PEEFACE. In the preparation of this work the object of the author has been, primarily, to determine and set forth the construction and operation of the constitution so far as it has been settled by the courts. With this object in view the decisions have been carefully examined and the rules deduced from them arranged in their logical sequence, and apparently conflicting authorities have been harmonized. There has been an avoidance of all philo- sophical discussion of many questions which invited such treat- ment ; all effort, to show why the law is as it is or why it should not be as it is has been omitted. The already familiar method of treating the constitution clause by clause has been followed as being most convenient for the practitioner. Judicial authority has been cited for every statement made, thus furnishing a wealth of decisions upon all points which have ever been disputed. It is believed that the method followed will commend itself to the profession. While the federal supreme court is the final authoritv in all matters of constitutional construction, the decisions of the infe- rior federal courts and of the state courts should not be under- valued. The state reports have been freely resorted to, es- pecially for decisions in support of rights claimed under the fed- eral constitution and for illustrative cases construing similar clauses in state constitutions. In a work of this scope and size it would be impracticable, even undesirable, to include all the decisions pertinent to a given point, and no attempt has been made to do so. Merely cumula- tive authorities of no especial illustrative importance have been omitted, and authorities have been multiplied only in instances where the cases are of considerable value. References will be found, however, to all the important cases, federal and state. WILLIAM A. SUTHERLAND. Fresno, Cal., May, 19 OL (iii) 740024 TABLE OF CONTENTS. TEXT OF THE CONSTITUTION". INTRODUCTORY. PREAMBLE. ARTICLE I. Sec. 1. — Legislative power vested in Congress. Senate and House of Representatives. Sec. 2. — 1. Representatives, election of. qualification of electors. 2. Qualifications of members. 3. Apportionment of Representatives. of direct taxes. Census to be taken decennially. Ratio of representation. 4. Vacancies in representation. Executive to order election to fill. 5. House to choose its own officers. to have sole power of impeachment. Sec. 3. — 1. Senate, of what composed. Senators, how and when chosen. Senators, each to have one vote. 2. Senators to be divided into three classes. first class to vacate in two years, second class in four years, third class at end of sixth year, one-third to be chosen every second year, vacancies during recess to be temporarily filled. 3. Qualifications for Senator. thirty years of age. nine years a citizen, to be inhabitant of State for which chosen. 4. Vice-President to be President of Senate. to have no vote except in case of a tie. 5. Senate to choose other officers. to choose President pro tern, in absence of Vice- President. 6. Senate to have sole power to try impeachments. when so sitting, to be on oath or affirmation. Chief Justice to preside on trial of President, concurrence of two-thirds necessary for conviction. 7. Judgment on conviction, extent of. not to operate against trial according to law. (v) \ i Table of Contents. Art. I.— Continued. Sec. -i — 1. Time and mode of elections to be fixed by State legisla- tures. Congress may alter State regulations. ept as to the place of elections. 2. Congress to assemble at least once a year. meeting to be on first Monday of December. unl vise appointed by law. Sec. 5. — 1. Each hoi se to judge the elections, returns, and qualifica- tions of its members. majority to constitute a business quorum. smaller ! er may adjourn and compel attendance. penalties may be prescribed for nonattendance. 2. Each house may determine rules of its proceedings. may punish for disorderly behavior. with concurrence of two-thirds may expel. 3. Each house shall keep a journal of proceedings. may publish the same. yeas and nays to be entered on desire of one-fifth. 4. Neither house Khali adjourn for more than three days without consent of the other. nor to any other place than that in which they are sitting. Sec. 6 — 1. Compensation for services to be fixed by law. to be paid out of U. S. Treasury. Members to be privileged from arrest during the session, except for treason, felony, and breach of peace, to be privileged in going to and returning from the ions. for speech or debate not to be questioned elsewhere. 2. No member to be eligible for a civil office under Govern- ment created or increased in emoluments during his term. no person holding U. S. office to be eligible as a member. Sec. 7. — 1. Bills for raising revenue to originate in the House, but the Senate may propose or concur with amend- ments. 2. Every bill to be presented to the President for his ap- proval, if returned, objections to be entered on the journal, and to be reconsidere I. on concurrence of two-thirds, the bill to be sent to other house, if approved by two-thirds, to become a law. the vote of both houses to be by yeas and nays, names of members voting to be entered on journals. if bill not returned by President in ten days, to be Table of Contents. vii Art. I, Sec. 7. — Continued. a law, unless Congress, by adjournment, prevent the return. 3. Concurrent resolutions' to be presented to the President except on question of adjournment. if disapproved, require two-thirds to pass them. Sec. 8 — 1. Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, du- ties, imposts, and excises. to pay debts and provide for common defense and general welfare. all duties, imposts, and excises' to be uniform. 2. Congress to borrow money on credit of U. S. 3. Congress 1 to regulate commerce with foreign nations. among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. 4. Congress to establish uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on subject of bankruptcies. 5. Congress to coin money and regulate its value, and fix the standard of weights and measures. 6. Congress to provide for punishment of counterfeiting securities and coin of U. S. 7. Congress to establish postoffices and post-roads. 8. Congress to promote progress of science and useful arts' by securing to authors and inventors exclusive rights. 9. Congress to constitute tribunals inferior to Supreme Court. 10. Congress to define and punish piracies and felonies on high seas, and offenses against law of nations. 11. Congress to declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures. 12. Congress to raise and support armies. appropriations to be limited to two years. 13. Congress to provide and maintain a navy. 14. To make rules for government of land and naval forces. 15. To provide for calling forth the militia. to execute laws, suppress insurrections, etc. 16. To provide' for organizing and arming the militia. and for governing them when in employ of Govern- ment. authority of States as to appointment of officers reserved. also as to disciplining militia. 17. To exercise exclusive legislation over seat of govern- ment, and over sites of public works or buildings. 18. To make all laws necessary and proper to carry out its powers. viii Table of Contents. Art. I. — Con !i a in tj. Sec. 9. — 1. Migration or importation of slaves, restriction of. tax or duty may be imposed. 2. Hah as carpus not to be suspended except. 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law to be passed. 4. No direct tax unless" in proportion to census. 5. No tax or duty on exports from any State. 6. No preference to be given in commerce or revenue to ports of any State, no entry, clearance, or duties* on vessels bound to or from States. 7. Money to be drawn only on appropriations made by law. statements of receipts and expenditures to be pub- lished. 8. No title of nobility to be granted. no officer to accept presents' from foreign powers. Sec. 10. — 1. No State to enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- tion. or grant letters of marque and reprisal, or coin money. or emit bills of credit. or make anything but gold and silver a legal tender, or pass any bill of attainder, or ex post facto law. or law impairing obligation of contract, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State, without consent of Congress, shall lay any im- posts or duties, except absolutely necessary. and the net produce to be for use of Government, and the laws subject to revision of Congress. 3. No State, without consent of Congress, to lay duty oh tonnage. or keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, or enter into any agreement or compact with other States, or with a foreign power, unless actually invaded or in imminent danger. ARTICLE II. Sec. 1. — 1. The executive power ia vested in a President. his term of office shall be four years. the term of office of Vice-President shall be the same they shall be elected together. Table of Contents. ix Art. II, Sec. 1. — Continued. 2. Each State shall appoint Presidential electors. to be in number equal to the whole number of their Senators and Eepresentatives. no Senator or ^Representative or public U. S. officer shall be an elector. 3. Manner of voting by electors. Superseded by XITth Amendment. 4. Congress may determine time of choosing electors. and the day of their meeting to elect. to be the same throughout the U. S. 5. Natural-born citizens alone eligible for President. to have attained the age of thirty-five, and been fourteen years a resident. 6. The Vice-President to assume the duties of President in case of his death, resignation, etc. Congress may by law provide for the case of death, resignation, etc., of the President, and declare what officer shall then act. 7. The compensation of the President shall not be increased or diminished during his term of office, and he shall not receive during that period any other emolument. 8. Oath or affirmation of President. Sec. 2. — 1. President shall be Commander-in-Chief of Army and Navy. and of the Militia of the several States, when in service of the U. S. may require written opinions of executive officers. may grant reprieves and pardons, except in impeach- ments. 2. By and with consent of Congress, may make treaties. and shall nominate and appoint Ambassadors, etc. and all other officers whose appointments are not otherwise provided for. Congress may vest appointment of inferior officers as they think proper. 3. President may fill vacancies during recess of Senate. Sec. 3. — President to give information of state of the Union. to recommend measures to Congress. on extraordinary occasions may convene Congress, in case of disagreement may adjourn Congress, to receive Ambassadors and Ministers, to take care that the laws are administered, to commission all officers of the U. S. Sec. 4. — President and Vice-President to be removed on impeach- ment for treason, bribery, or high crimes. Table of Contents. ARTICLE ni. Sec. 1. — Judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court and inferior ((nuts, to be established by Congress. Judges to hold office during good behavior. compensation not to be diminished during continu- ance in office. Sec. 2. — 1. Jurisdiction to extend to all cases arising under the Con- stitution, laws, and treaties. to all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, and Consuls. to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. to controversies to which the U. S. is a party. to controversies between two or more States'. between a State and citizens of another State. between citizens of different States. between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States. and between a State, or its citizens, and foreign States, citizens, or Subjects. 2. Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction in all cases affecting Ambassadors, Ministers, or Consuls. and cases in which a State is a party, and appellate jurisdiction both as to law and fact, under regulations to be made by Congress. 3. Trials of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, to be by jury. to be had in State where crime has been committed. when not committed within a State, to be where Congress may direct. Sec. 3. — 1. Treason consists in levying war against or adhering to enemies of the U. S., giving them aid and comfort. no conviction unless on testimony of two witnesses. or on confession in open Court. 2. Congress may declare the punishment for treason. no attainder shall work corruption of blood or for- feiture beyond the life of the party attainted. ARTICLE! IV. Sec. 1. — Full faith and credit to be given to public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of States. Congress may prescribe the manner of their proof, and the effect thereof. V Table of Contents. xi Art. IV. — Continued. Sec. 2. — 1. Citizens of each State are entitled to the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 2. Fugitives from justice to be delivered up to State hav- ing jurisdiction of the crime. 3. Fugitives from service or labor to be delivered up. Sec. 3. — 1. New States may be admitted by Congress, but they can- not be formed within the jurisdiction of a State without consent of its Legislature. nor by the junction of two or more States without consent of States concerned and of Congress. 2. Congress may dispose of and make rules and regulations for territories or other property belonging to the U. S. Claims of the IT. S. or of a State not to be prejudiced. Sec. 4 — A republican form of government guaranteed to each State, and protection of each against invasion, and against domestic violence. ARTICLE V. Congress may propose amendments, when deemed necessary. or on application of two-thirds of the State Legis- latures. convention to be called. to be ratified by Legislatures or conventions of three-fourths of the States. no State, without its consent, can be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All existing liabilities are valid against the 17. S. 2. The Constitution, laws, and treaties are the supreme law of the land, judges in every State bound thereby. 3. All officers, executive, legislative, and judicial, both Fed- eral -and State, to be bound by oath or affirmation to support the Constitution, no religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of nine States sufficient. Attestation clause. Signatures. xii Table of Contents. AMENDMENTS. ARTICLE I. Congress can make no law respecting religion. or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press. or the right to peaceably assemble and petition for redress. ARTICLE IT. The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. No soldier to be quartered in any house without the con- sent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. The right of security against searches and seizures shall not be violated, warrants on probable cause to be supported by oath or affirmation, the place, person, and thing to be described in the warrant. ARTICLE V. Presentment or indictment before grand jury essential to trial for crime, except as to land or naval forces or militia in time of war. no person to be put twice in jeopardy, nor be compelled to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. nor shall private property be taken for public use without compensation. ARTICLE VI. In criminal trials, accused shall have the right to a speedy and public trial, by a jury, of State and district where crime was com- mitted. . Table of Contents. xiii Art. VI. — Continued. and to be informed of the nature and cause of ac- cusation. and to be confronted with witnesses against him. and to have compulsory process for witnesses in his favor. and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. ARTICLE VII. In civil actions, the right of trial by jury shall be pre- served where the value in controversy exceeds twenty dollars, facts tried by jury are re-examinable only according to the rules' of common law. ARTICLE VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel nor unusual punishments inflicted. ARTICLE IX. The enumeration of rights not to disparage others retained by the people. ARTICLE X. Powers not delegated nor prohibited to the States are re- served to the States or to the people. ARTICLE XI. The judicial power not to extend to actions against a State by citizen of another Stat ), or of a foreign State. ARTICLE XII. Presidential electors to meet in their respective States. and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President. the ballots for each office to be distinct. distinct lists to be made, signed, certified, and trans- mitted to the President of the Senate. the President of the Senate to open the certificates in presence of both houses of Congress. and the votes shall then be counted. xiv Table of Contents. Art. XII. — Continued. the person having the greatest number of votes shall be President. if there be no majority the House of Representatives shall elect from those having the highest number, not exceeding three. the votes shall be taken by States, each State having one vote. a quorum shall consist of a representation from two- thirds of the States. a majority of all the States necessary to a choice. if the House neglect to choose a President, the Vice- President shall act as such. the person having the greatest number of votes for Vice-President shall be Vice-President, if it be a majority of the electors. if not such majority, then the Senate shall choose the Vice-President from the two highest on the list. a quorum shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators. a majority shall be necessary for a choice. constitutional ineligibility for President renders a person ineligible for Vice-President. ARTICLE Xin. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except for crime, shall exist in the United States. Congress may enforce this article. ARTICLE XIV. Sec. 1. — AH persons born or naturalized in the U. S. are citizens of the U. S. and of the State where they reside. States' cannot abridge the privileges and immunities of citizens, nor deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. nor deny to any person the equal protection of the law. Sec. 2. — Eepresentatives shall be apportioned according to the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed, but when the right to vote is denied to male citizens over twenty-one, the basis of representation shall be reduced accordingly. except for participation in rebellion or for other crimes. Table of Contents. xv Art. XIV.— Continued. Sec. 3. — Persons engaged in insurrection or rebellion having previ- ously taken the oath to support the Constitution of the U. S. are disqualified from holding office. Congress may by a two-third vote of each house re- move the disability. Sec. 4. — The validity of the public debt of the IT. S., authorized by law, shall not be questioned, debts or obligations 1 incurred in aid of rebellion are illegal and void, claims for loss or emancipation of any slave are ille- gal and void. Sec. 5. — Congress shall have power to enforce these provisions. ARTICLE XV. Sec. 1 The right of citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. Sec. 2 — Congress shall have power to enforce this article. NOTES CONSTITUTION UNITED STATES. TEXT OF THE CONSTITUTION. We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Lib- erty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and es- tablish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of repre- sentatives. Section 2, Clause 1. The House of Represntatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 2. No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty-five Years, and Notes on Constitution' — 1 Text of the Constitution. 2 been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct Taxes shall be appor- tioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective Num- bers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Ser- vice for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other Persons. The actual Enumeral ion shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Repre- sentative; and until such Enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 4. When Vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of election to fill such Vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers, and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section 3, Clause 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six Years, and each Senator shall have one Vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in 3 Text of the Constitution. consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the expiration of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen, by Resignation or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. 3. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the LTnited States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. 4. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two-thirds of the Members present. 7. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall uot ex- tend further than to removal from Office, and disquali- fication to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party con- Text of the Constitution. 4 victed shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indict- ment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Section 4, Clause 1. The Times, Places and Man- ner of holding Elections for Senators and Representa- tives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legisla- ture thereof ; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of causing Senators. 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5, Clause 1. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns, and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Number may ad- journ from Day to Day, and may be authorized to com- pel the Attendance of absent Members, in such Manner and under such Penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each House may determine the Rules of its Pro- ceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behavior, and, with the Concurrence of two-thirds, expel a Mem- ber. 3. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceed- ings, and from Time to Time publish the same, except- ing such parts as may in their Judgment require Se- crecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House, on any Question, shall, at the Desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal. 4. Neither House during the Session of Congress shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three Days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 5 Text of the Constitution". Section 6, Clause 1. The Senators and Representa- tives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by Law and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to or returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. 2. No Senator or Eepresentative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, during such Time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States shall be a Member of either House during his con- tinuance in Office. Section 7, Clause 1. All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. 2. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Reconsideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be deter- Text of the Constitution. 6 mined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days ( Sun- days excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. 3. Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representa- tives may be necessary (except on a question of Ad- journment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limita- tions prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8, Clause 1. The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all Du- ties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States; 2. To Borrow Money on the Credit of the United States; 3. To regulate Commerce with Foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; 4. To establish a uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the Subject of Bankruptcies, throughout the United States; 5. To coin Money, regulate the Value th proof and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; 7 Text of the Constitution - . 6. To provide for the Punishment of Counterfeiting the Securities and Current Coin of the United States: 7. To establish Post-offices and Post-roads; 8. To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and In- ventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries; 9. To constitute Tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 10. To define and punish Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offenses against the Law of Nations; 11. To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; 12. To raise and support Armies ; but no Appropria- tion of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; 13. To provide and maintain a Navy; 14. To make Rules for the Government and Regula- tion of the Land and Naval Forces ; 15. To provide for calling forth the Militia to exe- cute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections, and repel Invasions; 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- ing the Militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the Appointment of the officers, and the Authority of training the Militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 17. To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and Text of the Constitution - . 8 the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Gov- ernment of the United States, and to exercise like Au- thority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings; — And 18. To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Pow- ers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Depart- ment or Officer thereof; Section 9, Clause 1. The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. 2. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. 3. No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. 4. No Capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 5. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. 6. No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. 7. No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but 9 Text of the Constitution. in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from time to time. 8. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: and no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. Section 10, Clause 1. No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligation of Con- tracts, or grant any Title of Nobility. 2. No State shall, without the Consent of the Con- gress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Re- vision and Controul of the Congress. 3. No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as Avill not admit of delay. Text of the Constitution. 10 ARTICLE II. Section 1, Clause 1. The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows 2. Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole number of Senators and Representa- tives to which the State may be entitled in the Con- gress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person hold- ing an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. 3. ["The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the Cer- tificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Per- son having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for Presi- dent; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the 11 Text of the Constitution". five highest on the List the said House shall in like Man- ner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two-thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice, In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice-President."] This Clause has been superseded by the twelfth amendment. 4. The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. 6. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to dis- charge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Con- gress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignation, or Inability, both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, Text of the Constitution". 12 until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be en- creased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully exe- cute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and de- fend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2, Clause 1. The President shall be Com- mander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Par- dons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. 2. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress 13 Text of the Constitution. may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Offi- cers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. 3. The President shall have Power to fill up all Va- cancies that may happen during the Eecess of the Sen- ate, by granting Commissions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on ex- traordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Kespect to the Time of Adjournment, he may ad- journ them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemean- ors. ARTICLE III. Section 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such in- ferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be dimin- ished durimr their Continuance in Office. Text of the Constitution. 14 Section 2, Clause 1. The judicial Power shall ex- tend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Au- thority; — to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; — to all Cases of admir- alty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; — to Contro- versies between two or more States; — between a State and Citizens of another State; — between Citizens of dif- ferent States, — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. 2. In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Juris- diction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 3. The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Im- peachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Con- gress may by Law have directed. Section 3, Clause 1. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason un- less on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. 15 Text of the Constitution. 2. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. AETICLE IV. Section 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2, Clause 1. The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. 2. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Fel- ony, or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the execu- tive Authority of the State from which he fled, be de- livered up to be removed to the State having Jurisdic- tion of the Crime. 3. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be dis- charged from such Service or Labour, but shall be de- livered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section 3, Clause 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. Text of the Constitution. 16 2. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Gov- ernment, and shall protect each of them against Inva- sion; and on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. ARTICLE V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legis- latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legis- latures of three fourths of the several States, or by Con- ventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Con- gress ; Provided that no Amendment w T hich may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be 17 Text of the Constitution. as valid against the United States under this Constitu- tion, as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before men- tioned, and the Members of the several State Legisla- tures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Quali- fication to any Office or public Trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Consti- tution between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, Go: WASHINGTON— Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia New Hampshire. John Langdon Nicholas Gilman Notes on Constitution — 2 Text of the Constitution. 18 Massachusetts. Nathaniel Gorham Rufus King Connecticut. Wm. Saml. Johnson Roger Sherman New York. Alexander Hamilton New Jersey. Wil : Livingston Wm. Paterson David Brearley Jona : Dayton Pennsylvania. B. Franklin Thos. Fitzsimons Thomas Mimin Jared Ingersoll Robt. Morris James Wilson Geo. Clymer Gouv Morris Delaware. Geo : Read Richard Bassett Gunning Bedford Jun Jaco : Broom John Dickinson Maryland. James McHenry Danl. Carroll Dan of St Thos Jenifer Virginia. John Blair — James Madison Jr. North Carolina. Wm. Blount Hu Williamson. Richd. Dobbs Spaight 19 Text of the Constitution. South Carolina. J. Rutledge, Charles Pinckney Charles Cotesworth Pinckney Pierce Butler. Georgia. William Few Abr Baldwin Attest WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE CON- STITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PRO- POSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGISLA- TURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. [ARTICLE I.] Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of griev- ances. [ARTICLE II.] A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the secu- rity of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. [ARTICLE III.] No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. Text of the Constitution. 20 [ARTICLE IV.] The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no War- rants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. [ARTICLE V.] No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be com- pelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. [ARTICLE VI.] In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 21 Text of the Constitution. [ARTICLE VII.] In suits at common law, where the value in contro- versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. [ARTICLE VIII.] Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in- flicted. [ARTICLE IX.] The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage oth- ers retained by the people. [ARTICLE X.] The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are re- served to the States respectively, or to the people. [ARTICLE XL] The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- menced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. [ARTICLE XII.] The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same Text of the Constitution. 22 state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct bal- lots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-Presi- dent, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted; — The person having the great- est number of votes for President, shall be the Presi- dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such ma- jority, then from the persons having the highest num- bers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a Presi- dent whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Sen- 23 Text of the Constitution. ate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitution- ally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. i r N AKTICLE XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servi- tude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdic- tion. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. ARTICLE XIYy t \> Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immuni- ties of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial Text of the Constitution. 24 officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the propor- tion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Repre- sentative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having pre- viously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts in- curred for payment of pensions and bounties for ser- vices in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation in- curred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipa- tion of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to en- force, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 25 Text of the Constitution. ARTICLE XV. Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or pre- vious condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. INTRODUCTORY. Constitutional Construction — General Rules. Broadly speaking, a constitution is an instrument of govern- ment made and adopted by the people for practical purposes. 1 The constitution of the United States is a grant of power. 2 It should be construed so as best to subserve the great objects for which it was made, 3 and, like every other grant of power, should have a reasonable construction according to its terms, 4 as defined in the vocabulary of the people which adopted it. 5 The safest rule for interpreting the constitution is to look to the nature and objects of the particular powers, duties and rights, with all the aids of contemporary history, and to give to the words of each just such operation and force consistent with their legitimate meaning, as may fairly secure and attain the ends proposed. 6 The very object of constitutional construc- tion is to give effect to the intention of the framers of the in- strument, and to the intent of the people in adopting it, 7 and this intent, together with the general scope of the particular provision, is to be kept constantly in view. 8 1 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400. 2 Spooner v. McConnell, 1 McLean, 337, Fed. Cas. No. 13,245; United States v. Cathcart, 1 Bond, 556, Fed. Cas. No. 14,756; Page v. Allen, 58 Pa. St. 338, 98 Am. Dee. 272; State v. Moore, 40 Neb. 854, 59 N. W. 755, 25 L. R. A. 774. 3 Jarrolt v. Moberly, 103 U. S. 586, 26 L. ed. 492; North Eiver S. Co. v. Livingston, 3 Cow. 713; Hague v. Powers, 39 Barb. 427; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400. 4 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326, 4 L. ed. 97; Woodson v. Mur- dock, 22 Wall. 369, 22 L. ed. 716; Fairbank v. United States, 181 U. S. 289, 21 S. Ct. 648, 45 L. ed. 862. 5 Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill, 317; Padelford v. Mayor, 14 Ga. 438. 6 Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 610, 10 L. ed. 1060. 7 Lake County v. Rollins, 130 U. S. 670, 9 S. Ct. 651, 32 L. ed. 1060. s Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 188, 6 L. ed. 23; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 332, 6 L. ed. 606; Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 437, 6 (27) Constitutional Construction. 28 No court is authorized to so construe a clause of the constitu- tion as to defeat its obvious ends, when another construction, equally accordant with the words and sense, will enforce and protect those ends ; 9 accordingly, where words admit of different intendments, that must be selected which is most consonant to the object in view. 10 If a case is within the letter of the con- stitution it is not to be excluded from its meaning by showing that it was not in the minds of those who framed and adopted it ; it is further necessary to show that, had the case been sug- gested, the language would have been changed so as to except it. 11 It must receive a practical construction, 12 and is not to be viewed technically. 13 Its terms are not to he nullified or evaded by astute verbal criticism without regard to the aim and objects of the instrument and the principles on which it was based. 14 It should be so construed as to give effect to its dif- ferent clauses, as far as possible to reconcile them and not allow their seeming repugnancy to destroy them. 15 The rule of construction that what is implied is as much a part of an instrument as what is expressed, applies to the fed- eral constitution, because of the inherent inability to put into words all derivative powers; 16 but a court has no right to in- sert anything in the constitution which is not expressed and cannot fairly be implied, 17 and when the text of a constitutional provision is not ambiguous, the courts are not at liberty to L. ed. 678; McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 415, 4 L. ed. 579; Groves v. Slaughter, 15 Pet. 500, 10 L. ed. 800; Ex parte Verger, 8 Wall. 101, 19 L. ed. 332; Lake County v. Rollins, 130 U. S. 670, 9 S. Ct. 651, 32 L. ed. 1060. 9 Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 612, 10 L. ed. 1060. 10 Aldrich v. Kinney, 4 Conn. 380, 10 Am. Dec. 151. li Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 644, 4 L. ed. 629. 12 Railroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 31, 21 L. ed. 787. 13 People v. Dawell, 25 Mich. 247, 12 Am. Rep. 260; Dormon v. State, 34 Ala. 216. 14 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 702. 15 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 395, 5 L. ed. 257; Marbury v. Madi- son, 1 Cr. 138, 2 L. ed. 60. 16 Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 U. S. 658, 4 S. Ct. 152, 28 L. ed. 274. 17 Prigg v. Common wealth, 16 Pet. 613, 10 L. ed. 1060. 29 Constitutional Consteuction. search for its meaning beyond the instrument itself. 1 8 Affirma- tive words often imply a negative of other objects than those affirmed, 19 and an exception of any particular case presupposes that those which are not excepted are embraced within the grant or prohibition; so where no exception is made in terms, none will be made by implication or construction. 20 The scope and effect of a constitutional provision is often best ascertained by bearing in mind what the law was before, 21 and a provision afterward changed by amendment should be considered in construing the amendment. 22 The history of the time when a provision was framed and adopted should be ex- amined to determine the old law, the mischief and the remedy, 23 and where it is undoubted that the object of a clause was to in- corporate into the instrument certain principles which had be- come permanently fixed in the law of the mother country, the con- struction of those principles by the English courts is useful in determining their scope. 24 The construction of many clauses of the constitution must be had in the light of the common law, 25 unless by a series of decisions by the supreme court and the construction placed upon a particular clause by Congress the words have been considered as having a meaning different from that given to them by the common law. 26 Decisions deliberately considering a constitutional provision should be looked to, 27 and contemporary practical construction of the constitution by Congress and persons intrusted with its is Lake County v. Eollins, 130 U. S. 670, 9 S. Ct. 651, 32 L. ed. 1060. 19 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 173, 2 L. ed. 60. 20 Ehode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 722, 9 L. ed. 1233. 21 Ex parte Wilson, 114 U. S. 422, 5 S. Ct. 935, 29 L. ed. 80 j Mattox v. United States, 156 U. S. 243, 15 S. Ct. 337, 39 L. ed. 409. 22 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 139, 3 L. ed. 162. 23 Ehode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 723, 9 L. ed. 1233; Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 432, 7 L. ed. 903; Missouri v. Illinois, 180 U. S. 219, 21 S. Ct. 331, 45 L. ed. 497. 24 Brown v. Walker, 161 U. S. 591, 16 S. Ct. 644, 40 L. ed. 819. 25 United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U. S. 654, 18 S. Ct. 456, 42 L. ed. 890. 2G The Huntress, 2 Ware (Dav. 82), 89, Fed. Cas. No. 6914. 27 Missouri v. Illinois, 180 U. S. 219, 21 S. Ct. 331, 45 L. ed. 497. Constitutional Construction. 30 execution is of great weight in construing its provisions, 28 es- pecially where there has been long acquiescence in such con- struction, and rights have been acquired in reliance thereon. 29 It is only in cases of doubt and ambiguity, however, that this weight attaches to practical construction of constitutional pro- visions. 30 But the fact that practical construction, long con- tinued, has been uniformly abandoned does not detract from its value as an aid to judicial construction. 31 The arguments of individual legislators cannot dictate the construction to be put on the constitution by the courts, 32 nor can congressional debates with reference to a proposed consti- tutional amendment furnish any firm ground for its proper con- struction. 33 The courts can only construe the powers granted; they can- not inquire into the policy or principles which induced a grant, 34 nor can the question of expediency or hardship deter- mine the construction of a constitutional provision. 35 28 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 420, 5 L. ed. 257; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 290, 6 L. ed. 606; Wilkinson v. Leland, 2 Pet. 657, 7 L. ed. 542; Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 315, 13 L. ed. 996; Den v. Hoboken Land etc. Co., 18 How. 280, 15 L. ed. 372; Propeller Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 458, 13 L. ed. 1058. 29 MoCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 401, 4 L. ed. 579; Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 541, 19 L. ed. 482; Burrow etc. Lith. Co. v. Sarony, 111 U. S. 57, 4 S. Ct. 279, 28 L. ed. 349; The Laura, 114 U. S. 416, 5 S. Ct. 881, 29 L. ed. 147; Field v. Clark, 143 U. S. 691, 12 S. Ct. 495, 36 L. ed. 294. 30 McPherson v. Blacker, 146 U. S. 27, 13 S. Ct. 1, 36 L. ed. 869; Fairbank v. United States, 181 U. S. 310, 21 S. Ct. 648, 45 L. ed. 862. 31 McPherson v. Blacker, 146 U. S. 27, 13 S. Ct. 1, 36 L. ed. 869. 32 Downs v. Bidwell, 182 TJ. S. 254, 21 S. Ct. 770, 45 L. ed. 1088. 33 Maxwell v. Dow, 176 U. S. 601, 20 S. Ct. 448, 44 L. ed. 597. 34 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97. 35 Watkins v. Holman, 16 Pet. 62, 10 L. ed. 873; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 540, 20 L. ed. 287; Buchanan v. Litchfield, 102 U. S. 293, 26 L. ed. 138; The Benito Estenger, 176 TJ. S. 575, 20 S. Ct. 489, 44 L, ed. 592; Louisville etc. By. v. Kentucky, 183 U. S. 512, 22 S. Ct. 95, 46 L. ed. 298. 31 Constitutional Construction. Meaning of Words. In construing the constitution, the intention of the instru- ment is to prevail, and this intention is to be collected chiefly from its words understood in their ordinary sense; 36 reference is to be had to the literal meaning of the words to be expounded, their connection with other words, and the general objects to be accomplished. 37 Although the spirit of an instrument is to be respected not less than its letter, yet, as has been said, the spirit is to be collected chiefly from its words; it cannot be inferred from extrinsic circumstances that a case for which the words expressly provide shall be exempted from its operation. 38 The argument of inconvenience cannot prevail over plain words, but a construction which would necessarily occasion public or private mischief must yield to a construction which will occa- sion neither. 39 A case within the words of a rule must be deemed within its operation unless something in the literal con- struction is so obviously absurd or mischievous, or so repugnant to the spirit of the instrument as to justify an exception. 40 Words are to be taken in their natural and obvious sense, and not in a sense unreasonably restricted or enlarged. 41 Adherence to the letter must not be had in opposition to the reason and spirit of the constitution, and to effectuate the objects intended, it may be proper to deviate from the usual sense of the words. 42 Every word must have its due force and appropriate meaning, 36 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 332, 6 L. ed. 606; Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 188, 6 L. ed. 23. 37 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 437, 6 L. ed. 678; Miller v. Dunn, 72 Cal. 462, 1 Am. St. Eep. 67, 14 Pac. 27. 3S Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 202, 4 L. ed. 529; Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 380, 5 L. ed. 257. 39 Ex parte Griffin, Chase, 364, Fed. Cas. No. 5815; Baltimore v. State, 15 Md. 376. 40 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 4 L. ed. 579; Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 1, 5 L. ed. 19; Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 257, 9 L. ed. 709; Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 299, 13 L. ed. 996. 41 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; Miller v. Dunn, 72 Cal. 462, 1 Am. St. Eep. 67, 14 Pac. 27. 42 Aldrich v. Kinney, 4 Conn. 380, 10 Am. Dec. 151. Constitutional Construction. 32 and no word should be rejected as unmeaning; 43 and care should be taken to reconcile words apparently inconsistent, in such a manner as to give, if possible, a meaning to even word :' ' il cannot be assumed that any part of the language used is su- perfluous. 45 The same words have not necessarily the same meaning when found in different parts of the constitution, and the peculiar sense in which a word is used is to be determined by the context, 46 unless the meaning is completely ascer- tained. 47 Where it appears that the framers used a word in a particular sense generally throughout the instrument, it will be given that sense wherever it occurs. 48 "While affirmative words are often negative of other objects than those affirmed, they should not be construed negatively where they can operate fully without such construction. 49 Operation of Constitution. The United States constitution is supreme over all the depart- ments of the national government, and, to the extent of the powers delegated, over all who made themselves parties to it, states as well as persons; it is supreme over the people of the United States aggregately and in their separate sovereignties. 50 It constitutes a part of the law of each state, and is binding upon the people and authorities of the state. 51 A constitution will always be deemed to operate prospectively 43 Holmes v. Jennison, 14 Pet. 540, 10 L. ed. 579; Hitchcock v. Aiken, 1 Caines, 460; State v. Scott, 9 Ark. 270. 44 Curtis v. Gibbs, 2 N. J. L. 405. 45 Hurtado v. California, 110 U. S. 534, 4 S. Ct. Ill, 292, 28 L. ed. 232. 46 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 1, 8 L. ed. 25; Wheaton v. Peters, 8 Pet. 591, 8 L. ed. 1055; Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 437, 6 L. ed. 678. 47 United States v. Burr, 2 Whart. Cr. Cas. 573. 48 Green v. Weller, 32 Miss. 652. 49 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 173, 2 L. ed. 60; Cohens v. Vir- ginia, 6 Wheat. 395, 5 L. ed. 257. 50 Dodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 347, 15 L. ed. 401. 51 National Bank v. Dearing, 91 U. S. 35, 23 L. ed. 196; State v. Conlon, 65 Conn. 478, 48 Am. St. Rep. 227, 33 Atl. 519, 31 L. K. A. 55. 33 Constitutional Construction. unless a contrary intention clearly appears. 52 A constitutional provision which is complete in itself is self-executing. 53 The general principles of the constitution are merely declaratory and directory, and not meant to fetter and control. 54 52 Shreveport v. Cole, 129 IT. S. 43 ; 9 S. Ct. 210, 32 L. ed. 589. 53 Davis v. Burke, 179 IT. S. 403, 21 S. Ct. 210, 45 L. ed. 249. 54 Cooper v. Telfair, 4 Dall. 18, 1 L. ed. 721. Notes on Constitution — 3 PREAMBLE. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. The People of the United States. This phrase contemplates the body of electors composing the states, 1 the terms "people" and "citizens" being synonymous. and both describing the political body who, under our repub- lican institutions, form the sovereignty, hold the power, and conduct the government through their representatives; the "sovereign people," of which every citizen is a constituent mem- ber. 2 Negroes, whether free or slaves, were not included in the term "people of the United States." 3 The constitution was OTdained and established, not by thet states, but by the people of the United States ; 4 the people bear the sovereignty of the nation. 5 The United States government is truly a government of the people; in form and substance it emanates from them. 6 It was competent for them to invest that government with all the powers they might deem proper, and to give it supreme authority, 7 and they may resume or mod- ify the powers granted at their pleasure. 8 1 Penhallow v. Doane, 3 Dall. 93, 1 L. ed. 507. 2 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 404, 15 L. ed. 691. 3 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 404, 406, 411-427, 477, 15 L. ed. 691. 4 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 324, 4 L. ed. 97. 5 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 471, 1 L. ed. 440. 6 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 4 L. ed. 579. 7 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 325, 4 L. ed. 97. 8 MeCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 404, 4 L. ed. 579. (35) Preamble. 36 More Perfect Union. The people, through the constitution, established a more per- fect union by establishing a national government acting di- rectly upon the citizens, in the place of the government exist- ing under the Articles of Confederation, which acted with pow- ers greatly restricted and only on the states. 9 The phrase rec- ognizes a political body known as the United States. 10 This union of the states is not a purely arbitrary and artificial rela- tion; it began among the colonies, and received definite form and character and sanction from the Articles of Confederation, and was only perfected by the constitution. 11 The Articles of Confederation merely constituted a league of friendship, andi did not form a constitution or ordinance of government. 12 It is the union of the states under a common constitution which forms the distinct and greater political unit designated as the United States, 13 by a compact made by the people of the United States to govern themselves as to general objects in a certain manner; 14 a government emanating from the people, 15 the creation of their will and existing only by their will. 16 For many purposes it is a consolidated government, a nation; 17 a body politic and corporate, 18 and for all these purposes it is 9 Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 76, 19 L. ed. 101; Collector v. Day, 11 Wall. 125, 20 L. ed. 122. 10 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 727, 19 L. ed. 227. li Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 727, 19 L. ed. 227. 12 Wharton v. Wise, 153 U. S. 167, 14 S. Ct. 783, 38 L. ed. 669. 13 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 721, 19 L. ed. 227. 14 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 463. 1 L. ed. 440. 15 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 4 L. ed. 579. 16 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257. 17 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 413, 5 L. ed. 257; North Eiver S. Co. v. Livingston, 3 Cow. 713. 18 Dugan v. United States, 3 Wheat. 172, 4 L. ed. 362; United States v. Tingey, 5 Pet. 128, 8 L. ed. 66; United States v. Bradley, 10 Pet. 343, 9 L. ed. 448; Neilson v. Lagow, 12 How. 108, 13 L. ed. 909; Dixon v. United States, 1 Brock. 177, Fed. Cas. No. 3934; United States v. Maurice, 2 Brock. 109, Fed. Cas. No. 15,747; United States v. Lane, 3 McLean, 365, Fed. Cas. No. 1559; Stearns v. United States, 2 Paine, 301, Fed. Cas. No. 13,341. See, also, Kepublie of Honduras v. Soto, 112 N. Y. 310, 8 Am. St. Eep. 744, 19 N. E. 845, 2 L. E. A. 042. 37 Pee amble. supreme. 19 It is a government of delegated powers only, with powers limited in number but not in degree, and is supreme within the scope of its delegated powers. 20 Ordained and Established. The constitution was ordained and established by the people, for themselves and their own government, and not for the gov- ernment of the individual states. 21 It was not established by the states, but by the people of the United States, 22 acting through delegates by whom they were represented. 23 The adop- tion of the constitution was neither by the people nor the states ; the vote of the people was limited to the respective states in which they resided, thus combining an expression of popular suffrage and state sanction. 24 The constitution went into effect on the first Wednesday in March, 1789. 25 19 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 413, 5 L. ed. 257; Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 76, 19 L. ed. 101; Chinese Exclusion Case, 130 U. S. 604, 9 S. Ct. 623, 32 L. ed. 1068; In re Quarles, 158 U. S. 535, 15 S. Ct. 959, 39 L. ed. 1080. 20 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 363, 4 L. ed. 97; McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 4 L ed. 579; Dobbins v. Commissioners of Erie County, 16 Pet. 447, 10 L. ed. 1022; Ableman v. Booth, 21 How. 517, 16 L. ed. 169; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 533, 20 L. ed. 287; Kohl v. United States, 91 U. S. 372, 23 L. ed. 449; United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 550, 23 L. ed. 588; In re Debs, 158 U. S. 578, 15 S. Ct. 900, 39 L. ed. 1092. 21 Barron v. Baltimore, 7 Pet. 243, 8 L. ed. 672; Withers v. Buck- ley, 20 How. 84, 15 L. ed. 816; Twitchell v. Commonwealth, 7 Wall. 326, 19 L. ed. 223; United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 550, 23 L. ed. 588. 22 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 463, 1 L. ed. 440; Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 324, 4 L. ed. 97. 23 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 569, 8 L. ed. 483; Barron v. Balti- more, 7 Pet. 243, 8 L. ed. 672. 24 Ware v. Hylton, 3 Dall. 199, 1 L. ed. 568; Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 419, 1 L. ed. 440; Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 569, 8 L. ed. 483. 26 Owings v. Speed, 5 Wheat. 420, 5 L. ed. 124. Art. I, § 1 Legislative Department. 38 ARTICLE I. LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT. SECTION 1. legislative power, congress. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. The "legislative power" means the power or authority, under the constitution, or frame of government, to make, alter or re- peal laws. 1 The three co-OTdinate branches of the federal gov- ernment possess powers, in their respective spheres, coextensive with each other, 2 but these powers, while coextensive, are dis- tinct and independent, 3 and one branch of government cannot encroach upon the powers confided to another. 4 No judicial power is vested in Congress by the constitution,, save in cases specially enumerated; 5 its powers are confined to legislative duties, and restricted within certain prescribed lim- its. 6 1 O'Neil v. American etc. Ins. Co., 166 Pa. St. 72, 45 Am. St. Eep. 650, 30 Atl. 943, 26 L. E. A. 715. 2 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 570, 8 L. ed. 482. 3 Sinking Fund Cases, 99 U. S. 718, 25 L. ed. 504. 4 Hayburn's Case, 3 Dall. 409, note, 1 L. ed. 436; Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 168, 26 L. ed. 377. 5 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 168, 26 L. ed. 377. 6 Gordon v. United States, 117 U. S. 705. 3d House of ^Representatives. Art. I, § 2, CI. 1 SECTION 2. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES. 1. Members, when and by whom chosen. 2. Qualifications. 3. Apportionment of Eepresentatives, and direct taxes. 4 Vacancies. 5. Speaker. Impeachment. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State Legislature. Electors. Although this clause adopts state qualifications of electors as those of electors for members of Congress, the right, thus ascertained, is not made dependent upon state laws, but is based upon the constitution. 1 Accordingly, Congress has power to interfere to protect the right to vote for congressmen, 2 and this power does not depend upon the fourteenth and fifteenth amend- ments. 3 It is for the states alone to determine who shall be en- titled to vote, 4 but once the right has been granted, and so long a? it extends to voting for state officers, a state cannot deprive electors of the right to vote at national elections. 5 And where the possession of a registry certificate constitutes a person a legal voter, no action of the election board or of any other power can invalidate his right. 6 1 Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 U. S. 651, 4 S. Ct. 152, 28 L. ed. 274. 2 United States v. Goldman, 3 Woods, 187, Fed. Cas. No. 15,225. 3 United States v. Crosby, 1 Hughes, 448, Fed. Cas. No. 14,893. 4 United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 542, 23 L. ed. 588; Mc- Pherson v. Blacker, 146 U. S. 38, 13 S. Ct. 12, 36 L. ed. 869; Huber v. Reily, 53 Pa. St. 112. 5 United States v. Goldman, 3 Woods, IS 7, Fed. Cas. No. 15,225. 6 Bell v. Snydei, Smith, 250. Art. 1, § 2, CI. 2 House of Kepresentatives. 40 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives. A representative is a mcfmber of Congress with full powers. 1 The office of territorial delegate is not provided for in the con- stitution ; it grew out of the ordinance of Congress for the gov- ernment of the Northwest Territory. 2 While delegates are members of Congress, 3 they are admitted merely as a matter of favor, 4 and possess only limited powers. 5 Delegates are so far the mere creatures of law that their term of office may com- mence and terminate at such periods as Congress may direct, 6 and their qualifications are those which the House in any par- ticular Congress may choose to prescribe; one Congress cannot bind another in this respect. 7 If, however, no qualifications have been prescribed, they are to be deemed the same as those prescribed by the constitution for members of the House. 8 Qualifications Generally. This clause fixes the qualifications of members so far as state action is concerned, and no additional qualifications can be re- quired by the state. 9 So state laws prescribing residence as to 1 Cannon v. Campbell, 2 Ells. 652. 2 Biddle v. Richard, CI. & H. 407. 3 Cannon v. Campbell, 2 Ells. 652. 4 Ruder v. Whitfield, 1 Bart. 204. 5 Cannon v. Campbell, 2 Ells. 652. 6 Doty v. Jones, 1 Bart. 18. 7 Cannon v. Campbell, 2 Ells. 604. 8 Maxwell v. Cannon, Smith, 188. 9 Barney v. McCreery, CI. & H. 167; Turney v. Marshall and Fouke v. Trumbull, 1 Bart. 167; State v. Russell, 8 Ohio N. P. 54, 10 Ohio S. & C. P. Dee. 255. 41 House of Eepresentatives. Art. 1, § 2, CI. 2 counties within congressional districts are void; 10 and a clause in a state constitution providing that judges of certain courts shall not be eligible to any office of public trust or profit in the state or the United States cannot deprive a member-elect of his right to his seat. 11 The negative declaration of minimum qualifications in this 1 clause is not exclusive of all others which may be required by Congress itself. 12 Disloyalty is deemed to be a disqualifica- tion; 13 but the alleged disloyalty must have been actual and not merely technical, 14 and acceptance of membership in a seceding legislature by a person in fact loyal was held not to render a person ineligible. 15 Disloyal acts prior to the complete annex- ation of Hawaii were declared not to deprive a delegate-elect of his right to his seat. 16 The Test Oath Act of 1862 imposed a real and substantial disqualification for membership, 17 and its constitutionality has always been asserted. 18 Polygamy is a disqualification. 19 Insanity, crime or loathsome disease would probably be held to disqualify a member-elect should such a question be presented. 20 The disqualification of a member-elect does not entitle the next highest candidate to the seat. 21 10 Barney v. McCreery, CI. & H. 167. 11 Turney v. Marshall and Fouke v. Trumbull, 1 Bart. 167; Wood v. Peters, Mobley, 79. 12 Eoberts' Case, Sep. 85, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. 13 McKee v. Young, 2 Bart. 422; Christy v. Wimpy, 2 Bart. 465; Smith v. Brown, 2 Bart. 395. 14 Tucker v. Booker, 2 Bart. 772. 15 Butler's Case, 2 Bart. 461. ic Wilcox's Case, Kep. 3001, 56th Cong., 2d Sess. 17 Koberts' Case, supra. 18 MeKee v. Young, 2 Bart. 450; Smith v. Brown, 2 Bart. 395; Butler's Case, 2 Bart. 464. 19 Koberts' Case, supra; Cannon v. Campbell, 2 Ells. 604. 20 Eoberts' Case, supra. 21 Smith v. Brown, 2 Bart. 395; Blakey v. Golladay, 2 Bart. 417; Christy v. Wimpy, 2 Bart. 464; Jones v. Mann, 2 Bart. 471. Art. I, § 2, CI. 2 House of Representatives. 42 Citizens. The word "citizen" is not synonymous with "resident." 22 A citizen is a member of the nation, owing allegiance thereto and entitled to protection therefrom; 23 a member of the political community to which he belongs.- 4 A minor who left the colo- nies for Europe for his education before the Revolution, and whose parents died before the Revolution, did not lose his citi- zenship, and upon his return, after his majority, was eligible to election to Congress. 25 Where the citizenship of a claimant is questioned, the leaning should always be in his favor. 20 Tech- nical rules should not be applied to deprive a member of his seat where the fact of naturalization has been proved. 27 Inhabitants. An inhabitant is a bona fide member of the state, subject to all the requisitions of its laws, and entitled to all the privileges and advantages which they confer. 28 "Inhabitant" is to be dis- tinguished from "citizen"; the former comprehends simply lo- cality of existence; the latter a combination of civil privileges, some of which may be enjoyed in any of the states of the Union. 29 Actual residence in the state is not always necessary to constitute a person an inhabitant; the. capacity in which a foreign minister acts excludes the idea that he ceases to be an inhabitant of the United States, and he must be deemed to be in the same situation as to inhabitancy as before his appoint- ment. 30 So, also, a person having his place of business in Wash- ington, D. C, but his declared residence in a state, where he re- sides only a portion of the year, is eligible to election from that state. 31 But a person who had resided in Washington for years, 22 Eobertson v. Cease, 97 U. S. 64S, 24 L. eel. 1057; Zambrino v. Galveston etc. By., 38 Fed. 453; Hewitt v. Story, 64 Fed. 523. 22 Minor v. Happersett, 21 Wall. 166, 22 L. ed. 627. 24 United States v. Cruiksbank, 92 U. S. 549, 23 L. ed. 588. 25 Kamsay v. Smith, CI. & H. 23. 26 Levy's Case, 1 Bart. 41. 27 Lowry v. White, Mobley, 623. 28 Bailey's Case, CI. & H. 411. 29 Bailey's Case, CI. & H. 411. 3<» Forsyth 's Case, CI. & H. 497. 31 Key's Case, CI. & H. 221. 43 House of Representatives. Art. I, § 2, CI. 2 • a and went to his former home as secretary to the military gov- ernor a few months before his election, was held ineligible. 32 Voting citizenship is not essential to constitute a person an in- habitant; 33 nor does the acquisition of a voting citizenship in another state render a person ineligible upon his return to his previous residence with an intention to remain there. 34 32 Pigott's Case, 1 Bart. 463, 464. 33 Bailey v. Barbour, 2 Ells. 679. 34 Upton's Case, 1 Bart. 369. Art. I, § 2, CI. 3 House of Eepresentatives. 44 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be appor- tioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective num- bers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumera- tion shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such man- ner as they shall by law direct. The number of Repre- sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thou- sand, but each State shall have at least one Representa- tive; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Provi- dence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. Construction. The object of this clause was to furnish a basis for the appor- tionment of representation and federal taxation; it does not contemplate the exemption of any state from its rightful share of the burden or make taxation dependent upon representation. 1 It does not apply to the District of Columbia or the territories. 2 Apportionment. The question as to when the apportionment provided for by Congress shall go into effect, is legislative rather than judicial, and courts cannot afford redress when the act appears to be un- t Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 317, 5 L. ed. 98. 2 Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 311, 5 L. ed. 98; Gibbins v. District of Columbia, 116 U. S. 404, 6 S. Ct. 427, 29 L. ed. 680. 45 House of Kepkesentatives. Art. I, § 2, CI. 3 just. 3 This clause does not contemplate that under all cir- cumstances Congress shall have power to divide the states into districts ; it merely provides a means for the representation of a state when the state itself has failed to make such provision. 4 Under the apportionment of 1850, Virginia being entitled to eleven representatives, when West Virginia was admitted Vir- ginia was entitled to but eight. 5 The Apportionment Act of California, of March 13, 1883, is valid. 6 The apportionment under the eighth census went into effect March 3, 1863. 7 Direct Taxes.* This term includes capitation taxes and direct taxes upon land, 8 and upon personalty.* s State v. Boyd, 36 Neb. 181, 54 N. W. 252, 19 L. E. A. 227. i Davison v. Gilbert, Bep. 3000, 56th Cong., 2d Sess. 5 Segar's Case, 2 Bart. 810. 6 California Case, Mobley, 481. 7 Lowe's Case, 1 Bart. 448. S Hylton v. United States, 3 Dall. 171, 1 L. ed. 556; Scholey v. Eew, 23 Wall. 331, 22 L. ed. 99; Springer v. United States, 102 U. S. 586, 26 L. ed. 253. 9 Pollock v. Farmers' Loan etc. Co., 158 U. S. 601, 15 S. Ct. 912, 39 L. ed. 110S. See, also, art. I, § 9, cl. 4. Art. I, § 2, Cl. 4 House of Representatives. 46 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. Vacancies. How Created. The death of a member receiving a majority of the votes at any time after they were cast creates a vacancy, whether they have been canvassed or not. 1 Where, however, a member died before the decision of a contest pending against him and his suc- cessor was elected and sworn in under protest, but it afterward appeared that the contestant had been elected at the first elec- tion, it was held that no vacancy had existed. 2 Eesignation to the governor of the state creates a vacancy. 3 The word "hap- pen" as used in this clause is not confined to unforeseen or for- tuitous events, and a vacancy may "happen" by the expiration of the term, and the calling of an extra session before the regu- lar election. 4 The acceptance of a disqualifying office creates a vacancy; 5 but a member does not forfeit his right to his seat by accepting an incompatible office, if he resigns therefrom before the be- ginning of the session. 6 Elections to Fill. Upon receipt of a member's resignation the governor may issue writs of election without waiting for a certificate of the existence of the vacancy from the House. 7 The governor may take notice of a vacancy created by the acceptance of a disquali- fying office, and issue writs for a new election. 8 But a member with the governor's certificate cannot take his seat before the or- ganization of the House. 9 3 Blakey v. Golladay, 2 Bart. 417. 2 Mac-key v. O'Connor, 2 Ells. 565. 3 Mercer's Case, CI. & H. 44; Edward's Case, CI. & H. 92. 4 Gholson and Claiborne's Case, 1 Bart. 9. r. Van Ness Case, CI. & H. 122. 6 Washburn v. Eipley, CI. & H. 682. See, also, art. T, § 6, cl. 2. 7 Mercer's Case, Cl. & H. 44; Edward's Case, Cl. & H. 9^. 8 Baker and Yell's Case, 1 Bart. 92. 8 New Jersey Case, 1 Bart. 19. 47 House of Kepresentatiyes. Art. I, § 2, CI. 4 Section 76 of the Eevised Statutes, providing for the filling of vacancies, has no application to the case of the election of the first representative to which any new state may be entitled, and the first election, if for an unexpired term, is not in any sense the filling of a vacancy. 10 Congress having provided that the time for holding elections to fill vacancies "may be prescribed by the laws of the several states," and the general assembly of Ehode Island having provided that the "general assembly shall order a new election," such election may be called by resolution of the Grand Committee; joint resolution is unnecessary. 11 If the legislature has failed to prescribe the time for an election to fill a vacancy, the governor may do so in his writs. 12 Where the governor of Mississippi called a special election for representatives to serve at a "called session" until the regular election, and the House admitted them to serve the whole term, upon the rescission of its action the House declared the seats vacant, that regular election did not, because of the erroneous decision, express the will of the people. 13 lo Patterson v. Belford, 1 Ells. 55. ii In re [Representative Election, 17 E. I. 820, 21 Atl. 963. 12 Ifoge's Case, CI. & H. 136. 13 Gliolson and Claiborne's Case, 1 Bart. 9. Art. I, § 2, CI. 5 House of Representatives. 48 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other officers; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. The House of Representatives has the sole power to impeach government officers and the Senate to try them. 1 l Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 189, 190, 26 L. ed. 377. 49 Senate. Art. I, § 3, CI. 1 SECTION 3. SENATE. 1. Senators. 2. Divided into classes. Vacancies. 3. Qualifications. 4. President of Senate. 5. Other officers. 6. Impeachment. 7. Judgment on impeachment. 1. The Senate of the United States shall be com- posed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. State. A senator must be elected from a state of the Union ; his elec- tion before the admission of the state does not entitle him to a seat. 1 A political organization, to constitute a state, must be such in contemplation of the constitution, 2 and a state in the sense of the constitution is a political community of free citizens occupying definite territory and organized under a government, sanctioned and limited by a written constitution and estab- lished by the consent of the governed ; the union of such states under the constitution forms the United States. 3 A state in re- bellion is not a state of the Union, whose legislature may right- fully elect senators. 4 So, also, after a rebellion has been put down, and while the government is provisional, tbere is no body which can lawfully elect senators. 5 But the acts declaring states i Shield's Case, Taft, 187, Rep. of Com. 2 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 18, 8 L. ed. 25. 3 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 721, 19 L. ed. 227. i Fishback v Baxter, Taft, 240; and see Cutler's Case, Taft, 248. 5 Jones and Garland v. McDonald and Rice, Taft, 282. But see Revel's Case, Taft, 312. Notes on Constitution — 4 Art. I, § 3, CI. 1 Senate. 50 entitled to representation in Congress were held to relate back and validate all acts done after reconstruction and to entitle a senator elected during that time to his seat. 6 Legislature. The question as to which of two rival bodies, claiming to be the legislature of a state is the real legislature is for the Sen- ate to decide in a contest for seats. 7 It would seem, however, that a. body duly organized, and whose members hold certificates of election, would be deemed to be the "legislature" for the pur- pose of electing a senator, and that a majority of that body would be sufficient. 8 "Chosen" and "elected" are synonymous terms. 9 A senator elected by a plurality of the votes of the legislature sitting in joint convention is not entitled to a seat; in the absence of any positive rule as to the proportion of votes necessary, a majority is essential; 10 but the fact that a person elected b*y a majority of one was chairman of the joint meeting of the legislature, and cast the deciding vote, cannot disqualify him. 11 6 Hart v. Gilbert, Taft, 321; Eeynolds v. Hamilton, Taft, 323. 7 Louisiana Cases, Taft, 426; and see Sykes v. Spencer, Taft, 556. 8 Corbin v. Butler, Taft, 582, Eep. of Com. 9 Norwood v. Blodgett, Taft, 331. io Stockton's Case, Taft, 264. li Bateman's Case, Taft, 96. 51 Senate. Art I, § 3, CI. 2 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in con- sequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- tion of the second year, of the second class, at the ex- piration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. Classification. When senators first appear from new states, the classification is to be determined by lot in the mode adopted upon the first assembling of the Senate, so as to prevent two vacancies occur- ring in the same state at the same time. 1 Where by allotment a senator from a new state is placed in a class whose term ex- pires at a time when the legislature of his state is not in session, at the expiration of his term a "vacancy" exists which the gov- ernor is empowered to fill by reappointment or otherwise. 2 Vacancies. "By resignation or otherwise" includes a vacancy created by the expiration of a senator's term, 3 and a senator reappointed by the governor "until the next meeting of the legislature" is en- titled to his seat during a special session of Congress. 4 So where the term of a senator expires during a recess of the leg- islature elected under an old state constitution, and before the term of the legislature elected under tbe new constitution be- gins, a vacancy exists which it is within the power of the legis- 1 Senate Journal, May 15, 1789. 2 Sevier's Case, Taft, 7. 3 Bell's Case, Taft, 26. 4 Tracey's Case, Taft, 3; Smith's Case, Taft, 4. But see Lanman's Case, CI. & H. 871, Taft, 5. Art. I, § 3, CI. 2 Senate. 52 lature to fill. 5 A senator appointed by the governor after a ses- sion has intervened during the vacancy is not, however, entitled to a seat. 6 Where the incumbent has presented his resignation to take effect in the future, and his successor has been elected, the death of the former before the resignation takes effect cre- ates a vacancy which the governor may fill until that time, but the appointee cannot hold thereafter as against the person elected by the legislature. 7 The mere transmission of a resig- nation to the governor is sufficient to create a vacancy; the de- lay of the governor's acceptance, in the hope of a reconsideration, is immaterial. 8 The executive of a state cannot appoint a sen- ator to fill an expected vacancy during a recess of the legisla- ture. 9 5 Bell's Case, Taft, 26; Blair's Case, Taft, 36. 6 Johns' Case, Taft, 1. Contra, Phelps' Case, Taft, 16. 7 Dixon's Case, Taft, 13. S Bledsoe's Case, CI. & H. 869, Taft, 95. 9 Lanman's Case, CI. & H. 871, Taft, 5. 53 Senate. Art. I, § 3, CI. 3 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. A senator must be a male citizen, 1 and must have been nine years a citizen at the commencement of his term. 2 Eesidence is not sufficient ; citizenship is what is required, and notwithstand- ing the period of residence exceeds nine years, if actual citizen- ship falls short of nine years, a person is ineligible. 3 The fact that a senator-elect had some negro blood in him, and the ob- jection was raised that he was barred of election for a period of nine years after the ratification of the fourteenth amend- ment, seems not to have been seriously considered by the Sen- ate. 4 One who was a resident of the United States at the close of the Eevolutionary war, and an alien, was held not to be eligible until the lapse of nine years after taking the oath of allegiance. 5 Where the constitution and laws of a state do not define resi- dence or the qualifications necessary to render a person an in- habitant, the certificate of the governor that his appointee is an inhabitant is sufficient. 6 One who served in the army of the United States in a state in insurrection, and was afterward made provisional governor, and declared his intention of re- maining in the state two years before his election as senator, was an inhabitant within the meaning of the constitution. 7 The constitution having prescribed the qualifications neces- sary, the states cannot add to them, 8 and neither the Secretary of State, nor the supreme court of the state has any power to pass upon the legality of a senator's election or appointment. 9 l Gallatin's Case, CI. & H. 851. ? Gallatin's Case. CI. & H. 851; Shields' Case, Taft, 138. 3 Shields' Case, Taft, 138. 4 Bevel's Case, Taft, 312. 5 Gallatin's Case, CI. & H. 851; Shields' Case, Taft, 138. e Griswold's Case, Taft, 94. 7 Ames' Case, Taft, 317. S TrumbulI T s Case, Taft, 148; State v. Eussell, 8 Ohio N. P. 54, 10 Ohio S. & C. P. Dec. 255. 9 State v. Crawford, 2S Fla. 441, 10 Soutli. 118, 14 L. E. A. 253. Art. I, § 3, CI. 4-7 Senate. 54 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside. And no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. The House of Kepresentatives has the sole power to impeach government officials, and the Senate to try them. 1 Upon the trial of the President, the chief justice is the president of the Senate sitting as a court of impeachment, and it is his duty to pass upon questions of evidence in the first instance, and then to submit them to the Senate if so desired by a member. 2 For the form of oath, see Chase's Trial, p. 12 ; and for rules governing impeachment trials generally, see William Blount's Trial, December 17, 1798, to January 15, 1799 ; John Pickering-, March 3, 1803— March 12, 1803; James H. Peck, App. Legis. Journal of Senate, 1830, 1831. 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not ex- tend further than to removal from office, and disqualifi- cation to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 1 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 IT. S. 189, 190, 26 L. ed. 377. 2 Trial of Andrew Johnson, vol. 1, pp. 175, 176, 186. 55 Elections. Art. I, § 4, CI. 1 SECTION 4. CONGRESS. 1. Elections for Senators and Eepresentatives. 2. Sessions of Congress. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing Senators. While it is the duty of the state legislature to enact laws pre- scribing the time, place and manner of holding elections, if it has failed to do so, the governor may give notice of the time and place, and the person elected to Congress will be entitled to his seat; 1 but the governor cannot delegate to another the power to fix the time — e. g., to the person carrying the writs. 2 Where a state constitution fixes the time of election, it places it beyond the control of the legislature. 3 But as to the place of election, it was declared that a constitutional provision prohib- iting an elector from voting outside his own township or ward was overridden by an act of legislature permitting soldiers ta vote outside their states, wherever their regiments might be. 4 Congress, by refraining from altering state laws respecting congressional elections, in effect adopts them, but retains its power to provide additional means for their enforcement; 5 the failure of Congress to exercise its power does not impair the force of the grant, but it may be exercised, and new regulations i Hoge's Case, CI. & H. 135. 2 Grafflin's Case, 1 Bart. 464. 3 Shiel v. Thayer, 1 Bart. 349. The chairman of the committee so reporting argued on the floor that the words "by the legislature thereof" meant by the people, through any constituted authority. But see Baldwin v. Trowbridge, 2 Bart. 46. 4 Baldwin v. Trowbridge, 2 BaTt. 4-6. 5 Ex parte Siebold, 100 TJ. S. 389, 25 L. ed. 717. Art. I, § 4, CI. 1 Elections. 56 made or existing ones altered after state legislation on the sub- ject. 6 Congress may exercise this power without assuming en- tire control of the subject of elections for senators and repre- sentatives. 7 It may make provision for the fair and honest con- duct of such elections, and to this end may adopt state election statutes and enforce them in the federal courts. 8 Although this 1 clause of the constitution adopts state qualifications of voters', as qualifications for voters for members of Congress, the right of persons thus ascertained is based upon the constitution, and Congress may enact laws protecting that right. 9 The power of Congress extends to the registration of voters at elections for members of Congress, 10 and a fraudulent addition to the list of voters is punishable under federal law. 11 The object of the power is to insure, in elections for senators and representatives, the protection of electors in a free inter- change of views, and a free choice and vote. 12 So Congress mav make or adopt regulations and prescribe a penalty for their violation. 13 It may require state officers to perform duties under state laws at a congressional election, 14 and may punish fraud or any other illegal act on the part of state officers at such an election. 15 Section 5511 of the Eevised Statutes is applicable 6 Ex parte Siebold, 100 U. S. 389, 25 L. ed. 717; Ex parte Clarke, 100 XL S. 404. 25 L. ed. 715; United States v. Gale, 109 IT. S. 65, 3 S. Ct. 1, 27 L. ed. 857; In re Coy, 127 U. S. 752, 8 S. Ct. 1263, 32 L. ed. 274; Blitz v. United States, 153 U. S. 314, 14 S. Ct. 924, 38 L. ed. 725; United States v. Badcr, 4 Woods, 190, 16 Fed. 117; United States v. O'Connor, 31 Fed. 452; United States v. Kelsey, 42 Fed. 883. 7 Ex parte Siebold, 100 U. S. 383, 25 L. ed. 717. s In re Coy, 127 U. S. 752, 8 S. Ct. 1263, 32 L. ed. 274. Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 U. S. 644, 4 S. Ct. 152, 28 L. ed. 274. 10 Ex parte Geissler, 9 Biss. 492, 4 Fed. 188. li Ex parte Bader, 4 Woods, 190, 16 Fed. 117; In re Holt, 104 Fed. 336; In re Spooner, 104 Fed. 334. 12 United States v. Goldman, 3 Woods, 187, Fed. Gas. No. 15,225. 13 United States v. O'Connor, 31 Fed. 452. 14 In re Coy, 127 U. S. 743, 8 S. Ct. 1263, 32 L. ed. 274, affirming 31 Fed. 804. 15 Ex parte Siebold, 100 U. S. 391, 25 L. ed. 717; Ex parte Clarke, 100 U. S. 404, 25 L. ed. 715; United States v. Gale, 109 U. S. 66, 3 S. Ct. 2, 27 L. ed. 857. 57 Elections. Art. I, § 4, CI. 2 only to those acts or omissions at elections which affect or might affect the integrity of an election for a congressman; 16 but the power is in nowise affected by the fact that a state election is held simultaneously, 17 and the power of Congress to protect poll- books from falsification is undoubted, and that danger is not removed, because the purpose of the exposure is to falsify returns for state officers and not those for a congressman. 18 The federal constitution having declared that the legislatures of the several states shall regulate elections for congressmen, if the constitution of a state authorizes the general assem- bly, and that alone, to pass a registration law, an ordinance purporting to regulate registration, passed by a city council, is inoperative. 19 While Congress possesses the power to alter the regulations of the states in regard to elections of senators and representatives, its power does not extend to commanding state legislatures to make such regulations, and any attempted altera- tion by Congress which cannot b'e carried into effect except by auxiliary state legislation is void. 20 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Mon- day in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. 16 Blitz v. United States, 153 U. S. 314, 14 S. Ct. 924, 38 L. ed. 725. 17 Ex parte Yarbrough, 110 TJ. S. 662, 4 S. Ct. 157, 28 L. ed. 274. 18 In re Coy, 127 U. S. 754, 8 S. Ct. 1263, 32 L. ed. 274. 19 Sessinghaus v. Frost, 2 Ells. 387. 20 Members Elected by General Ticket, 1 Bart. 52. Art. I, § 5, CI. 1 Powers of Houses. 58 SECTION 5. POWERS OF HOUSES OF CONGRESS. 1. Judges of qualifications of their own members. Quorum. 2. Rules of proceedings. Expulsions. 3. Journals. 4. Adjournments. 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do busi- ness; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide. Qualifications. Whether a person has been regularly elected a senator is a question exclusively for the Senate, and neither the state su- preme court nor Secretary of State can pass upon it. 1 The returns from the state authorities, showing the election of- a certain person as senator or representative, are only prima facie evidence of qualification. 2 A commission issued by the governor does not preclude any inquiry necessary to the judgment of "elections, returns and qualifications"; 3 nor can the refusal of the governor to issue a certificate of election prejudice the right .of one entitled to a seat. 4 The decision that a senator is entitled to a seat is final and conclusive upon the state legislature, and all persons claiming seats under its authority. 5 A certificate issued by the governor of a territory in violation of the law is 1 State v. Crawford, 28 Fla. 441, 10 South. 118, 14 L. R. A. 253. 2 Spaulding v. Mead, CI. & H. 157; Chrisman v. Anderson, 1 Bart. 328; Reed v. Cosden, CI. & H. 353. 3 Bateman's Case, Taft, 96. 4 Richards' Case, CI. & H. 95. 5 Case of Fitch and Bright, Taft, 164. 59 Powers of Houses. Art. I, § 5, CI. 1 not even prima facie evidence of a delegate's right to a seat. 6 The oath will be administered to a senator having a prima facie right to a seat; 7 but one who was allowed to take his seat on a prima facie case, and afterward ousted by a contestant right- fully elected, cannot be deemed to have been a member of Con- gress. 8 The certificate issued by the governor of a state may be followed by another under a changed condition of the facts. 9 So a cer- tificate may issue on an amended return of the votes cast, 10 and a supplementary return is entitled to be received; 11 e. g., where the original return was made by the wrong officers. 12 So also the governor may revoke a certificate for fraud. 13 And one holding a certificate from the governor of a territory, given in lieu of a former certificate superseded for fraud is entitled to his seat as a delegate. 14 While it is for Congress alone to judge of the elections, returns, and qualification of its own members, where county canvassers have erroneously acted upon a recount of the votes cast, and have issued a certificate in accordance therewith, the candidate who is injured by such a proceeding will not be left to his remedy by contest in the House of Representatives, but is entitled to mandamus to compel a re- canvass. 15 A state law requiring votes to be returned within a certain time is directory only, 16 and if not so returned are to be counted, if opportunity is had to count them. 17 Congress has the right to exclude a member-elect for other than the constitutional disqualifications without permitting him to be sworn in; e. g., for polygamy, insanity, or disloyalty, or 6 Colorado Case, Hunt and Chilcott, 2 Bart. 164. 7 Lanman's Case, Taft, 579; Morgan's Case, Taft, 581. S Bowman v. Coffroth, 59 Pa. St. 19. 9 Wallace v. Simpson, 2 Bart. 731-746. 10 Sleeper v. Rice, 1 Bart. 472. li Archer v. Allen, 1 Bart. 169-176. 12 Broekenborough v. Cabell, 1 Bart. 79-87. 13 Morton v. Daily, 1 Tart. 402-414. 14 Morton v. Daily, 1 Bart. 402-414. 15 Belknap v. Board, 94 Mich. 916, 54 N. W. 376. 16 Broekenborough v. Cabell, 1 Bart. 79-87. 17 Kichards' Case, CI. & H. 95-100. Art. I, § 5, CI. 1 Powers of Houses. CO any other obvious disqualification. 18 So the Senate may inquire as to the mental capacity of a senator-elect to take the oath. 19 It seems that fraud and bribery in procuring an election go to the validity of the election, and do not merely furnish ground for expulsion. 20 Accusations against the character of a senator- elect imputing to him the commission of a crime will not be considered until after he has been formally charged and con- victed of the crime. 21 Disloyalty is a disqualification which will deprive a member-elect of the right to be sworn in ; 22 but where it is shown that a person seemingly disloyal during war was in fact loyal, he will be held eligible. 23 So the fact that a senator-elect had held the office of circuit judge by election in an insurrectionary state was declared insufficient to warrant his exclusion, where he was shown to have been loyal to the Union. 24 Members elected for an extra or special session must give way to regularly elected members for that Congress. 25 Where the House is unable to determine which of two claimants for a seat was legally elected, the seat will be declared vacant, and a new election ordered. 26 In no event, however, where a senator-elect is found to be disqualified, will the person receiving the next highest number of votes be entitled to the seat. 27 A territorial government must be in existence before a delegate can be ad- mitted. 28 In a proceeding to determine the qualifications of its members- elect, each House may examine witnesses and require the pro- duction of papers, and may punish witnesses for contempt. 20 18 Roberts' Case, Rep. 85, 1st Sess., 56th Cong. 19 Mills' Case, Taft, 136. 20 Pomeroy and Caldwell's Case, Taft, 368. 21 Marshall's Case, Taft, 68. 22 McKeo v. Young, 2 Bart. 422; Christy v. Wimpy, 2 Bart. 465; Smith v. Brown, 2 Bart. 395. 23 Tucker v. Booker, 2 Bart. 772. 24 Patterson's Case, Taft, 271. 2". Grholson & Claiborne's Case, 1 Bart. 9. 26 Letcher v. Moore, CI. & H. 715. 27 Ransom v. Abbott, Taft, 338. 28 Smith's Case,' 1 Bart. 107; Babbitt's Case, 1 Bart. 116. And see Messervey's Case, 1 Bart. 148. 29 Kilbouxn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 168, 26 L. ed. 377. 61 Powers of Houses. Art. I, § 5, CI. 1 Testimony taken before a state notary public in a case of con- tested election for a congressman, for the purpose of being re- turned to and considered by the House acting in a judicial capacity under this clause is upon the same footing as testimony produced before a federal judge or officer, and perjury in giving such testimony is punishable only in the federal courts. 30 Quorum. The Houses of Congress may prescribe any reasonable rule for determining the presence of a majority; hence rule 15 of the House of Eepresentatives, of the fifty-first Congress, providing that the names of members present, and not voting, may be entered on the journal, is a valid exercise of the power of the House to determine the rules of its proceedings. 31 30 In re Loney, 134 U. S. 375, 10 S. Ct. 585, 33 L. ed. 949. See, also, United States v. Bailey, 9 Pet. 257, 9 L. ed. 113. 31 TjDited States v. Ballin, 144 U. S. 6, 12 S. Ct. 507, 3S L. ed. 321. Art. I, § 5, CI. 2 Powers of Houses. 62 2. Each House may determine the rules of its pro- ceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem- ber. Rules of Proceedings. This clause empowers each House to determine its rules of proceedings, but it may not, by such rules, ignore constitutional restraints or violate fundamental rights. 1 The rule for deter- mining the presence of a majority is a proper exercise of this power. 2 Contempt. Under this clause the Houses have implied power to punish for contempt committed in their presence when in session. 3 Imprisonment for contempt must terminate with the adjourn- ment of Congress; as a legislative body, Congress ceases to exist upon adjournment or periodical dissolution, and its au- thority ceases with it. 4 The English parliament was originally a high court of judicature, and, after its separation into two houses, each was deemed to retain its judicial functions; hence its power to punish for contempt; but the power of Congress cannot be deemed analogous, and in determining the question of the power of Congress to punish for contempt the question is whether it is necessary to enable Congress to exercise its func- tions. 5 No person can be punished by either House of Con- gress for contumacy as a witness, unless his testimony is re- quired in a matter into which that House has jurisdiction to inquire, and neither House has jurisdiction to inquire, or possesses general power of making inquiry into private affairs 1 United States v. Ballin, 144 U. S. 5, 12 S. Ct. 507, 36 L. ed. 321. 2 United States v. Ballin, 144 U. S. 5, 12 S. Ct. 507, 36 L. ed. 321. 