UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA agricultural experiment Station College of agriculture e. w. hilgard, director BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA CIRCULAR No. 13. (March, 1905.) THE CULTURE OF THE SUGAR BEET, By G. W. SHAW. Note — This circular is issued to meet a demand for somewhat detailed informa- tion upon the principles of sugar-beet culture, as practiced in the most successful beet-growing sections. When the principles here presented are intelligently applied they can be relied upon to yield profitable results, provided always that the locality is suitable for beet culture. The farmer who begins the growing of sugar beets for sugar pur- poses finds himself face to face with a crop demanding treatment much different from that of any he has been accustomed to grow. He must grow beets within certain limits of size, purity of juice, and of satis- factory sugar-content. He has to deal with a crop in which quality is much more of a factor than with most other crops. The growing of sugar beets is not agriculture, but horticulture, and for this reason alone demands much more attention to detail, and more intensive culture, than any agricultural crop. The sugar beet is a delicate, high-bred plant, and will resent very decidedly any neglect by immediately showing a reduction in tonnage, sugar-content, and purity. Hence the extreme importance of giving the most careful attention to details in growing this crop, details which with any other crop than an horticultural one would be considered of small consequence. While the industry is one requiring new and more intensive methods of treatment than most farmers are intimately acquainted with, yet by careful attention, and under proper natural conditions, the profits secured are large. It can not be expected that every locality and seasonal condition can be foreseen in a publication of this character. There are many special cases for which the native good sense of the farmer must provide. Such modifications of the principles laid down here can only be decided upon as they arise, and as the conditions become intimately known. This pamphlet is intended to present to those interested the prin- ciples which experience and scientific investigation have shown to give the highest returns both in quality and in quantity of product, the two factors which make for profit both to the grower and the manufacturer. It is generally considered that the highest return of sugar per acre is given where the mean summer temperature is not far from 70°, and where the rainfall is from 2 to 4 inches per month during the growing period, and where heavy rains do not occur during the ripening period, the occurrence of such rains at the time indicated tending to lower the sugar-content of the root. While these conditions have generally been held as the most ideal, yet the success in America under conditions which vary considerably from, those above indicated, especially as to rainfall, seem to show that they must not be regarded as being absolute, and that the beet has a somewhat wider range of adaptability to climatic conditions than has been claimed by European authorities; and that within cer- tain limits, our ideas should be formed from the conditions under which the industry has met with success in this country. Certain it is that drought must be avoided, and where frequent summer rains do not occur, nor heavy fogs and dews, the soil must be of such a nature as to retain free moisture in liberal quantity; or, the moisture must be supplied by irrigation, both of which conditions hold on certain parts of the Pacific Coast, and the latter in Colorado, Utah, and California. Abundance of sunshine is also essential to the highest development of sugar in the beet. Other things being equal, it may be said that the richness of the beet will be proportional to the amount— not intensity — of the sunshine. ADAPTABILITY OF VARIETIES. The three leading types of sugar beet are the Klein Wanzleben, the Vilmorin, and the Brabant. Where the industry is new, it is probably best to select the Klein Wanzleben type, since it adapts itself to vary- ing conditions the most easily; but as the industry develops it is well to adapt the different types to their proper character of soil, for it is undoubtedly true that certain varieties will do better on certain soils, and it only remains to ascertain what the adaptation is for the partic- ular region. Cenerally considered, the Vilmorin type is considered best adapted to the lighter soils, and the Klein Wanzleben to the heavier soils, yet this has not always proven true in this country. The French Very Rich beet is well adapted to most conditions and particularly to soils carrying considerable alkali, on account of the fact that the leaves are not so easily destroyed by contact with accumulations of the salt upon the ground, thus causing the beet to suffer from the destruction of the leaf surface in which the sugar is developed. — 3 — SEED. The quality of the seed from which the beets are grown is of the highest importance, and is the first consideration in the production of the high-grade product. With this crop, it should be remembered above all, that quality as well as quantity must be considered, and especially is this the case when the product is sold upon the sliding scale, the price depending upon the quality of the root, as is the custom in many places. Importance of Good Seed. — Sugar is made, not in the factory, but in the field, therefore it is of the utmost importance that the proper foundation of a rich beet be laid. This lies in the seed. Beet seed grown for sugar purposes is not produced in the same haphazard manner as most of the ordinary garden seeds, but to maintain its stand- ard of richness must be produced under the most rigid scientific con- ditions. The sugar-content and purity, as well as the germinating power of the seed, are maintained by constant testing and selection of the richest and most vigorous beets as mothers along the most rigid scientific lines, which is a matter of vast importance to the industry. America depends almost entirely, at present, upon Europe for her supply of sugar-beet seed, producing less than 100 tons of the 2,500 .used, notwithstanding that with no other crop is the success of the industry so dependent upon the quality of the seed. The industry is too new in this country to