Formerly called by the Latin name Aquitanla. t Formerly Tolosa. 30. What important alliance was made at this time ? What caused it ? To what did it lead ? 3 1 . Who succeeded Louis VI. ? To whom was he married ? How did he compare with his father ? 32. In what undertaking did ho fail ? W hat event occurred ? What weighed upon the king's conscience 1 In what expedition did he embark ? (See Map, p. 99.) A. D. 1147.] THE CAPETIAN" DYNASTY. G? Palestine by the first crusade was in danger, Louis hastened to place himself at the head of a second great expedition which should march to its defense. 33. The Second Crusade. — The crime of the king was forgotten in the news of a greater which now reached Europe from the East. The Christian colony of Edessa was captured by the Turks, who followed up their Victory by a wholesale slaughter of Christians, the children of the first crusaders. The fanatical hatred against the infidels broke out anew in Europe. A second crusade was organized. Louis and his wife enlisted under the banner of the cross. St. Bernard * traveled through France and Germany, preach- ing to the people and inciting them to follow their sov- ereigns, f 34. At length the armies were ready. The Germans marched under the command of their emperor, Conrad III. ; the French, under Louis ; Suger (soo-zha) and the Count of Nevers (nu-vdre) being intrusted with the care of France during the king's absence (1147). The Germans crossed into Asia Minor and were almost annihilated by the Turks, only 5,000 or 6,000 being left to join the French, who were marching along the coast. The king, with his lords and special attendants, sailed for Antioch, leaving his army to pursue its painful march. The attacks of the Turks were incessant ; the slaughter was enormous. Of nearly 500,000 men who set out on the second crusade, scarcely 10,000 reached the Holy Land. * St. Bernard, the founder of the famous Ahhey of Clairvaux (cldr-vo'), preached the second crusade at the special request of the Pope. He was a religious enthusiast whose life had been passed by preference in the most menial offices, and in observances requir- ing the strictest self-denial and austerity. His body was worn to a shadow by continued fasting, and, being old at the time of the second crusade, he entered upon it with reluc- tance, but soon engaged in it with all the ardor of youth. He died in the year 1153, wel- coming death as a relief from the infirmities of the body. t " The fire was kindled through all France. Once more monasteries grew, churches sprang up. At Chartres, for example, there was a complete revival : men yoked them- selves to carts and dragged stones, timber, provisions, for the builders of the cathedral towers: the enthusiasm spread across Normandy and France : everywhere with the same penitential symptoms. Humility and affliction on every side ; penitence and confession of sins ; grief and contrition in every heart. You might see men and women drag them- selves on their knees through deep swamps; scourge themselves; raise songs and praises to God ; take part in the working of plentiful miracles. On such sensitive ears as these fell that 'heavenly organ,' St. Bernard's voice, 'after its sort pouring forth the dew of the Divine Word ; ' and Franc* sprang to her feet."— KitcMn's History of France. 33. What produced the second crusade ? Who was the principal instigator of it 1 34. Who embarked in it ? What loss was suffered ? 68 THE CAPETIAtf DYNASTY. [A. ». 1159. 35. On reaching Antioch, the king pushed on to Jerusa- lem, bent only on fulfilling his vow. A feeble attempt was made to capture Damascus, but the jealousies of the great lords prevented its success. On his way back to France, Louis was captured by the Greeks, but was afterward rescued by the Normans of Sicily, who landed him on the coast of France two years after he had set out (1149). The conse- quences of the second crusade were most disastrous to Louis. As he had abandoned his army in Asia Minor, so his queen now abandoned him, marrying Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, and thus depriving him of Poitou and Aquitaine, her inheritance (1152). 36. During the absence of Louis in Palestine, France, under the administration of Suger, had been prosperous and happy. Louis's want of judgment began at once to unsettle everything. His divorce from Eleanor, which caused the rupture of his kingdom, had been hastened by his rashness, and he now found himself confronted with her new hus- band, who was one of the most powerful lords in France, and even had pretensions to the throne of England. So great was his power, that though the King of England entered into a league with Louis against him, he was able to dictate a peace which confirmed him in the enjoyment of all his possessions (1153). 37. Henry of Anjou soon became more powerful than ever. He crossed over to England and was acknowledged heir to the throne by Stephen, who died the .following year (1154) ; and Henry then ascended the throne under the title of Henry II. Enterprising and warlike in disposition, he was a constant menace to the French king. Two years after his accession (1156), he organized an expedition to subdue Ireland, but landed in France instead, without, however, accomplishing anything of importance. He returned (1159) 35. Give an account of the king's adventures. Whom did the queen marry on the king's return ? What loss did this occasion ? 36. How had France prospered during the king's absence ? What occurred on hia return ? What is said of Henry of Anjou ? 37. Who succeeded to the English throne ? How was France affected by the ac- cession of Henry of Anjou ? A.D.I 170.] THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 69 and attacked Toulouse, but refrained from capturing it ; for the homage due from him to Louis, who was in the city, prevented him from thus breaking his feudal vow. 38. The marriage of Henry's son * with a daughter of Louis now brought about a peace which the English king skillful- ly used to strengthen himself in France. He built castles in many parts of his French possessions, particularly along the borders ; and, after a ten years' war, conquered Brittany (1166). A contest with the clergy, however, was brew- ing, and Henry's judgment here forsook him. The repre- sentative of the Church was Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. The struggle began in an attempt by Henry to restrain the Church in its interference in temporal affairs. The French king sided with the Church, but no decided advantage was gained by either, till at length a startling crime deprived Henry of his most powerful support. Becket was murdered before the altar of Canterbury Cathedral (1170). The dead prelate became at once a martyr, and the sympathies of all Christians were enlisted in the cause for which he had fallen. Henry hastened to disavow this bloody deed, making the most humiliating promises to extenuate it. Louis called upon the Pope to avenge the death of the mar- tyr, but was unable to take any special advantage of it. 39. This last attempt to wrest from Henry his French possessions was not attended with success, though the op- portunity seemed favorable. The inconstant Eleanor of Gui- enne left her husband, and returning to France, attempt- ed to rouse the Aquitanians against him, while his three sons took part in the conspiracy, one of them, Henry, be- ing urged on by Louis to demand either Anjou, Norman- dy, or England as his portion. Louis attacked both the French provinces, but Henry met him with an army of paid * This young prince was only four years old, and was betrothed to the infant princess Margaret, daughter of Louis by his second wife, Constance of Castile. 38. What led to a treaty of peace between Prance and England? How did the English king employ himself in France during this peace ? Give an account of his struggle with Thomas a Becket. 39. In what new project did Eleanor of Guienne engage ? What was the result ? What novel feature was there in the king's army ? What public act did Louis per form just before his death ? 70 THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. NOTRE DAME, PARIS.* The great cathedral of Notre Dame is a fine specimen of the pointed Gothic style of architecture. It is built in the form of a cross, with an extreme length of 31)0 feet, width It ""- 144 feet, height of vaulting 105 feet. The towers are 224 feet high. stands on the for- mer site of a Roman temple. Its corner-stone was laid by Pope Alexander III. in 1163; the high altar was consecrated in 1182; and, in 1185, the Patrician of Jerusalem officiated in the church. It was not entirely completed till 1312. A.B.I 180.] THE CAPETIAtf DYNASTY. 71 soldiers — the first standing army, it is thought, in the annals of Europe — and defeated him. Disease had now brought the French king to his deathbed. Calling a council at Paris, he caused his son Philip Augustus,* then fifteen years of age, to be crowned at Rheims. A few months after, Louis died (1180). 40. The changes which took place in the politics and society of France, during the reign of Louis the Young, were many and of great moment. Chief of these was the progress of the communes, f Though it can hardly be said that Louis was an advocate of the new movement, since he sometimes aided it, and sometimes suppressed it, the fact re- mains that twenty-five charters to cities were granted by him. Forests were cut down, large tracts of land were brought under cultivation, many new cities were built, and old ones were improved. He founded many churches and abbeys, the corner-stone of Notre Dame (notr dahm) in Paris being laid by the Pope during his reign. He con- firmed the privileges of the merchants of Paris, and created the peers of France. These were twelve in number, and the first public ceremony in which they took part was that of the coronation of his son. 41. Suger. — The guiding spirit of the interests of France during the reign of Louis VII. wis his special adviser, the abbot Suger. He was of poor parents, and had been brought up by the monks of St. Denis. He was the schoolmate and friend of Louis VI., and at his death became the friend of Louis VII., and acted as regent when the king left France to lead the second crusade. He introduced order and peace into France, showing at all times a foresight, skill, and modesty which equally adorned the humblest station or the highest. * Son of Alice, the third wife of Louis. This princess was sister of the Count of Cham- pagne. t The commune was a kind of municipality, having its rights secured hy royal charter, or grants of freedom from the nohles. The people of the towns were very earnest in the defense of their chartered privileges. 40. What were some of the principal changes made in France during the reign of Louis VII.? 41. What was the character of Suger? His origin, education, etc.? What did he accomplish ? 72 THE CAPETIAN DYKASTY. [A. D. 1186. 1180 &%• Philip II-, usually called Philip Augustus, to began his reign in 1180, at the age of fifteen. He was filled, at an early age, with the idea of raising France to the height reached in the time of Charlemagne ; and being gifted with much cunning and perseverance, was, to a great extent, successful. Circumstances, also, came to the aid of his natural abilities. Nearly all the territory which Louis the Fat had united into a compact kingdom came under his sway. The office of king, also, had now as- sumed sufficient importance to be superior to that of the nost powerful lord, v 43. The young king found himself involved at once in a i truggle with his relatives, who had hoped to take advan- lage of his want of experience. Disregarding their counsel, ne had, even before his father's death, married Isabella, niece of the Count of Flanders ; and they now, at his father's death, attacked him. He was aided, however, by the King of England, who brought about a peace. The increase of the kingly power in such an unsettled time could only be ac- complished by the use of arbitrary, and often cruel, power ; and of this the young king showed himself capable. For many years it had been the custom to persecute the Jews, such cruelty being regarded as approved of God. A decree of banishment was, therefore, issued against them, and they were driven out of France, their property being taken by the king (1182). 44. The king then entered upon a career of conquest, the first step in which was the possession of some of the cities of Flanders (1185). He next attacked the Duke of Burgundy, conquered him, and converted him into a friend by suddenly releasing him from the penalty which defeat had imposed (1186). His next step was to subdue "Normandy, which commanded the mouth of the Seine ; but which, being gov- 42. When did Philip Augustus commence to reign? What was his controlling idea ? What circumstances aided him f 43. Who was the wife of Philip Augustus? In what war was he engaged? Of what cruel act was he guilty ? 44. What conquests did he make? Who was his antagonist in the south ol France ? What was the result of the struggle ? \. I>. 1190.] THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 73 crned by the English king, had been, since 1066, a standing menace to the French monarchy. The most promising pre- text for this purpose was the quarrel which had long existed between the King of England and his sons. After many conferences and compromises, war was finally declared be- tween France and England, Philip attacking Eichard the Lion-hearted, who governed Aquitaine. The want of vigor, however, shown by Eichard caused his father to suspect treachery on his part, and he consented to a humiliating peace, by which Philip obtained possession of some of the English territory in France (1189). The same year Eichard became King of England. ^X45. The Third Crusade. — Alarming news now reached Europe. A second time the Christian kingdom, founded and sustained in Palestine by the expenditure of so much blood and treasure, was in danger of being swept away. The Moslems, under Saladin, had defeated the Christians in a bloody two days' battle, and had captured Jerusalem and most of the Christian cities. The Emperor of Germany, Fred- eric Barbarossa, was the first to march ; and the kings of France and England followed (1190). The same frightful suffering and loss of life which marked the first and second crusades, were now repeated. The King of France, having no liking for the dangers of war, soon set out for home, having first taken an oath to respect the possessions of the King of England. * 46. The designs of Philip against the English king were now greatly assisted by an accident. Eichard, on his return from Palestine, was shipwrecked, and attempted to cross Germany in the disguise of a pilgrim. He was detected, however, by his enemy, Leopold of Austria, and delivered to the Emperor of Germany, who held him a prisoner. Philip, on receipt of this news, invaded Normandy. In this enter- * A treaty was at length made with Saladin, by which the seaports held by the Chris- tians were secured to them, and a way opened for pilgrims to Jerusalem. 45. What caused the third crusade ? Who was the leader of the Moslems ? What countries engaged in this crusade ? What course did Philip take ? 46. What happened to Richard the Lion-hearted? How did Philip take advan tage of Richard's misfortune ? What followed ? 4 74 THE OAPBTIAIff DYNASTY. [A. ». 1200, prise he was assisted by Richard's brother, John. But the sympathy of Europe was enlisted for the captive King of England, who had done such brilliant deeds in the name of the Church on the plains of Palestine ; and the ransom neces- sary for his release was soon paid. * His return put an end to the compact between John and the King of France, and though the just anger of Kichard caused a continuance of the war, want of resources on both sides soon brought about a peace, by which the crafty Philip became master of Auvergne (1196). 47. The truce, however, was short-lived. By a previous cession of territory to the French king, an open path had been made for him to Rouen ; and Richard built a castle to bar the way. War, therefore, broke out in Normandy with renewed violence. Richard defeated Philip, but before he could gather the fruit of his victory, the Pope interfered and bound both kings in a five years' peace (1199). Only two months after, Richard was killed by an archer while attacking the castle of one of his vassals in France. Arthur of Brittany, a nephew of Richard the Lion-hearted, had been chosen by the latter as his successor ; but Richard's brother, John, obtained the throne. 48. A war ensued, in which Philip, under the guise of espousing Arthur's cause, entered Brittany, capturing town after town, and demolishing their defenses. But he soon entered into a treaty with John (1200), and deserted the * " On his voyage homeward, Richard was shipwrecked on the coast of Istria. As he had given great offense to the Duke of Austria in Palestine, he undertook to travel through Germany in the disguise of a pilgrim to prevent discovery and arrest. He was, however, discovered and 'incarcerated in an Austrian castle ; and the business was man- aged so secretly that his very existence became a matter of doubt to his subjects.' Ere long, however, Blondel de Nesle, whose minstrelsy Cceur de Lion had patronized, under- took to discover him, and traversed Germany with that object. For a time the enterprise seemed hopeless ; but one day Blondel, coming to a castle In Tenebreuse, learned that it contained a solitary prisoner. He could not learn the name of the captive, but, from the description, he was convinced that his search had not been in vain. Seating himself under the prison window, he commenced a song which Richard and he had in other days composed together. No sooner had Blondel finished the first couplet, than, to his joy, a well-known voice from the window, in significant accents, sang the second. Blondel, no longer doubting that Richard was the solitary captive, hastened to give Queen Eleanor information as to the prison which contained her lion-hearted son."— Edgar's Crusades and Crusaders. 47. What led to a renewal of the war ? What was the result ? What caused Rich- ard's death ? Who was his successor ? 48. On what pretext did Philip invade Brittany t With what result i What crime did John commit ? A. ». 1204.] THE CAPETIAtf DYNASTY. 70 young prince. The war was, however, renewed ; but during its progress, Arthur fell into the hands of his uncle, who caused him to be murdered (1203). 49. The feeling of anger produced by this act brought on a general attack upon Normandy, Philip, as usual, taking an active part. His excuse for engaging in this contest was that John had not appeared before the peers of France, as Philip had summoned him to do, to answer for the mur- der of Arthur. Philip, therefore, invaded Normandy, and advanced to Rouen. John fled at once to England, and Philip completed his victory, ending the war by annexing nearly all of the English possessions in France to his king- dom. He then summoned John again to appear and answer for the death of Arthur, but John again refused. Philip then called a council of the twelve peers, declared the Eng- lish king guilty of murder and treason, and passed sentence of death on him. Thus ended the rule of the English king on the soil of France (1204). 50. The Albigenses. — The persecution of the Albi- genses * was a memorable event of this reign. This people were a sect of dissenters from the Catholic Church who lived in the south of France. This part of the country had always differed from the rest, not only in disposition, man- ners, and customs, but for some time had not accepted the doctrines of the Church. In this they were supported by Raymond VI. , f Count of Toulouse, who was excommuni- cated, and a crusade was directed by the Pope against them. 51. Simon de Montfort J gathered together an army of * The Albigenses received their name from Albigeois (al-be-zhwah), the district in which they first appeared. " Their life," says Kitchin, " was of the utmost purity and sim- plicity ; even their opponents allow so much." t Raymond VI., the descendant of the rich counts of Toulouse, was, says Michelet, "one of the most powerful, and, probably, the richest prince of Christendom." t " Simon de Montfort. the true leader of the war against the Albigeois, was a veteran of the crusades, hardened in the unsparing battles of the Templars and the Assassins. On his return from the Holy Land, he found at Venice the army of the fourth crusade 49. To what did this lead ? What part did Philip take ? On what pretext ? What did he accomplish ? What ended the English rule in France ? 50. Who were the Albigenses ? How were the people of the south of France pecu- liar ? What did they refuse to accept ? Who supported them ? What was done by the Pope ? St. What was done by Simon de Montfort ? What city was taken ? What cruel deed was perpetrated ? How long did the war last 1 What other events are met*- tfoned '( Where is Beziers ? {See Progressive Map Xo.Z.) 76 THE CAPETIA^ DYNASTY. [A. D. 1229. men from the north and middle of France ; and, in the name of religion, entered Languedoc {longeli-doc), where he captured Beziers (ba-ze-a), the whole population of which was put to the sword (1209).* This war, which was carried on with great cruelty, lasted till 1215, when it ended for a time, the lands of the great lords having been seized and given to Simon de Montfort. During its progress, the King of Aragon was killed, and the civilization of the south almost perished. • 52. Simon de Montfort was afterward killed, and the peo- ple of the south appealed to the King of France for protec- tion. The result was the addition of a large part of the south to the kingdom of France, several years after (1229). Philip did not enter into this war in the south, perhaps be- cause he was preparing for another danger which began to threaten him about this time ; for the great lords of the north oi France had for a long time watched witli fear the increasing power of the king, f 53. An alliance was now formed between King John of England and the Emperor Otho of Germany (both of whom had been excommunicated by the Pope), and the Counts of Flanders and Boulogne. Philip, therefore, espoused the cause of the Pope against them, and was preparing to in- vade England, when he suddenly learned that King John had made his peace with the Pope, and that his kingdom was under the special protection of the latter. He therefore on the eve of departure, but refused to accompany it to Constantinople, and obeyed the Pope. This action rendered Montfort a marked man, and paved the way for his future greatness."— Michelet. * "One of the superior officers inquired of the Abbot of Citeaux (se-to'), how they were to distinguish the heretics from the faithful. ' Slay them all ! ' returned the sav- age churchman, 'for the Lord knoweth those that are his!' Not a living soul was spared, and the city was afterward pillaged and reduced to ashes."— Students' France. t " While this cruel war lasted, Philip Augustus would not take any part in it. Not that he had any leaning toward the Albigensian heretics on the score of creed or relig- ious liberty ; but his sense of justice and moderation was shocked at the violence em- ployed against them, and he had a repugnance to the idea of taking part in the devasta- tion of the beautiful southern provinces. He took it ill, moreover, that the Pope should arrogate to himself the right of despoiling of their dominions, on the ground of heresy, princes who were vassals of the King of France. When Innocent III. called upon him to co-operate in the crusade, Philip answered ' that he had at his flanks two huge and terrible lions, the Emperor Otho and King John of England.' "— Guizot's History of France. 52. Who was killed? What was the result of the appeal of the people of the south 1 Why did not Philip enter into the war against the Albigensea J 53. What alliance was now formed? What cause did Philip espouse ? What changed his purpose ? What happened in Flanders ? \.D. 1217.] THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 77 turned his army toward Flanders, many cities of which he pillaged, though he lost his fleet (1213). 54. The anger of the English king, however, had not yet cooled, and the war was renewed the following year (1214), This time France was invaded at two points. King John landed at Rochelle (ro-sheV), and marched inland ; but was met by a French army under the king's son, Louis, and easily beaten. In the north, the allied army, under the command of the Emperor of Germany, came upon the French at Bouvines (boo-veen'), and, after a desperate struggle, the French were victorious. The result of the battle of Bouvines has always been regarded as the death-blow to the hopes of the great lords in their contest with the king. On that day Philip and the common people fought side by side, the latter being mentioned by him with special honor. A national feeling was thus aroused, which placed the French monarchy on the strongest foundation — the affection of the people. 55. In England the contest of the king with the great lords or barons ended in a victory for the latter. King John, on his return from his defeat in France, was com- pelled by the barons to sign Magna Charta — the Great Charter (1215) ; but he disregarded his signature at the first opportunity. The barons then offered the crown of England to Louis, the son of the French king, who went to England to claim it. But John shortly after died, and the barons, deserting Louis, set up as king John's son, Henry, who was soon acknowledged under the title of Henry III. Louis, after being besieged in London a short time, made terms with the English, and sailed for France (1217). 56. The remaining years of the life of Philip Augustus were not occupied in war, but in consolidating his kingdom. 54. Who invaded France by way of Rochelle? What was the result? In what respect was the battle of Bouvines of great importance ? W T hat aroused a national feeling ? Where is Bouvines ? (See Progressive map No. 3.) 55. What great act in England made the year 1215 memorable ? How was France affected by it ? At John's death what happened ? 56. How were the remaining years of Philip Augustus occupied? What were some of the special reforms introduced by him ? What improvements were made in Paris? 78 THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. [A. 1>. 1223. He had succeeded in placing the royal power on a firm foot- ing, by making it independent not only of the lords, but also, in great measure, of the Church. He had sometimes resisted the demands of the latter, but he was wise enough to uphold its cause when it did not threaten any of his own rights. Though he was not great, either in mind or heart, he did much to improve and strengthen France. * During his reign, many provinces were added to it, the common people were lifted up to a position of greater influence in public affairs, the right of private war between the nobles was abolished, and peace and order prevailed. The city of Paris was walled, paved, embellished, and provided with markets : the Louvre was begun ; and the University of Paris received a royal charter drawn up under the direction of the king, who also enlarged its course of study. The greater part of the Cathedral of Notre Dame was also finished, f Philip died in the fifty-fifth year of his age, after a reign of nearly forty- three years (1223). 1223 f • Louis VIII., the son of Philip Augustus, as- to cended the throne at his father's death (1223). On the side of his mother, he was a lineal descendant of the renowned Charlemagne, and thus united in his person the Carlovingian and Capetian dynasties. On this account he was regarded with especial favor by the French nation. He renewed hostilities with England ; but a truce was * " Philip Augustus made great changes in France, and converted the separate inter- ests of the feudal nobles into a confederation of powers strictly subordinate to the crown. A tumultuous republic of knights and barons had become a well-balanced king- dom, with local privileges and a. centralized authority. The Church, satisfied with its progress, and now relying on law for its support in crushing its adversaries, had im- bibed a monarchical spirit not known in the days of its early struggles in defense of the helpless people. The communes were rich and flourishing, and had made their voice al- ready potential in the State by holding the purse, and even by keeping men-at-arms in their pay. The great mass of the population were in easier circumstances than before, and not so entirely exposed to the oppressions of their local tyrants. Learned men, even from the lower class of the laity, were admitted into the national councils, and admin- istered justice in the king's name. The nearest approach to the policy of a modern State was made by this wise and unscrupulous ruler."— White's History of France. t " In 1185, as Philip Augustus was walking one day in his palace, he placed himself at a window whence he was sometimes pleased, by way of pastime, to watch the Seine flow- ing by. Some carts, as they passed, caused the mud with which the streets were filled to emit a fetid smell, quite unbearable. The king, shocked at what was as unhealtny as it was disgusting, sent for the burghers and provost of the city, and ordered that all the 5 7. When did Louis VIII. ascend thelhrone ? Against what country did he make war? What war was continued ? When did the king's death occur ? Who whs 1i» successor ? A. ». 1242.] THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 79 soon concluded, and the king turned his attention to affairs in Languedoc. The war against Count Kaymond (VII. ) was continued ; but during its progress Louis died, after a reign of only three years. Before his death, he caused the barons and prelates to swear allegiance to his eldest son Louis (1226). 122ft ^. Louis IX., commonly called Saint Louis, was to only twelve years of age at his father's death. His 1270 mo ther, Blanche of Castile, therefore, was made regent till he should be of age. She caused the boy-king to be crowned immediately at Rheims, but the summons sent to the great lords to attend the ceremony was generally disregarded. They saw an opportunity to regain a part of their lost power, and formed a league against Louis. Their plans were thwarted, however, by the courage and ability of Blanche, who won over to her side some of the great vas- sals ; but the struggle did not end for several years (1231). 59. During this period, the war against the Albigenses was terminated, Languedoc submitting to the crown of France ; but Eaymond retained a small portion of his ter- ritories during his life (1229). The Inquisition was now established at Toulouse, under the Dominicans, to complete the conquest. People of every age and condition, and of both sexes, were thrown into dungeons, and compelled by cruel tortures to abandon their religious opinions. 60. Louis, at the age of nineteen, was married to Mar- guerite, eldest daughter of the Count of Provence (1234). His mother, however, had great influence over him for many years. The plots which the great lords formed against the young king were still kept up ; and, in 1242, he found it necessary to take up arms against them. He defeated the lords and the English under Henry III. allied with them, and made a treaty with them. By this treaty the French thoroughfares and streets of Paris should he paved with hard and solid stone, for this right Christian prince aspired to rid Paris of her ancient name, Lutetia (Mud-town)."— Delisle. 58. What was the surname of Louis IX.? What action did the lords take when summoned to his coronation ? Who thwarted their plans ? 59. How was the war against the Albigenses terminated ? What was estab- lished f What persecution took place ? 60. Whom did Louis many ? What war was waged ? With what result ? 80 THE CAPETIAl* DYNASTY. [A. ». 1254. acquired possession of the northern part of Aquitame (1243).* y 61. The contest of the Pope with the Emperor of Ger- many at this time engaged the attention of Europe. The latter had driven the Pope out of Italy. The Pope excom- municated the emperor, and strove to engage the French king in a crusade against him. But Louis, though he was a devout believer, was also a prudent king, and refused to up- hold the Pope in humbling a monarch who might be a dangerous enemy to France. Ever since a serious illness through which Louis had passed, he had resolved to go on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land ; and, on the capture of Jerusa- lem by a Tartar tribe (1244), he determined to embark on a crusade to liberate the Holy Sepulcher. f 62. Louis, having received the oriflamme \ at St. Denis, set out from the port of Aigues Mortes {ag-mort) on the Mediterranean, sailed for the island of Cyprus, and thence to Egypt (1248). After many delays, and some severe fighting, disease broke out in the army of the king ; and he, with his knights, was taken prisoner, and was released only after the payment of a heavy ransom. He reached Palestine with only a hundred of his knights and a fragment of his army, and spent four years there, when hearing of the death of his mother, he returned to France (1254). * " He entered into negotiations with the King of England, the King of Aragon, and various princes and great feudal lords, and in January, 1243, a treaty was made which marked the end of feudal troubles for the whole duration of his reign. He drew his sword no more, save only against the enemies of the Christian faith and Christian civili- zation."— Faure's Life of St. Louis. t A device adopted by him, when he was ready, swelled considerably the number of his attendants. It was the custom on Christmas to give to every courtier a new cloak. All were bidden, therefore, to be present at early morning mass, and each was presented with his cloak, and passed into the church. As the daylight grew stronger they were surprised to discover that each cloak had on its shoulder the figure of a cross. But the cross, thus worn, was the emblem of a crusader. Not daring, for the sake of their relig- ion, to take off the cloaks and thus appear to decline the service of the cross, they left them on, and the king in this way secured many followers in his crusade. t The oriflamme, the sacred standard of France, was first carried before the king in the time of Louis VI. The word oriflamme signifies golden fame, and refers to the dis- tinguishing feature of the standard, which was red with flames of gold embroidered on it. It was kept in the church oi St. Denis, and one of the conditions by which the King of France, in 1075, obtained possession of the flef in which St. Denis was situated was that on the breaking out of war, he should repair to the church in person, and, taking down the standard, place it in front of his army, and there keep ft when engaged in battle. 61. What contest engaged the attention of Europe? Why did Louis refuse to take part in it ? What induced the king to undertake a crusade r 62. From what port did the expedition sail ? What course did it take 1 What was the result ? What caused the king's return ? (See Fivgressive Map No, 3.) A. ». 1270.] THE CAPETIAK DYNASTY. 81 63. For thirteen years lie devoted himself to adminis- tering the affairs of his kingdom, establishing order, and making laws which should promote the welfare of his peo- ple. Notwithstanding his failure in his first crusade, he longed, as a loyal son of the Church, to go upon another, that being, as he thought, the surest way of showing his de* votion. Accordingly, he sailed again, this time directing his course to Tunis. There the plague overtook his army and carried off the greater part, the king himself being a victim. He died at the age of fifty-six (1270).* 64. The character of Louis IX., his love of justice, his devotion to the Church, and the great service he render- ed to the cause of the monarchy, have always caused him te be ranked among the greatest of French kings. His strong sense of right sometimes brought him into conflict with the Pope himself, whose subject he was proud to be. The great- est service rendered by Louis IX. was, perhaps, his substitu- tion, throughout his kingdom, of just laws for those which were founded upon brute force. He gathered around him able lawyers, and devoted himself to redressing the wrongs of his people, f 65. Much of this king's time was given to acts of charity, and many buildings were erected by him for the comfort of the sick and unfortunate. Besides hospitals, asylums, and churches, he built the Sainte Chapelle (shah-pel) 9 a beauti- ful chapel in Paris, intended to contain the crown of thorns said to have been worn by our Saviour. This had been pre- sented to Louis, in return for the aid which he had given * " At length King Louis was himself attacked hy the fatal epidemic, and, heing already in an enfeebled state of health, seems to have perceived at once that his end was ap- proaching. He lingered for twenty-two days, engaged in devotion, giving wise and admirable counsel to his son, consoling his distressed attendants, and exhibiting a per- fect model of Christian resignation and equanimity. In his last moments he caused himself to be laid upon a bed of ashes, and in this situation peaceably expired." t It was his custom to sit under an oak tree at Vincennes and listen to any complaints that might be made ; and the sentence passed by him, even upon the nobles, was often very severe. In this way the lords became used to his exercise of superior power, and the common people learned to look with affection upon a king who did justice without 63. How were the next thirteen years spent ? Why did he go on another crusade : W hat caused the king's death ? 64. What was the character of Louis IX. ? Give some account of the service he rendered to France. W«^«l other acts of St. Louis are mentioned? What buildings did he erect? W hat institutions did he assist in founding ? 4* 82 THE CAPETIA^ DTKASTY. [A. ». 1270. to the Church in time of need. He also assisted his confes- sor, Sorbon, in founding the school, afterward called after him the Sorbonne (sor-bon').* Louis was canonized Au- gust 11th, 1297, by Pope Boniface VIII. 1270 H" Eililip DX (th e Hardy). — The successor of to St. Louis was his eldest son, Philip, who returned from the crusade in Tunis to ascend the throne. He was devout, but unlearned, and made a weak successor to Louis IX. By THE SORBONNE. the marriage of one of his sons to the daughter of Henry of Na- v a r r e (nah- var'), he laid claim to the lat- t e r kingdom. His claim, how- ever, was resist- ed ; but, though Philip showed little ability as a soldier, in the war that follow- ed, he succeeded by diplomacy in adding Navarre to his kingdom. 67. A n o t h e r war in which Philip en •"Under his patronage, the university drew to itself ail the learned of Europe : the German Albertus Mafrnus, the Italian St. Thomas Aquinas the Engl shlioger Bacon, studied there. The French language sprang into a new and brilliant life. loetryan d history, with wonderful freshness and truth, gave grace and power to the tongue. - Kitchws History of France. 66. What was the first war in which Philip TIT: was engaged upon Navarr" ? What claim had he 67. Give an account of the Sicilian Vespers. sacre ? This led to a war with whom ? What was the result to France r Who was the instigator of the mas- A. ». 1285.] THE CAPETIAX DYNASTY. 83 proved fatal to him. His uncle, Charles of Anjou, had con- quered Sicily many years before. Being a man of great am- bition, he formed a project for capturing Constantinople under the guise of a crusade. While he was preparing for this, however, John of Procida (pro-che'dah), a Sicilian who had been aided by the King of Aragon,* brought about a gen- eral massacre of all the French in Sicily. This occurred on the evening of March 30, 1282. The signal being the ringing of the vesper bell, this massacre has always been known as the Sicilian Vespers, f Don Pedro of Aragon was then made King of Sicily in place of Charles of Anjou, who, on that fatal night, was deprived of all his sup- porters. The King of Aragon being an enemy of Philip, this massacre of Frenchmen led to a bitter war between them, in which the latter met with great reverses ; and while returning from it he died (1285). 68. The weakness of Philip's character, and the shortness of his reign, enabled him to do little in the way of strength- ening the French monarchy. He was, also, overshadowed by his uncle, Charles of Anjou, whose ambitious projects drew to his side the most powerful lords of France. The kingdom, however, was now so firmly established in law that it suffered little loss by Philip's want of energy. A fact which shows how much stronger the king was than any of his great lords was the granting of a title of nobility to Eaoul (rah-ool), the king's silversmith — such an honor to a tradesman being till then unheard of (1272). Three years later, persons below the rank of noblemen were per- mitted to own large estates ; and this was followed by the ennobling of the free citizens of Paris, and the knighting of lawyers. V/ * A kingdom in the northern part of Spain. t This massacre was commenced in resenting an insult to a young Sicilian woman by a French soldier, who was at once disarmed, and slain with his own sword. A cry was then raised, " Death, death to the French ! " They were cut down in all directions, their houses having been marked beforehand. " Whoever," says Michelet, " could not pro- nounce the Italian c (eft) was immediately put to death." About 8,000 persons perished by this dreadful event. 68. In what condition was the king's power at this time ? How is the increase of his power illustrated ? What other incidents confirm it ? 84 THE (APKTIAX" DYX/ASTY. [A. D. 1290. 1285 &• ^P^ilip IV. — The next monarch who ruled in to France was Philip IV., surnamed le Bel (the Fair), the eldest son of Philip III. He began his reign at the age of seventeen (1285). His grasping disposition soon led to difficulties with Edward I., King of England, whose French possessions Philip coveted, and whose quarrel, with Scotland gave Philip the opportunity he wished. The Duke of Brittany and Guy {ghl), Count of Flanders, formed an alliance against Philip, with Edward I., who was also Duke of Guienne (g7ie-e?i').* The latter was scarcely opposed at first, the attention of the English king being occupied with his war with the Scots. Philip invaded Flanders and conquered it (1300) ; after which the Pope brought about a peace between him and Edward, confirming it by a mar- riage between Philip's daughter and Edward's son. 70. The conquest of Flanders brought under the rule of Philip one of the richest countries in Europe ; but it gave little to the nearly empty treasury of the French king, its industry being guarded by special privileges which its new master thought it prudent to respect. His want of money, however, increased rapidly ; and after plundering the Jews, passing laws prohibiting luxury, and imposing taxes which tended to destroy altogether certain kinds of industries, he debased the coinage till it was worth only about one-fifth of its face value. In his great need of money, he finally grasped at the property of the clergy, and this brought on a dispute with Pope Boniface VIII. (1296), which lasted during the remainder of the Pope's life. Philip, after the death of This war had its origin in a quarrel between the crews of an English and a Norman . „ssel, who, happening to go to the same place to fill their water-casks, fell into a dispute, in the course of which one of the Normans was slain. This bred dissensions between the sailors of both countries, and the sea soon became a scene of constant combat and pira- cies between them. At length a fleet of English ships encountered one of the Norman vessels, and, after a fierce battle, destroyed or captured nearly the whole (1293). Philip, King of France, being then appealed to, summoned Edward, as Duke of Guienne, to appear and answer for these offenses committed by his subjects, and afterward artfully Jiersuaded him temporarily to relinquish possession of the duchy, as a satisfaction for all njuries. The French king thus obtaining control of Guienne, again cited Edward, and, on his refusal to appear, declared the duchy forfeited, and annexed it to his own domin- ions (1294). 69. Who succeeded Philip III? His surname ? What caused the war between him and the King of England ? What ended it ? 70. What despotic acta did the king commit ': What were the results of the WSJ thus produced 1 A. D. 1303.] THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. Boniface, succeeded in placing the Archbishop of Bordeaux (bdr-do'), under the title of Clement V., on the papal throne (1305), and transferred the seat of the papacy from Rome to Avignon (pih-vm-yong), where it remained for about seventy years. 71. The Battle of Courtray. — The oppressions of Philip in Flanders led finally to a revolt in which, in the city of Bruges (or broozh) alone, 3,000 French were slaugh- tered. An army was immediately sent to suppress this insur- rection. The Flemings met it near Courtray. :?: The Flemish army of tradesmen and burghers, to the number of 20,000, were drawn up behind a deep canal, with banks so level as not to be seen even at a short distance. The French army of knights and regular soldiers, more than double the Flem- ings in number, charged impetuously without reconnoitering the ground. When it was too late to check the speed of their horses, they saw the canal, into which they fell before striking a blow. The Flemings then crossed over, attacked them on both flanks, and routed them (1302). f 72v Smarting under this defeat of the chivalry of France by the tradesmen of Flanders, Philip now raised a new army with the intention of punishing them severely. Each side made an extraordinary effort to gather a powerful army. The French put in the field 70,000 men ; the Flemings, 80,000. The action (1304) resulted in favor of the king, and he thought the subjection of the Flemings assured. A few days after, however, they returned with an army quite as large, and again offered him battle. So great was the surprise of the king that he exclaimed, "Does it rain Flem- ings then ? " and shortly after made peace with them. 73. Abolition of the Templars. — Philip now formed * Before the battle, the Flemings celebrated mass and confessed their sins, and then took a solemn oath to fight to the death for the liberties of their country, by kneeling together, each taking up a morsel of earth and pressing it to his lips. tFrom 4,000 to 7,000 gilt spurs were afterward picked up on the field of battle and hung in the Cathedral of Courtray. From this incident the battle of Courtray is often called the Battle of the Spurs. 71 . What was the cause of the battle of Courtray ? Describe it. 72. Was the battle of Courtray decisive? What followed it ! 73. Give an account, of the suppression of the templars. 86 THE CAPETTAX DYNASTY. Ta. D. 1314. a scheme for filling his always empty treasury. This was the abolition of the Knights Templars, a military order which had originally been formed for the purpose of carrying on the crusades. As these had long since become unpopular in Europe, the large sums of money wrjich had accumulated in the hands of the templars became an object of greed to the king.* Some vague rumors which had long been cur- rent, concerning the looseness of morals which prevailed among the templars at their secret meetings, gave the king a pretext for attacking them. He therefore sent a secret order to his officers throughout the kingdom to fall upon the templars on the night of the 13th of October (1307). Great numbers were captured and tortured, several were burned at the stake, and the greater part of their treasure was seized by the king. 74. The discontent which the heavy taxes produced con- tinued to increase, and ended in a league of the nobles and the common people to resist them. So great had the oppres- sion become that, at one time, a general uprising was threat- ened. The king, however, now thoroughly alarmed, gave up his attempted tax, and calling together the leading men of several cities promised never again to debase the coinage. Domestic trouble, also, came to add to the disquiet of the king ; and an accident which happened while he was hunt- ing, brought on a sickness from which he never recovered. He died at the age of forty-six (1314). f 75. Among the people of France there was little regret at the death of Philip the Fair. He was cold and unamia- ble in disposition, and the heavy and constant taxes which he levied weighed so heavily upon trade and commerce that * Their temple was in Paris, opposite the king's palace. The number of knights alone belonging to the order was 15,000. Their treasury contained 150,000 gold florins, besides large sums of silver, precious stones, rich vases, etc. t The king, Philip IV., ordered two templars, one of them the Grand Master, to be burned. " It was probably owing to the last words of the Master—' God will avenge our death '—that there arose a popular rumor that the Master, at his death, had cited the Pope and the king to appear with him, the former at the end of forty days ; and the latter within a year, before the judgment seat of God. Events gave a sanction to the legend ; " for both Clement and Philip actually died within the time named. 74. What is said of the taxes at this time ? What did the king promise ? What was the immediate cause of the king's death ? 75. How was Philip regarded by his people ? What addition was made to the ter ritory of France during his reign 1 A. D. 1312.1 THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 8? his death produced a sense of relief. * During his reign, however, the territory of France had been somewhat in- creased. The most important of these additions was the city of Lyons, which was annexed in 1312. 76. Throughout the reign of Philip the Fair may be seen the gradual change which was being made in France toward the increase of the royal authority. The powers which the lords had exercised by right of custom gave place to written laws, which the cunning king. took care should generally be attended by some loss to the lords. For the purpose of ex- ecuting these laws, he divided the parliament into three bodies : one for the administration of justice, called the par- liament ; another, called the chamber of finance ; a third, for the consideration of political matters, which was called the grand council. 77. The Third Estate. — The most important act in the reign of Philip was his creation of the third estate. Up to this time there had been only two recognized orders in France, the nobles and the clergy. In 1302, however, Philip, being then at the height of his quarrel with the Pope, and feeling his need of the support of the whole people of France, permitted the burghers, or common peo- ple, to send representatives to the States-General which he had called. In this general council, these representatives sat on equal terms with those of the nobles and the clergy ; and thus one of the most despotic kings of France was the means of bringing about a great political advance in the condition of the people. From that time three estates were known in France : the nobles, the clergy, and the neople, or, as the latter were called, the third estate. *r~ * " This greed is the vice which has clung to his name. Not only did he load his sub- jects with poll taxes and other taxes unauthorized by law and the traditions of the feu- dal system ; not only was he unjust and cruel toward the templars, in order to appro- priate their riches ; but he committed, over and over again, that kind of spoliation which Imports most trouble into the general life of a people ; he debased the coinage so often, and to such an extent, that he was everywhere called ' the base coiner.' "—GuizoVs History of France. 76. How was the power of the nobles diminished? How did Philip divide the parliament ? 77. What was the origin of the third estate? What other orders existed at this time f 88 1HE CAPETIAST DYNASTY. [A. D. 1318 1314 ' ^* Louis X. {Ie Rutin — disorder or tumult*).— to Philip the Fair had three sons, of whom Louis, the eldest, was proclaimed king (1314). Though he was twenty-five years old when he was called to the throne, his trifling disposition led him to prefer the sports of the hoy to the cares of a kingdom. The nohles began to plot at once for the recovery of power. The king, however, coun- seled by his lawyers, turned to the people for aid ; and he per- mitted the serfs to purchase their freedom. The reason of this great concession was probably the king's want of money, but from it resulted a great change in the social state. 79. Heavy and unjust taxes were imposed throughout the kingdom, for the purpose of carrying on the war in Flan- ders ; but in this war the king gained no laurels. He was defeated, not however by the Flemings, but by the mud and the rain, and losing a large part of his army, returned in disgrace to France. The following year he died of a chill produced by drinking wine to excess after becoming heated in a game of ball (1316). 1316 80. Philip V. {Ie Long— the Tall).— The only to child of Louis X. was a daughter, who, by a new application of the Salic law, was excluded from the throne. Louis's brother Philip, therefore, succeeded him as king. He busied himself chiefly in regulating the affairs of the kingdom, making laws for the uniformity of the currency, and of weights and measures, and many others for the benefit of industry, trade, and commerce. One of his most significant acts was the exclusion of the clergy from the meetings of the parliament ; another was the creation of a privy council (1318). He continued the practice of granting letters of nobility to tradesmen, and * So called because of the tumultuous and refractory conduct of the nobles and clergy, who attempted, during the weak reign of this king, to regain the powers of which they had been deprived by his artful and despotic father. 78. What was the name and surname of Philip's successor ? What was his dispo- sition ? What measure did the king adopt ? Why ? Its effect ? 79. Why were taxes imposed ? Was the war against Flanders successful ? Why not ? What caused the king's death ? 80. Why was Louis's (hm- &r? O ^iraeso <> ?* Alx *^ 4J , W Montpelier,, *3^7 kMiirsellles/-' "^ v THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 99 section iv. The House of Valois. Extending from the Accession of Philip VI. (1328) to that of Louis XII. (1498). 1328 t* Philip VI. — Philip of Valois, grandson of to Philip III. (see Genealogical Table), now ascended ° the throne of France. He had a competitor for the regency in Edward III. of England, who was a grandson of Philip IY. Louis, Count of Flanders, was at that time en- gaged in putting down a revolt of his subjects. Philip col- lected an army immediately, and marched to his assistance. In the battle which ensued, Philip routed the Flemings com- pletely ; and the Count of Flanders being now fully rein- stated, Philip entered Paris amid great rejoicings, and with the good will of most of the feudal lords, who believed that by him, who was one of their number, their interests would be protected. 2. Robert of Artois (ar-twati) at this time laic 1 claim to the county of Artois, which had been for mar years in the hands of the females of that house.* Philip, however, was not disposed to acknowledge his claim. The lawyers, also, declared that the papers which appeared to establish his claim were false ; and to this was added a charge that he had attempted to poison his aunt and her daughters, and had even used magic to produce the death of the king himself. On learning of this last charge, Robert fled to * "Robert, Count d'Artois, was the man above all others who had most assisted Philip to gain possession of the crown : he was one of the wisest and greatest barons in France, of the highest birth, being descended from kings. His wife was aister-german to Philip, whose special companion and friend he had been in all his fortunes ; and for the space of three years he managed everything in France— so that nothing was done without his knowledge."— FroissarVs Chronicles. 1 . Who was Philip of Valois ? Who fought at the battle of Cassel ? What was the result ? 2. What is said of Robert of Artois ? Where did he finally find safety ? How did he use his influence there ? Where was Artois ? Ans. North of Picardy. 100 THE HOUSE OF TALOIS, [A. D. 1337. Brussels, the charge of sorcery being attended with the gravest consequences in that superstitious age. A decree of banishment was issued against him, all his goods were con- fiscated, and he finally fled to England, where he was wel- comed by Edward III., whom he encouraged in his design on the French throne (1334). 3. War with England. — Edward III. haying con- quered the Scots, in the great battle of Halidown Hill (1333), now turned his attention to France. There the des- potic course of Philip had for several years been making his own people his enemies. He had debased the coin of the kingdom, diminished his revenue by imposing such heavy taxes on the merchants that trade was driven to other coun- tries, and brought industry almost to a stand-still.* 4. The nobles of Flanders were in sympathy with the French ; her merchants and manufacturers, with the Eng- lish. From England much of the raw material which gave bfir large cities their importance was derived. The Flemish merchants, under the lead of (Van Artevelde (ar-ta-velt'Ypf Ghent, formed an alliance with Edward. Philip, onxrhe other hand, entered into an alliance with Scotland/ The first action took place on an island at the mouth of the Scheldt (slcelt), where a force of Flemish knights lay block- ading the ports of Flanders. An English fleet attacked them and drove them away. This was the first action of the "Hundred Years' War" (1337). 5. Each side now fitted out a fleet, and employed it for some time in making descents upon the other's coast. The French were the first to act. Their fleet constantly threat- ened the English ports, making attacks from time to time in different places. Edward sailed from London with a force of 120 vessels and 16,000 soldiers, and came up with the * To such an extent was spurious money issued by Philip, that, in 1342, the value of coin is said to have changed every week. 3. What were some of the unpopular measures of Philip ? 4. Why were the Flemish merchants in sympathy with England ? What was the first battle of the Hundred Years' War i Describe it. 5. Give an account of the battle of Sluys. What did the King of England do after the battle ? Where is Sluys ? Tournay ? St. Omer :- (See- Progressive Map, No. 4.) A. ». 1344.1 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 101 French near Sluys (slots), where they awaited him with 200 vessels and 40,000 men. The battle lasted more than nine hours, and ended in the destruction of the naval power of France. Thirty thousand men perished, the greater part of them being Frenchmen (1340). Edward landed, hoping for the assistance of the Flemings in his land operations ; but after making an attempt to take Tournay, and suffering a defeat at St. Omer, he consented to a truce and withdrew. 6. War in Brittany. — A dispute which now arose in Brittany, again brought Philip and Edward into the field. Duke John died in 1341 without heirs. A contest for the succession arose immediately between his half-brother, John of Montfort, and his niece's husband, Charles, Count of Blois (blivah). Charles, being the nephew of King Philip, received his support. John of Montfort called to his aid Edward III., promising to pay homage to him and to recog- nize him as King of France. The war began at once, and was waged with much cruelty. During its progress, John of Montfort was captured and sent to Paris, and Robert of Artois was killed. Shortly afterward, the Pope interfered and brought about a three years' truce (1343).* 7. Second Invasion of the English. — Philip's exac- tions at home still continued, and he alienated many by an unnecessary act of treachery and cruelty. Oliver Clisson and fourteen Breton lords were invited by Philip to a tourna- ment and banquet at Paris, and while there they were sud- denly attacked and beheaded (1343). Three barons of Nor- mandy, the next year, were also seized and put to death with similar injustice and treachery. These deeds excited general horror and indignation, and afforded to Edward a just pretext to declare war against the French king (1345). Philip commenced operations in Guienne, and attempted to dislodge the English from some of the cities held by * A striking figure in this war in Brittany is that of Jeanne de Montfort, who put on her husband's armor, after his capture, and inspired her troops by her energy and daring. 6. What caused the war in Brittany? What happened to John of Montfort ? 1 by Philip? What was the eff army ? What course did he finally 7. What acts of treachery were committed by Philip? What was the effect? What changed the destination of Edward's armv ? Wli take ? 102 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1346. them ; but he was unsuccessful in the effort. Edward at first took command of an army designed to enter Flanders, and operate in the north of France. The assassination of Van Artevelde, however, caused the English king to suspect the friendship of the Flemings, and he sailed for the south of France ; but a violent storm prevented him from reach- ing it. He finally landed at Cape La Hogue, in Normandy, with 32,000 men (1346). 8. He captured many towns, and made an attempt upon Eouen, but, finding it too strong, prudently gave it up, and marched along the left bank of the Seine toward Paris. Sending his couriers in the direction of the capital to burn the villages, he crossed the Seine at Poissy (pwah'sy). The French king now set out in pursuit with a large but badly disciplined army, it having been collected since Edward landed in Normandy. The English army, fighting its way across a ford of the river Somme (som), halted near the vil- lage of Crecy (kres'e). 9. The Battle of Cre"cy. — The English were drawn up on the hillside of Crecy in three lines of battle, the king in the rear, and the Prince of Wales (called the Black Prince, from the color of his armor) in the front, with a strong force of archers. * The French advanced to the attack in great confusion. A thunder-shower coming on just be- fore the action, and wetting the bow-strings of the French, made them useless ; while the English bowmen, who had kept their bow-strings dry by putting them under their coats, advanced to the attack late in the afternoon, when the rays of the setting sun shone full in the faces of the French. The result of the battle was a disastrous defeat of the French king, who retreated, during the darkness, to * " The English archers advanced each one step In silence, and by one volley slaughtered and discomfited the Genoese. The French knights, enraged, drew their swords on the unfortunate auxiliaries and cut their way through to arrive at the enemy. They encoun- tered the first line of the English under the Prince of Wales ; and here was the heat of the battle. Edward was sent to for aid ; but he who saw the strife and knew the mettle of his men, refused. 'Let my son win his spurs!' said the monarch; and bravely did young Edward earn these symbols of knighthood."— Crowe's History of France. 8. Describe the line of march of the English. Where did they halt ? 9. Give an account of the battle of Crecy. A. D. 13 4 7.] THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. 103 Amiens, leaving 11 princes, 80 baronets, 1,200 knights, and 30,000 soldiers dead on the field (1346.)* 10. The Siege of Calais. — After the battle of Crecy, the English king continued his march to the coast, and laid seige to Calais (kalis), which was starved into submission (1347). The terms which Edward imposed were, that all the inhabitants should surrender, and that six citizens, bear- ing the keys of the town and castle, should be sent to him stripped, with halters around their necks, to be dealt with as he should order. Eustace St. Pierre and five others vol- untarily gave themselves up, and were brought into Ed- ward's camp as he had directed. He ordered that they should be beheaded, but his queen, Philippa, pleaded in their behalf, and their lives were saved. All the inhabit- ants of Calais, however, were removed, and it was repeopled with English, and remained an English town many years. 11. The Black Death. — The surrender of Calais led to a ten months' truce, which both monarchs, being weary of the war, willingly signed. Another scourge now came to add its horrors to those of war. A pestilence, known as the Black Death, or Plague, made its appearance in Asia, and swept over Europe, carrying off not only men but beasts. It reached Paris in 1348, and raged with such violence that, at times, 800 dead were buried daily in that city alone. A report made to the Pope asserts that 80,000 persons perished in Paris ; and Europe, according to the historians of the time, lost one-third of its inhabitants. Among the victims was the Queen of France, f * The battle of Cre'cy was fought on the 26th of August, 1346, and Is memorable be- cause there, for the first time, cannon were used, and the value of the English bowman was gloriously established. Notwithstanding the great superiority of the French in numbers, the battle lasted but a few hours, and only the first and second lines of the English were engaged. In the heat of the action the blind King of Bohemia directed two of his knights to tie his horse's reins to theirs and lead him into the battle. They were all killed, and their horses were afterward found standing near their bodies. His crest and motto,— three ostrich feathers, and the words Ich Dien, "I serve,"— were adopted by the Prince of Wales in commemoration of this victory, and have been used by his descendants to the present time. t " Many died in the streets ; others left alone in their houses— but the fact of their death was known by the smell. Often, husband and wife, son and father, were laid on the same bier. Large ditches had been dug, in which the corpses were laid by hundreds. 1 0. What, terms were imposed by Edward on the inhabitants of Calais ? How were the lives of St. Pierre and his associates saved ? What change was made in Calais J 11. Describe the origin and progress of the Black Death. How many persons per ished ? 104 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. [A. J>. 1338. 12. The Gab ell e. — The remaining years of Philip's reign were barren of stirring events. The same reckless extravagance and love of gayety which the king had always shown made it necessary to the last to impose heavy taxes upon the people to meet his expenses. One of the most odious of these was the salt tax, known as the gabelle (gdh-bel'), the king's store-house for salt being called by that name. These store-houses were established in many parts of the kingdom, and all the salt produced was brought to them, and sold at whatever price the king chose to put upon it. Philip died in 1350, having married only a short time before the beautiful Blanche of Navarre, then eighteen years of age. 13. Annexation of Territory. — Two additions were made to the kingdom of France during the reign of Philip VI. : the city and district of Montpellier (mong-pel-ya'), in Languedoc, and the province of Dauphine. The former was bought of the King of Majorca. Dauphine was sold to Philip in 1349 for 120,000 florins, by Humbert II., Count of Vienne, who was called the dauphin, or dolphin, of the Viennese, on account of a figure of that fish which he car- ried on his coat of arms. The province was ceded to his grandson, Charles of Normandy, who was called, from this circumstance, the Dauphin, a title which was always after- ward given to the eldest son of the King of France. 14. Taxes. — Use of Gunpowder.— Two important events which happened during the reign of Philip VI. re- main to be noted. In the early part of his reign (1338), a law was passed by the States- General, which provided that no extraordinary taxes should be levied by the kings of France without the consent of the three estates, the monarch to bind himself to obey this law by an oath given at his coronation. Though the French kings found means of like bales In a ship's hold. Every one carried In his hand strong-smelling herbs. The air stank with the dead and dying, or with infectious drugs. Alasl how many lovely ladies, how many amiable young persons, dined in the morning with their friends, who, when evening came, supped with their ancestors ! "—Boccaccio. 1 2. Whom did the king marry ? What was the gabelle f Why so called ? 1 3. What additions were made to the territory of Fiance ? What is the origin of the name dauphin ? To whom was it afterward applied ? 14. What important law was passed ? What is said of the use of gunpowder ? A. ». 1351.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 105 evading this law, the principle there laid down re-appeared and became the watchword of liberty in many countries. The other important event was the use of gunpowder, already mentioned in the account of the battle of Crecy. This proved a most effective instrument in hastening the down- fall of feudalism, the humblest peasant armed with a mus- ket being more than the equal of the proudest knight. CANNON OP THE 14TH CENTURY. nJ5. John {le Bon — the Good). — John of Nor- to mandy, who ascended the throne at his father's death, did not depart from the unwise course marked out by Philip of Valois. Prodigal in disposition, and fa- miliar with the custom of extorting money from the peo- ple to supply the pleasures of the king, he squandered the public treasure, sold offices and dignities to .his favorites.* and continued the practice, long pursued by the kings of France, of debasing the coin. So great had his need of money now become, that he even formed the plan of openly demanding from the people the amount his extravagance required, instead of gathering it indirectly in the form of taxes. To this end, therefore, he called together the States- General (1351). He failed in his purpose, however ; instead of getting money as he had hoped, he was forced to listen ,.** J£ was on account of his extravagance and lavish expenditure upon his favorites that he was called le Bon, which properly means the good fellow. 15. What was the surname of John of Normandy ? Mention some of his unpopu- lar acts. Why did he convene the States-General ? What was the result ? 106 THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. [A. ». 1355. to complaints concerning his spendthrift ways, and was even compelled to make promises of reform. 16. The long-standing quarrel for the title of King of France was now revived by the entrance of a third claimant. This was Charles of Navarre, whose meddlesome disposition secured for him the surname of Charles the Bad. He was a grandson of Louis X., and not only laid claim to the throne, but murdered one of the king's favorites who had been pre- ferred before him. For this act, the king confiscated a por- tion of his estates, and Charles fled to England, where he incited Edward III. to a new war against France. 17. War with England. — Edward was easily persuaded to undertake a new invasion. He landed at Calais, and laid waste the adjoining country ; while his son the Black Prince landed at Bordeaux (bor-do), and pillaged the south of France without opposition (1355). The treasury of the French king was empty, and his people disaffected. Another meeting of the States-General was called, at which the rep- resentatives of the people spoke more boldly than ever against the wasteful excesses of the king. An army and the means to support it were promised by them, provided a committee of their number might supervise the expenditure of the money, no part of which was to be devoted to the king's private use. The bankrupt monarch was compelled to yield to these humiliating terms. 18. An incident which happened at this time gave Ed- ward another pretext for action. Charles of Navarre had returned to France under a treaty of peace concluded some time before. He had again, however, placed himself in opposition to the king on account of a heavy tax which the latter had levied. The dauphin invited Charles of Navarre, his friend, the Count of Harcourt, and several other lords to a great feast at Eouen. When the banquet was at its 1 6. Who was Charles the Bad ? What claim did he make ? Why was he forced to flee to England '? 1 7. At what points did the English invade France ? Who commanded the army that landed in the south ? What did the States-General do ? 18. What act of treachery did the king commit? What became of Charles of Navarre ? A. D. 1356.] THE HOUSE OP VALOIS. 10? height, the king entered, seized the King of Navarre, and ordered him to be thrown into prison ; and the Count of Harconrt, with three other lords, were led out to the castle- yard (miscalled the Field of Pardon), and beheaded (1356). 19. The Battle of Poitiers.— Edward III. lost little time in taking up the quarrel of his friend, the captive King of Navarre. Edward the Black Prince took the field with a small army of 8,000 to 12,000 men, and for some time ravaged the south of France unmolested. On turning to the coast, however, he found his retreat cut off by the French king, who had crossed the Loire, and placed his army be- tween the English and the sea. King John, in person, com- manded the French army, which consisted of 26 dukes, 140 baronets, and 50,000 men. The Black Prince, seeing his danger, chose his battle-ground a short distance north of Poitiers (poi-teerz'), on the top of a rough hill, covered with vineyards, crossed by hedges, and made difficult of access by low shrubbery. The only approach to the top of the hill was by a narrow road which could be commanded by a small force. 20. The French king, in his eagerness to wipe out the disgrace of Crecy, forgot all prudence. He ordered his horsemen to begin the attack along this road. The English bowmen showered their arrows upon them, and, in a few moments, the force of the attack was broken, and the horses, rendered furious and unmanageable, galloped madly back upon the French lines behind them, and threw them into confusion. At this moment, with the cry of " St. George and Guienne ! " the English charged, and drove the first and second lines of the French off the field in disorder. Another blunder was now committed by King John. He commanded his knights, who were clad in heavy armor, to dismount and fight on foot. The Black Prince, on the con- trary, ordered his horsemen to mount, and the French, being now on the open plain, were ridden down and trampled un- 19. How did the King of Emrland avenge the wrongs of Charles of Navarre? What great battle was fought ? What was the position of the two armies ? Where is Poitiers ? (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) 20. Give an account of the battle. What mistake was made by the French com- mander ? What became of John and his son ? 108 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1356, der foot without help. King John and his youngest son, Philip, threw themselves into the midst of the action, and strove to turn the tide in their favor, but without success. Both were captured, and the French army was beaten back jpon Poitiers. 21. The battle began at daybreak and ended at noon, on the 19th of September (1356). Eleven thousand French were left on the field, among them more than 2,400 nobles ; and 100 barons, 2,000 men-at-arms, and many of less rank were taken prisoners. The loss of the English was only 2,500. The Black Prince marched at once to Bordeaux, releasing nearly all of his prisoners on parole, their number being so great as to embarrass him. He concluded a two years' truce with France, and immediately embarked for London, taking with him John and his young son Philip.* 22. Great dissatisfaction prevailed throughout France on receipt of the news of the disaster at Poitiers. The army was beaten and scattered, and the king a prisoner ; a second and greater disgrace was added to that of Crecy. New taxes were necessary to equip another army, and to ransom the prisoners taken at Poitiers. Still more gloomy was the situ- ation made by the absence of any hopeful national senti- ment. The people blamed their captive king for the mis- fortunes under which they were suffering. 23. The States-General. — Stephen Marcel. — In the midst of this general gloom and anger, the dauphin called a meeting of the States-General. So bold were the represen- tatives of the people in their demands for better government by the king, that the dauphin adjourned the assembly in alarm ; but he' was forced to call it together again, as the treasury was empty. After many stormy debates, in which * After the capture of the French king and his son, they were conducted to the tent of the Black Prince, who treated them with the utmost respect, waiting upon the king at supper as if he had heen his own father, and cheering him by kind and consoling words. During his stay in England, John was treated more like a guest than a prisoner. 21 . What was the loss of the French ? Of the English ? 72. What was the feeling in France in regard to the battle of Poitiers ? ±3. At the meeting of the States-General, what did the third estate demand ? Who was their spokesman ? What office did he hold ? What were the principal measures massed ? A. D. 1357.1 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 109 the rights of the people were boldly and ably asserted by Stephen Marcel, provost of the merchants of Paris, an ordi- nance was agreed upon and passed, the principal provisions of which were, that taxes should be collected, and the money so collected paid out by officers appointed by the States- General ; that the defense of the kingdom should be in- trusted to a committee of thirty-six, twelve from each estate ; that the depreciation of coin should cease ; that all men should be armed and form a national guard ; and that the States- General should meet twice a year without waiting for the call of the king (1357). 