3 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 229, 5 L. ed. 242. 4 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 231, 5 L. ed. 242; Stewart v. Blaine, 1 McAr. 453; Wickelhausen v. Willett, 10 Abb. Pr. 164. 5 Kilbouzn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 189, 26 L. ed. 377. 63 Powers of Houses. Art. I, § 5, CI. 2 of a citizen; and the courts may inquire as to the jurisdiction. 6 The power of one of the Houses to punish for contempt is not confined to the punishment of members of that body, but may be exercised over others, 7 in secret as well as in open session. 8 But Congress cannot establish its right to fine and imprison per- sons by the mere act of asserting them to be guilty of contempt ; it is always competent to show that Congress is proceeding in a matter beyond its legitimate cognizance. 9 While, ordinarily, Congress has no power to investigate private affairs, or to compel a witness to testify on such a subject, 10 yet where the question is as to whether a senator had dealt in ceitain stock, the Senate may compel a witness to answer questions going to show such dealings. 11 The warrant to commit for contempt may be served anywhere within the boundaries of the United States; 12 but a warrant of arrest issued by the Senate and addressed to the sergeant-at-arms cannot be served in a state by a deputy. 13 Expulsion. The right to expel a member is absolute, limited by the con- dition that it must be exercised by a two-thirds vote. 14 Either House may expel a member for any misdemeanor which, though having no penalty attached to it, is incompatible with the trust and duty of a member; 15 but the power to expel ought not to/ be exercised for a cause unrelated to that trust and duty. 16 C Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 190, 196, 26 L. ed. 377. 7 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 229, 5 L. ed. 242; Bolton v. Martin, 1 Dall. 296. 8 Nugent 's Case, 18 Fed. Cas. 472. 9 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 196-200, 26 L. ed. 377, partially overruling Anderson v. Dunn, 6 "Wheat. 204, 5 L. ed. 242. 10 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 190, 26 L. ed. 377. 11 In re Chapman, 166 U. S. 668, 17 S. Ct. 680, 41 L. ed. 1154. And see People v. Keeler, 99 N. Y. 476, 52 Am. Eep. 54, 2 N. E. 620; People v. Sharp, 107 N. Y. 445, 1 Am. St. Eep. 857, 14 N. E. 332. 12 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 204. 13 Sanborn v. Carlton, 15 Gray, 402. 14 Roberts' Case (Minority Rep.), Rep. 85, p. 46, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. 15 Blount's Case, Taft, 74; Smith's Case, 1 Hall's S. L. J. 459; Bright 's Case, Taft, 217. 16 Eoberts' Case, Rep. 85, 56th Cong., 1st Sess. Art. I, § 5, CI. 2 Powers of Houses. 64 Conspiracy against the Union, or having knowledge of con- spiracy, and failing to report it. is ground for expulsion. 17 Countenancing rebellion is equivalent to giving aid and comfort to public enemies, and warrants expulsion. 18 The Senate has jurisdiction to inquire as to the truth of charges in the public press as to alleged dealings of senators in the stock of corpora- tions affected by a pending tariff bill, and it is not essential that the preamble and resolution instituting the inquiry shall declare that the proceeding is taken for the purpose of censure or ex- pulsion. 19 A. resolution of expulsion will not be considered after the term of the accused senator has expired. 20 But a member who has saved himself from expulsion by resigning while the resolu- tion was pending will be refused admission upon his re-elec- tion. 21 17 Expulsion of Senators, Taft, 195; Wigf all's Case, Taft, 199. 18 Polk's Case, Taft, 213; Bright 's Case, Taftj 217; Johnson's Case, Taft, 215. 19 In re Chapman, 166 U. S. 661, 17 S. Ct. 677, 41 L. ed. 1154. 20 Patterson's Case, Taft, 423. 21 Whittemore's Case, 41st Cong. 65 Journals. Art. I, § 5, CI. 3, 4 3. Each House shall keep a Journal of its proceed- ings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the Journal. A journal is a public record of which the courts will take judicial notice, 1 and to which they may refer whenever a ques- tion arises as to the existence of a statute, or of the time when it took effect, or of its precise terms. 2 The legislative journal must be presumed to speak the truth if it may be referred to as evidence, 3 and a stntute found in the office of the Secretary of State, duly authenticated, and shown by the journal to have been passed by a quorum is unimpeachable. 4 The journal can- not be kept secret unless the proceedings are secret; but the holding of a secret session by either House is in its discretion. 5 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. 1 Brown v. Nash, 1 Wyo. 85. 2 Hollingsworth v. Thompson, 45 La. Ann. 222, 40 Am. St. Eep. 220, 12 South. 1. 3 United States v. Ballin, 144 IT. S. 4, 12 S. Ct. 507, 36 L. ed. 321. 4 United States v. Ballin, 144 U. S. 9, 12 S. Ct. 507, 36 L. ed. 321; State v. Chester, 39 S. C. 316, 17 S. E. 755. 5 Nugent 's Case, 18 Fed. Cas. 472 (No. 13,375). Nottes on Constitution — 5 Art. I, § 6, CI. 1 Eights 01- Members. 66 SECTION" 6. COMPENSATION AND PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERS. 1. Compensation of members. Privileges of Senators and Repre- sentatives. 2. Ineligibility to United States offices. 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place. Compensation. Under section 51, Revised Statutes, relating to vacancies in Congress, the "predecessor" referred to must have been in the same Congress ; but the term includes one having credentials and drawing his salary although afterward unseated on the ground that he was not legally elected. Accordingly, the per- son elected to fill the vacancy is entitled to compensation from the time the seat was declared vacant. 1 Privileges of Members. The privilege of exemption from arrest may be pleaded in bar in all cases other than treason, felony, and breach of the peace; but the courts will not take judicial notice of the privilege and failure to plead it will be deemed a waiver. 2 Arrest implies cor- poral restraint. 3 The privilege from arrest could not be sur- 1 Page v. Uniteil States, 127 U. S. 69, 8 S. Ct. 1026, 32 L. ed. 65. 2 Coxe v. McClenachan, 3 Dall. 478; Oyer's Lessees v. Irwin, 4 Dall. 107. 3 Wooley v. Butler, 1 Bank. L. T. 35. 67 Eights of Members. Art. I, § 6, CI. 1 rendered without endangering the public as well as the private independence of the member. 4 It extends to judicial as well as mesne process, and a person arrested is entitled to his discharge on the privilege afterward acquired; 5 but there is no privilege from the service or obligation of a subpoena in a criminal case, 6 and in no case can a member be placed by his position above responsibility to the legal tribunals of the country and to or- dinary process for arrest and detention, when accused of a felony. 7 This clause does not preclude an indictment for brib- ery ; 7a nor does it protect a member from arrest on probable cause that a breach of the peace is about to be committed. 8 The privilege is to be taken strictly, and to be allowed only dur- ing attendance on Congress, or while actually on the journey to or from the seat of government; 9 but it is not waived by a slight deviation from the route which is most direct. 10 It is limited to a convenient and reasonable time in addition to the actual session; 11 but it is strictly personal and does not extend to servants or to property levied upon. 12 Members are priv- ileged not only from arrest, but also from a service of summons or other civil process while in attendance on their public duties; 13 but it seems that attendance on Congress does not entitle a party to the postponement of his suit as a matter of right, although the court may grant a postponement upon 4 Bolton v. Martin, 1 Dall. 296; Coffin v. Coffin, 4 Mass. 1, 3 Am. Dec. 189. 5 Coxe v. MeClenachan, 3 Dall. 478; Nones v. Edsall, 1 Wall. Jr. 189, Fed. Cas. No. 10,290. 6 United States v. Cooper, 4 Dall. 341. 7 United States v. Kirby, 7 Wall. 486, 19 L. ed. 278; State v. Waite, 101 Iowa, 380, 70 N. W. 597; Penny v. Walker, 64 Me. 434, 18 Am. Eep. 272. 7a State v. Smalls, 11 S. C. 262. 8 United States v. Wise, 1 Dist. Col. Eep. 82, Fed. Cas. No. 16,746a. 9 Lewis v. Elmendorf, 2 Johns. Cas. 222. And see McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 4 L. ed. 579. 10 Miner v. Markham, 28 Fed. 3S7. 11 Hoppin v. Jenekes, 8 E. I. 453, 5 Am. Eep. 597. 12 Jefferson's Manual, § 3. 13 Coxe v. MeClenachan, 3 Dall. 478. Art. I, § 6, CI. 1 Eights of Members. 68 terms. 14 One who goes to Washington, duly commissioned, is privileged from arrest, and although it is afterward determined by Congress that he is not entitled to his seat, he is protected until he reaches his home, provided he returns within a reason- able time. 15 The privilege extends to a delegate from a territory as well as a member from a state. 10 The sergeant-at-arms may be held for false imprisonment of one unlawfully held by him under the order of the House; but members who took no actual part in the arrest or imprisonment are exempt under the con- stitutiou. 17 The constitutional exemption of members of Congress is not limited to words spoken in debate, but extends to written com- mittee reports, resolutions offered, and the act of voting orally or by passing between tellers. 18 It applies to speech or debate in either House; 19 but does not cover its publication by a mem- ber. 20 14 Nones v. Edsall, 1 Wall. Jr. 189, Fed. Cas. No. 10,290. 15 Dunton v. Halstead, 4 Pa. L. J. 237. 16 Doty v. Strong, 1 Pinn. (Wis.) 88. 17 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 200, 26 L. ed. 377. 18 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 204, 26 L. ed. 377. 19 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 215, 5 L. ed. 242. 20 Coffin v. Coffin, 4 Mass. 1, 3 Am. Dec. 189. See Canfield v. Gresham, 82 Tex. 17, 17 S. W. 392. 69 Incompatible Offices. Art. I, § 6, CI. 2 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no per- son holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. The acceptance by the same person of an office incompatible with another held by him is a virtual resignation or forfeiture of the office first held. 1 The appointment to a disqualifying office is not void as to that office, but the first office is ipso facto vacated. 2 It would seem that the rule should operate to vacate an incompatible office upon a representative's taking his seat, without the necessity of a formal resignation, and such was the argument in a case where the point was not necessarily involved, the office having ceased to exist, and the member being allowed to take his seat. 3 The acceptance of any office under the United States by a member after he has taken his seat, operates as a forfeiture of the seat, 4 and the acceptance of an incompatible office by a contestant destroys any claim he might have had to the seat. 5 It is immaterial whether the member or contestant performs the duties of the second office or not ; it is the holding of the office which is incompatible with membership in Con- gress. 6 The continuance in an office after election to Congress, and until taking his seat, does not disqualify a member-elect if he resigned before the beginning of the first session. 7 A representative-elect may hold an incompatible office subsequent 1 Byington v. Vandever, 1 Bart. 397. 2 People v. Carrique, 2 Hill, 93; Biencourt v. Parker, 27 Tex. 558. 3 Mumford's Case, CI. & H. 318. 4 Van Ness' Case, CI. & H. 122. 5 Bowen v. De Large, Smith, 100. 6 Hammond v. Herrick, CI. & H. 289. 7 Hammond v. Herrick, CI. & H. 289; Earle's Case, CI. & H. 314; Stanton v. Lane, Taft, 205; Washburn v. Eipley, CI. & H. 682. Art. I, § 6, CI. 2 Incompatible Offices. 70 to his election, and subsequent to the -11 h of March, when Con- gress ceases to exist, but at the beginning of the first session of Congress to which he is elected, he must choose between the two offices. 8 A member of Congress who had held the office of assessor of taxes, and had not resigned such office, was permitted to retain his seat on the ground that the duties of the office had ceased, and the law under which the office was created had expired before he took the seat. 9 The acceptance of a military commission vacates the seat of a member of Congress, 10 and this notwithstanding the commission styles the holder as an officer in the militia of a state, the officers of the volunteer army being deemed officers of the United States. 11 The employment of a member of Congress to assist the attorney general in certain cases, for a specified compensation, does not make him an officer so as to affect his right to his seat. 12 One holding two com- patible offices is not precluded from receiving the salaries of both. 1 3 8 Schenck v. Blair, Eep. 110, 1st Sess., 38th Cong. » Mumford's Case, CI. & H. 316. 10 Baker & Yell's Case, 1 Bart. 92; Stanton v. Lane, Taft, 205. 11 Byington v. Vandever, 1 Bart. 396. 12 Massey v. Wise, Mobley, 367. And see Chalmers v. Manning, Mobley, 35. 13 Converse v. United States, 21 How. 463, 16 L. ed. 192; Brown's Case, 9 Opin. Atty. Gen. 508. .71 Enactment of Laws. Art. I, § 7, CI. 1 SECTION 7. ENACTMENT OF LAWS. 1. Revenue bills. Where to originate. 2. Manner of passage. How passed without President's approval. 3. Orders, resolutions, and votes. President's approval. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. Revenue laws are those made for the direct and avowed pur- pose of creating revenue or public funds for government pur- poses, 1 and traceable to the power to levy taxes, duties, imposts and excises. 2 Accordingly, under this clause, the House has the sole power to originate bills for taxation. 3 An act establish- ing a postal money-order system is not a revenue law, 4 nor is a hill establishing rates of postage. 5 1 United States v. Norton, 91 U. S. 569, 23 L. ed. 448; State v. Bernheim, 19 Mont. 517, 49 Pac. 443; Northern Counties Trust Co. v. Sears, 30 Or. 402, 41 Pac. 935, 35 L. R. A. 188; Johnson v. Hanscom, 90 Tex. 329, 38 S. W. 764. 2 United States v. Hill, 123 U. S. 681, 8 S. Ct. 308, 31 L. ed. 275; United States v. Hopewell, 51 Fed. 800. 3 Stockton etc. R. R. Co. v. Stockton, 41 Cal. 165. 4 United States v. Norton, 91 U. S. 568, 23 L. ed. 448. 5 United States v. James, 13 Blatchf. 207, Fed. Cas. No. 15,464. Art. I, § 7, CI. 2 Enactment of Laws. 72 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeae and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be re- turned by the President within ten days (Sundays ex- cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. A statute, duly certified, is presumed to have been duly passed until the contrary is shown, a presumption arising in favor of the law, as printed by authority. 1 No notice of the passing of a law is necessary, unless made so by the law itself. 2 Neither the constitution nor any statute requires that the President date a bill upon signing it. 3 A bill becomes a law either by the signing of it by the President, or by his retaining it for ten days without signing; 4 but he must receive it ten entire days before adjournment, or it will not become a law. 5 If he ap- l In re Duncan, 139 XL S. 457, 11 S. Ct. 573, 35 L. ed. 219. P The Mary and Susan, 1 Wheat. 57, 4 L. ed. 32. 3 Gardner v. The Collector, 6 Wall. 506, IS L. ed. 890. 4 Gardner v. The Collector, 6 Wall. 506, 18 L. ed. 890. 5 Hyde v. White, 24 Tex. 145. 73 Enactment of Laws. Art. I, § 7, CI. 2 proves a bill he shall sign it, but he need not indorse on it the word "approved." 6 A bill signed by the President while Con- gress is in recess for a definite time is not invalid. 7 The man- ner of keeping journals and of authenticating a bill is left to the discretion of Congress, but while the constitution does not re- quire that bills which have passed be attested by the presiding officers of the two Houses, usage requires that mode of authenti- cation. 8 A bill becomes a law only upon approval by the Presi- dent and from the time of such approval; 9 but Congress may prescribe the very moment, in the future, after approval, when it shall take effect as a law; 10 and when no time is fixed, it takes effect from its date. 11 In computing the time when a statute is to take effect, fractions of a day are to be excluded, 12 except when substantial justice requires that they be included. 13 Congress may leave the ascertainment of the contingency upon which an act shall take effect to any agency it may designate, 14 or may direct that it take effect as of a date prior to its passage. 15 In case of doubt, the time should be construed in favor of the 6 Gardner v. The Collector, 6 Wall. 506, 18 L. ed. 890. 7 La Abra Min. Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 454, 20 S. Ct. 168, 44 L. ed. 223. And see Hodge's Case, 18 Ct. of CI. 700. 8 Field v. Clark, 143 U. S. 671, 12 S. Ct. 495, 36 L. ed. 649. 9 Gardner v. Collector, 6 Wall. 506, 18 L. ed. 890; In re Kichardson, 2 Story, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 11,777. 10 In re Kichardson, 2 Story, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 11,777. li Matthews v. Zane, 7 Wheat. 211, 5 L. ed. 425; Lapeyre v. United States, 17 Wall. 198, 21 L. ed. 606; In re Ankrim, 3 McLean, 285, Fed. Cas. No. 395; Warren Mfg. Co. v. Aetna Ins. Co., 2 Paine, 501, Fed. Cas. No. 17,206; United States v. Chong Sam, 47 Fed. 883. 12 Arnold v. United States, 9 Cr. 120, 3 L. ed. 671; In re Ankrim, 3 McLean, 285, Fed. Cas. No. 395; In re Kichardson, 2 Story, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 11,777; United States v. Williams, 1 Paine, 261, Fed. Cas. No. 16,723. 13 In re Wynne, 1 Chase, 227, Fed. Cas. No. 18,117; In re Ankrim, 3 McLean, 285, Fed. Cas. No. 395; In re Richardson, 3 Story, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 11,777. 14 Miller v. Mayor, 109 U. S. 394. 3 S. Ct. 228, 27 L. ed. 971. 15 United States v. Green, 138 U. S. 296, 11 S. Ct. 299, 24 L. ed. 960. Art. 1, § 7, CI. 2 Enactment of Laws. 74 citizen. 10 The signing by the presiding officers of both Houses, in open session, of an enrolled bill, is an official attestation that it has passed Congress, and, when approved by the President and enrolled in the public archives, its authentication as a valid act of Congress is complete and unimpeachable. 17 16 Tn re Kichardson, 2 Story, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 11,777. 17 Field v. Clark, 143 U. S. 672, 12 S. Ct. 495, 36 L. ed. 294. 75 Enactment of Laws. Art. I, § 7, CI. 3 3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the con- currence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representa- tives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. This clause does not require the President's approval of a proposed amendment to the constitution. 1 A joint resolution duly approved by the President, or duly passed with his ap- proval, has the effect of a law. 2 1 Hollingsworth v. Virginia, 3 Ball. 381, 1 L. ed. 644. And see State ex rel. v. Secretary of State, 43 La. Ann. 655, 9 South. 798. 2 Resolutions of Congress, 6 Opin. Atty. Gen. 680. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 Powers of Congress. 76 SECTION 8. POWERS OF CONGRESS. 1. TaxeB, duties, etc. Common defense and general welfare. 2. To borrow money. 3. To regulate commerce. 4. Naturalization. Bankruptcies. 5. Coining money. Weights and measures. 6. Punishment of counterfeiting. 7. Postoffices and post-roads. 8. Patents and copyrights. 9. Courts. 10. Piracy and other offenses. 11. To declare war, etc. 12. Eaising army. 13. Navy. 14. Army and navy regulations. 15. Militia. Insurrections, etc. 16. Organizing, arming, and disciplining militia. 17. Exclusive legislative power over seat of Government, forts, etc. 18. To make laws necessary to carry powers into effect. 1. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. Extent of Powers, Generally. The United States is a government of enumerated powers; it can exercise only the powers granted to it by the constitu- tion. 1 either expressly or by necessary implication. 2 But Con- gress has powers not specified, or even clearly traceable to one 1 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 406, 4 L. ed. 579; United States v. Harris, 106 TJ. S. 636, 1 S. Ct. 606, 27 L. ed. 290. 2 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326, 4 L. ed. 97. 77 Powers of Congress. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 of the specified powers, but fairly deducible from the aggregate of power, or the sovereignty created; 3 the constitution deals in general language, and instead of minutely specifying the powers of the general government, the people left it to Congress to adopt its own means of carrying out its powers. 4 Construction of Grant. The words in a grant of power are to be taken in their natural and obvious sense, 5 keeping always in view the objects for which the constitution was made, 6 and when the general purpose of the grant is ascertained, the language is to be construed, as far as possible, as subservient to that purpose. 7 The powers granted to Congress are to be exercised with discretion, 8 but the existence of a power cannot be denied merely because it may be abused in its exercise; nor should it be presumed that abuses will take place; 9 nor does the question of power depend upon the degree to which it may be exercised. 10 The fact that compliance with the constitution will lead to the abandonment of a certain recognized mode of taxation cannot influence the determination of a question of power. 11 The powers conferred upon Congress must be regarded as relative to each other and all means to a common end; 12 so 3 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 534, 20 L. ed. 287; but see "United States v. Boyer, 85 Fed. 429; United States v. Gettysburg, etc. Ry., 160 U. S. 683, 16 S. Ct. 427, 40 L. ed. 576. 4 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326, 4 L. ed. 97. 5 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97. 6 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 287; Brown v. Mary- land, 12 Wheat. 437, 6 L. ed. 678; McCall v. McDowell, Deady, 254, Fed. Cas. No. 8673. 7 Schollenberger v. Brinton, 52 Pa. St. 9. 8 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326, 4 L. ed. 97. 9 Powell v. Pennsylvania, 127 IT. S. 686, 8 S. Ct. 992, 32 L. ed. 253; In re Rapier, 143 U. S. 135, 12 S. Ct. 374, 36 L. ed. 93; Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyek, 27 N. Y. 400. io Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 419, 6 L. ed. 678; State v. Good- will, 33 W. Va. 184, 25 Am. St. Rep. 687, 10 S. E. 287, 6 L. R. A. 621. 11 Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 158 U. S. 633, 15 S. Ct. 912, 37 L. ed. 1108. 12 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 287. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 Powers of Congress. 78 when Congress has power to do an act by virtue of distinct powers, it may exercise which it pleases; and when it professes to ad under one it need not resort to any other, 13 or when Con- ha.s power to accomplish a certain result, indirectly, by one mode, it may do so directly by another; 14 hut no power in itself substantive can be exercised or contravened by action un- der ;m incidental power, 15 nor can an act which cannot be done directly, because of defect in power, be done indirectly. 16 Limitations. The nature of society and of government establish certain limitations upon legislative power apart from constitutional pro- visions; 17 there are limitations upon such power which grow out of the essential nature of all free governments, 18 and an act of the legislature contrary to the great first principles of the social compact cannot be deemed a rightful exercise of legislative authority. 19 Accordingly, while the constitution does not forbid Congress to pass laws impairing the obligation of contracts, 20 yet an act passed for the purpose of impairing contract obligations would be void. 21 Constitutional provisions intended as securities for the rights of the people may operate 13 N. R. Steamboat Co. v. Livingston, 3 Cow. 713; Thayer v. Hedges, 23 Ind. 141. 14 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 486, 14 S. Ct. 1]25, 38 L. ed. 1047. IB Thayer v. Hedges, 23 Ind. 141. 16 Wayman v. Southard, 10 Wheat. 50, 6 L. ed. 253; Hartford Fire Ins. Co. v. Doyle, 6 Biss. 465, Fed. Cas. No. 6160. 17 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 135, 3 L. ed. 162; Satterlee v. Matthew- son, 2 Pet. 413, 7 L. ed. 458; Kelly v. Pittsburg, 85 Pa. St. 182, 27 Am. Rep. 639. 18 Citizens' S. & L. Assn. v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 663, 22 L. ed. 455. 19 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 388, 1 L. ed. 648; Poindexter v. Greenhow, 114 U. S. 297, 5 S. Ct. 918, 29 L. ed. 185; Wilder v. Chicago etc. R. R., 70 Mich. 385, 38 N. W. 290; Janesville v. Carpenter, 77 Wis. 303, 20 am. St. Bep. 134, 46 N. W. 132, 8 L. R. A. 808. 20 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 380, 7 L. ed. 458; Legal Tender . 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 287. 21 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 287; Bloomer v. Stolley, 5 McLean, 158, Fed. Cas. A'o. 1559. 79 Powers of Congress. Art. I. § 8, CI. 1 as limitations on legislative power. 22 A limitation of a power argues the existence of that power, and an exception from a power marks its extent. 23 Delegation of Powers. Powers belonging strictly to one of the co-ordinate branches of government cannot be delegated to another branch, but Con- gress may delegate powers not strictly legislative which it may rightfully exercise itself. 24 Accordingly Congress may confer upon the Secretary of the Treasury power to make customs and revenue regulations and to determine cases under them; 25 may grant to the Secretary of War power to supervise government work, 26 and may authorize the supreme court to prescribe rules of evidence. 27 But Congress cannot delegate power to the President to make a law with discretion as to what it shall be, although it may confer upon him discretion as to the execution of a law. 28 An act making it a crime to violate any rule there- after to be made by the Secretary of the Interior for the pro- tection of forest reserves is void as an attempted delegation of legislative power to an administrative office. 29 Although Congress cannot authorize a state to legislate, it may adopt state legislation; 30 it may divest designated articles of their interstate commerce character and subject them to the operation of state laws, 31 and may authorize state officers to perform duties merely incidental to judicial power. 32 22 Atchison etc. E. E. v. Denver etc. E, E., 110 U. S. 679, 4 S. Ct. 185, 28 L. ed. 291. 23 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 191, 6 L. ed. 23; State v. Cunning- ham, 83 Wis. 155, 35 Am. St. Eep. 59, 53 N. W. 53, 17 L. E. A. 145. 24 Wayman v. Southard, 10 Wheat. 43, 6 L. ed. 253. 25 In re Kollock, 165 U. S. 537, 17 S. Ct. 444, 41 L. ed. 813. 26 United States v. Ormsbee, 74 Fed. 209. 27 White v. Toledo etc. E. E., 79 Fed. 135. 28 Field v. Clark, 143 U. S. 693, 12 S. Ct. 495, 36 L. ed. 294. 29 United States v. Blasingame, 116 Fed. 654. 30 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 6 L. ed. 23. 31 In re Eohrer, 140 U. S. 556, 11 S. Ct. 865, 35 L. ed. 572; En die- man v. United States, 86 Fed. 460; Stevens v. Ohio, 93 Fed. 795. 32 Eobertson v. Baldwin, 165 U. S. 279, 17 S. Ct. 326, 41 L. ed. 715. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 Taxing Power. 80 Taxation — Definitions. A tax is a rate or sum of money assessed on the person or property of a citizen by the government for the use of the nation or state; 33 a charge for the support of government, 34 to raise money for public purposes. 35 The obligation to pay rests, not upon the privileges enjoyed or the protection given to a citizen, but upon the necessity of money for the sup- port of government, 30 but the citizen receives compensation therefor in privileges and protection. 37 A tax is not a toll; a tax is a demand of sovereignty, while a toll is a demand of proprietorship. 38 Nature and Extent of Power. The power to tax rests upon necessity and is an incident and attribute of sovereignty. 39 It is an essential function of ament necessary to the existence of the nation. 40 Being an incident of sovereignty, the taxing power is coextensive with sovereignty, 41 and the power of the United States within its sphere is coextensive with its territory. 42 33 Loan Assn. v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 664, 22 L. ed. 455; Illinois Cent. Ry. v. Decatur, 147 U. S. 198, 13 S. Ct. 293, 37 L. ed. 132. 34 United States v. Railroad Co., 17 Wall. 326, 21 L. ed. 597; City of Camden v. Allen, 26 N. J. L. 398; Glascow v. Rowse, 43 Mo. 489. 80 Loan Assn. v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 664, 22 L. ed. 455; Cole v. La Grange, 113 U. S. 9, 5 S. Ct. 416, 28 L. ed. 896; State v. Osawakee Township, 14 Kan. 420, 19 Am. Rep. 100; In re Mayor of New York, 11 Johns. SO. CO Dobbins v. Commissioners, 16 Pet. 445, 10 L. ed. 1022; Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 U. S. 159, 6 S. Ct. 670, 29 L. ed. 845. 37 County of Mobile v. Kimball, 102 U. S. 703, 26. L. ed. 238. 38 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 278, 21 L. ed. 146; St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 148 U. S. 97, 13 S. Ct. 487, 37 L. ed. 380. 39 Dobbins v. Commissioners, 16 Pet. 435, 10 L. ed. 1022; Bailey v. Magwire, 22 Wall. 215, 22 L. ed. 850. »0 Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 76, 19 L. ed. 101. 41 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 448, 6 L. ed. 678. 4 2 Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 319, 5 L. ed. 98; Gibbons v. i , 9 Wheat. 199, 6 L. ed. 23; Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 563, 7 L. ed. 939. 81 Taxing Power. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 The power may be exercised on the subjects to which it is ap- plicable to the utmost extent to which the government may choose to carry it. 43 If the right exists it is unlimited, 44 and while it should not be arbitrarily exercised, 45 the fact that the power is liable to abuse is no proof of its nonexistence. 46 The power to tax is the power to destroy, and the only security against unwise legislation is the wisdom and justice of the legislative body. 47 Boundaries of State and Federal Powers. The power of taxation conferred by this clause does not oper- ate as a prohibition upon the states; 48 it is original with the states, has never been surrendered by them, 49 and exists inde- pendent of the federal government. 50 While the power is common to both state and federal governments, 51 and the grant 43 McCulloch v. Maryland 4 Wheat. 428, 4 L. ed. 579; Spencer v. Merchant, 125 U. S. 355, 8 S. Ct. 926, 31 L. ©d. 763; Stockton etc. E, B, v. Stockton, 41 Cal. 166; People v. Fitch, 148 N. Y. 78, 42 N. E. 520. 44 Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 466. 7 L. ed. 481; Austin v. Alder- men, 7 Wall. 699, 19 L. ed. 224; Davis v. Eichardson, 45 Miss. 503, 7 Am. Eep. 733. 45 Parsons v. District of Columbia, 170 U. S. 51, 18 S. Ct. 521, 42 L. ed. 943. 4 6 Wiggins Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 107 U. S. 377, 2 S. Ct. 257, 24 L. ed. 419; Postal etc. Cable Co. v. Charleston, 153 U. S. 695, 14 S. Ct. 1096, 38 L. ed. 871. 47 Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 563, 7 L. ed. 939; Kirtlaud v. Hotchkiss, 100 U. S. 498, 25 L. ed. 558; Spencer v. Merchant, 125 TJ. S. 355, 8 S. Ct. 926, 31 L. ed. 763. 48 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 571, 12 L. ed. 702; Pervear v. Common- wealth, 5 Wall. 475, 18 L. ed. 608; Van Allen v. Assessors, 3 Wall. 585, IS L. ed. 229. 49 Thomson v. Pacific E. E., 9 Wall. 591, 29 L. ed. 105; Hender- son Br. Co. v. Henderson City, 173 U. S. 623, 19 S. Ct. 565, 43 L. ed. ■823; First Nat. Bank v. Peterborough, 56 N. H. 42, 22 Am. Eep. 421. 50 State Tonnage Tax Cases, 12 Wall. 212, 20 L. ed. 370; Trans- portation Co. v. Wheeling, 99 U. S. 277, 25 L. ed. 412, affirming 9 W. Va. 178, 27 Am. Eep. 554. 51 License Cases, 5 How. 588, 12 L. ed. 256; Bettman v. Warwick, 108 Fed. 46. Notes on Constitution — 6 Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 Taxing Poweb. 82 to Congress does not supersede the power of the state, 52 yet this clause vests power in Congress independent of any state con- trol, M and in case of conflict between state and federal laws the latter must prevail. 64 On the other hand, the power of the slates is inherent and not derived from the constitution, 55 and ii cannot I"' interfered with by congressional action. 56 Except a- restricted by the constitution states have power of taxation over all subjects, 57 and as to subjects over which the states have general power of legislation, their power to tax is supreme, 578 The taxing power of a state is limited to its territorial juris- ts State Tonnage Tax Cases, 12 Wall. 214, 20 L. ed. 370. 53 Ableman v. Booth, 21 How. 516, 16 L. ed. 169; Ward v. Mary- land, 12 Wall. 427, 20 L. ed. 449. 54 Railroad Go. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 29, 21 L. ed. 787. 55 McCulloeh v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316, 4 L. ed. 579; Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 77, 19 L. ed. 101; Eailroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 29, 21 L. ed. 787; Nathan v. Louisiana, 8 How. 73; People v. Coleman, 4 Gal. 46, 60 Am. Dec. 581; State v. Harrington, 68 Vt. 628, 35 Atl. 517, 34 L. E. A. 100. so Railroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 30, 21 L. ed. 787. 57 Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 71, 19 L. ed. 101; Ward v. Mary- Iand, 12 Wall. 430, 20 L. ed. 449; Loan Assn. v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 669, 22 L. ed. 455; Pullan v. Kinsinger, 2 Abb. U. S. 110, Fed. Gas. No. 11,463; Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 TJ. S. 176, 6 S. Ct. 684, 29 L. cd. 84.1; New Oricans v. Claik, 95 TJ. S. 654, 24 L. ed. 521; Cen- tral Pac. R. R. v. California, 162 U. S. 121, 16 S. Ct. 777, 40 L. ©a. 903; Rubotham v. McClure, 4 Blackf. 505; Hawkins v. Lawrence, 8 Blackf. 226; Clark v. Saybrook, 21 Conn. 313; Russell v. New York, 2 Denio, 461; People v. Commissioners, 5 Denio, 401; Raleigh etc. Co. v. Davis, 2 Dev. & B. 451; Swan v. Williams, 2 Mich. 442; Baker v. Johnson, 2 Hill, 342; State v. Philadelphia etc. R. R., 45 Md. 378, 24 Am Rep. 513; Carlisle v. Pullman Co., 8 Colo. 327, 7 Pac. 168; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Mayer, 28 Ohio St. 533; Bloodgood v. Mo- hawk Co., 18 Wend. 9, 31 Am. Dec. 313. 57a McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 429, 4 L. ed. 579; Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 199, 6 L. ed. 23; Hamilton County v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. 639, 18 L. ed. 904; Nevada Bank v. Sedgwick, 104 TJ. S. Ill, 26 L. ed. 703; Hagar v. Reclamation Dist., Ill TJ. S. 709, 4 S. Ct. C63, 28 L. ed. 569; Bettman v. Warwick, 108 Fed. 46; St. Albans v. ' lo., 57 Vt. 85; People v. Mayor, 4 N. Y. 425; People v. Hawley, 3 Mich. 33U; Armington v. Barnet, 15 Vt. 749, 11 Am. Dec. 705. 83 Taxing Power. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 diction, 58 but it will not be presumed that a statute contemplates taxation of subjects beyond the territory of the state. 59 Taxation of Governmental Agencies. Implied constitutional restrictions upon the taxing power are as effectual as those expressed. 60 Such an implied restric- tion prevents the taxation of an instrumentality of the federal government by the states and of a state agency by the federal government; 61 no such power on the part of the United States can be drawn from the words "welfare of the United States."* 62 Accordingly, Congress cannot tax the revenues of a municipal corporation, 63 nor impose a tax upon the salaries of state offi- cials 64 or judges, 65 or upon official bonds of state officers. 66 An act of Congress requiring a revenue stamp to be affixed to process in state courts is void, 67 and while Congress may provide for the stamping of certain instruments, a contract not stamped as required cannot be excluded as evidence on that ground. 68 The states cannot tax the means and instruments employed 58 The Delaware E. E. Tax, 18 Wall. 229, 21 L. ed. 888; New York etc. E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 153 U. S. 646, 14 S. Ct. 958, 38 L. ed. 846 j State Tax on Foreign Held Bonds, 15 Wall. 319, 21 L. ed. 179. 59 Pittsburgh etc. Ey. v. Backus, 154 U. S. 428, 14 S. CT. 1114, 38 L. ed. 1031; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Taggart, 163 U. S. 20, 16 S. CT. 1060, 41 L. ed. 49, affirming 141 Ind. 90, 40 N. E. 1053. 60 Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 427, 20 L. ed. 449. 61 Collector v. Day, 11 Wall. 124, 30 L. ed. 122; Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 U. S. 177, 8 S. Ct. 684, 20 L. ed. 845; Pollock v. Farmers ' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 584, 15 S. Ct. 690, 39 L. ed. 759. 62 United States v. Eailroad Co., 17 Wall. 322, 21 L. ed. 597. 63 United States v. Eailroad Co., 17 Wall. 322, 21 L. ed. 597; Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 584, 15 S. Ct. 690, 39 L. ed. 759. 64 Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 427, 20 L. ed. 449. 65 Collector v. Day, 11 Wall. 122, 30 L. ed. 122; Day v. Buffinton, 3 Cliff. 388, Fed. Cas. No. 3675; Friedman v. Sigel, 10 Blatchf. 328, Fed. Cas. No. 5080. 66 State v. Gorton, 32 Ind. 5, 2 Am. Eep. 318. 67 Filield v. Close, 15 Mich. 508; Jones v. Keep, 19 Wis. 376; Tucker v. Potter, 35 Conn. 46. 6S Davis v. Eichardson, 45 Miss. 503, 7 Am. Eep. 734. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 Taxing Power. 84 by the general government in the exorcise of its functions, 09 or the instruments, emoluments or persons, and the necessary and proper means to execute its sovereign power. 70 So the property of the United States is exempt from state taxation, 71 and the exemption extends to federal buildings erected upon private land 72 and to unsurveyed lands, 73 and lands upon which United States holds a lien for survey fees. 74 While these are exempt, a state may tax the property of government agents. 75 The salary of a United States officer is not taxable by a state, 70 but a state court has declared that a postoffice clerk is not an officer, and his salary was subject to a state income tax. 77 A person licensed under federal revenue laws is not an "officer"' □apt from taxation. 78 National banks are agencies of the federal government, and shares and capital stock in such banks are not taxable by the 69 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 316; Van Allen v. Assessors, 3 Wall. 591, IS L. ed. 229; Austin v. Aldermen, 7 Wall. €94, 19 L. ed. 224; Banks v. Mayor, 7 Wall. 16, 19 L. ed. 57; Hamilton Co. v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. 639, 18 L. ed. 904; People v. Commissioners, 4 Wall. 244, 18 L. ed. 344; Osborn v. Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204; Farmers' etc. Nat. Bank v. Dealing, 91 U. S. 34, 23 L. ed. 196; National etc. Bank v. Mayor, 62 Ala. 292, 34 Am. Bep. 18. 70 Dobbins v. Commissioners, 16 Pet. 435, 10 L. ed. 1022; Low v. Austin, 13 Wall. 35, 20 L. ed. 517. 71 Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 U. S. 178, 8 S. Ct. 684, 29 L. ed. 845; Wisconsin K. E. v. Price County, 133 TJ. S. 504, 10 S. Ct. 344, 33 L. ed. 687; Bannon v. Burnes, 39 Fed. 898; Commonwealth v. Morrison, 2 A. K. Marsh, 75; City v. Churchill, 36 N. Y. 693; Fagan v. Illinois, 84 111. 233. 72 Andrews v. Auditor, 28 Gratt. 127. 73 State v. Central Pac. E. E., 21 Nev. 269, 30 Pac. 692. 74 Tyler County, 1 N. Dak. 382, 48 N. W. 233. 75 Railroad Co. v. Peniston, IS Wall. 5, 21 L. ed. 787; Central Pac. E. E. v. California, 162 U. S. 125, 16 S. Ct. 779, 40 L. ed. 903. 76 Dobbins v. Commissioners, 16 Pet. 450, 10 L. ed. 1022. 77 Meleher v. Boston, 9 Met. 75. 78 State v. Bell, Thill. (N. C.) 90; and see License Cases, 5 How. 504, 12 L. ed. 256. 85 Taxing Power. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 states, 79 except as allowed by act of Congress. so So, also, United States securities are instruments of the federal govern- ment and the states cannot tax them in any way; 81 but the fact that the capital stock of a corporation is invested in United States bonds does not exempt it from taxation. 82 Internal revenue stamps are not subject to state taxation. 83 The exemption of these governmental agencies depends, how- ever, solely upon the effect of the tax — whether it deprives them of the power to serve the government as intended; 84 if a tax only remotely affects the efficient exercise of those powers it is not void. 85 A tax upon the property of a railroad employed by the federal government does not impair the exercise of its powers ; 86 nor does a tax upon the property of a telegraph com- pany transmitting government messages; 87 but a state cannot 79 McCulloieh v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 439, 4 L. ed. 579; Osborn v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 859, 6 L. ed. 204; Owensboro Bank v. Owensboro, 173 U. S. 607, 19 S. Ct. 537, 43 L. ed. 850; Second Nat. Bank v. Caldwell, 13 Fed. 433; Carthage v. Bank, 71 Mo. 509, 36 Am. Rep. 495: Pittsburg v. Bank, 55 Pa. St. 48. 80 Talbot v. Silver Bow County, 139 U. S. 440, 11 S. Ct. 595, 35 L. ed. 210; Pollard v. State, 65 Ala. 630; Bank of Albia v. Albia, 86 Iowa, 37, 52 N. W. 336. 81 Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 467, 469, 7 L. ed. 481; Bank of Commerce v. New York, 2 Black, 632, 17 L. ed. 451; Van Allen v. Assessors, 3 Wall. 590, 18 L. ed. 229; Grether v. Wright, 75 Fed. 753. 82 Home Ins. Co. v. New York, 131 U. S. 598, 10 S. Ct. 594, 33 L. ed. 1025. S3 Palfrey v. Boston, 101 Mass. 329. 84 Railroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 36, 21 L. ed. 787; Thomson v. Pacific R. R., 9 Wall. 591, 19 L. ed. 792; National Bank v. Com- monwealth, 9 Wall. 359, 19 L. ed. 701. 85 Railroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 30, 21 L. ed. 787; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Massachusetts, 125 U. S. 549, 8 S. Ct. 964, 31 L. ed. 790; Broadhead v. Milwaukee, 19 Wis. 624, 8S Am. Dec. 711. 86 Railroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 36, 21 L. ed. 787; Central Pac. R. R. v. California, 162 U. S. 119, 16 S. Ct. 776, 40 L. ed. 903. 87 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Massachusetts, 125 U. S. 549, 8 S. Ct. 964, 31 L. ed. 790. Art I, § s. CI. 1 Taxing Power. 86 tax a franchise granted to a railroad by Congress. 88 United Statea mail carriages are exempt from state taxation. 89 The granting of patents is an exclusive power of the federal government, ami any interference with it by state taxation is void; 90 but a tax upon the tangible property embodying a pat- tut does nut impair rights under the patent, 91 nor does a tax upon capital Invested in the manufacture of patented articles. 92 Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises. The constitution uses "duties, imposts and excises" in a natural sense, and in antithesis to "direct taxes." 93 "Duties" ami "imposts" are synonymous terms, and are both definable a? a tax levied upon articles imported from foreign countries, 94 while an excise is an inland tax generally imposed upon manu- facturers. 05 but sometimes upon consumption and upon retail sale. 96 "Excise" is not to be confused with "license." 97 8S California v. Central Pap. E. E., 127 TJ. S. 41, 8 S. Ct. 1081, 32 L. ed. 150; United States v. Stanford, 161 IT. S. 433, 16 S. Ct. 584, 40 L. ed. 751; State v. Stephens, 146 Mo. 682, 69 Am. St. Eep. 937, 4S S. W. 934. 89 Sea right, v. Stokes, 3 How. 178. 90 In re Sheffield, 64 Fed. 835; Hollida v. Hunt, 70 111. 112, 22 Am. Eep. 65; Commonwealth v. Petty, 96 Ky. 458, 29 S. W. 293; People ex rel. v. Assessors, 156 N. Y. 420, 51 N. E. 270. 91 Webber v. Virginia, 103 U. S. 347. 26 L. ed. 565. 92 Crown Cork etc. Co. v. State, 87 Md. 699, 67 Am. St. Eep. 376, 40 Atl. 1076 ; Commonwealth v. Edison etc. Co., 145 Pa. St. 140, 27 Am. St. Eep. 684, 22 Atl. 846; but see People v. Assessors, 156 N. Y. 420, 51 X. E. 270. 63 Pollock v. Farmers' etc. Co., 158 U. S. 619, 622, 15 Sup. Ct. Eep. 912, 39 I., ed. L108; Nicol v. Ames, 173 U. S. 518, 19 S. Ct. 586, 43 L. ed. 786; ailirniing 89 Fed. 149. !»» Eylton v. LTnited States, 3 Dall. 171, 1 L. ed. 556; United States v. Tappan, 11 Wheat. 419, 6 L. ed. 509; Woodruff v. Parham, 8 Wall. 123, 19 L. ed. 382; ilinson v. Lott, 8 Wall. 148, 19 L. ed. 387; Knowl- ton v. Moore, 178 U. S. 41, 20 S. Ct. 747, 44 L. ed. 969. 95 License Cases, 5 Wall. 462, 18 L. ed. 497; Knowlton v. Moore, 178 U. S. 41, 20 S. Ct. 747, 44 L. ed. 969. oo Pacific Ins. Co. v. Soule, 7 Wall. 445, 19 L. ed. 95. 97 License Cases, 5 Wall. 462, IS L. ed. 497; Pervear v. Common- wealth, 5 Wall. 175, 18 L. ed. 60S. 87 Taxing Powee. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 In the exercise of this power to "lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the com- mon defense and general welfare," Congress may authorize the building of custom-houses, employment of revenue cutters, appointment of collectors and other officers, establish needful bureaus, prescribe the time and manner of payment and define crimes and their punishment; 98 and may raise money in any manner not repugnant to the constitution." The words "to pay the debts and provide for the general welfare" do not, how- ever, confer any distinct and substantive power on Congress. 100 Subjects of the power granted to Congress to levy and collect excises are: manufactures; 101 employments and occupations; 102 sales; 103 banks, 104 including national banks; 105 circulating notes issued by states or banks ; 106 railroads and their profits ; 107 express companies. 108 A succession tax is an excise duty upon devolution, and may be imposed by Congress. 109 98 United States v. Rhodes, 1 Abb. U. S. 49, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151. 09 United States v. Angell, 11 Fed. 34. ioo United States v. Boyer, 85 Fed. 425. 101 License Cases, 5 Wall. 474, 475, 18 L. ed. 497; United States v. Singer, 15 Wall. Ill, 21 L. ed. 49; United States v. Three Tons of Coal, 6 Biss. 400, Fed. Cas. No. 16,515. 102 License Cases, 5 Wall. 470, 18 L. ed. 497; Pacific Ins. Co. v. Smile, 7 Wall. 446, 19 L. ed. 95; United States v. Glab, 99 U. S. 225, 25 L. ed. 273; Knowlton v. Moore, 178 U. S. 41, 20 S. Ct. 747, 44 L. ed. 969. 103 Pacific Ins. Co. v. Soule, 7 Wall. 445, 19 L. ed. 95; United States v. Cutting, 3 Wall. 443, 18 L. ed. 241; Warren v. Shook, 91 U. S. 712, 23 L. ed. 421; Northrup v. Shook, 10 Blatchf. 254, Fed. Cas. No. 10,329; United States v. Angell, 11 Fed. 34. 104 Bank for Savings v. Collector, 3 Wall. 495, 18 L. ed. 207; German Sav. Bank v. Archbold, 15 Blatchf. 402, Fed. Cas. No. 4364; Oulton v. Savings Inst., 17 Wall. 118, 21 L. ed. 618. 105 Central etc. Bank v. United States, 137 U. S. 355, 11 S. Ct. 126, 34 L. ed. 703; Sumter Co. v. Gainsville Nat. Bank, 62 Ala. 464; Pollard v. State, 65 Ala. 628. 106 Barnes v. Railroads, 17 Wall. 301, 21 L. ed. 544; Springer v. United States, 102 U. S. 586, 26 L. ed. 253. 107 Improvement Co. v. Slack, 100 U. S. 648, 25 L. ed. 609; Little Miami etc. R. R. v. United States, 108 U. S. 277, 2 S. Ct. 677, 27 L. ed. 724. 108 Eetzer v. Wood, 109 U. S. 185, 3 S. Ct. 164, 27 L. ed. 900. 109 Scholey v. Rew, 23 Wall. 346, 22 L. ed. 99. Art. I, § 8, CI. 1 Taxing Tower. 88 Uniformity. The only limitation upon the power of Congress in the im- position of duties, imposts and excises is that they shall be uniform throughout the United States/ 10 and this require- ment is not strictly a limitation, but prescribes the mode of exercise of the power. 111 The uniformity required is not an intrinsic uniformity relating to the inherent character of the Lax as respects its operation on individuals; it is a geographi- cal uniformity, requiring the same plan and method to be fol- lowed throughout the United States. 112 That a tax may affect only one class of persons is no objection to it, if it affects all of that class equally, and operates with the same force in every place where the subject is found; 113 the object of this clause was to protect states from discrimination by Congress which would operate unfairly upon some states and not equally upon others. 11 ' 1 "Throughout the United States" must be understood to mean the states whose people united to form the constitu- tion, and such as have been admitted to the Union upon an equality with them; so territory acquired by conquest and cession becomes appurtenant to, but not part of, the United States within the meaning of this clause. 115 no License Cases, 5 Wall. 471, IS L. ed. 497; United States v. Singer, 15 Wall. Ill, 21 L. ed. 49; United St.ites v. Three Tons of ( oal, 6 Biss. 400, Fed. Cas. No. 16,515; Pollock v. Farmers' etc. Co., 157 U. S. 593, 15 S. Ct. 694, 39 L. ed. 759. in Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 540. 112 Knowiton v. Moore, 178 U. S. 41, 20 S. Ct. 747, 44 L. ed. 969. 113 Head Money Cases [Edye v. Eobertson], 112 U. S. 580, 5 S. Ct. 247, 28 L. ed. 798; State Board v. Central B. B., 48 N. J. L. 290, 4 Atl. 624. H4 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U. S. 243, 21 S. Ct. 783, 45 L. ed. 1088. 115 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U. S. 243, 21 S. Ct 783, 45 L. ed. 1088. 89 To Borrow Money. Art. I, § 8, CI. 2 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. The Power Generally. The power of Congress to borrow money, thus expressly granted, is free and unburdened, 1 and includes the power to issue securities or evidences of debt for the money borrowed, 2 or for capital and commodities of which money is the represen- tative, 3 and to issue treasury notes. 4 "Money" is gold and silver, or the lawful circulating medium of the country, and includes bank notes. 5 "On the credit of the United States" authorizes the issue of bills or notes by the government to cir- culate as money ; 6 for in issuing such paper the government is in effect borrowing on the credit of these promises. 7 Bills of credit may be issued by Congress under this clause, 8 and the circulation of any notes not issued by or under the authority of Congress may be restrained. 9 1 Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 465, 7 L. ed. 481; Banks v. Mayor, 7 Wall. 23, 19 L. ed. 57; Legal Tender Cases [Juillard v. Greenman], 110 U. S. 444, 4 S. Ct. 128, 28 L. ed. 204; Van Husen v. Kanouse, 13 Mich. 309; Schollenberger v. Brinton, 52 Pa. St. 66; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 499. 2 Hepburn v. Griswold, 8 Wall. 616, 19 L. ed. 513 ; Hague v. Powers, 39 Barb. Ch. 427; Thayer v. Hedges, 22 Ind. 282; George v. Concord, 45 N. H. 434. 3 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400. 4 Thorndike v. United States, 2 Mason, 18, Fed. Cas. No. 13,9S7; Pennsylvania Cases, 52 Pa. St. 15; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400. 5 Mann v. Mann, 1 Johns. Ch. 236; Ex parte Prince, 27 Fla. 203,' 20 Am. St. Kep. 71, 9 South. 660. 6 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 435, 7 L. ed. 903; Legal Tender Cases, 110 U. S. 442, 4 S. Ct. 128, 28 L. ed. 204; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400; The Floyd Acceptances, 7 Wall. 675, 19 L. ed. 169. 1 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400; Bank v. Super- visors, 7 Wall. 26. 8 Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 548, 19 L. ed. 482; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 543, 20 L. ed. 287; Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 435, 7 L. ed. 903. 9 Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 549, 19 L. ed. 482; National Bank v. United States, 101 U. S. 6. 25 L. ed. 979. Art. I, § 8, CI. 2 Legal Tender. 90 Legal Tender. The clauses granting to Congress power to coin money (art. I, § 8, el. 5), and prohibiting the states from emitting bills of credit (art. I, § 10, cl. 1), do not impliedly prohibit Con- gross from making treasury notes legal tender, 10 and while no such power is expressly granted by the constitution, 11 the au- thority is necessarily implied 12 as a means to the exercise of the functions of government. 13 It is a necessary incident of sovereignty. 14 If, in the judgment of Congress, it is nec- essary, in order to enchance the credit of the government's promises, it may make them legal tender. 15 Congress may make treasury notes legal tender, 16 and, while such notes are only the representatives of money, they may be made a sub- stitute therefor. 17 This power is not to be resorted to except upon extraordinary occasions or public exigencies of great importance; 18 but it does not exist solely as an incident of the war power, and may io Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 547, 20 L. ed. 287. li Hepburn v. Griswold, 8 Wall. 614, 19 L. ed. 513. 12 Lick v. Faulkner, 25 Cal. 404. 13 Banks v. Mayor, 7 Well. 16, 19 L. ed. 57; Juillard v. Greenman, 10 Wall. 439, 28 L. ed. 204. 14 Van Husen v. Kanouse, 13 Mick. 303; Maynard v. Newman, 1 Nev. 271; George v. Concord, 45 N. H. 434; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400; Schollenberger v. Brinton, 52 Pa. St. 100; Brown v. Welch, 26 Ind. 116. 15 Wood v. Butler, 6 Allen, 516; Hague v. Powers, 39 Barb. Ch. 427; Lick v. Faulkner, 25 Cal. 404; Eeynolds v. Bank of Indiana, 18 Ind. 467; Thayer v. Hedges, 23 Ind. 141; Brown v. Welch, 26 Ind. 116; Horntrager v. Bates, 18 Iowa, 174; Van Husen v. Kanouse, 13 Mich. 303; Warmbold v. Schlichting, 16 Iowa, 243; Biddlesbarger v. McDaniel, 38 Mo. 138; Verges v. Giboney, 38 Mo. 458; Maynard v. Newman, 1 Nev. 271; Carpenter v. Northfield Bank, 39 Vt. 49; Breitenbach v. Turner, 18 Wis. 140; Warner v. Sauk Co., 20 Wis. 494. 16 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 2.87; Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 438, 4 S. Ct. 124, 28 L. ed. 204; Dooley v. Smith, 13 Wall. 604, 20 L. ed. 547; Eailroad Co. v. Johnson, 15 Wall. 195, 21 L. ed. 178; United States v. B.eese, 92 U. S. 253, 23 L. ed. 563; Bissell v. Heyward, 96 U. S. 587, 24 L. ed. 67S. 17 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 426. is Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 287. 91 • Legal Tender. Art. I, § 8, CI. 2 be exercised in time of peace or war. 19 Debts contracted be- fore, as well as after the passage of the legal tender acts are payable in treasury notes, 20 and those acts do not impair the obligation of contracts. 21 Where "the contract is to pay in a particular kind of money, as "gold" or "specie," it cannot be discharged in legal tender notes; 22 but where the covenant is to pay in "lawful money," in "gold or its equivalent," or in "specie or its equivalent," it is deemed to be one for the pay- ment of any kind of money which is legal tender. 23 The "debts" contemplated by the legal tender cases are debts aris- ing on contract and demand and do not include taxes. 24 Effect on States' Taxing Power. The power to issue securities being an incident of the power to borrow money, the securities thus issued are clearly instru- ments of the federal government exempt from state taxation. 25 19 Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 436, 4 S. Ct. 124, 28 L. ed. 204. 20 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 553, 20 L. ed. 287 [overruling Hepburn v. Griswold, 8 Wall. 607, 19 L. ed. 513]; Dooley v. Smith, 13 Wall. 606, 20 L. ed. 547; Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 438, 4 Sup. Ct. 124, 28 L. ed. 204; McElderry v. Jones, 67 Ala. 205; People v. Cook, 44 Cal. 640; Black v. Lusk, 69 111. 76; Belford v. Woodward, 158 111. 129, 41 N. E. 1099, 29 L. E. A. 593; Bowen v. Clark, 46 Ind. 410; Wells v. Bobb. 9 Bush, 32. 21 Faw v. Marsteller, 2 Cr. 32, 2 L. ed. 191; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 553, 20 L. ed. 287; Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 438, 4 S. Ct. 124, 28 L. ed. 204. 22 Bronson v. Rodes, 7 Wall. 250, 19 L. ed. 141; Butler v. Horwitz, 7 Wall. 25S, 19 L. ed. 149; Hepburn v. Griswold, 8 Wall. 607, 19 L. ed. 513; Gregory v. Morris, 96 U. S. 625, 24 L. ed. 740; Dutton v. Palairet, 154 U. S. 563, 14 S. Ct. 1200; Dewing v. Sears, 11 Wall. 380, 20 L. ed. 189; Trebilcock v. Wilson, 12 Wall. 695, 20 L. ed. 460; McGoon v. Shirk, 54 111. 411, 5 Am. Bep. 124; Churchman v. Martin, 54 Ind. 384. 23 United States v. Webster, 2 Ware (Dav.), 48, Fed. Cas. No. 16,658; Davis v. Burton, 52 Pa. St. 9; Reese v. Stearns, 29 Cal. 273; Wells, Fargo & Co. v. Van Sickle, 6 Nev. 46; Jones v. Smith, 48 Barb. 552; Atkinson v. Lainer, 69 Ga. 460. 24 Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 79, 19 L. ed. 101; Hagar v. Eeclamation Dist., Ill U. S. 706, 4 S. Ct. 766, 28 L. ed. 569; Whitaker v. Haley, 2 Or. 128; Illinois v. Wright, 28 111. 509. 25 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 439, 4 L. ed. 579; Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 449, 7 L. ed. 481; Bank of Commerce v. New York, Art. I, § 8, CI. 2 Taxation of Securities. 92 This immunity from state taxation extends to all government securities, such as certificates of indebtedness given in payment for supplies, 26 United States bonds, 27 stock of the United States issued as security for its indebtedness, 28 government notes. 29 The income derived from interest paid on government bonds is also exempt from taxation. 30 So, also, a state cannot tax the capital stock of a corporation invested in federal securities; 31 but shares of stock in such a corporation may be taxed in the hands of individual holders. 32 A distinction is to be drawn between a tax upon property and a tax upon franchises, 33 and while a state cannot tax capital or property invested in federal securities, a tax upon franchises based upon capital is valid, notwithstanding that capital is in- 2 Black, 629, 17 L. ed. 451; Bank Tax Cases, 2 Wall. 200, 17 L. ed. 793; Van Allen v. Assessors, 3 Wall. 573, 18 L. ed. 229; People v. Commis- sioners, 4 Wall. 244, 18 L. ed. 344; Hamilton Co. v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. G39, 18 L. ed. 904; Society for Savings v. Coite, 6 Wall. 604, 18 L. ed. S97; Austin v. Aldermen, 7 Wall. 699, 19 L. ed. 224; Grether v. Wright, 75 Fed. 753; State v. City of Newark, 39 N. J. L. 382. 26 Banks v. Mayor, 7 Wall. 23, 19 L. ed. 57; Bank v. Supervisors, 7 Wall. 30, 19 L. ed. 60; State v. Haight, 34 N. J. L. 130. 27 Bank of Commerce v. New York, 2 Black, 632, 17 L. ed. 451; Grether v. Wright, 75 Fed. 753; Chicago v. I/unt, 52 111. 414; Newark City Bank v. Assessor, 30 N. J. L. 13. 28 Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 469, 7 L. ed. 481; Bank of Com- merce v. New York, 2 Black, 629, 17 L. ed. 451; Banks v. Mayor, 7 Wall. 24, 19 L. ed. 57. 29 Bank v. Supervisors, 7 Wall. 30, 19 L. ed. 60; Mitchell v. Board, 91 U. S. 208; Ogden v. Walker, 59 Ind. 464; Shotwell v. Moore, 45 Ohio St. 640, 16 N. E. 471. 30 Bank of Kentucky v. Commonwealth, 4 Bush (Ky.), 48; Opin- ion of Justices, 53 N. H. 636. 31 Bank of Commerce v. New York, 2 Black, 628, 17 L. ed. 451; Hank Tax Case, 2 Wall. 210, 17 L. ed. 793; Van Allen v. Assessors, 3 Wall. 592, 18 L. ed. 229; Maguire v. Board, 71 Ala. 420; Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Haight, 34 N. J. L. 130; Wright v. Stills, 27 Ind. 341; State v. Rogers, 79 Mo. 291. 32 Provident Inst. v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. 629, 18 L. ed. 907; Palmer v. McMahon, 133 U. S. 666, 10 S. Ct. 326, 33 L. ed. 772; Stet- son v. Bangor, 56 Me. 279; People v. Commissioners, 35 N. Y. 426; Frazier v. Seibern, 16 Ohio St. 622. 33 Bank Tax Case, 2 Wail. 210. 17 L. ed. 793. 93 Taxation of Securities. Art. I, § 8, CI. 2 vested in United States bonds. 34 A statute requiring savings banks to pay a tax of a certain percentage upon the amount of their deposits is a franchise tax. 35 A tax upon inheritance and legacies is not upon property, but upon its transmission. 36 Accordingly, a state inheritance tax law applies to legacies of United States securities. 37 National banks being agents of the federal government, their operations cannot be impeded by state taxation. 38 This rule has, however, been relaxed by Congress, 39 and the states may now tax the shares of national banks in individual hands, if national banks are not discriminated against. 40 But this waiver of the exemption by Congress is to be strictly construed, and taxation in any other manner than prescribed by Congress is unconstitutional ; 41 so a state may tax shares held by individuals although the bank's capital is invested in United States bonds. 42 34 Society for Savings v. Goite, 6 Wall. 605, 18 L. ed. 897, affirm- ing 32 Conn. 184; Home Ins. Co. v. New York, 134 U. S. 598, 10 S. •Ct. 594, 33 L. ed. 1025, affirming 92 N. Y. 341 ; New York v. Eoberts, 171 U. S. 664, 19 S. Ct. 60, 43 L. ed. 343. 35 Provident Inst. v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. 630, 18 L. ed. 907. 36 United States v. Perkins, 163 U. S. 630, 16 S. Ct. 1073, 41 L. ed. 287; Magoun v. Illinois etc. Bank, 170 U. S. 290, 18 S. Ct. 596, 42 L. ed. 1037; High v. Coyne, 92 Fed. 451; Storrs v. St. Luke's Hosp., 180 111. 375, 72 Aon. St. Kep. 215, 54 N. E. 187. 37 Plummer v. Coler, 178 U. S. 115, 20 S. Ct. 829, 44 L. ed. 998; .Matter of Sherman, 153 N. Y. 4, 46 N. E. 1033. 38 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 439, 4 L. ed. 579; Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 859, 6 L. ed. 204; Bank of Commerce v. New York, 2 Black, 620, 17 L. ed. 451; Bank Tax Cases, 2 Wall. 200, 17 L. ed. 793; Owensboro Bank v. Owensboro, 173 U. S. 667, 19 S. Ct. 537, 43 L. ed. 850; Pittsburgh v. National Bank, 55 Pa. St. 45; Collins v. Chicago, 4 Biss. 472, Fed. Cas. No. 3011. 39 Eev. Stats., sec. 5219. 40 Lionberger v. Bouse, 9 Wall. 477, 19 L. ed. 721; Aberdeen Bank v. Chehalis Co., 160 U. S. 449, 17 S. Ct. 632, 41 L. ed. 1069; Pollard v. State, 65 Ala. 630; Bank of Albia v. Albia, 86 Iowa, 37, 52 N. W. 336. 41 Lionberger v. Bouse, 9 Wall. 468, 19 L. ed. 721; Carthage v. First Nat. Bank, 71 Mo. 588, 36 Am. Kep. 494. 42 People v. Commissioners, 4 Wall. 259, IS L. eJ. 344; National Bank v. Commonwealth, 9 Wall. 353, 19 L. ed. 701; Cummings v. Na- tional Bank, 101 U. S. 156, 25 L. ed. 903; Van Slyke v. Wisconsin, 154 U. S. 5S1, 14 S. Ct. 1168, 20 L. ed. 240; Merchants' Nat. Bank v. Pennsylvania, 167 U. S. 466, 17 S. Ct. 831, 42 L. ed. 236. Art. I, § 8, CI. 2 National Bank Taxes. 91 Where shares of state banks are exempt, no tax can be laid on shares of national banks. 43 The fact that there are no state banks in existence in a particular state does not affect the state's right to tax national bank shares; 44 but where there are such banks and they are exempt from taxation or are taxed in some other manner than on their shares, a tax on national bank shares is invalid, 45 and where a general law allows taxpayers to deduct bona fide debts from credits subject to taxation, such privilege must extend to owners of national bank stock. 46 If, however, a bolder of national bank shares has no debts to deduct, he can- not object that the state law does not allow deduction in case of national bank stock. 47 The provisions of the act of Congress cannot be evaded by assessing shares of national banks at an excessive value. 48 The act of Congress does not contemplate that the taxation of state and national banks shall be equal; its object is to prevent discrimination. 49 A statute taxing national bank stock and allowing no deduction on account of real estate owned by the bank is not invalid, such shares being the property of the shareholder, while the real estate is the property of the bank. 50 43 Boycr v. Boy ear, 113 TJ. S. 695, 5 S. Ct. 706, 28 L. ed. 1089. 44 Smith v. Webb, 11 Minn. 507. 45 City Bank v. Paducah, 2 Flipp, 66, Fed. Cas. 2743; McHenry v. Downer, 116 CaL 25, 47 Pac. 780, 45 L. E. A. 737; Utica v. Churchill, 33 N. Y. 231. 4C Whitbeek v. Mercantile Bank, 127 TJ. S. 199, 8 S. Ct. 1121, 32 L. ed. 118; Supervisors v. Stanley, 105 TJ. S. 308, 26 L. ed. 1044; Boyer v. Boyer, 113 TJ. S. 695, 5 S. Ct. 709, 28 L. ed. 1089; Mercantile Bank v. New York, 121 U. S. 152, 7 S. Ct. 833, 30 L. ed. 895; Rich- ards v. Eock Rapids, 31 Fed. 512; Nevada Nat. Bank v. Dodge, 119 Fed. 57. 47 Supervisors v. Stanley, 105 TJ. S. 315, 26 L. ed. 1044; Palmer v. McMahon, 133 U. S. 665, 10 S. Ct. 326, 33 L. ed. 772; Silver Bow . Davis, 6 Mont. 316, 12 Pac. 693; Rosenberg v. Weekes, 67 Tex. 585, 4 S. W. 901. 48 People v. Weaver, 100 U. S. 543, 25 L. ed. 705; Pelton v. Na- tional Bank, 101 TJ. S. 145, 25 L. ed. 901; Albany Nat Bank v. Maher, 19 Blatchf. 177, 6 Fed. 419; Railroad Co. v. Equalizers, 85 Fed. 307. 49 Davenport Bank v. Board of Equalization, 123 TJ. S. 85, 8 S. Ct. 73, 31 L. ed. 94; First Nat. Bank v. Stone, 88 Fed. 411. 6o People's Nat. Bank v. Marye, 107 Fed. 570. 95 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. What Constitutes Commerce. "Commerce," as used in this clause, comprehends every species of commercial intercourse Between the United States and for- eign nations, hetween the states and with Indian tribes. 1 The term has reference to trade 2 or traffic, and the interchange of commodities, 3 but commerce is more than traffic; it is commer- cial intercourse between nations and parts of nations, in all its branches. 4 "Trade"' comprehends exchange by barter and buy- ing and selling for money, 5 but commerce is not limited to mere buying and selling; it embraces all commercial intercourse, whether by land or water, 6 and includes communication by telegraph. 7 Transportation is an element of commerce; 8 the transporta- 1 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 193, 6 L. od. 23; Wabash etc. By. v. Illinois, 118 U. S. 573, 7 S. Ct. 11, 30 L. ed. 244; Leisy v. Hardin, 135 U. S. Ill, 10 S. Ct. 6S5, 34 L. ed. 128; City of Huntington v. Mahan, 142 Ind. 69S, 51 Am. St. Eep. 202, 42 N. E. 463. 2 United States v. Bailey, 1 McLean, 234, Fed. Cas. No. 14,495. 3 The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 557, 19 L. ed. 999. 4 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 189, 6 L. ed. 23; Brown v. Mary- land, 12 Wheat. 447, 6 L. ed. 678; Groves v. Slaughter, 15 Pet. 449, 10 L.. ed. 800; United States v. Holiday, 3 Wall. 417, 18 L. ed. 182; Mitchell v. Steelman, 8 Cal. 363; People v. Brooks, 4 Denio, 469; Moor v. Veazie, 32 Me. 343, 52 Am. Dec. 655. 5 May v. Sloan, 101 U. S. 237, 25 L. ed. 797. 6 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 275, 21 L. ed. 146; The Clinton Bridge, 10 Wall. 454, 19 L. ed. 969; South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 10, 23 L. ed. 782; Eailroad v. Fuller, 17 Wall. 568, 21 L. ed. 710; Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States, 148 U. S. 335, 13 S. Ct. 622, 37 L. ed. 463; Lord v. Steamship Co., 102 U. S. 541, 26 L. ed. 224. 1 Pensacola etc. Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 96 U. S. 9, 24 L. ed. 708; Telegraph Co. v. Texas, 105 U. S. 464, 26 L. ed. 1067; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pendleton, 122 U. S. 356, 7 S. Ct. 1126, 30 L. ed. 11S7; Batterman v. Western Union Tel. Co., 127 U. S. 425, 8 S. Ct. 1127, 32 L. ed. 229; Western Union Tel. Co. v. James, 162 U. S. 654, 16 S. Ct. 934, 40 L. ed. 1105. 8 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 275, 21 L. ed. 146; WeJ- ton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347; Henderson v. Mayor, 92 U. S. 259, 23 L. ed. 543; Eailroad Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 473, 24 L. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 96 tion of articles of trade for purposes of exchange or sale; 9 trans- portation of passengers. 10 The handling of subjects of inter- Btate commerce while in transit is a part of the transportation. 11 ( ommerce does not consist alone in the transportation of art- icles, but includes also the contracting for the sale of articles, and their delivery in another state, 12 for sale is itself an essen- tial ingredient of intercourse. 13 Navigation is included in the term "commerce," 14 and the power of Congress to regulate commerce embraces control of navigable waters, 15 accessible from a state other than that in which they lie. 16 The powers authorizes such legislation as will ed. 527; United States v. Trans-Missouri etc. Assn., 166 U. S. 312, 17 S. Ct. 548, 41 L. ed. 1007; Kaieser v. Illinois Cent. R. R., 5 Me- Cr.iry. -109, 18 Fed. 153; Carton v. Illinois Cent. R. R., 59 Iowa, 151, 44 Am. Rep. 674, 13 N. W. 68; State v. Chicago etc. Ry., 40 Minn. 267, 12 Am. St. Rep. 730, 41 N. W. 1047. 9 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 275, 21 L. ed. 146; Welton v. Missouri, 91 TJ. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347; Champion v. Ames, 188 TJ. S. 321, 23 S. Ct. 321, 47 L. ed. 492; Central Stock Yards Co. v. Louisville etc. Ry. Co., 118 Fed. 113; Louisville etc. R. R. v. Railroad Commis- sion, 19 Fed. 707. 10 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 702; Railroad Co. v. Husen, 95 TJ. S. 4G9, 24 L. ed. 527; Head Money Cases, 112 U. S. 591, 5 S. Ct. 247, 28 L. ed. 798. 11 Rhodes v. Iowa, 170 U. S. 426, 18 S. Ct. 664, 42 L. ed. 1088. 12 Addyston etc. Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 246, 20 S. Ct. 96, 44 L. ed. 136. 13 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 447, 6 L. ed. 678. ii Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 189, 6 L. ed. 23; United States v. Coombs, 12 Pet. 78, 9 L. ed. 1004; Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 316, 13 L. ed. 996; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 702; South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 10, 23 L. ed. 782; New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 134, 9 L. ed. 648; Railroad v. Fuller, 17 Wall. 568, 21 L. ed. 710; The Wilson v. United States, 1 Brock. 423, Fed. Cas. No. 17,846; People v. BTooks, 4 Denio, 469. 15 The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 564, 19 L. ed. 999; New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 134, 9 L. ed. 648; Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 197, 6 L. ed. •. Bridge Co. v. United States, 105 U. S. 470, 26 L. ed. 1143; Escan- daba etc. Co. v. Chicago, 107 U. S. 678, 2 S. Ct. 185, 27 L. ed. 442. 16 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 WalL 725, 18 L. ed. 96; The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 564, 19 L. ed. 999; The Thomas Swan, 6 Ben. 45, Fed. I is. No. 13,931; Hatch v. Willamette I. B. Co., 7 Saw. 127, 6 Fed. 326. 97 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 insure convenient and safe navigation on such navigable waters, 17 and keep them free from any obstruction to their navigation, 18 and Congress may remove all such obstructions, 19 whether caused by state action or otherwise. 20 But in order to bring obstructions to navigation on waters within a state within federal cogni- zance, a statute is necessary. 21 It is for Congress to determine what shall or shall not be deemed an obstruction to naviga- tion, 22 and a bridge may be authorized against the consent of a state. 23 Navigation upon rivers wholly within a state and not accessible from other states is within the control of the state wherein they lie, 24 and even where such rivers wholly within a state are accessible from other states, they are subject to state control in the absence of congressional action. 25 Navigability in fact is the test of the character of a river, 26 and all those rivers must be regarded as public navigable rivers which are, or may be, used as highways of commerce, over which trade and travel are, or may be, conducted in customary modes, 27 or which form, in their ordinary condition, by them- 17 The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 564, 19 L. ed. 999. 18 Gilnian v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 724, 18 L. ed. 96; South Caro- lina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 12, 23 L. ed. 782; Lord v. Steamship Co., 102 U. S. 541, 26 L. ed. 224; Newport etc. Co. v. United States, 18 Fed. Cas. (No. 10,186) 125. 19 The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 564, 19 L. ed. 999; Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States, 148 U. S. 335, 13 S. Ct. 322, 37 L. ed. 463. 20 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 725, 18 L. ed. 96. 21 United States v. Bellingham etc. Co., 81 Fed. 661. 22 South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 12, 23 L. ed. 782; Pennsyl- vania v. Wheeling Bridge Co., 18 How. 430, 15 L. ed. 435; Miller v. Mayor, 18 Blatchf. 215, 10 Fed. 516. 23 Decker v. Baltimore etc. E. E., 30 Fed. 726. 24 Veazie v. Moor, 14 How. 571, 14 L. ed. 545; Morse v. Home Ins. Co., 30 Wis. 506. 25 Escandaba Co. v. Chicago, 107 U. S. 678, 2 S. Ct. 185, 27 L. ed. 442; Cardwell v. Bridge Co., 113 U. S. 208, 5 S. Ct. 423, 28 L. ed. 959; Harman v. Chicago, 147 U. S. 413, 13 S. Ct. 306, 37 L. ed. 216. 26 Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh,, 12 How. 456, 13 L. ed. 1058; The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 563, 19 L. ed. 999. 27 The Daniel Ball. 10 Wall. 563, 19 L. ed. 999; The Montello, 20 Wall. 439, 22 L. ed. 391; Grand Trunk Ey. v. Backus, 46 Fed. 214; Scranton v. Wheeler, 57 Fed. 810. Notes on Constitution — 7 Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 98 selves, or by uniting with other waters, a continued highway, 28 and which will carry products and merchandise to and from the inhabitants of the banks thereof. 29 The navigability of a river does not presuppose depth enough to permit of passage of boats at all parts, 30 and a stream which is navigable for six months in the year is a navigable water. 31 But a stream which will float logs only at high water cannot be deemed navigable; 32 and a stream is not navigable unless so for some general and useful purpose. 33 Nature and Origin of Power to Regulate. The right of intercourse derives its source from those laws whose authority is acknowledged by civilized man throughout the world. 34 The subject is of national importance and ad- mits and requires uniformity of regulation, 35 and the power to regulate it so far as it is "with foreign nations, among the several states and with the Indian tribes," which previously existed in the states, and which the constitution conferred upon Congress, 36 is paramount over all legislative powers, 37 acknowl- edging no limitations other than those prescribed in the con- stitution. 38 28 Escandaba Co. v. Chicago, 107 U. S. 682, 7 S. Ct. 188, 27 L. ed. 442; Miller v. Mayor, 109 U. S. 396, 3 S. Ct. 234, 27 L. ed. 971; Ex parte Boyer, 109 U. S. 631, 3 S. Ct. 435, 27 L. ed. 1056; The Hazel Kirke, 25 Fed. 605; Decker v. Baltimore etc. B. E., 30 Fed. 725. 29 Little Eock Co. v. Brooks, 39 Ark. 403, 43 Am. Eep. 280. 30 St. Anthony Falls etc. Co. v. St. Paul Water Commrs., 168 U. S. 359, 18 S. Ct. 157, 42 L. ed. 497; but see Chisholm v. Caines, 67 Fed. 294. 31 Little Eock etc. Co. v. Brooks, 39 Ark. 409, 43 Am. Eep. 280. 32 Boyzer v. McMillan etc. Co., 105 Ala. 397, 53 Am. St. Eep. 133, 16 South. 924. 33 Groton v. Ilurlbut, 22 Conn. 186. 34 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 211, 6 L. ed. 23. 35 Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 2S0, 23 L. ed. 347. 36 South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 9, 23 L. ed. 782. 37 Smith v. Alabama, 124 U. S. 473, 31 L. ed. 508. 38 Leisy v. Hardin, 135 U. S. 100, 10 S. Ct. 685, 34 L. ed. 128; Gib- bons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 196, 6 L. ed. 23; Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 471, 14 S. Ct. 1131, 38 L. ed. 1047; Addyston Pipe Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 228, 20 S. Ct. 96, 44 L. ed. 136; Sang Lung v. Jackson, 85 Fed. 505; Mitchell v. Steelman, 8 Cal. 372. 99 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 The power to regulate is the power to prescribe the rules \>y which commerce is to be governed; 39 it implies full power over the thing to be regulated, and excludes the action of all others that would perform the same operation on the same thing. 40 The power of Congress extends to the regulation of the external commerce of the nation as well as that among the states. 41 The object of the commerce clause was to keep commercial intercourse free from all invidious and partial restraints, 42 to place it beyond interruption from conflicting or hostile state laws, 43 and insure uniformity in regulations. 44 It was not designed to operate upon matters essentially local in their nature and extent, but to establish perfect equality amongst the states as to commercial rights. 45 Commerce "with foreign nations" signifies transactions which, at some stage of their progress, as regards individual states, must be extraterritorial, 46 and with citizens and sub- jects of foreign governments. 47 It includes all the means by which such commerce may be carried on, whether by free navi* 39 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 196, 6 L. ed. 23. 40 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 209, 6 L. ed. 23; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 555, 12 L. ed. 702; United States v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood. & M. 430, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867. 41 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 448, 6 L. ed. 678; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 395, 12 L. ed. 702; Almy v. California, 24 How. 173, 16 L. ed. 644; People v. Brooks, 4 Denio, 476. 42 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 231, 6 L. ed. 23; Mitchell v. Stesl- man, 8 Cal. 374. 43 Southern S. S. Co. v. Port Wardens, 6 Wall. 33, 18 L. ed. 749; Webb v. Dunn, 8 Pla. 724. 44 Eailroad v. Richmond, 19 Wall. 590, 22 L. ed. 173; Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 280, 23 L. ed. 347; Lehigh etc. B. R. v. Pennsyl- vania, 145 U. S. 200, 36 L. ed. 672; Broeck v. The J. M. Welch, 18 Blatehf. 72, 2 Fed. 381; McNaughton Co. v. McGirl, 20 Mont. 130, 63 Am. St. Eep. 613, 49 Pac. 653. 45 Veazie v. Moor, li How. 574; United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 15, 15 S. Ct. 255, 39 L. ed. 325; The Katie, 40 Fed. 482. 46 Veazie v. Moor, 14 How. 574, 14 L. ed. 545; Lord v. Steamship Co., 102 U. S. 541, 26 L. ed. 224. 47 United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 417, IS L. ed. 182; Flanna- gan v. Philadelphia, 22 Pa. 219. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 100 gation of the waters of the several states, or by land across them. 48 "Among the several states" may be restricted to that commerce which concerns more than one state. 49 The power of Congress to "regulate commerce with the Indian tribes" does not authorize purely criminal laws; 50 its existence implies the right to exercise it whenever there is a subject to act upon, 51 and it embraces all intercourse with the tribes and the personal conduct of other races with them. 52 Extent of the Power, in General. The commerce power committed to Congress is unlimited, except by the constitution itself. 53 It includes power to pre- scribe rules by which it is to be governed and to control in- strumentalities by which it may be carried on; 54 but the regu- lations must be regulations of commerce; supervisory powers .ever manufactures and production remain in the states, 55 while 48 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 18 How. 42; Columbia Ins. Co. v. Peoria Br., C McLean, 70, Fed. Gas. No. 3046; Jolly v. Terre Haute D. Co., 6 McLean, 237, Fed. Cas. No. 7441; Corfield v. Coryell, 4 Wash. C. C. 388, Fed. Cas. No. 3230. 49 Veazie v. Moor, 14 How. 568, 14 L. ed. 545; Passaic Bridges, 3 Wall. 782, 16 L. ed. 799; The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 564, 19 L. ed. 999; The Gretna Green, 20 Fed. 902; United States v. De W r itt, 9 Wall. 44, 19 L. ed. 593. 50 United States v. Kagama, US U. S. 378, 6 S. Ct. 1109, 30 L. ed. 228. 51 United States v. Forty-three Gallons of Whisky, 93 U. S. 194, 23 L. ed. 846; United States v. Forty-three Gallons of Whisky, 108 U. B. 494, 2 S. Ct. 908. 52 United States v. Martin, 14 Fed. 821. 53 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 186, 6 L. ed. 23; Welton v. Mis- souri, 91 U. S. 280, 23 L. ed. 347; Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 17, 9 S. Ct. 6; Addyston Pipe Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 228, 20 S. Ct. 96, 44 L. ed. 136; Scranton v. W T heeler, 179 U. S. 162, 21 S. Ct. 48, 45 L. ed. 126. 54 Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 U. S. 203, 5 S. Ct. 826, 29 L. ed. 158; North Bloomfield etc. Min. Co. v. United States, 88 Fed. 675. 55 Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 21, 9 S. Ct. 6, 32 L. ed. 346; United States v. Boyer, 85 Fed. 433; State v. Harrub, 95 Ala. 187, 36 Am. St. Rep. 202, 10 South. 775; Standard etc. Co. v. Attorney General, 46 N. J. Eq. 270, 19 Am. St. Eep. 394. 101 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 the "due process of law" clause in the constitution does not limit the power of Congress to regulate commerce, 56 yet the power does not carry the right to impair constitutional guaran- ties of personal liberty. 57 This clause does not contemplate commerce which is entirely internal, which is carried on between individuals in a state, or between different parts of the same state, and does not extend to or affect other states, 58 and any act of Congress interfering with the exercise of powers retained by the states is unconstitu- tional and void. 59 The power to "regulate" has even been declared to embrace absolute prohibition. 60 Exclusive and Concurrent Powers. Whatever subjects of the commerce power are in their nature national, or admit only of one uniform system of regulation, are within the legislative power of Congress exclusively; 61 but such uniformity must be practicable. 62 Not all subjects admit- 56 Addyston Pipe Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 228, 20 S. Ct. 96, 44 L. ed. 136. 57 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 478, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047. See, also, United States v. Joint Traffic Assn., 171 U. S. 571, 19 S. Ct. 32, 43 L. ed. 259. 58 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 194, 6 L. ed. 23; Veazie v. Moor, 14 How. 575, 14 L. ed. 545; affirming 32 Me. 364, 52 Am. Dec. 666; Lord v. Steamship Co., 103 U. S. 543, 26 L. ed. 226; United States v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood, & M. 417, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867; The Bright Star, Woolw. 275; The Belfast v. Boon, 41 Ala. 70. 59 Hall v. Be Cuir, 95 U. S. 512, 24 L. ed. 547; Covington Br. Co. v. Kentucky, 154 U. S. 209, 14 S. Ct. 1087, 38 L. ed. 962; Geer v. Connecticut, 161 U. S. 531, 16 S. Ct. 600, 40 L. ed. 793; United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 12, 15 S. Ct. 249, 39 L. ed. 325. go Champion v. Ames, 188 U. S. 321, 23 S. Ct. 321, 47 L. ed. 492. 61 Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 319, 13 L. ed. 996; Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 279, 21 L. ed. 146; Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 280, 23 L. ed. 275; Cardwell v. American Bridge Co., 113 U. S. 210, 5 S. Ct. 423, 28 L. ed. 959; Bobbins v. Shelby Co. Tax. Dist., 120 U. S. 492, 7 S. Ct. 592, 30 L. ed. 694; Brown v. Houston, 114 U. S. 631, 5 S. Ct. 1091, 29 L. ed. 257; Walling v. Michigan, 116 U. S. 455, 6 S. Ct. 454, 29 L. ed. 691. 62 County of Mobile v. Kimball, 102 U. S. 698, 26 L. ed. 238. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 102 ting of uniformity of regulation however, are within the exclu- sive control of Congress, 63 Where the subjects do not call for uniform rules or national legislation, they may be regulated by the states in the absence of congressional action; 64 but a state statute in conflict with national law must give way. 65 Where the subjects are so national in character as to require that any legislation shall be uniform, the, failure of Congress to act is tantamount to a declaration that so far as they are concerned commerce shall be left free and untrammeled. 66 In fact, the constitution, by its grant of power, impliedly declares that the commerce contemplated shall be free, except so far as Congress shall enact regulations, 07 and as congressional regulation may consist in abstaining from prescribing positive rules, the power to regulate cannot be deemed dormant because not affirmatively exercised. 68 The states have concurrent powers with Congress in matters which are local in their operation or which are mere aids to com- es Pound v. Turck, 95 U. S. 462, 24 L. ed. 525; Adams v. Ulmer, 91 Me. 54, 39 Atl. 350; J. S. Keator etc. Co. v. St. Croix etc. Corp., 72 Wis. 82, 7 Am. St. Rep. 848, 38 N. W. 536. 64 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 726, 18 L. ed. 96; Ex parte McNeil, 13 Wall. 240, 20 L. ed. 624; Packet Co. v. Catlettsburg, 105 TJ. S. 563, 25 L. ed. 1169; Transportation Co. v. Parkersburg, 107 U. S. 702, 27 L. ed. 584; New York etc. R. R. v. New York, 165 U. S. 631, 17 S. Ct. 419, 41 L. ed. 853; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pendleton, 95 Ind. 13, 48 Am. Rep. 693; Smith v. State, 100 Tenn. 498, 46 S. W. 567, 41 L. R. A. 432. 65 Gulf etc. Ry. v. Hefley, 158 U. S. 104, 15 S. Ct. 803, 39 L. ed. 910; People v. Coleman, 4 Cal. 46, 60 Am. Dec. 581. 66 Hinson v. Lott, 8 Wall. 152, 19 L. ed. 387; Tiernan v. Rinker, 102 U. S. 127, 26 L. ed. 103; Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 U. S. 204, 5 S. Ct. 826, 29 L. ed. 158; Brown v. Houston, 114 U. S. 631, 5 S. Ct. 1096, 29 L. ed. 257; Hall v. De Cuir, 95 TJ. S. 490, 24 L. ed. 547; Walling v. Michigan, 116 TJ. S. 455, 6 S. Ct. 457, 29 L. ed. 691; Bowman v. Chicago etc. Ry., 125 TJ. S. 493, 8 S. Ct. 1066, 31 L. ed. 700; State v. Saunders, 19 Kan. 130, 27 Am. Rep. 100, Bagg v. Wellington etc. R. R., 109 N. C. 279, 26 Am. St. Rep. 569, 14 S. E. 79, 14 L. R. A. 596; Van Buren v. Downing, 41 Wis. 127; Arnold v. Yanders, 56 Ohio St. 421, 60 Am. St. Rep. 755, 47 N. E. 51; Coram. v. Philadelphia etc. Ry., 1 Pears. 379. 67 United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 11, 15 S. Ct. 249, 39 L. ed. 325. 68 Smith v. Alabama, 124 U. S. 473, 8 S. Ct. 564, 31 L. cd. 508. 103 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 merce, 69 or which relate to rights, duties and liabilities of cit- izens, although indirectly and remotely affecting operations of commerce; 70 e. g., the regulation of wharves; 71 the establish- ment of buoys and beacons; 72 the improvement of harbors 73 and navigable rivers, 74 and the collection of toll for such im- provements; 75 the construction and regulation of wharves 76 and bridges; 77 the construction and regulation of log booms; 78 the 69 Cardwell v. American Bridge Co., 113 U. S. 210, 5 S. Ct. 423, 28 L. ed. 959. 70 Sherlock v. Ailing, 93 U. S. 104. 71 Ouachita Packet Co. v. Aiken, 121 U. S. 446, 7 S. Ct. 907, 30 L. ed. 976; Transportation Co. v. Parkersburg, 107 U. S. 691, 2 S. Ct. 732, 27 L. ed. 584. 72 County of Mobile v. Kimball, 102 U. S. 691, 26 L. ed. 238; Ouachita Packet Co. v. Kimball, 16 Fed. 890. 73 County of Mobile v. Kimball, 102 U. S. 699, 26 L. ed. 238; Mo- nongahela Nav. Co. v. United States, 148 U. S. 333, 13 S. Ct. 629, 37 L. ed. 463. 74 Huse v. Glover, 119 U. S. 548, 7 S. Ct. 313, 30 L. ed. 487; Sands v. Manistee Eiver Imp. Co., 123 U. S. 295, 8 S. Ct. 116, 31 L. ed. 149; Stockton v. Powell, 29 Fla. 43, 10 South. 693, 15 L. E. A. 42; Wis- consin Eiver Imp. Co. v. Manson, 43 Wis. 255, 28 Am. Eep. 542; Thames Bank v. Lovell, 18 Conn. 511, 46 Am. Dec. 332; McEeynolds v. Smallhouse, 8 Bush, 447. 75 Huse v. Glover, 119 TJ. S. 548, 7 S. Ct. 313, 30 L. ed. 487; Ouachiti Packet Co. v. Aiken, 121 U. S. 448, 7 S. Ct. 909, 30 L. ed. 976; Sands v. Manistee Eiver Imp. Co., 123 U. S. 296, 8 S. Ct. 117, 31 L. ed. 149. 76 Packet Co. v. Catlettsburg, 105 U. S. 563, 26 L. ed. 1169; Trans- portation Co. v. Parkersburg, 107 TJ. S. 702, 2 S. Ct. 732, 27 L. ed. 584; Ouachita Packet Co. v. Aiken, 121 TJ. S. 447, 7 S. Ct. 909, 30 L. ed. 976. 77 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Bridge Co., 18 How. 530, 14 L. ed. 249; Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 728, 18 L. ed. 96; Escandaba Co. v. Chicago, 107 TJ. S. 683, 2 S. Ct. 185, 27 L. ed. 442; affirming 12 Fed. 777; Cardwell v. American Bridge Co., 113 TJ. S. 209, 5 S. Ct. 423, 28 L. ed. 959; Ehea v. Newport etc. E. E., 50 Fed. 20; Hamilton v. Eailroad, 34 La. Ann. 973, 44 Am. Eep. 454; Commissioners v. Board, 39 Ohio St. 634; Gulf etc. E. E, v. Dwyer, 75 Tex. 580, 16 Am. St. Eep. 928, 12 S. W. 1002. 78 Hurman v. Beef Slough etc. Co., 8 Biss. 344, 1 Fed. 155; J. S. Keator etc. Co. v. St. Croix etc. Corp., 72 Wis. 84, 7 Am. St. Eep. 850, 38 N. W. 537. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 104 regulation of the business of floating logs; 79 prescribing har- bor rules and regulations ; 80 prescribing pilot laws and regulat- ing charges; 81 the enactment of quarantine laws. 82 When, however, Congress has acted with relation to such matters as these, state laws in conflict with congressional action are void, 83 and while the commerce clause does not comprehend internal domestic commerce, the power enters the interior of every state whenever the interests of foreign or interstate commerce re- quire. 84 State legislation in all matters in which the power is concur- rent must not interfere with interstate or foreign commerce; whenever it does so, whether Congress has acted or not, it is void. 85 Obstacles or burdens laid upon commerce are "regu- lations," 86 and state laws imposing them upon interstate or for- eign commerce are void under this clause. 87 State constitu- 79 Harrigan v. Connecticut etc. Co., 129 Mass. 580, 37 Am. Kep. 387. so The James Gray v. The John Fraser, 21 How. 187, 16 L. ed. 106; Packet Co. v. Catlettsburg, 105 U. S. 563, 26 L. ed. 1169; The Baltic, 2 Ben. 399; The Helen, 5 Hughes, 122, 1 Fed. 922. 81 Southern S. S. Co. v. Port Wardens, 6 Wall. 31; Gibbons v. Og- den, 9 Wheat. 207, 6 L. ed. 23; Ex parte McNeil, 13 Wall. 241, 20 L. ed. 624; Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 319, 13 L. ed. 996; The Glenrarne, 7 Saw. 202, 7 Fed. 607; The Alcalde, 12 Saw. 270, 3 Fed. 135. 82 Morgan etc. Co. v. Louisiana, 118 IT. S. 455, 6 S. Ct. 1114, 30 L. ed. 237; Missouri etc. Ky. v. Haber, 169 U. S. 623, 18 S. Ct. 488, 42 L. ed. 878; Train v. Boston Disinfecting Co., 144 Mass. 531, 59 Am. Bep. 116, 11 N. E. 536. 83 Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 42, IS L. ed. 745; People v. Cole- man, 4 Cal. 46, 60 Am. Dec. 581. 84 Kidd v. Pearson. 128 U. S. 17, 9 S. Ct. 6, 32 L. ed. 346. 85 Sherlock v. Ailing, 93 U. S. 102, 23 L. ed. 819; Bobbins v. Shelby Co. Taxing Dist,, 120 U. S. 493, 7 S. Ct. 592, 30 L. ed. 694; State v. Saunders, 19 Kan. 127, 27 Am. Eop. 98. 86 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 232, 21 L. ed. 146; Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 418, 20 L. ed. 449; Welton v. Missouri, 91 TJ. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347; Henderson v. New York, 92 U. S. 259, 23 L. ed. 543; Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 550; Bail- road Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 470, 24 L. ed. 527. 87 Hall v. De Cuir, 95 U. S. 488, 24 L. ed. 547; Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 2S2, 23 L. ed. 347; Pickard v. Pullman etc. Car Co., 117 105 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 tional provisions, the necessary result of enforcing which is to limit or interfere with such commerce, are likewise void. 88 A state cannot authorize a corporation organized under its laws to do acts in its corporate name which will operate to restrain interstate commerce, e. g., to purchase the stock of competing corporations in order to create a monopoly. 89 Subjects of Regulation. The commerce power emhraces all instruments by which com- merce may be carried on, 90 and all the immediate vehicles and agents for all purposes, 91 as well as the articles carried, 92 and negotiations leading up to interstate or foreign commerce. 93 The powers of Congress are not confined to instrumentalities known when the constitution was adopted but they keep pace with, and adapt themselves to, new developments, 94 and what is an article of commerce is to be determined by usages of the com- mercial world. 95 U. S. 49, 6 S. Ct. 642, 29 L. ed. 785; In re Christian, 39 Fed. 637; Van Buren v. Downing, 41 Wis. 127; Council Bluffs v. Kansas etc. K. B., 45 Iowa, 338, 24 Am. Bep. 773. 88 Louisville etc. B. E. v. Eubank, 184 U. S. 36, 22 S. Ct. 277, 47 L. ed. 416. 89 United States v. Northern Securities Co., 120 Fed. 721; affirmed Adv. Sheets, S. Ct. 1904. 90 Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 280, 23 L. ed. 347; Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 U. S. 204, 5 S. Ct. 828, 20 L. ed. 158; In re Barber, 39 Fed. 64S. 91 Mitchell v. Steelman, 8 Cal. 363. 92 Sehollenberger v. Pennsylvania, 171 U. S. 24, 18 S. Ct. 757, 43 L. ed. 57; The Wilson v. United States, 1 Brock. 423. 93 Bobbins v. Shelby Co. Tax. Dist., 170 U. S. 497, 7 S. Ct. 592, 30 L. ed. 694; Addyston Pipe Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 246, 20 S. Ct. 96, 44 L. ed. 136; Le Loup v. Mobile, 127 U. S. 646, 8 S. Ct. 1383, 32 L. ed. 311; Wagner v. Meakins, 92 Fed. 83; Gnnn v. White Sewing-machine Co., 57 Ark. 35, 38 Am. St. Bep. 226, 20 S. W. 592, 18 L. B. A. 206; Coit v. Sutton, 102 Mich. 327, 60 N. W. 691, 25 L. E, A. 819; Toledo Com. Co. v. Glen Mfg. Co., 55 Ohio St. 222, 45 N. E. 198. 94 Pensacola etc. Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 96 U. S. 9, 24 L. ed. 708; In re Debs, 158 U. S. 5S1, 15 S. Ct. 900, 39 L. ed. 1092; affirming 64 Fed. 750. 95 Bowman v. Chicago etc. By., 125 U. S. 501, 8 S. Ct. 6S9, 29 L. ed. 502. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 106 Persons are subject to the commerce power when they con- duct commerce or are employed by others who conduct it, 96 or when they are carried as passengers. 97 So Congress may pre- scribe rules for the shipping of seamen, 98 and for the regulation of seamen in the merchant service 98 * and their contracts and liens, 99 and may prescribe rules for the government of pilots and fix their qualifications. 100 But state courts have declared that the passage of an act of Congress does not release pilots from a penalty incurred under a state law, 101 nor does an act for the regulation of pilots supersede a state law providing for the licensing of pilots. 102 The power extends to the enactment of a recording act for the security and protection of persons dealing in vessels, 103 and of persons furnishing labor or sup- plies to vessels, 104 and to the enactment of a law limiting ship owners' liability for losses. 105 96 Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 316, 13 L. ed. 996; Cuban S. S. Co. v. Fitzpatrick, 66 Fed. 67; People v. Welch, 141 N. Y. 266, 38 Am. St. Rep. 793, 36 N. E. 328, 24 L. R. A. 117. 97 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 702 (overruling New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 136, on this point); Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 40; Henderson v. New York, 92 U. S. 269, 23 L. ed. 543; Hall v. De Cuir, 95 U. S. 516, 24 L. ©d. 547; People v. Compagnie Generale, etc., 107 U. S. 60, 2 S. Ct. 88, 27 L. ed. 383; In re Ah Fong, 3 Saw. 152, Fed. Cas. No. 102; Lin Sing v. Washburn, 20 Cal. 534; State v. S. S. Con- stitution, 42 Cal. 588, 10 Am. Rep. 310; Council Bluffs v. Kansas City etc. R. R., 45 Iowa, 349, 24 Am. Rep. 779. 