have developed a well-established seed. With the accumulated knowledge and experience of a century of inves- tigation along the line of beet-seed production, with the investment of an enormous capital, and with a vast amount of science and skill, energy and labor, the European methods of producing a pure high-grade sugar-beet seed are as perfect and successful as are those employed in producing pure breeds of horses and cattle. The great care and expense necessary for the production of high-grade seed is the reason of its relatively high price as compared with other seed. For their own protection it is the practice of sugar companies to supply the farmer with high-grade seed which has been purchased on a guarantee. It is evident that the profitable operation of a factory may depend upon a difference of one per cent in the sugar-content of the beet. A few figures will easily show the extreme importance of this matter. Let us suppose a factory to secure a harvest of but 25,000 tons of beets. A difference of but one per cent in sugar-content would mean a loss or gain, as the case may be, of about 500,000 pounds of crude sugar, of which probably eighty per cent could be obtained in practice, or 400,000 pounds, which, at 4 cents per pound, means $16,000 as either gain or loss, even on this low tonnage. On _ 4 — the farmers' side there would be a corresponding difference, if paid on the sliding scale. Attention is called to this matter at this time since there is often a tendency among growers, to buy low-grade seed because it can be secured a few cents cheaper than the more reliable guaranteed seed, which is furnished by the companies for the sake of their own, as well as the farmers', protection. SOILS FOR SUGAR BEETS. The sugar beet does not require a particular kind of soil, but is most grateful for a deep, fertile, medium sandy loam with a warm subsoil. Above all, the farmer should never select poor land for sugar beets, but always the very best land available on the farm. New land seldom produces a high tonnage of beets, and should be avoided if possible. Land should have been at least two years under cultivation, and if it has had green-manure crops turned under, so much the better, especially on heavy soils. In general it may be said that any good land which will produce a good crop of corn, wheat, or potatoes will, under proper cultivation, yield a good crop of beets. There are certain classes of soils that should always be avoided with a beet crop, as follows: (1) Very hard clay, or "adobe," which is difficult and expensive to work, either with cultivator or hoe, and is likely to be "cold," a con- dition not favorable to any crop and particularly undesirable for a beet crop. (2) Stony soil, which is not only difficult to work, but will not allow such an even development of the beets as to form as is necessary for the highest quality of root. Such soil, moreover, is incapable of hold- ing water, which is necessary to produce a good crop. (3) Gravelly soils, which are still less able to hold moisture, and for that reason are unfit for beet culture. (4) Soils so sandy that they are blown, for the first strong wind invariably destroys either the young plants, or the foliage of the older ones. (5) Muck soils, which produce a watery beet of low quality. (6) Soils strongly impregnated with alkali in the "black" form (carbonate of soda) or as common salt; sodium sulfate is not so fatal to the crop as either of the above. The condition of the subsoil has much more to do with successful beet production than is generally recognized. For instance, a sandy soil underlaid with gravel or sand will be quite unfit for successful beet culture, but if the same soil was underlaid by a calcareous clay, not too close to the top, it may be very well adapted. — 5 — Again, it must be especially remembered that hard, impenetrable subsoils within two feet of the surface of the ground are not at all desirable; for the sugar beet must embed itself completely in the soil, and the taproot go well down into the subsoil which serves as the feed- ing ground for the root. For the best immediate returns a soil of medium lightness, friable, permitting of ease of cultivation and penetration, should be selected. There has often been a tendency toward light sandy soils for this crop, but it is safer to lean toward the clay loam than toward the sand if the highest tonnage is desired. In the selection of land for a beet crop, attention should also be given to the previous crop. For instance, it is not wise to select land upon which a crop of old alfalfa has been turned under the previous fall, for it will cause endless difficulty and expense by its persistent growth in the beet fields. Again, land that has been planted to corn the year previous is difficult to cultivate when planted to beets, unless all of the stubble has been carefuly removed from the field. If left on the field it is sure to cause the loss of a large number of plants by clogging the wheels of the seeder, and later by tearing out plants during cultivation. Condition of Soil to be Obtained.— The sugar beet needs a deeply loosened, well-mellowed soil, uniformly mixed, and offering the plant easily available plant-food. It should be in such a condition that the air may readily penetrate it and exert its ameliorating effect. The soil must be made free from weeds, and put into the proper condition to retain moisture, as well as to dispose of a too large amount of the latter into the subsoil; and last but not least, must possess a surface suitable for embedding, germinating, and growing the seed. To meet all these conditions different operations will have to be resorted to, according to the nature of the soil and the climatic con- ditions ; but everywhere there are certain well-defined operations which must absolutely be attended to if a profitable crop is to be obtained. FALL WORK. Deep preparation of the soil is a "sine qua non" of successful sugar- beet culture, nothing having been more conclusively shown than that sugar-beet culture and shallow soil preparation can never be profitably practiced for any length of time. A quick penetration of the root into the subsoil is of the utmost importance to a proper and healthy devel- opment of the plant, and to secure this the most effectively, deep plow- ing should be done in the fall so that the new layer of soil may be brought to the