24. This ordinance was the first great check which royalty hM received, and both ruler and nobles could not fail to see that the hand which had given this check was that of the people. As soon as the dauphin, therefore, was free of the States- General, he began to evade the fulfillment of his promises. After several acts which served to increase the suspicion in which he was held by his people, he ordered again the debasement of coin. 25. The storm broke at once. Marcel called the trades- men of Paris to arms, and marching at their head to the dauphin's quarters, demanded that he should dismiss his un- wise counselors, and seriously devote himself to the govern- ment of the kingdom and the protection of his people. A few bitter words passed between them, when Marcel, seeing that nothing was to be hoped for from the treacherous dau- phin, turned to his attendants and commanded them to com- plete the work for which they had come. In a moment the marshals of Champagne and Normandy, the counselors of the dauphin, were stabbed and fell at his feet, staining his robe with their blood. Marcel then placed upon the dau- phin's head the cap which he himself had worn, and which was made of red and blue, the colors of the city of Paris, and the bodies of the murdered marshals were thrown out to the people. 24. Did the dauphin keep his promises'to the States-General ? 25. Give an account of the assassination of the marshals. 110 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ©. 1358. 26. The inhabitants of Paris applauded the act of Marcel, who now found himself ruler of the city and in arms against the dauphin. The latter withdrew, taking with him the nobles, who saw with dread the rising power of the people, and instinctively took the side of the dauphin. Unfortu- nately, the situation of the kingdom at this time was such that Paris could hope for no aid from other cities or from the country. Communication between them was difficult ; companies of soldiers called "free lances," roamed the coun- try, plundering and burning ; and safety was only to be found behind the walls of fortified towns and cities. Paris stood alone in the bold position which had been taken. 27. Prompt action was necessary on the part of Marcel, as the dauphin was already raising an army, and discontent began to appear in Paris itself. In his difficulty, he deter- mined to release the imprisoned Charles of Navarre, bring him to Paris, and proclaim him king, hoping that his de- pendence upon the people, if he were thus raised to power, would lead him to deal justly with them. Only a part of this plan, however, could be carried out. The King of Na- varre was released and brought to Paris, and Marcel demand- ed of the dauphin that his property should be restored to him and his rights respected. The dauphin promised, but failed to keep his word. 28. The Jacquerie. — A new danger now appeared, which for a time drew the attention of all away from Paris, and divided the kingdom into two great parties, the nobles and the people. The miseries of the latter had grown so great that they could bear them no longer. They rose in arms, and forming themselves into bands, marched through the country, sacking the castles of the nobles, and pillaging without restraint. This rising was called the Jacquerie (z7iak'e-re), from Jacques Bonhomme (zhah bon-om'),* the * "Froissart imagines that the name ' Jacques Bonhomme ' meant a particular person, 26. In what position was Marcel placed ? Why was Paris cut off from the rest of France ? 27. What did Marcel now do ? Was the plan carried out ? 28. What was the origin of the Jacquerie? What did the peasants do ? W T ho was their leader ? >. 1358.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. Ill name then generally given to a peasant. The nobles leagued together to defend themselves, and having captured and hung the leader of the peasants, they turned against the cities (1358). 29. Death of Marcel. — Marcel and the citizens of Paris soon discovered that the King of Navarre was false to them ; his fear of the people, and his natural sympathy with the nobility leading him into plots with the dauphin. Marcel's power was waning fast. In his desire to see a sta- ble government in France, he offered the crown first to the King of Navarre, and afterward to the dauphin. The lat- ter refused to enter Paris while the murderer of the mar- shals lived. The former, however, accepted, and secret pre- parations were made to admit him into the city and proclaim him king. The night of the 31st of July was chosen, and Marcel rode down to one of the gates of the city with the keys in his hand. His design was suspected, how- ever ; and, before he could carry it out, he was killed by one of his former associates.* Two days after, the dau- phin entered Paris, and for several days the- blood of his en- emies was shed without mercy. 30. Charles of Navarre at once retreated to Normandy, where he gathered an army and began a new war. The dauphin, however, purchased a peace. King John, mean- while, had made a treaty of peace with the English king, the terms of which were indignantly rejected by the States- General ; the voice of the people being that they would bear their heavy burdens still longer rather than sacrifice their a leader in these risings. But we must not credit Froissart with any accurate knowledge of the peasant and his ways. Jacques Bonhomme was the common nickname, the ' Giles ' or * Hodge ' of France, the name of the peasant generally ; and from it such ris- ings as this of 1358 came to be called the 'Jacquerie,' or the disturbances of the ' Jacques.' "—Kitchin's History of France. * " Maillart raised his battle-axe against Marcel. Giffard threw himself before Marcel and covered him for a moment with his body ; but the struggle had begun in earnest. Maillart plied his axe upon Marcel, who fell pierced with many wounds. Six of his com- rades shared the same faith. Thus perished, after scarcely three years' oolitical life, and by the hands of his former friends, a man of rare capacity and energy, who at the out- set had formed none but patriotic designs, and had, no doubt, promised himself a better fate."— GuizoVs History of France. 29. Why did Marcel break oil negotiations with the King of Navarre ? What was now Marcel's only object ? To whom did he next appeal t What was the result ? 30. What became of Charles of Navarre ? What was the feeling in France in re- gard to the treaty with England ? 112 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1360. country thus, and that "King John should remain a pris- oner in England, leaving the remedy for their ills to God, who would provide one in his own good time." 31. The news of the rejection. of the treaty enraged the English king, who at once declared the truce broken, and made ready to invade France. In the autumn (1359) he landed at Calais. The dauphin did not oppose the English king in the field. All troops were withdrawn to the forti- fied towns and cities, and the invaders were permitted to ravage the open country at their will. The English king even marched to Paris, and challenged the dauphin before its walls. Tired at last, however, of a war in which there was neither glory nor plunder, and finding that his army was gradually melting away by sickness and the attacks of the maddened peasantry, he accepted proposals for peace. 32. The Peace of Bretigny. — A treaty was signed (1360) at Bretigny (bre-teen'ye). According to its terms, the English king renounced all claim to the throne of France ; gave up certain possessions in France while retain- ing others, — principally those which had belonged to the Plantagenets ; and withdrew from his alliance with the Flemish. The dauphin, on the other hand, agreed to pay 3,000,000 gold crowns for the ransom of his father, and to give up his alliance with Scotland. Humiliating as these terms were, nothing remained to impoverished France but to comply with them. King John was accordingly brought over to Calais, and remained there till the first installment of his ransom was paid (October 25, 1360).* 33. King John, on his return to Paris, set about the work of reform ; but this was soon interrupted by projects more to his taste. The death of Philip of Eouvres (roo'vr) put «.* ^. he mone y f or this was received from the Lord of Milan, who paid 600,000 florins for the honor of an alliance between his son and Isabella, the king's daughter, then only eleven years of age. 3 1 . What effect did the rejection of the treaty have ? How did the dauphin con- duct the war ? Was the English king successful ? 32. What were the terms of the peace of Bretigny ? How was the first installment of the money needed for the king's ransom obtained ? 33. Who was the new Duke of Burgundy? What attempt did the king make? What frustrated it ? v A. D. 1364.] THE HOUSE OP VALOIS. 113 him in possession of Burgundy, which he gave to his fourth son, Philip, who had won his title of le Hardi (the bold) on the field of Poitiers. He made an attempt, also, to check the ravages of the free lances, or free companies, but was defeated. He had just formed a project for ridding France of these roving companies by sending them on a cru- sade, when he learned that one of his sons, the Duke of Anjou, who had been left at Calais as a hostage for the pay- ment of the king's ransom, had escaped. He immediately made his son Charles regent, left Paris, and gave himself up in his son's place.* He was taken to London, where he was hospitably received ; but, after a brief illness, he died (1364). f 1364 34. Charles V. (le Sage — the Wise). — Charles, to the regent, now became king. He was in every respect his father's opposite. Pale and sickly, religious and much given to study, he had no taste for the rude sports of the feudal barons, and proved himself in time their bitterest enemy. The wasted country expected no relief from the studious young king ; but so great were the results pro- duced by him that, before many years had passed, witchcraft was the only name which his superstitious people could find for his achievements. He saw that a king, to be powerful, must be at peace with his people ; and his own experience had taught him that advantages gained by war must not be thrown away from any false sense of honor. 35. His first measure was to establish a fixed money standard, and to forbid all tampering with the coin of the realm. His next was to get possession of two cities belong- ing to Charles of Navarre, which commanded the Seine, and could be used to favor the invasions of the Eng- lish. Both these cities were captured by stratagem. The * This king nobly said : " If good faith were banished from the earth it ought to be still found in the hearts of kings." + The king of England gave him a magnificent funeral. His body was afterward car- ried to France, and interred in the abbey of St. Denis. 34. What was the character of Charles V.? How was he regarded by his people ? 35. What were some of his first measures? What was done by the King oi Navarre ? The result f 114 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1365. King of Navarre answered this treachery by sending an invad- ing army into Normandy. Charles V. sent a few thousand men to meet them, under Bertrand Du Guesclin (ga-Mang'), a Breton free lance recently taken into his service. Du Gues- clin lured his opponent from a strong position he had chosen on a hill, by a pretended flight, then suddenly turned and routed the army, capturing its leader. This disaster led Charles of Navarre to consent to a treaty of peace, by which he received, in exchange for his fiefs in Normandy, the bar- ony of Montpellier (1365). 36. Crusade against Don Pedro of Castile. — The French king now matured a plan for accomplishing a double purpose : the relief of his kingdom from the curse of the free companies and the weakening of the English power in the south of France. Don Pedro the Cruel, King of Castile, had poisoned his wife, Blanche of Bourbon, the sister-in- law of Charles V. He had also threatened his brother, Hen- ry of Tras-ta-ma'ra, who sought refuge in France. Charles V. consented to aid the young prince to drive Don Pedro from the throne of Castile, and offered him for the purpose an army of free lances. Du Guesclin was placed in com- mand of the new army. To give the expedition the char- acter of a crusade, reports were circulated that Don Pedro was a Jew ; and the army, on its way to the south, stopped at Avignon to receive the blessing of the Pope, the remission of their sins, and a sum of money. 37. Don Pedro fled without a battle, and finally appeared at Bordeaux to claim the protection of the Black Prince ; while Henry of Trastamara was made king of Castile. The free lances flocked back into France and gathered around the Black Prince, who was forming an army to restore Don Pedro to his throne. A battle was fought and gained by the Black Prince at Najera {na-harah), Henry of Trasta- mara was driven out of Spain, and Don Pedro reinstated 36. What did Charles V. hope to accomplish by attacking Don Pedro ? What had Don Pedro done ? Who commanded the French king's army ? How was it made to appear a crusade ? 37. Where did Don Pedro go for safety ? What part did the Black Prince take in this struggle ? What was the effect of the battle of Najera ? What followed ? A. D. 1367.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 115 (1307).* Sickness, however, now broke out in the camp of the victors. The money which had been promised them was not given ; and the Black Prince, in attempting to raise it by a tax on his subjects in Gascony and Aquitaine, met with a refusal, and incurred the anger of his French subjects not only on this account, but because he had helped to restore to his throne Don Pedro, who was looked upon as a monster of cruelty. 38. The French king's stratagem, therefore, was doubly successful. The popularity of the Black Prince among his French subjects was fatally shaken, and France was freed from the terror of the free lances. Those that returned from Spain crossed into Italy, and enlisted in the service of the warring states there, especially in that of the Pope, who acquired such power by their aid that he left Avignon under their protection, and established himself in Rome. The quiet produced by this relief, and the wise reforms which the king had carried out in reducing the taxes, soon restored order and prosperity to France. He had also fortified the cities, organized military companies throughout the king- dom, and filled his treasury. 39. War with England. — When the Gascon lords came to complain of the oppressions of the Black Prince, Charles, being prepared for war, threw aside all concealment, and summoned him to answer the charge. " I will come," an- swered the Prince, "but it shall be with my helmet on my head, and 60,000 men at my back." Charles then made an alliance with Scotland, bound Flanders to him by a mar- riage between his brother, Philip the Bold, and Margaret of Flanders, and sent a bold declaration of war to the King of England, insulting him at the same time by making a kitchen servant his messenger. * In this battle, Du Guesclin was taken prisoner ■ and Don Henry, having escaped, fled for safety to the papal court at Avignon. Du Guesclin was afterward ransomed. 38. What became of the freelances? What did the Pope do ? What was the con- dition of France ? 39. What did the king do when petitioned by the Gascon lords ? What was the answer of the Black Prince ? How did Charles insult the King of England when he declared war ? 116 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1373. 40. Without waiting for an answer, the French king began an attack upon the English possessions in France, and with- in a week the province of Ponthieu {pong-too')* was in his hands. The English invaded France by way of Calais (1369) ; and the defensive policy was again pursued by Charles V* His troops were withdrawn into walled towns, and strict orders were given to his army not to risk a battle. The English, therefore, as before, ravaged the open country at their pleasure, but conquered nothing of importance. Mean- time, in the south, the Black Prince found himself betrayed by his subjects, and forced to enter upon a campaign to sub- due them. So ill was he, however, that he was carried on a litter at the head of his army. He attacked and captured Limoges (le-mozli) ; and, enraged at the opposition he had met, ordered the massacre of more than 3,000 men, women, and children (1370). f This inhuman act closed his career as a soldier. He returned to Bordeaux, and there sailed for England, w r here he died a few years after. J N ]S41. The force of the English attack being now somewhat spent, Charles began to take more decided measures. Du Guesclin, who had been made Constable of France, attacked and defeated the English under Eobert Knolles {tidies), for- merly a noted iree lance, and Poitou was reclaimed (1373). The same year, the English again landed at Calais with 30,000 men, and marched through France to Bordeaux ; but so poor had the country become, that only one-fifth of the * Ponthieu was situated in the northeastern part of France, bordering on the English Channel, southwest from Calais. t " It was a most melancholy business : for all ranks, ages, and sexes cast themselves on their knees before the prince, begging for mercy ; but he was so inflamed with passion and revenge that he listened to none, but all were put to the sword wherever they could be found, even those who were not guilty ; for I know not why the poor were not spared, who could not have had any part in this treason ; but they suffered for it, and indeed more than those who had been the leaders of the treachery. There was not that day, in the city of Limoges, any hearts so hardened, or that had any sense of religion, who did not deeply bewail the unfortunate events passing before their eyes ; for upward of three thousand men, women, and children were put to death that day. God have mercy on their souls, for they were veritable martyrs ! —FroissarVs Chronicles. X The Black Prince, worn out with suffering, closed his brilliant career in the dark smoke volumes of burnt and ruined Limoges. From his litter he saw the massacre he had commanded, passed slowly among blackened houses, ruins, and corpses of warriors and women. From this last act of war— the summary of war's evil, and a blot on his glory forever— he returned to Bordeaux, gloomy and sick. From Bordeaux he crossed to Eng- land, where he languished out the sad remainder of his days."— Kitchin , s His. of France. 40. What policy did Charles pursue when the English entered France ? Of what cruelty was the Black Prince guilty ? State the situation of Limoges. (See Progres- sive Map, No. 4.) 41. What part did Du Guesclin take ? Was the next English invasion successful A. D. 1380.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 117 army reached the south of France. Cities and provinces fell into the hands of the victorious French, till in 1380 five coast cities were all that remained to the English of their possessions in France. 42. Attempted Seizure of Brittany. — John of Montfort having been driven out of Brittany by a strong anti-English sentiment, the duchy was, for a time, without a ruler. Charles attempted to seize it, and annex it to the crown of France. This act united the Bretons, however, and they recalled John of Montfort. The Bretons serving in the king's army deserted and returned home ; even Du Guesclin angrily resigned, and returned his constable's sword to the king. They were afterward reconciled, however, but Du Guesclin's day was near its close. While besieging a little stronghold in Auvergne, he died (1380).* 43. Character of Du Guesclin. — Du Guesclin, the instrument employed by Charles V. to recover the title to military glory which France had lost, was short in stat- ure, but of powerful build and a hard fighter ; he was at the same time cunning, and utterly without fear. Disregarding the false notions of honor which prevented the nobles from winning battles on so many occasions, he bent all his ener- gies toward a single object, victory, f His harshness toward the nobility, and his generous dealing with the poor, joined to his military glory, have together made him one of the heroes of romance. 44. Charles V. survived his great captain only a few weeks. The disease which had always afflicted him gave * " It Is told that the captain of the castle, who had promised to surrender in fifteen days if he were not relieved, kept his word, and brought and laid the keys on Du Guescin's death-bed. The tale is not improbable. Du Guesclin had been the pride of the free companies, the father of the soldiers. He made their fortunes, and ruined him- self to pay their ransoms."— MicheleVs History of France. t " Like the other captains of his time, he preferred stratagem to all other means of conquest, and always avoided pledging his word and honor. Before battle he was the tactician, the man of resources and subtle device. He could foresee and provide. But once in the fight, his Breton head hurried him away ; he plunged into the melee, and that so far that he could not always draw back again. He was twice taken, and had to pay ransoms,"— MicheleVs History of France. 42. What bold attempt did the king now make ? What was the effect ? What became of Du Guesclin ? 43. What was the character of Du Guesclin ? 44. How long did the king survive Du Guesclin ? Give an account of his death. 118 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. [A. ». 1380. signs of taking a fatal turn, and he was so advised by his physicians. He summoned his family, therefore, and com- mending his young son to the care of his brothers, the dukes of Berri and Burgundy, and to the queen's brother, the Duke of Bourbon, died a few days after at the age of forty-four (1380).* 45. The great service rendered by Charles V. to France has caused him to be ranked among her great kings. Assuming the crown at a time when the country was exhausted by years of war, he saw that the kingdom required rest and an oppor- tunity to regain its natural strength. To insure victory he set aside the nobles, and chose for the commander of his army a man who had earned his fame by success in war. Finally, he strove to reduce the burdens of his people ; though he was sometimes obliged to undo, in this respect, the work already done. Clear-headed, crafty, unscrupulous, prefer- ring the seclusion of his cabinet to the clamor of the battle- field, he made the aggrandizement of France his only aim, and left her at his death restored in great measure to her former dimensions, and no longer despised by her enemies. 46. Important Acts of Charles V. — He conferred the privileges and honors which had long been peculiar to the nobles among tradesmen and civil officers ; fixed the ma- jority of the king at the age of thirteen ; granted pensions instead of land to the sons - of the king ; and separated the office of regent from that of tutor of the king. He also made the parliament of Paris permanent ; f made the pur- chase by each family of a certain quantity of salt from the royal storehouses compulsory ; and claimed as his right the * Before his death he gave orders that Du Guesclin should he buried at St. Denis, next to his own tomb ; and on the day of his death he abolished every tax not authorized by the States-General. t The French parliaments were supreme courts of law, established in some of the most important cities. That of Paris, the most ancient, was founded in the 12th century, and was at first a court ofiustice which the king took with him wht .-ever he went. By an ordinance of Philip IV., it was fixed at Paris, in 1302. The king, to give force to his laws, often compelled the parliament to register his decrees, thus assuming all the legislative powers of the government. When summoned for that purpose, it was called a bed of justice. 45. How is Charles V. regarded ? What ^measures did he take to restore France ? What was his character ? 46. Mention some of the most important measures passed during his reign. A. D. 1380.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 119 appointment of certain tax officers which up to that time had been elected by the people. 47. Letters, Arts, etc. — Great encouragement was given by Charles V. to literature and the arts. He directed the translation of the Bible, and of Aristotle, St. Augustine, and Livy ; began the Eoyal Library, with a collection of 910 volumes ; founded a college of astronomy and medicine ; en- larged the city of Paris and the palace of the Louvre (loovr) ; and built many chapels, churches, and castles. Among these may be mentioned the church of St. Ouen (oo-ahng'), and the chapel of the castle of Vincennes (yin-senz). The famous prison of the Bastile, in Paris, also was begun by him. 13§© ^8. Charles VI. {the Well-Beloved) was little to qualified by age or disposition to wield his father's scepter. He was less than twelve years old at the time of his father's death, fond of pleasure, and showed no inclination for the cares of royalty. The Duke of Anjou, having once been regent, claimed the same office again. To this the dukes of Burgundy and Bourbon consented, pro- vided the office should cease at the coronation, which took place soon after. Then, taking possession of all the treasure and jewels of Charles V., and having stolen several bars of gold and silver which had been hidden in the walls of the castle of Me-lun' for the use of the young king, the Duke of Anjou, after exercising the powers of regent a short time, fled to Italy, where he had designs on the crown of Naples. 49. At the council which was held before the coronation Oliver Clisson (hies' song) was made Constable of France, as the late king had requested, and then followed a division of the kingdom. Normandy and Pieardy were given to the Duke of Burgundy ; Languedoc and Aquitaine, to the Duke of Berri. On the accession of the new king, a demand was made by the people for a reduction of the taxes, and this was promised by the government. Little, however, was 47. How did he encourage literature and art ? 48. Why was Charles VI. unfitted for the throne? Who became regent ? What did the Duke of Anjou do after the king's coronation ? 49. How was Prance divided ? What caused a revolt ? 120 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. tA. ». 138 80 done to make the promise good. A tax having been levied on all sales of produce and merchandise, a beginning was made in the market of Paris, where an officer of the king attempted to collect the amount due on some water-cresses which had just been sold by an old woman. A riot broke out at once, and spread over the city (1382). The people ran to the arsenal, broke it open, armed themselves, and for a short time ruled the city. The rioters were soon subdued, and the leaders executed.* Similar revolts, however, broke out in other cities in all parts of the kingdom. 50. Revolt in Flanders. — Battle of Rosebecque. — The trouble which had for a long time existed in Flanders between the burghers and their ruler now broke out afresh. Count Louis was defeated in a battle near Bruges (1382) by Peter Dubois and Philip Van Artevelde. While the Flemings, however, were besieging Oudenarde (oo-den-ard'), Charles VI., with a powerful army, approached ; and Van Artevelde, gathering together a large but ill-disciplined force, went out to meet him. A battle was fought at Rosebecque {rose'befc), in which Van Artevelde was killed and his army routed (1382). f The result of this battle put an end to the revolt in Flanders. All the principal cities surrendered except Grhent, which kept up a show of resistance for some time. J 51. In the flush of victory, the king returned to Paris. IVenty thousand citizens went out to do him honor, but the king was in an angry mood. Instead of entering by the gates, all of which were thrown open, he ordered a breach to be made in the walls, entered through that, and rode * These rioters were called Maillotlns (mi-yo-tanq'), from a French word meaning mallet, because they had armed themselves with mallets, found in the arsenal. t To prevent a retreat, he had caused his men to be tied together, and thus bound, they went into battle. This device proved their ruin ; for the French, being far superior in numbers, surrounded and slaughtered them without mercy. Twenty-six thousand Flemings perished, many of them crushed to death by the weight of the slain. t A severe punishment was visited upon Courtrai, where the nobles had met with such a crushing defeat eighty years before. Its people were slaughtered or reduced to slavery ; the fine clock of its cathedral was carried away by the Duke of Burgundy, who placed it in the Church of Notre Dame at Dijon ; and the cathedral itself, an object of specia' hatred on account of the gilt spurs of the nobles, which had hung in it since the disaster of 1302, was pillaged and burned. 50. What occurred in Flanders ? Which side did the king join ? Who won the bat- tle of Rosebecque. and what peculiar incident is related of it ? What was the effect of the battle of Rosebecque t 51. How was the king received by the city of Paris ? How did he treat the peopl* T A. D. 1385.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 121 through the streets with the air of a. conqueror, his helmet on his head and his lance in his hand. He deprived the city of many of its privileges and executed many persons. Three hundred of its richest citizens were drowned, hung, or be- headed ; among them, a companion of Marcel, and John Desmarets (da-mah-ra), the most eminent lawyer in France. The terror which these punishments inspired caused the peo- ple to welcome the tax of 960,000 francs which the king im- posed instead of such punishments in the future. 52. The Great Schism. — For many years the Pope's capital had been at Avignon, where he was too much under the influence of the King of France. At the death of Gregory XL, therefore, in 1378, Italy chose a Pope of its own, under the name of Urban VI. The new Pope was so violent, even toward his own party, that a majority of the cardinals who had elected him were obliged to flee. They went to France, where they asserted that their election of Urban was made under compulsion. The King of France, therefore, declared the papal chair vacant, and ordered a new election. The choice fell upon Eobert of Geneva, who was made Pope under the title of Clement VII. ; and Europe, by this act, was at once divided into two hostile parties, causing what has been called the Great Schism. 53. At the age of sixteen, Charles VI. was married to Isabel of Bavaria, who was two years younger (1385). The same year great preparations were made for an invasion of England. Vessels enough were provided to make, it was said, a bridge from Dover to Calais. A wooden town, also, was built, the intention being to carry it over to England for the use of the army while operating there. The expedi- tion, however, was kept back by the delay of the king, and the boasted invasion ended in failure. 54. Insanity of the King. — Oliver Clisson, Constable of France, was at this time high in the favor of the king. 52. How was the Great Schism produced ? 53. Whom did Charles VI. marry ? Give an account of the project to invade Eng- land proposed hy Charles. 54. Why did the king invade Brittany ? What was the immediate cause of the king's insanity ? 6 122 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1404. Keturning, one evening in June, from a banquet, he was set upon by a servant of the Duke of Orleans, and left for dead. When the king heard of the outrage, he demanded the deliv- ery of the would-be assassin from the Duke of Brittany, with whom he had taken refuge. The duke refused, and the king collected an army and marched against him. The weather was very warm, and the king's health was under- mined by excesses. Suddenly from the depths of the forest through which he was riding, a wild man, clad in white, rushed out, and seizing the king's bridle, exclaimed, " Stop, noble king ; go no further, thou art betrayed ! " The sud- den fright shocked the enfeebled system of the king ; and, a little further on, one of his pages falling asleep upon his horse, and dropping his lance upon the helmet of his com- panion, the noise so startled him that he became insane upon the spot, and drawing his sword, wounded several of his attendants before he could be controlled. He never after- ward, except at intervals, recovered his senses. 55. The insanity* of the king was the source of terrible evils ; and for many years the history of France presents only a succession of factious broils on the part of the princes and nobles contending for the control of the government, which the madman on the throne was unable to wield. These parties were led by the Duke of Burgundy on the one side, and the Duke of Orleans on the other. The former favored the popular side ; the latter upheld that of the nobles, and were hostile to England. 56. Philip, Duke of Burgundy, died in 1404, and was succeeded by his turbulent and reckless son, called John the Fearless. Owing to the unpopularity of the Duke of * The king's reason was still further shaken by an accident which happened at a masked ball, given at the marriage of one of the queen's maids of honor. The king and five young lords entered the room disguised as satyrs, and wearing close-ntting dresses which had been smeared with pitch and then covered with tow, to imitate the fur of animals. The Duke of Orleans, wishing to discover who they were, imprudently ap- proached them with a lighted torch, which set fire to their dresses. Four died in great agony. One escaped by jumping into a tub of water which stood near, while the king was saved by the Duchess of Berri, who recognized him and smothered the flre by wrap- ping her mantle around him. 55. What did the king's insanity cause ? What broils occurred ? By whom were these parties led ? What is said of each ? 56. Who was John the Fearless ? What is said of him ? What reconciliation wa* effected ? What followed ? A. ». 1410.] THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. 123 Orleans, John obtained possession of the French govern- ment, and the two princes, through the intervention of the Duke of . Berri, appeared to be reconciled. They embraced, dined, and attended mass together ; but, a few days after, the Duke of Orleans was waylaid and assassinated (1407). John the Fearless afterward confessed himself guilty of tho crime. * 57. The Armagnacs and Burgundians. — At first, John took to flight ; but, after a short stay in Flanders, he returned to Paris, and soon afterward (1409) received a full pardon from the imbecile king. He openly espoused the popuLr side ; but several of the princes organized a league against him under the Count of Armagnac (ar man-yak'), the father-in-law of the Duke of Orleans. The new party of Orleanists thus formed were called the Armagnacs. 58. A large force of Gascons f and others was raised, and the Armagnacs marched on Paris, and ravaged the country up to its very gates. But, for a time, a treaty was made by the factions (1410). The next year, however, war was re- sumed ; and some of the people of Paris, in self-defense, organized a civic guard, consisting of the lowest dregs of the populace, led by one Caboche (kah-bosh), a butcher, and hence called Cabochiens. These soon got possession of the city, and perpetrated the most shocking atrocities. 59. The Armagnacs overpowered this band of brigands, and entered the city ; but the Duke of Burgundy, with a strong force, attacked their position, slaughtered about 1,200 of their number, and compelled them to flee to Orleans. A dreadful massacre in Paris followed this triumph of the * The corrupt state of society in France at this time is shown by the fact that this atrocious murder was allowed to go unpunished. Indeed the Burgundian faction ap- plauded it. A doctor of the Sorbonne pronounced a formal apology for the crime. "The Duke of Orleans," he said, "was a tyrant, a traitor, and a heretic, and therefore he deserved death ; and it was a laudable deed to rid the world of such a vile offender." t " Armagnac called toward Paris a little army of his Gascon followers, a savage, san- guinary race ; in cruelty they far surpassed the Burgundians— murder, torture, every species of violence and destruction, marked their steps. The opposite party would not be surpassed, and civil war between Burgundians and Armagnacs became marked with inhuman ferocity."— Crowe's History of France. 57. What was done by John ? What league was formed against him ? 58. State the events that followed. What occurred in Paris ? 59. What conflicts ensued ? The result ? 124 THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. [A, ». 1415. Burgundians, the Armagnacs being put to death without mercy. The latter party, therefore, sought the aid of the English king, promising to assist him to recover the former English possessions in France (1412).* 60. The dispatch containing this offer was intercepted, and created great excitement. War ensued ; and the Cabo- chiens resumed their atrocities, until the dauphin made terms with the Duke of Burgundy, on condition that he should leave Paris, which thus fell into the power of the Armagnacs (1414). 61. While these things were happening, a great storm was brewing for distracted France, f Henry V. had succeeded to the English throne, and resolved to improve the oppor- tunity offered by the condition of affairs in that country. In this resolution he was strengthened by a foolish insult offered to him by the dauphin, who sent him, on his acces- sion to the throne, a present, in ridicule of his youth, a jbhild's plaything — a miniature game of tennis. <^ 62. Invasion of the English. — To prevent war, Henry offered humiliating terms to the French king, which were refused. Henry then invaded France, landing at Har-fleur', at the mouth of the Seine, with 6,000 men-at-arms and 24,000 archers (August 14, 1415). Harfleur was surrounded and captured after a five weeks' siege, the King of France mak- ing no effort to come to its relief. Though half of Henry's army had melted away in this short time, he determined to ride through the country as his predecessors had done. He started, therefore, with the small force at his command, on a march to Calais. * " It is certain that, with whatever intention, Henry IV. listened favorably to the pro- posal of the Orleans or Armagnac faction, who offered to surrender all the provinces of Gascony to the English, with other advantages. Tempted by these offers, he engaged, 18th of May, 1412, to send to the assistance of the Armagnacs a thousand men-at-arms and three thousand archers. To show himself more serious in their support, the King of England's younger son, Thomas of Clarence, was to be appointed general of the auxiliary army."— Scott's Tales of a Grandfather. + «* Meanwhile, at Pairis, the dauphin ruled supreme, and gave himself up to debauch- eries. He little recked what a cloud was gathering to shake him from his scandalous life ; he cared little for the growing force, so soon about to drag him out to see with hi» t>wn eyes the downfall of his country."— KltchitVs History of France. 60. How did Paris fall into the power of the Armagnacs ? 61 . Why did Henry V. attack France ? 62. What course did Henry V. then take ? A. ». 1415.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 125 63. Battle of Agincourt. — Between him and Calais was a French army of 50,000 men, commanded by the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. The position chosen by the French was near the little village of Agincourt (aj'in-couri), their army being drawn up in three lines of battle across the val- ley, with a rising ground on their left and woods on their right. The English faced north, and a portion of their line was strengthened by a palisade. Between the two armies was the plowed ground of the valley, heavy with recent rains. The French cavalry began the attack, but were mired before they reached the English lines. A shower of arrows from the English archers now fell upon the struggling mass, maddening the horses and driving them back to carry con- fusion into the lines in the rear. The English then ad- vanced to the attack, and, with their pikes and battle-axes, made short work of the dismounted French knights, weighed down as they were with their cumbrous armor. The Eng- lish loss was 1,600. The French lost 10,000 men; among them three dukes, the Constable of France, l six counts, ninety-two barons, and many of less note ; while the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, the Marshal of France, three counts, and hundreds of other nobles were taken prisoners (1415). 64. The result of this battle was a terrible blow to the Armagnacs. Nevertheless, the Count of Armagnac hastened to Paris and took possession of it. He had with him the king, and the dauphin, and was himself Constable of France. Determined to do something to efface the stain of Agincourt, he raised troops to besiege Harfleur, but was compelled to exact so much money of the people that they complained, John the Fearless took advantage of the general discontent. He took Queen Isabel from Tours, in the castle of which she had been placed by her son Charles, declared her re- gent, entered into negotiations with the English, and ad- vancing on Paris, cut off its supplies. 63. "Describe the battle of Agincourt. 64. What did the Count of Armagnac do ? What did John the Fearless do ! 126 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1420, 65. Second Invasion of the English. — Meantime, the English returned (1417). Paris was opened by treachery to the Burgundians, who entered in the night, and took posses- sion, throwing the Armagnacs into prison, where many were afterward murdered. Among those who thus lost their lives was the Count of Armagnac himself. A few, how- ever, escaped, carrying with them the dauphin. John the Fearless now returned to Paris, bringing with him the queen ; but nothing was done to check the English, who captured many cities and towns, and finally besieged Eouen, which was forced to surrender, after a prolonged resistance. John the Fearless made proposals both to the English and to the Armagnacs, but without success. A conference was finally arranged between the dauphin and the duke on the bridge of Montereau, and there the duke was suddenly set upon and killed in the presence of the dauphin (1419). 66. The Treaty of Troyes. — The ceaseless quarrels of the two great' parties in France had brought the country so low that the surrender of the crown to the English king was viewed by many with favor. The Orleanists and Armag- nacs were farther than ever from a reconciliation, on account of the recent murder. The dauphin withdrew into the south of France ; and the queen and the Duke of Burgundy signed a treaty of peace with*«the King of England, at Troyes (trwali), (May 21, 1420). The principal condi- tions of this treaty were, that Henry should exchange his title of King' of France for that of Eegent and Heir of France, he to be crowned king at the next vacancy, at which time all his conquests in France, including Normandy, should be restored ; that he should, in the mean time, aid the French king to recover those parts of the kingdom which had been wrested from him by the dauphin ; and, finally, that he should at once marry Catharine, the king's daughter. 67. The surrender of Paris and the north of France to 65 . What occurred in Paris ? What happened at the bridge of Montereau ? 66. What wvre the terms of the treaty of Troyes ? 67. How did the treaty of Troyes aid the dauphin? Who became regent of France ? What prominent persons died ? /V. ». 1422.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 12? the English king lifted the dauphin at once into the posi- tion of the defender of the nation. Minor differences were lost sight of, and all who felt the presence of the English king in Paris a humiliation hastened to the standard of the dauphin. During the progress of the war which ensued Henry V. died, and Charles VI. soon followed him (1422).* Henry had left an infant son, and the Duke of Bedford was declared Kegent of France to act during his minority. The dauphin was, at the same time, declared king by his party ; and the war was continued. 1422 ^8. Charles VII. (the Victorious) was nine- to teen years old when he was proclaimed king, and gave little promise of becoming an able monarch. His reign also began under a cloud, two defeats putting an end to his sway in the north. A judicious marriage, how- ever, with Marie of Anjou brought to him the support of that powerful family and province, as well as that of Lor- raine ; Brittany was won over by the promotion of Eiche- mont (reesh-mong') as Constable of France ; Languedoc de- clared for him ; and alliances were made with Scotland and Castile. The disagreements of the English also worked to his advantage. The Duke of Bedford represented the roy- alists, but the Duke of Gloucester, who was then Eegent of England, was the champion of the nobility. In addition to the coldness toward Bedford thus produced, enmity between Gloucester and the Duke of Burgundy sprung up on ac- count of the marriage of the latter with the Countess of Hainault (hi-no'), who brought him as her dowry Holland, Zealand, and Fris'ia, which were adjacent to the Duke of Burgundy's province of Flanders. * " Some weeks later died the saddest of French kinsfi, thevnuch-afflicted Charles VI. He had reigned for forty-two years ; long he had been Jmt a name, a shadow. His voice, heard at rare intervals on some piteous occasion, was as if it came from the tomb ; it usually had a plaintive gentleness, a touch of sad forgiveness in it. ' In his days,' says Juvenal des ITrsins, ' he was pitiful, gentle, and benign to his people, serving and loving God, a great giver of alms.' The people called him ' Charles, the Well-Beloved,' clinging to him with a touching helplessness. Their attachment to the crazy king shows how oppressive the princes were :— he at least did them no harm."— Kitchin. 68. How old was Charles VII. when he was made king ? How did his reign be- gin ? What changes favored the new king ? 128 THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. [A. D. 1428. 69. The Siege of Orleans.— After some preliminary fighting, the English besieged the city of Orleans (1428) ; and for a year they lay before it with no decisive result. The frightful misery of the people, which had already lasted many years, and which now seemed likely to endure many more, was charged solely to the English, and France be- came gradually united in its hatred of them. How to free themselves, however, none could tell. In despair of any human aid, the people turned to Heaven ; and a superstitious belief became general that the kingdom which had been brought to such desperate straits by a woman could only be saved by a woman. She who had betrayed France into the hands of the foreigner was the queen, who had disinherited her son to accomplish it. But who was to be the deliverer ? 70, Joan of Arc. — In the little village of Domremy, be- tween Champagne and Lorraine, lived Joan of Arc, a peasant girl, who had been familiar from her childhood with the deeds of violence common at that time in France. The gloom which had settled down upon her country caused her to turn for consolation to the little church of which she had always been a devoted member. The belief, every- where expressed, that relief for France would come from a woman in the humbler walks of life, impressed her strongly, and roused in her the daring thought that she herself might be the means of accomplishing this great result. The op- position of her father, however, prevented her from acting ; and for several years she brooded over the thought, till the scheme which she had formed in regard to it became the object of her life. « — ^Htt* During her solitary walks she said she heard strange voices, which encouraged her in her project. * These became m6re frequent, till at length she went to the commander of * "At first she was frightened, hut she recovered herself on finding that 'it was a worthy voice ; ' and at the second call, she perceived that It was the voice of angels. The apparitions came again and again, and exhorted her • to go to France for to deliver the kingdom."*— OuizoVs History of France. 69. What feeling was gradually growing up in France; f What was the condition Of the country at this time ? 70. Who was Joan of Arc ? What had been her mode of life ? 71. What did she at length do ? A. D. 1429. THE HOUSE CE VALOIS. 129 the garrison at Vaucouleurs (vo-coo-lur), and asked for an escort of soldiers, that she might go to the aid of Orleans, and, after the victory, conduct the dauphin to Kheims to be crowned. He laughed at her at first ; but so strong was the belief of the common people in her mission, that he at last consented to give her a guard of six men. She then cut her hair short, put on men's clothes, and accompanied by her escort, went to Chinon (slie-nong), where Charles VII. was staying, and asked to see him (February, 1429). 72. For two days she was refused, but being at length ad- mitted to an audience, she singled out the king, who had attempted to disguise himself by changing his dress and mingling with his courtiers, and told him that a voice from heaven had sent her to raise the siege of Orleans, to con- duct him to Kheims to be crowned, and to restore to him his kingdom. The court mocked at her enthusiasm, and attempted to puzzle her with difficult questions. This only delayed her, however, a short time ; * the voice of the nation made itself heard ; and on the 29th of April, she entered Orleans with provisions for the garrison. 73. The starving army to which she had brought relief looked upon her as a saint, while the English thought her a witch. The besieging army had wasted away by disease and desertion to less than 5,000 men ; and the French, inspired with new courage, marched out to attack them. After sev- eral engagements, in which Joan of Arc fought at the head of the troops, Orleans was delivered. The "Maid of Orleans," as she was always afterward called, after other victorious battles, conducted the king to Eheims, where he was solemnly crowned (1429). Joan then declared her mis- sion ended, and' wished to be dismissed; but her services were still demanded. * " A squire -was assigned to her, a page, two heralds, a chaplain, varlets, and serving folks. A complete suit of armor was made to fit her. Her sword was marked with five crosses. She had a white banner, studded with lilies, hearing the representation of God seated upon the clouds, and holding in his hand the globe of the world."— Guizot. 72. Give an account of her first interview with the king. How did she relieve the garrison of Orleans ? 73. How was she regarded by the opposing armies ? What was the result of her mission ? 6* 130 THE HOUSE OF YALOTS. [A. B. 1431, 74. The story of the wonderful raising of the siege of Orleans had spread rapidly, and many strong places surren- dered when it was known that the king was accompanied by the Maid of Orleans. Paris, however, still remained in ^ = _^= = =^=^=^ 1== ___ the hands of ^ijjj . the English ; / 7 B^ but the king gave her only a feeble support in her efforts to capture it, Jealousy of the great power she was acquir- ing led him to listen to coun- sels which were directly oppos- ed to his own interests. She withdrew with the army, therefore, t o C ompiegne {hong -pyan'), which the Duke of Bur- gundy was pre- paring to at- tack. As the inhabitants of chat place had declared for the king, little mercy could be expected by them if they should fall into the duke's hands. She entered the city to aid in its defense, but, in a sortie, was captured. She was delivered by the Duke of Burgundy CATHEDRAL OP RHEIMS— (COMPLETED IN THE 15th CENTURY.) 74. What effect was produced in Prance by the raising of the siege of Orleans? Where was the Maid of Orleans captured, and what was her fate ? A. D. 1439.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 131 to the English, who took her to Kouen, where she was con- demned as a witch and burned, and her ashes were scat- tered in the Seine (1431).* 75. The Peace of Arras. — The death of Joan of Arc, however, brought no success to the English arms. The hatred the French felt for them, on account of her cruel death, gave renewed energy to their army ; while the Eng- lish cause was weakened by the hostility of the Duke of Bur- gundy. The English king, Henry VI., had been taken to Paris and crowned there (1431), but no enthusiasm was awakened for him in the hearts of the French. Affairs were now ripe for a treaty of peace, both sides being weary of the war. A congress of most of the powers of Europe was, therefore, assembled at Ar'ras ; and, after much discus- sion, the Duke of Burgundy became reconciled to Charles VII., and recognized him as king (1435). 76. The Duke of Bedford had died only a few days be- fore, and the English in France were now left without a leader. Paris shortly after surrendered, and the English left the city, f The king soon after set himself vigorous- ly to work to remedy the evils which were destroying his kingdom. He assembled the States-General of the south of France at Orleans, and took measures to free the kingdom from the disorders caused by the petty wars of the nobles, by establishing a standing army and levying an annual tax ft>r its support (1439). 7NJ7. As this measure placed the entire military force of the /kingdom in the hands of the king, the nobles objected ; 'When she felt the flames rising around ner, sne besought the priest who at- tended her to leave her. The cardinal of Winchester, and even the bishop of Beauvais, who had been her bitterest enemy, could not conceal their emotion. After her death two of the judges who had condemned her exclaimed, ' Would that our souls were where we believe hers is ! ' and Fressart, the secretary of Henry VI., said, as he left the place of execution, 'We are all lost; we have burned a saints ' "— GuizoVs History of France. t The year after their departure, Charles visited the capital, but only to leave it again, famine and the plague raging there with such violence as to leave the streets almost entirely deserted. So great was the destitution that wolves, it is said, entered the city and carried off dogs, and even children. 75. Was her death of advantage to the English ? What led to the treaty of Arras ? 76. How were the English in France weakened ? What measures did the king now adopt ? 77. Why did the nobles object to the change ? What was the consequence of this ? What is said of the dauphin ? The Duke of Orleans ? 132 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. [A. D. 1448. and forming a league with the captains of the free lances, which had thriven during the late war, declared the king's act revolutionary, and persuaded the dauphin, Louis, to allow himself to be placed at the head of a party which should oppose his father. The Duke of Orleans, also, who had been held a prisoner in England since the battle of Agincourt, had just been released, and joined the new party. The people everywhere, however, declared for the king, and this new rebellion was soon suppressed (1440). The next year the war with England was renewed, the dauphin doing good service on the side of the king, his father. 78. Re-organization of the Army. — Steps were soon after taken to organize a standing army, according to the ordinance of Orleans. Fifteen companies each of one hun- dred "lances" was the limit fixed for the size of the army, each lance being formed of six men. The army, therefore, consisted of 9,000 cavalry. Three years later (1448), an army of regular infantry was formed, each parish being required to furnish one veteran soldier for the king's service. The organization of this army of Charles VII. has always been studied with interest, since the standing army of modern Europe owes its origin to it. 79. The Conquest of Normandy. — In 1449, the war with England was resumed. An outrage was committed in Brittany by a Spanish adventurer in the service of England, for which the king and the Duke of Brittany demanded the payment of 1,600,000 crowns. This was refused by the gov- ernor of Normandy, then an English province, and hostil- ities began at once. Cities and towns surrendered, or were captured by the French, in rapid succession ; and, on the 18th of October, they attacked Rouen. The inhabitants of the city rose against the English garrison, which soon surren- dered. The English were driven to the coast, and there made an attempt to recover their lost ground, a force of 6,000 men being sent over from England to reinforce them. 78. How was the array now re-organized ? Why is this organization of special interest t 79. What produced a new war with England ? What hecame of Normandy ? A. D. 1456.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 133 After an obstinate battle, the English were forced to retreat ; and Normandy, after a year's campaign, became a French province (1450). 80. War in the South. — Guienne and the city of Bor- deaux were captured the following year (1451) ; but the commerce of the latter had depended for so many years on England, that its inhabitants gladly opened their gates to an English army, which was sent to recapture it. The king marched again into the south, and captured several cities. Bordeaux was surrounded by sea and land, and being threat- ened with famine, at length surrendered. A severe punish- ment was inflicted by the king. He deprived the city of its charter, imposed a fine of 100,000 crowns, beheaded one of its citizens who had been most active in the rebellion, ban- ished several others, and built two forts, so placed as to com- mand the city. The small strip of land which included Calais and a few neighboring places were now the only Eng- lish possessions in France. The Hundred Years' War was ended (1453). 81. While Charles VII., however, was undisturbed by for- eign war, he was annoyed by his son, the dauphin Louis, whose crafty disposition led him into constant plots with the nobles against his father. He became so troublesome at last that the king marched against him, when he fled from his estates in Dauphiny to Burgundy, where he placed himself under the protection of the duke of that province (1456). His intrigues did not cease till 1461, when his father died, leaving him the kingdom for which he had been so long plotting. * 82. The reign of Charles VII. marks the end of the period known as the Middle Ages. The changes made by him in Prance were principally the creation of a standing army, the * With such terror was Charles inspired from the wicked intrigues of hisundutiful son, that he was afraid to take food, lest he might be poisoned. " It was In vain that his favorite child offered to taste first the food set before him ; and when, at last, he would have made an effort to eat, it was too late." 80. What course was pursued by the people of Bordeaux ? How were they pun- ished ? What celebrated war was now brought to a close ? 81 . What is said of Louis, the dauphin ? 82. What period is closed bv the reign of Charles VIT.? What great changes wer." made by him ? What two persons aided him ? What was Charles called ? 134 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1461. levy of an annual tax to meet the expenses of the govern- ment, and the organization of local parliaments to assist the king in the government of the country. In the first two measures, he was aided by Eichemont (reesh-mong')* Con- stable of France, and Jacques Cceur (zhak kyur), a wealthy citizen of Bourges, whom the king chose as his treasurer. The latter had grown immensely rich in the eastern trade, and all his ability and wealth were used in the service of the king. He afterward lost his favor and was thrown into prison. f -Charles VII. was, with good reason, called the Victorious, for he made himself one of the most powerful sovereigns of Europe. 83. The improvements made in the manufacture and use of fire-arms were strikingly shown during this reign. In the capture of the fortress of Cherbourg (slier boor g), in 1450, and in the attack on Bordeaux, three years after, cannon were skillfully used by the French, and soon became common in the armies of Europe. By hastening the downfall of feudal- ism, this lifted up the common people, and the same result was aided by the invention of printing. Men began to be valued for their learning and ability rather than for their illustrious birth. A powerful impulse also was given to learning by the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453). The fear of the Turks drove from that city into western Europe many scholars who created there a love for classical learning, which bore abundant fruit. The reign of Charles VII. also saw the end of the great schism of the West, which had lasted seventy years, and had been the cause of many wars. 1461 84. Louis XI. — When Louis XL ascended the to throne, his accession was considered by the nobles as their success, since he had for years been intriguing * "Next to Joan of Arc, Richemont was the most effective and the most glorious amongst the liberators of France and the king."— Guizot. t His house at Bourges is still standing, and is considered one of the most perfect specimens of the architecture of the fifteenth century. 83. What is said of the use of fire-arms ? What change did this produce ? What gave an impulse to learning ? What was brought to an end ? 84. How did the nobles regard the accession of Louis XI. ? Were they satisfied afterward t Why not ? A. D. 1466.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 135 with them against their most formidable enemy, his father. Many of the changes also which he made were so great as to produce dissatisfaction and rebellion among the people, and this gave renewed hope to the nobles. Their joy, how- ever, was of short duration, for new laws were passed im- mediately after, which threatened their most cherished priv- ileges, 85. One of his first acts was the purchase, in 1463, of five cities on the river Somme, which had been delivered to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, by the treaty of Arras, with the understanding, however, that the king should have the privilege of buying them back. By this act he made the duke's son, Charles, the Count of Charolais (shd-ro-la), afterward Charles the Bold, his enemy. 86. League of the Public Good. — When the nobles saw that the king intended to pursue his own ends, tram- pling on their rights if necessary to reach them, they called together all the dissatisfied classes in France to resist him. This alliance was called the League of the Public Good (1465). The chief of the league was the king's brother, the Duke of Berri. In striving to reach Paris, the king's army came upon that of the allies, and a severe but indecisive battle was fought. The king entered Paris, however, and signed a treaty with his enemies. Immediately after, dis- turbances in Normandy called him away, and he was forced to sign another treaty to quiet his kingdom. In both of these, the cunning of the king and the insincerity of the nobles are plainly seen. The latter made advantageous terms for themselves, without paying much attention to the interests of the people, who, by entering the league with hem, gave them their strength. 87. By stratagem, the following year (1466), Louis gained tn> greater part of what he had lost by treaty. Normandy had been seized by him when Charles the Bold, Duke of 85. What was one of his first acts ? To what did this lead ? 86. Why was the League of the Public Good formed ? Who was its leader ? Were the interests of the people protected by the League ? 87. What did the king do in regard to Normandy ? By whom was his right to da this questioned ? What was the result ? 136 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1468. Burgundy, was unable to prevent it. The latter had just come into full possession of the province of Burgundy by his father's death (1467), and now found allies to question the king's right to Normandy, in Francis II. of Brittany, and in Edward IV. of England. Louis called together the States- General at Tours (1468), and laid before them the question whether Normandy should be severed from France. They objected, and their answer was sent to the Duke of Bur- gundy. In the mean time, Louis had compelled the Duke of Brittany to sign a treaty, which prevented him from act- ing with the Duke of Burgundy. 88. Capture of the King — Believing that he could gain more from Charles the Bold by negotiation than by bat- tle, Louis went to meet him at Peronne (pa-ron'), having first, as he supposed, made such arrangements that the Duke of Burgundy would not dare do violence to his person. While he was in his power, however, news was received of a revolt in the duke's Flemish possessions, which Louis was believed to have inspired. The duke, therefore, detained the king, and compelled him to go with him to the attack on Liege, which was one of the cities in revolt ; and the king was forced to fight on the side of the duke in quelling the rebellion he had himself incited. * Liege was taken by storm, and given over to all the horrors of rapine and carnage (1488). f 89. The cunning of Louis, and the ease with which he broke his promises, caused him to be regarded always with suspicion, while his oppressions led to frequent complaints * When the king returned to Paris, the contempt of the people was shown In a re- markable way. Cages were hung along the route he took containing Jays and magpies, which saluted him with cries of " Peronne ! " the name of the place where he had been duped. Finding that La Balue, one of his counselors, had been a secret adviser of the Duke of Burgundy, the king revenged himself upon him by confining him and one of hie accomplices, the bishop of Verdun, in iron cages in which they could neither stand up nor lie down at full length. This confinement lasted more than ten years. t " Every morning the flames were kindled at a fresh point, and more than seven weeks elapsed before they were finally suffered to expire. The ruins, as at Dinant, were searched, rifled, and leveled. Everything portable and of value was carried off. Not a single building which had been used or inhabited solely by laymen was left standing."— Kirk's Charles the Bold. 88. What was the consequence of the meeting of Louis with the Duke of Bur- gundy at Peronne ? 89. How was Louis regarded by the people? Why did Charles the Bold invade France V What was the result ? A. I>. 1472.1 THE HOUSE OF YALOIS. 137 from his people. He was constantly annoyed, therefore, by plots against him, the chief instigator of which was his brother, the Duke of Berry. The duke died, however, in 1472 ; and Charles the Bold avenged his death by in- vading the king- dom, on the pre- text that Louis had poisoned him. After a short cam- paign, which he conducted with great cruelty, he was compelled to make peace. 90. Charles the Bold now applied himself to the in- crease and consoli- dation of his do- mains, and with such success that it was considered the richest coun- try in Christen- dom. He also sought to increase his power and dig- nity by offering the hand of his daughter to the son of the Empe- ror of Germany, I Frederic III., ABHOR OF CHARLES THE BOLD. 90. What was the position of Charles the Bold, and how did he increase his influ ence ? What result attended his ambitious designs ? 138 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1477. who, in return, should proclaim him king. In this pro- ject, however, he was thwarted by Louis, who brought such influence to bear upon the emperor that the alliance between him and Charles the Bold was prevented. Two years after (1475), the duke found himself involved in a war with the Swiss, during the progress of which Louis capture'd some of his possessions in Picardy and Artois. 91. Invasion of the English. — The same year, the King of England, acting on the advice of Charles the Bold, landed at Calais with a large army, with the intention of invading France. The Duke of Burgundy, however, was not in a condition to give him the aid he had promised ; and Edward IV. consented to return to England with his army, on the payment by Louis of 75,000 crowns and an annual pension of 50,000 more, followed by the marriage of the dauphin with Edward's daughter, when they should be of proper age. This bargain was called by the people the mer chants 9 truce. Two years after, Louis heard with joy the news of the death of his bitterest and bravest enemy, Charleb the Bold, who was killed at the battle of Nancy * (1477). 92. Thus far, the king had been singularly successful in his project of building up a strong and stable government in France. Good fortune, and his own cunning and cruelty, rather than prowess on the battle-field, had been his instru- ments. Several of his most powerful euemies had died within a few years of each other; and, at all times, Louis had been able, by the use of bribes, dissensions among his foes, or politic marriages, to hold them jn check. One of his most important plans, however, now failed. * " The inhabitants of Nancy, who saw the whole from their walls, were so frantic with joy as to hurry forth without precaution ; so that some fell by the hands of their friends, the Swiss, who struck without attending. The mass of the routed were impelled by the inclination of the ground to a spot where two rivulets met, near a frozen pond, and the ice, which was weaker over these running waters, broke under the weight of the men-at- arms. Here the waning fortunes of the house of Burgundy sank forever. The duke stumbled there ; and he was followed by men whom Campobasso had left for the pur- pose. Others believe that it was a baker of Nancy who struck him first a blow on the head, and that a man-at-arms, who was deaf, and did not hear that he was the Duke of Burgundy, dispatched him with the thrusts of his lance."— MicheleVn History of France. 91 . At whose request did Edward IV. invade France ? Why, and on what terms, did he return to England ? What was this treaty called by the people ? 92. What is said of the king's success in founding a strong government ? By what means had he accomplished this t A. ». 1482.] THE HOUSE OF VALOPS. 139 93. Charles the Bold had left an only child, Mary of Bur- gundy, aged twenty years. So rich was the heritage of Bur- gundy that five suitors for her hand appeared. Among them Louis placed his son, the dauphin Charles, then only eight years old. Soon discovering, however, that his suit in be- half of his son was hopeless, he set to work to dismember Burgundy, and add some portions of it to France. Mary of Burgundy, disgusted with his treachery, married Maximil- ian, son of the Emperor of Germany and Archduke of Aus tria (1477). This marriage laid the foundation of the great- ness of the house of Austria, and led to a rivalry which, lasted nearly two centuries. Five years after, occurred the death of Mary of Burgundy and the treaty of peace at Arras, in which the Flemings, wearied with their new master, Maxi- milian, made proposals to Louis to marry the dauphin to Margaret, the infant daughter of Mary, who was to bring with her as her dowry half the pos- sessions of the house of Burgundy (1482). £^. Death of the King. — Louis was now nearly sixty years of age. Though he had oppressed his people and kept him- self almost constantly at war with the nobles, such was his ability, that the territory of France was largely increased during his reign, and its influence was respected throughout Europe. Brutal in dispo- TOMB OF LOUIS XI. 93. What is said of Mary of Burgundy ? Why was Louis her enemy ? After the treaty of Arras what good fortune came to Louis ? 94. How had Louis's rule affected France ? What was his character? What is said of his fear of death ? 140 THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. [A. 15. 1483. sition, cold-hearted and grasping, he made treaties only to break them when it served his purpose, and conquered his enemies by dividing them ; and, when this did not succeed, made use of violence and murder. Notwithstanding his con- stant wars, he was exceedingly afraid of death. His palace at Plessis-les-Tours (ples-see-la-toor) was a castle strongly forti- fied and guarded by armed troops ; and during his last years, he used extraordinary means to prolong his life. He died in 1483, and was buried in the church of Notre Dame at Clery. * 95. In carrying out his selfish plans, Louis made many changes which remained as permanent improvements. One of the most useful of these was the establishment of a postal system, in 1464, which, though used for a long time mainly for his own correspondence, gave rise to the modern mail. He also granted the right of appeal from a lower court to his own, compelled the nobles to take a more active part in civil affairs, and extended the freedom of elections. He passed laws, also, for the encouragement of industry, opened new routes of travel and commerce to the East, fostered the art of printing, built many strongholds for the defense of his kingdom, and established or re-organized several schools and universities. The first silk-mills in France were established at Tours during his reign ; and he attracted merchants from different parts of France and Europe to the new markets and fairs which he opened, by granting them more liberal terms than his predecessors. 1483 96. Charles VIII. (the Affable).— The heir to the to vacant throne was Charles, the youngest child of 1498 Louis, then only thirteen years old. He was ill- * The most extraordinary means were taken to protect the king from danger. Man- traps prevented the approach of every one to the castle ; beside which he was guarded by a band of Scotch archers, and every suspicious person found in the vicinity was im- mediately shot or hung. The trees around the castle constantly had such victims hang- ing from their branches, and the ground was strewed with human bones. The miserable wretch sought to beguile the weary hours at first with hunting rats, and afterward by watching the dancing of peasants from the castle windows. Tristan l'Hermite, his hang- man, Oliver Daim, his barber, and Jacque Cottier, his physician, were his only companions ; and yet he sought to prolong his life. He tried to keep off death by all the arts of super- stition. He kept various relics about his person, and his cap was stuck around with little 95. What were some of the changes produced during his reign? What new in- dustiies date from his reign ? 96. Who succeeded Louis XI.? What is said of him? What maxim had Loui* sft him for his guidance ? A. ». 1488.] THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 141 shaped and ignorant, if not feeble-minded ; and the princes who had been the enemies of Lonis thought that, in his youth and weakness, an opportunity was presented them of undoing his father's work. Louis had left him a single maxim as his guide : "He who knows how to deceive, knows how to reign." The youngest sister of the king was married to the Duke of Orleans, who was thus the nearest noble to the throne ; but the education of the young king was in- trusted to another sister, Anne, who had been chosen for this office by Louis on account of her ability. She had been married to Peter of Beaujeu (bo-zhuh'), of the house of Bourbon, and was known as the "Lady of Beaujeu." 97. A struggle for the control of the king at once ensued ; and this, together with the frightful condition of the coun- try, made it necessary to call together the States-General. The session began at Tours, on the 15th of January, 1484 ; and it was decreed that the king should preside over the executive council, when absent his place to be filled by the Duke of Orleans, who was thus virtually placed at the head of the government ; but the influence of Anne of Beaujeu over the king was so great that she was really the ruler of France.* She soon found occasion to quarrel with the Duke of Orleans, and, ordered his arrest. He saved himself, however, by flight, and with the support of the Duke of Brittany and other nobles, took up arms against the king's forces, but was captured soon after in battle (1488), and sent to the castle of Bourges, where he was kept a prisoner for three years. Less than a month after the battle, Anne signed a treaty of peace at Sable (sah-bla'), highly favorable to France. (See Prog. Map No. 3.) eaden images of saints to which he offered his prayers. Holy oil was Drought to him from Rheims, and the Sultan Bajazet sent him holy relics from Constantinople. His suite of apartments in the castle contained thirty rooms, all connecting, and secured by com- plicated locks ; and the king never slept twice in the same chamber. , * " When the States-General had separated, Anne, without difficulty or uproar, re- sumed, as she had assumed on her father's death, the government of France j and she kept it yet for seven years, from 1484 to 1491. During all this time, she had a rival and foe in Louis, Duke of Orleans, who was one day to be Louis XII."— GuizoVs History oj France. 97. Who was placed at the head of the government ? Who was the real ruler of France ? What happeneu to the Duke of Orleans ? What treaty was made ? 142 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. ». 1491, 98. Anne of Brittany. — Hardly had the treaty of Sa- ble been concluded when Francis of Brittany died, leaving his dukedom to his daughter Anne, a child of twelve. From among her many suitors, Maximilian was chosen ; but the danger to France from any increase of his power was so great, that Charles was sent by Anne of Beaujeu to invade Brittany, where he captured the city of Rennes {ren), in which the young duchess had taken refuge ; and soon after he married her (1491).* By this marriage, Brittany ceased to be an independent State ; and its enterprising people, whose stubbornness had always caused the kings of France so much trouble, became a part of the French nation. 