98 The Bark Chusan, 2 Story, 455, Fed. Cas. No. 2717. 98a Ex parte Pool, 2 Va. Cas. 276. 99 The Bark Chusan, 2 Story, 455, Fed. Cas. No. 2717. ioo Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 319, 13 L. ed. 996; The South Cambria, 27 Fed. 526; State ex rel. v. Livandias, 36 La. Ann. 127; Webb v. Dunn, 18 Fla. 728; Dryden v. Commonwealth, 16 B. Mon. 598; Edwards v. Panama, 1 Or. 418. 101 Sturgis v. Spofford, 45 N. Y. 446. 102 Cisco v. Roberts, 36 N. Y. 295. 103 White's Bank v. Smith, 7 Wall. 655, 19 L. ed. 211; Blanchard v. The Martha Washington, 1 Cliff. 463, Fed. Cas. No. 1513; Foster v. Chamberlain, 41 Ala. 156; Mitchell v. Steelman, 8 Cal. 363; Shaw v. McCandless, 36 Miss. 296; Best v. Staple, 61 N. Y. 76; Lawrence v. Hodges, 92 N. C. 677, 53 Am. Rep. 437. 104 The Lottawanna, 21 Wall. 577, 22 L. ed. 654. 105 Providence S. S. Co. v. Hill Mfg. Co., 109 U. S. 589, 3 S. Ct. 107 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Corporations, associations and partnerships, as well as indi- viduals, are subject to the commerce power; 106 e. g., railroad companies, 107 steamship companies, 108 ferry companies, 109 sleeping-car companies, 110 express companies, 111 telegraph com- panies, 112 bridge companies. 113 It follows that states cannot exclude foreign corporations such as these when engaged in in- terstate or foreign commerce; 114 nor can they impose limitations 386, 27 L. ed. 1038; Butler v. Boston S. S. Co., 130 U. S. 555, 9 S. Ct. 618, 32 L. ed. 1017; In re Garnett, 141 U. S. 12, 11 S. Ct. 840, 35 L. ed. 631; In re Transportation Co., 5 Fed. 614; The Katie, 40 Fed. 493. ioo Paul v. Virginia, 8 Wall. 183, 19 L. ed. 357; Gloucester Ferry- Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 IT. S. 204, 5 S. Ct. 828, 29 L. ed. 158; Philadelphia S. S. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 IT. S. 343, 7 S. Ct. 1124, 30 L. ed. 1200; Indiana v. Pullman Car Co., 11 Biss. 566, 16 Fed. 193; Gunn v. White Sewing Mach. Co., 57 Ark. 33, 18 L. B. A. 206, 20 S. W. 592, 38 Am. St. Bep. 224; McNaughton v. McGirl, 20 Mont. 124, 63 Am. St. Bep. 610, 49 Pae. 651, 28 L. B. A. 367. 107 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 275, 21 L. ed. 146; Bail- road v. Husen, 95 IT. S. 469, 24 L. ed. 527; California v. Pacific B. B., 127 U. S. 40, 32 L. ed. 150; Kaeiser v. IUinois Cent. E. E., 5 Mc- Crary, 499, 18 Fed. 153; Mobile etc. E. E. v. Sessions, 28 Fed. 593. 108 Philadelphia S. S. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 IT. S. 338, 7 S. Ct. 1121, 30 L. ed. 1200. 109 Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 IT. S. 212, 5 S. Ct. 833, 29 L. ed. 158. no Pickard v. Pullman Southern Car Co., 117 IT. S. 48, 6 S. Ct. 641, 29 L. ed. 785; Pullman Southern Car Co. v. Nolan, 22 Fed. 280; Indiana v. Pullman Palace Car Co., 11 Biss. 561, 16 Fed. 193; State v. Woodruff etc. Co., 114 Ind. 158, 15 N. E. 815. in Crutcher v. Kentucky, 141 IT. S. 56, 11 S. Ct. 851, 35 L. ed. 649; Webster v. Bell, 68 Fed. 185. H2 Telegraph Company v. Texas, 105 IT. S. 466, 26 L. ed. 1067; Le Loup v. Mobile, 127 IT. S. 647, 8 S. Ct. 1380, 32 L. ed. 311; St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 39 Fed. 60; Muskogee Nat. Tel. Co. v. Hall, 118 Fed. 382. 113 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling etc. Bridge Co., 18 How. 430, 15 L. ed. 435; Bridge Co. v. United States, 105 U. S. 475, 26 L. ed. 1143; Luxton v. North Biver Bridge Co., 153 U. S. 531, 14 S. Ct. 893, 38 L. ed. 808. 114 Pembina Min. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 125 U. S. 185, 8 S. Ct. 737, 31 L. ed. 650; Horn Silver Min. Co. v. New York, 143 U. S. 314, 12 S. Ct. 403, 36 L. ed. 164; Indiana v. Pullman Palace Car Co., 11 Biss. 561, 16 Fed. 193. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 108 upon the right of foreign corporations to make contracts relat- ing to such commerce. 115 In the regulation of commerce of which persons are the sub- ject, Congress may prescribe rules for passenger vessels. 116 The power extends to the passage of laws to encourage immigra- tion and to the admission of citizens and subjects of foreign nations, 117 but not to the determination of their status when they arrive. 118 Laws governing the right to land immigrants should be uniform, and the jurisdiction of Congress in the passage of such laws is exclusive. 119 Immigration, or the importation of persons, may be absolutely prohibited by Congress. 120 Laws prohibiting the importation of contract laborers are of this class, and are valid. 121 Contribution levied upon ship owners bring- ing in foreigners is designed to mitigate the evils incident upon foreign immigration, and is not a tax within the meaning of the constitution, but a regulation of commerce, 122 which it is within the power of Congress to impose. 123 no Cooper Mfg. Co. v. Ferguson, 113 U. S. 734, 5 S. Ct. 139, 28 L. etl. 1137; Williams v. Hintermeister, 26 Fed. 890; Milan Milling etc. Co. v. Gorten, 93 Tenn. 594, 27 S. W. 972, 26 L. E. A. 135; Keating etc. Machine Co. v. The Favorite Carriage, 12 Tex. Civ. App. 666, 35 S. W. 418. lie Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 230, 6 L. ed. 23; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 282, 12 L. ed. 702; People v. Kaymond, 34 Cal. 492; Head Money Cases, 112 IT. S. 591, 5 S. Ct. 247, 28 L. ed. 798. 117 Lin Sing v. Washburn, 20 Cal. 534. 118 Lemmon v. People, 20 N. Y. 607. HO Henderson v. Mayor, 92 U. S. 273, 23 L. ed. 543; In re Florio, 43 Fed. 115. 120 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 230, 6 L. ed. 23; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 282, 12 L. ed. 702; The Wilson v. United States, 1 Brock. 423, Fed. Cas. No. 17,846; People v. Downer, 7 Cal. 169; The Chinese Exclusion Case, 130 U. S. 603, 9 S. Ct. 623, 32 L. ed. 106S; Fong Yne Ting v. United States, 149 U. S. 705, 13 S. Ct. 1016, 37 L. ed. 905; Ekiu v. United States, 142 U. S. 659, 12 S. Ct. 338, 35 L. ed. 1146; Moon Sing v. United States, 158 U. S. 543, 39 L. ed. 1082; Wong Wing v. United States, 163 U. S. 237, 16 S. Ct. 977, 41 L. ed. 140. 121 Lees v. United States, 150 U. S. 480, 14 S. Ct. 163, 37 L. ed. 1150. 122 Head Money Cases, 112 U. S. 595, 5 S. Ct. 247, 28 L. ed. 798. 123 People v. Compagnie Generale, 107 U. S. 59, 2 S. Ct. 87, 27 L. ed. 383, affirming 20 Blatchf. 296, 10 Fed. 357. 109 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 A corpse is not a person, nor is it property, and is therefore not a subject for regulation by Congress. 124 This clause authorizes the use of all means necessary to the proper exercise of the power conferred, as the power to build and maintain light-houses, piers, breakwaters, to employ rev- enue cutters, cause surveys of coasts, rivers and harbors, to ap- point all necessary officers, at home and abroad, and prescribe their duties and fix terms of office and compensation and to de- fine and punish crimes relative to commerce. 125 Crimes com- mitted upon stranded vessels are punishable under act of Con- gress passed in the exercise of this power. 126 The power to lay an embargo is also included in the power to regulate com- merce. 127 A policy of insurance is not an article of commerce; accord- ingly the act of issuing it cannot be a transaction of com- merce, 128 and such business is exclusively within the power of the states to regulate. 129 Lottery tickets, however, have been declared to be articles of commerce, and their carriage from state to state interstate com- merce, which Congress may forbid. 130 124 In re Wong Yung Quy, 6 Saw. 442, 2 Fed. 624. 125 United States v. Coombs, 12 Pet. 78, 9 L. ed. 1004; United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 407, 18 L. ed. 182; United States v. Rhodes, 1 Abb. U. S. 50, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151; The Clinton Bridge, Woolw. 164, Fed. Cas. No. 2900. 126 United States v. Coombs, 12 Pet. 78, 9 L. ed. 1004; United States v. Pitman, 1 Sprague, 196, Fed. Cas. No. 16,051. 127 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 191, 6 L. ed. 23; United States v. The William, 2 Hall L. J. 272, Fed. Cas. No. 16,700. 12S Paul v. Virginia, 8 Wall. 183, 19 L. ed. 357; Liverpool Ins. Co. v. Massachusetts, 10 Wall. 573, 19 L. ed. 1029; Philadelphia etc. Assn. v. New York, 119 U. S. 118, 7 S. Ct. 108, 30 L. ed. 342; Hooper v. California, 155 U. S. 653, 15 S. Ct. 209, 39 L. ed. 297. 129 New York Life Ins. Co. v. Cravens, 178 U. S. 401, 20 S. Ct. 962, 44 L. ed. 1116; Farmers' etc. Ins. Co. v. Harrah, 47 Ind. 240; Insurance Co. v. Commonwealth, 87 Pa. St. 183, 30 Am. Rep. 356; List v. Commonwealth, 118 Pa. St. 327, 12 Atl. 279. 130 Champion v. Ames, 188 U. S. 321, 23 S. Ct. 321, 47 L. ed. 492; Reilley v. United States, 106 Fed. 896. Art I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 110 Commencement and Termination of Power. Whenever a commodity has begun to move, as an article of trade, from one state to another, commerce in that commodity has begun; 131 but this movement does not begin until the com- modity has been shipped or started for transportation, 132 and notwithstanding goods are all ready for shipment, if they have not actually commenced their final movement, they have not as- sumed a commercial character within this clause. 133 So logs, collected and lying in a river preliminary to shipment out of the state, are not yet subjects of commerce. 134 But the character of the commodity is not determined by the nature of the initial act; actual movement is the test. 135 Shipment to a forwarding agent is sufficient. 136 Nor does it make any difference that the initial shipment is over an independent line and for a very short distance. 137 A train of empty cars is not to be considered as en- gaged in interstate commerce until loaded with articles committed to the carrier. 138 While the right to avail one's self of the protec- tion of the commerce clatise by engaging in interstate or foreign traffic depends upon the will of the person making the ship- ment, 139 yet the mere intent to export an article cannot deter- 131 The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 565, 19 L. ed. 999; Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 25, 9 S. Ct. 6, 32 L. ed. 346; Houston etc. Nav. Co. v. Insurance Co., 89 Tex. 1, 59 Am. St. Rep. 17, 32 S. W. 890, 30 L. E. A. 713. 132 Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 25, 9 S. Ct. 6, 32 L. ed. 346; United States v. Boyer, 85 Fed. 433; Bennett v. American Exp. Co., 83 Me. 236, 23 Am. St. Rep. 774, 22 Atl. 159, 13 L. R. A. 33; State v. Harrub, 95 Ala. 188, 36 Am. St. Rep. 203, 10 South. 755, 15 L. R. A. 761. 133 Coe v. Errol, 116 XL S. 525, 6 S. Ct. 475, 29 L. ed. 715; United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 13, 15 S. Ct. 254, 39 L. ed. 325, . affirming 60 Fed. 310. 134 Coe v. Errol, 116 U. S. 528, 6 S. Ct. 479, 29 L. ed. 715. 135 The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 565, 19 L. ed. 999. 136 Cutting v. Florida etc. Co., 46 Fed. 644. 137 Houston etc. Co. v. Insurance Co., 89 Tex. 6, 59 Am. St. Rep. 20, 32 S. W. 890, 30 L. R. A. 713. 138 Norfolk etc. R. R. v. Commonwealth, 93 Va. 749, 57 Am. St. Rep. 827, 24 S. E. 837, 34 L. R. A. 105. 139 Vance v. W. A. Vandereook Co. (No. 1), 170 U. S. 455, 18 S. Ct. 674, 42 L. ed. 1150. Ill Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CL 3 mine when it becomes an article of interstate commerce, 140 and the fact that coal offered for sale generally in towboats is bought with the intention of exporting it does not exempt it from a state tax. 141 A commodity ceases to be a subject of the commerce power when importation is complete; 142 but importation is not complete so long as articles remain in the importer's hands in the original package. 143 When, however, the importer has so acted upon the thing imported that it has become incorporated and mixed up with the mass of property in the state, it has lost its distinc- tive character as an article of commerce. 144 Internal Commerce of the States. The power committed to Congress by the constitution does not extend to commerce wholly within a state; 145 the purely inter- nal commerce and navigation of a state are subjects exclusively for state regulation. 146 Such commerce is as far removed from federal control as interstate and foreign commerce is removed 140 United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 13, 15 S. Ct. 249, 34 L. ed. 325; Myers v. Commissioners, 83 Md. 385, 55 Am. St. Eep. 349. 35 Atl. 144, 34 L. E, A. 309. 141 Brown v. Houston, 114 U. S. 629, 5 S. Ct. 1091, 29 L. ed. 257. 142 People v. Huntington, 4 N. Y. Leg. Obs. 187. 143 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 442, 6 L. ed. 678; Welton v. Missouri, 91 TJ. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347; Cook v. Pennsylvania, 97 U. S. 573, 24 L. ed. 1015; Bowman v. Chicago etc. By., 125 TJ. S. 506, S S. Ct. 1065, 31 L. ed. 700; Leisy v. Hardin, 135 TJ. S. 108, 10 S. Ct. 683, 34 L. ed. 128. 144 Brown v. Maryland, 12 "Wheat. 441, 6 L. ed. 678; Ex parte Brown, 48 Fed. 436; May v. New Orleans, 178 TJ. S. 507, 44 L. ed. 1165. 145 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 194, 6 L. ed. 23; The Daniel Ball, 10 Wall. 564, 19 L. ed. 999; Veazie v. Moor, 14 How. 575, 14 L. ed. 545, affirming 32 Me. 364, 52 Am. Dec. 666; Lord v. Steamship Co., 102 TJ. S. 543, 26 L. ed. 224; Railroad Co. v. Han-is, 99 Tenn. 710, 43 S. W. 121. 146 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling etc. Bridge Co., 18 How. 432, 15 L. ed. 435; Moore v. American Transp. Co., 24 How. 39, 16 L. ed. 674; The Montello, 11 Wall. 411, 20 L. ed. 191; Peik v. Chicago etc. R. R., 94 TJ. S. 164, 24 L. ed. 97; Pensacola T. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 96 U. S. 1, 24 L. ed. 708; People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195, 8 Am. Dec. 362; Scott v. Wilson, 3 N. H. 321; Canal Commrs. v. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 112 from state control, 147 and Congress cannot interfere with it di- rectly or indirectly. 148 To constitute interstate commerce, there must be traffic and intercourse between different states; 149 ac- cordingly where both parties to a sale of goods reside in the same state, the transaction is not one of interstate commerce. 150 With respect to the navigable waters of the United States, how- ever, it seems that the regulating power of Congress extends to vessels navigating them, even when engaged exclusively in do- mestic commerce, 151 and although ports of destination and de- parture are within the same state. 152 Under these powers reserved by it a state may grant the ex- clusive privilege of navigating a non-navigable stream wholly within its borders, in consideration for rendering it naviga- ble. 153 A state may legislate as to roads, ferries and canals, pro- vided it does not thereby interfere with the free navigation of interstate highways, 154 and may issue charters to bridge, turn- People, 5 Wend. 448; People v. Bensselaer etc. E. P., 15 Wend. 113, 30 Am. Dec. 33; Cowden v. Pacific Coast S. S. Co., 94 Cal. 470, 28 Am. St. Eep. 142, 29 Pac. 873, 18 L. E. A. 221. 147 Sands v. Manistee Eiver Imp. Co., 123 U. S. 295, 8 S. Ct. 113, 31 L. ed. 149; Geer v. Connecticut, 161 U. S. 531, 16 S. Ct. 600, 40 L. ed. 793. 148 Covington etc. Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 154 TJ. S. 210, 14 S. Ct. 1087, 38 L. ed. 970; United States v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood & M. 417, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867; The Gretna Green, 20 Fed. 901; The Tug Oconto, 5 Biss. 463, Fed. Cas. No. 10,421. 149 State v. Harrub, 95 Ala. 176, 36 Am. St. Eep. 195, 10 South. 755, 15 L. E. A. 761. 130 National Distilling Co. v. Cream City Imp. Co., 86 Wis. 352, 39 Am. St. Eep. 902, 56 N. W. 864. 151 "United States v. Burlington etc. Ferry Co., 21 Fed. 335. 152 Cowden v. Pacific Coast S. S. Co., 94 Cal. 470, 28 Am. St. Eep. 142, 29 Pac. 873, 18 L. E. A. 221; hut see Whitaker v. The F. Lorents,' 29 Fed. Cas. 954; The Tug Oconto, 5 Biss. 463, Fed. Cas. No. 10,421. 153 Veazie v. Moor, 14 How. 571, 14 L. ed. 545; Commonwealth v. Philadelphia etc. E. E., 62 Pa. St. 292, 1 Am. Eep. 403; Mullen v. Log etc. Co., 90 Me. 567, 38 Atl. 560. 154 Corfield v. Coryell, 4 Wash. C. C. 371, Fed. Cas. No. 3230; United States v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood. & M. 417, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867. 113 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 pike and canal companies, 155 and grant exclusive rights. 156 It cannot, however, pass laws imposing tolls upon logs and lumber floating down a stream running into another state. 157 Nor can a compact between adjoining states, as to the use of a river partly in each, give the contracting states any greater rights in the river so far as the commerce power of Congress is con- cerned. 158 A state may prescribe regulations for warehouses, 159 notwith- standing such warehouses are used as instruments by those en- gaged in both interstate and domestic commerce. 160 Persons and things within the state's jurisdiction are subject to its reg- ulation, although such regulation may have a bearing upon com- merce, 161 as the erection of wharves. 162 Bridges and ferries are in the same category and are within the state's powers of regula- tion. 103 The grant of a ferry privilege within the limits of a city is not a regulation of commerce, although the ferry operates across a river and into another state, 164 but a state cannot grant rights which will seriously interfere with navigation. 165 In the 155 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cranch, 87, 3 L. ed. 167; Piscataqua Bridge v. New Haven Bridge, 7 N. H. 35. 156 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 19, 6 L. ed. 23; People v. Babcock, 11 Weno. 586; North Kiver etc. Co. v. Livingston, 3 Cow. 733. 157 Carson Biver Lumber Co. v. Patterson, 33 Cal. 334. 15S Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Bridge Co., 18 How. 421, 15 L. ed. 435; South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 4, 23 L. ed. 782. 159 Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 113, 24 L. ed. 77; Chicago etc. E. E. v. Iowa, 94 TJ. S. 155, 24 L. ed. 94. 160 Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 113, 24 L. ed. 77. 161 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 402, 12 L. ed. 702; Sherlock v. Ailing, 93 U. S. 99, 23 L. ed. 819; Hopkins v. United States, 171 U. S. 594, 19 S. Ct. 40, 43 L. ed. 290; People v. Wabash etc. By., 104 111. 476; Wilson v. Kansas City etc. K. B., 60 Mo. 198. 162 Stevens v. Walker, 15 La. Ann. 577; The Ann Byan, 7 Ben. 23, Fed. Cas. No. 428. 163 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 726, 18 L. ed. 96; People v. Eensselaer etc. E, E., 15 Wend. 113, 30 Am. Dec. 33; Gulf etc. Ey. v. Dwyer, 75 Tex. 572, 12 S. W. 1001, 16 Am. St. Eep. 926; Conway v. Taylor, 1 Black, 603, 17 L. ed. 191; Newport v. Taylor, 16 B. Mon. 699. 164 Carroll v. Campbell, 108 Mo. 550, 17 S. W. 884. 165 Conway v. Taylor, 1 Black, 603, 17 L. ed. 191; United States Notes on Constitution — 8 Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 114 absence of congressional restrictions a state may authorize the bridging of an internal navigable river, 166 and a penalty for ob- structing a navigable stream wholly within a state cannot be en- forced in the federal courts. 167 The abridgment of a right, unless in conflict with the consti- tution or laws of the United States, is a matter between the gov- ernment and the state, 168 and the United States courts are not bound to enjoin a bridge which, while it impedes navigation, as- sists commerce generally. 169 It is within the power of the states to enact any legislation which is a mere aid to commerce. 170 Not everything which affects commerce amounts to a regula- tion of it; 171 valid legislation may indirectly and remotely af- fect interstate commerce. 172 So a state may require railroads to fix and post up freight rates, 173 and may fix a maximum rate for transportation; 174 but only so long as both points to which v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood. & M. 401, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867; Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Bridge Co., 13 How. 518, 14 L. ed. 249. 166 Willson v. Blackbird Creek etc. Co., 2 Pet. 252, 7 L. ed. 412; The Passaic Bridges, 3 Wall. 793, 16 L. ed. 799; Escandaba etc. Co. v. Chicago, 107 U. S. 683, 2 S. Ct. 189, 27 L. ed. 442; Cardwell v. American Bridge Co., 113 U. S. 208, 5 S. Ct. 424, 28 L. ed. 959; Willamette Bridge Co. v. Hatch, 125 U. S. 31, 8 S. Ct. 815, 31 L. ed. 629. 167 United States v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood. & M. 417, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867. 108 Willson v. Blackbird Creek etc. Co., 2 Pet. 245, 7 L. ed. 412; Woodman v. Kilbourne Mfg. Co., 1 Abb. U. S. 163, Fed. Cas. No. 17,978. 169 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 727, 18 L. ed. 96. 170 Western Union Tel. Co. v. James, 162 U. S. 656, 16 S. Ct. 934, 40 L. ed. 1105. 171 Delaware K. E. Tax, 18 Wall. 232, 21 L. ed. 888; Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 284, 21 L. ed. 146; South Carolina v. Charles- ton, 4 Rich. 289. 172 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 402, 12 L. ed. 702; Crutcher v. Ken- tucky, 141 U. S. 61, 11 S. Ct. 851, 35 L. ed. 649. 173 Railroad Co. v. Fuller, 17 Wall. 567, 21 L. ed. 710; Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 284, 21 L. ed. 146; Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 135, 24 L. ed. 77. 174 Chicago etc. R. R. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 163, 24 L. ed. 94; Peik v. North Western R. R., 94 U. S. 177, 24 L. ed. 97; Ruggles v. Hlinois, 108 U. S. 531, 2 S. Ct. 836, 27 L. ed. 812; Dow v. Biedelman, 115 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 regulations apply are within the state. 175 CongTess alone has power to prohibit discrimination and unjust charges by inter- state carriers; 176 accordingly, a state law imposing a penalty for charging more than the rate named in a bill of lading cannot apply to interstate shipment, 177 and a state law or constitutional provision is an unlawful interference with interstate commerce so far as provisions as to short and long haul rates extend to a long haul from a point outside to one within the state, and a short haul on the same line and in the same direction between points within the state. 178 An ordinance granting a street railway franchise to an interstate carrier, which, in fixing the rate of fare, discriminates in favor of a domestic carrier, violates the commerce clause. 179 A state law may give a valid lien upon boats and vessels navigating interior waters, 180 and may give a right of action in personam against the owners of vessels injur- ing property on shore. 181 A law giving a lien for materials and supplies furnished a vessel in her home port is not a regulation of commerce. 182 125 TJ. S. 688, 8 S. Ct. 1029, 31 L. ed. 841; Tilley v. Kailroad Commrs., 4 Woods, 438, 5 Ted. 650; Galena etc. K. E. v. Loomis, 13 111. 548, 56 Am. Dec. 471; Chicago etc. E. E. v. Jones, 149 111. 380, 41 Am. St. Eep. 287, 37 N. E. 252, 24 L. E. A. 141. 175 Wabash etc. Ey. v. Illinois, 118 U. S. 564, 7 S. Ct. 6, 30 L. ed. 244; Covington etc. Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 154 U. S. 214, 14 S. Ct. 1090, 43 L. ed. 679; Philadelphia etc. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 U. S. 338, 7 S. Ct. 1118, 30 L. ed. 1200; Gulf etc. Ey. v. Dwyer, 75 Tex. 572, 16 Am. St. Eep. 926, 12 S. W. 1001. 176 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 472, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047; Carton v. Illinois Cent. E. E., 59 Iowa, 148, 44 Am. Eep. 672. 177 Gulf etc. Ey. v. Hefley, 158 U. S. 102, 15 S. Ct. 802, 39 L. ed. 910. 178 Louisville etc. E. E. v. Eubank, 184 U. S. 33, 22 S. Ct. 277, 46 L. ed. 416; Freight Cases, 95 N. C. 428, 59 Am. Eep. 247; but see Louisville etc. E. E. v. Kentucky, 183 U. S. 518, 22 S. Ct. 95, 46 L. ed. 298. 179 State v. Omaha etc. Co., 113 Iowa, 30, 86 Am. St. Eep. 357, 84 N. W. 983, 52 L. E. A. 315. 180 King v. Greenway, 71 N. T. 413. 181 Johnson v. Chicago etc. Co., 119 U. S. 388, 7 S. Ct. 254, 30 L. ed. 447. 182 Hursey v. Hassam, 45 Miss. 133. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 116 Regulation of Passenger Traffic. A state cannot impose upon shipmasters burdensome condi- tions as to the landing of passengers, 183 nor can it regulate the ion of subjects of foreign nations within its borders; 184 such power resides only in the federal government, 185 and the right of a state to legislate to protect itself against paupers and criminals from abroad can only arise from a vital necessity for its exercise, and cannot be carried beyond the scope of that ne- cessity. 186 A state law imposing a tax upon passengers coming from a foreign port is unconstitutional and void, 187 and a state law designed to discourage Chinese immigration is likewise void. ls8 A state cannot authorize the seizure and imprisonment of free negroes brought into its territory from abroad. 189 A tax upon passengers or goods passing through a state is void as in conflict with the commerce power. 190 A tax upon outgo- ing passengers, while not a regulation of commerce within this clause, is, nevertheless, void, as abridging the right of every citizen to pass through every part of the United States. 191 So also a license tax imposed upon a resident agent soliciting 183 Henderson v. Mayor, 92 TJ. S. 269, 23 L. ed. 543; People v. Compagnie Generale etc., 107 U. S. 60, 2 S. Ct. 88, 27 L. ed. 383, affirming 20 Blatchf. 300, 10 Fed. 360. 1S4 Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U. S. 281, 23 L. ed. 73. 185 In re Ah Fong, 3 Saw. 145, Fed. Cas. No. 102; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 349, 12 L. ed. 702. 180 Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 TJ. S. 280, 23 L. ed. 550. 187 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 349, 12 L. ed. 702; People v. Downer, 7 Cal. 171; People v. Raymond, 34 Cal. 498; State v. S. S. Consti- tution, 42 Cal. 588, 10 Am. Rep. 310. 188 Lin Sing v. Washburn, 20 Cal. 534. 189 Elkinson v. Dehesseline, 2 Whart. C. C. 56, Fed. Cas. No. 4366; Anonymous, 1 Opin. Atty. Gen. 629; but see Anonymous, 2 Id. 426'. 100 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 702; Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 35, 18 L. ed. 745; Fargo v. Michigan, 121 U. S. 238, 7 S. Ct. 860, 30 L. ed. 888; Diamond Match Co. v. Ontanagon, 1S8 U. S. 82, 23 S. Ct. 266, 47 L. ed. 394. But, see Smith v. Marston, 5 Indiana v. American Exp. Co., 7 Biss. 227, Fed. Cas. No. 7021; Suite Tax on Railroads' Gross Receipts, 15 Wall. 284, 21 L. ed. 164; Eailroad Co. v. Maryland, 21 Wall. 456, 22 L. ed. 678. 191 Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 49, 18 L. ed. 745; Treasurer v. Philadelphia etc. R. R., 4 Houst. 189. 117 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 passenger travel over roads beyond the state is a tax npon inter- state commerce; 192 but the business of an emigrant broker — i. e., a person hiring laborers to be employed in another state — is upon a different footing, and a tax thereon is not in interference with commerce. 193 A state law requiring that all passengers irrespective of color, on interstate carriers, have equal privileges is a direct burden upon interstate commerce; 194 but a statute requiring railroads to furnish separate coaches for negroes on trains within the state i? not a regulation of interstate commerce, and is valid. 195 Police Powers of States. The grant to Congress of power to regulate foreign and inter- state commerce was not a surrender of the police power; 196 nor was it intended to interfere with the proper exercise of the police power by the states, 197 although such legislation must necessarily affect commerce indirectly. 198 The states' powers to enact in- spection, quarantine and health laws are in nowise affected by 192 MeCall v. California, 136 U. S. 109, 10 S. Ct. 881, 34 L. ed. 391. 193 Williams v. Fears, 179 IT. S. 278, 21 S. Ct. 128, 45 L. ed. 186; State v. Hunt, 129 N. C. 686, 85 Am. St. Eep. 758, 40 S. E. 216. But see Joseph v. Eandolph, 71 Ala. 505, 46 Am. Eep. 349. 194 Hall v. De Cuir, 95 U. S. 488, 24 L. ed. 547. 195 Louisville etc. Ey. v. Mississippi, 133 U. S. 590, 10 S. Ct. 348, 33 L. ed. 784, affirming 66 Miss. 662, 14 Am. St. Eep. 599, 6 South. 203, 5 L. E. A. 132; Brinkley v. Louisville etc. Ey., 95 Fed. 355; Smith v. State, 100 Tenn. 503, 46 S. W. 569, 41 L. E. A. 432. 196 Eailroad v. Husen, 95 U. S. 470, 24 L. ed. 527; New York etc. E. E. v. New York, 165 U. S. 631, 17 S. Ct. 418, 41 L. ed. 853; Cleve- land etc. Ey. v. Illinois, 177 IT. S. 516, 20 S. Ct. 722, 44 L. ed. 868. 197 Southern S. S. Co. v. Port Wardens, 6 Wall. 33, 18 L. ed. 749; Wiggins' Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 107 U. S. 365, 2 S. Ct. 257, 27 L. ed. 419; Morgan's etc. Co. v. Board of Health, 36 La. Ann. 669. 19S Sherlock v. Ailing, 93 U. S. 103, 23 L. ed. 819; Plumley v. Massachusetts, 155 U. S. 473, 15 S. Ct. 158, 39 L. ed. 223; Louisville etc. Ey. v. Kentucky, 161 U. S. 701, 16 S. Ct. 724, 40 L. ed. 849; Hennington v. Georgia, 163 H. S. 315, 16 S. Ct. 1092, 41 L. ed. 166; Breechbill v. Eandall, 102 Ind. 529, 52 Am. Eep. 696, 1 N. E. 363; Burdick v. People, 149 111. 600, 41 Am. St. Eep. 329, 36 N. E. 948, 24 L. E. A. 152. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. I 18 this clause. 199 All private interests must be subservient to the general interest of the community, 200 and the power of the states to enact purely police regulations is supreme. 201 The police power extends to the protection of the lives, limbs, health, comfort, morals, and quiet of all persons, and the pro- tection of all property in the state; 202 it is the right of the state to prescribe regulations for the good order, peace, protection, comfort, and convenience of the community. 203 No general rule can be laid down to mark the limitations of this power: each particular case must be judged by itself in order to determine whether the statute involved is a legitimate exercise of the police power, and not an invalid restriction upon commerce. 204 A state law intended as a regulation of police and calculated to produce the end sought cannot be regarded as a regulation of commerce; 205 but a state cannot under the guise of a police regulation, counteract the commerce power of Congress. 206 Subjects of Police Regulation. Under the police power a state may regulate the position of 199 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 6 L. ed. 23; New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 102, 9 L. ed. 648; Conway v. Taylor, 1 Black, 633, 17 L. ed. 191. 200 Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 62, 21 L. ed. 394; Common- wealth v. Alger, 7 Cush. 84; Taunton v. Taylor, 116 Mass. 254; Water- town v. Mayo, 109 Mass. 315, 12 Am. Kep. 694. 201 Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 62, 21 L. ed. 394; Bartemeyer v. Iowa, 18 Wall. 138, 21 L. ed. 929. 202 Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 147, 24 L. ed. 77; Toledo etc. Co. v. Jacksonville, 67 111. 37, 16 Am. Eep. 611; Ex parte Schrader, 33 Cal. 279; Davis v. Central E. B. Co., 17 Ga. 323. 203 New Orleans Gas Co. v. Hart, 40 La. Ann. 474, 8 Am. St. Eep. 547, 4 South. 215. 204 Pittsburgh etc. Coal Co. v. Louisiana, 156 U. S. 598, 15 S. Ct. 459, 39 L. ed. 544; Commonwealth v. Alger, 7 Cush. 84; New Orleans Gas Co." v. Hart, 40 La. Ann. 474, 8 Am. St. Eep. 547, 4 South. 215. 205 Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 71, 15 L. ed. 269; New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 139, 9 L. ed. 648; Hawthorn v. People, 109 111. 302, 50 Am. Eep. 610. 206 License Cases, 5 How. 592, 12 L. ed. 256; Eailroad Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 473, 24 L. ed. 527; Bobbins v. Shelby County Taxing Dist., 120 U. S. 493, 7 S. Ct. 594, 30 L. ed. 694. 119 Commeece. Alt. I, § 8, CI. 3 vessels in her harbors and rivers, 207 and require the lighting of vessels at night, 208 and regulate the speed of steamers on navigable rivers, 209 and the rafting of lumber. 209a The intro- duction of slaves, 210 or of paupers, criminals, diseased or infirm persons, may be prohibited by the states; 211 but while a state statute requiring the master of a vessel to make a report of immigrants is not a regulation of commerce, 212 a state cannot require steamship companies to give a bond guaranteeing that immigrants will not become charges upon the state; 213 nor can a state require carriers to remove paupers which they have brought within its borders. 214 The exclusion of passengers who are in possession of their faculties, and neither paupers nor criminals, is a regulation of commerce which the states cannot exercise. 215 A statute mak- ing it a crime to persuade seamen to leave their vessels is a valid exercise of the police power, and not a restraint upon com- merce. 216 Railroads engaged in interstate commerce are subject to police regulations intended and operating to expedite safe trans- 207 The Baltic, 2 Ben. 399; The Helen, 5 Hughes, 122, 1 Fed. 922; Vanderbilt v. Adams, 7 Cow. 348. 208 The James Gray v. The John Eraser, 21 How. 187, 16 L. ©d. 106. 209 People v. Jenkins, 1 Hill, 469; People v. Roe, 1 Id. 470; Toledo etc. Co. v. Deacon, 63 111. 91. 209a Harrigan v. Connecticut L. Co., 129 Mass. 580, 37 Am. Rep. 387. 210 Groves v. Slaughter, 15 Pet. 449, 11 L. ed. 800; Osborn v. Nicholson, 1 Dill. 235, Fed. Cas. No. 10,595. 211 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 463, 12 L. ed. 702; Moore v. Illinois, 14 How. 13, 14 L. ed. 306; State v. S. S. Constitution, 42 Cal. 578, 10 Am. Rep. 303; Lemmon v. People, 20 N. Y. 607. 212 New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 132, 9 L. ed. 648; Immigration Commrs. v. Brandt, 26 La. Ann. 31. 213 Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U. S. 281, 23 L. ed. 550. See, also, Henderson v. Mayor, 92 U. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 543, and Passenger Cases, 7 How. 463, 12 L. ed. 702. 214 Bangor v. Smith, 83 Me. 425, 22 Atl. 380, 13 L. R. A. 686. 215 State v. S. S. Constitution, 42 Cal. 578, 10 Am. Rep. 303. 216 Ex parte Young, 36 Or. 247, 59 Pac. 707, 78 Am. St. Rep. 772, 48 L. R. A. 153. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 120 portation; 217 e. g., a law imposing a penalty for failure to ship freight promptly, 218 or for refusing to deliver freight upon tender of the charges specified in the bill of lading; 219 laws re- quiring tracks to be fenced; 219 * regulating the placing of switches, the weight of rails, the safety of beams, and the number of employees. 220 Statutes regulating the speed of trains are valid police regulations; 221 as also are statutes regulating the stoppage of trains; 222 but if adequate local service is provided, such a statute, so far as it applies to through interstate trains, is a burden upon commerce and void. 223 So, also, where the effect of the statute is to require a fast, through mail train to run off the main line, a burden is imposed upon interstate com- merce. 224 A statute prescribing the qualifications of locomotive engineers and requiring them to submit to examination, is valid as a police regulation, although it incidentally affects interstate com- merce. 225 Seasonable regulations for the preservation of prop- 217 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 155, 24 L. ed. 94; Lake Shore etc. Ey. v. Ohio, 173 TJ. S. 308, 19 S. Ct. 465, 43 L. ed. 702; Davidson v. State, 4 Tex. App. 545, 3 Am. Eep. 166; Gulf etc. Ey. Co. v. Dwyer, 75 Tex. 572, 16 Am. St. Eep. 926, 12 S. W. 1001. 218 Bagg v. "Wilmington etc. E. E., 109 N. C. 279, 26 Am. St. Eep. 569, 14 S. E. 79, 14 L. E. A. 596. 219 Little Eock etc. Ey. v. Hanniford, 49 Ark. 291, 5 S. W. 294; Gulf etc. Ey. Co. v. Nelson, 4 Tex. Civ. App. 345, 23 S. W. 732. 219a Thorpe v. Eutland etc. E. E., 27 Vt. 130, 62 Am. Dec, 625. 220 Thorpe v. Eutland etc. E. E., 27 Vt. 130, 62 Am. Dec. 625; Hegeman v. Western E. E., 16 Barb. 353; Chicago etc. Ey. v. Eeidy, 66 111. 43; Jacobson v. Wisconsin etc. E. E., 71 Minn. 519, 70 Am. St. Eep. 358, 40 L. E. A. 389. 221 Erb v. Morasch, 177 U. S. 585, 20 S. Ct. 819, 44 L. ed. 897; Clark v. Boston etc. E. E., 64 N. H. 323, 10 Atl. 676; Chicago etc. Ey. Co. v. People, 105 111. 657; Bluedorn v. Missouri Pac. Ey., 108 Mo. 239, 32 Am. St. Eep. 615, 18 S. W. 1103. 22f2 Lake Shore etc. Ey. v. Ohio, 173 U. S. 301, 19 S. Ct. 465, 43 L. ed. 702; Chicago etc. Ey. v. People, 105 111. 657; Illinois Cent. Ey. v. People, 143 111. 434, 33 N. E. 173, 19 L. E. A. 119; Davidson v. State, 4 Tex. App. 545, 30 Am. Eep. 166. 223 Cleveland etc. Ey. v. Illinois, 177 U. S. 521, 20 S. Ct. 722, 44 L. ed. 868. 224 Illinois Cent. Ey. v. Illinois, 163 U. S. 153, 16 S. Ct. 1096, 41 L. ed. 107. 225 Smith v. Alabama, 124 U. S. 480, 8 S. Ct. 564, 31 L. ed. 508; 121 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 erty which is unclaimed at its destination, are also within the police power of the states. 226 While rules established by Con- gress control the liability of interstate carriers for the loss of goods in their custody as such, 227 yet statutes affecting the right of common carriers to limit their common-law liability are not void as restrictions on commerce; they are upheld as being salutary in their operation, in that they compel carriers to use the utmost care and diligence. 228 Acts restricting the right of carriers to limit the time within which suit shall be brought against them are also upheld. 229 A statute permitting the garnishment of common carriers is not a regulation of com- merce. 230 An act prohibiting consolidation by parallel com- peting railroads is not an interference with the commerce power of Congress. 231 Sunday laws, subjecting railroads to penalties for running freight trains on Sunday, are regulations of police, and not invalid as to interstate trains. 232 Imposition by broker- Nashville etc. K. E. v. Alabama, 128 IT. S. 96, 9 S. Ct. 28, 32 L. ed. 352; McDonald v. State, 81 Ala. 279, 60 Am. Eep. 158, 2 South. 829; Louisville etc. Ey. v. Baldwin, 85 Ala. 623, 5 South. 314. 226 State v. Chicago etc. By., 68 Minn. 381, 64 Am. St. Eep. 482, 71 N. W. 400, 38 L. E. A. 672. 227 Houston etc. Nav. Co. v. Insurance Co., 89 Tex. 1, 59 Am. St. Eep. 17, 32 S. W. 889, 30 L. E. A. 713. 2J2.8 Chicago etc. Ey. v. Solon, 169 U. S. 133, IS S. Ct. 289, 43 L. ed. 688, affirming 95 Iowa, 260, 58 Am. St. Eep. 430, 63 N. W. 692, 28 L. E. A. 718; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Eubanks, 100 Ky. 591, 66 Am. St. Eep. 361, 38 South. 1068, 36 L. E. A. 711; McCann v. Eddy, 133 Mo. 59, 33 S. W. 71, 35 L. E, A. 110. 229 Gulf etc. Ey. v. Eddius, 7 Tex. Civ. App. 116, 26 S. W. 42S; Beeves v. Texas etc. By., 11 Tex. Civ. App. 514, 32 S. W. 920. 230 Landa v. Hoick, 129 Mo. 663, 50 Am. St. Eep. 459, 31 S. W. 900. 231 Louisville etc. By. v. Kentucky, 161 IT. S. 677, 16 S. Ct. 714, 40 L. ed. 849, affirming 97 Ky. 675, 31 S. W. 476; and see Gulf etc. Ey. Co. v. State, 72 Tex. 404, 13 Am. St. Eep. 815, 10 S. W. 81, 1 L. E. A. 849. 232 Hennington v. Georgia, 163 U. S. 317, 13 S. Ct, 1086, affirming 90 Ga. 396, 17 S. E. 1009, 41 L. ed. 166; State v. Southern Ey., 119 N. C. 814, 56 Am. St. Eep. 689, 25 S. E. 862; State v. Baltimore etc. E. E., 24 W. Va. 783, 49 Am. Eep. 290. Contra, Dinsmore v. Police Board, 12 Abb. N. C. 436; Norfolk etc. Ey. v. Commonwealth, 88 Va. 95, 29 Am. St. Eep. 705, 13 S. E. 340, 13 L. B. A. 107. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 122 age in railroad tickets may be prevented by an act requiring ticket sellers to have certificates of authority. 233 Telegraph companies are also amenable to the police power, and may be subjected to penalties for acts of negligence. 234 So a statute requiring the prompt delivery of messages, without partiality, under a penalty, is valid; 235 likewise, as to a statute requiring prompt transmission of messages, although addressed to points outside the state. 236 But a law attempting to pre- scribe the mode in which messages shall be delivered at points outside the state is void as a regulation of commerce. 237 A state cannot exclude from its limits an interstate telegraph company chartered by Congress; 238 but a state constitutional provision that no foreign corporation shall do business within the state without maintaining a known place of business, and an author- ized agent therein, applies to foreign telegraph companies. 239 The purchasing and selling of pools on races to be held in other states may be prohibited by statute, and such statute is not void as a regulation of commerce so far as it operates to prevent the transmission of money by interstate telegraph to be bet upon horseraces. 240 Statutes restricting contracts limiting the time for suing telegraph companies are not regulations of com- 233 Burdick v. People, 149 111. 600, 41 Am. St. Eep. 329, 36 N. E. 948, 24 L. E. A. 152; Fry v. State, 63 Ind. 552, 30 Am. Eep. 238; State v. Corbett, 57 Minn. 345, 59 N. W. 317, 24 L. E. A. 498. 234 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Howell, 95 Ga. 194, 51 Am. St. Eep. 68, 22 S. E. 286, 30 L. E. A. 158. 235 Western Union Tel. Co. v. James, 162 U. S. 650, 16 S. Ct. 94, 40 L. ed. 1105, affirming 90 Ga. 254, 16 S. E. 83; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Tyler, 90 Va. 297, 44 Am. St. Eep. 910, 18 S. E. 280. 236 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Ferris, 103 Ind. 91, 2 N. E. 240. 237 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pendleton, 122 U. S. 358, 7 S. Ct. 1126, 30 L. ed. 1187. 238 Pensacola Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 96 U. S. 9, 24 L. ed. 708; American Union Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 67 Ala. 26, 42 Am. Eep. 90. 239 American Union Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 67 Ala. 26, 42 Am. Eep. 90. 240 Lacey v. Palmer, 93 Va. 159, 57 Am. St. Eep. 795, 24 S. E. 930, 31 L. E, A. 822; State v. Harbourne, 70 Conn. 484, 66 Am. St. Eep. 126, 40 Atl. 179, 40 L. E. A. 607. 123 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 merce. 241 The rules applicable to telegraph companies apply alike to telephone companies. 242 Inspection laws are not burdens upon commerce; so long as they are reasonable they are proper police regulations. 243 The power to pass such laws was not surrendered by the states. 244 The object of inspection laws is to improve the quality of articles produced, and fit them for subjects of commerce; 245 accordingly, a state cannot forbid trade in a well-known article of commerce, irrespective of its condition or quality. 246 A state inspection law discriminating in favor of domestic products as against those of other states is void as a burden on commerce, 247 and this though it be valid on its face, if its necessary operation is to exclude products of other states. 248 It is immaterial that an act having such effect purports to apply to all states alike, in- cluding the enacting state. 249 An act requiring the inspection of imported articles only, and not applying to domestic products, is clearly a burden upon commerce, and void. 250 Acts requir- 241 Burgess v. Western Union Tel. Co., 92 Tex. 125, 71 Am. St. Eep. 833, 46 S. W. 794. 242 Delaware etc. Co. v. Delaware, 50 Fed. 677; Central Union Tel. Co. v. State, 118 Ind. 194, 10 Am. St. Eep. 114, 19 N. E. 604. 243 Turner v. Maryland, 107 U. S. 38, 2 S. Ct. 44, 27 L. ed. 370, affirming 55 Md. 240; Patapsco Guano Co. v. Board of Agriculture, 52 Fed. 694; State v. Coal Co., 41 La. Ann. 472, 6 South. 224. 244 King v. American Transp. Co., 1 Flipp. 1, Fed. Cas. No. 7787. 245 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 203, 6 L. ed. 23. 246 Bowman v. Chicago etc. Ey., 125 U. S. 488, 8 S. Ct. 689, 31 L. ed. 700; McGregor v. Cone, 104 Iowa, 469, 65 Am. St. Rep. 1025, 73 N. W. 1043, 39 L. E. A. 484; Scott v. Donald, 165 U. S. 99, 17 S. Ct. 265, 41 L. ed. 632. 247 Schollenberger v. Pennsylvania, 171 U. S. 12, 18 S. Ct. 757, 43 L. ed. 57; State v. Duckworth, 5 Idaho, 642, 51 Pac. 456, 95 Am. St. Eep. 199, 39 L. E. A. 365. 248 Minnesota v. Barber, 136 U. S. 326, 10 S. Ct. 862, 34 L. ed. 455, affirming 39 Fed. 641; Brimmer v. Eebman, 138 U. S. 82, 11 S. Ct. 213, 34 L. ed. 862; Swift v. Sutphin, 39 Fed. 630; State v. Klein, 126 Ind. 68, 25 N. E. 873. 249 Brimmer v. Eebman, 138 U. S. 82, 11 S. Ct. 213, 34 L. ed. 862. 250 Voight v. Wright, 141 U. S. 66, 11 S. Ct. 855, 35 L. ed. 638; Vance v. W. A. Vandercook Co., 170 U. S. 456, 18 S. Ct. 674; Georgia Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 124 ing the gauging of cargoes before sale are not in conflict with the commercial clause. 251 Where an act requires the inspection of articles offered for sale, irrespective of their source, no con- stitutional provision is violated. 252 A state may forbid the sale of dangerous articles, such as petroleum, below a certain stan- dard, 253 and may regulate the use of explosives and dangerous oils and substances, 254 and provide for their removal. 255 A statute requiring vessels to furnish statements as to the names- of owners, is void as to vessels registered under federal laws, 250 and a statute requiring the survey of sea-going vessels cannot be sustained as an inspection law. 257 Quarantine and other sanitary regulations, incidentally affect- ing commerce, belong to that class which the states may establish until Congress acts in the matter b*y covering the same ground or forbidding state laws. 258 A state quarantine law will not be declared void because it may, to some extent, be a regulation of foreign or interstate commerce. 259 It is within the police power Packing Co. v. Mayor, 60 Fed. 779; Vines v. State, 67 Ala. 73; Powell v. State, 69 Ala. 10. 251 Pittsburgh etc. Co. v. Louisiana, 156 U. S. 590, 15 S. Ct. 459, 89 L. ed. 544; Charleston v. Rogers, 2 McCord, 295, 13 Am. Dec. 751. '-J52 State v. Fosdiek, 21 La. Ann. 256; Gaines v. Coates, 51 Miss. 335. 253 Patterson v. Kentucky, 1 Bush, 311, 21 Am. Eep. 220; Clark v. Board of Health, 11 Chic. L. N. 194. 254 Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 62, 21 L. ed. 394; United States v. De Witt, 9 Wall. 44, 19 L. ed. 593; Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 U. S. 504, 24 L. ed. 1115. 255 Holmes v. Jennison, 14 Pet. 540, 10 L. ed. 579; Chillicothe v. Brown, 38 Mo. App. 616. 25G Sinnot v. Davenport, 22 How. 227, 16 L. ed. 243; Foster v. Davenport, 22 How. 244, 16 L. ed. 248. Contra, Commissioners v. The Cuba, 28 Ala. 185. 257 Foster v. Port of New Orleans, 94 U. S. 246, 24 L. ed. 122. 258 Morgan's etc. S. S. Co. v. Board of Health, 118 U. S. 465, 6 S. Ct. 1114, 30 L. ed. 237; King v. American Transp. Co., 1 Flipp. 1, Fed. Cas. No. 7787; Train v. Boston Disinfecting Co., 144 Mass. 531, 59 Am. Eep. 116, 11 N. E. 936. 259 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 713, 18 L. ed. 96; Minneapolis etc. Ey. v. Milner, 57 Fed. 256. 125 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 of a state to authorize boards of health to establish a quarantine system to prevent immigrants, and other persons likely to spread disease, from entering the state; 260 but whether a law requiring the stoppage of vessels would be upheld as a valid exercise of the police power, if there were federal quarantine regulations is questionable. 261 Congress, however, by act of 1799, adopted state quarantine laws and regulations and directed federal officers and agents to aid in their enforcement. 262 A regula- tion of a board of health requiring that all rags arriving from foreign ports shall be disinfected before being discharged is reasonable and valid; 263 but the police power does not extend to the enactment of an ordinance forbidding the importation or dealing in second-hand clothing which has been imported re- gardless of the fact whether it is infected or not. 264 The im- portation of anything, which, by reason of its condition, would cause disease, may be forbidden 265 — e. g., diseased and infected livestock 266 — but a state cannot prohibit importation of cattle during certain seasons of the year regardless of the question of 260 Compagnie Francaise etc. v. Louisiana State Board of Health, 186 U. S. 391, 22 S. Ct. 811, 46 L. ed. 1209; S. C, 51 La. Ann. 645,72 Am. St. Rep. 458, 25 South. 591, 56 L. R. A. 795; Hurst v. Warner, 102 Mich. 238, 47 Am. St. Rep. 525, 60 N. W. 440, 26 L. R. A. 484; St. Louis v. Boffinger, 19 Mo. 13. 261 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 202, 6 L. ed. 23; Henderson v. Mayor, 92 U. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 543; New Orleans Gas Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 TJ. S. 661, 20 L. ed. 516. 262 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 205, 6 L. ed. 23; Morgan's etc. S. S. Co. v. Louisiana, 118 TJ. S. 464, 6 S. Ct. 1115, 30 L. ed. 237; Lockwood v. Bartlett, 130 N. Y. 340, 29 N. E. 257. 263 Train v. Boston Disinfecting Co., 144 Mass. 531, 59 Am. Rep. 116, 11 N. E. 936. 264 Greensboro v. Ehrenreieh, 80 Ala. 579, 60 Am. Rep. 130. 265 Bowman v. Chicago etc. R. R., 125 TJ. S. 4S9, 8 S. Ct. 6S9, 31 L. ed. 700. 266 Kimmish v. Ball, 129 TJ. S. 222, 9 S. Ct. 277, 32 L. ed. 695; Missouri etc. By. v. Haber, 169 U. S. 623, 18 S. Ct. 488, 42 L. ed. 878; S. C, 56 Kan. 708, 44 Pac. 637; Reid v. Colorado, 187 TJ. S. 137, 23 S. Ct. 92, 47 L. ed. 108, affirming 29 Colo. 333, 93 Am. St. Rep. 69, 68 Pac. 228; Rasmussen v. Idaho, 181 TJ. S. 198, 21 S. Ct. 594, 45 L. ed. 820; Grimes v. Eddy, 126 Mo. 16S, 47 Am. St. Rep. 653, 28 S. W. 760, 26 L. R. A. 638. Art I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 126 disease. 267 Nor can it forbid transportation of infected stock across its territory; 268 but while it cannot interfere with such transportation, it may provide reasonable regulations as to the mode of transportation of livestock which is so badly infected as to be a menace to stock within the state. 269 As a sanitary meas- ure, a state may regulate the removal of dead bodies. 270 Manufacture and sale of food or other articles deleterious to health may be prohibited under the police power, 271 and al- though the power to control the manufacture may involve in- directly the control of its disposition, it is not control of com- merce within the constitution; 272 but the power to forbid the sale of an article does not carry the power to forbid its importa- tion. 273 Nor can a state interfere with interstate commerce in an article on the ground that it is deleterious to its inhabi- tants, so long as it is recognized by commercial usage and the laws of Congress as a legitimate subject of commerce. 274 A 267 Railroad v. Husen, 95 TJ. S. 473, 24 L. ed. 527; Chicago etc. R. R. v. Erickson, 91 111. 615, 33 Am. Rep. 71; Urton v. Sherlock, 75 Mo. 248; Grimes v. Eddy, 126 Mo. 183, 47 Am. Rep. 662, 28 S. W. 760, 26 L. R. A. 638. 268 Grimes v. Eddy, 126 Mo. 168, 47 Am. St. Rep. 653, 28 S. W. 760, 26 L. R. A. 638. 269 Kimmish v. Ball, 129 U. S. 220, 9 S. Ct. 277, 32 L. ed. 695; Grimes v. Eddy, 126 Mo. 168, 47 Am. St. Rep. 763, 28 S. W. 760, 26 L. R. A. 638; State v. Southern Ry., 119 N. C. 814, 56 Am. St. Rep. 689; Norfolk etc. Ry. v. Commonwealth, 93 Va. 749, 57 Am. St. Rep. 827, 24 S. E. 837, 34 L. R. A. 105; Lacey v. Palmer, 93 Va. 159, 57 Am. St. Rep. 795, 24 S. E. 930, 31 L. R. A. 822. 270 In re Wong Quy, 6 Saw. 442, 2 Fed. 624. 271 Crutcher v. Kentucky, 141 TJ. S. 60, 11 S. Ct. 851, 35 L. ed. 649; Commonwealth v. Huntley, 156 Mass. 248, 30 N. E. 1132, 15 L. R. A. 839; Austin v. State, 101 Tenn. 563, 70 Am. St. Rep. 703, 48 S. W. 305, 50 L. R. A. 478. 272 United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 12, 15 S. Ct. 249, 39 L. ed. 325. 273 Bowman v. Chicago etc. Ry., 125 U. S. 500, 8 S. Ct. 689, 31 L. ed. 700; Rhodes v. Iowa, 170 TJ. S. 416, 18 S. Ct. 664, 42 L. ed. 1088; Schollenberger v. Pennsylvania, 171 TJ. S. 15, 18 S. Ct. 757, 43 L. ed. 57; State v. Goetze, 43 W. Va. 495, 64 Am. St. Rep. 871, 27 S. E. 225. 274 Schollenberger v. Pennsylvania, 171 TJ. S. 14, 18 S. Ct. 757, 43 L. ed. 57; Collins v. New Hampshire, 171 U. S. 33, 18 S. Ct. 768, 127 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 statute forbidding persons peddling domestic goods to peddle goods of the same character if made or produced in other states cannot be sustained as a police regulation; 275 but a statute in- tended to restrain the sale of nostrums by itinerants, who pro- fess a knowledge of the art of healing, in order to make sales, is not a regulation of commerce but a valid police measure. 276 The state may require commission merchants or persons selling farm products on commission to give bonds for the benefit of consumers. 277 The manufacture of intoxicating liquors may be prohibited, notwithstanding it operates to preclude exportation; 278 but where a state recognizes the manufacture, sale and use of intoxi- cating liquors as lawful, legislation discriminating against li- quors imported from other states is void. 279 A statute provid- ing that no suit shall be maintained upon any claim or de- mand for intoxicating liquors purchased outside of the state for. sale within, is not a commerce regulation. 280 Until the enactment of the Wilson Act of 1890, intoxicating liquors were upon the same footing as any other commodity, and their im- portation could not be forbidden; 281 but since that time the traffic in intoxicating liquors has been subject to state regula- 43 L. ed. 60; McGregor v. Cone, 104 Iowa, 435, 65 Am. St. Kep. 522, 73 N. W. 1043, 39 L. E. A. 484. 275 Sayre Borough v. Phillips, 148 Pa. St. 482, 33 Am. St. Eep. 842, 24 Atl. 76, 16 L. K. A. 49. 276 State v. Wheelock, 95 Iowa, 577, 58 Am. St. Rep. 442, 64 N. W. 620, 30 L. R. A. 429. 277 State v. Wagener, 77 Minn. 483, 77 Am. St. Rep. 681, 80 N. W. 633, 46 L. R. A. 442. 278 Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 20, 9 S. Ct. 6, 32 L. ed. 346; Tred- way v. Riley, 32 Neb. 495, 29 Am. St. Rep. 447, 49 N. W. 216. 279 Scott v. Donald, 165 U. S. 101, 17 S. Ct. 265, 41 L. ed. 632. 280 Knowlton v. Doherty, 87 Me. 518, 47 Am. St. Rep. 349, 33 Atl. 18. 281 Bowman v. Chicago etc. Ry., 125 IT. S. 493, 8 S. Ct. 689, 31 L. ed. 700; Leisy v. Hardin, 135 U. S. 100, 10 S. Ct. 681, 34 L. ed. 128; Lyng v. Michigan, 135 U. S. 166, 10 S. Ct. 727, 34 L. ed. 150; State v. Coonan, 82 Iowa, 401, 48 N. W. 922; State v. Deschamp, 53 Ark. 493, 14 S. W. 653; Haley v. State, 42 Neb. 559, 47 Am. St. Rep. 720, 60 N. W. 963. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 128 tion regardless of the fact of their importation. 282 The power of the however, does not extend to forbidding importa- tion, 283 nor does it extend to the seizure of a boat with im- ported liquor on board; 284 it is only "upon their arrival in the state" that they become subject to the operation of state laws. 285 Statutes requiring that convict-made goods shall be so marked before being offered for sale are void as to goods imported from other states, 286 and a tax upon convict-made goods imported from other states is clearly a burden upon commerce. 287 Game and Fish Laws. The police power includes the preservation of game and fish, 288 and the states' power in this respect flows from the duty to preserve for their people a valuable food supply. 289 The commerce clause does not affect the right of a state to prohibit the export of game, 290 or to forbid persons to sell or to have wild game or fish in their possession at certain times of the 282 In re Eahrer, 140 U. S. 562, 11 S>. Ct. 865, 35 L. ed. 57:2; In re Jordan, 49 Fed. 243; Stevens v. Ohio, 93 Fed. 796. 283 Ehodes v. Iowa, 170 U. S. 419, 18 S. Ct. 664, 42 L. ed. 1083, reversing 90 Iowa, 501, 58 N. W. 889; Vance v. W. A. Vandercook Co., 170 IT. S. 445, 18 S. Ct. 677, 42 L. ed. 1100; Ex parte Edgerton, 59 Fed. 118; Ex parte Jervey, 66 Fed. 961. 284 Jervey v. The Carolina, 66 Fed. 1019. 285 Ehodes v. Iowa, 170 U. S. 419, 18 S. Ct. 664, 42 L. ed. 1088. 286 People v. Hawkins, 157 N. Y. 1, 68 Am. St. Eep. 736, 51 N. E. 257, 42 L. E, A. 490. 287 Arnold v. Yanders, 56 Ohio St. 417, 60 Am. St. Eep. 753, 47 N. E. 50. i 288 Lawton v. Steele, 152 U. S. 136, 14 S. Ct. 499, 38 L. ed. 385; Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 264, 11 S. Ct. 559, 35 L. ed. 159; Magner v. People, 97 111. 320; State v. Eandolph, 1 Mo. App. 15; People v. O'Neil, 110 Mich. 324, 68 N. W. 227, 33 L. E. A. 696; State v. Judy, 7 Mo. App. 524. 2S9 Geer v. Connecticut, 161 U. S. 534, 16 S. Ct. 600, 40 L. ed. 793; i ty v. Illinois Mfg. Co., 143 Mo. 243, 65 Am. St. Eep. 649, 44 S. W. 1114, 40 L. E. A. 151. 290 Geer v. Connecticut, 161 U. S. 519, 16 S. Ct. 600, 40 L. ed. 793, affirming 61 Conn. 114, 22 Atl. 1012, 13 L. E. A. 804; Organ v. State, 56 Ark. 267, 19 S. W. 840; State v. Northern Pac. Exp. Co., 58 Minn. 403, 59 N. W. 1100. Contra, Territory v. Evans, 2 Idaho, 634, 23 Pae. 115, 7 L. E. A. 288; State v. Saunders, 19 Kan. 127, 27 Ara. Eep. 93. 129 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 year. 291 notwithstanding such game or fish may have been killed or taken lawfully in other states^ 292 and commerce therein may be precluded. 293 Upon the Eevolution the people of each state became sovereign over the navigable waters and the lands under them within the limits of the state, 294 with the right of eminent domain over them. 295 The admission of new states gives them the same absolute rights as other states, notwithstanding the title was originally in the United States while they were territories, 296 for upon the acquisition of new territory such title vests in the United States merely in trust for the states thereafter to be created therefrom. 297 The states may regulate the planting of oysters within their territorial limits; 298 and a law which for- bids nonresidents to plant or take oysters in state waters is not 291 Roth v. State, 51 Ohio St. 209, 46 Am. St. Eep. 566, 37 N. E. 259; Dunham v. Lamphere, 3 Gray, 268. 292 Magner v. People, 97 111. 320; State v. Randolph, 1 Mo. App. 15. 293 Ex parte Maier, 103 Cal. 476, 42 Am. St. Rep. 129, 37 Pac. 402. Contra, People v. Buffalo Fish Co., 164 N. Y. 93, 79 Am. St. Rep. 622, 58 N. E. 34, 52 L. R. A. 803. 294 Martin v. Waddell, 16 Pet. 419, 10 L. ed. 997; Pollard v. Hagan, 3 How. 212, 11 L. ed. 565; Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 74, 15 L. ed. 269; Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 726, 18 L. ed. 432; Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U. S. 15, 14 S. Ct. 548, 38 L. ed. 331; Mobile v. Eslava, 16 Pet. 264, affirming 9 Port. 577, 33 Am. Dec. 32'5; Duval v. McLos- key, 1 Ala. 708; Kemp v. Thorp, 3 Ala. 291; Pollard v. Files, 3 Ala. 47. 295 Pollard v. Hagan, 3 How. 212, 11 L. ed. 565; Martin v. Waddell, 16 Pet. 367, 10 L. ed. 997; Russell v. New Jersey Comp., 15 How. 426, 14 L. ed. 757. 296 Pollard v. Hagan, 3 How. 212, 11 L. ed. 565; Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 6 L. ed. 23; Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Bridge, 18 How. 421, 15 L. ed. 435; Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 713, 18 L. ed. 96; Mumford v. Wardwell, 6 Wall. 423, 18 L. ed. 756; Goodtitle v. Kibbe, 9 How. 477, 13 L. ed. 220; County of St. Clair v. Livingston, 23 Wall. 68, 23 L. ed. 59; Morris v. United States, 174 U. S. 236, 19 S. Ct. 174, 43 L. ed. 946. 297 Shively v. Bowlby, 152 U. ©. 57, 14 S. Ct. 548, 38 L. ed. 331; Weber v. Harbor Commrs., 18 Wall. 66, 21 L. ed. 798. 298 Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 71, 15 L. ed. 269; State v. Harrub, 95 Ala. 182, 10 South. 753, 36 Am. St. Rep. 197, 15 L. R. A. 761. Notes on Constitution — 9 Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 130 void as a regulation of commerce. 299 Nor is it material that a vessel seized for violation of such a law is duly licensed under an act of Congress; 300 and an act requiring that vessels en- gaged in oyster dredging shall procure licenses is not void as an interference with navigation or a burden upon commerce. 301 By the grant of the commerce power to Congress the states surrendered no control over its fisheries and they are subject to protection or regulation under the police power. 302 Taxation of Property. A state cannot impose a tax upon the movement of commerce between the states, 303 although the same tax be imposed upon domestic commerce; 304 nor can a state, under the guise of a tax upon domestic business impose a burden upon interstate commerce when the business so taxed is itself interstate com- merce; 305 but where the subjects of taxation can be separated 299 McCready v. Virginia, 94 U. S. 394, 24 L. ed. 248, affirming 27 Gratt. 987; Corfield v. Coryell, 4 Wash. 377. 300 Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 71, 15 L. ed. 269; The Ann, 5 Hughes, 296, 8 Fed. 926; Commonwealth v. Manchester, 152 Mass. 243, 23 Am. St. Eep. 831, 25 N. E. 117, 9 L. R. A. 236. 301 Dize v. Lloyd, 36 Fed. 651. 30 2 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 337, 4 L. ed. 404; Martin v. Waddell, 16 Pet. 419, 10 L. ed. 997; Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 71, 15 L. ed. 269; Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 260, 11 S. ?t. 562, 35 L. ed. 159; affirming 152 Mass. 243, 23 Am. St. Rep. 831, 25 N. E. 117, 9 L. R. A. 236; Bennett v. Boggs, Baldw. 76, Fed. Cas. No. 1319; The Martha Anne, Olcott, 22, Fed. Cas. No. 9146; Weston v. Sampson, 8 Gush. 347, 54 Am. Dec. 764; Peck v. Lockwood, 5 Day, 22; Arnold v. Mundy, 1 Halst. 1, 10 Am. Dee. 356; Stuttsman v. State, 57 Ind. 119; Parker v. Cutler etc. Corp., 20 Me. 353, 27 Am. Dec. 56; Fleet v. Hegeman, 14 Wend. 42; Commonwealth v. Weather- head, 110 Mass. 175; Gentile v. State, 29 Ind. 409; State v. Tower, 84 Me. 445, 24 Atl. 899. 303 Baijroad Co. v. Maryland, 21 Wall. 472, 22 L. ed. 678; Pickard v. Railroad Co., 117 U. S. 48, 6 S. Ct. 642, 29 L. ed. 785; Ashley v. Eyan, 153 U. S. 440, 14 S. Ct. 865, 38 L. ed. 773; Lyng v. Michigan, 135 U. S. 166, 10 S. Ct. 725, 34 L. ed. 150; McNaughton v. McGirl, 20 Mont. 124, 63 Am. St. Rep. 610, 49 Pac. 621, 38 L. R. A. 367. 304 Robbins v. Shelby County Tax. Dist., 120 TJ. S. 497, 7 S. Ct. 592, 30 L. ed. 694; Philadelphia etc. S. S. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 U. S. 340, 7 S. Ct. 1118, 30 L. ed. 1200. 305 Fargo v. Michigan, 121 U. S. 244, 7 S. Ct. 857, 30 L. ed. 888; 131 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 so that that which arises from interstate commerce can be distin- guished from that arising from domestic commerce, the courts will hold the tax void only so far as the former is affected. 306 To be unlawful, however, the interference must be direct, and not the mere incidental effect of the requirement of the usual contribution to public maintenance. 307 Ships or vessels are taxable by the states, as property, in their home ports, notwithstanding they may be licensed as coasting vessels under federal laws; 308 but the tax must be upon them as private property, and not as instruments of commerce and navigation, 309 and must be levied in the home port. 310 So a state cannot tax vessels merely temporarily within its jurisdic- tion for the purpose of discharging freight and passengers; 311 but the enrollment of a vessel in a port of another state does not affect her registry or ownership in her home port. 312 The McCall v. California, 136 U. S. 110, 10 S. Ct. 883, 34 L. ed. 391; State V. Stephens, 146 Mo. 681, 69 Am. St. Kep. 636, 48 S. W. 934. 306 Katterman v. Western Union Tel. Co., 127 U. S. 424, 8 S. Ct. 1127, 32 L. ed. 229; Western etc. Co. v. Alabama Board etc., 132 U. S. 475, 10 S. Ct. 162, 33 L. ed. 409; Postal etc. Cable Co. v. Charleston, 153 U. S. 697, 14 S. Ct. 1096, 28 L. ed. 871; Lehigh etc. E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 145 U. S. 200, 12 S. Ct. 806, 36 L. ed. 672. 307 Erie E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 158 U. S. 439, 15 S. Ct. 900, 39 L. ed. 1043; Henderson Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 166 U. S. 154, 17 S. Ct. 533, 41 L. ed. 953. 308 Transportation Co. v. Wheeling, 99 U. S. 279, 25 L. ed. 412; Moran v. New Orleans, 112 U. S. 75, 5 S. Ct. 38, 28 L. ed. 653; Line- han etc. Co. v. Pendergass, 70 Fed. 2; Oteri v. Parker, 42 La. Ann. 379, 7 South. 571. 309 State Tonnage Tax Cases, 12 Wall. 213, 20 L. ed. 370; Battle v. Mobile, 9 Ala. 234, 44 Am. Dee. 438; Howell v. State, 3 Gill, 14; Gunther v. Baltimore, 55 Md. 457; People v. Commissioners, 48 Barb. 157. 3io Morgan v. Parham, 16 Wall. 476, 21 L. ed. 303; Peete v. Morgan, 19 Wall. 581, 22 L. ed. 201; Transportation Co. v. Wheeling, 99 U. S. 273, 25 L. ed. 412, affirming 9 W. Va. 170, 27 Am. Eep. 552; Cook v. Port Fulton, 106 Ind. 173, 6 N. E. 323; New Orleans v. Eclipse Towboat Co., 33 La. Ann. 650, 39 Am. Eep. 282. 311 Hays v. Pacific Mail S. S. Co., 17 How. 596, 15 L. ed. 254; Morgan v. Parham, 16 Wall. 478, 21 L. ed. 303; Clarke v. Philadelphia etc. Co., 4 Houst. 158. 312 Morgan v. Parham, 16 Wall. 476, 21 L. ed. 303; The Lotus No. 2. 2-6 Fed. 640. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 13fc same rules are applicable to ferry-boats plying between different state?. 314 A tax upon water-craft in wbich goods are sold by retail is valid, although the goods are brought from another state. 315 Bridges and bridge companies are subject to taxation, not- withstanding the bridge taxed connects two states. 316 A tax upon the franchise of a bridge company is not a tax on inter- state commerce, although the bridge is used by an interstate carrier, 317 nor is a tax upon the capital stock of a bridge company a burden on commerce when the company itself is not engaged in interstate commerce. 318 The right of the states is not affected by the fact that bridges subjected to tax are made post roads by act of Congress. 319 Foreign corporations and corporations engaged in interstate commerce are taxable upon their property and franchises, if foreign or interstate commerce is not thereby directly im- peded. 320 The existence of the power of Congress to supervise interstate commerce is not inconsistent with the power of the 314 Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 U. S. 210, 5 S. Ct. 826, 29 L. ed. 158; Wiggins Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 107 U. S. S65, 27 L. ed. 419. 315 Harrison v. Mayor, 11 Miss. 581, 4 Am. Dee. 633. 316 Henderson Br. Co. v. Henderson City, 141 U. S. 689, 12 S. Ct. 114, 43 L. ed. 823; Pittsburgh etc. Ey. v. Board, 172 U. S. 43, 19 S. Ct. 94, 43 L. ed. 354; Henderson Br. Co. v. Henderson City, 173 U. S. 623, 19 S. Ct. 565, 43 L. ed. 823. 317 Henderson Br. Co. v. Kentucky, 166 U. S. 154, 17 S. Ct. 532, 41 L. ed. 953. 318 Keokuk etc. Br. Co. v. Illinois, 175 U. S. 632, 20 S. Ct. 207, 44 L. ed. 299. 319 Henderson Br. Co. v. Kentucky. 166 U. S. 154, 17 S. Gt. 532, 41 L. ed. 953. 320 Liverpool Ins. Co. v. Massachusetts, 10 Wall. 566, 19 L. ed. 1025; Philadelphia etc. S. S. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 U. S. 345, 7 S. Ct. 1118, 30 L. ed. 1200; Horn Silver Mining Co. v. New Tork, 143 U. S. 317, 12 S. Ct. 403, 36 L. ed. 164; Ashley v. Evan, 153 U. S. 446, 14 S. Ct. 865, 38 L. ed. 773; Postal Tel. Co. v. Adams, 155 U. S. 696, 15 S. Ct. 360, 39 L. ed. 311; Oakland Sugar Mill Co. v. Fred W. Wolf Co., 118 Fed. 239; Singer Mfg. Co. v. Wright, 33 Fed. 121; Indianapolis etc. E. E. Co. v. Backus, 133 Ind. 609, 33 N. E. 443; People v. Wemple, 117 N. Y. 136, 27 Am. St. Eep. 542, 22 N. E. 1046, 6 L. E. A. 303. 133 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 state to levy such taxes, 321 if they are not essentially burdens upon commerce. 322 A direct tax upon commerce, such as that for keeping an office in the state, is void as to railroads en- gaged in interstate commerce, 323 but a tax assessed against a corporation having power to engage in foreign or interstate commerce is not void unless the corporation is actually so en- gaged. 324 A tax upon corporate property or franchises based upon the capital employed in the state is not void merely because the capital may be invested in shipping; 325 nor because some of it may be represented by imported articles in original pack- ages. 326 The fact that a corporation is engaged in the service of the United States will not exempt its property from taxation where Congress has not expressly exempted it. 327 Transportation companies are subject to state taxation. 328 although a tax imposed upon transportation itself is void. 329 321 Erie E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 158 U. S. 437, 15 S. Ct. 900, 39 L. ed. 1043. 322 Commonwealth v. Smith, 92 Ky. 38, 36 Am. St. Eep. 578, 17 S. W. 187. 32S Norfolk etc. E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 136 IT. S. 120, 10 S. Ct. 958, 34 L. ed. 394. 324 Honduras Com. Co. v. State Board, 54 N. J. L. 278, 23 Atl. 668. 325 Delaware E. E. Tax Case, 18 Wall. 232, 21 L. ed. 888; Barney v. Tax Collector, 2 Bail. 654; South Carolina v. Charleston, 4 Eieh. 289. 326 New York v. Eoberts, 171 U. S. 665, 19 S. Ct. 70, 43 L. ed. 323. 32.7 Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 77, 19 L. ed. 101; Thomson v. Pacific E. E., 9 Wall. 591, 19 L. ed. 792; Pullman Car Co. v. Penn- sylvania, 141 IT. S. 22, 11 S. Ct. 878, 35 L. ed. 613; Central etc. E. E. v. California, 162 IT. S. 121, 16 S. Ct. 777, 40 L. ed. 906. 328 The Delaware E. E. Tax, 18 Wall. 232, 21 L. ed. 888; Erie Ey. v. Pennsylvania, 21 Wall. 498, 22 L. ed. 595; State Eailroad Tax Cases, 92 IT. S. 611, 23 L. ed. 663; Pittsburgh Ey. v. Backus, 154 IT. S. 431, 14 S. Ct. 1118, 38 L. ed. 1031; Adams Exp. Co. v. Ohio, 165 IT. S. 226, 17 S. Ct. 311, 41 L. ed. 683; State v. Philadelphia etc. S. S. Co., 45 Md. 381, 24 Am. Eep. 516; People v. Central etc. E. E., 43 Cal. 398; Piedmont etc. E. E. v. Eeidsville, 101 N. C. 407, 8 S. E. 126. 329 Osborne v. Mobile, 16 Wall. 4S1, 21 L. ed. 470; Fargo v. Michi- gan, 121 IT. S. 243, 7 S. Ct. 857, 30 L. ed. 888; State v. Cumber- land etc. E. E., 40 Md. 48. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 134 A tax upon faros and freights received for transportation U virtually a tax upon transportation, 330 and cannot be upheld under the plea that it is a tax upon a franchise granted by the state. 331 Accordingly, a tax upon gross receipts derived from interstate or foreign transportation is void, 332 but the mere reference to gross receipts as a basis for determining the amount of a tax does not constitute the tax one upon the gross receipts. 333 A tax upon the receiving and landing of passengers is a tax upon transportation and so void. 334 A tax upon passengers leaving a state has been held void, not as a tax upon commerce, but as abridging the right of citizens to pass freely through every part of the United States. 335 Express companies may be taxed upon their property within the state, 336 and such a tax is not one upon interstate commerce, 830 Philadelphia etc. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 U. S. 342, 7 S. Ct. 1118, 30 L. ed. 1200; Brennan v. Titusville, 153 TJ. S. 308, 14 S. Ct. 829, 38 L. ed. 719; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Alabama, 132 U. S. 473, 10 S. Ct. 162, 33 L. ed. 409; Vermont etc. E. E. Co. v. Vermont Cent. Ey. Co, 63 Vt. 1, 22 Atl. 262, 10 L. E. A. 562. 331 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 273, 21 L. ed. 146; Phil- adelphia etc. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 U. S. 342, 7 S. Ct. 1118, 30 L. ed. 1200; Coit v. Sutton, 102 Mich. 327, 60 N. W. 691, 25 L. E. A. 819. 332 Fargo v. Michigan, 121 U. S. 243, 7 S. Ct. 857, 30 L. ed. 888; Philadelphia etc. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 TJ. S. 342, 7 S. Ct. 1118; 30 L. ed. 1200; Erie E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 158 TJ. S. 437, 15 S. Ct. 900, 39 L. ed. 1043; Northern etc. E. E. v. Barnes, 2 N. Dak. 351, 51 X. W. 397; Indiana v. American Exp. Co., 7 Biss. 230, Fed. Cas. No. 7021; State v. Pullman Palace Car Co., 11 Biss. 566, 16 Fed. 200; but sfte Eeading E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 15 Wall. 296, 21 L. ed. 164. 333 Maine v. Grand Trunk Ey., 142 TJ. S. 228, 12 S. Ct. 121, 35 L. ed. 994; New York etc. E. E. v. Pennsylvania, 158 TJ. S. 440, 15 S. Ct. 900, 30 L. ed. 1042; Adams Exp. Co. v. Ohio, 165 TJ. S. 220, 17 S. Ct. 309, 41 L. ed. 683; Erie E. E. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 158 TJ. S. 440, 15 S. Ct. 900, 30 L. ed. 1013. 334 Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 TJ. S. 203, 5 S. Ct. 826, 29 L. ed. 158. 335 Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 49, IS L. ed. 745; Treasurer v. Philadelphia etc. E. E., 4 Houst. 1S9. 336 Adams Express Co. v. Ohio, 165 TJ. S. 220, 17 S. Ct. 305, 41 L. ed. 683; Wells, Fargo & Co. v. Crawford County, 63 Ark. 588, 40 S. W. 713, 37 L. E. A. 371. 135 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 although the companies taxed do an interstate business. 337 Ex- press companies which confine their business to interstate or foreign transportation are exempt from state taxation or regu- lation; but if they engage also in domestic commerce, they are subject to state taxation and regulation to that extent. 338 Prop- erty within the state may be taxed on the basis of the propor- tion it bears to the whole, 339 and gross earnings may be taken as the measure of a property tax as in the case of other cor- porations; 340 but at the same time the tax must be upon the property of the company, and not upon the business of inter- state carriage. 341 Telegraphic communication is commerce, and if between the states it is free from state control, 342 but the property of a tele- graph company is subject to state taxation. 343 A municipal tax on foreign telegraph companies expressly restricted to 337 Pacific Express Co. v. Seibert, 142 IT. S. 350, 12 S. Ct. 250, 35 L. ed. ]035. 33S United States Exp. Co. v. Hemmingway, 39 Fed. 60; Osborn v. State, 33 Fla. 162, 39 Am. St. Eep. 99, 14 South. 590, 25 L. E. A. 120. 339 Adams Exp. Co. v. Ohio, 165 U. S. 220, 17 S. Ct. 305, 41 L. ed. 6S3. 340 Adams Exp. Co. v. Ohio, 165 U. S. 220, 17 S. Ct. 305, 41 L. ed. 683; Wolcott v. People, 17 Mich. 68; American Union Exp. Co. v. St. Joseph, 66 Mo. 675, 27 Am. Eep. 382; Southern Exp. Co. v. Hood, 15 Rich. 66, 94 Am. Dec. 141; State v. State Board, 3 S. Dak. 388, 53 N. W. 192. 3Ji United States Exp. Co. v. Allen, 39 Fed. 714; Commonwealth v. Smith, 92 Ky. 38, 17 S. W. 187. 34-2 Leloup v. Mobile, 127 U. S. 645, 8 S. Ct. 1380, 32 L. ed. 311; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Alabama Bd. etc., 132 U. S. 477, 10 S. Ct. 163, 33 L. ed. 409, reversing 80 Ala. 273, 60 Am. Eep. 99; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Texas, 105 U. S. 460, 26 L. ed. 1067. 340 Leloup v. Mobile, 127 U. S. 649, 8 S. Ct. 1380, 32 L. ed. 311; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Missouri, 190 U. S. 412, 23 S. Ct. 730, 47 L. ed. 1116; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Taggart, 163 U. S. 18, 16 S. Ct. 1054, 41 L. ed. 49; Atlantic & Pacific Tel. Co. v. Philadelphia, 190 U. S. 160, 23 S. Ct. S17, 47 L. ed. 995; Postal Tel. Cable Co. v. Adams, 155 U. S. 688, 15 S. Ct. 268, 39 L. ed. 311, affirming 71 Miss. 555, 42 Am. St. Eep. 476, 14 South. 36; Postal Tel. Co. v. Richmond, 99 Va. 102, S6 Am. St. Rep. 877, 37 S. E. 789; Attorney General v. Western Union Tel. Co., 33 Fed. 129. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 136 business exclusively within the city is valid. 344 Messages car- ried and delivered within the state are subject to taxa- tion, 345 and while a state carmot tax a telegraph company on its interstate business, the fact that a tax is assessed with- out apportionment as between domestic and interstate business docs not render it wholly void, but only as to the proportion of interstate business. 346 That a message, in order to pass between two points in the same state, must traverse another state, does not make the transmission interstate commerce. 347 A tax upon telegraph companies based upon the length of lines within the state, in lieu of all other taxes, is substantially a tax upon prop- erty. 348 Gross receipts or capital or value of property, may be taken as a basis for the assessment of taxes. 349 The sending of interstate telephone messages cannot be enjoined because the company has not paid its taxes. 350 344 Postal Tel. Cable Co. v. Charleston, 153 U. S. 699, 14 S. Ct. 1094, 33 L. ed. 871. 345 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Alabama Board, 132 U. S. 473, 10 S. Ct. 161, 33 L. ed. 409; Western Union Tel. Co. v. City Council, 56 Fed. 422; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Fremont, 39 Neb. 706, 58 N. W. 419, 26 L. E. A. 698. 346 Eatterman v. Western Union Tel. Co., 127 U. S. 427, 8 S. Ct. 1127, 32 L. ed. 229; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 128 U. S. 39, 9 S. Ct. 6, 32 L. ed. 345; People v. Terney, 57 Hun, 327, 10 N. Y. Supp. 940; Philadelphia v. American Union Tel. Co., 167 Pa. St. 406, 31 Atl. 628. 347 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Eeynolds, 100 Va. 459, 93 Am. St. Eep. 971, 41 S. E. 856. 348 Postal Tel. Cable Co. v. Adams, 155 U. S. 688, 15 S. Ct. .268, 39 L. ed. 37, affirming 71 Miss. 555, 42 Am. St. Eep. 476, 14 South. 36; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Tyler, 90 Va. 297, 44 Am. St. Eep. 910, 18 S. E. 280; People v. Terney, 57 Hun, 357, 10 N. Y. Supp. 940; Philadelphia v. American Union Tel. Co., 167 Pa. St. 406, 31 Atl. 628. But see Commonwealth v. Smith, 92 Ey. 38, 36 Am. St. Eep. 578, 17 S. W. 187. 349 Massachusetts v. Western Union Tel. Co., 141 U. S. 40, 11 S. Ct. 889, 35 L. ed. 628; Western Union Tel. Co. v. State, 80 Ala. 273, 60 Am. Eep. 99; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Mayer, 28 Ohio St. 521; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Commonwealth, 110 Pa. St. 405, 20 Atl. 720. 350 In re Pennsylvania Teh Co., 48 N. J. Eq. 91, 27 Am. St. Eep. 462, 20 Atl. 846. 137 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 The instruments and vehicles of interstate commerce may be taxed by the states. 351 The mere fact that they are used in in- terstate commerce does not render their taxation by the state •where they are used invalid, 352 and the fact that the value of such property arises from its use in interstate commerce is im- material so long as the tax imposes no additional burden on that commerce, 353 and provided the powers of the national gov- ernment are not interfered with. 354 Accordingly, a state may tax sleeping-cars, 355 refrigerator-cars, 356 and vessels. 357 Such a tax may be based upon the average number of cars in the state at the time the assessment is made, 358 or upon the ratio of local 351 Morgan v. Barham, 16 Wall. 475, 21 L. ed. 303; Covington etc. Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 154 U. S. 212, 14 S. Ct. 1087, 38 L. ed. 962. 35? Marye v. Baltimore etc. B. B., 127 IT. S. 124, 8 S. Ct. 1037, 32 L. ed. 94; Pullman's Palace Car. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 141 U. S. 23, 11 S. Ct. 876, 35 L. ed. 613; Massachusetts v. Western Union TeL Co., 141 U. S. 45, 11 S. Ct. 8S9, 35 L. ed. 628. 3'53 Cleveland etc. By. v. Backus, 154 U. S. 445, 14 S. Ct. 1122, 38 L. ed. 1041; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Norman, 77 Fed. 23; State v. Stephens, 146 Mo. 681, 69 Am. St. Bep. 636, 48 S. W. 934. 354 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Taggart, 163 U. S. 14, 16 S. Ct. 1054, 41 L. ed. 49. 355 Pullman's Palace Car Co. v. Pennsylvania, 141 U. S. 18, 11 S. Ct. 876, 35 L. ed. 613; Pullman's Palace Car Co. v. Hay ward, 141 U. S. 36, 11 S. Ct. 883, 35 L. ed. 621, affirming 107 Pa. St. 148; Pull- man Co. v. Adams, 189 U. S. 420, 23 S. Ct. 494, 47 L. ed. 877. But see Pickard v. Pullman etc. Car Co., 117 U. S. 51, 8 S. Ct. 635, 29 L. ed. 785. 356 American etc. Transit Co. v. Hall, 174 U. S. 82, 19 S. Ct. 604, 43 L. ed. 899, affirming 24 Colo. 301, 65 Am. St. Bep. 228, 51 Pac. 425, 56 L. B. A. 89; Linehan etc. Transf. Co. v. Pendergass, 70 Fed. 2; Eeinluirt v. McDonald, 76 Fed. 405; Transit Co. v. Lynch, 18 Utah, 394, 55 Pac. 643, 4S L. B. A. 790. 357 Hays v. Bacific Mail S. S. Co., 17 How. 596, 15 L. ed. 254; Morgan v. Parham, 16 Wall. 471; Wheeling etc. Transp. Co. v. Wheel- ing, 99 U. S. 273, 25 L. ed. 412, affirming 9 W. Va. 170, 27 Am. Bep. 552; Battle v. Mobile, 9 Ala. 234, 44 Am. Dec. 438. 35 8 American etc. Transit Co. v. Hall, 174 U. S. 81, 19 S. Ct. 604, 43 L. ed. 899. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 133 mileage to the company's capital. 359 Rolling stock merely pass- ing through a state, however, is not subject to taxation. 360 Licenses or Privilege Taxes. States may impose license taxes upon trades, avocations, or professions carried on within their borders, although the goods dealt in are manufactured in other states, 361 provided such taxes do not discriminate in favor of their own products as against those of other states. 362 And this power may delegated to municipalities. 363 A state may exact licenses for sales of goods in the vendor's actual possession within the state, 364 and the fact that title is in a nonresident is immaterial. 365 A law exacting a license tax 359 Pullman's Car Co. v. Pennsylvania, 141 U. S. 23, 11 S. Ct. 878, 35 L. ed. 613; Cleveland etc. Ey. v. Backus, 154 TJ. S. 445, 14 S. Ct. 1124, 38 L. ed. 1041. 360 Bain v. Eiclimond etc. E. E., 105 N. C. 363, 18 Am. St. Eep. 912, 11 S. E. 311, 8 L. E. A. 299. 361 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 441, 6 L. ed. 678; Nathan v. Louisiana, 8 How. 73, 12 L. ed. 992; Duer v. Small, 4 Blatchf. 267, Fed. Cas. No. 4116; Osborne v. Mobile, 44 Ala. 499; Galveston Co. v. Gorkani, 49 Tex. 279; State v. Gorham, 115 N. C. 721, 44 Am. St. Eep. 494, 20 S. E. 179, 25 L. E. A. 810; Charleston v. Oliver, 16 S. C. 47; In re Budolph, 6 Saw. L'95, 2 Fed. 65; Ex parte Eobinson, 12 Nev. 263, 28 Am. Eep. 794. 362 Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 430, 20 L. ed. 449; Conner v. Elliott, 18 How. 593, 15 L. ed. 497; Woodruff v. Parham, 8 Wall. 123, 19 L. ed. 382; Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347; Missouri v. North, 27 Mo. 464; State v. French, 109 N. C. 722, 26 Am. St. Eep. 590, 14 S. E. 383. 363 Downham v. Alexandria, 10 Wall. 173, 19 L. ed. 929; Logans- port v. Seybold, 59 Ind. 225; Chilvers v. People, 11 Mich. 43; People v. Babcock, 11 Wend. 5S6; Little Bock v. Prather, 49 Ark. 477; Wig- gins Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 102 111. 574. 364 Eniert v. Missouri, 156 U. S. 311, 15 S. Ct. 367, 39 L. ed. 430; Patapsco Guano Co. v. North Carolina, 171 U. S. 359, 18 S. Ct. S62, 43 L. ed. 191; Oliver Finney Grocery Co. v. Speed, 87 Fed. 415; Dun- can v. State, 105 Ga. 457, 30 S. E. 755; Eash v. Farley, 91 Ky. 344, 34 Am. St. Eep. 233, 15 S. W. 862; State v. Montgomery, 92 Me. 440, 43 Atl. 16. 365 South Bend v. Martin, 142 Ind. 46, 41 N. E. 319, 29 L. E. A. 531. 139 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 for the privilege of carrying on interstate commerce is void, 306 as is also a law discriminating in favor of domestic goods as against those produced in other states. 367 A tax upon convict- made goods manufactured in other states is void on this ground. 368 A statute restricting the right to licenses to resi- dents is clearly invalid as placing a burden upon commerce. 369 The right to sell intoxicating liquors cannot he exercised un- der a federal license contrary to state laws; such a license is in the nature of a receipt for the federal tax, 370 and state laws may impose another license tax, 371 or authorize municipalities to do so, 372 and a license under the internal revenue laws is no bar to a prosecution under state law for selling without a state 366 Crutcher v. Kentucky, 141 TJ. S. 58', 11 S. Ct. 851,35 L. ed. 649; Georgia etc. Co. v. Mayor, 6 Fed. 780; Aultman v. Holder, 68 Fed. 471; Commonwealth v. Smith, 92 Ky. 42, 36 Am. St. Eep. 580, 17 S. W. 1S8; Osborne v. State, 33 Fla. 162, 39 Am. St. Eep. 99, 14 South. 588, 25 L. E, A. 120. 367 Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 418, 20 L. ed. 449; Guy v. Balti- more, 100 U. S. 434, 25 L. ed. 743; Georgia etc. Co. v. Macon, 60 Fed. 774, 22 L. E. A. 775; Ex parte Thomas, 71 Cal. 204, 12 Pac. 53; Carson v. State, 57 Md. 251; Vines v. State, 67 Ala. 73; Powell v. State, 69 Ala. 10; Albertson v. Wallace, 81 N. C. 479. 368 Arnold v. Tanders, 56 Ohio St. 417, 60 Am. St. Eep. 753, 47 N. E. 50; People v. Hawkins, 157 N. Y. 1, 68 Am. St. Eep. 736, 51 N. E. 257, 42 L. E. A. 490. 369 Sayre v. Phillips, 148 Pa. St. 482, 33 Am. St. Eep. 842, 24 Atl. 76, 16 L. E. A. 49. 370 License Cases, 5 Wall. 470, 18 L. ed. 497; McGuire v. Com- monwealth, 3 Wall. 387, 18 L. ed. 226; Pervear v. Commonwealth, 5 Wall. 475, 18 L. ed. 608. 371 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 730, 18 L. ed. 96; McGuire v. Commonwealth, 3 Wall. 3S7, 18 L. ed. 226; Kohn v. Melcher, 29 Fed. 433; Bertholf v. O'Beilly, 74 N. Y. 509, 30 Am. Eep. 323; Metro- politan Board v. Barrie, 34 N. Y. G57; Ex parte Christensen, 85 Cal. 208, 24 Pac. 747; Keller v. State, 11 Md. 525, 65 Am. Dec. 226; Com- monwealth v. Kimball, 24 Pick. 359, 35 Am. Dec. 326; Santo v. State, 2 Iowa, 165, 63 Am. Dec. 487; State v. Moore, 14 N. H. 451; State v. Peckham, 3 E. I. 289; City v. Aherns, 4 Strob. 241. 372 Downham v. Alexandria, 10 Wall. 173, 19 L. ed. 929; Beall v. State, 4 Blackf. 107; Lunt's Case, 6 Me. 412. See, also, Huntington v. Cheesbro, 57 Ind. 74. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 140 license. 373 While, however, a state may prohibit sales alto- gether, if it merely attempts to restrict and regulate traffic in intoxicating liquors by imposing a license tax, such a tax must operate uniformly upon domestic and imported liquors. 374 Ac- cordingly, a statute imposing a license fee upon wholesale liquor dealers, whose products are manufactured without the state, and imposing no wholesaler's license on resident manufacturers, but a less onerous manufacturer's license, is void. 375 A state law defining who are peddlers and imposing an annual tax upon all peddlers, without regard to the place where their wares are manufactured, is not void as imposing a burden upon importers. 376 The test of the constitutionality of license laws relating to hawkers and peddlers is whether they discriminate in favor of domestic goods. 377 The form which the discrimina- tion takes is immaterial; 378 if the effect is to discriminate, the law is void — e. g, a provision that as to foreign goods a license shall entitle the licensee to peddle only in the county where it is 373 Pervear v. Commonwealth, 5 Wall. 478, 18 L. ed. 608; Com- monwealth v. Owens, 114 Mass. 252; Daniels v. McCabe, 3 Cliff. 117, Fed. Cas. No. 3567; Boyd v. State, 12 Lea, 689. 374 Tiernan v. Einker, 102 U. S. 127, 26 L. ed. 103; Walling v. Michigan, 106 U. S. 454, 6 S. Ct. 454, 29 L. ed. 691; State v. Stilsing, 52 K J. L. 517, 20 Atl. 65; Sinclair v. State, 69 N. C. 47. 375 State v. Zaphey, 14 S. Dak. 119, 86 Am. St. Bep. 741, 84 N. W. 391. 376 Howe Machine Co. v. Gage, 100 TJ. S. 679, 25 L. ed. 754; Enrert v. Missouri, 156 TJ. S. 296, 15 S. Ct. 367, 39 L. ed. 430, affirming 103 Mo. 241, 23 Am. St. Bep. 874, 15 S. W. 81, 11 L. E. A. 219; American Harrow Co. v. Shaffer, 68 Fed. 755; In re May, 82 Fed. 425; State v. Gorham, 115 N. C. 727, 44 Am. St. Bep. 496, 20 S. E. 181, 25 L. B. A. 810; State v. Eichards, 32 W. Va. 353, 9 S. E. 247, 3 L. E. A. 705; The Stella Block v. Eichland, 26 La. Ann. 642; Commonwealth v. Ober, 12 Cush. 493; State v. Smithson, 106 Mo. 149, 17 S. W. 221; Ex parte Eobinson, 12 Nev. 263, 28 Am. Bep. 794; Wrought Iron Eange Co. v. Carver, 318 N. C. 328, 24 S. E. 352; Morrill v. State, 38 Wis. 428, 20 Am. Bep. 12; Sears v. Warren County, 36 Ind. 267, 10 Am. Eep. 62. 377 Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347; In re Watson, 15 Fed. 511; Preston v. Finley, 72 Fed. 855; Vines v. State, 67 Ala. 73; Bodgers v. McCoy, 6 Dak. 238, 44 N. W. 990; State v. Browning, 62 Mo. 591; State v. Pratt, 59 Vt. 590, 9 Atl. 556. 378 Welton v. Missouri, 91 TJ. S. 275, 23 L. ed. 347. Ill Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 taken out, 379 restricting the right to licenses to residents, 380 or requiring licenses only in cases of sales by nonresidents, 381 or sales of foreign goods, 382 imposing a higher tax upon nonresi- dent peddlers. 383 A distinction is drawn between license laws applying to hawk- ers and peddlers and those applying to commercial travelers or solicitors taking orders for goods to be shipped into the state, 384 and the fact that a license law does not discriminate against commercial travelers or solicitors for nonresident dealers is im- material; all such laws are void so far as they are applicable to sales or orders for goods to be shipped into the state. 385 A statute imposing a license tax upon drummers, soliciting within 379 Vines v. State, 67 Ala. 73. 380 Marshalltown v. Blum, 58 Iowa, 184, 43 Am. Eep. 116, 12 N. - W. 266. 381 Graffty v. Kushville, 107 Ind. 502, 57 Am. Eep. 128, 8 N. E. 609; Ex parte Bliss, 63 N. H. 135. 382 State v. Furbush, 72 Me. 493. 383 Sayre Borough v. Phillips, 148 Pa. St. 482, 33 Am. St. Rep. 842, 24 Atl. 76, 16 L. E. A. 49; Commonwealth v. Myer, 92 Va. 809, 23 S. E. 915, 31 L. E. A. 379. 384 Emert v. Missouri, 156 U. S. 311, 15 S. Ct. 367, 39 L. ed. 430, affirming 103 Mo. 241, 23 Am. St. Eep. 874, 15 S. W. 81, 11 L. E. A. 219; Asher v. Texas, 12S TJ. S. 132, 9 S. Ct. 1, 32 L. ed. 368; Brennan v. Titusville, 153 TJ. S. 302, 14 S. Ct. 289, 38 L. ed. 719, reversing 145 Pa. St. 504, 24 Am. St. Eep. 580, 22 Atl. 893. 385 Asher v. Texas, 128 TJ. S. 132, 9 S. Ct. 1, 32 L. ed. 368; Stockard v. Morgan, 185 TJ. S. 37, 22 S. Ct. 576, 46 L. ed. 785; In re Kimmel, 41 Fed. 775; In re Houston, 47 Fed. 539; State v. Lagarde, 60 Fed. 186; In re Mitchell, 62 Fed. 576; Ex parte Hough, 69 Fed. 330; In re Tinsman, 95 Fed. 560; Ex parte Green, 114 Fed. 959; State v. Ager, 83 Ala. 110, 3 South. 856; Ex parte Murray, 93 Ala. 78, 8 South. 868; Bloomington v. Bourland, 137 111. 534, 31 Am. St. Eep. 382, 27 N. S. G92; McLaughlin v. South Bend, 126 Ind. 471, 26 N. E. 185, 10 L. E. A. 357; Martin v. Eosedale, 130 Ind. 109, 29 N. E. 410; Simmons Hardware Co. v. McGuire, 39 La. Ann. 848, 2 South. 592; Ex parte Eosenblatt, 19 Nev. 439, 3 Am. St. Eep. 901, 14 Pac. 298; State v. Bracco, 103 N. C. 349, 9 S. E. 404; State v. O'Connor, 5 1ST. Dak. 629, 67 N. W. 824; Taibutt v. State, 39 Tex. Cr. 64, 73 Am. St. Eep. 903, 44 S. W. 1091; Hnrford v. State, 91 Tenn. 699, 20 S. W. 201; Adkins v. Eichmond, 98 Va. 91, 81 Am. St. Eep. 705, 34 S. E. 967, 47 L. E. A. 583. But see In re Eudolph, 2 Fed. 65; Ex parte Hanson, 2S Fed. 127; Mock v. Commonwealth, 6 Bush, 397; Cole v. Eandolph, Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 142 a certain district, who do not represent regularly licensed Louses, is void as to solicitors for foreign goods, although it purported to operate on all drummers alike; 386 a fortiori, a statute discriminatory in character is void. 3S7 The fact that goods for which orders are taken are at the time in a warehouse within the state, which is replenished from time to time by the nonresident principal, does not deprive the solicitor's business of its interstate character. 388 So an agent engaged in distrib- uting goods previously sold by sample is engaged in interstate commerce; 389 but the incorporation of goods with the mass of property in the state deprives them of their character as sub- jects of interstate commerce, 390 and where one takes orders which he submits to a nonresident manufacturer in his own name, who ships the goods to the solicitor in a single package, which is broken by him, the latter sells as owner and not as agent. 391 The occupation of a resident engaged in a general business is subject to a license tax, notwithstanding the business consists in negotiating sales for nonresidents. 392 Brokers dealing in money and exchange are subject to a license 31 La. Ann. 535; State v. Long, 95 N. C. 582, 59 Am. Eep. 263; Ex parte Asher, 23 Tex. App. 662, 59 Am. Kep. 783, 5 S. W. 91; Speer v. Commonwealth, 23 Gratt. 935, 14 Am. Eep. 164. 386 Bobbins v. Shelby County Tax. Dist., 120 U. S. 479, 7 S. Ct. 592, 30 L. ed. 694. 387 Corson v. Maryland, 120 U. S. 505, 7 S. Ct. 655, 30 L. ed. 699; Ex parte Thornton, 12 Fed. 538; In re Hennick, 5 Mackey, 489; Commonwealth v. Smith, 6 Bush, 303. 388 In re Nichols, 48 Fed. 164; In re Tyerman, 48 Fed. 167. But contra, Haynes v. Briggs, 41 Fed. 468, as to goods previously shipped in and stored to be sold by agents. 389 Huntington v. Mahan, 142 Ind. 695, 51 Am. St. Eep. 200, 42 N. E. 463; State v. Willingham, 9 Wyo. 290, 87 Am. St. Eep. 948, 62 Pac. 797, 52 L. E. A. 198. 300 In re Wilson, 19 D. C. 341, 12 L. E. A. 624; State v. Mont- gomery, 94 Me. 192, 80 Am. St. Eep. 165, 47 Atl. 165. 301 Croy v. Obion County, 104 Tehn. 525, 78 Am. St. Eep. 931, 51 L. E. A. 254; State v. Gorham, 115 N. C. 721, 44 Am. St. Eep. 494, 20 S. E. 179, 25 L. E. A. 810. 392 Ficklen v. Shelby County, 145 U. S. 21, 12 S. Ct. 810, 36 L. ed. 60L 143 Commeece. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 tax ; such a tax is not a burden on commerce, 393 but a tax upon brokers who sell goods by sample for nonresidents is within the rule as to drummers and solicitors. 394 The business of solicit- ing passenger travel over interstate roads is interstate commerce, and it cannot be burdened by a license tax; 395 but a state may protect its industries by discouraging the business of soliciting laborers to leave the state and a license tax imposed upon emi- grant brokers does not contravene the commerce power. 396 A state may admit foreign corporations to do business within its borders upon any conditions it sees fit to impose, or it may exclude them entirely, 397 and in prescribing such conditions it may discriminate in favor of its own corporations. 398 The only restriction upon the state's power in this matter is in respect to corporations engaged in federal business or interstate com- 393 Nathan v. Louisiana, S How. 81, 12 L. ed. 992, affirming 12 Bob. 32. 394 In re Eozelle, 57 Fed. 155; Stratford v. Montgomery, 110 Ala. 619, 20 South. 127; People v. Moving. 3 Abb. Dec. 539. 395 McCall v. California, 136 XL S. 109, 10 S. Ct. S81, 34 L. ed. 391. 39C Williams v. Fears, 179 U. S. 278, 21 S. Ct. 128, 45 L. ed. 186; Shepperd v. Sumter County Commissioners, 59 Ga. 535; but see Joseph v. Randolph, 71 Ala. 499, 46 Am. Rep. 347. 397 Bank of Augusta v. Earle, 13 Pet. 591, 10 L. ed. 274; Lafayette Ins. Co. v. French, 18 How. 407, 15 L. ed. 451; Ducat v. Chicago, 10 Wall. 415, 19 L. ed. 972; Doyle v. Continental Ins. Co., 94 TJ. S. 540, 24 L. ed. 148; St. Clair v. Cox, 106 U. S. 356, 1 S. Ct. '354, 27 L. ed. 222; Fritts v. Palmer, 132 TJ. S. 288, 10 S. Ct. 93, 33 L. ed. 317; Horn Silver Min. Co. v. New York, 163 TJ. S. 314, 12 S. Ct. 403, 36 L. ed. 164; Ashley v. Ryan, 153 TJ. S. 441, 14 S. Ct. 865, 38 L. ed. 773; Orient Ins. Co. v. Daggs, 172 TJ. S. 566, 19 S. Ct. 281, 43 L. ed. 552, affirming 136 Mo. 391, 58 Am. St. Eep. 641, 38 S. W. 86, 35 L. K. A. 227; Dayton Coal Co. v. Barton, 183 TJ. S. 24, 22 S. Ct. 5, 46 L. ed. 61; Williams v. Gaylord, 1S6 TJ. S. 16S, 46 L. ed. 1102. 