surface the better to be acted upon by the atmospheric agencies, thus rendering the plant-food more available. Further, such plowing also brings about the most favorable conditions for collecting and storing the winter moisture for the use of the plant in the early summer. Not only should the plowing be done in the fall, but it should be Fig. 1. Root System of Sugar Beet, showing necessity of deep preparation of soil. deep plowing— say to a depth of ten inches at least; and should there be the slightest tendency toward a hard subsoil, it should be subsoiled to a further depth of six inches. Should the land in the humid region not have been previously sub- jected to deep culture it would be advisable to make the regular plow- ;* 6 ing more shallow, and substitute subsoiling to a proportionate depth, thus not turning up too much of the raw soil. In the arid regions, however, there is very little if any danger of turning up so great a depth of soil that the plant-food is not immediately available, and were it not for the purpose of rendering the soil more receptive of the winter moisture there would not be so urgent necessity of fall plowing. If beets are put upon land which has been previously planted to alfalfa, a similar treatment to that under grain cultivation should be given, and in addition the land should be well harrowed after the shallow plowing, to bring all roots to the surface, that they may be raked into piles and destroyed. The spring treatment should be as in the other cases, except that planting should be rather late so that the tender plants may not become choked by the alfalfa. SPRING WORK. In case plowing has not been done in the fall, it should be done as early in the spring as the ground will do to handle, for three reasons : (1st) Because the sooner the weeds are encouraged to grow the more of them can be killed before planting the beets; (2d) Because land plowed while the weather is cool will retain moisture much more than if plowed during warm weather; (3d) Because it is much better to allow ground to settle as much as possible after plowing and before the preparation of the seed-bed, thus insuring a better and quicker germination of the seed. After the spring plowing, immediately har- row, or still better, float or drag once and leave the ground as it is until the time to prepare the seed-bed, thus allowing the weeds to sprout. Land that has been plowed in the fall should be harrowed as early in the spring as possible, and then be treated as hereinafter described. It is a very good practice to harrow the land deeply and crosswise before spring plowing, so as to turn under a fine, loose soil instead of a hard, lumpy surface, as the land will settle more rapidly and uniformly. If irrigation is to be practiced this* is particularly to be recommended, as it will irrigate more uniformly than when full of holes and air spaces near the plow furrow. If beets are to follow corn it is absolutely necessary to remove the stalks from the field to permit of profitable drilling and horse cultiva- tion. The stalks can not be successfully plowed under, as the culti- vator knives bring them again to the surface and they tear out a large number of beet plants; and further, they materially interfere with even seeding. The best way for cleaning the field from the stalks is to remove the mold board from the plow. This will loosen the roots without turning the corn stalks under. Then with a hay-rake gather them into piles, and after burning as many as possible, haul off the — 8 — remainder. The same work will be found necessary where sorghum has been grown. // beets follow grain the stubble should be plowed shallow— say four inches— immediately after harvest, for by this treatment the land will be prevented from baking and the weeds will be encouraged to grow, a large part of which may then be destroyed by a later and deeper plow- ing the same fall. A deep plowing at first would prevent their germina,- tion until they should be brought near the surface by the spring working of the soil, when they would germinate and seriously interfere with the crop and increase the cost of production. If the crop is to be grown upon a considerable scale the use of a gang-plow is to be recom- mended, as it both decreases the cost of preparing the land and hastens the work. Although not commonly done, the writer believes that immediately following this shallow plowing, particularly if the land is- known to be foul, it is desirable to harrow and roll, or drag, the land. If stable manure is to be used it should be applied soon after the shallow plowing, spreading it evenly over the land that it may be turned under in the deeper plowing in the same fall. For good plow- ing, do not attempt to turn too wide a furrow; a narrow furrow not only mellows more readily, but absorbs moisture more rapidly and is more rapidly turned. If beets follow potatoes, or beets, or if the land is known to be free of weeds, the shallow plowing may be omitted, but in no case must the deeper plowing be neglected. In case irrigation is to be practiced some special preparation of the field must be given attention. First of all, in plowing the land as few dead furrows as possible should be left in the field after the work is completed, as they interfere very much with the cultivation and irriga- tion of the land. Plowing around, which means starting at the edge of the field and plowing in circles toward the center of the field, should also be avoided, as it is not favorable for irrigation, since the land lies in two different directions, which interferes with the flow of the water. Further, successful irrigation of a beet field can not be accomplished without a thorough grading— "leveling"— of its surface. To achieve this, there must be a fine surface, which should be prepared by har- rowing and floating (dragging) the land repeatedly, crosswise and lengthwise. As soon as the surface is fine enough to be easily moved, a leveler should be used which shall drag the soil from the high places and drop it in the lower ones. The machine is a simple one and can easily be constructed by any one. (See description, page 19). Where the retaining of winter moisture in the soil is of great importance, which is the case in all regions where it is hoped to sprout the seed without irrigation in the spring, the first work of spring should be the dragging of the land. From the