99. Invasion of Italy. — Anne of Beaujeu now retired to her estates, leaving the young king of age, and master of a united kingdom. From the moment that Charles VIII. , however, lost the support of her guiding hand, he began to engage in enterprises which put in peril the safety of France. Having drawn around himself a majority of the great feudal lords, they inspired him with the romantic ideas of their class, urging him to engage in some brilliant expedition which should give luster to the arms of France. Though the neighboring powers were forming a strong.league against him on account of his capture of Brittany, he turned his back on the dangers which threatened him, and assembled an army of 50,000 men, and more than 140 pieces of artil- lery at the foot of the Alps, for the invasion of Italy, f 100. Capture of Naples. — Charles entered Italy not only with the intention of occupying Naples, but of leading his army through Greece to the capture of Constantinople, * " Anne still held with all the faithfulness of a wife to Maximilian, to whom she was nominally betrothed. An ostensible act of compulsion was deemed requisite to over- come her reluctance. A royal army besieged her in Rennes. One of the conditions ot the capitulation was, that she should espouse the King of France." This marriage really as well as ceremoniously took place."— Crowe's History of France. t The pretext for this invasion was an old claim to the kingdom of Naples bequeathed to France by the house of Anjou. 98. By what means did Anne of Brittany become the wife of Charles VIII.? What was the result to the province of Brittany ? 99. What did Anne of Beaujeu now do ? What step did the king afterward take ? With what force was this invasion undertaken ? 100. What designs had Charles in his invasion? What is said of his exirava gance ? Of his success ? A. ». 1-495.1 THE HOUSE OE VALOIS. 143 and even to that of Jerusalem. In the first steps of this modern crusade he was successful. The constant wars of the many petty states of Italy had so reduced their power that none were strong enough to oppose him. So great was the extravagance of Charles, however, that the money set apart for this expedition was spent before he entered Italy. He continued on his way, meeting the necessary expenses by pawning the diamonds of the court ladies with whom he danced, and borrowing money at high rates ; while his im- proved artillery contributed greatly to his success in arms. City after city surrendered ; and, on the 22d of February, 1495, the French army entered Naples. 101. During his absence, his enemies had collected their forces. * While Charles was amusing himself in Naples f by the ceremony of a coronation in which he took the title of " King of Naples, Emperor of the East, and King of Jeru- salem," the army of the allies was on the march, and meet- ing him on his return at For-no'vo J (1495), engaged him with 35,000 men — a force more than three times as great as that of the French. Though the king won a victory, it was dearly bought. His success served only to open a way for his retreat to France. V 102. Death of the King.— The ardor of the king for /foreign conquest was cooled by his experience in Italy. Press- ing business at home, also, now claimed his attention so completely that he neglected the viceroy of Naples, with whom he had left- 4,000 soldiers for the defense of his new kingdom. These had been attacked as soon as Charles had left the city; Naples capitulated, and only a remnant of * " The King of Aragon, in the mean time, leagued with the Venetians and Ludovico 3forza of Milan, to drive the French from Italy. Philip de Comines, then Charles's envoy at Venice, warned him of the danger. It was considered most prudent to return to France."— Crowe's History of France. t " It was while Charles VIII. was wasting his time at Naples that the marriages were arranged between the royal houses of Spain and Austria, by which the weight of these great powers was thrown into the same scale, and the balance of Europe unsettled for the greater part of the following century."— PrescotVs Ferdinand and Isabella. t A town in northern Italy about 13 miles from Parma. 101. What title did he assume in Naples ? How were his enemies employed? Was Charles successful at the battle of Fornovo ? 102. Did Charles retain Naples ? What now claimed his attention ? What way the cause of his death ? 144 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. [A. D. 1498. the little army returned to France. The distresses of his people now became the subject of the king's thoughts, and he applied himself carefully to remove them. Death sum- moned him, however, at the very beginning of his labors. While passing along a gloomy gallery in the castle of Am- fooise (am-bwahs') one day, he struck his head against a door; and, a few hours after, died in convulsions (1498). With him ended the direct line of the house of Valois. 103. The reign of Charles VIII. is principally noticeable for the change which it marks in the warlike activities of France, and in her policy toward neighboring nations. Up to this time, the energy of her kings had been spent at home in contests with the great lords, for the establishment of the royal power. This was now so secure that another outlet was needed, and this was found in foreign war. Charles VIII. was the first French king who, with an army organ- ized upon the modern plan, entered upon a path of foreign conquest. His success was not great, but the example set by him was followed by his successors for many years. State of Society in France during the Valois Period. 104. States- General. — The grand council of the nation, the States-General, was convened in 1357, the year after the disastrous battle of Poitiers. The first convocation of this assembly took place during the reign of Philip IV. (1302) ; and this event serves to mark the predominating influence of civil institutions over the military forms of feudalism. In this council, were represented the three orders — the no- bles, the clergy, and the commons, the latter being called the Tiers Mat (third estate).* * "Taking the history of France in its entirety and under all its phases, the third estate has been the most active and determining element in the process of French civilization." — Guizot. 103. What marked change dates from the reign of Charles VIII.? What is said of hie success in Italy, and the influence of his example ? 104. When were the States-General convened ? What did the States-General con- stitute ? When was this council first convoked ? What does this mark ? What were represented in it ? THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 145 105. In the assembly of 1357, the third estate came into conflict with the royal authority ; and, at every subsequent convention, the proceedings showed a spirit of resistance to the corruptions and tyranny of the court, from which re- sulted measures of great advantage to the people. The States-General of 1484 demanded that these assemblies should be called at regular periods, and that taxes should be levied equally upon all classes. The effect of these measures, how- ever, was not lasting ; the king only convoked the States when he pleased, and the nobles and clergy together could always outvote the commons. Hence the people, during the troubled period of the Hundred Years' War, made but little improvement in their political condition. 106. At the opening of the proceedings, it was the custom for the king to be present, and to make a short speech, after which the Chancellor of France explained at length the pur- poses of the session. The nobles and clergy remained seated and covered, while the commons stood up with bare heads. After a reply to the chancellor, from the president of each order, the three orders retired to their several rooms. When the deliberations were complete, they again convened, and presented to the king their wishes, demands, or complaints, in the form of suggestions. 107. The king made no reply ; and the assembly, after voting a pecuniary tax, separated. Thus it will be seen that the States-General was not a legislative body, all laws being made by the king, who could listen or not to the de- mands of his people. France was thus virtually an absolute monarchy, the king's power not being limited by any con- stitutional provisions, as the King of England was by the Great Charter. 108. Education, Literature, and Art. — Schools scarcely existed at this time. Scholars wandered about, 105. What is said of the States-General of 1357 ? What of the session of 1484 ? What was the effect of this ? 106. Describe the proceedings at a session of the States-General. 107. Was it a legislative body ? What was France virtually ? 108. What is said of the schools of this period? The University of Paris? Astrology ? 7 146 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. giving instruction to suoh pupils as they could collect.* The discipline was brutal, as is shown in pictures of the times, the rod being used on all occasions and in the severest manner. The University of Paris was attended by students from all parts of Europe, but little real knowledge was imparted, f Astrology was a favorite science at this period, ROAD IN TUE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. the influence of the stars upon human affairs being uni- > ersally believed. Even physicians consulted the stars in the treatment of the sick. J 109. Charles V. founded the Eoyal Library of Paris, § and * An old book, entitled the " Scholars' Miseries " (Miserice Scholasticorum) , depicts in a graphic manner the cruelty and severity of the school-masters toward their poor scholars, " whose faces," he says, " were pale and haggard, their hair neglected, and their clothes in rags." t About the time of the expulsion of the English, in 1436, when Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into Paris, the university numbered about 25,000 students. The study of the Greek language was introduced about that time. X Master Gervaise, astrologer to Charles V., founded a college in Paris for the express purpose of giving instruction in astrology. It was not until the middle of the sixteenth century that this pretended science commenced to decline ; and, even as late as the end of the seventeenth century, it was practiced in the courts of Europe. At the French court, in the time of Catharine de' Medici (about 1550), it was in the highest esteem. § Now the National Library. It contains at present more than 2,000,000 printed volumes, 150,000 manuscripts, 300,000 maps, charts, etc., 1,300,000 engravings, and a cabinet of coins and medals, containing over 150,000 specimens. 1 09. What did Charles V. found ? What is said of this library ? What works are referred to ? What is said of the poetry of this period ? THE HOUSE OF VALOI8. 14? was a generous patron of literature and art. From his father he inherited a collection of twenty books, which he increased to nine hundred. Among these were many transla- tions, which he caused to be made, of Latin and Greek authors into French ; but they were, of course, very imper- fect. Froissarfs Chronicles and the Memoirs of Philippe de Comines are the most noted productions of this period. Poetry was nothing more than a composition of wretched rhymes ; and the histories generally were a kind of petty gossip, sometimes filled with indecencies. 110. There were French paintings, but they were usual- ly of a very grotesque character, awkward in design, and wretched in execution. Perspective was mainly disregarded ; and the figures often had labels in their mouths to show whom they represented. This mode of representation was very much in vogue, originating, it is said, with the jesting advice of an Italian artist to a French painter. Architec- ture was in a better condition, and many splendid buildings were erected during this period. Allusion has already been made to the magnificent house of Jacques Cceur. Charles VIII., while in Italy, acquired a taste for architecture ; and, on his return, ordered the erection of the palace at Amboise {am-bwahs'), which he adorned with splendid statues and paintings. \ 111. The drama was confined to the Mysteries and J/b- / rklities, the former being plays representing incidents and events in sacred history. In 1385, at the marriage of Charles VI. and Isabel of Bavaria, a play was acted before the royal pair, entitled " The History of the Death of our Saviour," the performers being all monks. The play lasted eight days, having eighty-seven characters, the chief of whom was St. John. In 1402, the king granted letters- patent to some of the citizens of Paris to form an associa- tion to represent the Mystery of the Passion, This is the origin of the modern tragedy in France ; as the performance 110. W T hat is said of Painting ? Architecture ? Of Charles VIII.? 111. To what was the drama confined ? What is said of the Mysteries ? The Moralities ? 148 THE HOUSE OF V ALOIS. of the Moralities, or Moral Plays, is of the comedy. As an example of the latter, may be mentioned the Exhibition of Folly, which attracted great attention at the time. 112. Inventions. — At the siege of Arras, in 1414, use was made for the first time of muskets, then called hand- cannons. Playing-cards were improved, games of cards hav- ing been introduced to amuse the unfortunate Charles VI. during his lucid intervals.* About 1420, painting in oils was introduced, before which time all pictures were in water colors. Louis XL favored trade and commerce of every kind, encouraged the new art of printing, endowed a school of medicine at Paris, and inaugurated a postal system. An attempt was also made to light the streets of the capital. 113. Costume. — Various changes occurred in the style of dress during this period. Charles VII. revived the fash- ion of long and loose garments ; but, during the reign of Louis XL, a total revolution took place, the ladies laying aside their long trains and sleeves, and assuming in their place broad borders of fur, velvet, or silk. In the reign of Charles VI., the head-dress was of extraordinary breadth ; subsequently it was very high — sometimes more than three feet. Peaked shoes of great length were also a singular fea- ture of the costume, f 114. The houses of the rich were furnished with great splendor, the arts of design having made considerable prog- * The figures on the cards were the same as on those now in use, each having a distinct meaning. The hearts signify the churchmen ; the spades (pike-heads), denote the nobles or military ; the diamonds (square stones or tiles), the workmen; and the clubs (clover leaves), the peasantry. t " In the year 1461, the ladies laid aside the long trains to their gowns, and in lieu of them had deep borders of fur— of minever, martin, and others— or of velvet and various articles, of great breadth. They also wore hoods on their heads of circular form, half an ell or three-quarters high, gradually tapering to the top. Some had them not so high s with handkerchiefs wreathed around them, the corners hanging down to the ground. They also wore silken girdles of a greater breadth than formerly, with the richest shoes ; with golden necklaces much more trimly decked in divers fashions than they had been accustomed to wear them. At the same time, men wore shorter jackets than usual, after the manner in which people are wont to dress monkeys, which was a very indecent and Impudent thing. The sleeves of their outward dress and jackets were slashed, to show their white shirts. Their hair was so long that it covered their eyes and face : and on their heads they had cloth bonnets of a quarter of an ell in height. Knights and squires indifferently wore the most sumptuous golden chains. Even the very varlets had jackets of silk, satin, or velvet ; and almost all, especially at the courts of princes, wore peaks at their shoes of a quarter of an ell in length."— FroissarVs Cnronicles. 112. What inventions are referred to? What was introduced to amuse Charles VI. ? What else came into use ? 113. What is said of the costume of this period ? 114. What is said of the houses ? The furniture ? THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 149 ress at this time. We read of the "fine linen of Kheims," which was sold at an extravagant price ; and of fabrics made of "silk and silver tissue." Rich carpets and tapestry, and other articles of furniture spoken of, give evidence that means were not wanting for luxurious living and for the grati- fication of expensive tastes. Stone was used in construct- ing the basements of houses, the upper portions being con- structed of wood. In the richer kind of houses, the front was adorned with projecting corner posts, covered with carv- ings of figures — foliage, animals, heads of angels, etc. * 115. Paris during this period was often the scene of dreadful tumult ; and, at certain times, the mortality in the city was fearful. In 1438, there were 5,000 deaths at the Hotel Dieu ; and in the city, 45,000. Wolves prowled through the streets, at this dreadful time, and carried off a number of children. Fam- ine and pestilence depopulated the city. In 1466, malefactors and vagabonds of all countries were invited to fill up the broken ranks of the population, which, froissart. at the close of the reign of Louis XL, numbered about 300,000. f * In the fifteenth century the increase of luxury was plainly shown in the construction and furniture of the castle. This hecame much more extensive, having separate apart- ments for the occupations and industries which formed a part of the daily life of its in mates. It had its cel'ar, wine-vault, oakery, fruitery, laundry, special rooms for glass, linen, salt, furs, and tapestry; while near the entrance was the guard-room, and beyona were the porters' lodges and various buildings for the many servants and retainers. t The following is a description of scenes in Paris during this period: "At the early dawn the death criers, persons clothed in black, and announcing themselves by the tink- ling of small bells, gave notice of the death of such persons as had died during the night, and caned upon all good Christians to pray for their souls. These were followed by the people who called aloud that the hot baths were ready for use ; and after these came the trades-people hawking their wares— butchers, millers, fishmongers, fruit-sellers, etc., besides menders of old clothes, who stood ready, with needles and thread, to repair any accidental rent in the garments of passers-by." 115. What was the condition of Paris ? What is said of the mortality in 1438 J The population of Paris? 150 THE HOUSE OF TALOIS. 116. Distinguished Writers. — During, this period, there were but few writers whose works were of any perma- nent value. The most noted are Jean Froissart (born in 1337, died in 1410), who wrote the Chronicles, or annals of France from 1326 to 1400 ; and Philippe de Comines * (born 1445, died 1509), for a time the favorite of Charles the Bold, who wrote the Memoir es, giving a complete view of the affairs of his time, including a vivid picture of the character of Louis XL To these may be added Jean de Gerson (zhdr- song') (1363-1429), surnamed "The most Christian Doc- tor," who became Chancellor of the University of Paris. He wrote a treatise On the Consolation of Theology, and is supposed by some to have been the author of the celebrated religious work entitled TJie Imitation of Christ, which is usually ascribed to Thomas a Kempis. f Christine de Pisan (pe'zan) *(1333-1411) was a noted poetess of the period ; and Alain Chartier (sJiar-te-a) (1386-1449), the private secretary of Charles VI., and afterward of Charles VII. , wrote several poems of considerable merit, among them The Boohs of the Four Ladies. * Comines passed from the service of Charles the Bold into that of his great rival, Louis XI. of France, in 1472 ; and bv the latter he was loaded with honors and favors. After the death of Louis, he was banished because he favored the party of the Duke of Orleans. He came into favor again under Charles VIII., whom he accompanied on his expedition into Italy. He subsequently wrote the Memoires, which give the history of his time from 1464 to 1498. t A German writer who nourished during the fifteenth century (died 1471). The weight of evidence seems to favor his claim to the authorship of the work referred to, of which it has been said that it is " the nearest approach to the divine spirit of Christ which has ever emanated from the human mind, and may be considered a benefit bequeathed to suffering humanity." 116. What distinguished writers are referred to ? What is said of Froissart ? Of Comines ? Of Jean de Gerson ? Christine de Pisan ? Alain Charlier ? CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION, A.D. 1328. Philip VI. Reigned 22 years. 1346. Battle of Crecy. 1350. John (le Bon). Reigned 14 years. 1356. Battle of Poitiers. 1357. Meeting of the States-General. 1358. The Jacquerie. 1361. The Black Plague. THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. 1364. Charles V. (le Sage). Reigned 16 years. 1370. Capture of Limoges by the Black Prince. 1380. Death of Du Guesclin. 1380. Charles VI. (le Bien-Aime). Reigned 42 years. 1382. Battle of Rosebecque. 1404. Death of Philip of Burgundy. 1407. Assassination of the Duke of Orleans. 1415. Battle of Agincourt. 1419. Assassination of John the Fearless. 1420. Treaty of Troyes. 1422. Charles VII. (le Victorieux). Reigned 39 years. 1429. The king crowned at Rheims. 1431. Joan of Arc burned at Rouen. 1450. Conquest of Normandy. 1453. End of the Hundred Years' War. 1461. Louis XL Reigned 22 years. 1477. Death of Charles the Bold. 1483. Charles VIII. (V Affable.) Reigned 15 years. 1495. Capture of Naples by the French. 1498. Death of Charles VIII. End of the House of Valois. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. Charles, Count of Valois, son of Philip III. I Philip VI. I John (le Bon), I \ ___ f j V I Charles V. Louis, Duke of Anjou. John, Duke of Berry. Philip, 1 Duke of Burgundy i 1 Charles VI. Louis, Duke of Orleans, (assassinated in 1407.) I i 1 Charles VII. Isabella, married to Richard II. Catharine, married to of England. Henry V. of England. I ! Louis XI. Charles, Duke of Berry. '-i r 1 Charles VIII. Anne, married to Jeanne, married to Sire de Beaujeu. the Duke of Orleans, afterward Louis XII. 152 THE HOUSE OF VALOIS. QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. PAGE 1. What were the important events in the reign of Philip VI. ? 99 to 105 2. How were the territorial limits of France enlarged during his reign ? 104 3. What were the important events of King John's reign ? 105 to 113 4. Give an account of his war with England 106, 107, 108 5. Of the contest with Stephen Marcel 108 to 111 G. Of King John's capture, return to France and England, and death.. .108, 111, 112, 113 7. What were the important events in the reign of Charles V. ? 113 to 119 8. Give the particulars of the crusade against Don Pedro of Castile 114, 115 9. Give an account of the war with England 115, 116, 117 10. State what you can of Du Guesclin 114 to 117 11. What did Charles V. accomplish for France and civilization ? 118, 119 12. What were the important acts in the reign of Charles VL ? 119 to 127 13. Give an account of the revolt in Flanders during his reign 120, 121 14. Of the Great Schism 121 15. State the facts connected with King Charles's insanity 121, 122 16. Those connected with the career of John the Fearless 122, 123 17. Of the war between the Burgundians and Armagnacs 123 to 126 18. What were the principal events in the reign of Charles VII. ? 127 to 134 19. State all you can of Joan of Arc 128 to 131 20. Give an account of the conquest of Normandy 132, 133 21. What were the principal events in the war between Charles VII. and England ? 127 to 133 22. What advance was made by France in the arts, manufactures, and learn- ing during the reign of Charles VII. ? 134 ■ 23. When did the reign of Louis XL begin and end ? 134, 140 24. Give the history of the League of the Public Good 134 to 138 25. Give the facts in the career of Charles the Bold 135 to 138 26. State what you can of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy 139 27. Describe the character of Louis XI. . . . 133 to 140 28. What was accomplished for France during his reign ? 140 29. When did the reign of Charles VIII. begin and end ? 140, 144 30. What was the character of Charles VII. ? 140 to 144 31. Describe the early troubles in his reign i — 141, 142 32. Give an account of the invasion of Italy 142, 143, 144 33. How was the States-General composed in 1357 ? 144 34. What is said of the times when this grand council might be called ?. . . . 145 35. How did it come in conflict with the power and will of the king ? 145 36. Give all the facts in relation to the Assembly of 1357 145 37. What is stated of education, literature, and art during the Valois pe- riod ? 145, 146, 147 38. What is said of the inventions of that period f 148 39. How did the people dress during the same time ? 148 40. How were the houses of the rich furnished ? 148, 149 41. How were the houses built and adorned ? 149 42. What was the condition of Paris then ? 149 43. Name some of the most noted writers of the times 150 44. State what you can of Philippe de Comines 150 and note 45. Of Thomas a Kempis, and the book, The Imitation of Christ 150 46. Name, in chronological order, the kings of the House of Valois 150, 151 PAET III. FRANCE IN MODERN TIMES. section" i. The Valois-Orleans Branch. Extending from the Accession of Louis XII. (1498) to the death of Henry III (1589). 1498 1. Louis XII. — He who had been the enemy of to France, during the reign just ended, now became its king. This was Louis, Duke of Orleans, who as- cended the throne at the age of thirty-six, under the title of Louis XII. His first acts and sayings gave proof of a nobler nature than France had found among her kings for many years. His hatred for his former foes was buried for- ever in the famous announcement that "it did not become the King of France to resent the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." This was followed by a refusal to accept the cus- tomary gift paid by all who held special privileges from the crown on the accession of a king. 2. His conduct in some respects, however, is open to grave censure, though it was justified by the custom of the time in which he lived. Anne of Brittany, who had become a widow by the death of Charles VIII. , retired to her estates ; and there was danger that, by a second marriage, she would separate Brittany from France. Louis, therefore, divorced his wife, a daughter of Louis XL, and married Anne of 1 . What was the character of Louis XII. ? How was it shown ? 2. Give an account of his marriage to Anne of Brittany. What other questionable measure of the king's is referred to ? 7* 153 154 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A. D. 1500. Brittany.* Another questionable measure which Louis re- solved upon was the invasion of Italy, the path for which had been opened by his predecessor, f 3. He set out, however, on his Italian campaign with more discretion than Charles VIII. He made treaties with his neighbors, and alliances with some of the powers in the country he was about to invade. When the French army, therefore, marched upon Milan, its capture was easy. It fell in 1499, but was so badly governed by its commander, an Italian in the service of Louis, that its dissatisfied citizens permitted its re-capture four months afterward. Soon, however, another French army advanced against it, and met the Milanese at ]STo massacre of the Vaudois. A. ». 1547.] THE VA LOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 171 had before been threatened with the king's displeasure, had not, up to this time, been seriously molested. In 1545, however, the soldiers of the king suddenly appeared with fire and sword amongst them, and a general massacre began. Three thousand were burned or slaughtered, more than six hundred were sent to the prison ships, and the remainder, scattered in the woods and mountains, died of hunger and exposure. Their country was laid waste, houses and even trees being included in the general de- struction. 33. Death of Francis I. — Other measures for the per- secution of the Reformers were resolved upon by the king, but were interrupted by his death (1547). During his latter years, he had been gloomy and morose, and bore little resem- blance to the handsome young monarch whose boisterous gayety shocked the quiet disposition of Louis XII., and drew from him, just before his death, while thinking of his plans for the future of France, the famous remark that " That boy of Angouleme would spoil every thing." A life of pleasure and excess had made him prematurely old, and brought him to the grave at an age (fifty-two) when he should have been in the fullness of his vigor, and at a time when powerful agencies were at work in Europe, destined to influence ma- terially the fortunes of his kingdom. It was during this reign that Jacques Cartier (kar-te-a) attempted the settle- ment of Canada (1534-5). 1547 H, Henry II., who succeeded his father, was in i v?q a11 res P ects nis m ferior except, perhaps, in his fond- ness for physical exercises, in which he excelled. Being little inclined to assume the cares of state, he permitted the affairs of his kingdom to drift along in the dangerous cur- rent in which his father had thrown them. His most trusted advisers in the administration were the Constable Montmorency and the Duke of Guise (gweez) ; while his court 33. How old was the king at his death ? What is said of the change in his dispo- sition ? What settlement, was attempted ? 34. By whom was Francis I. succeeded? What is said of Henry II.? By whom was he ruled ? What is said of the government ? 172 THE VALOTS-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A.I>.1 553, was ruled by his favorite, Diana of Poitiers.* Corruption ruled in every department, offices were openly bought and sold, and a swarm of favorites crowded the court and squan- dered the public money. 35. As a consequence of this waste, heavy taxes were neces- sary, and the attempt to collect them produced an uprising in Guienne, the year after the king's accession. The gabelle, or salt tax, became so odious there that the peasants rose in a body and marched through the province, killing the king's collectors and burning their houses. So strong were they that the first troops sent against them were defeated, and the Constable Montmorency found it necessary to take the field in person. He conquered them ; but after he had pun- ished them with great severity the tax was reduced in that" province, its strong English sympathies making it prudent to favor it. A war with England was also entered upon in aid of Scotland (1550) ; but the French attack was limited to the capture of Boulogne, which had remained in the hands of the English since the year 1546. 36. Henry II. formed an alliance also with the Protest- ants of Germany, in opposition to the Emperor Charles V. Having secretly won over one of the imperial generals, Maur- ice of Saxony, the king marched into Germany, and captured the cities of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, in the spring of 1552. The emperor rekirned in the autumn with 60,000 men, and laid siege to Metz. It was defended with the greatest valor and obstinacy ; and Charles V., after a two months' siege, in which his troops suffered incredible hardships from cold and disease, was forced to retire, leaving vast numbers of dead and wounded in his deserted camps (1553). * Diana of Poitiers was the brilliant star of the court, and all other favorites bowed before her. She was the widow of the Sieur de la Breze, seneschal of Normandy ; and though several years older than the king, yet by her wit and her beauty, which she re- tained to an extreme old age, she so completely captivated him, that he resigned himself and his kingdom almost entirely to her guidance. So wonderful was her influence that the people accused her of using sorcery to accomplish her purposes. Catharine de' Medici, the young queen, remained throughout the reign neglected and without in- fluence. 35. What was the consequence of this ? What is said of the gabelle? What in- surrection took place f What war was undertaken ? What incidents are mentioned F 36. What cities were captured by the French ? How did the emperor retaliate? What was the result of the siege of Metz } A. ». 1557.] THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 173 37. Abdication of the Emperor. — The war now raged for three years, with increased violence and varying success, in the north of \France, the Netherlands, and Italy. In 1556, however, an Unexpected event freed France from her great adversary. Charles V. abdicated, leaving Austria and the title of emperor to his brother Ferdinand; and Spain, Italy, and the Netherlands to his son, who became king with the title of Philip II. of Spain. The old emperor, weary of his struggle with France, which he had carried on with only short intervals for thirty-five years, went to seek in the quiet of the monastery of Yuste (yoos'ta) the peace for which he had fought so constantly, but without success. 38. The danger to France was not lessened by the abdica- tion of Charles V. Though the girdle of hostile states which surrounded her was now controlled by two monarchs instead of one, its strength was increased by the addition of Eng- land, whose queen, Mary, had recently been married to Philip II. Henry at once sent an army, under Francis of Guise, into Italy, where Pope Paul IV. aided him, hoping in this way to drive the Spaniards out of Italy. He was beaten, however, by the Spanish commander, the Duke of Alva. Another expedition under Montmorency, which had gone to invade the Netherlands, was also defeated with great loss at St. Quentin, by the Duke of Savoy;* and Montmorency, with many other nobles, was taken prisoner (1557). f * " By this defeat a deadly blow was struck to the very heart of France. The fruits of all the victories of Francis and Henry withered. The battle, with others which were to follow it, won by the same hand, were soon to compel the signature of the most disastrous treaty which had ever disgraced the history of France. The fame and power of the constable faded— his misfortunes and captivity fell like a blight upon the ancient glory of the house of Montmorency— his enemies destroyed his influence and popularity, while the degradation of the kingdom was simultaneous with the downfall of his illustrious name. On the other hand, the exultation of Philip was keen as his cold and stony nature would permit. The magnificent palace-convent of the Escurial, dedicated to the saint on whose festival the battle had been fought, and built in the shape of a gridiron, on which that martyr had suffered, was soon afterward erected in pious commemoration of the event."— Motley's Rise of the Dutch Republic. t " The spoil was enormous, and the plunder of St. Quentin was not unjustly revenged. Jewels, plate, and money were deposited on the altars of the churches, and the inhab- itants, carrying with them the clothes which they wore, were sent as homeless beggars across the channel."— Froude's History of England. 37. What unusual event took place in 1556? How was the empire divided? Whither did the emperor retire ? 38. Was the power of the league weakened by the abdication of Charles V.? How was it strengthened ? With what reverses did 'the French now meet t 174 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A. ». 1559 39. The Duke of Guise, however, who had returned from Italy, advanced a few months after upon Calais, which had been left with only a small garrison, and captured it ; and the English were thus deprived of their last possession on the soil of France (1558).* The same year, the alliance of England and Spain fell to pieces by the death of Queen Mary, and the accession of Elizabeth, who was a Protestant. Philip II. now conceived a new project, which he occupied many years in carrying out. This was the destruction of Protestantism by a union of all the Catholic countries in a war against it. He signed a treaty of peace, there- fore, with the King of France, in which the latter kept the cities of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, and a part of Piedmont ; but gave up in the Netherlands more cities and castles "than could have been taken from him in thirty years of defeat."" 40. To bind this peace, a double marriage was arranged : the first, that of Philip II. to the king's daughter Elizabeth ; the second, that of Philibert Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, to the king's sister. Before the departure of the princesses, Henry gave a brilliant entertainment in their honor. One part of this consisted of a tournament, this being a sport in which he excelled. When the combat was almost finished, he called for a lance, and entered the lists against Count Montgomery, the captain of his guard. Both lances were broken by the shock of their meeting ; but, the count failing to lower the stump which remained in his hand, it struck the king's helmet on the visor, and a splinter entering his eye, pierced the brain. He was carried from the lists mor- tally wounded, and eleven days after died (1559). • " Calais was called the * brightest jewel in the English crown.' A jewel it was— use- less, costly, but dearly prized. Over the gate of Calais had once stood the insolent in- scription:— . _, ' Then shall the Frenchmen Calais win, When iron and lead like cork shall swim ; ' and the Frenchmen had won it— won it in fair and gallant fight."— Fronde's History nj England. 39. What successes of the French immediately followed ? What great project did the King of Spain form ? What changes of territory were made by the treaty ? 40. What was the manner of the king's death ? On what occasion was the tourna- ment given ? A. ». 1559.] THE VALOIS-OItLEANS BRANCH. 175 1550 to 1560 41. Francis II. — The oldest son of Henry — a boy of sixteen — now ascended the throne under the title of Francis II. He was powerfully influenced by his young bride, the beau- __ ^ tiful Mary Stuart, who iS was a daughter of James V. of Scotland and Mary jm of Lorraine. Caring lit- 9 tie for matters of state, gi she was naturally guided by her relatives, Duke Francis of Guise, and Charles, Cardinal of Lor- raine. In opposition to the ambitious house of Guise, which was thus suddenly lifted into pow- er, were the equally am- bitious houses of Bour- bon and Montmorency. 42. The Hugue- nots. — The Reforma- tion, which had become so formidable in Ger- many and the Nether- lands, had been acquir- ing increased influence in France ; and the house of Guise, with the king and queen and the king's mother, Catharine de' Medici, determined to sup- press it.* The Bourbons and the Montmorencys, therefore, took the side of the Reformers, whose leader was Calvin, a * " The Reformation made extraordinary progress in France during the latter years of the reign of Henry II. The first Protestant church was established in Paris in 1555 ; ot tiers were founded successively at Kouen, Blois, Tours, Angers, Bourges, and La ! /Li i and we are assured that, in 1558, there were no less than 2.000 places dedicated to the lief ormed worship, and attended by congregations numbering upward of 400,000."- Students' History of France. ANCIENT HOTEL OF GUISE, AT PARIS. 41. How old was Francis II. when he became king ? Who was his wife ? What nobles were opposed to each other at this time ? 42. Who were the Huguenots ? On what sides did the nobles range themselves 1 Who was the Huguenot leader ? 176 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A. ». 1560. Frenchman, residing in Geneva, which, from that fact, be- came the center of Calvinism, as the doctrines of the Ref- ormation were called in France. The Calvinists were also called Huguenots (hu'ghe-nots), from a German word, which means confederates. On the side of the Huguenots, the most eminent men were Henry of Navarre, the Constable Montmorency, and his nephew, Admiral Coligny {ko-leen-ye'), and the three chiefs of the house of Bourbon — Antoine, Charles, and Louis — the last usually called Prince of Conde. 43. The first open act of the new king against the Hugue- nots was his punishment of Dubourg (doo-boorg'), a member of the king's court of justice, who had declared his sympa- thy for the Huguenots in the king's presence.* Dubourg was publicly burned. This act placed the Huguenots on their guard. Believing that the young king could be influ- enced in favor of their party, if freed from the power of the Guises, they formed a plot for seizing him at Blois (blwah). They were betrayed, however ; and the court was removed to Amboise, where a second attempt was made, but again with- out success. rHA. The discovery of this plot inflamed the anger of the feuises, who revenged themselves by increasing the number of their victims. Huguenots in all parts of France were arrested, and hung, drowned, or beheaded ; while, in Paris, the king and the court gathered daily, as at a play, to wit- ness the executions. The arrest of a messenger of the Prince of Conde led to the discovery that he was the chief of the recent plot. He was, therefore, arrested, tried, and con- demned to death ; but his life was saved by the change of policy which followed the death of the kin'g (1560). Francis II. was then only eighteen years old, having reigned but eighteen months. * At the session of the counselors (Bed of Justice), Dubourg had spoken very boldly, attacking the vices of the court. " While men," he said, " are conducted to the stake for the sole crime of praying for their prince, a shameful license encourages and multi- plies blasphemies, perjuries, debaucheries, and adulteries." This remark was conceived to be pointed at the king ; and he immediately ordered the arrest of the counselor. 43. Who was Dubourg? What was his offense ? His punishment ? 44. What revenge did the Guises take ? What is said of the executions m Paris 1 What pi-evented the execution of Conde ? When did the king die ? \. n. 1 -,(;>. THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 17? 1560 ^* Charles IX. — The death of the king was fol- io lowed by the departure of his young queen for Scot? 14 land, where she entered upon that career which led to her long imprisonment and tragic death. The second son of Henry II., though less than eleven years old, was now made king, under the title of Charles IX. Catharine de' Medici was made regent till the king should attain his ma- jority, and began at once to show those great qualities which gave her so commanding a position during the stormy period of the Reformation. Familiar with all the dark ways of the Italian court in which she had been educated, compelled for many years to yield to the claims of rivals and bide her time in patience, she had attained a mastery over herself, which now gave her an immense advantage in the difficult path which she was called to tread. She had no preference for either party then struggling for the control of the govern- ment, but used either according as it advanced the interests of her sons. 46. The Huguenots seeming most likely to further her plans, she freed Conde, and appointed Antoine de Bour- bon, King of Navarre, lieutenant-general. At the same time, she conciliated the Guises by leaving them in possession of the offices they held ; and a meeting of reconciliation took place, in the presence of the king, between Conde and the Duke of Guise. The jealousy of the Catholics and Protest- ants, however, was not appeased. Conflicts took place in many parts of France ; and the measures which had been adopted, in the hope of reconciling the two parties, were found to be of no effect. At Vassy, where the Duke of Guise had gone on a visit, a riot was provoked, which ended in the murder of sixty Huguenots, in their own cnurch, by the soldiers of the duke (1562). 47. Civil War. — A civil war broke out at once through- 45. Who succeeded Francis II.? Who was Catharine de' Medici ? To what office was she appointed ? What was her character ? 46. What course did Catharine de 1 Medici now take ? Did she succeed in recon- ciling parties ? What act led to civil war ? 47. What did the massacre of Vassy produce ? Where were the principal battles fought ? Who were the chiefs of the two parties ? Where and how was Guise killed 1 8* 178 THE TALOIS-ORLEAKS BRAKCH. [A. ». 1566. out France, on receipt of the news of the massacre of Vassy. The Huguenots sought the aid of Germany and England ; and a battle was fought at Rouen, where the King of Na- varre, who was a recent Catholic convert,* was mortally wounded ; and one at Dreux (druli), where Conde engaged the king's army, commanded by the Constable Montmoren- cy (1562. ) In the latter battle, 8,000 men were slain, and both gunerals were captured. Guise was made lieutenant- general by Catharine, while the Huguenots recognized Co- ligny (ho-leen'ye) as their chief. The following year, Guise, while besieging Orleans, was treacherously shot by a Hu- guenot, who had taken refuge in his camp. The siege of Orleans was, therefore, abandoned, and a treaty of peace was signed at Amboise (am-bwahz') (1563). 48. Catholics and Huguenots now marched together to the attack on Havre, which the English had occupied, and captured it after a ten days' siege. Their friendship, how- ever, was of short duration. The young king reached his majority, which was celebrated at Eouen, and started with his mother and the court on a tour through the south of France, in the hope of reconciling his subjects with each other. On this journey, Catharine had an interview at Ba- yonne, with her daughter Elizabeth, Queen of Spain, and the Duke of Alva, who was then prime minister of Philip II. From that time, she became the determined enemy of the Huguenots. 49. The Ordinance of Moulins. — In the midst of the general disquiet, which the journey of the king and court had done little to calm, the new monarch found time to con- vene at Moulins (moo-lahng') (1566) an assembly of the nota- bles, at which the scheme proposed by his chancellor, l'Hopital * " At the present conjuncture, Catharine de' Medici could not have suspected that An- thony of Bourbon, unfixed as he was in his religious opinions, could desert his brother, his family, and the Huguenot party, with which he had so long acted. But the promise of their restoring that part of Navarre beyond the Pyrenees which Spain had conquered was held out by the Guises and Philip ; and the king was dupe enough to trust to it. — Crowed History of France. 48. How was the treaty of Amboise signalized ? Under what circumstances did Catharine become the enemy of the Huguenots ? 49. What is said of the Ordinance of Moulins ? A. D. 1509.1 THE VAL0IS-0RLEANS BRANCH. 179 (lo-pe-taV), for the reformation of justice, was promulgated. It is known as the Ordinance of Moulins ; but its provis- ions, in the fierce conflict which was approaching, were for a long time disregarded. 50. Battle of St. Denis. — Peace of Lonjumeau. — Fearing the court, the Huguenots attempted, the following year, to capture the king and his mother. Both escaped, however, and reached Paris, which Conde endeavored to cap- ture by cutting off its sources of supply. The Constable Montmorency marched out and gave battle at St. Denis, where he was mortally wounded. He died in Paris the fob lowing day ; and Catharine caused his place to be filled by the Duke of Anjou, a brother of the king, aged sixteen. By this act, the command of the army was virtually in her own hands (1567). Neither party was victor on the field of St. Denis. In the south, however, the Huguenots were so suc- cessful that Catharine consented to a treaty of peace, which was signed at Lonjumeau (long-zhu-?no'),near Paris, in 1568. 51. Death of Conde. — The new peace lasted scarcely a year. Under the pressure of the great movement which was then agitating Europe, the petty rivalries which had dis- tracted France were gradually hushed ; and the chiefs of the great houses were silently ranging themselves on the side of the Catholics or the Huguenots, in anticipation of the strug- gle which was impending. L'Hopital was dismissed in dis- grace ; Conde and Coligny, being threatened with arrest by the king, fled to Rochelle, where they were joined by Jeanne d'Albret (dal-bra), Queen of Navarre, and the Protestant chiefs. A general uprising of the Huguenots followed ; and a battle was fought, in which Conde was wounded and taken prisoner (1569), when he was treacherously shot by the cap- tain of the Duke of Anjou's guard. 52. The Huguenots were discouraged by the loss of their 50. What caused the battle of St. Denis ? What officer was mortally wounded there ? Why did the regent consent, to sign the treaty of Lonjumeau ? 5 1 . What change of officers was now made ? What battle was fought ? How was Conde killed ? 52. What was done by Jeanne d'Albret? What is said of the young princes? What followed ? 180 THE VAL01S-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A. D. 1570. great leader ; but, at this juncture, Jeanne d'Albret roused their drooping spirits by presenting to them as their chiefs her son Henry and the young prince of Conde. The latter was sixteen, the former only fifteen. Henry was chosen general in chief, with Coligny as his lieutenant and adviser \ and several battles were fought without decisive results to either side. 53. Peace of St. Ger- main. — To put an end to these useless wars, and rid France of the rival chiefs who stood in the way of her designs, Catharine de' Medici now formed a plan which ended in an atrocity that stands alone in modern history. Coligny had written to the king, of- fering to bring about a peace by leading the Huguenot nobles into the Netherlands against the Duke of Alva, who was waging a relentless war upon the Protestants of that country. This proposi- tion was accepted ; and, to throw the Huguenots off their guard, a peace was concluded soon afterward, the terms of which were so favorable to them that the Catholics were exasperated (1570). Catharine, however, unmoved by threats, went even further. She proposed a marriage be- tween Henry of Navarre and Margaret, the sister of the king. 54. Death of Jeanne d'Albret. — Invitations were sent to Jeanne d'Albret and Coligny to visit Paris ; the for- mer to attend the marriage ceremony, the latter to arrange with the king the expedition to the Netherlands. Charles 53. What was the object of Catharine de 1 Medici at this time ? What steps did she take to further it ? What marriage did she propose ? 54. Why did Jeanne d'Albret and Coligny visit Paris ? Why were Guise and hia party angry ? What occurrence alarmed the Huguenots ? JEANNE D'ALBRET. A. ». 1572.] THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 181 i ■ IX. had just reached the age of twenty-one, and was jealous of the reputation which his brother was acquiring as com- mander of the army. He received Coligny affectionately, therefore, and entered with ardor into all his plans. Guise and the Catholics were enraged at the sight of the Hugue- not chiefs received with such distinction at court, and watched the proceedings for the marriage with ill-concealed anger. On the 9th of June, 1572, Jeanne d'Albret died after a four days' illness. This sudden death excited the suspicion of the Huguenots ; but, though it was suspected that she had been poisoned, nothing could be proved.* Meantime, the hatred of the two parties for each other in- creased, and the public mind was inflamed by addresses from the pulpit. 55. Attempted Murder of Coligny. — Catharine de' Medici, perceiving that the storm could no longer be de- layed, determined to direct it. Unknown to the king, she planned the murder of Coligny, believing that when the murderer was discovered, a general attack of the Huguenots upon the Catholids would take place, during which the king's troops, as preservers of the peace, could shoot down both indiscriminately, and thus in one general massacre free her from all her opposers. The first step was taken on the 21st of August. Coligny, on his way from the Louvre, was shot by an assassin in the pay of the Duke of Guise. Coligny, however, was only wounded ; the king hastened to his bedside, placed a guard around his hotel, and swore to avenge his attempted murder. The plot was in danger of defeat in its first stage. 56. Catharine's ready invention, however, found a way * At the time of her death she was forty-two years old. The writers of the time speak of her as " a woman of invincible courage, very great understanding, and bravery far beyond her sex." The historian Davila says, " she was poisoned, as it is thought, by means of certain gloves, which were presented to her, the poison of which was so sub- tle that very soon after she had handled them, she was seized with a violent fever, of which she died four days afterward." The surgeons, however, who examined the body, declared that she had not died from poison.— See Browning's History of the Huguenots. 55. What plot did Catharine now form ? Why was the plot in its first stage unsuc- cessful ? 5 6. What turn did affairs now take ? In what way was the king won over ? Wha' did he order ? 182 THE V ALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A. B. 1572. out of the difficulty. She went to the king the following day with several nobles, and told him that each party was bent upon the destruction of the other, and that when the struggle came it would be so fierce that he would be power- less, and that such an exhibition of weakness would be his ruin. She besought him, therefore, to seize the opportu- nity then offered by the presence of so many Huguenots in Paris to order a general execution of them. The king re- fused. She renewed her menaces and supplications, and finally threatened to leave the court with her other son, the Puke of Anjou, rather than remain to witness the ruin of their house. To this last appeal the king yielded. He gave his consent to the dreadful plot, and ordered the assassina- tion of every Huguenot in Paris, that none might remain to reproach him. 57. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. — Anticipating this consent, the Duke of Guise had pre- viously sent an order to the provost of the merchants to have the gates of the city closed during the night, and to hold 2,000 men armed and in readiness to move upon the Huguenots when the signal should be given by the sounding of the bell of the palace. At half -past one on the morning of Sunday, August 24, 1572 (St. Bartholomew's Day), the sig- nal sounded, and the bells throughout the city repeated it. Lights flashed in the streets at once, which were soon filled with armed men wearing white badges on the left arm, and white crosses on their hats. The Dukes of Guise and Aumale, with 300 soldiers, surrounded the residence of Co- ligny, who was stabbed by an assassin. His body was then thrown out of the window ; and the Duke of Guise, having satisfied himself that his prey had not this time escaped him, went away. 58. At daybreak the King of Navarre and Conde were called into the room of Catharine and threatened with death 57. What arrangements were made for the massacre ? What signal was given for the beginning of the massacre ? What was the fate of Coligny ? 58. What action was taken in regard to the King of Navarre and Conde ? What part did the king take in the massacre ? How long did it last f A. D. 1574.1 THE VALOIS-ORLEAXS BRAKCH. 183 unless they changed their religion. For several weeks they refused, but finally consented. Meantime, in all parts of the city the massacre went on. The houses of the Huguenots had been marked with white, and the names of the inmates taken, that none might escape. Neither age nor sex was spared by the enraged soldiers. The king himself took a position at one of the windows of the Louvre and fired upon the flying Huguenots. For three days Paris was thus given over to the rage of Guise and his party.* The number of the killed, in that city alone, is variously estimated at from 2,000 to 10,000 ; in different parts of the kingdom, as many as 30,000 are supposed to have been slain. 59. Orders were given by the king for similar massacres in other cities, and in some they were obeyed. In many, however, the king's officers refused to execute them. The Huguenots outside of Paris were roused instead of dismayed by the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The revolution broke out everywhere with renewed fury. In Kochelle and San- cerre (salm-sdr') especially, the Huguenots, besieged by the king's army, fought with determination. In the midst of the siege of the former place, Henry, Duke of Anjou, who commanded the king's forces, was called away to as- sume the crown of Poland, which his mother had secured for him. The attack lost in vigor at once; and, shortly after, the peace of Eochelle was signed (1573). The follow- ing year the king died in great anguish. The crime of St. Bartholomew weighed heavily on him ; and, in his last sick- ness, the victims of his wrath on that bloody day formed the constant subject of his troubled dreams. He died at the age of twenty-four, leaving as his heir an infant daugh- ter (1574). * " When the daylight appeared, Paris exhibited a most appalling spectacle of slaughter • the headless bodies were falling from the windows ; the gateways were blocked up with dead and dying ; and the streets were filled with carcasses which were drawn on the pavement to the river."— Browning's History of the Huguenots. 59. Did the massacre extend beyond Paris ? What was the result ? When and where was a treaty of peace signed ? 184 THE VALOIS-OftLEAKS BRANCH. [A. i>. 1576. 15T4 W« Henry III. — The King of Poland was at once to summoned to Paris, Catharine de' Medici assuming the regency till he should arrive. The new king was crowned, as Henry III., at Rheims, by Cardinal Guise ; but it was remarked at the time, as a bad omen, that he complained of the pain which the crown gave him, and twice it seemed on the point of slipping from his head. 61. New League of the Nobles. — The character of the young king also was such as to inspire little hope for the welfare of France. His life had been mainly one of frivol- ity, and he surrounded himself with triflers, having no lik- ing for men of ability. The persecution of the Huguenots was still kept up, but with little vigor. A party of dissatis- fied nobles was soon formed, at the head of which was Conde and the king's younger brother, the Duke of Alencon (ah-lahng-song). Many petty engagements took place ; and at this time, also, Henry of Navarre, during a hunting party, escaped from the restraint in which he had been held by Catharine, and returned to his kingdom in Guienne, where he repudiated the change of religion which he had pro- fessed after the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 62. The Holy League. — The discontented nobles joined their forces to those of the Huguenots, who became so for- midable that the king was alarmed, and agreed to a treaty of peace, which was arranged in May, 1576. This has always been known as the Peace of Monsieur, from the title of the Duke of Alencon who managed it. This treaty by its lib- eral concessions to the Huguenots, was considered by the Catholics an abandonment of their cause, and they there- fore entered into an alliance, called the Holy League. The king, in order to thwart Duke Henry of Guise, who had designs upon the crown, declared himself the leader of the League, and vigorous measures were taken to suppress 60. Who was the successor of Charles IX. ? What peculiar occurrence took place at his coronation ? 61. What was the character of Henry III.? W T ho were the leaders of the new league of the nobles ? What is related of Henry of Navarre ? 62. How was the Peace of Monsieur regarded by the Catholics? To what did it lead ? At whose request was peace concluded ? A. D. 1587.] THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 185 the Huguenots. The latter, however, sued for peace, which was granted the following year. 63. In 1584, the Duke of Alencon died, leaving Henry of Navarre heir to the throne of France. The League, mean- time, had greatly extended its power. A majority of the prominent men throughout France were its adherents, and Philip II. of Spain was its ally. In their unwillingness to see a Huguenot succeed to the throne, they chose as their candidate, Cardinal Bourbon, uncle of Henry of Navarre. The Huguenots, in this extremity, sought the aid of Eliz- abeth, Queen of England. The king with his adherents formed a third party ; but so weak was he that he signed a treaty of peace, and in this his previous concessions to the Huguenots were revoked (1585). 64. The War of the Three Henries. — A war imme- diately followed, which was known as the War of the Thres Henries, Henry of Navarre, being the leader of the Hugue- nots ; Henry of Guise, the Catholics ; and the king, Henry III., being at the head of the Moderates. The king's army, under his favorite, the Duke of Joyeuse (zhaw-yuz') met the Huguenots under Henry of Navarre (1587), and were defeated, Joyeuse being basely murdered after he had sur- rendered. 65. The Triumph of Guise. — An army of German and Swiss Reformers, in the mean time, entered Lorraine, and attempted to march through France to join the King of Na- varre in the south ; but they were met by Henry of Guise, and defeated. The king's tardiness in engaging the Swiss made him unpopular, while the war vastly increased the popularity of Guise, who entered Paris with the air of a con- queror. The jealousy of the king soon led to a quarrel, in which the people sided with Guise, and formed barricades in Paris to protect him from the king, who brought Swiss 63. What event left Henry of Navarre heir to the throne ? How and why was he opposed ? What act betrays the weakness of the king's party ? 64. Who were the leaders in the War of the Three Henries ? What was the result of the battle fought? 65. What contributed to the popularity of Guise < What was the result in Parii f What was the king compelled to do ? 186 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. [A. D. 1589. soldiers into the city to enforce his orders. In such great favor was the Duke of Guise held, however, by the people, that the king was obliged to seek safety in flight. 66. Assassination of Guise. — Paris was in the hands of Guise, and the king for a time was compelled to yield. Afterward a seeming reconciliation took place, and Guise was made lieutenant-general of the kingdom. An assembly of the States-General was called at Blois; but, as it con- sisted mainly of the adherents of the Duke of Guise, the king could obtain from it no sufficient subsidy, while he was treated with haughty indignity by the duke. On the 23d of December, the king armed his body-guard with dag- gers, and stationed them secretly in the castle of Blois ; and the Duke of Guise was murdered by them, as he was going from the council chamber to the king's room. * His brother, Cardinal Lorraine, was killed the following day, and the bodies of both were burned. A few days after, Catharine de' Medici died (1589), leaving her son, who had always leaned on her for* support, alone to face the storm which was approaching. 67. The murder of Guise inflamed the Catholics, while it added nothing to the reputation of the king, whose influence was now so far gone that he made a proposal to Henry of Navarre to join their forces. The offer was accepted, and in a short time, the armies of the two kings, together numbering 42,000 men, laid siege to Paris, which was then held by the League under their new chief, Mayenne (mi-en'). The besieging army was so large that the fall of the city seemed assured. The king even congratulated him- self on the certainty of success, and the gratification of his revenge ; but this was prevented by his assassination. A young monk left the city for the avowed purpose of de- * This murder took place on the staircase in the Castle of Blois, where the king and the Duke of Guise were hoth residing on the occasion of the meeting of the States. 66. What new dignity was conferred on Guise ? What was the manner of his death ? Of what support was the king deprived ? 67. Whom did he now conciliate ? In what movement did the armies join ? What act suddenly changed the aspect of affairs ? \ A. D. 1589.] THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 187 livering important letters to the king. Being admitted to the king's presence, he drew a knife from his sleeve and stabbed him. On the following day, the king died, having besought his friends to recognize, as his successor, Henry of Navarre (1589). State of Society under the Valois-Orleans Branch. 68. Architecture. — French architecture, during the pe- riod of the Renaissance, underwent considerable change, the most noticeable feature being the substitution of lighter and more graceful forms, derived from Italy.* This was espe- cially true of the churches, but had its influence also on the domestic architecture, dwelling-houses being sometimes pro- fusely ornamented on the outside, with images of animals and flowers. The roofs of the houses were made very high, and were similarly ornamented. Some of these houses still exist. 69. The interior of the house was divided into one large room, which served the family for nearly all purposes, and several small bedrooms, intended for guests — the latter be- ing specially necessary on account of the want of inns. In the construction of these houses, stone and brick, which had been introduced by the Romans, and had fallen into disuse, ivere again used ; and tiles and slate were employed for roof- ing and ornament. Staircases which, at an early age, had been built on the outside of the house, began to be inclosed at this time, and in the houses of the rich were concealed in ornamental towers. 70. Amusements. — The principal outdoor amusements, * Francis I. gave great encouragement to literature and art. His own great taste fo; the latter would alone have caused such encouragement ; hut the Italian wars led to thi introduction of Italian art and artists into France, where they hastened that wondei ful revival known as the Renaissance (new hirth). Francis I. protected artists and me* of science and letters, kept them near him at court, and was proud to number some 01 the most eminent of them among his personal friends. His intimate relations witL, the great Italian, Leonardo da Vinci, have given rise to many fables which show an at- tachment between them unusual with kings at any time. Many beautiful statues, pic- tures, and specimens of architecture yet remain in France which bear witness to the general improvement in art which marks the reign of Francis I. 68. What changes in the style of architecture occurred ? 69. What is said of the construction of dwelling-houses ? 70. What were the principal amusements ? Whom did a lr.«otiw party brin«' together ? 188 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. especially of the nobles, were hunting and hawking. Each king had a large establishment specially devoted to the chase, for the support of which a large sum was annually appropri- ated. Packs of hounds, also leopards, panthers, and falcons were employed ; and a hunting party, especially of the mon- arch or of a great lord, brought together a numerous and gay company, among them many ladies, who shared with eager- ness in the excitement of the chase. Catharine de' Medici was especially noted for her fondness for hunting. 71. Costume. — The dress of both sexes also underwent much change during this period. The love of luxury intro- duced by Francis I. led to the adoption by the ladies of elegant and costly dresses, made of the richest fabrics, and covered with lace and jewelry. * The hair also was elaborately dressed, and decorated with nets of rare tissues ; and ruffed collars, worn at first by women, at a later day became com- mon for men. The heightening of the complexion by paint, and the use of patches and perfumes were introduced from Italy. The men wore broad-brimmed hats decorated with jewels and costly plumes, short mantles embroidered with gold thread or trimmed with fur, and close-fitting slashed doublets with a belt at the waist in which was carried a ra- pier. They also wore trunk-hose and tights, f 72. Medicine and Surgery. — The arts of medicine and surgery were in such a rude state that magic was fre- quently relied upon for the cure of disease. In the latter, great improvements were made by Pare (pah-ra), who was appointed surgeon successively to four of the monarchs of France. The improved treatment of gunshot wounds, and the application of the ligature to blood-vessels after amputa- tion, constitute the basis of his fame. * To such an extent was this afterward carried that the wedding dress of Jeanne d'Alhret was so weighed down with finery as to prevent her from walking, and she was carried to church, by the king's order, in the arms of the Constable Montmorency. t Silk stockings are said to have been introduced by Catharine de' Medici, who first wore them from motives of vanity ; and gloves, though afterward common, were at first a royal luxury. One account of the death of Jeanne d'Albret attributes it to poisoned gloves supplied to her by an Italian maker. 71 . Describe the prevailing style of costume. What was introduced from Italy ? 72. What is said of the arts of medicine and surgery V What improvements were introduced by Pare ? THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 189 73. Education and Science. — Schools had begun to increase in number during this period, though the instruc- tion given in them was largely religious, and the discipline strict. The hours of study were unusually long, and the rod was used unsparingly. Latin and Greek were especially studied, the remainder of the time, after these were disposed of, being devoted principally to music and religious and physi- cal exercises. Science began to assume a more rational char- acter toward the close of this period. The College of France was founded by Francis I., in 1530, designed especially to give instruction in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, hence called the College of the Three Languages. * 74. Women at Court. — The influence of women at court received a powerful impulse in the time of Francis I. Long before his time, indeed, Anne of Brittany had gath- ered around her the daughters of the nobility for education and instruction in manners ; but these constituted rather her private court, and the wives of the nobles remained at home to superintend the affairs of the household. Francis L, however, invited the wives of his nobles to attend their hus- bands at court ; and, at one time, their number amounted to three hundred. From this time they began to take part in public affairs, their jealousies and rivalries entering largely into almost all political action. Ministers and generals were sometimes deposed at their pleasure, and their favor came to be considered the stepping-stone to power. 75. Michel de I'Hopital (me-shel delo-pe-taT),\ the Chancellor of France during the reign of Henry II., is wor- * " The old University of Paris, with its Faculty of Theology, the Sorhonne, could neither change its spirit nor its methods. Upon the model of the academies of Italy, and by the advice of the learned Bude, the king founded, in 1530, an institution entirely secu- lar, the College of the Three Languages, or the College of France. Hebrew, Greek, Latin, mathematics, philosophy— everything which was new, or which led to new views, were there taught gratuitously."— Duruy's History of France. , + L'Hopital was born in Auvergne about 1505, and died near Etampes in 1573. He gave up his office in 1568, and spent the remainder of his life in rural quiet and repose. When the guard sent to protect him during the St. Bartholomew's massacre arrived, supposing them to be assassins, he ordered his doors to be thrown open, saying that he was ready to meet death whenever it was the will of God. 73. What is said of schools? What languages were especially studied? What else was pursued ? What is said of the College of France ? 74. What change took place in the reign of Francis I. ? What was the consequence 75. Give an account of De THOpital, and his measures. 190 THE VALOISOELEA^S BRAKCH. thy of special mention for his exalted views and his generous action in a time of great intolerance. His integrity was severely tested when, as president of the Court of Accounts, he refused to make an appropriation of 20,000 livres, which the king had requested for his favorite Diana of Poitiers. So tolerant, also, was he, and so opposed to violence, that he refused, when chancellor, to sign the death-warrant of the Prince of Conde. Many just and generous acts and meas- ures owe their origin to him, not the least of which were his prevention of the permanent establishment of the Inquisition in France, the Ordinance of Orleans, and the Ordinance of Moulins. Though he had retired from public life at the time of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew, a special guard was sent to protect him, so generally were his high charac- ter and great services recognized. 76. Other Distinguished Men. — The most noted men of genius of this period were Francis Rabelais (rah'be-ld), a famous satirist, who attacked the religious and privileged or- ders ; Clement Marot (mah-ro') (1495-1544), whose poems, ballads, and translations were very popular, and were used by the king and court ; Pierre Lescot (les-co') (1510-1571), the architect of the Louvre ; * Philibert Delorme (duh-lorm') (1518-1577), one of the greatest architects of his time, and, under the direction of Catharine de' Medici, the designer of the Tuileries ; \ Bernard de Palissy (1510-1590), who ap- plied the art of enameling to pottery, and was appointed ' ' maker of the king's rustic potteries ; " Michel de Mon- taigne (1533-1594), author of the celebrated Essays, on * " Four enormous walls, pierced promiscuously with small windows, flanked with ten small towers, and in the middle a large tower serving for a prison and treasury— such was the habitation of our ancient kings. Upon the ruins of this edifice of a past age was erected, little by little, a palace which, notwithstanding all its transformations, is still the most complete expression of the French Renaissance. Pierre Lescot constructed only a part of the facade, in which is placed the pavilion called the Horologe."— Dtiruy's History or' Fiance. t The palace of the Tuileries was commenced by Catharine de' Medici in 1564, and was continued by Henry IV., who added a range of buildings with a splendid pavilion at each end. The whole front was more than 1,000 feet in extent, with a depth of about 100 feet. Henry IV. also commenced a gallery to connect the Louvre and the Tuileries. This was continued by Louis XIII., and completed by Louis XIV. Napoleon I. added to this splendid edifice, and Napoleon III. further enlarged it. 76. What other distinguished men are mentioned ? For what was each of them famous f THE V ALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 191 miscellaneous subjects ; Auguste de Thou (too) (1553-1617), author of a History of Ms Time, a repository of facts con- cerning not only France but all Europe ; Francis Malherbe (mal-arb') (1555-1628), a poet, who has been called the "tyrant of words and syllables," and who largely assisted in forming the French language as it now exists ; and Pierre de Ronsard (rong-sar') (1524-1585), whose writings were hailed with enthusiasm by the cultivated classes of his time, giving him the title of "the French poet."* CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1498. Louis XII. Reigned 17 years. 1500. Battle of Novara. 1503. Battle of Garigliano. Defeat of the French. 1504. Treaty of Blois. 1506. Meeting of the States-General. 1508. League of Cambray. 1509. Battle of Agnadello. 1511. Holy League. 1512. Death of Gaston de Foix. 1513. Battle of the Spurs. 1515. Francis I. Reigned 32 years. 1515. Battle of Marignano. Defeat of the Swiss. 1519. Charles V. elected Emperor of Germany. 1520. Field of the Cloth of Gold. 1522. Battle of Bicoque. 1525. Battle of Pavia. Francis I. taken prisoner. 1529. Peace of Cambray (Women's Peace). 1534-5. Cartier's Expedition to Canada. 1542. Alliance of Francis I. and the Turkish Sultan Solyman. 1547. Henry II. Reigned 12 years. 1555. First Protestant Church established in Paris. 1556. Abdication of Charles V. 1557. Battle of St. Quentin. * Sonsard was born near Vendome ; and at the age of ten years entered into the service of tne Duke of Orleans, son of Francis I. He was afterward connected with the court of James V. of Scotland ; but returning to his own country, filled several important ap- pointments. He studied to improve the French language, forming his style after the best classical models. He was a great favorite with Charles IX., by whom he was made poet laureate. 192 THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 1-558. Taking of Calais from the English. 1559. Francis II. Reigned 18 months. 1560. Michel de l'Hopital made chancellor, 1560. Meeting of the States-General. 1560. Charles IX. Reigned 14 years. 1562. Massacre at Vassy. 1563. Treaty of Amboise. 1567. Battle of St. Denis. 1568. Peace of Lonjumeau. 1570. Peace of St. Germain. 1572. Death of Jeanne d'Albret. 1572. Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day. (August 24.) 1574. Henry III. Reigned 15 years. 1576. Meeting of the States-General. 1585. Treaty of Nemours. 1586. War of the Three Henries. 1587. Battle of Coutras. 1589. Assassination of the Duke of Guise and Cardinal Lorraine, 1589. Death of Catharine de' Medici. 1589. Assassination of Henry III. GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. Louis, Duke of Orleans, son of Charles V. (assassinated in 1407). I . i : 1 Charles, Duke of Orleans John, Count of Angouleme. (taken prisoner at Agincourt). I | Charles, Count of Angouleme. Louis XII. I Francis I., married Claude, daughter of Louis XII. I f 1 Henry II., married Catharine de 1 Medici. Charles, Duke of Orleans. f ! r~ ~r — ■ r~ i Francis II., Charles IX. Francis, Henry III. Marguerite, married Mary, Queen of Duke of Alencon, married to Henry, King Scots. afterward of Navarre, Duke ofAnjou afterward (died in 1584). Henry lV. THE VALOIS-ORLEANS BRANCH. 