398 Ducat v. Chicago, 10 Wall. 415, 19 L. ed. 972; Blake v. MeClung, 172 U. S. 256, 19 S. Ct. 172, 43 L. ed. 432; Philadelphia etc. Co. v. New York, 119 TJ. S. 118, 7 S. Ct. 112, 30 L. ed. 342; Manchester Fire Ins. Co. v. Herriott, 91 Fed. 718; Pembina Min. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 125 TJ. S. 188, S S. Ct. 740, 31 L. ed. 650; Southern etc. Assn. v. Nor- man, 98 Ky. 304, 56 Am. St. Eep. 373, 32 S. W. 954, 31 L. E. A. 41; Hartford Ins. Co. v. Eaymond, 70 Mich. 502, 38 N. W. 474. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. Ill merce; 399 a state cannot impose limitations upon the right to engage in interstate commerce. 400 That the restriction assumes the guise of a license tax is immaterial; 401 the state cannot de- clare that the right to engage in the business of interstate com- merce is a privilege, and impose a license tax for the exercise of the privilege, 402 and the fact that a company, as incidental to its main business of transporting goods between states, does some local business, does not warrant the imposition of a license tax upon its entire business. 403 A privilege tax upon sleeping- cars is void as applied to cars used in interstate transporta- tion, 404 and a municipal license tax imposed upon persons en- gaged in towing and lightering is a burden upon interstate com- merce, and so void; 405 but a municipal license imposed upon a 399 Pembina Min. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 125 U. S. 188, 8 S. Ct. 840, 31 L. ed. 650; Horn Silver Min. Co. v. New York, 143 U. S. 314, 12 S. Ct. 403, 36 L. ed. 164; Waters etc. Oil Co. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 45, 20 S. Ct. 518, 44 L. ed. 657; Norfolk etc. By. v. Pennsylvania, 136 U. S. 118, 10 S. Ct. 960, 34 L. ed. 394; Eyer v. Odd Fellows' etc. Assn., 157 Mass. 373, 34 Am. St. Rep; 293, 32 N. E. 472. 400 Cooper Mfg. Co. v. Ferguson, 113 U. S. 734, 5 S. Ct. 739, 28 L. ed. 1137; Pembina. Min. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 125 U. S. 185, 8 S. Ct. 841, 31 L. ed. 650; Merslion v. Pottsville Lumber Co., 187 Pa. St. 12, 67 Am. St. Rep. 560, 40 Atl. 1019. 401 Smith v. Alabama, 124 IT. S. 474, 8 S. Ct. 564, 31 L. R. A. 508-; Norfolk etc. Ry. v. Pennsylvania, 136 U. S. 118, 10 S. Ct. 960, 34 L. ed. 394; Crutcher v. Kentucky, 141 U. S. 56, 11 S. Ct. 851, 35 L. ed. 649. 402 Pensacola Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 96 U. S. 1, 24 L. ed. 708; Cooper Mfg. Co. v. Ferguson, 113 U. S. 727, 5 S. Ct. 739, 28 L. ed. 1137; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Massachusetts, 125 U. S. 530, 8 S. Ct. 961, 31 L. ed. 790; Leloup v. Mobile, 127 U. S. 640, 8 S. Ct. 1380, 32 L. ed. 311; reversing 76 Ala. 401; St. Clair County v. Interstate etc. Co., 109 Fed. 741. 403 Crutcher v. Kentucky, 141 U. S. 56, 11 S. Ct. 851, 35 L. ed. 649; Commonwealth v. Smith, 92 Ky. 43, 36 Am. St. Rep. 581, 17 S. W. 188; Woessner v. Cottam, 19 Tex. Civ. App. 615, 47 S. W. 6S0; but see Osborn v. Mobile, 16 Wall. 482, 21 L. ed. 470. 404 Pickard v. Pullman Car Co., 117 U. S. 51, 6 S. Ct. 635, 29 L. ed. 785; Tennessee v. Pullman etc. Car Co., 117 U. S. 52, 6 S. Ct. 643, 29 L. ed. 785; Pullman etc. Car Co. v. Nolan, 22 Fed. 276. 4u5 Moran v. New Orleans, 112 U. S. 74, 5 S. Ct. 38, 28 L. ed. 653; Harman v. Chicago, 147 U. S. 407, 13 S. Ct. 306, 37 L. ed. 216, reversing 140 111. 374, 29 N. E. 732; St. Louis v. Consolidated Coal 145 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 public exhibition given on board a coasting vessel is not a reg- ulation of commerce, but a mere police regulation. 406 A license fee imposed upon corporations for business done exclusively within a state is valid, 407 and the fact that telegraphic messages transmitted between points in the same state traverse another state en route does not give them an interstate commerce char- acter. 408 The business of insurance is not interstate commerce, and the restrictions of this clause cannot apply to licenses im- posed on foreign insurance companies. 409 Traffic in Original Packages. The right to import carries with it the right to sell the pack- age or bale imported, and a state cannot impose a tax upon goods so sold; 410 but the protection of the commerce clause ceases when the importer has so acted upon the thing imported that it has been incorporated with the mass of property in the state. 411 Co., 158 Mo. 342, 81 Am. St. Eep. 216, 59 S. W. 103; but see Wiggins Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 107 TJ. S. 373, 2 S. Ct. 257, 27 L. ed. 419; Lightburne v. Taxing Dist., 4 Lea, 219. 406 Board of Selectmen v. Spalding, 8 La. Ann. 87. 40 7 Osborne v. Florida, 164 U. S. 656, 17 S. Ct. 214, 41 L. ed. 586; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Fremont, 43 Neb. 499, 61 N. W. 724, 26 L. E. A. 706; Postal Tel. Co. v. Eiehmond, 99 Va. 102, 86 Am. St. Eep. 877, 37 S. E. 789. 4os Leavell v. Western Union Tel. Co., 116 N. C. 211, 47 Am. St. Eep. 798, 21 S. E. 391, 27 L. E, A. 843. 409 Paul v. Virginia, S Wall. 183, 19 L. ed. 357; Liverpool etc. Ins. Co. v. Massachusetts, 10 Wall. 573, 19 L. ed. 1029; Hooper v. Cali- fornia, 155 U. S. 653, 15 S. Ct. 209, 39 L. ed. 297; Insurance Co. v. Commonwealth, 87 Pa. St. 183, 30 Am. Eep. 356; State v. Phipps, 50 Kan. 69, 34 Am. St. Eep. 152, 31 Pac. 1097, 18 L. E. A. 657. 410 Low v! Austin, 13 Wall. 33, 20 L. ed. 517; Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 447, 6 L. ed. 678; Cook v. Pennsylvania, 97 U. S. 573, 24 L. ed. 1015. 411 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 441, 6 L. ed. 678; Low v. Austin, 13 Wall. 33, 20 L. ed. 517; Brown v. Houston, 114 U. S. 634, 5 S. Ct. 1091, 29 L. ed. 257; May v. New Orleans, 178 U. S. 507, 20 S. Ct. 976, 44 L. ed. 1165; Austin v. Tennessee, 179 U. S. 355, 21 S. Ct. 132, 45 L. ed. 224; State v. Blackwell, 65 Me. 588; State v. Montgomery, 94 Me. 192, 80 Am. St. Eep. 165, 47 Atl. 165; Myers v. Baltimore County, 83 Md. 389, 55 Am. St. Eep. 352, 35 Atl. 145, 34 L. E. A. 309; State v. Parsons, 124 Mo. 436, 46 Am. St. Eep. 457, 27 S. W. 1102. Notes on Constitution — 10 Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 146 An "original package" is the box, case, or bale in which goods are shipped, and the term does not include the smaller parcels contained therein; 412 the unit in which the carrier receives, transports and delivers as an article of commerce the identical package delivered to it at the initial point of shipment in the exact condition in which it was shipped. 413 An uncovered bas- ket in which small packages of cigarettes are shipped is to be deemed the "original package." 414 A package devised by a non- resident manufacturer, adapted for sale at retail to individual consumers, and in which the article is sold to such consumers, is not an "original package." 415 What constitutes an "original package" is ultimately a question for the federal courts, 416 and the determination of the internal revenue officers upon that point is not conclusive. 417 Goods stored by the importer in the original package are not subject to a state tax until the package is broken or the goods sold. 418 Commerce with Indians. Under the commerce clause Congress has exclusive and unfet- tered power to regulate commerce with the Indian tribes, and its existence implies the right to exercise it whenever there is a subject to act upon; 419 and this power extends to the regulation 412 May v. New Orleans, 178 U. S. 510, 20 S. Ct. 976, 44 L. ed. 1165; Austin v. Tennessee, 179 U. S. 354, 21 S. Ct. 132, 45 L. ed. 224, affirming 101 Tenn. 563, 70 Am. St. Rep. 703, 48 S. W. 305, 50 L. E. A. 478. 413 McGregor v. Cone, 104 Iowa, 465, 65 Am. St. Rep. 522, 73 N. W. 1041, 39 L. R. A. 4S4; Haley v. State, 42 Neb. 566, 47 Am. St. Rep. 718, 60 N. W. 962. 414 Austin v. State, 101 Tenn. 563, 70 Am. St. Rep. 703, 48 S. W. 305, 50 L. R. A. 478. 415 Commonwealth v. Paul, 170 Pa. St. 2S4, 50 Am. St. Rep. 776, 33 Atl. 82, 30 L. R. A. 396. 416 State v. Goetze, 43 W. Va. 495, 64 Am. St. Rep. 871, 27 S. E. 225. 417 McGregor v. Cone, 104 Iowa, 465, 65 Am. St. Rep. 522, 73 N. W. 1041, 39 L. R. A. 484. 418 State v. Board of Assessors, 46 La. Ann. 145, 49 Am. St. Rep. 318, 15 South. 10. 419 United States v. Forty-three Gallons of "Whisky, 93 U. S. 194, 23 L. ed. 846; United States v. Martin. 8 Saw. 478. 14 Fed. 840. 147 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 of all traffic and commercial intercourse, even when the tribe is located wholly within the limits of a single state, 420 except under a license. 420 * The whole subject of intercourse with In- dian tribes is vested in the United States, 421 and Congress may prohibit traffic in liquors with the tribes, 422 and may prohibit the introduction of spirituous liquors to a place near a reserva- tion, although within state lines. 423 But the power to enact purely criminal laws for Indian tribes does not arise from the commerce clause; it arises from the necessity to protect the tribes and because it is elsewhere nonexistent. 424 Where reser- vations are within the territory of a state, such laws apply only to offenses committed by Indians on the reservation. 425 Where, however, the reservation is not within the limits of a state, Con- gress may provide for punishment of crimes committed either by Indians or whites. 426 The commerce contemplated by this clause cannot comprehend ordinary business transactions be- tween individuals, 427 or individual sales of land; 428 nor can the laws of Congress invalidate a contract between an Indian and a white man within the limits of a state, 429 and in the absence of any federal statute or treaty to the contrary, a state court 420 United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 417, 18 L. ed. 182. 4.20a United States v. Cisna, 1 McLean, 254, Fed. Cas. No. 14,795. 421 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 557, 8 L. ed. 483. 422 United States v. Shaw-Mux, 2 Saw. 365, Fed. Cas. No. 16,268; United States v. Tom, 1 Or. 26. 423 United States v. Forty-three Gallons of Whisky, 93 U. S. 196- 198, 23 L. ed. 846. 424 United States v. Kagama, 118 U. S. 378, 383, 6 S. Ct. 1109, 30 L. ed. 228; In re Wilson, 140 U. S. 577, 11 S. Ct. 870, 35 L. ed. 513. 425 United States v. Thomas, 151 U S. 585, 14 S. Ct. 426, 38 L. ed. 276; United States v. McBratney, 104 U. S. 623, 26 L. ed. 869; State v. Campbell, 53 Minn. 358, 55 N. W. 555, 21 L. E: A. 169. 426 United States v. Eogers, 4 How. 572, 11 L. ed. 1105; Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 U. S. 560, 3 S. Ct. 398, 27 L. ed. 1030; United States v. Cha-to-kah-na-he-sha, Hemp. 27, Fed. Cas. No. 14,789a; United States v. Ewing, 47 Fed. 812; United States v. Monte, 3 N. Mex. 125, 3 Pac. 47. 427 Hicks v. Euhartonah, 21 Ark. 106. 428 Murray v. Wooden, 17 Wend. 531. 42'j Hicks v. Euhartonah, 21 Ark. 106; Taylor v. Drew, 21 Ark. 4S5. Art. I, § S, CI. 3 Commerce. 148 may take jurisdiction of an action on contract in favor of a white man against an Indian. 430 Indians do not submit them- selves to all the laws of a state merely because they seek its courts for the preservation of rights or the redress of wrongs. 431 An Indian may sue in a state court to enforce his right to the enjoyment of his property, 432 may sue in equity to restrain a trespass/ 33 and where an Indian died before state laws were extended over the reservation, a state court granted letters of administration upon his estate after they were so extended. 434 Status of Indians and Indian Tribes. An Indian is not a foreign citizen or subject, 435 but may be a resident alien in a state. 436 In all intercourse with foreign nations as to commerce, Indians are considered as within the jurisdictional limits of the United States. 437 While an Indian tribe is an alien body, 438 it is not an independent sover- eignty, 439 but an autonomous body subject to the paramount authority of the United States, 440 and in a state of pupilage. 441 Indians on a reservation within a state are not citizens or mem- 430 Stokes v. Eodman, 5 E. I. 405; Staey v. La Belle, 99 Wis. 520, 67 Am. St. Kep. S79, 75 N. W. 60, 41 L. E. A. 419; Jones v. Eisler, 3 Kan. 134; Murch v. Tomer, 21 Me. 535; Eubideaux v. Vallie, 12 Kan. 28. 431 The Kansas Indians, 5 Wall. 758, 18 L. ed. 667. 432 Lobdell v. Hall, 3 Nev. 507. 4 33 Strong v. Waterman, 11 Paige, 607. 434 Brashear v. Williams, 10 Ala. 630; but see Dole v. Irish, 2 Barb. 639; United States v. Shanks, 15 Minn. 369. 435 Karrahoo v. Adams, 1 Dill. 344, Fed. Cas. No. 7614. 43C Parent v. Walmsley, 20 Ind. 82. 437 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 515, 8 L. ed. 483; Cherokee Na- tion v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 1, 8 L. ed. 25; Mackey v. Coxe, 18 How. 100, 15 L. ed. 299; The Kansas Indians, 5 Wall. 737, 18 L. ed. 667; United States v. Tobacco Pact., 1 Dill. 265, Fed. Cas. No. 16,528. 43S Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U. S. 102, 5 S. Ct. 41, 28 L. ed. 643. 439 Cherokee Nation v. Kansas By., 135 U. S. 653, 10 S. Ct. 965, 34 L. ed. 295. 440 Talton v. Mayes, 163 XT. S. 380, 16 S. Ct. 986, 41 L. ed. 196; Eoflf v. Bumey, 168 U. S. 221, 18 S. Ct. 60, 42 L. ed. 442; Stephens v. Cherokee Nation, 174 U. S. 486, 19 S. Ct. 722, 43 L. ed. 1041. 4 41 Jones v. Meehan, 175 U. S. 1, 20 S. Ct. 1, 44 L. ed. 49. 149 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 bers of the body politic, but are considered as independent tribes governed by their own usages and chiefs; 442 and if an Indian leaves his tribe to take up his abode among white people, he is entitled to all the rights and privileges belonging to an emi- grant from any foreign people. 443 State laws can have no force in a reservation within state territory, and citizens of the state have no right to enter except with the consent of the tribe and in conformity with treaties and acts of Congress, 444 and the rights of a tribe as against state laws can only be changed by treaty stipulations or an abandonment of their tribal organiza- tion. 445 The recognition of Indians as tribes is a matter for the political department of the government and its decision is binding on the courts. 446 The tribes contemplated by the commerce clause are those which are in a condition to determine for themselves with whom they will have commerce, 447 and when the Indian lands are within the boundaries of a state, Congress is limited to the regu- lation of commerce with such tribes as exist as a distinct commu- nity. 448 This clause gives to Congress power to regulate com- 442 Holden v. Joy, 17 Wall. 242, 21 L. ed. 523; Goodell v. Jackson, 20 Johns. 693, 11 Am. Dec. 351; Jackson v. Wood, 7 Johns. 290; Strong v. Waterman, 11 Paige, 607. 443 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 393, 15 L. ed. 691. 444 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 515, 8 L. ed. 483; United States v. Cisna, 1 McLean, 254, Fed. Cas. No. 14,795; McKay v. Campbell, 2 Saw. 133, Fed. Cas. No. 8840; Blair v. Painkiller, 2 Yerg. 407. 445 The Kansas Indians, 5 Wall. 755, 757, 18 L. ed. 667; Mungosah v. Steinbrook, 3 Dill. 419, Fed. Cas. No. 9924; United States v. Payne, 4 DiU. 389, Fed. Cas. No. 16,014; United States v. Boyd, 68 Fed. 582; Compo v. Jackson Iron Co., 50 Mich. 583, 16 N. W. 300; Earl v. Godley, 42 Minn. 362, 18 Am. St. Rep. 578, 44 N. W. 255, 7 L. B. A. 125; In re Narragansett Indians, 20 E. I. 771, 40 Atl. 368. 446 Holden v. Joy, 17 Wall. 242, 21 L. ed. 523; United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 419, 18 L. ed. 182; The Kansas Indians, 5 Wall. 737, 18 L. ed. 667; Territory v. Cox, 6 Dak. 521; Me-shing-go-me-sia v. State, 36 Ind. 316. 447 Moor v. Veazie, 32 Me. 343, 52 Am. Dec. 655. 448 United States v. Bailey, 1 McLean, 234, Fed. Cas. No. 14,495: United States v. Cisna, 1 McLean, 254, Fed. Cas. No. 14,795; State v. Foreman, 8 Yerg. 256>. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 150 merce between different Bribes and between different Indians, 449 and to regulate commerce between different tribes as well without as within the Indian country. 450 The power of Congress does not necessarily cease upon their being included within state limits ; 451 but where the Indians occupy territory of very limited extent, sur- rounded by white people, necessarily having daily intercourse with the Indians, and it becomes impracticable to enforce the law, the federal power must cease. 452 An Indian tribe cannot by treaty stipulate away any part of the sovereignty of a state guaranteed to it upon its admission to the Union. 453 "Indian country" includes all within the United States to which Indian title has not been extinguished, excepting territory not exempted from state jurisdiction at the time of admission; but even as to ter- ritory so exempted, Congress retains its power under the com- merce clause. 454 A tribal Indian, although off the reservation, is a ward of the government. 455 Indian Laws and Customs. So long as Indians adhere to their tribal customs and their affairs are managed by government officers, they are not subject to state laws, 456 and may regulate their own civil policy, their property contracts, domestic relations and inheritance. 457 ISTot- 449 United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 415, 18 L. ed. 182; United States v. Shaw-Mux, 2 Saw. 364, Fed. Cas. No. 16,268. 450 United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 415, 416. 18 L. ed. 182; United States v. Cisna, 1 McLean, 254, Fed. Cas. No. 14,795; United States v. Seveloff, 2 Saw. 317, Fed. Cas. No. 16,252. 451 The Kansas Indians, 5 Wall. 754, 757, 18 L. ed. 667. 452 United States v. Cisna, 1 McLean, 254. 453 United States v. Forty-three Gallons of Whisky, 93 U. S. 188, 23 L. ed. 846. 454 Ex parte Crow Dog, 109 U. S. 561, 3 S. Ct. 396, 27 L. ed. 1030. 455 United States v. Miller, 105 Fed. 944. 456 United States v. Boyd, 83 Fed. 554; State v. McKenney, 18 Nev. 203, 2 Pac. 182; Boyer v. Dively, 58 Mo. 510; Morgan v. Mc- Ghee, 5 Humph. 13; Wall v. Williams, 11 Ala. 826. 4 57 Mackey v. Coxe, 18 How. 103, 15 L. ed. 299; Gray v. Coffman, 3 Dill. 401, Fed. Cas. No. 5714; United States v. Paine, 4 Dill. 38«, Fed. Cas. No. 16,014; Boyer v. Dively, 58 Mo. 510; Dole v. Irish, 2 Barb. 639; Goodell v. Jackson, 20 Johns. 693, 11 Am. Dec. 351; Mor- gan v. McGhee, 5 Humph. 13; Jones v. Laney, 2 Tex. 342. 151 Commerce. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 withstanding the reservation is within state limits. 458 In the management of their internal concerns tribal Indians are de- pendent upon no power. 459 A marriage between Indians ac- cording to the usages of the tribe will be recognized every- where, 460 and the right of dissolution, of which either party may take advantage, will be deemed a term of the contract; 461 but a marriage between Indians in a state after the tribe has re- moved therefrom must conform to the state laws, 462 and a mar- riage between a white man and an Indian woman according to the tribal customs, if prohibited by state laws, must be held void, although performed on a reservation. 463 The liability of an inn- keeper on a reservation is to be determined by tribal laws. 464 Id the absence of proof, it will be presumed that in a savage tribe there are no laws regulating descents, and that property belongs to the first occupant. 465 A tribe may adopt a white person or others, and after adoption such person is subject to all the burdens and entitled to all the immunities of a native born. 466 The construction of statutes of an Indian nation is solely within the jurisdiction of the courts of that nation; 467 but where an offense is cognizable under federal laws, the tribal courts enn have no jurisdiction. 468 The Cherokee territory is 458 Wall v. Williams, 11 Ala, 826; Goodell v. Jackson, 20 Johns. 693, 11 Am. Dec. 351. 459 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 515, 8 L. ed. 483. 460 Wall v. Williams, 11 Ala. 826; Earl v. Godley, 42 Minn. 361, 18 Am. St. Eep. 517, 44 N. W. 255, 7 L. E. A. 125; Johnson v. John- son, 30 Mo. 72; Boyer v. Dively, 58 Mo. 510; Morgan v. McGhee, 5 Humph. 13. 461 Wall v. Williams, 11 Ala. 826. 462 Eoche v. Washington, 19 Ind. 53, 81 Am. Dec. 376. 463 In re Wilbur's Estate, 8 Wash. 35, 40 Am. St. Eep. 886, 35 Pac. 407. 4 64 Horland v. Pack, Peck (Tenn.), 151. 465 Brashear v. Williams, 10 Ala. 630. 466 Nofire v. United States, 164 U. S. 662, 17 S. Ot. 212, 41 L. ed. 588; United States' v. Eagsdale, Hemp. 497, Fed. Cas. No. 16,113; Eaymond v. Eayniond, 83 Fed. 723. 46T Talton v. Mayes, 163 U. S. 3S5, 16 S. Ct. 986, 41 L. ed. 196; Nordstrom v. Washington, 164 U. S. 705, 17 S. Ct. 997, 41 L. ed. 1183. 468 United States v. Eagsdale, Hemp. 497, Fed. Cas. No. 16,113. Art. I, § 8, CI. 3 Commerce. 153 a domestic territory, and its laws and proceedings stand on the same footing as those of other territories. 469 469 Mackey v. Coxe, 18 How. 103, 15 L. ed. 299; The Cherokee To- bacco, 11 Wall. 619, 20 L. ed. 227 ; affirming 1 Dill. 265, Fed. Cas. No. 16,528. 153 Naturalization. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States. Naturalization — Nature of Proceeding. Naturalization is the act of adopting a foreigner and clothing him with the privileges of a native citizen; 1 it is a judicial proceeding submitted to courts of record, and their judgments therein are conclusive. 2 Submission to a court of record is es- sential, 3 and a court of record without a clerk has no jurisdic- tion to proceed. 4 The oath prescribed by the naturalization act, when taken, confers citizenship, and an order of court admit- ting the applicant is necessary. 5 Persons Entitled to Naturalization. The power granted in this clause is confined to the removal of disabilities of foreign birth, 6 and does not apply to a free white person born in this country of foreign parents," nor to a freeman of color born in the United States. 8 When the consti- tution was adopted, African negroes, whether emancipated or not, were deemed to have no rights or privileges except what the 1 Osborne v. Bank of United States, 9 Wheat. 827, 6 L. ed. 204; Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 162, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103. 2 Spratt v. Spratt, 4 Pet. 408, 7 L. ed. 897; The Acorn, 2 Abb. 444, Fed. Cas. No. 21; Scott v. Strobaeh, 49 Ala. 488; Ex parte Knowles, 5 Cal. 301; People v. MeGowan, 77 111. 647, 20 Am. Rep. 255; Andres v. Arnold, 77 Mich. 88, 43 N. W. 858, 6 L. E. A. 238; State v. Mac- donald, 24 Minn. 59; McCarthy v. Marsh, 5 N. Y. 284; Common- wealth v. Towles, 5 Leigh, 746; State v. Hoeflinger, 35 Wis. 400. 3 United States v. Makins, 26 Fed. Cas. 1114; Green v. Salas, 31 Fed. 107. 4 Ex parte Cregg, 2 Curt. 100, Fed. Cas. No. 3380; Dean, Peti- tioner, 83 Me. 498, 22 Atl. 387, 13 L. E. A. 229; State v. Whittenrore, 50 N. H. 251, 9 Am. Eep. 203. 5 Campbell v. Gordon, 6 Cr. 182, 3 L. ed. 190. 6 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 417, 420, 57S, 15 L. ed. 691; United States v. Ehodes, 1 Abb. 45, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151; Lynch v. Clarke, 1 Sand. Ch. 583. 1 Citizenship, 9 Opin. Atty. Gen. 374. s Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 420, 15 L. ed. 691; Smith V. Moody, 26 lnd. 299. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 Naturalization. 154 dominant race chose to grant them; under the constitution, as originally adopted, Congress could not naturalize native or foreign negroes, 9 but the Fourteenth Amendment gave negroes all the privileges of citizenship. 10 Chinese persons not born in the United States have never been recognized as citizens nor authorized to become naturalized. 11 Indians may be naturalized by authority of Congress, like the subjects of any foreign gov- ernment; 12 in fact, naturalization of a member of an existing tribe is a prerequisite to United States citizenship. 13 While Con- gress may prescribe general laws for naturalization, it has also power to naturalize a class collectively by treaty or statute. 14 The treaty of Washington conferred the elective franchise upon British subjects resident in the disputed territory at the time of its adoption. 15 Power to Naturalize. The constitution vests the power of naturalization exclusively in Congress. 16 While a state may confer upon individuals the 9 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 412-420, 15 L. ed. 691. io Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U. S. 307, 25 L. ed. 664. it Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 149 U. S. 716, 13 S. Ct. 1016, 37 L. ed. 905. 12 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 404, 15 L. ed. 691. 13 Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U. S. 101, 5 S. Ct. 45, 2S L. ed. 643; Paul v. Ckilsoquie, 70 Fed. 402. 14 Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 162, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103; In re Rodriguez, 81 Fed. 350, 351; People v. Washington, 36 Cal. 658. 15 Opinion Atty. Gen., 68 Me. 589. 16 Chirac v. Chirac, 2 Wheat. 269, 4 L. ed. 234; United States v. Villato, 2 Dall. 372, Fed. Cas. No. 16,622; Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 48, 5 L. ed. 19; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 277, 6 L. ed. 606; Pas- senger Cases, 7 How. 556, 12 L. ed. 702; Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 417, 15 L. ed. 691; Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U. S. 109, 58 S. Ct. 49, 28 L. ed. 613; Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 158-160, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103; United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U. S. 701, 18 S. Ct. 477, 42 L. ed. 890; United States v. Ehodes, 1 Abb. 45, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151; Matthew v. Rae, 3 Cr. C. C. 699, Fed. Cas. No. 9281; Golden v. Prince, 3 Wash. C. C. 313, Fed. Cas. No. 5509; Comitis v. Parkerson, 56 Fed. 558, 22 L. K. A. 148; Ex parte Knowles, 5 Cal. 300; North Carolina v. Manuel, 2 Dev. & B. 25; North Carolina v. Newsom, J> [red. 253; Lynch v. Clarke, 1 Sand. Ch. 5S3; Stephens, Petitioner, 4 Gray, 561; Commonwealth v. Ives, 18 Pick. 193. 155 Naturalization. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 rights of citizens within its own borders, it cannot invest them with the character or rights of United States citizens; 17 the rights so conferred are restricted to the state which gave them; 18 but notwithstanding the rights of citizenship under the state and federal governments differ, 19 a citizen of the United States is a citizen of the state where he resides. 20 The object of invest- ing Congress with this power was to guard against a too narrow mode of conferring rights of citizenship, 21 and it was sought to provide a rule for the action of the states and not for that of the federal government. 22 A state cannot superadd any con- ditions to the acquisition of the rights of citizenship; 23 but while Congress may deprive a person of the opportunity to enjoy a right belonging to him as a citizen of a state, it cannot de- prive him of the right itself. 24 Congress may determine the class of courts which may be invested with jurisdiction in naturalization proceedings, 25 and no state can confer jurisdiction on any tribunal which does not come within the terms of the act of Congress. 26 But a state may prohibit its courts from entertaining naturalization proceed- 17 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 405-422, 15 L. ed. 691; Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 158-160, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103; Minne- apolis v. Eeum, 56 Fed. 581; Lanz v. Randall, 4 Dill. 425, Fed. Cas. No. S0S0; McCarthy v. Froelke, 63 Ind. 511; Opinion of Justices, 41 N. H. 556; In re Wehlitz, 16 Wis. 447, 84 Am. Doe. 702; Ex parte Kinney, 3 Hughes, 15, Fed. Cas. No. 7825. is Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 405-422, 15 L. ed. 691; In re Wehlitz, 16 Wis. 447, 84 Am. Dec. 702. 19 United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 549, 23 L. ed. 588; Ex parte Siebold, 100 U. S. 390, 25 L. ed. 717; Marks v. Marks, 75 Fed. 324; Keller v. Corpus Christi, 50 Tex. 629, 32 Am. Eep. 616. 20 Gassies v. Ballou, 6 Pet. 762, 8 L. ed. 573; Boyd v. Thayer, 143 U. S. 161, 12 S. Ct. 3S1, 36 L. ed. 103; Smith v. Moody, 26 Ind. 301. 21 Collet v. Collet, 2 Dall. 294, Fed. Cas. No. 3001. 22 Ex parte Knowles, 5 Cal. 300. 23 Commonwealth v. Towles, 5 Leigh, 743; Page v. Allen, 58 Pa. St. 33S, 98 Am. Dec. 272. 24 Huber v. Keily, 53 Pa. St. 112. 25 Ex parte Smith, 22 Fed. Cas. 380; Ex parte Knowles, 5 Cal. 300; Ex parte Beavins, 33 N. H. 89. 26 New Hampshire v. Whittemore, 50 N. H. 245. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 Naturalization. 156 ings. 27 If state courts possess the necessary jurisdiction under state laws Congress may empower them to naturalize aliens and give validity to their acts in so doing. 28 Evidence of Naturalization. Inasmuch as naturalization proceedings must be had before a court of record, the record of the judgment admitting an alien to citizenship is evidence of his naturalization. 29 The record need not show affirmatively the existence of all the legal requi- sites; 30 it will be presumed conclusively that all the prerequi- sites have been complied with, 31 and the certificate cannot be set aside on the ground that the facts were falsely represented to the court. 32 While the record is the best proof of naturaliza- tion, yet where the record cannot be produced, the fact may be proved by other evidence. 33 Operation and Effect. Naturalization has a retroactive effect and removes all liability to forfeiture of land held while an alien, 34 and where an alien takes by grant or by location on public lands, his subsequent naturalization relates back and obviates every consequence of his alien disability. 35 The naturalization of a father gives citizen- 27 Ex parte Stephens, 4 Gray, 559; Ex parte Beavins, 33 N. H. 89. 28 Ex parte Knowles, 5 Cal. 300; Eump v. Commonwealth, 3 Pa. St. 475; Morgan v. Dudley, 18 B. Mon. 693, 68 Am. Dec. 735. 29 Stork v. Chesapeake Ins. Co., 7 Cr. 423, 3 L. ed. 391; Spratt v. Spratt, 4 Pet. 408, 7 L. ed. 897; Mutual Benefit Ins. Co. v. Tisdale, 91 U. S. 238, 23 L. ed. 314; The Acorn, 2 Abb. 444, Fed. Cas. No. 29; In re Clark, 18 Barb. 444; McCarthy v. Marsh, 5 N. Y. 263; Eitchie v. Putnam, 13 Wend. 524. 30 Hailey v. State, 40 Ala. 697. 31 Spratt v. Spratt, 4 Pet. 408, 7 L. ed. 897. 32 United States v. Gleason, 78 Fed. 397; Pintsch C. Co. v. Bergin. 84 Fed. 141. 33 Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 180, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103; Blair v. Silver Peak Min. Co., 93 Fed. 335. 34 Osterman v. Baldwin, 6 Wall. 122, 18 L. ed. 730; Manuel v. Wulff, 152 U. S. 511, 14 S. Ct. 653, 38 L. ed. 562; Williams v. Bennett, 1 Tex. Civ. App. 506, 20 S. W. 858. 35 Governeur's Heirs v. Robertson, 11 Wheat. 350, 6 L. ed. 488; Bogan v. Edinburgh Land Co., 63 Fed. 197; Lone Jack Min. Co. v. 157 Naturalization. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 ship to minor children, 36 hut the status acquired by minors at the time their father filed his declaration of intention may be repudi- ated if they attain their majority before he is naturalized. 37 A minor child who was in the country at the time of the passage of the act of April 14, 1802, acquired citizenship, although he was not in the country at the time of naturalization. 38 Megginson, 82 Fed. 94; Hanriek v. Hanrick, 54 Tex. 114; Baker v. Westcott, 73 Tex. 134, 11 S. W. 159; Culverhouse v. Beach, 1 Johns. Cas. 399. 3<; Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 177, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103. 37 Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 177, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed- 103; State v. Strenkens, 60 Minn. 327, 62 N. W. 260. 38 Campbell v. Gordon, 6 Cr. 182, 3 L. ed. 190. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 Bankruptcy Laws. 158 — Laws on the subject of bankruptcies. Bankruptcy — Meaning of Term. In American law the distinction between bankruptcy and in- solvency seems to have been lost, 1 and no practical distinction has ever been attempted. 2 "Insolvency," as applied to voluntary applications for a decree, has been held to mean an inability to meet engagements, but in its relation to compulsory proceedings by creditors, to mean the bankruptcy of the debtor as known to the court, as a ground for proceedings, 3 and "bankruptcy" has been defined as the stoppage and breaking up of business from inability to carry it on. 4 The word bears a meaning coextensive with insolvency and is equivalent to that word in the constitu- tion. 5 The various bankrupt acts of Congress seem to regard insolvency as a condition precedent to a judicial declaration that a debtor is bankrupt — a condition arising from certain circum- stances, or from certain acts upon the part of the debtor; e. g., inability to pay debts in money as they become due in the ordi- nary course of business, 6 or fraudulent transfers or assignments made with intent to defeat creditors' claims. 7 The word is used in the constitution in the plural as part of an expression "sub- 1 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 196-198, 4 L. ed. 529. 2 In re Eeiman, 7 Ben. 463, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673. 3 Ex parte Hull, 12 Fed. Cas. 856; West v. Creditors, 4 Eob. (La.) 92. 4 Sturge3 v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 195, 4 L. ed. 529; Ex parte Breneman, Crabbe, 465, Fed. Cas. No. 1830; Arnold v. Maynard, 2 Story, 354, Fed. Cas. No. 561. 5 Morse v. Hovey, 1 Barb. Ch. 404. 6 Toof v. Martin, 13 Wall. 47, 20 L. ed. 481; Wager v. Hall, 16 Wall. 599, 21 L. ed. 504; Dutcher v. Wright, 94 U. S. 557, 2-4 L. ed. 130; Anschutz v. Hoerr, 1 Fed. 593; Roberts v. Hill, 23 Blatchf. 315, 24 Fed. 573; Case v. Citizens' Bank, 2 Woods, 26, Fed. Cas. No. 2489; In re S&hoenberger, 21 Fed. Cas. 1335; Swan v. Robinson, 5 Fed. 294. 7 United States v. Hooe, 3 Cr. 91, 2 L. ed. 370; United States v. The Marshal etc., 2 Brock. 491, Fed. Cas. No. 15,727; United States v. Langton, 5 Mason, 284, Fed. Cas. No. 15,560; Wilson v. City Bank, 17 Wall. 487, 21 L. ed. 723; National Bank v. Colby, 21 Wall. 613, 22 L. ed. 687. 159 Bankruptcy Laws. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 ject of bankruptcies/*' over which subject Congress has general jurisdiction. 8 Uniformity. To come within the constitutional provision, a bankrupt law must be uniform throughout the United States; 9 but the uni- formity contemplated is geographical and not personal/ and refers to the general policy and operation of the law, although it may, in some minor respects, operate differently in different states. 11 So a law is uniform when the trustee takes in each state whatever would have been available to execution creditors, 12 and the allowance of exemptions accorded in each state is not incompatible with the constitutional requirement, although the amount of such exemptions may differ in the several states. 13 Power of Congress. The power of Congress under this clause is plenary over the subject of bankruptcy, and it is not limited to acts similar in scope to those in force in England at the time 8 In re Klein, 1 How. 277, note, Fed. Cas. No. 7865; In re Silver- man, 1 Saw. 410, 2 Abb. U. S. 243, Fed. Cas. No. 12,855. 9 Hanover Nat. Bank v. Moyses. 186 U. S. 184, 22 S. Ct. 857, 46 L. ed. 1113; Day v. Bardwell, 3 Bank. Reg. 455; In re Dillard, 9 Bank. Beg. 8, 2 Hughes, 190, Fed. Cas. No. 3912; In re Deckert, 10 Bank. Reg. 1, 2 Hughes, 183, Fed. Cas. No. 3728; In re Duerson, 13 Bank. Reg. 183, Fed. Cas. No. 4117; In re Shipman, 14 Bank. Reg. 570, 2 Hughes, 227, Fed. Cas. No. 12,791; Bush v. Lester, 55 Ga. 579; Kit- tredge v. Warren, 11 N. H. 509. 10 Hanover Nat. Bank v. Moyses, 186 U. S. 188, 22 S. Ct. 857, 46 L. ed. 1113. 11 In re Jordan, 8 Bank. Reg. 180, Fed. Cas. No. 7514; Darling v. Berry, 13 Fed. 659. 12 Hanover Nat. Bank v. Moyses, 1S6 U. S. 190, 22 S. Ct. 857, 46 L. ed. 1113; In re Ruth, 1 Bank. Reg. Sup. 154, Fed. Cas. No. 12,172; In re Appold, 1 Bank. Reg. 178, Fed. Cas. No. 499; In re Beckerford, 4 Bank. Reg. 59, 1 Dill. 45, Fed. Cas. No. 1209; In re Jordan, 8 Bank. Reg. 180, Fed. Cas. No. 7514; In re Deckert, 10 Bank. Beg. 1, 2 Hughes, 183, Fed. Cas. No. 3728. 12 Hanover Nat. Bank v. Moyses, 186 H. S. 189, 22 S. Ct. 857, 46 L. ed. 1113; In re Appold, 1 Bank. Reg. 621, Fed. Cas. No. 499. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 Bankruptcy Laws. 160 the constitution was adopted; 14 it is general, unlimited and unrestricted, 15 save in the requirement that the law shall be uniform. 16 and applies to all classes of persons, 17 and to volun- tary and involuntary bankruptcy. 18 All uniform legislation tending to promote the distribution of an insolvent's estate among his creditors, and his discharge from their demands, is within the power of Congress; 19 but a bankrupt law need not provide for the discharge of the debtor. 20 The power to enact implies power to make the law efficient, 21 and includes an act punishing the fraudulent disposition of goods obtained on credit; 22 or attempts to evade the bankrupt law or to fraudu- lently secure the benefit of it; 23 providing for compositions with creditors, 23 * or avoiding assignments under state laws. 24 Con- 14 In re Silverman, 2 Abb. U. S. 243, 1 Saw. 410, Fed. Cas. No. 12,855. 15 In re Silverman, 2 Abb. U. S. 243, 1 Saw. 410, Fed. Cas. No. 12,855; In re Reiman, 7 Ben. 455, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673; Thompson v. Alger, 12 Met. 428. 16 Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill, 317; In re Klein, 1 How. 277, note, Fed. Cas. No. 7865. it In re Klein, 1 How. 277, note, Fed. Cas. No. 7865; In re Cali- fornia Pae. R, R., 3 Saw. 240, Fed. Cas. No. 2315; In re Silverman, 2 Abb. U. S. 243, 1 Saw. 410, Fed. Cas. No. 12,855; Morse v. Hovey, 1 Sand. Ch. 187; Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill. 317. 1R lu re Klein, 1 How. 277, note, Fed. Cas. No. 7865; State Bank v. Wilborn, 6 Ark. 35; Lalor v. Wattles, 3 Gilm. 225; Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill, 317; Land v. Pierce, 25 Me. 233; Thompson v. Alger, 12 Met. 425; Dresser v. Brooks, 3 Barb. 429; Hastings v. Fowler, 2 Ind. 216; Cutler v. Folsom, 17 N. H. 139; McCormiek v. Pickering, 4 N. Y. 276; Keen v. Mould, 18 Ohio, 12; Kowan v. Holcomb, 16 Ohio, 463. 19 In re Silverman, 2 Abb. U. S. 243, 1 Saw. 410, Fed. Cas. No. 12,855; In re Klein, 1 How. 277, note, Fed. Cas. No. 7865; In re Cali- fornia etc. R. R., 3 Saw. 242, Fed. Cas. No. 2315; Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill. 317; Sackett v. Andross, 5 Hill, 327; McCormiek v. Pickering, 4 N. Y. 3S2. 20 In re California etc. R. R., 3 Saw. 242, Fed. Cas. No. 2315; Van Nostrand v. Barr, 30 Md. 128. 21 Russell v. Cheatham, 16 Miss. 703. 22 United States v. Pusey, Fed. Cas. No. 16,098. 23 United States v. Fox, 95 U. S. 672, 24 L. ed. 538. 23a In re Reiman, 7 Ben. 455, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673. 24 In re Breneman, Crabbe, 456, Fed. Cas. No. 1830. 161 Bankruptcy Laws. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 gress is not forbidden to pass laws impairing the obligation of contracts, and a bankrupt act may provide for the discharge of a bankrupt from debts contracted before its passage, 25 and may destroy liens upon the bankrupt's property, whether created by contract, by statute, or by judgment; 26 but Congress cannot em- power the states to give a bankrupt exemption from debts cre- ated before the passage of the state exemption laws. 27 Congress may, however, declare what and how much of the debtor's prop- erty shall be exempt, 28 and state exemption laws in conflict must yield. 29 This clause authorizes the passage of laws giving juris- diction to district and circuit courts in bankruptcy matters and prescribing modes of procedure, 30 but state courts cannot be in- vested with jurisdiction in bankruptcy. 31 Powers of the States. The power given to Congress is not exclusive, and in the ab- sence of congressional action the states may enact insolvent laws. 32 It is the actual exercise of the power by Congress to 25 In re Klein, 1 How. 277. note, Fed. Cas. No. 7865; In re Smith, 22 Fed. Cas. 401; In re Smith, 2 Woods, 460, Fed. Cas. No. 12,996; In re Wyllie, 2 Hughes, 453, Fed. Cas. No. 18,112; State Bank v. Wilborn, 6 Ark. 35; Land v. Pierce, 25 Me. 233; Cutler v. Folsom, 17 N. H. 139; Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill, 317; Morse v. Hovey, 1 Barb. Ch. 404. 26 In re Jordan, Fed. Cas. No. 7514; Bank of Columbia v. Over- street, 10 Bush (Ky.), 48. 27 Gunn v. Barry, 8 Bank. Eeg. 1; In re Dillard, 9 Bank. Keg. 16, 2 Hughes, 190, Fed. Cas. No. 3912; In re Everett, 9 Bank. Beg. 93, Fed. Cas. No. 4579. 2S In re Keiman, 7 Ben. 455, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673; Salentine v. Fink, 8 Biss. 503, Fed. Cas. No. 12,250. 29 In re Brown, 3 Bank. Beg. 61, Fed. Cas. No. 1980; Common- wealth v. Kimball, 24 Pick. 359, 35 Am. Dee. 326. 30 Mitchell v. Great Works etc. Co., 2 Story, 648, Fed. Cas. No. 9662; Sherman v. Bingham, 1 Low, 575, Fed. Cas. No. 12,733; Good- all v. Tuttle, 3 Biss. 219, Fed. Cas. No. 5533. 31 McLean v. Lafayette Bank, 3 McLean, 415, Fed. Cas. No. 88S6; Mitchell v. Great Works etc. Co., 2 Story, 648, Fed. Cas. No. 9662. 32 Sturges V. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 196, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 264, 275, 276, 307, 314, 360, 6 L. ed. 606; Bald- win v. Hale, 1 Wall. 228, 17 L. ed. 531; Cook v. Moffatt, 5 How. 316, Notes on Constitution — 11 ArE. I, § 8, CI. 4 Bankruptcy Laws. 162 pass bankrupt laws, and not the mere grant to Congress, that precludes its exercise on the part of the states. 33 This right of the states is not extinguished, but merely suspended, by the en- actment of a national bankrupt law. 34 State laws are not abrogated by the passage of a national act ; they continue in force up to the time when the national act goes into effect, and discharges granted under them are valid, 35 and where a state court has acquired jurisdiction in insolvency it may proceed to judgment. 36 This jurisdiction of the state court attaches as soon as it makes an order staying creditors from in- terference with the property of the debtor. 37 As to future cases under state laws, however, a national act suspends all jurisdic- 12 L. ed. 159; Bank of Tennessee v. Horn, 17 How. 161, 15 L. ed. 70; In re Eeiman, 7 Ben. 466, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673; Mather v. Nesbit, 4 McCrary, 506, 13 Fed. 873; Carling v. Seymour Lumber Co., 113 Fed. 483; State v. Ourran, 12 Ark. 352; Khodes v. Borden, 67 Cal. 8, 6 Pac. 850; Hempstead v. Eeed, 6 Conn. 490; Orr v. Lisso, 33 La. Ann. 477; Feleh v. Bugbee, 48 Me. 11, 77 Am. Dec. 204; Gorely v. Butler, 147 Mass. 12, 16 N. E. 737; Mather v. Bush, 16 Johns. 233, 8 Am. Dec. 313; In re Eeynolds, 8 E. I. 489, 5 Am. Eep. 617. 33 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 196, 4 L. ed. 520; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 275, 276, 6 L. ed. 606; New Lamp etc. Co. v. Ansonia etc. Co., 91 U. S. 661, 23 L. ed. 336; Adams v. Storey, 1 Paine, 79; Blanchard v. Eussell, 13 Mass. 1, 7 Am. Dec. 106; Betta v. Bagley, 29 Mass. 572; Pugh v. Bussel, 2 Blackf. 394; Alexander v. Gibson, 1 Nott & McC. 4S0. 34 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 196, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogilen v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 296, 6 L. ed. 606; In re Bruss-Eitter Co., 90 Fed. 652; Martin v. Berry, 37 Cal. 208; Van Nostrand v. Barr, 30 Md. 128; Boedefeld v. Eeed, 55 Cal. 299. 35 Martin v. Berry, 37 Cal. 209; Day v. Bardwell, 97 Mass. 250; Chamberlain v. Perkins, 51 N. H. 340; Augsbury v. Grossman, 10 Hun, S89; Eeed v. Taylor, 32 Iowa, 209, 7 Am. Eep. 180; In re Zeigeniuss, 2 Ired. 463. 36 Ex parte Christy, 3 How. 318, 11 L. ed. 603; In re Davis, 1 Saw. 262; Martin v. Berry, 37 Cal. 209; Meekins v. Creditors, 10 La. Ann. 497; Baum v. Stern, 1 S. C. 419; Augustine v. McFarland, 2 Fed. Cas. 214; Doremus v. Walker, 8 Ala. 200, 42 Am. Dec. 638; Eeed v. Taylor, 32 Iowa, 209, 7 Am. Eep. 180; Lavinder v. Gosnell, 43 Md. 163; Larrabee v. Talbott, 5 Gill, 426, 46 Am. Dec. 637; Longis v. Creditors, 20 La. Ann. 15; Judd v. Ives, 4 Met. 401; Minot v. Thacher, 48 Mass. 348, 41 Am. Dec. 444. 37 Martin v. Berry, 37 Cal. 208; Meekins v. Creditors, 19 La. Ann. 511. 163 Bankkuptcy Laws. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 tion upon becoming operative, 38 and in such cases the courts will grant motions to dismiss proceedings in state courts, 39 or will enjoin assignees under state laws from interfering with debtor's property. 40 State laws relating to insolvent corpora- tions are superseded by a national act, jurisdiction to decree for- feiture of charters only remaining, 41 and where a corporation has been dissolved under a state law, it is to be deemed to be still in existence for the purpose of proceedings under the national act. 42 A provision in a state law prohibiting transfers by in- solvent corporations with intent to give preferences is superseded by a national act, 43 as also is a law permitting attachments in cases which would authorize proceedings in bankruptcy. 44 An assignment under a state law which has been suspended by a national act is good as between the parties thereto, although it would not be as against creditors objecting. 45 State laws being merely suspended by the enactment of a na- tional act, it follows that upon the repeal of the national act they are ipso facto revived, and no re-enactment is necessary, 40 and this principle has been extended so far as to holding that a 38 New Lamp etc. Co. v. Ansonia etc. Co., 91 TJ. S. 661, 23 L. ed. 336; Corner v. Miller, 1 Bank. Beg. 403; Commonwealth v. O'Hara, 1 Bank. Eeg. 19; Perry v. Langley, 2 Bank. Eeg. 180, Fed. Cas. No. 8067; Van No-strand v. Barr, 30 Md. 128; Martin v. Berry, 37 Cal. 208; Cassard v. Kroner, 4 Bank. Eeg. 569; In re Eeynolds, 8 E. T. 485, 5 Am. Eep. 615; Eowe v. Page, 54 N. H. 190; In re Eames, 2 Story, 322, Fed. Cas. No. 4237. 39 In re Eeynolds, 8 E. I. 490, 5 Am. Eep. 618. 40 Griswold v. Pratt, 9 Met. 17; Markson v. Haney, 1 Dill. 503, Fed. Cas. No. 9098; Ex parte Eames, 2 Story, 325, Fed. Cas. No. 4237; Hudson v. Schwab, 12 Fed. Cas. 815; In re Pittelkow, 92 Fed. 903. 41 Thorndyke v. Bank, 1 Woods, 8 Fed. Cas. No. 13,992; In re Mer- chants' Ins. Co., 3 Biss. 162, Fed. Cas. No. 9441; In re Independent Ins. Co., 1 Holmes, 103, Fed. Cas. No. 7017; Piatt v. Archer, 9 Blatchf. 559, Fed. Cas. No. 11,213. 42 In re Independent Ins. Co., 1 Holmes, 103, Fed. Cas. No. 7017; Thorndyke v. Bank, 1 Woods, 8, Fed. Cas. No. 13,992. 43 French v. O'Brien, 52 How. Pr. 394. 44 Tobin v. Trump, 3 Brewst. 288. 45 Boese v. King, 108 U. S. 386, 2 S. Ct. 765, 27 L. ed. 760; Castel- fcerg v. Wheeler, 68 Md. 281, 12 Atl. 8. 46 Butler v. Gorely, 146 U. S. 313, 13 S. Ct. 88, 36 L. ed. 9S1. Ait. I, § 8, CI. 1 Bankruptcy Laws. 161 discharge under a state law so revived extended to debts in- curred during the suspension of the statute. 47 A state law passed while the national act is in force is not invalid; its op- eration is merely suspended, and upon the repeal of the national act it becomes effective. 48 What State Laws Remain Operative. A national bankrupt law does not necessarily suspend all state laws relating to insolvency; only those laws which are in con- flict with the national act are affected. 49 State laws remain in full force with respect to matters over which the general law declines to take jurisdiction, 50 and with respect to matters wherein the amount involved is less than that prescribed in the general law. 51 State laws regulating assignments for the bene- fit of creditors but not discharging debtors from their debts, are not suspended; 52 such a provision is not necessarily a part of an insolvency law, 53 but an assignment made as part of the pro- ceedings under a state insolvency law is void while a national 47 Boedefeld v. Reed, 55 Cal. 301; In re Damon, 70 Me. 154; Palm- er v. Hixon, 74 Me. 448. 48 Tua v. Carriere, 117 TJ. S. 210, 6 S. Ct. 555, 29 L. ed. 855; Seattle Coal Co. v. Thomas, 57 Cal. 197; Baum v. Raphael, 56 Cal. 361; Palmer v. Hixon, 74 Me. 447. 49 Mayer v. Hellman, 91 TJ. S. 502, 23 L. ed. 377; Chandler v. Saddle, 3 Dill. 477, Fed. Cas. No. 2594; Appeal of Geery, 43 Conn. 289, 21 Am. Rep. 653; Pugh v. Bussell, 2 Blackf. 394; Fisk v. Mont- gomery, 21 Da. Ann. 446; Clarke v. Ray, 1 Har. & J. 318. 50 In re Worcester County, 102 Fed. 808; In re Wilmington Hosiery Co., 102 Fed. 808; In re Scholtz, 106 Fed. 834; Appeal of Geery, 43 Conn. 2S9, 21 Am. Rep. 653; Wendell v. Debon, 30 Minn. 234, 15 N. W. 109; Simpson v. City Sav. Bank, 56 N. H. 466. 51 Shepardson's Appeal, 36 Conn. 23. 52 Mayer v. Hellman, 91 U. S. 502, 23 D. ed. 377; In re Sievers, 91 Fed. 368; Davis v. Bohle, 92 Fed. 326; In re Hawkins, 34 Conn. 348; Reed v. Taylor, 32 Iowa, 209; Maltbie v. Hotchkiss, 38 Conn. 80; Ebersole v. Adams, 10 Bush, 83; Dinthicum v. Fenley, 11 Bush, 131. But see Perry v. Langley, 19 Fed. Cas. 284; Globe Ins. Co. v. Cleve- land Ins. Co., 10 Fed. Cas. 491; Griswold v. Pratt, 9 Met. 17. 53 Cook v. Rogers, 31 Mich. 391; Thrasiher v. Bentley, 1 Abb. N. C. 39. 1G5 Bankruptcy Laws. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 law is in operation. 54 A national act does not operate to sus- pend state laws which merely protect the person of the debtor from imprisonment and do not affect the contract; 55 laws abol- ishing imprisonment on civil process; 56 laws providing for the arrest and punishment of fraudulent debtors ; 57 laws prohibiting fraudulent conveyances ; 58 or laws enabling a creditor to prevent the departure of his debtor from the state. 59 A law for the settlement of the insolvent estates of deceased persons is not affected, 60 nor is the general equitable jurisdiction of state courts to wind up the affairs of an insolvent domestic corporation taken away until the institution of bankruptcy proceedings. 61 A state law providing for the protection of savings banks and their depositors is effective during the operation of a national bankrupt law. 62 A law authorizing a creditor to enforce by warrant the payment of debts for which the debtor has been prosecuted is not an insolvent law, and is not suspended by a national act. 63 - Validity of State Insolvent Laws and Discharges There- under. The power of the states to enact insolvent laws, in the ab- sence of national legislation, is subject to the constitutional prohibition against impairing the obligation of contracts; such a law operating upon contracts entered into before its passage 54 Howe v. Page, 54 N. H. 190; Shryock v. Bashore, 82 Pa. St. 159. 55 Sullivan v. Heiskell, Crabbe, 525, Fed. C'as. No. 13,594; Stock- well v. Silloway, 100 Mass. 287; Ex parte Jacobs, 12 Abb. Pr., N. S., 273; Jordan v. Hall, 9 E. I. 220. 58 In re Eeynolds, 8 E. I. 485, 5 Am. Eep. 615; In re Eank, Crabbe. 493, Fed. Cas. No. 11,566; Shears v. Solhinger, 10 Abb. Pr., N. S., 287; Steelman v. Mattix, 36 N. J. L. 344, 20 Am. Eep. 389. 57 Scully v. Kirkpatrick, 79 Pa. St. 324, 21 Am. Eep. 62; Bates v. Bowley, 33 Leg. Int. 202; Gregg v. Hilsen, 34 Leg. Int. 20. 5S Ebersole v. Adams, 10 Bush, 83. 59 Gottschalk v. Meyer, 28 La. Ann. 885. 60 Hawkins v. Learned, 54 N. H. 333. 61 Watson v. Citizens' Sav. Bank, 5 Eich. 159. 62 Simpson v. City Sav. Bank, 56 N. H. 466. 63 Berthelon v. Betts, 4 Hill, 577. Art. I, § 8, CI. -1 Bankruptcy Laws. 166 impairs the obligation of those contracts and is void. 64 An amendment to an existing insolvent law is subject to this pro- hibition where it reduces the number of creditors who may grant a release, or otherwise lessens the burden on the insol- vent. 65 If, however, the amendatory act is more favorable to creditors than the act amended, there can be no objection to a discharge on this ground. 66 A state law cannot discharge debts existing but not proved against the debtors estate at the time of its enactment ; 67 nor can it operate to dissolve an attachment previously levied. 68 A discharge under a state law cannot sus- pend the operation of the statute of limitations against assump- sit upon a contract made before the passage of the law, even though payment was not due until after. 69 The merger of a previously contracted debt in a judgment after the passage of the act does not render the act operative as to such debt. 70 Creditors of a corporation who have accepted dividends under an assignment provided by a state insolvent law are estopped to set up the invalidity of the law and sue the stockholders for the unpaid residue of their debts. 71 In considering the operation of state insolvent laws the states are to be deemed foreign to each other, 72 and such laws cannot affect the rights of nonresident creditors, 73 whether such non- 64 Sturges v. CTowninshield, 4 Wheat. 196, 4 L. ed. 529; McMillan v. McNeill, 4 Wheat. 209, 4 L. ed. 552; Farmers' etc. Bank v. Smith. 6 Wheat. 134, 5 L. ed. 224; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat, 264, 275, 2*76, 6 L. ed. 606; Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 328, 12 L. ed. 447; Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 230, 17 L. ed. 531; Williams v. Bruffy, 96 U. S. 184, 24 L. ed. 716; Brown v. Smart, 145 U. S. 457, 12 S. Ct. 958, 36 L. ed. 773; Smith v. Mead, 3 Conn. 256, 8 Am. Dee: 184; Boardman v. De Forest, 5 Conn. 12; Schwartz v. Drinkwater, 70 Me. 410; Boosevelt v. Cebra, 17 Johns. 10S; Salters v. Tobias, 3 Paige Ch. 344; Elton v. O'Connor, 6 N. Dak. 6, 68 N. W. 8K 65 In re Wendell, 19 Johns. 153. 66 Hundley v. Chaney, 65 Cal. 363, 4 Pac. 238. 67 Schwartz v. Drinkwater, 70 Me. 410. 68 Peabody v. Stetson, 88 Me. 279, 34 Atl. 76. 69 Sacia v. De Graff, 1 Cow. 358. 70 Conway v. Seamons, 55 Vt. 11, 45 Am. Rep. 581. 71 Van Hook v. Whitloek, 26 Wend. 53, 37 Am. Dec. 248. 72 Cook v. Moffatt, 5 How. 308, 309, 12 L. ed. 159; Beers v. Rhea, 5 Tex. 354. 73 Sturges v. Crowninshicld, 4 Wheat. 207, 4 L. ed. 529; McMillan 167 Bankruptcy Laws. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 residents be citizens of the United States or foreigners. 74 So actions upon negotiable paper payable to nonresidents cannot be barred by a discharge in insolvency, 75 and this is true, al- though the paper was originally drawn between residents and v. McNeill, 4 Wheat. 212, 4 L. ed. 552; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 255, 262, 357, 6 L. ed. 606; Suydam v. Broadnax, 14 Pet. 75, 10 L. ed. 357; Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 228, 17 L. ed. 531, affirming 1 CM. 514, Fed. Cas. No. 5913; Denny v. Bennett, 128 U. S. 497, 9 S. Ct. 137, 32 L. ed. 491; Satterthwaite v. Ambercrombie, 23 Blatchf. 309, 24 Ted. 544; Newton v. Hagerman, 10 Saw. 462, 22 Fed. 526; Von G-lahn v. Varrenne, 1 Dill. 515, Fed. Cas. No. 16,994; Mather v. Nes- bit, 13 Fed. 872; Emery v. Greenough, 3 Dall. 369, 1 L. ed. 640; Woodhull v. Wagner, Baldw. 296, Fed. Cas. No. 17,975; Babcock v. Weston, 1 Gall. 168, Fed. Cas. No. 703; Hinkley v. Mareau, 3 Mason, 88, Fed. Cas. No. 6523; Campbell v. Claudius, 1 Pet. C. C. 484, Fed. Cas. No. 2356; Springer v. Foster, 2 Story, 383, Fed. Cas. No. 13,266; Atwater v. Townsend, 4 Conn. 47, 10 Am. Dec. 97; Norton v. Cook, 9 Conn. 314, 23 Am. Dec. 342; Van Eaugh v. Van Arsdale, 3 Caines, 154, 2 Am. Dee. 159; Collins v. Eodolph, 3 Greene (Iowa), 299; Pugh v. Bussell, 2 Blaokf. 394; Bancher v. Fisk, 33 Me. 316; Feleh v. Bugbee, 48 Me. 13, 77 Am. Dec. 206; Braynard v. Marshall, 1 Pick. 196; Phelps v. Borland, 103 N. Y. 410, 57 Am. Eep. 756, 9 N. E. 309; Smith v. Smith, 2 Johns. 235, 3 Am. Dee. 410; Frey v. Kirk, 4 Gill & J. 509, 23 Am. Dec. 581; Watson v. Bourne, 10 Mass. 337, 6 Am. Dec. 129; Potter v. Kerr, 1 Md. Ch. 275; Vanuxem v. Hazel- hursts, 1 Southard 550, 7 Am. Dec. 552; Main v. Messner, 17 Or. 79, 20 Pac. 255; Shelton v. Wade, 14 Tex. 52, 51 Am. Deo. 722; Bedell v. Seranton, 54 Vt. 494. 74 McMillan v. McNeill, 4 Wheat. 212, 4 L. ed. 552; Pratt v. Chase, 44 N. Y. 597, 4 Am. Eep. 71S. 75 Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 232, 17 L. ed. 531, affirming 1 Cliff. 515, Fed. Cas. No. 5913; Baldwin v. Bank of Newbury, 1 Wall. 239, 17 L. ed. 534; Byrd v. Badger, 1 McCall, 265, Fed. Cas. No. 2265; Springer v. Foster, 2 Story, 387, Fed. Cas. No. 13,266; Ehodes v. Borden, 67 Cal. 9, 6 Pac. 851; Kelley v. Drury, 9 Allen, 29; Fareira v. Keevil, 18 Mo. 188; Beers v. Ehea, 5 Tex. 349. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 Bankruptcy Laws. 168 indorsed to a nonresident. 76 Otherwise, if it was indorsed after maturity, 77 unless before the petition was filed. 77a It is immaterial where the contract was made or is payable, 78 but where, at the time of the discharge, both debtor and cred- itor are residents of the same state, the subsequent removal of the creditor to another state or the assignment of his rights to a nonresident, cannot remove the bar; 79 nor can a resident creditor proceed against the property of the insolvent in an- other state after the discharge of the latter. 80 It has been held also that the removal of a resident creditor, even before the discharge was granted, will not bar the release of his debt. 81 A discharge of a debtor in one state which necessarily leaves the contract in force in another state can have no effect to discharge the debtor in the latter state, either from an action on the con- 76 Stevenson v. King, 2 Cliff. 2, Fed. Gas. No. 13,417; Towne v. Smith, 1 Wood. & M. 122, Fed. Cas. No. 14,115; Anderson v. Wheeler, 25 Conn. 607; Savoye v. Marsh, 10 Met. 595, 43 Am. Dec. 452; Phoenix Bank v. Batchelder, 151 Mass. 591, 24 N. Ef 918, 8 L. E. A. 644; Donnell v. Lewis Oounty Bank, 80 Mo. 172; Newmarket Bank v. Butler, 45 N. H. 236; Donnelly v. Corbett, 7 N. Y. 500; Ballard v. Webster, 9 Abb. Pr. 404; Smith v. Gardner, 4 Bosw. 54; Chase v. Flagg, 48 Me. 182; Felch v. Bugbee, 48 Me. 9, 77 Am. Dec. 203; Houghton v. Maynard, 71 Mass. 552. 77 Hall v. Boardman, 14 N. H. 38. 77a Fessenden v. Willey, 84 Mass. 67, 79 Am. Dec. 762. 78 Boyle v. Zacharie, 6 Pet. 348, 8 L. ed. 423; Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 223, 17 L. ed. 531; Babeock v. Weston, 1 Gall. 169, Fed. Cas. No. 703; Agnew v. Piatt, 15 Pick. 420; Marsh v. Putnam, 60 Mass. 551; Glenn v. Clabaugh, 65 Md. 69, 3 Atl. 904; Pinckney v. Lanohan, 62 Md. 450; Larrabee v. Talbott, 5 Gill, 438, 46 Am. Dec. 642; East- erly v. Goodwin, 35 Conn. 284, 95 Am. Dec. 238; Hawley v. Hunt, 27 Iowa, 307, 1 Am. Rep. 274. But see Smith v. Mead, 3 Conn. 253, 8 Am. Dec. 183. 79 Von Glahn v. Varrenne, 1 Dill. 517, Fed. Cas. No. 16,994; Thomas v. Crow, 6'5 Gal. 471, 4 Pac. 448; Pugh v. Bussell, 2 Blackf. 400; Brighani v. Henderson, 1 Cush. 432, 48 Am. Dec. 611; Stone v. Tibbetts, 26 Me. 112; Peck v. Hibbard, 26 Vt. 704, 62 Am. Dec. 609. so Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 114, 10 S. Ct. 271, 33 L. ed. 538; Burlock v. Taylor, 16 Pick. 341; Bank of Utica v. Card, 7 Ohio, pt. 2, 170. 81 Brigham v. Henderson, 1 Cush. 430, 48 Am. Dec. 610; Converse v. Bradley, 1 Cush. 434; Stoddard v. Harrington, 100 Mass. 87, 1 Am. Bep. 92; Stevens v. Norris, 30 N. H. 466. 169 Bankruptcy Laws. Art. I, § 8, CI. 4 tract in that state, 82 or from arrest and imprisonment there; 83 but where both parties were residents a discharge will bar a suit by the creditor in any other jurisdiction, 84 although the creditor be an alien. 85 Nonresident judgment creditors are also protected by this rule, whether their judgments were obtained in the state of discharge or not; the mere pursuit of a claim in the courts of the debtor's domicile does not operate as a waiver of the cred- itor's extraterritorial immunity from the effect of the dis- charge. 86 Undoubtedly where a creditor submits himself per- sonally to the jurisdiction of the courts in the discharging' state, 87 or has submitted his claim to the jurisdiction by pre- senting it to the assignee, 88 he is concluded by a discharge. 'But such submission to the jurisdiction must have been un- equivocal, 89 and voluntary, with the apparent intent to waive extraterritorial immunity. 90 Such a waiver may be shown by the creditor's making himself a party to the insolvency pro- 82 Cook v. Moffatt, 5 How. 308, 12 L. ed. 159; Beers v. Ehea, 5 Tex. 354; Hinckley v. Mareau, 2 Mason, 89, Fed. Cas. No. 6523; Woodbridge v. Wright, 3 Conn. 526. 83 Woodhull v. Wagner, 1 Baldw. 297, Fed. Cas. No. 17,975; Judd v. Porter, 7 Me. 340; Wood v. Malin, 16 N. J. L. 209. 84 Hempstead v. Keed, 6 Conn. 480; Williams v. Guignard, 2 How. (Miss.) 724; Pitkin v. Thompson, 30 Mass. 64; Hall v. Boardman, 14 N. H. 38; Wheelock v. Leonard, 20 Pa. St. 440; Urton v. Hunter, 2 W. Va. 83. 85 Von Glahn v. Varrenne, 1 Dill. 515, Fed. Cas. No. 16,994. 86 Worthington v. Jerome, 5 Blatchf. 279, Fed. Cas. No. 18,054; Donnelly v. Corbett, 7 N. Y. 503; Soule v. Chase, 39 N. Y. 344; Murphy v. Manning, 134 Mass. 489; Evans v. Sprigg, 2 Md. 470; Potter v. Kerr, 1 Md. Ch. 281; Poe v. Duck, 5 Md. 6; Wyman v. Mitchell, 1 Cow. 316; Watson v. Bourne, 10 Mass. 337, 6 Am. Dec. 129; McCarty v. Gibson, 5 Gratt. 307; Hawley v. Hunt, 27 Iowa, 303, 1 Am. Eep. 273; Whitney v. Whiting, 35 N. H. 466. But see Davidson v. Smither, 1 Biss. 349; Betts v. Bagley, 29 Mass. 572. 8T Von Glahn v. Varrenne, 1 Dill. 517, Peel. Cas. No. 16,994. 88 Eosenheim v. Morrow, 37 Fla. 188, 20 South. 245; Brown orts copyright opinions, syllabi, and statements of cases pre- pared by the judges, 41 but a reporter is an author to the extent of his own compositions in the reports and as to such matter is entitled to copyright. 42 A state is not a "person" entitled to protection under the copyright laws. 43 This clause does not au- thorize the protection of a composition which is grossly inde- cent and tends to corrupt the morals of the people. 44 A series of photographs arranged for use in a machine so as to produce a panoramic effect are not entitled to copyright. 45 A news- paper in its entirety is not the subject of a general copyright. 46 It seems that in the absence of congressional legislation upon this subject the states may protect literary productions, 47 but 35 Higgins v. Keuffel, 140 U. S. 430, 11 S. Ct. 731, 35 L. ed. 470; Baker v. Selden, 101 U. S. 102, 25 L. ed. 841; Holmes v. Hurst, 174 U. S. 85, 19 S. Ct. 606, 43 L. ed. 904. 30 Baker v. Selden, 101 U. S. 103, 25 L. ed. 841. 37 Burrows etc. Lith. Co. v. Sarony, 111 U. S. 58, 4 S. Ct. 279, 28 L. ed. 349, affirming 17 Fed. 591; Thornton v. Schreaber, 124 U. S. 613, 8 S. Ct. 618, 31 L. ed. 577, affirmuig 17 Fed. 603; Press Pub. Co. v. Falk, 59 Fed. 324. 38 Perris v. Hexamer, 99 U. S. 676, 25 L. ed. 308. 39 Baker v. Selden, 101 U. S. 100, 25 L. ed. 841. 40 Banks v. Manchester, 128 U. S. 253, 9 S. Ct. 39, 32 L. ed. 425. 41 Banks v. Manchester, 23 Fed. 145; West Pub. Co. v. Lawyer's Co-op. etc. Co., 64 Fed. 364, 25 L. E. A. 441. 42 Callaghan. v. Myers, 128 U. S. 647, 9 S. Ct. 184, 32 L. ed. 547; Little v. Gould, 2 Blatchf. 364, Fed. Cas. No. 8395; Howell v. Miller, 91 Fed. 138. 43 Banks v. Manchester, 128 IT. S. 253, 9 S. Ct. 39, 32 L. ed. 425. 44 Martinetti v. Maguire, Deady, 216, 1 Abb. U. S. 356>, Fed. Cas. No. 9173. 45 Edison v. Lubin, 119 Fed. 993. 46 Tribune Co. v. Associated Press, 116 Fed. 126. 4 7 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 365, 12 L. ed. 702; Moore v. Illinois, 183 Patents and Copyeights. Art. I, § 8, CI. 8 a state can in no way interfere with copyrights acquired under federal laws. 48 Patents. The power of Congress in relation to patents is plenary, 49 and it cannot be limited, controlled, or even exercised by the states. 50 There is no restriction upon Congress as to the time for which protection shall be granted, 51 nor as to the nature of the invention which shall be subject to patent; all that is required is that there be an invention. 52 The purpose of this clause is to "promote the progress of science and useful arts" ; 53 to reward substantial discoveries. 54 The language of the clause limits Congress to the protection 14 How. 20, 14 L. ed. 306; Briggs v. Johnson Co., 1 Dill. 151, Fed. Cas. No. 1872; Livingstone v. Van Ingen, 9 Johns. 507. 48 Little v. Gould, 2 Blatehf. 165, Fed. Cas. No. 8394. 49 Evans v. Eaton, 3 Wheat. 454, 4 L. ed. 433, 7 Wheat. 356, 5 L. ed. 472; Evans v. Hettich, 7 Wheat. 453, 5 L. ed. 496; MeClurg v. Kingsland, 1 How. 202, 11 L. ed. 102; Brown v. Duchesne, 19 How. 195, 15 L. ed. 595; Blanchard v. Sprague, 3 Sum. 541, Fed. Cas. No. 1518. 50 Woolen v. Banker, 2 Flipp. 33, Fed. Cas. No. 18,030; Ex parte Eobinson, 2 Bias, 309, Fed. Cas. No. 11,932; Helm v. First Nat. Bank, 43 Ind. 167, 13 Am. Eep. 395; Grover etc. Co. v. Butler, 53 Ind. 454, 21 Am. Eep. 200; Cranson v. Smith, 37 Mich. 309; Hollida v. Hunt, 70 111. Ill, 22 Am. Eep. 65. 51 Evans v. Jordan, 9 Cr. 199, 3 L. ed. 704; Jordan v. Dobson, 4 Fish. 232, 2 Abb. U. S. 398, Fed. Cas. No. 7519; Blanchard v. Sprague, 3 Sum. 535, 2 Story, 164. 52 Evans v. Jordan, 9 Cr. 199, 3 L. ed. 704; Jordan v. Dobson, 4 Fish. 232, 2 Abb. U. S. 398, Fed. Cas. No. 7519; Blanchard v. Sprague, 2 Story, 164, 3 Sum. 535. 53 Grant v. Eaymond, 6 Pet. 218, 8 L. ed. 376; Hogg v. Emerson, 6 How. 486, 2 L. ed. 505; Brooks v. Fiske, 15 How. 223, 14 L. ed. 665; Blanchard v. Sprague, 2 Story, 164, 3 Sum. 535. 54 Atlantic Works v. Brady, 107 U. S. 200, 2 S. Ct. 296, 27 L. ed. 438; Slawson v. Grand St. E. E., 107 U. S. 655, 2 S. Ct. 663, 27 L. ed. 576. Art, I, § 8, CI. 8 Patents and Copyrights. 184 of "useful" inventions. 55 "Invention' implies originality, 56 novelty, 57 the finding out, contriving or creating something which did not exist before. 58 The utility of a device cannot entitle one to a patent; however useful it may be, if not new, it is not patentable. 59 An invention must be the product of the inventor's mind, 60 and not the result of mere mechanical skill; 01 but a mental conception not reduced to definite physi- cal representation is not an invention. 62 The law authorizing the grant of patents for designs was intended to encourage the decorative arts, and. contemplated ap- pearance rather than utility; 63 but utility is an element for 55 Seymour v. Osborne, 11 Wall. 549, 20 L. ed. 33; O'Reilly v. Morse, 15 How. 119, 14 L. ed. 601; Strobridge v. Lindsay, 2 Fed. 695; Gottfried v. Phillip Best B. Co., 10 Fed. Caa. 851; Judson v. Bradford, 14 Fed. Gas. 9. 50 Blake v. Stafford, 3 Fish. 305, 6 Blatchf. 195, Fed. Cas. No. 1504. 57 Pennock v. Dialogue, 2 Pet. 20, 7 L. ed. 327. 58 Le Roy v. Tatham, 14 How. 177, 14 L. ed. 367; Aron v. Man- hattan Ry., 132 U. S. 90, 10 S. Ct. 24, 33 L. ed. 272; Busell Trimmer Co. v. Stevens, 137 U. S. 433, 11 S. Ct. 154, 34 L. ed. 719; Magin v. Karle, 150 U. S. 392, 14 S. Ct. 155, 37 L. ed. 1118; Ransom v. Mayor, 1 Fish. 264, Fed. Cas. No. 11,573; Conover v. Roach, 4 Fish. 16, Fed. Cas. No. 3125; Union Gas Co. v. Doak, 88 Fed. 89. 59 Rubber-Tip Pencil Co. v. Howard, 20 Wall. 507, 22 L. ed. 410; Phillips v. Detroit, 111 U. S. 608, 4 S. Ct. 583, 28 L. ed. 532; Farmers' Mfg. Co. v. Spruks Mfg. Co., 119 Fed. 594. 60 Smith v. Nichols, 21 Wall. 118, 22 L. ed. 566; Packing Co. v. Provision Cos., 105 U. S. 572, 26 L. ed. 1172; Pitts v. Hall, 2 Blatchf. 234, Fed. Cas. No. 11,192. 61 Collar Co. v. Van Dusen, 23 Wall. 563, 23 L. ed. 128; Rechen- dorfer v. Faber, 92 U. S. 356, 23 L. ed. 719; King v. Gallun, 109 U. S. 101, 3 S. Ct. 85, 27 L. ed. 870; Hollister v. Benedict etc. Mfg. Co., 113 U. S. 73, 5 S. Ct. 717, 28 L. ed. 901; Weir v. Morden, 125 U. S. 108, 8 S. Ct. 869, 31 L. ed. 645; Potts v. Creager, 155 U. S. 608, 15 S. Ct. 194, 39 L. ed. 275; Dodge Mfg. Co. v. Ohio etc. Works, 101 Fed. 584. 62 Clark Thread Co. v. Williamantic Linen Co., 140 U. S. 489, 11 S. Ct. 846, 35 L. ed. 521; Wicke v. Ostrum, 103 U. S. 469, 26 L. ed. 409; Morley Co. v. Lancaster, 23 Fed. 344; Campbell Press Co. v. Duplex Press Co., 86 Fed. 320. 63 Gorham Co. v. White, 14 Wall. 524, 20 L. ed. 731; Wood v. Dolbey, 19 Blatchf. 215. 7 Fed. 477; Smith v. Stewart, 55 Fed. 482; Pelouze Scale etc. Co. v. American Cutlery Co., 102 Fed. 916; Bevin 185 Patents and Copyrights. Art. I, § 8, CI. 8 consideration in determining the validity of such a patent. 64 Patents for designs, like other patents, must show originality and inventive faculty. 63 The protection accorded by Congress under this clause is exclusively to the inventor; 66 by his patent he acquires prop- erty in his invention which is ec titled to protection to the same extent as any other property, 67 and as capable of sale or as- signment. 68 Accordingly, no one is entitled to a patent un- less he is the inventor or can show a legal title derived from the inventor, or by operation of law. 69 The right of a patentee under his letters patent is exclusive of the government as well as all others. 70 and, like any other property, cannot be ap- propriated without compensation. 71 A patent is to be con- strued liberally, "so as to promote the progress of the useful arts," 72 and the object of the patent laws should not be de- feated by too strict an adherence to the letter of the statute, 73 Bros. Mfg. Co. v. Starr Bros. Bell Co., 114 Fed. 362; Eaton v. Lewis, 115 Fed. 635. 64 Smith v. Whitman Co., 148 U. S. 678, 13 S. Ct. 770, 37 L. ed. 606; Untermeyer v. Freund, 37 Fed. 345. 65 Smith v. Whitman Co.. 148 IT. S. 679, 13 S. Ct. 770, 37 L. ed. 606; Eclipse Mfg. Co. v. Holland, 62 Fed. 468; Sagendorph v. Hughes, 95 Fed. 479; Perry v. Haskins, 111 Fed. 1002. 66 In re Brosnahan, 18 Fed. 62. 67 Seymour v. Osborne, 11 Wall. 533, 20 L. ed. 33; Consolidated Fruit Jar Co. v. Wright, 94 U. S. 96, 24 L. ed. 68; Cammeyer v. New- ton, 94 U. S. 226, 24 L. ed. 72. 68 Ager v. Murray, 105 TJ. S. 128, 26 L. ed. 942. 6» Agawam Co. v. Jordan, 7 Wall. 602, 19 L. ed. 177; Standard etc. Co. v. Peters etc. Co., 77 Fed. 645. 70 Hollister v. Benedict etc. Mfg. Co., 113 U. S. 67, 5 S. Ct. 717, 28 L. ed. 901; Belknap v. Schild, 161 TJ. S. 16, 16 S. Ct. 443, 40 L. ed. 599. 71 United States v. Burns, 12 Wall. 252, 20 L. ed. 388; James v. Campbell, 104 U. S. 358, 26 L. ed. 786; United States v. Palmer, 128 U. S. 271, 9 S. Ct. 104, 32 L. ed. 442; Belknap v. Schild, 161 U. S. 16, 16 S. Ct. 443, 40 L. ed. 599; Campbell v. James, 17 Blatehf. 54, Fed. Cas. No. 2361; Head v. Porter, 48 Fed. 487; McKeever v. United States, 14 Ct. of CI. 396. 73 Winans v. Dunsmead, 15 How. 341, 14 L. ed. 717. 73 Hogg v. Emerson, 6 How. 480, 12 L. ed. 505; Topliff v. Topliff, Art. I, § 8, CI. 8 Patents and Copyrights. 186 especially where an invention is a pioneer in the particular art or science, 74 and while the courts should hesitate to give a construction unjust to the public and individuals, 75 yet a patent law which is constitutional must be enforced without re- gard to considerations of policy or justice. 76 Patent laws cannot displace the police powers of the states, 77 and the right to manufacture and sell must be exercised in compliance with state laws. 78 So a patent for a plan for con- structing and drawing lotteries does not authorize the establish- ment of a lottery contrary to state laws, 79 nor does a patent for a medicine confer a right to prescribe the medicine. 80 Vendors of patented articles are bound to observe state Sunday laws. 81 The fact that a telephone is patented does not prevent a state from requiring the company using it to establish uni- form rates. 82 145 U. S. 171, 12 S. Ct. 825, 36 L. ed. 658; Keystone Mfg. Co. v. Adams, 151 U. S. 145, 14 S. Ct. 295, 38 L. ed. 103; McMichael etc. Co. v. Stafford, 105 Fed. 380. 74 Morley Machine Co. v. Lancaster, 129 TJ. S. 286, 9 S. Ct. 299, 32 L. ed. 715; Sessions v. Eomadka, 145 IT. S. 45, 12 1 S. Ct. 799, 36 L. ed. 609; Boyer v. Coupe, 146 U. S. 531, 13 S. Ct. 166, 36 L. ed. 1073; The Koller Mill Patent, 156 TJ. S. 269, 15 S. Ct. 333, 39 L. ed. 417; Lehigh Valley E. E. v. Kearney, 158 TJ. S. 476, 15 S. Ct. 871, 39 L. ed. 1055. 70 Wilson v. Bonsseau, 4 How. 680, 11 L. ed. 1141. 73 Bloomer v. Stolley, 5 McLean, 158, Fed. Cas. No. 1559. 77 Webber v. Virginia, 103 U. S. 347, 26 L. ed. 565; In re Brosna- han, 4 McCrary, 7, 18 Fed. 65; Eeeves v. Corning, 51 Fed. 786; Mason v. McLood, 57 Kan. 109, 57 Am. St. Eep. 329, 45 Pac. 76, 41 L. E. A. 549. 76 Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 U. S. 505, 24 L. ed. 1115. 79 Vaunini v. Paine, 1 Harr. 65. 80 Jordan v. Dayton, 4 Ohio, 294. Si People v. Ru?sel, 49 Mich. 619, 43 Am. Eep. 479, 14 N V W. 369. 82 State v. Telegraph Co., 47 Fed. 635; Central etc. Ted. Co. v. Bradbury, 106 Ind. 9, 5 N. E. 725. 187 Infeeiok Courts. Art. I, § 8, CI. 9 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; Extent of Power. Under this clause Congress may establish such inferior courts as it sees fit. 1 The creation of such courts by Congress does not, ipso facto, invest them with the judicial power delegated by the constitution; 2 legislation is necessary to give them judi- cial power, 3 and the distribution of this power is entirely within the control of Congress except in the cases especially enumerated in the constitution. 4 Jurisdiction may be conferred in all cases involving questions to which the constitution extends judicial power although other questions may be involved therein, 5 and, in some instances, jurisdiction may be withdrawn even in pending cases. 6 It rests entirely with Congress to determine at what time, and under what conditions, the power may be invoked. 7 State courts are not inferior courts within the meaning of this clause; 8 the courts contemplated are those only which exist un- der the constitution and laws of the United States, 9 and Con- i Stuart v. Laird, 1 Cr. 309, 2 L. ed. 115; United States v. Haynes, 29 Fed. 696, 697. 2 Turner v. Bank of North America, 4 Dall. 10, 1 L. ed. 718; Sheldon v. Sill, 8 How. 449, 12 L. ed. 1147; In re Sewing Machine Cos., 18 Wall. 557, 21 L. ed. 914; United States v. New Bedford Br., 1 Wood. & M. 431, Fed. Cas. No. 15,867; In re Cilley, 58 Fed. 978. 3 McClung v. Silliman, 6 Wheat. 604, 5 L. ed. 840; In re Barry, ]36 U. S. 609, note, 42 Fed. 122, Fed. Cas. No. 1059; Cary v. Curtis, 3 How. 245, 11 L. ed. 576; Fountain v. Revenel, 17 How. 384, 15 L. ed. 80. 4 Johnson Co. v. Wharton, 152 U. S. 260, 14 S. Ct. 152, 38 L. ed. 429. 5 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 823, 6 L. ed. 204. 6 Ex parte Terger, 8 Wall. 104, 19 L. ed. 332; In re Hall, 167 U. S. 42, 17 S. Ct. 725, 42 L. ed. 69. 7 Gaines v. Fuentes, 92 U. S. 18, 23 L. ed. 524; Whelan v. Railroad Co., 35 Fed. 859. 8 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 97, 2 L. ed. 554. 9 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 27, 5 L. ed. 19. Art. I, § 8, CI. 9 Inferior Courts. 188 gress cannot authoritatively confer jurisdiction upon state courts. 10 Territorial courts are not inferior courts which Con- gress may establish under this clause; 11 such courts are created under the power to make all needful rules and regulations re- specting territories. 12 The necessity for legislation to confer jurisdiction applies to criminal cases; the federal courts have no common-law jurisdiction of offenses. 13 The power to es- tablish courts and invest them with jurisdiction affords no pre- text for the abrogation of established rules of property; 14 hence, the decision of the supreme court of a state, as a rule of prop- erty, is binding on the federal courts. 15 Powers of States. Federal and state courts are distinct and independent of each other in matters within their respective jurisdictions. 16 State laws cannot confer jurisdiction upon federal courts, 17 or in any way affect the jurisdiction conferred by Congress. 18 iO Stearns v. United States, 2 Paine, 308, Fed. Cas. No. 13,341; Morgan v. Dudley, 18 B. Mon. 714, 68 Am. Dec. 739; Davidson v. Champlin, 7 Conn. 248; Eushworth v. Judges, 58 N. J. L. 98, 32 Atl. 744. li American Ins. Co. v. 356 Bales of Cotton, 1 Pet. 546, 7 L. ed. 242. 12 United States v. C. O. & G. E. E., 3 Okla. 451, 41 Pac. 745; In re Dana, 68 Fed. 901.* 13 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 93, 2 L. ed. 554; United States v. Wilt- berger, 5 Wheat. 98, 5 L. ed. 37; Jones v. United States, 137 U. S. 211, 11 S. Ct. 80, 34 L. ed. 691; Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 262, 11 S. Ct. 559, 35 L. ed. 159. 14 Suydam v. Williamson, 24 How. 433, 16 L. ed. 742. 15 Jackson v. Chew, 12 Wheat. 162, 6 L. ed. 583; Henderson v. Griffin, 5 Pet. 155, 8 L. ed. 79; Van Eensselaer v. Kearney, 11 How. 318, 13 L. ed. 703; Beauregard v. New Orleans, 18 How. 502, 15 L. ed. 469; Barrett v. Holmes, 102 U. S. 655, 26 L. ed. 291; Forsyth v. Hammond, 166 U. S. 519, 17 S. Ct. 670, 41 L. ed. 1095. 10 Taylor v. Carryl, 20 How. 597, 15 L. ed. 1028; Euggles v. Simonton, 3 Biss. 329, Fed. Cas. No. 12,120; Gates v. Bucki, 53 Fed. 966. 17 Steamboat Orleans v. Phoebus, 11 Pet. 184, 9 L. ed. 677; Insur- ance Co. v. Morse, 20 Wall. 453, 22 L. ed. 365; Southern Pac. Co. v. Denton, 146 U. S. 209, 13 S. Ct. 44, 36 L. ed. 942. is United States v. Peters, 5 Cr. 138, 3 L. ed. 53; Beers v. Haugh- *See an. IV, § 3, el. 2. 189 Inferior Courts. Art. I, § 8, CI. 9 Forms of action and modes of proceeding in federal courts are matters for regulation by Congress/ 9 and when Congress has prescribed definite rules in matters of practice they are, to that extent, exclusive of state legislation upon the same matter. 20 ton, 9 Pet. 359, 9 L. ed. 145; Toland v. Spragne, 12 Pet. 330, 9 L. ed. 1093; Chicot Co. v. Sherwood, 148 U. S. 534, 13 S. Ct. 695, 37 L. ed. 546. 19 Kearney v. Farmers' etc. Bank, 16 Pet. 94, 10 L. ed. 897. 20 Southern Pac. Co. v. Denton, 146 U. S. 209, 13 S. Ct. 44, 36 L. ed. 942. Art. I, § 8, CI. 10 Piracy. 190 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies commit- ted on the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations; Definition. To define is to enumerate the crimes which shall constitute piracy, 1 but while Congress is given power to thus define piracy, it need not do so, in terms; reference to the law of nations for a definition is sufficient. 2 The act of Congress of April 30, 1890, gives to federal courts power to punish the offense of murder or robbery committed on board a foreign vessel by a citizen of the United States; on board a United States vessel by a foreigner; by a citizen or foreigner on board a piratical vessel. 3 A piratical vessel is one which has thrown off its national character, 4 and holds no commission from a sovereign state. 5 Piracy committed by such a vessel, even against a foreign ves- sel, is punishable in the United States courts. 6 The crime is one against all nations including the United States; 7 pirates are the common enemies of mankind. 8 Eobbery or forcible depredation on the sea, animus furandi, is piracy. 9 The word "piratical" in the act of 1819 imports an aggression unauthor- ized by the law of nations, hostile in its character, wanton and criminal in its commission, and without sanction from any foreign power. 10 Thus maritime warfare of unrecognized rebels 1 United States v. Smith, 5 Wheat. 158, 5 L. ed. 57. 2 United States v. Smith, 5 Wheat. 158, 5 L. ed. 57; United States v. Pirates, 5 Wheat. 197, 5 L. ed. 64; and see Crapo v. Kelly, 16 Wall. 629, 21 L. ed. 438. 3 United States v. Holmes, 5 Wheat. 417, 5 L. ed. 122. 4 United States v. Pirates, 5 Wheat. 192, 5 L. ed. 64. 5 Davison v. Sealskins, 2 Paine, 333, Fed. Cas. No. 3,661. 6 United States v. Klintock, 5 Wheat. 151, 5 L. ed. 557. 7 Case of Jose Ferreira dos Santos, 2 Brock. 507, Fed. Cas. No. 4016. 8 The Marianna Flora, 11 Wheat. 40, 6 L. ed. 405. 9 United States v. Smith, 5 Wheat. 193, 5 L. ed. 57; United States v. Pirates, 5 Wheat. 197, 5 L. ed. 64. 10 United States v. The M.alek Adhel, 2 How. 232, 11 L. ed. 239. 191 Piracy. Art. I, § 8, CI. 10 is piratical. 11 Actual plunder is not necessary; 11 * any molesta- tation of third parties by insurgent vessels before the recogni- tion of belligerency constitutes piracy. 12 Slave trade, not be- ing contrary to the law of nations, is not piracy; 13 but, on the other hand, native Africans unlawfully kidnaped cannot be deemed pirates if they take possession of the vessel to regain their liberty. 14 Congress may provide for the punishment of mutiny, 15 and of conspiracy to burn a ship. 16 A statute punishing the counterfeiting of foreign securities is valid as punishing an offense against the law of nations. 17 High Seas. According to the decisions of the English common-law courts, "high seas" means that portion of the sea which washes the open coast. 18 A vessel lying in an open roadstead of a foreign coun- try is upon the high seas. 19 The term is used in contradistinc- tion to landlocked tidewaters, 20 and means without the limits of any port. 21 So a vessel upon a navigable river of a foreign 11 The Ambrose Light, 25 Fed. 416; United States v. Smith, 27 Fed. Cas. 1135. lia United States v. The Malek Adhel, 2 How. 232, 11 L. ed. 239. 12 United States v. The Three Friends, 167 U. S. 64, 17 S. Ct. 495, 41 L. ed. 897. 13 The Antelope, 10 Wheat. 121, 6 L. ed. 268. 14 United States v. The Amistad, 15 Pet. 593, 10 L. ed. 826. 15 United States v. Kelly, 11 Wheat. 418, 6 L. ed. 508; United States v. Seagrist, 4 Blatchf. 422, Fed. Cas. No. 16,245; United States v. Almeida, 24 Fed. Cas. 776; United States v. Huff, 13 Fed. 635. 16 United States v. Cole, 5 McLean, 513, Fed. Cas. No. 14,832. 17 United States v. Arjona, 120 U. S. 488, 7 S. Ct. 628, 30 L. ed. 72S. 18 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 453, 12 L. ed. 226; Morgan v. Naga- dish, 40 La. Ann. 252, 3 South. 639; People v. Supervisors, 73 N. Y. 397. 19 United States v. Pirates, 5 Wheat. 200, 5 L. ed. 64. 20 United States v. Wilson, 3 Blatchf. 439, Fed. Cas. No. 16,731. 21 The Harriet, 1 Story, 260, Fed. Cas. No. 6099; United States v. Grush, 5 Mason, 290, Fed. Cas. No. 15,268. Art I, § 8, CI. 10 Piracy. 192 nation is not upon the "high seas." 22 The Great Lakes are not "high seas" within the act punishing the burning of vessels. 23 22 United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 104, 5 L. ed. 37; Ex part* Byers, 32 Fed. 406; People v. Tyler, 7 Mich. 216, 74 Am. Dec. 711. 23 Henry Miller's Case, Brown Adm. 157, Fed. Cas. No. 9558. 193 War. Art. I, § 8, CI. 11 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and rep- risal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water; What Constitutes War. War is the external contention, by force, between some of the members of two nations, authorized by the legitimate pow- ers ;* that state in which a nation prosecutes its right by force. 2 It may be general or limited, 3 and may exist where one bellig- erent claims sovereign rights against the other; so where in- surrection becomes, by numbers and power, organized rebellion, it is civil war, in which both parties are conceded belligerent rights. 4 The war of the Eebellion was conducted as if it were with a foreign enemy, and important rights were conceded to the insurgent states, 5 and international law was applied to questions arising out of that war. 6 The relations between the United States and France in 1800 constituted limited hostilities, amounting to a state of war. 7 Declaration. A formal declaration is unnecessary; a recognition of a state of war by engaging in acts of hostility is sufficient. 8 The Presi- 1 Bas v. Tingy, 4 Dall. 40, 1 L. ed. 731. 2 Prize Cases. 2 Black, 666, 667, 17 L. ed. 459; Miller v. United States, 11 Wall. 306, 20 L. ed. 135. 3 Bas v. Tingy, 4 Dall. 43, 1 L. ed. 731. 4 Prize Cases, 2 Black, 666, 667, 17 L. ed. 459. 5 Coppell v. Hall, 7 Wall. 554, 19 L. ed. 244; Mutual etc. Co. v. Hillyard, 37 N. J. L. 489. c Ford v. Surget, 97 U. S. 604, 24 L. ed. 1018; Brown v. Hiatt, 1 Dill. 381, Fed. Cas. No. 2011; Phillips v. Hatch, 1 Dill. 576, Fed. Cas. No. 11,094. 7 Bas v. Tingy, 4 Dall. 39-46, 1 L. ed. 731; Talbot v. Seeman, 1 Cr. 33, 2 L. ed. 15; Clayton v. The Harmony, 1 Pet. Adm. 78, Fed. Cas. No. 2871. 8 Bas v. Tingy, 4 Dall. 39, 1 L. ed. 731; Talbot v. Seeman, 1 Cr. 28, 2 L. ed. 15; The Panama, 176 U. S. 535, 20 S. Ct. 480, 44 L. ed. 577; Griswold v. Waddington, 16 Johns. 449. Notes on Constitution — 13 Art. I, § 8, CI. 11 Wab. 194 dent has power to thus-recognize the existence of a state of war. 9 Such was the effect of the President's blockade proclamation of April 19, 1861, and the act of Congress of July 13, 1861 ; 10 in fact, the President's proclamations marked the beginning of the war of the Rebellion. 11 Acts of one nation may be deemed by another to be tantamount to a declaration of war in advance of any formal action by either. 12 Power Conferred. Congress alone has power to formally declare war, 13 but where the President finds an actual state of war existing he may take the necessary steps in the absence of congressional action. 14 The power was conferred upon Congress, not for purposes of aggression or aggrandizement, but to enable the general government to vindicate its own rights and those of its citizens, 15 and it can never be presumed that a war declared by Congress is waged for purposes of conquest or the acquisi- tion of territory, 16 although the power carries with it the power to acquire territory by conquest. 17 It includes the authority to use other means besides those indicated by the terms of the grant, 18 and contemplates all means and any manner in which 9 Prize Cases, 2 Black, 668, 17 L. ed. 459; Matthews v. McStea, 91 U. S. 12. 10 The William Bogaley, 5 Wall. 406, 407, 18 L. ed. 583; Matthews v. McStea, 91 U. S. 9, 23 L. ed. 188; Brown v. Hiatt, 1 Dill. 381, Fed. Cas. No. 2011; Philips v. Hatch, 1 Dill. 576, Fed. Cas. No. 11,094. 11 Levy v. Stewart 11 Wall. 253, 20 L. ed. 86; The Protector, 12 Wall. 702, 20 L. ed. 463. 12 The Pedro, 175 U. S. 354, 20 S. Ot. 138, 44 L. ed. 195. 13 Prize Cases, 2 Black, 668, 17 L. ed. 459; Perkins v. Rogers, 35 Ind. 144, 9 Am. Eep. 654. 14 Prize Cases, 2 Black, 668-670, 17 L. ed. 459; The Panama, 176 TJ. S. 535, 20 S. Ct. 480, 44 L. ed. 577. 15 Fleming v. Page, 9 How. 614, 13 L. ed. 276. io Fleming v. Page, 9 How. 614, 13 L. ed. 276; United States v. Castillero, 2 Black, 355, 17 L. ed. 360; American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 542, 7 L. ed. 242; Stewart v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 507, 20 L. ed. 176. 17 Sere v. Pitot, 6 Cr. 332, 3 L. ed. 240; Stewart v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 507, 20 L. ed. 176; Fleming v. Page, 9 How. 614, 13 L. ed. 276. is Prize Cases, 2 Black, 670, 17 L. ed. 459. 195 Was. Art. I, § 8, CI. 11 war may be legitimately prosecuted. 19 All acts tending to les- sen an adversary's strength are lawful. 20 The confiscation of enemies' property may be provided for by Congress, 21 but a declaration of war does not, ipso facto, work a confiscation of such property; 22 positive law authorizing it is necessary, 23 and the power to pass such a law is exclu- sively in Congress. 24 The act of Congress emancipating the slaves of those aiding in rebellion was valid under this power. 25 The authority conferred by this clause extends to all legisla- tion necessary to the prosecution of the war with vigor and suc- cess. 26 It is not limited to operations in the field and the dis- persion of the enemy, but carries with it the power to prosecute war to a termination, 27 and to guard against its renewal. 28 19 Miller v. United States, 11 Wall. 305, 20 L. ed. 135; Tyler v. Defrees, 11 Wall. 345, 20 L. ed. 161. 20 Young v. United States, 97 U. S. 60, 24 L. ed. 992; Ford v. Surget, 97 U. S. 605, 24 L. ed. 1018. 21 Miller v. United States, 11 Wall. 305, 20 L. ed. 135; Tyler v. Defrees, 11 Wall. 345, 20 L. ed. 161; Mrs. Alexander's Cotton, 2 Wall. 419, 17 L. ed. 915; The Ned, 1 Blatchf. Pr. Cas. 119, Fed. Cas. No. 10,078. 22 Brown v. Brown, 8 Cr. 123, 3 L. ed. 504; Conrad v. Waples, 96 U. S. 284, 24 L. ed. 721; Briggs v. United States, 143 U. S. 356, 12 S. Ct. 395, 36 L. ed. 180. 23 Conrad v. Waples, 96 U. S. 284, 24 L. ed. 721; Briggs v. United States, 143 U. S. 356, 12 S. Ct. 395, 36 L. ed. 180; United States v. Stevenson, 3 Ben. 120, Fed. Cas. No. 16,396; United States v. Shares of Stock, 5 Blatchf. 237, Fed. Cas. No. 15,961; Wagner v. The Juanita, Newb. 358, Fed. Cas. No. 17,039; McVeigh v. Bank, 26 Gratt. 200; Hedges v. Price, 2 W. Va. 231, 94 Am. Dec. 516. 24 Brown v. United States, 8 Cr. 123, 3 L. ed. 504; The Parkhill, 18 Fed. Cas. 1197; Britton v. Butler, 9 Blatchf. 462, Fed. Cas. No. 1903. 25 Buie v. Parker, 63 N. C. 131; Jacoway v. Denton, 25 Ark. 625. 26 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 139, 18 L. ed. 281. 27 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 457, 20 L. ed. 287; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400; Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 28 Stewnrt v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 507, 20 L. ed. 176; White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 646, 20 L. ed. 685; Baymond v. Thomas, 91 U. S. 715, 23 L. ed. 434. Art. I 3 § 8, CI. 11 War. 196 To this end Congress may call the requisite forces into service, 29 and provide for the transportation of troops through all parts of the Union by the most expeditious routes; 30 may prohibit! intercourse; 31 may relax the ordinary rules of war by permitting a limited commercial intercourse with the enemy upon such conditions as it sees fit. 32 So, also, Congress may suspend stat- utes of limitations during the existence of a rebellion. 33 Letters of Marque. Until Congress passes laws upon the subject of war and re- prisals, no private citizen can enforce such rights, 34 and letters are strictly limited by the law under which they are issued and the instructions of the executive. 35 Letters obtained by fraud are inoperative. 35 * Congress may commission privateers to» make captures within United States waters as well as upon the high seas. 36 . Rules Concerning Captures. The power to make these rules is not limited to captures on the high seas or on foreign territory; it extends to captures within the United States. 37 It is for Congress to determine what shall be subject to capture. 38 The power of Congress in respect to prizes is plenary, 39 and no one can have any in- terest in prizes captured except by permission of Congress. 40 29 Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 30 Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 36, 18 L. ed. 745. 31 Matthews v. MoStea, 91 XL S. 13, 23 L. ed. 188; Phelps v. Bowles, 19 Wend. 547. 32 Hamilton v. Dillin, 21 Wall. 97, 22 L. ed. 528. 33 Stewart v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 507, 20 L. ed. 176; May-field v. Rich- ards, 115 U. S. 142, 5 S. Ct. 1190, 29 L. ed. 334. 34 Brown v. United States, 8 Cr. 153, 3 L. ed. 504. 35 The Thomas Gibbons, 8 Cr. 428, 3 L. ed. 610. 3r.a The Experiment, 8 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 612. 36 The Joseph, 8 Cr. 455, 456, 3 L. ed. 621. 37 Brown v. United States, 8 Cr. 153, 3 L. ed. 504. 38 Lamar v. Browne, 92 U. S. 187, 23 L. ed. 650. 39 The Hampton, 5 Wall. 376, 18 L. ed. 646. *" The Siren, 13 Wall. 393, 20 L. ed. 505; United States v. Steever, 113 U. S. 754, 5 S. Ct. 769, 28 L. ed. 1133. 197 Army. Art. I, § 8, CI. 12 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; Extent of Power. The power of Congress under this clause is plenary and ex- clusive/ and includes all the means by which armies can be raised, whether by voluntary enlistment or compulsory draft. 2 An individual may be required to perform military duty with- out his consent if the demand is made by a proper exercise of the national will, 3 and minors may be enlisted without the consent of their parents. 4 The age at which the soldier shall be received, the period for which he shall serve, 5 and the time when his service shall be deemed to commence, are matters for Congress to determine. 6 The power includes the provision of necessary officers, equip- ments and supplies and the establishment of military acade- mies, 7 and the making of such orders and regulations as may be necessary to prevent an evasion of duty by those liable to service. 8 Congress has full power to legislate in the matter of the increase and reduction of the army. 9 1 Tarble's Case, 13 Wall. 408, 20 L. ed. 597; Ferguson v. Landram, 1 Bush, 548; Ex parte Bright, 1 Utah, 155. 2 Tartle's Case, 13 Wall. 408, 20 L. ed. 597; Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238; In re Griner, 23 Wis. 423; and see Ex parte Coupland, 26 Tex. 386. 3 United States v. Bainbridge, 1 Mason, 71, Fed. Cas. No. 14,497; Ex parte Coupland, 26 Tex. 394. 4 United States v. Bainbridge, 1 Mason, 71, Fed. Cas. No. 14,497; Ex parte Brown, 5 Cr. C. C. 554, Fed. Cas. No. 1972; United States v. Stewart, Crabbe, 205, Fed. Cas. No. 16,400; Commonwealth v. Murray, 4 Binn. 487, 5 Am. Dee. 412; Commonwealth v. Barker, 5 Binn. 423; Roberts' Case, 2 Hall L. J. 192; Commonwealth v. Gam- ble, 11 Serg. & R. 94. 5 Tarble's Case, 13 Wall. 408, 20 L. ed. 597. 6 Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 7 United States v. Rhodes, 1 Abb. U. S. 50, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151. 8 Allen v. Colby, 45 N. H. 544. 9 Street v. United States, 133 U. S. 307, 10 S. Ct. 309, 33 L. ed. 631. Art. I, § 8, CI. 12 Army. 198 Power of States. The power under this clause may be exercised by Congress without question from any state authority. 10 In the matter of a national conscription the states have no authority what- ever, and any aid rendered by them would be simply as vol- unteers; 11 but where Congress provides for a draft, a state may give a bounty to those who volunteer. 12 This power takes precedence over the power of the state over its militia. 13 State courts cannot discharge from enlistments upon habeas corpus, although such enlistments were illegal. 14 In such cases habeas corpus must be addressed to United States courts; 15 state courts have no jurisdiction to inquire into the illegality of an enlistment. 16 io Tarble's Case, 13 Wall. 408, 20 L. ed. 597. 11 Booth v. Woodbury, 32 Conn. 118. 1.2 Booth v. Woodbury, 32 Conn. 118; Taylor v. Thompson, 42 G-a. 9; Ooffman v. Keightly, 24 Ind. 509; Board v. Bearse, 25 Ind. 110; Winchester v. Corinna, 55 Me. 9; Wilson v. Burkman, 13 Minn. 441; Comer v. Folsom, 13 Minn. 219; State v. Demarest, 32 N. J. 528; State v. Ja«kson, 31 N. J. 189; Speer v. Directors, 50 Pa. St. 150; Ahl v. Gleim, 52 Pa. St. 324. 13 Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 14 Tarble's Case, 13 Wall. 397, 20 L. ed. 597, reversing 25 Wis. 390, 3 Am. Rep. 85; In re Farrand, 1 Abb. U. S. 146, Fed. Cas. No. 4678; In re Keeler, Hemp. 306, Fed. Cas. No. 7637; In re Neill, 8 Blatchf. 156, Fed. Cas. No. 10,089; In re Sprangler, 11 Micih. 298. Contra, State v. Dimmick, 12 N. H. 194, 37 Am. Dec. 197; In re Dobbs, 21 How. Pr. 68; In re Barrett, 42 Barb. 479; In re Reynolds, 6 Park. Cr. Rep. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 11,722. 15 Ex parte Rielly, 2 Abb. Pr., N. S., 334. J 6 Ex parte Yerger, 8 Wall. 85, 19 L. ed. 332. 199 Navy. Ait. I, § 8, CI. 13 13. To provide and maintain a navy; This grant authorizes Congress to buy or build vessels of war, to man, arm and equip them, and to establish naval academies. 1 and to provide for the punishment of desertion and other crimes, and make all needful rules for the government of the navy. 2 Ships of war of a friendly foreign power, are not subject to the jurisdiction of the United States while in our ports, 3 and are immune from United States laws so long as they respect the sovereignty of this government. 4 i United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 337, 4 L. ed. 404; United States v. Rhodes, 1 Abb. U. S. 50, Fed. Cas. No. 19,151. 2 Dynes v. Hoover, 20 How. 65; Smith v. Whitney, 116 U. S. 182, 6 S. Ct. 578, 29 L. ed. 601. 