settling of the soil dur- ZS* — 9 — ing winter the capillary tubes have reached a high stage of develop- ment, and as soon as the surface of the soil becomes somewhat dry, there is continuous evaporation of the soil moisture through these tubes, causing an enormous loss of moisture. High ridges are partic- ularly exposed to the action of the sun and wind, and dry out very quickly. When seed is embedded in these drier places it germinates much slower than in the more moist portions of the field, and causes an uneven stand, which proves very detrimental to the crop, for these later plants never reach the stage of development of the earlier ones. Dragging more effectually remedies this trouble than does harrowing, and results in a great saving of moisture. Such treatment, however, should not be given to the heavier clay soils. The land should now remain undisturbed for a time for the clods to absorb moisture and become somewhat softened, and to encourage all the weeds possible to make a start. IRRIGATION OF BEETS. For the successful irrigation of the sugar-beet crop there are some fundamental characteristics of the plant that must be considered, for by the wrong use of water it is a very easy matter to absolutely ruin a beet crop. On the other hand, water applied at the right time in the life history of the plant will absolutely insure a large and profitable crop. The experience in this country demonstrated the entire feasi- bility of successfully producing the crop by the artificial application of water on a large scale. In respect to moisture, the sugar beet is peculiar in some respects, viz., in that it will get along with less of it, and will stand more of it, than most of the other field crops. This statement needs some explanation, however, for while technically true it is also true that the crop may be entirely ruined by a too liberal application of water, or by its application at the wrong time in the life of the plant. There are three periods in the life history of the sugar beet which demand entirely different treatments so far as moisture is concerned : (1st) The germinating or plantlet period, embracing the time from planting until the plant has four leaves. (2d) The growing period, in which the form and size of the plant is developed. (3d) The sugar-storing period, in which the sugar is elaborated from the air. In the first period the necessary condition is that the beet seed should have sufficient moisture and warmth to germinate and start it, but never an excess. After the plant has developed four leaves, for two months or so it should be given a considerable amount of moisture in order that it may 4 — 10 — develop in size. Yet even in this period it may be spoiled in form by a too liberal application of water. When the plant is young its natural tendency is to send its taproot deep into the soil to procure moisture, and this is the time that the form of the beet is set. If water at the surface is given too soon and too lavishly at the beginning of this period, the form of the root is ruined, for the plant will have a too strong tendency to rely upon the artificial surface moisture rather than to seek the natural moisture of the soil below, becoming thus a short, stubby or sprangling beet, alto- gether undesirable. The beet may show a tendency to droop its leaves and become lighter in color, but this does not indicate that irrigation is needed. In the early stages of the plant, irrigation must not be resorted to until there is an absolute demand for it. Wilting of the leaves in the heat of day does not indicate the need of water. If the leaves recover their vigor in the evening it is sufficient evidence that its wants in this direction are supplied. When it really needs water the leaves will droop and become darker in color, and will not recover their vigor in the evening. Having attained the size desirable, the beet needs little if any moisture. The rapid sugar-storing begins about a hundred days after planting, and when maturity approaches the plant should be given no water. The conditions desirable at this period are plenty of light and dry cool weather. If the beet is given moisture to any considerable extent, it will be at the expense of both sugar and purity. With these principles in mind, the following directions as to irrigation practice in beet growing are given: IRRIGATION PRIOR TO PLANTING ( SPRING-PLOWED LAND) . Heavy soils should be well harrowed before plowing, then plowed from nine to twelve inches deep, and harrowed immediately again after plowing. If the land does not contain sufficient moisture (which it will only in case of heavy spring rains) to germinate the seed and to keep the beets growing for four to six weeks, the land must be irrigated before seeding. To accomplish this, the land must be harrowed and well leveled. After the land is level, shallow furrows three to four inches deep should be made by using the cultivator and the irrigating shovels, or better, by the application of the so-called furrower. (See description, page 19.) This implement leaves a furrow every eighteen inches, and the bottom of the furrow is left very smooth so that no difficulty will be found in letting the water run over the land and irrigate the soil by sub-irrigation. A heavy soil should be plowed and irrigated as early in the spring as possible and the water is avail- able. — 11 — Light soils can be irrigated before plowing, pains being taken to harrow and smooth the surface as much as possible before the irriga- tion. Each day's plowing should be well harrowed the same day so as to keep all the moisture possible in the land. To secure a good crop it is absolutely necessary to kill all the weeds in the ground before seeding. Here is where most failures occur, and if weeds are allowed to get a start, the cultivation of the crop will involve much unnecessary and expensive hand work. Therefore, to prepare a good seed-bed, we advise working the soil from four to five inches deep with a pulverizer, or better with a corn cultivator, once lengthwise and once crosswise, making sure not to miss any spot in the field, as it is necessary to loosen any weeds that may have already sprouted. Then harrow lengthwise and crosswise to level the soil perfectly and finish killing the weeds. After this, pack the top soil (two or three inches) well with a roller. Never use a plank float, as floated ground is never well