193 QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. TAGB 1. When did the reign of Louis XII. begin and end? 153, 160 2. Name the principal events of his reign 153 to 160 3. State the facts in relation to his three marriages 153 to 160 4. Give an account of his first successes in Italy 154 5. Of his successes, in alliance with Ferdinand of Spain 154, 155 6. Of events leading to and from the treaty of Blois 155, 156 7. State all the facts in relation to the Chevalier Bayard 155, 157, 162, 164, 167 8. What events led to the battle of Agnadello ? 155, 156 9. Give the facts in relation to the Holy League of 1511 157, 159 10. State all you can about Gaston de Foix 157 11. What subsequent contests did Louis XII. have ? 159, 160 12. What did Louis accomplish for France ? 160 13. State what yon can of his wife, Anne of Brittany 153, 160 14. When did the reign of Francis I. begin and end ? 161, 17i 15. Describe, as fully as you can, his character 161, 162, 171 16. Give an account of his invasion of Italy in 1515 162 17. Of his aim and contest for the office of Emperor of Germany 163 18. State the facts in relation to the Field of the Cloth of Gold 163, 164 19. What event led to Charles V. getting control of Italy ? 164, 165 20. Relate the facts respecting the Constable of Bourbon 165, 167, 168 21. Respecting the capture, imprisonment, and release of Francis I. 167, 168 22. What other events, during the reign of Francis, occurred in Italy?. . .168, 169, 170 23. Narrate the facts connected with the league with Turkey 169, 170 24. Show, by relating the facts, how Francis treated those not of his Church. 170, 171 25. When did the reign of Henry II. begin and end ? 171, 174 26. Describe his character and death 171, 172, 174 27. What trouble did he have with his family, court, and people ? 172 28. Give an account of his military contest with Charles V 172, 173 29. Of his subsequent misfortunes in Italy and the Netherlands 173 30. Of his victory over the English, and his treaty with Philip II 174 31. When did the reign of Francis II. begin and end ? 175, 176 32. State, in full, the facts related of the Huguenots 175, 176 33. When did the reign of Charles IX. begin and end ? 177, 183 34. Give the history and character of Catharine de' Medici . . 172 (note), 177, 184, 186, 188 35. What events led to the civil war of 1562? 177 36. Relate the events of that war . . 177, 178 37. Relate the further events to the peace of Lonjumeau 178, 179 38. And the further events to the peace of St. Germain 179, 180 39. Give all the facts you can respecting Jeanne d' Albret 179, 180, 181, 194 40. All in relation to Admiral Coligny 176, 179, 180, 181, 182 41. What events and measures led to the St. Bartholomew massacre ? 181, 182 42. Give an account of that massacre 182, 183 43. When did the reign of Henry III. begin and end ? 184, 187 44. Describe his character and death 184, 186, 187 45. Name the principal events of his reign 184, 185, 186 46. What is said of French architecture during the Renaissance ? 187 47. Of amusements practiced by the king and nobility ? 187, 188 48. Of the costumes worn by the upper classes ? 188 49. What was the condition of education and science at that period ? 189 50. What were the position and influence of women in public affairs ? 189 51. Name the most distinguished men of the period 189, 190, 191 9 194 THE HOUSE OF BOUEBON. \. I». 1589. section ii. The House of Boubbon. Extending from the Accession of Henry IV. (1589) to that of Louis XVI (1774). 15g9 1. Henry IV. — Henry III. was the last of the to house of Valois. At his death, the Catholics nomi- nated Cardinal Bourbon as his successor; but the 1610 Huguenots supported Henry of Navarre. The latter was the son of Jeanne d'Albret and Antoine de Bourbon, a lineal de- scendant of St. Louis. For a long time the Catholics in France had been outspoken in their opposi- tion to the elevation of a heretic to the throne. The nomination of Henry of Navarre, therefore, who was a Huguenot, was followed by the withdrawal of many moder- ate Catholics who had, up to this time, supported him. He gave up the siege of Paris, and retired to the northern part of France to await reinforcements from England. 2. Battle of Ivry. — The Duke of Mayenne, the leader of the League, followed him, and a battle was fought near Dieppe (de-ep 1 ), in which Henry was victorious. The mar- tial spirit of Henry IV. is shown by the message which he sent to his friend-in-arms Crillon, after the battle of Arques : " Go hang yourself, brave Crillon ; we've had a fight at Arques, 1 . Who became the rival candidates for the throne at the death of Henry III.? Who was Henry of Navarre ? What followed his nomination ? 2. Of what party was Mayenne the leader ? What important battle was fought 1 What was the result * HENRY IV, A. D. 1593.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 195 and you weren't there." Then having received the promised aid from England, he returned to the siege of Paris, but was again compelled to retire before the superior force of Mayenne. The latter, feeling the necessity of a victory to strengthen his cause, followed Henry, and a more decisive battle was fought at Ivry (eev're) (1590).* The result was a complete victory for Henry, who generously ordered his sol- diers to spare the Frenchmen whom they should find among the vanquished, f w 3. The King becomes a Catholic. — For about four / years the war continued, but without decisive advantage to ' either side. Both were weary of it, and Henry saw that his most trusted adherents were discouraged. He resolved, therefore, upon a bold step which should dissolve existing parties, and bring peace to his distracted country. On the 25th of July, 1593, he went to the church of St. Denis and solemnly renounced the Huguenot faith, taking that of the Catholic Church in its stead. J By this act both sides were thrown into confusion, and Henry's cause made such prog- ress that Mayenne was compelled to agree to a truce. 4. Paris, however, yet remained to be captured ;§ but * Though the forces of Henry were inferior in numher to those of the League, he did not hesitate. Scorning the proposition to retreat which some of his advisers had made, he pointed to the white plume above his helmet, and directed his soldiers to make that their rallying point in case they lost their standards, since they would always find it in the path of honor and glory. t " The poverty of Henry in the early part of his career was the subject of many witti- cisms, in which he himself often indulged. The day before the battle of Ivry, it led to a scene between him and Marshal Schomberg which places in a striking light not only his magnanimity, but the generous spirit of the marshal and his readiness at repartee. Schomberg had demanded of Henry money for the payment of his suffering troops. The latter answered hastily, ' A brave man never asks for money on the eve of battle.' The following day, repenting his harsh words, he sent for the marshal, before the battle, and said, ' This day, marshal, will be, perhaps, my last. I would not rob a brave man of his honor. In you I recognize a true soldier, incapable of any act of cowardice. Embrace me!' 'Sire,' said the marshal, 'yesterday you wounded me; to-day you kill me.' A few hours after, the marshal was dead."— Guizofs History of France. X " There is no measuring accurately how far ambition, personal interest, a king's ego- tism, had to do with Henry IV.'s abjuration of his religion ; none would deny that those human infirmities were present ; but all this does not prevent the conviction that patriot- ism was uppermost in Henry's sou], and that the idea of his duty as king toward France, a prey to all the evils of civil and foreign war, was the determining motive of his reso- lution."— Guizofs History of France. § Henry could have taken the city some time before, had he consented to an assault. "I am," said he, "the true father of my people. I would rather never have Paris than possess it by the death and ruin of so many persons." When the people, during the siege, were greatly pressed by famine, a deputation was sent to the king to ask permis- sion for the sick and aged to leave the city. He granted it at once, saying, " They can- not help the crimes of others ; I will hold out my arms to them." About 4,000 persons departed, crying out with all the strength left to them, " Long live the king ! " 3. How long did this war continue ? What act at length made a decided change in favor of the king ? When did this take place, and where ''. 4. When did Henry enter Paris '( What followed "/ 196 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. [A. ». 1594. Brissac, its commander, made a secret agreement with Henry to admit him ; and, at 4 o'clock on the morning of March 22d, 1594, Henry entered the city, and going to the cathedral, gave thanks for his victory. A general pardon immediately followed.* The Spanish troops were permitted to leave the city, Henry himself accompanying them to the city gate, and saluting them ironically, as they passed out, with the words, " Go bear my compliments to your master, but don't come back." CASTLE OF NANTES.t 5. The capture of Paris was a death-blow to the League. Many provinces and cities acknowledged the king's authority at once ; others, after more or less fighting or negotiation. J * " The king's entry was quite triumphal. He was met at different parts by the public bodies, who offered their homage, while the provost presented the keys of the city. The streets resounded with shouts of Vive le Roi! and the power of the League was, in a mo- ment, replaced by the authority of the lawful sovereign, who now appeared as generally beloved as he had lately been execrated by the multitude."— Browning's History of the Huguenots. t The Castle of Nantes is an irregular Gothic structure, built in the fifteenth century. Here the discarded Anne of Brittany found an asylum ; and here it was that Henry IV. signed the Edict of Nantes. It was famous also in the subsequent history of France. X The prospect for a lasting peace seemed bright, but was suddenly overcast by A an attempt which was made to assassinate the king. A young man named Jean Chatel 5. What was the result of the capture of Paris ? What brought Mayenne to terms J A. D. 1600.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 19? Mayenne, aided by the Spaniards, still kept up the struggle for the expiring League in Burgundy ; but a battle was fought which resulted in a victory for the king, and led to a truce (1595). 6. Henry had been crowned at Chartres (shartr) in 1594 ; but one ceremony still remained to be performed to strengthen him at home and abroad. This was the absolu- tion of the Pope, which had been denied him for several years but was now granted. The surrender of Mayenne followed shortly after. The peace of the kingdom was also further secured by the famous Edict of Nantes (1598), by which all the privileges granted to the Huguenots in previous treaties were restored to them. Entire liberty of conscience was conceded to them, and they were admitted to all offices of honor and emolument. 7. Having obtained from the Pope a divorce from his wife, the dissolute and shameless Marguerite de Valois, he married Mary de' Medici, the daughter of the Grand Duke of Florence and niece of the Pope (1600). His attention to the interests of the people caused him to be much beloved by them. Toward the peasantry he showed particular re- gard,* and they in return manifested the greatest affection for their good king. 8. The long continuance of the religious wars had disor- ganized everything. By the construction of roads and canals, the king brought all parts of the country into ready communication; he encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth and intelligence to the people. Manufactures, mining, and every other department of industry were fostered by his beneficent measures, in de- vising which he was greatly aided by the wise and upright {shah-teV), having been admitted to the king's presence, aimed a blow at his breast, but succeeded only in wounding him in the lip. As he had been educated by the Jesuits, this act led to the burning of his teacher and the expulsion of the order from France. * This is illustrated by the kindly words : " If I live, every man shall have a fowl to put in his pot for his Sunday dinner." 6. What two acts now confirmed the power of Henry ? What were the provisions of the Edict of Nantes ? 7. From whom did Henry obtain a divorce ? Whom did he marry ? How was lie regarded by the people ? 8. What did he do to benefit the country ? By whom was he aided ? 198 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK [A. D. 1610 S Duke of Sully.* The latter re-organized the finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely liquidated. 9. Henry was, however, still regarded by many with sus- picion as the secret enemy of the Church. Biron and Bou- illon, one his most trusted general, and both his former companions, conspired against him and were punished ; the first losing his life, and the second finding safety only in flight. This distrust, how- ever, was more than balanced by his rapidly increasing pop- ularity. He formed a plan, during his latter years, for the re-organization of Europe, and for the foundation of & great Christian confederation of nations, to guarantee civil and religious freedom, and to preserve the balance of power by diminishing the influence of suixt. the imperial house of Austria and the excessive power of Spain, f One of the first steps in this project was the deliverance of the Netherlands from Spanish misrule. He had just set on foot a formidable expedition to accomplish this, when, riding out in his car- riage one day in Paris, he was stabbed by a native of An- * The Duke of Sully was born at Rosny, near Nantes, In 1560. He belonged to a noble Protestant family, and took part with Henry in all his wars, becoming his chief adviser. He was not created Duke of Sully till 1606. His Memoirs, which he wrote after his re- tirement, is one of the most interesting and valuable books of the time. t The Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed religions were to be on an equal footing. The association was to comprise six hereditary monarchies : France, Spain, England, Den- mark, Sweden, and Lombardy ; five elective monarchies : the Empire, Poland, Hungary, Bohemia, and the Papal States ; and four republics : Venice, Genoa and Florence, Switz- erland, and the Netherlands. 9. How was the king regarded ? Who conspired against him form ? Give an account of his assassination. What plan did life A. D. 1610.] TI1K Tiorsi: OF BOURBON". 199 gouleme, named Ravaillac {rah-val-yak'), who had followed him from the Louvre (loovr) for the purpose (1010) * 10. Henry IV. has always been regarded with affection by the French on account of the political changes which he made, and the charm of his personal character. He was brave, generous, and witty ; a natural orator, and possessed of an unfailing good-humor, which often conciliated his en- emies and smoothed away many difficulties, f His skill as an administrator is shown in the success with which he rec- onciled opposing interests and parties ; while the great re- sults produced during his reign by the dissolution of the League, and the guaranty of religious freedom to all sects constitute a lasting claim upon the gratitude of his country- men. The colonial possessions of France in North America were commenced during this reign by means of the settlements and explorations made by Samuel Champlain, who founded Quebec in 1608, and by the settlement of Acadia \ at Port Eoyal, by the wealthy Huguenot, De Monts (dtimong')(160o). 1610 V !*• Louis XIII. — Mary de' Medici had been to /cVowned by her husband on the eve of his departure for his campaign in the Netherlands. She now be- came regent during the minority of her son, who was af- terward known as Louis XIII. Under her administration, much of the work performed by Henry IV. was undone. A crowd of favorites swarmed around the court, and squan- dered the public money. Prominent among these were two Italian adventurers § whom the regent had brought with her * " The punishment of Ravaillac was of barbaric severity. The hand with which he had assassinated the king was burned off over a slow fire, the fleshy parts of his body were torn with pincers, molten lead and boiling oil were poured into the wounds, and he was then quartered [torn to pieces by horses]. His remains were burned to ashes and scat- tered to the winds, and his relatives were banished or forced to change their names."— Uur7u/\9 History of France. t His life was attempted twenty times ; and his sudden death after a long career of danger, and when at the height of his power, has probably contributed somewhat to the; admiration in which he is held. X Acadia was the name then given to New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and the adjacent islands. § These were an obscure adventurer named Concini, and Leonora, b?s wife. The latter was a foster-sister of Mary de' Medici, and was made the first lady of her bedchamber. Concini received the title of Marquis D'Ancre. and was made Marshal of France. In the change of affairs that ensued they were put to death. 1 O. What was the character of Henry IV.? How is his skill shown ? What French colonies were planted in America ? 1 1 . Who succeeded Henry IV. ? Who became regent on the death of Henry IV. ? Who were her favorites ? What was the character of the court ? 200 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. D. 1615, to Paris. Sully resigned his office in disgust, and Conde re- turned. The latter retired, however, and organized a party in opposition to the regent. Civil war was threatened, but was averted by a treaty in which the regent made great concessions. 12. The majority of the king was proclaimed in 1614, and the States- General assembled the month after. The meeting is memorable chiefly from the bold attitude taken by the third estate, and from the first appearance in a civil character of the young bishop of Lucon {loo-song'), who afterward became famous as Cardinal Eichelieu (reesh'e-lu). It was the last assembly, also, from that time till 1789. Little was done by the States- General to satisfy the party of the nobles led by Conde, and the latter withdrew and in- stigated a new revolt. A double marriage took place at this time (1615), that of the king and his sister ; the former with the daughter of the King of Spain, the latter with his son ; and, the next year, the king conciliated Conde, making important concessions to him. 13. Conde now returned to Paris, where he completely eclipsed the Italian favorite and overshadowed the king him- self in the regard of the people. His boldness aroused the suspicion of Mary de' Medici, who caused him to be arrested for conspiring against the king, and threw him into prison. The weakness of the king was, by this time, so apparent that a change of advisers was determined upon. Among the changes made was the appointment of Eichelieu as minister of foreign affairs. This step was taken by the king on the advice of De Luynes (loo-een') an early companion and favorite, who had won the king's favor by his skill in train- ing falcons for the royal sport of hawking. This person was now advanced to the highest dignities. 14. The exile of Mary de' Medici to Blois checked for a time the civil war which was threatened. The queen- 12. When was the majority of the king proclaimed? What meeting was held? For what is it noted ? What marriage took place ? What reconciliation was effected ? 13. What is said of the influence of Conde ? What was done by Mary de 1 Medici ? What changes were made among the king's advisers ? By whose advice ? Who was De Luynes ? 1 4. What prevented civil war ? In what way did Mary de' Medici annoy the king? What reconciliation was effected ? What followed ? 1621.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 201 mother, however, formed a rallying point for all who were discontented with the king ; but Kichelieu brought about a reconciliation, and Conde was also released from prison and received into favor by the king. Nevertheless the in- fluence exerted by De Luynes, the grievances of Mary de' Medici, and those of the Huguenots together formed suffi- cient grounds for a new revolt ; and the king was again obliged to march into Normandy to suppress it. He also besieged the queen-mother in Angers and compelled her to submit. 15. Since the death of their champion, Henry IV., the Huguenots had watched the course of events with great misgiving. Finding little hope for their cause in the course pursued by the king, they now formed a project for the es- tablishment of a Huguenot republic in France, similar to that of Holland. Eochelle (ro-sheV) was the center of their power. The Duke of Bouillon was made commander-in- chief of their army ; and the money collected for the royal treasury, as well as the property of the Catholic Church, was seized to defray the expenses of the soldiers (1621). 16. De Luynes was at once made Constable of France, and marched against the Huguenots; but his death occurred soon afterward.* Within a year, the Huguenot comm ander ofMontpellier, then besieged by the Royal- ists, conclud- CASTEE OF LUYNES. * De Luynes was inefficient and avaricious, and, by his selfish eagerness to enrich him- self and his relatives, he soon became very unpopular. He died unregretted, even by the king, whose favorite he had been. 15. What did the Huguenots attempt? What city was their capital? Who was their commander ? 1 6. Who was created constable ? What events followed ? 9* 202 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOX. [A. D. 1627. ed a treaty of peace (1622), after which Montauban [mont- o-bahn') and Rochelle were the only fortified cities in the possession of the Huguenots. 17. Two years after the death of De Luynes, Richelieu, who had been made cardinal through the influence of Mary de' Medici, was admitted to the councils of the king. He was made prime minister in 1624; and his power was felt at once in every department of the government. He introduced order into the .cbao^ left by De Luynes, and marked out a bold policy to be pursued by the king toward the Huguenots, the nobles who conspired against him, and the great powers of Europe. His first step was the arrest of the king's secre- tary of the treasury, who stood in his way. This was fol- lowed by the marriage of Henrietta Maria, the king's sister, to the son of James I. of England ; and as the latter died before the ceremony cook place, the bridegroom became king of England, under the title of Charles I. 18. The vigor of Richelieu, and the harsh measures to which he resorted against all incompetent officers, soon raised up enemies among the pleasure-loving courtiers, and led to a conspiracy against him and the king. The leaders of the plot were the Count of Chalais and the king's brother, Gaston, Duke of Anjou, who seemed likely to succeed to the throne, as Louis had no children. On discovering their in- tention, Richelieu took the severest measures. Some of the lords were beheaded, others exiled ; and even the queen her- self was humbled for her supposed complicity. The king's brother was then married, receiving a large estate and the title of Duke of Orleans. * 19. Siege of Rochelle. — The hopes of the Protestants of Rochelle were revived, in 1627, by the arrival in their * He had basely betrayed and deserted his accomplices In order to save himself. Chalais was beheaded at Nantes ; and it is said the blundering executioner succeeded in performing his office only after the thirty-fourth blow of the ax. The young queen was summoned before the council and reprimanded. 1 7. What new influence now made itself felt ? What steps did Richelieu take to strengthen the king ? What marriage took place ? 18. Wh.it conspiracy was formed ? How was it suppressed ? 19. Give an account of the siege of Rochelle. By whom were the Huguenots sustained ? Were they successful ? What was done after the surrender of the city t A. ». 1629.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 203 harbor of an English fleet, commanded by the famous Duke of Buckingham. Kichelieu marched with a formida- ble army to the siege of the city. The English, after some slight successes at first, sailed away at the end of four months ; and Richelieu constructed a great dike to close the harbor in case they should return. The supplies of the city were cut off by the investing army, and the inhabitants were reduced to the greatest extremities.* The city surrendered after a fifteen months' siege (1628) ; and the king entered in triumph, Eichelieu in person delivering him the keys. Se- vere measures were taken to prevent the stubborn city from ever again forming the nucleus of a revolt against the king. Many of its special privileges were taken away, and its forti- vikations were demolished. y\20. The Huguenots, after their defeat at Eochelle, re- /treated to the south of France, where, under the Duke of Rohan, they still kept up the struggle. The royal army, however, pursued them from city to city, slaughtering them with merciless severity, and razing the fortifications of their cities to the ground, till the Duke of Rohan fled for safety to Italy, and the political power of the Huguenots was en- tirely broken. The treaty known as the Edict of Grace brought to a termination the long religious war (June, 1629). 21. On Richelieu's return from his triumphs in the south he found but a cold reception awaiting him at court. The king had been attacked with a dangerous illness ; and, in . anticipation of his death, a new plot had been formed against the cardinal, by Mary de' Medici, and many of the nobles. * " Remembering how Alexander the Great had taken Tyre, he began to build up the entrance of the gulf. The Huguenots at first laughed loud when they saw his soldiers, all turned engineers for the nonce, tumbling the rocks into the sea for the foundation of the mole ; but when the structure topped the water and began to grow out into the deep, % T ery blank they looked. Still the masonry increased, until a dark mass of cemented rocks half a mile long, closing in the harbor, completed the circle of blockade. Earl Lindesay came with ships from England, but could do nothing to aid the besieged. Fam- ine ground them with its slow and terrible pain, until they had no resource left but to yield up to the triumphant Richelieu the last hope of the Huguenots. The siege bad lasted more than twelve months. Of fifteen thousand who had begun the defense, there remained only four thousand wasted specters."— Dr. Collier. 20. What course did the Huguenots take? How were they defeated? How did rar end ? a plot against Richelieu ? Who were concerned in it ? What was the iong religious war end 21. What led to s fhe result of it ? 204 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. D. 1632. Louis, who had never loved his great minister, promised to dismiss him, and arrangements were made for his with- drawal. But the king suddenly restored Richelieu to favor, and the latter took stern and summary vengeance upon the conspirators (1630).* 22. The great and increasing power of Austria still con- tinued a menace to the peace of Europe, and Richelieu en- tered into an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, to reduce it. f By this agreement, the King of Sweden was to lead against Austria an army of 30,000 men, France bind- ing herself to pay 400,000 crowns annually for its support. Gustavus Adolphus thus became the head of the Protest- ant party in Europe. The war in which he now engaged, known as the Thirty Years' War, had been begun in 1618. He suddenly appeared in Germany with his army, J and won a decisive victory at Leipsic ; but ended his career as suddenly at the battle of Lutzen, which was fought the following year (1632). 23. The enemies of Richelieu in France were active in spite of their many defeats. Gaston, Duke of Orleans, en- tered into a conspiracy with Henry of Montmorency, the Governor of Languedoc, and the king sent Marshal Schom- berg to attack them. A battle took place ; but the Duke of Orleans fled at the beginning of the action, and made peace with the king by complete submission. Montmorency was wounded and taken prisoner, and, the following month, was beheaded, his estates being confiscated. Owing to his high birth and chivalrous character, his fate caused general regret * The triumph of Richelieu was complete. Marillac, the keeper of the seals, who owed his position to the favor of Richelieu, was thrown into jbrison ; his brother, a marshal of France, was beheaded; the king's mother and the Duke of Orleans were driven into exile, and many conspirators were obliged to seek safety in flight. The day on which the tables were thus suddenly turned has always been called the Day of the Dupes. t Said Richelieu to the German princes : " It is, no doubt, a great affliction for the Chris- tian commonwealth that none but the Protestants should dare to oppose such pernicious designs ; they must not be aided in their enterprises against religion, but they must be mademse of in order to maintain Germany in the enjoyment of her liberties." \ " This snow-king will go on melting as he comes south," said the emperor, Ferdinand, on hearing that Gustavus Adolphus had disembarked from Sweden. 22. What was the next project of Richelieu ? What alliance did he form ? State the conditions. Give the subsequent history. 23. What other conspiracy was formed ? What measures were adopted to subdue It ? With what result ? What reconciliation took place ? A. D. 1637.] Till: HOUSE OF BOUBBOX. 205 in France. Bichelieu soon after succeeded in removing the Duke of Orleans from the influence of the queen-mother, and bringing him back to France/ where a public recon- ciliation between him and the king took place, which was attended with great rejoicing (1634). 24. War with Austria. — France, under the guidance of Richelieu, now entered upon a war with Austria and Spain on the grandest scale. Five armies were organized, and the war was begun at once in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, and in Italy. The king's generals were victorious in the Netherlands, in a battle near Liege (1635) ; but this was followed, the next year, by an invasion of the enemy, who penetrated to within fifty miles of Paris, and might easily have captured it, so great was the terror into which its in- habitants were thrown. In Italy, the Duke of Rohan re- pulsed the imperial army, but finally lost the province through Spanish intrigue. The war in other quarters was not successful, owing to misunderstandings between the allies of France. 25. In the midst of foreign war, and notwithstanding the severe punishments which had always followed the discovery of plots against his authority, Richelieu found himself con- stantly obliged to be on the alert for neAV ones. The queen, in 1637, was discovered to be in secret correspondence with the court of Spain, in opposition to the interests of France ; and the king himself, through the influence of the women of the court, or through his jealousy of the power of his great minister, was frequently in dispute with him. Not- withstanding all these annoyances, however, Richelieu pro- secuted his plans boldly, and often with pitiless severity. Sometimes on the field of battle, oftener by treaty or intrigue, he moved on to the end he proposed, "trampling all opposi- tion under foot," as he himself expressed it, and "covering all mistakes with his scarlet robe." 24. In what war was France now engaged ? What force did she put in the field i What invasion took place r With what result ? What else is said of the war ? 25. What new plot was now discovered? Why was the king himself sometimes discovered in these plots Y What course did Richelieu always pursue '. 206 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOX. [A. D. 16«« 26. Fourth Conspiracy. — On every side the war went on ; in Italy, in the Netherlands, in the south of France ; at home and abroad, by land and sea. In 1642, Eichelieu introduced to the king, as a companion, Henry, Marquis of Cinq-Mars (sanJc-mar), then nineteen years of age, hoping in this way to keep a watch upon the king. Louis soon became attach- ed to him, and advanced him rapidly ; and this so turned the young man's head that he demanded a seat in the m council,* which being refused by Richelieu, he entered in- to a conspiracy against his be- nefactor. His accomplices were the Duke of Bouillon and his relative De Thou (too), and the ever-ready Duke of Orleans. A secret treaty was concluded with Spain, a copy of which, by some unknown means, was furnished to Eichelieu, who was then lying sick at Narbonne. The Duke of Orleans was apprehended, and frightened into revealing the full extent of the plot. The Duke of Bouillon was arrested at the head of the army in RICHELIEU. * He even insisted upon being present during the private interviews of Richelieu with the king ; whereupon his presumption was severely rebuked by the haughty minister. For this he vowed vengeance, and resolved upon the removal and death of the cardinal. 26. Who was Cinq-Mars ? What did he demand ? With whom dK he intrigue against the authority of Richelieu ? What was the result ? A. O. 16 43.] THE HOUSE OP .BOURBON. 20? Italy, and escaped death only by the surrender of his prin- cipality of Sedan. Cinq-Mars and De Thou were executed. This was the last plot which Eichelieu was called upon to punish (1642). 27. The same year, Mary de' Medici died in Cologne ; and Eichelieu, while actively engaged in carrying on the war in the south, was taken ill, and soon recognized that his end was near. He was borne back to the capital with the most affectionate care by his attendants, and with the deference and luxurious surroundings which only a monarch could command. A crowd of courtiers thronged the ante-chamber of his dwelling, and the king himself came twice to visit him. He died in 1642, at the age of fifty-seven years ; and the king survived him less than six months.* Filled with regret for the harshness which he had permitted his minister to use, Louis pardoned, almost without exception, those whom the latter had exiled. Before his death, he confided the regency to his wife, Anne of Austria, leaving as his successor a child less than five years of age (1643). 28. Louis XIII. was so completely overshadowed by his minister, that his real character has been difficult to ascer- tain. - In early life, his inclinations were frivolous, and he showed little liking for the cares of state. This seems to have been the opinion of Eichelieu, who, at times, provided him with boyish amusements to prevent him from interfer- ing with the affairs of state. Occasional acts and speeches show that he was heartless ; but one of his early instructors declares that he had his family's genius for war ; and con- siderable self-control must certainly be accorded to an abso- lute prince who could so far check his own impulses as to retain for a lifetime a minister who was distasteful to him, and who constantly belittled him by his mere presence. * Richelieu died without fear. The bishop of Lisieux, who stood at his bedside, said, buch firmness astonishes me." Among his last words were these : " I have loved justice and not vengeance. I have been severe to a few that I might be a benefactor to many." 27. When and where did Mary de' Medici die ? Give an account of the death of Richelieu. What is said of the last days of the king ? 28. Why has it been difficult to ascertain the character of Louis XIII.? What was his character, so far as is known ? 208 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A„ I*. 1643. 29. Character of Richelieu. — Concerning Richelieu himself little disagreement exists. His was one of the great minds of the seventeenth century. He combined in a sin- gular degree a capacity for planning great enterprises with the ability to form the combinations necessary to make them suc- cessful ; the skill of the statesman with the ability of the general ; the address of the man of the world with the love of letters which usually characterizes the solitary student. With a profound knowledge of human nature, he read easily the characters of those around him ; and such was the fer- tility of his resources, that, though he lived for eighteen years in the midst of conspiracies against his power, and even against his life, he thwarted them constantly to the end. More conspicuous, perhaps, than any other quality was his unconquerable will. Before this all others bent — nobles, members of the royal family, even the king himself. Prime minister and cardinal, the powers of both his high offices were freely used in carrying out his civil policy, which was steadily directed to the aggrandizement of France ; and, at his death, he left a fortune of 1,500,000 livres, as a gift to the king whom he had served. 30. Civil Policy of Richelieu. — The constant aim of Richelieu at home was the increase of the royal power. To this end he abolished the offices of constable and grand ad- miral ; substituted for governors of provinces intendants, who were more immediately under the control of the king, and who gradually concentrated in their hands all civil power ; demolished fortresses captured from nobles in re- volt, confiscated their lands, and annulled their titles and dignities. Abroad, he directed all the energies of France to the destruction of his most formidable rival in Europe — the Spanish branch of the house of Austria. His preparations for this purpose were immense ; and, when the struggle came, the means he had provided and the efforts he put 29. How does Richelieu rank among the men of his time ? In what respects was be great ? By what power were all his faculties directed ? 30. What means did he adopt to increase the king's power ? What was his princi pal aim abroad ? What was the result of his efforts ? What did he leave ? A. ». 1G4S.] THE HOtTSE OP BOUliBOtf. 209 forth astonished even the king. The result of his labors was the establishment of absolute -power in the hands of Louis XIII. 31. Art and Literature. — The encouragement given VERSAILLES UNDER LOUIS XIII. (CHIEF ENTRANCE.)* by Eichelieu to art, and particularly to literature, was great and of lasting effect. Many institutions still remain which were either established or largely aided by him. He founded the celebrated French Academy, and the botanical and zo- ological garden, called the Jardin des Plantes (zhar-dang'dd plahnt), the former, for the regulation of the language and the creation of correct literary models ; the latter, for the promotion of scientific inquiry. The Sorbonne also was re- organized by him, and the royal printing-office established ; while many beautiful specimens of architecture still bear * Versailles is situated about ten miles from the center of Paris. The palace under Louis XIII. was a mere hunting-lodge. It was Louis XIV. who built the splendid struct- ure in which that monarch and his successors resided until the Revolution. 31 . Was the reign of Louis XIII. favorable to art and literature ? Mention some of the institutions founded or aided by Richelieu. What other changes were made by his advice ? $10 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOtf. [A. .ft. 164S, witness to his cultivated taste. By his advice, also, France was provided with a permanent navy ; and, during his admin- istration, the first French newspaper was founded. 1643 «^* Louis XIV., afterward known as Louis the to Great, or the Grand Monarque (grahnd mon-ark'), was less than five years old when he was left the undis- puted heir to the throne of France. His mother was made regent during his minority, and Cardinal Maza-rin was chosen as her chief counselor (1643). The Thirty Years' War was still raging in Europe ; and the French arms, under Conde and Turenne, were everywhere victorious. Austria, finding herself attacked on every side, now sued for peace ; and the Thirty Years' War was ended by the treaty of West- phalia (1648).* 33. During these stirring events, the nobles of France, always ready to wrest from the king the power they had lost, formed a party for the purpose, but found themselves op- posed by Cardinal Mazarin. They now attempted to dis- grace and depose him ; and in this effort they were aided by the unfortunate condition of the affairs of the kingdom. Enormous taxes had been levied by Richelieu to carry out his great designs, and large sums were still needed. Maza- rin, who was hated on account of his foreign birth, employed as one of his agents a fellow-countryman, who made him- self odious by the harshness with which he collected the heavy taxes required. 34. The War of the Fronde. — The people of Paris rose in revolt and barricaded the streets. A popular party was formed to resist the royal authority represented by Maz- arin ; and, though the cardinal yielded at first, he after- * The result of this long struggle was the guaranty of civil and religious liberty in Europe, and the acquisition hy France of the province of Alsace, the cities of Toul, Metz, and Verdun, and the little city of Pignerol (peen-yer-ole), which gave her a foot, hold in Italy. 32. How old was Louis XIV. when he became king? Who was his principal adviser ? When did the Thirty Years 1 War end ? By what treaty ? What was the result of it ? 33. By whom was Mazarin opposed ? What had produced the heavy taxes which the king attempted to collect ? Why was Mazarin hated ? 34. Into what two parties was France divided ? Who was the principal originator of the Fronde ? Who Decame its leaders f A. B. 1648.] THE HOJSE OF BOURBOK. 211 ward returned to his ways, and the popular party, under the name of Frondeurs (fron-dur'), rapidly extended its or- ganization over the kingdom. Their opponents, the royal- ists, were called Mazarins ; and the civil war which followed was known as the war of the Fronde (1648).* The chief Bajilfo CARDINAL DE RETZ. instigator of the Fronde was Cardinal de Retz, who had made himself very popular in Paris by his eloquence and liberality. Its leaders were the Prince of Conti (kon'te), who * The word frondeur signifies a slinger. The hoys of Paris were accustomed to gather outside the walls of the city, and divide into two parties, which attacked each other with slings. On the approach of the guard they ran away, hut only to return when these were gone. Some one noticing that the intermittent action of the slingers resemhled that of the parliament toward the court, applied the name to the former in jest. The term was adopted hy the people at once, a frondeur meaning one who opposed the court ; a Mazarin, one who upheld it. The badge of the Frondeurs was at first a little stone attached by a ribbon to the hat ; at a later time it was a bunch of straw worn in the same place, while the Mazarins wore a corresponding badge of paper. 212 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. H. 1652, was a brother of the great Conde, the Dukes of Bouillon, Beaufort {bo' fort), Longueville (long-veel), and La Rochefou- cauld (rosh-foo-ko'). The great Conde at first had taken sides with the court. )\35. The king and his mother, with their adherents, left /Paris suddenly ; and the excited populace took possession of the city. Being without any definite aim, however, and having no strict organization, they were easily beaten in the first battle ; and the regent, with the king, re-entered Paris. Fearing arrest, the greater part of the nobles who had taken part in the Fronde left the city. The Prince of Conti, however, and the Duke of Longueville remained, and were suddenly arrested in the Louvre, together with the great Conde, who had joined the Fronde because his services to the royal party had not been rewarded. When the news of these arrests became known, war broke out at once in Bur- gundy, Normandy, and Guienne ; and Mazarin, alarmed at the storm he had provoked, left France, and took up his residence at Cologne (1651). One of his last acts previous to his leaving, was the liberation of Conde, Conti, and Longueville. 36. On the return of Conde to Paris, his ambition soon brought him into conflict with De Retz ; and Mazarin took advantage of this to 're-enter France with an army, which he placed at the disposal of the king. Conde with- drew into Guienne to encourage the revolt there, while the king's troops, under the command of Turenne, marched to attack the Frondeurs on the Loire ; and, though beaten at first, succeeded finally in checking them. Conde com- manded the Frondeurs in these engagements, though his presence among them was not at first known. Both the king's troops and those of the Fronde now hastened to Paris, each hoping to capture it. The Parisians, however, 35. Which side was at first victorious in Paris ? Was the success of the Fronde lasting? Whom did the king arrest? What did these arrests produce? What did Mazarin do ? 36. What course did Mazarin afterward take? Who commanded the opposing armies ? To whom did Paris finally open its gates ? Why did the victorious Fronde fail ? A. I>. 1653.] THE HOUSE OP BOURBOH. 215 closed the gates of the city, and the two armies met again outside the walls. After a bloody battle, the gates of the city were opened to Conde, and the cannon of the Bastile opened fire upon the king's army, by order of the daugh- ter of the Duke of Orleans (1652). The royalists then with- drew ; and the Fronde, though victorious, soon fell to pieces through the jealousies of rival leaders. 37. Coronation of the King. — Negotiations now took place between the king and the people of Paris, with a view to the return of the former to the capital. M a z a r i n, in order to facili- tate these, again left France, and the king, being entreated by the people,returned to Paris. Conde fled, and a sen- tence of death was afterward pronounced against him. Many of the leaders of the Fronde, includ- ing De Ketz, were imprisoned or banished. In the quiet which settled down upon Paris, Mazarin again returned, and was intrusted with greater power than before. The last blow to the existence of the Fronde was given in 1653, by the submission of Guienne, to which province most of the insurgent leaders had fled. MAZARIN. 37. What did the people of Paris do When whs the k.in*jr crowned ? How were the Frondeurs punished? 214 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOtf. [A. B. 1661, The following year the king was crowned at Rheims (1654). 38. Mazarin, meanwhile, had formed an alliance with Cromwell ; and English troops, as the result of this, had fought at Dunkirk, in the army of the king ; but, a year after, the peace called the Peace of the Pyrenees was con- cluded (1659), by which Conde was received into favor by the king, and the latter was betrothed to Maria Theresa, the daughter of Philip IV. of Spain. On the 9th of June follow- ing, the marriage was celebrated with great splendor, in a lit- tle city in the extreme south of France. Maria Theresa re- nounced all right to the crown of Spain, and brought to the king 500,000 gold crowns as her dowry. The death of Maza- rin followed closely the marriage of the king. It happened in 1661, and marks the close of the first epoch in the long reign of Louis XIV. Immediately after the death of Mazarin, the king, being then only twenty-three years old, gave evi- dence of his determination to exercise absolute power. * 39. One of his first acts was the arrest of his Secretary of the Treasury, Fouquet (foo-kd f ), who had grown enor- mously rich, while the finances of the kingdom were left in great disorder. He lived with more than royal magnifi- cence, and on the king's assumption of power, gave a costly entertainment in his honor. The king attended, and on leaving, ordered his arrest. All the members of his family were banished ; and, after a trial which lasted three years, Fouquet was condemned to imprisonment for life. The title belonging to the office he had held was changed from su- perintendent to that of controller - general, and Colbert (kol-bar') was appointed to succeed him. *" Under Cardinal Mazarin, there was literally nothing hut disorder and confusion. He had the council held whilst he was being shaved and dressed, without ever giving any- body a seat, and he was often chattering with his linnet and his monkey all the time he was being talked to about business. After Mazarin's death, the king's council assumed a more decent form."— Le 1'. Daniel^ Histoire de France. 38. What alliance did France now form ? How did the Peace of the Pyrenees affect the fortunes of Conde ? Whom did the king marry ? What was her dowry ? When did the death of Mazarin occur ? What does this mark ? What disposition did the king show ? 39. Give an account of the arrest of Fouquet. W r ho was appointed to succeed him ? How was the title of the office changed ? A. ». 1«67.) THE HOUSE OF BOUftBOST. 215 40. Several incidents related of the king, at this stage of his career, indicate his pride and his extravagant notion of the honor due him, and show in what danger the peace of Europe lay from his whims. A dispute having arisen be- tween the French and Spanish embassadors at London,* Louis threatened the King of Spain, who was his father-in- law, with war ; and nothing but the humblest public declar- ation of the Spanish king's inferiority prevented it. A more serious insult offered to the French embassador at Rome led to the seizure of Avignon, f and the threat of an invasion of Italy. The latter was averted only by full, and even abject, apologies. A solemn treaty was concluded between Louis and the Pope, fixing the rank of each ; and the former set up a monument in Eome to commemorate the reparation made for the insult. 41. With a view to future safety, Louis bought Dunkirk from the English, as a harbor for his growing navy ; con- cluded a treaty for the cession of Lorraine and Bar ; and renewed that which Henry IV. and Louis XIII. had entered into with the Swiss cantons. Three years after (1665), Philip IV. of Spain died, and Louis laid claim to a part of his possessions.; though he had solemnly renounced his right to them at the time of his marriage. Such bad faith was resented by Spain ; and, two years after, a war began. The king himself and Turenne laid siege to Lille, and captured it in nine days ; and so powerful was the French army, that the entire province was conquered in two months. }C42. Franche-Comte was invaded also by Conde, in 1667, /ana subdued after a three weeks' campaign. Such rapid / successes alarmed the states of Europe, especially Holland, who felt herself peculiarly exposed to danger from her war- *The Spanish minister claimed the right of precedence before the French embassador at a diplomatic reception, and this the latter was determined not to yield. t After the end of the great schism, Avignon was governed by the legates of the Pope, and was not restored to the government of France till 1791. 40. What is said of the character of Louis f What powers were threatened with war by Louis ? Why ? How was the Pope's apology commemorated ? 41. What measures did Louis take to strengthen himself ? What claim did he make J What was the result ? What province was conquered ? 42. What conquest did Conde make ? Where was Franche-Comte ? See Progress- tve Map, No. 2.) What action did Holland take ? To what did this afterward lead ? 216 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". [A. ». 16?2. like neighbor. She formed an alliance, therefore, with Eng- land and Sweden, and brought about a treaty (1668). This interference of Holland, however, and her commercial rivalry with France, induced Louis, two years after, to declare war against her. The ridicule, also, which the Dutch made of the king's pretensions, and even of his person, contributed to the bitter feeling with which he regarded them. 43. Only after ample preparation, did the king enter upon this war, which he designed should end in the conquest of the Netherlands. He first took measures to dissolve the alliance which had existed against him. Sweden was de- tached from it by an annual subsidy, and England was induced to unite with France against Holland by the pay- ment of a large sum of money, and the promise of certain islands on the Dutch coast. Money was also used by the king to induce some of the European powers to remain neu- tral, while the active aid of the Duke of Savoy and of some of the German princes was secured. Everything being ready, war was declared ; and the king in person, with Conde and Turenne, at the head of an army of 80,000 men, crossed the Rhine (1672). He was joined by his German allies with 20,000 more; while the combined French and English fleet, numbering ninety vessels, sailed to attack the coast cities of Holland. 44. Against this formidable array Holland, thus suddenly attacked, was for the moment powerless. Her people were divided into two parties : one composed of the nobility, with William, Prince of Orange, as their leader ; the other, of the merchants and burghers, who formed a republican party, whose chiefs were two brothers, John and Cornelius De Witt. Holland, however, was rich, and was possessed of a powerful navy, commanded by the two most renowned ad- mirals in Europe, De Ruyter (ri'ter) and Van Tromp. The 43. What preparations did Louis make for the invasion of Holland ? With what force did he cross the Rhine ? Who were the French commanders ? What other points were attacked, and in what way ? 44. How was Holland divided ? What is said of the Dutch navy ? What con- quests were made hy the French ? How did the quarrel between the nobility and burgliers of Holland end t A. D. 1675.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 217 first successes were all on the side of the French. Several oi the Dutch provinces were captured, and Amsterdam was threatened. The republicans demanded peace; the Prince of Orange declared for war. A struggle ensued in which the De Witts were killed by an enraged populace, and the Prince of Orange was intrusted with the supreme power, under the title of Stadtholder (1672). 45. Under the vigorous administration of the Stadtholder, the tide of war rapidly turned in favor of the Dutch. Am- sterdam was relieved from the presence of its besiegers by cutting the dikes, and flooding the marshes which surrounded the city ; De Ruyter and Van Tromp destroyed or put to flight the fleet of the allies ; and the Prince of Orange, by skillful negotiations, separated the English from the French, and formed alliances with Austria and Germany, which brought their armies to his aid. Two years after the French army crossed the Ehine, the aspect of the war was entirely changed ; the greater part of Europe was involved in it, and France stood alone confronting a powerful league. 46. Before the formidable coalition, Louis XIV. recoiled. He withdrew his forces from Holland, and invaded Franche- Comte. In six weeks, Vauban, the French commander, with 25,000 men, conquered the province. Turenne, at the same time, marched against the allies, who were slowly preparing to invade France by way of Lorraine. He crossed the Rhine with an army of 20,000 men, laying waste the country as he passed, engaged the enemy in many battles, and after a short but brilliant campaign, remarkable for the rapidity of his movements and the impetuosity of his attack, completely routed the allies, and returned to France with the gratitude of the people and the special approbation of the king (1675). 47. Conde, meanwhile, "held back the allies in the north, 45. How was the ability of William of Orange shown ? What method was taken to relieve Amsterdam ? What was the position of France at the end of two years ? 46. What effect did the activity of the Stadtholder have upon the campaign in Holland ? What success attended Vauban in Franche-Comte ? What is said of the campaign of Turenne ? 47. How was Champagne invaded ? What was the effect of the battle of Seneffe? Give an account of the next campaign of Turenne. What was the consequence of the death of Turenne ? 218 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX, [A. ». 1675. where an army of 90,000 men, commanded by the Prince of Orange, attempted an invasion of Champagne. In the bat- tle of Seneffe (1674), though both sides claimed the victory, the advance of the Prince of Orange was checked, and he was compelled to abandon his proposed invasion. The fol- lowing spring the contest was renewed. Tnrenne, com= manding the army of the Rhine, after several weeks spent in observation and maneuvering before the Austrian general, Montecuccoli (mon-ta-kook'ko-lee), finally made a stand at Salzbach. While making his final dispositions for the bat- tle, however, he was killed by a random shot from one of the enemy's batteries, which carried away, at the same time, the arm of his lieutenant-general of artillery (1675). The death of this great general had the most disastrous effect upon the military for- tunes of the French.* The army of the Rhine fled; Montecuc- coli entered Alsace, from which, h o w- ever, he was af- terward driven by Conde. This was the last campaign of that illus- trious com- mander. He * France considered herself lost. " The premier-president of the court of aids has an estate in Champagne, and the farmer of it came the other day to demand to have the contract dissolved. He was asked why ? He answered that in M. de Turenne's time one could gather in with safety and count upon the land, in that district : but that since his death, everybody was going away, believing that the enemy was about to enter Cham- pagne."— Jitters of Madame de Scvigne, A. ». 1683.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 219 soon afterward retired from the army, and died in 1686. 48. These reverses were ill balanced by slight successes in Germany and the Netherlands (1677), and the naval suc- cesses of Duquesne {-kane) and D'Estrees (des-tra), the for- mer in the Mediterranean, in 1676, the latter on the northern coast of South America, in 1678. In the former, De Ruyter lost his fleet and his life ; and the French navy became master, for a time, of the Mediterranean. The French king, now beset on all sides, sued for peace ; and the treaty of Nimeguen (ne-ma' glieii) was signed in 1678, by which the king surrendered all his conquests in Holland, but retained twelve fortified cities in the Netherlands, the province of Franche-Comte, and the city of Fribourg. 49. Louis XIV. was now at the height of his power. Arches were erected in his honor at two of the city gates of Paris, the gates St. Martin and St. Denis ; the authorities of Paris conferred upon him the title of Le Grand (the Great) ; and he was recognized generally as, more than any other sovereign, the arbiter of the destinies of Europe. His rest- less, grasping nature now led him to look more carefully into the treaty of Westphalia, where he found some vague expressions which might be interpreted in his favor.* On this pretext he seized Strasbourg in 1681, and alarmed Aus- tria by his demands ; while his navy, two years later, swept the Mediterranean of the Algerine pirates, and bombarded not only Algiers but Genoa, which had aided them. A quarrel with the Pope also sprung up, the chief cause of which was the opposition of Innocent XI. to the French candidate for the papal chair. -•/ 50. In 1683, the queen died, and Louis afterward secretly J * " Louis XIV. was the victim of three passions which hampered, and in the long run destroyed, the accord between king and minister : that for war, that for kingly and courtly extravagance, and that for building and costly fancies."— Guizot. 4S. What successes by pea did the French meet with ? What terms were granted to France at the treaty of Nimeiruen ? 49. What is said of the power of the king at this time ? What did he do in re- gard to the treaty of Westphalia f What action did he take ? 50. What change in the king's family relations took place ? Why was the League Of Augsburg formed ? 220 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. [A. B. 1685. married Madame de Maintenon (malm-ta-nong'), who subse- quently exerted great influence over him. His overbearing spirit, and warlike acts in time of peace, had produced a feeling of general distrust in Europe, which led to the for- mation of another coalition against him, called the League of Augsburg. This was an alliance of nearly all the great powers of Europe, of whom Louis, by his aggressions, had CHATEAU OF MADAME DE MAINTENON. become the common enemy. The Protestant members of the league especially felt themselves justified in joining it, because Louis had revoked, the year before (1685), the famous Edict of Nantes. 51. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.— The king was now growing old. His military reverses in the Netherlands, the powerful coalition which the Protestant 51 . What led to the revocation of the Edict of Nantes ? Its effect ? How many persons were driven put of France by the revocation ? A. ». 1689.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 221 Prince of Orange succeeded in forming against him, and the sudden withdrawal of the liberal influence of Colbert, who died in 1683, led him, under the influence of Madame de Maintenon, to change the policy of conciliation he had thus far pursued toward the Huguenots. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes* was, therefore, ordered (October 22, 1685) ; and the changes it proposed made a profound sensa- tion not only in France but throughout Europe, f The number of Huguenots driven out of France by this act has been estimated at about 500,000, the great majority belong- ing to the industrial classes of society. J 52. The Catholic King of England, James II., having been dethroned, took refuge at the French court ; and, Louis supporting his cause, war was declared between France and England (1689). All the great powers of Europe were combined against the French monarch, who at once put his forces in motion to forestall the action of his enemies. He sent an army into Germany, captured several cities, and ruthlessly devastated a large tract, of country (the Palat'i- nate) in order to prevent it from being used by his adver- saries. § 53. The greatest opposition to the new King of England, * " It can never be known, with anything approaching to accuracy, how many per- sons fled from France in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Vau- ban, writing a few years after, said that ' France had lost a hundred thousand inhabitants, sixty millions of money, nine thousand sailors, twelve thousand tried soldiers, six hun- dred officers, and its most flourishing manufactures.' "Smiles's Hugtienots. t One of the most odious methods employed by the king to convert the Reformers was that of quartering his soldiers in their houses, where they practiced all manner of ex- cesses. As the dragoons distinguished themselves in this work, these outrages have been called in history the Drar/onades. " The revocation," says Guizot, " ordered the de- molition of all the chapels ; ministers were ordered to leave the kingdom within fifteen days ; the schools were closed : all new-born babes were to be baptized by the parish priests ; and religionists were forbidden to leave the kingdom."— Gvizot. t A whole district of London is peopled by the descendants of the Huguenot refugees, who transported their silk manufactories from France to Spitalflelds. Many found a home in northern Germany, being gladly welcomed, as they brought with them their arts, their thrift, and their Industry. § Some one (it is said, the minister Louvois) had persuaded Louis that the safety of the state required that a desert should be placed between the French frontier and the armies of the enemy. Hence he ordered the great towns of Treves, Worms, Spire, and Heidelberg to be destroyed. Every building, from the magnificent palace of the Elector to the meanest peasant's cottage, perished in the flames. Not even a church was spared ; and the very cellars were blown up. Farms, crops, vineyards, everything was destroyed: and a once blooming country was suddenly converted into a smoldering wilderness. More than 100,000 homeless people wandered about cursing the merciless tyrant who had plunged them into such direful misery. 52. Why was war declared between France and England? Against whom had Louis to contend ? What course did he pursue ? What cruel measure did he carry out? 53. Give an account of the invasion of Ireland. What battle was fought? Its result ? 222 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. D. 1690. among his own people, was in Ireland. Louis, therefore, sent James II. with a naval force arid an army to invade it. Landing in the south of the island, he marched north, his army being constantly swelled by the disaffected Irish. The forces of William, on the other hand, landed in the north, Tisk&7*usseli,yr.T Longitude West and marching south, met the invaders on the banks of the river Boyne (July 12, 1690), and completely routed them. James II. fled from the field, and returned to France. 54. From 1690 to 1693, the war went on, on all sides, with vigor. In the southeast, the French encountered the 54. Between what years was the war actively carried on ? Whom did the French encounter in Savoy ? What personage appears here ? What naval battle occurred \ What was the result ? A. D. 1701.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 223 Duke of Savoy and defeated him ; but were forced to retreat by Prince Eugene, who Here began the military career which was afterward so brilliant. A French fleet, which was in- tended to assist in another invasion of England, attacked the combined Dutch and English fleets off Cape La Hogue {hog), and escaped only with partial destruction (1692). 55. Treaty of Ryswick. — The struggle, which had been waged by both sides for seven years as a war of devas- tation, now began to weigh heavily upon the resources of both. For three years it had been carried on without decis- ive results. The sacrifices of France had been enormous, and Louis had lost many of his great ministers and generals. The Duke of Savoy was the first to abandon the league against him, and this was the signal for a general with- drawal of the other powers. The treaty of Eyswick was signed in 1697, Louis relinquishing nearly all his conquests, and recognizing the Prince of Orange as King of England. 56. The approaching death of Charles II., King of Spain, was the cause of great anxiety in Europe, since many of the reigning monarchs were related to him by ties of blood or marriage, and might consider themselves his heirs ; and thus a dispute in regard to the succession might again bring on a general war. In the year 1700, Charles died, naming Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV., his heir. Louis consented to this arrangement ; * but the other powers were alarmed, since the union of France and Spain under one king threatened the peace of Europe. This alarm was now increased by the expulsion by Louis of the Dutch garri- sons from certain places in the Netherlands, and by his open defiance of William III., in recognizing as the lawful King of England the son of James II. , that monarch having recently died (1701). The designs of the French king were now un- * When the young king set out from Versailles to take possession of the Spanish throne, Louis XIV. affectionately embraced him, and his last words to him were : " Go, my son, go ; there are no longer any Pyrenees ! " By this he intimated that the two kingdoms were really united. 55. How long was the war waged? What had been its result? Who deserted the league ? What treaty was signed ? 56. What caused anxiety in Europe? Whv ? When did Charles of Spain die * Whom did he name as his Heir ? Wha.t course did Louis pursue ? Wuai followed ? 224 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. A. B. 1*04.1 TTTE HOUSE OF BOTTRBOtf. . 225 masked, and England,* Holland, Germany, and Austria entered into the "Grand Alliance" against him (1701). f 57. The War of the Spanish Succession. — The French permitted Prince Eugene to invade northern Italy and capture a portion of it, almost without striking a blow. Villeroi (veel-rwah'), a favorite of Madame de Maintenon, then took the command. This general was defeated by Prince Eugene, who afterward captured the French com- mander himself in Cremona. The French succeeded in checking the progress of Prince Eugene, and gained some slight successes in Italy ; but these were the only good for- tune that France, in this war, was destined to enjoy. 58. Battle of Blenheim.— The death of William of Orange did not interfere with the prosecution of the war. An insurrection of the Protestants of the Cevennes took place at this time, known as the war of the Camisards {Jcah- me-zalir'W which was encouraged by the enemies of the king, and accompanied by atrocious cruelties on both sides. It was finally suppressed, but with the loss of at least 100,000 lives (1704). About this time, a dreadful disaster to the French arms occurred in the north-east. The English Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene completely routed the French in the battle of Blenheim (blen-hi?ne), inflicting such terrible losses upon them that none of the king's attendants dared to tell him of the news (1704). § This duty was finally * Before war was formally declared by the English parliament, William of Orange met with an accident which proved fatal. He fell from his horse, and broke his collar-bone ; and in about a fortnight afterward expired (March 8th, 1702). t Portugal some time after joined the league, while France could only number as her allies Spain, the Dukes of Savoy and Modena, and the Elector of Bavaria. i The Camisards derived their name from the camisa, a white frock which they wore, so as to be distinguished at night. They were the descendants of the Waldenses and Al- bigenses who had taken refuge in the Cevennes, and had adopted the Calvinistic faith. The insurrection commenced in 1702. Troops of robbers who infested some parts of Languedoc afterward assumed their name ; but they themselves are represented as an honest and peaceful people. The persecutions to which they were subjected drove them into rebellion. § " The battle of Blenheim, in which from 60,000 to 80,000 men were engaged on either side, cost to the vanquished 12,000 men killed, besides a greater number made prisoners. The quantity of cannon, colors, and other trophies was immense. But its effects were greater than all. The French armies were obliged to evacuate Germany altogether, abandon Bavaria, and retire behind the Rhine. Marlborough proved to Vienna another Sobieski."— Crowe's History of France. 57. Where did the war begin ? What was done then? What distinguished gen- eral fought against the French ? Who look«the command of the French army ? What followed ? 58. What was the effect of the death o f the King of England? What revolt oc curred ? What threat battle was fought ? Where is Blenheim ? (See Progressive Map, No. 4.) What was the result of this battle f 226 .THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. LA. B. 1*07. imposed upon Madame de Maintenon. By this defeat, a large tract of country, including Bavaria, was gained by the allies, who now threatened an invasion of France. 59. Another victory, not less signal, was won by the Duke of Marlborough, two years after, at Ramillies (ram-e-leez). Villeroi was beaten with a loss of 20,000 men, and all of the Spanish Netherlands was reclaimed by the conqueror. In Italy the French were laying siege to Turin ; but the inca- pacity of their commander was so great that Prince Eugene, after incurring numerous risks unmolested, broke through their lines and compelled them to abandon the siege (1706). All of the French conquests in Italy were lost by this disaster ; and the allies, under Prince Eugene and the Duke of Savoy, invaded France and laid siege to Toulon. Here, however, their good fortune failed them ; after suffering serious losses they were compelled to retreat. In Spain, the prospect for Louis was not less gloomy. The English captured the stronghold of Gibraltar (1704), which commands the Medi- terranean ; Philip V. abandoned his capital ; the Archduke Charles of Austria, who had been declared the rightful King of Spain by the allies, landed in Spain, and captured Barcelona (1705). He soon afterward entered Madrid, and was proclaimed king (1706). 60. Notwithstanding these reverses, Louis still dared to take the offensive. James the Pretender, the son of James II. , was provided by Louis with a fleet; and an effort was made to carry him to Scotland, and there proclaim him King of England. This enterprise had the promise of success, from the fact that the Scotch were at that time especially disaffected toward the English on account of the passage of the " Act of Union." It was foiled, however, by the English admiral Byng (bing), who captured several vessels of the French fleet, and compelled the remainder to re- turn to France (1707). The following year, Marlborough 59. What is said of the hattle of Ramillies ? Where is Ramillies ? How was Italy lost to the French ? Give an account of the progress of the war in Spain. f»0. What measure did Louis undertake ngainst England ? Its result? Who was James the Pretender f What other engagements took place ? A. D. 1109.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 227 and Prince Eugene again joined their forces, defeated the French at Oudenarde (oo-de-nard'), and besieged and cap- tured Lille. 61. The road to Paris was now open to the allies, and the terror and discouragement which this condition of affairs produced were increased by a threatened famine, which the severe winter of 1709 occasioned. So bitter was the cold that all the olive trees perished, the seed was frozen in the ground, and no harvests were gathered the following sum- mer. The inhabitants of Paris were reduced to great ex- tremity; and the general discontent found expression in riots, attacks upon the king in pamphlets, and demands for the conclusion of a treaty of peace. The king yielded and sent ambassadors to the allies ; but the terms insisted upon were so humiliating that he refused them, and his exas- perated people sustained him in a new and desperate effort to retrieve his fortunes on the battle-field. The king sent his gold plate to be melted and coined, the rich contributed freely to the general fund, and volunteered as private sol- diers to defend their country. 62. Battle of Malplaquet. — With the new army thus placed in the field, Villars marched against the allies and met them at Malplaquet (mal-plah'M), where a terrible bat- tle was fought (1709). The struggle was so desperate that, though the allies remained in possession of the field, they lost 20,000 men, while the loss of the French was only 8,000. Villars was wounded, however, and the capture of the for- tress of Mons (monz) by the allies speedily followed. In the midst of active hostilities, Louis continued his propositions for peace ; but one condition, constantly insisted upon by the allies, prevented a treaty. This was, that Louis should abandon his grandson in Spain, a step which the king's sense of honor would not permit him to take. 61. What was now the condition of affairs ? How was the general gloom in- creased ? What prevented the conclusion of a treaty of peace ? How were means obtained to carry on the war ? 62. Where was the last great battle fousht, and when ? Where is Malplaquet ? (See map, page &4.) What was the loss on each side ? On what condition did the alliei insist ? 228 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. [A. 1>. It 13. 63. Peace of Utrecht. — Fortune, however, now came to the aid of France. The Duke of Vendome defeated the army of the archduke in Spain (1710), and reinstated Philip V. on his throne. The league also gave signs of dissolution. Intrigues at the English court led to the recall of the Duke of Marlborough ; and the Archduke Charles, who was sud- denly made emperor by the death of his father, became, by this event, so powerful as to create a feeling of jealousy to- ward him among the other members of the league. A truce was agreed to by England, and preliminaries of peace were signed in London (October 8th, 1711). Germany, how- ever, continued the war. Prince Eugene, with a large army, undertook a new invasion of France, but was met by Marshal Villars and routed (1712). This defeat saved France, and hastened the treaty of peace, which was signed at Utrecht (April 11, 1713). Other treaties were afterward concluded with Germany and Austria, and France was once more at peace. 64. By these treaties, France renounced her claim to the throne of Spain, refused to advocate further the claim of James the Pretender to the English throne, closed the har- bor of Dunkirk, signed a commercial treaty with Holland and England, and ceded to the latter important possessions in the New World, consisting chiefly of Acadia, in which Port Royal, the principal settlement, had been taken in 1710, and named Annapolis, in honor of the English queen, Anne. The resources of France had been exhausted by the long struggle, and her condition at its close was deplorable.* 65. Death of Louis XIV. — The gloom thus produced in the mind of the king was now increased by the infirmities * In 1694 Fenelon had said in a letter to the king : "Tour people are dying of hunger ; the cultivation of the soil has been almost entirely given up ; city and country are alike depopulated : trade languishes, and commerce is annihilated." Seven years after, the war of the Spanish Succession broke out, and raged for twelve years, filling France with untold misery. 63. What change took place in the aspect of affairs ? What was agreed to by England ? What victory did the French gain ? What treaty was signed a few months after ? 64. What were the conditions imposed upon the kinsr by the treaty of Utrecht ? What American possessions were given up ? What was the condition of France ? 65. How was Louis bereaved ? Who of his immediate family remained ? When did his death occur ? A.. ». 1*15.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. 