3 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 390, 4 L. ed. 404; The Ex- change v. MeFaddon, 7 Gr. 145, 3 L. ed. 287. 4 The Santissima Trinidad, 1 Brock. 497, Fed. Gas. No. 2563^ WaJley v. The Liberty, 12 La. 101, 32 Am. Dec. 115. Art. I, § 8, CI. 14 Military Law. 200 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces. The power of Congress to provide for the trial and punish- ment of military and naval offenses by courts-martial may be exercised under this clause, without regard to the Fifth Amend- ment, 1 and it cannot be abridged or in any way affected by the states through either their legislative or judicial departments. 2 Courts-martial are to be deemed special tribunals constituted for the purpose of enforcing the rules provided under this clause, and their proceedings within the scope of their juris- diction cannot be controlled or reviewed in the civil courts by prohibition or otherwise. 3 It is only where a court-martial has no jurisdiction of the person or the offense that the civil courts may revise or nullify its proceedings. 4 The power to establish rules implies, necessarily, the power to modify or repeal or to create anew. 5 Army and navy regu- lations authorized by Congress have the force of law, 6 and the same effect is given to department regulations by congressional recognition. 7 1 Dynes v. Hoover, 20 How. 65, 15 L. ed. 838; Ex parte Reed, 100 U. S. 21, 25 L. ed. 538; Ex parte Mason, 105 U. S. 701, 26 L. ed. 1213; Johnson v. Sayre, 158 U. S. 115, 15 S. Ct. 776, 37 L. ed. 914; In re Bogart, 2 Saw. 401, Fed. Gas. No. 1596. 2 In re Fair, 100 Fed. 149. 3 Dynes v. Hoover, 20 How. 81, 15 L. ed. 838; Wales v. Whitney, 114 U. S. 570, 5 S. Ct. 1050, 29 L. ed. 277; Smith v. Whitney, 116 U. S. 176, 6 S. Ct. 570, 29 L. ed. 601; Johnson v. Sayre, 158 TJ. S. 118, 15 S. Ct. 773, 39 L. ed. 914; Swaim v. United States, 165 TJ. S. 561, 17 S. Ct. 448, 41 L. ed. 823; In re Vidal, 179 U. S. 527, 21 S. Ct. 48, 45 L. ed. 118; McClaughry v. Deming, 186 U. S. 69, 22 S. Ct. 786, 46 L. ed. 1049. 4 Wales v. Whitney, 114 TJ. S. 570, 5 S. Ct. 1050, 29 L. ed. 277; In re Grimley, 137 U. S. 150, 11 S. Ct. 54, 34 L. ed. 636; Carter v. McClaughry, 183 U. S. 401, 22 S. Ct. 181, 46 L. ed. 236. 5 United States v. Eliason, 16 Pet. 302, 10 L. ed. 968. 6 United States v. Freeman, 3 How. 567, 11 L. ed. 724; Gratiot v. United States, 4 How. 117, 11 L. ed. 884; Ex parte Reed, 100 U. S. 22, 25 L. ed. 538. 7 Smith v. Whitney, 116 U. S. 176, 6 S. Ct. 570, 29 L. ed. 601. 201 Militia. Art. I, § 8, CI. 15 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; Exercise of the Power. The power to call forth the militia is limited to the three purposes expressed. 1 This clause imports no prohibition as to the use of the army and navy for the same purposes, nor that the militia cannot be used for the suppression of a rebellion as well as an insurrection; 2 the authority to suppress rebellion is found in tbe powers to suppress insurrection and carry on war. 3 The power here granted is a continuation of the powers to de- clare war, maintain armies and navies, and provide for the common defense; 4 it is to be exercised when sudden emergency renders it necessary to preserve peace and the existence of the Union. 5 The power to repel invasions includes the power to provide against the attempt or danger of invasion, 6 and upon the suppression of a rebellion Congress may prescribe the con- ditions of peace. 7 The act of February 28, 1795, delegating to the President power to call forth the militia is constitutional. 8 Under this act the power to determine when the exigency requiring the calling forth of the militia has arisen is exclusively in the President, 9 1 Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 2 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 700, 19 L. ed. 227; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400; Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 3 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 701, 19 L. ed. 227; Tyler v. Defrees, 11 Wall. 345, 20 L. ed. 161. 4 Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 5- Luther v. BoTden, 7 How. 43, 12 L. ed. 581; Ex parte Vallan ding- ham, 28 Fed. Cas. 907. 6 Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 19, 6 L. ed. 537. 1 Jacoway v. Denton, 25 Ark. 625; Shorter v. Cobb, 39 Ga. 285. 8 Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 43, 12 L. ed. 581; Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 32, 33, 6 L. ed. 537. 9 Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 33, 6 L. ed. 537; Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 43, 12 L. ed. 581; Ex parte Vallandingham, 28 Fed. Cae. 907; Van Derhe/den v. Young, 11 Johns. 150; Duffield v. Smith, 3 Serg. & E. 590. Art. I, § 8, CI. 15 Militia. 202 and his determination upon this point is conclusive. 10 The President may make his request direct to the executive of the state, or by order directed to any subordinate officer of the mili- tia; 11 such a request is, in legal intendment, an order, 12 dis- obedience of which renders a citizen liable to court-martial. 13 Congress may make laws to enforce a call; 14 in this the states have concurrent power, and may prescribe penalties for failure to obey the President's call. 15 They possess also a concurrent power to aid the national government by calls under their own authority, 16 and in emergencies may use the militia to put down armed insurrection. 16 * Status of Militia in Service. So long as the militia is acting under the military jurisdic- tion to which it belongs the state and federal governments have concurrent power over it; 17 but the militia is not subject to the rules and articles of war unless in the actual employment of the United States. 18 Congress has always recognized a sub- stantial difference between the regular forces and the militia, 19 and it is only when called out and actually mustered into the service that state forces become national militia. 20 Congress io Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 43, 6 L. ed. 537; Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 43, 12 L. ed. 581. ii Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 15, 5 L. ed. 19. 12 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 40, 5 L. ed. 19. 13 Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 34, 6 L. ed. 537; Tyler v. Pomeroy, 8 Allen, 493. 14 Commonwealth v. Irish, 3 Serg. & E. 176. 16 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 15, 5 L. ed. 19. i« Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 15, 5 L. ed. 19. 16a Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 45, 12 L. ed. 581. 17 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 16, 5 L. ©d. 19. is Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 62, 5 L. ed. 19; Howes ▼. Midde- borough, 108 Mass. 127; In re Sprangler, 11 Mich. 321; Mills v. Mar- tin, 19 Johns. 24. 19 McClaughry v. Deming, 186 TJ. S. 56-61, 22 S. Ot. 786, 46 L. ed. 1049. 20 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 15, 5 L. ed. 19; Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 19, 6 L. ed. 537. 203 Militia. Art. I, § 8, CI. 15 may fix the period at which state militia shall be deemed in the federal service; in the absence of action fixing such time the national service begins upon reaching the place of rendezvous. 21 21 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 16-20, 5 L. ed. 19; Antrim's Case, 1 Fed. Gas. (No. 495), 1064; McCall's Case, 15 Fed. Cas. (No. 8669), 1226. Art. I, § 8, CI. 16 Militia. 204 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- ing the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Con- gress; Power of Congress. The power to govern the militia is distinct from the power of calling it' out. 1 Organizing includes the determination of qualifications. 2 The power of Congress becomes exclusive after the militia has entered the service of the United States, 3 and so far as Congress has provided for organization action by the states is excluded, 4 and where a board of surgeons has been authorized to determine the qualifications of members of the militia its actions cannot be controlled by state courts. 5 The power of Congress is unlimited except in the officering and training of the militia. 6 Powers of States. If Congress neglects to exercise its power under this clause the states have concurrent power so long as the militia is acting under its jurisdiction. 7 In such case it is only the actual ex- ercise of its power by Congress that excludes state action, 8 and even where Congress has acted state laws are void only so far as they conflict with congressional legislation. 9 The President must exercise his command of the militia through the duly appointed state officers. 10 1 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 16, 5 L. ed. 19. 2 Opinions of Justices, 80 Mass. 548. 3 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 16, 5 L. ed. 19. * Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 51, 5 L. ed. 19; Mills v. Martin, 19 Johns. 7. 6 Ex parte Hill, 38 Ala. 450. 6 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 56, 5 L. ed. 19. 1 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 56, 5 L. ed. 19; Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 45, 12 L. ed. 581. 8 People v. Hill, 126 N. Y. 504, 27 N. E. 790. 9 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 56, 5 L. ed. 19; Ihinne v. People, 94 111. 120, 23 Am. Eep. 213. io Opinions of Justices, 80 Mass. 548. 205 District of Columbia. Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such district (not exceeding 1 ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con- sent of the Legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings; and District of Columbia. By this clause Congress is given exclusive jurisdiction over the District of Columbia for every purpose of government, 1 national or local. 2 in all cases whatsoever, including taxation. 3 The terms of this clause are not limited by the principle that repre- sentation is necessary to taxation; taxes may be levied on the basis of the census directed to be taken by the constitution. 4 Congress legislates for the District with the same power as the legislative assemblies of the states, 5 and in so doing it acts as the legislature of the Union. 6 The failure of Congress to ex- ercise its power in no way impairs the grant, 7 but it must be exercised subject to the prohibitions contained in the constitu- tion. 8 Courts established under this clause may issue all nec- i Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 324, 5 L. ed. 98; Cohen v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257; Kendall v. United States, 12 Pet. 619; Mattingly v. District of Columbia, 97 U. S. 690, 24 L. ed. 1098. 2 Shoemaker v. United States, 147 U. S. 300, 13 S. Ct. 361, 30 L. ed. 170; Parsons v. District of Columbia, 170 U. S. 52, 18 S. Ct. 521, 42 L. ed. 943; Capitol Traction Co. v. Hof, 174 U. S. 5, 19 S. Ct. 580, 43 L. ed. 873; United States v. Cornell, 2 Mason, 91, Fed. Cas. No. 14,868. 3 Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 335, 5 L. ed. 98; Gibbins v. District of Columbia, 116 U. S. 467, 6 S. Ct. 429, 29 L. ed. 680. ■i Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 321, 5 L. ed. 98. 5 Mattingly v. District of Columbia, 97 U. S. 690, 24 L. ed. 1098. 6 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257. 7 Quinn's Case, 12 Int. Rev. Rec. 151. s United States v. More, 3 Cr. 160, 2 L. ed 397. Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 District of Columbia. 20G essary process and such process may be served anywhere in the United States. 9 Status and Local Government. The District of Columbia is a separate political community in a certain sense, and in that sense may be called a state whose sovereign power is lodged in the government of the United States; 10 but it is not strictly a state within the meaning of that term as used in the constitution. 11 The inhabitants of the District are not citizens of a state. 12 The District of Col- umbia is a municipal corporation, 13 and as such it may be in- vested with legislative authority; 14 but it can exercise only those powers which are expressly conferred by statute, 15 which must be of a strictly municipal nature. 16 Thus Congress may delegate the power to improve or repair streets and to assess adjacent property therefor; 17 to construct an aqueduct drawing its supply from within a consenting state; 18 to regulate public 9 United States v. Williams, 4 Cr. C. C. 393, Fed. Cas. No. 16,712. io Metropolitan E. E. v. District of Columbia, 132 U. S. 9, 10 S. Ct. 19, 33 L. ed. 231; Talbott v. Silver Bow County, 139 U. S. 444, 11 S. Ct. 594, 35 L. ed. 210. 11 Hepburn v. Ellzey, 2 Cr. 453, 2 L. ed. 332; Eailroad Co. v. Harris, 12 Wall. 86, 20 L. ed. 354. 12 Hooe v. Jamieson, 166 U. S. 397, 17 S. Ct. 597, 41 L. ed. 1049; Picquet v. Swan, 5 Masen, 55, Fed. Cas. No. 11,134; Prentiss v. Bren- naD, 2 Blatchf. 164, Fed. Cas. No. 11,385; Cissel v. McDonald, 16 Blatchf. 152, Fed. Cas. No. 2729. 13 Thompson v. Carroll, 22 How. 435, 16 L. ed. 387; Metropolitan B, E. v. District of Columbia, 132 U. S. 9, 10 S. Ct. 19, 33 L. ed. 231. 14 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 388, 4 L. ed. 404; Welch v. Cook, 97 U. S. 542, 24 L. ed. 1112. is District of Columbia v. Bailey, 171 U. S. 176, 18 S. Ct. 868, 43 L. ed. 118. 16 Stoutenburgh v. Hennick, 129 U. S. 147, 9 S. Ct. 256, 32 L. ed. 637. 17 Wdllard v. Presbury, 14 Wall. 680, 20 L. ed. 719; Wilson v. Lambert, 168' U. S. 614, 18 S. Ct. 217, 42 L. ed. 599; Wright v. Davidson, 181 U. S. 379, 21 S. Ct. 616, 45 L. ed. 900. 18 Eedall v. Bryan, 14 Md. 444, 74 Am. Dec. 550. 207 District of Columbia. Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 markets; 19 but the power of Congress to regulate commerce cannot be delegated to the District. 20 The grant of local gov- ernment is not a delegation of the power of exclusive legisla- tion given to Congress. 21 Operation and Effect of Cession. The act of July 16, 1790, providing for the establishment of the seat of government accepted a certain district, but by its provisions state laws were not to be affected until Congress pro- vided for the government of the district. As such provision was not made until February 27, 1801, the state right to legislate continued until that time, 22 and where the acts of Congress made no changes in the existing laws, the laws of Virginia and Maryland remained in force in the parts of the district ceded by them respectively; 23 but the effect of statutes within the district cannot be controlled by decision of the state courts ren- dered since the cession. 24 As to the operation of the cession upon individuals, its only effect was to terminate the state citi- zenship of residents; 25 contract obligations were not affected, 26 and liens on property for debt were continued. 27 "Places Purchased." This phrase limits the national government to one mode of acquiring exclusive legislative authority over land within a 19 Washington etc. Co. v. District of Columbia, 172 U. S. 367, 368, 19 S. Ct. 218, 43 L. ed. 478. 20 Stoutenburgh v. Hennick, 129 U. S. 147, 9 S. Ct. 256, 32 L. ed. 637. 21 Washington v. Eaton, 4 Cr. C. C. 352, Fed. Cas. No. 17,228. 22 Young v. Bank of Alexandria, 4 Cr. 384, 3 L. ed. 32. 23 United States v. Sims, 1 Cr. 256, 2 L. ed. 98; Tayloe v. Thomp- »on, 5 Pet. 368, 8 L. ed. 154; Ex parte Watkins. 7 Pet. 574, 8 L. ed. 186; Deneale v. Archer, 8 Pet. 530, 8 L. ed. 1033; Stelle v. Carroll, J2 Pet. 206, 9 L. ed. 1056; United States v. Eliaaon, 16 Pet. 301, 10 L. ed. 968; Ehodes v. Bell, 2 How. 404, 11 L. ed. 314; In re Wolf, 27 Fed. 606. 24 Kussell v. Allen, 107 U. S. 171, 2 S. Ct. 327, 27 L. ed. 397. 23 Eeilly v. Lamar, 2 Cr. 356, 2 L. ed. 300. 26 Korn v. Mutual Assur. Soc, 6 Cr. 199, 3 L. ed. 195. 27 Mutual Assur. Soc. v. Watts, 1 Wheat. 282, 4 L. ed. 91. Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 Land Purchased. 208 state, viz., by purchase with the state's consent; when land is acquired in any other way, as by cession, any conditions may be annexed to it not inconsistent with the public use contem- plated. 28 So a state may impose the condition that jurisdic- tion shall be retained by the United States only so long as the place is used for the purposes specified ; 29 may continue its laws in force there so far as they do not conflict with necessary acts of Congress; 30 or may provide that civil and criminal process of state courts may be executed therein; 31 but where a cession has been made subject to certain conditions, the United States takes entire political jurisdiction, save as expressed in the con- ditions, and it cannot be limited without the consent of Con- gress. 32 The United States can acquire the right of exclusive juris- diction only in the mode pointed out by the constitution. 33 The government may own and use land within a state without acquiring jurisdiction over the territory. 34 If land is acquired from the owner the United States holds it in subordination to the ordinary laws of the state; 35 the mere purchase itself does not oust the jurisdiction or sovereignty of the state over the 28 Chicago etc. Ry. Co. v. McGlinn, 114 U. S. 545, 5 S. Ct. 1005, 29 L. ed. 270; In re Kelly, 71 Fed. 549. 29 Fort Leavenworth Ry. v. Lowe, 114 U. S. 525, 5 S. Ot. 995, 29 L. ed. 264; Palmer v. Barrett, 162 U. S. 399, 16 S. Ct. 837, 40 L. ed. 1015; affirming 135 N. Y. 336, 31 N. E. 1017, 17 L. E. A. 720. 30 Chicago etc. Ry. v. McGlinn, 114 U. S. 546, 5 S. Ct. 1005, 29 L. ed. 270; Crook etc. v. Old Point Comfort Hotel Co., 54 Fed. 604. 31 Palmer v. Barrett, 162 TJ. S. 399, 16 S. Ct. 837, 40 L. ed. 1015; Martin v. House, 39 Fed. 694. 32 In re Ladd, 74 Fed. 31; United States v. Cornell!, 2 Mason, 66, Fed. Cas. No. 14,867; United States v. Davis, 5 Mason, 356, Fed. Cas. No. 14,930; Commonwealth v. Clary, 8 Mass. 72; Mitchell v. Tibbetts, 34 Mass. 298; United States v. Travers, 2 Wheel. C. C. 490, Fed. Cas. No. 16,537. 33 United States v. Tierney, 1 Bond, 571, Fed. Cas. No. r6,517; People v. Godfrey. 17 Johns. 225; Clay v. State, 4 Kan. 49. 34 Renner v. Bennett, 21 Ohio St. 431. 85 United States v. Crosby, 7 Cr. 116, 3 L. ed. 287; Commoawealtli v. Young, Bright. 302. 209 Land Purchased. Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 land purchased ; 3C the government holds only as an individual, 37 as where land is rented for a temporary purpose. 38 Consent or ratification by the state is necessary to the acqui- sition of exclusive jurisdiction, 39 but it is necessary for no other purpose, and cannot be required in order to permit the United States to exercise its right of eminent domain. 40 An act of the state legislature will not confer exclusive jurisdiction without some act of acceptance upon the part of the United States, 41 and a conveyance of land to the United States is void and in- operative unless the acquisition was authorized by Congress. 42 "When, however, these acts have concurred the state jurisdiction ceases, 43 and the ordinary laws of the state cease to have any force in the place acquired. 44 This phrase contemplates only "places" acquired within a state and is not applicable to terri- tories. 45 36 United States v. Cornell, 2 Mason, 66, Fed. Cas. No. 14,867; United States v. Davis, 5 Mason, 364, Fed. Cas. No. 14,930; United States v. San Francisco Bridge Co., 8S Fed. 891; Commonwealth v. Clary, 8 Mass. 72. 37 Commonwealth v. Young, Bright. 302; People v. Godfrey, 17 Johns. 225; "United States v. Traver, 2 Wheel. C. C. 490, Fed. Cas. No. 16,537; People v. Lent, 2 Wheel. C. C. 548. 38 United States v. Tierney, 1 Bond, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 16,517; Renner v. Bennett, 21 Ohio St. 431. 39 United States v. San Francisco Bridge Co., 88 Fed. 891; United States v. Tierney, 1 Bond, 571, Fed. Cas. No. 16,517; United States v. Cornell, 2 Mason, 66, Fed. Cas. No. 14,867; Commonwealth v. Young. Bright. 302; McConnell v. Wilcox, 2 111. 344. 40 Fort Leavenworth etc. B. R. v. Lowe, 114 U. S. 531, 5 S. Ct. 995, 29 L. ed. 264; Chappell v. United States, 160 U. S. 510, 16 S. Ct. 397, 40 L. ed. 510; Ex parte Hebard, 4 Dill. 384, Fed. Cas. No. 6312; United States v. Stahl, MeCahon, 206, Fed. Cas. No. 16,373. 41 People v. Lent, 2 Wheel. C. C. 548. 42 United States v. Tichenor, 12 Fed. 415. 43 United. States v. Cornell, 2 Mason, 66, Fed. Cas. No. 14,867; Commonwealth v. Young, Bright. 302; People v. Godfrey, 17 Johns. 225. 44 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 336, 4 L. ed. 404; Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 360, 5 L. ed. 257; United States v. Ames, 1 Wood. & M. 84, Fed. Cas. No. 14,441; People v. Godfrey, 17 Johns. 225. 45 Reynolds v. People, 1 Colo. 179. Ndes on Constitution — 14 Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 Land Purchased. 210 Congress may relinquish political jurisdiction over land ac- quired within a state without abandoning the use of the prop- erty itself, 46 and land once purchased cannot be sold without special authority of Congress. 47 The mere abandonment of a military post gives no authority to the Secretary of War to sell the land, and such a sale is void. 48 In case of retrocession the jurisdiction and authority of the United States cease. 49 Powers of States and United States. Lands within a state can be withdrawn from its control only by compact or the voluntary legislative action of the state.'"'" The state may continue to legislate for places acquired by the general government so far as that power has not been delegated to the latter, 51 and may punish crimes committed therein to the same extent. 52 The authority of the state with respect to crimes continues until Congress extinguishes it by legislation; 53 but where property has been purchased with the consent of the state, strictly as provided in this clause, offenses committed on such property cannot be punished in the state courts. 54 While, as to land acquired without the consent of the state, the United 40 Renner v. Bennett, 21 Ohio St. 431. 47 United States v. Eailroad Br. Co., 6 McLean, 517, Fed. Cas. No. 16,114. 48 Lear v. United States, 50 Fed. 65. 49 Phillips v. Payne, 92 U. S. 131, 23 L. ed. 649. 50 Lovrrey v. Weaver, 4 McLean, 32, Fed. Cas. No. 8584. 51 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554; Ex parte Watkins, 3 Pet. 201, 7 L. ed. 650; Kendall v. United States, 12 Pet. 524, 9 L. ed. 1181; Pollard v. Hagan, 3 How. 212, 11 L. ed. 565; Benson v. United States, 146 U. S. 329, 13 S. Ct. 60, 36 L. ed. 991. 52 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat, 388, 4 L. ed. 404; United States v. Stahl, McCahon, 209, Fed. Cas. No. 16,373; United States v. Ames, 1 Wood. & M. 80, Fed. Cas. No. 14,441; United States v. Sa-coo-da-cot, 1 Abb. U. S. 383, Fed. Cas. No. 16,212. 53 People v. Lent, 2 Wheel. C. C. 548; In re O'Connor, 37 Wis. 379, 19 Am. Eep. 765. 54 United States v. Ames, 1 Wood. & M. 76, Fed. Cas. No. 14,441; Commonwealth v. Clary, 8 Mass. 72: 211 Land Purchased. Art. I, § 8, CI. 17 States holds as an individual and the state retains its sover- eignty, yet such property is exempt from state taxation. 35 The authority over purchased sites binds all the states, and carries with it the right to render it effectual, 56 and includes the power of taxation. 57 The inhabitants of property pur- chased are not citizens or electors of the state wherein the prop- erty is situated, 58 nor are they liable to state taxation on ac- count of such residence. 59 The purchase of land by a corpora- tion created by act of Congress gives the United States no jur- isdiction over such land. 60 Jurisdiction over forts and mili- tary reservations in Wyoming is exclusively in the federal gov- ernment. 61 55 Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 U. S. 178, 6 S. Ct. 670, 29 L. ed. 845; Wisconsin E. E. v. Price County, 133 U. S. 504, 10 S. Ct. 344, 33 L. ed. 687; United States v. Weise, 2 Wall. Jr. 72, Fed. Cas. No. 16,659; Bannon v. Burnes, 39 Fed. 898; United States v. Milwaukee, 100 Fed. 828. 56 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 428, 5 L. ed. 257; Grether v. Wright, 75 Fed. 757. 57 Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 324, 5 L. ed. 98. 58 Commonwealth v. Clary, 8 Mass. 72; Sinks v. Eeese, 19 Ohio St. 306, 2 Am. Eep. 397. 59 Webster v. Seymour, 8 Vt. 135. 60 In re O'Connor, 37 Wis. 379, 19 Am. Eep. 765. 61 Scott v. United States, 1 Wyo. 40; Brown v. Ilges, 1 Wyo. 202. Ait. I, §8, CI. 18 Incidental Powebs. 212 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion in the Government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Implied Powers. This clause is not a limitation or restriction upon the powers of Congress, but an enlargement of them; it is a direct author- ity for the exercise of the power to make "all laws which shall be necessary or proper" for carrying into execution the powers enumerated. 1 Many powers are necessarily implied under the express grants of power in the constitution; "it would be Uto- pian to suppose that a government can exist without leaving the exercise of discretion somewhere." 2 The constitution does not profess to enumerate the means by which the powers it confers shall be enumerated, 3 and where an end is required and a duty is enjoined, the ability to perform it is contemplated to exist on the part of the functionaries to whom it is intrusted. 4 Public necessity determines the existence of the incidental power where the end to be accomplished is within the scope of 1 United States v. Fisher, 2 Cr. 396, 2 L. ed. 304; MoCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 411, 424, 4 L. ed. 579; Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 225, 5 L. ed. 242; United States v. Marigold, 9 How. 560, 13 L. ed. 257; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 532, 20 L. ed. 287; Inter- state Commerce Commission v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 472, 14 S. Ct. 1131, 38 L. ed. 1047; In re Debs, 158 U. S. 578, 15 S. Ct. 904, 39 L. ed. 1995; In re Quarles, 158 U. S. 537, 15 S. Ct. 961, 39 L. ed. 1080; The City of Salem, 13 Saw. 612, 37 Fed. 850; Benner v. Dredging Co., 134 N. Y. 163, 30 Am. St. Eep. 654, 31 N. E. 330, 17 L. E. A. 220; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400; Commonwealth v. Morrison, 2 A. K. Marsh. 75; Mitchell v. Steelman, 8 Cal. 363; Dickey v. Turnpike Co., 7 Dana, 113; Minturn v. Brower, 24 Cal. 663. 2 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 225, 226, 5 L. ed. 242; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 430. 3 McOulloeh v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 407, 4 L. ed. 579; Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 614, 10 L. ed. 1060; United States v. Cruik- shank. 92 U. S. 542, 23 L. ed. 588; Thompson v. Pacific R. R. Co., 9 Wall. 579, 19 L. ed. 792. 4 Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 615, 10 L. ed. 1060; United States v. Cruikshank, 1 Woods, 314, Fed. Cas. No. 14,897. 213 Incidental Powers. Art. I, § 8, CI. 18 the constitution. 5 The word "necessary" does not mean abso- lutely necessary, nor does it imply only the use of direct means. 6 "Necessary" and "proper" as here used are synonymous," and merely require that the means shall be appropriate. 8 The con- stitution deals in general language and should have a reason- able construction; it leaves Congress to adopt its own means of carrying out the powers conferred, 9 and where these means are really calculated to effect the object intrusted to Congress the courts will not inquire into the degree of their necessity. 10 Congress is allowed a wide discretion as to the means to be em- ployed, but the means must bear some relation to the fitness of things and to the end to be accomplished. 11 There must be some relation between the means and the end; 12 but the rela- tionship need not be direct and immediate. 13 The courts will determine whether the means employed by Congress have any relation to the powers granted by the con- stitution, 14 and if the measures adopted as the most eligible and 5 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 215, 5 L. eel. 242. 6 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 419, 4 L. ed. 579; United States v. Fisher, 2 Cr. 396, 2 L. ed. 304; Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 447, 4 S. Ct. 126, 28 L. ed. 204; In re Jackson, 14 Blatehf. 250, Fed. Cas. No. 7124; Lick v. Faulkner, 25 Cal. 422; George v. Concord, 45 N. H. 443. And see Hancock v. Yaden, 121 Ind. 370, 16 Am. St. Rep. 399, 23 N. E. 254, 6 L. R, A. 576. 7 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400. 8 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326, 4 L. ed. 97; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 532, 20 L. ed. 287. 9 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326, 4 L. ed. 97. io McCulloch v. Maryland, 6 Wheat. 419, 4 L. ed. 579. li United States v. Fisher, 2 Cr. 396, 2 L. ed. 304; Stewart v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 506, 20 L. ed. 176; Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 439, 4 S. Ct. 122, 28 L. ed. 204; Motes v. United States, 178 U. S. 462, 20 S. Ct. 993, 44 L. eel. 1150; Interstate Commerce Com, v. Brim- son, 154 U. S. 478, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047. 12 Hepburn v. Griswold, 8 Wall. 613, 19 L. ed. 513; Legal Tender Oases, 12 Wall. 544, 20 L. ed. 2S7. 13 Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 536, 20 L. ed. 287. 14 Cherokee Nation v. Kansas Ry. Co., 135 U. S. 657, 10 S. Ct. 965, 34 L. ed. 295. An. I, § 8, CI. 18 Incidental Powers. 211 appropriate are adapted to the end to be accomplished, 15 and are not inconsistent in letter or spirit with the limitations of the constitution, 16 the courts cannot declare them inexpedient or unwise. 17 Every act of Congress, to be valid, must find in the constitu- tion some warrant for its passage; 18 but while construction, for the purpose of conferring a power, should be resorted to with great caution, 19 yet every reasonable construction must be resorted to to save a statute from unconstitutionality, 20 and a choice of means by Congress is not to be adjudged invalid unless the conflict between the constitution and the statute is clear and strong. 21 It is to be remembered 1 that a grant of power is con- strued according to its reasonable import and is not controlled by reference to what existed at the time when the constitution was adopted, 22 and that if the means adopted by Congress are legitimate they are appropriate. 23 In the execution of a power Congress is not restricted to the employment of those means alone without which the power would be nugatory, 24 and if the end may be reached indirectly by one mode, it may be reached 15 Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 439, 4 S. Ot. 122, 28 L. ed. 204; Logan v. United States, 144 U. S. 283, 12 S. Ct. 677, 36 L. ed. 429. 16 Motes v. United States, 178 U. S. 462, 20 S. Ct. 933, 44 L. ed. 1150; Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 486, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047. it Wilkes v. Dinsman, 7 How. 127, 12 L. ed. 618; United States v. Vassar, 5 Wall. 469, 18 L. ed. 497; United States v. Union Pacific R, R. Co., 91 U. S. 91, 23 L. ed. 224; Li Sing v. United States, 180 U. S. 495, 21 S. Ct. 449, 45 L. ed. 634; Treat v. White, 181 U. S. 269, 21 S. Ct. 611, 45 L. ed. 853. 18 United States v. Harris, 106 U. S. 635, 1 S. Ct. 601, 27 L. ed. 290. L9 Ex parte Beavins, 33 N. H. 89; Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U. S. 661, 8 S. Ct. 273, 31 L. ed. 205. 20 Hooper v. California, 155 U. S. 657, 15 S. Ct. 207, 39 L. ed. 297; Sweet v. Rechel, 159 U. S. 392, 16 S. Ct. 43, 40 L. ed 188. 21 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 478, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047. 22 In re Jackson, 14 Blatchf. 249, Fed. Cas. No. 7124. 23 United States v. Rhodes, 1 Abb. U. S. 49, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151. 24 Boske v. Dominique, 177 U. S. 468, 20 S. Ct. 701, 44 L. ed. 846. 215 Incidental Powers. Art. I, § 8, CI. 18 directly by another. 25 The limitation of necessity and pro- priety expressed in this clause extends only to incidental legis- lation, and in no way affects the powers expressly granted. 26 Instances of Exercise of Incidental Powers. Every right created by, arising under, or dependent upon the constitution may be protected or enforced by such means as Con- gress may deem best; 27 if the constitution guarantees a right, the national government is clothed with authority to enforce it 28 — the powers given to the national government are not in- effective because the means of enforcing them are not expressly given. 29 Congress has a large discretion as to the means to be employed, 30 and may employ those means which, in its judgment are most advantageous, 31 taking care only that they are not in- consistent with the limitations placed upon the general power by the constitution. 32 Congress has undoubted power to construct interstate high- ways, and as a means to the exercise of that power may organ- ize a corporation. 33 Under its power to regulate commerce Con- gress may empower a commission to investigate the conduct of interstate commerce; 34 may provide a penalty for obstruct- ing interstate commerce; 35 may pass an act prescribing the 25 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 486, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 3S L. ed. 1047. 26 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 186, 6 L. ed. 23. 27 In re Quarles, 158 U. S. 535, 15 S. Ct. 959, 39 L. ed. 1080. 2S Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 619, 10 L. ed. 1060; United States v. Cruikshank, 1 Woods, 314, Fed. Cas. No. 14,897. 29 Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 618, 10 L. ed. 1060; Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U. S. 310, 25 L. ed. 664. 30 Boske v. Dominique, 177 U. S. 468, 20 S. Ct. 701, 44 L. ed. 846. 31 MeCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 419, 4 L. ed. 579. 32 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 472, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047. 33 Luxton v. North River Bridge Co., 153 U. S. 529, 14 S. Ct. 891, 38 L. ed. 80S. 34 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 473, 14 S. Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047; Texas etc. Ry. Co. v. Interstate Commerce Com., 162 U. S. 233, 16 S. Ct. 666, 40 L. ed. 940. 35 United States v. Coombs, 12 Pet. 78, 9 L. ed. 1002; In re Debs, 158 U. S. 578, 15 S. Ct. 904, 39 L. ed. 1092. Art. I, § 8, CI. 18 Incidental Powers. 21G limit of capacity of passenger steamers. 36 A company may be employed by Congress to dredge a navigable river, and a party injured by the operations of the company cannot set up its want of authority in an action for damages. 37 As an incident to its power to regulate commerce, Congress cannot, however, provide for the inspection of cattle about to be slaughtered, although the packing-house involved engages principally in interstate shipments. 38 As aiding the execution of the revenue laws Con- gress may provide for the punishment of persons for interfer- ing, by threats or otherwise, with the right to inform of vio- lations; 39 to provide that persons chargeable with a revenue tax shall submit disputed cases to a revenue collector; 40 to make it a penal offense to destroy papers relating to merchandise li- able to duty; 41 and to apply the provisions of the civil service act to the revenue service. 43 Congress may use all known and appropriate means for collecting and disbursing the revenue, 43 and may provide for the protection of revenue collectors and officers, 44 and in case of the death of a collector may provide that the government shall be the first paid out of his estate. 45 As an incident to its power to carry on war Congress had power to suspend the operation of the statute of limitations during the Eebellion; 46 to pass the nonintercourse acts; 47 to enact pension laws and provide a penalty for fraud committed 3G The City of Salem, 13 Saw. 612, 37 Fed. S50. 37 Benner v. Dredging Co., 134 N. Y. 163, 30 Am. St. Rep. 654, 31 N. E. 330, 17 L. R, A. 220. 38 United States v. Boyer, 85 Fed. 429. 39 In re Quarles, 158 U. S. 537, 15 S. Ct. 961, 39 L. ed. 1080. 40 In re Meador, 1 Abb. IT. S. 334, Fed. Cas. No. 9375. 41 In re Piatt, 7 Ben. 272, Fed. Cas. No. 11,211. 42 Butler v. White, 83 Fed. 581. 43 Murray v. Hoboken etc. Co., 18 How. 272, 15 L. ed. 372. 44 Dugan v. United States, 3 Wheat. 179, 4 L. ed. 362; United States v. Bevians, 3 Wheat. 388, 4 L. ed. 404; The Exchange v. Mc- Fadden, 7 Cr. 116, 3 L. ed. 287; United States v. Tingey, 5 Pet, 115 r 8 L. ed. 66. 45 Commonwealth v. Lewis, 6 Binn. 266. 4G Stewart v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 507, 20 L. ed. 176. 47 Hamilton v. Dillin, 21 Wall. 93, 22 L. ed. 528. 217 Incidental Powers. Art. I, § 8, CI. 18 under them; 48 to provide for compulsory enlistment; 49 to pro- vide for the confiscation of enemies' property; 50 to provide for the removal to federal courts, of suits for acts done under the President's authority during the Rebellion, 31 and to authorize the President to suspend the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus. 52 In aid of its power to pass bankruptcy laws Congress may provide for the punishment of persons guilty of fraud in the disposition of a debtor's goods, 53 and provide for composi- tions with creditors. 54 Under the same power the district courts may be empowered to transfer the franchises of insolvent railroad companies. 55 Congress may also make the United States a preferred creditor in cases of insolvency. 56 In the exercise of its powers to make all laws necessary and proper for carrying into execution its enumerated powers Con- gress may incorporate a bank. 57 National banks being designed to aid the government, Con- gress is the sole judge of the necessity for creating them. 58 A. law fixing the rate of interest to be charged by such banks is constitutional, 59 as is a law prescribing a penalty for taking usurious interest. 60 Any act tending to promote the efficiency of such banks is valid; 61 e. g., a provision calculated to secure 48 United States v. Fairehilds, 1 Abb. U. S. 77, Fed. Cas. No. 15,067; United States v. Marks, 2 Abb. U. S. 535, Fed. Cas. No. 15,721. 49 Antrim's Case, 1 Fed. Cas. 1065; Ex parte Coupland, 26 Tex. 417. CO Norris v. Doniphan, 4 Met. (Ky.) 409. 51 Tod v. Court of Common Pleas, 15 Ohio St. 387. 52 McCall v. McDowell, 1 Abb. U. S. 229, Fed. Cas. No. 8673. 53 United States v. Pusey, 6 Bank. Reg. 288, Fed. Cas. No. 16,098. 54 In re Reiman, 7 Ben. 466, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673. 55 Sweatt v. Boston etc. R. R. Co., 3 Cliff. 352, Fed. Cas. No. 13,684. 56 United States v. Fisher, 2 Cr. 395, 2 L. ed. 304; United States v. Bank of North Carolina, 6 Pet. 35, 8 L. ed. 308. 5T McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wiheat. 411, 4 L. ed. 579. 58 Farmers' etc. Bank v. Dearing, 91 U. S. 33, 23 L. ed. 196; Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204. 59 Central Bank v. Pratt, 115 Mass. 439, 15 Am. Rep. 138. 60 Farmers' National Bank v. Dearing, 91 U. S. 37, 23 L. ed. 196. 61 Chesapeake Bank v. First Nat. Bank, 40 Md. 269, 17 Am. Rep. 601. Art. I, § 8, CI. IS Incidental Powers. 218 the safety of remittances, 62 or an act limiting the right of the states to tax national banks. 63 The power to make treasury notes legal tender is not expressly given to Congress, but the power exists and is attributable to the power to borrow money on the credit of the United States, and to regulate the cur- rency. 64 The power has been declared to be incident to the war power, 65 and to be incident to the general powers of Con- gress; 66 but the authority is now finally declared to be derived from the power to regulate the currency. 67 Congress may create, define and punish crimes or offenses when necessary for effectuating the objects of government. 68 The power to punish offenses is incidental to constitutional powers of sovereignty. 69 The alteration of registered United States bonds may be made a crime against the United States and be punished as such; 70 also the passing of counterfeit na- tional bank bills; 71 the conspiring to injure prisoners in the custody of a United States marshal ; 72 bringing into the country 62 United States v. Fisher, 2 Cr. 386, 2 L. ed. 304. 63 Talbot v. Silver Bow County, 139 TJ. S. 440, 11 S. Ct. 595, 35 L. ed. 210; People v. Weaver, 100 U. S. 543, 25 L. ed. 705. 64 The Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 553, 20 L. ed. 287; Juillard v. Greenraan, 110 U. S. 438, 4 S. Ct. 125, 28 L. ed. 204; Sohollen- berger v. Brinton, 52 Pa. St. 35; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 409. 05 Lick v. Faulkner, 25 Cal. 418, 419; George v. Concord, 45 N. H. 438. oo Maynard v. Newman, 1 Nev. 278; Milliken v. Sloat, 1 Nev. 585. 67 Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 438, 439, 4 S. Ct. 125, 126, 28 L. ed. 204. 68 United States v. Worrall, 2 Dall. 384, Fed. Cas. No. 16,766; United States v. Marigold, 9 How. 567, 13 L. ed. 257; United States v. Hall, 98 U. S. 357, 25 L. ed. 180. 69 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 420, 4 L. ed. 579. 70 Ex parte Carll, 106 U. S. 523, 1 S. Ct. 536, 27 L. ed. 288. 71 Ex parte Houghton, 7 Fed. 658, 8 Fed. 897. 72 Logan v. United States, 144 U. S. 283, 12 S. Ct. 622, 36 L. ed. 429. 219 Incidental Powers. Art. I, § 8, CI. 18 counterfeit foreign coins. 73 There is a peace of the United States for the breach of which Congress may provide a penalty. 74 Congress may also make all laws necessary for carrying into execution the judgments of federal courts, 75 and having the power to make such laws may proceed under them to satisfy a judgment in favor of the government. 76 This power of regu- lating proceedings may be delegated by Congress to the courts themselves. 77 So also when a territory is admitted as a state, Congress may designate the court to which records shall be transferred and prescribe the mode for enforcement and review of judgments. 78 Other instances in which this incidental power has been held to have been validly exercised are : acts prohibiting the mail- ing of letters or circulars concerning lotteries, as incident to the power to establish postoffices and post-roads; 79 acts providing for the lease of public lands as incident to the power to "dis- pose of" such lands; 80 acts providing for the condemnation of lands for various purposes of government; 81 acts providing for the distraint of property to satisfy a federal tax; 82 acts pro- 73 United States v. Marigold, 9 How. 567, 13 L. ed. 257.- 74 In re, Neagle, 135 U. S. 60, 10 S. Ct. 658, 34 L. ed. 55; In re Quarles, 158 U. S. 535, 15 S. Ct. 959, 39 L. ed. 1080. 75 Bank of United States v. Halstead, 10 Wheat. 53, 6 L. ed. 264; Bank v. Thompson, 173 111. 599, 64 Am. St. Eep. 140, 50 N. E. 1090. 76 United States v. Drennen, Hemp. 325, Fed. Cas. No. 14,992. 77 Wayman v. Southard, 10 Wheat. 1, 6 L. ed. 253; Bank of United States v. Halstead, 10 Wheat. 53, 6 L. ed. 264. '<8 Express Company v. Kountze, 8 Wall. 350, 19 L. ed. 457; Hunt v. Palao, 4 How. 590, 11 L. ed. 1115; Koenigsberger v. Bichmond Silver Min. Co., 158 U. S. 49, 15 S. Ct. 751, 39 L. ed. 889. 79 Ex parte Jackson, 96 U. S. 732, 24 L. ed. 877, affirming 14 Blatchf. 250. Fed. Cas. No. 7124; In re Rapier, 143 U. S. 133, 12 S. Ct. 374, 36 L. ed. 93. 80 United States v. Gratiot, 14 Pet. 537, 10 L. ed. 573. 81 Kohl v. United States, 91 U. S. 373, 23 L. ed. 449; United States v. Fox, 94 U. S. 320, 24 L. ed. 192; Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 U. S. 154, 6 S. Ct. 670, 29 L. ed. 845; Cherokee Nation v. Kansas Ry. Co., 135 U. S. 656, 10 S. Ct. 965, 34 L. ed. 295; Luxton v. North Eiver Bridge Co., 153 U. S. 529, 14 S. Ct. 891, 38 L. ed. 808. 82. Springer v. United States, 102 U. S. 593, 26 L. ed. 253; Schenck v. Peay, 21 Fed. Cas. 682. Art. I, § 8, CI. 18 Incidental Powers. 220 viding for extensions of patent rights as incident to the power to encourage inventions; 83 an act levying a tax on state bank notes in circulation as incident to the power to regulate the currency; 84 an act to protect homesteads on public lands. 85 S3 Bloomer v. Stolley, 5 McLean, 161, Fed. Cas. No. 1559. 84 Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 533, 19 L. ed. 482, 85 United States v. Waddcll, 112 U. S. 70, 5 S. Ct. 35, 28 L. ed. 673. 221 Migration. Art. I, § 9, CI. 1 SECTION" 9. LIMITATION" OF THE POWERS OF CONGRESS. 1. Migration or importation of persons. 2. Habeas corpus not to be suspended. 3. Attainder and ex post facto laws prohibited. 4. Capitation and direct taxes. 5. Taxation on exports. 6. Commercial regulations. 7. Public moneys and accounts. 8. Titles of nobility. Presents, offices, etc. 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such im- portation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The several clauses of this section impose limitations upon the powers of Congress and were not intended to apply to the state governments. 1 The first clause is a restriction upon the general power to regulate commerce; 2 but while it is to be deemed a limitation upon a power already granted, rather than a grant of power, members of the constitutional convention rec- ognized that it was designed to confer upon Congress power to l Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 135, 24 L. ed. 113; Morgan v. Louisi- ana Board of Health, US U. S. 467, 6 S. Ct. 1120, 23 L. ed. SCO; Johnson v. Chicago etc. Elevator Co., 119 U. S. 400, 7 S. Ct. 260, 30 L. ed. 447; Butler v. Hopper, 1 Wash. C. C. 499, Fed. Cas. No. 2241. '2, Passenger Cases, 7 How. 401, 12 L. ed. 702; Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 216, 6 L. ed. 23; Wilson v. United States, 1 Brock. 423, Fed. Cas. No. 17,846; United States v. Libby, 1 Wood. & M. 235, Fed. Cas. No. 15,597. Art. I, § 9, CI. 1 M [ORATION. 222 abolish the slave trade from the period limited, 3 and an act of Congress having that object was later upheld. 4 In People v. Compagnie Gen. Trans., 107 U. S. 62, 2 S. Ct. 87, 27 L. ed. 383, the supreme court declared that there has never been any doubt that the first clause of this section refers only to persons of the African race, and that the words "migra- tion" and "importation" refer to the different conditions of this race as regards freedom and slavery. 5 "Importation" had al- ways been applied to property and things as contradistinguished from persons, and as the framers of the constitution were un- willing to use the word "slaves," and described them as "per- sons," it was necessary to use the word "migration" as applied to them. 6 Notwithstanding the early dictum that "migration" applies to voluntary as well as involuntary arrivals, 7 the clause has finally been restricted in its application to the African race, referring the term "migration" to free negroes coming into the country, and "importation" to slaves. 8 3 Madison Papers, pp. 1388-1673; Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, pp. 606, 616, 713, 726; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 512, 12 L. ed. 702. 4 Groves v. Slaughter, 15 Pet. 514, 10 L. ed. 800; and see United States v. Preston, 3 Pet. 65, 7 L. ed. 601; Savory v. Caroline, 20 Ala. 19. 6 See, also, Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 393, 15 L. ed. 691 ; and opinion of Taney, C. J., Passenger Cases, 7 How. 475, 476, 12 L. ed. 702. 6 Taney, C. J., in Passenger Cases, 7 How. 476, 12 L. ed. 702; Doc- umentary Hist. Const., vol. I, pp. 476, 616; but see Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 216, 6 L. ed. 23, especially opinion of Johnson, J., at p. 230. 7 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 216, 6 L. ed. 23. 8 People v. Compagnie Gen. Trans., 107 U. S. 62, 2 S. Ct. 87, 27 L. ed. 383. £23 Privilege of Habeas Corpus. Art. I, § 9, CI. 2 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. Nature of Writ. The writ of habeas corpus here referred to is the writ ad sub- jiciendum. 1 It is a writ of right, 2 but not a writ of course, since cause must be shown for its issuance. 3 The object of the writ is to determine whether a prisoner can be lawfully de- tained; 4 to protect against unwarranted encroachments upon personal liberty, 5 and the proceedings under the writ are to be deemed civil rather than criminal, in which the civil right of personal liberty is asserted. 6 "Habeas corpus" is a generic term and includes every species of that writ, but when used as in this clause, "the writ of habeas corpus" means the writ ad subjiciendum, 7 and if. as so used, it had a well-known meaning, the framers of the constitution must have had reference to that meaning. 8 Suspension of the Privilege. The suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus i The Santissima Trinidad, 7 Wheat. 305, 5 L. ed. 454; Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 29, 6 L. ed. 537; Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 1, 12 L. ed. 581; Fleming v. Page, 9 How. 615, 13 L. ed. 276. 2 Yates v. Lansing, 5 Johns. 282. 3 Ex parte Watkins, 3 Pet. 201, 7 L. ed. 650; Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 110, 18 L. ed. 281; Ex parte Terry, 128 U. S. 301, 9 S. Ct. 209, 32 L. ed. 405; In re Boardman [Durrant], 169 U. S. 43, 18 S. Ct. 291, 42 L. ed. 653; In re Hacker, 73 Fed. 467; State v. Goss, 73 Minn. 127, 75 N. W. 1132; Ex parte Deny, 10 Dev. 214. 4 Ekiu v. United States, 142 U. S. 662, 12 S. Ct. 338, 35 L. ed. 1146. 5 In re Bonner, 151 U. S. 259, 14 S. Ct. 323, 3S L. ed. 149. C Farnsworth v. Montana, 129 U. S. 113, 9 S. Ct. 253, 32 L. ed. 616; Ex parte Tom Tong, 108 U. S. 560, 2 S. Ct. 871, 27 L. ed. 811; Kurtz v. Moffitt, 115 U. S. 494, 6 S. Ct. 148, 29 L. ed. 458. 7 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 95, 2 L. ed. 554. 8 Cakler v. Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 1 L. ed. 386; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 88, 8 L. ed. 876; Carpenter v. Pennsylvania, 17 How. 456, 15 L. ed. 127; United States v. Wilson, 7 Pet. 150, 8 L. ed. 640; United States v, Harris, 1 Abb. U. S. 115, Fed. Cas. No. 15,312. Art. I, § 9, CI. 2 Privilege of Habeas Coepus. 224 does not suspend the writ itself. 9 It is the privilege of having the writ issued and the case heard and disposed of, that is here referred to. 10 The suspension merely denies to one ar- rested the privilege of obtaining his liberty by means of the writ; 11 it does not affect the duty of a court to issue the writ, 12 but requires the dismissal of the writ upon its return, without inquiry as to the merits. 13 Accordingly Congress cannot forbid the issue of the writ by a state court, 14 but may provide that an officer shall not be liable for an arrest made while the privi- lege of the writ is suspended. 15 This suspension is tantamount to an express direction to arrest and imprison all persons who may be dangerous to the commonwealth. 16 The constitutional guaranty of the writ of habeas corpus nec- essarily implies judicial action, 17 and the necessity for suspend- ing the privilege of the writ must be actual and present, the invasion real; threatened invasion is not sufficient, 18 and the courts will take judicial notice of the close of the liebellion and with it the end of the suspension of the writ. 19 A distinction is to be drawn between the suspension of the writ under this clause and the ipso facto suspension which takes place when martial law actually exists. 20 Martial law is the law of military necessity in the actual presence of war; 21 it finds its justification only where, from actual necessity or civil war, the courts are closed, and it is impossible to administer 9 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 130, ]8 L. ed. 281. 10 Macready v. Wilcox, 33 Conn. 321. li Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 115, 18 L. ed. 281. 12 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 130, 18 L. ed. 281. 13 Ex parte Vallandingham, 1 Wall. 243, 17 L. ed. 589; Kulp v. Rieketts, 3 Grant, 420; Ex parte Fagan, 2 Sprague, 91, Fed. Cas. No. 4604; Ex parte Dunn, 25 How. Pr. 467. 14 Griffin v. Wilcox, 21 Ind. 370; Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238. 15 McCall v. McDowell, Deady, 233, 1 Abb. U. S. 212, Fed. Cas. No. 8673. 16 McCall v. McDowell, 1 Abb. TJ. S. 212, Fed. Cas. No. 8673. 17 Ex parte Yerger, 8 Wall. 95, 19 L. ed. 332. 18 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 127, 18 L. ed. 281. 19 Cozzens v. Frink, 13 Am. L. Reg. 700. 20 In re Kemp, 16 Wis. 359. 21 United States v. Diekelman, 92 U. S. 526, 23 L. ed. 742. 225 Privilege of Habeas Corpus. Art. I, § 9, CI. 2 justice according to law, 22 and its duration is limited by its necessity. 23 In this connection "martial law" must not be con- founded with "military law" or with "military government.'' Military law consists of rules prescribed by Congress for the government of the army and navy, and applies only to persons in the military or naval service, 24 while military government is the dominion exercised in war over the territory and inhabi- tants of an enemy's country upon its conquest and occupation. 23 Power to Suspend Privilege. Tinder this clause Congress alone has power to authorize the suspension of the privilege of the writ. 20 But direct enact- ment by Congress is not necessary; the President may be author- ized to suspend the privilege when in his judgment the public safety so requires. 27 The Secretary of War has no authority to suspend the privilege of the writ, 28 nor has the commander of a military district. 29 This clause confers a discretionary power to be exercised upon an opinion of certain facts, and carries also the exclusive power to judge as to the existence of those facts. 30 22 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 127, 18 L. ed. 281; Winter v. Dicker- son, 42 Ala. 98. 23 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 127, 18 L. ed. 281; Milligan v. Hovey } 3 Biss. IS, Fed Cas. No. 9605; Johnson v. Jones, 44 111. 142, 92 Am. Dee. 159. 24 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 123, 18 L. ed. 281; Johnson v. Jones. 44 111. 142, 92 Am. Dec. 159. 25 Coleman v. Tennessee, 97 U. S. 517, 24 L. ed. 1118; Ex parte Ortiz, 100 Fed. 955; Cronin v. Patrick County, 89 Fed. 79. 20 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554; Ex parte Merrymau. Taney, 246, Fed. Cas. No. 9487; Jones v. Seward, 3 Grant, 431; Griffin v. Wilcox, 21 Ind. 370; In re Kemp, 16 Wis. 359. 27 Ex paite Milligan, 4 Wall. 114, 18 L. ed. 281; McCall v. Mc- Dowell, 1 Abb. U. S. 212, Fed. Cas. No. 8673; In re Oliver, 17 Wis. 681. 2S Ex parte Field, 5 Blatchf. 63, Fed. Cas. No. 4761. 29 Ex parte Field, 5 Blatchf. 63, Fed. Cas. No. 4761; Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 530, 6 Am. Dec. 675. 30 Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 31, 6 L. ed. 537; Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 44, 12 L. ed. 581; Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 114, 18 L. ed. 2S1; United States v. Packages, 27 Fed. Cas. No. 288; Ex parto Merryman, Taney, 246, Fed. Cas. No. 9487. Notes on Constitution — 15 Art. I, § 9, CI. 3 Bills or Attainder. 226 3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. Bill of Attainder.* This clause, while comprehensive in its language, applies only to the general government and contains no restriction on state legislation. 1 A bill of attainder is a legislative act which in- flicts punishment without a judicial trial. 2 The term em- braces bills of pains and penalties. 3 and legislation is none the less objectionable in that it merely confiscates property ; it may affect the life of an individual, or confiscate his property, or both ; 4 nor is it material that the infliction of punishment is con- ditional. 5 The framers of the constitution must be deemed to have had in mind the meaning commonly given to the terms "bill of attainder" and "ex post facto law" at that time. 6 The object of this clause is to secure the rights of citizens against deprivation for past conduct by legislative enactment in any form, however disguised. 7 Laws requiring the assumption of a test-oath, and operating to exclude a citizen from any pro- fession or avocation for past conduct, are objectionable as bills of pains and penalties prohibited by this clause; 8 e. g., laws 1 Barron v. Baltimore, 7 Pet. 248, 8 L. ed. 672. 2 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323, 18 L. ed. 356; Ex part.? Garland, 4 Wall. 377, 18 L. ed. 366; In re De Giacomo, 12 Blatcfof. 401, Fed. Cas. No. 3747; In re Leszynski, 16 Blatchf. 19, Fed. Cas. No. 8279. 3 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 601, 19 L. ed. 508; In re Yang Sing, 13 Saw. 485, 36 Fed. 439; Norris v. Doniphan, 4 Met. (Ky.) 434. 4 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 138, 3 L. ed. 162; Ex parte Law, 35 Ga. 302; In re Shorter, 22 Fed. Cas. 19; Myers v. Sanders, 7 Dana, 519. 5 Gaines v. Buford, 1 Dana, 510. 6 Caluer v. Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 1 L. ed. 3>86; United States v. Wilson, 7 Pet. 150, 8 L. ed. 640; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 88, 8 L. ed. 876; United States v. Harris, 1 Abb. U. S. 115, Fed. Cas. No. 15,312; Carpenter v. Pennsylvania, 17 How. 463, 15 L. ed. 127. 7 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 18 L. ed. 356. 8 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323, 18 L. ed. 356; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 377, 18 L. ed. 366; Pierce v. Carskadon, 16 Wall. 239. 21 L. ed. 276; Klinger v. Missouri, 13 Wall. 257, 20 L. ed. tj;J5. *~See also, art. I, § 10, cl. 1. 227 PJx Post Facto Laws. Art. I, § 9, CI. 3 excluding from the right to practice attorneys who participated in the war of the Rebellion. 9 A statute making the nonpayment of taxes evidence of participation in Rebellion, and forfeiting land absolutely without judicial hearing is a bill of attainder; 10 but not a statute providing for a forfeiture for violating the in- ternal revenue laws; 11 nor a statute imposing a forfeiture of citizenship for continuance of desertion after proclamation and trial by court-martial to enforce the peaalty. 12 An act pre- cluding Chinese who are United States citizens from returning to the country is objectionable under this clause. 13 A provision exempting persons from liability for acts done under military authority during the Civil War is not a bill of attainder. 14 Ex Post Facto laws.* As stated above, this clause applies only to Congress and con- tains no restriction upon state legislation. 15 Every law that makes an act done before the passage of the law, and which was innocent when done, criminal, or that aggravates a crime or makes it greater than it was when committed, or that changes the punishment and inflicts a greater punishment than the law annexed to the crime when committed, or that alters the rules of evidence, permitting less or different evidence to convict a person of an offense committed prior to its passage, is an ex post facto law, and within the prohibition of this clause. 16 9 Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 377, 18 L. ed. 366. 10 Martin v. Snowden, 18 Gratt. 100. ii United States v. Distillery, 2 Abb. U. S. 192, Fed. Gas. No. 14,965. 12 Gotchens v. Matheson, 40 How. Pr. 97, 58 Barb. 152. 13 In re Yang Sing Hee, 13 Saw. 486, 36 Fed. 439. 14 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 601, 602, 19 L. ed. 508; Clark v. Pick, 1 Dill. 14, Fed. Cas. No. 2818; Peerce v. Kitzmiller, 19 W. Va. 573. 15 Barron v. Baltimore, 7 Pet. 248, 8 L. ed. 672. 16 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 393, 396, 397, 400, 1 L. ed. 640; Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 138, 3 L. ed. 102; Watson v. Meroer, 8 Pet. 110, 8 L. ed. 876; Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 329, 18 L. ed. 351; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 336, 18 L. ed. 366; Burgess v. Salmon, 97 See, also, art. I, § 10, el. 1. Art. I, § 9, CI. 3 Ex Post Facto Laws. 228 The prohibition is "an additional bulwark in favor of the per- sonal security of the subject"; 17 and the tendency is toward a liberal, rather than a narrow, construction in favor of that se- curity, 18 and the scope of the constitutional prohibition has been broadened beyond the definition laid down in early cases, until it includes any law which, in relation to the offense or its con- sequences, alters the situation of the party to his disadvantage. 19 So a statute purporting to validate a punishment otherwise il- legal is ex post facto; 20 but a law imposing forfeiture of citizen- ship for continuance of desertion after assurance of pardon is not; 21 nor is an extradition treaty which applies to crimes com- mitted before it was entered into. 22 TJ. S. 382, 24 L. ed. 1104; In re De Giacomo, 12 Blatchf. 401, Fed. Gas. No. 3747; Eeynolds v. State, 1 Ga. 228; Strong v. State, 1 Blackf. 197; Walston v. Commonwealth, 16 B. Mon. 37; State v. Johnson, 12 Minn. 484, 93 Am. Dec. 247; State v. Garesche, 36 Mo. 259; Woart v. Winnick, 3 N. H. 473, 14 Am. Dec. 385; State v. Moore, 42 N. J. L. 228; Dickinson v. Dickinson, 3 Murph. (N. C.) 330, 9 Am. Dec. 609; Shepherd v. People, 25 N. Y. 406; Ex parte Hunter, 2 W. Va. 159. 17 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dal!. 390, 2 L. ed. 648. 18 Cummin gs v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 18 L. ed. 356; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wa-ll. 333, 18 L. ©d. 366; Kring v. Missouri, 107 U. S. 221, 2 S. Ct. 443, 27 L. ed. 506; Moore v. State, 43 N. J. L. 214, 39 Am. Eep. 568; Anderson v. Baker, 23 Md. 566. 19 Kring v. Missouri, 107 U. S. 232, 2 S. Ct. 449, 27 L. ed. 506; Medley, Petitioner, 134 U. S. 771, 10 S. Ct. 387, 33 L. ed. 835; Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 351, IS S. Ct. 623, 42 L. ed. 1061; In re Murphy, 87 Fed. 551; Johnson v. People, 173 111. 134, 50 N. E. 3i22; Murphy v. Commonwealth, 172 Mass. 260, 70 Am. St. Eep. 271, 52 N. E. 507, 43 L. B. A. 154; Lindzey v. State, 65 Miss. 545, 7 Am. St. Eep. 676, 5 South. 100; Marion v. State, 16 Neb. 354, 20 N. W. 291. 20 In re Murphy, 1 Woolw. 141, Fed. Cas. No. 9947. 21 Gotchens v. Matheson, 40 How. Pr. 97, 58 Barb. 152. 22 Ex parte De Giacomo, 12 Blatchf. 391, Fed. Cas. No. 3747. 229 Ex Post Facto Laws. Art. I, § 9, CI. 3 The term "ex post facto" is applicable only to laws of a penal nature, 23 imposing penalties or forfeitures. 23 * Accordingly an act of Congress protecting from civil process persons amenable to prosecution is not objectionable; 21 nor is a statute making treasury notes a legal tender for antecedent debts. 25 While, however, the constitutional inhibition is aimed at criminal laws, it cannot be evaded by giving civil form to that which is in substance criminal; 20 e. g., a requirement that per- sons claiming certain civil rights take a test-oath denying partic- ipation in the Eebellion, 27 On the other hand, a statute both criminal and civil in its nature, but which is retroactive only in its civil aspect, is not repugnant to the constitution. 28 So a statute taxing purchases made during the preceding year and 23 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 390-393, 1 L. ed. 648; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 266, 6 L. ed. 606; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 110, 8 L. ed. 876; Baltimore etc. R. R. v. Nesbit, 10 How. 402, 13 L. ed. 469; Carpenter v. Pennsylvania, 17 How. 463, 15 L. ed. 127; In re Sawyer, 124 U. S. 219, S S. Ct. 492, 31 L. ed. 42; Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 172, 18 L. ed. 334; Albee v. May, 2 Paine, 74, Fed. Gas. No. 135; United States v. Gilbert, 2 Sum. 101, Fed. Cas. No. 15,204; Society v. WheeleT, 2 Gall. 105, Fed. Cas. No. 13,156; Aldridge v. Tuscumbia etc. R. R,, 2 Stew. & P. 199, 29 Am. Dec. 312; Bridge- port v. Hubbeli, 5 Conn. 240; Aycock v. Martin, 37 Ga. 124; Boston v. Cummins, 16 Ga. 107, 60 Am. Dec. 720;. Coles v. Madison Co., Breese, 156, 12 Am. Dec. 163; Henderson etc. R. R. v. Dickerson, 17 B. Mon. 177, 66 Am. Dec. 149; Baugher v. Nelson, 9 Gill, 299, 52 Am. Dec. 698; Sdott v. Smart, 1 Mich. 302; McCormick v. Pickering, 4 N. Y. 276; Grimm v. Wiessenberg Sch. Dist., 57 Pa. St. 435, 98 Am. Dec. 239; Lynn v. State, 84 Md. 67, 35 Atl. 22; People v. Howker, 152 N. Y. 234, 46 N. E. 608. 23a Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 173, 18 L. ed. 334; United States v. Hughes, 8 Ben. 29, Fed. Cas. No. 15,416. 24 In re Murphy, Woolw. 148, Fed. Cas. No. 9947. 25 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyek, 27 N. Y. 400. 26 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 328, 18 L. ed. 356; Burgess v. Salmon, 97 U. S. 385, 24 L. ed. 1104. 27 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323, 18 L. ed. 356; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 377, 18 L. ed. 366; Pierce v. Carskadon, 16 Wall. 239, 21 L. ed. 276. 28 State v. Bell, Phill. (N. C.) 81; State v. Paul, 5 R. I. 190. Art. I, § 9, CI. 3. Ex Post Facto Laws. 230 providing a permit}' for failure to furnish information is pros- pective as to its criminal operation, 29 and a statute prohibit- ing sales of liquor is not objectionable because it may operate upon liquors previously manufactured. 30 29 State v. Bell, Phill. (N. C.) 81. 30 State v. Paul, 5 R. I. 190. 231 Capitatiox and Direct TUxes. Art. I, § 9, CI. 4 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration here- inbefore directed to be taken.* It was with the idea that the power of direct taxation should be exercised only in cases of "absolute necessity" that the iramers of the constitution inserted this clause limiting the tax- ing power of Congress. 1 The original draft of the instrument did not contain the words "or other direct tax"; this phrase was inserted to avoid any possible misconstruction which would narrow the intention. 2 A capitation tax is a direct tax, 2a but the term "direct taxes" comprehends also taxes on land, and taxes on personal property by general valuation. 3 A tax upon property holders in respect of their estates, real or personal, or of the rents therefrom, which cannot be avoided, is a direct tax; while a tax paid primarily by persons who can shift the burden upon others, or who are not under compulsion to pay, is an indirect tax. 4 A tax upon the business of insurance companies is not a direct tax, but a duty or excise, and is valid; 3 so also as to a tax upon bank circulation; 6 a stamp tax imposed upon 1 Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, p. 578; Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 547, 15 S. Ct. 673, 39 L. ed. 759; Hyde v. Con- tinental Trust Co., 157 U. S. 654, 15 S. Ct. 717, 39 L. ed. 845. 2 Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, p. 747. 2a Hylton v. United States, 3 Dall. 171, 1 L. ed. 556. 3 Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8^ Wall. 547, 19 L. ed. 482; Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 335, 5 L. ed. 98; Springer v. United States, 102 U. S. 602, 26 L. ed. 253; Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 558, 15 S. Ct. 673, 39 L. ed 759; Hyde v. Continental Trust Co., 157 U. S. 558, 15 S. Ct. 717, 39 L. ed. 845; Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 158 U. S. 637, 15 S. Ct. 912, 39 L. ed 1108. 4 Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 558, 15 S. Ct. 673, 39 L. ed. 759; Hyde v. Continental Trust Co., 157 U. S. 654, 15 S. Ct. 717, 39 L. ed. 845; Travelers' Ins. Co. v. Fricke, 99 Wis. 377, 74 N. W. 375, 41 L. R. A. 557; High v. Coyne, 93 Fed. 451. 5 Pacific Ins. Co. v. Soule, 7 Wall. 446, 19 L. ed. 95. 6 Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 547, 19 L. ed. 482; Central etc. Bank v. United States, 137 U. S. 364, 11 S. Ct. 126, 34 L. ed. 703. See, also, art. I, § 2, cl. 3, as to apportionment. Art. I, § 9, CI. 4 Capitation and Dibect Taxes. 23? board of trade sales, 7 and a tax upon alien passengers from a foreign port. 8 A tax upon carriages is also an excise, and therefore not a direct tax. 9 A direct tax, however, cannot be taken out of the constitutional prohibition because of the fact that the particular form of tax was unknown at the time the prohibition was made. 10 All such taxes, whatever the form they assume, must be laid by the rule of apportionment. 11 A tax upon the income of real or personal property is as much a direct tax as a tax imposed upon the property itself. 12 An in- heritance tax is not laid upon property but is an excise duty upon the succession or devolution, and so not a direct tax, 13 and the fact that such a tax is made a lien upon the property trans- mitted does not change its character, that being, merely an ap- propriate means of enforcing its collection. 14 A. tax levied on tobacco by a war revenue act "in lieu of the tax now imposed by law" is not a direct tax within this clause. 15 Nor is a tax imposed by such an act direct because required to be measured by gross receipts. 16 7 Nicol v. Ames, 173 U. S. 523, 19 S. Ct. 522, 43 L. ed. 736. s Head Money Cases, 18 Fed. 135. 9 Hylton v. United States, 3 Dall. 175, 1 L. ed. 556. io Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 158 TJ. S. 632, 15 S. Ct. 912, 39 L. ed. 1108. li License Cases, 5 Wall. 471, 18 L. ed. 497; De Treville v. Smalls, 98 U. S. 517, 25 L. ed. 174. 12 Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 TJ. S. 573, 15 S. Ot. 673, 39 L. ed. 759 (overruling Soholey v. Eew, 23 Wall. 347, 22 L. ed. 99, and Springer v. United States, 102 U. S. 602, 26 L. ed. 233, upon this point); Hyde v. Continental Trust Co., 157 U. S. 654, 15 S. Ct. 717, 39 L. ed. 845; Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 158 U. S. 637, 15 S. Ct. 912, 39 L. ed. 1108; Hancock v. Singer Mfg. Co., 62 N. J. L. 343, 41 Atl. 852, 42 L. E. A. 852. 13 Scholcy v. Eew, 23 Wall. 346, 22 L. ed. 99; Knowlton v. Moore, 178 U. S. 83, 20 S. Ct. 747, 44 L. ed. 960; Murdock v. Ward, 178 U. S. 146, 44 L. ed. 1009; High v. Coyne, 93 Fed. 431; Stat.- v. Hamlin, 86 Me. 498, 41 Am*. St. Eep. 571, 30 Atl. 77; Minot v. Wiu- throp, 162 Mass. 118, 38 N. E. 514; Gelsthorpe v. Furnell, 20 Mont. 307, 51 Pac. 269; State v. Alston, 94 Tenn. 681, 30 S. W. 751, 28 L. E. A. 178. 14 Scholey v. Eew, 23 Wall, 347, 22 L. ed. 99. is Patton v. Brady, 184 U. S. 608, 22 S. Ct. 493, 46 L. ed. 713. io Spreckles etc. Co. v. McClain, 113 Fed. 244. 233 Export Duties. Art. I, § 9, CI. 5 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. This clause is the only positive prohibition against taxation by Congress; Congress has full power to tax everything except exports, the clauses requiring uniformity and apportionment not being strictly limitations upon power, but merely prescribing modes of exercise. 1 The object of this prohibition was to pre- clude interference with exports by Congress. 2 A stamp tax im- posed on foreign bills of lading is in effect a tax or duty upon exports, and so void ; 3 but an act requiring the stamping of all packages of tobacco intended for export, the object being to pre- vent fraud, is not a tax upon exports. 4 The mere intention to export does not bring goods which are still in a factory within the prohibition. 5 So where spirits are lost by evaporation before giving a bond for export, a tax upon such loss is not repugnant to this clause. 6 An act imposing a tax upon goods sent out of the state is void; 7 but an act regulat- ing intercourse with insurrectionary states and imposing a duty thereon is not objectionable. 8 1 United States v. Vassar, 5 Wall. 471, 18 L. ed. 497; Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 77, 19 L. ed. 101; Veazie Bank v. Fenno, S Wall. 540, 19 L. ed. 432; Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 557, 15 S. Ct. 673, 39 L. ed. 845. 2 Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, pp. 542-545, 578-580; Hylton v. United States, 3 Dall. 171, 1 L. ed. 556. 3 Almy v. California, 24 How. 174, 16 L. ed. 644; Fairbank v. United States, 181 U. S. 305, 21 S. Ct. 648, 45 L. ed. 862. 4 Pace v. Burgess, 92 U. S. 376, 23 L. ed. 657; Turpin v. Burgess, 117 U. S. 505, 6 S. Ct. 835, 29 L. ed. 988; Burwell v. Burgess, 32 Gratt. 478. 5 Turpin v. Burgess, 117 U. S. 507, 6 S. Ct. 836, 29 L. ed. 988; Myers v. Baltimore County, 83 Md. 392, 55 Am. St. Eep. 354, 35 Atl. 146, 34 L. R. A. 309. 6 Thompson v. United States, 142 U. S. 478, 12 S. Ct. 299, 35 L. ed. 1084; Chrystal Spring etc. Co. v. Cox, 49 Fed. 561. 7 Commonwealth v. Delaware etc. fly., 1 Pearson, 356; Common- wealth v. Erie Ey., 1 Pearson, 345; Commonwealth v. Pennsylvania etc. Ey., 1 Pearson, 379. 8 Folsom v. United States, 4 Ct. of CI. 366. Art. [,.§ !». CI. (J Preferences to Ports. 234 6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. Preference of Ports. The prohibition contained in this clause is a limitation upon the powers of Congress and not upon those of the states, 1 the object being to restrain Congress from fostering or oppress- ing one port or the commerce of one state and thus destro3-ing equality and uniformity as to levies of contribution from foreign commerce. 2 Discrimination as between states is what is pro- hibited, not discrimination as between individual ports in the same or different states, and Congress is not forbidden to make a port in one state a port of entry, while refusing to do so as to a port in another state; 3 nor does the clause operate to prevent incidental advantages to the ports of one state resulting from commerce legislation, 4 or to acts directly benefiting the ports of one state and only incidentally injuring those of another. 5 The preservation of the commercial equality of the states is aimed at, and legislation tending directly to destroy that equal- ity is what is prohibited. 6 An act of Congress legalizing a bridge across a navigable stream does not have this effect and so does not come within the prohibition. 7 Entry, Clearance and Payment of Duties. Under this part of the clause the privileges and immunities of vessels entering or clearing must be common and equal in all 1 Munn v. Illinois, 94 TJ. S. 135, 24 L. ed. 77; Morgan etc. Co. v. Louisiana, 118 U. S. 467, 6 S. Ot. 1114, 30 L. ed. 237; Johnson v. Chicago etc. Co., 119 U. S. 400, 7 S. Ct. 254, 30 L. ed. 447; Alexander v. E. R. Co., 3 Strob. 594. 2 Munn v. Illinois, 94 TJ. S. 135, 24 L. ed. 77; Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 702; Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, pp. 639, 628, 660, 748. 3 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 18 How. 435, 15 L. ed. 435. 4 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 18 How. 435, 15 L. ed. 435. 5 South Carolina v. G-eorgia, 93 U. S. 13, 23 L. ed. 782. 6 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283, 12 L. ed. 712. 7 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 18 How. 435, 15 L. ed. 435. 235 Preferences to Ports. Art. I, § 9, CI. 6 the ports of the several states, so far as congressional legislation is concerned, 8 and it is only the port to or from which a vessel is bound that is to be considered in relation to entry, clearance or payment of duties. 9 The states are not restricted in the regu- lation of their internal affairs, 10 or in the exercise of their police powers. 11 Accordingly a state quarantine law affecting vessels entering its ports is valid, 12 and a state pilot law is not open to the objection that it gives a preference to the ports of one state over those of another in exempting certain vessels from the pay- ment of fees. 13 "Of another" and "duties in another," relate to commerce and navigation. 14 8 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 18 How. 435, 15 L. ed. 435. 9 United States v. The William, 2 Hall. L. J. 255, Fed. Cas. No. 16,700. 10 Munn v. Illinois, 94 TJ. S. 135, 24 L. ed. 77; Johnson v. Chicago Elevator Co., 119 U. S. 400. 7 S. Ct. 254, 30 L. ed. 447; Baker v. Wise, 16 Gratt. 80; State v. Charleston, 10 Rich. 240; People v. Tax Com- missioners, 17 N. Y. Supp. 255. 11 Guy v. Baltimore, 100 TJ. S. 443, 25 L. ed. 743; Baker v. Wise, 16 Gratt. 139. ie Morgan etc. Co. v. Louisiana, 118 TJ. S. 467, 6 S. Ct. 1114, 30 L. ed. 237. 13 Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 314, 13 L. ed. 996. 14 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 6 L. ed. 23. Art. I, § 9, CI. 7 Appropriations. 236 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. Under this clause, money once in the treasury can only be withdrawn pursuant to an express appropriation by Congress; 1 but the restriction operates only upon the Treasury Department and does not restrain Congress from involving the government in liabilities to pay money to any extent. 2 The Secretary of the Treasury is prohibited from directing the payment of moneys not specifically appropriated by law; 3 the mere direction that a claim be entered upon the books is not an appropriation giving authority to pay it. 4 While Congress has the power to prevent the payment of claims by refusing to appropriate money therefor, 5 an appro- priation of a less amount than is specified by a law fixing com- pensation does not abrogate or suspend such law nor impair the validity of the claim, 6 nor does the fact that the appropriation out of which the claim should have been paid has lapsed con- stitute a defense to the claim itself. 7 Where an appropriation is insufficient to satisfy a claim, the claimant's remedy is by ap- peal to Congress. 8 An act appropriating less than the amount recommended by the head of a department to the payment of 1 Knote v. United States, 95 TJ. S. 154, 24 L. ed. 442; Briggs' Case, 14 Ct. of CI. 48. 2 Collin's Case, 14 Ct. of CI. 568, 15 Ct. of CI. 22; Mitchell's Case, 18 Ct. of CI. 281. 3 United States v. Guthrie, 17 How. 304, 15 L. ed. 102. 4 Eeeside v. Walker, 11 How. 291, 13 L. ed. 693, and see State v. Kenney, 9 Mont. 395, 24 Pac. 97; Orr v. Quimby, 54 N. H. 654. 5 Hart's Case, 16 Ct. of CI. 459. 6 United States v. Langston, 118 U. S. 394, 6 S. Ct. 11S5, 30 L. ed. 164. 7 Briggs' Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 48. 8 Dunwoody v. United States, 143 U. S. 586, 12 S. Ct. 465. 36 L. ed. 269. 237 Appropriations. Art. I, § 9, CI. 7 a claim does not operate as an adoption of the recommendation or a recognition of the amount therein named as due. 9 Congress may recognize and pay a claim of an equitable, moral or honorary nature, and whether the facts are such as to authorize relief is for Congress alone to determine, 10 and where Congress directs a specific sum to be paid to a certain person, neither the Secretary of the Treasury nor any court has any discretion to determine whether the person is entitled to re- ceive it. 11 A pardon by the President cannot restore the pro- ceeds of confiscated property already paid into the United States treasury; to accomplish restoration of such proceeds ap- propriation by law is necessary. 12 Where a claim has been audited, allowed, and paid in the usual manner, the government cannot reclaim the money without showing that payment was induced by fraud or by a mistake of fact. 13 9 Nhitt v. United States, 123 IT. S. 655, 8 S. Ct. 997, 31 L. ed. 821. io United States v. Realty Co., 163 U. S. 439, 444, 16 S. Ct. 1120, 41 L. ed. 215; Allen v. Smith, 173 U. S. 393, 19 S. Ct. 447, 43 L. ed. 741. ii United States v. Price, 116 U. S. 44, 6 S. Ct. 235, 29 L. ed. 541; United States v. Realty Co., 163 U. S. 441, lft S. Ct. 1120, 41 L. ed. 215. 12 Knote v. United States, 95 U. S. 154, 24 L. ed. 442; Austin v. United States, 155 U. S. 427, 15 S. Ct. 172, 39 L. ed. 206. 13 United States v. Olmstead, 118 Fed. 433. Art. I, § 9, CI. 8 Titles of Nobility. 238 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign State. The original draft of the constitution contained only the pro- hibition against grants of titles of nobility. 1 The insertion of the remainder of the clause was prompted by a recognition of the "necessity of preserving foreign ministers and other officers of the United States independent of external influence." 2 A United States marshal cannot, during his tenure of office, rep- resent a foreign nation as its commercial agent. 3 1 Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, p. 450. 2 Documentary Hist. Const., vol. Ill, p. 600. 3 6 Opin. Atty. Gen. 409. 239 Alliance or Confederation - . Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 SECTION" 10. POWERS DENIED TO THE STATES. 1. Various acts prohibited. 2. Imposts or duties on imports or exports except for inspection. 3. Tonnage duties; keeping troops or ships of war; agreements or compacts; engaging in war. 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and re- prisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any- thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant any title of nobility. Nature of State Governments. A state, in the sense of the constitution, is a political com- munity of free citizens occupying definite territory and or- ganized under a government sanctioned and limited by a written constitution, and established by the consent of the governed, and the union of such states, under the constitution, forms the United States. 1 With respect to the general government, the states are not sovereign powers, but members of the Union whose constitution is supreme f but as respects their local government, they are sovereign within their own limits, and foreign as to each other. 3 This sovereignty of the states in their relations 1 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 721, 19 L. ed. 227; Hall v. Hall, 43 Ala. 502, 94 Am. Dec. 712. 2 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 136, 3 L. ed. 162. 3 Buekner v. Finley, 2 Pet. 591, 7 L. ed. 528; Bank of United States v. Daniel, 12 Pet. 54, 9 L. ed. 989; Mahon v. Justice, 127 U. S. 706, 8 S. Ct. 1204, 32 L. ed. 283; Hatch v. Spofford, 22 Conn. 497, 58 Am. Dec. 436; Seevers v. Clement, 28 Md. 434; Smith v. Lathrop, 44 Pa. St. 330, 84 Am. Dec. 450. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Alliance or Confederation. 240 with each other, however, is qualified; 4 they have surrendered their treaty-making powers to the general government, 5 and they cannot declare war or authorize reprisals on other states. 6 Alliance or Confederation. The union of the states is perpetual and indissoluble; upon the admission of a state the union between that state and the other states becomes complete, 7 and a state has no right to se- cede. 8 At no time were the rebellious states out of the Union. 9 The attempt of those states to separate themselves from the Union did not destroy their identity as states, nor free them from the binding force of the constitution of the United States; 10 their rights under the constitution were suspended, not destroyed, but their constitutional duties and obligations re- mained the same. 11 The action of the rebellious states in set- ting aside their former governments and constituting new one:i, connected with another so-called central government, operated to suspend their practical relations with the Union, but did not 4 Mahon v. Justice, 127 TJ. S. 705, 8 S. Ct. 1204, 32 L. ed. 283. 5 Holmes v. Jennison, 14 Pet. 571, 10 L. ed. 579; United States' v. Rauscher, 119 IT. S. 412, 7 S. Ct. 237, 30 L. ed. 425; In re Parrott, 1 Fed. 481 ; People v. Curtis, 50 N. Y. 325, 10 Am. Eep. 486. 6 Mahon v. Justice, 127 U. S. 705, 8 S. Ct. 1204, 32 L. ed. 283. 7 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 725, 726, 19 L. ed. 227; Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 461, 24 L. ed. 1071; Daniels v. Tearney, 102 U. S. 418, 26 L. ed. 187; Pennywit v. Foote, 27 Ohio St. 620, 22 Am. Rep. 352. s White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 651, 20 L. ed. 685; Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 461, 24 L. ed. 1071; Sequestration Cases, 30 Tex. 688, 98 Am. Dec. 494; Chancely v. Bailey, 37 Ga. 532; Central R. R. v. Ward, 37 Ga. 515; Hood v. Maxwell, 1 W. Va. 219. 9 White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 651, 20 L. ed. 685; Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 461, 24 L. ed. 1071; Williams v. Bruffy, 96 U. S. 188-190, 24 L. ed. 716; State v. Bank of Tennessee, 5 Baxt. 24; Homestead Oases, 22 Gratt. 283, 12 Am. Rep. 511. 10 Keith v. Clark, 97 TJ. S. 461, 24 L. ed. 1071; Stewart v. Palmer, SO Va. 81. u White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 651, 20 L. ed. 685; Taylor v. Thomas, 22 Wall. 490, 22 L. ed. 789; Oliver v. Memphis etc. R. R. 30 Ark. 131. 211 Alliance ok Confederation. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 in any degree effect a separation, 12 and the constitution in force before the Ordinance of .Secession continued in force after the overthrow of the Rebellion. 13 The Ordinance of Secession and all acts intended to give it effect were null and void. 14 It did not abrogate the constitu- tion and laws then in force, 15 nor release citizens from their obligation of loyalty to the government of the United States. 153 The only effect of the ordinance was to suspend the rights of the citizens of the rebellious states as citizens of the United States. 16 The state governments continued to exist de jure, and their acts were as valid and binding on them as if no attempt at secession had been made. 17 Accordingly the judgment of a state supreme court, rendered after the Ordinance of Secession, was not avoided thereby, nor was the relation of that court to the appellate power of the United States supreme court af- fected; 18 a sale under execution on a judgment during the Re- bellion passed a good title, 19 and the judgment of a court under 12 Shortridge v. Macon, Chase, 136, 1 Abb. U. S. 58, Fed. Gas. No. 12812. 13 Scruggs v. Huntsville, 45 Ala. 220; President v. State, 45 Ala. 399. 14 Manran v. Alliance Ins. Co., 6 Wall. 13, 18 L. ed. 836; Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 461, 24 L. ed. 1071; Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 726, 19 L. ed. 227; Pennywit v. Foote, 27 Ohio St. 6)20, 22 Am. Eep. 352; United States v. Cathcart, 1 Bond. 556, Fed. Cas. No. 14,756; United States v. Morrison, Chase, 521, Fed. Cas. No. 15,817; Hall v. Hall, 43 Ala. 498, 94 Am. Dec. 708; Ex parte Norton, 44 Ala. 180; Scruggs v. Mayor, 45 Ala. 222; Thomas v. Taylor, 42 Miss. 704, 2 Am. Rep. 635. 15 Harlan v. State, 41 Miss. 566. 15a White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 651, 20 L. ed. 685; United States v. Cathcart, 1 Bond, 556, Fed. Cas. No. 14,756; Homestead Cases, 23 Gratt. 266, 12 Am. Eep. 507. ic Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 727, 19 L. ed. 227; Perkins v. Rogers, 35 Ind. 163, 9 Am. Rep. 670. 17 White v. Cannon, 6 Wall. 450, 18 L. ed. 923; Hawkins v. Fil- kins, 24 Ark. 286; Harlan v. State, 41 Miss. 566; State v. Sears, Phil. (N. C.) 146. is White v. Cannon, 6 Wall. 450, 18 L. ed. 923. 19 Parks v. Coffey, 52 Ala. 36. Notes on Constitution — 16 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Alliance or Confederation. 242 a secession government is not attackable collaterally. 20 Only such judicial acts as were hostile in their purpose or mode of enforcement, to the authority of the national government, or which impaired rights of citizens under the federal constitution, were void. 21 The so-called government established by the states in rebel- lion and designated the Confederate States of America never attained to the dignity of a de facto government in such a sense as to give legal efficacy to its acts; it was simply an armed resistance to sovereign authority, 22 and never had any existence except as organized treason. 23 It could not devest any right or property held under United States laws, 24 nor could it lawfully sequestrate the property of a loyal citizen as an alien enemy, 25 nor take, hold or convey a valid title to property, real or per- sonal, 26 and its acts of confiscation were null and void. 27 The Confederate government was at no time a de facto govern- ment, either as a government which represented the nation, ex- pelling public authorities, making treaties, and receiving recog- nition as an independent power, or which separated itself and 20 Pepin v. Lachenmeyer, 45 N. Y. 34; but see Penny wit v. Foote, 27 Ohio St. 630, 22 Am. Kep. 361. 21 Taylor v. Thomas, 22 Wall. 491, 22 L. ed. 789. 22 Hickman v. Jones, 9 Wall. 200, 19 L. ed. 515; Williams v. Bruffy, 96 U. S. 176, 24 L. ed. 716; Dewing v. Perdicaries, 96 U. S. 195, 24 L. ed. 654; Donegan v. Wood, 49 Ala. 249, 20 Am. Eep. 278; United States v. Stark, 27 Fed. Cas. 330; MeCracken v. Poole, 19 La. Ann. 359; Bailey v. Milner, 35 Ga. 330; Thornburg v. Harris, 3 Cold. 157; Keppeil v. Petersburg E. K., Chase, 167, Fed. Cas. No. 7722. 23 Sprott v. United States, 20 Wall. 464, 20 L. ed. 371; Bragg v. Tufts, 49 Ark. 562, 6 S. W. 161. 24 United States v. Koehler, 9 Wall. 86, 19 L. ed. 574; Vance v. Burt is, 39 Tex. 91. 25 Central etc. B. B. v. Ward, 37 Ga. 515; Sequestration Cases, 30 Tex. 688, 98 Am. Dec. 494; Vance v. Burtis, 39 Tex. 88; Shortridge v. Macon, Chase, 136, 1 Abb. U. S. 58, Fed. Cas. No. 12,812. 26 Sprott v. United States, 20 Wall. 463, 20 L. ed. 371; Lamar v. Micou, 112 U. S. 476, 5 S. Ct. 232, 28 L. ed. 751. 27 Keppel v. Petersburg etc. E. E., Chase, 167, Fed. Cas. No. 7722; Penn v. Tollison, 26 Ark. 545; Thompson v. Mankin, 26 Ark. 586, 7 Am. Eep. 628; Timms v. Grace, 26 Ark. 598; Perdicaries v. Charles- ton etc. Co., Chase, 435, Fed. Cas. No. 10,974. 243 Alliance or Confederation. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 successfully established a permanent independence. 28 The only sense in which such a character can be attributed to it is in so far as it established itself by paramount military force, and so long as it could compel obedience to its authority. 29 To this extent, and for the purpose of protecting persons acting under orders from its military authorities, it may be said to have been a de facto government. 30 The government of the individual states in rebellion were not de facto; 31 the legislature of such a state, upon its becoming a member of the insurrectionary confederacy, ceased to represent the state as a member of the federal Union, 32 and all its acts in furtherance of the Rebellion were invalid, 33 including issues of bonds and treasury notes under its authority. 34 Contracts in aid of the Rebellion were also void, 35 and obligations incurred by a corporation for that purpose were void; 36 but it will not 28 Williams v. Bruffy, 96 U. S. 185, 24 L. ed. 716. 29 Thorington v. Smith, 8 Wall. 10. 19 L. ed. 361; Hubbard v. Hamden Exp. Co., 10 R. I. 249; Smith v. Brazelton, 1 Heisk. 67, 'J Am. Rep. ©89; Newton v. Bushong, 22 Gratt. 633, 12 Am. Rep. 556. 30 Ford v. Surget, 97 U. S. 605, 24 L. ed. 1018; See, also, Under- bill v. Hernandez, 168) U. S. 253, 18 S. Ct. 84, 42 L. ed. 456, affirm- ing, 65 Fed. 582, 38 L. R. A. 405. 31 Penn v. Tollison, 26 Ark. 545; Thompson v. Mankin, 26 Ark. 586, 7 Am. Rep. 628. 32 Taylor v. Thomas, 22 Wall. 489, 22 L. ed. 789, affirming 42 Miss. 651, 2 Am. Rep. 625. 33 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 733, 19 L. ed. 227; Taylor v. Thomas, 22 Wall. 488, 22 L. ed. 789; Hatch v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 445, Fed. Cas. No. 6203; Isaacs v. Richmond, 90 Va. 31, 17 S. E. 761; Mosely v. Tuthill, 45 Ala. 647, 6 Am. Rep. 714; Mississippi etc. R. R. v. State, 46 Miss. 218; Alexander v. Lewis, 47 Tex. 490. 34 Hanauer v. Woodruff, 15 Wall. 442, 21 L. ed. 224; Branch v. Haas, 4 Woods, 589, 16 Fed. 55; Thomas v. Taylor, 42 Miss. 651, 2 Am. Rep. 625; Leak v. Commissioners, 64 N. C. 132; Rand v. State, 65 N. C. 194; Ray v. Thompson, 43 Ala. 434. 35 Hanauer v. Doane, 12 Wall. 345, 20 L. ed. 430; Confiscation Cases, 1 Woods, 226, Fed. Cas. No. 3097; Whitis v. Polk, 36 Tex. 628. 36 Bibb v. Commissioners, 44 Ala. 119; Evans v. Richmond, Chase. 551, Fed. Cas. No. 4570. Art I, § 10, CI. 1 Alliance or Confederation. 244 be presumed that notes issued by a bank in an insurrectionary state were issued for an unlawful purpose. 37 While, however, the government of the United States is not bound to recognize as valid any action by a state engaged in rebellion, 38 yet laws were upheld so far as they did not tend to impair the supremacy of the national government or the con- stitutional rights of citizens; 39 e. g., statutes necessary for the protection of persons and property; 40 laws for the regulation of business transactions; 41 statutes regulating the creation of cor- porations; 42 statutes in aid of railroad corporations. 43 S7 Keith v. Clark. 97 U. S. 466, 24 L. ed. 1071; Clark v. Keith, 106 U. S. 465, 1 S. Ot. 569, 27 L. ed. 302. ss Thompson v. Mankin, 26 Ark. 586, 7 Am. Rep. 628. 39 Horn v. Lockhardt, 17 Wall. 580, 21 L. ed. 657; Huntington v. Texas, 16 Wall. 413, 21 L. ed. 316; Williams v. Bruffy, 96 TJ. S. 176, 24 L. ed. 716. 4" Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 733, 19 L. ed. 227; Taylor v. Thomas, 22 Wall. 489, 22 L. ed. 789; Cook v. Oliver, 1 Woods, 437, Fed. Caa. No. 3164; Chappell v. Williamson, 49 Ala. 153; Sequestration Cases, 20 Tex. 688, 98 Am. Dec. 494; Van Epps v. Walsh, 1 Woods, 607, Fed. Cas. No. 16,850; Calhoun v. Kellog, 41 Ga. 240; Morgan v. Keenan, 1 S. C. 331; Clay v. Robinson, 7 W. Va. 356. 41 Thomas v. Richmond, 12 Wall. 357, 20 L. ed. 453; Sprott v. United States, 20 Wall. 464, 22 L. ed. 371; Hill v. Boyland, 40 Miss. 618; Buchanan v. Smith, 43 Miss. 90; Wallace v. State, 33 Tex. 445. 42 United States v. Insurance Cos., 22 Wall. 103, 22 L. ed. 816; Frierson v. General Assembly, 7 Heisk. 705. 4 3 Davis v. Gray, 16 Wall. 225, 21 L. ed. 447. 245 Bills of Credit. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Emit bills of credit; Bills of Credit. A bill of credit within the constitutional prohibition, is a paper issued by the state, on the faith of the state, and designed to circulate as money. 1 All three of these attributes must con- cur in the paper to render it objectionable under this clause. 2 It must be issued by the state, 3 or by state officers under state authority; e. g., state treasurer. 4 Bills issued by state banks are not bills of credit, 5 although the state guarantees their payment. 6 The fact that the state is the sole stockholder in the bank, whose officers are elected by the state legislature, is immaterial ; 7 a state, by becoming in- terested, with others, in a corporation, or by acquiring all the capital stock does not impart to the corporation any of its at- tributes of sovereignty. 8 1 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 433, 7 L. ed. 903; Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709; Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 190, 13 L. ed. 383; Wesley v. Eells, 177 U. S. 370, 20 S. Ct. 661, 44 L. ed. 810, affirming 90 Fed. 157; Bailey v. Milner, 35 Ga. 330, 1 Abb. U. S. 263, Fed. Cas. No. 740; Bragg v. Tuffts, 49 Ark. 563, 6 S. W. 162; City Bank v. Mahan, 21 La. Ann. 752. 2 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709. 3 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 318, 14 L. ed. 705; Philadelphia By. Co. v. Morrison, 19 Fed. Cas. 488. 4 Wesley v. Eells, 177 U. S. 370, 20 S. Ct. 661, 44 L. ed. 810; Bragg v. Tuffts, 49 Ark. 563, 6 S. W. 162. 5 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 318, 14 L. ed. 705; Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 552, 19 L. ed. 482; Nathan v. Louisiana, 8 How. 81, 12 L. ed. 992; Owen v. Branch Bank, 3 Ala. 258; McFarland v. State Bank, 4 Ark. 44, 37 Am. Dec. 761; Bank v. Spilman, 3 Dana, 150; Lampton v. Bank, 2 Litt. 300; Bills v. State, 2 McCord, 12; Craig- head v. Bank, 1 Meigs, 199; Vermont Bank v. Porter, 5 Day, 316, 5 Am. Dec 157. But see Linn v. State Bank, 1 Scam. 90, 25 Am. Dec. 72; Bank of Kentucky v. Clark, 4 Mo. 61, 28 Am. Deo. 347. 