packed and this procedure will, besides, increase blowing and wash- ing. The better the soil is packed after the weeds are hilled the better the beet seed will sprout. All the above work must be performed at a time when the ground is in good condition (that is, not too damp, as the working of wet soil must be strictly avoided). As beet seed requires considerable moisture to germinate, it would also be a great loss to the beet-grower to allow the soil to dry out during the prepara- tion of the seed-bed ; therefore, in dry weather or in an average season the field must be prepared and seeded the same day, this being the only way in which moisture can be kept in the ground — a great feature in crop raising and especially in beet culture. When the seed-bed has been properly prepared the condition of the soil must be similar to that of a garden bed. It is a very costly error to attempt to save labor on the preparation of a seed-bed. It can be made perfect if the ground is worked in the right manner and at the proper time. In addition to not working the soil when too wet, the different operations should follow each other rapidly in order to lose as little moisture as possible. When prepared, the ground should be fine and solid for two or three inches from the surface, and below this should be a layer of medium loose soil. The. seed-bed should not be rolled before planting. It is always advisable to harrow the seed-bed with a very light harrow immediately ahead of the seeder, running the harrow in the opposite direction to the drill rows. FALL PLOWED LAND. If the land has been plowed in the fall, it should be harrowed, leveled, and furrowed, and then the water allowed to run down slowly in these furrows so as to soak the ground thoroughly. After spring irrigation, of spring plowing, as well as of fall plow- — 12 — ing, as soon as the soil is dry enough to permit going on with a team, the field should be harrowed and cultivated with a long-tooth harrow or cultivator, down to seven or eight inches so as to stir the soil which has become packed by the water, and then the work of preparing the seed-bed can be continued. (See preparation of seed-bed.) Experience has shown that the seed should never be "irrigated up" if it is possible to avoid it, and in consequence of continuous failures in securing a good stand in this way, this means of germinating the seed has been entirely abandoned. Should, however, the land become dry because of hot winds before the seed has germinated, the cultivators are taken with the irrigating shovels, the furrows made between the drill rows which are marked by the tracks of the press wheels of the beet drills, and the water allowed to run down each row slowly and carefully ; flooding the land will form a crust as soon as the water runs over the seed row, and then the stand is sure to be poor ; but, as stated above, the ''irrigating up" of the seed should be practiced only in case of absolute necessity. THE SEEDING. The most important points to be observed in the seeding of sugar beets are: (1) The time to seed; (2) The quantity of seed to be used; (3) The distance apart of rows; (4) The depth of planting. As to the first point no definite rule can be laid down, but the general rule to be followed is to plant as early as the climatic conditions allow. It is a great mistake to wait until ver}^ late before planting a beet crop, and especially is this so in the arid regions, and upon soils inclined to be alkali in character. Delay under these two conditions often means a loss of the crop. Too great haste should not be made by putting the seed into the ground before the ground is sufficiently warm to germinate the seed rapidly. Seeds require warmth as well as moisture to cause germination. Most agricultural seeds will wait for moisture or warmth some time, but the beet germ is very delicate, and if not given the correct conditions for germination soon after being placed in the soil, will either dry out or rot, as the case may be. It is a good practice, if a considerable acreage is to be seeded, to do this work in tracts instead of all at the same time, in order that the subse- quent working of the crop may be facilitated, especially at thinning time. Further, it gives consecutively maturing tracts, which will facilitate harvesting and will better serve the purpose of the factory. The quantity of seed to be used is a point of vital importance to the grower. To secure a good yield it is absolutely necessary to have a good stand, and every attempt should be made to secure such a stand. A mistake is often made by cutting down the amount of seed in order to save a few ceuts and thereby losing dollars in the resulting crop. — 13 — If plenty of seed is put in the ground it is almost certain that a good stand will be secured. Not less than 20 pounds per acre should be used in order to secure a good stand under all conditions, because, should the weather be dry, the best seed will come up first and there will be enough for a good stand. On the other hand, should a crust be formed on the field after a heavy rain, one plant will help the other to break through the ground. Therefore, at least twenty pounds to the acre should be sown. Special drills are used for seeding sugar beets. Such drills dropping seed continuously in rows will plant from ten to twelve acres per day. In arid regions it often happens that conditions are such that the seed has to be "irrigated up," although it is far preferable to have it germinate in the natural soil moisture if possible. If, however, as a «, Fig. 2. Seeding Sugar Beets. last resort it is found that irrigation-water must be used to make certain of a good stand, the following treatment is recommended as giving good results: The land, leveled or graded as above indicated, should be furrowed about three or four inches deep and water allowed to run in each furrow to moisten the ground to the surface, being very careful not to flood the ground. As soon as the ground is sufficiently dry, harrow crosswise, pulverizing the soil. The land should then be planted just as soon as it is dry enough to work clean. The drill should never be run when the soil is wet enough to roll up on the wheels. The third point, the distance apart of rows, is entirely dependent upon the quality and the moisture conditions. Where the land is very rich and no irrigation is to be practiced and moisture