220 of age and by severe domestic afflictions. His only legitimate son, the dauphin ; the young dauphiness,* who was the idol of the king; her husband, the Duke of Burgundy, f and two grandsons, died within three years. Of all his family, his grandson, the King of Spain, and his great-grandson, the Duke of Anjou, alone remained. On the 1st of September, 1715, the king himself died, at the age of seventy-seven, leaving his kingdom utterly bankrupt and exhausted. He was succeeded by Louis, his great-grandson. J 66. Louis XIV. had wielded the scepter seventy-two years. His is the longest reign, and, in many respects, the most mo- mentous and instructive in French history. Falling heir to the throne at the age of five, he entered, eight years later, into possession of that absolute power which the progress of affairs had gradually prepared for him ; and, at the age of twenty-three, proudly declared his intention of exercis- ing it. His famous answer, "To me!" given at this pe- riod, to the members of his council, when they asked him, on the death of Mazarin, to whom they should in future ad- dress their communications on state affairs, afterward re- appeared in his still more famous declaration, "I am the State. " This latter expression seems an idle boast ; yet never, perhaps, was any king more justified in making it. 67. His character and personal appearance at this time have been carefully described. He was of middle height and well proportioned, with blue eyes, a large and shapely * On the death of Louis, the dauphin, his son Louis, Duke of Burgundy, became the dauphin ; and his wife, Adelaide of Savoy, who is here referred to, the dauphiness. She died in February, 1712, and her husband followed her within a week. tThe loss of this prince occasioned great sorrow. He had been instructed by Arch- bishop Fene"lon ; and great expectations were therefore entertained of his virtue and capacity. + " At eight o'clock on the following morning Louis XIV. expired. Ashe exhaled his 5ast sigh, a man was seen to approach a window of the state apartment which opened on the great balcony, and throw it suddenly back. It was the captain of the body-guard, who had no sooner attracted the attention of the populace, by whom the court -yard was thronged in expectation of the tidings which they knew could not be long delayed, than, raising his truncheon above his head, he broke it in the center, and throwing the pieces among the crowd, exclaimed in a loud voice, ' The king is dead ! ' Then seizing another staff from an attendant, without the pause of an instant, he nourished it in the air as he shouted, ' Long live the king ! ' And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately deserted apartment answered buoyantly, ' Long live the king.' "—I'ardoe's Louis XIV. 66. How long did Louis XIV. reign ? What is said of the importance of his reign ? 67. What was the personal appearance of Louis XIV. ? What is said of his edn cation and manners ? What of his character ? 2S0 THE HOUSE OF BOUBBON. [A. ». 1715. nose, an expressive mouth, and waving masses of chestnut- brown hair. He was an excellent horseman, and fond of manly sports, taking special pleasure in hunting and in the work necessary for the proper conduct of war. He was thoroughly self-possessed and courtly, though he had never been taught even to read. He thought quickly but spoke deliberately, and with a certain preciseness and carefulness of accent that fixed the attention of the listener. At once generous and haughty, he was impatient of counsel, and formed sudden resolutions which were changed only with the greatest difficulty. His favor was shown by rewards distributed with a lavish hand, while his punishments were summary and severe. 68. The virtues and vices which accompany the exercise of unlimited power were manifested during his reign in a striking manner. He made his court and capital the gayest in Europe. In dress, manners, and everything that per- tains to luxury and taste, the fashion there prevailing be- came the fashion of the civilized world. Poets, painters, men of letters, and artists of every kind, attracted by his mu- nificence as well as by the patronage of the nobility whom he gathered round him, crowded to Paris, and found in its brilliant and intellectual society a congenial home. He gave a new impulse to science, letters, and art, projected great public works, and left numerous enduring monuments of his public spirit and his taste, as well as also of his folly and recklessness.* 1715 69. Louis XV. — Proud as the French were of to the Grand Monarque, joy was everywhere manifest- ed at his death ; for his pride, luxury, and extrava- gance had been the cause of immense suffering and distress. * His last words to his great-grandson who succeeded him were : " My child, you are about to become a great king ; do not imitate me either in my taste for building or in my love of war. Endeavor, on the contrary, to live in peace with the neighboring nations ; render to God all that you owe, and cause his name to be honored by your subjects. Strive also to relieve the burdens of your people, which I myself have been unable to do.' 68. What further is said of his reign ? To what did he give an impulse ? 69. What feeling was manifested at the death of Louis XIV. ? Why ? Who was made regent ? Under whose instruction was Louis XV. placed ? What was out- M the first acts of the regent 1 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 231 232 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. [A. D. 1718. Philip, Duke of Orleans, was made regent, to act during the minority of Louis, and the Abbe de Fleu'ry, noted for his virtues and his accomplishments, was appointed confessor to the young king. One of the first acts of the regent was to enter into an alliance with England against Spain, which was also joined by Holland (1717).* 70. Spain, however, had recently become a formidable power, through the wise administration of her prime min- ister, Cardinal Alberoni (ahl-be-ro'ne). She looked upon George I. as a usurper, and upon the Duke of Orleans as holding his office of regent illegally, because it was in defi- ance of the will of Louis XIV. Alberoni now saw an op- portunity of restoring to Spain her ancient power at the ex- pense of a general war in Europe. He set up the claim of his master Philip V. to the throne of France, he being grandson of Louis XIV. ; and entered into negotiations with Charles XII., of Sweden, and Peter the Great, of Eussia, to overthrow George I., and seat the Pretender in his place. He also hoped, while Europe was thus engaged in war, to seize Sicily, and wrest Sardinia from the Emperor of Austria, who was then on the verge of war with the Turks. 71. In this plot, however, he was foiled by the Abbe Dubois (du-bioah'), the prime minister and former preceptor of the Duke of Orleans, into whose hands the correspond- ence of the Spanish ambassador at Paris fell. The principal sufferers by the discovery of this plot were the Duke and Duchess of Maine and the nobility of Brittany, who were nearly all engaged in it. The triple alliance was now made quadruple by the entrance of Austria (1718) ; and it was thought that Spain would sue for peace, but she had already invaded Sardinia and had almost conquered Sicily. The * Philip V. of Spain accused the regent of conspiring against his young charge with the intention of seizing the crown for himself. George I., then King of England, entered into this alliance the more readily since one of its conditions was that the Duke of Or- leans should banish from France James the Pretender, who also aspired to the English throne. TO. What had increased the influence of Spain ? What views were entertained by the Spanish Government ? What claim was set up ? What negotiations did Albe- roni enter into ? What also did he hope ? 71. How was the plan foiled f What followed ? What new war was caused ! How did it end ? A. D. 1718.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. 233 exposure of the designs of Spain at once produced a war between that country and France ; and in this the English fleet played a prominent part, bringing it to an end fortunate for France. Alberoni retired in disgrace ; Spain accepted the terms of the alliance, and gave up the Netherlands ; the power of Austria in Italy was confirmed, the emperor re- ceiving Sicily in exchange for Sardinia, which was given to the Duke of Savoy (1720). 72. Financial System of John Law. — About this time, France was wonderfully excited by the financial system of a Scotch adventurer named John Law. The enormous public debt bequeathed to the kingdom by Louis XIV., the great depression in business, and the general bankruptcy which threatened almost every one, caused the people to lend a willing ear to any measure of relief proposed. Law founded a bank in 1716, and made a proposition to pay off the public debt and make money plentiful by an enormous issue of paper money unsupported by specie. His project was regarded with favor by the government ; and, in 1718, his institution was made a royal bank. To this he united a company which had the exclusive right of commerce with the valley of the Mississippi. 73. Eumors were circulated of the discovery of vast mines of gold and silver in the New World, and the shares of the company sold for many times their par value. The com- merce of the Indies and of Senegal was afterward joined with that of the Mississippi in one great company, and Law was made Controller-General of France. The shares of the com- pany sold at twenty, thirty, and even forty times their face value. The thirst for speculation increased with astonishing rapidity, and pervaded all ranks.* Fortunes were made in a day. Bills were issued to an amount equal to eighty times * The rich brought their plate and jewels to be converted into stock ; the poor, their scanty earnings for the same purpose. 72. Who was John Law ? What schemes did he propose ? How was his project received ? 73. Give an account of the excitement produced by Law's scheme. How did it end ? What became of Law ? 234 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBON. [A. I>. 17546. that of all the silver in the kingdom. The whole vast sys- tem, however, rested almost solely on credit. At the first demand for specie, it crumbled and fell. Fortunes were lost as rapidly as they had been made ; ruin succeeded ; and Law, proscribed and exiled from France, took refuge in Venice. * 74. The recklessness produced by this wild speculation was increased by the depression which followed it, and was reflected in the manners and morals of the people. The shameless conduct of the regent's court did nothing to check this ; and the example thus set was followed, in great measure, throughout France. Disease now came to add its horrors to the misery of the bankrupt people. A vessel from Syria entered the port of Marseilles, and introduced a pesti- lence which swept over Provence, carrying off more than 80,000 persons (1720). Two years after, great anxiety was caused by the illness of the young king ; and, on his recov- ery, he was crowned at Rheims, and the following year his majority was declared (1723). The death of Cardinal .Du- bois occurred the same year. 75. In 1725, the king was married to the daughter of the King of Poland, that monarch having lost his throne through the reverses of his protector, Charles XII. of Sweden. Fleu- ry, Bishop of Frejus (fra-zhoo'), afterward cardinal, now be- came minister (1726). He had been the preceptor of the king, and was highly esteemed by him. The new prime minister, by his good judgment and economy, did much to restore the finances of the kingdom to a healthy condition, while his placid temperament preserved it for many years from war. The death of Augustus II., King of Poland, * 4 *A f ew days before the Parliament denounced Law's establishment as 'fraudulent and bankrupt, his carriage was assailed by the mob in the court of the Palais Royal, and torn to pieces, he himself escaping into the palace. Several persons had been stifled at the door of the bank on that very day, while seeking to change ten-franc notes to buy provisions in the market."— Crowe's History of France. 74. What is said of the state of manners and morals? Describe the Plague of 1720. When was the king crowned ? When was his majority declared ? When did Dubois die ? 75. To whom was the king married? How did Fleury become prime minister? What is said of him ? What caused a dispute ? Who were the rivals for the Polish throne ? Who were their respective supporters ? A. D. 1740.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 235 however, in 1733, gave rise to a dispute over the succession ; his son, Augustus III., Elector of Saxony, and Stanislaus Lec-zyns'ki, the father-in-law of Louis XV., being competi- tors. The former was supported by Russia and the Emperor Charles VI. of Austria ; the latter, by France, Spain, and Sardinia. 76. During the war that followed, nearly all Italy was lost to Austria ; France became master of the province of Milan ; and Spain, of Naples and Sicily. The war was ended by the treaty of Vienna (1735). By this, Stanislaus received as his portion the province of Lorraine, which, at his death, was to revert to France. Shortly after (1740), Europe was again thrown into commotion by the death of the Emperor of Aus- tria. Notwithstanding the precautions he had taken to con- firm the succession to his daughter, Maria Theresa, five other claimants presented themselves : Charles Albert, Elector of Bavaria; Augustus III., Elector of Saxony; Philip V., of Spain ; Frederick II. , King of Prussia ; and Charles Em- manuel, King of Sardinia. 77. War of the Austrian Succession. — The war that ensued is known in history as the war of the Austrian Suc- cession. The King of Prussia was the first to move. The greater part of Silesia was soon wrested by him from Maria Theresa (1740). France took the side of the Elector of Ba- varia, acting with Prussia to make him emperor. A French army of 40,000 men entered Bavaria, captured Lintz, threat- ened Vienna without attacking it, and invaded Bohemia, the capital of which, Prague, was carried by storm. Charles Al- bert was there crowned King of Bohemia, and soon after returned to Frankfort, where he was elected emperor under the name of Charles VII. Maria Theresa was not appalled by the gravity of the situation. She called upon her faith- ful subjects, the Hungarians, to defend her, arousing their 76. What events of the war are mentioned ? How was Europe again thrown into commotion ? 77. What war ensued? Who was the first to move? What did he accomplish * Whose side did France take ? What was done by the French army ? What fol- lowed ? Wh it was the conduct of Maria Theresa ? What other movements are mentioned ? 236 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. D. 1743. patriotism by showing them her infant child,* and detached Frederick II. from the coalition by ceding Silesia to him. The Elector of Saxony retired from the contest also, while the King of Sardinia, and England, with her powerful nayy, entered it on the side of Austria. 78. The French army in Prague was in imminent danger. Its retreat was cut off by the recapture of Lintz ; and it was saved only by the rapid movements of the army in Bavaria, which entered Bohemia and captured Egra, thus opening a way of escape. England now took a more active part in the war. George II. in person, and his son, the Duke of Cum- berland, entered Bavaria with an Anglo-German army, and met the French at Dettingen (1743), where an almost certain victory for the French Avas changed by an imprudent act into a bloody defeat. By this misfortune, they were compelled to retreat from Bavaria and Germany, and the newly-made Emperor of Germany, Charles VII., was forced to sign a treaty, in which he surrendered Bavaria to Maria Theresa till the end of the war, renounced all claim to the throne of Austria, and bound himself to remain neutral. 79. In the midst of these disasters, Cardinal Fleury died (1743) ; but the war was continued. Terms were offered by France, but refused by Austria. War was, therefore, de- clared by France against Austria and England. Louis XV. now entered into a new alliance, and the scene of conflict * "The queen repaired to Presburgh a few months afterward as a fugitive from Vienna. All the Magnates and other orders were then assembled in Diet. On the 11th of September, a day whose memory has ever since been cherished in Hungary, she sum- moned them to attend her at the castle. They came, and when marshaled in the great hall, the queen appeared. She was still in deep mourning for her father, but her dress was Hungarian, the crown of St. Stephen was on her head, and the scimetar of state at her side. Her step was firm and majestic, but her voice faltered, and tears flowed from her eyes. For some moments she was unable to utter a single word, and the whole as- sembly remained in deep and mournful silence. At length her infant son, afterward Joseph II., was brought in by the first lady of the bedchamber, and laid on a cushion before her. With an action more eloquent than words, the queen took him in her arms, and held him up to the assembly; and while sobs still at intervals burst through her voice, she addressed the assembly in Latin, a language which she had studied and spoke fluently. When she came to the words, 'The kingdom of Hungary, our person, oar children, our crown are at stake ! ' the whole assembly drew their sabers half-way from the scabbard, and exclaimed, ' Our lives and our blood for your majesty ! We will die for our king, Maria Theresa ! ' "—Lord Mahon's History of England. 78. What was the situation of the French army, and how was it saved ? Between whom was the battle of Dettingen fought ? What was the result ? 79. When did Fleury die ? Why was the war continued ? What country became the scene of conflict ? Who commanded the French troops in the Netherlands ? Why did Frederick the Great re-enter the contest ? What was the effect of his action ? A. ». 1745.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 237 was changed to the Netherlands, where the French troops were commanded by Marshal Saxe, the king himself appear- ing in the midst of his army. Frederick the Great of Prus- sia, meantime, jealous of the increasing power of Austria, entered the field against her, invading Moravia and Bohemia, and capturing Prague. By this act, the campaign on the Khine was for a time arrested ; and Charles VII. returned to Bavaria, but only to die there. His successor concluded a treaty with Maria Theresa, renouncing all claim to the territory of Austria. 80. Battle of Fontenoy. — In the Netherlands, how- ever, the war went on. The English, Dutch, and Austrians, under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, attacked the French at Fontenoy (fon-ta-nwah') (1745). In this ac- tion, at which Louis XV. and the dauphin were present, and which Marshal Saxe directed from his litter, the French won a glorious victory, which opened the way to the subjugation of Flanders. The following year the French entered Brus- sels in triumph. The election of the husband of Maria Theresa as emperor, under the title of Francis I., followed ; and the brilliant victories of the King of Prussia led to the treaty of Dresden, by which Frederick II. retired from the contest, and left France without an ally in Germany. 81 . The successes of the French in Italy had been not less signal than those in the north. Aided by Spain, Naples, and Genoa, they wrested from Austria nearly all her posses- sions there ; but lost them the year after, through the rup- ture of the alliance with Spain, and the superior force which Maria Theresa sent there. At this time, also, the unwel- come news reached France of the capture of Louisburg,* in North America ; while the failure of the expedition of Charles Edward, the Pretender, increased the general gloom. * Situated on Cape Breton Island, east of Nova Scotia. It was one of the most strongly fortified towns in America. 80. Give an account of the battle of Fontenoy. Who were the opposing com- manders ? Who now became emperor ? What was the result to France of the treaty of Dresden ? 8 1 . What was the fortune of France in Italy ? Give an account of the invasion of Charles Edward, the Pretender. Where was he defeated ? 238 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. [A. D. 1748. This prince, starting with a single vessel of war in 1745, landed on the west coast of Scotland, proclaimed himself regent, and, aided by the Scotch, gave battle to the English at Preston Pans, and defeated them ; but his course was checked in the battle of Cullo'den (1746), and the revolution, which Louis XV. had hoped would paralyze the activity of the English, was suppressed. 82. These reverses, however, and the losses of France in Italy, were more than balanced by brilliant successes in the north, under Marshal Saxe (sax), which created such alarm in Holland, that the Prince of Nassau was proclaimed stadt- holder. England and Holland were now disposed to treat for peace, and France was easily influenced in the same di- rection by the advance of a Eussian army toward the Rhine. Negotiations were opened at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a general peace was declared (1748). The result of this for France was the surrender of all her conquests in Europe and the Indies. *\ 83. A great change .in the conduct of the king was shortly after noticed. The affection with which he had been re- garded gave place to an indifference which was produced by the change in his manner of living, and the questionable acts which he committed. Eeligious quarrels, in which the Parliament took part, led to the banishment of its members, and the establishment of a royal chamber in its place. The Parliament was afterward recalled ; but the quarrels between it and the king went on, and led to disorders in Paris and throughout France, which ended in an attempt upon the king's life by a wretch named Da 'mi-ens. 84. The Seven Years' War. — These differences were scarcely adjusted when war again broke out. The treaty of Aix-la-chapelle had not settled definitely the limits of the colonies of France and England in America. Commissioners 82. What were the successes of the French in the north ? What was the result ? 83. What treaty ended the war? How was the unpopularity of the king pro- duced ? What attempt was made on his life ? 84. What was the cause of the Seven Years' war? What were the first actions in America ? How was Europe divided ? A. ». ITS?.] THE HOUSE OF BOUKBON. 239 met in Paris for this purpose in 1750, and for five years the discussion was carried on. Without waiting for their con- clusions, however, the colonists in America began the con- test. A French officer, iT" TVl onYJl lQ . on his way to summon the English to leave the Ohio, was attacked and killed by a small force of Virginians and Indians under Washington (May 28, 1754). The following year, the English gene- ral, Braddock, commanding an expedition against Fort Du- quesne (-kane), was drawn into an ambuscade by the French and Indians and defeated, losing his life ; while an English fleet captured two French war vessels and three hundred merchantmen. War was afterward declared. On the side of France were Austria, Russia, and Saxony ; on that of England was Prussia, under Frederick the Great. 85. Frederick at once put his army in motion and invaded Saxony. He then passed on into Bohemia, where he defeat- ed the Austrians, returned to Saxony, and joining the Saxon forces with his own, re-entered Bohemia, and again won a decisive victory at Prague (1757). Here for a time his vic- torious career was checked, he being defeated by the Austrians and driven out of Bohemia. Meantime, a French army entered Hanover and routed the English. The King of Prussia then finding his only ally beaten, and being menaced by the Russians, the Swedes, and the Austrians, sued for peace. 86. So imminent seemed the ruin of Frederick that the allies refused to treat with him. He determined, therefore, to strike one more blow. Leaving Silesia suddenly, he en- tered Saxony with 20,000 men, and chose his battle-ground at Rosbach, where he was confronted by a French and Ger- man army of 50,000 men. The battle which followed was a complete victory for the King of Prussia (1757). Turning then upon the Austrians, he overtook them at Lissa, defeated them, and sent Ferdinand of Brunswick into the west to take 85. Mention the events connected with the campaign of Frederick the Great Why did he sue for peace ? 86. How was the energy of Frederick now shown ? Who commanded the French in the battle of Rosbach ? Its result ? What followed ? 240 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. [A. D. 1763. command of the Hanoverian troops, which crossed the Ehine and inflicted another defeat upon the French (1758). The following year, the French won an important victory at Hes'se ; but the loss of the battle of Minden in "Westphalia the same year, and the jealousies of rival commanders, re- sulted in permanent disadvantages to their arms. 87. The Campaign in America. — The efforts of the English forces, after the accession of William Pitt to the ministry, had been successfully exerted against the French colonies in America, and culminated in the capture of every important post contended for, including the city of Quebec (1759). The battle for the possession of the last place is memorable for the heroic deaths of Wolfe and Montcalm, the respective commanders. All Canada thus fell into the hands of the English, and a part of the French possessions in the West Indies met the same fate. 88. The supremacy of the French in the East Indies was also lost. Notwithstanding the bravery of the French com- mander, Lally, Lord dive captured Pondicherry (1760),* and put an end to the French rule in India. It was at this time that the Duke of Choiseul (shwah-zuT), who had been ap- pointed minister of war, formed the idea of uniting all the members of the Bourbon family in an alliance for the pres- ervation of the territory of each. This alliance, known as the Family Compact, was formed in 1761. It included France, Spain, Naples, and Parma. England declared war against Spain, and invaded Portugal ; but Europe was tired of war, and many political changes had taken place which were favorable to peace. In 1763, the treaty of Paris was signed by France, England, Spain, and Portugal. By this treaty France relinquished nearly all her possessions on the continent of North America. * Pondicherry (pon-desfier'-ry) is a maritime town in the south-eastern part of Hindo- stan, or India. 87. What were the chief events of the war in America? Why is the battle of Quebec memorable ? What was the result of it ? What other French possessions were taken by the English ? 88. Who rescued the East Indies from the French control f Who became the French minister of war ? What idea did he form ? What was the Family Compact ? What treaty ended the Seven Years' war ? What loss of territory did France sustain J A. I». 1??4.] THE HOUSE OF BOURBON". 241 89. The result of the Seven Years' War was the firm establishment of the empire of Austria, and the sudden rise of Prussia to the front rank of the great powers of Europe, and the destruction of the naval power of France in favor of England. In December, 1765, occurred the death of the dauphin ; and, the following year, that of King Stanislaus. By the latter, the province of Lorraine was reunited to 7 France. Two years after, the queen, abandoned by the dissolute king, died after a six months' illness. In 1768, the territory of France was increased by the addition of the island of Corsica, the inhabitants of which had rebelled against their Genoese masters, who called in the aid of France. After a war of several years, Genoa relinquished her claim to France, who carried on the war another year, at length putting to flight the native General Pa-o'li (1769). 90. Suppression of Parliament. — One of the last public acts of Louis XV. was also one of the most unpop- ular. This was his arbitrary dissolution of Parliament (1771), growing out of the trial of the governor of Brit- tany. The people took the side of the Parliament, and the most energetic remonstrances were made to the king, but without avail. Other odious measures followed, one of the most tyrannous of which was the lettre de cachet (kah-sha), or sealed letter, by which any citizen could be arrested and deprived of his liberty by any person who had sufficient in- fluence to procure the letter from the king directing it. In the midst of general discontent produced by bad laws, an enormous public debt, and ruined agriculture and commerce, Louis XV. died (1774).* . * Seldom has a monarch lost the affection of his subjects more thoroughly, or with bet- ter reason, than Louis XV. Long years of bad government had brought the people of Prance to regard their new sovereign with hope ; and so confidently did they look to him for relief that, in 1744, when he went to join the army and was taken sick at Metz, the grief of the people was profound and unmistakable ; and when the news of his returning health was received, grateful prayers were publicly offered up for the recovery of the Well Beloved, as he was affectionately called. The radical change in his conduct, how- ever, which occurred soon after, alienated their affections ; and the affairs of the king- dom were brought to such a condition that the king himself, though conscious of the 89. What was the result of the war ? What deaths occurred at this time ? What province was restored to France ? How ? (See page 235, T 76.) What territory wa* acquired ? What general was defeated ? 90. To what despotic measure did the king resort ? Describe the lettre de cachet. When did the kins; die ! 11 242 the HOUSE OP B0URB0K. 91. The result of the rule of Louis XV. was to bring the power of the king into public contempt, and to pave the way for that destruction of it, at the hands of an outraged peo- ple, which followed soon after.* Notwithstanding the im- mense harm, however, done by his acts and his example to the material and moral welfare of the nation, some encour- agement was giyen to letters and art, and particularly to science. The revolution which occurred in religion, philoso- phy, and science at this time gave to France some of her most eminent writers. Many public works were undertaken and buildings erected which remain as evidences of the ten- dencies of the time. Chief among the latter were the Mili- tary School, the School of Surgery, the Pantheon, and the porch of St. Sulpice (sool-peece'). State of Society during the Bourbon Period. 12. This period in French history is known as that of the absolute monarchy ; for the king absorbed all the powers of the government, as there was no established check upon his authority. The Parliament of Paris, when called together, sometimes endeavored to assert the power of the people in opposition to that of the monarch ; but the latter could always dismiss it when he perceived that it was becoming refractory, f 93. The nobles, except those connected with the court, were poor and helpless ; for, though their castles were in grave danger which attended his course, could see no way of relief, but consoled himself with the hope that the storm which was approaching would break upon his successor. His belief, in this respect, is well expressed in the famous words of his favorite, Madame de Pompadour : " After us, the deluge ! " * " A strong, firm hand was needed to grasp the scepter so triumphantly borne by Louis XIV. for seventy years ; but Louis XV. was as weak as he was vicious. His reign is the most humiliating, the most deplorable, in French history. It was a reign unredeemed by any splendor or by any virtue.''— Henri Martin'* History of France. t The States-General gave place to the Assembly of the Notable*, called to sanction the decrees of the monarch. Louis XIV., in the pride of absolute power, did not even call that, and completely silenced the Parliament of Paris, when it presumed to restrict him in his arbitrary measures. This arrogant disposition was displayed by him in his famous response to one who spoke of the State— Uttat, c'est moi! (The State, it is myself !) The power of the monarch had, indeed, become supreme. 91. How did the rule of Louis XV. affect the royal power ? What revolution is referred to ? What did it give France ? What edifices were erected ? 92. What name is given to this period ? Why ? What body attempted to check the royal authority ? 93. What is said of the nobles ? The middle classes ? The peasantry ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 243 ruins, their fields uncultivated and unproductive, and they themselves with scarcely the means of subsistence, their pride of rank forbade that they should labor to improve their condition.* The middle classes (bourgeoisie), mer- chants, trades-people, artisans, etc., were often affluent, sometimes rivaling the nobility in the richness of their houses, in their dress, and in their equipages. The general condition of the peasantry of France, during this whole period, was one of wretchedness and squalor, f 94. When Henry IV. ascended the throne, the whole country was in an impoverished and desolate condition, the effect of the destructive religious wars which had been waged with such fury and for so many years. J Under the first of the Bourbons, who cherished the love of his coun- try and his people, great improvements were made ; and the freedom granted by the Edict of Nantes gave an impulse to every kind of industry, which was further promoted by the wise measures of the famous Duke of Sully. 95. The succeeding monarchs, selfish, dissolute, and vain- glorious, stimulated commerce and manufactures, and en- couraged science and art ; but they were regardless of the happiness and prosperity of the people, the fruits of whose industry they wasted in their wars, their extravagant enter- * " In 1627, a terrible lesson was given to those of the nobility who thought that the law was not made for them. Counts Be Bouteville and Des Chapelles were executed in the Place de Greve in consequence of a duel. Bouteville had previously fought thirty-one duels, and he had returned from the Netherlands expressly to fight this duel in the Place Royal in defiance of the king and his edicts. Before the laws against dueling, made through Richelieu's influence, in the eighteen years following 1609, no less than 4,000 gen- tlemen, it is said, had perished in single combat ; and after Richelieu's death dueling recommenced with such fury that, from 1643 to 1654, no fewer than 940 gentlemen were slain by this means."— Dm'uy's History of France. t The noble exercised absolute power over the peasants living on his estate, and there were thousands of serfs who were bought and sold with the land. Large tracts of land were set apart for hunting ; and the starving peasant was often forbidden to till hi? ground lest it might disturb or injure the game. The gabelle was a most oppressive tax, each family being required to buy a certain quantity of salt at least four times a year whether it was needed or not. The peasants were also compelled to labor upon the pub- lic works— building roads, bridges, etc., any required time without any compensation, and sometimes to perform the most menial and degrading services for their tyrannical masters, who trampled under their feet even the most sacred rights of their dependents. % " A contemporary estimated in 1580 that at least 800,000 persons had perished by the war or by massacre ; that nine cities had been destroyed ; 250 villages burned ; and 128,000 dwellings demolished. The work-shops were unoccupied, commerce was suspended, farms desolated, and everywhere brigandage. Such was the state from which Henry IV. was to rescue France."— Duruy's History of France. 94. What was the condition of the country when Henry IV. commenced to reign T What did he accomplish ? Who aided in these measures ? 95. What was the conduct of succeeding monarchs? The result? What nearly ruined France ? 244 THE HOUSE OP BOURBON. prises, and their luxurious excesses. Splendid buildings and works of art commemorated their taste and refinement, while the great mass of their subjects lived in penury and servitude.* The revocation t of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. almost ruined the kingdom. 96. Manufactures, Commerce, etc. — Commerce and manufactures of various kinds were encouraged by Henry IV. ; f but it was during the reign of Louis XIV., and under the administration of Colbert, that every department of in- dustrial and commercial enterprise received its greatest im- pulse. He established companies to trade in the East and West Indies, J; thus forming a rival of the Dutch; he pro- moted the manufacture of fine cloths, encouraged the culti- vation of mulberry trees, and the art of making plate glass„ which had been imported into France from Venice. 97. The manufacture of porcelain, at Sevres (sevr), and the world-renowned Gobelin tapest ry, date from this pe- riod. Machinery for weaving stockings was imported by Col- bert from England, and lace-making was introduced from Elanders and Venice. Roads were improved, and commerce greatly promoted by the construction of the great Canal of Languedoc, to connect the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediter- ranean (1664-1681). 98. Among the most important reforms introduced during * This Is particularly true of the reign of Louis XIV. Magnificent entertainments, long and ruinous wars, and the construction of splendid palaces and other buildings, to gratify the ambition, luxury, and ostentation of the Grand Monarque, so drained the country that nearly one-tenth of the people were reduced to hopeless beggary. Money was loaned at twenty-five per cent. New and constantly increasing taxes were made necessary to meet the current expenses ; and the public debt rose to an amount equal at the present time to $8,000,000,000. t " The enlightened policy of the king is seen in the foundation of manufactures of the fine crape of Bologna, of Milanese gold thread (of which there was imported an- nually a quantity to the value of 1,200,000 crowns), of the finest tapestry, of gilded leather, of glass-ware, of cloths, etc. In 1604, the king convoked an Assembly of Com- merce, in which was proposed, among other things, a general reformation of the trades and the introduction of the rearing of horses to" avoid the necessity of importing them from Germany, Spain, Turkey, and England."— Duruy's History of France. X Through the influence of Colbert, the colonial policy of France was extensively de- veloped. Two great companies were created: the East India Company, for the con- trol of the commerce of the East ; and the West India and African Company, which con- trolled the trade of North America, the Antilles, and the west coast of Africa. The most vigorous measures were taken to encourage emigration and commerce between the mother companies and the colonies a project which Richelieu had conceived, but had only in part realized. 96. By whom were commerce and manufactures encouraged ? What else was es« tab] i shed or encouraged ? 97. What manufactures were introduced ? How wa* commerce promoted ? 98. What reforms were effected ? What schools established ? What was done b> Vauban ? Whnt was introduced ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. 245 the same reign was the re-organization of the army and navy, accomplished under the direction of the great war minister, Louvois (loo-vwah'). For the army, schools of artillery were founded at Metz, Douai, and Strasbourg; and the art of for- tification was carried to a high degree of perfection by Vau- ban. The bayonet as now used was invented at Bayonne (hence its name), in 1640. Marine arsenals were built at Brest, Kochefort, Toulon, Havre, and Dunkirk.* PAVILION OF HENRY IV. AT ST. GERMAIN. 99. Buildings. — Numerous buildings of great magnifi- cence were erected during this period : only a few can be here referred to. Without loving the arts as did his imme- diate predecessors, Henry IV. was not wanting in a taste for splendid architecture. He caused a beautiful pavilion to be constructed at St. Germain, where Francis I. had built rather a fortress than a royal residence ; and finished the facade of the Hotel de Ville, which had been commenced by Francis I., besides erecting or completing many other structures. * One hundred vessels of war were built In the year 1672 alone ; and, In 1681, tbf French navy consisted of 230 vessels, requiring for its service 160,000 men. 99. What buildings were erected by Louis IV. ? 246 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOX. 100. Richelieu had a great love and taste for architecture. The Palais Cardinal,* left unfinished by him, was subse- quently completed, and became the residence of the king under the name of the Palais Royal. This great minister also rebuilt the Sorbonne. KOYAL COURT— VERSAILLES. 101. During the reign of Louis XIV., France, and espe- cially Paris, was adorned with parks and public buildings to an extent previously unknown. The most celebrated of these were the Observatory, the Church of Val-de-Grace {vaTil-diih-graJis'), the Colonnade of the Louvre, the Hotel des Invalides {ahng-val-eed'), the Place du Carrousel (kar- roo-zel'), the Place des Victoires (plahs da vic-tivar), Place * " For seven years the famous Le Mercier labored to perfect it as a building; and dur- ing his long administration, the cardinal never ceased to decorate it with everything rare or luxurious."— James. 1 00. What buildings were erected by Richelieu ? What was established by him 1 101 . What buildings were erected or improved by Louis XI V. ? THE HOUSE OE BOURBOtf. 24? Vendome,* and additions to the Tuileries ; but, beyond all others in extent and magnificance, is the celebrated pal- ace and gardens of Versailles (vdr-sdlz'). In this last work, enormous sums of money were consumed, vastly exceeding ■those expended by any other monarch of France. The Pan- J theon f was commenced during the reign of Louis XV., and many other beautiful buildings were erected. ^\102. Science, Art, Literature, etc. — Many scientific /and literary institutions date from the time of Richelieu. He established the French Academy (VAcademie Francaise) in 1635, designing, by its means, to improve the language and the literary taste of the French people ; and besides re- building the Sorbonne, he built the College du Plessis {pies- see'), founded the royal printing press, and the Garden of Plants {Jar din des Plant es), especially for students of medi- cine, and was a great patron of men of letters, among them Corneille {Jcor-ndl'), the dramatist. 103. Mazarin J was also a friend to art, literature, and edu- cation. He collected a grand library for the use of men of letters, founded the College of the Four Nations for pupils of the University who belonged to the Spanish, Italian, Ger- man, and Flemish provinces recently annexed to the king- dom, and bequeathed to this institution 800,000 crowns. He imported from Italy a number of paintings, statues, and other works of art, and was a great patron of music. He also founded the Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1G55). In the subsequent part of this reign the Academy * " Louis XIV. has been accused of intolerable pride, for suffering the base of his statue in the Place des Victoires to be surrounded with slaves in fetters ; but neither this statue, nor that in the Place de Vendome, was erected by him. The former is a mon- ument of the greatness of soul of the first Marshal de Feuillade, and of his gratitude to his master. He expended on this statue 500,000 livres (about $100,000), and the city added as much more to render the place regular."— Voltaire's Age of Louis XIV. t The Pantheon was built at the instance of Madame de Pompadour, the king's mis- tress, to replace the old church of St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris. It was com- menced in 1764, and completed in 1790. It was designed to perpetuate the memory of illustrious citizens ; and now contains cenotaphs and tombs of Voltaire, Rousseau, and other distinguished men. t Mazarin was remarkable for his avarice. He accumulated a private fortune amount- ing to fifty millions of francs ($10,000,000), equal to about donble that sum according to the present value of money. 102. What literary institutions were established by Richelieu? Of what was he a patron ? 103. What institutions were founded and endowed by Mazarin ? us THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. ^■HflfSi'I '; TfT" r """7T :;r '■' , i ,, '!' , i" : '" ! ' THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 249 of Inscriptions and Belles- Lettres (1663) and the Academy of Science (1666) were established.* 104. The progress of literature and science was very re- markable during the reign of Louis XV. The annals of poetry, philosophy, and physical science were enriched by the genius and the discoveries of a host of illustrious men. The Observatory was erected at Paris during the same period ; and the celebrated astronomers, Roemer (from Den- -£lot THE MILITARY SCHOOL. mark), Huyghens (from Holland), and Cassini (from Italy), were induced by Colbert to settle in France, f The Military School was built during the reign of Louis XV. 105. Music and the Drama. — The Italian Lulli * "The French Academy continued In its work of preparing a dictionary of the lan- guage ; and in order to hasten its accomplishment. Colbert prescribed the number of hours for each of its sessions. The Academy of Inscriptions composed inscriptions for medals, escutcheons, and for the monuments designed and embellished by the Academy of Painting and Sculpture. The mission of the Academy of Science was indicated by the inscription on the medal struck in honor of its foundation : Naturae investigandoe etper- fiviendin artibus (For the inveztiaation of nature and the perfection ofart)."—Duruj/. t The first of these, Roemer, discovered the velocity of light ; Huyghens discovered the ring and one of the satellites of Saturn ; and Cassini, four other satellites of the same planet, besides devising a method of ascertaining the size of the earth, by measuring the length of a degree of a meridian. 1 04. What is said of the progress of literature and science ? Whnt was erected in Paris? What foreign scientists were invited to settle in France? What discovery was made by Roemer ? By Huyghens ? By Cassini ? 105. What is said of Lulli ? With whom was he associated ? What other drama lists are referred to ? 11* 250 THE HOUSE OF BOURBOK. ggnfRjZ (lool'le) rose from the obscure position of a scullion in the kitchen of Mademoiselle de Montpensier (mong-pahng-se-a) to be the greatest representative of musical art during this pe< riod ; he introduced the opera in- to France, and is considered the father of French dramatic music. In this he was associated with the poet Quinault (he-no'), who wrote the dramas for his music. The chief writers of dramas dur- ing this period are Moliere, Cor- neille, and Kacine, the former of comedy and the latter two of tragedy. 106. Interesting Events. — The first newspaper in France was a weekly, issued in 1631, under the name, at first, of The Gazette ; * but afterward The Ga- zette de France. The paper was continued till 1789. The postal service was regulated in 1627, the price of carrying a letter from Paris to Lyons being fixed at about two cents. The first tax on tobacco was imposed in 1629. The use of coffee was introduced from Constantinople in 1660 ; and, in 1720, a coffee plant, raised in the hot-house of the Garden of Plants, led to the extensive cultivation of coffee in the French West Indies. The cotton manufacture was com- menced in the latter part of this period ; and the first steam engine was used in 1770, at Chaillot (sha-yo'). Street lamps came into use in Paris in 1767. 107. Houses, Furniture, etc. — The dwelling-houses of FOUNTAIN MOLIERE, PARIS. * The French Mercury was the first periodical work published in France (1605). It was a kind of register of public events and of the acts of the government, with historical notices of European events. 106. What is said of newspapers? The postal service? Tobacco? Coffee? Cotton manufacture ? Steam engine ? Street lamps ? 107. What is said of dwelling-houses? What was in vogue? What is said of Mary de' Medici ? Table linen ? Coaches ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 251 the wealthy inhabitants of the cities often displayed regal luxury and splendor.* The use of paneled wainscoting, and gilt leather for the walls, was quite prevalent. Mary de' Medici brought from Italy a refined and luxurious taste, and liberally patronized the eminent artists of her time. \ Table linen, especially the finer qualities, was considered an article of luxury. Coaches, introduced during the previous period, slowly came into use. During the reign of Henry IV. they were used only by ladies. The king had a singular fear and dislike to riding in a coach. 108. Dress. — There was great extravagance in dress among the higher classes. So profuse were the gold, silver, and jewels with which the ladies adorned themselves that they were scarcely able to move. The Marechal de Bas- sompierre says, in his Memoires, that he once had a coat, trimmed with pearls, that cost more than 20,000 livres (about $4, 000). J During the reign of Louis XIV. the ladies were accustomed to. carry looking-glasses in their hands, to ad- just their complicated finery. " The men wore wigs so finely curled that, for fear of disarranging them, they carried their hats in their hands instead of wearing them on their heads. The costume of the Grand Monarque was very splendid and elaborate. y 109. Distinguished Men. — This period was prolific of / great men in every department of life and genius. A few only can be mentioned under each head. Among poets and * The hall In which the hody of the Constable Montmorency lay In state In his own house is described as having " walls hung with crimson velvet, bordered with pearls." The pillows of the bed on which he lay were " covered with gold tissue, and the quilt was of cloth of gold bordered with ermine, and was thirty yards square." + " Tapestry was the most common and the most expensive of the arte, and the hang- ings of a single room often reached a sum which would be equal, in these times, to one hundred thousand dollars. The floors of the palaces were spread with Turkey car- pets. Chairs were used only in kings' palaces, and carriages were but just introduced, and were clumsy and awkward. Mules were chiefly used in traveling, the horses being reserved for war. Dress, especially of females, was gorgeous and extravagant ; false hair, masks, trailed petticoats, and cork heels ten inches high, were some of the peculiari- ties. The French, then, as now, were fond of the pleasures of the table, and the hour for dinner was eleven o'clock. Morals were extremely low, and gaming was a universal passion, in which Henry IV. extravagantly indulged."— Lord's Modem History. X The following is a description given of the dress of a fine gentleman in the begin- ning of the seventeenth century : " He was clothed in silver tissue, his shoes were white, as also his stockings. His cloak was black, bordered with rich embroidery, and lined with cloth of silver. His bonnet was of black velvet ; and he wore, besides, a prof usioB of precious stones." 108. What is said of the fashion of dress ? 109. Mention some of the most distinguished poets of the period. 252 THE HOUSE OF BOUKBOtf. dramatists, Corneille (1606-1684), considered the father of French tragedy, and Eacine (rah-seen') (1639-1699), his great rival in the same field ; Moliere (mo-lydr') (1622-1693), a comic dramatist of great genius ; Voiture (vwali-ture) (1598-1648), and Boileau (bwah-lo') (1636-1711), distin- guished poets, the latter a special favorite of Louis XIV. To these may be added Scarron (1610-1660), the husband of Madame de Maintenon, and La Fontaine (1621-1695). sometimes called the modern ^Esop.* BOILEAU'S HOUSE. 110. The most distinguished pulpit orators of the age of Louis XIV. were Bossuet (bos-wa') (1627-1704), Bourda- * "No nation could present, at the time of Louis XIV., so magnificent a collection of literary productions. Italy and Germany were in a complete moral decline ; Spain, like a rich ruin, preserved, from its lost fortunes, only a few precious jewels, showing a few eminent painters and writers. England, at the beginning of the century, had had its Shakespeare ; in the middle, its Milton ; and at the end its Dryden ; but this literature did not pass beyond the island where it belonged. France, on the contrary, was really at the head of modern civilization ; and by the acknowledged superiority of its taste, it made all Europe accept the peaceful dominion of its artists and its writers.'*— Duruy's History of France. 110. What pulpit orators are referred to ? noted? What celebrated writers ? For what NIK HOUSE OF BOURBON. 253 loue (bor-da-loo) (1632-1704), and Massillon (mas-seel-yong') (1663-1742) ; to whom maybe added the illustrious preacher and writer Fone-lon (1651-1715), author of Telmugue, (The Adventures of Telem'achus), a school-book in use at the pres- ent day. Madame de Sevigne (se^veenya) (1626-1696), cele- brated for her charming letters, represents her sex among the crowd of literary personages of the times. La Roche- foucauld (1613-1680) was the author of a book of Moral Maxims that was universally read and admired. ^-^ HERMITAGE OF ROUSSEAU— MONTMORENCY. 111. Among historians must be mentioned De Thou (too) (1553-1617) and Mezeray (me-za-ra) (1610-1683), who each wrote a history of France, and the Abbe de Fleury, the au- thor of a history of the Church ; among writers of fiction and litterateurs, Balzac (1594-1654), considered the best French prose writer of his time ; Pas-cal' (1623-1662), who wrote the Provincial Letters; Le Sage (scizh) (1668-1747), the author of Gil Bias, and La Bruyere (1644-1696) ; also ^Rousseau- (roo-so') (1712-1778), one of the most eminent writers of the period just preceding the French Revolution. 111. Mention some of the historians of the age. Some of the writers of prose. 254 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 112. In addition to these, must be mentioned the musi- cian Lulli (1663-1687), the founder of the French opera ; the painters Poussin (poos-sang') (1603-1665), Claude Lor- raine (1600-1682), and Lebrurf (1619-1690) ; the architects Mansard (1645-1708) and Claude Perrault (per-ro') (1613- 1703) ; the philosopher and scientist Des Cartes (1596-1650), and the physicists Mariotte (mah-re-of) (1620-1684), and STATUE OF VOLTAIRE. Delisle (de-leeV) (1675-1726) ; and toward the end of the period Burron (boof-fong') (1707-1788), the noted natural- ist ; Diderot ' (de-de-ro') (1713-1784), and D'Alembert (da- long-bar') (1717-1783), authors of the famous Encyclopedia 112. What musician is -mentioned ? Painters? Architects? Scientists and physicists ? Mathematicians ? Other writers ? THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 256 (in 22 folio volumes) ; and Lavoisier (lah-vwah-se-a) (1743- 1794), the father of modern chemistry ; La Place (lah plahs') (1749-1827), perhaps the greatest of 'modern mathemati- cians; and LegendreQU-zhondr') (1752-1832), the author of various mathematical works of singular merit. 113. Above and .beyond all the literary men of his time must be mentioned Vol-taire' (1694-1778), who, whether as wit, poet, historian, or philosopher, shone with a luster sur- passing all others. Unfortunately a skeptic in religion, he scoffed at divine revelation ; and, hence, the brighter his genius shone, the more baleful was his influence upon the moral and religious progress of his time.* To Voltaire, Mon- tesquieu (mon-tes-kuh') (1689-1755), f Rousseau \ and the ^w- cyclopcBdists is attributed, in part, that dreadful overturning of the institutions of society that formed so terrible a charac- teristic of the great French Eevolution. CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. l&*9. Henry IV. Reigned 21 years. )-»0, Battle of Ivry. 1593. Protestantism renounced by Henry IV. 1594. Paris entered by Henry IV. 1598. Edict of Nantes published. 1610. Louis XIII. Reigned 33 years. 1614. Assembly of the States-General. 1624. Richelieu made prime minister. * Voltaire's true name was Arouet. He was born in Paris, in 1694 ; and at the age of twenty-one was sent to the Bastile for a satire on Louis XIV., of which, however, he was not the author. In 1718, he published the tragedy entitled (Edipe, and in 1T23, the poem La Henriade, in which he defended religious toleration. He subsequently spent three years in England, and some time afterward resided at the court of Frederick of Prussia on terms of intimacy with that monarch. His writings are very numerous. As a work of history his Age of Louis XIV. is greatly admired. t Montesquieu was the author of a work entitled The Spirit of the Laws, which is still a standard. His influence, though revolutionary, was beneficent ; and his writings were far in advance of the age, in the lofty spirit of freedom and humanity with which they are replete. Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, and the philosophers and free-thinkers of their age hurried on a mighty convulsion which conld not long have been delayed. X " The writer who acquired the most extensive and pernicious influence over the mind of France at this period was undoubtedly Jean Jacques Rousseau. In his works on the Inequality of the Condition of Mankind, in his Emile, Contrat Social, and Nouvelle Hetoise, he developed his notions on the reconstruction of society with a subtlety, a charm of style, a specious air of philanthropy, a false morbid sensibility, peculiarly attractive to the French character, but the effects of which went directly to undermine and subvert the very foundations of religion, morality, and legitimate government."— Student's Hi? tory of France. 113. What is said of Voltaire ? Of Montesquieu i 256 THE HOUSE OF BOUBBOX. UtfS<" 1628. Surrender of Rochelle. 1629. Edict of Grace. / 1642. Conspiracy of Cinq-Mars and others against Richelieu. 1642. Death of Richelieu. 1643. Louis XIV. Reigned 72 years. 1648. Treaty of Westphalia. 1648. War of the Fronde. Lasted five years. 1654. Louis XIV. crowned at Rheims. 1661. Death of Mazarin. 1667. Invasion of Franche-Comte by Conde. 1674. Battle of Seneffe. 1675. Death of Turenne. 1678. Treaty of Nimeguen. 1685. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. 1686. Death of the Great Conde. 1689. War between France and England. 1690. Battle of the Boyne (July 12). 1692. Naval battle off Cape La Hogue. 1697. Treaty of Ryswick. 1701. The Grand Alliance. War of the Spanish Succession- 1704. Battle of Blenheim. 1706. Battle of Ramillies. 1708. Battle of Oudenarde. 1709. Battle of Malplaquet. 1712. Defeat of Prince Eugene by Marshal Villain 1713. Treaty of Utrecht. 1715. Louis XV. Reigned 59 years. 1717. The Triple Alliance. 1718. Financial enterprise of John Law. 1723. Death of Cardinal Dubois. 1735. Treaty of Vienna. 1740. War of the Austrian Succession. 1743. Battle of Dettingen. 1743. Death of Cardinal Fleury. 1745. Battle of Fontenoy. 1748. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1757. Battle of Prague. 1757. Battle of Rosbach. 1759. Taking of Quebec. 1761. Family Compact. 1763. Treaty of Paris. 1769. Conquest of Corsica. Defeat of Paoli 1774. Death of Louis XV. THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. 25? GENEALOGICAL TABLE OF THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. Robert, Count of Clermont, married to Beatrice, Younger son of St. Louis. Heiress of Bourbon. Louis, Duke of Bourbon. I I Peter, Duke of Bourbon. James, Count de la Marche. John, Count de la Marche. I Louis, Count of VendOme. I John, Count of Vendome. Francis, Count of VendOme. Louis. Charles, Duke of Vendome. Antoine, Duke of Vendome, married Jeanne d' Albret, | Queen of Navarre. Henry IV. Louis XIII. Gaston, Duke of Orleans. Elizabeth, Christiana, wife of wife of Philip IV. of the Duke of Spain. Savoy. I Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., King of England. Louis XIV. I Louis (died 1715). I_ Philip, Duke of Orleans. I Louis. Duke of Burgundy. I Louis XV. I Louis (died 1765). I 1 Philip V. of Spain. Charles, Duke of Berry. I Louis XVI. I Louis XVII. (never reigned). i Louis XVIII. Charles, Count of Artois, afterward Charles X. Louis, Duke of Angouleme. Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry. Henry, Duke of Bordeaux. Count of Chambord (Henry V. Louisa, Duchess of Parma. 258 THE HOUSE OF BOURBON. QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. TAGE 1. When did the reign of Henry IV. begin and end ? 194, 199 2. Give his previous history 179, 180, 182, 183, 184, 186, 188 3. Give the history of the Holy League 184, 185, 186, 194, 196, 197 4. State why, when, and how Henry IV. became a Catholic 195 5. Give an account of his admission into Paris 186, 194, 195, 196 6. Give all the facts respecting the Edict of Nantes 197, 220, 221, 243 7. What did Henry IV. accomplish for France ? 195 to 199 8. Describe his character and death 198, 199 and note 9. What evils followed the death of Henry IV. ? 199, 200 10. Give an account of De Luynes 200, 201, 202 11. Give an account of the siege of Rochelle 202, 203 12. Of the troubles caused by Mary de' Medici 197 to 207 13. When did the reign of Louis XIII. begin and end ? 199, 200, 207 14. Give an account of Richelieu 200 to 210 15. Of his alliance with Gustavus Adolphus and consequences 204. 205 16. Give an account of the war with Austria. 205, 206, 207 17. Of the plots and conspiracies of the Duke of Orleans .202, 204, 205, 206 18. What account can you give of Cinq-Mars and De Thou ? 206, 207 19. Describe the character of Richelieu 200 to 208, 246 20. Describe the character of Louis XIII 207 21. What was the civil policy of Richelieu ? 208, 209 22. State what he accomplished for art and literature 209, 210 23. When did the reign of Louis XIV. begin and end ? 210, 214, 229 24. Describe his character 215, 219, 220, 229, 230 25. Name the important events of his reign 210 to 230 26. Narrate the cause and events of the war of the Fronde 210, 211, 212, 213 27. Repeat all that is stated respecting Mazarin 210 to 214, 248 28. Give an account of Louis XIV.'s war with Spain 214, 215 29. State the causes of and preparations for his war with the Netherlands. 215, 216 30. Narrate, in order, the events of that war 216, 217, 213, 219 31. Repeat all that is stated of General Turenne 210, 212, 215, 217, 218 32. State the causes of Louis's war with the great powers of Europe 219, 220, 221 33. Relate the events of the war and state how it was closed 219 to 223 34. What causes led to the " grand alliance " against Louis ? 223, 225 35. Narrate the events of the " War of the Spanish Succession " 225 to 228 36. What concessions was France by treaty compelled to make ? 228 37. When did the reign of Louis XV. begin and end? 230, 2H 38. Name, in order, the principal events of his reign 232 to 241, 247, 249 39. Give the plan and history of Law's financial system 233, 234 40. State, in full, the causes of the " War of the Austrian Succession " 234, 235 41. Give, in outline, the events of that war 235, 236, 237, 238 42. Give the causes and events of the " Seven Years* War " 238, 239, 240, 241 43. During the Bourbon period what was the condition of the people ? — 242, 243, 244 44. What is stated of manufactures and commerce during that period ? 244, 245 45. Of buildings, parks, palaces, gardens, etc. ? 245, 246, 247 46. Of science, art, literature, etc. ? 247, 249 47. Of music, the drama, and interesting events ? 249, 250 48. Of houses, furniture, table linen, and coaches ? 250, 251 and note 49. Of extravagance in the dress of the women and men ? 251, and notes 50. Name the most distinguished poets and dramatists 251, 252 51. Name the other distinguished literary persons 252 to 255 4. D. 1774.] REVOLUTIONARY TRANCE. 259 stgction iii. Revolutionary France. Extending from the Accession of Louis XVI. (1774) to the present time. 1774 1. Louis XVI. — The corruptions and abuses of to the government of France under its reckless, extrava- gant, and licentious kings, during the period of the "absolute monarchy," had slowly but surely prepared the way for the troubles and agitations which threatened the nation, when Louis XVI. , a grandson of Louis XV., as- cended the throne at the age of twenty.* The finances were in great disorder, the public debt enormous, the royal power was despised ; and a great and growing discontent, fostered by a spirit of criticism and inquiry, which had been increas- ing for years, surrounded the new king with dangers at which a bolder spirit might have quailed. Though his man- ners were simple and his life pure, he was wanting in that power of will necessary for the correction of great abuses. 2. The new king recalled the Parliament of Paris, which had been exiled by his predecessor, and devised many meas- ures for the permanent welfare of France. He appointed as his prime minister and adviser, Maurepas {mo-re-pah'), an old courtier, who had been banished from the court for many years. Maurepas called successively to his assistance Turgot (toor-go') and Malesherbes (mal-zarb'), the former a man of ability who had attracted attention by reforms which he had instituted in an inferior position. The changes pro- posed by him, however, though just, were of so sweeping a * When word was brought to Louis that the king was dead, he and his young wife, Marie Antoinette, by one Impulse, threw themselves on their knees and exclaimed, " O God ! guide and protect us ; we are too young to govern ! " 1 . When and at what age did Louis XVI. ascend the throne ? What is said of this period ? What was the reason of the popular discontent ? What was the character of Louis ? 2. What were some of his first acts? Whom did he appoint prime minister? Whom did Maurepas call to his aid ? What course did Turgot pursue, and what was the result ? 260 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 11"76. character that the enmity of the privileged classes was roused against him ; and the king himself, who had at first sup- ported him, at length grew weary of the constant opposition he encountered, and demanded his resignation (1776).* A similar fate attended Malesherbes. 3. Necker. — New expenses were soon to be incurred on account of the war in which England was then engaged with her American colonies, and in which France was almost cer- tain to be involved. An experienced financier was therefore necessary to take charge of the treasury. Such a man was found in Necker, a Genevese banker, whose ability was gen- erally recognized. In America, events were moving rapidly. The Revolution broke out, the first battle in which was fought at Lexington, in 1775. This was succeeded, the fol- lowing year, by the Declaration of Independence, and the ar- rival of three American commissioners in France, sent to ask the recognition of the new republic from Louis XVI. (1776). 4. Alliance with the United States. — Whatever hesitation the king may have felt in giving the commission- ers a favorable answer, he was entirely overborne by the al- most unanimous consent of the French people. The Ameri- can Revolution was looked upon as the direct expression of principles which had been growing more popular in France year by year. Among the commissioners was Benjamin Franklin, whose fame as a man of science had preceded him, and whose simple garb and manners created among the peo- ple a wonderful enthusiasm, which soon spread to the court, and powerfully aided the cause of the colonies. The Mar- quis of Lafayette and many other young men volunteered on * The weakness of the kins Is illustrated by the fact that he permitted Turgot to re- sign, though he fully recognized the wisdom of his measures, and himself sympathized with him. This is shown by his remark : " Turgot and I are the only ones who have the good of the people at heart." He busied himself also with the most frivolous subjects, when the affairs of his kingdom were in a situation of extreme gravity. One day the minister entered the room of the king, who proudly called his attention to the paper he was writing, with the remark, " I am working too, you see." He was devising a plan for the destruction of rabbits in certain parts of France. 3. Who was the successor of Malesherbes ? What were his qualifications ? Why was an experienced financier needed ? What events of the American Revolution :ire mentioned ? 4. What was the feeling of the people toward America ? Who was sent by the United States as ambassador to France f What was the result of his embassy? A. D. 1782.1 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 261 the side of the United States, and the king concluded a treaty with the new republic (February 6, 1778). 5. England declared war at once. France sent a fleet under Count d'Estaing (des-tahng), to the aid of the Amer- icans, and acting on the terms of the Family Compact, made an alliance with Spain. In Europe the war began with a naval engagement between the English under Admiral Kep- pel, and the French under Count d'Orvilliers (dor-veel-ya), in which neither was victorious (July 27, 1778). The de- signs of D'Estaing were frustrated by storms and the small- ness of his fleet ; and the French successes in America were unimportant, and confined principally to the West Indies and the coast of South America. The powers of the north of Europe entered into a league for the protection of their commerce ; and Spain, having joined her naval forces with those of the French in the Mediterranean, they together blockaded the fortress of Gibraltar. 6. Minorca was wrested from the English by Spain ; but the blockade of Gibraltar was raised by Admiral Rodney, who came to its relief after its garrison had withstood with great obstinacy a skillful and formidable attack. In the West In- dies, the French also suffered a defeat at the hands of Rod- ney, who attacked the Count de Grasse, then attempting to get possession of the island of Jamaica, and defeated him with great loss (1782). In the East Indies, the English were almost uniformly successful, their conquests extending to many of the possessions of Holland, which had entered the league against England. Much enthusiasm, however, was roused in France by the naval victories of the French com- mander, Suffren (soof-frong') ; but his successful career was suddenly arrested by a declaration of peace. 7. Treaty of Versailles. — This was hastened by the reverses which the English arms had experienced in America, 5. What course did England take? What did France do? What naval engage- ments followed '! Why was D'Estaing unsuccessful ? What league was formed ? 6. What was the result at Gibraltar ? In the West Indies ? In the East Indies ? 7. Why did England consent toth , treaty of Versailles ? What changes were made in the territories of the powers that signed the treaty ? What is said of the conduct of the queen ? How did the people regard her ? 262 KEVOLfTIOXARY FRAXCE. [A. D. 1787. the overthrow of the war party in England, and the advent to power of a party favorable to peace. By the treaty of Ver- sailles (September 3, 1783), the independence of the United States was acknowledged ; Spain retained possession of Min- orca and Florida ; while France recovered her colonies, and acquired possession of several new ones in Africa and the West Indies. The dismissal of Necker, in 1781, was succeed- ed by the death of Maurepas, and by the active interference of the queen in public affairs. Marie Antoinette (an-twah- net) * had at first given no attention to matters of state. Secluding herself with a few favorites, she did not hesitate to show her contempt for the fashions and manners of the court, and thus roused a hostility among the people of all classes, who gave expression to their dislike by calling her the "Austrian woman." 8. The Finances. — Through the influence of the court, Calonne (kah-lon') was made Controller General of finance. He made a short-lived reputation by substituting for the wise economy of Necker a system of extravagance and dis- play, based upon the theory that he who would borrow money on favorable terms must not appear needy. The day of settlement came in a short time, however, and Calonne, having submitted to an assembly of the notables a confused account, was dismissed in disgrace (1787). His successor was Brienne (bre-en), who had been one of the most active enemies of Calonne ; but his success was no greater than that of the minister whom he had supplanted. The measures he proposed were opposed by the Parliament, and led to a quar- rel, in which the latter, supported by a powerful public opinion, finally triumphed. Brienne retired, leaving the finances in great disorder ; and Necker was recalled. The * "Marie Antoinette was very beautiful, thoughtless to a degree of childishness, and willful to an excess of obstinacy. Her education had been exceedingly neglected, and her mind was totally uninformed. She had been taught some few accomplishments, but excelled in none. Conscious of her own ignorance, she disliked knowledge in other women, and it is said that sense and information were always a bar against her favor. Her manners were singularly engaging and fascinating to those she liked, and with whom she could feel at her ease. She was warm in her friendships, and was benevolent and tender-hearted almost to an excess."— Mrs. Markham. 8. Who became Controller General of finance ? What was his career ? Who suc- ceeded him ? Who was recalled ? What was assembled ? A. D. 1789.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 263 States-General was assembled the following year to deliber- ate upon the affairs of the nation (1789). ^T 9. The situation was one of extreme peril. The king's want of ability, the hatred against the queen, which was openly expressed, the mismanagement and confusion in the treasury, taxes so largely increased that trade and commerce were paralyzed, and the violation of the right of personal liberty by the lettre de cachet,* together formed a combina- tion of evils which could not fail to be followed by the grav- est consequences. Clubs were formed all over France, at which were upheld the principles concerning the rights of man which able writers had for years been advocating. More- over, the successful establishment of the new republic of the United States, founded on these principles, gave a remarka- ble impulse to the popular cause. 10. The nobility and the clergy together owned nearly two-thirds of the land, but, being privileged orders, paid no taxes for it ; while assessments so heavy as to amount almost to confiscation were made upon the remaining third, which was owned by the people, or third estate. The latter, there- fore, demanded and were allowed as many representatives in the general assembly as the other two orders together. The excitement, however, which attended the elections for depu- ties foreshadowed the storm which was approaching. One of the most eloquent, at this time, in urging the claims of the people was the Count of Mirabeau (me-rah-bo), who afterward took a leading part in the deliberations of the States-General. Two general objects were desired by the third estate : a way out of the difficulties then existing, and a prevention of their recurrence. The first they hoped to * " The lettre de cachet was usually carried Into effect by the officers of police ; some- times the arrest was made at the dwelling of the individual, sometimes on the roads or in the streets by night ; but, in all cases, it appears to have been accomplished with as much secrecy as possible, so that it was no uncommon thing for persons to be missing for years without their friends being able to discover what had become of them."— Davenport's History of the Bastile. No fewer than 14,000 of these letters, it is said, were issued in the interval between the accession of Louis XVI. and the meeting of the States-General in 1789. 9. What was the condition of the country ? What is said of the clubs ? Why was the example of the United States influential ? 10. What proportion of the representatives in the States-General did the third estate demand ? Why ? Who became the champion of the people during the elec tions ? What two objects were desired by the third estate ? 2G4 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. fA. B. 1*89. accomplish by some general measures of reform, especially some more equitable system of taxation which would com- pel the privileged orders to contribute to the general fund ; the second, by the adoption of a constitution which would make the governing power less the subject of the king's caprice. The Great Kevolution. 11. Opening of the States-General. — The States- General met at Versailles, the king presiding (May 5, 1789).* A quarrel, however, began at once between the third estate on one side, and the nobles and clergy on the other. The privileged orders, warned by the violent lan- guage of the third estate, united to oppose their demand that the deputies should vote individually, instead of by orders. If the vote should be taken by individuals, the third estate could control the action of the whole body, since it numbered a little more than both the others to- gether ; if it should be taken by orders, the nobles and clergy united would always be victorious. Five weeks were wasted in the discussion, at the end of which time, the third estate and a few of the clergy withdrew ; and, on the night of the 17th of June, on motion of the Abbe Sieves (se-a), organized a new body called the National Assembly, f On the 9th of July following, the word Constituent was added to its title, since it was to frame a constitution. * " No event ever interested Europe so much as the meeting of the States-General in 1789. There was no enlightened man who did not found the greatest hones upon that public struggle of prejudices with the lights of the age, and who did not believe that a new moral and political world was about to issue from the chaos. The besoin of hope was so strong that all faults were pardoned, all misfortunes were represented only as accident ; in spite of all the calamities which it induced, the balance leaned always to- ward the Constituent Assembly. It was the struggle of humanity with despotism. The States-General, six weeks after their convocation, was no longer the States-General, but the National Assembly. Its first calamity was to have owed its new title to a revolution : that is to say, to a vital change in its power, its essence, its name, and its means of authority. According to the Constitution the commons should have acted in conjunc- tion with the nobles, the clergy, and the king. But the commons in the very outset sub- jugated the nobles, the clergy, and the king. It teas in that that the Revolution con- sisted."