6 Darrington v. Bank of Alabama, 13 How. 16, 14 L. ed. 30. 1 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709; Darring- ton v. Bank of Alabama, 13 How. 14, 14 L. ed. 30; Owen v. Branch Bank, 3 Ala. 262; McFarland v. State Bank, 4 Ark. 51. 37 Am. Dec. 765; Jones v. Bank of Tennessee, 8 B. Mon. 123, 46 Am. Dec. 541. 8 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 325, 9 L. ed. 709; Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 309, 14 L. ed. 705; Davis v. Gray, 16 Wall. 23:', Art I, § 10, CI. 1 Bills of Credit. 246 To come within the prohibition a bill must be issued by a state, on its faith and credit, and be designed to circulate as money ; 9 but this clause does not forbid the states to execute in- struments binding themselves to pay money at a future day for services rendered or for money 'borrowed. 10 A treasury note issued as evidence of a loan, if not intended as a circulating medium, is not a bill of credit; 11 so also as to a bill drawn upon a particular fund. 12 Nor is a treasury warrant drawn in pav- ment of an appropriation made by the legislature and payable if there be funds in the treasury, objectionable as a bill of credit. 13 ,, j A state may authorize municipalities to issue certificates of indebtedness, 14 and to pledge their real estate for the redemp- tion of such certificates. 15 Besides the issue of such paper by the state there must be the intent to have it circulate as money, 16 receivable for all debts and taxes, salaries and fees. 17 A state cannot by indirect 21 L. ed. 447; Southern Ry. v. North Carolina Ry., 81 Fed. 600; Durham v. Railroad, 108 N. C. 402, 12 S. E. 1041; Owen v. Branch Bank, 3 Ala. 258; Central Bank v. Little, 11 Ga. 346. But see Bank of Kentucky v. Wister, 2 Pet. 324, 7 L. ed. 437. . 9 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet, 318, 9 L. ed. 709. 10 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 433, 7 L. ed. 903; Virginia Coupou Cases, 114 U. S. 370, 5 S. Ct. 903, 29 L. ed. 185; Chaffin v. Taylor, 116 U. S. 567, 6 S. Ct. 518, 29 L. ed. 727; Woodruff v. Mississippi, J62 ir. S. 299, 16 S. Ct. 820, 40 L. ed. 973; McCoy v. Washington Co., 3 Wall. Jr. 381, Fed. Cas. No. 8731; Peyaud v. State, 13 Miss. 491. 11 Ramsey v. Cox, 28 Ark. 36Q; Green v. Sizer, 40 Miss. 530. 12 Go wen v. Shute, 4 Baxt. 63. 13 Houston etc. R. R. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 83, 20 S. Ct. 545, 44 L. ed. 673; Peyaud v. State, 13 Miss. 491. 14 Mayor v. State, 15 Md. 376; Smith v. New Orleans, 23 La. Ann. 5; Delafield v. State, 26 Wend. 192. 15 Smith v. New Orleans, 23 La. Ann. 5. 10 Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 205, 13 L. ed. 383; Poindexter v. Grecnhow, 114 U. S. 284, 5 S. Ct. 910, 29 L. ed. 185; Ramsey v. Cox, 28 Ark. 369; Indiana v. Woram, 6 Hill, 33. 17 Craig v. Missouri 4 Pet. 433, 7 L. ed. 903; In re Milner, 1 Abb. U. S. 263, Fed. Cas. No. 740; City Bank v. Mahan, 21 La. Ann. 751. 247 Bills of Credit. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 means, or by any device, emit bills of credit. 18 The form of the paper is immaterial ; if it is issued by the state on its credit and in fact designed to circulate as money, it is void. 19 So railroad scrip resembling bank notes, issued in various denomi- nations, based upon the pledge of the state, receivable for dues and ta.xes to the state, and when so received available for the payment of claims against the state treasury, are clearly de- signed to circulate as money and are void; 20 paper need not be made legal tender in terms in order to come within the de- nomination *f a bill of credit. 21 Where, however, warrants drawn on the treasury are receivable in payment of taxes due the state, but provision is made for their retirement when so taken, this clause is not violated; 22 the use of the words "as money" in making such warrants receivable in payment of taxes is not conclusive of an intent to make them operate as currency generally. 23 So. also, coupons for interest on state bonds, negotiable by delivery merely, and receivable in payment of taxes, are not issued as a substitute for money and are not bills of credit. 24 Treasury notes issued by the Confederate states, not being issued by "a state," were not bills of credit. 25 The invalidity of such notes as consideration for contracts was placed upon the is Craig v. Missouri, 4 Wheat. 433, 7 L. ed. 903; Bank v. Clarke, 4 Mo. 59, 28 Am. Dec. 345; Griffith v. Bank, 4 Mo. 255. 3 9 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 410, 7 L. ed. 903; Byrne v. Missouri, 8 Pet. 40, 8 L. ed. 859. 20 Wesley v. Eells, 177 U. S. 370, 20 S. Ct. 661, 44 L. ed. 810, affirm- ing 90 Fed. 151. 21 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 436, 7 L. ed 903; Byrne v. Missouri, 8 Pet. 42, 8 L. ed. 859; Bills v. State, 2 McCord, 12. 22 Houston etc. B. E. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 83, 20 S. Ct. 545, 44 L. ed. 673. 23 Houston etc. E. E. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 84, 20 S. Ct. 545, 44 L. ed. 673; Galveston etc. E. E. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 103, 2C S. Ct. 559. 44 L. ed. 690. 24 Poindexter v. Greenhow, 114 U. S. 284, 5 S. Ct. 910, 29 L. ed. 185. 25 Bailey v. Milner, 1 Abb. U. S. 263, 35 Ga. 332, Fed. Cas. No. 740. But see Hale v. Huston, 44 Ala. 139, 4 Am. Eep. 127; Thornburg v. Harris, 3 Cold. 160. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Bills of Credit. 248 ground that they were issued in aid of the Rebellion. 26 A cer- tificate of deposit is not a note issued to circulate as money, and so is not a bill of credit. 27 26 Hanauer v. Woodruff, 15 Wall. 442, 21 L. ed. 224; Branch v. Haas, 4 Woods, 589, 16 Fed. 55; Bailey v. Milner, 1 Abb. U. S. 263, 35 Ga. 332, Fed. Gas. No. 740. S7 Hunt, Appellant, 141 Mass. 520, 6 N. E. 556. 249 Coinage and Tender. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Coin money; * * * make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; Coinage and Legal Tender. The act of coining money, being prohibited, cannot be done by a state, either directly or indirectly. 1 The term "money" means gold, silver and copper coins, 2 and to "coin money" is to mold into form a metallic substance of intrinsic value. 3 The power to coin money was denied to the states and vested in Congress (see art. I, § 8, cl. 5) in order to create and preserve the uniformity and purity of a standard of value, and to pre- vent the irregularities and confusion incident to different views of policy on the part of the several states. 4 The same rule applies as to legal tender; a statute attempt- ing, by indirect means, to make anything but gold and silver a legal tender is unconstitutional; 5 e. g., a statute requiring a bank to receive its own notes in payment of the notes of another bank; 6 a statute authorizing the tender of the scrip of a cor- poration for taxes or assessments; 7 a statute providing for a stay of execution unless the creditor accepts payment in state bank paper. 8 This clause imposes no duty to pass any laws on the subject of tender; it is a prohibition against affirmative legislation creating or authorizing a tender. 9 So a state may incorporate a bank and authorize it to issue notes, and while a provision 1 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709. 2 Maynard v. Newman, 1 Nev. 271; Thayer v. Hedges, 22 Ind. 301; Hague v. Powers, 39 Barb. 458; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 430. 3 Griswold v. Hepburn, 2 Duvall, 29. 4 United States v. Marigold, 9 How. 567. 5 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709; Edwards <. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 606, 24 L. ed. 793; Lowry v. McGhee, 8 Yerg. 242. 6 Bank of Stare v. Bank of Cape Fear, 13 Ired. 75. 7 Gaines v. Rives, 8 Ark. 220; State v. Blackmo, S Blackf. 246. 8 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709; Town- send v. Townsend, Peck, 1, 14 Am. Dec. 721; Bailey v. Gentry, 1 Mo. 164. 9 Van Housan v. Kanousc, 13 Mich. 303, 311. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Coinage and Tender. 250 making such notes legal tender would be void, it would not af- fect the validity of that part of the statute creating the bank and authorizing the issue of the notes. 10 A provision in the charter making the bank's notes receivable in payment of debts due the state is not void as creating a legal tender. 11 Bank notes are not a legal tender; they are not money in the strict sense of the term, but by common usage they ordinarily pass as money and constitute a good tender unless objected to. 12 io Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 318, 9 L. ed. 709; Wood- ruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 206, 13 L. ed. 383. 11 Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 206, 13 L. ed. 383; Paup v. Drew, 10 How. 224, 13 L. ed. 394; Trigg v. Drew, 10 How. 224, 13 L. ed. 397; Bush v. Shipman, 5 111. 186. 12 Bank of United States v. Bank of Georgia, 10 Wheat. 347, 6 L. ed. 334; Woodruff v. Mississippi, 162 U. S. 300, 16 S. Ct. 823, 40 L. ed. 973; Corbitt v. Bank, 2 Harr. (Del.) 252, 30 Am. Dec. 626; People v. Mayhew, 26 Cal. 663; Jones v. Overstreet, 4 T. B. Mon. 550; Klauber v. Biggerstaff, 47 Wis. 559, 32 Am. Rep. 778, 3 N. W. 361. 251 Bills of Attainder. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Any bill of attainder or ex post facto law. Bill of Attainder.* A bill of attainder is a legislative act which inflicts punish- ment without a judicial trial. 1 It is not necessary that the punishment be inflicted absolutely in order to render legisla- tion objectionable; the punishment may be conditional. 2 The constitution deals with substance, not form, and any statute de- priving a citizen of rights for past misconduct is void, however disguised. 3 The term "bill of attainder" embraces bills of pains and penalties, 4 and comprehends laws confiscating property as well as those affecting the life of an individual. 5 Any depri- vation or suspension of an inalienable right is a punishment. 6 The prohibition extends to laws depriving a party of the privi- lege of enforcing contracts because of prior acts; 7 statutes de- priving of the right to office for dueling. 8 The so-called test-oath acts contravene this clause in exclud- ing certain persons from practicing their professions for pre- vious acts of rebellion, 9 or depriving such persons of the right to a rehearing in civil suits or denying to nonresidents the right to appear and defend without taking the prescribed oath. 10 This clause does not forbid a state to prescribe the necessary 1 Gummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 18 L. ed. 356. 2 Gaines v. Buford, 1 Dana, 510. 3 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 325, 18 L. ed. 356. 4 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 601, 19 L. ed. 508, affirming 41 Mo. 184, 97 Am. Dec. 248; In re Yang Sing 13 Saw. 485, 36 Fed. 439; Norris v. Doniphan, 4 Met. (Ky.) 434. 5 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 138, 3 L. ed. 162; Ex parte Law, 35 Ga. 302; Myers v. Sanders, 7 Dana, 519. 6 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323, 18 L. ed. 356; Stat© v. Wal- bridge, 119 Mo. 390, 41 Am. St. Rep. 667, 24 S. W. 458. 7 McNealy v. Gregory, 13 Fla. 417. 8 Commonwealth v. Jones, 10 Busih, 732. 9 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323, 18 L. ed. 356; Klinger v. Missouri. 13 Wall. 257, 20 L. ed. 635; Murphy's Case, 41 Mo. 339; State v. Heighland, 41 Mo. 388. 10 Pierce v. Carskndon, 16 Wall. 239, 21 L. ed. 276. *See, also, art. I, § 9, cl. 3. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Bills of Attainder. 252 qualifications to entitle a person to practice his profession; 11 or to require pharmacists to register; 12 or to exclude ex-convicts from the practice of medicine; 13 or provide for the examination and licensing of plumbers. 14 The fact that such statutes are applicable in terms to persons who* had previously enjoyed the right to pursue their avocations does not render them objection- able. 15 In the absence of a constitutional provision conferring the elective franchise it is a privilege to be granted as the legisla- ture may deem proper, and it may be withheld from persons who have been guilty of crime without violating this clause, 16 and the fitness of persons claiming the right to vote may be tested by requiring them to take an oath. 17 Where, however, the right has been conferred by constitutional provision the legislature cannot require a voter to take any oath not pre- scribed in the constitution. 18 A provision in a state constitution that no person shall be prosecuted civilly for acts done under military authority during the Civil War is not a bill of attainder. 19 11 Dent v. West Virginia, 129 U. S. 125, 9 S. Ct. 234, 32 L. ed. 623; Brooks v. State, 88 Ala. 124, 6 South. 903; State v. Webster, 150 Tnd. 616>, 50 N. E. 753, 41 L. E. A. 212; State v. Eandolph, 23 Or. 82, 37 Am. St. Hep. 658, 31 Pac. 202, 17 L. E. A. 470. 12 State v. Heinemann, 80 Wis. 257, 27 Am. St. Eep. 36, 49 N. W. 819. 13 Howker v. New York, 170 U. S. 198, 18 S. Ct. 577, 42 L. ed. 1002, affirming 152 N. Y. 242, 46 N. E. 609. 14 State v. Gardner, 58 Ohio St. 609, 65 Am. St. Eep. 790, 51 X. E. 138, 41 L. E. A. 689. 15 Dent v. West Virginia, 129 U. S. 126, 9 S. Ct. 235, 32 L. ed. 623. 16 Murphy v. Eamsey, 114 U. S. 42, 5 S. Ct. 747, 29 L. ed. 47; Shepherd v. Grimmett, 3 Idaho, 403, 31 Pac. 793; Washington v. State, 75 Ala. 582, 51 Am. Eep. 479. 17 Shepherd v. Grimmett, 3 Idaho, 403, 31 Pac. 793; Wooley v. Watkins, 2 Idaho, 590, 22 Pac. 102; Blair v. Eidgley, 41 Mo. 63, 97 Am. Dec. 248; Anderson v. Baker, 23 Md. 531; State v. Neal, 42 Mo. 119; Eandolph v. Good, 3 W. Va. 541. 18 Green v. Shumway, 39 N. Y. 418. 19 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 601, 6 L. ed. 508, affirming, 41 Mo. 184, 97 Am. Dee. 248; Clark v. Dick, 1 Dill. 8, Fed. Cas. Xo. 2818; Smith v. Owen, 42 Mo. 508; State v. Gatzweiller, 49 Mo. 18, 8 Am. 253 Ex Post Facto Laws. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ex Post Facto Laws.* An ex post facto law is a law enacted after an offense is com- mitted and which, in relation to it or its consequences, alters the situation of the accused to his disadvantage. 20 The term em- braces every law that makes an act done before the passage of the law, and innocent when done, criminal; 21 every law that aggravates a crime or changes the punishment and inflicts a greater punishment than the law annexed to the crime when committed; 22 every law that alters the legal rules of evidence, and authorizes conviction upon less or different testimony than was required by law at the time an offense was committed. 23 The prohibition embraces not only laws punishing an act which was innocent when committed, but also laws punishing for criminal acts as to which there was no liability to punish- ment at the time of their passage ; e. g., extending the time for the prosecution of offenses and attempting to revive liability to prosecution already barred. 24 Where, however, the immunity Kep. 119; Hess v. Johnson, 3 W. Va. 645; Peerce v. Kitzmiller, 19 W. Va, 573. 20 Kring v. Missouri, 107 IT. S. 235, 2 S. Ct. 449, 27 L. ed. 506; Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 351, 18 S. Ct. 620, 42 L. ed. 1061. 21 Gaidar v. Bull. 3 Dall. 390-393, 1 L. ed. 648; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 110, 8 L. ed. 876; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 366, 18 L. ed. 366; Burgess v. Salmon, 97 U. S. 382, 24 L. ed. 1104; In re Dorsey, 5 R. I. 190; Lindzey v. State, 65 Miss. 543, 5 South. 99, 7 Am. St. Rep. 675. 22 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 390-393, 1 L. ed. 648; Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 138, 3 L. ed. 162; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 110, 8 L. ed. 876; Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 330, 18 L. ed. 356; Medley, Petitioner, 134 U. S. 171, 10 S. Ct. 384, 33 L. ed. 835; Hartnung v. People, 22 N. Y. 106; Shepherd v. People, 35 N. Y. 406; Ratzky v. People, 29 N. Y. 124; Beard v. State, 74 Md, 132, 21 Atl. 701; State v. Mc- Donald, 20 Minn. 136; In re. Petty, 22 Kan. 477. 23 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 397, 1 L. ed. 648; Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 331, 18 L. ed. 356; Duncan v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 382, 14 S. Ct. 570, 38 L. ed. 485; Kring v. Missouri, 107 U. S. 235, 2 S. Ct. 449, 27 L. ed. 506; Hart v. State, 40 Ala. 22, 88 Am. Dec. 756; State v. Bond, 4 Jones (N. C), 10; State v. Johnson, 12 Minn. 484, 93 Am. Dec. 247. And see United States v. Hughes, 8 Ben. 30, Fed. Cas. No. 15,416. 24 Moore v. State, 43 N. J. L. 203, 39 Am. Rep. 558; People t. Lord, 12 Hun. 282; State v. Keith, 63 N. C. 140; State v. Sneed, 25 Tex. Supp. 66. For prohibition applicable to Congress, see art. I, § 9, cl. 3. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ex Post Facto Laws. 254 arises from the protection afforded by the laws of another jur- isdiction, an extradition treaty providing for the surrender of a fugitive cannot be deemed ex post facto. 25 Amendatory stat- utes merely changing the designation of a crime punishable when committed are not open to objection; 26 but where a stat- ute denning and punishing an offense has been repealed, it would seem that the repeal of the repealing statute would be ex post facto as to an offense committed while the original stat- ute was in force. 27 A statute taking away the power of the jury to determine the degree of punishment for murder, and fixing the penalty for murder in the first degree at death can- not retroact. 28 Punishment has been defined as the penalty imposed for a transgression of the law, 29 and every law that inflicts a greater penalty than the law annexed to the crime when committed is ex post facto. 30 A slight change in the punishment will render the law objectionable unless it is manifest that the punishment prescribed is not greater than under the previous law; 31 it is burflcient to show that it might be so although that is not its necessary effect. 32 Nor is the extent to which the punishment is increased of any moment in determining the ex post facto character of a law. 33 So a law providing for solitary confine- 25 In re De Giacomo, 12 Blatchf. 401, Fed Cas. No. 3747. 26 State v. Baldwin, 45 Conn. 134; Sage v. State, 127 Ind. 15, 26 N. E. 667; Commonwealth v. Sullivan, 150 Mass. 315, 23 N. E. 47; Randolph v. Larned, 27 N. J. Eq. 557; Powers v. Shepard, 48 N. Y. 540. 27 State v. Keith, 63 N. C. 140; Hartnung v. People, 22 N. Y. 95. Contra, Commonwealth v. Getehell, 16 Pick. 452; Commonwealth v. Mott, 21 Pick. 492. 08 Marion v. State, 16 Neb. 349, 20 N. W. 289. 29 Miller, J., in Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 393, 18 L. ed. 366. 30 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 390-393, 1 L. ed. 648. 31 Hartnung v. People, 22 N. Y. 106; Ratzky v. People, 29 N. Y. 104. 32 Beard v. State, 74 Md. 132, 21 Atl. 701; Lindzey v. State, 65 Miss. 545, 7 Am. St. Rep. 676, 5 South. 100. 33 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 277, 18 L. ed. 356; Ex parte Gar- land, 4 Wall. 333, 18 L. ed. 366; In re Medley, 134 U. S. 166, 10 S. Ct. 384, 33 L. ed. 835. 255 Ex Post Facto Laws. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 ment until the execution of a death sentence is void as to prior offenses; 34 as also is a law changing a penalty from hanging to hard labor until such time as the governor should fix the date of execution; 35 a law withdrawing deductions from a term of imprisonment for good behavior; 36 a law making what was formerly a misdemeanor a felony; 37 a law increasing costs on conviction. 37 a A statute imposing a heavier punishment upon one previously convicted of a felony does not impose an additional imprison- ment for former crimes, and so is not ex post facto; 38 such a statute merely provides a rule for judging the severity of the sentence which should be imposed, 39 and the increased penalty is intended as a punishment for persistence in crime. 40 Where the law in force at the time an offense is committed provides for imprisonment at hard labor, a law authorizing the leasing of convicts does not increase punishment, 41 and a law aiming at the improvement of prison discipline is not objection- able although it may impose burdens upon those under sen- 34 In re Medley, 134 U. S. 171, 10 S. Ct. 384, 33 L. ed. 835. But see In re Tyson, 13 Colo. 484. 22 Pac. 810, 6 L. R. A. 472. 35 In re Petty, 22 Kan. 477. 3 6 Murphy v. Commonwealth, 172 Mass. 269, 70 Am. St. Eep. 271, 52 N. E. 507, 43 L. R. A. 154. 37 State v. Smith. 62 Minn. 542, 64 N. W. 1022. 37a Caldwell v. State, 55 Ala. 133. 38 Moore v. Missouri, 159 U. S. 677, 16 S. Ct. 179, 40 L. ed. 301; McDonald v. Massachusetts, 180 U. S. 313, 21 S. Ct. 389, 45 L. ed. 542; Ex parte Gutierrez, 45 Cai. 430; Ross' Case, 2 Pick. 165. 39 McDonald v. Massachusetts, 180 U. S. 313, 21 S. Ct. 389, 45 L. ed. 542; Commonwealth v. Murphy, 174 Mass. 374, 75 Am. St. Rep. 357, 54 N. E. 862, 48 L. R. A. 393; People v. Stanley, 47 Cal. 113, 17 Am. Rep. 401; McGuire v. State, 47 Md. 485; Kelly v. People, 115 111. 583, 56 Am. Rep. 184. 4 N. E. 644. 40 McDonald v. Massachusetts, 180 U. S. 313, 21 S. Ct. 389, 45 L. ed. 542; People v. Raymond, 96 N. Y. 38; State v. Wilbor, 1 R. I. 199, 36 Am. Dec. 245; Commonwealth v. Graves, 155 Mass. 163, 29 N. E. 579, 16 L. R. A. 256; Ingalls v. State, 48 Wis. 647, 4 N. W. 785; Rand v. Commonwealth, 9 Gratt. 738. 41 Mason etc. Co. v. Main Jellico etc. Co., 87 Ky. 467, 9 S. W. 391; State v. McCauley, 15 CaL 456. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ex Post Facto Laws. 25G tence. 42 Eegulations as to the hour and place of execution and as to the height of the inclosure and the number of persons present do not increase the punishment. 13 Laws mitigating the punishment prescribed by previous laws are not repugnant to this clause ; 44 e. g., a law changing a penalty from death to life imprisonment, 45 changing penalty from whipping and imprisonment in the common jail to imprison- ment in the penitentiary, 46 repealing a provision fixing the minimum penalty, 47 decreasing the maximum penalty. 48 Th>c mitigation, however, must consist in the remission of some sep- arable part of the penalty; if one penalty is merely substituted for another, the courts will refuse to apply either. 49 A statute changing the rules of evidence and receiving less or different evidence than the previous statute required to con- vict, is ex post facto. 50 So the repeal of a law which makes a conviction for a lesser degree of homicide conclusive of inno- cence of the greater is void as to a prior offense. 51 This is true of a statute requiring only the testimony of an accomplice to convict where the previous law required corroborative evi- 42 Hartnung v. People, 22 N. Y. 95, 105; Lindzey v. State, 65 Miss. 545, 7 Am. St. Kep. 676, 5 South. 100; In re Miller, 110 Mich. 677, 64 Am. St. Eep. 377, 68 N. W. 990, 3-4 L. R. A. 398. ♦3 Holden v. Minnesota, 137 IT. S. 491, 11 S. Ct. 143, 34 L. ed. 734. 44 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 391, 1 L. ed. 648; Lynn v. State, 84 Md. 7S, 35 Atl. 22; People v. Hayes, 140 N. Y. 491, 37 Am. St. Eep. 576, 35 X. E. 952, 23 L. R. A. 830; Commonwealth v. Wyman, 12 Cush. 239. And see Turner v. State, 40 Ala. 21, 29; Moore v. State, 40 Ala. 49; Strong v. State, 1 Blaekf. 193. 45 Commonwealth v. Gardner, 11 Gray, 438. But see Shepherd v. People, 25 N. Y. 415. 46 State v. Kent, 65 N. C. 312; State v. Ratts, 63 N. C. 503. 4 7 People v. Hayes, 140 N. Y. 491, 37 Am. St. Rep. 576, 35 N. E. 952, 23 L. R. A. 830. 4S LyDn v. State, 84 Md. 78, 35 Atl. 22. 49 Lindzey v. State, 65 Miss. 545, 7 Am. Sfc, Rep. 674, 5 South. 100. 50 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 391; Cunrmings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 329, 1 L. ed. 64S; Duncan v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 382, 14 S. Ct. 570, 38 L. ed. 485; Gilbson v. Mississippi, 162 U. S. 590, 16 S. Ct. 904, 40 L. ed. 1075. But see Moore v. State, 14 Vroom, 203, 39 Am. Rep. 569, quest inning this phase of the rule. 51 Kring v. Missouri, 107 U. S. 22S, 2 S. Ct. 449, 27 L. ed. 506. 257 Ex Post Facto Laws. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 dence, 52 a statute permitting conviction upon circumstantial evidence where, before, direct evidence was required, 53 or a statute declaring that the criminal act of an agent is presumed to be the act of his principal. 54 But a statute merely enlarg- ing the class of persons competent to testify is not objection- able. 55 Restriction of Phrase to Penal Laws. Ex post facto laws within the prohibition of this clause in- clude only criminal laws, and not retrospective laws, civil in their nature; 56 but while the provision is aimed against crimi- nal laws, it cannot be evaded by giving civil form to that which is substantially criminal, 57 and the law to be ex post facto need not involve the question of personal liberty; the imposition of any penalty or forfeiture cannot be retroactive. 58 The so-called test-oath acts excluding persons guilty of past acts of rebellion from the practice of their professions inflict a 52 Hart v. State, 40 Ala. 22 88 Am. Dec. 756. 53 State v. Johnson, 12 Minn. 484, 93 Am. Dec. 247. 54 State v. Bond, 4 Jones (N. C), 10. 55 Mrous v. State, 36 Tex. Cr. Eep. 597, 37 Am. St. Kep. 834. 56 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 390, 1 L. ed. 648; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 266, 6 L. ed. 606; Baltimore etc. E. B. v. Nesbit, 10 How. 402, 13 L. ed. 469; Carpenter v. Commonwealth, 17 How. 463, 15 L. ed. 127; Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 173, IS L. ed. 334; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 390, 18 L. ed. 366; In re Sawyer, 124 U. S. 219, 8 S. Ct. 492, 31 L. ed. 402; Albee v. May, 2 Paine, 74, Fed. Cas. No. 134; United States v. Gibert, 2 Sum. 101, Fed. Cas. No. 15,204; Holman v. Bank, 12 Ala. 417; Aldridge v. Tuscumbia etc. E. E., 2 Stew. & P. 199, 23 Am. Dec. 312; Boston v. Cummins, 16 Ga. 107, 60 Am. Dec. 720; Coles v. Madison County, Breese, 156, 12 Am. Dec. 163; Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 1, 18 Am. Rep. 669; Gladney v. Sydnor, 172 Mo. 318, 95 Am. St. Eep. 517, 72 S. W. 554, 60 L. E. A. 880; Burch v. Newbury, 10 N. Y. 374; People v. Howker, 152 N. Y. 234, 46 N. E. 608; Foster v. Police Commissioners, 102 Cal. 483, 41 Am. St. Eep. 194, 37 Pac. 763; Bridgeport v. Hubbell, 5 Conn. 240; Elliott v. Mayfield, 4 Ala. 417; Wilder v. Lumpkin, 4 Ga. 209. 57 Oummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 328, 18 L. ed. 356; Burgess v. Salmon, 97 U. S. 385, 27 L. ed. 359; Howker v. New York, 170 U. S. 196, 18 S, Ct. 573, 42 L. ed. 1002. 58 Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 173, 18 L. ed. 334; United States v. Hughes, 8 Ben. 29, Fed. Cas. No. 15,416. Note3 on Constitution — 17 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ex Post Facto Laws. 258 penalty for past acts and are equally as repugnant to this clause as acts imposing a penalty of death or imprisonment. 59 So also as to a law precluding suitors who could not take a pre- scribed oath from petitioning for a rehearing previously allowed them. 60 A statute partaking of both a criminal and a civil nature may, however, retroact in its civil aspect; as a statute taxing purchases for the previous year and imposing a penalty for failure to make returns, 61 or a statute prohibiting sales of liquor operating necessarily to prevent sales of liquor previously manufactured. 62 Statutes prescribing the causes for which divorce may be granted do not necessarily punish a crime or an immoral act, and such causes may be applied to secure the dissolution of mar- riages already contracted, 63 and this is true of a law authoriz- ing the judge granting a divorce to forbid the guilty party to marry during the others lifetime; 64 but a law authorizing the granting of a divorce for adultery, an offense previously puni li- able only by fine, has Been held ex post facto as to previous of- fenses. 65 In the absence of a constitutional provision prescribing the qualifications of electors, the franchise may be conferred as the legislature deems proper; 66 the withholding of the franchise from persons guilty of crime cannot be deemed the infliction of 59 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323, 18 L. ed. 356; Ex parte Garland, 4 Wall. 377, 18 L. ed. 366; Murphy and Glover Cases, ±1 Mo. 370; State v. Bermoudy, 36 Mo. 279; State v. McAdoo, 36 Mo. 452; State v. Adams, 44 Mo. 570. 60 Pierce v. Carskadon, 16 Wall. 239, reversing 4 VV. Va. 248, 6 Am. Rep. 292. 61 State v. Bell, Phill. (N. C.) 81. 62 State v. Paul, 5 R. I. 190. 63 Elliott v. Elliott, 38 Md. 362; Jones v. Jones, 2 Over. 2; Carson v. Carson, 40 Miss. 349; Hickman v. Hickman, 1 Wash- 257, 24 Pae. 445, 22 Am. St. Rep. 148. 64 Elliott v. Elliott, 38 Md. 362. 65 Dickinson v. Dickinson, 3 Murph. (N. C.) 330, 9 Am. Dec. 609. 66 Murphy v. Ramsey, 114 U. S. 43, 5 S. Ct. 747, 29 L. ed. 47; Shepherd v. Grimmett, 3 Idaho, 403, 31 Pac. 795; Anderson v. Baker, 23 Md. 605; Blair v. Ridgley, 41 Mo. 171, 97 Am. Dee. 252. But see Green v. Shumway, 39 N. Y. 424. 259 Ex Post Facto Laws. Art. I. § 10, CI. 1 a punishment prohibited by this clause, 67 and persons claiming the right to vote may be required to take an expurgatory oath. 68 An act disqualifying, as jurors, persons previously convicted of crimes does not punish anew the offenses of such persons, and is not ex post facto. 69 It is within the police powers of a state to require that prac- titioners of medicine shall be of good moral character, and the exclusion of ex-convicts from the right to practice is not objec- tionable as applied to one punished before its passage. 70 A law requiring the registration of medical practitioners is not objectionable because it applies to physicians already licensed. 71 A law repealing a prior law before the performance of acts necessary to give vested rights is not ex post facto, 72 nor is a law prescribing the conditions under which, alone, a thing may be used in future, 73 nor a law regulating escheats, without ref- erence to crimes, pains or penalties. 74 Laws Relating to Criminal Procedure. In applying the prohibition as to ex post facto laws, a dis- tinction is to be drawn between statutes objectionable as alter- ing rules of evidence and those relating to matters of proced- ure. 75 So long as a change of procedure deprives an accused person of no substantial rights, so as to "alter his situation to 67 Murphy v. Ramsey, 114 U. S. 42, 43, 5 S. Ot. 747, 29 L. ed. 47; Washing-ton v. State, 75 Ala. 582, 51 Am. Eep. 479. 68 Davis v. Beason, 133 U. S. 345-347, 10 S. Ct. 299, 33 L. ed. 637; Shepherd v. Grimmett, 3 Idaho, 403, 31 Pac. 795; Wooley v. Watkins, 2 Idaho. 590, 22 Pac. 102. 69 Garrett v. Weinberg, 54 S. C. 144, 31 S. E. 345. 70 Howker v. New York, 170 TJ. S. 191, IS S. a. 578, 42 L. ed. 1002, affirming 152 N. Y. 240, 56 N. E. 608. 71 Eeetz v. Michigan, 188 TJ. S. 505, 23 S. Ot. 390, 47 L. ed. 563. 72 Van Home v. Dorrance, 2 Dall. 304, Fed. Cas. No. 16,857. 73 Evans v. Jordan, 9 Cr. 199, 3 L. ed. 704; Evans v. Weiss, 2 Wash. C. C. 342, Fed. Cas. No. 4572. 74 White v. Wayne, Charlt. 194. 75 Duncan v. Missouri, 152 TJ. S. 382, 14 S. Ct. 570, 38 L. ed. 485; Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 352, 18. S. Ct. 620, 42 L. ed. 1061; Moore v. State, 43 N. J. L. 214, 39 Am. Eep. 568; State v. Bond, 4 Jones, 10; Mrous v. State, 31 Tex. Cr. Eep. 599, 37 Am. St- Eep. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ex Post Facto Laws. 260 his disadvantage," it is unobjectionable. Changes in rules reg- ulating the admission of testimony do not always contravene this provision; e. g., statutes enlarging the class of persons com- petent to testify, 76 or admitting evidence of a particular kind to prove an issue of fact. 77 Such statutes do not alter the de- gree or lessen the amount of proof necessary to conviction of a crime at the time it was committed. 78 An accused person has no vested right to be tried in the exact mode, in all respects, as was prescribed by law at the time the offense charged against him was committed. 79 So a law chang- ing the place of trial passed after the commission of an of- fense is not ex post facto, 80 nor is a law merely changing the structure of the courts, 81 increasing the number of trial judges within a certain jurisdiction, 82 transferring jurisdiction from one court to another, 83 creating new courts or conferring new jurisdiction, 84 dispensing with preliminary examinations before 835, 21 S. W. 764; Walston v. Commonwealth, 16 B. Mon. 37; Peoplo ex rel. v. McDonald, 5 Wyo, 533, 42 Pac. 17, 29 L. E. A. 834; State v. Hoyt, 47 Conn. 532. 76 Hopt v. Utah, 110 U. S. 589, 4 S. Ct. 202, 28 L. ed. 262; Mrous v. State, 31 Tex. Cr. Rep. 599, 37 Am. St. Rep. 835, 21 S. W. 764; Laughlin v. Commonwealth, 13 Bush, 261. And see Commonwealth v. Homer, 153 Mass. 343, 26 N. E. 872. 77 Thompson v. Missouri, 171 U. S. 387, 18 S. Ct. 922, 43 L. ed. 204, affirming 141 Mo. 417, 42 S. W. 951. 78 Hopt v. Utah, 110 U. S. 589, 4 S. Ct. 202, 28 L. ed. 262; Robin- son v. State, 84 Ind. 452. 79 Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 351, 42 L. ed. 1061; Thompson v. Missouri, 171 U. S. 388, 18 S. Ct. 922, 43 L. ed. 204. 80 Gut v. State, 9 Wall. 37, 38, 19 L. ed. 573; Cook v. United States, 138 U. S. 183, 11 S. Ct. 26S, 34 L. ed. 906. 81 Duncan v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 382, 14 S. Ct. 570, 38 L. ed. 485; Moore v. Missouri, 159 U. S. 679, 16 S. Ct. 182, 40 L. ed 301. 82 State v. Thompson, 141 Mo. 417, 42 S. W. 951. 83 State v. Welch, 65 Vt. 54, 25 Atl. 901; State v. Cooler, 30 S. C. 105, 8 S. E. 692, 3 L. R. A. 181. 84 Anderson v. O'Donnell, 29 S. C. 355, 13 Am. St. Rep. 728, 7 S. E. 523, 1 L. R. A. 632; State v. Sullivan, 14 Rich. 281; Common- wealth v. PhilUpps, 11 Pick. 28. 261 Ex Post Facto Laws. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 police magistrates; 85 nor is a law repealing a law entitling an accused to a change of venue upon showing certain facts. 86 Laws changing the mode of charging a crime relate solely to procedure, and a change may authorize a charge by either in- dictment or information, 87 or prescribe information in place of indictment. 8S So also a law validating defective indictments, 89 or allowing amendments thereto, 90 or authorizing the correc- tion of clerical errors in sentences, 91 are valid as to prior of- fenses. A statute regulating the selection of grand and petit juries, and prescribing their qualifications, may retroact; 92 as also a statute changing the mode of summoning juries, 93 or allowing the state a certain number of peremptory challenges, 94 or reduc- ing the number of peremptory challenges, 95 or making the jury judges of the facts alone, instead of the law and the facts. 96 The number of grand jurors necessary to find an indictment may be reduced; 97 but a law providing for the trial of persons ac- es In re Wright, 3 Wyo. 481, 31 Am. St. Eep. 97, 27 Pae. 566, 13 L. K. A. 748, 86 People ex rel. v. McDonald, 5 Wyo. 533, 42 Pae. 17, 29 L. E. A. 834. But see People v. Powell, 87 Cal. 359, 25 Pae. 484, 11 L. E. A. 75. 87 People v. Campbell, 59 Cal. 243, 43 Am. Eep. 257; Sage v. Stat.?, 127 Ind. 19, 26 N. E. 669; In re Wright, 3 Wyo. 481, 31 Am. St. Eep. 97, 27 Pae. 566, 13 L. E. A. 748. 88 Lybarger v. State, 2 Wash. 557, 27 Pae. 450. 89 State v. Sears, Phill. (N. C.) 146; Commonwealth v. Bean. Thach. C. C. 85. 90 State v. Manning, 14 Tex. 402. 91 Ex parte Bethurum, 66 Mo. 545. 92 Gibson v. Mississippi, 162 U. S. 589, 16 S. Ct. 904, 40 L. ed. 1075. 93 Perry v. Commonwealth, 3 Gratt. 632. 94 Walston v. Commonwealth, 16 B. Mon. 15; State v. Evan, 13 Minn. 370; Warren v. Commonwealth, 37 Pa. St. 45; Walter v. People, 32 N. Y. 147; Commonwealth v. Dorsey, 103 Mass. 412; Jones v. State, 1 Ga. 610. 95 Eeynolds v. State, 1 Ga. 222; Perry v. Commonwealth, 3 Gratt. 632. 96 Marion v. State, 20 Neb. 233, 57 Am. Eep. 825, 29 N. W. 911. 97 State v. Ah Jim, 9 Mont. 167, 23 Pae. 76, Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ex Post Facto Laws. 262 cused of felony by a jury of eight persons is void as to a pre- vious offense, 98 as also is a statute depriving the accused of the right to object to an incompetent grand juror," and a statute authorizing the jury to fix the penalty upon conviction. 100 Other examples of laws relating to procedure only, and so not ex post facto, are: statutes requiring the defense of insanity to be specially pleaded; 101 allowing counsel for the prosecution to close as well as to open the argument to the jury; 102 giving to the state the right to appeal from orders granting new trials; 103 allowing the time and place of execution, and pre- scribing the number of persons who may witness it. 104 98 Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 350, 18 S. Ct. 620, 42 L. ed. 1061. 99 Martin v. State, 22 Tex. 214. 100 Holt v. State, 2 Tex. 363, and see Dawson v. State, 6 Tex. 347. ioi Perry v. State, 87 Ala. 30. 102 People v. Mortimer, 46 Cal. 114. 103 Mallett v. North Carolina, 181 U. S. 597, 21 S. Ct. 730, 45 L. ed. 1015. 104 Holden v. Minnesota, 137 U. S. 491, 11 S. Ct. 143, 34 L. ed. 734. 263 Obligation of Contracts. Art. 1, § 10, CI. 1 Or law impairing the obligation of contracts. Scope of the "Obligation Clause"' — In General. The prohibition against the passage of laws impairing the obligation of contracts is confined to the states; 1 but it cannot be nullified by any congressional act purporting by authoriza- tion or ratification to give effect to a state law or constitution in conflict with the constitution of the United States. 2 One of the great objects of the constitution was to preserve the invio- lability of contracts, 3 and to secure the observance of good faith in the stipulations of the parties to a contract. 4 But the purpose was to protect rights and not mere incidental advan- tages derived indirectly from contracts. 5 The prohibition goes to the power of the state, and not to the manner or character of its action, 6 and the body upon which it rests is the legislative department of the state. 7 The states having been forbidden absolutely to pass laws impairing the obligation of contracts, 8 a law having that effect is null and 1 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 416, 7 L. ed. 458; In re Klein, 1 How. 277; Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 550, 20 L. ed. 287; White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 646, 20 L. ed. 685; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 318, 21 L. ed. 357; Home Ins. Co. v. City Council, 93 U. S. 121, 23 L. ed. 825; Evans-Snider-Buel Co. v. MeFadden, 105 Fed. 293, 53 L. R. A. 900; Bloomer v. Stolley, 5 McLean, 158, Fed. Cas. No. 1559; Evans v. Eaton, 1 Pet. C. C. 337, Fed. Cas. No. 4559; Gunn v. Barry, 8 Bank. Reg. 1; In re Smith, 2 Woods, 460, Fed. Cas. No. 12,996; Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill, 325; Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400: MayeT v. Knight, 27 Tex. 719. See Hepburn v. Gris- wold, 8 Wall. 623, 19 L. ed. 513, where it was declared that an act of Congress operating directly to impair contract obligations would be inconsistent with the spirit of the constitution. 2 White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 646, 20 L. ed. 685, 39 Ga. 306; Gunn v. Barry, S Bank. Reg. 1; In re Kennedy, 2 Rich., N. S., 216; Cal- houn v. Calhoun, 2 Rich., N. S., 283. 3 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 449, 24 L. ed. 760. 4 Garrison v. New York, 21 Wall. 203, 22 L. ed. 612. 5 Oehiltree v. Railroad, 21 Wall. 253, 22 L. ed. 546. 6 Jacoway v. Denton, 25 Ark. 625. 7 Trustees- t. Eider, 13 Conn. 87. 8 Hanover Nat. Bank v. Moyses, 186 IT. S. 188, 22 S. Ct. 857, 46 L. ed. 1113. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 264 void, and the courts in enforcing the contracts affected by the law will apply the same remedies as though the invalid law had never been passed. 9 Vested Rights.* A state law devesting vested rights violates no constitutional provision where it does not impair the obligation of a con- tract; 10 it is only when legislation acts upon contracts as dis- tinct from vested rights that the prohibition against impairing the obligation of contracts is infringed. 11 Accordingly property acquired under a contract may be taken for public use without violating the prohibition, 12 and the taking of a contract under condemnation proceedings does not break its obligations, but appropriates it, as it does tangible property, to public uses. 13 A vested right is the power to do certain actions or possess certain things according to the law of the land, 14 and rights vested under a law, which is in its nature a contract, cannot be devested by the legislature. 15 A right is vested when it has already become a legal or equitable title, 16 and the legislature has no power to devest titles, 17 or legal or equitable rights pre- viously vested, 18 or to vest them in another. 19 If a vested right 9 Louisiana v. Pillsbury, 105 U. S. 302, 26 L. ed. 1090. 10 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 413, 7 L. ed. 458; Baltimore etc. R. E. v. Nesbit, 10 How. 402, 13 L. ed. 469; De Moss v. Newtoii, 31 Ind. 220; Shepherd v. Grimmett, 3 Idaho, 403, 31 Pac. 795; McLure v. Melton, 24 S. C. 570, 58 Am. Rep. 278. 11 Charles River Bridge v. Wlarren Bridge, 11 Pet. 582, 9 L. ed. 773; Baltimore etc. R. R. v. Nesbit, 10 How. 401, 13 L. ed. 469; Calhoun v. Calhoun, 2 S. C. 301. 12 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 89, 5 L. ed. 547. 13 Long Island etc. Co. v. Brooklyn, 166 U. S. 691, 17 S. Ct. 718, 41 L. ed. 1165. 14 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 394, 1 L. ed. 648. 15 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 135, 3 L. ed. 162. 16 Richardson v. Akin, 87 111. 138. 17 Helm v. Webster, 85 111. 116. 18 Bunn v. Morrison, 5 Ark. 217; Grissom v. Hill, 17 Ark. 489. 19 Koenig v. Omaha etc. R. E. Co., 3 Neb. 383. ♦See, also, post, pp. 273-276. 265 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 acquired under contract be impaired by a subsequent statute the statute is void ; 20 but the repeal of an act before a party has taken all the steps requisite to give him a right under it does not impair the obligation of a contract. 21 So a railroad's right to condemn land, unexecuted except by filing a general map of the proposed route, is not so vested as to make condemnation by the state repugnant to this clause. 22 While a legislative act ought not to be given a retroactive effect unless the intention that it so operate is clear, 23 yet ret- roactive laws which do not impair the obligation of contracts and are not ex post facto are valid. 24 So a statute is not ob- jectionable because it purports to operate upon contingent or conditional rights, 25 and a mere expectation of property in the future may be changed, modified or abolished by legislative ac- tion; 26 only rights actually vested and to which the title is complete are protected. 27 If an act is within the legislative power it is not a valid ob- 20 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 315, 11 L. ed. 143; McCraclcen v. Hayward, 2 How. 612, 11 L. ed. 397; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 549, 18 L. ed. 403; State v. Bridges, 22 Wash. 64, 79 Am. St. Rep. 914, 60 Pac. 60. 21 Van Home v. Dorrance, 2 Dall. 304, Fed. Cas. No. 16,857; Mo- bile R. E. Co. v. State, 29 Ala. 573; Brinsfteld v. Carter, 2 Ga. 143; Wise v. Rogers, 24 Gratt. 169; Huntsman, v. Randolph, 5 Hayw. 263; State v. Gray, 4 Wis. 380. 22 Adirondack Ry. v. New York, 176 U. S. 350, 20 S. Ct. 460, 44 L. ed. 492. 23 United States v. Arredondo, 6 Pet. 733, 3 L. ed. 547; Farrell v. Pingree, 5 Utah, 449, 16 Pac. 845; Dash v. Van Kleeck, 7 Johns. 477, 5 Am. Dec. 291. 24 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 603, 19 L. ed. 508; Blount v. Windley, 95 U. S. 180, 24 L. ed. 424; New Orleans v. Pontz, 14 La. Ann. 853; New Orleans v. Cordivialle, 13 La. Ann. 260; Bay v. Gage, 36 Barb. 447; Hinton v. Hinton, Phill. (N. C.) 410; Tilton v. Swift, 40 Iowa, 78; Lane v. Nelson, 79 Pa. St. 407. 25 Clarke v. McOreary, 40 Miss. 347. 26 Butterfield v. Sawyer, 187 111. 598, 79 Am. St. Rep. 246, 58 N. E. 602, 52 L. R. A. 75. 27 Society, etc. v. Wheeler, 2 Gall. 139, Fed. Cas. No. 13,156; Nelson v. Allen, 1 Yerg. 360; Officer v. Young, 5 Yerg. 320, 26 Am. Dec. 268. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 266 jection to it that it operates to devest vested rights; such an act is not within the constitutional prohibition, however re- pugnant it may be to the principles of sound legislation. 28 Statutory Rights.* Rights growing out of statutory provisions may be modified by statute unless they are in the nature of contracts. 29 Mar- riage is more than a civil contract; it is a relation of society, and the prohibition of this part of the clause does not apply to laws regulating or annulling the relations between parties. 30 So the legislature may regulate the granting of divorces. 31 Dower, while it is a legal right, 32 is subject to regulation by statute without infringing the prohibition; 33 but an antenup- tial contract is protected and its obligation cannot be impaired by subsequent legislation. 34 A statute giving to a husband the 28 L..ne v. Nelson, 79 Pa. St. 407. 29 Cohen v. Wright, 22 Gal. 319; Oriental Bank v. Freeze, 18 Mc. 109, 36 Am. Dec. 701; People v. Livingston, 6 Wend. 526; Morse v. Kice, 21 Me. 53. 30 Maynard v. Hill, 125 U. S. 214, 8 S. Ct. 723, 31 L. ed. 654, State v. Tutty, 41 Fed. 752; Hunt v. Hunt, 131 U. S. clxv; Starr v. Hamilton, Deady, 268, Fed. Cas. No. 13,314; Ex parte Kinney, 3 Hughes, 9, Fed. Cas. No. 7825; White v. White, 5 Barb. 474; Fults v. Fox, 9 B. Mon. 499; Kelly v. McCarthy, 3 Bradf. 7; Noel v. Ewing, 9 Ind. 37; Jones' Appeal, 57 Pa. St. 369; State v. Duket, 90 Wis. 277, 48 Am. St. Eep. 931, 63 N. W. 85, 31 L. B. A. 515. 31 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 629; Bar- thelmy v. Johnson, 3 B. Mon. 90, 38 Am. Dec. 179; Tolen v. Tolen, 2 Blackf. 407, 21 Am. Dec. 743; Starr v. Pease, 8 Conn. 546; Stace v. Fry, 4 Mo. 172; Campbell's Case, 2 Bland. Ch. 236, 20 Am. Dec. 377; Harding v. Alden, 9 Me. 150, 23 Am. Dec. 555; Cabell v. Ca- bell, 1 Met. (Ky.) 326; Levins v. Sleator, 2 G. Greene, 608; Noel v. Ewing, 9 Ind. 49; Cronise v. Cronise, 54 Pa. St. 262; Bow en v. Blount, 48 Ala. 674. 32 May bury v. Brien, 15 Pet. 37, 10 L. ed. 46. 33 Starr v. Hamilton, Deady, 268, Fed. Cas. No. 13,314; Kelly r. McCarthy, 3 Bradf. 7; Noel v. Ewing, 9 Ind. 37; In re Barbour, 46 Me. 9; Lucas v. Sawyer, 17 Iowa, 517; Magee v. Young, 40 Miss. 164; Lawrence v. Miller, 1 Sand. 516. 34 Desnoyer v. Jordan, 27 Minn. 295. 'See, also, note as to change of remedy, post, pp. 596 et seq. 267 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 right to use his wife's land, with power to rent it for a certain period, and which was in force at the time of marriage has been held to confer contract rights protected by this clause. 35 Liens created by law are subject to the control of the legis- lature and may be altered, modified or abolished. 36 So a stat- ute repealing a mechanic's lien law is valid, 37 as also is a law creating a lien upon the property of a debtor in favor of an existing contract. 38 A law merely altering and enlarging the remedy for the enforcement of mechanics' liens after foreclos- ure sale does not impair the contracts of the mortgagee or the purchaser: 39 nor does a statute extending the time for the enforcement of mechanics' liens. 40 Statutes providing that a judgment shall constitute a lien upon the judgment debtor's property may apply to existing judgments, 41 and the repeal of a statute giving a judgment creditor a lien has been held unobjectionable. 42 But, on the other hand, a law giving the right to a judgment lien has been held to form part of the contract. 43 A statute requiring a 33 ik.se v. Eose, 104 Ky. 48, 84 Am. St. Rep. 430, 4® S. W. 524, 41 L. E. A. 353. 36 Evans v. Montgomery, 4 Watts & S. 218; Patin v. Prejean, 7 La. 301; Woodbury v. Grimes, 1 Colo. 100; Tempteton v. Home, 82 111. 401; Wilson v. Simon, 91 Md. 1, 80 Am. St. Eep. 427, 45 Atl. 1022. 37 Sullivan v. Brewster, 1 E. B. Smith, 681; Miller v. Moore, 1 E. D. Smith. 739; Woodbury v. Grimes, 1 Colo. 100; Wilson v. Simon, 91 Md. 1, 80 Am. St. Rep. 427, 45 Atl. 1022. 38 Gordon v. Canal Co., 1 MeAll. 513, Fed. Cas. No. 5621; Brien v. Clay, 1 E. B. Smith, 649; Bolton v. Johns. 5 Pa. St. 145, 47 Am. Bee. 404. But see Kinney v. Sherman, 28 111. 520. 39 Eed River Valley Bank v. Craig, 181 U. S. 558, 21 S. Ct. 703, 45 L. ed. 9<94. 40 Garland v. Irrigation Co., 9 Utah, 360, 34 Pac. 370. 41 Livingston v. Moore, 7 Pet. 546-562, 8 L. ed. 751; Moore v. Letchford, 35 Tex. 213, 14 Am. Rep. 367. 42 Bank v. Longworth, 1 McLean, 35, Fed. Cas. No. 923; Iverson v. Shorter, 9 Ala. 713; Beck v. Burnett, 22 Ala. 822; Baily v. Burke, 28 Ala. 328; Curry v. Landers, 35 Ala. 280; Moore v. Holland, 16 S. C. 24; MeCormick v. Alexander, 2 Ohio, 285. 43 Murphy v. Gaskins, 28 Gratt. 207; Ratcliffe v. Anderson, 31 Gratt. 105, 31 Am. Rep. 716; Gilman v. Tucker, 128 N. Y. 190, 26 Am. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation ok Contracts. 2G8 party to record the abstract of his judgment in order to pre- serve the lien is valid. 44 A statute authorizing the sale of prop- erty free from encumbrances, and transferring the lion thereof to the proceeds, is valid; 45 otherwise. if the statute permits the sale whether it brings a sufficient amount to pay the encum- brance or not, or allows the proceeds of the property to be first applied to the payment of costs other than those of the sale. 46 A statute requiring interest to be paid in advance in order to enable the mortgagor to remain in possession is unobjection- able, 47 as also is a statute giving the grantee of a rent charge the right of re-entry for nonpayment of rent, 48 and an act taking away the priority of a claim for rent in case of a levy. 49 A statute depriving a lessee of an action for forcible entry and detainer against a lessor, 50 or giving an action of covenant against an assignee of a leasehold estate, is likewise valid. 51 A general law requiring the construction of fishways in dams does not, as to a dam previously erected under a special act of the legislature, impair any contract obligations. 52 What Constitutes a "law" Within the Prohibition. This prohibition applies only to laws which are retrospective in their operation; contracts are not impaired by laws passed prior to their execution, and states are free to legislate as to future contracts, 53 and it will not be presumed that the con- st. Eep. 464, 28 N. E. 1040, 13 L. R. A. 304; Merchants' Bank v. Ballou, 98 Va. 112, 81 Am. St. Rep. 715, 32 S. E. 481, 44 L. R. A. 306. 44 Tarplej- v. Hamer, 17 Miss. 310. 45 Potts v. Water Power Co., 9 N. J. Eq. 592 ; Potts v. Xew Jersey Arms Co., 17 N. J. Eq. 395. 46 Martin v. Somerville, 3 Wall. Jr. 206, 27 How. Pr. 161, Fed. Cas. No. 9165. 47 Stone v. Bassett, 4 Minn. 298. 48 Van Rensselaer v. Ball, 19 N. Y. 100. 49 Stocking v. Hunt, 3 Denio, 274. 50 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 595, aflirming 41 Mo. 1S4, 97 Am. Dec. 268. 51 Taggart v. McGinn, 14 Pa. St. 155. 52 Parker v. State, 111 Til. 581, 53 Am. Rep. 643. 53 Railroad v. McClure, 10 Wall. 515, 19 L. ed. 997; Lehigh Water 269 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 tract alleged to be impaired antedated the statute. 54 A stat- ute enacted before the constitution went into operation, and impairing the obligation of prior contracts, is not invalid under this clause; 55 the constitution was made by and for the people of the United States, and its restraints on state powers do not affect laws passed by a state before its admission. 56 The con- stitution only prohibits laws impairing the obligation of con- tracts; 57 the legislature cannot alter the nature and legal effect of an existing contract or violate its obligation. 58 A state can- not, by any expression of legislative will or any agency what- ever, lessen or impair the legal effect or obligation of any con- tract valid when entered into; 39 but it may prohibit the mak- ing of certain contracts in the future and declare such con- tracts to be invalid. 60 Statutes enacted by the state legislature are not alone within this prohibition; by-laws or ordinances of a municipal corpora- tion having the force of law within the municipality are con- templated by the obligation clause; 61 and a state constitutional provision may be as objectionable as a legislative act, 62 and Co. v. Easton, 121 U. S. 391, 7 S. Ct. 919, 30 L. ed. 1059; Pinney v. Nelson, 183 U. S. 147, 22 S. Ct. 52, 46 L. ed. 125; Central Land Co. v. Laidley, 159 XL S. 112, 16 S. Ct. 83, 40 L. ed. 91; Turner v. Wilkes County, 173 U. S. 464, 19 S. Ct. 465, 43 L. ed. 768. 54 Blair v. Ostrander, 109 Iowa, 204, 77 Am. St. Eep. 532, 80 N. W. 330, 47 L. E. A. 469. 55 Owings v. Speed, 5 Wheat. 421, 5 L. ed. 124; Blanque's Syndic v. Beale, 1 Mart. (La.), N. S., 429. 56 League v. De Young, 11 How. 203, 13 L. ed. 657; Herman v. Phalen, 14 How. 83, 14 L. ed. 334. 57 Thornton v. Hooper, 14 Cal. 9. 58 King v. Dedham Bank, 15 Mass. 447, 8 Am. Dee. 112. 59 Plock v. Cobb, 64 Ala. 127; Floyd v. Blanding, 54 Cal. 41; Cole v. La Chambre, 31 La. Ann. 41; Louisiana v. New Orleans, 32 La. Ann. 493; Danolds v. State, 89 N. Y. 36, 42 Am. Eep. 277. 60 Churchman v. Martin, 54 Ind. 380. 61 St. Paul Gaslight Co. v. St. Paul, 181 U. S. 148, 21 S. Ct. 575, 45 L. ed. 788; Southwest Missouri Light Co. v. Joplin, 101 Fed. 23. 62 Dodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 360, 15 L. ed. 401; Eailroad Co. v. MeClure, 10 Wall. 511, 19 L. ed. 997; Delmas v. Insurance Co., 14 Wall. 667, 20 L. ed. 757; Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 623, 21 L. ed. 212; Concord v. Portsmouth Savings Bank, 92 U. S. 630, 23 L. ed. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 270 rights acquired under one constitution cannot be impaired by a later one or by an amendment. 63 While, however, a change in the state constitution cannot re- lieve a state from its obligations contracted under the original constitution, 64 a constitutional amendment declaring void state bonds which are still in the possession of the state and have not passed into the hands of a bona fide holder does not contravene this provision. 65 A constitutional provision which is merely directory, requiring legislation to carry it into effect, cannot be held void; 66 the question must be presented in a suit for the enforcement of the contract alleged to be impaired by the pro- vision, 67 and as a suit cannot be maintained by virtue of such a constitutional provision without some reference to legislation enacted under it, 68 all laws in force previous to the enactment 628; Moultrie County v. Savings Bank, 92 U. S. 635,. 23 L. ed. 631; New Orleans Gaslight Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 U. S. 672, 6 S. Ct. 252, 29 L. ed. 516; Bier v. MeGehee, 148 U. S. 140, 13 S. Ct. 580, 37 L. ed. 397; Houston etc. By. v. Texas, 170 U. S. 261, 18 S. Ct. 610, 42 L. ed. 1023; In re McLean, 2 Bank Eeg. 173, Fed. Cas. No. 8878; Marsh v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 463, Fed. Cas. No. 9112; Osborn v. Nicholson, 1 Dill. 235, Fed. Cas. No. 10,595; Hawkins v. Filkins, 24 Ark. 286; Jacoway v. Denton, 25 Ark. 625; McNealy v. Gregory, 13 Fla. 417; Homestead Cases, 23 Gratt. 266, 12 Am. Eep. 507; Edwards v. Jager, 19 Ind. 407; Logwood v. Planters' Bank, 1 Minor, 23; Chicago v. Bumsey, 87 111. 348; Ex parte Lee's Bank, 21 N. Y. 9; Rutland v. Copes, 15 Eich. 84; Moore v. New Orleans, 32 La. Ann. 747; State v. Hickman, 9 Mont. 379, 23 Pac. 743, 8 L. B. A. 403; Powell v. Madison, 107 Ind. 115, 8 N. E. 35; Hazen v. Union Bank, 1 Sneed, 115; Union Bank v. State, 9 Yerg. 490; Jones v. Brandon, 48 Ga. 593; Cham bliss v. Jordan, 50 Ga. 81. 63 Pacific B. E. Co. v. McGuire, 20 Wall. 42, 22 L. ed. 282; Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 454, 24 L. ed. 1071; Poindexter v. Greenhow, 114 U. S. 291, 5 S. Ct. 914, 29 L. ed. 185; Canal Company's Case, 83 Md. 626, 35 Atl. 365. 64 Dodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 360, 15 L. ed. 401; Matheny v. Golden, 5 Ohio St. 361. 65 Bier v. MeGehee, 148 U. S. 140, 13 S. Ct. 580, 37 L. ed. 397. 66 Groves v. Slaughter, 15 Pet. 500, 10 L. ed. 800; State v. Buck- ley, 54 Ala. 616; In re Perkins, 2 Cal. 455; Marshall v. Sherman, 14S N. Y. 18, 51 Am. St. Rep. 657, 42 N. E. 420, 34 L. E. A. 757. 67 State v. Burke, 33 La. Ann. 498. 68 Morley v. Thayer, 3 Fed. 740. 271 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 of the directory provision remain in force, and contracts must be neld to be governed thereby. 69 Only municipal ordinances passed under the supposed author- ity of a legislative act become "laws" of a state within the pro- hibition against impairment, 70 and this is also true of an ordinance not involving the exercise of legislative power. 71 Judicial decisions construing a contract or statute are not "laws" within the meaning of this prohibition; 72 to come within the prohibition, a contract must be impaired by legis- lative act and not alone by judicial decision. 73 So where a state may repeal a law without impairing the obligation of ex- isting contracts an erroneous decision that the law has been repealed does not impair the obligation of such contracts; 74 but, on the other hand, where a state has power to exempt prop- erty from taxation a decision to the effect that a law so doing is unconstitutional impairs a contract created by that law. 75 It is only where a decision gives effect to a law alleged to impair contract obligations that the supreme court acquires jurisdic- tion to review a state court judgment under this clause. 76 A probate sale cannot be held to impair the obligation of a con- 60 New Orleans v. Wood, 34 La. Ann. 735; Shelton v. Marshall, 16 Tex. 351; Marshall v. Sherman, 148 N. Y. 18, 51 Am. St. Rep. 657, 42 N. E. 420, 34 L. R. A. 757. 70 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 440, 24 L. ed. 760; Hamiltou Gas Light Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 266, 13 S. Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963. 71 New Orleans Waterworks v. Louisiana Sugar Co., 125 U. S. 31, 8 S. Ct. 748, 31 L. ed. 607. 72 University v. People, 99 U. S. 320, 25 L. ed. 387; New Orleans Waterworks v. Louisiana Sugar Co., 125 U. S. 36, 8 S. Ct. 751, 31 L. ed. 607; Hanford v. Davies, 163 U. S. 279, 16 S. Ct. 1051, 41 L. »d. 157; Ray v. Natural Gas Co., 138 Pa. St. 592, 21 Am. St. Rep. 92S, W Atl. 1067, 12 L. R. A. 290. 73 Central Land Co. v. Laidley, 159 U. S. 109, 16 S. Ct. 80, 40 L. ed. 91. 74 Baltzer v. North Carolina, 161 U. S. 246, 16 S. Ct. 500, 40 L. ed. 684. 75 Mobile R. R. v. Tennessee, 153 U. S. 495, 14 S. Ct. 971, 38 L. ed. 793. 76 New Orleans Waterworks Co. v. Louisiana, 185 U. S. 351, 22 S. Ct. 691, 22 L. ed. 936. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 272 tract. 77 While, in general, legislative action is necessary in order to violate the provision against impairment, yet the law as established by judicial construction at the time a con- tract was made cannot be changed by judicial construction so as to impair that contract. 78 If a contract was valid at the time it was made no subsequent legislation, decision, construc- tion or alteration of the law can render it invalid, 79 and a pro- bate sale made under a law held valid at the time it was made must be sustained, 80 and partition made by a court held at the time to have jurisdiction cannot be nullified by a later construc- tion; 81 but this rule does not require that the courts put the same construction upon two successive statutes the language of which is similar. 82 77 Hanford v. Davies, 51 Fed. 259. 78 Ohio Life Ins. Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 432, 14 L. ed. 997; Have- meyer v. Iowia County, & Wall. 303, 18 L. ed. 38; Butz v. Muscatine, 8 Wall. 584, 19 L. ed. 490; Olcott v. Supervisors, 16 Wall. 590, 21 L. ed. 382; Pine Grove v. Talcott, 19 Wall. 658, 22 L. ed. 227; Chicago v. Sheldon, 9 Wall. 55, 19 L. ed. 594; City v. Lamson, 9 Wall. 486, 19 L. ed. 725; Taylor v. Ypsilanti, 105 U. S. 72, 26 L. ed. 1008; Louisiana v. Pilsbury, 105 U. S. 294, 26 L. ed. 1090; Shapleigh v. San Angelo, 167 U. S. 657, 42 L. ed. 310; Los Angeles v. Los An- geles City Water Co., 177 U. S. 575, 44 L. ed. 886. 79 Pine Grove v. Talcott, 19 Wall. 678, 20 L. ed. 227, affirming 1 Flipp. 130, Fed. Cas. No. 13,735; Commissioners v. Thayer, 94 U. S. 642, 24 L. ed. 133; United States v. New Orleans, 98 U. S. 397, 25 L. ed. 225; Commissioners v. Lellew, 99 U. S. 628, 25 L. ed. 333; Pana v. Bowler, 107 U. S. 541, 20 S. Ct. 704, 27 L. ed. 424; Milner v. Pensacola, 2 Woods, 641, Fed. Cas. No. 9619; Foote v. Johnson County, 5 Dill. 285, Fed. Cas. No. 4912; United States v. Treasurer, 1 Dill. 528, 2 Abb. U. S. 60, Fed. Cas. No. 16,538; United States v. Judges, 32 Fed. 715; Bank v. Commissioners, 90 Fed. 10; Illinois Cent. B. E. v. McLean County, 17 111. 291; Hunsaker v. Wright, 30 111. 146; Newstadit v. Illinois Cent. E. E., 31 111. 484; Haskett v. Maxey, 134 Ind. 191, 33 N. E. 360, 19 L. E. A. 379. 80 Hall v. Wells, 54 Miss. 301; Myers v. Boyd, 144 Ind. 499, 43 N. E. 567. si Levy v. Hitscher, 40 La. Ann. 508, 4 South. 476. 82 Wood v. Brady, 150 U. S. 22, 14 S. Ct. 6, 37 L. ed. 981. 273 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Retrospective Laws.* The inhibition is not aimed at all laws of a retrospective nature; such laws do not necessarily violate the obligation of contracts. 83 Accordingly, while retrospective statutes are, in general, to be condemned, and statutes should be construed, if possible, to operate prospectively, 84 yet if they do not violate the obligation of contracts or partake of the character of ex post facto laws they violate no constitutional provision. 85 Kemedial or curative legislation does not impair contract ob- ligations, but rather tends to confirm them. 86 Of this nature 83 Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 173, 18 L. ed. 334; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. Ill, 8 L. ed. 876; Curtis v. Whitney, 13 Wall. 70, 20 L. ed. 513; Blount v. Windley, 95 U. S. 180, 24 L. ed. 424; Fre-i- land v. Williams, 131 TJ. S. 420, 9 S. Ct. 768, 33 L. ed. 193; Williams v. Paine, 169 TJ. S. 79, 18 S. Ct. 288, 42 L. ed. 658; Eastman v. Clack- amas County, 12 Saw. 624, 32 Fed. 31; Atwater v. Seely, 1 McCrary, 268, 2 Fed. 137; Smith v. Callaghan, 66 Iowa, 555, 24 N. W. 51; Bald- win v. Newark, 38 N. J. 159; Baugher v. Nelson, 9 Gill, 305, 52 Am. Dec. 698; Wiison v. Hardesty, 1 Md. Ch. 68; Chestnut v. Shanes, IS Ohio, 610, 47 Am. Dec. 396. 84 Calde T v. Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 1 L. ed. 391; Dash v. Van Kleeck, 7 Johns. 502. 5 Am. Dec. 308; Davis v. Minor, 1 How. (Miss.) 193, 23 Am. Dec. 331; Denio v. Van Riper, 16 N. J. L. 14; Boston v. Cum- mins, 16 Ga. 107, 60 Am. Dec. 720. 85 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 413. 7 L. ed. 458; Wilkinson v. Leland, 2 Pet. 661, 7 L. ed. 542; Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 11 Pet. 539, 9 L. ed. 773; Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 603, af- firming 41 Mo. 184, 97 Am. Dec. 268; Blount v. Windley, 95 TJ. S. 180, 24 L. ed. 424; Gray v. Munroe, 1 McLean, 532, Fed. Cas. No. 5724; Johnston v. Van Dyke, 6 McLean, 441, Fed. Cas. No. 7426; McAfee v. Covington, 71 Ga. 274, 51 Am. Rep. 265; Elliott v. May- field, 4 Ala. 423; Davis v. Ballard, 1 J. J. Marsh. 563; Andrews v. Russell, 7 Blackf. 574; Wilson v. Hardesty, 1 Md. Ch. 66; Bay v. Gage, 36 Barb. 447; Wilder v. Lumpkin, 4 Ga. 209; Cochran v. Van Surlay, 20 Wend. 372, 32 Am. Dec. 573; Burch v. Newbury, 10 N. T. 391; Gage v. Gage, 66 N. H. 294, 29 Atl. 549, 28 L. R. A. 829; Sharpless v. Philadelphia, 21 Pa. St. 165, 59 Am. Dec, 770; Coles v. Madison County, Breese, 156, 12 Am. Dec. 163; Scott v. Smart, 1 Mich. 295; Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 10, 18 Am. Rep. 669; Hender- son R. R. v. Dickerson, 17 B. Mon. 177, 66 Am. Dec. 149. 86 Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. Ill, 8 L. ed. 876, affirming 1 Watts 356; Thomson v. Lee County, 3 Wall. 331, 18 L. ed. 177; Mechanics ' ♦See, also, ante, p. 264. Notes on Constitution — 18 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 274 are laws curing defects in titles to land; 87 validating defective acknowledgments; 88 validating a married woman's power of at- torney and sales made thereunder ; 89 validating void or voidable contracts; 90 validating marriages otherwise illegal or void for some minor defect; 91 curing defects or invalidity of bond is- sues resulting from irregularities or want of power; 92 validat- ing judgments rendered in excess of court's jurisdiction.' 3 etc. Bank v. Union Bank, 22 Wall. 298, 22 L. ed. 871; Ritchie v. Franklin County, 22 Wall. 75, 22 L. ed. 825; McFaddin v. Evans- fenider-Buel Co., 185 U. S. 513, 22 S. Ct. 758, 46 L. ed. 1012; Bandall v. Kreiger, 23 Wall. 146, 23 L. ed. 124; Owen v. Peebles, 42 Ala. 343; Elliott v. Pearce, 20 Ark. 515; Sumner v. Mitchell, 29 Fla. 203, 30 Am. St. Rep. 113, 10 South. 567, 14 L. R. A. 815; McMillen v. County Judge, 6 Iowa, 394; Smith v. Callaghan, 66 Iowa, 555, 24 N. W. 51; Chesnut v. Shanes, 16 Ohio, 610, 47 Am. Dec. 396; Will- iams v. Milwaukee etc. Assn., 79 Wis. 531, 48 N. W. 667. 87 Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 110, 8 L. ed. 876, affirming 1 Watts, 356; Wilkinson v. Leland, 2 Pet. 660, 7 L. ed. 542; Kearney v. Tay- lor, 15 How. 517, 14 L. ed. 787; Webb v. Den, 17 How. 578, 15 L. ed. 35; Randall v. Kreiger, 23 Wall. 146, 150, 23 L. ed. 124; Williams v. Paine, 169 U. S. 79, 18 S. Ct. 288, 42 L. ed. 658; McFaddin v. Evans-Snider-Buel Co., 185 U. S. 513, 22 S. Ct. 758, 46 L. ed. 1012; Atwater v. Seely, 1 McCrary, 268, 2 Fed. 137; Smith v. Callaghan, 66 Iowa, 555, 24 N. W. 51; Mitchell v. Campbell, 19 Or. 306, 24 Pac. 457; Lane v. Nelson, 75 Pa. St. 410. 88 Carpenter v. Dexter, 8 Wall. 525, 19 L. ed. 426; Elliott v. Pearce, 20 Ark. 515; Green v. Abraham, 43 Ark. 424; Johnson v. Richardson, 44 Ark. 373. 89 Randall v. Kreiger, 23 Wall. 147, 23 L. ed. 124, affirming 2 Dill. 448, Fed. Cas. No. 11,554; Dentzel v. Waldie, 30 Cal. 144. 90 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 U. S. 151, 2 S. Ct. 414, 27 L. ed. 682; Gross v. United States Mortgage Co., 108 U. S. 488, 9 S. Ct. 947, 27 L. ed. 795; Mutual Ins. Co. v. Winne, 20 Mont. 40, 49 Pac. 452; Gray v. Monongahela Nav. Co., 2 Watts & S. 160, 37 Am. Dec. 502; Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 12, 18 Am. Rep. 670. 91 Callahan v. Callahan, 36 S. C. 464, 15 S. E. 730; Goshen v. Stonington, 4 Conn. 209, 10 Am. Dec. 128; Boston v. Cummins, 16 Ga. 107, 60 Am. Dec. 720. 92 Thomson v. Lee County, 3 Wall. 331, 18 L. ed. 177; Beloit v. Morgan, 7 Wall. 624, 19 L. ed. 205; Ritchie v. Franklin County, 22 Wall. 75, 22 L. ed. 825; Anderson v. Santa Anna, 116 U. S. 361, 6 S. Ct. 413, 29 L. ed. 633; Bolles v. Brimfield, 120 U. S. 763, 7 S. Ct. 736, 30 L. ed. 786; St. Joseph Township v. Eogers, 16 Wall. 663: McMillen v. County Judge, 6 Iowa, 394; Schenck v. Jeffereonville, 275 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 It is within the power of the legislature also to validate er- roneous assessments; 94 to authorize a tax auditor to go back for a certain period and correct false returns; 95 to provide for the taxation of lands which have improperly escaped taxation; 96 to change the method of taxing corporations; 97 to provide that taxes already delinquent shall bear interest from the date de- linquency commenced; 98 to validate an illegal tax after suit brought to recover same. 99 But legislative ratification cannot cure undisclosed fraud, 100 nor can it validate a tax sale void for want of notice. 101 Laws changing rules of procedure applicable to the trial of pre-existing cases do not violate this provision; a party must submit to having his cause tried according to the rules in force at the time of the trial, 102 unless the change affects the rights of a party to his disadvantage. 103 Accordingly a person has no vested right to a defense based upon an informality not af- fecting his substantial equities, 104 but a law providing that in 152 Ind. 217, 52 N. E. 216; Cutler v. Board of Supervisor, 56 Miss. 122; People v. Mitchell, 35 N. Y. 552; Williams v. Duanesburgh, 66 N. Y. 137; Supervisors v. Randolph, 89 Va. 622, 16 S. E. 724. 93 Mechanics' etc. Bank v. Union Bank, 22 Wall. 298, 22 L. ed. 871. 94 Mattingly v. Dist. of Columbia, 97 U. S. 691, 24 L. ed. 1098; Williams v. Supervisors, 122 TJ. S. 1'64, 7 S. Ct. 1246, 30 L. ed. 1088. 95 Sturges v. Carter, 114 TJ. S. 516, 5 S. Ct. 1014, 29 L. ed. 240. 96 Winona etc. Land Co. v. Minnesota, 159 U. S. 52*, 16 S. Ct. 83, 40 L. ed. 247; New Orleans v. New Orleans etc. R. R., 35 La. Ann. 682. 97 Piqua Branch of State Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 408, 14 L. ed. 977. »8 League v. Texas, 184 TJ. S. 161, 22 S. Ct. 475, 46 L. ed. 478. 99 Grim v. Wiessenberg etc. Dist., 57 Pa. St. 435, 98 Am. Dec. 239. ioo Santa Ana Water Co. v. San Buenaventura, 65 Fed. 328. 101 Forster v. Forster, 129 Mass. 566. 102 Willard v. Harvey, 24 N. H. 344; Eich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 313. 103 Simpson v. City Savings Bank, 56 N. H. 469, 22 Am. Rep. 493. 104 Danforth v. Groton Water Co., 178 Mass. 472, 86 Am. St. Rep. 495, 59 N. E. 1033. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 276 all suits pending on contracts made before a certain date the plaintiff must show the due payment of all taxes cannot retro- act. 105 A law requiring the payment of an equitable claim not legally due does not violate any constitutional provision, 106 nor does a statute passed after a judgment in favor of a bank allowing a setoff against it of the bank's notes procured subsequently. 107 A judicial decision enjoining the ringing of mill bells at cer- tain hours gives no vested right which cannot be impaired by a statute authorizing the ringing at such hours. 108 States' Power of Taxation. The provisions of this clause are a limitation upon the tax- ing power of a state as well as upon any other litigation; the manner of impairment is immaterial, 109 and that power is al- ways subject to the qualification that it must not be exercised so as to impair contract obligations. 1 10 An act imposing conditions upon the holders of county warrants or requiring the acceptance of a lower rate of interest thereon is void as impairing their obli- gation. 111 Such would be the effect of a statute authorizing that a tax imposed upon city stock be retained by the city treasurer out of the interest on the stock. 112 A statute requir- ing the tax upon state bonds to be deducted from the coupons originally attached to them when tendered in payment of debts due the state is void as to coupons already separated from bonds held by a different person. 113 The taxation of city bonds not 105 Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 316, 21 L. ed. 357. loc New Orleans v. Clark, 95 U. S. 654, 24 L. ed. 521. 107 Blount v. Windley, 95 U. S. 180, 24 L. ed. 424. 108 Sawyer v. Davis, 136 Mass. 239, 49 Am. Kep. 27. 109 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 443, 24 L. ed. 760; Jenkins v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 449, 24 L. ed. 764; Ladd v. Portland, 32 Or. 271, 67 Am. St. Rep. 526, 51 Pac. 654. no Broadfoot v. Fayetteville, 124 N. C. 478, 70 Am. St. Rep. 613, 32 S. E. 804. in Brewer v. Otoe County, 1 Neb. 373; McCracken v. Moody, S3 Ark. 81. U2 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 443, 24 L. ed. 760. lis Hartman v. Greenhow, 102 U. S. 672, 26 L. ed. 27L 277 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 liable to taxation impairs them; 114 but there is no prohibition against the taxation by a state of bonds issued by itself for bor- rowed money. 115 A statute authorizing the imposition of a tax according to a previous assessment is not unconstitu- tional. 116 A tax upon a new subject, or an increased tax upon an old one, does not impair the obligation of any contract. 1 17 A bond received as security for the purchase of property may be taxed to any extent required by the state government, 118 and a stat- ute imposing a tax upon mortgages is applicable to prior mort- gages. 119 So also a constitutional provision making the mort- gagee primarily liable for taxes assessed against the property does not impair the obligation of a prior mortgage containing no stipulation for payment of taxes by the mortgagor; 120 but where a mortgage contains an agreement on the part of the mortgagor to pay all taxes his obligation to do so cannot be impaired by a later statute. 121 A statute authorizing the mort- gagor to pay the tax in case of the mortgagee's default and to (I cduet the amount from the principal, is unobjectionable as ap- plied to an existing mortgage; 122 so also as to a law authoriz- H4 Antoni v. Greenhow, 107 U. S. 780, 7 S. Ct. 91, 27 L. ed. -463; De Vignier v. New Orleans, 16 Fed. 11; Mayor of Macon v. Jones, 67 Ga. 492; State v. Board of Assessors, 35 La. Ann. 373. 115 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 447, 24 L. ed. 760; Champaign County Bank v. Smith, 7 Ohio St. 42; People v. Home Ins. Co., 29 Cal. 533. lie Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 173, 18 L. ed. 334; Frellson v. Mahan, 21 La. Ann. 104. H7 North Missouri R. R. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 46, affirming 40 Mo. 490, 8 Am. Rep. 141. H8 Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 467, Harp. 340, 7 L. ed. 481. 119 Dundee Mtg. Trust Inv. Co. v. Parrish, 24 Fed. 107; McCoppin v. McCartney, 60 Cal. 367; Mumford v. Sewall, 11 Or. 67, 4 Pae. 585; Cook v. Smith, 30 N. J. 387. 120 Hay v. Hill, 65 Cal. 383, 4 Pac. 378; Hsmill v. Littner, 7 Pac. 707. 121 Beckman v. Skaggs, 59 Cal. 544. 122 Common Council of Detroit v. Board of Assessors, 91 Mich. 78, 51 N. W. 787. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 278 ing a borrower to deduct the amount of a tax on a loan from the interest. 123 A tax upon the annual rent reserved in a lease does not impair the obligation of an existing lease. 124 The repeal of a law providing a judgment tax is invalid as to prior judg- ments. 125 A statute providing that drainage assessments shall constitute a lien upon the land assessed does not violate the ob- ligation of the contract by which an owner holds his land, 126 nor does a statute authorizing sales for delinquent taxes al- though such statute applies to taxes delinquent before it was passed. 127 A state cannot pass a law taxing a corporation if it would thereby impair the obligation of any contract. 128 So where the charter of a corporation provides for the payment of a certain amount per annum upon each share of its stock in lieu of all other taxes, an additional tax upon shares in the hands of stockholders is void, 129 and a law requiring corporations to re- tain, for the payment of taxes, a certain portion of the inter- est due on bonds held by nonresidents impairs the obligation of the contract expressed in the bonds; 130 but a different rule has been laid down when the holders are residents. 131 A law pro- 123 Maltby v. Beading etc. E. E., 52 Pa. St. 140. 124 Livingston v. Hollenbeck, 4 Barb. 9; Loring v. State, 16 Ohio, 590. 125 United States v. Lincoln County, 5 Dill. 184, Fed. Cas. No. 15,503; United States v. Jefferson County, 5 Dill. 310, Fed. Cas. No. 15,472; Sawyer v. Concordia, 12 Fed. 754; State v. Police Jury, 34 La. Ann. 95; Stat© v. New Orleans, 34 La. Ann. 1149. 126 Wabash etc. Ey. v. Commissioners, 134 111. 384, 25 N. E. 781. 10 L. E. A. 285. 127 Haskell v. City of Burlington, 30 Iowa, 232. 128 Washington University v. Eouse, 8 Wall. 439, 19 L. ed. 498; Home of the Friendless, v. Eouse, 8 Wall. 430, 19 L. ed. 495. 129 Farrington v. Tennessee, 95 U. S. 688, 24 L. ed. 558; Ten- nessee v. Whitworth, 117 U. S. 136, 6 S. Ct. 647, 29 L. ed. 833; but see Sandusky City Bank v. Wilbor, 7 Ohio St. 481. 130 State Tax on Foreign-held Bonds, 15 Wall. 300, 21 L. ed. 179. But see Ammidown v. Freeland, 101 Mass. 303, 3 Am. Eep. 359. 131 Commonwealth v. New York etc. By., 150 Pa. St. 234, 24 Atl. 609; Commonwealth v. Delaware etc. Canal Co., 150 Pa. St. 245, 24 Atl. 599. 279 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 viding that where a railway is operated under a lease the tax shall be paid by the lessee and deducted from the rent is not void as impairing the obligation of the lease. 132 The state may impose a tax upon its corporations as an entity as well as upon the corporation stock, its capital, or its separate corporation property, and this may be proportioned to the income or to the value of the property, 133 or it may repeal an existing rate and impose another and higher rate. 133 * The penalty fixed at the time of a delinquent tax sale cannot be altered by a subsequent statute so as to prejudice the rights of a purchaser. 134 So also where a statute provides for the return, with interest, of all money paid by a purchaser at a tax sale, if by reason of irregularity the sale cannot be consum- mated, a contract is created with the purchaser which cannot be impaired by a statute making such return dependent upon the order of the supervisors. 135 The sale of lands for delinquent taxes is a contract with the purchaser that he shall be entitled to have the sale completed and a deed issued according to the provisions of existing law, and the repeal of a provision em- powering the auditor to issue deeds is objectionable as impair- ing its obligation. 136 Where, however, a statute merely pre- scribes the time within which deeds must be made after sale, it is not void as to sales made before its passage, 137 and the same is true of a statute requiring the holders of tax certificates to give notice to owners or occupants of lands before they can obtain deeds. 138 A statute of limitation prescribing the time within which the holder of a tax deed must sue to recover possession of the land 132 Vermont etc. Ey. Co. v. Vermont Cent. By. Co., 63 Vt. 1, 21 Atl. 262, 10 L. E. A. 562. 133 Delaware E. E. Tax, 18 Wall. 232, 21 L. ed. 888. 133a Sandusky City Bank v. Wilbor, 7 Ohio St. 481; St. Joseph v. Hannibal etc. E. E., 39 Mo. 276. 134 State v. Capaeller, 6 Ohio Dec. 702. 135 Corbin v. Washington County Commrs., 3 Fed. 356. 136 Bruce v. Schuyler, 4 Gilm. 221, 46 Am. Dec. 447. 137 Tuttle v. Block, 104 Cal. 443, 38 Pac. 109. 138 Coulter v. Stafford, 56 Fed. 564. But see Gage v. Stewart, 127 111. 207, 11 Am. St. Eep. 116, 19 X. E. 702. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 280 conveyed applies to purchasers at sales before its passage, 130 and it is competent for the legislature to prescribe the form of tax deeds to be given on previous sales, where no attempt is made to give a less effect to such deeds than that given by the law in force when the sale was made. 140 A statute merely authorizing purchasers to surrender land purchased and recover the price paid over and above the amount of taxes for which the sale was made and costs of the sale, does not impair any contract ob- ligation. 141 A purchaser under a statute which makes his deed conclusive evidence of the regularity of the proceedings anterior to the sale acquires a contractual right which cannot be im- paired by a law providing that such deeds shall be prima facie evidence only of regularity. 142 The courts favor the right to redeem land sold for taxes, 143 but the legislature has no power to pass a law extending the time of redemption from tax sales previously made, notwithstanding the right has not yet been barred. 144 On the other hand, a statute prescribing require- ments to secure the right of redemption and providing for notice to the party in possession does not impair the obligation of the contract made at the sale, 145 nor does a statute authorizing re- demption at any time before the deed executed upon such sale is recorded. 146 State. The prohibition is against legislation by a "state," but this extends to municipal ordinances having the force of law within 139 Barrett v. Holmes, 102 U. S. 656, 26 L. ed. 291; Jones v. Handle, 68 Ala. 264. 140 Lain v. Shepardson, IS Wis. 59. 141 Smith v. Merchand, 7 Serg. & E. 260, 10 Am. Dee. 465. 142 Tracy v. Eeed, 38 Fed. 69; Marx v. Hanthorn, 30 Fed. 679; Strode v. Washer, 17 Or. 50, 16 Pae. 926; Smith v. Cleveland, 17 Wis. 556. 143 Barrett v. Holmes, 102 U. S. 657, 26 L. ed. 291. 144 Hull v. State, 29 Fla. 79, 30 Am. St. Rep. 95, 11 South. 97, 16 L. R. A. 308; Dikeman v. Dikeman, 11 Paige, 484; State v. Fylpaa, 3 S. Dak. 586, 54 N. W. 599; Robinson v. Howe, 13 Wis. 341. 145 Curtis v. Whitney, 13 Wall. 68, 20 L. ed. 513. 146 International Ins. Co. v. Scales, 27 Wis. 640. 281 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 the municipality, 147 but in order to become a law of the state such an ordinance must be passed under the supposed authority of a legislative act/ 48 and must involve the exercise of legisla- tive power. 149 A state in rebellion had no more power to do an act prohibited by the constitution than before the rebellion or after its restora- tion to its normal place in the Union, and so could not pass laws impairing the obligation of contracts; 150 nor could it adopt provisions having that effect in its constitution prepara- tory to the restoration of its former relations. 151 All acts of such states, however, not in conflict with the constitution and laws of the United States were valid. 152 So a mortgage was not invalid because the loan was in Confederate states bonds; 153 such consideration was unlawful only when used in aid of the Rebellion, 154 and their voluntary acceptance extinguished the debt. 155 The payment of Confederate bonds to an executor was 147 St. Paul Gaslight Co. v. St. Paul, 181 U. S. 148, 21 S. Ct. 575, 45 L. ed. 788; Iron Mountain Ey. v. Memphis, 96 Fed. 126, 67 Ga. 493. 148 Murray v. Charleston, 96 TJ. S. 440, 24 L. ed. 760; Hamilton Gaslight Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 266, 13 S. Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963. 149 New Orleans Waterworks v. Louisiana Sugar Co., 125 U. 3. 31, 8 S. Ct. 748, 31 L. ed. 607. 150 White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 652, 20 L. ed. 685; Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 610, 21 L. ed. 212; Horn v. Lockhart, 17 Wall. 581, 21 L. ed. 657; Williams v. Bruffy, 96 U. S. 176, 24 L. ed. 416; Houston v. Deloach, 43 Ala. 364, 94 Am. Dee. 689; Powell v. Boon, 43 Ala. 469; Oliver v. Memphis etc. E. E., 30 ATk. 131. 151 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 610, 21 L. ed. 212; White v. Hart. 13 Wall. 652, 20 L. ed. 685; In re Kennedy, 2 Eich., N. S., 116; Calhoun v. Calhoun, 2 Eich., N. S., 283; Homestead Cases, 22 Gratt. 282, 12 Am. Eep. 510. 152 Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 462; Eeynolds v. Taylor, 43 Ala. 4£0; Bibbes v. G. etc. E. E., 13 S. C. 242. 153 Micou v. Ashhurst, 55 Ala. 607. 154 Van Hoose v. Bush, 54 Ala. 342; Bragg v. Tuffts, 49 Ark. 562, 6 S. W. 161; Isaacs v. Bichmond, 90 Va. 32, 17 S. E. 761. 155 McQueen v. McQueen, 55 Ala. 433; Hester v. Watkins, 54 Ala, 44. Art. I, § 10, 01. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 282 valid, 156 and a guardian is entitled to credit for and charge- able with the value of such bonds. 157 Contracts Protected — In General. A contract is an agreement by which a party undertakes to do or not to do a particular thing; 158 a transaction between two or more persons in which each reciprocally acquires a right against, and comes under an obligation to, the other. 159 While a contract is ordinarily said to be a compact between two or more persons, 1150 the character of the parties to it does not af- fect the application of this prohibition. 161 For the purposes of this clause the term embraces agreements between states 162 be- tween states and individuals, 163 between states and corpora- te Blount v. Moore, 54 Ala. 360; Foscue v. Lyon, 55 Ala. 441. 157 Ferguson v. Lowery, 54 Ala. 510, 25 Am. Rep. 718; Harbin v. Bell, 54 Ala. 389. 158 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 197, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 317, 6 L. ed. 606; Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 92, 5 L. ed. 547; Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 600, 24 L. ed. 793; Cin- cinnati etc. By. v. McKeen, 64 Fed. 46; Woodruff v. State, 3 Ark. 285; Trustees v. Rider, 13 Conn. 87; Robinson v. Magee, 9 Cal. 81; Depuy v. Stewart, 3 Wend. 139, 20 Am. Dee. 675; Farnsworth v. Vance, 3 Cold. 108. 159 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward. 4 Wheat. 656, 4 L. ed. 629. 160 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 136, 3 L. ed. 162. 161 Trustees v. Rider, 13 Conn. 87; Regents ▼. Williams, 9 Gill. 6 J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72. 162 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 92, 5 L. ed. 547; Achison v. Huddle- son, 12 How. 298, 13 L. ed. 993, 7 Gill. 179; Pennsylvania v. Wheel- ing etc. Br. Co., 13 How. 560, 14 L. ed. 249; Searight v. Stokes, 3 How. 151, 11 L. ed. 537; Neil v. State, 3 How. 720, 11 L. ed. 800; Vo» Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 550, 18 L. ed. 403; Spooner v. MeConneil, 1 McLean, 337, Fed. Cas. No. 13,245; Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229; Cox v. State, 3 Blackf. 193; Canal Co. v. Railroai Co.. 4 Gill & J. 1; Hogg v. Canal Co., 5 Ohio. 410. 163 Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 560, 7 L. ed. 939; Piqua Branch Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 389, 14 L. ed. 977; Murray v. Charles- ton, 96 U. S. 445, 24 L. ed. 760; Hartman v. Greenhow, 102 TJ. S. 679, 26 L. ed. 271; Hall v. Wisconsin, 103 TJ. S. 8, 26 L. ed. 302; Wolff v. New Orleans, 103 TJ. S. 367, 26 L. ed. 395; Poindexter v. Green- how, 114 TJ. S. 286, 5 S. Ct. 912, 29 L. ed. 185; New Orleans Gas Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 TJ. S. 673, 6 S. Ct. 264, 29 L. ed. 516; 283 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 lions, 164 between a state and the United States. 165 Corpora- tions are within the protection of the clause to the same extent as individuals. 166 Mere social compacts between a state and its citizens are not comprehended by the prohibition ; 167 it protects contracts relating to rights which are not governmental. 168 The prohibition against impairing contract obligations in- cludes and protects obligations or legalities whereby one party binds himself or becomes bound to pay a sum of money, or to perform or omit to perform a certain act, 169 contracts which re- spect property or some object of value, and which confer rights that may be asserted in a court of justice. 170 It is not necessary that a contract be executory; the clause includes executed con- Sala v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 194, Fed. Cas. No. 12,246; State v. County Court, 19 Ark. 367. 164 Trustees of Dartmouth College v. WoodwaTd, 4 Wheat. 627, 4 L. ed. 629; West River Bridge Co. v. Dix, 6 How. 531, 12 L. ed. 535; Bridge Proprietors v. Hoboken Co., 1 Wall. 146, 17 L. ed. 571; Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 488, 21 L. ed. 98; The Delaware R. R. Tax, IS Wall. 225, 21 L. ed. 888; Chicago etc. R. R. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 161, 24 L. ed. 94; Railway v. Philadelphia, 101 U. S. 540, 25 L. ed. 912; Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U. S. 816, 25 L. ed. 1079. 165 McGee v. Mathis, 4 Wall. 155, 18 L. ed. 314; Trustees v. St. John's R. R. 16 Fla. 542; Roberts v. Missouri etc. R. R., 43 Kan. 108, 22 Pac. 1008; Koenig v. Omaha etc. R. R., 3 Neb. 382; Lowry v. Francis, 2 Yerg. 534. 166 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 136, 3 L. ed. 162; State v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 164, 3 L. ed. 303, 2 N. J. 300; Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 43, 3 L. ed. 650; Town of Pawlet v. Clark, 9 Cr. 292, 3 L. ed. 735; Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat, 92, 5 L. ed. 547; Astrom v. Hammond, 3 McLean, 107, Fed. Cas. No. 596; Derby Turnpike Co. v. Parks, 10 Conn. 52; Trustees v. Rider, 13 Conn. 87; Stanmire v. Taylor, 3 Jones (N. C), 207. 167 Billings v. Hall, 7 Cal. 1; State v. Paul, 5 R. I. 185. 168 Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U. S. 820, 25 L. ed. 1079; Sprayberry v. Atlanta, 87 Ga. 125, 13 S. E. 199. 169 Woodruff v. State, 3 Ark. 285. 170 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 136, 137, 3 L. ed. 162; Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 92, 5 L. ed. 547; Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodwar ■., 4 Wheat. 656, 4 L. ed. 629; Butler v. Pennsylvania, 10 How. 402, 13 L. ed. 472; Trustees v. Rider, 13 Conn. 87; Regents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72; Swan v. Buck, 40 Miss. 268; Herrick v. Randolph, 13 Vt. 530. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 284 tracts as well. 171 Nor need the contract be express; implied contracts are protected; 172 whether the contract relates to real or personal estate, is executed or executory, by parol or under seal, the constitution preserves it inviolate as to its obliga- tions, 173 and if a contract, which contemplates the lapse of sev- eral years before the performance of all its conditions, is valid when made, it remains so notwithstanding changes in the law. 174 The term "contract" presupposes a valid contract, one impos- ing obligations under general principles of law and not void under the constitution and laws of a state, or entered into without authority of the party sought to be charged. 175 A con- tract to be protected from impairment must be founded upon good consideration, 176 and a contract cannot exist without the consent or agreement of the parties to it, express or implied. 177 Accordingly, before the supreme court can determine whether a state law is repugnant to the obligation clause it must ap- 171 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 549, 18 L. ed. 403; Farrington v. Tennessee, 95 U. S. 683, 24 L. ed. 558; Coast Line E. E. Co. v. Mayor, 30 Fed. 649; State v. Illinois Cent. E. E., 33 Fed. 774; St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 63 Fed. 46; Stein v. Mobile, 49 Ala. 368, 20 Am. Eep. 285; Mobile v. Bailroad Co., 84 Ala. 120, 5 Am. St. Eep. 346, 4 South. 108; Myers v. English, 9 Cal. 349; Chanley v. Bailey, 37 Ga. 536; State v. Mayor etc. of Jersey City, 31 N. J. L. 581, 86 Am. Dec. 244; Adams v. Eeed, 11 Utah, 502, 40 Pac. 724. 172 Fletcher v. Peek, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; Trustees Dartmouth College v. Wood-ward, 4 Wheat. 682, 4 L. ed. 629; Fisk v. Jefferson Police Jury, 116 U. S. 134, 6 S. Ct. 329, 29 L. ed. 587; Woodruff v. State, 3 Ark. 285; St. Louis etc. Ey. v. Alexander, 49 Ark. 194, 4 S. W. 755; Myrick v. Battle, 5 Fla. 345; Leavitt v. Lovering, 64 N. II. 609, 15 Atl. 415, 1 L. E. A. 58; Danforth v. Eobinson, 80 Me. 472, 6 Am. St. Eep. 228, 15 Atl. 29. 173 Farrington v. Tennessee, 95 U. S. 683, 684, 24 L. ed. 558; Trus- tees v. Eider, 13 Conn. 87; Taylor v. Stearns, 18 Gratt. 244. 174 McMurray v. Sidwell, 155 Ind. 560, 80 Am. St. Eep. 255, 58 N. E. 722. 175 New Orleans v. New Orleans Water Works Co., 142 U. S. 88, 12 S. Ct. 142, 35 L. ed. 943; People v. Eoper, 35 N. Y. 629. 176 Pearsall v. Great Northern Ey., 161 U. S. 667, 16 S. Ot. 705, 40 L. ed. 838. 177 Mexican etc. E. E. v. Musette, 86 Tex. 715, 26 S. W. 1077. 285 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 pear that a legal contract is involved, 178 and for this purpose the bare averment of a contract is insufficient. 179 The mere fact that a statute impairs the obligation of contracts gives the courts no power to annul it ; the question must be presented in a suit for the enforcement of a contract affected by the stat- ute. 180 The ultra vires contract of a corporation is not within the protection of this clause. 181 A state constitution is not a contract within the meaning of that term as here used. 182 A judgment is not itself a contract in the sense in which that word is used in the constitution, 183 whether it be based upon contract 184 or tort. 185 The term "contract" signifies an agreement of the minds, for mutual consideration, to do or not to do certain acts, 186 and a judgment cannot be said to possess 178 New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U. S. 88, 12 S. Ct. 142, 35 L. ed. 943; Douglass v. Kentucky, 168 U. S. 500, 18 S. Ct. 199, 42 L. ed. 553. 179 City Ey. v. Citizens' E. E., 166 U. S. 564, 17 S. Ct. 655, 41 L. ed. 1114. iso State v. Burke, 33 La. Ann. 498. isi New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U. S. 89, 12 S. Ct. 142, 35 L. ed. 943. 182 Church v. Kelsey, 121 IT. S. 283, 7 S. Ct. 897, 30 L. ed. 960. 183 Morley v. Lake Shore etc. Ey., 146 U. S. 162, 13 S. Ct. 54, 36 L. ed. 925; Wyman v. Mitchell, 1 Cow. 316; McCann v. New York Cent, etc. R. R., 50 N. Y. 176; Keith v. Estill, 9 Port. 669; Eae v. Hulbert, 17 111. 572; Smith v. Harrison, 33 Ala. 706; Larrabee /. Baldwin, 35 Cal. 156; O'Brien v. Young, 95 N. Y. 428, 47 Am. Eep. 64; Livingston v. Livingston, 173 N. Y. 377, 93 Am. St. Eep. 600, 6^ N. E. 123; Wyoming Nat. Bank v. Brown. 7 Wyo. 494, 53 Pac. 291, 75 Am. St. Eep. 935. 184 Morley v. Lake Shore etc. Ey., 146 U. S. 162, 13 S. Ct. 54, 36 L. ed. 925; State v. New Orleans, 38 La. Ann. 119, 58 Am. Eep. 168; Wyoming Nat. Bank v. Brown, 7 Wyo. 494, 75 Am. St. Eep. 935, 53 Pac. 291. But see Louisiana v. Police Jury, 111 U. S. 721, 4 S. Ct. 648, 28 L. ed. 574, dictum; Sawyer v. Vilas, 19 Vt. 47. 185 Freeland v. Williams, 131 U. S. 416, 9 S. Ct. 763, 33 L. ed. 193; Winona etc. E, E. v. Plainview, 143 TJ. S. 393, 12 S. Ct. 530, 36 L. ed. 191; McAfEee v. Covington, 71 Ga. 272, 51 Am. Eep. 263; Parker v. Savage, 6 Lea, 406; Louisiana v. New Orleans, 32 La. Ann. 709; Peerce v. Kitzmiller, 19 W. Va. 564; White v. Shanklin, 19 W. Va. 583; Dash v. Van Kleeck, 7 Johns. 477, 5 Am. Dec. 291; Amy v. Smith, 1 Litt. 326; Thayer v. Seavey, 11 Me. 284. is6 Louisiana v. Mayor of New Orleans, 109 U. S. 288, 3 S. Ct. 211, 27 L. ed. 936. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 286 any of these essentials. 187 So where the law at the time a judgment is rendered prescribes a rate of interest which judg- ments shall bear, a law changing the rate is not void as applied to that judgment. 188 A judgment for the repayment of money paid by mistake for taxes is upon the same footing, and a judg- ment creditor cannot insist upon the maintenance of the rate of taxation in force when his judgment was rendered, until it is paid. 189 The repeal of a law giving a judgment creditor a lien has been held not to be in conflict with the prohibition; 190 but on the theory that the law giving a lien on the debtor's property to satisfy a judgment forms part of the contract, the contrary has been held in other cases. 191 A statute requiring the recordation of abstracts of judgment applies to judgments rendered before its passage. 192 Marriage contracts are not within the prohibition and the legislature is not forbidden to pass laws regulating or annulling the marriage relation, 193 and may make that cause for divorce 187 Morley v. Lake Shore etc. By., 146 U. S. 169, 13 S. Ct. 54, 36 L. ed. 925. 