conditions are good, 16 to 18 inches is advisable, leaving the plants 6 to 8 inches apart in the row. Where irrigation is to be practiced it is advisable — 14 — to widen the rows to 18 or 20 inches, depending upon the soil. The heavier the soil the closer should be the planting in general. This matter of the distance apart of the rows is of more than passing importance, as it is closely related to the later development of the beet. In this connection the following points are to be considered: (1) The farther apart the beets are planted the larger the roots will grow; (2) The development of top as compared with root is increased with increase of space ; (3) The yield is smaller when planted either too close or too far apart; (4) Beets grown in close rows, and close together in the row, generally carry higher sugar-content and purity than when the space is wider, which is of vital importance to the factory; (5) Moisture is conserved to better advantage by close planting. Where possible, the distance from beet to beet should be close to 18 by 8 inches, thus allowing each beet a total or 144 square inches, which experience has shown to give the best average results. This space will give a medium-weight beet under most conditions. For example : At 18 inches between rows and 8 inches apart in the row, there will be 18X8=144 square inches for each plant. One square yard equals 1,296 square inches, or 1296-^-144=9 beets. If we deduct one-third for faulty seed, plants destroyed, etc., we will have at harvest 6 beets for each square yard. One acre contains 4,840 square yards. 6 beets per yard, at 1 lb. equals 6 lbs. 6 " " " " iy 2 lbs. " 9 " 6 " " " " 2 lbs. " 12 " Therefore, per acre : 6 lbs. per yard equals 14!/2 tons. 9 " " " " 213/4 " 12 " " " " 29 The depth of planting should in no case exceed two inches, and under average moisture conditions one half this depth is ample. If the seed is buried too deeply there is much danger that in case of a rain soon after planting, the ground will crust and the young plant never come to light, or that the seed, especially if the weather should be somewhat cold, would decay in the ground. Plants from very deeply planted seed are never as strong as those that have come to the surface more rapidly. On the other hand, if too shallow planting is practiced, the thin layer of soil surrounding the seed or sprouts quickly dries out, causing the tender plants to die on account of the lack of moisture. To retain this moisture is the reason for pressing the soil closely around this seed. Generally speaking, the heavier the soil and the earlier the planting, the shallower must be the sowing in order to prevent the seed from rotting in the ground. — 15 — THE CULTIVATION. Three things must be kept in view in the cultivation of beets: (1) The beets must be kept absolutely free from weeds, so that the beneficial action of the sun may be fully realized; (2) The ground must be kept loose for the same purpose; (3) In case of hot weather the ground should be kept thoroughly stirred to make a fine dust mulch to retain moisture, which latter practice is far preferable in irrigated regions, to the more frequent use of water. Ground may be kept moist by thorough cultivation. Cultivation is performed with one-horse cultivators, which work two rows at a time. If, after sowing, a heavy rain should cause a crust to form on the field, the light harrow is recommended; but this is only in case the seed has not germinated, as otherwise it would be better to run the cultivator over the field, following the rows, which can be done easily before the seed is up, as the marks of the press-wheels can be plainly distinguished. The spiders are especially adapted to break the crust without injur- ing the beets, as one can cultivate closer to the beet rows with them than with the knives, and without danger of lifting the young plants out of the ground with the broken crust. Quite frequently the crust can be broken by a medium heavy roller, especially on alkali land and when not too thick. This is preferable to the work with the knives, as no earth is removed from its place at all. The cultivator must be applied afterwards. As soon as the beets break through the ground and the rows can be followed, the cultivation must begin, the earlier the better, not only to destroy the weeds but to loosen the soil, which permits the air to pen- etrate, thus forcing the growth of the beet and improving its quality. It is very important to kill the weeds before they get above the ground, or at least before they become well rooted. This can easily be accom- plished by cultivating the field with the flat shovels every eight or ten days, care being taken to set the knives as close as possible to the rows, and never over two inches from the rows as long as the beets are small. As the beets grow older, however, the shovels should be run gradually farther away from the beets, and also deeper until the leaves meet in the center of the rows, by which time the cultivation should have reached a depth of six inches and should then cease as the beets are ready to "lay by." Besides destroying the weeds, this repeated culti- vation prevents evaporation from the deeper soil and secures a good and healthy growth. As soon as the beets are coming up and the rows are visible, they should be rolled with a light roller so as to pack the soil lightly around the side roots of the young plants and thus facilitate the access of — 16 — moisture thereto, which will materially help in forming a strong root. The rolling should be immediately followed by a horse cultivator, so that there is no possibility of blowing of the land in case of wind, which will always happen if the cultivation is omitted. Then follows the work of cultivation as described above. THINNING OUT. Great pains should be taken in performing this part of the work, as it is the most important of all the cultivation and care of the crop. It is very necessary that this should be done just at the right time, and the earlier it is done the better for the growth and yield of the crop. As soon as most of the beets have formed four leaves, thinning should be commenced at once, for it is a wrong idea to wait until all of the plants show four leaves, as quite frequently they grow too large before the entire field is finished. In fact, they should not remain longer than one week without being thinned after having