— Dumont's Recollections of Mirabeau. t " What title should the Assembly assume ? This was a question of immense im- portance. It was, so to speak, the baptism of the Revolution which was now taking Slace. A name was being sought. ... An obscure deputy suggested that of the mtional Assembly, and Sieves proposed it. Four hundred and ninety-one voices against ninety adopted this simple and superb name."— Henri Martin's History of France. 1 1 . When did the States-GTeneral meet ? What was the nature of the dispute in regard to the vote ? How and by whom was the National Assembly organized V Hovv was its name changed f Why '/ *. O. 1789.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 265 12. Triumph of the Third Estate.— More of the clergy gave signs of going over to the third estate. The court in alarm attempted to persuade the king to declare the meeting of the States-General dissolved ; but this step the king feared to take. He closed and guarded the doors of the assembly chamber, however (June 20), under the pre- tense of making preparations for a royal session to be held there. The president of the Assembly, therefore, called the deputies together in the tennis hall ; and there an oath was taken not to separate till they had prepared a constitution for France. The following day the tennis hall was closed ; but the Assembly having by this time won over a majority of the clergy, the church of St. Louis was opened for their use. At the royal session held on the 23d of June, the hall was surrounded with troops. The king, regardless of the threatening action of the Assembly, addressed the deputies in a tone of authority, and, at the close of his speech, or- dered the three bodies to retire to their respective rooms. The nobles and the clergy went ; the third estate remained. * Fearing that the king would use force, the Assembly passed an act guaranteeing to its members freedom from arrest. A few days after, forty-seven of the nobility, among them the Duke of Orleans, went over to the Assembly, f 13. Revolt in Paris. — Finding further resistance use- less, the privileged orders now yielded, and shared with the third estate in the labors of the Assembly on terms of equal- ity. The king, however, angry at his defeat, paid little attention to its deliberations, and began to mass troops near Versailles, which soon wore the aspect of a camp, more than * Finding that the deputies of the third estate did not leave the hail, the king's mas- ter of ceremonies returned to repeat the order which the king had given. Mirabeau an- swered him, closing his speech with the following memorable words: "Go tell your master that we are here by the will of the people, and here we shall stay unless driven out by the bayonet ! " t " There no longer exists a Tiers Etat in France ; both name and thing disappeared in the reconstruction of our social system in 1789 ; but this, the latest in date and least in power of the three ancient orders of the nation, has played a part of which the impor- tance, long concealed from the most searching scrutiny, is clearly perceived at the present day."— Thierry's Tiers Mat, or Third Estate in France. 1 2 . What led to the oath of the tennis hall ? What course did the king take ? What followed ? What accession did the Assembly receive ? 13. What did the privileged orders finally do ? What did the king do ? Give ar account of the tumult in Paris. ia S6 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. I>. 1789. 30,000 soldiers being gathered between Paris and Versailles in a short time. This course, instead of intimidating the peo- ple, only added to the general excitement. On the 30th of June, eleven soldiers of the French Guard were imprisoned by their colonel for expressing their joy at the triumph of the Assembly ; but the populace broke open their prison and res- cued them. The excitement was increased by the receipt of the news that the Duke of Orleans and Necker, having recently spoken bold words to the king in favor of the peo- ple, were in danger of being exiled. The crowds that dailv THE BASTILE." assembled in the garden of the Palais Royal (pah-la' rwali- yaM) stripped the chestnut trees of their leaves, and fasten- ing them on their hats as badges, carried the busts of Necker and the Duke of Orleans through the streets of Paris in tri- umph. * This edifice was begun In 1369, by Charles V., and was enlarged in succeeding reigns. Thousands of persons, many of whom were princes and members of distinguished fami- lies, were here imprisoned till death came to their relief. When the Bastile was capturt-d by the people (1789), seven persons were found in its cells, one of whom had been there thirty years. On its site now stands the " Column of July," which was erected in memory yf the patriots of 1789 and 1830. A. ». 1789.] KEVOLUTHXNARY FRANCE. 267 14. Capture of the Bastile. — The city was now thor- oughly roused. Arms were gathered from all quarters; a permanent committee of public safety was formed ; and a national guard was organized in the city, consisting of 48,000 men. Word was brought that the cannon of the Bastile * were trained on the city. An attack was at once resolved upon ; and a frenzied mob, vast in number, marched to the assault, broke into the prison, and murdered the governor and many of the inmates (July 14, 1789). f Other officials who had incurred the hostility or suspicion of the mob were massacred ; and their heads, placed on pikes, were carried with savage joy through the city. The king, now thorough- ly alarmed, went to the National Assembly, which he ad- dressed, for the first time, by the name they had themselves chosen, promised to send away the foreign troops he had called to his aid, and to recall Necker, and closed by saying that he placed his confidence in them. J 15. The Revolution Successful. — He gave his con- sent to the principal measures which the people had adopted, and promised to visit Paris, where Lafayette had been made commandant, and Bailly (bahl-ye'), the first President of the National Assembly, mayor. Many of the nobles who had opposed the revolutionary measures left France, and Necker * " There were, at an early period, no less than three hastlles at Paris, those of St. Denis, the Temple, and St. Anthony, all of which were situated to the north oi the Seine Eventually, the name was confined to the last of these buildings. The quadrangular cas- tle of St. Denis was demolished in 1671 ; but the tower of the Temple, in which the un fortunate Louis XVI. and his family were confined, outlasted the Bastile itself for nearly a quarter of a century, and was used as a state prison till 1811, when it ceased to exist."— Davenport's History of the Bastile. t " The Bastile soon ceased to exist. It was demolished by order of the civic authori- ties of Paris ; and, when the demolition was completed, a grand ball was given on the leveled space. The capture and downfall of this obnoxious fabric were hailed with de- . light by the friends of liberty in every part of the globe, and they long furnished a. - favorite and fertile theme for moralists, orators, and poets. The site, now known as the Place de la Bastile, was selected as the burial-place of the champions of the Revolution of 1830, and the Column of July erected over the remains. This column is of iron, sur- mounted by a figure emblematical of liberty. The ground was again opened to receive the bodies of those who were slaughtered in the Coup d'etat of Louis Napoleon in Feb- ruary, 1848. Again, in 1871, the bodies of the victims of the communists' reign of terror were deposited here."— Davenport's History of the Bastile. t It was near the close of the year 1789 that Dr. Guillotin succeeded in changing the method of capital punishment, by the introduction of the instrument which bears his name. 14. What further action did the Parisians take? Describe the storming of the Bastile. What was the effect upon the king ? 15. To what offices were Lafayette and Bailly chosen? What were some of the results of the popular discontent ? What is said of the National Guard ? What re- markable change took place with regard to the nobility ? 268 KEVOLUTICWARY FKAXCE. [A.D.I 789. was brought back in triumph.* The organization of the National Guard was extended from Paris all over France ; and, in many places, the people gave vent to their hatred of the privileged classes in deeds of violence. In all quarters, the demand for the redress of ancient wrongs was so threat- ening, that the nobles themselves volunteered to relinquish their privileges. The Viscount de Noailles (no-aJil) set the example, and in a single night session (August 4) the rights of all Frenchmen were made equal. Within less than three months, a startling revolution was accomplished, the entire political fabric of France undergoing a radical change, f 16. Divisions, however, at once appeared in the ranks of the revolutionists, of which the privileged orders were not slow to take advantage. So serious did these divisions be- come, that the king, entertaining the thought of again ap- pealing to force, ordered the Flanders regiment back to Versailles. On the 1st of October, a feast was given in the Royal Theater there to the officers of this regiment, at which were present the officers of many other regiments, even some of the National Guard. The health of the royal family was drunk, and the king himself appeared with the queen and the dauphin. When the excitement was at its height, the ladies present distributed white cockades, which were in- stantly adopted throughout the hall, and the tri-colored cockade of the National Guard was trampled under foot. When the news of this event reached Paris, it produced an- other outbreak. The people of that city had been for some * When the king entered Paris he was met by the mayor, who presented him the keys of the city, saying, " Sire, I bring you the keys of the good city of Paris ; they are the same which were formerly presented to Henry IV. He reconquered his people ; on this occasion, the people have reconquered their king." The vast crowds which accom- panied the king were armed with weapons of all kinds, and brought with them several cannon ; but these, in the spirit of reconciliation which then reigned, were partly cov- ered with flowers. In the organization of the National Guard, Lafayette chose as a badge the ancient colors of the city of Paris (red and blue), and joined with them the king's color (white). Giving the king one of these badges, he said. "Take it ; this is a badge which will make the circuit of the globe." t " History affords no example of an era in which innovation was so hastily pursued and ambition so blindly worshiped ; when the experience of ages was so haughtily re- jected, and the fancies of the moment so rashly adopted ; in which the rights of property were so scandalously violated, and the blood of the innocent so profusely lavished."— Alison's History of the French Revolution. 1 6. Why was the king again encouraged to think of appealing to force ? Describe the banquet of the king's guards. What effect did the news of this have upon the people of Paris ? Who marched to Versailles ? A. I>. 1789.] RE VOLUTION ARY FRANCE. 269 time threatened with famine through the failure of the crops. Crowds of women gathered around the Hotel de Ville, clam- oring for bread and arms. At the height of the tumult, some one cried, "To Versailles!" The cry was repeated on every side ; and an army of infuriated women began the march, followed by the troops, among them the National ROYAL, THEATER AT VERSAILLES. Guard, reluctantly led by Lafayette, who had in vain en- deavored to prevent them. 17. After a day and night of great disorder, during which the palace was invaded by the angry mob, and the queen was obliged to conceal herself through fear of personal violence, the king, with the royal family and his guard, consented to go to Paris, where he was joined by the National Assembly. He was now virtually a prisoner in his own capital, where the triumphant revolutionists awaited the action of the As- sembly. The question of the national finances was still 17. Where did the Assembly and the king <,'<> ? What was the king's condition there ? What measures did the Assembly pass ? What were the assignats? 270 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1790. uppermost there ; and, all other measures having failed, it was decreed that the property of the Church should be seized for the benefit of the State. As this vast property, however, could not be sold at once, it was decided to issue 400,000,000 francs of paper money, called assignats (ah-seen-yah'), to represent it. The kingdom was divided into eighty-three departments ; reforms were instituted, after much discussion, in the Church and in the judiciary ; and, on the anniver- sary of the taking of the Bastile, an immense concourse of people celebrated the regeneration of the nation in the Champ de Mars (shaling-dii-marz). 18. Festival of the Federation. — Preparation for this celebration had been made on the grandest scale. The vast space of the Field of March had been terraced in the form of an amphitheater, in the middle of which was an altar on which the oath of allegiance was to be taken. The king and royal family, the officers of the National Guard, the members of the Assembly, and representatives from all the departments of France, seated under their respective ban- ners, with priests, bishops, and soldiers, surrounded the altar and formed the center of an immense multitude of 400,000 persons. Mass was celebrated, the oriflamme of France and the banners of the departments were blessed ; and Lafayette, the commander of the National Guard of France, advanced to the altar, and swore allegiance to the nation, the law, the king, and the constitution. The oath was afterward taken by the king ; and the queen, lifting up the dauphin in her arms, presented him to the people, as if pledging him to abide by the oath of his father (1790). 19. The Jacobins. — Death of Mirabeau. — Notwith- standing the apparent harmony, many dangerous divisions still existed. The uncertainty which everywhere prevailed gave rise to constant discussion, which led to the forma- tion of societies and clubs, the most noted of which was 18. Describe the Festival of the Federation. Who first took the oath of alle- giance ? How wa? it taken by the royal family ? 19. What led to the formation of clubs ? Which was the most noted ? Was France quiet at this time ? What celebrated man died ? What is said of him \ A. D. 1791.] KEVOLUTIONARY FIlANCE. 271 that of the Jacobins.* Outbreaks, at this time, were fre- quent all over France, and Paris was agitated almost daily by the news of some fresh disturbance. On the 2d of April, 1791, Mirabeau died. He had been a prominent actor on the side of the people in the scenes which accompanied the Revolution, and was regarded by them as their special cham- CASTLE OF lF.t pion; but his influence had also been exerted in favor of moderation. His 'remains were deposited in the Pantheon with all the manifestations of a national bereavement. % 20. Foreign Plots against France.— Flight of the King. — The radical action of the Assembly in regard to the Church divided France into two parties. The nobles were also secretly hostile to the Revolution ; and the people having no prominent champion since the death of Mirabeau, * So named from the religious order of that name in one of whose convents its first meetings were held. Under the guidance of able and unscrupulous men, its influence was gradually extended, till it became a great political power. t If (eef) is the name of a small island off the south-east coast of France, opposite Mar- seilles. It is wholly occupied by the castle or fortress. Here Mirabeau was imprisoned for a time. X " Mirabeau was the most potent man of his time ; but the greatest individual con- tending with an enraged element appears but a madman. ... He did not invent the Re volution, but was its manifestation. But for him, it might perhaps have remained in a state of idea and tendency."— Lamartine's History of the Girondists. 20. To what source did the king look for aid ? Why ? What action did the prin- cipal powers of Europe take ? Why ? What did the king do ? What was the result i 272 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. J>. 1791. the king determined to call in foreign power to his aid. This was the more readily promised by the other powers of Europe, since the principles then triumphant in France threatened the stability of all monarchical governments. An army of 100,000 men was pledged to enter France ; and Louis, in order to be free to use it, resolved to escape from Paris. He left the city secretly at midnight, June 20, 1791, and accompanied by the royal family, took the road to the Belgian frontier. Before he reached it, however, he was recognized, arrested, and brought back to Paris, where he was virtually dethroned by the Assembly, which passed an act suspending his powers, and appointing a guard to watch him (July 15).* 21. The Constitution of 1791.— Close of the Con- stituent Assembly. — Up to this time, little had been said of the substitution of a republic for the monarchy. Now, however, it was openly advocated. The members of the Assembly ranged themselves on two sides— the Republi- cans and the Conservatives. On the 17th of July, a paper prepared by the Jacobins and the Cordeliers, and calling for the dethronement of the king by the National Assembly, was laid upon the altar in the Champ de Mars to receive the signatures of the people. The Assembly, however, unwill- ing to resort to such an extreme measure, and jealous of dictation, ordered Bailly and Lafayette to prevent the gath- ering. In the excitement which attended the movement, several persons were killed by the soldiers. The Assembly hastened its labors. The new Constitution was ready in September. On the 14fch of that month, the king, having signified his acceptance of it, was restored to his powers ; and on the 30th, the Constituent Assembly, having decreed the * "In the night of June 20th, the royal family escaped from the Tuilerles through a gate left unguarded. The king was disguised as a valet de chambre, In a gray coat and a peri- wig. The queen had borrowed the passport of a Russian lady. At dawn the tidings spread through all Paris. . . Everywhere the name of the king was erased from the public monuments, and from the standards, and the word royal was replaced by the word na- tionals—Henri Martin's History of France. 21. What change in the government was now proposed ? How was this openly shown ? What violent act followed ? What course did the Assembly then take ? A. D. 1792.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 273 ineligibility of its members to re-election, adjourned and passed out of existence. 22. The Legislative Assembly. — The new body created by the Constitution was called the Legislative Assembly. Its members were chosen for two years, and its first session began on the 1st of October, 1791. It was divided into several parties, of which the chief were the Girondins (zhe-ron-dang'), or Girondists, the Monta- gnards (mon-tan-yar), or Mountain Party, and the Feuil- lants (fuh-yahng'), or Constitutionalists; but it was plain, from the first, that its general sentiment was one of hostil- ity to the king. * This was soon apparent by the extreme measures which it took, but which the king vetoed. War- like preparations were still continued by the neighboring powers, and the king was directed by the Assembly to warn them to desist. The Assembly, feeling its action impeded by the, conduct of the ministers, brought about their re- moval. Their places were filled by the Girondists, Dumou- riez (du-moo-re-a) and Ro'land, the former being made Minister of Foreign Affairs, the latter, of the Interior (1792). 23. The quarrel of the Girondists and the Feuillants be- came more bitter ; the king vetoed some extreme measures which the former had advocated, and ended by dismissing his Girondist ministers, and going over to their adversaries. Fresh commotions among the people were the result. On the 20th of June, 1792, a great crowd, armed with pikes, assem- bled, under pretext of celebrating the anniversary of the Tennis Hall Oath, and marching to the doors of the Assem- bly, demanded admittance. It was granted ; and the mul- * The Feuillants professed to be satisfied with the changes in the government already made, and to support the Constitution. It was, at first, the predominant party. The Girondists were so called because their leaders, Vergniaud, Girodet, and Gensonne", repre- sented the department of the Gironde. They were revolutionists, desiring to establish a republic on the ruins of the monarchy. The Mountain Party, so called because they occupied the highest rows of seats in the Assembly, were violent demagogues, represent- ing the views of the Parisian rabble, and led by Robespierre, Danton, and others of that class. The clubs of the Jacobins and Cordeliers were the nurseries of this faction. 22. What called the Legislative Assembly into existence ? What were the parties into which it was divided ? What was the attitude of the king toward the Assembly i What action was taken by foreign powers ? What change of officers was made 1 23. How did the quarrel between the king and the Assembly terminate f Describe the tumult which ensued. 12* 274 REVOLUTIONARY FRAHCE. fell ■gs& 8 S| CD . x CO t,^ ffi es oo S 2 »K5P oso . a r o^ KIP ^ OT3o g*£H H 2-2* A. B. 1*92.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 275 titude, swollen by the presence of women and children, passed through the hall singing revolutionary songs and shouting "Long live the nation!" and "Down with the veto ! " They then marched to the Tuileries (tweel're), broke down its doors with axes, and compelled the king to put on the red cap of the Jacobins, which was held up to him on the point of a pike. 24. Lafayette, in the attempt to induce the Assembly to punish the actors in these violent scenes and close the clubs of the Jacobins, failed and lost his popularity.* The Prus- sians, meantime, were marching on Paris. The Duke of Brunswick, their commander, issued a manifesto (July 26, 1792), in which he declared that the object of his coming was to restore to Louis XVI. his authority. This threat, instead of aiding the king, hastened his downfall. From all the departments volunteers were converging on Paris, in obedience to the call of the Assembly, f The king's abdi- cation was openly demanded by the people, led by Eobes- pierre, Danton, and Marat (md-raJi') ; and an attack was made on the Tuileries by an armed mob (August 10, 1792)4 The king and the royal family took refuge in the midst of the Assembly ; while a fierce struggle ensued between the Swiss Guard in the Tuileries and the populace, the number of killed being from 2,000 to 5,000. After the sacking of the palace, the insurgents marched to the Assembly, and * A few days after, he left the army, intending to go to the United States ; hut was captured by the Austrians and confined in the prison of Olmutz, where he lingered four years. t The volunteers from Marseilles were among the most extreme who came to Paris at this time. They brought with them the famous Marseillaise Hymn, recently composed by a young officer named Rouget de Lisle. The martial fervor of its words and music gave it a wonderful popularity among the troops then gathering at the capital. Other means were employed to inflame the populace and soldiers. One of these was a dance called the Carmagnole (car-man-pole), one of the accompaniments of- which was a song describing and inciting the nearer to ferocious deeds. Another was the famous C'a ira, a song which was sung when victims were being carried to the scaffold. 1 % " The enraged multitude broke into the palace, and put to death every person found within it. The fugitives, pursued into the gardens of the Tuileries, were murdered under the trees, amidst the fountains, and at the feet of the statues. Some wretches climbed up the marble monuments which adorn that splendid spot The insurgents re- frained from firing, lest they should injure the statuary, but pricked them with their bayonets till they came down, and then slaughtered them at their feet ; an instance of taste for art mingled with revolutionary cruelty, unparalleled in the history of the world."— Alison's History of Europe. 24. What did Lafayette attempt to do ? How was the king's overthrow has- tened ? What was the condition of affairs in Paris ? What was done by the mob ? What did the Assembly do ? 276 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1*92. demanded the king's dethronement and the calling of a national convention. It was finally decided to suspend the king from the exercise of his authority, to dismiss the min- isters, and to call a convention. yk' 25. The Commune. — The Girondist ministers were re- called, and the king, with his family, was placed in prison in the Temple. The Prussians, in the mean time, were advan- cing, and everything in Paris was in confusion. In the gen- eral excitement, which every hour grew more intense, a new power arose, which, under the pressure of imminent public danger, grasped and wielded the most despotic sway. This was the Commune of Paris, at whose head was Danton, the minister of justice.* Marat and others less celebrated were associated with him. Their first step was to free France from its internal enemies. This was done by an indiscrim- * " Danton was the Colossus of the Revolution— the head of gold, bosom of flesh, loins of brass, feet of clay. He prostrated, the apex of the Convention appeared lower- ed. He had been its clouds, lightning, thunder. In losing him the mountain lost its summit."— Lamartine's History of the Girondists. 25. What was done with the royal family ? How was the action of the authorities in Paris hastened ? What new power arose ? Who were the leaders of the Com- mune ? What infamous acts were committed ? A. B. 1*9*.] ItEVOLtTTlOKARY FRANCE. 277 inate massacre of all political prisoners then in Paris, which was followed by a general attack upon the prisons. For five days these dreadful atrocities continued ; and women, pau- pers, idiots, and even children, were slaughtered without mercy. * 26. War had been declared against Austria in April ; but, at first, the French had suffered defeat ; subsequently the French arms were almost everywhere successful. Dumou- riez (du-moo-re-a) and Kellermann defeated the enemy at Valmy in September, and forced him to retreat ; the siege of Lille was raised shortly after ; Custine (hus-teen') captured Treves, Spire, and Mayence ; Savoy was subdued ; and Dumouriez won the battle of Jemmapes (zhem-mtip), and a week after entered Brussels (November). Previous to this the Legislative Assembly had ceased to exist (Sept. 21, 1792). 27. The National Convention. — The body now in- vested with the supreme power was the National Convention. It was pledged to extreme measures. Its first act was to abolish the kingdom and proclaim the republic. The fol- lowing day (September 22, 1792) was declared to be the first of a new era, the year 1 of the French republic. Thus far the Convention was unanimous, but no further. The more moderate members, alarmed at the dangers toward which the nation was hurrying, attempted to check the haste of the Convention. These were the Girondists, who had controlled the Legislative Assembly, and hoped to control the Conven- tion. They were opposed by the extremists, the Mountain party, who advocated a pure democracy based directly upon the will of the people. Among them were many who had * During the continuance of these scene3 some most touching and harrowing inci- dents occurred. Among them is that of Elizabeth Cazotte (kah-zof), who saved her father's life by her eloquent entreaties ; and that of the daughter of the governor of the Invalides, who was compelled to drink a cup of blood which the mob presented her. More affecting still was the fate or the young and beautiful Princess of Lamballe, the queen's favorite, who was brutally assassinated and cut to pieces, her head being placed on a pike and carried in procession before the windows of the Temple, where the royal family were imprisoned. 26. Against what country was war declared? What is said of the military suc- cesses of the French ? What body had ceased to exist previous to that, time ? 27. What was the first important act of the Convention ? What change was made in the manner of reckoning time ? What two parties sprang up ? Who were the most noted men among the extremists ? 278 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1793. taken part in the previous massacres, Eobespierre and Marat being the most prominent. 28. Execution of Louis XVI. — In the new order of things the king had no place. It was, -therefore, resolved to get rid of him. For a long time the Jacobin clubs had been busy creating a public sentiment in favor of his trial and condemnation by the Convention. A fierce debate sprung up on this subject ; but it was finally decided that he should be tried. He was at once separated from his family, and, on the 11th of December, was placed before the bar of the Con- vention to answer the charges which had been brought against him.* Notwithstanding a long trial and an eloquent defense by his advocate, Deseze (duli-sdz'), he was found guilty \ and condemned to death. \ The sentence was executed by means of the guillotine one week afterward (January 21, 1793). § 29. Coalition against France. — This success of the Mountain party led to renewed attacks by them on the Gi- rondists. A powerful agent in these attacks was the paper of Marat, called the "Friend of the People," which created a strong sentiment against them. The violence and irrespon- sible acts of the Convention alarmed Europe. England, under the lead of her minister, Pitt, entered the coalition against France ; and the National Convention ordered a levy * The king was charged with instigating foreign powers to invade France ; with resist- ing the will of the people, and causing the bloodshed of the 10th of August. t The questions submitted to the Convention were : 1. Is Louis Canet guilty of conspir- ing against the liberty of the people ? 2. Shall the sentence be submitted to the ratifica- tion of the people? 3. What shall be the penalty inflicted? The flrst question was de- cided in the affirmative by an almost unanimous vote ; the second, in the negative by a large majority ; but the sentence of death was decided by only a majority of fifty-three votes out of seven hundred and twenty-one. % Thomas Paine, who was a member of the Convention, said : " What, to-day, appears to us an act of justice, will some day appear only an act of vengeance. France has to-day but one friend, the American Republic. Do not give the United States the sorrow, and the King of England the joy, of witnessing the death upon the scaffold of the man who has aided my American brethren in breaking the fetters of English despotism." § From the time his sentence was announced to him, the king bore himself with great fortitude. He asked three favors : liberty to see his family, the choice of his spir- itual adviser, and three days in which to prepare himself for death. The first two only were granted. On the day of his execution more than 40,000 men were under arms. A double rank of soldiers lined the way from the Temple to the place of execution, a solemn silence being everywhere preserved. He mounted the scaffold with firmness, knelt to receive the blessing of the priest who attended him, and submitted, though reluctantly, to the tying of his hands. His last words were : " I die innocent ; I forgive my enemies, and you, unhappy people—" Here his voice was drowned by the roll of the drums, which had been ordered to beat, and the three executioners seized him. He was thirty-nine years old at the time of his execution. 28. What relation had the office of king to the new system ? What was it re- solved to do ? What was the king's fate ? 29. What part did Marat take in these extreme measures ? What did England do ? What steps did the Convention take ? What is said of Dumouriez ! [A. B. 1*93. REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 279 of 300,000 men to resist attacks from without, and created a revolutionary tribunal of nine to watch over the interests of the country at home. In the north, Dumouriez, who commanded a French army operating in Holland, was de- feated, and obliged to retreat. Being a Girondist, he had no sympathy with the extremists of Paris, and went over to the enemy. He attempted to carry his soldiers with him, but in this was not successful. 30. Plots of the Montagnards. — The desertion of Dumouriez inflamed the leaders of the Convention, who be- gan to suspect the Girondists generally. * They were accused of conspiring against the republic, and a plot was entered into by the Montagnards to destroy them. The time fixed was the night of the 10th of March, 1793, when they were to be attacked in their places m the Convention. Being ad- vised of it, however, they remained away ; and the Monta- gnards were compelled to postpone their revenge. Trouble, in the meantime, was experienced in enforcing the con- scription in La Vendee, a district lying in the south-west of France. Here the designs of the Kevolutionists met with the most determined opposition, and a civil war broke out which lasted two years. The losses which France expe- rienced, however, were met by the Montagnards by measures more and more extreme. They determined to attack and conquer the Girondists in their stronghold, the Convention. On the plea of urgent public necessity, the law which for- bade the arrest of a member of the Convention was repealed. This act of apparent self-denial was the more specious from the fact that almost every man, at that period, regarded his neighbor with suspicion. It was only the cover, however, for an infamous plot. * The period of anarchy and widespread suspicion which began at this time, and lasted nearly a year and a half, has appropriately been called the Reign of Terror. During its continuance neither rank, age, nor sex was free from the most imminent danger. The merest suspicion was enough to inflame the passions of the mob, and subject the object of it, without trial, to their blind and heartless fury. During the short period of the Reign of Terror the number of executions of all kinds in France is thought to have reached many hundred thousand. 30. Into what plot did the Montagnards now enter ? What was the origin of the war in La Vendee ? What law was repealed ? 280 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1793- 31. Fall of the Girondists. — Great disorders having taken place in Paris, the Convention summoned the Com- In the midst of this stormy debate there suddenly appeared at the tribune a hideous figure, which seemed an unclean beast rather than s man ; a sort of dwarf in sordid gar- ments, with wildly glaring eyes, and a wide mouth, gaping like that of a toad. It was Marat. The Assembly rose in disgust and indignation, with an almost unanimous cry, 'Down from the tribune.' He claimed for himself alone the idea of a dictatorship. A deputy replied by reading an article from Marat's paper, saying that there was nothing to be hoped for from the Assembly. To this article, Marat responded by another article, of different tenor, dated that very day. Then drawing a pistol from his pocket and placing it to his forehead, he declared that if an indictment were issued against him, he would blow out his brains at the foot of the tribune. The Assembly, disgusted by this grotesque yet terrible scene, waived all action in regard to Marat, and resumed the regular order of proceedings."— Henri Martin's History of France. 3 1 . How were the Convention and the Commune brought into conflict ? Who was arrested ? How was he released ? What happened t» the members of the commis- sion and their supporters ? A. D. 1793.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 281 mune of that city to account for them, a commission of twelve being appointed to make a report. The examination which followed led to the arrest of Hebert (d-bdr), the editor of a journal which was very popular with the more depraved classes^bOn the 27th of May, the Commune sur- rounded the Convention with an enraged multitude and de- manded the release of Hebert, and the suppression of the commission. After four days of angry debate and threats of violence from the people, Febert was released, and the commission was suppressed. Iwo days after, the Conven- tion, overawed by the frenzied masses which had daily be- sieged the building in which it sat, consented to the arrest of the twelve members of the commission and their sympa- thizers. By this act, thirty-one members, all Girondists, were arrested, and the mob of the capital became the real rulers of France (June 2, 1793). 32. The success of the Montagnards was not obtained with- out some losses. One of their leaders, Marat, was stabbed in his bath by Charlotte Corday,* a young woman of resolute spirit, who had been moved by the account of the atrocities committed by the Jacobins. She fancied that the death of the leaders would put an e^id to the Eeign of Terror, and traveled from Caen {hong) to j Paris with the intention of kill- ing either Robespierre or Marat. Circumstances caused her to choose the latter, whom she dispatched in his own house as he lay in his bath ; but his death (July 13, 1793) was fol- lowed by her own only four days after, and served only to intensify the ferocious spirit of the Revolutionists. 33. Energy of the Revolutionists. — From this time all moderation disappeared from the councils of the Conven- * " Sensitive, loving, and beloved, Charlotte de Corday had, nevertheless, attained her twenty-fifth year without letting her heart be swayed by personal feelings. Neither her friendship for a few girls of her own age, nor her affectionate sympathy for a compan- ion of her childhood, a young man who adored her, held the first place in her self-cen- tered soul. Private affections counted little with her in comparison with the sufferings of her country. She felt that she belonged first of all to France— to the republic."— Henri Martin's History of France. 32. Give an account of the assassination of Marat. What was the fate of Charlotte Corday ? 33. What dangers now threatened France 1 What measures were taken to meet them ? What did Carnot accomplish ? 282 KEVOLUTIO^AKY FRANCE. [A. D. 1793. tion. Many departments refused to sanction its violent acts ; Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles rose in revolt ; the opposi- tion in La Vendee assumed larger proportions ; and the prep- arations of the Coalition became daily more formidable. To meet these dangers, the Eevolutionists put forth gigantic efforts, and ruled with the most merciless and arbitrary se- verity. Taxes were imposed upon all provisions and mer- chandise sold, merchants were compelled to sell under pen- alty of death, and a levy en masse was made of the entire population of France. By these extraordinary means, Carnot (car-no'), the new minister of war, was enabled to place in the field fourteen armies, containing 1,200,000 men.* 34. Success of the Republican Generals. — The wonderful vigor shown by the Revolutionists gave success to the arms of the republic in every quarter. Carteau (car -to'), in the south, defeated his opponents twice in the summer, and followed them as far as Toulon, which was held by the English with their fleet ; Houchard (hoo-shar), in the north, gained a victory over the Duke of York (September 8) ; Kellermann, after a seventy-six days' siege, took the city of Lyons f (October 9) ; and Jourdan (zlioor-dahri), who had succeeded Houchard in the north, defeated the Prince of Coburg; while Hoche (hosh) and Pichegru (peesh-groo') were equally successful in the north-east and east. 35. Death of the Queen. — The acknowledgment of the * A law was passed which compelled all male citizens between the ages of fifteen and twenty-five to hold themselves in readiness to join the army at a moment's notice. Mar- ried men were to he employed in the manufacture of arms and the transportation of baggage and provisions, while women were to serve in the hospitals, or busy themselves in the making of clothing and tents. Even children and old people were forced to assist in the general defense ; the former by scraping lint, the latter by addresses and encour- aging counsel. To effect all this, the most stringent laws were passed, the most odious being that by which any one suspected of opposition to the revolution could be imme- diately arrested. The guillotine also was kept constantly busy ; in every city ruled by the Revolutionists it was set up, and crowds perished daily. Every public building be- came a barrack, all public places were used for the making of arms, and a requisition was made upon every horse for service in the army. The entire country was converted into a camp. t The punishment inflicted on the city of Lyons was of the severest kind. Three com- missioners were assigned to the work. All the principal buildings were destroyed, the city was deprived of its name and given over to pillage, special pains was taken to desecrate the churches, and an artillery fire was opened on the inhabitants indiscrimi- nately, by which more than 2,000 lives were lost. 34. What success attended the armies of France ? Who commanded the armies ? 35. What action of foreign powers influenced the Revolutionsts ? What course was pursued with regard to the queen ? " What other eminent persons suffered de*th ? A. D. 1193.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 283 dauphin as King of France, by the powers of Europe, exas- perated the Revolutionists anew against the royal family, and- their death was resolved upon. The queen was separ- ated from her family, and placed in the same prison with the Girondists. On the 14th of October, she was brought be- fore the Revolutionary Tribunal, where vague charges were preferred against her, and after the mockery of a trial, she was condemned to die. Two days after (October 16, 1793), she was executed on the same spot where, ten months before, the king had met his death. * Other executions followed in rapid succession. On the 31st of October, twenty-one of the Girondists, who had languished in prison since the 2d of June, were brought to the guillotine ; a week after (Novem- ber 6th), the Duke of Orleans, or Philip Egalite (d-gal-e-td'), as he was called, and Madame Roland (November 9th), f met a similar fate. Other illustrious victims were Bailly, first President of the States- General, Conclorcet {con-dor-sd'), the celebrated chemist Lavoisier (Jah-vwah-ze-a), Malesherbes, the generals Biron, Brunet, Custine, and Houchard, the Princess Elizabeth, and nearly the whole parliament of Tou- louse. In Paris, Fouquier-Tinville {foo-ke-d-tan-veeT) was the chief accuser, who designated the victims to be arrested. In Nantes, Carrier (car-re-a), and in Arras, Lebon (luh- bong'), made themselves infamous by their wholesale and wanton atrocities. They were all afterward the victims of the popular thirst for blood which their acts had created. They had been active from the first in creating disorder, and had seconded all the most violent measures of the Revolutionists. * On the day of her execution, the queen had cut off her hair, which is said to have turned white in a single night some time before, through terror at the scenes she had witnessed. Notwithstanding this, and the pallor of her countenance, her great beauty was still apparent. She wore a white dress, and rode in a rude cart from her prison to the place of execution, with her hands tied behind her, an excited mob filling the streets and shouting with joy all the way. t " A colossal statue of Liberty, composed of clay, like the liberty of the time, then stood in the middle of the Place de la Concorde, on the spot now occupied by the obelisk. . . . Madame Roland stepped lightly up to the scaffold, and bowing before the statute of Liberty, as though to do homage to a power for whom she was about to die, exclaimed, ' O Liberty ! Liberty ! how many crimes are committed in thy name ! ' She then resigned herself to the hands of the executioner, and in a few seconds her head fell into the basket placed to receive it."— Lamartine's History of the Girondists, 284 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1793. 36. Excesses of the Revolutionists. — The supreme power was now firmly held by the extremists, whose head was the infamous Committee of Public Safety. In addition to the radical changes already instituted, they now attempted to efface all signs and tokens of royalty by destroying the tombs of the kings at St. Denis. This being accomplished, an effort was made to abolish Christianity. It failed in the Convention, but was adopted by the Commune ; and an im- posing ceremonial was held, at which all previous forms of belief were solemnly renounced, and a new religion, called the worship of Eeason, was substituted. The cathedral of Notre Dame was converted into a temple of Eeason, and the churches in Paris were either closed or changed into temples for the new divinity. Busts of some of the more prominent Revolutionists were placed in them to be worshiped, and the most disgraceful scenes were enacted there on the last day of each decade.* 37. Death of Hebert and Danton. — The armies of the Republic, in the mean time, were almost everywhere suc- cessful. In the south, Toulon was recaptured (December 19, 1793) through the skill and daring of Napoleon Bona- parte, who here appeared prominently for the first time; and in La Vendee, the royalists, after many battles and the loss of their ablest generals, were compelled to submit. In * In their enthusiasm or blind hatred of everything modern, the Revolutionists changed not only laws, but descended into particulars of dress and custom. In imita- tion of the republics of antiquity, they adopted the ancient Phrygian cap of liberty, which, being of a red color, was called the bonnet rouge (bon-na roozh). All rank being abolished, titles were useless, and every man was addressed as citizen, every woman as citizeness. Trees of Liberty also were "planted in commemoration of the new order of things. The spirit of uniformity was extended into the system of weights and measures, and led to the adoption of the decimal system ; and the desire for change produced a complete revolution in the manner of reckoning time. The year was divided into twelve months, of thirty days each, and was to begin on the 22d of September, 1792, this day of the month being that of the autumnal equinox. Five more days being necessary to complete the year, they were adopted under the name of complementary clays, and were set apart to be observed as national festivals. The sixth complementary day, neces- sary every leap year, was reserved as a holiday in commemoration of the success of the Revolution. The months were named anew, September being called Vendemiaire (von- da-me-ar), or month of vintage ; the next, Brumaire {bru-mUr) , or month of fog; Fri- maire {free-mar'), month of sleet; Nivose (nee-voze'), month of snow; Pluviose (plu-ve- oze"), month of rain ; Ventose (vent-oze'), month of wind ; Germinal {zher-me-nal), month of seeds or buds ; Floreal (flo-ra-al') , month of flowers; Praireal (pra-ra-al'), month of meadows ; Messidor (mes-se-dor 1 ), month of harvest ; Thermidor (tar-me-ddr') , month of heat; Fructidor (frook-te-dor'), month of fruit. Each month was divided into three decades, the last day of each decade being a day of rest or recreation. 36. What body now controlled affairs ? What excels were committed ? Give an account of the worship of Reason. 37. What progress was made by the armies ? What celebrated man now first ap peared ? What happened in the Convention ? What notorious men were executed ? A. D. 1794.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 285 other quarters the gains and losses were about evenly balanced. Dissensions, however, now became apparent in the ranks of the revolutionists of the Convention. A party of moderate men sprang up, led by Danton and Desmoulins, who strove *to restrain the Convention in its arbitrary acts This was the signal for a general disruption of parties, in which each faction sought the ruin of the others. The first to suffer were Hebert and his followers, who were executed in March, 1794. They had been charged with aiding the foreign ene- mies of France, and bringing ridicule on the Republic. Dan- ton, Desmoulins, and their adherents followed the Hebert- ists on the 5th of April.* 38. Power of Robespierre. — The party of Robespierre now controlled the Convention, and governed France, and this was the time chosen by him to carry out cer- tain projects he had long entertain- ed. In forming a sufficiently pow- erful organization, however, for his purpose, it was necessary for him to check some of the more extreme members of the Convention, and ally himself with those who had been his opponents. He had not hesitated to express himself as opposed to the . kobespierre. worship of Reason, and had caused an act to be passed abol- ishing the new religion, and decreeing the existence of a Supreme Being. Shortly afterward, an impressive ceremony, called the Festival of the Supreme Being, took place, in which Robespierre was the central figure. His vanity disgusted * " Danton assumed a lofty air on the scaffold, but nature for a moment overcame his pride. A cry escaped him, torn from him by the remembrance of his young wife. ' Oh, my best beloved ! ' he exclaimed with moistened eyes, ' I shall never see thee more.' Then, as if reproaching himself for his weakness, he said aloud, ' Come, come, Dan- ton, no weakness.' Then he turned toward the headsman and said with an air of au- thority : You will show my head to the people ; it will be well worth the display ! ' His head fell, and the executioner, complying with his last wish, caught it from the basket and carried it round the scaffold. The mob applauded. Thus end favorites ! "-Lamar- tine's Htetory of the Girondists. 38. What man now controlled the Convention ? In what public ceremony did he engage? What was the result ? Who were Robespierre's principal supporters '? What had he become? 286 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. |A. D. 1794. many ; and their fears were roused, when, two days after, a law was passed, by which the punishment of accused persons was expedited. Supported in his most infamous measures by St. Just (san-zhoost) and Couthon (coo-tong'), he Jiad be- come an atrocious dictator, who held the lives of his enemies in his hand. 39. Execution of Robespierre. — Bold and immediate action, therefore, was necessary on their part to save them- selves. Both sides realized that a crisis was imminent, but Eobespierre was the first to act. Rising in his place, he de- nounced the committees of the Convention. He was an- swered, and a long debate ensued. The following day the debate became more stormy. The excitement was increased by the exhibition of weapons carried by the members ; and, after a scene of the wildest tumult, the arrest of Robespierre and his brother, Couthon, St. Just, and Lebas (luh-bah), was ordered by the Convention. Robespierre was rescued, however, by the Jacobins and Communists, and taken to the Hotel de Ville. The Convention then acted with unex- pected resolution. It declared Robespierre and his followers to be outlaws, called the National Guard to its defense, and ordered a sufficient force to march to the Hotel de Ville and re-arrest the prisoners. The following day (July 28, 1794), he and twenty-six of his accomplices were executed with the liveliest manifestations of joy on the part of the fickle populace who had been his admirers.* 40. Extinction of the Jacobins. — With the fall of Robespierre, the fortunes of the Revolution began to decline, f * "When Robespierre ascended the fatal car, his head was enveloped in a bloody cloth, his color was livid, and his eyes sunk. When the procession came opposite his house, it stopped, and a group of women danced round the bier of him whose chariot-wheels they would have dragged the day before over a thousand victims. Robespierre mounted the scaffold last, and the moment his head fell the applause was tremendous. In some cases the event was announced to the prisoners by the waving of handkerchiefs from the tops of houses."— Hazlttfs French Revolution. t " Robespierre had the unutterable misfortune of dying the same day on which the Reign of Terror ended, and thus of accumulating on his name the blood of punishments he would fain have spared, and the curses of victims he would willingly have saved. 39. What contest ensued ? Who was the first to act ? What followed ? How was Robespierre rescued ? What course did the Convention then take ? 40. What effect had the death of Robespierre on the fortunes of ihe extremists ? What new party names were now used ? What course did the Thermidori.ins take ? What causes enabled their opponents to check them ? What club was abolished ? By Whom was the Convention aided ? A. D. 1795.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 287 The Convention was divided into two parties, the Terror- ists, and their opponents, the T her midor tans. The latter represented the reaction against the excesses of the Reign of Terror, and being in the majority, began at once to undo the mischievous legislation of the previous year. * After a long struggle, the club of the Jacobins was closed, and the society was abolished, and many prominent members were arrested (1794). The haste of the Thermidorians, however, was too great. The failure of the crops, and the rapid de- preciation of the assignats, enabled the Terrorists to rouse the people against the Thermidorians as enemies of the pub- lic welfare. Crowds gathered around the building in which the Convention was assembled, calling for bread, the Con- stitution of 1793, and the release of the "patriots " (March, 1795). Violent discussions followed for two months, the Jeunesse Doree coming always to the aid of the threatened Convention, f 41. At the end of that time, the authority of the Conven- tion was re-established, and six of its members, who had aided the insurgents, were condemned to death. They all attempted to commit suicide ; but only three were successful, and the others were dragged to the scaffold and executed. Notwithstanding the want of harmony at the capital, the re- publican generals still continued successful. Carnot, as Min- ister of War, directed operations with his usual vigor ; while Jourdan achieved great success in Belgium, capturing some important places, and compelling the retreat of the allies, His death was the date, and not the cause, of the cessation of Terror. Deaths would have ceased by his triumphs, as they did by his death. . . . This man was, and must ever remain, snadowy —undefined. "—LamarUm's History of the Girondists. * Outside of the Convention the Thermidorians were powerfully aided by an association of young men of the rich and middle classes, called the Jeunesse Dor6e, (zhuh-ness' do- ra ). Their efforts were directed principally against the Jacobins, whose excesses they sought to check. So decidedly had public feeling in Paris turned against the extremists that the bust of Marat was broken, and his effigy, after being dragged about the streets, was thrown into the sewer. t " The Revolution had only lasted five years. These five years are five centuries for France. Never, perhaps, on this earth, did any country produce, in so short a space of time, such an eruption of ideas, men. natures, characters, geniuses, talents, catastrophes, crimes, and virtues. . . . Men were born like the instantaneous personification of things which should think, speak, or act : Voltaire, good sense : Jean Jacques Rousseau, the ideal ; Condorcet, calculation ; Mirabeau, impetuosity : Vergniaud, impulse ; Danton, audacity ; Marat, fury ; Madame Roland, enthusiasm ; Charlotte .Corday, vengeance ; Robespierre, Utopia ; St. Just, the fanaticism of the Revolution."— Lamartine's History of the Revolution. 41. Which party was finally victorious ? What progress dicl the armies make ? 288 RE VOLUTIONAKY FRANCE. [A. ». 179 5. which placed the Netherlands at his mercy (1794) ; Pichegru (peesh-groo') repulsed them in Brabant ; and Hoche, on the Rhine, driving back Wurmser and the Duke of Brunswick, captured Spire and Worms. The army of the Alps had pre- viously opened the route to Italy, and Dugommier (du-gom- me-a), commanding that of the Pyrenees, after a decisive victory, began to prepare for the invasion of Spain. 42. Conquest of Holland. — During the following win- ter (1794-5), Holland was conquered by Pichegru, who crossed the Meuse and the Waal on the ice, entered Amster- dam, and organizing the country as a republic, annexed it to the territory of France. * This important success led to a treaty of peace with Prussia, which was concluded at Basle (April 5, 1795). The successes of the French along the line of the Pyrenees disposed Spain to similar action ; and a treaty was signed, by which she agreed to recognize the French Republic, and to exchange that part of St. Do- mingo then held by Spain for the recent conquests of the French beyond the Pyrenees. \(43. The Eoyalists were still strong in the south of France, and constant struggles took place between them and the Republicans. In many of the large cities, the former rose against their adversaries, and, throwing them into prison, repeated the scenes that had become so familiar during the Reign of Terror. In the midst of these excesses, an expedi- tion, organized by the English government and French ref- ugees, landed on the peninsula of Quiberon {Jce-brong'), with the intention of reviving in Brittany a war similar to that which had just been subdued in La Vendee. Fifteen hundred refugees, a like number of Chouans \ (shoo-ahng'), and nearly six thousand paroled prisoners were landed from * This brilliant military feat owed its success partly to the excessive cold of the winter of 1794-5. So extreme was it that, when the French reached Amsterdam, their cavalry and artillery advanced on the ice of the Zuyder Zee to the attack of the Dutch fleet, which had attempted to escape, hut was frozen fast. t These were bands of lawless adventurers, who were not sufficiently strong to consti- tute an army, but who infested Brittany, committing their depredations in the night- time. Hence their name, from chouan, the French word for owi. 42. Give an account of the conquest of Holland. What powers now signed trea- ties of peace ? What advantages did France derive from these treaties ? 43. Describe the expedition of Quiberon and its result. Who were the Chouans ? A. B. 1?95.] ketolutio>:aky frahce. 289 an English fleet, but were attacked and cut to pieces by Hoche (1795).* 44. The Directory. — The defects in the new system of government had now become plain by experiment, and public opinion was ripe for a change. A new constitution was, therefore, prepared, which provided for two legislative bodies — the Council of Five Hundred, and the Council of the Ancients, f The executive power was lodged in a Direc- tory, appointed by the Council of Ancients, and consisting of five members, one of whom was replaced every year. The action of the Directory was governed by a majority vote, and each member served as presiding officer three months. 45. Attack on the Convention. — Napoleon Bona- parte. — To prevent the Eoyalists from getting control of the new government, it was decreed by the Convention that two-thirds of the members composing the councils should be chosen from those then sitting in the Convention, leav- ing only one-third to be elected by the people An out- break followed at once, the Royalists inciting the sections of Paris against the Convention, which leaned on the army for support. A committee of public safety, consisting of five members, was organized ; and General Menou (ml-noo') was placed in command of the forces at the disposal of the Con- vention. Proving incompetent, he was replaced by Barras (bar -rah'), who called to his aid Napoleon Bonaparte, a * Only a few days before this the dauphin died. He had been separated from hia mother just before her execution, and consigned for education to an illiterate cobbler named Simon. By him and his successor he was subjected to a course of systematic de- privation and cruelty which resulted in his death (June 8, 1795). Of this unfortunate child Carlyle says : " The boy, once named Dauphin, was taken from his mother while yet she lived, and given to one Simon, by trade a cordwainer, on service then about the Temple-Prison, to bring him up in the principles of Sansculottism. Simon taught him to drink, to swear, to sing the Carmagnole. Simon is now gone to the Municipality : and the poor boy, hidden in a tower of the Temple, from which, in his fright and bewilder- ment and early decrepitude, he wishes not to stir out, lies perishing, his shirt not changed for six months ; amid squalor and darkness, lamentably, so as none but poor factory children and the like are wont to perish, and not be lamented."— Carlyle' 1 * French Revolution. t The former was to consist of five hundred members, each not less than thirty years of age, one-third of their number retiring annually ; their business was to propose new laws. The latter consisted of two hundred and fifty members of not less than forty years each, one-third retiring annually ; their office being to confirm or reject the laws sub- mitted by the other council. 44. Why was it thought best to prepare a new Constitution ? What three bodies now formed the government ? Give an account of each. 45. Why was it decided to require two-thirds of the new members to betaken frcm the Convention ? To what did this lead ? How was the Convention defended ? What course did Napoleon Bonaparte pursue ? 13 290 REYOLUTIOXAEY FRAXCE. [A. D. 1-795. young officer of artillery, who had distinguished himself at Toulon. The latter armed the members of the Convention, surrounded the building with troops, and sweeping all the approaches with artillery, broke completely the force of the attack (October 5, 1795-). 46. The Convention, finding its authority unquestioned, proceeded to the formation of the councils, and to the choice of a Directory. Then, having passed certain measures for the pacification of the country, it ended its labors (1795). The following day the councils began their sessions. The five members of the Directory * were chosen by the Council of the Ancients, and entered at once upon their duties (Novem- ber, 1795). The situation in which they were placed, how- ever, was difficult in the extreme. The impulse with which the Eevolution had begun was nearly exhausted, and three years of internal disorder and foreign conflict had produced a widespread feeling of weariness and exhaustion. The treasury was empty, the assignats had depreciated enor- mously, the army was wretchedly clad, and ill supplied with arms, and trade and commerce were almost destroyed. 47. In the improvement of the finances, the Directory was only partially successful. \ The efforts of the allies, how- ever, were fortunately slackened at this time by the with- drawal of Spain and Prussia, the former entering into an alliance with France against England. Hoche, also, had pacified La Vendee by concessions, and destroyed the Chou- ans of Brittany. Fresh troubles sprang up, however, at home. Democrats and Royalists became dissatisfied with the Directory ; and the former, under the lead of Babceuf {bah-buf), entered into a conspiracy to overthrow the Di- rectory, create a new convention, and usher in a reign of * They were Barras, Carnot, Letourneur (luh-toor-nur'), Rewbel (ru-bel'), and La Re- veillere-Lepeaux (lah ra-va-ydr' luh-po). Of these, Carnot was best known. t A temporary relief was found in the issue of a new kind of obligation called mandate (man-dah ), but these soon depreciated as low as the assignats. 46. What did the Convention do before it adjourned ? When did the councils be. 1800. dustries. The system of local government was entirely changed, party leaders who had been banished were per- mitted to return, freedom of worship was guaranteed, and strenuous efforts were made to heal party divisions and to unite all Frenchmen in a movement for the regeneration of France. 62. The royalist feeling in La Vendee still creating dis- turbances there, Napoleon invited the chiefs of the move- ment to a conference, and won them all over, except Cadou- dal, who, however, being without support, was obliged to abandon resistance. He then offered peace to England and Austria. The latter would not treat without consulting England, her ally ; and that power refused to treat except on terms humiliating to France. Napoleon, therefore, pre- pared for war. Two armies were organized : one on the Ehine, under Moreau ; the other, at the base of the Alps, under Napoleon in person. In May, 1800, the latter began the passage of the Alps* by way of Mount St. Bernard, and in a few days descended their southern slope, and placed his entire army across the line of retreat of the Austrian Gen- eral, Melas, who was besieging Massena in Genoa and pre- paring to invade France. 63. Campaign in Italy. — Turning at once on his course, Melas fell back to Turin and began his homeward march. The French were vastly outnumbered, Melas hav- ing 130,000 men, Napoleon only 60,000. The first encoun- ter was at Montebello, where Lannes (Ian) with 12,000 men met an Austrian force of 18,000, and defeated it. f Five * This famous exploit was attended with enormous difficulty and danger. Cannons were dismounted and placed in the trunks of trees, and then dragged byropes over the snow, the mules when exhausted being relieved by relays of men. When the army reached the fortress of Bard, which commanded a narrow pass in the mountains, all but the artillery passed it in single file by a goat-path which was discovered on the opposite side of the defile, and so far above the fort as to be beyond the elevation of its guns. The artillery, however, was dragged past it in the night, in silence, and over roads which had been strewn with hay, straw, and earth, their wheels having been bound with wisps of tow to muffle their sound. The march throughout was conducted at night or in the early hours of the day, to avoid the avalanches which the rays of the sun occasioned. t For his gallantry fn this action, Lannes was made Duke of Montebello. 62. What course did Napoleon pursue with the royalists in La Vendee ? Why did he invade Italy ? What armies were organized ? What route did Napoleon take, and where did he place his army ? 63. Give an account of the battle of Montebello. Who specially distinguished himself there ? Describe the battle of Marengo. Whose arrival decided the action in favor of the French * A. ». 1800.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 301 days after, the Austrian general, with 33,000 infantry, 7,000 cavalry, and 200 guns, made a determined attempt to open a way to Austria through a French force of 20,000 men drawn up on the plain of Marengo. After twelve hours of obstinate fighting, in which the battle was twice lost by the French, the arrival of Desaix (cluh-sa) with 6,000 men finally decided the action in their favor.* The battle of Ma- rengo freed Italy a second time from Austrian rule (1800). f 64. Events in Egypt and Germany. — Battle of Hohenlinden. — Negotiations for peace were at once opened with Austria ; but that country was still embarrassed by its pledges to England, and a long delay was the result. Malta, in the mean time, was forced by the English fleet to sur- render, and the French army, which Napoleon had left in Egypt, and which had reconquered that country in the bat- tle of He-li-op'o-lis, suffered a serious loss by the assassina- tion of General Kleber, at the hands of a Turkish fanatic, on the day of the battle of Marengo. A few months afterward (1801), the French conditionally surrendered to the Eng- lish.]: In Germany, Moreau had compelled the Austrians to abandon Ulm and retreat to the neighborhood of Munich. Near that city, around the little village of Hohenlinden, Moreau, with 60,000 men, met the Archduke John with 70,000 men (December, 1800), and after a night conflict in the forest, and in the midst of a blinding snowstorm, • Desaix fell pierced by a ball in the chest, shortly after he had begun his attack. His loss was declared by Napoleon to be " irreparable.'* t It was on Napoleon's return to Paris in the winter of 1800 that an attempt was made to blow him up in his carriage as he was on his way to the opera. The street was ob- structed by an overturned cart, under which was suspended a keg containing explosives. The windows of his carriage were broken, but Napoleon escaped unhurt, and attended the opera as though nothing had happened. The explosion killed eight persons and wounded more than sixty, besides shattering many houses. The plot was attributed at first to the Jacobins, and 130 were transported. It was afterward discovered to be the work of the royalists, several of whom were put to death. t After the death of Kleber, General Menou took command of the French army. The English government being resolved to expel the French from Egyrt, dispatched a force under Sir Ralph Abercromby, who landed with his army March 7, 1801. Battles were fought on the 13th and 21st ensuing, near Alexandria, In the latter of which Abercromby fell mortally wounded : but the English were victorious. Rosetta and Cairo were then taken by the English ; and finally Menou surrendered, on the condition that he and his army should be sent back to France. The French expedition to Egypt had no clearly de- fined object. The design was thought to be to threaten or assail the East Indian pos- sessions of England ; but in this, it was a failure. It appears to have had no other result than to illustrate the genius and energy of Napoleon ; and some have thought that it was merely intended to keep him away from the political movements in Paris. 64. What reverse* did the French suffer? What fortune attended Moreau ? Give an account of the battle of Hohenlindeii, 302 REVOLUTIONAKY FRANCE. [A. JD. 1802. routed him y and drew up his victorious army within thirty miles of Vienna. 65. Treaties of Luneville and Amiens. — Austria was now compelled to yield to the terms which Napoleon imposed. These were, that the Rhine should constitute the eastern boundary of France, and the Adige the western limit of the Austrian possessions in Italy, and that Austria should recognize the republics which the French had established. The treaty which secured these results was known as that of Luneville (liine-veel) (February, 1801). England, as before, refused to take part in the treaty, and continued the war for another year. The successes of France, however, both in the field and in the cabinet, and the general desire of the powers of Europe for peace, induced her to sign the treaty of Amiens (March, 1802). By this, she recognized the great changes that had taken place in Europe, and restored to France her colonies. In St. Domingo, however, the natives had risen * and taken possession of the island. Napoleon sent an expedition (1802) to reconquer it, and was at first successful ; but its great distance from France, and the severity of the climate for Europeans, were found to be effective obstacles to retaining it. 66. Re-organization of France. — Napoleon was again free to devote himself to reforms at home, and began the work at once. Eoads, canals, harbors, and bridges, necessary for the development of the country, were constructed ; twenty- nine secondary schools, called lyceums, were opened in dif- ferent parts of France ; and cities were improved by the con- struction of public works, or embellished by parks and monu- ments which commemorated the brilliant services of the army.f The First Consul applied himself incessantly, also, * Their chief, Toussaint L'Ouverture (too-mng' loo-ver-ture'), was taken prisoner, and carried to France. By order of Napoleon, he was confined in prison, where he died in 1866, after ten months' captivity. t The establishment of the Legion of Honor dates from this time. It was an attempt to create a new order of nobility, based upon merit alone. Though it met with strong op position, the act passed, and the institution still exists. 65. What were the terms imposed by Napoleon on Austria? What was the treaty called? What course did England take ? What is said of St. Domingo? 66. To what did Napoleon now devote himself? What reforms in administration did he make ? How were his relations with the Pope improved ? A. ». 1803.J REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 303 to reforms in administration, the chief of which were the collection of taxes, the division of France by a new method to facilitate its proper government, and the preparation of three new codes — civil, penal, and commercial.* The complaints, also, which the Pope (Pius VII.) had made against those articles of the French Constitution which con- flicted with his authority were quieted by a concordat ; and the services and observances of the Church were conducted as before. 67. The great improvement which had taken place in the affairs of France, both at home and abroad, the desire that he who had made it should be free to continue it, and the gratitude felt for his great services, led the Senate to submit to the people a proposition to make Napoleon consul for life, with power to appoint his successor. This dignity was ac- cordingly granted (August, 1802). A fresh dispute, how- ever, now sprang up with England concerning Malta. By the treaty of Amiens, England had agreed to deliver the island to the Knights of St. John. She now refused to do it, and war was therefore declared by Napoleon (May, 1803). A royalist plot was devised shortly after for the assassination of Napoleon, the leaders of which were Cadoudal and Pichegru. It was discovered, and Cadoudal with eleven of his accomplices were put to death. Pichegru was found strangled in prison. Moreau, being a royalist, was suspected of being concerned in the plot, and was banished by Napoleon. 68. Execution of the Duke d'Enghien. — Napo- leon becomes Emperor. — The Duke d'Enghien (dong- ghe-ahng'), in whose interest this plot was supposed to have been attempted, was secretly carried off from the castle of Ettenheim (et'ten-hime), in Baden, by order of Napo- leon, taken to Vincennes, tried by court-martial, and shot * The results reached by the council of lawyers over which Napoleon presided were all brought together into one body of laws known as the Code Napoleon, a work of great merit even in the estimation of Napoleon's enemies. 67. What change was made at this time in the office which Napoleon held ? What was done with regard to Malta? What plot was formed against Napoleon? 68. What prominent person was executed? In what way ? What was the result? When did Napoleon become emperor ? What other persons received titles ? .304 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1804. (March, 1804). This act intensified the hatred of the royal- ists against Napoleon ; and the people of France, feeling that he needed some additional guaranty against similar plots, determined not only to increase his power, but to place it upon so sure a basis that even his death would not prevent the continuation of his policy. On the 2d of December, 1804, Napoleon was crowned Emperor of France in the cathedral of Notre Dame. The ceremony was performed by Pope Pius VII. in person, with accompaniments of more than ordinary splendor. On the same occasion, Josephine was crowned empress by Napoleon, whose brothers, Joseph and Louis, were made French princes, and eighteen mar- shals were created. * 1§04 The First Empire. 69. Napoleon I. — In the midst of the festivities to which attended his coronation, Napoleon did not for- 1§14 g e {. kj s g rea t designs, one of which he now proceeded to execute. Recognizing England as the ruling member of the coalitions which were constantly being formed against France, he determined if possible to humiliate her. For this purpose he gathered a large force at Boulogne, with the inten- tion of making a descent upon her coast. Immense prepara- tions were made ; but, at the last moment, the navy failed to carry out the part assigned to it, and the expedition was abandoned. Without hesitation, Napoleon put his forces in motion to repel the invasion which the third coalition was maturing. Eussia, Austria, Sweden, and Naples were to- gether marching to attack him. * Napoleon entered the cathedral wearing a golden crown of laurel, which he after- ward removed. The ceremony was then conducted according to ancient usage. The Pope anointed him with holy oil, blessed his sword and scepter, and would have crowned him, but Napoleon prevented him by taking the crown with his own hands and placing it upon his head. He then performed a similar office for Josephine, who knelt on the steps before him, and both were conducted to the throne, which had been erected at the rear of tne cathedral, while the heralds announced the coronation to the people and the army, who filled the air with their acclamations and the thunder of artillery. Napoleon was afterward crowned King of Italy, and put on at his coronation the iron crown of the Lombards. _____ 69. What project did Napoleon attempt to execute? Why did it fail ! What powers formed the third coalition V A. ». 1805.] REV0LUTI0KARY FRANCE. 305 70. Capture of Ulm.— Battle of Trafalgar.