188 Morley v. Lake Shore etc. By., 146 U. S. 169, 13 S. Ct. 54, 36 L. ed. 925; Wyoming Nat. Bank v. Brown, 7 Wyo. 494, 75 Am. St. Bep. 935, 53 Pac. 291. 189 State v. New Orleans, 38 La. Ann. 119, 58 Am. Bep. 168. 190 Bank v. Longworth, 1 McLean, 35, Fed. Cas. No. 923; Iver- son v. Shorter, 9 Ala. 713; Beck v. Burnett, 22 Ala. 822; Daily v. Burke, 28 Ala. 328; Curry v. Landers, 35 Ala. 280; Moore v. Holland, 16 S. C. 24; McCormick v. Alexander, 2 Ohio, 285. 191 Murphy v. Gaskins, 28 Gratt. 207; Batcliffe v. Anderson, 31 Gratt. 105, 31 Am. Bep. 716; Gilman v. Tucker, 128 N. Y. 190, 2ft Am. St. Bep. 464, 28 N. E. 1040, 13 L. B. A. 304; Merchants' Ban* v. Ballou, 98 Va. 112, 81 Am. St. Bep. 715, 32 S. E. 481, 44 L. E. A. 306. 192 Tarpey v. Hamer, 17 Miss. 310. 193 Maynard v. Hill, 125 U. S. 214, 8 S. Ct. 723, 30 L. ed. 654; Hunt v. Hunt, 131 TJ. S. clxv; Starr v. Hamilton, Deady, 268, Fed. Cas. No. 13,314; Ex parte Kinney, 3 Hughes, 9, Fed. Cas. No. 7825; White v. White, 5 Barb. 474; Fultz v. Fox, 9 B. Mon. 499; Kelly v. McCarthy, 3 Bradf. 7; Noel v. Ewing, 9 Ind. 37; Jones' Appeal, 57 Pa. St. 369; State v. Duket, 90 Wis. 277, 48 Am. St. Bep. 931, 63 N. W. 85, 31 L. B. A. 515. 287 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 which was not prescribed at the time a marriage was con- tracted. 194 A law repealing an act creating an office, removing the incum- bent, and changing the rate of compensation does not impair the obligation of any contract. 195 Where, however, services have been rendered by an officer under a law fixing compensa- tion, an implied contract to pay at that rate arises, which is impaired by a change in the constitution diminishing the tax- ing power and preventing the collection of the compensation due. 196 A state cannot prevent its citizens from making any con- tracts they please outside of the state; 197 nor can state laws operate upon the contracts of its citizens beyond the limits of the state. 198 An obligation derived from the laws of one state cannot be impaired by the laws of another, but one state need not give the same legal obligation to a contract as would the state where it was made. 199 So while the lex loci contractus, generally speaking, governs in determining the obligation of a contract, 200 contracts bonos mores, or against the policy or laws 194 Elliott v. Elliott, 38 Md. 362; Jones v. Jones, 2 Overt. 2; Car- son v. Carson, 40 Miss. 349; Hickman v. Hickman, 1 Wash. 257, 22 Am. St. Rep. 148, 24 Pac. 445. 195 Butler v. Pennsylvania, 10 How. 416, 13 L. ed. 472; Perkins v. Corbin, 45 Ala. 119, 6 Am. Rep. 702; Lane v. Kolb, 92 Ala. 641, 9 South. 874; Oldham v. Birmingham, 102 Ala. 366, 14 South. 795; Humphrey v. Sadler, 40 Ark. 102; Standeford v. Wingate, 2 Duvall, 445; State v. Davis, 44 Mo. 131; Kenney v. Hudspeth, 59 N. J. L. 322, 36 Atl. 662; Jones v. Hobbs, 4 Baxt. 120; State v. Pinkerman, 63 Conn. 196, 28 Atl. 117, 22 L. R. A. 653; Augusta v. Sweeney, 44 Ga. 465, 9 Am. Rep. 173. 196 Fisk v. Jefferson Police Jury, 116 U. S. 134, 6 S. Ct. 330, 2d L. ed. 587. 197 Lamb v. Bowser, 7 Biss, 315, 372, Fed. Cas. Nos. 8008, 8009. 198 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 369, 6 L. ed. 606; Boyle v. Zacharie, 6 Pet. 348, 8 L. ed. 423, 6 Pet. 643, 8 L. ed. 527; Babcock v. Weston, 1 Gall. 169, Fed. Cas. No. 703; Agnew v. Piatt, 15 Pick. 420; Glenn v. Clabaugh, 65 Md. 69, 3 Atl. 904; Larrabee v. Talbott, 5 Gill, 438, 46 Am. Dec. 642; Easterly v. Goodwin, 35 Conn. 284, 95 Am. Dec. 238; Hawley v. Hunt, 27 Iowa, 307, 1 Am. Rep. 274. 199 Lapsley v. Brashear, 4 Litt. 47. 200 Robinson v. Campbell, 3 Wheat. 219, 4 L. ed. 372; Wayman v. Southard, 10 Wheat. 48, 6 L. ed. 253; Andrews v. Pond, 13 Pet. 78, Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation op Contracts. 288 of a state, will not be enforced in its courts notwithstanding it may have been lawful in the state where it was entered into. 201 Contracts of States. In its broadest sense "contracts" includes agreements or com- pacts between the government and its citizens, 202 and a contract between a state and an individual, as well as between two indi- viduals, is fully protected by the constitution. 203 States enter- ing into contracts do so upon the same footing as ordinary in- dividuals, and they cannot invoke their sovereign attributes to justify an impairment of their contracts. 204 A state legislature may contract with an individual, and its enactments to that end become contracts within the prohibition. 205 10 L. ed. 61; Bank of Augusta v. Earle, 13 Pet. 589, 10 L. ed. 274; Pritchard v. Norton, 106 U. S. 137, 1 S. Ct. 102, 27 L. ed. 104; Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Cohen, 179 U. S. 264, 21 S. Ct. 106, 45 L. ed. 181. 201 Smith v. Union Bank, 5 Pet. 527, 8 L. ed. 212; Teal v. Walker, 111 U. S. 252, 4 S. Ct. 420, 28 L. ed. 415; Herschfeld v. Dexel, 12 Ga. 586; Varnum v. Camp, 13 N. J. L. 332, 25 Am. Dee. 482; Flagg v. Baldwin, 38 N. J. Eq. 224, 48 Am. Eep. 312. 202 United States v. Stocksehlager, 129 U. S. 477, 9 S. Ct. 384, 32 L. ed. 785; Bruce v. Schuyler, 4 Gilm. 278, 46 Am. Dec. 460; Trustees v. Eider, 13 Conn. 96; Winter v. Jones, 10 Ga. 196, 54 Am. Dec. 382; Cary Library v. Bliss, 151 Mass. 375, 25 N. E. 94, 7 L. R. A. 765; Swan v. Buck, 40 Miss. 268. 203 Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 560, 7 L. ed. 939; Poin- dexter v. Greenhow, 114 U. S. 286, 5 S. Ct. 912, 29 L. ed. 185; New Orleans Gas Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 U. S. 673, 6 S. Ct. 264, 29 L. ed. 516; Sala v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 194, Fed. Cas. No. 12,246; McCauley v. Brooks, 16 Cal. 30. 204 Piqua Branch Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 389, 14 L. ed. 977; Mur- ray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 445, 24 L. ed. 760; Hartman v. Greenhow, 102 U. S. 679, 26 L. ed. 271; Wolff v. New Orleans, 103 U. S. 367, 26 L. ed. 395; Tennessee etc. E. E. v. Moore, 36 Ala. 386; Eedlon v. Barker, 4 Kan. 387, 96 Am. Dec. 179; Eobertson v. Land Commis- sioner, 44 Mich. 278, 6 N. W. 661. 205 New Jersey v. Yard, 95 U. S. 114, 24 L. 352; New Orleans Gas Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 U. S. 660, 6 S. Ct. 257, 29 L. ed. 516; People v. Hall, 8 Colo. 492, 9 Pac. 37; Winter v. Jones, 10 Ga. 190, 54 Am. Dec. 379; Trustees v. Bailey, 10 Fla. 112; Canal Co. v. Rail- road Co., 4 Gill & J. 1. 289 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 The rule that one legislature cannot bind its successors does not prevent the enactment of laws in the nature of contracts which a subsequent legislature cannot repeal; 206 but the de- tails of a contract with the state may be altered where the al- teration does not impair the obligation. 207 A grant by the United States to a state upon condition, and the acceptance thereof by the state, constitutes a contract which cannot be impaired by the legislature. 208 u.,, (Jcneral laws are not contracts, but only the expression of the legislative will, and laws which amend or repeal them are not within the inhibition; 209 e. g., general regulations for the de- scent and distribution of property. 210 And a contract for the sale of a dam is not impaired by a general law requiring the construction of fish ways over all dams. 211 iSor does the pro- hibition apply to legislation in matters of purely legislative con- 206 Piqua Branch Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 389, 14 L. ed. 977; Ohio Life Ins. etc. Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 416, 14 L. ed. 997; Mechanics' Bank v. Debolt, 18 How. 380, 15 L. ed. 458; Jefferson Bank v. Skelley, 1 Black, 436, 17 L. ed. 173; Murray v. Charleston, 95 U. S. 445, 21 L. ed. 760; Hartman v. Greenhow, 103 U. S. 679, 26 L. ed. 271; Hall v. Wisconsin, 103 U. S. 8, 26 L. ed. 302; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 554, 18 L. ed. 403; Tennessee etc. E. E. v. Moore, 36 Ala. 386; Winona etc. E, E. v. County of Deuel, 3 Dak. Ter. 13, 12 N. W. 56-i; State of Georgia v. Georgia etc. Co., 54 Ga. 426; Daughdrill v. Lifo Ins. Co., 31 Ala. 91; State v. County Court, 19 Ark. 360; Johnson v. Commonwealth, 7 Dana, 338; State v. Bank, 2 Houst. 99, 73 Am. Dec. 699; Illinois Cent. E. E. v. McLean County, 17 111. 291; State Bank v. People, 5 111. 303; Bank v. New Albany, 11 Ind. 139; Bank v. Edwards, 5 Ired. 516; Bank v. Deming, 7 Ired. 55; Carr v. State, 127 Ind. 207, 22 Am. St. Eep. 626, 26 N. E. 779, 11 L. E. A. 370; Municipality v. State Bank, 5 La. Ann. 394; People v. Auditor, 7 Mich. 84; Camden etc. E. E. v. Commissioners, 18 N. J. 71; State v. Young, 29 Minn. 530, 9 N. W. 742; Matheny v. Golden, 5 Ohio St. 361; Canal Company's Case, 83 Md. 326, 35 Atl. 365. 207 Thornton v. Hooper, 14 Cal. 9. 20S McGee v. Mathis, 4 Wall. 155, 18 L. ed. 314; Trustees v. St. Johns E. E., 16 Fla. 542. 209 Corning v. Greene, 23 Barb. 33; State v. Dews, E. M. Charlt. 397; People v. Eoper, 35 N. Y. 629. 210 In re Lawrence, 5 N. Y. Supp. 310. 2U State v. Meek, 112 Iowa, 388, 84 Am. St. Eep. 342, 84 N. W. 3, 51 L. E. A 414. Notes on Constitution— 19 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation op Contracts. 290 cern, or involving the exercise of general political powers. 212 Of this nature are laws creating public offices and conferring powers upon municipal corporations. 213 An appointment to a public office is not a contract, 214 and the compensation of an officer fixed by law may be reduced in the absence of prohibition in the state constitution; 215 or the office may be abolished and the incumbent removed ; 21C or ad- ditional duties may he attached to an office without increasing the compensation. 217 An officer of a public corporation is a public officer within 212 Commonwealth v. Bird, 12 Mass. 443; People v. Roper, 35 N. T. 629; Esser v. Spaulding, 17 Nev. 289. 213 Butler v. Pennsylvania, 10 How. 416, 13 L. ed. 472. 214 Butler v. Pennsylvania, 10 How. 416, 13 L. ed. 472; Barker v. Pittsburgh, 4 Pa. St. 49; Commonwealth v. Bacon, 6 Serg. & R. 322; Jones v. Shaw, 15 Tex. 577; Commonwealth v. Mann, 5 Watts & S. 418; Benford v. Gibson, 15 Ala. 521; Coffin v. State, 7 Ind. 157; Haynes v. State, 3 Humph. 480, 39 Am. Dec. 187; Swan v. Buck, 40 Miss. 258; State v. Smedes, 26 Miss. 47; Connor v. New York, 2 Sand. 355; State v. Dews, R. M. Charlt. 397; People v. Lippincott, 67 111. 333; Humphrey v. Sadler, 40 Ark. 102; Standeford v. Wingato, 2 Duvall, 445; Sargent v. Wilder, 71 Me. 383; Kenny v. Hudspeth, 59 N. J. L. 322, 36 Atl. 662; Jones' v. Hobbs, 4 Baxt. 120. 215 Farwell v. Rockland, 62 Me. 300; Wyandotte v. Drennan, 4i'i Mich. 480, 9 N. W. 501; Knoppen v. Supervisors, 46 Mich. 24, 8 N. W. 580; Lloyd v. Silver Bow County, 11 Mont. 411, 28 Pac. 454; Douglas County v. Timme, 32 Neb. 275, 49 N. W. 267; Marden v. Portsmouth, 59 N. H. 20; Warner v. People, 2 Denio, 272, 43 Am. Dec. 740; McCormick v. Fayette County, 150 Pa. St. 193, 24 Atl. 668, McFall v. Austin, 1 Tex. App. Civ. 207; Loving v. Auditor, 76 Va. 947; Holladay v. Auditor, 77 Va. 430; State v. Kalb, 50 Wis. 183, 6 N. W. 588; Bedford v. Gibson, 15 Ala. 521; People v. Auditor, 2 111. 537; Barker v. Pittsburgh, 4 Pa. St. 49; Connor v. New York, 2 Sand. Ch. 355; Knoop v. Piqua Branch Bank, 1 Ohio St. 616; Toledo Rank v. Bond, 1 Ohio St. 655; Kilgore v. Magee, 85 Pa. St. 401. 216 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 694, 4 L. ed. 629; Butler v. Pennsylvania, 10 How. 416, 13 L. ed. 472; State v. Dews, R. M. Charlt. 414; People v. Loeffler, 175 111. 609, 51 N. E. 793; Demarest v. Mayor, 74 N. Y. 166; People v. Pickney, 32 N. Y. 395; Coyle v. Mclntyre, 7 Houst. 44, 40 Am. St. Rep. 114, 30 Atl. 730; Donohue v. County of Will, 100 111. 106. 217 Turpen v. Commissioners, 7 Ind. 172, Prairie v. Worth, 78 N. C. 173. 291 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 this rule. 218 So a professor in a state university elected for a specified term "subject to law" may be removed by subsequent action of the legislature before the expiration of his term. 219 To bring contracts with a state within the prohibition, consid- eration is essential. 220 Accordingly the legislature may repeal an act which, when passed, was a mere gratuity if no vested rights have been acquired under or by virtue of it. 221 A stat- ute providing for compensation for property destroyed to check fire is in the nature of a gratuity, and may be repealed, 222 and a statute offering a bounty is not a contract except as to those who earn the bounty while the statute is in force. 223 Xor is a statute granting an annuity for services already rendered, and as to which the state has no further obligation, a contract; 224 but where a statute provides for an annuity to be paid to a college corporation about to be organized, in order to encourage subscriptions, a contract arises between the state and the cor- poration which cannot be impaired by subsequent legislation ; 225 so also where a state offers assistance to a commercial corpora- tion upon consideration of a contribution of a certain amount on each share of stock, the acceptance by the stockholders and the contribution of the sum specified creates a contract within the prohibition. 226 Legislative Grants. A legislative grant, although in the form of a statute, is a 218 Augusta v. Sweeny, 44 Ga. 463, 9 Am. Eep. 172; Iowa City v. Foster, 10 Iowa, 189; Commonwealth v. Bacon, 6 Serg. & B. 322. 219 Head v. University, 19 Wall. 531, 22 L. ed. 160; Gillan v. Board of Eegents, 88 Wis. 13, 58 N. W. 1044, 24 L. E. A. 336. 220 Ohio Trust Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 416, 14 L. ed. 997. 221 Memphis v. United States, 97 U. S. 297, 24 L. ed. 920; Hess v. Muir, 65 Md. 605, 6 Atl. 676. 222 Bowddich v. Boston, 101 U. S. 19, 25 L. ed. 9S0. 223 Salt Co. v. East Saginaw, 13 Wall. 377, 20 li. ed. 611; Shiner v. Jacobs, 62 Iowa, 394, 17 N. W. 613; Commissioners v. Hudson, 20 Kan. 75; Cushman v. Hale, 68 Vt. 452, 35 Atl. 385. 224 Dale v. State, 3 Stew. 387. 225 St. John's College v. State, 15 Md. 330. 826 Consolidated Assn. of Planters v. Lord, 35 La. Ann. 425. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 292 contract within this clause, 227 whether made directly, or indi- rectly through a municipal corporation, 228 and a statute re- pealing a prior grant is void. 229 The prohibition extends to ah. legislation whereby the estate granted will be in anywise im- paired. 230 An executed grant is impaired by a law operating to devest any right or estate vested under it, 2:!1 and any attempt to de- stroy such vested rights is unconstitutional and void; 232 e. g., in act attempting to take property from the grantee and confer it upon another, 233 or an act annulling former grants and de- claring that the grantors shall stand seised of their former estates. 234 A subsequent statute imposing conditions not con- 227 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Or. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; Terrett v. Taylor, 1 Cr. 50, 3 L. ed. 650; Pawlet v. Clark, 9 Cr. 332, 3 L. ed. 735; Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 656, 682, 4 L. ed. 629; Pennoyer v. McConnaughy, 140 U. S. 25, 11 S. Ct. 699, 35 L. ed. 363; Walla Walla v. Walla Walla Water Co., 172 U. S. 9, 19 S. Ct. 77, 43 L. ed. 341; Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 11 Pet. 420, 9 L. ed. 773; Grogan v. City of San Francisco, 18 Cal. 590; Bruce v. Schuyler, 4 Gilm. 221, 46 Am. Dec. 447; United States v. Minnesota etc. By., 1 Minn. 127; Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 340; Montgomery v. Kasson, 16' Cal. 194; Savannah v. Steamboat Co., Charlt. (Ga.) 346; Winter v. Jones, 10 Ga. 196, 54 Am. Dec. 382; Edwards v. Jagers, 19 Ind. 417; Yarmouth v. North Yarmouth, 34 Me. 418, 56 Am. Dec. 670; Grammar School v. Bailey, 62 Vt. 478, 20 Atl. 823. 2?8 Baltimore Trust etc. Co. v. City of Baltimore, 64 Fed. 153. 220 Fletcher v. Peek, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; Rice v. Railroad Co.. 1 Black, 358, 17 L. ed. 147; Gaines v. Buford, 1 Dana, 481; People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195, 8 Am. Dec. 362; Crenshaw v. State River Co., 6 Rand. 245. 230 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195, 8 Am. Dec. 362. 231 Philadelphia etc. R. R. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506. 232 United States v. Louisville etc. Canal Co., 4 Dill. €11, 1 Flip. 260, Fed. Cas. No. 15,633. 233 Davis v. Gray, 16 Wall. 203, 21 L. ed. 447; Commissioners v. Lucas, 93 U. S. 114, 23 L. ed. 822; Stanmire v. Taylor, 3 Jones (N. C), 207. 234 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 50, 3 L. ed. 650; Montgomery v. Kasson, 16 Cal. 189; Grogan v. City of San Francisco, 18 Cal. 590; Berrett v. Oliver, 7 Gill '& J. 191. 293 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 tained in the original grant impairs the obligation of the grant and is void, 235 and the legislature cannot by subsequent act, provide a different mode of perpetuating a trust in lands granted. 23 ' 3 All acts impairing the rights of a grantee vested under a patent from the state are unconstitutional and void, 237 but an act appointing commissioners to investigate titles to land held under state patents and determine their validity does not im- pair any contract obligation. 238 On the other hand, the legis- lature cannot rescind a grant of land, which has passed into in- ocent hands, on the ground that the original patent was pro- cured by fraud. 239 Property purchased by an alien under a special act cannot be devested and transferred to another by legislative action; 240 and it would seem that the legislature ,'annot vacate or set aside, on account of invalidity, patents granted prior to the Eevolution. 241 An act granting land to a railroad company constitutes a contract between the state and the company acting under it, 242 and an act reappropriating the same land to any other purpose is void as impairing the obli- gation of the contract. 243 The compact of 1789 between Vir- ginia and Kentucky constituted a contract, and any act of either state impairing titles protected by that compact violates its obligation and is void; e. g., a law restricting the rights of a claimant as against an occupant. 244 235 Gaines v. Buford, 1 Dana, 481; Drew v. New YoTk etc. Ey., 81 Pa. St. 46; Herrick v. Eandolph, 13 Vt. 525. 236 Fletcher v. Rutland etc. B. E., 39 Vt. 535. 237 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162; People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195, 8 Am. Dee. 362. 238 Jackson v. Lamphire, 3 Pet. 289, 7 L. ed. 679. 239 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 137, 3 L. ed. 162. 240 Bonaparte v. Camden etc. Co., Baldw. 205, Fed. Cas. No. 1617. 241 People v. Clarke, 9 N. Y. 349. 242 Davis v. Gray, 16 Wall. 232, 21 L. ed. 447; Pearsall v. Great Northern Ey., 161 U. S. 662, 16 S. Ct. 708, 40 L. ed. 838; Preston v. Walsh, 10 Fed. 325, 328; Houston etc. Ey. v. Texas etc. By., 70 Tex. 657, 8 S. W. 500. 243 Koenig v. Omaha etc. Ey., 3 Neb. 373. 244 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 108, 5 L. ed. 547. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 294 A grant of the right to purchase state lands is a contract protected from impairment by subsequent act, 245 and if a party by payment of the purchase money becomes entitled to a con- veyance from the state, the legislature cannot by subsequent act deprive him of that right, 246 and where other conditions have been complied with, the privilege of paying for the land and having a patent issued cannot be taken away. 247 So, also, a certificate of purchase of swamp and overflowed lands, which binds the state to issue a patent to the purchaser or to the last assignee of the certificate, without any restriction as to the character of the assignee, cannot be impaired by a constitutional provision forbidding grants to any but citizens and actual settlers. 248 The holder of a certificate may be required to es- tablish the genuineness of his certificate in order to entitle him to survey and patent ; e. g., a requirement that the certificate be presented to commissioners for approval within a certain time ; 249 but the conditions as to the time of making part pay- ments cannot be changed so as to shorten the time and defeat rights acquired. 250 Where, however, the contract is wholly ex- ecutory it creates no obligation which is impaired by subsequent legislation, 251 and an act repealing a statute which confirmed certain titles upon the compliance of specified conditions prece- dent is not invalid where the conditions have not been complied with. 252 A statute allowing a bona fide occupant of land claimed by another under grant from the state does not impair the obligation of the contract between the state and its pur- chaser. 253 245 United States v. Great Falls Mfg. Co., 21 Md. 119. 246 Winter v. Jones, 10 Ga. 190, 54 Am. Dec. 379; Fogg v. Will- iams, 2 Head, 474. 247 Damman v. Commissioners, 4 Wis. 414; Montgomery v. Kaa- son, 10 Cal. 189. 248 McCabe v. Goodwin, 106 Cal. 486, 39 Pac. 941. 249 League v. De Young, 11 How. 202, 13 L. ed. 657; Hamilton v. Avery, 20 Tex. 634; Peck v. Moody, 23 Tex. 95; Durrett v. Crosby, 28 Tex. 695. 230 Pennoyer v. McConnaughy, 140 U. S. 1, 11 S. Ct. 669, 35 L. ed. 363. 251 Trustees v. Rider, 13 Conn. 87; Swan v. Buck, 40 Miss. 2-68. 252 Van Home v. Dorrance, 2 Dall. 304, Fed Cas. No. 16,857. 233 Albee v. May, 2 Paine, 74, Fed. Cas. No. 134; Armstrong v. 295 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Grants of land including water rights are within the pro- hibition; and where land was granted on both sides of a non- navigable stream with no restriction as to the use of the stream, a subsequent statute requiring the grantee to change his dams was declared to be void; 254 and where a dam was erected under an act of the legislature authorizing the reclamation of wet lands, a subsequent act requiring the removal of the dam is void. 255 The grant to a purchaser of water lots of the right to construct a wharf, or to extend his lots to prescribed limits, can- not be revoked by the state; 256 but the grant of a privilege to erect a wharf is not impaired by another grant to a county to erect a wharf in close proximity to it, although the value of the privilege is thereby diminished. 257 lS T or does the grant of water lots give to the owners of such lots any absolute right in clam or oyster fisheries within their limits, free from legislative regulation for the preservation of the common property in such shell fish. 258 The provision in the California statute of 1851 as to the boundary of water lots in San Francisco harbor created no contract between the state and the grantees under that act. 259 A statute providing for the reclamation of swamp lands and for an assessment upon the owners proportionate to the benefits ac- cruing, impairs no contract contained in United States or Mexi- can land grants; 260 nor does the grant of a portion of sub- merged lands preclude the improvement of the remainder by the state. 261 Jackson, 1 Blackf. 210, 12 Am. Dee. 225; Scott v. Mather, 14 Tex. 236; Saunders v. Wilson, 19 Tex. 196. But see Bristoe v. Evans, 2 Overt. 341; Nelson v. Allen, 1 Yerg. 360. 254 People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195, 8 Am. Dec. 362; State v. Glenu, 7 Jones (N. C), 321; Cornelius v. Glenn, 7 Jones (N. C), 512. But see State v. Meek, 112 Iowa, 3S8, 84 Am. St. Rep. 342, 84 N. W. 3, 51 L. R. A. 414. 255 Glover v. Powell, 10 N. J. Eq. 211. 256 Baltimore & Ohio E. R. v. Chase, 43 Md. 23. 257 Lansing v. Smith, 4 Wend. 9, 21 Am. Dec. 89. 258 Commonwealth v. Bailey, 13 Allen, 541. 259 Floyd v. Blanding, 54 Cal. 41. 260 Hagar v. Reclamation Dist. No. 108, 111 U. S. 701, 4 S. Ct. 663, 28 L. ed. 569, affirming 6 Saw. 567, 4 Fed. 366; S. C, 66 CaL 54, 4 Pac. 945. 261 Hollister v. Union County, 9 Conn. 436, 25 Am. Dec. 36: Lan- sing v. Smith, 8 Cow. 146. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 296 A lease of school lands providing for the reappraisal of the value of the lands at stated periods, and giving the Lessee the right to select one of the three appraisers, is a contract which cannot he impaired by depriving the lessee of his right of seleo tion. 202 The contract in a lease of a railway, two-thirds of whose stock is owned by the state, which gives the Lessee the right to change the gauge of the road, is impaired by a statute prohibiting any change of gauge. 263 The legislature has power to authorize a corporation created by it to borrow money by mortgaging its property and franchises or by issuing preferred stock and pledging its revenues to pay dividends thereon, 264 and having done so, the state is estopped from impeaching the cor- poration's action and rights acquired thereunder cannot be im- paired by legislative action. 265 The contract implied in a grant of an undivided half interest in escheated property is not im- paired by the release to another of "whatever interest in such land might rightfully belong to the state." 266 But where the legislature has granted to the state university all escheated prop- erty, it cannot, by subsequent act, repeal the grant and provide that all such property shall revert to the state. 267 A statute providing for escheat proceedings after actual notice to known claimants and constructive notice to unknown claimants does not impair the obligation of any contract in the grant under which the deceased owner held. 268 Licenses. A license granted by a state or a municipal corporation is not a contract within the meaning of this prohibition; it is merely the grant of a privilege which may be revoked or may have ad- ditional conditions imposed upon its enjoyment, unless otherwise 262 State v. McPeak, 31 Neb. 139, 47 N. W. 691; State v. Thayer, 46 Neb. 137, 64 N. W. 700. 263 State v. Kichmond etc. Ry. Co., 73 N. C. 527. 264 Covington v. Covington etc. Br. Co., 10 Bush (Ky.), 69. 265 Mower v. Kemp, 42 La. Ann. 1007, 8 South. 830. 266 Mulligan v. Corbins, 7 Wall. 491, 19 L. ed. 222. 267 Den v. Foy, 1 Murph. (N. C.) 58. 2«8 Hamilton v. Brown, 161 U. S. 256, 16 S. Ct. 585, 40 L. ed. 691. 297 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 provided in the state constitution. 209 A license to practice law- is not a contract; accordingly an act declaring a forfeiture of the right is not repugnant to this prohibition; 270 and a state may require attorneys at law to file affidavits of allegiance in order to continue to practice. 271 The license to practice any profession may be modified in any manner which the public wel- fare may demand, and a tax on the license is not unconstitu- tional. 272 The certificate issued to a foreign corporation authorizing it to do business does not constitute a contract which will pre- clude subsequent license taxation by a state. 273 A right given by statute to purchasers of railroad property and franchises at foreclosure sale to form a new corporation with all the rights and privileges of the old one upon complying with certain pre- requisites, is a mere regulation of law, and a subsequent act imposing new conditions precedent to the obtaining of a charter is unobjectionable. 274 An act increasing the license fee to be paid by foreign corporations then doing business, or thereafter to be authorized, is likewise valid. 275 269 Phalen v. Virginia, 8 How. 168, 12 L. ed. 1030, 3 Harr. 441; Calder v. Kurby, 5 Gray, 597; Adams v. Hackett, 27 N. H. 289, 59 Am. Dee. 376; Simmons v. State, 12 Mo. 268, 49 Am. Dec. 131; City of St. Louis v. Sternberg, 69 Mo. 289; Hirn v. Ohio, 1 Ohio St. 21; Metropolitan Board of Excise v. Barrie, 7 Tiff. 667; Bass v. Mayor, Meigs, 421, 33 Am. Dec. 154; Gregory v. Shelby, 2 Met. (Ky.) 589; Freligh v. State, 8 Mo. 606; State v. Sterling, 8 Mo. 697; State v. Hawthorn, 9 Mo. 389. 270 In re Baxter, Fed. Cas. No. 1118. 271 Cohen v. Wright, 22 Cal. 293. 272 First Municipality v. Manuel, 4 La. Ann. 328; City of New Orleans v. Turpin, 13 La. Ann. 56; State v. Fellowes, 12 La. Ann. 344; State v. Waples, 12 La. Ann. 343; Simmons v. State, 12 Mo. 268, 49 Am. Dee. 131; State v. Gozlay, 5 Ohio, 14; Drexel v. Com- monwealth, 46 Pa. St. 31. 273 Home Ins. Co. v. Augusta, 93 TJ. S. 122, 123, 23 L. ed. 825; Postal Tel. Co. v. Charleston, 153 U. S. 695, 14 S. Ct. 1095, 38 L. ed. 871, affirming 56 Fed. 421. 274 People v. Cook, 148 TJ. S. 397, 13 S. Ct. 645, 37 L. ed. 49S, affirming 110 N. Y. 443, 18 N. E. 113. 275 Aetna Standard etc. Co. v. Taylor, 4 Ohio Dec. 180, 3 Ohij, N. P. 152. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 21)3 Where the privilege becomes an absolute contract it is within the protection accorded by this clause, and its obligation cannot be impaired. 276 So where a person under a permit granted by a city council to erect frame buildings within the fire limits has made contracts and incurred liabilities thereon before a re- scission of the privilege, he has acquired a contractual right which is entitled to protection, 277 and it seems that the payment of a bonus for a privilege granted confers a right which can- not be impaired by subsequent legislation. 278 A license to tolerate certain acts or authorizing certain acts cannot deprive the state of power to revoke the privilege when- ever the public welfare demands the revocation; accordingly a license to maintain a dam in a navigable river may be modified or revoked whenever the necessities of navigation require. 279 Licenses to maintain slaughter-houses may be revoked whenever the exercise of the right under them become a nuisance. 280 Neither the legislature nor the people themselves can bargain away the right to regulate the public health or morals, or legis- lative discretion concerning them; accordingly the privilege of conducting a lottery must be held subject to the state's police power. 281 Licenses to manufacture and sell liquor are upon the same footing, and they may be repealed at any time, notwith- standing they are granted in unqualified terms. 282 The pre- 276 State Lottery Co. v. Fitzpatrick, 3 Woods, 222, Fed. Cas. No. 8541. 277 City of Buffalo v. Chadeayne, 134 N. Y. 163, 31 N. E. 443. 278 Wendover v. Lexington, 15 B. Mon. 258. 279 Rundle v. Canal Co., 14 How. 89, 14 L. ed. 335; State v. Beards- ley, 108 Iowa, 405, 79 N. W. 141. 280 Crescent City Co. v. New Orleans, 33 La. Ann. 934; Portland v. Meyer, 32 Or. 371, 67 Am. St. Eep. 540, 52 Pac. 22. 281 Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U. S. 819, 25 L. ed. 1079; Douglas v. Kentucky, 168 U. S. 496, 18 S. Ct. 201, 42 L. ed. 553. 282 Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 U. S. 32, 33, 24 L. el. 989; Kresser v. Lyman, 74 Fed. 767; Powell v. State, 69 Ala. 10; Hevren v. Reed, 126 Cal. 222, 58 Pac. 537; La Croix v. County Com- missioners, 49 Conn. 602, 50 Conn. 329, 47 Am. Rep. 652; Browu v. State, 82 Ga. 225, 7 S. E. 916; McKinney v. Salem, 77 Ind. 214; Moore v. Indianapolis, 120 Ind. 492, 22 N. E. 427; Columbus City v. Cutcomp, 61 Iowa, 672, 17 N. W. 47; State v. Bott, 31 La. Ann. 663, 33 Am. Rep. 224; Fell v. State, 42 Md. 71, 20 Am. Rep. S3; Metro- 299 Obligation of Contracts. Art. 1, § 10, CI. 1 payment of the license tax does not affect this power, 283 and be- fore the end of the fiscal year the legislature may raise the fee for the unexpired term. 284 Such a license not being a contract, a law making a dealer in liquors liable for injury caused by an intoxicated person is not unconstitutional as impairing the ob- ligation of a contract. 285 Exemption from Taxation.* Unless restrained by the state constitution the legislature may contract to exempt property from taxation so as to bind its successors. 286 Such exemption is always a question of policy, never one of power, 287 and a state in granting it relinquishes no part of its sovereign powers. 288 But the state's right to tax can be relinquished only by express stipulation; 289 the in- politan Board of Excise v. Barrie, 34 N. Y. 657; Young v. Blaisdell, 138 Mass. 345. 283 Beithmiller v. People, 44 Mich. 285, 6 N. W. 669. 284 Moore v. City of Indianapolis, 120 Ind. 483, 22 N. E. 424; Row- land v. State, 12 Tex. App. 418. 285 Moran v. Goodman, 130 Mass. 158, 39 Am. Bep. 443; Baker v. Pope, 2 Hun, 556; Franklin v. Schormerborn, 8 Hun, 112. 2SG New Jersey v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 167, 3 L. ed. 303; Ohio etc. Trust Co. v. D&bolt, 16 How. 428, 14 L. ed. 997; Bodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 331, 15 L. ed. 401; Wilmington E. E. v. Eeid, 13 Wall. 267, 20 L. ed. 568; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 525, 18 L. ed. 403; Jefferson Br. Bank v. Skelly, 1 Black, 447, 17 L. ed. 173; Tomlinson v. Jessup, 15 Wall. 454, 21 L. ed. 189; Tomlinson v. Branch, 15 Wall, 468, 21 L. ed. 189; Pacific E. E. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 43, 22 L. ed. 282; The Delaware E, E, Tax, 18 Wall. 225, 21 L. ed. 888; Bailey v. Maguire, 22 Wall. 226, 22 L. ed. 850; Tucker v. Ferguson, 22 Wall. 575, 22 L. ed. 805; Salt Co. v. East Saginaw, 13 Wall. 376, 20 L. ed. 611; Mobile etc. E. E. v. Tennessee, 153 U. S. 500, 14 S. Ct. 968, 38 L. ed. 793; Memphis City Bank v. Tennessee, 161 IT. S. 190, 16 S. Ct. 468, 40 L. ed. 664. 287 Piqua Branch Bank v. Ohio, 16 How. 384, 14 L. ed. 977. 2S8 Piqua Branch Bank v. Ohio, 16 How. 384, 14 L. ed. 977; Wells v. Central Vermont E. E., 14 Blatchf. 430, Fed. Cas. No. 17,390; State v. Bank of Smyrna, 2 Houst. 116, 73 Am. Dec. 701. 289 Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 561, 7 L. ed. 939; Phila- delphia & Wilmington E. E. v. Maryland, 10 How. 393, 13 L. ed. 461; ♦Exemptions in corporate charters, see post, pp. 347-356. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 300 tention to grant the exemption must be clear, 290 and be indi- cated by unmistakable words. 291 The power is necessary to the existence of a state and all acts limiting it must be strictly construed, 292 and the question of legislative intent is always open. 293 If the exemption is a mere gratuity, is spontaneous, and no service or duty or other condition is imposed, it may be with- drawn at any time. 294 So a statute exempting the property of a manufacturing corporation from taxation for a period of Tomlinson v. Branch, 15 Wall. 460, 21 L. ed. 189; Tomlinson v. Jes- sup, 15 Wall. 454, 21 L. ed. 189; Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 11 Pet. 546, 9 L. ed. 773; Tucker v. Ferguson, 22 Wall. 527, 22 L. ed. 805; West Wisconsin R. R. v. Supervisors, 93 U. S. 598, 23 L. ed. 814; Newton v. Commissioners, 100 U. S. 561, 25 L. ed. 710; Memphis Gas Co. v. Shelby County, 109 U. S. 401, 3 S. Ct. 2M, 27 L. ed. 976; Pennsylvania R. R. Co. v. Miller, 132 U. S. 84, 10 S. Ct. 37, 33 L. ed. 267. 290 Gilman v. Sheboygan, 2 Black, 513, 17 L. ed. 305; Rector etc. v. Philadelphia Co., 24 How. 302, 16 L. ed. 602; Railroad Co. v. Gaines, 97 U. S. 708, 24 L. ed. 1091; Railroad Co. v. Loftin, 98 U. S. 564, 25 L. ed. 222; Tennessee v. Whitworth, 117 U. S. 145, 6 S. Ct. 649, 29 L. ed. 833; Yazoo etc. Ry. v. Adams 180 U. S. 22, 21 S. Ct. 240, 45 L. ed. 395. 291 Jefferson Branch Bank v. Skelly, 1 Black, 447, 17 L. ed. 173: Morgan v. Louisiana, 93 U. S. 222, 23 L. ed. 860; Southwestern R. R. v. Wright, 116 U. S. 236, 6 S. Ct. 375, 29 L. ed. 626; Vicksburg R, R. v. Dennis, 116 U. S. 668, 6 S. Ct. 625, 29 L. ed. 770; New Orleans R. R, v. New Orleans, 143 U. S. 195, 12 S. Ct. 406, 36 L. ed. 121; Wilmington etc. R. R. v. Alsbrook, 146 TJ. S. 294, 13 S. Ct. 72. 3'3 L. ed. 972; Keokuk etc. R. R. v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 306. 14 S. 04. 592, 38 L. ed. 450; Phoenix Fire etc. Ins. Co. v. Tennessee, 161 U. S. 178, 16 S. Ct. 471, 40 L. ed. 660. 292 Rector etc. v. Philadelphia County, 24 How. 302, 16 L. ed. 602; Bank v. Tennessee, 104 TJ. S. 495, 26 L. ed. 810; Railway Co. v. Loftin, 105 U. S. 261, 26 L. ed. 1042; Winona etc. Land Co. v. Min- nesota,' 159 TJ. S. 529, 16 S. Ct. 88, 40 L. ed. 247. 29.-? New Orleans v. Houston, 119 U. S. 278, 7 S. Ct. 198, 30 L. ed. 411. 294 Rector etc. v. Philadelphia, 24 How. 300, 16 L. ed. 602; Tucker v. Ferguson, 22 Wall. 527, 22 L. ed. 805; Brainerd v. Colchester, 31 Conn. 407; Lord v. Litchfield, 36 Conn. 116, 41 Am. Rep. 41; West Wisconsin R. R. v. Supervisors, 93 U. S. 597, 23 L. ed. 814. 301 Obligation of Conikacts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 years is a mere bounty and repealable. 295 The consideration for the exemption must be something as to which there is no legal duty, 296 and the pledge of a grand lodge to give its rev- enues to charity is insufficient to render the immunity irrepeal- able where the duty already exists. 297 The benefits accruing to the community, however, may be a sufficient consideration, 298 and wherever there is good consid- eration for the exemption there is a contract which is protected from repeal or modification. 299 If property be given to a so- ciety for certain purposes, under a statute exempting such gifts from taxation, the statute constitutes a contract with the donors, and the property must be exempt so long as it is used for the purposes for which it was granted. 300 A provision in the charter of an eleemosynary corporation or a university that its property shall be exempt is a contract entitled to protection; 301 but it seems that a statute which pro- vides that public grants for pious and other uses shall be for- ever exempt from taxation has no effect upon prior grants, and as to them may be repealed without impairing the obligation 295 Salt Co. v. East Saginaw, 13 Wall. 377, 20 L. ed. 611, affirming 19 Mich. 259, 2 Am. Eep. 82; Welch v. Cook, 97 U. S. 543, 24 L. ed. 1112. 296 Tucker v. Ferguson, 22 Wall. 574, 22 L. ed. 805; Bradley v. McAtee, 7 Bush, 673, 3 Am. Rep. 13. 297 Grand Lodge v. New Orleans, 166 U. S. 149, 17 S. Ct. 523, 4L L. ed. 951. 298 Home of the Friendless v. Bouse, 8 Wall. 437, 19 L. ed. 495. 299 State v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 167, 3 L. ed. 303; Railway v. Phila- delphia, 101 U. S. 532, 25 L. ed. 912; Thompson v. Holton, 6 McLean, 386, Fed. Cas. No. 13,958; Hewitt v. New York etc. Ry. Co., 12 Blatchf. 452, Fed. Cas. No. 6443. 300 Atwater v. Woodbridge, 6 Conn. 223; Osborne v. Humphreys, 7 Conn. 335; Parker v. Redfield, 10 Conn. 490; Laudon v. Litchfield, 11 Conn. 251; Seymour v. Hartford, 21 Conn. 481; Herrick v. Ran- dolph, 13 Vt. 525. But see Lord v. Litchfield, 36 Conn. 116, 4 Am. Rep. 41. , 301 Home for the Friendless v. Rouse, 8 Wall. 436, 19 L. ed. 495: Washington University v. Rouse, 8 Wall. 439, 19 L. ed. 498; Asylum v. New Orleans, 105 U. S. 368, 26 L. ed. 1128, affirming 33 La. Ann. 856; President etc. of College v. Shaefer, 104 Mo. 267, 16 S. W. 396. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 302 of any contract. 302 A statute providing that all lands pur- chased from the United States shall he exempt for a stipulated period constitutes a contract, and the lands cannot he taxed until the expiration of that time, 303 and where a state, in order to promote the sale and reclamation of its swamp lands, ex- empts them from taxation for a certain number of years, any tax imposed upon them during that period is void. 304 So, also, a statute declaring that all lands purchased for the use of Indians, in consideration of their relinquishing their claims to other lands, should forever be exempt is a contract. 305 The exemption of lands extends also to the buildings erected thereon, 306 unless the interest in the buildings is created en- tirely distinct from the interest in the lands, when the build- ings may be taxed although the lands are exempt. 307 If the land be exempt it will be exempt in the hands of the lessee, 308 but where the lessee has covenanted to pay such taxes as may be assessed thereon, he is estopped to allege the unconstitution- ality of a subsequent act imposing a tax. 309 Where the exemp- tion from taxation is annexed to the land it follows the land into the hands of a purchaser, 310 but where it is a personal privilege it will not pass to a purchaser unless by clear statu- tory direction. 311 The mere authorization of sale is not of 302 Herrick v. Randolph, 13 Vt. 525. 303 Thompson v. Holton, 6 McLean, 386, Fed. Cas. No. 13,958. 304 McGee v. Mathis, 4 Wall. 143, 18 L. ed. 314. 305 New Jersey v. Wilson, 7 Ct. 167, 3 L. ed. 303. 306 Osborne v. Humphreys, 7 Conn. 335. 307 Parker v. Eedfield, 10 Conn. 490. 308 Osborne v. Humphreys, 7 Conn. 335; Landon v. Litchfield, 11 Conn. 251; Hardy v. Waltham, 24 Mass. 108; Matheny v. Golden, 5 Ohio St. 361; Kuniler v. Traber, 5 Ohio St. 442. 309 Hart v. Cornwall, 14 Conn. 228. 3io State v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 164, 3 L. ed. 303; Stevens County v. St. Paul etc. Ry., 36 Minn. 471, 31 N. W. 944. 311 Morgan v. Louisiana, 93 TJ. S. 221, 23 L. ed. 860; Railroad Co. v. County of Hamblen, 102 TJ. S. 275, 26 L. ed. 152; Wilson v. Gaines, 103 TJ. S. 421, 26 L. ed. 401; Memphis R. R. Co. v. Com- missioners, 112 TJ. S. 623, 5 S. Ct. 299, 28 L. ed. 837; Gulf etc. Ry. Co. v. Hewes, 183 U. S. 66, 22 S. Ct. 26, 46 L. ed. 86. 303 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 itself sufficient, 312 and a subsequent statute may render it liable where it is conveyed without the reservation of an annual rent. 313 Immunity from taxation continues only while property is used for purposes for which it was given. 314 So a corpora- tion changing its business from insurance to banking under a general enabling statute does not retain its exemption. 315 Exemption from taxation may be lost by lapse of time without claiming it, as by long acquiescence in the levy of a tax, 316 and where the original charter of a corporation exempted its property from taxation, but twenty-four years had elapsed be- fore organization, a constitutional prohibition against exemp- tions adopted in the interim was held to cut off the right. 317 State Debts and Liabilities. The creditor of a state has a contract right which the legis- lature cannot impair by subsequent enactment, 318 and while a state may avoid the payment of its obligations by failure or refusal to make the necessary appropriation, 319 it cannot by affirmative legislation annul or impair a valid contract by 312 Armstrong v. Treasurer, 16 Pet. 281, 10 L. ed. 965. 313 New Haven v. Sheffield, 30 Conn. 160; Brainerd v. Colchester, 31 Conn. 407; Lord v. Litchfield, 36 Conn. 116, 4 Am. Rep. 41. 314 Home for the Friendless v. Rouse, 8 Wall. 436, 19 L. ed. 495. 315 Memphis City Bank v. Tennessee, 161 U. S. 190, 16 S. Ct. 468. 40 L. ed. 664. 316 Given v. Wright, 117 U. S. 657, 6 S. Ct. 907, 29 L. ed. 102 1 . 317 Planters' Ins. Co. v. Tennessee, 161 U. S. 197, 16 S. Ct. 466, 40 L. ed. 667. 318 Trustees of Wabash etc. Co. v. Beers, 2 Black, 452, 17 L. ed. 327; Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 304, 14 L. ed. 705; Louisiana v. Jumel, 107 U. S. 711, 2 S. Ct. 128, 27 L. ed. 448; Durkee v. Board of Liquidation, 103 U. S. 646, 26 L. ed. 598; Chaffraix v. Board of Liqui- dation, 11 Fed. 628; Ford v. Delta & Pine Land Co., 43 Fed. 181; Mc- Cauley v. Brooks, 16 Cal. 11; State v. Cardozo, 8 Rich. 71, 21 Am. Rep. 275. 319 Carr v. State, 127 Ind. 204, 22 Am. St. Rep. 624, 26 N. E. 778, 11 L. E. A. 370; State ex rel. v. Porter, 89 Ind. 260. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Orligation of Contracts. 301 which it has incurred indebtedness, 320 and an appropriation once made cannot be withdrawn. 321 The diversion of funds or property held for the payment of debts of the state is repugnant to the prohibition against impairment, 322 and a statute devesting or postponing the lien of a bondholder who has loaned money upon the pledge of cer- tain property is open to the same objection. 323 But an act forbidding the funding of doubtful state obligations until their validity has been established by the courts does not impair any contract obligation. 324 The mere passage of an act authoriz- ing the issue of bonds and providing for taxation of all prop- erty to pay them gives to the bondholder no contract righi; which is impaired by the subsequent passage of a law restrict- ing such taxation to real property, 325 nor has he any right to insist upon the collection of the tax in the mode prescribed by law at the time the bonds were issued. 326 Where, however, provision is made for taxation to meet state bonds an abate- ment of the tax which deprives a holder of his remedy is void. 327 A provision for taxation to pay a claim which is not enforceable again'st the state, but is founded solely in equity and justice, gives no contract right, and a repeal of the provi- sion is valid. 328 After the payment of an obligation due the state a contract is implied that payments shall neither be repudiated nor 320 Davis v. Gray, 16 Wall. 203, 21 L. ed. 447; Hall v. Wisconsin, 103 U. S. 5, 26 L. ed. 302. 321 Durkee v. Board of Liquidation, 103 U. S. 646, 26 L. ed. 598; Louisiana v. Jumel, 107 U. S. 711, 2 S. Ct. 128, 27 L. ed. 448; Mc- Caailey v. Brooks, 16 Cal. 11. 322 Chaffraix v. Board of Liquidation, 11 Fed. 638; State v. Car- dozo, 8 Rich. 71, 28 Am. Rep. 275. 323 Trustees of Wabash etc. Co. v. Beers, 2 Black, 452, 17 L. ed. 327; Ford v. Delta & Pine Land Co., 43 Fed. 181. 324 New York Guaranty etc. Co. v. Board of Liquidation, 105 TJ. S. 624, 26 L. ed. 1106; Commonwealth v. Jones, 82 Va. 789, 1 S. E. 84. 325 Gilman v. Sheboygan, 2 Black, 510, 17 L. ed. 305. 326 Gibbs v. Green, 54 Miss. 592. 327 Bunch v. Wolverstein, 62 Miss. 56; Morton v. Hoge, 4 Rich. 430. 328 People v. Montgomery, 67 N. Y. 109. 305 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 denied, and a statute giving the state a right of action for debts already paid by warrant on the ground that such pay- ments were void impairs the obligation of that contract.-' 529 The repeal of a statute authorizing state bonds or coupons to be received in payment of taxes or debts due the state violates the contract with the bondholders and is void. 330 The provi- sion in general terms that such bonds and coupons shall be receivable for taxes and debts due the state applies to debts existing before the issue of the bonds, 331 and any restriction as to the kind of debts for which they shall be receivable is void to that extent. 332 Under such a provision bonds and coupons are receivable in payment of license taxes, 333 and in payment of costs in suits to collect taxes. 334 An act which provides that in suits wherein the defendant alleges the tender of cou- pons in payment of taxes he shall be obliged to prove their genuineness does not violate any right to have such coupons re- ceived in payment; 335 but an act requiring the holders of such coupons, in suits involving their genuineness to produce in court the bonds from which they were cut and to prove that they were actually cut therefrom, or an act excluding expert evidence to prove their genuineness, is void. 336 So, also, an 320 Houston etc. E. E. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 98. 20 S. Ct. 545, 44 L. ed. 673. 330 Antoni v. Greenhow, 107 U. S. 770, 2 S. Ct. 91, 27 L. ed. 468; Poindexter v. Greenhow, 114 U. S. 278, 5 S. Ct. 903, 29 L. ed. 185; Ohaffin v. Taylor, 114 IT. S. 309, 5 S. Ct. 924, 29 L. ed. 199; S. C, 116 U. S. 567, 6 S. Ct. 518, 29 L. ed. 727. 331 Eoyall v. Virginia, 116 U. S. 578, 6 S. Ct. 510, 29 L. ed. 735. 332 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 701, 10 S. Ct. 972, 34 L. ed. 304; Baltimore etc. E. E. v. Allen, 17 Fed. 171; Striekler v. Yager, 29 Fed. 244; Willis v. Miller, 29 Fed. 238; Antoni v. Wright, 22 Gratt. 833. 333 Harvey v. Virginia, 20 Fed. 411. 334 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 697, 10 S. Ct. 972, 34 L. ed. 304; but see Ellet* v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 517, 8 S. E. 246. 335 Ex parte Ayers, 123 U. S. 495, 31 L. ed. 216; McGahey v. Com- monwealth, 85 Va. 519, 8 S. E. 244; Laube v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 530, 8 S. E. 246. 336 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 694, 10 S. Ct. 972, 34 L. ed. 304; overruling Newton v. Commonwealth, 82 Va. 647; Commonwealth v. WeHer, 82 Va. 721, 1 S. E. 102; Commonwealth v. Booker, 82 Va. Notes on Constitution — 20 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 306 act which requires that all demands against the state, except- ing for salaries of officers, must be approved by a board of ex- aminers before warrants can be drawn therefor, is void as to contracts giving an absolute right to such warrants, 337 and a statute providing that no law levying a tax to pay interest on bonds shall take effect until such law shall have been submitted to popular vote materially impairs the obligation of such bonds. 338 And the same is true of a law requiring a suit to determine the validity of coupons tendered in payment of taxes. 339 A state may change the mode of paying its indebtedness pro- viding no substantial right is thereby impaired, 340 but an act postponing such payment is unconstitutional. 341 The consent of a state to be sued is a mere privilege and not a contract. 342 Accordingly a statute allowing suits may be repealed even as to actions already pending, 343 and mandamus will lie to compel the dismissal of a suit pending upon the re- peal of such a statute. 344 The exercise by a state of its power to repeal a grant of authority to its courts to audit a claim 964, 7 S. E. 381; Bryan v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 526, 8 S. E. 246; Laube v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 530, 8 S. E. 246, and reversing Mc- Gahey v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 519, S S. E. 244. 337 McCauley v. Brooks, 16 Cal. 11. 338 State v. Young, 29 Minn. 474, 9 N. W. 737. But .so* B:\ltzer v. State, 104 N. C. 265, 10 S. E. 153. 339 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 695, 10 S. Ct. 972, 34 L. ed. 304, overruling Commonwealth v. Jones, 82 Va. 789, 1 S. E. 84. 340 Sharp v. Contra Costa County, 34 Cal. 284; Lamkin v. Sterling, 1 Idaho, 92. 341 Forstall v. Consolidated Assn. etc., 34 La. Ann. 770. But see Swann v. Buck, 40 Miss. 268. 342 Beers v. Arkansas, 20 How. 529, 15 L. ed. 991; Bank of Wash- ington v. Arkansas, 20 How. 530, 15 L. ed. 993; Memphis etc. R. R. v. Tennessee, 101 U. S. 340, 25 L. ed. 960; In re Avers, 123 U. S. 505, 8 S. Ct. 183, 31 L. ed. 216; Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U. S. 17, 10 S. Ct. 508, 33 L. ed. 842. 343 Beers v. Arkansas, 20 How. 529, 15 L. ed. 991; South etc. Ry. v. Alabama, 101 U. S. 832, 26 L. ed. 973; State v. Bank of Tennesse3, 3 Baxt. 395. 344 Ex parte State, 52 Ala. 235, 23 Am. Rep. 571. 307 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 against itself does not impair the obligation of a contract en- tered into when the authority existed. 345 Prohibition as Applied to Other Public Contracts. A contract for public printing let, according to constitu- tional requirement, to the lowest bidder is within the protec- tion of this clause and cannot be invalidated by a subsequent legislature, 340 and where the office of public printer has been abolished by the repeal of the statute creating it, private con- tracts for state printing cannot be revoked. 347 A contract be- tween the state and the publishers of the reports of the state supreme court, whereby the latter are given the protection of copyright procured by the state, is impaired by a law requir- ing the judges to prepare and file syllabi which would thus be- come part of the record and free for publication under the state constitution. 348 An act adopting a certain text-book for use in schools, and prescribing the period of its use, does not, how- ever, constitute a contract with the publishers of the adopted book, precluding a change during the prescribed period. 349 Contracts for public works are also protected, and where a statute provides that contracts to construct roads shall in all cases be let to the lowest responsible bidder, another person cannot be substituted in place of such bidder. 350 But a state law suspending or discontinuing the work on a public building, under contract, or providing for its continuance by other agencies, is not objectionable under this prohibition; the obli- gation of the contract is not impaired thereby, for the con- tractor, if not in default, has a just claim against the state for damages. 351 The legislature may change the rate of compensa- 345 Baltzer v. North Carolina, 161 U. S. 245, 16 S. Ct. 500, 40 L. ed. 648. 346 State v. Barker, 4 Kan. 324, 96 Am. Dec. 175. 34 7 Jones v. Hobbs, 4 Baxt. 113. 348 In re Headnotes to Opinions, 43 Mich. 641, 8 N. W. 552. See, on subject of copyright by state, Banks v. Manchester, 128 U. S. 252, 9 S. Ct. 36, 32 L. ed. 425. 349 Bancroft v. Thayer, 5 Saw. 502, Fed. Cas. No. 835. 350 Hannah v. Fife, 27 Mich. 172. 351 Lord v. Thomas, 64 N. Y. 107. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 308 tion to be paid for services performed if no contract right is thereby impaired. 352 A lease whereby the state gives to an individual the right to the services of its convicts is a contract which cannot be im- paired by a lease to another. 353 There is no contract between the state and a convict that he shall be kept in the penitentiary and there perform the labor imposed by his sentence, which is impaired by the lease of his labor. 354 It has been held, how- ever, that contracts for convict labor, whether made with the warden or the inspectors, are always subject to the right of the legislature to change its policy in regard to the state's penal system. 355 A grant made for the purpose of public instruction is not subject to subsequent legislative control; 356 but if a scholar- ship does not name the place of tuition the locality of the college may be changed. 357 Where parties dedicate a square to public use the legislature cannot authorize its sale and use for a purpose foreign to the object of the grant; 358 but sub- jecting the land of a grantee to the payment of his debts does not impair vested rights under the grant. 359 In the exercise of its police powers the legislature may pro- hibit the use of a place as a cemetery, although there is a cov- enant in the grant that the place may be so used. 360 A law for establishment of a county seat has reference to a public subject with respect to which one legislature cannot bind 352 Clark v. State, 142 N. Y. 101, 36 N. E. 817. 353 Georgia Penitentiary Co. v. Nelms, 71 Ga. 301. 3 ri 4 Mason etc. Co. v. Main Jellico Mountain Coal Co., 87 Ky. 467, 9 S. W. 391. 355 Hancock v. Ewing, 55 Mo. 101. 356 Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 43, 3 L. ed. 650; Grammar School V. Burt, 11 Vt. 682. 307 Houston v. Jefferson College, 63 Pa. St. 428. 358 Warren v. Mayor, 22 Iowa, 351. 309 Livingston v. Moore, 7 Pet. 469, 8 L. ed. 751; Baldw. 424, Fed. Cas. No. 8416. 360 Coates v. New York, 7 Cow. 5S5; Presbyterian Church v. New York, 5 Cow. 538. And see Lake View v. Rose Hill Cemetery, 70 111. 131, 22 Am. Rep. 71. 309 Obligation op Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 its successors, and the location may be changed notwithstand- ing the original establishment was upon conditions which were fulfilled. 361 So an act providing that a county seat shall not be removed without repayment to land owners of expenditures incurred on the faith of its location, is not a contract. 362 The same rule applies to the location of a state capitol. 363 Where a religious corporation is under a disability to con- vey by its charter, the legislature may authorize a sale, 364 and a statute providing for the sale of lands by tenants in common, or joint tenants, is valid. 365 A statute perfecting a voidable entry and giving a patent therefor is unobjectionable, although it devests a grant made after entry. 366 Legislative Control of Municipal Corporations. Public corporations, such as counties, towns, and cities, are created by authority of the legislature and invested with sub- ordinate legislative powers to be exercised for local purposes connected with the public good. 367 The charters of such corporations cannot be considered contracts within the protec- tion of the obligation clause, 368 and the legislature has unlim- 361 Newton v. Mahoning County Commrs., 100 U. S. 559, 25 L. eel. 710, affirming 26 Ohio St. 618; Ewell v. Tucker, 1 Blackf. 285; Alley v. Denson, 8 Tex. 297; Luce v. Fensler, 85 Iowa, 601, 52 N. W. 519. But see Gill v. Scowden, 14 Phila. 626. 362 Moses v. Kearney, 31 Ark. 261. 363 Edwards v. Lesueur, 132 Mo. 440, 33 S. W. 1135, 31 L. R. A. 815. 364 Barton's Appeal, 57 Pa. St. 213. 365 Richardson v. Monson, 23 Conn. 94. 366 Williams v. Norris, 12 Wheat. 117, 6 L. ed. 571. 367 Bissell v. Jeffersonville, 24 How. 294, 16 L. ed. 664; Jones v. Pensacola, 13 Fed. Cas. 1005; Leavenworth v. Miller, 7 Kan. 506, 12 Am. Rep. 439. 368 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 629, 4 L. ed. 629; Merriwether v. Garrett, 102 U. S. 511, 26 L. ed. 197; East Hartford v. Hartford Br., 10 How. 511, 13 L. ed. 518; Barnes v. District of Columbia, 91 U. S. 540, 23 L. ed. 440; Mount Pleasant v. Beckwith, 100 U. S. 514, 25 L. ed. 699; Oshkosh Waterworks Co. v. Oshkosh, 187 U. S. 437, 23 S. Ct. 234, 47 L. ed. 249; Cornell v. Walsh, 107 Ind. 372; State v. Peoples' etc. Co., 46 La. Ann. 1031, 15 South. 408; Bradford v. Carey, 5 Me. 339; Baltimore v. State, 15 Md. 376; Commonwealth v. Plaisted, 148 Mass. 375, 19 N. E. 224, 2 L. R. A. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 310 ited power to alter, annul or repeal them unless the state con- stitution provides otherwise. 369 A municipal corporation is a mere creature of the legislature, established for the purposes of government and entirely subject to the legislative will; 370 transactions between the legislature and such a corporation are in the nature of legislation rather than of compact. 371 A power to alter and change public corporations and to adapt them to public purposes is implied, 372 and grants of power may at any time be resumed by the legislature. 373 Those grants are not franchises in the original meaning of that word, but mandates only, and may be repealed except so far as rights ac- quired by third parties under them may be affected. 374 A school district is a public corporation within the meaning of that term as here employed, 375 and the rights of the inhab- 142; City of Detroit v. Blackeby, 21 Mich. 84, 4 Am. Eep. 450; People v. Morris, 13 Wend. 325; People v. Pinekney, 32 N. Y. 377; In re Clinton St., 2 Brewst. 599; Lynch v. Lafland, 4 Cold. 96. 369 Commissioners of Laramie County v. Albany County, 92 U. S. 308, 23 L. ed. 552; North Yarmouth v. Skillings, 45 Me. 133, 71 Am. Dec. 530; Cobb v. Kingman, 15 Mass. 137; People v. Hill, 7 Cal. 97; Philadelphia v. Fox, 14 P. F. Smith, 169; Gas and Water Co. v. Downington, 175 Pa. St. 341, 34 Atl. 799. 370 New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U. S. 79, 12 S. Ct. 142, 35 L. ed. 943. 3T1 East Hartford v. Hartford Br. Co., 10 How. 534, 13 L. ed. 518; Williamson v. New Jersey, 130 U. S. 199, 9 S. Ct. 457, 32 L. ed. 915; Erskine v. Steele Co., 87 Fed. 634; Commissioners v. Holyoke W. P. Co., 104 Mass. 459, 6 Am. Eep. 259; Parkhurst v. Capital City Ky., 23 Or. 479, 32 Pac. 306; Trustees v. Tatman, 13 111. 27, Reynolds v. Baldwin, 1 La. Ann. 162; Layton v. New Orleans, 12 La. Ann. 515. 372 Maryland v. Baltimore etc. R. R., 3 How. 550, 11 L. ed. 714; Works v. Emigrant Co., 164 U. S. 576, 17 S. Ct. 193, 41 L. ed. 552; Erskine v. Steele Co., 87 Fed. 634; Mayor of Baltimore v. State, 15 Md. 385; Wooster v. Plymouth, 62 N. H. 208; Bridgeport v. Hub- bell, 5 Conn. 237; Bush v. Shipman, 5 111. 186; Mills v. Williams, 11 Ired. 558; Gatzweiller v. People, 14 111. 142; North Yarmouth v. Skill- ings, 45 Me. 133; Trustees v. Aberdeen, 21 Miss. 645; Peterson v. Society, 24 N. J. 385; People v. Morris, 13 Wend. 325. 373 Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 52, 3 L. ed. 650; Trustees v. Tatman, 13 111. 27; St. Louis v. Gaslight Co., 5 Mo. App. 513. 374 Police Jury v. Shreveport, 5 La. Ann. 661; State v. Pillsbury, 31 La. Ann. 1. 37.0 Mobile School Commrs. v. Putnam, 44 Ala. 506. 311 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 itants of the district which arise out of and depend upon the corporate existence of the district are of a public and political nature, and are liable to be taken away by the legislature. 376 A municipal corporation's powers do not rest upon contracts with the state. 377 Territorial Limits. In the absence of some express restriction in the state con- stitution, the legislature may prescribe and enlarge, from time to time, the boundaries of a municipal corporation, 378 and this without the consent of the citizens of the annexed land. 379 The fact that the extension of a city's limits includes purely agricultural land outside the original area is immaterial. 380 Discriminations between individuals and corporations as to annexation of land used for agricultural purposes cannot be urged as a ground for defeating the annexation of land used for other purposes; 381 nor can the courts interfere in favor of one who, by an unnecessary extension of the city limits, is ren- dered subject to municipal taxation without any corresponding benefit to his property. 382 A statute may take part of the territory of one municipal corporation and annex it to another, 383 and counties or county organizations may be abolished whenever it becomes necessary to do so, in changing county lines or in creating new 376 In re Farnum, 51 N. H. 376. 377 Mount Pleasant v. Beckwith, 100 TJ. S. 525, 25 L. ed. 699; Williamson v. New Jersey, 130 U. S. 199, 9 S. Ct. 453, 32 L. ed. 915. 378 City of New Orleans v. Cazelar, 27 La. Ann. 156; Stoner v. Flournoy, 28 La. Ann. 850; Groff v. Frederick City, 44 Md. 67; Mai- tin v. Dix, 52 Miss. 53, 24 Am. Rep. 661; City of Philadelphia v. Fox, 14 P. F. Smith, 169; McCallie v. Chattanooga, 3 Head, 317; Wade v. City of Richmond, 18 Gratt. 583. 379 Morford v. Unger, 8 Iowa, 82; Manley v. Raleigh, 4 Jones Eq. 370; St. Louis v. Russell, 9 Mo. 507; State v. Miller, 55 Mo. 50. 380 Giboney v. Cape Girardeau, 58 Mo. 141. 3Si Clark v. Kansas City, 176 U. S. 118, 120, 20 S. Ct. 284, 44 L. ed. 392. 382 Martin v. Dix, 52 Miss. 53, 24 Am. Rep. 661. 383 Wade v. Richmond, 18 Gratt. £83. Art. I, § 10. CI. 1 Obligation op Contracts. 312 counties.-" 584 The power to divide the property is incidental to the power to divide the territory, 385 as also is the division of the municipal indebtedness. 386 But a law which repeals an act passed upon the division of a township, requiring each town to bear its proportionate share of the expenses of paupers, is unconstitutional. 387 The legislature may unite and divide townships and their school funds, 388 and may dissolve fire districts composed of portions of more than one town and provide for a division of their funds; 389 but it cannot divert the fund from a land grant to a township although it may abolish the township. 390 Where by operation of law the property of a town of the third class becomes vested in the city upon its advancement to a city of the second class, the legislature cannot order a sale of the property and the division of the proceeds between the city and the town. 391 Property of Municipalities. A statute giving a municipal corporation the power to pur- chase property of a private corporation may be repealed or 384 In re Division of Howard County, 15 Kan. 194. 385 Richmond v. Lawrence, 12 111. 1; North Yarmouth v. Skillings, 45 Me. 133, 71 Am. Dec. 530; Bristol v. New Chester, 3 N. H. 524; Call v. Chadbourne, 46 Me. 206; Town of Windham v. Town of Port- land, 4 Mass. 384; New Hampshire County v. Franklin County, 15 Mass. 76. 386 People v. Alameda County, 26 Cal. 641; Whitney v. Town of Stow, 111 Mass. 368; Rawson v. Spencer, 113 Mass. 40; Stone v. Oharlestown, 114 Mass. 214; Portwood v. Montgomery County, 52 Miss. 523; Londonderry v. Derry, 8 N. H. 320; Metcalf v. State, 19 Ohio St. 586, 31 N. E. 1076. 387 Bowdoinham* v. Richmond, 6 Me. 112, 19 Am. Dec. 197. 388 Greenleaf v. Township, 22 111. 236. 389 Weymouth etc. Fire District v. Norfolk County Commissioners, 108 Mass. 142. 390 State v. Springfield, 6 Iud. 83; Morton v. Granada Acad., 16 Miss. 773. 391 City of Wellington v. Wellington Twp., 46 Kan. 213, 26 Pac 415. 313 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 modified at the will of the legislature. 392 So, also, a grant to a municipal corporation of the revenues accruing from a private corporation may be altered or repealed, and such rev- enues be appropriated to other purposes ; 393 but where the legis- lature has granted bonds to a municipal corporation, a subse- quent statute vesting the right to the bonds in others is void. 394 The legislature cannot deprive a municipal corporation of its private property without the consent of its inhabitants; 395 a distinction exists between regulation and appropriation, and the legislature may not arbitrarily devest private property of the corporation, 396 and where property derived by municipalities from other sources "than the state is held for special uses the legislature cannot divert it. 397 Where, however, a municipality holds property merely as trustee, its rights and. title are subject to be defeated by the abolishment of its corporate existence. 398 A law granting to a town the right to operate a ferry across a public river does not amount to a contract and may be re- voked by the legislature; 399 but it has been held that a bridge franchise acquired by a city from a private corporation could not be impaired by legislation authorizing the county to con- struct a toll-gate on such bridge and collect tolls. 400 Where a city is seised in fee of the lands in its streets, in trust, to keep the same open, the legislature may declare and define the 392 Crescent City Gas Co. v. New Orleans Gas Co., 27 La. Ann. 138. 303 Police Jury v. Shreveport, 5 La. Ann. 661; Marks v. Donaldson, 24 La. Ann. 242. But see Ellerman v. Mains, 30 La. Ann. 190, 31 Am. Rep. 218. 394 Spaulding v. Andover, 54 N. H. 38. 395 Grogan v. San Francisco, 18 Cal. 590. 396 Essex etc. Road Board v. Skinkle, 140 U. S. 342, 11 S. Ct. .'90. 35 L. ed. 446. 397 Commissioners v. Lucas, 93 XJ. S. 115. 23 L. ed. 822; Mount Hope Cemetery v. Boston, 158 Mass. 512, 35 Am. St. Rep. 518, 33 N. E. 695. But see Darlington v. New York, 31 N. Y. 164, 88 Am. Dec. 248. 398 Bass v. Fontleroy, 11 Tex. 698; Montpelier v. East Montpelier, 29 Vt. 12, 67 Am. Dee. 748. See, also, Milam v. Bateman, 54 Tex. 15-?. 399 East Hartford v. East Hartford Br. Co., 10 How. 534, 13 L. ed. 518. 400 City of Columbus v. Rodgers, 10 Ala. 37. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 314 uses and purposes of the trust; 401 'but where land has been taken for the purpose of a road and has been paid for accord- ing to law, an act of the legislature directing a reduction in the width of such road, and in effect restoring the property to its former owners, is unconstitutional as impairing the obli- gation of the contract of purchase. 402 Where a city has been authorized to erect and maintain wharves and to collect wharfage fees, its right extends only to the collection of fees for the use of its own wharves, and no contract obligation is impaired by a grant of a similar right to a railroad company; 403 nor is the contract by which a city acquires a levee for public use impaired by a legislative grant to a railroad of the right to use the levee for a depot. 404 The disposition of municipal property and funds is subject also to the paramount power of the legislature. 405 So where a mu- nicipality has conveyed certain property belonging to it by de- fective deed the legislature may validate the disposition, 406 and may regulate elevators leased by a city to a corporation. 407 The control of the legislature over the revenues of munici- palities is as absolute as the control over any municipal prop- erty. 408 Accordingly, although the effect of a statute is to pledge city property to secure the payment of a public debt, the legislature may revoke the pledge where contract rights have 401 Kelsey v. King, 33 How. Pr. 39. 402 People v. Highway Commissioners, 53 Barb. 77. 403 New Orleans etc. E. Co. v. Ellerman, 105 U. S. 172, 26 L. ed. 1015. 404 Coffin v. City of Portland, 27 Fed. 412. 405 Board of Liquidation v. Louisville etc. E. E., 109 IT. S. 228, 3 S. Ct. 144, 27 L. ed. 916; McDonald v. Maddux, 11 Cal. 187; Payna v. Treadwell, 16 Cal. 220; Richland County v. Lawrence County, 12 111. 1; People v. Power, 25 HI. 187; State v. St. Louis County Court, 34 Mo. 546; Dickinson v. Marion County Court, 128 Mo. 427, 30 S. W. 103; State v. Patterson, 53 N. J. L. 120, 20 Atl. 828. 406 Payne v. Treadwell, 16 Cal. 220. 407 Belcher Sugar Eef. Co. v. St. Louis Grain etc. Co., 101 Mo. 205, 13 S. W. 825, 8 L. E. A. 801. 408 Commissioners v. Lucas, 93 U. S. 108, 23 L. ed. 822, affirming 44 Ind. 524; United States v. Thoman, 156 U. S. 360, 15 S. Ct. 378, 39 L. ed. 450. 315 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 not intervened, 409 and may repeal an act authorizing a certain disposition of a city's surplus yearly revenue. 410 So, also, a statute may require a municipality to apply its revenues to the discharge of claims based merely upon equity and good con- science. 411 or may require that money be raised for a public purpose, such as the construction and repair of highways and the erection of public buildings. 412 On the other hand, while the right to reimbursement for damages caused by a mob may be based upon equity and good conscience, it may be withdrawn or limited by the legislature. 413 Municipal Government and Officers. A municipal corporation has no contract rights in its public offices, and powers previously vested in municipal officers may be transferred to officers appointed by the governor, 414 and the power to contract may be taken from a board of supervisors and conferred upon another officer or body. 415 The establish- ment of police districts and their government are within the power of the legislature, 416 and the transfer of the police force from a city government to state commissioners does not impair any contract obligation. 417 Commissioners of highways de- 409 Board of Liquidation v. Louisville etc. K. K., 109 TJ. S. 228, 3 S. Ct. 144, 27 L. ed. 916. 4io United States v. Thoman, 156 U. S. 360, 15 S. Ct. 378, 39 L. ed. 450. 411 Blanding v. Burr, 13 Cal. 351; Town of Guilford v. Supervisors, 13 N. Y. 143; Creighton v. San Francisco, 42 Cal. 446; Craft v. Lofinek, 34 Kan. 365, 8 Pac. 359. But see Warren County v. Cowan, 60 Miss. 876, 45 Am. Rep. 453. 412 People v. Flagg, 46 N. Y. 401; People v. Supervisors, 50 Cal. 561; Thomas v. Leland, 24 Wend. 65; Pumphrey v. Mayor of Balti- more, 47 Md. 145, 28 Am. Rep. 446; Carter v. Cambridge etc. Bridge Props., 104 Mass. 236; Perkins v. Slack, 86 Pa. St. 270. 413 Louisiana v. Mayor of New Orleans, 109 U. S. 287, 3 S. Ct. 211, 27 L. ed. 936. 414 State v. Kolsem, 130 Ind. 434, 29 N. E. 595, 14 L. R. A. 566. 415 Pott v. Sheboygan County, 25 Wis. 506; State v. Cogshall, 65 N. W. 2. 416 Galley v. Ginshard, 27 La. Ann. 396; Pickler v. McLellon Dry Dock Co., 38 La. Ann. 412. 417 City of Baltimore v. State, 15 Md. 376; State v. Seavey, 22 Neb. 454, 35 N. \\ r . 228. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Ormgation of Contracts. 316 rive their authority from the legislature which may revoke or resume it at any time. 418 The trustees of a charity granted to a city may be changed by the legislature. 419 The legislature may confirm the election of officers held be- fore the act of incorporation and validate the acts of such of- ficers, 420 may designate another depositary for public funds, other than the one named in the charter, 421 remove an officer for failure to take an oath of allegiance, 422 require payment for services rendered by an officer under a prior act which required such services to be paid for by other persons, 4 ^ 3 or may re- quire a city to pay an officer compensation in addition to the salary paid by the state. 424 So, also, the legislature may alter a municipal charter so as to change the person upon whom ser- vice of process must be made, 425 or may withdraw or modify the power to grant licenses, 426 or may change the mode and time of payment of municipal indebtedness, 427 or may regulate the mode of selection and removal of a county seat, 428 or may increase the number of directors to which a municipal corpora- tion is entitled. 429 418 People v. Fishkill etc. Co., 27 Barb. 445, 419 Philadelphia v. Fox, 64 Pa. St. 169. 420 State v. Kline, 23 Ark. 587. 421 State v. Boyles, 7 Blackf. 90. 422 State v. Adams, 44 Mo. 570. 423 Southworth v. City, 24 La. Ann. 312. But see Warren County v. Cowan, 60 Miss. 876, 45 Am. Kep. 453. 424 City of Covington v. Menzies, 24 S. W. 242. 425 Perkins v. Watertown, 5 Biss. 320, Fed. Cas. No. 10,991. 426 Gatzweiller v. People, 14 111. 142; Morris v. People, 13 Wend. 325; City of Winona v. Whipple, 24 Minn. 61; Dickason v. Marion County Court, 128 Mo. 427, 30 S. W. 103. 427 Hunsaker v. Borden, 5 Cal. 288, 63 Am. Dee. 130. 428 Newton v. Mahoning County Commrs., 100 TJ. S. 548, 25 L. ed. 710; Moses v. Kearney, 31 Ark. 261; Ewell v. Tucker, 1 Blackf. 208; Armstrong v. Dearborn County Commrs., 4 Blackf. 208; Hansrick v. House, 17 Ga. 56; Adams v. Logan, 11 111. 336; Harris v. Shaw, 13 111. 456; State v. Jones, 1 Ired. 414; Alley v. Denson, 8 Tex. 297. Bui see State v. Perry County Commrs., 5 Ohio St. 497; Gill v. Scowden, 14 Phila. 626. 429 Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 478, 21 L. ed. 98; People v. Hills, 16 Barb. 340. 317 Obligation op Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 A charter exempting corporation stock from taxation, except for state purposes, thus affecting a city's taxing power, is bind- ing upon the municipality. 430 A statute allowing a municipal corporation to set off a claim for benefits against a suit for damages impairs no contract obligation. 431 Municipal Contracts Generally. Municipal corporations, ' with respect to their private rights and interests, are protected by the constitution against legis- lation impairing the obligation of contracts, 432 and such cor- porations, while subject to state control, are, as owners of stock and issuers of bonds, secured by all the guaranties which pro- tect the engagements of private individuals. 433 It is not within the power of the legislature, by the repeal of a munici- pal charter, to invade the rights of a city's creditors and cancel its indebtedness ; such legislation impairs the obligation of con- tracts. 434 and where the state authorizes a municipal corpora- tion to contract and to exercise its power of local taxation to the extent necessary to meet its engagements, the power given cannot be withdrawn until the contract is satisfied. 435 430 State Bank v. Madison, 3 Ind. 43; Bank v. New Albany, 11 Ind. 139. 43i Baldwin v. Newark, 9 Vroom, 158; Loweree v. Newark, 9 Vroom, 151. 432 New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U. S. 91, 12 S. Gt. 142, 35 L. ed. 943. 433 Mobile v. Watson, 116 U. S. 305, 6 S. Ct. 398, 29 L. ed. 620. 434 Milner v. City of Pensacola, 2 Woods, 632, Fed. Cas. No. 9619; Bleakey v. Williams, 20 Pitts. L. J. 66; Morris v. State, 62 Tex. 728. 435 Von Hoffman v. City of Quincy, 4 Wall. 554, 18 L. ed. 403; Galena v. Amy, 5 Wall. 709, 18 L. ed. 560; Riggs v. Johnson County, 6 Wall. 194, 18 L. ed. 768; Wolff v. New Orleans, 103 XL S. 366, 26 L. ed. 395; Louisiana v. Pillsbury, 105 U. S. 288, 26 L. ed. 1090; Mo- tile v. Watson, 116 U. S. 305, 6 S. Ct. 405, 29 L. ed. 620; United States v. Jefferson County, 5 Dill. 313, 1 MeCrary, 359, Fed. Cas. No. 15,472; Lansing v. County, 1 Dill. 522, 2 Abb., U. S. 53; Hicks v. Cleveland, 106 Fed. 429; Padgett v. Post, 106 Fed. 600; People v. Bell, 10 Cal. 570; Dominic v. Sayre, 3 Sand. 555; McCless v. Meekins, 117 N. C. 40, 23 S. E. 101. Art. I, § 10, Cl. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 318 A state cannot release a municipal corporation from its con- tracts without the consent of the other party, 436 nor can it re- quire the city to rescind a sale of land made when such sale was authorized by law; 437 nor impair a contract for street work. 438 Upon the same ground, a municipal corporation itself cannot revoke a donation actually made or impose new terms or duties upon the donees. 439 If a city may legally pur- chase the property of a private corporation, a subsequent stat- ute taking away the right cannot affect it so far as the right has been actually exercised. 440 The power conferred upon municipal corporations to raise money is political and its application is within the control of the legislature; 441 but a state cannot authorize a municipal corporation to levy a tax which the state itself has no power to levy. 442 A city may make such contracts as are allowed by the act incorporating it, but it cannot pledge its legislative power to bind its legislative capacity. 443 When a municipal corpora- tion engages in matters not public in their nature it is bound by its acts as much as if it were a natural person, 444 and if it sells lots the use of the streets passes as an appurtenant and it cannot afterward alter or defeat the dedication. 445 The com- pliance with the conditions of a grant is a contract which can- 436 Davenport County v. Davenport, 13 Iowa, 229; People v. Fish, kill P. E. Co., 27 Barb. 445; Town of Duanesborough v. Jenkins, 57 N. Y. 177; State v. Williams, 10 Tex. Civ. App. 346, 30 S. W. 477; Atkins v. Town of Randolph, 31 Vt. 226. 437 Butler v. Chariton, 13 Mo. 112. 438 Goodale v. Fennell, 27 Ohio St. 426, 22 Am. Rep. 321. 439 Louisville v. University, 15 B. Mon. 642; Los Angeles v. Los Angeles City Water Co., 61 Cal. 65. 440 Sala v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 188, Fed. Cas. No. 12.246. 441 People v. Power, 25 111. 187. 442 O 'Donnelly v. Bailey, 24 Miss. 386; Camden etc. R. R. v. Com- missioners, 18 N. J. 71; Camden etc. R. R. v. Hillegas, 18 N. J. 11. 443 Gozzler v. Georgetown, 6 Wheat. 598, 5 L. ed. 339; State v. Graves, 19 Md. 534, 81 Am. Dec. 646; Lake etc. Ry. v. Mayor. 77 Md. 375, 26 Atl. 514, 20 L. R. A. 126; Coates v. New York, 7 Cow. 585. 444 West Savings Fund v. Philadelphia, 31 Pa. St. 175. 443 Breed v. Cunningham, 2 Cal. 361. 319 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 not be impaired, 446 and an ordinance requiring a license fee after the grant of a franchise to run street-cars has been de- clared void. 447 So also the repeal of an ordinance requiring a bond from an auctioneer cannot destroy or affect any right ac- quired under the ordinance. 448 Every transaction of a municipal corporation with third parties does not, however, partake of a contractual nature; nor does every act of the legislature injuriously affecting such third parties come within the prohibition of this clause. The mere fact that a contract made by a city with a water company has received final judicial interpretation does not, so far as the city's rights are concerned, in any way preclude the exercise of the legislature to change the terms of the contract, 449 and where the legislature in incorporating a gaslight company re- served to the city the privilege of purchase, no contract obli- gation is impaired by the recall of the privilege. 450 So, also, where a statute forbids the abandonment of a railroad station without the consent of the commissioners, such consent when obtained gives no contract right which is impaired by a later act ordering resumption of the use of the station. 451 The erection of a toll bridge, under authorization by the leg- islature, within a few yards of a ferry licensed by a county under state laws, does not impair the obligation of the ferry franchise. 152 A grant of waterfront land by a city, with a right to construct wharves, is always subject to the power of the legislature to change the waterfront, although such change might incidentally render useless the rights granted by the city, 453 and a covenant in a deed by a city that adjacent streets 446 Brooklyn C. K. E. v. Brooklyn etc. Co., 32 Barb. 358. 447 Mayor v. Second Ave. etc. Co., 34 Barb. 41; In re Peters, New- York El. E. E., 70 N. Y. 327; East Louisiana Ey. v. City of New Orleans, 46 La. Ann. 526, 15 South. 157. 44S McMahan v. Mayor, 2 Har. & J. 41. 449 New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U. S. 79, 12 S. Ct. 142, 35 L. ed. 943. 450 Crescent City Gaslight Co. v. New Orleans Gaslight Co., 27 La. Ann. 138. 451 New Haven etc. Ey. v. Hamersley, 104 U. S. 1, 26 L. ed. 629. 452 Dyer v. Tuscaloosa Br. Co., 2 Port. 296, 27 Am. Dec. 655. 453 Whitney v. City of New York, 6 Abb. N. C. 329. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 320 should never be appropriated to private uses is not impaired by a grant of the partial use of the street by an elevated rail- road. 454 A license for the carrying on of a particular business within a city is not a contract within the meaning of the obli- gation clause, 455 and where a city, for a valuable consideration, has authorized a person to connect his property with a certain railroad, it is not thereby precluded from ordering the removal of the railroad. 456 A city, under its police power, may order the removal of powder magazines from land which it sold for the purpose of their erection, 457 and it may prohibit the use of land for a cemetery which it has conveyed to a church with a covenant of quiet enjoyment. 458 A city ordinance imposing a license tax upon a foreign corporation authorized by state law to transact business does not impair any contract obligation. 459 The constitutional guaranty against impairment presup- poses a legal contract on the part of the city, 460 and a city can convey only such title to lands as is authorized by law; where it attempts to go beyond this it creates no contract within the protection of the constitution. 461 Municipal Aid to Corporations. In the absence of constitutional prohibition, the legislature may authorize municipal corporations to extend aid to corpora- tions of a public nature, 462 and an act authorizing a subscrip- 454 Spader v. New York El. R. R., 3 Abb. N. C. 467; Story v. New York El. R. R., 3 Abb. N. C. 478. 455 City of St. Charles v. Hackman, 133 Mo. 634. 456 Branson v. City of Philadelphia, 11 Wright, 329. 457 Davenport v. City of Richmond, 81 Va. 636, 59 Am. Rep. 694. 458 Presbyterian Church v. New York, 5 Cow. 538; Coates v. New York, 7 Cow. 585. 459 Home Ins. Co. v. City Council, 93 U. S. 122, 23 L. ed. 825; Osborn v. Mobile, 16 Wall. 482, 21 L. ed. 470; Postal Tel. Co. v. Charleston, 153 U. S. 695, 10 S. Ct. 1095, 38 L. ed. 871. 460 New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 U. S. 88, 12 S. Ct. 142, 35 L. ed. 943; City Ry. Co. v. Citizens' R. R. Co., 166 TJ. S. 564, 17 S. Ct. 655, 41 L. ed. 1114. 461 Hoadley v. San Francisco, 124 U. S. 639, 8 S. Ct. 659, 31 L. ed. 553; San Francisco v. Itsell, 80 Cal. 59, 22 Pac. 75; San Francisco v. Mooney. 106 Cal. 587, 39 Pac 853. 4t;2 Oilman v. Sheboygan, 2 Black, 515, 17 L. ed. 305; Van Hostruck v. Madison City, 1 Wall. 296, 17 L. ed. 538; Rogers v. Burlington, 3 321 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 tion to corporate stock and a submission of the question to the people is constitutional. 463 A municipal subscription to rail- road stock made without authority previously conferred may be confirmed by subsequent legislation when the only defect is want of legislative sanction, 464 but an election and subscription which is absolutely void cannot be validated by any legislative action, 465 and a bona fide purchaser of such bonds is not pro- tected. 466 An act authorizing municipal aid to corporations by sub- scribing to capital stock is not a contract. 467 So the legislature may prohibit municipal corporations from subscribing to the stock of private corporations, 468 or may repeal an amendment to a city's charter authorizing such subscription, 469 or may au- Wall. 665, 18 L. ed. 79; St. Joseph. Township v. Kogers, 16 Wall. 663, 21 L. ed. 3-28; Railroad Co. v. County of Otoe, 16 Wall. 673, 21 L. ed. 375; Township of Pine Grove v. Taleott, 19 Wall. 676, 22 L. ed. 27; Harter v. Kernochan, 103 U. S. 671, 26 L. ed, 411; Anderson v. Santa Anna, 116 IT. S. 363, 6 S. Ct. 413, 29 L. ed. 633. 463 Van Hostruck v. Madison City, 1 Wall. 296, 17 L. ed. 538; Lamed v. Burlington, 4 Wall. 276, 18 L. ed. 353; Empire v. Darling- ton, 103 U. S. 91, 25 L. ed. 878; Bates Co. v. Winters, 112 U. S. 327, 28 L. ed. 744. 464 Grenada Co. v. Brogden, 112 U. S. 272, 5 S. Ct. 125, 28 L. ei 704; Illinois v. Illinois Central E. E., 33 Fed. 71; Erskine v. Steele County, 87 Fed. 631; Los Angeles Water Co. v. Los Angeles, 88 Fed. 743. 4 65 Marsh v. Fulton County, 10 Wall. 684, 19 L. ed. 1040; Lewis v. City of Shreveport, 108 U. S. 287, 2 S. Ct. 634, 27 L. ed. 728; Nor- ton v. Shelby County, 118 U. S. 450, 6 S. Ct. 1121, 30 L. ed. 178; Wiley v. Silliman, 62 111. 170. 4 66 Zane v. Hamilton County, 189 U. S. 370, 23 S. Ct. 538, 47 L. ed. 858. 467 Buffalo etc. E. Co. v. Falconer, 103 U. S. 821, 26 L. ed. 471; List v. Wheeling, 7 W. Va. 501; Cumberland etc. Ey. Co. v. Barren County Court, 73 Ky. 604; Wilson v. Polk County, 112 Mo. 126, 20 S. W. 469; Sharpless v. Philadelphia, 21 Pa. St. 147, 59 Am. Dec. 759. 468 Aspinwall v. Commissioners, 22 How. 377, 16 L. ed. 296; Wads- worth v. Supervisors, 102 U. S. 536, 26 L. ed. 221; Norton v. Shelby County, 118 U. S. 452, 6 S. Ct. 1131, 30 L. ed. 178. 469 Covington etc. E. E. v. Kenton, 12 B. Mon. 144; List v. Wheel- ing, 7 W. Va. 501. Notes on Constitution — 21 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 322 thorize a change in the mode of paying subscriptions, 470 or may confirm a subscription not made in pursuance of the power conferred, 471 or may provide for the issue of the stock to tax- payers in proportion to their taxes, 472 or may provide that the filing of the affidavit of consent of taxpayers shall be conclusive evidence of such consent, 473 or may provide for the registration and certification of bonds issued in aid of railroads. 474 A vote of the people authorizing such subscription does not constitute a contract until the subscription is actually made, 475 but bonds once issued pursuant to a subscription are ever after valid and binding on the body issuing them. 476 A municipal corporation taking stock in a railroad corpora- tion is to that extent a private corporation, bound as a private individual by its obligation, and its liability is subject to the constitutional inhibition ; 477 and where a municipality has made a contract to subscribe for stock, its bonds to be issued when the road is completed, its contract cannot be impaired by a sub- sequent constitutional prohibition against municipal aid. 478 Such prohibitions are prospective only, and do not revoke grants of aid previously made and in force at the time of their 470 Louisville etc. E. E. v. Davidson, 1 Sneed, 637; Hunsaker v. Borden, 5 Cal. 288, 63 Am. Dec. 130. 471 City v. Eailroad Co., 15 Conn. 475; Bass v. Mayor, 38 Ga. 875; McMillan v. Boyles, 6 Iowa, 304; Hannibal etc. E. E. v. Marion, 36 Mo. 294. 472 Commissioners v. Lucas, 93 U. S. 116, 23 L. ed. 822. 473 People v. Mitchell, 45 Barb. 208. 474 Hoff v. Jasper County, 110 U. S. 53, 3 S. Ct. 476, 28 L. ed. 68. 475 Cumberland & O. Ey. v. Barren County Court, 73 Ky. 604; Wilson v. Polk County, 112 Mo. 126, 20 S. W. 469; List v. Wheeling 7 W. Va. 501. 476 Lee v. Bogers, 7 Wall. 181, 19 L. ed. 160; Lansing v. Muscatiirj County, 2 Abb. U. S. 59. And see Butz v. City of Muscatine, 8 Wall. 585, 19 L. ed. 490. 477 Broughton v. Pensacola, 93 U. S. 269, 23 L. ed. 896; Port of Mobile v. Watson, 116 U. S. 305, 6 S. Ct. 405, 29 L. ed. 620. 478 County of Moultrie v. Savings Bank, 92 XJ. S. 635, 23 L. ed. 63±; County of Clay v. Society for Savings, 104 U. S. 590, 26 L. ed. 856; County of Moultrie v. Fairfield, 105 TJ. S. 375, 26 L. ed. 94o; Jonesboro v. Cairo etc. E, E., 110 U. S. 197, 4 S. Ct. 67, 28 L. ed. 116. 323 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 adoption. 479 So where the vote on a subscription to corporate stock was had and the subscription made prior to the adoption of the prohibitory clause the old constitution must govern. 4S0 Where, however, the subscription is ultra vires, it creates no valid contract rights which are impaired by the prohibitory amendment. 481 Contracts Relating to Public "Utilities and Improvements. A franchise granted by a municipal corporation to a street railway company to use the streets of the city is a contract within the protection of the constitution, 482 and the acceptance of the terms of an ordinance by a corporation, followed by the expenditure of large sums of money on the faith of it, gives the corporation contract rights which the legislature cannot im- pair. 483 The rule applies as well to franchises to erect and maintain telephone or telegraph lines, 484 or to lay pipes in city streets. 485 Such franchises, when accepted, are in the nature 479 Scotland County v. Thomas, 94 U. S. 688, 24 L. ed. 219; County of Macon v. Shores, 97 U. S. 278, 24 L. ed. 889; County of Eay v. Van Sycle, 96 U. S. 684, 24 L. ed. 800; Louisiana v. Taylor, 105 U. S. 458, 26 L. ed. 1133; State v. Lancaster County, 6 Neb. 214; Indiana County v. Agricultural Society, 85 Pa. St. 359; Town jf Cherry Creek v. Becker, 123 N. Y. 161, 25 N. E. 369; Bound v. Wis- consin Cent. B. E., 45 Wis. 543. 480 Decker v. Hughes, 63 111. 33. 481 Buffalo etc. E. E. v. Falconer, 103 U. S. 826, 26 L. ed. 471. 482 Birmingham etc. St. By. v. Birmingham St. By., 79 Ala. 465, 68 Am. Eep. 615; East Louisiana E. Co. v. New Orleans, 46 La. Ann. 526, 15 South. 157; Springfield By. Co. v. Springfield, 85 Mo. 674. 483 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 700, 4 L. ed. 629; Citizens' St. Ey. Co. v. City Ey. Co., 56 Fed. 746; People v. Chicago West. Div. Ey. Co., 18 111. App. 125; Hovelman v. Kansas City Horse Ey., 79 Mo. 632; State ex rel. v. Corrigan etc. Ey. Co., 85 Mo. 263, 55 Am. Eep. 361. 484 St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 148 U. S. 103, 13 S. Ct. 485, 37 L. ed. 380; Sunset Telephone & Telegraph Co. v. Medford, 115 Fed. 202; City of New Orleans v. Great Southern etc. Co., 40 La. AnD. 41, 3 South. 533; Michigan Tel. Co. v. St. Joseph, 121 Mich. 502, 80 Am. St. Eep. 520, 80 N. W. 383. 485 Walla Walla v. Walla Walla Water Co., 172 U. S. 9, 19 S. Ct. 77, 43 L. ed. 341; State v. City of Toledo, 48 Ohio St. 112, 26 N. E. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 324 of legal estates, 486 and if valid under the laws of the state at the time they were granted, they cannot be impaired by subse- quent legislation or judicial decision. 487 Where, however, in the grant of authority to cities, the legislature has reserved the right to impose conditions which it deems necessary for the public good, the holder of a franchise may be required to pave certain portions of the streets where its rails are laid. 488 So, also, there is an implication in all franchises that they shall be held subject to the legislature's police power, and the laying of switches and sidetracks in streets except on certain condi- tions, may be forbidden, 489 and telegraph and telephone com- panies may be required to place their wires in cities under- ground. 490 Municipal lighting and water contracts are also within the protection of this clause, and where the conditions of a grant of the right to sell water or light have been complied with it can- not be revoked or impaired. 491 Where, however, nothing has been done toward the erection and operation of a plant under an ordinance there is no contract right which can be impaired by a subsequent act authorizing the city to erect its own plant. 492 Where, by contract, a city has conferred the ex- 1061, 11 L. E. A. 729; Little Falls etc. Co. v. City of Little Falls, 102 Fed. 663. 486 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 212, 20 L. ed. 550. 487 Chicago v. Sheldon, 9 Wall. 55, 19 L. ed. 594; New Orleans etc. E. E. v. Delamore, 114 U. S. 510, 29 L. ed. 244; City Ey. v. Citizens' E. E., 166 U. S. 567, 17 S. Ct. 653, 41 L. ed. 1114; Coast Line etc. Co. v. Savannah, 30 Fed. 650; St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 63 Fed. 70; West Chicago etc. E. E. v. Chicago, 178 111. 344, 53 N. E. 114; West era Paving etc. Co. v. Citizens' etc. E. E., 128 Ind. 529, 25 Am. St. Eep. 465, 26 N. E. 190, 10 L. E. A. 770. 488 Sioux City etc. Ey. v. City, 138 U. S. 98, 11 S. Ct. 226, 34 L. ed. 898, affirming 78 Iowa, 367, 43 N. W. 224; Coast Line E. E. v. City of Savannah, 30 Fed. 646. 489 Drady v. Des Moines etc. Ey., 57 Iowa, 393, 10 N. W. 754. 490 People v. Squires, 1 N. Y. St. Eep. 633. 491 Los Angeles v. Los Angeles City Water Co., 177 U. S. 583, 20 8. Ct. 736, 44 L. ed. 886; St. Paul Gaslight Co. v. St. Paul, 181 U. S. 148, 21 S. Ct. 575, 45 L. ed. 788; Walla Walla v. Walla Walla Water Co., 172 U. S. 10, 19 S. Ct. 77, 43 L. ed. 341. 492 Capital City Light Co. v. Tallahassee, 186 U. S. 410, 412, 22 S. Ct. 866, 46 L. ed. 121. 325 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 elusive right to furnish it with water from a certain source, there is no constitutional objection to the subsequent incorpora- tion of a company authorized to supply the city with water from another source; 493 and though a city and a gas company have legally entered into a lighting contract, the legislature may later authorize the city to erect its own lighting plant. 494 A city's breach of an exclusive lighting contract is not within the prohibition of the obligation clause; in case of a breach of such a contract a city is liable, like an individual, in dam- ages. 495 A claim of immunity from legislative control of rates to be charged under a franchise must be established affirma- tively; such immunity cannot be presumed, 496 but where such immunity is shown it cannot be violated, notwithstanding the act complained of may not result in a reduction of income. 497 The contract of a city for public work, such as the construct- ing or paving of streets, cannot be impaired by legislative act. 498 Accordingly where damage to land caused by the open- ing of a street has been appraised and the appraisal confirmed, the owner has a contract right which cannot be impaired by the repeal of the law authorizing appraisal. 499 Where, how- ever, a contractor assents to the suspension of a public work, the city has no contract right impaired by the act of the leg- islature ordering the work stopped. 500 An act relating to the 493 Stein v. Bienville Water Supply Co., 141 TJ. S. 80, 11 S. Ct. 892, 35 L. ed. 622; In re Brooklyn, 143 N. Y. 614, 38 N. E. 938, 26 L. E. A. 270. 494 Hamilton etc. Gas Co. v. Hamilton, 146 TJ. S. 268, 13 S. Ct. 93, 36 L. ed. 963; Thomas v. Grand Junction, 13 Colo. App. 88, 36 Pao. 1120. 495 Newport Light Co. v. Newport, 151 TJ. S. 540, 14 S. Ct. 429, 38 L. ed. 259. 496 Spring Valley W. W. v. Schottler, 110 TJ. S. 355, 4 S. Ct. 48, 28 L. ed. 173; Covington etc. Co. v. Sanford, 164 U. S. 578, 17 S. Ct. 198, 41 L. ed. 560. 497 Los Angeles v. Los Angeles City Water Co., 177 TJ. S. 580, 20 S. Ct. 736, 44 L. ed. 886. 498 Goodale v. Fennel, 27 Ohio St. 426, 22 Am. Rep. 321; Flewellin v. Proetzel, 80 Tex. 191, 15 S. W. 1043. 499 People v. City of Buffalo, 140 N. Y. 300, 37 Am. St. Rep. 563, 35 N. E. 485. 500 Cleveland v. Board of Finance etc., 38 N. J. L. 259. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 326 widening of a street and authorizing a reappraisement of the damage done and a new assessment does not impair any con- tract rights; 501 nor is an act authorizing the assessment of abutting land for the construction of a boulevard an impair- ment of the act providing for the compensation of owners for land taken. 