produced four leaves, as the roots will entwine around each other, if left longer, and make the thinning detrimental to the plant that is left. The thinning must be preceded by the spacing with the hoe, as this proceeding materially simplifies and cheapens the thinning and brings the plants at an even distance apart. To perform this work the beets should be bunched (directly after a horse cultivation) with an ordinary five-inch hoe, cutting five inches of beets out and leaving a two-inch bunch containing from three to six beets. After the beets are bunched, the healthiest plant in each bunch is selected by the thinner to be left standing, the others being pulled out by hand, together with all the weeds near by, care being taken to pull out every plant with the roots, as they will grow again if only the leaves are removed. The beets should never be left closer than six inches, and in most cases from seven to eight inches is preferable. There has been a great fear that beets would grow too large, but the writer's observa- tion has been that they are decidedly more likely to be too small for profitable culture. Excessive distances, however, should be avoided, as there is a tendency for the sugar-content and purity to decrease under such conditions. The ground should be pushed up around the plant by the thinner, but not packed. It is advisable for the thinner to follow close behind the spacer, as the soil is then fresh and loose around the bunches, and the thinning can then be performed much more expeditiously than after it has dried out. Further, the remain- ing plant is but once disturbed by such practice and consequently recovers from the shock quicker. After thinning, the beets will have a wilted appearance. If they do not revive and show growth in the course of a day or two, they should - 17 - be rolled, which will pack the ground around the roots and cause them to grow. An average person should thin one third of an acre per day, though three fourths of an acre is not an uncommon work. It can be done cheapest when the stand is good. HOEING. The first hoeing, which is very important for the growth of the small plants, should be given as soon as possible after the beets break through the ground, or at the latest, at the time of thinning. As the ground will have become packed during the operation of bunching and thinning, thus preventing proper circulation of air, and the young plants, moreover, will have become weakened by the dis- turbance, and for the further reason that it is cheaper to do it then, the second hoeing should be given with a five-inch hoe a few days after the beets are thinned and never later than a week after, care being taken to kill the weeds close to the plant, but in such a manner as not to loosen or injure the beets. As the cultivator only loosens and clears the ground between the rows, the hoe must perform this work. This hoeing should be three inches deep. A similar hoeing may be necessary once more when the land is very foul and weedy so as to kill the weeds between and around the plants, but generally speaking two hand hoeings should suffice, providing the horse cultivation is kept up well. Each hand hoeing should, however, exceed the previous one in depth, but without injuring or loosening the plant. Under ordinary circumstances no work should be necessary in the field after eighty or ninety days from the time of planting, except the final and deepest horse cultivation and the irrigation of the crop. A forced later growth until the fall rains set in should be studiously avoided, as such growth is certain to result in a decreased sugar-content. Consequently, in irrigated regions water should not be applied too late in the season. It should not be applied within twenty or thirty days of the harvest, as it will take that length of time to fully develop the sugar-content. IRRIGATION OF THE CROP. Under ordinary circumstances the irrigation before planting should suffice to keep the beets growing until after they are thinned, and the first irrigation of the crop should be delayed as long as possible, even if the young plants should suffer slightly, as they will then form a good long tap-root in their search for moisture in the subsoil, while if watered too early, a net of fine side roots will grow and the opportunity — 18 — for the formation of the tap-root, which is of such great importance for the further growth of the beets, is lost. As soon as the young plants show the need of water the furrows are scraped out with the shovels attached to the cultivators and the field is carefully irrigated, running the water this first time only in every second row, pains being- taken not to flood the land, but giving it a thorough sub-irrigation, thus encouraging the downward growth of the roots. This careful irrigation will have to be repeated during the season once or twice more, running the water in every row between the beets; but after the third irrigation less danger is connected with the water passing over the rows and coming in direct touch with the beets. After each irrigation the furrows should be stirred with the calf tongues so as to loosen the soil which has been packed by the water, and then the cultivator should be used freely with duck feet and knives as long as the leaves of the plants are not too large to interfere with the latter. Prior to every irrigation the furrows should be opened up with the cultivator, and after the last cultivation the fur- rows must be scraped out once more for the purpose of later irriga- tion. This work must be finished before the leaves are becoming too large, so that there is plenty of room for the shovels to pass between the rows without injuring the tops of the plants. As to the number of irrigations which are required to mature a beet crop, no definite answer can be given, as this will depend entirely upon the quality of the soil, slope of the land, subsoil, location of the field, and the amount of spring and summer rain, as well as the tem- perature of the atmosphere during the growing season. It is well demonstrated in Utah that the irrigating furrows should not exceed twenty rods in length. After the first irrigation the beet requires a damp soil, and therefore the plants should never suffer for want of moisture thereafter. Should the soil become too dry through neglect to water the crop when it calls for it, the growth of the root will be stopped and the latter becomes soft and spongy ; and if irrigated after it has reached this stage of drought it will grow anew, and this second growth will materially decrease the purity and sugar-content of the beet. Therefore, the land should be kept damp, and not allowed to dry out after it has been once irrigated ; the water should be used judiciously so as not to soak the soil and keep it too wet, and cultivation should frequently be done to keep the moisture near the plant. As to when to stop irrigating, the farmer will have to be guided by the results of the analysis of beets from his field. However, as soon as the beets commence to turn yellow and begin to ripen, irrigation must cease at once. - 19 — GENERAL. Description of the Leveler.