— Trans- ferring his troops with great rapidity from Boulogne to the eastern border of France he entered Bavaria, which the Aus- trian forces, under the Archduke Ferdinand and General Mack, had invaded. By a series of brilliant maneuvers he captured Ulm with Mack and his army of 30,000 men, and entered Vienna in triumph (November, 1805). This victory was balanced by a serious naval defeat which took place off Cape Traf - al - gar', on - s^a^^. ^gggg^ the southern coast of jgjggfjj IK- _^ Spain, in which the com- bined French and Span- ish fleets were destroyed by that of the English under Nelson (October, 1805). North of Vienna, a powerful Russian army was advancing under the Emperor Alexander. At the approach of Napo- leon, Francis Joseph left Vienna with the force at his command, and has- tened to meet it. The united armies, number- ing 100,000 men, took up their position at Austerlitz, where Napoleon with 80,000 men came up with them. 71. Battle of Austerlitz.— Treaty of Presburg.— The battle began at daylight, f and was soon decided at every * This column was erected to commemorate the great expedition for which Napoleon made preparation. It is about 164 feet high, and 13 feet In diameter ; and upon the top is a bronze statue of Napoleon, in his imperial robe. •■-.'«- „,*. t The " sun of Austerlitz " was frequently referred to by Napoleon in after life. The campaign which terminated at that place was remarkable for the severity of the weather through which it was conducted. Driving storms of rain and sleet constantly attended COLUMN OF BOULOUNK. 70. In what way did Napoleon meet the next attack ? Who were his antagonists * What was his first success ? What reverse did the navy of France experience ? Why did not the capture of Vienna end the war? 7 1 . Describe the battle of Austerlitz. What treaty followed it ? What terms were granted to Russia and Austria? How was the Confederation of the Rhine formed? 306 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1800 point in favor of the French, owing to the masterly ma- neuvers of Napoleon (December 2, 1805). The Emperor oi Austria came in person to treat for peace. Alexander was permitted to return to Russia with his army ; and a treaty was signed at Presburg (December 26), by which Austria relinquished her claim to Venetia, Istria, and Dalmatia, which were added to the kingdom of Italy, and surrendered Suabia and the Tyrol to the ally of France, Bavaria. Seve- ral German principalities were abolished, and the Dukes of Wurtemberg and Bavaria received the title of king, in rec- ognition of their services as allies. The German Empire, which had existed since the time of Charlemagne, was abol- ished ; and sixteen princes in the south and west of Germany were united, forming the Confederation of the Rhine, which was placed under the protection of Napoleon.* />&. Other changes rapidly followed. In England, Pitt died (January, 1806) ; in Italy, the Bourbon King Ferdi- nand IV., who had aided the allies, was deposed, and was succeeded by Napoleon's brother Joseph, as king of the Two Sicilies (March) ; the kingdom of Holland was re-established in favor of another brother, Louis (June) ; two of his sisters received duchies in Italy ; Murat (mu-rah'), who had mar- ried a third, was created Grand Duke of Cleves and Berg ; and Berthier (bdr-te-d), Napoleon's chief of staff, was re- warded with the principality of Neufchatel (nush-ah-teV), in Switzerland. Napoleon hoped thus to surround France with friendly powers, which should serve as a bulwark against his enemies. Scarcely had he reached Paris, how- it. The officer sent by Napoleon to demand the surrender of trim could scarcely find a trumpeter to accompany him, the soldiers on all the advanced posts having been forced to seek shelter from the blinding rain. Napoleon himself frequently rode for days to- gether with soaked and dripping garments. The morning of the battle of Austerlltz, however, was clear and cold, and a bright sun rose, as if to guide him to victory. It was the anniversary of his coronation. * On his return from Austerlitz, Napoleon was received with unbounded enthusiasm. Such astonishing military exploits had never before been witnessed. The Senate con- ferred upon him the title of " The Great," and the bronze cannon which he had captured were melted and converted into a column to commemorate his victories— the Column qf the Grand Army, in the Place VendSme. It was at this time that Napoleon obliterated the last trace of the republic by suppressing the republican calendar and restoring the Gregorian. I 3'2. What were the principal changes which occurred in Europe? On whom wero lignities conferred ? What did Napoleon hope to do ? A. B. 1800. REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 307 ever, on his triumphant return from Austerlitz, when news of another invasion reached him. 73. The Fourth Coalition. — In the campaign just ended, Prussia had intended to take part * against Napoleon, with an army of 200,000 men ; but the rapidity and aston- ishing success of the French emperor's movements prevented her from acting ; indeed, the campaign was over before she could move. Supported by Russia, she now put her troops l coLtrnm op the grand army. in motion toward France, but without waiting for her ally to come up. The Duke of Brunswick, with nearly 200,000 men, began his march, and was leisurely concentrating his forces when he learned, with amazement, that the French emperor, with a powerful army, was on his left, and on the point of cutting off his communication with the capital. * The Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia had been pledged In the most impres- aive manner to continue the war against France, by the ingenuity of the beautiful Queen of Prussia, who conducted them at midnight to the tomb of Frederick the Great, and there bound them by a solemn oath. 73. What countries! entered into the fourth coalition? What general took the field against Napoleon ? How was the Prussian army divided ? What loss did the Prua sians suffer in the battles of Jena and Auerstadt? 308 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». ISO?.. The Prussian army was in two divisions : one of 60,000 men at Jena (yanah), the other at Auerstadt (ow'er-staht), twelve miles distant. With his wonted skill and celerity Napoleon made a sudden attack upon each in succession, and gained a decisive victory (October 14, 1806).* 74. The Berlin Decree.— Battle of Eylau.— The French forces rapidly pursued the fleeing Prussians, and compelled them to surrender, successively occupying all the strong places of the Elbe and the Oder, including Magde- burg. Napoleon continued his march to Berlin, which he entered in triumph. \ There he issued his famous decree, declaring the ports of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and closing those of the Continent to her commerce. He then directed his march upon Warsaw, intending to winter there in order to meet the Russian Emperor, who was ad- vancing with a formidable army, and with whom the King of Prussia had taken refuge. A series of combats ensued north of Warsaw ; and the two armies finally met at Eylau (i'low), where an obstinate battle was fought in a blinding storm of snow, without decisive result (February, 1807). Both sides were so badly crippled by this action, and the severity of the season was so great, that nearly all operations were suspanded for the winter. Napoleon then laid siege to Dantzic, which capitulated after a siege of fifty-one days. 75. Battle of Friedland.— Peace of Tilsit.— In the summer, the contest was renewed, and terminated by the French in a short and brilliant campaign. A new allied army of 140,000 men suddenly advanced against Napoleon, hoping to find the ample forces at his command scattered ■ The carnage was fearful. The Prussians lost 20,000 killed ; and 20,000 were taken prls oners, besides losing 300 pieces of artillery and 60 standards. The military force of Prussia was almost annihilated in a single battle. t '• Of 160,000 men who marched to meet us, 25,000 were either killed or wounded, 100,000 taken prisoners, 35,000 dispersed, and not one of them able to repass the Oder. Magde- burg, Spandau, Custria, Stettin— all the strong places of the Elbe and the Oder were occupied by us. In one month (from October 8th to November 8th), the Prussian mon- archy had ceased to exist."— Duruy's History of France. 74. What further successes did Napoleon meet with ? What was the Berlin De- cree ? Why did the French proceed to Warsaw? What battle was fought ? What city was captured by the French ? 75. Give an account of the battle of Friedland. To what peace did this lead? What changes of territory were made by the peace of Tilsit ? A. D. 1807.1 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 309 beyond supporting distance over the region between the N i e -.. jne^ and the Vistul a. A series of combats took place, which ended in the battle of Friejlland (freed' land), where the strength of the allies was utterly broken (June 14).* This signal victory was followed by the peace of Xilsit,t by which Prussia was shorn of some of her possessions in the south. The new kingdom thus created was known as that of West- phalia, over which Napoleon's youngest brother, Jerome, was made king ; and Prussian Poland was re-organized un- der the name of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and placed under the protection of Saxony. 76. Bombardment of Copenhagen. — Invasion of Portugal. — Napoleon was now at the height of his power. He had humbled his most formidable adversaries on the Con- tinent, and surrounded his empire with a girdle of friendly States, dependent for their very existence upon his will. England, however, the soul of all the recent coalitions against him, remained, by reason of her powerful navy, almost untouched. His efforts to build up a navy strong enough to compete with hers having failed, he now devoted himself to cutting her off from the trade of Europe by per- fecting the means of enforcing the Berlin decree. England issued retaliatory decrees, bombarded Copenhagen, and cap- tured the Danish fleet, on the pretext that Denmark was in danger of being drawn into the coalition of the northern powers of Europe, which Napoleon had succeeded in forming against her. The latter then sent Junot (zhoo-no) to invade Portugal, whose ports had been left open to the commerce * By this victory, 60,000 Russians were killed, wounded, or taken prisoners, 120 cannon were captured, and the port of Konigsburg, with 300 vessels laden with military stores and 160,000 muskets, fell into the hands of the French. t The ceremonies attending the meeting of the emperors before the peace of Tilsit were devised by Napoleon, and were accompanied with much splendor and dramatic effect. A richly decorated raft was moored in the middle of the river Niemen between the two armies, and in view of a multitude of people who crowded the banks. At the ap- pointed time, the Emperors of France and Russia approached in boats from the opposite shores, and, meeting on the canopied raft, embraced each other and consulted together. This ceremony was repeated on the following day, the King of Prus&ia accompanying the Emperor Alexander. The latter afterward took up his residence with Napoleon in Tilsit. 76. What was Napoleon's position among the monarchs of Europe at this time? How did he attempt to injure England? Why did England bombard Copenhagen? What took place in Portugal ? 310 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. LA. D. 1808. of England. The royal family fled at his approach, and sailed for Brazil (November, 1807). 77. Joseph Bonaparte, King of Spain. — The anarchy which existed in Spain, caused by the dissatisfaction of the people with their dissolute Court, and the intrigues of the latter against Napoleon while he was absent on his Prussian campaign, induced him to take advantage of the opportunity offered at this time for strengthening his power in the Penin- sula. He compelled the royal family of Spain to abdicate in his favor, and transferred his brother Joseph from the throne of Naples to that of Spain, Joseph's place at Naples being given to Murat. The Continental policy; of Napoleon had for some time met with serious opposition in Italy, the Pope es- pecially having incurred his displeasure to such an extent that portions of his territory had been wrested from him, and annexed to the kingdom of Italy. The Pope objected also to the religious administration of Napoleon in Spain and Portugal ; and the general discontent produced in those countries gave England, Napoleon's constant enemy, an op- tportunity to interfere against him. "*"^78. Insurrection in the Peninsula. — A general up- rising in Spain and Portugal, in the spring and summer of 1808, ended in the capture of Baylen (bi-leri), including a French army of 18,000 men, the flight of the new king, and the evacuation of Portugal by Junot. The latter coun- try was occupied by the English under Sir Arthur Welles- ley, afterward the Duke of Wellington. In the midst of these reverses to the arms of France, Sweden declared war against her, and Austria was preparing a new coalition to crush her. Not wishing to enter upon a struggle in the Peninsula till he could be secure from invasion in the north, ' Napoleon invited the Emperor of Russia to an interview, at which he hoped to obtain guarantees for the peace of Europe. 77. Why did Napoleon interfere in the affairs of Spain? What course did he tuke? What was the feeling in Italy? What power took advantage of the feeling against France ?. 7S. What reverses were experienced hy the French in the Peninsula? How was France threatened in the north? Give an account of the meeting at Erfurt, its oh iect and results ? What progress did Napoleon make in Spain ? A. D. 1809.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 31] The meeting took place at Erfurt (dr'foort), and lasted three weeks ; and in the festivities which attended it many of the crowned heads of Europe participated. Having strength- ened their previous friendship by the exchange of vows of reciprocal support in their schemes of conquest, the two em- perors separated. Napoleon then invaded Spain with 80,000 men, and after a series of victories, entered Madrid (Decem- ber, 1808), and re-instated his brother Joseph, accompany- ing the act with a decree which corrected many ancient abuses, and instituted salutary reforms. 79. The Fifth Coalition. — The following month, an English army under Sir John Moore was repulsed and driven to the sea-coast ; and the French forces entered Lisbon, and again subdued Portugal. The success of Napoleon in the Peninsula, however, was seriously compromised by his de- parture for France, to which the advanced state of the Fifth Coalition now recalled him. Austria and England were again leagued against him, the former invading Bavaria, the ally of France, with an army of 171,000 men, command- ed by the Archduke Charles. With his accustomed rapidity, Napoleon set out from Paris for the scene of conflict, reach- ing it in four days. Davout (dah-voo') at Eatisbon, and Massena at Augsburg, were ordered to concentrate their forces at Abensberg {all' hens-berg), where they met and de- feated a portion of the Austrian army. Two days afterward, the main body was encountered at Eck'miihl (April, 1809), where a general engagement ensued, which ended in the rout of the Austrians, who fell back to Rat'isbon for the pur- pose of crossing the Danube. 80. Capture of Vienna. — Another desperate struggle took place before that city, which was finally carried by storm. Though only the rear guard of the Austrians was captured there, their army was cut in two, the Archduke Charles with one portion being north of the Danube, and 79. Why did Napoleon leave Spain V What general was now opposed to him? Where were the first encounters, and what was the result? 80. What important success followed the capture of Ratisbon ? Why did not the capture of Vienna end the war? Whv were the combats near Vienna indecisive? How did Napoleon occupy himself near Vienna, and what re-inforcements did he receive? 312 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. B. 1810, the remainder being on the south. Napoleon attacked the latter, which retreated, hoping to cover Vienna. In May, Napoleon reached that city, which fell after a two days' can- nonade. The Archduke, however, was still north of it with a large army. Crossing the Danube by a bridge of boats, Napoleon began a series of battles at As'pern and Essling, which were constantly interrupted by the partial destruction of his bridges. In a short time, the French army, strength- ened by the arrival of an army from Italy, under the Viceroy Eugene and numbering 180,000 men, again crossed the river. 81. Battle of Wagram. — Treaty of Vienna. — Avoiding the strong intrenchments which the enemy had thrown up at Aspern and Essling, Napoleon met the Austrian forces at Wa'gram (July 6), where a bloody and decisive battle was fought, the Austrians losing 31,000 men in killed, wound- ed, and prisoners, and 40 pieces of cannon. This victory was followed by an armistice, and later by the treaty of Vienna (October 14), by which Austria was compelled to pay a large sum in money, and to submit to a loss of territory, and to the destruction of the defenses of Vienna. 82. In Italy, the Pope, continuing his opposition to Na- poleon, finally excommunicated him. The latter retaliated by annexing Rome to France (June, 1809), and carrying the Pope a prisoner to Florence, and then removing him to Fon- tainebleau (fon-tane-Mo). In Holland, Napoleon's brother Louis, hesitating between his duty toward his subjects and his pledges to the Emperor, did not enforce the continental blockade with sufficient rigor. Napoleon, therefore, deposed him, and Holland became a part of the French Empire (July, 1810). 83. Second Marriage of Napoleon. — A few months before, the second marriage of Napoleon * had taken place, * Napoleon had, in the spring of 1796, married Josephine Beauharnais, a native of Mar- tinique, and the widow of the Viscount Alexandre Beauharnais, one of the victims of the Reign of Terror. Napoleon was greatly attached to her ; and the influence she exert- ed over him often restrained him from measures of violence and severity. As the wife 81. Describe the battle of Wagram and its results ? 82. What measures did Napoleon take in Italy and nolland ? 83. What change took place in Napoleon 1 * family relations? What course did affairs take in the Peninsula? Who commanded the English forces? A. D. 1811.1 REV0LUT10NAKY FRANCS. 313 (April, 1810). He had divorced Josephine in the winter of 1809, and now took as his wife the Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor of Austria. In March, 1811, a son was born to them, whom the Emperor designated as his successor, and who received, while yet in his cradle, the title of King of Rome. During the years 1810 and 1811, the war in Spain was pushed with vigor, Sir Arthur Welles- ley, who commanded the English, being opposed by Suchet (su-shtV), Soult (soolt), Mortier (mor-te-a), Ney (nd), and Massena. The latter gained some advantages over the Eng- lish, but having forced them back to the line of Tor 'res Ve'dras, near Lisbon, found it impossible to dislodge them. He was finally compelled to evacuate Portugal, and the following year the French forces were driven slowly back into Spain.* 84. On the Continent, the French Empire now compre- hended the richer half of Europe. Spain and Portugal were still a part of it ; and by far the larger part of Italy, and the vast extent of territory stretching from the Adriatic to the mouth of the Elbe, either directly or indirectly acknowl- edged the sway of Napoleon. The despotic measures, how- ever, necessary to the consolidation and control of so many states with varying interests, the heavy war debts imposed by the conqueror on the countries he had invaded, the humiliations f to which they had been subjected, and the restrictions upon commerce caused by the blockade of the ports of the Continent, produced grea't discontent and re- sentment throughout Europe. His marriage with the royal family of Austria also alienated, to some extent, his republi- of the First Consul and as Empress of France, she acquitted herself with remarkable ability, and succeeded in drawing around her the most brilliant society of France. In uhis way, she contributed not a little to her distinguished husband's success. Her son, Eugene Beauharnais was made by Napoleon viceroy of Italy. Her daughter, Hortense Beauharnais, became the wife of Napoleon's brother Louis, and was the mother of Napo- leon III. Josephine died in 1814. * The attacks made by the English fleet against the colonies of France were also successful. Cayenne, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Mauritius, and Java were successively wrested from her between the years 1809 and 1811. t Besides reducing Prussia and Austria to the condition of second-rate powers by a division of their territory, he had sent the sword of Frederick the Great as a trophy to Paris, and blown up the defenses of Vienna. 84. What was the size of the French Empire at this time ? What causes produced fjeneral discontent in Europe ? What is said of the conscriptions ? 14 314 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1812. can admirers. To all these causes of complaint was added the exhaustion in France occasioned by the ruinous conscriptions necessary for the execution of his vast designs. * Even his ally, the Emperor of Russia, was now compelled to submit to annoying restrictions, which inured to the aggrandize- \Aient of Erance alone. f s §5. War against Russia. — When, therefore, England, financially distressed by the blockade of the Continent, made advances to Russia, she found a willing listener. Napoleon discovered that his ally was wavering ; and, as Alexander divided with him the supremacy of Europe on the Continent, his only hope of success lay in compelling him to submit by humbling him. He determined upon an invasion of Russia, and at once began his preparations. On the 12th of May, 1812, he established his court at Dresden, where he was met by the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia, and all the monarchs of Europe who were his allies. On the 22d of June, war was declared against Russia ; and three days after, Napoleon crossed the Niemen with more than 600,000 men.f Poland welcomed the invader. Napo- leon pushed on to Moscow, constantly engaging the Rus- sians, who slowly retreated before him, burning towns and villages, and laying waste the country. 86. Arriving at Smo-lensk', he captured the city after a tre- mendous conflict, which ended with the retreat of the Rus- sians. About two weeks after this, he fought a desperate bat- tle with the Russian army at Bor-o-di'no {-de' no) ; but gained no decisive victory (September 7fch). On the 15th of Sep- tember, the French army entered Moscow in triumph, it hav- ing been evacuated by the Russians the day before. * Napoleon himself was conscious that the character of his soldiers had entirely- changed. The difficulty with which the battle of Wagram was won was due to his hesita- tion to expose his troops in a hazardous but decisive movement, which he feared to make. "Had I my veterans of Austerlltz here," said he, " I would execute a maneuver that now I am afraid to undertake." t " The French army, with Its auxiliaries, which formed about one-third, numbered &tt),000 men, more than 60,000 horses, and 1,200 pieces of artillery."— Duruifa History of France. 85. What produced the war with Russia? What occurred at Dresden? How was the war begun by Napoleon ? 86. What city was captured? Where did the Russians finally encounter th? French? Who were successful ? What fol. owed? A. D. 18 J 2.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANC B. 315 87. Burning of Moscow. — The joy of the victors, on entering the city, gave place to surprise at rinding it almost entirely deserted ; and on the next night, fires broke out on all sides, and fanned by high winds which constantly changed their direction, destroyed four-fifths of the city. For three days and. nights the awful spectacle continued, at the end of which time, the French army found itself without shelter in an enemy's country, while a Russian winter was approaching. Napoleon attempted to negotiate,, but his offers were re- pelled ; and the Russians commenced to menace his commu- nications with Smolensk, where his magazines and reserves had been left. A retreat was therefore ordered ; and the army, poorly clad and scantily fed, began its long march homeward, exposed to all the rigors of a northern winter, and harassed on every side by hordes of Cossack cavalry. 88. After the winter commenced, the French soldiers per- ished by thousands from cold and famine. * To add to their sufferings, they were harassed by the Russian army, with which they were in almost constant conflict until they had crossed the Ber-e-si'na (-ze'nah) River, the passage of which was disputed by the Russians in strong force. The loss was frightful. Multitudes fell by the sabers of the Russians, but still larger numbers perished in the icy waters of the river ; so that less than 100,000 men remained to Napoleon of the * " On the 6th of November, the Russian winter set in with unwonted severity. Cold fogs first rose from the surface of the ground, and obscured the heretofore unclouded face of the sun ; a few flakes of snow next began to float in the atmosphere, and filled the army with dread ; gradually, the light of day declined, and a thick, murky darkness overspread the firmament. The wind rose, and soon blew with frightful violence, howl- ing through the forests, or sweeping over the plains with resistless fury. The snow fell in thick and continued showers, which soon covered the earth with impenetrable cloth- ing, confounding all objects together, and leaving the army to wander in the dark through an icy desert. Great numbers of the soldiers, in straggling to get forward, fell into hollows or ditches which were concealed by the treacherous surface, and perished miserably before the eyes of their comrades ; others were swallowed up in the moving hills, which, like the sands of the desert, preceded the blast of death. To fall was cer- tain destruction ; the severity of the tempest speedily checked respiration, and snow accumulating around the sufferer soon formed a little sepulcher for his remains. The road, and the fields in its vicinity, were rapidly strewed with these melancholy emi- nences ; and the succeeding columns found the surface rough and almost impassable for the multitude of these icy mounds that lay upon their route."— Alison's History oj Europe. 8 7. What conflagration took place? What was the result of it? Why did the French retreat ? 88. Describe the retreat of the French. The passage of the Beresina. What remained of the gi and army ? What is «iid of Ney? When did Napoleon reach Paris? 316 REVOLUTIONARY FRANC?:. LA. 1). 1813. splendid army with which he had Get out.* During these terrific scenes and conflicts, Marshal Key had won for him- self the appellation of the "Bravest of the brave." f Na- poleon abandoned the army soon after the passage of the Beresina, and reached Paris on the 18th of December. 89. Arrived in Paris, Napoleon re-established his authori- ty, which had been endangered for a short time by a skillful plot ; and, notwithstanding his terrible reverse in Russia, he obtained another levy of troops. In the following April, he found himself at the head of a new army of 300,000 men. His power, however, was waning. Austria and Prus- sia had turned against him on receiving the news of his re- verses ; and the latter country now joined Russia and Eng- land in a sixth coalition to destroy him. Sweden soon after entered the alliance, urged on by the jealousy of Berna- dotte (ber-na-dot') y although Napoleon had made him prince royal of that country. 90. Campaign in Prussia. — Battle of Leipsic— Napoleon again took the field, moving with his usual vigor and rapidity. In May, 1813, he defeated the allies at Lutzen and Bautzen ; and an armistice was asked by them and grant- ed. In the interval, Austria completed her preparations and entered the coalition. The war was then resumed, a two days' battle at Dresden J being decided in favor of Napoleon (Au- gust). His army gradually wasted away, however, in these ceaseless struggles. Nevertheless, at Leipsic, § less than two * " We left on the other side of the Nlemen 300,000 soldiers, killed or taken prisoners ; but nevertheless we had not been beaten in a single engagement. The winter and famine, not the enemy, had destroyed the grand army. The Russians themselves, accustomed as they were to their terrible climate, suffered dreadfully. In thr.ee weeks, Kutusof lost three-fourths of his effective force."— Duruu's History of France. t " Calm in the midst of a storm of grape-shot, imperturbable amid a shower of balls and shells, Ney seemed to be ignorant of danger j to have nothing to fear from death. This rashness, which twenty years of perils had not diminished, gave to his mind the liberty, the promptitude of judgment and execution, so necessary in the midst of the compli- cated movements of war. This quality astonished those who surrounded him more even than the courage in action, which is more or less felt by all who are habituated to the dangers of war."— Alison's Miscellaneous Essays. t Here Moreau, fighting on the side of the allies, was mortally wounded. He had re- sided some time in America, an exile, but returned at the request of the Emperor Alexan- der to take part in this great movement against Napoleon. , , . § This battle, from the great number of nationalities engaged in it, is called in history the Battle of the Nations. 89. What did he do on his arrival? What other coalition was formed against him? 90. Describe the campaign in Prussia. Give an account of the campaigns of Wei Uugton in Spain. A. I>. 1814.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 317 months afterward, 160,000 French, although surrounded by 300,000 of the allies, maintained a combat of three days, and were again victorious. The exhaustion thus produced made retreat necessary ; and the remnant of the French army began its homeward march. At Hanau, 60,000 Austrians and Bavarians disputed the crossing of the Rhine. Another battle ensued ; and the French army, only 70,000 strong, re- entered France, which was already threatened with an inva- sion on the south by the English, under Wellington. That general, who had conducted a long and arduous campaign in the Peninsula, illustrated by the victories of Ciudad Rodrigo (the-oo-dad' ro-dre'-go), Badajos (bad-a-hoce), Sal- amanca, Vittoria, and San Sebastian, at length succeeded in driving the French out of Spain (1813). 91. Invasion of France. — Capitulation of Paris. — The retreat of Napoleon was followed by the invasion of France. In January, 1814, four hostile armies were ap- proaching : in the north, an army under Bernadotte, which had conquered Holland, and was moving through Belgium ; in the south, the English, under Wellington ; in the north- east, the army of Blucher, which entered France through Frankfort ; in the east, the grand army of the coalition, under Schwarzenberg (shtvartz en-berg). The last two were expected to make a junction in the eastern part of France, and together march upon Paris. 92. Leaving Soult in the south and Maison in the north, to operate against Wellington and Bernadotte respectively, Napoleon gathered all his available forces to prevent the junction of the armies under Blucher and Schwarzenberg. In this attempt, a series of battles followed each other in rapid succession, which amply illustrated Napoleon's amaz- ing vigor and fertility of resource. Every victory, however, was won by the sacrifice of a portion of his exhausted army, and made little impression on the dense masses which were % 01. What armies invaded France ? What was the object of the invasion ? 92. What course did Napoleon pursue? What was the result ? What followed the capitulation of Paris? 318 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1814. converging on the capital. On the 31st of March, 1814, Paris capitulated ; and the Senate, under the guidance of Talleyrand,* established a provisional government, and a few days after, decreed the dethronement of Napoleon, abolished the right of succession in his family, absolved the people and the army from their oath of fidelity to him, and re- instated on the throne the Bourbon family, in the person of Louis XVIII., a brother of the unfortunate Louis XVI. 93. Abdication of Napoleon. — When the news of the capitulation of Paris reached him, Napoleon was at Fontaine- bleau, with 50,000 men. During the progress of this last desperate struggle against overwhelming numbers, many trusted generals and officials, whose fortunes he had made, betrayed him, and went over to the enemy, leaving him powerless. Napoleon, therefore, accepted the terms which the allies oifered. Bidding adieu to his troops at Fontaine- bleau, he signed his abdication ; and, on the 20th of April, set out for the island of Elba,f which had been assigned to him as a place of exile. Maria Louisa and her son had already left Paris the day preceding its capitulation. 94. Results of the Reign of Napoleon. — During the reign of Napoleon, many political and social changes occurred in France, which were due partly to his own great ability, and partly to the skill with which he directed the forces of the Eevolution. The great public works begun or * Prince de Talleyrand, one of the most Illustrious of French statesmen and diploma- tists, had taken a prominent part in all the preceding revolutions, ?nd, as minister of foreign affairs, had negotiated most of the important treaties of the time. He had pre- dicted the fall of Napoleon in 1812; and the latter becoming unfriendly to him, he turned against him, and sent important information to the allies when they were march- ing on Paris. He was therefore made Minister of Foreign Affairs under Louis XVIII. and was a member of the Congress of Vienna. He died in 1838. Alison says of him : " The very fact of his having survived, both in person and influence, so many changes oi government, which had proved fatal to almost all his contemporaries, of itself con stituted a colossal reputation : and when he said, with a sarcastic smile, on taking the oath of fidelity to Louis Philippe in 1830, ' (Test le iroisieme ' [It to the third~\, the expres- sion, repeated from one end of Europe to the other, produced a greater admiration foi his address than indignation at his perfidy. . . His witticisms and bonmots were admir- able ; but none, perhaps, more clearly reveals his character and explains his success in life than the celebrated one ' that the principal object of language is to conceal the thought.' "—Alison's History of Europe. t A small island near the north-west coast of Italy. 93. Where was Napoleon when he received the news of the surrender of Paris ? What course did many of his former friends pursue ? What was he compelled to do ? Where was he sent ? 94. What is said of the public works undertaken by him ? Of what did the most important consist ? In what ways was his influence beneficial X REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 319 completed by him were numerous, and still remain to attest his astonishing activity and the intelligent interest he mani- fested in everything that related to the material prosperity of the people. They embraced costly docks, ship-yards, or ARCH OP TRIUMPH, PARIS. arsenals in almost every important harbor of France ; beau- tiful and substantial bridges in very many cities and towns ; the restoration of cathedrals and churches destroyed or in- * This is probably the most splendid structure of the kind in the world. It was com- menced by Napoleon to commemorate the exploits of the " grand army ; " but not fin- ished until the reign of Louis Philippe. It stands in the Place de VEtoile, and from a base 147 feet by 75 feet, rises to a height of 162 feet, the central archway being 95 feel high. The under walls are inscribed with the names of 384 generals and 96 victories. Ten broad avenues radiate from the open p'ace where it stands, 320 REVOLUTIONARY FRAXCE. jured during the Kevolution ; the drainage of marsh lands ; and a vast system of canals and public roads, the latter opened, at immense labor and expense, over mountains till then deemed practically insurmountable.* He created new industries, and encouraged manufactures by welcoming in- ventors to his court, established institutions for the extirpa- tion of beggary, and founded schools and colleges. He was also a patron of science, letters, and art, beautifying his capital with galleries, museums, and monuments, and taking special pleasure in the company of men whose lives had been passed in the more advanced fields of intellectual effort. 95. The influence of Napoleon on the destiny of France has been profound and lasting. As a soldier, he stands alone in modern times. All the qualities which constitute the successful general were repeatedly exhibited by him, and place him in a position of precedence which stands unques- tioned. To all these he added a thorough knowledge of the peculiar nature of his soldiers, and a nervous eloquence which enabled him to rouse them at pleasure to the height of energy and enthusiasm, f Of his ability as an administrator, also, ample proofs remain. From the time of his appoint- ment as First Consul till his downfall, every department of government felt the influence of his organizing mind. His labors for systematizing and facilitating the government of * Only a few of the many works originating with, or completed by Napoleon, can here be mentioned. These are the naval and water works at Dunkirk, Havre, Boulogne, Cher- bourg, and Nice ; the bridges of Turin, Bordeaux, Lyons, Sevres, Rouen, and two of those in Paris ; the canal between the Rhine and the Rhone, the Scheldt and the Somme, the Ranee and the Vllaine ; those of Aries, St. Quentin, and Pavia ; the great roads over Mt. Simplon, Mt. Cenis, Mt. Geneva, and the Corniche ; the draining of the marshes of Bourgoin, Cotentin, and Rochef ort ; the completion of the Louvre, the erection of the Bank of France, the Exchange, the Madeleine, the Arch of Triumph, the Arch of the Car- rousel, of many statues and monuments, and more than twenty fountains in Paris alone. t The affectionate admiration with which Bonaparte was regarded by his soldiers was manifested in many ways during the Italian campaign. His small stature and undoubted bravery led them to bestow upon him the nickname of " the little corporal ; " while the conduct of two regiments which he had occasion to reprove for cowardice at the battle of Castiglione furnishes abundant evidence of the anxiety which his soldiers felt to de- serve his praise. Forming them before him, he addressed a few words of reproach to them, and ended by directing his chief of staff to write upon their colors : " They are no longer of the Army of Italy." The bitterness of their feelings on receiving this severe rebuke was shown in a remarkable manner. Quitting the ranks, they crowded around him, and besought him to spare them the intended disgrace, and give them another op- portunity to prove their courage. After some hesitation, he consented ; and in the bat- tle of Rivoli he had the satisfaction of seeing them resume their place among the bravest of his soldiers. 95. What is said of Napoleon's influence on France ? As a soldier, how is he re- garded ? What was his ability as an administrator 1 What is said of his industry ? His motives, and the means he employed ? REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 321 France and consolidating his power, were arduous and almost unceasing ; and to this work he brought an unyielding will and a power of physical endurance seldom equaled. The means he employed to carry out his vast designs, however, and the motives which animated him have been severely censured ; and the moral aspect of his remarkable career has been generally condemned. * 96. Character of Napoleon. — In person, Napo- leon was below the medium height, and, during his early years, was slenderly built ; being thin, at times, to emaci- ation. His head was disproportionately large, with features classically molded, an olive complexion, and large, dark eyes. He was habitually abstracted, seeming to commune with himself even when listening to others ; yet his con- versation was engaging, from the vigor and clearness of his thought, and the condensed precision of his language. When angry, he was hasty and even violent ; in time of danger, he was calm, and never, apparently, so thoroughly master of himself as in the tumult of the battle-field. His habits were simple in the extreme. He slept only four or five hours a day, ate and dressed plainly, shared, if necessary, the coarse fare of his soldiers, and on -the march seemed insensible to fatigue. His sudden rise from obscu- rity to absolute power ; his stirring and laconic addresses to his army, followed by immediifte and overwhelming success in battle ; the grandeur of his designs ; and a certain heroic cast of mind which led him in conversation to draw his illustrations from the great men and deeds of antiquity, sur- rounded him with an air of mystery, and powerfully con- tributed to that personal magnetism which he exerted over all who came into his presence. 'V * " Washington appears in grander proportions as a moral than as an intellectual man, while Napoleon was a moral dwarf ; and I do not well see how he could be otherwise. Dedicated from childhood to the profession of arms, all his thoughts and associations were of a military character. "Without moral or religious instruction, he was thrown while a youth into the vortex of the Revolution ; and in the triumph of infidelity, and the overthrow of all religion, and the utter chaos of principles and sentiments, it was not to be expected he would lay the foundation of a religious character."— J. T. Headley— Napoleon and His Marshals. 96. What was the personal appearance of Napoleon ? Mention some of his pecu liarities. What were his habits. What added to his influence ? 14* 322 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1815. Restoration of the Bourbons. 1814 97. Louis XVIII.— The dethronement of Napo- to leon was followed by the dismemberment of the Em- pire, and the reduction of France to its limits in 1792. The new king, styled Louis XVI1L, being then in England, his brother, the Count of Artois (ar-twah), was made Lieutenant-General of the kingdom till he should ar- rive. On the 3d of May . Louis entered Paris, and proceed- ing to Notre Dame, accompanied by the representatives of all the allied powers then in the city, offered thanks for his restoration. On the 3 0th of May, the treaty with the allies concerning the limits of France was concluded, the details being left to a Congress which met at Vienna ; and on the 4th of .Jiijifs . the constitutional charter which Louis had granted, was presented and accepted. Though there were many liberal features in it, they were nullified by the power which the king reserved to himself of altering them accord- ing to his pleasure. The Bourbons, in other words, com- prehended so "slightly the changes that had taken place in France, that they proposed to restore everything, as far as possible, to its condition before the Revolution.* The Hundred Days. • 98. Return of Napoleon from Elba. — While the Congress of Vienna was deliberating in March, 1815, the astounding news was received that the Emperor Napoleon had escaped from Elba and landed in France, f This was soon * This conduct of the Bourbons gave rise to the expression which is still used to de- scribe minds that are insensible to progress : " Like the Bourbons, they have learned nothing and forgotten nothing." Louis XVIII. always spoke of the year 1814 as the nine- teenth of his reign, ignoring entirely the political changes which had occurred in France since the death of the Dauphin in 1795. t " It had been irrevocably determined by the allied sovereigns that they would no longer either recognize Napoleon as a crowned head, or suffer him to remain in Europe ; and that his residence, wherever it was, should be under such restrictions as should effectually prevent his again breaking loose to desolate the world. Napoleon himself, however, was anxious to embark for America."— A lison's History of Europe. 97. Who was called to govern France after the downfall of Napoleon ? What changes were made ? What did the Bourbons propose to do? 98. How were the deliberations of the Congress of Vienna interrupted? Where did Napoleon land ? What did he do ? What action was taken by the allies ? >. 1815.] KEVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 323 found to be true. Thoroughly informed of the dissatisfied state of feeling in France, and believing that the allied pow- ers would finally decide to banish him from Europe, he left Elba secretly and landed at Cannes (can), in the south of France, where he issued a stirring appeal to the army, and started on a triumphal journey to the capital. He went by way of Grenoble and Lyons, everywhere welcomed by the people, who accompanied him in crowds, and joined by the soldiers, who deserted to his standard.* On the 19ih n£ ^farch^ Louis XVIII. left Paris in terror ; and the following day Napoleon re-entered the Tuileries, where he was received with enthusiastic joy by those assembled to meet him. The Empire was re-established at once, several objectionable features of the former imperial constitution being omitted. These changes were announced at an imposing ceremony held on the -lot of Jnnc,Jn the Field of May. His pacific utterances, however, were disregarded by the allies, who issued a proclamation calling upon Europe to arm itself against him. 99. The Seventh Coalition. — The Battle of Waterloo.— The seventh coalition against Napoleon was thus formed, nearly a million men marching against him. Hastily organizing his army, he entered Belgium with 130,000 men, hoping to conquer his enemies before they could unite, f At Fleurus and Ligny, on the 16th o f J une, he encountered a Prussian army under Blucher, and defeated it. On the J. 8th. at Waterloo, Ije met the English under Wellington. The battle began at about eleven o'clock •"Advancing to the front of the advanced guard, in the well-known surtout and cocked-hat which had hecome canonized in the recollections of the soldiers, he said aloud to the opposite rank, in a voice tremulous from emotion, ' Comrades, do you know me again ? ' 'Yes, sire ! ' exclaimed the men. ' Do you recognize me, my children ? ' he added. 'lam your emperor; fire on me if you wish; fire on your father: here is my hosom ;' and with that he bared his breast. At these words the transports of his soldiers could no longer be restrained ; as if struck by an electric shock, they all broke their ranks, threw themselves at the feet of the emperor, embraced his knees with tears of joy, and with indescribable fervor again raised the cry of Vive VEmpereur! Hardly had they risen from the ground when the tricolor cockade was seen on every breast, the eagle re. appeared on the standard, and the whole detachment sent out to combat the emperoi ranged itself with fervid devotion on his side."— A UsoiVs History of Europe. t His plana were laid with all his accustomed skill, but they were betrayed by General Bourmont, who, on the 14th of June, treacherously deserted Napoleon, and went over t« the camp of Blucher, with several other oflBcers. 99. What was Napoleon's plan of action ? In what battles did he engage ? De scribe the battle of Waterloo. What was the result ? 324 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1815. in the morning, and lasted till seven in the evening. Up to the latter hour the contest was undecided, each side merely holding its position in the hope of re-enforcements. They came at last to the allies, Blucher arriving with 30,000 men and turning the right wing of the French. * The retreat be- gan at once, and ended in a disastrous rout. A few desper- ate attempts were made by the old guard of Napoleon f to check the tide, but without success ; the remnants of the scattered army everywhere sought safety in flight. J Second Eestoration of the Bourbons. 100. Napoleon hastened to Paris, where he attempted to obtain means to oppose the allies, who were marching a second time on the capital. His efforts were without success. The fear of another invasion, and the knowledge that France was exhausted by the tremendous exertions and sacrifices already made, led the legislative chambers to withdraw their confidence from Napoleon and to demand his abdication. This was given by him on the 22dj)f.Jnnp,§ with a recommendation in favor of his son. Measures were taken to install the latter under the title of Napoleon II., but the approach of the allies destroyed all unity of action ; and, on the Zth— oJLJuly, the allied armies, headed by Wel- * " On a sudden, a cannonade was heard on the extreme right of our army. ' It is Grouchy ! ' exclaimed the soldiers. It cannot he Grouchy, thought Napoleon. It was in fact a third enemy ; it was Blucher, who, at the head of 30,000 Prussians, passed from be- hind Bulow upon our right flank. Then our soldiers, thinking themselves betrayed, cried aloud, Sauvequi veut! and the last army of France, pressed in front by those who remained of Wellington's 90,000 men, and on the right by the 66,000 Prussians of Blucher and Bulow, rolled back upon itself, its ranks became disordered, and soon there was nothing but a horrible confusion." -Duruy , fi History of France. t It was in this battle, when the Old Guard was in vain attempting to drive back the overwhelming masses of the enemy by repeated charges, that its general, Cambronne, is said to have uttered the memorable words, " The guard dies, but never surrenders." Here also Napoleon had at first decided to court death by placing himself in the center of one of the squares of his guard, and ordering it into the thickest of the fight. He was dissuaded, however, by his officers. t " The loss of the allies was immense in this battle. That of the British and Hanove- rians alone amounted to 10.686, of whom 2,047 were killed, exclusive of the Prussians, who had lost 6,000 more. The Prussian loss on the 16th and 18th, including the action at Wavres on the latter of these days, was 33,182. Of the French army, it is sufficient to say that its loss was at least 40.000; but, in effect, it was totally destroyed, and scarcely any of the men who fought at Waterloo ever again appeared in arms."— Alison's History oj Europe. § This last short exercise of power by Napoleon, from his landing at Cannes to his sec- ond abdication, is known as the " Reign of the Hundred Days." 100. What course did Napoleon pursue? How was he received in Paris ? Fof what purpose did he go to Rochefort ? What was his fate ? A. 1>. 1815.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 325 lington and Blucher, entered Paris. A few days after, the halls of the chambers were closed ; and Louis XVIII. , ad- vised by Fouche of all that had occurred, re-entered the city. Napoleon went to Rochefort, whence he intended to sail for the United States ; but finding all means of escape removed by the vigilance of British cruisers, he surrendered himself to Captain Maitland of the English frigate Bel-ler'o- phon (July 15, 1815). By agreement of the allied sover- eigns, he was sent to the island of St. Helena,* where he continued to reside as a prisoner till his death, in 1821, at the age of 52 years. 101. Among the first acts of the restored king, was one to disband the army, and punish the officers who had de- serted to Napoleon, f By the second treaty of Paris (Novem- ber, 1815) the territory of France was reduced within the limits of 1790, and she was compelled to pay war indemni- ties to the invaders, and to sustain au army of occupation for three years in certain designated forts on the frontier. The galleries and museums of Paris were also stripped of the famous works of art which Napoleon had sent to them as trophies of his many campaigns. J ~ The blindness of the Bourbons to the influences which were at work around them, prevented them from doing anything of moment to har- monize the country. Old animosities revived, and distur- bances took place in many parts of France. These troubles were increased by the tyrannous acts of the first chamber elected after the return of the king to Paris. Louis him- * St. Helena is a small rocky Island In the South Atlantic Ocean. t Nineteen officers, mostly of the rank of geileral, were thus proscribed ; thirty-eight prominent officials under the empire were banished or put under surveillance ; and twenty-nine members were excluded from the Chamber of Peers. Of the first class, La- bedoyere (lak-bed-o-yar) and Marshal Ney were shot. The former had commanded the garrison at Grenoble, the first body of troops that surrendered to Napoleon on his return from Elba. Ney had volunteered to take the command of the troops senfout to arrest Napoleon, promising to " bring back the Corsican to Paris in an iron cage ; " but on see- ing his old commander, he forgot his promises and his oaths. He was shot in the gar- dens of the Luxembourg by a platoon of grenadiers, falling dead instantly, pierced by thirteen bullets in the head and breast. The same year, Murat landed in Calabria, in the hope of exciting an insurrection and regaining the throne of Naples ; but he failed, and was arrested and shot. X Previous to the second treaty of Paris, Russia, Prussia, and Austria had entered into what was afterward known as the Holy Alliance, by which each guaranteed to the other its possessions. 1 01. What course did Louis take with the army? How was France affected by the Second Treaty of Paris ? What was the State of the country ? 326 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1820. self, becoming displeased with it, dissolved it, and convened a new one which was more moderate. 102. Assassination of the Duke of Berry. — The effect of the principles which the Ke volution of 1789 had made familiar to the people of Europe, but which had been obscured by the mighty wars waged by Napoleon dur- ing so many years, now began to manifest itself in many ways in different countries. The reaction against the old order of things in church and state was general. Insurrec- tions broke out in Spain and Italy ; political troubles oc- curred in Germany ; and in France an independent party was organized in the Chamber of Deputies to oppose the king. The hatred toward the Bourbons increased ; and, in 1820, the Duke of Berry, the nephew of the king, and the member of the Bourbon family on whom the succession de- pended, was assassinated by a young man named Louvel (loo-veV), who boldly declared that his intention was to rid France of the family.* 103. Though the assassin of the Duke of Berry declared that he had no accomplices, his act was charged to the liberal party, and brought it into disfavor. The annual elections showed a steady gain to the royalists ; and the lib- erals, overcome in the assembly, resorted to the formation of secret societies throughout France. Disturbances oc- curred at various places, the authors of which were pun- ished with great severity. An opportunity of diverting at- tention from troubles at home now occurred, which the king improved. The illiberal policy of the king of Spain, Fer- dinand VII., had so displeased his subjects that the insur- rection which began in 1820, still continued, the army un- der General O'Donnell taking an active part by declaring for the liberal constitution of 1812. * His design was not successful. The Duke of Berry had only a daughter at the time of his assassination. The Duchess of Berry, however, gave birth to a son after her hus- band's death, who was known as the Duke of Bordeaux, or Count de Chamhord (sham- bor'). The birth of this prince gave great joy to the royalists. 102. What was the feeling in Europe at this time ? In what countries especially was the popular discontent shown ? What political murder took place in France ? 103. What led to the formation of secret societies ? What occurred ? What took place in Spain ? A. D. 1824.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 327 104, Invasion of Spain. — Death of the King. — Rus- sia, Austria, and Prussia, acting on the terms of the Holy Alliance, persuaded Louis to send an army into that country to suppress it. The Duke of Angouleme, therefore, entered Spain (April 7, 1823) with a powerful army, overturned the liberal government, and re-instated Ferdinand. The result of the Spanish expedition had the desired effect in France. It gave the king temporarily the support of the army, which had shown signs of disaffection. Louis, however, did not long survive the success thus gained. He died in 1824, after a short and uneventful reign. He was amiable, but weak and bigoted, and governed largely by his ministers. He originated no measures designed for the permanent welfare of his people. THE BOURSE, PARIS (COMPLETED IN 1826). 105. i V( i, Charles X. — Charles, Count of Artois, to brother of Louis XVIII.. was now called to the 1830 throne. Much was hoped from him at his accession, but the popular expectation was soon disappointed. In the 104. What action did France take with regard to Spain? What advantage did the king gain by his expedition to that country ? Why was this of little value to him ? What was the character of Louis XVITT . ? 105. Who succeeded Louis XVIII.? Who was the Count of Artois? What course did he pursue ? What was done with regard to the National Guard ? 32$ REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. B. 1830. contests which were constantly carried on between the ultra- royalists and the liberals, and which gradually grew more violent, he steadily supported the former. Laws were passed with his approval, allowing indemnity to many of the emi- grants whose property had been confiscated ; severe penal- ties were decreed against any destruction or 'theft of the property of the Church ; many officers who had served un- der the Eepublic or the Empire, were discharged ; and an attempt was made to restrict the liberty of the press. This last measure met with such violent opposition that it was abandoned. A few days after, the National Guard of Paris, returning from a review held by the king, testified their joy at the defeat of the measure by insulting cries under the windows of the minister, and the next day, the guard was disbanded by order of the king (1827). 106. Conquest of Algiers. — An opportunity of appeas- ing the popular displeasure presenting itself at this time, the king hastened to embrace it. For many years the Dey of Algiers had committed outrages on the subjects of France ; and he finally insulted the French consul, and fired upon the envoy who was sent to demand satisfaction. An expe- dition was, therefore, organized, consisting of a large army and fleet ; and, within less than a month after it landed, Algiers was conquered, and the Dey fled to Europe (1830). 107. The Revolution of 1830.— Under cover of the glorious news from Algiers, the king issued four ordinances of the most arbitrary nature. The first suspended the lib- erty of the press ; the second dissolved the Chamber of Deputies ; the third restricted the privilege of voting ; and the fourth changed the time of meeting of the electoral col- leges. Astonishment and indignation were everywhere visi- ble at this violation of the constitution ; crowds gathered around the Palais Royal ; many public bodies declared the 106. What war was entered upon ? Why was it undertaken, and what furnished a pretext for it ? 107. At the termination of the Algerine war. what did the king do? How WM his action received ? Who commanded the troops? Why was he unpopular? Whal was the result of the contest ! A. D. 1830.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 329 ordinances unconstitutional ; and the price of the public securities fell. On the 27th of July, several newspapers ap- peared in spite of the ordinance against them. They were immediately seized. The angry crowds grew larger, and the troops were ordered out. Barricades were erected, and fight- ing began and was extended over the city, lasting for three days. At the end of that time, the people were victorious. 108. Abdication of Charles X. — A provisional govern- ment was then formed under the direction of Lafayette, who had regained his popularity. The National Guard was re- established, Charles X. was dethroned, and the Duke of Or- leans was declared Lieutenant-General of France. Eefusing to believe that the disturbance in Paris was indeed a revolu- tion, Charles X., who was at St. Cloud, declined to resign; When he discovered his mistake, he offered to revoke his ordinances, but was told that it was too late. He then de- cided to leave France, and sailed with his family from the port of Cherbourg (August 16, 1830).* The week previous, the Duke of Orleans was declared King of the French, under the title of Louis Philippe {fe-leep r ). The Bourbok-Orleans Family. 1§3© 109. Louis Philippe. — The country was par- to tially pacified on the accession of the new king,f by his adoption of the tricolor and a new charter of rights, and by the arrest of the ministers of Charles X. By yielding thus to the demands of the people, offense was given to the other European powers; and the king found * He resided for a time in England, afterward at Holyrood Castle, at Edinburgh, which was placed at his disposal by the British government. t Louis Philippe was the oldest son of the notorious Philippe Egalite of the Revolution. He had taken part in that movement, and had fought at the battles of Valmy and Jem- mapes. At the execution of his father he succeeded to the title of Duke of Orleans ; but being on that account banished from France, led a wandering life in Switzerland, the United States, and England, sustaining himself for a time as a teacher of mathematics and modern languages. His varied experiences had brought him into contact with the masses of the people, and as he had always shown liberal tendencies, his accession was welcomed as the beginning of a new era for France. 108. Who formed a provisional government ? What change was made in the gov- erning: power ? What course did Charles X. take ? Who was declared king ? 109, What were the first events of the reign of Louis Philippe? Their effect? Where did popular movements occur ? Their effect on France? Who became Min ister of the Interior ? 330 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1832. it necessary, after a time, to abandon his liberal policy. Ke- newed discontent at home was the consequence, which was increased by the intrigues of the Duchess of Berry in behalf of her son. Popular movements also took place in Belgium,* Poland, Italy, and Germany, which the king could not di- rectly favor without imperiling the material welfare of France. Hence arose a policy of vacillation which pleased no one. A decided stand was finally taken by the appoint- ment of Casimir Perier (pa-re-a) as Minister of the Interior. 110. The efforts of this minister, though vigorous, did not allay the growing dissatisfaction, which reached its height when the fall of Warsaw completed the suppression of the second uprising in Poland. \ In Italy, secret socie- ties created insurrections among the subjects of the Pope (Gregory XVI.), which Austria interfered to quell. This action gave offense to France, which sent a fleet to Ancona to resist the extension of Austrian influence in Italy. At home, however, the weakness of the king was evident. Plots were discovered against him and his family ; and trades riots and uprisings of the workingmen occurred in many parts of France, which the army found it difficult to suppress. \ In 1832, the cholera made its appearance and added its horrors to the general disquiet. One of its vic- tims was Perier, whose death was greatly regretted notwith- standing the disagreement of parties in regard to his policy. 111. One cause of apprehension was removed at this time, by the death of the Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon II.) , the son of Napoleon, who died at Schonbrunn at the age of * Belgium was separated from Holland In 1830, and was erected Into an Independent kingdom. t The news of the fall of Warsaw, which was accompanied with many acts of great severity, produced a violent commotion In Paris. Crowds assembled in the Place Ven- dome, calling the ministers to account for the course they had pursued in regard to Poland. One of them, Sebastian!, hoping to escape the anger of the crowd, made use of the following equivocal sentence: "At the latest accounts, quiet reigns in Warsaw." Hence the popular expression, " Order reigns in Warsaw." X A peculiar and dangerous feature of these tumults was the growth of communism, or the notion that all property should be divided and shared equally by all men. 110. Were the efforts of the new minister successful ? What increased the dissat- isfaction of the people ? Why was a fleet sent to Ancona ? What other troubles ex- isted ? What is said of the cholera ? 111. What death occurred ? What were themeasures of the new cabinet ? What alliance did France enter into ? Why were the " laws of September " passed ? \. D. 1839.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 331 twenty-one. A few months after the death of Perier, a new cabinet * was formed (October 11, 1832), which carried forward several salutary measures, one of the most impor- tant of which was the organization of a system of primary instruction (1833). The following year, France, with Eng- land, Spain, and Portugal, entered into what was known as the Quadruple Alliance, for the protection of constitutional government in the last two countries. Attempts upon the life of the king f becoming more frequent, several strin- gent laws were passed in 1835, called the laws of Septem- ber. So profound was the hatred against the king, however, among certain classes, that the new laws had little effect in checking these attempts. 112. One by one, the ministers who formed the cabinet of 1832 had resigned, till in 1836 it was entirely altered. The king, wearied with these constant changes, which were gen- erally caused by the opposition of the Chamber of Deputies, determined to pursue a more vigorous course. Sustained by one of his advisers, Count Mole (mo-la), he made a short-lived effort to rule as well as reign. He partially at- tached Prussia to his interests by the marriage of his oldest son to the Princess Helen of Mecklenburg, compelled Mexico and Buenos Ayres to make restitution for outrages upon French citizens, by sending hostile fleets to their shores, and after an unsuccessful attempt to capture the city of Con- stantine in Algeria, finally succeeded (1837). These tri- umphs, however, were neutralized by the vacillating policy of the king in Europe. The evacuation of Ancona, which took place in 1838, was regarded as a surrender to the men- aces of Austria, and at once produced a crisis. The ablest members in the legislative chamber united against Count Mole and brought about his resignation (March, 1839). * This cabinet was formed by Marshal Soult. Its principal members were De Broglic, Thiers, and Guizot. t The most atrocious of these was that of an Italian named Fieschi, who had con- trived an infernal machine, which exploded as the king with his staff was attending a review. A shower of bullets was discharged into the crowd, killing Marshal Mortier (mor-te-a), several soldiers, and workmen, and a young girl. Fieschi was tried and exe- cuted. 112. What course did the king now adopt ? Why ? What did he succeed in do jug ? What led to a crisis ? Who resigned ? 332 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1840 113. The league of the deputies fell to pieces on the ac complishment of its object. For several weeks great confu sion prevailed, the want of a firm governing hand manifest ing itself in another uprising in Paris. This result put ar end to the quarrels among the deputies, and a new ministry was formed by Marshal Soult (May 12, 1839). The new cabinet was called at once to take action on the question iu dispute between Turkey and Egypt — the beginning of an TOMB OF NAPOLEON. intervention in the affairs of the former which, under the name of the Eastern Question, has continued to claim the attention of Europe to the present time. France favored Egypt in her attempt to subdue Syria ; Eussia and England opposed her. England, Eussia, Austria, and Prussia, how- ever, signed a treaty by which the Eastern Question was set- tled, without the knowledge of France (July 15, 1840). 114. Angry at this want of good faith, France, under the lead of Thiers, made preparations for war. The allied 113. What led to an uprising in Paris ? What did it result in ? Who formed ft cabinet ? What question engaged its attention ? What treaty was signed ? 114. What followed f Who resigned ? Give an account of the removal of the re- mains of Napoleon. Where were they deposited 1 A. 1>. 1812. EHBVQLUTHXBTABY FRANCE. 333 fleet iii the Mediterranean, however, by its vigorous assaults and capture of Acre, had virtually decided the question. Thiers, having no longer the support of the king, resigned, and a peace ministry was formed under the direction of Gui- zot (give-zo'). In December, 1840, the remains of Napoleon were brought to France. The Prince de Joinville, a son of Louis Philippe, repaired to St. Helena with a fleet, and, on his return to European waters, first learned of the diffi- culty between France and England. Believing war between the two countries to be imminent, and fearing an attempt at capture by the English, he pledged his officers to die rather than deliver up the remains of the emperor. These were afterward deposited with imposing ceremonies in a tomb specially constructed for them under the dome of the church of the Invalides.* 115. Shortly after, the five great powers of Europe signed a treaty by which the Sultan of Turkey was empowered to prevent any foreign war vessel from entering the Bosphorus (1841). Under the guidance of- Guizot, the condition of affairs in France was, for many years, one of order and quiet. All fears of foreign war passed away ; while, at home, the disturbances which had marked the first years of the reign of Louis Philippe entirely disappeared, f In 1842, the Duke of Orleans met with a violent death by being thrown from his carriage ; and a new law was passed by which the succession was devolved upon his son, the Count of Paris, at the age of eighteen, the Duke of Nemours to act as regent. The following year, Victoria, of Eng- land, in testimony of the cordial understanding between her government and that of France, visited the latter country ; * Or rather in the church of St. Louis, forming a part of the Hotel des Invalides, which was founded by Louis XIV. as an asylum for veteran soldiers. It stands on the left bank of the Seine, covering, with its courts, etc., an area of about sixteen acres, west of the Faubourg St. Germain. t The foreign enterprises begun or completed during the latter years of the reign of Louis Philippe were numerous and important. Besides some small annexations made by the navy in the South Pacific (1841-3), an embassy was sent to China, which succeeded id opening that vast empire to the influences of Christianity. 115. What treaty was signed ? What was the condition of France under Guizot ! Who met a violent death ? On whom was the succession devolved ? Who visited France ? 334 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1848. and the king afterward returned the visit, and was admitted to the Order of the Garter. . 116. The most important enterprise prosecuted during this period for the material advantage of France was the conquest of Algeria. Several years before, the city of Al- giers had been taken ; but now a union of all the native Arab tribes opposed to the French was formed under the celebrated chieftain, Abd-el-Kader (kah'der). After an ac- tive campaign, in a difficult country, and under a burning sun, during which the war was extended from Algeria to Morocco, the power of Abd-el-Kader was completely broken in a decisive battle ; and he surrendered, some months after, to General Lamoriciere {Ja-rnnr-P.-sP.-ar') : and was sent a prisoner to France (1847). 117. Under the apparent quiet which France had enjoyed for several years, the principles of the Eevolution were still at work, their influence being steadily exerted in favor of greater liberty for the masses of the people. In 1847, the popular party presented to the Assembly resolutions asking for the removal of the property qualification in regard to voters, and a change in the composition of the Chamber it- self, by which the delegates should be more directly the representatives of the people. These requests were refused. The movers then appealed to the country, holding meetings and banquets everywhere, that the measure might be brought before the people in the most public manner. These meet- ings increased in number, and the speeches made were of the most imflammatory nature. The ministry, at length, interfered by prohibiting a banquet which had been an- nounced to take place in Paris on the 22d of February, 1848. In spite of the prohibition, a great crowd gathered at the appointed time and place, and the ministry asserted its authority by calling out the regular troops. The Na- tional Guard was assembled, but they sided with the peo- ple in the struggle which had already begun. 116. What conquest was effected ? To whom did Ahd-ol-Kader surrender ? 117. What principles were still active ? What did the popular party ask ? What followed ? What course did the ministry adopt ? What was the result ? A. B. 1848.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 335 118. The king soon saw the gravity of the situation, and attempted to appease the anger of the people by accepting the resignation of his minister, G-uizot. When this was an- nounced, the fighting which had been going on at the barri- cades ceased, and the city was ilLuminated in rejoicing at the popular triumph. A band of armed men belonging to the popular party, however, while passing the office of the Min- ister of Foreign Affairs, which was guarded by a battalion of regulars, through some misapprehension was fired upon by the latter, fifty-two persons being killed. The cry of "Treason!" was at once raised, and a riot broke out which the king attempted to quell by further concessions. It was too late, however. The fighting was renewed with increased violence. Attacks were made upon many of the public buildings ; the troops wavered in their allegiance, receiving the king coldly ; and so threatening did the revolt become that the latter was at length compelled to seek safety in flight.* 119. The mob then broke into the Tuileries, pillaging and destroying indiscriminately ; and, dragging out the throne, publicly burned it. They thronged also into the legislative chamber ; drove out the deputies, who were attempting to proclaim the accession of the young Count of Paris and the regency of his mother; and called upon certain popular leaders to establish a provisional government. A republic was finally proclaimed with Lamartine (-teen) at its head. \ 120. The character of Louis Philippe has been the subject of much discussion, owing to his inconsistent action at dif- ferent periods of his reign. His concessions to the popular * The king reached England after many difficulties, and died there in August, 1850, at the age of seventy-seven, after spending two years in complete privacy. '• t An effort was made to adopt the red flag of the communists, but it was defeated by Lamartine, in a speech of great eloquence and power, delivered under the most trying circumstances, when an incautious word might have cost him his life. The tricolor was at length adopted as the ensign of the new republic. " The red flag," said the orator, has only made the tour of the Champ de Mars, drawn in blood ; while the tricolor has made the tour of the world, carrying everywhere the name and glory of the country. 118. What concession was made ? With what effect ? What caused a renewal of the insurrection ? The result ? 119. What was done by the mob ? What was proclaimed ? Who was selected as the head of the . 1848. party displeased the Royalists, without being radical enough to satisfy the party for which they were made. Perhaps the explanation of his conduct is to be found in his inability to discern clearly the tendencies of the transition period in which he was placed. He was accused of avarice, and a leaning toward despotism and intrigue. The latter charge grew out of the marriage of his son, the Duke of Montpen- sier (mo?ig-pong-se-a), to the sister of the Queen of Spain, tfnder such circumstances that their son, it was thought, would fall heir to the throne. 121. Notwithstanding the difficulties with which Louis Philippe had to contend, many reforms were made during his reign, the chief of which were, the abolition of the death penalty for certain political offenses ; the suppression of the trade in slaves and their gradual emancipation ; the amelior- ation of the condition of children employed in factories ; and the creation of a system of primary instruction, which has been already mentioned. This last measure was due to the efforts of Guizot ; and, before his resignation and flight in 1848, the number of schools of all kinds in France amounted to more than 60,000, with an attendance of three millions and a half. Louis Philippe completed also the church of La Madeleine and the Arch of Triumph, built the palace of the Quay D'Orsay, the Hotel de Ville, the School of Fine Arts, the Column of July,* and that of Boulogne, and con- verted the palace of Versailles into a magnificent historical museum, filled with trophies to illustrate the glory of France. The Second Republic. 122. Though the most liberal measures were adopted by the new government, it failed to satisfy the demands of the * The Column of July was erected in 1840 In memory of those who fell during the three days of July, 1830, when Charles X. was driven from the throne. 121. Give an account of the reforms introduced by Louis Philippe. What build- ings did he cause to be constructed or improved ? 122. What caused further trouble, to the government? What led to outbreak- i 1 What assembly met ? What interfered, with it ? u REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 15 338 REVOLUTIONARY FRAtfCE. [A. B. 1848. political speculators, who had gradually been acquiring im- mense influence over the masses. Crude theories in regard to finance, social equality, and the relations of labor and capital, now found expression in public meetings, which were numerously attended, and led to serious outbreaks. On the 23d of April, deputies were chosen throughout France to the National Constituent Assembly, which was charged with the preparation of a new constitution.* Its labors were vastly increased, and sometimes openly interrupted by the jgtrem- ists, who drew into their employ the most abandoned classes, and defied the Assembly by the erection of barricades. CASTLE OF HAM.t 123. The army was at length summoned to Paris, togeth- er with the National Guard of the adjoining departments. After four days' fighting (June 23-26), during which the * This body again solemnly proclaimed the republic, and confided the executive poweT to a commission consisting of five members: MM. Arago, Gamier Pages, Marie, Lamar- tine, and Ledru Rollin. t Ham is situated about 67 miles north-east from Paris. Its old castle was used for some time as a state prison. It was built by the Count de St. Pol, in 1470. Its central tower is 100 feet high, and the walls are 86 feet thick. Joan of Arc was kept here for a few. days, alter she was taken prisoner ; and Mirabeau was imprisoned in it for some time. Louis Napoleon, Cavaignac, Lamoriciere, and others were confined in the castle (See note to 1 124.) 123. How was the not suppressed ? What were the chief provisions of the nefl constitution ? A. D. 1851.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 339 Assembly invested General Cavaignac {kah-ven-yac) with the dictatorship, the riot was suppressed.* The new con- stitution was announced in November. By it the sovereign power was intrusted to an assembly of 7dQ representatives. The executive consisted of a president, who was chosen for four years, but could not be re-elected till after an inteiwal of four years. In all matters of peace or war, he exercised a joint power with the Assembly. Any Frenchman, twenty five years of age, was eligible to office ; and every French man, twenty-one years of age, and in the enjoyment of his civil and political rights, was an elector. 124. On the 10th of December, 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte f was chosen President of the Eepublic. The Legislative Assembly, which opened its session a few months after, was at once divided into parties, and disputes began between the Assembly and the President. These reached their height, when a resolution to amend the electoral law of 1849 was introduced. The quarrel grew constantly more bitter, till, on the 2d of December, 1851, the President, in violation of the Constitution, dissolved the Assembly, ar- rested the leaders of both parties, declared Paris in a state of siege, and appealed to the country to sustain him. This usurpation (celebrated as the coup d'etat (koo-da-tati), or stroke of state policy) roused the most determined resist- ance. Paris was again in arms ; but the army had been won over by the President, and the struggle was short. After some disturbances in other parts of the country, which were soon suppressed, France (by a vote of 7; 43 7; 9. 16- against - * The forts and prisons overflowed with the captured insurgents. More than 11,000 were held as prisoners, and 100,000 muskets were taken. Twelve generals of the regular army were killed or wounded, and the Archbishop of Paris was shot down as he was advan- cing toward the insurgents on an errand of mercy. t Louis Napoleon was the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, being the son of Louis, King of Holland, and Hortense Beauharnais (bo-ar-na 1 ), the daughter of Josephine. At his birth, in 1808, there was little prospect that he would ever be called to ascend the throne. By a series of opportune deaths, however, he was left in 1832 the direct heir to the imperial succession. As the empire had been discarded by the French, all his hopes of success in his designs upon the government lay in restoring it. He made two unsuc- cessful attempts to do this : the first, at Strasbourg in 1836. where he endeavored to per- suade the garrison to declare him emperor ; the second, at Boulogne in 1840, where he pur- sued a similar course. In both cases he was arrested, being sent as a prisoner, on the lat- ter occasion, to the fortress of Ham. After five years' imprisonment, he made his escape, and spent the next three years principally in England. 124. Who was chosen president? What dispute arose F What course did the president take ? With what power was he clothed ? 340 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1852* 640,737) sustained the President in his arbitrary acts by re- electing him President for ten years, and clothing him with power to frame a new constitution. * 125. The only military expedition of moment undertaken by France, during the presidency of Louis Napoleon, was that to Borne, under General Qudmot {po-de-no'). For some time the Pope (Pius IX.) had been an exile from his capital, Eome being organized as a republic, under the government of ^azzini (mat-ze-ne). Believing that the capture of Eome was intended by the commander of the Austrian army then in Bologna, an attack was made on the city by the French, which failed. Being reinforced, they renewed the attack, with 25,000 men, and succeeded (July 2, 1849). On the 4th of April, 1850, the Pope returned under the protection of the French, who have constituted his principal support for seventeen years. The Second Empire. 1852 126. Napoleon III. — Louis Napoleon, after his to famous coup d'etat, was virtually clothed with the powers of a dictator. The constitution which he presented for the acceptance of the country, in the begin- ning of 1852, revived the consular powers of the first Napo- leon. On the 2d of December, 1852, he was chosen Empe- ror, under the title of Napoleon III. f Associated with him in the administration of the government, were the Sen- ate and Legislative Body ; the former consisting of 150 mem- bers, the latter of 261. A Council of State was charged with the duty of preparing laws ; the Legislative Body voted upon - " Thus was brought to an end the experiment of parliamentary government in France. It had lasted more than thirty-five years ; and on reviewing the stormy vicissi- tudes, the revolutionary excesses, the bloody civil conflicts of that period, we can hardly be surprised that the great majority of the French people viewed its suppression with indifference, if not approval."— Student's History of France. , ■ t On the 30th of January, 1853, the emperor was married to Eugenie, Countess of Teba (ta'bah), descended from one of the most illustrious families of Spain. 125. What military expedition was undertaken ? Give an account of the taking of Rome. Who was restored ? How long was he sustained by the French ? 126. What authority did Louis Napoleon acquire by the coup d'etat? What did the constitution revive ? To what position was he chosen ? What were the other branches of the government ? A. D. 1854.] REVOLUTIONARY FRAKCE. 341 them ; while the Senate watched over the maintenance of the Constitution, and was placed in direct relation with the people by the duty imposed upon it of receiving their peti- tions. 127. Crimean War. — Hardly was the new government installed in power, when the designs of Russia in the south- east of Europe brought on a war in which France felt herself constrained to engage. Under the pretext of protecting the interests of the Greek Church, Russia invaded the princi- palities of the Danube, with the intention of seizing Con- stantinople. The execution of this scheme would not only have been an infringement of the treaty of 1841, by permitting the fleets of Russia to pass the Dardanelles, but would have put in peril the communications of England and France with their colonies in India and Algeria respectively. The two latter powers, therefore, united to resist these encroachments. On the 3d of July, 1853, the Russians invaded the Turkish territory ; but it was not until after several months of fruit- less negotiation that war was formally declared. 128. The first attacks by the western powers were made in the Black Sea, where the port of Odessa, ^u atf bombarded by the French and English (April 22, 1854). The Russians then evacuated the Danubian principalities, and an Austrian army of observation entered Wal-la'chi-a to guarantee the Sultan's possessions in that quarter. The combined forces of France, England, and Turkey then sailed for the Crimea^ with the intention of attacking the strongly fortified post of Se-bas'to-pol. The French were commanded by Mar- shal St. Arnaiui* (ar-no') ; the English by Lord Raglan. \ Landing at some distance from Sebastopol, they met the Russians on the banks of the Alma (September 20, 1854), and * A few days after the battle of the Alma, St, Arnaud resigned his command to General Canrobert (-bar') ; three days after, he died at sea, on his way back to France. His suc- cessor retained command only a few months, being prostrated also by sickness. In May, 1855, General Pelissier was appointed commander of the French forces. t Lord Raglan also died of disease, contracted during the war, on the 28th of June, 1855. 127. What brought on a war ? In what scheme did the Russians engage ? Why was it opposed by France and England ? 128. What were the first events? What course did the Russians pursue ? What was done by the French and English forces ? Who were the respective command- ers ? What battles were fought t With what result ? What followed ? 342 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1856. defeated them, and again near Inkermann (November 5), with a similar result. After much suffering from disease and the rigor of the season, the allies entered upon the siege of Sebastopol, which was obstinately defended by the Rus- sians. 129. A powerful line of fortifications surrounded the city, strengthened at intervals by immense towers, the largest of which were the Malakoff and the Great Redan. The first attempt of the French to storm the former failed; but a second attack, made three months afterward, succeeded, the English also carrying the Great Redan. The capture of the Malakoff decided the fate of the city. The Russians abandoned it, destroying an immense amount of war mate- rial, but leaving also a large quantity which fell into the hands of the victors. The fall of Sebastopol virtually ended the war. The Emperor Nicholas having died (March 2, 1855), his successor ( Alexajiiiex-LI. ) consented to the terms imposed by the Congress of Paris (February, 1856).* 130. Among the questions discussed at the Congress of Paris was that of the "balance of power," which was grad- ually assuming increased importance in the eyes of the states- men of Europe. The occasion for this discussion was found in the repeated interferences of Austria in the affairs of Italy. Victor Emmanuel II., King of Piedmont, having established a liberal government in that country, the hopes of the peo- ple of Italy turned toward him as their defender against the encroachments of Austria. In time, they hoped to free them- selves from such aggressions by the union of all the states of Italy under one government. The development of this feel- ing led, at length, to a resentment between the two countries, which ended in war. France, whose tenure of Rome was threatened by the advances of Austria in the north of Italy, * The cordial understanding between France and England was signalized on the 15th of April, 1855, by a visit which the emperor and empress made to the queen in London. This courtesy was returned by the queen in August. 129. Describe the fortifications of Sebastopol. What part of the attack was as- signed to the French ? What to the English ? Were they successful ? What was the result of the capture of Sebastopol ? 1 30. What important question was discussed at the Congress of Paris ? Why was it introduced there ? Why did France ally herself with Piedmont? A. D. 1866.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 343 took the side of Piedmont ; and their alliance was further cemented by the marriage of Prince Napoleon, the cousin of the emperor, with the daughter of Victor Emmanuel. 131 • When the Austrians crossed the Ticino (te-chee'no), the Emperor Napoleon * immediately put his troops in mo- tion to aid his ally (1859). Entering Italy at Genoa, he crossed the mountains, and established his headquarters at Alexandria. The first action was at Mon-te-bel'lo (May 20). This was followed by the engagement at Pa-les'tro (May 30), betAveen the Austrians and the troops of Victor Emmanuel, and that of Ma-gen'ta (June 4), which opened the road to Milan. The emperor and Victor Emmanuel entered that city in triumph four days after. The Austrians fled toward Verona, but turned suddenly upon their pursuers at Sol-fer- i'no (-ee'no) (June 24), and made a final effort to retrieve their losses. The battle began at 3 o'clock in the morning, and lasted eighteen hours, at the end of which time the Aus- trians crossed the Mincio (meericlw) in great disorder, f 132. The Austrian disasters, which culminated at Solfer- ino, led to the conference at Vil'la-fran'ca and the treaty of Zurich (October, 1859). By the latter the foundation of an Italian Confederation was laid. Lombardy was attached to Piedmont ; Parma, Mod'e-na, and Florence were also united to it by vote of the people ; and Nice and Savoy, at a later date (1860), were annexed to France. The movement for the unity of Italy went rapidly on from this time ; and, at the close of the year 18G6, the French troops were finally with- * Soon after Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, attempts began to be made upon his life. One was made in 1853 ; another in 1855. On the 14th of January, 1858, Fieri and Orsini, aided by two other Italians, formed a plot for his destruction. Hand-grenades were thrown into the crowd which surrounded the doors of the opera, as the emperor and empress were entering the building, which burst and caused the loss of many lives. Both the emperor and the empress escaped unharmed, but Fieri and Orsini were ex- ecuted. These repeated attempts led to the passage of an act by which the regency was to be conferred upon the empress, in certain contingencies, in favor of her son, the prince Imperial, who was born March 16th, 1856. t The French force in this action was 140,000; the Austrian, 160,000; the loss of the lat- ter being 22,000. 131. In what way was the war begun ? What were the first three important bat- tles ? What city was opened to the allies by the victory of Magenta ? What decisive battle followed ? 132. What conference and treatv followed ? What changes in Italy were agreed upon ? What progress was made in uniting the States of Italy? What other expedi tions were undertaken by Napoleon III. ? 344 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1866. drawn from Rome. Several foreign expeditions were under- taken by the Emperor Napoleon, the first of which was that to China. This was conducted by the French and English together, who desired to trade with China on terms of equal- ity, and to give better protection to their subjects thus engaged. They demanded, therefore, a revision of former treaties, by which a greater number of ports should be opened to their vessels. In 1857, Canton was captured, and negotiations began ; but these were deceptive, and other ac- tions took place. The allies finally entered Pekin, where the object of the expedition was accomplished (October, 1859). 133. By a similar expedition, certain ports of Japan were opened (1858), while a war, entered into by the French and Spaniards against the Emperor of Anam (an-nahm'), the same year, ended with the opening of three ports to com- merce, the cession of three provinces to France, the estab- lishment of freedom of worship for Christians in Anam, and the payment of a war indemnity (1862). In 1860, the per- secution of the Christians of Syria by the Druses (droo'seez), a fierce and warlike race, inhabiting that country, led to the intervention of the French, who sent a small force for their protection. This was followed by a more formidable expe- dition to Mexico, sent for the redress of grievances of long standing, to which the recent condition of anarchy in that country had added (1861). France, England, and Spain had originally taken part in this expedition ; but the last two powers withdrew almost at the outset. The French forces, under General Forey (fo-rd) and Marshal Bazaine (bah- zan')< penetrated to the capital (1863), where a provisional government was established, which ended in the erection of an empire, the Archduke Maximilian, brother of the Em- peror of Austria, being called to the throne (1864). Pledges were given by the new emperor for the payment to France 133. What was done in Japan and Anam ? What countries engaged in the expe- dition to the latter V Why was the expedition to Syria undertaken ? What was the nominal reason of the expe iition to Mexico ? What nations took part in it ? What was the result of ii ? A. ». 1870.] IIKVOLUTIONAKY FRANCE. 345 of the expense of the expedition, and the losses suffered by French residents ; but the French forces abandoned the country early in 1867 ; and, soon afterward, an insurrection against Maximilian resulted in his 'capture and defeat, when, by order of the Mexican General Juarez, he was shot (June 19, 1867). 134. For a few years subsequent to 1867, France was un- disturbed, and applied herself to the development of her resources ; but many forces were silently at Avork to urge her on the disastrous course which she afterward adopted. One of these was the ancient feeling of jealousy entertained by her for centuries toward the powers beyond the Rhine. This feeling, which had its foundation in difference of race, reached its height during the wars of the first Napoleon, and was intensified at a later date by the aggrandizement of Prussia at the expense of Austria (1866). The rise of Prus- sia was rapid and steady, and was accompanied by warlike preparations on the most extensive scale. The balance of power in Europe was thus threatened, and the feeling was general in France that war was imminent; and, in that event, little doubt was felt that the arms of Prussia would be turned against France. Corresponding preparations were, therefore, made by the latter, and both waited only for a pretext for declaring war. * 135. This was found in the necessity which arose of find- ing a new sovereign for the throne of Spain. The wretched government of that country by Queen Isabella led to her expulsion in 1868. Two years of partial anarchy followed ; and, in 1870, it was proposed to place upon the throne the Prussian prince, Leopold of Ho-hen-zol'lern. Explanations from Prussia were at once demanded by France, the ardor * " Two ways were open to him r/Napoleon III.l by which he might maintain himself upon his throne. Either he must resolve to abandon the principle of Caesarism and give to France internal freedom, or he must dazzle her with brilliant viotories abroad, and rescue the principle of personal government."— Rmtow's War for the Rhine Frontier. 1 34. What was the condition of France subsequent to 1867? What was the feel- ins toward Prussia, and why was:'t entertained? What course did both pursue ? 135. What was th^ preter.t for war? In whai year was war declared ? What was the condition of the Prussian sraiy, and how was it aided ? What was the strength of each army ? 15* 346 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. I>. 1870. of the latter for war being reflected in the urgency of the French ambassador. On the 23d of July, 1870, war was formally declared, and the French soon after marched to the Rhine. The superiority of the Prussians in numbers, disci- pline, and general management was soon apparent ; and this advantage was increased by the action of the German States bordering on the Rhine, all of which declared for Prussia. The French armies, under Marshals MacMahon and Bazaine, numbered 350,000 ; the Germans, under Von Moltke (moW- ha), were estimated at 600,000. V 136. The first important engagement took place at Weis- sefc-burg (August 4), where MacMahon was defeated. Two days after, occurred the battle of Worth, where he was again defeated with great loss. Bazaine was equally unfortunate. Being constantly driven back, he at length made a stand at Gravelotte (grav-el-of), on the 18th of August, where he was worsted, falling back with 175,000 men to the city of Metz, which formed the center of an intrenched camp of immense strength. MacMahon's corps was now the principal one in the open field. It encountered the enemy again on the 30th, and was again defeated, and forced to retreat to Sedan (sa- dong'). The German pursuit was relentless; and, only two days after, the French were again attacked at Sedan,* and a decisive battle was fought, which resulted in the utter defeat of the French and the surrender of their army, including the Emperor Napoleon himself, f 137. The Germans now began their march toward Paris, leaving a sufficient force to prevent the escape of the troops. In that city, the greatest consternation prevailed. The * " In the town of Sedan, where the whole army of MacMahon was crowded together in narrow streets, a confusion reigned which it is entirely impossible to describe. Napo- leon resolved to capitulate ; but he did not regard himself as commander-in-chief. Gen- eral Von Wimpffen, who had commanded during the day, was to arrange the capitula- tion of the army, Napoleon surrendering his person only.'— fiUstow's War for the Rhine Frontier. t He was sent as a prisoner to the palace of Wilhelmshohe, in Germany, where he re- mained till the declaration of peace. 136. What were the first two engagements, and who was the French commander ? What result followed the battle of Gravelotte ? To what place was MacMahon finally driven ? What was the result of the battle of Sedan ? 137. Toward what city did the Germans then march? Who was made regent i What was the effect in Paris of additional reverses ? What part did the mob take ? A. D. 1870.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 34? empress, having been made regent, convened the legislative bodies early in August, accepted the resignation of the minis- try which had advocated the war, and arranged to form an- other. General Trochu (tro-shoo') was intrusted with the command of all the forces left to defend the capital. News of repeated reverses, however, continued to arrive, and the popularity of the Emperor sank to such an extent, that on the receipt of the news from Sedan, his dethronement was openly advocated. While the question was under discussion, the legislative chamber was entered by a noisy mob, which broke up the session with shouts of "Long live the Repub- lic!" The Third Republic. 138. The empress, fearing for her personal safety, fled to England. A meeting of republicans then assembled at the Hotel de Ville, and organized a new government, with a temporary Commission of National Defense. On the 19th of September, the German army arrived before Paris ; and on the 21st, its investment was complete. The only hope for the besieged lay in securing the intervention of allies, or in receiving aid from some of the forces left invested in the fortresses of the frontier. For the former purpose, Thiers was sent on a mission to the courts of Europe, but was un- successful ; and all hope from the latter source was dispelled near the close of September, when Toul and Strasbourg* capitulated. Paris was now shut off from all communica- tion with the outer world, while the number of its besiegers was constantly increased by the arrival of troops freed by the surrender of the frontier garrisons. The most extraor- dinary means were adopted to get out of the city and to communicate with its inhabitants. Many people left the * The famous cathedral, one of the finest Gothic edifices in Europe, was considerably damaged during the siege of the city, but has been restored. This building was founded in 504 A. D. The spire is 466 feet high, or 33 feet higher than St. Peter's in Rome. Tho church is very rich in sculpture. Its clock is one of the wonders of the world. 138. What became of the empress? To whom was the government then in- trusted ? What hopes had the people in Piris ? How were these dispelled? What was the condition of Paris ? What means of communication were adopted ? 3-48 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1871. city in balloons, and letters were sent to and fro by carrier pigeons. * 139. The situation in the city became daily more critical. Divided counsels led to insubordination among the troops and discontent among the people. On the 19th of January, 1871, a sortie was attempted, but it was easily repulsed by the overwhelming masses of the besiegers. A few slight successes which the French afterward obtained, only served to illuminate somewhat the general gloom, which was soon in- creased by the scarcity of food and the prospect of a famine, f After many weeks of suffering, Avhich the inhabitants were encouraged to sustain by the publication of false dispatches describing successes which never occurred, the news of the capitulation of Metz threw the city into a fever of excitement ; and the extremists took advantage of this to incite the people against the authorities. Order being restored, negotiations were resumed ; and resulted, after many disagreements and delays, in a declaration of peace, the principal conditions of which were that the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine should be ceded to Germany, and that France should pay a war indemnity of 5,000,000,000 francs (about $1,000,000,000), and submit to the occupation of certain portions of her ter- ritory till this sum should be paid. 140. The Emperor Napoleon was then released and went to England. As there had been no recognized authority in * " At the beginning of the siege, one of the absorbing topics of discussion among the Parisians was the means of communication with the outer world. The French had always had a fancy for ballooning, and were probably in advance of the rest of the world "us respect. They now applied their experience to a pr of mail balloons was organized, starting from Paris twice a week. At first they were dispatched In the afternoon ; but soon they found that the balloon did not rise quickly enough to escape the bullets of the Prussians encamped upon the hills which surround Paris. So they changed the hour of departure to one in the morning. The speed of the balloon is sometimes marvelous. Starting at one o'clock, one of them fell into the sea off the coast of Holland at daylight. The passengers were rescued by a fishing-smack. A second descended in Norway on the very morning it left Paris. Of ninety-seven bal- loons that left Paris during the siege, ninety-four arrived safely. Two fell into the hands of the enemy, and one was never heard of. '—Hoffman's Camp, Court, and Siege. t The meat in the city was seized by the authorities, and every one was put upon an al- lowance. Horse flesh, dogs, cats, and rats became articles of food, and fuel was dealt out in daily rations. 1 39. What was done in January with the view of relieving the city? What suc- cess attended it ! What effect did tJie news of the surrender at Metz have ? What terms were imposed by the Germans ? 140. Where did the Emperor Napoleon go ? For what purpose was a National As- sembly convened ? Where and when did it meet t Who was placed at the head of affairs? Why did the Assembly afterward meet at Versailles ? REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 349 France since his capture, Prussia had stipulated that a Na- tional Assembly should be convened to treat with her.* In CATHEDRAL OF STRASBOURG. t * When Louis Napoleon reached England (March 20, 1871), he took up his residence at Chiselhurst in Kent, to which place the empress and her son had preceded him. He con- tinued to be the center of much political intrigue till his death (January 9, 1873). t See note, page 347. 350 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. D. 1871. the elections for this, which now took place, the two frag- ments of the government for the national defense, which had become separated during the siege of the capital, opposed each other ; and a portion of it being still in Paris, now occupied by the Germans, became an object of distrust to the rest of France, which looked to that at Bordeaux for guidance. In that city, the new National Assembly met early in 1871. Another government was there estab- lished, Thiers being chosen as a sort of petty king, with power to name his associates. The Assembly wishing to be nearer the Prussians, but fearing to place itself in the power of the rabble of Paris, transferred its sessions to Versailles. This was regarded with great disfavor in Paris, where the National Guard still retained its arms. Several other meas- ures, necessary to the restoration of quiet and the observance of their pledges, were taken by the new government, among dthers that of disarming the National Guard. ^Tv|41. This was resisted ; and the mob, under the direction /of the extreme party known as Eed Republicans, took up arms and erected barricades. The disorganized state of the army only added to the general confusion, when it was called upon to quell the insurrection. In a short time, the Com- mune was master of Paris, and the red flag floated from the palace of the Tuileries. The same scenes of violence which had often before attended the rule of the most abandoned classes, were again enacted. Persons were arrested on the most trivial suspicions, and summarily shot ; churches were desecrated ; banks and private dwellings were pillaged ; and all the depraved agents of anarchy and vice found an ample field for the exercise of their peculiar calling.* * The Column of the Grand Army In the Place Vendome was pulled down with special Indications of disgust; the house of Thiers was destroyed, and organized bands of women and even children assisted in the work of destruction, facilitating the burning of buildings by the use of petroleum. As the hatred of the Communists was most bitter against royalty, their vengeance was wreaked upon the structures which the monarchs of France had erected or adorned. Some of the most beautiful buildings in Paris were thus destroyed ; among tbem the HStel de Ville, the Palais Royal, and the Palace of the Tuileries. The venerable Archbishop of Paris was imprisoned, and afterward shot with- out sanction of law ; and hundreds of lives were sacrificed with wanton atrocity. 141. In what way, and by whom, was the authority of the new government dis- puted ? What was the result in Paris ? A.I>. 1880.] REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 351 142. Daily conflicts with the regular troops took place, but the Communists were finally subdued. The govern- ment, of which Thiers was the chief executive, then resumed its sway, and continued in power two years, when Thiers, finding it impossible to reconcile the contending factions, resigned (May, 1873). Marshal MacMahon was then elected President in his stead, who, in 1875, was by a decree of the Assembly confirmed in his office for a term of seven years (Septennate). In 1873, Bazaine was tried on a charge of treason, for the surrender of Metz, and having been found guilty, was sentenced to death ; but this sentence was com- muted by the President to twenty years' seclusion. In the same year, the German occupation of French territory ceased, the last installment of the war indemnity having been paid (September). Napoleon III died at Chiselhurst in January, 1873. The French people were divided into several parties, besides those who favored the Eepublic, some desiring to restore the monarchy and the Orleans Dynasty, and others the empire. The triumph of the Republicans, in 1879, was soon followed by the resignation of President MacMahon, who was succeeded (1880) by M. Grevy. He was re-elected in 1885, but resigned in 1887, and was succeeded by M. Sadi-Carnot (Kar-no 1 ). 143. During the reign of Napoleon III., the French, pro- tected by the comparative stability of their government, de- voted themselves to the development of their resources ; and rapid strides were made in all the departments which conduce to the material welfare of a people. While denying the peo- ple political liberty, and exercising a strict censorship over the press, he was careful to encourage internal improve- ments, and strove to render his capital the center of Europe in everything that related to taste and fashion. Many rail- roads, canals, and lines of telegraph were opened under his 142. Which side was successful? How long was Thiers the chief executive* Why did he resign ? Who succeeded him ? Who was tried ? With what result ? When did the German occupation cease ? What parties existed ? Who succeeded MacMahon as President ? 143. What advancement was made by the French during the reign of Napoleon III. ? What were two of the most important works undertaken ? 352 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. [A. ». 1880. auspices, the most notable works of this kind, undertaken during his reign, being the piercing of Mount Cenis (sen-e') by a tunnel and the construction of the Suez canal, by which the Mediterranean is connected with the Red Sea. 144. In matters of taste, the efforts of Napoleon III. were specially directed to the embellishment of Paris. Particu- lar attention was also given by him to the restoration of ancient cathedrals, churches, and buildings of various kinds all over France, and to the erection of monuments com- memorative of the valor of the French. In 1855, in 1867, and again in 1878, the attention of the civilized world was drawn to Paris by the opening of a Universal Exposition, designed to exhibit, on the grandest scale, the advance made by the nations of the earth in agriculture, science, and art. 145. Constitution of the Third Republic— The Constitution, settled in 1875, vests supreme authority in the National Assembly, which consists of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The former is composed of 300 members, one-fourth of whom are elected for life by the National Assembly, the remainder for nine years — 75 every third year — by the Departments and Colonies. The Cham- ber of Deputies consists of 532 members elected by the people. The President is chosen for seven years by joint vote of the Senate and Deputies, and has a voice in each body. By advice of the Senate, he may dissolve the Cham- ber of Deputies, and call for a new election. He has the right to appoint government officers and judges. He is assisted by nine Ministers of State, besides whom there is a Council of State, presided over by the Minister of Justice, and consisting of 43 members — 15 chosen by the President, and 28 by the Assembly. 144. How was the result of his rule shown in Paris ? In what special works did he engage ? In what years were World's Pairs held in Paris ? 145. In whom is supreme authority vested ? Of what does the National Assembly consist? How is each body composed and elected ? How is the President elected ? What are his powers ? How is he assisted ? What is the Council of State ? REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 353 State of Society. 146. Political Changes. — An intelligent observer would have easily discerned, at the time of the accession of Louis XVI., that a great convulsion was impending. The opin- ions of men had undergone a change. Principles which they had previously accepted as of undoubted truth, they had abandoned, under the teaching of the bold and able writers who had attacked all the institutions previously es- tablished — social, religious, and political. 147. The following have been given as the causes that led to that awful convulsion known as the French Eevolution : 1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy of the govern- ment of France during the three preceding reigns ; 2. The oppressions to which the lower classes were subjected from the unjust laws which favored the nobility and clergy by exempting them from their due share in the weight of taxation ; 3. The dissemination of knowledge among the people, and the spread of infidelity, occasioned by the writ- ings of Vol-taire', and others ; 4. The notions and feelings in favor of popular freedom inspired by the success of the American Eevolution, in which so many of the French na- tion had borne a distinguished part. Besides these causes, must be added the disorders of the finances, which almost suspended the powers of the government.* 148. After being for so many years deprived of all share in the government, the people seemed suddenly aroused to a sense of their natural rights ; and a passionate fervor in be- half of civil and political liberty seemed to pervade all * "The provincial nobles, who were by far the most numerous, were, with few excep- tions, miserably poor and uneducated : shut up within the pale of their rank, they were excluded from the law, from commerce, and from many of those roads to wealth which were open to plebeians. Their titles and their exemptions from taxation were their only distinctions. These distinctions, however, made them look down with contempt on their unprivileged though richer neighbors, by whom they were in turn despised for their poverty and pride. In addition to all these evils, the false philosophy of the times had weakened the influence of religious principle throughout France. Thus the very cords were loosened which bind society together, and very slight Impulses were suflt cient to burst them asunder." 1 46. What might have been discerned at the commencement of the reign of Louis XVI. ? What were the indications of the impending convulsion ? 147. Mention the causes of the French Revolution. 148. What was the condition of the popular mind ? How was it excited ? 354 KEYOLUTIOXAET FRANCE. ranks and classes. * This was constantly fanned by the cir- culation of pamphlets, which advocated the most extreme and revolutionary views,' and which infused into the public mind a thorough hatred and contempt of the court, particu- larly of the queen. \ 149. The third estate — the people — had bided their time, and at last it came. The first session of the far-famed States-General of 1789 gave, in various minor incidents, in- dications of the storm that was so soon to burst forth with resistless fury. The representatives of the people refused, to sit with uncovered heads, when the nobles and clergy, ac- cording to the old custom of every former session, put on their hats after the completion of the king's speech ; and this led to a tumult only to be ended by the king's taking off his own hat. J \150. Since that great era, revolution has been the charac- teristic of French politics. No government that has been established has been other than insecure and temporary, be- cause it has not rested on principles thoroughly fixed and matured in public opinion. The popular mind, indeed, has seemed to revolt from all government, only submitting to it for a time as a dreadful necessity. The Commune of 1871 was the last, but perhaps the most striking illustration of * " The harvest of long centuries was ripening and whitening so rapidly of late ; and now it is white, and is reaped rapidly, as it were in one day. Reaped in this Reign of Terror; and carried home, to Hades and the Pit! Unhappy sons of Adam; it is ever so ; and never do they know it nor will they know it. With cheerfully smoothed coun- tenances, day after day, and generation after generation, they, calling cheerfully to one another, Well-speed-ye, are at work, sowing the wind. And yet, as God lives, they shad reap the ichirlwind ; no other thing, we say, is possible, since God is a Truth, and His world is a Truth."— Carlyle's French Revolution. t "Every press throughout France," says one who was residing in Paris in 1789. "Is busied in printing pamphlets in favor of liberty ; and. in the bookshops of Paris, every hour produces something new." Carlyle, in his peculiar style, remarks of this. "De- nunciation of Lettres-de- Cachet, of despotism generally, abates not; the Twelve Parlia- ments are busy ; the Twelve Hundred Placarders, Ballad-singers, Pamphleteers. Paris is what, in figurative speech, they call 'flooded with pamphlets;' flooded and eddying again. Hot deluge, from so many patriot ready-writers, all at the fervid or boiling point, each ready-writer, now on the hour of eruption, going like an Iceland Geyser ! " X " We remark only that, as his Majesty, on finishing his speech, put on his plumed hat, and the Noblesse according to custom imitated him, our Tiers-Etat Deputies did mostly, not without a shade of fierceness, in like manner, clap on, and even crush on, their slouched hats, and stand there awaiting the issue. Thick buzz among them, be- tween majority and minority, of Couvrez-vous, Becouvrez-vous / (Hats on, Hats off !) To which his Majesty puts an end by taking off his own royal hat again."— Carlyle 1 8 French Revolution. 149. What is said of the Third Estate ? Of the meeting of the States-General ? What incident is referred to ? 1 50. What has been the condition of things since ? What is said of the Commune of 1871 ? REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 355 this condition of the public mind — like that of a maniac, in blind fury destroying friends and foes, and trampling un- der foot the most precious products of human industry and genius. 151. Costume. — In the first part of the reign of Louis XVI., the rising spirit of republicanism was seen in the change of costume. When Dr. Franklin visited France in 1776, in behalf of his American compatriots, the people were charmed with his simplicity of dress and manners ; and their love for the cause which he represented led them to imitate him. Gold lace and embroidery, and powdered curls gave way to plain dresses and straight-cut hair ; * but this was soon followed by an extraordinary affectation of English modes of costume. 152. At the beginning of this period, the ladies -wore hoops, and dressed their hair in the most extreme fashion. It was drawn up in the form of a huge pyramid on the top of the head ; and caricatures might be seen representing the hair-dresser mounted on a ladder dressing" a lady's hair. The publication of the simple story of Paul and Virginia by St. Pierre, which was read in all fashionable circles, helped to produce the revolution in dress which followed. Virginia, in her simple robe of white muslin and her plain straw hat, became at once the model ; and the silks, satins, and velvets were banished in favor of white muslin dresses and straw hats a, la Virginie.\ 153. During the first part of the Revolution, the antique came into vogue, in imitation of the classic heroes of re- publican Greece and Rome. Afterward, when the dreadful * Count Segur, in his Memoires, speaking of the arrival of the American deputies, says: •' It was as if the sages of Rome and Greece had suddenly appeared ; their antique sim- plicity of dress, their firm and plain demeanor, their free and direct language, formed a contrast to the frivolity, effeminacy, and servile refinements of the French. The taste of fashion and nobility ran after these republicans, and ladies, lords, and men of letters, all worshiped them." t " Still more significant are two books produced on the eve of the ever-memorable explosion itself, and read eagerly by all the world : Saint Pierre's Paul et Virginie, and Louvet's Chevalier de Fanblas, note-worthy books ; which may be considered as the last speech of old Feudal France."— CarlyWs French Revolution. 151. What changes in costume took place ? How did Dr. Franklin's visit affect this ? 152. Describe the ladies' costume at the beginning of the period. How carica- tured ? What effect had the publication of Paul and Virginia ? 153. What other changes are referred to t So 6 IlE VOLUTION Aft Y FRANCE. guillotine was throwing its baneful shadow over every house- hold, and the human tigers of the Eeign of Terror were gorging themselves with gore ; when every knock that was heard at the door of a dwelling-house seemed like the sum- mons of the executioner, there was little thought of dress, and fashion was for a time dethroned. * But when that ter- rible period had passed, the people, by a natural reaction, gave way to their wonted gayety of manners and living ; and again began to indulge their taste for rich and stylish clothing. 154. Laws and Education. — The civil administration of Napoleon I. was characterized by the highest intelligence, and the most beneficent enterprise. The Code Nap oleon has already been spoken of. It was perhaps the grandest of all his achievements for the good of France, f But he did much also for education, of which there was no system in France before his time. He created twenty-nine lyceums, in which the instruction given was literary, scientific, and moral, and encouraged education in them by 6,400 free scholarships. He created ten law schools, and six medical schools ; and to the Polytechnic School, he added the School of Roads and Bridges. The system of primary instruction, now so complete in France, was, however, created after Na- poleon's time. 155. Public Works, Manufactures, etc. — The pub- * "Then came those days when the most barbarous of all codes was administered by the most barbarous of all tribunals ; when no man could greet his neighbors, or say his prayers, or dress his hair, without danger of committing a capital crime ; when spies lurked in every corner ; when the guillotine was long and hard at work every morning ; when the jails were filled as close as the hold of a slave-ship ; when the gutters ran foam- ing with blood into the Seine : when it was death to be great-niece to a captain of the royal guards, or half-brother of a doctor of the Sorbonne. While the daily wagon-loads of victims were carried to their doom through t'>e streets of Paris, the proconsuls whom the sovereign committee had sent forth to the departments, reveled in an extravagance of cruelty unknown even in the capital. The knife of the deadly machine rose and fell too slow for their work of slaughter. Long rows of captives were mowed down with grapeshot. Holes were made in the bottoms of crowded barges."— Macaulay. + In the discussions preliminary to this work, Napoleon himself took part. " He ani- mated everything with his own enthusiasm," says Duruy ; "he astonished the old juris- consults by the depth of his views, and above all by that good sense, which in legislation is worth more than all the science of jurisprudence. Thus was elaborated that charter of the family and of property which the corps legislatif adopted in its session of 1804, and which received, three years afterward, the name it merited— the Code Napoleon." 154. What is said of the Civil administration of Napoleon I. ? Of the Code Na- poleon ? What did Napoleon do for education ? What schools did he create ? 155. What is said of public works? The harbor of Cherbourg? Of manufac tures ? REVOLtTTlOKARY FRANCE. 35? lie works, including magnificent buildings, public monu- ments, roads, etc., are far too many to enumerate. Among them may be mentioned the great breakwater at the harbor of Cherbourg, which was commenced in 1783, but not fin- ished till 1853. Every species of manufacture was encour- aged, especially such as require the exercise of the arts of design ; and thus was laid a foundation for that extraordi- nary skill which, in this respect, has placed France above all other nations. 156. Science and Arts. — During the present century, France has shared, in common with other civilized nations, that astonishing progress in science and in the useful arts which have done so much to advance the interests of man- kind by improving the condition of society. * The railroad, the steamship, the telegraph, have revolutionized the social, political, and military system of every civilized nation in the world ; and in none has there been greater progress in the use of these than in France. The World's Fair {Exposition Universelle) has been an important auxiliary in developing the industrial and artistic capabilities of this great nation. * 157. Agriculture. — Among enlightened measures to promote national progress, may also be mentioned the en- couragement of agricultural science by the establishment of associations of agriculturists, to discuss the best methods of cultivation, by the creation of assurance companies to secure the farmer against loss by unfavorable seasons, and by a Society of Credit, for the purpose of loaning capital to farm- ers at the lowest possible rate of interest. The teaching of agriculture, as a branch of elementary instruction, has also been prescribed in the schools. *| 158. Literature. — Every department of literature is adorned by the products of French genius. In the early * The idea of the Exposition Universelle originated in France, hut was first realized in England. In the Paris Exposition of 1867 there was presented in an eminent degree the wonderful creative skill of the French people. 156. What is said of the progress of science and art ? Of the Universal Exposi- tion ? 157. How has agriculture been fostered ? 158. What authors are mentioned ? For what famous ? . 358 REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. part of this period, may be mentioned Volney (1757-1793), eminent for his historical research ; Crebillon (1674-1762), a tragic poet who ranks next to Corneille and Racine ; Malesherbes (1721-1794), author of Thoughts and Maxims ; Andre Chenier (shen-e-a) (1762-1794), the poet of the Revo- lution, whose career was cut short by the guillotine ; Beau- marchais (bo-mar-sha') (1732-1799), the author of The Mar- riage of Figaro and The Barber of Seville, two famous come- dies ; and Bernardin St. Pierre (1737-1814), who wrote the popular novel Paul and Virginia. 159. At a later period, there were Mme. de Stael (stahl) (1766-1817), the most talented woman of her time, who wrote Corinne and other works of genius ; Mme. de Genlis (zhong-W) (1746-1830), the authoress of many interesting novels and juvenile works ; Sismondi (1773-1845), author of the history of the French and Italian republics ; Chateau- briand (shah-to-bre-ahng) (1769-1848), who wrote the Ge- nius of Christianity, remarkable for the purity and finish of its style ; and, still later, the poet of the people, Beranger (be-rahn-zha') (1780-1857), the statesmen and historians Guizot (1787-1874) and Thiers (born 1797), Mignet {meen- ya') (born 1796) and Michelet (meesh-a-la') (1798-1874), also historians, Cousin (koo-zahng') (1792-1867), the phi- losopher, and Victor Hugo (1802-1885), poet, historian, philosopher, and moralist, remarkable for the splendor and fertility of his genius. £r CHRONOLOGICAL RECAPITULATION. A. D. 1774. Louis XVI. Reigned 19 years. 1778. Treaty of alliance with the United States. 1787. Assembly of the Notables. 1789. Meeting of the States-General. Commencement of the Great Revolution. 1791. Meeting of the Legislative Assembly. 1792. The Republic declared. 159. Mention the authors of a later period. For what distinguished f REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 359 1793. Execution of Louis XVI. Reign of Terror. 1794. Execution of Robespierie. 1794-5. Conquest of Holland. 1895. Day of the Sections (Oct. 5.) 1796-7. Napoleon's Campaign in Italy. 1797. Treaty of Campo Formio. 1798. Expedition to Egypt. Battle of the Pyramids. 1799. The Consulate Established. 1800. Napoleon First Consul. Battle of Marengo. Assassination of Kleber 1801. Treaty of Luneville. 1802. Treaty of Amiens. 1804. Napoleon I. Emperor. Reigned 10 years. 1805. Surrender of Ulm. Battle of Trafalgar. Battle of Austerlitz. Treaty of Presburg. 1806. Battles of Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin taken. 1807. Battle of Eylau. Peace of Tilsit. 1808. Insurrection in Spain. 1809. Taking of Vienna. Battle of Aspern and Wagram. 1810. Second marriage of Napoleon. 1812. Invasion of Russia. Burning of Moscow. 1813. Battles of Lutzen, Dresden, and Leipsic. 1814. Invasion of France. Capture of Paris. Abdication of Napoleon (April 11.) 1814. Louis XVIII. Reigned 10 years. 1815. Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon banished to St. Helena. 1820. Assassination of the Duke of Berry. 1821. Death of Napoleon. 1824. Charles X. Reigned 6 years. 1830. Taking of Algiers. Abdication of Charles X. 1830. Louis Philippe. Reigned 18 years. 1840. Napoleon's remains brought to France. 1842. Death of the Duke of Orleans. 1847. Subjection of Abd-el-Kader. Conquest of Algeria. 1848. Revolution. Louis Philippe escaped from France. 1848. The Second Republic. Louis Napoleon chosen President 1849. Rome taken by the French. The Pope restored. 1852. Napoleon III. Emperor. Reigned 18 years. 1853. Commencement of the Crimean war. 1855. Taking of Sabastopol. 1856. Treaty of Paris. 1859. Battle of Magenta and Solferino. 1859. Treaty of Zurich. \ ^V 360 REVOLUTION-ART FRANCE. 1859. The French entered Pekin. 1861. Expedition to Mexico. 1864. Maximilian Emperor of Mexico. 1867. Mexico abandoned by the French. 1870. War declared against Prussia. 1870. Battle of Sedan. Napoleon a prisoner. 1871. Siege of Paris. (September 21.) 1871. French Republic under Thiers. 1871. The Commune of Paris. 1873. McMahon elected President. 1877. Dissolution of the Legislative Assembly by MacMahon. 1880. Election of M. Grevy, President. 1885. Death of Victor Hugo. 1885. Re-election of President Grevy. 1887. Election of President Carnot. GENEALOGY OP THE BONAPARTE FAMILY. Carlo Bonaparte, married to Letizia Ramolino. 1 1 Joseph Napoleon I. 1 Lucien, 1 1 1 Elisa. Louis Pauline. 1 1 Caroline. Jerome Napoleon, Prince Napoleon, King King of of King of Naples Cassino. of West- and Holland. phalia of Spain ' 1 Napoleon II. r i H King of Rome, Napoleon Napoleon Charles Louis son of Charles. Louis. Napoleon Maria Louisa (Napoleon III.) (died ir 1 1832). 1 I Napoleon (IV.), Eugene Louis Joseph, Prince Imperial, son of Eugenie, Countess of Teba, (born in 1856). REVOLUTIONARY FRANCE. 361 QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. Page 1. When did the reign of Louis XVI. begin and end? 259 to 278 2. Name, in order, the principal events of his reign 259, 278 8. State what you can of Necker, the Geneva banker 260, 262, 266, 267, 268 4. Relate the causes and events that led to the Great Revolution 259-268 5. State all you can respecting the Bastile 266 and note, 267 and note, 270 6. State what you can of the Count of Mirabeau 263, 271 and note 7. Give the history of the Jacobins 270-287 8. Relate the events leading to the execution of Louis XVI 270-278 9. Give the history of the Girondists 273-883 10. Give the history of the Montagnards 27S-2S5 11. State what you can of Charlotte de Corday 281 and note 12. Give an account of the first Coalition against France 278, 283, 288 13. State all you can of Danton 275, 276 and note, 285 and note 14. State all you can of Robespierre 278-286 and note 15. State all you can of Marat . . . 280 note, 281 16. How was the Directory formed ? Give its history 289-299 17. Give an account of the Dauphin, son of Louis XVI 289 and note 18. Give an account of Bonaparte's campaign in Italy 291-294 19. Of his expedition to Egypt and Syria 294,295,296,297 20. What were the events during the Consulship of Napoleon ? 299-304 21. State how Napoleon came to be made Emperor 303, 304 22. What were the successes of Napoleon during the " third coalition " ? ... 304-307 23. What, during the " fourth coalition " ? 307-311 24. What, during the " fifth coalition ,, ? 311-318 25. State all you can of Josephine, Napoleon's first wife. 312 and note, 304, 313 26. Give the events from the first abdication of Napoleon till his return to France 318-322 27. Give the events of the " Reign of the Hundred Days " 322, 323, 324 28. What were the results of Napoleon's reign ? . 318, 319, 320, 321 29. Describe his character, peculiarities, and habits. 321 30. Give the events in the reign of Louis XVIII 322-327 31. Give the events in the reign of Charles X 327, 328, 329 32. When did the reign of Louis Philippe begin and end ? 329, 335 33. What were the principal events in the reign of Louis Philippe ? 329-335 34. Relate the events that led to the establishment of the second empire — 336-340 35. Give the cause, events, and results of the Crimean war 341, 342, 343 36. Describe the successes of the French in China and Japan 344 37. Give the cause, events, and result of the expedition to Mexico 344, 345 38. What was the cause of the war with Prussia? 345, 346 39. Relate the principal events of the war 347, 348 40. Inthelifeof Napoleon III 339 and note to 349 and note 41. In the conflicts with the Commune 350, 351 4i\ How were the resources of France developed during the reign of Napo- • leonin.? 351,352 43. Give, in full, the causes of the French Revolution ... 259, 353, 354 44. State what is said of the costumes worn — 355 45. Of laws and education 356 46. Of public works, manufactures, etc &56, 357 47. Of science, arts, agriculture, and literature 357 48 What kind of a government has France at the present time ? 49. Who is now at the head o( the government ? » • 16 INDEX. A. PAGE kbd-el-Ka'der 334 ib'e-lard . 95 A'bens-berg 311 Abou kir (ab-oo-keer') 295, 296 Academy, French 248 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles- Lettres 249 Academy of Painting and Sculpture.. 248 A-ca'di-a -228 Acre (a'ker) 296, 333 Adrian, Pope 35, 38 Aetius (a-e'she-us) 23 Agincourt (aj'in-court) 125 Agnadello (aa-yah-del'lo) 156 Agriculture 50, 241, 357 Aix (aks) 15 Aix-la-Chapelle (dks-lah-shah-peV) . . . 38 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of 238 Al-be-ro'ni (-ro'ne) 232, 233 Albigenses (al-be-jeri'sez) 75, 79 Alculn (al'kwin) 40 Al-e-ma'ni-a 41 Al-e-man-i 24 A\en$on (ah-lahn -song'), Duke of . 184, 185 Alexander I. of Russia 305, 311 Alexander II. of Russia 342 Alexis 60 Algiers 219,334 Algiers, Dey of 328 Alma 341 Alsace (al-sahs') 348 Alva, Duke of 173, 178, 180 Amboise (am-bwahs') 144, 147, 178 Amboise, Cardinal 160 American Revolution 261, 353 Am'i-ens 302 Amsterdam 217 Amusements 187 Anam ( 121 Desmoulins (da-vwo-lahng 1 ) 285 D'Enghien [dong-ghe-ahng') 303 D'Estaing (des-tahng') 261 D'Estrees (des-trd') 219 De Thou (too) 206,207, 253 Dev'en-ter 35 De Witt 216, 217 Diana of Poitiers (poi-teerz') .... 172, 190 Diderot (de-duh-ro') 254 Dijon (de-zhong') 1*9 Directory 289, 290 Don Pedro of Aragon 83 Don Pedro of Castile 114 D'Orvilliers (dor-vM-ya') 261 Douai (doo-d') 245 Drama 147, 249 Dresden 237, 314, 316 Dreux (druh) • 178 Druids. 12, 19 Dru'ses 344 Dubois (du-bwafi'), Abbe 232, 234 Dubois, Peter 120 Dubourg (du-boorg') 176 Ducos (dn-ko') 299 Dugommier (du-gom-me-a') 288 Du Guesclin (ga-klahng') 114, 117 Dum ouriez (du-moo-re-a') . . . 273,277, 279 Dunkirk 215, 228, 245 Duqucsne' (-kane) 219, 239 Dutch 244 Eastern Question. Eck'muhl Edict of Grace Edict of Nantes Education 145, 189, 831, 336, Edward the Confessor Edward IV. of England Egypt, Expedition to Elba 318, Eleanor of Guienne 66, 68 Elizabeth, Princess Elizabeth of England Elizabeth of Spain Encyclopedists Enghien (ong-qhe-ahng'), Duke d' England.. 58,121,216, 214, 261, 278, ! 304, Erfurt {dr'foort) 311 67 203 197 356 58 138 294 283 1S5 17S •2"y mi 366 INDEX. PAGE Essling 312 Eudes (uhd) 46 Eugene, Prince 223, 225, 228 Eugene, Viceroy 312 Eugenie, Emoress 340 (note), 346, 347 Eylau (i'low) 308 F. Family Compact 240 Federation, Festival of 270 Fenelon (fa-na-long') 253 Ferdinand of Austria 173 Ferdinand, Archduke 305 Ferdinand of Brunswick 239 Ferdinand the Catholic 154, 157, 163 Ferdinand IV. of Italy '. . . . 306 Ferdinand VII. of Spain 326 Feudal System 26,48 Feuillants (fuh-yahng 1 ) 273 Field of the Cloth of Gold 163, 104 Fieldof Lies 42 Field of Pardon 107 Fields of March 28, 40, 271 Fields of May 40 Flanders 84, 100, 120, 237, 244 Flemings 85, 88, 89 Fleurus (fluh-ruce') 323 Fleury (fluh-re'), Abbe de 232, 253 Fleury, Cardinal 234, 236 Florence 343 Fontenaille (fon-te-neV) 42 Fon-te-noy' (or fon-ta-nw ah') 237 Forey (fo-ra') 344 For-no-vo 143 Fouche (foo-shd') 299, 325 Fouquet (foo-ka') 214 Fouquier Tinville (foo-ke-a' tahng- veel') 283 France, Area of 8 Francia 43 Franche-Comte' (franshkong-ta') 215, 217 219 Francis 1 161, 189', 245 Francis II 175 Francis I., Emperor 237 Francis Joseph 305 Franciscans 89 Franklin, Benjamin 260, 355 Franks 22 Frederick III. of Naples. . . 154 Frederick Barbarossa 73 Frederick the Great 237, 239 FreeLances 112,113,115 French Academy 209 French Language 93 Friburg {fre'boovg) 163 Friedland 309 Friend of the People 278 Frisia 127 Frois'sart 147,150 Fronde, War of the 210, 211, 212, 213 Furniture 148, 250 Ga-belle'(-foZ) 104, 172 Gael 10 Gal'li-a 7 Garden of Plants 209, 248, 250 Garigliano (gah,-rel-yah'no) 155 Gaston, Duke of Orleans.... 202, 204, 206 PAGE Gaston de Foix (fwah) 157 ! Gaul 7,9,18,19,20 j Gauls 11,12, 14 Gazette 250 Gazette de France 250 Geneva 176 Genlis (zahng-le'), Madame D 358 Genoa (jen'o-ah) 155, 156, 219, 241 Geoffrey Plantagenet 66 George I. of England 232 George II. " " 236 Gerson (zhdr-song) 150 Gibraltar 226, 261 Girondists (zhe-rond'ists). . . . 273, 277, 278 279, 280, 281, 283 Gisele (zhu-eV) 46 Go'be-lin Tapestry 244 Godfrey de Bouillon 61 Gon-sal'vo de Cor'do-va 154 Gothic Architecture 94 Grand Alliance 225 Grav'el-otte (-ol) 346 Great Re-dan' 342 Gregory XL, Pope 121 Gregory X VI., Pope. 330 Gregory of Tours (too?*) 31 Guienne (ghe-en') 133, 184 Guilds 92 Guillotine 278, 283 Guinegate (ghen-gaht/) 159 Guines (gheen) 164 Guise (gweez), Duke of. 171, 174,175,178,182 Guizot (gwe.-zo') ... 333, 335, 336, 358 Gun'de-bald >. 24 Gunpowder 104, 103 Gustavus Adolphus 204 Guy (gin), Count of Flanders 84 H. Hainault (hi-no'), Countess of 127 Hal'i-doun Hil 1 100 Hanau (hah'noio) 317 Hanover 239 Hansa 92 Harfleur (har-fiur') 124, 125 Harold 58, 59 Hastings, the Norman 46 Hastings, Battle of 59 Hausmann (house'man) 351 Havre (hav'er) 178,245 Hebert (a-bdV) 281, 285 Helen of Mecklenburg 331 He-li-op'o-lis 801 Heloise 95 (note) Helvetian Republic 294 Helvetians 15 Henrietta Maria 202 Henryl 56, 97 Henry II 171 Henry III 184 Henry IV 194,243,245, 251 Henry of Anjon — 68 Henry, Duke of Anjou 183 Henry of Burgundy 59 Henry V. of England 124 Henry VI. " " 131 Henry VIII. " " 157,159,164 Henry of Guise 184, 185, 186 Henry of Montmorency 204 Henry of Navarre. 176, 180, 185, 194 INDEX. 367 PAGE Henry of Trastamara 114 Heraldry 62 Hil'de-bert 28 His-pa'ni-a 7 Hoche (hdsh) ... 282, 288, 289, 290, 291, 293 Ho-hen-lin'den 301 Holland 127, 215, 216, 228, 288, 312 Holy Alliance 325 (note), 327 Holy League 157, 168, 184 Ho-no'ri-us 22 Hopital (o-pe-tahl'), Chancellor del'. 178, 179, 189 Hospitallers 62 Hotel des Invalides (da zahng-vah- leed') 246, 333 Hotel de Ville (veel) . 245, 269, 286, 336, 347 Houchard (koo-shar') 282, 283 Hugh the Fair 65 Hugh the Great 47,53,61 Hugo, Victor 358 Huguenots. . .175, 176, 177, 183, 197, 201, 203 221 Humbert II 104 Hundred Days 322, 324 (note) Hundred Years 1 War 100, 133 Huns 22 Huyghena (hi'ghem) 249 Iberians ... 10 If (eef), Castle of 271 Indies, East 233, 238, 240, 244, 261 Indies, West 240, 244, 250, 261 Ink'er-man 342 Innocent XL Pope 219 Inquisition 79, 190 Ireland 68,222 Irene 39 Isabel of Bavaria 121, 125, 147 Isabella, Queen of France 72 Isabella, Queen of Spain 345 Italian Confederation 343 Italy. . . 154, 162, 167, 173, 205, 225, 226, 342 Ivry (eev're) 195 Jacobins 272, 276, 278, 286, 287 Jacquerie (zhak'e-re) 110 Jacques Coeur (kyur) 134, 147 Jamaica 261 James II. of England 221, 222, 223 James the Pretender 226, 228 Japan 344 Jardin des Plantes (zhar-dahng' da plahnt) 209,248 Jeanne d'Albret (dal-bra'). 179, 180, 181, 194 Jemmapes (zhem-map') 277 Jena {ya'nah) 307 Jerusalem 60, 80, 143 Jeunesse Doree (juh-nes' do-ra'). 287 (note) Jews 72, 89 Joan of Arc 128,129,130 John 105 John the Fearless 122, 125, 126 John, Arch-duke of Austria 301 John of England 74 John of Montforr ; . 101, 117 John of Procida ( pro-che'dah) 83 Joinville {zhwahng-veel'), Jehan de. . . 95 Joinville, Prince de . . 333 PAGE Josephine 304, 312 (note), 313 Joubert (zhoo-bdr') 296 Jourdan (zhoor-dahng').. 282, 287, 291, 292 Joyeuse (zhwah-yuz') 185 Juarez (Jiwah'rez) 345 Judith 41 Julius II., Pope 156, 157, 159 Jumonville (zhoo-mong-veel') 239 Junot (zhoo-no') 309, 310 K. Kel'ler-mann 277, 282 Kem'pis, Thomas a, 150 Kep'pel, Admiral 261 Kleber (kla'ber) 297,301 Knight-Errantry 62 Knolles (nolz), Robert 116 La Bruyere (bi'oo-ydr') 253 Lafayette (lah-fa-ef). 260, 267, 270, 275, 329 La Fontaine (fon-tdn') 252 La Hogue (hdg) 102, 223 Lal'ly 240 Lamartine [lah-mar-teeri) 335 Lamoriciere (lah-mor-e-se-dr') 334 Languedoc (lon-gha-doc') 119 Languedoc, Canal of 244 Lannes (Ian) 300 Laon (lah-ong') 47 La Palice ( pah-lees') 157 La Place ( plahs) 255 La Rochefoucauld (rosh-foo-ko') 253 Lautrec (lo-trek') 165, 168 Lavoisier (lah-vwah-se-a 1 ) 255, 283 Law, John 233 Laws of September 331 League of the Public Good 134 Lebas (luh-bah') 286 Lebon (luh-bong') 283 Lebrun (luh-brung') 254,299 Lec-zyns'ki, Stanislaus 235 Legendre (luh-zhahnd') 255 Legislative Assembly 273, 277, 339 Leipsic 204,316 Leo III., Pope 38 Leo X., Pope 159 Le'o-pold of Austria 73 Leopold of Hohenzollern 345 Lepers 89 Le Sage (sazh) 253 I Lescot (les-ko') 190 Lettre de Cachet (letr duh kah-sha'). 241, 264 Lexington, Battle of 261 Liege (leej) 136, 205 Ligny (leen-ye') 323 Limoges (le-mozh') 116 Lis'sa 239 Literature 145,209,248,357 Lombard Merchants 89 Lombards 30, 33, 34, 35 Lorn hardy 343 Longueville (long-veel') 212 Lonjumeau (long-zhoo-mo') 179 Lor-raine' ' 47, 127, 235, 241, 348 Lorraine, Cardinal of 175,186 Lorraine, Claude 254 Lo-thaire' 41,47 Lou'is (or loo'i) I 40, 4i 368 INDEX. PAGE Louis II .. 44 Louis III 44 LouisIV 47 Louis V 48 Louis VI 65 Louis VIII 78 Louis IX 79, 92 Louis X 88 Louis XI 134, 148, 149 Louis XII 153,161 Louis XIII 199 Louis XIV 210, 246, 251, 252 Louis XV 230, 248, 249 Louis XVI 259, 278 Louis XVII .... 257, 289 (note), 322 (note) Louis XVIII 318,322,325,327 Louis of Bavaria 89 Louis, Duke of Orleans 161 Louis Napoleon 339 Louis Philippe (fe-leep') 329 Louisburg 237 Louise of Savoy 167, 169 Louvel (loo-veV) 326 Louvois iloo-vwah') 245 Louvre (loovr) 78, 119, 246 Lucon (loo-song'), Bishop of 200 Lug-du-nen'sis 18 Lug-du'num 19 Lulli (lool'le) 249,254 Luneville (loo-na-veeV ') 302 Lu-te'ti-a (-she-ah) 21, 24 Lutzen (loot'zen) 204, 316 Lux-em-bourg' 164 Lyons 19, 21, 87 m. Mack, General 305 MacMahon, Marshal 346, 351 Magenta (mah-jen'tah) 343 Maine 59 Maintenon (mahn-ta-nong'), Madame de 220, 221, 226, 252 Maison (ma-zong') 317 Maitland, Captain 325 Mal'a-koff 342 Malesherbes (mal-zdrb'), 259, 260, 283, 358 Malherbe (mal-arb'). Francis 191 Malplaquet (mal-plah'kd) 227 Malta 294, 301, 303 Mam'e-lukes 295 Man-sard' 254 Manufactures 197, 244, 356 Marat (md-rah') 275, 276, 278, 281 Marcel (mar-sel') 108, 109, 110, 111 Ma-ren'go 301 Margaret of Austria 169 Margaret of Flanders 115 Marguerite of Provence 79 Marguerite of Valois 197 Maria Louisa 313, 318 Maria Theresa, of Austria. . . 235, 236, 237 Maria Theresa, of Spain 214 MarieAntoinette (an-twah-nef) 260,263,283 Marie of An jou 127 Marignano (mah-reen-yah'no) , 162 Mariotte (mah-re-of) 254 Marlborough, Duke of 225, 226 Marot (mah-ro'), Clement 190 Marseilles (marsdlz') 9 Marseilles Hymn 275 (note) PAGE Mary of Burgundy . 139 Mary of England 173, 174 Mary de 1 Medici . . 197, 199, 200, 203, 207, 251 Mary Stuart 175, 177 Massena (mas-sd'nah). . . 297, 300, 311, 313 Mas-sil'i-a 9,15 Massillon (mas-seel-yong') 253 Maurepas (mo-re-pah') 259, 262 Maurice of Saxony 172 Maximilian, Archduke 244, 345 Maximilian, Emperor... 139, 142, 159, 163 Mayenne (mi-en'), Duke of.. 186, 194, 195 Mayors of the Palace 30 Maz-a-rin' (-reen)... 210,212,213,214,247 Medici (med'e-che), Catherine de' (see Catharine de' Medici). Medici, Mary de' (see Mary de' Medici). Medicine 148, 188 Me'las 300 Menou (me-noo') 289 Merchants' Truce 138 Mer-o-vae'us 23 Merovingian Dynasty 26, 29 Metz 172,174,245,346 Mexico 331, 344 Mezeray (me-ze-ra') 253 Mezieres (ma-ze-dr') 164 Michelet (meesh-e-la') 358 Mignet (meen-ya') 358 MiFan 154, 167, 343 Military School 249 Mincio (meen'cho) 343 Min'den 240 Mining 197 Mi-nor'ca 261, 262 Mirabeau (me-rah-bo') 263, 271 Mississippi 233 Modena (mod'e-nah) 343 Mole (mo-ld f ), Count 331 Moliere (mo-lydr') 250, 252 Monsieur (mb-syuh), Peace of 184 Montaigne (mon-tdn') , 190 Montcalm (mont-kahm') 240 Mon-te-bel'lo 300, 343 Montecuccoli (mon-ta-kook'ko-lee) 218 Montesquieu (mon-tes-ku') 255 Montgomery, Count 174 Mont-mo-ren'cy, Constable.. 171, 172, 173, 176, 179 Montpellier (tnong-pel-yd') 104 Montpensier (jnohg-poiuj-see-d'), Duke of 336 Montpensier, Mademoiselle de 250 Moore, Sir John 311 Moralities 148 Moreau (mo-ro') . 291, 292, 293, 300, 301, 303 Morocco 334 Morthier (mor-te-d') 313 Mos'cow 314, 315. Moulins (moo-lahnq'), Ordinance of. . 178 Mountain Party. .273, 277, 278, 279, 281, 291 Murat (mu-rah') 306, 310 Music 249 Muskets 148 Mysteries 147 N. Najera (nd-hd'rah) 114 Nantes, Castle of 196 Nantes, Edict of . ... 197, 220, 221, 243, 244 ~V> U V INDEX. 300 PAGE Naples 142,143,154, 310 Na-po'le-on I. . 284, 289, 291, 292, 295, 298, 299, 300, 302, 304, 309, 313, 316, 318, 320, 323, 325, 333 Napoleon II 313,324, 330 Napoleon III 339, 340, 343, 346, 348 Napoleon IV 352 Napoleon, Prince 352 Narbonne (nar-bon') 19 Nar-bon-nen'sis 18 Nassau, Prince of 238 National Assembly 265, 348, 349, 350 National Constituent Assembly 338 National Convention. ... 277, 278, 287, 290 National Guard . . 268, 269, 328, 334, 338, 350 Neck'er 260, 262 Nelson, Lord 295, 305 Nemours (ne-moo?''), Duke of 333 Nemours, Treaty of 185 Netherlands. . . . 174, 198, 219, 223, 233, 237 Neustria 29 Newspapers 250 Ney (na), Marshal 313, 316 Nicaea (ni-se'ah) 61 Nice (nees) 170, 343 Nicholas. Emperor of Russia 342 Nimeguen (ne-md'gheri) 219 Noailles (no-ahl'), Viscount de 268 Normandy. . 46, 56, 65, 72, 74, 119, 132, 133, 135, 136 Nonnans 47, 58, 59 North America 199, 238, 240 Northmen 44, 45 Notre Dame (not?' dahm), Cathedral of 71,78, 304 Novara {no-vaJi'rah) 154, 159 O. Observatory O-des'sa .* O'Donnell, General Order of the Garter Oriflamme (o-re-flam') Orleans (or-la-ahnz') Orleans, Duke of O'tho II Otho the Great Oudenarde (oo-da-nard') . Oudinot (oo-de-no') 341 326 334 80 127 333 7 227 340 Pa'der-born Painting 147, Palais ( pah-la'), Cardinal Palais Royal 246, 266, Pa-lat'i-nate Pal'es-tine 73 Pa-les'tro Palice (pah-lees') Pal'is-sy, Bernard de Pantheon 247, Pa-o'li Pare (pah-ra') Paris. . 21, 24, 149, 195, 219, 227, 246, 318, Paris, Congress of Paris, Count of 333, 335, Paris, Treaty of Pa-ris'i-i Parma (par'mah) Pascal (pahs-kal') 16* PAGE Paul IV., Pope 173 Paul and Virginia 355 Pavia ( pah-ve'ah) 35, 167 Peace of God • • 56 Pedro (pa'dro) the Cruel 114, 115 Pe-kin' 844 Pep'in d'Herestal (der-es-tahl ') 29, 51 Pepin le Bref 30, 33, 51 Perier (pd-re-d'), Casimir 330 Peronne (pa-ron/) 136 Perpetual Peace 163 Perrault (pdr-ro'), Claude 254 Peter of Beaujeu (bo-zhuh') 141 Peter the Great 232 Peter the Hermit 60 Philibert (fe-le-bdr') 174 Philip 1 57, 97 Philip II. (Augustus) 71, 72 PhilipIII 8-3 Philip IV 84 Philip V 88 Philip VI 90, 99 Philip of Anjou 223 Philip the Bold 113, 115, 123 Philip Egalite (a-gal-e-td') . 283 Philip, Emperor 21 Philip the Good 135 Philip II. of Spain 173, 174, 185 Philip IV. " 214,215 Philip V. " 226, 232 Phil-ip'pa, Queen 103 Pic'ar-dy 119 Pichegru ( peesh-groo') 282, 288, 303 Piedmont ( peed'inont) 174 Pilgrimage. First 56 Pisa (pe'zah) 157 Pisan {pe'zan), Christine de 150 Pitt, William (Eider) 240 Pitt, William (Younger) 278, 306 Pius VII., Pope 303, 304, 310, 312 Pius IX., Pope 340 Plague 103 Playing Cards 148 Plessis-les-Tours (ples-se-la-loor') 140 Poitiers (poi-teerz') 30, 107 Poitou (pwah-too') 68 Poland 183 Pondicherry ( pon -de-she? 'ry) 240 Ponthien ( pong-too') 116 Postal System 140,148,250 Port Royal 199 Portugal 59 (note), 240, 309 Poussin (poos-sang') 254 Prague 235, 236, 237, 239 Pres'burg. 306 Pres'ton Pans 238 Prince of Orange 221, 223 Printing 148 Protestants 170, 177, 202, 204, 225 Provence (pro-vahns') — 29, 234 Prussia 241,307,345 Pyramids, Battle of 295 Pyr-en-ees', Peace of 214 (uadruple Alliance 331 ►uebec 199,240 >uiberon (ke-ba-rong') 288 [uinault (ke-no') 250 370 INDEX. PAGE R. Rabelais (rah-ba-ld'), Francis 190 Racine (rah-seeri) 250, 252 Rad-e-gun'da 28 (note) Rag'lan, Lord 341 Ramillies (ram'e-leez) 226 Raoul (rah-ool') 47, 83 Ravaillac (rah-val-yak') 199 Ra-ven'na 34, 157 Raymond of Toulouse 59, 61 Raymond VI . , of Toulouse 75 Raymond VII., " " 79 Reason, Worship of 284, 285 Red Republicans 350 Reformers 170, 171, 175 Reign of Terror 279 (note), 281 Renaissance 160, 187 Rennes (ren) 142 Retz (rdtz). Cardinal de 211, 213 Rheims (reemz) 26, 129 Richard the Lion-Hearted 73 Richelieu (reesh'e-lu), 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 208, 246 Robert 54 Robert of Artois 99, 101 Robert (the Devil) 56 Robert of Geneva 121 Robert de Sorbonne 93 Robespierre (ro-bes-pe-dr'). . . 275, 278, 285, 286 Rochefort (rotch'forl) 245 Rochefoucauld (rosh-foo-ko') 254 Rochelle (ro-shel') 183, 201, 202 Rod'ney , Admiral 261 Roemer (ro'mer) 249 Ro'han, Duke of 203, 205 Ro'land .... 273 Roland, Madame 283 Roland (Nephew- of Charlemagne) 36 Rollo 45, 46 Rome 168, 294, 312, 340, 344 Rome, King of 313 Roncesvdlles (ron-tes-val'les) 36 Ron-sard', Pierre de 191 Ros'bach 239 Rosebecque (rds'bek) 120 Rou'en 131, 132, 178 Rousseau (roos-to') 253 Royalists 288, 290, 292, 336 Royal Library of Paris 146 Russia 314, 341 Ryswick (riz'wik), Treaty of 223 S. Sable (sah-bld'), Peace of 141 St. Arnaud (ar-no'). Marshal 341 St. Bartholomew's Day, Massacre of. . 182 St. Ber'nard (or bdr-nahr') 67 St. Bon'i-face 33 St. Cloud (kloo) 298 St. Den'is (or den-e'), Battle of 179 St. Domingo 288, 302 Sainte Chapelle (shah-pel') 81 St. Germain (zhdr-mahng') 180, 245 St. He-le'na 325 (note), 333 St. Just (zhoost) 286 St. Louis 79 St, O'mer (or o-mdr') 101 St. Ouen (oo-ahng'), Church of 119 St. Pierre (pe-ar'), Bernardin de. . 355, 358 PAGE St. Pierre, Eustace de 103 St. Quen'tin, Battle of ' .' .' ! 173 Sal'a-din 73 Sal-a-man'ca , 317 Salian Franks 23, 27 Salic Law 88 Salz'bach 218 Sancerre (sahn-sd?'') 183 San Sebastian 317 Saracens 30,36,58 Sar-a-gos'sa 36 Sardinia 232, 233 Savoy 277,343 Saxe {sax), Marshal 237,238 Saxons 34,35,36 Saxony 239 Scarron (skah-rong') . 252 Schism, the Great 121,134 Schomberg (shmn'berg), Marshal — 204 Schools 140,145,320,356 Schwartz'en-berg (shwartz-) 317 Science 189, 248, 357 Scotland 17-2,226,238 Se-bas'to-pol 341, 342 Sedan (se-dong') 346 Seg-o-brig'i-ans (-brij-) 9 (note) Seneffe (se-nef) 218 Sen'e-gal 233 Sen'lac 59 Seven Years' War 238, 241 Sevigne (se-veen-ye'), Madame de 253 Sevres (sevr) 244 Sicilian Vespers 83 Sicily 232 Sieyes (se-es' or se-d'), Abbe. . 264, 279, 299 Si-le'si-a 235 Silk Manufacture 140 Simon de Montfort 75, 76 Sis-mon'di (-de) 358 Sluys (slois) 101 Smo-lensk' 314 Society, State of.. 31, 48, 90, 144, 187, 242, Society of Credit 357 Soissons (swah-song') 23 Sol-fer-i'no (-ee'no) 343 Sol'i-man 169 Sorbonne (sor-bo?i/) 82, 209, 246, 248 Soult (soolt) 313, 317, 332 South America 219, 262 Spain. . . 7, 205, 228, 232, 290, 310, 311, 345 Spanish Succession, War of 225 Spurs, Battle of 85 (note), 159 StaSl (stahl), Madame de 358 Stan-is-la'us 241 States-General.. 87, 104, 105, 106, 108, 131, 136, 141, 144, 145, 185, 186, 200, 264, 265 Stephen II., Pope 34* Strasbourg , 219,245 Suchet (soo-shd') 313 Su'ez Canal 351 Suffren (soof-frong') 261 Suger (soo-zha'). Abbot 67, 71, 95 Sul'ly (or soo-ye') 198, 200, 243 Supreme Being, Festival of 285 Suwarrow (su-or'ro), Marshal 296 Sweden 204 Swiss Guard , 275 Sy-a'gri-us .. 23 Syria 332 INDEX. 371 T. Tal'ley-rand (or tal-la-rong') 299, 318 Templars 62, 85, 86 Tennis Hall Oath 273 Terrorists 287 The-od'o-ric, the Goth 23 Theodoric, Son of Clovis 28 Theodoric IV 32 Thermidorians 287 Thiers (te-ar') 332, 333, 350, 351, 358 Third Estate. . . 144, 145, 263, 264, '265, 354 Thou (too), Auguste de 191 Three Henries, War of 185 Ticino (te-che'no) 343 Tiers fetat (see Third Estate). Til'sit 309 Tobacco 250 To-lo'sa . : 21 Tor'res Vedras (va'dras) 313 Toul (tool) 172, 174 Tou-lon' 226,245 Toulouse (too-looz') 20 Traf-al-gar' 305 Trochu (tro-shoo'), General 347 Troubadours 93 Trouveres (troo-var') 93 Troyes (trwah) 126 Truceof God.. 56 Tuileries (tweel're).. 190, 248, 275, 335, 350 Tu'nis 81 Turenne (tu-ren') 215, 216, 217, 218 Turgot (toor-go f ) 260 Turkey 169, 333 U. Ulm 305 United States 260, 263 Universal Exposition 352, 357 Universities 140 University of Paris 78, 93, 146 Urban VI., Pope 121 U'trecht, Treaty of 228 V. Val de Grace (vahl duh grahs), Church of '246 Valois (val-wah'), Branch of 90 Valois, House of , 99 Valois-Orleans Branch 153 Valmy (vahl-me') 277 Van Artevelde (ar-ta-velf) . . 100, 102, 120 Van Tromp 216, 217 Vas'sy 177 Vauban (vo-bong') 217, 245 Vaudois (vo-dw'ah') 170, 294 Vendee (vong-dd'), La 279, 282, 284 VendOme (vong-dom'), Duke of 228 PAGE VendOme, Place (plahs) 248 Venice 155, 156, 244 Ver-cin-ge'to-rix (sin-je'-) 16 Verdun (ver-dvhng') 172, 174 Ve-ro'na 35 Versailles (ver-salz') . . . 209,224,248,268, 336,350 Versailles, Treaty of 261 Victoires, Place des (vic-twahr / , plahs da) 246 Victor Emmanuel II 342 Victoria, of England 333 Vienna 312 Vienna, Congress of 322 Vil'lafran'ca 162 Villaf ranca, Conference of 343 Vil'lars 227, 228 Villeroi (veel-itvah') 225 Vincennes (vhn-senz'), Castle of. 119, 231 Vis'i-goths 22 Vit-to'ri-a 317 Vitry (ve'tree) 66 Voiture (vwah-ture') 252 Vol'ney (or vbl-na') 358 Voltaire (vol-tar') 358 Von Molt'ke 346 W. Wagram (wah'gram) 312 Wal-den'ses. : 170 Wal'do, Peter 170 Walter the Penniless 60 Warsaw 330 Warsaw, Grand Duchy of 309 Washington 239 Wa-ter-kV 323,324 Weis'sen-burg. 346 Wel'ling-ton.Duke of.. 310, 313, 317, 323, 325 West-pha'li-a, Kingdom of 309 William III. of England.. 223 William the Conqueror 57, 65 William, Prince of Orange.. 216,^17,218, 225 Win'i-fred 33 Wit'i-kind 37 Wolfe 240 Wolsey (wool'ze), Cardinal 164 Women's Peace 169 Worth (wurt) 346 Wurmser 288 Y. York, Duke of 282, 297 Z. Zea'land 127 Zurich, Treaty of 343 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED -' ... w This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. rv •- LD 21-100m-6 '56 TT . General Library (B9311sl0)476 UmverS Jg r £g^ orma YB 30290