— The leveler consists of a frame 7 feet wide and 14 feet long for two horses, or 10 feet wide and 16 feet long for three or four horses. The front and rear board is slanting under an angle of about forty-five degrees towards the rear, so that the earth does not offer too great a resistance when, dragging the tool over the field. In the middle of the frame a vertical board is fastened so that by means of a level it can be lifted up and the earth be dropped wher- ever it is desired. This board moves in a slide attached to the two side boards. The sides of the leveler are usually made out of 2 x 8 inch boards, while the three cross boards are of 3 x 10 inch lumber. To the rear of this leveler are fastened a couple of handles, so that the former can be lifted up at any time should rubbish accumulate inside of the frame. Each farmer can adapt the size of the tool to the working power of his horses. Description of the Furrower.—Tlae furrower to be used to furrow the land for irrigation prior to planting is of the same width as the beet drill, viz., 5 feet, the four runners which mark the furrows being exactly 18 inches apart, counting from center to center of each run- ner. The frame consists of two timbers, 6x8 inches, to which the four runners made of 6 x 6 inch lumber are bolted, leaving an inside space of 24 to 26 inches between the two square timbers, while the space between the runners, as said above, is 18 inches. In front of these runners, just in the center of each, is fastened a duck foot, which loosens the soil ahead of the runner down to 2 or 3 inches and at the same time serves as an anchorage for the tool to the ground. This tool is very simple and absolutely necessary to secure a uniform irrigation of the ground, and it enables a farmer to distribute his water easily and evenly over the entire field. The distance of 18 inches between the centers of the runners is the same distance as that of the runners of the beet drill. One is thereby enabled to follow later on with the runners of the seeder exactly in the middle between the irrigation fur- rows, thereby planting the seed in moist land and securing a rapid and good germination. HARVESTING THE CROP. Harvesting should be postponed to as late a date as possible, pro- vided the beets are in no danger of second growth. The approach of ripening period can be detected by a change in the color of the leaves to a yellowish green; they also droop and become closely applied to the earth, and many of them die. Harvesting is done by means of a particular kind of plow with a thin blade, which splits the soil between — 20 - the rows. After plowing, the beets are left standing quite loosely in the ground and can easily be pulled out by the hand and thrown into piles or rows for topping, first shaking off the adhering dirt. The next operation consists of removing the neck. This is done by means of a large beet or corn knife, by which the top of the beet, or crown, is cut off so as to remove by a single blow the top and that Fig. 3. Showing proper manner of topping a beet. portion of the beet to which the stems of the leaves have grown. The object of removing this portion of the beet is to prevent the mineral salts, which have accumulated to a considerable quantity in the crown, as previously pointed out, from entering the factory. The mineral salts exercise a very bad influence on the crystallization of the sugar during the process of extraction, and therefore must be removed so far as possible in the field. The evil effect of shallow plowing becomes very evident at the time - 21 - of harvest in the loss of weight resulting from the required heavy topping of beets that have been forced out of the ground by reaching a hard under-soil which the root is unable to penetrate. Under such conditions the root lifts itself above the ground and it becomes neces- sary to heavily top the beets. YIELD. As is often the case when the attempt is made to introduce the indus- try into a new locality, very extravagant statements are made, by interested parties, as to the probable yield. The statement that the yield is 20 or 25 tons per acre is far too high, as experience in both Europe and America have abundantly shown. From 12 to 15 tons may reasonably be expected, and with such a tonnage the industry is an inviting one for both grower and manufacturer. It is significant that an eleven-year record at Watsonville, California, shows an average yield for the period of 10.84 tons per acre, and an average return per acre of $49.98 ; and at Alvarado, California, the home of the industry, the average for the past twelve years has been 9.7 tons per acre, and these include the four very dry years. Twenty and even twenty-five tons per acre are possible and even frequent yields, but are not com- mon. It is unsafe to figure on a yield, under general field condi- tions, of more than 12 tons per acre. The French "Journal of Sugar Manufacture" states that the average yield of beets in Germany is 15 tons per acre, and in France 11.13 tons. In the United States, in 1901, the average yield for the entire area devoted to sugar beets was a little less than 10 tons per acre, which forcibly suggests whether, by the proper use of plant food, this figure could not be materially raised. MAXIMS FOR SUGAR-BEET CULTURE. . Plow in the fall. Prepare fine seed-bed. Use plenty of seed. Plant shallow. Thin early. Practice flat cultivation. Keep the sur- face always loose. Hoe and cultivate as long as the leaves will per- mit. The sugar comes from the sun and air; therefore, keep the soil loose so the sun and air can do their maximum work, and the result will be both tonnage and sugar.