502 Municipal Debts and Liabilities. The rights of a municipality's creditors acquired under con- tracts valid when made are protected by the federal constitu- tion. 503 So where a judgment has been rendered against a city, the legislature cannot impair its obligation by restricting the power of the city's administrative officers, 504 and an act prohibiting the levy of taxes to pay a claim against a city is void if it deprives the creditor of every means for the collection of his debt. 505 A statute providing another and different mode of payment of a municipal warrant for indebtedness other than that provided in the contract is void; 506 e. g., a re- quirement that holders of warrants bearing a certain rate of interest surrender them and accept bonds bearing a less rate of interest. 507 But an act merely imposing conditions which do not impair the creditor's right, such as a requirement that the warrant be registered, is unobjectionable; 508 but conditions which render the enforcement of a claim less certain, such as a requirement that warrants shall be submitted to the county judge to determine their validity, cannot retroact. 509 Whether 50i Garrison v. City of New York, 21 Wall. 196, 22 L. ed. 612. 502 Turner v. City of Detroit, 104 Mich. 326, 62 N. W. 405. 503 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 443, 24 L. ed. 760; Shreveport v. Cole, 129 U. S. 42, 9 S. Ct. 210, 32 L. ed. 589; National Bank v. Sebastian County, 5 Dill. 416, Fed. Cas. No. 10,040; Garrett v. City of Memphis, 5 Fed. 860; Amy v. City of Galena, 7 Fed. 163. 504 United States v. Port of Mobile, 12 Fed. 768; State v. Cathers, 25 Neb. 250, 41 N. W. 182; Munday v. Assessors, 43 N. J. L. 338; State v. Butler, 79 Tenn. 493. 505 Souter v. Madison, 15 Wis. 30; Hammond v. Place, 116 Mich. 628, 72 Am. St. Rep. 543, 74 N. W. 1002. 506 Rose v. Estudillo, 39 Cal. 270. 507 Brewer v. Otoe County, 1 Neb. 373. 508 Louisiana v. New Orleans, 102 U. S. 203, 26 L. ed. 132. 509 McCracken v. Moody, 33 Ark. 81. 327 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 the legislature can require that holders of pre-existing claims shall present them for record within a limited time or be barred has been denied in some states/ 10 and affirmed in others. 511 Where the audit of claims by a comptroller is merely advisory, the fact that he is precluded from auditing certain claims by ordinance does not impair the obligation of the contract under which they arose. 512 A statute exempting the property of a municipal corpora- tion from forced sale on execution is merely in affirmance of the common law, 513 and if no rights have vested under a prior statute authorizing execution, such an exemption is valid. So a statute providing a redemption fund to meet indebted- ness may provide for the preference of certain claims. 514 Money accumulated and set apart for the payment of claims cannot be diverted under an act of the legislature authorizing its use for another purpose. 515 Nor can the lien be removed from land pledged for the payment of a claim. 510 The legis- lature may alter the terms of a municipal charter in respect to service in suits on pre-existing obligations, 517 and it may provide that claims against one municipality shall be paid by another, 518 but it cannot provide that as to pre-existing claims no judgment shall issue against a city. 519 A statute 510 Robinson v. Magee, 9 Cal. 81, 70 Am. Dec. 638; Priestly v. Watkins, 62 Miss. 798. 511 City of Lincoln v. Grant, 38 Neb. 369,56 N. W. 995; Parker v. Buckner, 67 Tex. 20, 2 S. W. 746. 512 St. Paul Gaslight Co. v. St. Paul, 181 IT. S. 150, 21 S. Ct. 575, 45 L. ed. 788. 513 Gilman v. Contra Costa County, 8 Cal. 52, 68 Am. Dec. 290. 514 Harold a-. Herrington, 95 Ala. 395, 11 South. 131; Youngs v. Kail, 9 Nev. 212. But see Bleakly v. Williams, 20 Pitts. L. J. 66. 515 Maenhaut v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 108, Fed. Cas. No. 8939; Fazende v. City of Houston, 34 Fed. 95; Board of Liquidators ■». Municipality, 6 La. Ann. 21; Smith v. City of Appleton, 19 Was. 46S. 516 Brooklyn Park Commrs. v. Armstrong, 45 N. Y. 234, 6 Am. Eep. 70. 517 Perkins v. Watertown, 5 Biss. 320, Fed. Cas. No. 10,991. 518 Rader v. S. R. Dist., 6 Vroom, 273 519 Gabler v. City of Elizabeih, 42 N. J. L. 79; Wood v. New York, 29 N. Y. Super. Ct. 463. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation op Contracts. 328 declaring that no judgment rendered on county warrants shall bear interest is valid. 520 A municipality cannot, by its own ordinances under the guise of taxation, relieve itself of its obligations; 521 nor, if it obtain a loan by placing property in the hands of certain trustees as security, can it make a change in the selection of the trustees. 522 Municipal Bonds. A statute authorizing a municipal corporation to issue bonds and providing for the levy of a tax to pay them creates a con- tract, 523 and the authorization of the tax must continue in force during the life of the bonds issued under it. 524 Nor can the legislature revoke the incorporation of a municipality so as to defeat the rights of holders of its bonds. 525 If a fund is pledged for the redemption of bonds, a subsequent statute cannot authorize its diversion so as to impair the security of the bondholders. 526 An act providing for the redemption of 520 Reed v. Mississippi County, 69 Ark. 365, 86 Am. St. Eep. 20 4, 63 S. W. 807. 521 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 448, 24 L. ed. 760. 522 West Savings Fund v. Philadelphia, 31 Pa. St. 175. 523 Maenhaut v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 108, Fed. Cas. No. 8939; Eanger v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 128, Fed. Cas. No. 11,564. 524 Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 554, 18 L. ed. 403; City of Galena v. Amy, 5 Wall. 709, 18 L. ed. 560; Eiggs v. Johnson County, 6 Wall. 194, 18 L. ed. 768; Wolff v. New Orleans, 103 U. S. 365, 26 L. ed. 395; Louisiana v. Pilsbury, 105 U. S. 2SS, 26, L. ed. 1090; Ealls County Court v. United States, 105 U. S. 738, 26 L. ed. 1220; Louisiana v. Police Jury, 111 U. S. 721, 4 S. Ct. 648, 23 L. ed. 574; Quincy v. Jackson, 113 U. S. 338, 5 S. Ct. 544, 28 L. ed. 1001; Scotland County Court v. United States, 140 U. S. 47, 11 S. Ct. 697, 35 L. ed. 351; Port of Mobile v. Watson, 116 U. S. 289, 6 S. Ct. 398, 29 L. ed. 620. 625 Milner v. Pensacola, 2 Woods, 632, Fed Cas. No. 9619. 526 Maenhaut v. City of New Orleans, 2 Woods, 108, Fed. Cas. No. 8939; State v. Board of Liquidation, 40 La. Ann. 398, 4 South. 122; People v. Woods, 7 Cal. 579; People v. Supervisors, 12 Cal. 300; People v. Bond, 10 Cal. 563; English v. Supervisors, 10 Cal. 172; Board v. Fowler, 19 Cal. 11; Trustees v. Bailey, 10 Fla. 112, 81 Am. Dec. 194; West Savings Fund v. Philadelphia, 31 Pa. St. 175; Smitn v. City of Appleton, 19 Wis. 4S8. 329 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 bonds at less than par, and authorizing a loan of the fund if no bonds are tendered for redemption, is void. 527 A statute authorizing a municipal corporation to issue bonds does not impair the obligation of the contract contained in a grant of land to individuals by the state, 528 and if a statute authoriz- ing the condemnation of land for a park provides that the bonds issued shall be a lien thereon, no subsequent act can provide for a sale of the land free from the lien, although the proceeds are to form a sinking fund for the use of the bond- holders. 529 An act prohibiting the issue of bonds for any pur- pose but the one specified is not subject to repeal or amend- ment. 530 A statute cannot compel a party to surrender the evidence of his indebtedness and take another in its place. 531 Municipal bonds issued by authority of the legisature and upheld as valid by the state supreme court cannot be invali- dated either by a subsequent contrary judicial construction or by legislative enactment. 532 The rights of bondholders are to be determined by law as judicially construed at the time the bonds were put upon the market, 533 and bonds valid when is- sued are good in the hands of an assignee, notwithstanding the transfer was made after a contrary decision by the state su- preme court. 534 The legislature may validate bonds issued under a defect of power, 535 unless the issue was absolutely void and incapable of any ratification. 536 527 Goldsmith v. Brown, 5 Or. 418. 528 McCoy v. Washington County, 3 "Wall. Jr. 381, 3 Phila. 290, Fed. Cas. No. 8731. 629 Brooklyn Park v. Armstrong, 45 N. Y. 234, 6 Am. Rep. 70. 630 Smith v. Appleton, 19 Wis. 468. 531 People v. Morse, 43 Cal. 535; Rose v. Estudillo, 39 Cal. 270. 532 Thomson v. Lee County, 3 Wall. 331, 18 L. ed. 177; Taylor v. Ypsilanti, 105 U. S. 72, 26 L. ed. 1008. 533 County of Ralls v. Douglass, 105 U. S. 732, 26 L. ed. 957. 534 New Buffalo v. Iron Co., 105 U. S. 75, 26 L. ed. 1024. 535 Grenada v. Brogden, 112 U. S. 272, 5 S. Ct. 125, 28 L. ed. 704; Illinois v. Illinois Cent. R. R., 33 Fed. 71; Erskine v. Steele County, 87 Fed. 631; Los Angeles Water Co. v. Los Angeles, 88 Fed. 743; Kunkle v. Franklin, 13 Minn. 127, 97 Am. Dec. 226; Commonwealth V. Folsom, 13 Minn. 219. 536 Marsh v. Fulton County, 10 Wall. 684, 19 L. ed. 1040; Lewis T. City of Shreveport, 108 U. S. 287, 2 S. Ct. 634, 27 L. ed. 728; Norton v. Shelby County, 118 U. S. 450, 6 S. Ct. 1121, 30 L. ed. 178. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation op Contracts. 330 Private Corporations. If the foundation of a corporation is private, the corporation itself is private, notwithstanding it is under charter from the government, and no matter how extensive its uses. 537 A cor- poration may he private and yet its charter may contain provi- sions of a purely public character, 538 and a bounty may he be- stowed upon a private as well as a public corporation. 539 The character of a corporation is not affected by the fact that it is largely endowed out of lands granted by the federal government, 540 nor by the fact that it is endowed in part by the state creating it. 541 Where the property of a corporation is private, it is a private corporation; 542 but where the whole interests and franchises are the exclusive property and domain of the government, it is a public corporation. 543 So if an educational institution be founded for public purposes and with public funds, it is public and subject to legislative con- 537 Trustee® Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 629, 4 L. ed. 629; Louisville v. University, 15 B. Mon. 669; Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229; Regents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72; Trustees v. Bradbury, 11 Me. 118, 26 Am. Dec. 515; Yarmouth v. North Yarmouth, 34 Me. 411, 56 Am. Dec. 666; People v. Cogswell, 113 Cal. 139, 45 Pac. 272, 35 L. R. A. 269; Amer- ican Asylum etc. v. Phoenix Bank, 4 Conn. 177, 10 Am. Dec. 113; State v. Neff, 52 Ohio St. 404, 40 N. E. 724, 28 L. R. A. 409; Board of Education v. Bakewell, 122 111. 344, 10 N. E. 381; Downing v. Board, 129 Ind. 449, 28 N. E. 125, 12 L. R. A. 664; Plymouth v. Jack- son, 15 Pa. St. 44; State v. Hey ward, 3 Rich. 389. 538 Regents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72. 530 Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276; Louisville v. University, 15 B. Mnn. 642; Regents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72; Montgomery Academy v. George, 14 La. Ann. 395; Sheriff v. Lowndes, 16 Md. 357; Richardson v. Brown, 6 Me. 355; Yarmouth v. North Yarmouth, 34 Me. 411, 56 Am. Dec. 666. 540 University v. Indiana, 14 How. 276, 14 L. ed. 416. 54i Downing v. Board etc., 129 Ind. 449, 28 N. E. 125, 12 L. R. A. 664; Cleaveland v. Stewart, 3 Ga. 291. 542 Piqua State Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 360, 6 Ohio St. 342 14 L. ed. 977. 543 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 629, 4 L. ed. 629; Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229; Regents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72; University v. Maultsby, 8 Ired. Eq. 257. 331 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 trol; 544 but a corporation created for the purpose of investing school funds for a town has been held to be a private corpora- tion. 545 Although created by the state, a bank whose stock is owned by private persons is a private corporation, and its charter pro- tected by the obligation clause; 546 but it has been held that a bank operated exclusively by the state is public, and may be discontinued by the state at its option. 547 A bank charter may be forfeited for the nonuser of its franchises. 548 Eailroad corporations are uniformly held to be private although their uses are essentially public, 549 and their character is unaffected by the fact that they are held to serve a public use for the pur- pose of the exercise of the right of eminent domain in their be- half, 530 or for the purpose of extending public aid. 551 Canal companies are of the same nature, 552 as also are corporations 544 Dart v. Houston, 22 Ga. 529; University of Michigan v. Board of Education, 4 Mich. 225; State v. Knowles, 16 Fla. 616; Eegents v. McConnell, 5 Neb. 427; Wambersie v. Orange etc. Society, 84 Va. 453, 5 S. E. 28; Spaulding v. People, 172 111. 48, 49 N. E. 995. But see State v. Carr, 111 Ind. 337, 12 N. E. 319. 545 Trustees v. Bradbury, 11 Me. 118, 26 Am. Dec. 515. 546 State Bank of Ohio v. Knoop, 16 How. 380, 14 L. ed. 977, re- versing 1 Ohio St. 618. 547 State v. State Bank of South Carolina, 1 S. C. 67; State v. Curran, 12 Ark. 353; Branch Bank v. Collins, 7 Ala. 101. 548 State v. Bank of South Carolina, 1 Spears, 502; Logwood v. Planters' Bank, Minor, 24. 549 Adams v. Boston etc. B, E., 1 Holmes, 31, Fed. Cas. No. 47; Sweatt v. Boston etc. E. E., 3 Cliff. 346, Fed. Cas. No. 13,684; Bur- hop v. Milwaukee, 21 Wis. 260; Hale v. County Commissioners, 137 Mass. 114. 550 Bonaparte v. Camden etc. E. E., 1 Baldw. 220, Fed. Cas. No. 1617; Bloodgood v. Mohawk etc. E. E., 18 Wend. 51, 21 Am. Dec. 348. 551 Van Hostruck v. Madison City, 1 Wall. 296, 17 L. ed. 538; Eogers v. Burlington, 3 Wall. 665, 18 L. ed. 79; Eailroad Co. v. County of Otoe, 16 Wall. 673, 21 L. ed. 375; Anderson v. Santa Anna, 116 U. S. 363, 6 S. Ct. 413, 29 L. ed. 633. 552 Bundle v. Delaware etc. Canal, 1 Wall. Jr. 291, Fed. Cas. No. 12,139; Hooker v. New Haven etc. Co., 15 Conn. 322. And see Tay- lor v. Griswold, 14 N. J. L. 234, 27 Am. Dee. 43. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation op Contracts. 332 engaged in slaughtering livestock, 553 industrial, mining and manufacturing corporations. 554 A home for inebriates estab- lished by private benefaction is a private corporation although supported in part by the state. 555 Nature of Corporate Charter and Extent of Legislative Power. The charter of a private corporation is a contract, which the state, under the inhibition of the constitution, cannot im- pair. 556 It is in effect a stipulation that the powers specially granted are not to be withdrawn or diminished. 557 Certain powers are to be implied from those specially given, 558 and powers thus reasonably implied are as sacred as those expressly given. 559 Private charters are contracts be- 553 Putnam v. Ruch, 56 Fed. 418. 554 Wolfe v. Underwood, 91 Ala. 526, 8 South. 775. 555 Washington Home v. Chicago, 157 111. 423, 41 N. E. 895, 29 L. R. A. 798. 556 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 627, 641, 657, 4 L. ed. 629; West River Bridge Co. v. Dix, 6 How. 531, 12 L. ed. 535; Bridge Props, v. Hoboken Co., 1 Wall. 146, 17 L. ed. 571; Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 488, 21 L. ed. 98; The Delaware Railroad Tax, 18 Wall. 225, 21 L. ed. 888; Chicago etc. R. R. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 161, 24 L. ed. 94; Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 607, 24 L. ed. 793; Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 87, 3 L. ed. 162; Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 43, 3 L. ed. 650; Town of Pawlet v. Clark, 9 Cr. 292, 3 L. ed. 735; Piqua Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 369, 14 L. ed. 977; Dodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 331, 15 L. ed. 401; Mechanics' and Traders' Bank v. Debolt, 18 How. 380, 15 L. ed. 458; Jefferson etc. Bank v. Skelly, 1 Black, 436, 17 L. ed. 173; San Francisco v. Spring Valley Water- works, 48 Cal. 520; Washington Br. Co. v. State, 18 Conn. 64; Bruf- fett v. Great Western R. R. Co., 25 111. 312; Martindale v. Moore, 3 Blackf. 280; Atlantic R. R. v. Mingus, 7 N. Mex. 371, 34 Pac. 595; Matter of City of Brooklyn, 143 N. Y. 609, 38 N. E. 986, 26 L. R. A. 270; "University v. North Carolina R. R., 76 N. C. 108, 22 Am. Rep. 674; Central R. R. v. Collins, 40 Ga. 624; State Board of Assessors v. Paterson etc. R, R. Co., 50 N. J. L. 450, 14 Atl. 612; President etc. v. Trenton City Bridge Co., 13 N. J. Eq. 49; People v. O'Brien, 111 N. Y. 49, 7 Am. St. Rep. 702, 18 N. E. 702, 2 L. R. A. 255; Brighton v. Wilkinson, 2 Allen, 29; Crease v. Babcock, 23 Pick. 340, 34 Am. Dec. 63; Mathews v. St. Louis & S. F. Ry., 121 Mo. 310, 24 S. W. 594, 25 L. R. A. 161; Michigan State Bank v. Hastings, 1 Doug. 225; 41 Am. Dec. 549; Mayor v. Baltimore etc. R. R., 6 Gill, 333 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 cause based for consideration upon the liabilities and duties which the incorporators assume by acceptance. 560 The consid- eration may be said to be the benefit derived by the community from the incorporation, 561 and of its sufficiency the legislature is the exclusive judge. 562 No other consideration is necessary to render the grant irrevocable. 5628 The obligation of such charters on the part of the incorpora- tors is that of performing the functions for which they are created. 563 A corporate charter, like any other grant by the state, is to be strictly construed in favor of the public ; 564 noth- ing can be taken by intendment against the state. 565 So where the right under a charter is claimed by construction, only the scope and evident design of all of the provisions of the charter 288, 48 Am. Dec. 531; Kelhim v. State, 66 Ind. 577; Eegents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dee. 72; Derby Turnpike Co. v. Parks, 10 Conn. 522, 27 Am. Dee. 700. 537 Commonwealth v. Farmers' Bank, 38 Mass. 542, 32 Am. Dec. 290; Thorpe v. Burlington etc. E. E., 27 Vt. 140, 62 Am. Dec. 625. 558 Payne v. Baldwin, 11 Miss. 661; Commercial Bank v. State, 12 Miss. 439. 559 Commercial Bank v. State, 12 Miss. 439; People v. Manhattan, Co., 9 Wend. 351. 560 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 214, 20 L. ed. 550. 561 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 658, 4 L. ed. 629; Home of the Friendless v. Eouse, 8 Wall. 430, 19 L. ed. 495; Eegents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72. 562 Piqua Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 369, 14 L. ed. 977. 562a Derby Turnpike Co. v. Parks, 10 Conn. 522, 27 Am. Dec. 700. 563 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 658, 688, 4 L. ed. 629; Swift v. Eichardson, 7 Houst. 355, 32 Atl. 144; Illinois etc. E. E. v. Bentley, 64 111. 441. 564 Eailway v. Philadelphia, 101 U. S. 540, 25 L. ed. 912. 565 Charles Eiver Br. v. Warren Br., 11 Pet. 544, 9 L. ed. 773: Jefferson Branch Bank v. Skelly, 1 Black, 446, 17 L. ed. 173; The Binghampton Br., 3 Wall. 75, 18 L. ed. 137; Stein v. Bienville Water Co., 141 U. S. 81, 11 S. Ct. 896, 35 L. ed. 622; Coosaw Min. Co. v. South Carolina, 144 U. S. 562, 12 S. Ct. 691, 36 L. ed. 537; Coving- ton etc. Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 588, 17 S. Ct. 202, 41 L. ed. 560; Parrott v. Lawrence, 2 Dill. 537, Fed. Cas. No. 10,772; Louisvilla Trust Co. v. Cincinnati, 73 Fed. 726; Bartholomew v. Austin, 85 Fed. 364. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 33-i can be considered, 566 and where the charter is susceptible of two meanings, that which is least detrimental to the state will be adopted. 567 The exercise of rights under a charter, being restrictive of individual rights, it cannot be extended beyond the letter and spirit of the act of incorporation. 568 A corporate franchise, granted to and accepted by a private corporation, is in the nature of a legal estate and a contract within the obligation clause of the constitution. 569 The grant of a franchise is not distinguishable from a grant of any other property, 570 and an ordinance which amounts to a proposition to grant a franchise in consideration of the construction or operation of a street railroad, or to lay gas or water pipes in streets, is a contract unimpairable by the state; 571 such a franchise having been granted to one railroad cannot be in ef- 566 Maysville T. Co. v. How, 14 B. Mon. 26. 567 The Binghanrton Br., 3 Wall. 75, 18 L. ed. 137. 568 Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 514, 7 L. ed. 939; Charles Biver Br. v. Warren Br., 11 Pet. 420, 9 L. ed. 773; Mills v. St. Clair Co., 8 How. 569, 12 L. ed. 1201; Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 301, 12 L. ed. 447; Ohio Trust Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 416, 14 L. ed. 997; Eichmond E. E. Co. v. Louisa. E. E. Co., 13 How. 71, 14 L. ed. 55; Enfield Br. Co. v. Connecticut Biver Co., 7 Conn. 28; Hartford Br. Co. v. East Hartford, 16 Conn. 149; Hartford Br. Co. v. Union Ferry Co., 29 Conn. 210; McLeod v. Burroughs, 9 Ga. 213; Turnpike Co. v. Eailroad Co., 10 Gill & J. 392; Tuckahoe Canal Co. v. Eailroad, 11 Leigh, 42, 36 Am. Dec. 374; Collins v. Sherman, 31 Miss. 679. 569 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 212, 20 L. ed. 550; Ne* Orleans etc. E, E. v. Delamore, 114 U. S. 510, 29 L. ed. 244; St. Louis v. Western Uuion Tel. Co., 148 TJ. S. 103, 13 S. Ct. 485, 37 L. ed. 380; Walla Walla v. Walla Walla Water Co., 172 TJ. S. 9, Id S. Ct. 77, 43 L. ed. 341. 570 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 700, 4 L. ed. 629; Society for Savings v. Coite, 6 Wall. 606, 18 L. ed. 897; Benson v. New York, 10 Barb. 223; Enfield Bridge Co. v. Connecticut Eiv. Co., 7 Conn. 28; Derby Turnpike Co. v. Parks, 10 Conn. 28 27 Am. Dec. 700; Washington Bridge Co. v. State, 18 Conn. 53; Canal Co. v. Eailroad Co., 4 Gill & J. 1. 571 City Eailway v. Citizens' Eailroad, 166 TJ. S. 567, 17 S. Ct. 653, 41 L. ed. 1114; Walla Walla v. Walla Walla Water Co., 172 TJ. S. 9, 19 S. Ct. 77, 43 L. ed. 341. 335 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 feet repealed by a subsequent grant of the same privilege to another corporation. 572 ' Exclusive rights granted to corporations inconsistent with the new government may, however, be abolished. 573 Accord- ingly the exclusive right granted to a turnpike company to erect and maintain a toll bridge" was not impaired by a grant of a right seventy years later to a railroad company to erect a railroad bridge. 574 A statute forbidding the erection of a bridge near one already built gives no contract rights to the owners of the latter, and may be repealed notwithstanding its purchase on the faith of such statute; 575 nor is a ferry license granted under general law, prohibiting the grant of a license for a ferry within half a mile of any other ferry, a contract impaired by a special law granting a license for a ferry within that limit. 576 Where a corporation is to be brought into existence by some future act of the incorporators, the franchises remain in abey- ance and attach when such acts are done. 577 Extent of Legislative Authority. Corporations are impliedly subject to such reasonable regu- lations as the legislature may from time to time prescribe, not interfering with the substantial enjoyment of privileges con- ferred and serving only to secure the ends for which the cor- porations were created; 578 a corporation always impliedly sub- jects itself to reasonable regulations in the conduct of its af- 572 New Orleans etc. E. E. v. Delamore, 114 U. S. 510, 5 S. Ct. 1009, 29 L. ed. 244. 573 Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 52, 3 L. ed. 650. 574 Bridge Proprietors v. Hoboken Co., 1 Wall. 147, 17 L. ed. 571. 575 Wheeling etc. Bridge Co. v. Wheeling Bridge Co., 138 U. S. 192, 11 S. Ct. 301, 34 L. ed. 967. 576 Williams v. Wingo, 171 U. S. 604, 20 S. Ct. 793, 44 L. ed. 905. 577 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 691, 4 L. ed. 629; Vincennes University v. State, 14 How. 275, 14 L. ed. 416; Williams v. State, 23 Tex. 287; Huff v. Winona etc. E. E. Co., 11 Minn. 192. 578 Chicago Life Ins. Co. v. Needles, 113 U. S. 580, 5 S. Ct. 681, 28 L. ed. 1084; Wabash etc. Ey. v. Illinois, 118 U. S. 569, 7 S. Ct. 4, 30 L. ed. 244. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 336 fairs. 579 The legislature has the same right of general con- trol over corporations that it has over natural persons. 580 While a general law for the organization of corporations is a special act as to each corporation organized under it, 581 yet provisions in acts of incorporation which are of general law and not of contract may be repealed or modified, 582 and in the absence of express charter provision the state may prescribe the future liabilities of its corporations. 583 The legislature may require corporations to make annual reports, 584 or may require a certain proportion of its officers to reside in the state, 585 or may change the mode of assessing corporate property. 586 A corporation which is a mere instrument or agent of the state is subject to legislative control; 587 but the legislature cannot subject a corporation to forfeiture of its franchises for any cause not sufficient when such corporation was organ- ized. 588 A state may revive a corporation and legalize con- 579 Eagle Ins. Co. v. Ohio, 153 IJ. S. 455, 14 S. Ct. 868, 38 L. ed. 778. 580 Benson v. New York, 10 Barb. 223; Galena etc. B. B. Co. v. Loonids, 13 111. 548, 56 Am. Dec. 471; Ohio etc. B. B. v. McClelland, 25 111. 140; Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 70 111. 634; New Albany etc. B. B. v. Tilton, 12 Ind. 3, 74 Aim. Dec. 195; Gorman v. Pacific B. B., 26 Mo. 441, 72 Am. Dec. 220; Burlington etc. B. E. v. State, 32 N. H. 215; State v. Matthews, 3 Jones N. C. 451; Thorpe v. But- land etc. B. E. Co., 27 Vt. 140, 62 Am. Dec. 625. 581 Piqua Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 369, 14 L. ed. 977, 6 Ohio St. 342. 582 People v. Cook, 148 U. S. 408, 13 S. Ct. 645, 37 L. ed. 498. 583 Missouri etc. Ey. v. Mackey, 127 U. S. 208, 8 S. Ct. 1161, 32 L. ed. 107; Orient Ins. Co. v. Daggs, 172 U. S. 566, 19 S. Ct. 564, 43 L. ed. 552; State v. Brown etc. Mfg Co., 18 E. I. 20, 25 Atl. 248, 17 L. E. A. 856. 584 State v. Southern Pacific E. E., 24 Tex. 80. 585 State v. Southern Pacific E. E., 24 Tex. 80. 586 Bank v. Hamilton, 21 111. 33. 587 Louisville v. University, 15 B. Mon. 642; Lincoln Bank v. Eichardson, 1 Me. 79, 10 Am. Dec. 34; Bleakney v. Farmers' Bank, 17 Serg. & B. 64, 17 Am. Dec. 635; Officer v. Young, 5 Yerg. 320, 26 Am. Dec, 268. 588 State v. Tombeckbee Bank, 2 Stew. 30. 337 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 tracts made by it after the forfeiture of its charter, or it may transfer the property of an insolvent corporation to a new one, 589 and may provide for a receiver upon the dissolution of a corporation. 590 The dissolution of a corporation, and the assignment of its property, do not impair the corporate contracts or defeat judg- ment creditors* equitable right to satisfaction out of the cor- porate property. 591 An act which impairs the charter by enlarging the powers of the state over the body corporate, or by abridging the fran- chise, or by altering the charter, is void. 592 An act passed, after the grant of the charter, annexing a cause of forfeiture unknown to the charter, impairs its obligation and is void. 593 The grant of an annual appropriation in a charter, in consid- eration of subscriptions by private individuals, is a valid con- tract and cannot be repealed. 594 If the charter allows a rea- sonable time to comply with the conditions whereby a corpora- tion may obtain an interest in land, the legislature cannot shorten that time or impose any liability if it choose to avail itself of all the time allowed. 595 The right of a corporation to regulate its own charges and 5S9 Mudge v. Commissioners, 10 Eob. (La.) 460. 590 Carey v. Giles, 9 Ga. 253; Searcey v. Stubbs, 12 Ga. 437; Hall v. Carey, 5 Ga. 253; Aurora T. Co. v. Holthouse, 7 Ind. 59; Read v. Frankfort Bank, 23 Me. 318; Savings Institution v. Maken, 23 Me. 360; Leathers v. Shipbuilders' Bank, 40 Me. 386; Nevitt v. Bank, 14 Miss. 513; Suydam v. Receivers, 3 N. J. Eq. 313; Bank of Colum- bia v. Attorney General, 3 Wend. 588. 591 Mumma v. Potomac Co., 8 Pet. 2S6, 8 L. ed. 945; Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 308, 14 L. ed. 705; Bacon v. Robertson, 18 How. 486, 15 L. ed. 499; Chicago etc. K. R. v. Howard. 7 Wall. 410, 19 L. ed. 117; Mellen v. Moline Iron Works, 131 U. S. 366, 9 S. Ct. 785, 33 L. Ed. 17S; Hayden v. Thompson, 71 Fed. 63. 592 Philadelphia etc. R. R. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506; Commercial Bank v. State, 12 Miss. 439. 593 Washington Bridge Co. v. State, 18 Conn. 53; People v. Plank- road Co., 9 Mich. 2S5; Aurora T. Co. v. Holthouse, 7 Ind. 59; State v. Tombeckbee Bank, 2 Stew. 30. 594 Visitors v. State, 15 Md. 330. 595 Nichols v. S. & K. R. R. Co., 43 Me. 356. Notes on Constitution — 22 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 338 tolls may be given by charter in such terms as to constitute a contract which the legislature cannot impair; 596 but a claim of immunity from legislative control of tolls and charges to be exacted is subject to the same principles of construction as a grant of immunity from taxation, and will never be pre- sumed. 597 The power of the state to limit the amount of charges by quasi-public corporations is a governmental power, and cannot be bargained away except by words of positive grant or their equivalent. 598 The simple grant of a right to take tolls does not amount to a contract that the state shall thereafter refrain from regulating the tolls to be taken, 599 nor does a provision that rates to be charged shall never exceed a certain figure amount to a contract by the state with the cor- poration that the legal rate shall never be reduced below that amount. 600 Even where a charter gives the absolute right to regulate charges, the state may empower a commission to see that the corporation keeps within its charter powers and to prevent unjust discrimination. 001 A charter authorizing the directors to "adopt and establish such a tariff of charges as they may 596 Los Angeles v. Los Angeles City Water Co., 177 U. S. 580, 20 S. Ct. 736, 44 L. ed. 886; Santa Ana Water Co. v. Town of San Buenaventura, 65 Fed. 339; Cleveland Gaslight etc. Co. v. Cleve- land, 71 Fed. 610; State v. Laclede Gas Co., 102 Mo. 472, 22 Am. St. Rep. 789, 14 S. W. 974; Philadelphia etc. Ry. Co. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506; Hamilton v. Keith, 68 Ky. 458; Attorney General v. Chicago etc. Ry. Co., 35 Wis. 42-5. 597 Covington etc. Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 578, 17 S. Ct. 193, 41 L. ed. 560. 598 Stone v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 116 U. S. 325, 6 S. Ct. 334, 29 L. ed. 636; Winchester etc. Road Co. v. Croxton, 98 Ky. 744, 34 S. W. '520; State v. Cleveland Gaslight Co., 3 Ohio C. C. 254j Burlington etc. Ry. Co. v. Dey, 82 Iowa, 312, 31 Am. St. Kep. 477, 48 N. W. 98, 12 L. R. A. 436; Blake v. Winona etc. R. R. Co., id Minn. 418, 18 Am. Rep. 345. 599 Chicago etc. Ry. v. Minnes-ota, 134 U. S. 418, 10 S. Ct. 462, 33 L. ed. 970; Minneapolis etc. Ry. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 467, 10 S. Ct. 473, 33 L. ed. 985; Kuggles v. People, 91 111. 256; Blake v. Winona etc. R. R., 19 Minn. 418, 18 Am. Rep. 345. eoo Georgia R. R. ete. Co. v. Smith, 138 U. S. 174. 9 S. Ct. 47, 32 L. ed. 377; Winchester etc. Road Co. v. Croxton, 98 Ky. 739, 34 3. W. 518; Dow v. Beidelman, 49 Ark. 325, 5 S. W. 297. 601 Stone v. Yazoo etc. E. K. Co., 62 Miss. 607, 52 Am. Rep. 193. 339 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 think proper and the same to alter and change at pleasure/' is not an adequate surrender of the state's right of control. 602 Power given to a corporation to charge "such reasonable rates as may be from time to time fixed by such corporation, or pre- scribed by law/*' is not a contract power excluding all regula- tion by the legislature, 603 and a proviso that a corporation "may make such by-laws as may be expedient, not repugnant to the laws of the state/' includes laws thereafter to be passed. 604 Where the charter itself, or the state constitution in force when the charter was granted, reserves to the legisla- ture power to alter or repeal there can be no question of the leg- islative power over rates notwithstanding the other terms of the charter, 605 and the fact that the legislature does not exer- cise this reserved power for twenty years after granting the charter does not impair the power; the powers of government cannot be lost by nonuser. 606 AYhere the charter of a turnpike company authorizes it to collect toll from all persons without exception, a subsequent act exempting certain classes is uncon- stitutional. 607 The legislature cannot contravene any of the positive provi- sions of a corporate charter, 608 nor can it impair rights there- under unless it provides indemnity. 609 Any variation in the grant of a franchise violates a contractual obligation, 610 but mere endowments of existence are not contractual; they are 602 Stone v. Illinois Cent. By. Co., 116 U. S. 347, 6 S. Ct. 348, 29 L. ed. 650. 603 Chicago etc. Ey. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 455, 10 S. Ct. 462, 33 L. ed. 970; Cotting v. Kansas City Stockyard Co., 79 Fed. 682; Well- man v. Chicago etc. By., 83 Mich. 611, 47 N. W. 494. 604 Chicago etc. Ey. Co. v. Jones, 149 111. 361, 41 Am. St. Eep. 278, 37 N. E. 247, 24 L. E. A. 141. 605 Peik v. Chicago etc. Ey., 94 TJ. S. 176, 24 L. ed. 97; Eailroad Commission Cases, 116 U. S. 325, 6 S. Ct. 342, 29 L. ed. 636. 606 Chicago etc. Ey. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 162, 24 L. ed. 94. 607 Hartman v. Be U. S. 575, 7 S. Ct. 693, 1300, 30 L. ed. 1135; Covington etc. Eoad Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 587, 17 S. Ct. 201, 41 L. ed. 560. 698 St. Paul etc. E. E. Co. v. Parcher, 14 Minn. 297; State v. Win- ona etc. E. E. Co., 21 Minn. 315; A. & C. E. E, Co. v. Allen, 15 Fla. 15. 699 Hardy v. Waltham, 24 Mass. 108. 700 Ford v. Delta etc. Land Co., 164 U. S. 66S, 17 S. Ct. 230, 41 i,. ed. 590; State v. Love, 37 N. J. 60. 701 State v. Betts, 24 N. J. 555. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 352 empts the property leased as stores. 702 Exempting the prop- erty of a corporation exempts its franchise. 703 A charter describing the mode in which a tax shall be levied upon the corporation is not such a contract as precludes a change in that mode, provided the change does not make taxa- tion more onerous; 704 but a limitation to a particular mode includes a negative of any other mode. 705 A provision in a charter merely providing that the corporation shall pay an- nually into the treasury a certain tax does not amount to a contract that the state will never impose a different or greater tax. 706 The legislature may prescribe a bonus to be paid in commutation of all taxes on corporate stock and property, 707 and where the charter provides that a certain sum or a certain percentage of the receipts paid annually shall be in lieu of all other taxes, a contract is created which the legislature cannot subsequently impair. 708 702 State v. Leester, 29 N. J. 541. 703 Wilmington B. K. Co. v. Beid, 13 Wall. 264, 20 L. ed. 568 ; Pacific E. E. Co. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 44, 22 L. ed. 282; Porter v. Kockford etc. E. E. Co., 76 111. 574; Hancock v. Singer Mfg. Co., 62 N. J. L. 336, 41 Atl. 850, 42 L. E. A. 852. 70 4 Ohio Life Ins. etc. Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 438, 14 L. ed. 997; Bailey v. Maguire, 22 Wall. 215, 22 L. etl. 850; Moore v. Holliday, 4 Dill. 53, Fed. Cas. No. 9765; State v. Morris, 49 N. J. L. 222, 7 Atl. 840; Louisville etc. E. Co. v. Commonwealth, 73 Ky. 43; State v. Hannibal & St. Joseph E. E. Co., 60 Mo. 143; Morris etc. E. E. Co. v. Commissioners, 38 N. J. L. 472; State v. Petway, 55 N. C. 396. 705 Baleigh etc. B. E. v. Beid, 13 Wall. 269, 20 L. ed. 570. 706 Minot v. Philadelphia etc. E. E. Co., 18 Wall. 231, 21 L. ed. 888; affirming 2 Abb. U. S. 323, Fed. Cas. No. 9645; Union Bank v. State, 9 Yerg. 490. 707 Daughdrill v. Alabama etc. Co., 31 Ala. 91. 708 Gordon v. Appeal Tax Court, 3 How. 147, 11 L. ed. 529; Piqua Branch of State Bank of Ohio v. Knoop, 16 How. 386, 14 L. ed. 977; Dodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 331, 15 L. ed. 401; Mechanics' Bank v. Debolt, 18 How. 380, 15 L. ed. 458; Mechanics' Bank v. Thomas, 13 Bow. 384, 15 L. ed. 460; Jefferson Branch Bank v. Skelly, 1 Black, 446, 17 L. ed. 173; Franklin Bank v. State, 1 Black, 474, 17 L. ed. 180; Farrington v. Tennessee, 95 U. S. 687, 24 L. ed. 558; Wright V. Sill, 2 Black, 544, 17 L. ed. 333; Atlantic etc. Ey. Co. v. Allen, 15 Fla. €37; Franklin County Court v. Deposit Bank, 87 Ky. 370. 9 353 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Where the right to alter the charter is reserved, the exemption may be withdrawn or qualified; 709 but the leg- islative power retained in a charter to dissolve the corpora- tion does not authorize the imposition of a tax upon ex- empt property without granting indemnity. 710 A corpora- tion may yield a part of the exemption and accept other terms in lieu thereof, 711 but if a charter is renewed without a re- newal of the exemption the power to tax is revived. 712 Where it is expressly provided in the charter that the tax is to be levied upon the happening of some future contingency, no tax can be levied prior to that time. 713 Effect and Operation of Exemption. If the charter of a corporation exempts the capital stock from taxation, the exemption extends to additional capital permitted under subsequent acts. 714 If the stock is exempted the state cannot levy a tax upon the property held by the cor- poration, 715 but if the charter makes a distinction between the capital stock and other property, a tax may be laid upon the S. W. 212; Leroy v. East S. C. E. E., 18 Mich. 233, 100 Am. Dec. 162; O 'Donnelly v. Bailey, 24 Miss. 386; Matheny v. Golden, 5 Ohio St. 361; Mayor v. Baltimore etc. E. E., 6 Gill, 288, 48 Am. Dec. 531; North Missouri E. E. v. Maguire, 49 Mo. 499, 8 Am. Eep. 145. But see State v. Bank of Smyrna, 2 Houst. 99, 73 Am. Dec. 699. 709 Tomlinson v. Jessup, 15 Wall. 459, 21 L. ed. 204; Louisville Water Co. v. Clark, 143 U. S. 1, 12 S. Ct. 346, 36 L. ed. 55, affirm- ing 90 Ky. 515, 14 S. W. 502; Spring Valley Co. v. Bartlett, 8 Saw. 589, 16 Fed. 642; Hewitt v. New York etc. E. E., 12 Blatchf. 467, Fed Cas. No. 6443; Union Imp. Co. v. Commonwealth, 69 Pa. St. 140; Commonwealth v. Fayette CounVy E. E., 55 Pa. St. 542; Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 340; Mayor v. Eailroad Co., 113 N. Y. 318, 21 N. E. 62. 710 Santa Anna's Asylum v. City of New Orleans, 105 U. S. 362, 26 L. ed. 1128. 7ii State v. Commissioners, 37 N. J. 240. 712 State v. Bank of Smyrna, 2 Houst. 99, 73 Am. Dec. 699. 713 Ealeigh etc. E. E, Co. v. Eeid, 13 Wall. 269, 20 L. ed. 570; Barnes v. Hornegay, 62 Fed. 671; McGavisk v. State, 34 N. J. 509. 714 State v. New Haven etc. E. E., 30 Conn. 290. 715 New Haven v. City Bank, 31 Conn. 106; Ordinary v. Central E. E, Co., 40 Ga. 646; Tax Cases, 12 Gill & J. 117. Notes on Constitution — 23 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 354 property although the stock is exempt. 716 The immunity of a corporation from taxation does not exonerate dividends paid to stockholders. 717 Accordingly a provision merely exempt- ing the corporate franchise will not exempt the stockholders, 718 but a stipulation not to impose any further tax upon a corpora- tion whatever precludes any taxation of the stockholders on account of their stock, 719 and charter exemption of stock ex- empts a corporation's income. 720 So also if shares are ex- empted an act imposing a tax upon franchise or property is in- valid, 721 and a contract not to tax a railroad or its property is impaired by the levy of a tax upon its gross receipts for the transportation of freight and passengers. 722 The exemption of a railroad from taxation does not exempt the lessee of the road from taxation on profits and earnings. 723 The effect of the consolidation of corporations is to terminate the existence of those corporations, and to form a new corpora- tion, 724 governed by a law existing at the time of consolidation which prohibits exemptions. 725 An exemption from taxation is merely a personal privilege, and even where one corporation is authorized to retain the exemption upon consolidation, it will not be construed to apply to property belonging to the 716 St. Louis etc. R. R. v. Loftin, 30 Ark. 693. 717 State v. Petway, 2 Jones Eq. 396. 7is Gordon v. Appeal Tax Court, 3 How. 133, 11 L. ed. 529. 719 Gordon v. Appeal Tax Court, 3 How. 150, 11 L. ed. 529; Stat3 v. Branin, 23 N. J. L. 493; State v. Bentley, 23 N. J. L. 540; State v. Powers, 24 N. J. 400. 7 20 State v. Hood, 15 Rich. 187. 721 Mayor v. Baltimore etc. R. R. Co., 6' Gill, 288, 48 Am. Dec. 531; Nichols v. New Haven etc. R. R. Co., 42 Conn. 103; Hannibal etc. R. R. Co. v. Chacklett, 30 Mo. 550; State v. Hannibal etc. R. R. Co., 37 Mo. 265. 722 Pacific R. R. Co. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 36, 22 L. ed. 282. 723 State v. Delaware etc. R. R. Co., 30 N. J. 473, 31 N. J. 531. 724 Keokuk etc. R. R. Co. v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 305, 14 S. Ct. 593, 38 L. ed. 450; affirming 99 Mo. 36, 12 S. W. 291; Cheraw etc. Ry. Co. v. Commissioners, 88 N. C. 525. 725 Chicago etc. R. R. v. Guffey, 122 U. S. 575, 30 L. ed. 113.T; Covington etc. Road Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 587, 17 S. Ct. 20], 41 L. ed. 560. 355 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 other, 726 and upon the same principle, where a railroad's prop- erty is exempt for a limited time only the limitation follows the property into the consolidation with another company whose property is perpetually exempt. 727 Express statutory direction is necessary to pass property to a purchaser free from taxation, 728 and in the absence of such direction taxation of property in the hands of the purchaser impairs no contract ob- 1 ligation. 729 Authority to sell with all the "powers, rights and privileges" attaching to the property does not carry an exemp- tion from taxation. 730 If the stock of a corporation is exempt, no tax can be levied on a branch road constructed under author- ity of an amended charter. 731 Banking Corporations. A charter granted to a bank constitutes a contract which the state cannot impair, 732 and a provision in a charter cannot be abrogated by subsequent legislation. 733 Accordingly a provi- sion that a bank's bills shall be receivable for taxes or other debts due the state is an obligation protected by this clause, 734 726 Philadelphia etc. B. E. v. State of Maryland, 10 Haw. 376, 13 L. ed. 461; Tomlinson v. Branch, 15 Wall. 460, 21 L. ed. 189; Dela- ware E. E. Tax, 18 Wall. 206, 21 L. ed. 888; Evansville etc. E. E. Co. v. Commonwealth, 9 Bush, 438. 727 Tomlinson v. Branch, 15 Wall. 466, 21 L. ed. 1S9; Central Ey. Co. v. Georgia, 92 TJ. S. 676, 23 L. ed. 757; Eailroad Co. v. Alsbrook, 110 N. C. 165, 14 S. E. 659. 728 Morgan v. Louisiana, 93 U. S. 221, 26 L. ed. 860; Eailroad Co. v. Gaines, 97 U. S. 711, 24 L. ed. 1091. 729 Armstrong v. Treasurer of Athens County, 16 Pet. 290, 10 L. ed. 915; Lord v. Litchfield, 36 Conn. 129, 4 Am. Eep. 47; Miami County v. Brackenridge, 12 Kan. 122. 730 Pickard v. Tennessee etc. E. E., 130 TJ. S. 642, 9 S. Ct. 640, 32 L. ed. 1051; Phoenix Fire Ins. Co. v. Tennessee, 161 TJ. S. 177, 16 S. Ct. 471, 40 L. ed. 660. But see Humphreys v. Pegues, 16 Wall. 244, 21 L. ed. 326. 731 Atlantic etc. E. E. v. Allen, 15 Fla. 637. 732 Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 206, 13 L. ed. 383; Paup v. Drew, 10 How. 222, 13 L. ed. 394; Furman v. Nichol, 8 Wall. 63, 19 L. ed. 370; Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 319, 12 L. ed. 447. 733 Furman v. Nichol, 8 Wall. 63 19 L. ed. 370; Barings v. Dabney, 19 Wall. 11, 22 L. ed. 90. 734 Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 206, 13 L. ed. 383; Furman Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 356 and the repeal of such a provision, otherwise valid, cannot af- fect notes in circulation at the time of the repeal. 735 Even where the state has reserved the power to alter or repeal the charter, such a provision as the one referred to can be repealed only by clear and unobscure language; no such intent can be gathered from an obscure provision. 736 Special charter author- ity derived from the legislature is not affected by general leg- islation upon the same subject. 737 Where a statute provides that such bills are payable in gold and silver coin, a law pro- viding that depreciated notes shall not be received is unobjec- tionable. 738 A charter provision or a statute requiring a bank to receive its own notes in payment of debts due it con- stitutes a contract, as to the bank's debtors, which cannot be impaired. 739 The general right to regulate the issue of bank notes will not be held to have been relinquished unless the intention is clearly expressed, 740 and a statute prohibiting a bank from transferring notes by indorsement is valid unless the power to do so is expressly conferred in the charter. 741 So also the legislature may make interest coupons from bonds issued for the benefit of a bank receivable in payment of debts due the bank in the absence of any charter obligation to pay in v. Nichol, 8 Wall. 63, 19 L. ed. 370; Keith v. Clark, 97 TJ. S. 451, 24 L. ed. 1071. 735 Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 236, 13 L. ed. 383; Paup v. Drew, 10 How. 222, 13 L. ed. 394; Trigg v. Drew, 10 How. 224, 1» L. ed. 397. 736 State v. Stoll, 17 Wall. 436, 21 L. ed. 650. 737 Gilchrist v. Helena etc. B. E., 47 Fed. 595; Gowen v. Harley, 56 Fed. 979; Huron v. Second etc. Bank, 86 Fed. 281, 49 L. E. A. 534; New York etc. E. E. v. Bridgeport Traction Co., 65 Conn. 429, 32 Atl. 956, 29 L. E. A. 367; Dewey v. Central Car etc. Co., 42 Mich. 402, 4 N. W. 181. 738 Gainesville etc. Mfg. Co. v. Eoper, 15 Eich. 138. 739 Knox v. Exchange Bank, 12 Wall. 382, 20 L. ed. 414; Dundas v. Bowler, 3 McLean, 397, Fed. Cas. No. 4141. 740 Ohio Trust Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 435, 14 L. ed. 997; 1 Ohio St. 563; State v. Matthews, 3 Jones (N. O), 451. 741 Payne v. Baldwin, 11 Miss. 661; Mclntyre v. Ingraham, 35 Miss. 25. 357 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 specie, 742 or may require the bank to receive its own notes at their par value in payment of such debts. 743 A statute re- quiring sheriffs levying execution in favor of banks to accept the bank's notes in satisfaction is likewise unobjectionable. 744 But a statute which permits bank notes to be tendered for a debt due a bank, but assigned before the passage of the statute, is unconstitutional, 745 and where bank notes are made payable at a certain place, a statute requiring the bank to receive them in payment of notes of other banks impairs the obligation of a contract and is void. 746 A statute may provide that a bank shall redeem several bills presented together as one obliga- tion, 747 or may impose a penalty for refusal to pay bank bills unless a clause in the charter precludes the passage of such a law. 748 But a law declaring the notes of a state bank void is unconstitutional. 749 A banking corporation the stock of which is owned by pri- vate individuals is a private corporation, 750 but a state cannot incorporate associations of individuals and authorize them to coin money. 751 If a state creates a bank of which it is the sole stockholder, it cannot withdraw the fund or any part without impairing the contracts of the bank's creditors, 752 and a statute which withdraws the assets of a bank from the operation of all legal process is upon the same footing and is 742 Thurston v. Peay, 21 Ark. 85. 743 Bank of Maryland v. Ruff, 7 Gill & J. 448; Williams v. Plant- ers' Bank, 12 Rob. 125; Exchange Bank v. Teddy, 67 N. C. 169; Bank v. Hart, 67 N. C. 264. 744 Bank of Gallipolis v. Donnigan, 12 Ohio, 224, 40 Am. Dee. 475. 745 Dundas v. Bowler, 3 McLean, 397, Fed. Cas. No. 4141. 746 Bank v. Bank of Cape Fear, 13 Ired. 75. 747 Reapers' Bank v. Willard, 24 111. 433, 76 Am. Dec. 765. 748 Brown v. Penobscot Bank, 8 Mass. 445. 749 Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 451, 24 L. ed. 1071; Virginia Coupon Cases, 114 U. S. 291, 5 S. Ct. 219, 29 L. ed. 185. 750 Piqua Branch Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 369, 14 L. ed. 977; Miners' Bank v. United States, 1 Iowa, 553; Hazen v. Union Bank, 1 Sneed, 115. 751 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 257, 9 L. ed. 709, 7 J. J. Marsh. 349. 752 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 320, 14 L. ed. 705; Dabney v. Bank, 3 S. C. 158; State and Watson v. Bank, 5 Baxt. 65. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 358 void. 753 A statute appropriating the assets Of a bank operates as an assignment, and cannot be repealed by a subsequent act. 754 A general statute making the suspension of specie payment by a bank ground for forfeiture of its charter is void, where no such power is reserved in the charter. 755 A statute providing that in the event of a bank's insolvency the directors shall be primarily liable to the full amount of the indebtedness, thus repealing a law which rendered them only secondarily liable, is not subject to the objection that it impairs contract obligations. 756 A charter provision which is merely remedial — e. g., allowing the bank a summary process by execution in the nature of attachment against certain cred- itors — is not a part of the contract contained in the charter. 757 So also an act providing for the appointment of a receiver to take charge of the affairs of a bank and conduct its suits is valid, 758 as is an act requiring mortgages held by a bank to be stamped, 759 or an act providing for the filing of an infor- mation against a bank for the violation of its charter. 760 A statute allowing a judge and commissioner to reduce the ac- count in a savings bank affects only the remedy, and is valid. 761 The legislature may assess the stockholders of a bank which has gone into liquidation, without impairing any contract ob- ligation. 762 Bridges and Ferries. A charter granted to a bridge or ferry corporation is a con- tract; 763 but if no consideration has been paid the grantee 753 State v. Bank, 1 Kich., N. S., 63. 754 Barings v. Dabney, 19 Wall. 11, 22 L. ed. 90. 755 State v. Toinbecbee Bank, 2 Stew. 30. 756 Falconer v. Campbell, 2 McLean, 195, Fed. Cas. No. 4620. 757 Bank of Columbia v. Okely, 4 Wheat. 245, 4 L. ed. 559. 758 Carey v. Giles, 9 Ga. 258. 759 Ex parte Burton, 3 Gill, 9. 760 Commercial Bank v. Kodney, 4 Smedes & M. 495. 761 Simpson v. Savings Bank, 56 N. H. 466. 762 Simpson v. Savings Bank, 56 N". H. 466. 763 Proprietors v. Hoboken Co., 1 Wall. 116, 17 L. ed. 571; la re Binghamton Bridge, 3 Wall. 51, 18 L. ed. 137; Mills v. St. Clair 359 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 takes a franchise subject to the legislative power to regulate rates of ferriage. 764 A statute cannot require a canal corpora- tion to keep in repair the bridges connecting the highways in- tersected by its canal. 765 A statute giving a right of action to those who have been injured by the erection of a close bridge over a navigable creek, when such bridge was authorized by charter, impairs the obligation of the charter and is void. 766 If the charter of a bridge company or a turnpike company prescribes the form of signs and boards with rates of toll, it will prevail over a general statute subsequently passed. 767 Whether a state can deprive itself of the right to regulate tolls has been questioned; 768 but where a charter fixes the maxi- mum rate to be charged there is no contract which precludes a reduction by the state. 769 The immunity from legislative control must be granted in clear and unmistakable terms, and can never be presumed. 770 Where the right to alter or repeal the charter is reserved to the legislature, there can be no ob- jection to state regulation of rates. 771 A new ferry or bridge materially diverting travel or busi- ness from an old one established under a prior charter is not unconstitutional unless the franchise under such charter is ex- pressly made exclusive. 772 Accordingly the licensing of a toll Co., 8 How. 581, 12 L. ed. 1201; Koberts v. Washbourne, 10 Minu. 33; Enfield Toll Bridge Co. v. Hartford etc. E. E. Co., 17 Conn. 40, 42 Am. Dec. 716. 764 People v. Mayor, 32 Barb. 102; State v. Hudson, 23 N. J. 206, 24 N. J. 718. 765 City v. Erie Canal Co., 59 Pa. St. 114. See, also, Meadville v. Erie Canal Co., 18 Pa. St. 66. 766 Bailey v. Eailroad Co., 4 Harr. 389, 44 Am. Dec. 593. 767 Nichols v. Bertram, 20 Mass. 342. 768 People v. City of New York, 32 Barb. 102., 769 Commonwealth v. Covington etc. Bridge Co., 14 Ky. Law Eep. 836, 21 S. W. 1042. 770 Covington etc. Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 578, 17 S. Ct. 193, 41 L. ed. 560. 7"t Parker v. Metropolitan E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 506; People v. City of New York, 32 Barb. 102. 772 Charles Eiver Bridge Co. v. Warren Bridge, 11 Pet. 544, 551, 59 L. ed. 773; In re Hamilton Av., 14 Barb. 405; Oswego Bridge Co. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 360 bridge does not impliedly prohibit a free bridge in the same locality, 773 or the subsequent licensing of another toll bridge, 774 or of a ferry. 775 So also a franchise to operate a ferry in the neighborhood of a prior ferry does not impair any obligation in the ferry franchise, 776 and the licensing of one ferry cannot pre- clude the licensing of a second parallel ferry. 777 A ferry franchise granted to a municipality may be altered or revoked altogether. 778 A franchise may, however, be, in terms, exclusive, and when this is so a contract exists which the legislature cannot im- pair. 779 As against such a charter or franchise another ferry, v. Fish, 1 Barb. Ch. 547; Fitch v. Railroad Co., 30 Conn. 38; Harri- son v. Young, 9 Ga. 151; Illinois etc. Canal Co. v. Railroad Co., 14 111. 314; Curtis v. Morehouse, 12 La. Ann. 649; Bush v. Peru Bridge Co., 3 Ind. 21; Collins v. Sherman, 31 Miss. 679; Mohawk Bridge Co. v. Railroad Co., 6 Paige, 544; Fort Plain Bridge Co. v. Smitn, 30 N. Y. 44; Thompson v. Railroad Co., 3 Sand. Ch. 625. 773 Victoria Co. v. Bridge Co., 68 Tex. 67, 4 S. W. 141; Fall v. Sutter County, 21 Cal. 252; Fort Plain Bridge Co. v. Smith, 30 N. Y. 61; Turnpike Co. v. Montgomery County, 100 Tenn. 422, 45 S. W. 346. 774 Janesville Bridge Co. v. Stoughton, 1 Pinn. 672; Shorter v. Smith, 9 Ga. 524. 775 Carrow v. Washington Toll Bridge, Phill. (N. C.) 119. See, also, Bridge Co. v. Spaulding, 63 N. H. 299. 776 East Hartford v. Hartford Bridge Co., 10 How. 533, 13 L. ed. 518; Kansas etc. Ry. v. Payne, 49 Fed. 119; Bush v. Peru Bridge Co., 3 Ind. 22; Harrison v. Young, 9 Ga. 364; Piott v. Covington etc. Bridge, 8 Bush (Ky.), 37; Collins v. Sherman, 31 Miss. 700. 777 Mills v. St. Clair County, 8 How. 581, 12 L. ed. 1201; Bar- rington v. Neuse etc. Ferry, 69 N. C. 172; Gibbes v. Town Council of Beaufort, 21 S. C. 217; Knott v. Jefferson etc. Ferry, 9 Or. 535; Min- turn v. Larue, 1 McCall, 376, Fed. Cas. No. 9646. 778 East Hartford v. Hartford Bridge Co., 10 How. 533, 13 L. ed. 518. 779 Bridge Proprietors v. Hoboken County, 1 Wall. 116, 17 L. ed. 571; Conway v. Taylor, 1 Black, 603, 17 L. ed. 191; McRee v. Wil- mington etc. Co., 2 Jones (N. C), 186; Enfield etc. Bridge v. Hart- ford etc. Co., 17 Conn. 40, 42 Am. Dec. 716; Hartford B. Co. v. Union F. Co., 29 Conn. 210; Commonwealth v. New Bedford Br., 68 Mass. 339; Moha-wk Bridge Co. v. Utica etc. Co., 6 Paige, 564; Thompson v. New York etc. Co., 3 Sand. Ch. 625; Trustees of Newport 361 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 whether free or for hire, is prohibited, 780 as also is a toll bridge within the limits of the exclusive ferry grant. 781 But the prohibition in toll bridge franchises has been construed not to prevent the erection of railroad bridges within the pre- scribed limits. 782 A ferry license granted early in Virginia was declared to have conferred no exclusive rights precluding competition. 783 The construction of a railroad bridge is not a violation of the exclusive right to construct a bridge for carriages in common use. 784 Turnpike and Canal Companies. The charters of canal and turnpike companies, like other charters, are contracts within the meaning of the obligation clause. 785 The legislature cannot require a canal corporation to keep in repair the bridges connecting the highways inter- sected by its canal where no such requirement is made in the charter. 786 A statute conferring the right to collect tolls is a grant protected by the constitution, 787 and where the charter of a turnpike company authorizes it to collect tolls from all v. Taylor, 6 J. J. Marsh, 134; Commonwealth v. Bacon, 13 Bush, 212, 26 Am. Kep. 189; Murray v. Menefee, 20 Ark. 566; Mills v. County of St. Clair, 2 Gilm. 228; Davis v. Police Jury, 1 La. Ann. 296; Costor v. Brush, 25 Wend. 631. 780 Aiken v. Western B. E., 20 N. T. 380. 781 Mason v. Harper's Ferry Bridge Co., 17 W. Va. 42. 782 Lake v. Virginia etc. R. B., 7 Nev. 299; McLeod v. Savannah etc. B. B., 25 Ga. 457; Proprietors v. Hoboken Land Co., 13 N. J. Eq. 526; Thompson v. New York etc. B. B., 3 Sand. Ch. 657. 783 Belmont Bridge v. Wheeling Bridge, 138 U. S. 293, 11 S. C*. 303, 34 L. ed. 967. 784 Bridge Proprietors v. Hoboken etc. Co., 1 Wall. 116, 17 L. ed. 571; McLeod v. Savannah etc. B. B. Co., 25 Ga. 445; Mohawk Bridge Co. v. Eailroad Co., 6 Baige, 554; Thompson v. Bailroad Co., 3 Sand. Ch. 625. 7S5 Chesapeake & Ohio Canal Co. v. Baltimore etc. B. E. Co., 4 Gill & J. 1; City of Erie v. Erie Canal Co., 59 Pa. St. 174; Hartman v. Bechtel, 1 Woodw. Dec. 32; Philadelphia etc. Co. v. Gortland, 6 Phila. 128; Pingry v. Washburn, 1 Aik. 264, 15 Am. Dec. 676. 786 City of Erie v. Erie Canal Co., 59 Pa. St. 174. And see Mead- ville v. Erie Canal Co., 18 Pa. St. 66. 787 Derby Turnpike Co. v. Parks, 10 Conn. 522, 27 Am. Dec. 700. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 362 persons without exception, a subsequent act exempting certain classes of persons is void. 788 So also is a statute authorizing commissioners to examine turnpike roads and throw open gates if the roads are not found in repair; 789 but it is within the power of the legislature to appoint commissioners with power to direct repairs. 790 The legislature cannot require a turnpike company to set back its gates located in accordance with the terms of its charter. 791 There is no implied contract of an exclusive grant to a turnpike company, or that it shall be free from the exercise of the governmental right of eminent do- main. 792 There can be no implication of exclusive rights in favor of turnpike companies as against other turnpikes or railroads, 793 or as against individuals, 794 or in favor of a canal company as against a railroad subsequently chartered. 795 So the licens- ing of a new road or canal materially diverting travel or busi- ness from an old one established under a prior charter is not unconstitutional unless the franchise is denned or made exclu- sive, 796 and this is true notwithstanding the competition thus 788 Hartman v. Bechtel, 1 Woodw. Dec. 32; Philadelphia etc. Co. v. Gortland, 6 Phila. 128; Pingry v. Washburn, 1 Aik. 204, 15 Am. Dec. 676. 789 Powel v. Sanrmons, 31 Ala. 552. 790 State v. Bosworth, 13 Vt. 402. 791 White's Creek Turnpike Co. v. Davidson Co., 3 Tenn. Ch. 396. 792 White Kiver Turnpike Co. v. Vermont etc. R. R. Co., 21 Vt. 590. 793 Douglass County Road Co. v. C. & G. R. Co., 8 Or. 108; Canyon- ville etc. Road Co. v. Stephenson, 8 Or. 267; Turnpike Co. v. Mont- gomery County, 100 Tenn. 422, 45 S. W. 346; Turnpike Co. v. David- eon, 91 Tenn. 294, 18 S. W. 627; Salem etc. Co. v. Lynne, 18 Conn. 457; White River Turnpike Co. v. Vermont etc. R. R., 21 Vt. 595. 794 Indian etc. Road v. Robinson, 13 Cal. 519; Bartram v. Central Turnpike Co., 35 Cal. 287; Crawfordsville etc. Co. v. Smith, 89 Ind. 295; Auburn etc. Plank Road v. Douglass, 9 N. Y. 452. 795 Illinois etc. Canal v. Chicago etc. R. R., 14 111. 314; Tuckahoe Canal Co. v. Railroad Co., 11 Leigh, 73, 36 Am. Dec. 378. 796 Turnpike Co. v. Maryland, 3 Wall. 210, 18 L. ed. 180; Salem Turnpike Co. v. Town of Lynne, 18 Conn. 451; Washington etc. Turn- pike Co. v. Baltimore etc. R. R., 10 Gill & J. 392; Illinois etc. Canal v. Chicago etc. R. R., 14 111. 314; Tuckahoe Canal Co. v. Tuckahoe etc. R. R. Co., 11 Leigh, 42, 36 Am. Dec. 374. 363 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 introduced totally destroys the value of the first license. 797 The legislature cannot, however, authorize the construction of a road the sole purpose of which is to evade turnpike tolls. 798 A claim of immunity from legislative control of tolls to be exacted by a corporation authorized to construct a road is subject to the same rule of strict interpretation as a grant of immunity from taxation, 799 and an exemption from the exercise of the state's right in this regard will never be implied from anything short of an explicit unequivocal provision. 800 A right to levy tolls at all must be expressly granted and will never be implied. 801 It has been held that a turnpike fran- chise does not, by implication, prohibit an adjoining owner from moving his roadside fence back upon his premises, where his purpose is to gain better access to his outbuildings, 802 and that the privilege of erecting a toll-gate within two miles of a town means two miles and no nearer. 803 A canal company with a charter right to collect tolls in certain cases, which are enumerated, is impliedly prohibited from exacting tolls in others. 804 Railroad Corporations. A charter granted to a railroad corporation is a contract, 805 and a franchise granted to one railroad cannot be revoked or 797 Hyde's Ferry Turnpike Co. v. Davidson County, 91 Tenn. 291, 18 S. W. 626. 798 Hyde's Ferry Turnpike Co. v. Davidson County, 91 Tenn. 291, 18 S. W. 626. 799 Covington Turnpike Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 578, 17 S. Ct. 198, 41 L. ed. 560. soo Buggies v. Illinois, 108 IT. S. 531, 2 S. Ot. 836, 27 L. ed. 812; Stone v. Farmers' Loan etc. Co., 116 U. S. 326, 6 S. Ct. 342, 29 L. ed. 636; Pennsylvania E. E. Co. v. Miller, 132 IT. S. 84, 10 S. Ct. 37, 33 L. ed. 267, affirming 129 Pa. St. 200; Wells-Fargo v. Oregon Ey., 8 Saw. 616. 15 Fed. 573; Atlantic & Pacific Ey. v. United States, 76 Fed. 192. 801 Camden etc. E. E. v. Briggs, 22 N. J. L. 647. 802 Auburn etc. Plank Eoad v. Douglass, 9 N. Y. 452. 803 State v. Clarksville etc. E. E., 2 Sneed, 92. 804 Perrine v. Chesapeake etc. Canal Co., 9 How. 192, 13 L. ed. 92; Sturgeon etc. Canal Co. v. Leatham, 164 111. 243, 45 N. E. 424. 805 Wilmington E. E. v. Eeid, 13 Wall. 266, 20 L. ed. 568; Pacific K. E. Co. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 43, 22 L. ed. 282; Chicago etc. E. E. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 364 granted to another. 806 A franchise to operate a street rail- road, if valid when granted, cannot be impaired either by legis- lative act or judicial decision. 807 Any act, no matter what its nature, which essentially impairs the franchise is void. 808 An ordinance which merely amounts to a proposition to grant a franchise, in consideration of the construction and operation of a street railroad, when accepted by performance, becomes a contract unimpairable by the state. 809 Upon the consolidation of two or more railroad corporations, the franchise granted to the consolidated corporation is sub- ject to the laws in force at the time of the consolidation; 810 the consolidation works their individual dissolution. 811 The rule that grants of exclusive franchises are never to be presumed applies as strongly to railroads as to other corpora- tions, and a charter conferring the right to construct a rail- road between certain points, contains no implied prohibition against a similar franchise to a competing road, 812 and even v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 161, 24 L. ed. 94; New York etc. E. K. v. Pennsyl- vania, 153 U. S. 655, 14 S. Ct. 952, 38 L. eel. 816; Pearsall v. Great Northern By., 161 U. S. 661, 16 S. Ct. 705, 40 L. ed. 838; Houston etc. Ey. v. Texas, 170 U. S. 261, 18 S. Ct. 610, 42 L. ed. 1023. 806 New Orleans etc. E. E. v. Delamore, 114 U. S. 510, 29 L. ed. 244. 807 Chicago v. Sheldon, 9 Wall. 55, 19 L. ed. 594. 808 Sloan v. Missouri Pacific E. E., 61 Mo. 24, 21 Am. Eep. 397; Philadelphia etc. E. E. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506. 809 City Ey. v. Citizens' E. E., 166 U. S. 567, 17 S. Ct. 653, 11 L. ed. 1114. 8io Eailroad Co. v. Maine, 96 U. S. 510, 24 L. ed. 836; Pullman Car Co. v. Missouri etc. E. E. Co., 115 U. S. 594, 6 S. Ct. 197, 29 L. ed. 499; Market St. E. E. Co. v. Hellman, 109 Cal. 5S7, 42 Pac. 230; State v. Keokuk etc. E. E. Co., 99 Mo. 41, 12 S. W. 292, 6 L. E. A. 222. sii Shields v. Ohio, 95 U. S. 323, 24 L. ed. 357; Chesapeake etc. Ey. v. Miller, 114 U. S. 188, 5 S. Ct. 819, 29 L. ed. 121; Wabash etc. E. E. Co. v. Ham, 114 XT. S. 595, 5 S. Ct. 1085, 29 L. ed. 235; Keokuk etc. E. E. Co. v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 310, 14 S. Ct. 595, 38 L. ed. 450; Smith v. Lake Shore etc. Ey. Co., 114 Mich. 462, 72 N. W. 331; Montclair v. New York etc. Ey., 45 N. J. Eq. 442, 18 Atl. 244; Miner v. New York etc. E. E., 123 N. Y. 251, 25 N. E. 341. 812 Eichmond etc. E. E. v. Louisiana etc. E. E., 13 How. 71, 14 L. ed. 55; State v. Noyes, 47 Me. 189; Baltimore etc. B, E. v. State, 365 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 when the right granted is expressly made exclusive between certain terminal points, it is not so between intermediate points. 813 An express company's charter does not contain any contract that the state will not permit a railroad company to compete with it. 814 There is no implied contract in a rail- road charter that the state will never place any restrictions upon its assumed power to consolidate; 815 or to lease property or lines; 816 or to join with other roads in constructing a through line. 817 A state may regulate the rates to be charged by a railroad for the transportation of freight and passengers, unless re- strained by some positive provision in the charter; 818 and its power in this regard is not affected by the fact that the cor- poration's income has been pledged to meet obligations in- curred on the faith of the charter. 819 Eailroads, being high- ways of commerce, are not for all purposes private property — possessing a public character they are subject to public super- vision, 820 and an exemption from the exercise of this power 45 Md. 596; Boston etc. Corp. v. Boston & Maine E. B., 5 Cush. 275; Connecting By. Co. v. Union By. Co., 108 111. 272; Collins v. Sherman, 31 Miss. 700. 813 Delaware etc. Co. v. Earitan etc. Co., 16 N. J. Eq. 336, 18 N. J. Eq. 569. 814 Camblas v. Bhiladelphia etc. E. B., 4 Fed. Cas. 1102. 815 East etc. By. v. Bushing, 69 Tex. 314, 6 S. W. 387. 816 Bardin v. Northern Pacific E. E., 154 U. S. 325, 14 S. Ct. 1037, 38 L. ed. 992, reversing 46 Fed. 611. 817 Pennsylvania E. E. v. National E. E., 23 N. J. Eq. 455. 818 Chicago etc. B. E. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 155, 24 L. ed. 94; Winona etc. E. E. Co. v. Blake, 94 U. S. 180, 24 L. ed. 99, affirming 19 Minn. 418, 18 Am. Eep. 345; Buggies v. Illinois, 108 U. S. 526, 2 S. Ct. 832, 27 L. ed. 812; Burlington etc. By. Co. v. Dey, 82 Iowa, 312, 48 N. W. 98, 31 Am. St. Eep. 477, 12 L. E. A. 436; American Coal Co. v. Con- solidated Coal Co., 46 Md. 15; Owen v. St. Louis etc. E. E., 83 Mo. 454; Attorney General v. Chicago etc. Ey. Co., 35 Wis. 425. 819 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 155, 24 L. ed. 94. 820 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 155, 24 L. ed. 94; Dow v. Beidelman, 125 U. S. 686, 8 S. Ct. 1028, 31 L. ed. 680; Chicago etc. B. E. v. Jones, 149 111. 377, 41 Am. St. Eep. 2S5, 37 N. E. 251, 24 L. E. A. 141; Wellman v. Bailway Co., 83 Mich. 611, 47 N. W. 494: Pingree v. Michigan etc. B. E. Co., 118 Mich. 323, 76 N. W. 638, Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 3GG will never be presumed. 821 So a statute authorizing a railroad company's directors "to adopt and establish such a tariff of charges for the transportation of persons and property as they may think proper, and the same to alter and change at pleas- ure," has been held not to constitute an adequate surrender of the legislative power to regulate. 822 A railroad charter giving an exclusive right to carry persons and property, "provided that the charge of transportation or conveyance shall not ex- ceed" specified rates, does not preclude the establishment of other and lower rates by the state, 823 nor does a charter giving a railroad corporation power to fix its own rates, providing they shall not be unreasonable, surrender the power of the state to regulate. 824 A charter provision authorizing the directors to make such by-laws as may be expedient, not repugnant to the laws of the state, contemplates subsequent as well as prior laws, and therefore does not preclude the passage of an act establishing rates. 825 It is competent for the state to empower a corporation ab- solutely to fix its own rates, and where this is done expressly, any attempt to change the rates by the state impairs a contract obligation. 826 But notwithstanding such power is given to a 53 L. R. A. 274; Atlantic Express Co. v. Railroad Co., Ill N. C. 472, 32 Am. St. Rep. 806, 16 S. E. 393, 18 L. R. A. 393; Pittsburg etc. R. R. v. Southwestern Pennsylvania R. R. Co., 77 Pa. St. 173. 821 Ruggles v. Illinois, 108 U. S. 531, 2 S. Ct. 836, 27 L. ed. 812; Stone v. Farmers' Loan etc. Co., 116 U. S. 326, 6 S. Ct. 342, 29 L. ed. 636; Wells-Fargo v. Oregon Ry., 8 Saw. 616, 15 Fed. 573; Penn- sylvania R, R. v. Miller, 132 II. S. 84, 10 S. Ct. 37, 33 L. ed. 267. 822 Stone v. Illinois Cent. R. R. Co., 116 U. S. 347, 6 S. Ct. 348, 29 L. ed. 636. And see Stone v. New Orleans etc. R. R. Co., 116 U. S. 352, 6 S. Ct. 349, 29 L. ed. 651. 823 Georgia R. R. etc. Co. v. Smith, 128 U. S. 174, 9 S. Ct. 47, 32 L. ed. 377; Dow v. Beidelman, 49 Ark. 325, 5 S. W. 297. 824 Chicago etc. Ry. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 418, 10 S. Ct. 462, 33 L. ed. 970. 825 Chicago etc. R. R. Co. v. Jones, 149 111. 361, 41 Am. St. Rep. 278, 37 N. E. 247, 24 L. R. A. 141. 826 Ex parte Koehler, 23 Fed. 529; Philadelphia etc. Ry. Co. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506; Hamilton v. Keith, 5 Bush (Ky.), 458; At- torney General v. Chicago etc. Ry. Co., 35 Wis. 425; Sloan v. Mis- souri etc. R. R. Co., 61 Mo. 24, 21 Am. Rep. 397. 367 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CL 1 railway company by charter, the state may create a commission to prevent unjust discriminations, 827 and may impose a penalty for taking unlawful toll or freight. 828 The reservation of power to amend or repeal corporate charters gives the legisla- ture power to alter rates at pleasure without contravening the obligation clause, 829 and the fact that the state does not exer- cise this reserved power for years after a charter is granted does not affect the power; a governmental power cannot be lost by nonuser. 830 Railroad corporations are always amenable to the state's police power, notwithstanding any charter provisions to the contrary. 831 Under this power the legislature may provide for the appointment of commissioners to determine the duties and obligation of railroad companies, 832 or may forbid the con- struction of a track where it will endanger safe and convenient access to a depot, 833 or may require railroads to build depots at certain places and stop thereat. 834 Such regulations are reasonable and clearly within the police power. 835 If a com- 827 Chicago etc. E. E. v. People, 67 111. 11; Vincent v. Chicago etc. E. E. Co., 49 111. 33; Chicago etc. E. E. v. People, 56 111. 365, S Am. Eep. 690; Stone v. Yazoo etc. E. E. Co., 62 Miss. 607, 52 Am. Eep. 193. 828 Camden etc. E. E. Co. v. Briggs, 22 K J. 623; Norris v. Androscoggin E. E. Co., 39 Me. 273, 63 Am. Dec. 621. 829 Peik v. Chicago etc. E. E. Co., 94 U. S. 164, 24 L. ed. 97; Stone v. New Orleans etc. E. E. Co., 116 U. S. 352, 6 S. Ct. 349, 29 L. ed. 651; St. Louis etc. Ey. Co. v. Gill, 54 Ark. 101, 15 S. W. 18, 11 L. E. A. 452; Shields v. State, 28 Ohio St. 86. 830 Chicago etc. Ey Co. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 155, 24 L. ed. 94. 831 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Nebraska, 170 U. S. 73, 42 L. ed. 948; Toledo etc. E. E. Co. v. City of Jacksonville, 67 111. 37, 16 Am. Eep. 611; Kansas Pacific Ey. Co. v. Mower, 16 Kan. 573; Galena etc. E. E. Co. v. Loomis, 13 111. 548, 56 Am. Dec. 471; Blake v. Winona etc. E. B. Co., 19 Minn. 418, 18 Am. Eep. 345. 832 Portland E. E. Co. v. Eailroad Co., 46 Me. 69. 833 Portland etc. E. E. Co. v. Boston etc. E. E. Co., 65 Me. 122. 834 Eailroad Commrs. v. Portland etc. E. E. Co., 63 Me. 269, 18 Am. Eep. 208; State v. Y\ abash etc. Ey. Co., 83 Mo. 144; Illinois Cential Ey. v. People, 143 111. 434, 33 N. E. 173, 19 L. E. A. 119; Davidson v. State, 4 Tex. App. 545. 835 Gladson v. Minnesota, 166 U. S. 421, 17 S. Ct. 627, 41 L. ed. 1064; Lake Shore etc. E. E. v. Ohio, 173 IT. S. 301, 19 S. Ct. 465, 41 L. ed. 747. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 368 missioner merely has the power to approve or disapprove the abandonment of a station, his consent is not binding, as a con- tract, upon the state. 836 Statutes regulating the speed of rail- road trains are not objectionable under the obligation clause. 837 Other instances of the valid exercise of the police power with respect to railroads are laws regulating railroad crossings; 838 requiring trains to stop on approaching another railroad cross- ing; 839 or 'to ring a bell or sound a whistle on approaching crossings; 840 requiring the erection of fences or cattle- guards; 841 requiring the maintenance of watchmen at certain points; 842 prohibiting the carrying of freight deemed to be detrimental to public health, morals, or safety, and making railroads liable as insurers of life and limb of passengers; 843 836 State v. New Haven etc. B. E. Co., 43 Conn. 351. 837 Erb v. Moraseh, 177 TJ. S. 585, 20 S. Ct. 819, 44 L. ed. 897; Clark v. Boston etc. R. E., 64 N. H. 323, 10 Atl. 676; Chicago etc. E. E. v. Haggerty, 67 111. 113; Chicago etc. E. E. v. People, 105 111. 657; Bluedorn v. Missouri Pac. Ey., 108 Mo. 239, 32 Am. St. Eep. 615, 18 S. W. 1103. 838 New York etc. E. E. Co. v. Bristol, 151 U. S. 556, 14 S. Ct. 437, 3& L. ed. 269; Philadelphia etc. E. E. v. Southwestern Pennsyl- vania E. E., 77 Pa. St. 173; Portland etc. E. E. Co. v. Deering, 78 Me. 61, 2 Atl. 670, 57 Am. Eep. 784. 839 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Joliet etc. E. E., 105 111. 105, 44 Am. Eep. 806. 840 Galena etc. E. E. Co. v. Loomis, 13 111. 548, 54 Am. Dec. 471; Galena etc. E. E. v. Appleby, 28 111. 283. 841 Minneapolis etc. E. E. Co. v. Emmons, 149 U. S. 364, 13 S. Ct. 871, 37 L. ed. 769; Suydam v. Moore, 8 Barb. 358; Waldron v. Eail- road Co., 8 Barb. 390; New Albany etc. E. E. v. Tilton, 12 Ind. 3, 74 Am. Dee. 195; Madison etc. E. E. v. Whiteneck, 8 Ind. 217; Ohio etc. E. E. v. McClelland, 25 111. 140; Kansas etc. E. E. v. Mower, 16 Kan. 573; Jones v. G. etc. E. E. Co., 16 Iowa, 6; Indianapolis etc. E. R. v. Kerehevpl, 16 Ind. 84; "Winona etc. E. E. v. Waldron, 11 Minn. 515, 88 Am. Dec. 100; Gorman v. Pacific E. E. Co., 26 Mo. 441, 72 Am. Dec. 220; Blair v. Milwaukee etc. E. E. Co., 20 Wis. 254; Penn- sylvania etc. E. E. Co. v. Eiblet, 66 Pa. St. 164; Thorpe v. Eutland etc. E. E., 27 Vt. 147, 62 Am. Dec. 625. 842 Lake Shore etc. E. E. Co. v. C. S. etc. E. E. Co., 30 Ohio St. 616; Toledo etc. Ey. Co. v. Jacksonville, 67 111. 37, 16 Am. Eep. 611. 843 Thorpe v. Eutland etc. E. E. Co., 27 Vt. 140, 62 Am. Dec. 625; Nelson v. Vermont etc. E. E. Co., 26 Vt. 717. 369 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 making railroads liable for the neglect or misconduct of their employees; 844 rendering railroads absolutely liable for damages caused by fire started from sparks from their locomotives 845 or for animals killed by their locomotives; 846 giving a right of action to the personal representative of one killed in a railroad accident. 847 The police power cannot, however, be used to cloak regula- tions tending to impair or destroy charter powers or franchises, without conserving the health, morals or safety of the public. 848 Accordingly the state cannot order a change in the gauge of a railroad, 849 or require a railroad to keep a flagman at a place where there is no unusual danger. 850 An act imposing restric- tions upon the conveyance of land to railroads impairs the charter obligation and is void. 851 Amendment or Alteration of Charter. The legislature is precluded from altering or amending a corporate charter unless such power be reserved by the act of incorporation or by some prior general law. 852 Such a reser- vation enters into and becomes a part of the charter of every 844 Boston etc. E. E. Co. v. State, 32i N. H. 215. 845 Union Pacific Ey. Co. v. De Busk, 12 Colo. 294, 20 Pac. 752, 3 L. E. A, 350; Mathews v. St. Louis etc. E. E. Co., 121 Mo. 298, 24 S. W. 591, 25 L. E. A. 161; Lyman v. B. etc. E. E. Co., 58 Mass. 288; Bademacher v. M. etc. E. E. Co., 41 Iowa, 297, 20 Am. Eep. 592; Mobile etc. Ins. Co. v. Columbia etc. E. E. Co., 41 S. C. 408, 44 Am. St. Eep. 725, 19 S. E. 858. 846 Indianapolis etc. E. E. v. Kereheval, 16 Ind. 84. 847 Southwestern E. E. Co. v. Paulk, 24 Ga. 356. 848 Philadelphia etc. Ey. Co. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506; Town of Lake View v. Eose Hill Cemetery Co., 70 111. 191, 22 Am. Eep. 71; Sloan v. Pacific E. E., €1 Mo. 24, 21 Am. Eep. 397. 849 State v. Eichmond etc. E. E. Co., 73 N. C. 527, 21 Am. Eep. 473. 850 Toledo etc. E. E. v. Jacksonville, 67 111. 37, 16 Am. Eep. 611. 851 De Graff v. St. Paul etc. E. E. Co., 23 Minn. 144. 852 Holyoke Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 511, 21 L. ed. 133; Greenwood v. Freight Co., 105 U. S. 17, 26 L. ed. 961; New Jersey v. Yard, 95 TJ. S. 113, 24 L. ed. 352. Notes on Constitution — 24 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 370 corporation organized subject to it, 833 and no question of the impairment of contract obligations can arise where a corpora- tion has accepted its charter subject to the state's power to alter or amend it. 854 The obligation clause does not prevent the amendment or alteration of a charter with the consent of the corporation. 855 There is nothing to preclude the waiver of the protection of this clause by the stockholders, 856 and this waiver may be evidenced by an express request for the amend- ment or by expressly accepting, or acting on and acquiescing in, one made without such request. 857 There must, however, be an acceptance of the amendatory act. 858 If an amendment is accepted by a corporate vote as an amendment to the original charter, it is not a violation of the charter. 859 The assent re- 853 Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 495, 21 L. ed. 98; Chicago etc. Ey. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 455, 10 S. Ct. 462, 33 L. ed. 970; Hamilton Gaslight etc. Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 270, 13 S. Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963; Pennsylvania B. E. Co. v. Miller, 132 U. S. 83, 10 S. Ct. 34, 33 L. ed. 267; Citizens' Savings Bank v. Owensboro, 173 TJ. S. 644, 19 S. Ct. 530, 43 L. ed. 840. 854 Sioux City Street Ey. Co. v. Sioux City, 138 U. S. 108, 11 S. Ct. 226, 34 L. ed. 898; Bienville etc. Water Co. v. Mobile, 186 TJ. 3. 222, 22 S. Ct. 820, 46 L. ed. 1132. 855 People v. Marshall, 1 Gilm. 672; Commonwealth v. Jarvis, 1 Mon. 5; Monongahela Nav. Co. v. Coon, 6 Pa. St. 375, 47 Am. Dec. 474; Ehrenzeller v. Canal Co., 1 Eawle, 181; Trustees v. Winston, 5 Stew. & P. 17. 856 State v. Montgomery Light Co., 102 Ala. 594, 15 South. 347. 857 Smead v. Indianapolis etc. Ey. Co., 11 Ind. 104; Pennsylvania E. E. Co. v. Duncan, 111 Pa. St. 352, 5 Atl. 742; Monongahela Bridge Co. v. Pittsburgh etc. Ey. Co., 114 Pa. St. 478, 8 Atl. 233; Attorney General v. Clergy Soc, 10 Eich. Eq. 604. 858 Pingry v. Washburn, 1 Aik. 264, 15 Am. Dec. 676; Common- wealth v. Cullen, 13 Pa. St. 133, 53 Am. Dec. 450; Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229. But see State v. Adams, 44 Mo. 570. 859 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 518, 1 L. ed. 629; Mumma v. Potomac Co., 8 Pet. 286, 8 L. ed. 945; Penn- sylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 213, 20 L. ed. 550; Joy v. Jackson County, 11 Mich. 155; Eiddle v. Locks & Canals, 7 Mass. 169; Mc- Laren v. Pennington, 1 Paige, 107; Monongahela Nav. Co. v. Coor., 6 Pa. St. 379, 47 Am. Dec. 474; Commonwealth v. Cullen, 13 Pa. St. 133, 53 Am. Dec. 450; Woodford v. Union Bank, 3 Cold. 498; Za- brinskie v. Eailroad Co., 18 N. J. Eq. 186. 371 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 lates back to the date of the amendatory law. 860 Assent can- not be inferred from a misuser or nonuser of a corporation's franchise, 861 although a willful misuser or nonuser of its fran- chise will subject a corporation to dissolution. 862 Where the amendment is as to several particulars, the acceptance must be made as it is offered or not at all, 863 and if the amendment is accepted upon the terms prescribed, it becomes a compact bind- ing upon all parties; 864 but an amendment is never binding without acceptance, 865 unless the power be reserved in the charter or by general law. 866 The charter of a corporation may even be repealed by an amendment accepted by the corpora- tion. 867 The rule that assent renders legislation changing a corporate charter valid is subject to the qualification that such legislation must not change the control of the institution, or divert the funds to a use inconsistent with the original purpose, 868 and in the absence of reserved power to alter or amend, the ac- ceptance, by a majority of the stockholders, of a material, radical, and fundamental change in the charter, can bind only the majority, and will discharge a dissenting subscriber from 860 Ehrenzeller v. Canal Co., 1 Eawle, 181. 861 Eegents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365, 31 Am. Dec. 72. 862 Mumma v. Potomac Co., 8 Pet. 287, 8 L. ed. 945; State v. Bryce, 7 Ohio, pt. 2, 83. 863 Marietta etc. B. E. Co. v. Elliott, 10 Ohio St. 57. 864 Crease v. Babcock, 23 Pick. 334, 34 Am. Dec. 61; Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 340. 865 Sage v. Dillard, 15 B. Mon. 340; Yeaton v. Bank, 21 Gratt. 593; Troy v. Rutland etc. E. E. Co., 17 Barb. 591; White v. Eaii- road Co., 14 Barb. 559; Mayor etc. v. Norwich etc. E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 103; Thornton v. Marginal F. E. Co., 123 Mass. 32. 866 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 213, 20 L. ed. 550; Tom- linson v. Jessup, 15 Wall. 459, 21 L. ed. 204; Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 478, 21 L. ed. 98; Holyoke Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 500, 21 L. ed. 133; Washington Bridge Co. v. State, 18 Conn. 64; Enfield T. B. Co. v. Hartford E. E. Co., 17 Conn. 59; Bronson v. Taylor, 33 Conn. 116; M. & E. E. E. Co. v. Commissioners, 37 N. J. 228. 867 Mobile etc. E. E. Co. v. State, 29 Ala. 573; Monongahela Nav. Co. v. Coon, 6 Pa. St. 379, 47 Am. Dec. 474. 868 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 213-220, 20 L. ed. 550. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 372 his contract of subscription. 869 The legislature cannot in iis amendatory act authorize the majority to accept the amendment against the will of the minority. 870 Where, however, the change accepted by the majority merely clothes the corporation with privileges and immunities in furtherance of the corporate ob- ject, a stockholder cannot make the change an excuse for avoid- ing his obligations. 871 Where the stockholders have subscribed under a charter allowing the majority to bind all, there can be no objection to the majority acceptance of an amendment. 872 Instances of fundamental changes within this rule are : amendments altering the general course or direction of a rail- road authorized by charter; 873 changing the terminus of the road as fixed by the charter; 874 authorizing consolidation with another corporation; 875 changing the visitorial power in an eleemosynary corporation; 876 reducing the minimum number of subscribed shares necessary, thus rendering one liable on his subscription. 877 Any amendment radically changing the orig- inal scheme is fundamental. 878 The test seems to be whether 869 Clearwater v. Meredith, 1 Wall. 40, 17 L. ed. 604; Bailway Co. v. Allerton, 18 Wall. 233, 21 L. ed. 902; Printing House v. Trustees, 104 U. S. 711, 26 L. ed. 902; Mowrey v. Indianapolis etc. K. B. Co., 4 Biss. 86, Fed. Cas. No. 9891; Ashton v. Burbank, 2 Dill. 435. 870 New Orleans etc. By. Co. v. Harris, 27 Miss. 517. 871 Fry v. Lexington etc. B. B. Co., 2 Met. (Ky.) 322; Waring v. Mayor etc., 24 Ala. 201; Everhart v. Westchester etc. E. E. Co., 28 Pa. St. 339; Poughkeepsie etc. Plank-Eoad Co. v. Griffin, 24 N. Y. 150; Fall Eiver Iron Works v. Old Colony E. E. Co., 5 Allen, 221; Peoria v. Preston, 35 Iowa, 115. 87 2 Witter v. Mississippi etc. E. E., 20 Ark. 463. 873 Hester v. Memphis etc. E. B., 32 Miss. 380; Winter v. Muskogee E. E. Co., 11 Ga. 45; Buffalo etc. B. E. Co. v. Pottle, 23 Barb. 21. 874 Marietta etc. E. E. v. Elliott, 10 Ohio St. 57; Middlesex Turn- pike Co. v. Locke, 8 Mass. 267; Plankroad etc. Co. v. Arndt, 31 Pa. St. 317; Thompson v. Guion, 5 Jones Eq. 113. 875 Clearwater v. Meredith, 1 Wall. 40, 17 L. ed. 604; Pearce v. Madison E. E. Co., 21 How. 441, 16 L. ed. 184; Mowrey v. Indian- apolis etc. B. B. Co., 4 Biss. 83, Fed. Cas. No. 9891; Tuttle v. Mich- igan Air-Line, 35 Mich. 247; New Jersey etc. Co. v. Strait, 35 N. J. L. 322. 876 Printing House v. Trustees, 104 U. S. 727, 26 L. ed. 902. 877 Old Town E. B. Co. v. Veazie, 39 Me. 571. 878 Black v. Deleware & Earitan Canal Co., 24 N. J. Eq. 455. 373 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 the general interests of the corporation have been sacrificed by the change, and whether the profits have been lessened. 879 The legislature cannot amend a charter so as to restrict the use of corporate property, 880 nor give property to a public pur- pose for a use entirely different and inconsistent with the orig- inal use. 881 Nor can an officer of a corporation be deprived of his office by an amendment of the charter. 8S2 A public statute which provides how charters may be amended is not a con- tract. 883 A power to alter or amend is not ordinarily a power to repeal or a power to destroy. 884 The legislature may modify or repeal a charter before its acceptance, and before rights have been acquired under it. 885 Reserved Power to Alter or Amend. The reservation of this power in the state constitution, or in general laws on the subject of corporations or in the special act of incorporation, relieves amendatory legislation from the operation of this clause of the constitution. 886 Acts of incor- 879 Fry v. Lexington etc. E. B. Co., 2 Met. (Ky.) 322; Wilson v. Wills Valley E. E. Co., 33 Ga. 466; Irvine v. Turnpike Co., 2 Penr. & W. 474; Barrett v. Alton etc. E. E., 13 111. 504. 880 Commonwealth v. Bacon, 13 Bush (Ky), 210, 26 Am. Eep. 189. 881 Jacksonville v. Jacksonville Co., 67 111. 540. 8S2 Allen v. MeKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229. 883 State v. New Haven etc. E. E. Co., 43 Conn. 351. 884 Hartford Br. Co. v. East Hartford, 16 Conn. 149. 885 Louisville etc. E. E. Co. v. Kentucky, 161 U. S. 674, 16 S. Ct. 714, 40 L. ed. 849; Pearsall v. Great Northern Ey. Co., 161 U. S. 659, 16 S. Ct. 705, 40 L. ed. 838; Galveston etc. Ey. v. Texas, 170 U. S. 239, 18 S. Ct. 603, 42 L. ed. 1017; Cincinnati etc. E. E. Co. v. Clifford, 113 Ind. 460, 15 N. E. 524; Chesapeake etc. Canal Co. v. Baltimore etc. E. E. Co., 4 Gill & J. 1; State v. Baltimore etc. E. E. Co., 12 Gill & J. 399, 38 Am. Dec. 319; In re New York Cable Ey. Co., 40 Hun, 1. *886 Sherman v. Smith, 1 Black, 592, 17 L. ed. 163; Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 212, 20 L. ed. 550; Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 495, 21 L. ed. 98; Holyoke Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 522, 21 L. ed. 133; Stone v. Wisconsin, 94 U. S. 1S2, 24 L. ed. 102; Eailway Co. v. Phila- delphia, 101 U. S. 539, 25 L. ed. 912; Close v. Glenwood Cemetery, 107 TJ. S. 476, 2 S. Ct. 274, 27 L. ed. 408; Sioux City Street Ey. v. Sioux City, 138 U. 8. 108, 11 S. Ct. 226, 34 L. ed. 898; Waters-Pierce Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 374 poration subsequent to the adoption of a state constitution are to be construed as if containing the constitutional provisions applicable to them, 887 and a corporation takes its charter sub- ject to such provisions in the constitution and to prior general laws, and cannot object to future changes therein; 888 by accept- ing its charter under such circumstances the corporation as- sents to the reservation. 889 When the power is attempted to be exercised it is immaterial how harshly it may affect the particular case or the parties in- terested; 890 the exercise of the power cannot be affected by the fact that injustice may be done. 891 Where the power to alter or amend is not reserved in the state constitution the question is always, whether the legislature intended it to inhere in the charter itself, and it requires strong implication to make a re- serving act applicable to subsequent supplements to existing charters. 892 A provision in a corporate charter that it shall not be altered in any other manner than by an act of the legis- lature is equivalent to an express reservation to the state of the right to alter or amend at will. 893 Oil Co. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 47, 20 S. Ct. 518, 44 L. ed. 657; Bienville Water etc. Co. v. Mobile, 186 U. S. 222, 22 S. Ct. 820, 46 L. ed. 1132. 887 Railway Co. v. Philadelphia, 101 U. S. 539, 25 L. ed. 912; Mayor v. Twenty-third Street By. Co., 113 N. Y. 318, 21 N. E. 62; State v. Hilbert, 72 Wis. 193, 39 N. W. 329. 888 Spring Valley Waterworks v. Schottler, 110 U. S. 348, 4 S. Ct. 48, 28 L. ed. 173; Chicago etc. R. R. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 455, 10 S. Ct. 462, 33 L. ed. 970; Pennsylvania R. R. Co. v. Miller, 132 U. S. 83, 10 S. Ct. 34, 33 L. ed. 267; Citizens' Savings Bank v. Owensboro, 173 U. S. 644, 19 S. Ct. 530, 43 L. ed. 840. 889 Hamilton Gaslight Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 TJ. S. 270, 13 S Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963; People v. Cook, 148 TJ. S. 411, 13 S. Ct. 645, 37 L. ed. 498; Gulf etc. " E. Co. v. Hewes, 183 IT. S. 71, 22 S. Ct. 26, 46 L. ed. 86; Louisville etc. R. R. Co. v. Kentucky, 183 U. S. 516, 22 S. Ct. 95, 46 L. ed. 298. 890 Hamilton Gaslight Co. V. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 270, 13 S. Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963. 891 Bienville Water etc. Co. v. Mobile, 186 U. S. 223, 22 S. Ct. 820, 46 L. ed. 1132. 892 New Jersey v. Yard, 95 U. S. 113, 24 L. ed. 352. 893 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 214, 20 L. ed. 550; Houston v. Jefferson College, 63 Pa. St. 428; Commonwealth v. Boa- Ball, 3 Whart. 559. 375 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 If the power is effectually reserved the legislature may re- peal, alter or modify a charter according to the language of the reservation. 894 The creditors of a corporation cannot object to an amendment or alteration pursuant to this reserved power, 895 for all persons dealing with a corporation are bound to take notice of the reservation of power to amend or revoke its charter. 896 The alteration may be made in the charter it- self or by a general statute, 897 or by a change in the state con- stitution, 898 and the alteration is binding whether the corpora- tion assents or not. 899 The reserved power may be exercised at the will of the legis- lature, notwithstanding the words "at the pleasure of the legis- lature" are not used in the reserving clause, 900 and this legis- lative discretion cannot be interfered with by the courts. 901 But where a railroad is incorporated subject to the consent of a municipal council, reserving the right in the legislature to alter or amend, the municipal council has no such right under 894 Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229; Crease v. Babcock, 40 Mass. 334, 34 Am. Dec. 61; Perrin v. Oliver, 1 Minn. 202; Delaware E. B. Co. v. Thorp, 5 Harr. 454; McLaren v. Pennington, I Paige, 102; Monongahela Nav. Co. v. Coon, 6 Pa. St. 379, 47 Am. Dec. 474; Ferguson v. Miners' etc. Bank, 3 Sneed, 609; Stephen v. Smith, 29 Vt. 160; Butler v. Walker, 80 111. 345. 895 West Wisconsin E. E. Co. v. Supervisors, 93 U. S. 595, 23 L. ed. 814; Bead v. Frankfort Bank, 23 Me. 318. 896 Macon etc. E. E. Co. v. Gibson, 85 Ga. 1, 21 Am. St. Eep. 135, II S. E. 443. 897 Beer Company v. Massachusetts, 97 IT. S. 25, 24 L. ed. 989; Pennsylvania E. E. Co. v. Miller, 132 U. S. 83, 10 S. Ct. 34, 33 L. ed. 267; Looker v. Maynard, 179 U. S. 54, 21 S. Ct. 21, 45 L. ed, 179; State v. Commissioners, 38 N. J. 472; Bangor E. E. v. Smith, 47 Me. 34. S98 Spring Valley Waterworks v. Schottler, 110 TJ. S. 351, 4 S. Ct. 48, 38 L. ed. 173; In re Lee's Bank, 21 N. Y. 9. 899 Hyatt v. Whipple, 37 Barb. 595; Hyatt v. Esmond, 37 Barb. 601; Mayor v. N. etc. E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 103; Attorney General v. Eailroad Co., 35 Wis. 425. 900 Hamilton Gaslight Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 271, 13 S. Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963. soi Spring Valley Waterworks v. Schottler, 110 U. S. 355, 4 9. Ct. 48, 28 L. ed. 173. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 376 the reservation after it has once given its consent. 902 The power to alter or modify is not exhausted by one alteration. 903 While a corporate charter is only a quasi contract where the power to alter or revoke it is reserved to the legislature, 904 yet this reserved power must be exercised in subjection to the provisions of the federal constitution; 905 and reasonably, in good faith, and consistent with the object of the incorpora- tion. 90 " 6 It is not competent for the legislature, against the will of some of the stockholders, to change the fundamental character of the corporation, 907 or to take away or intermeddle with property rights, or annul contracts entered into by a cor- poration, 908 or to authorize the taking of corporate property for public use without compensation. 909 Ordinarily, the ques- tion whether the exercise of the reserved power by the legisla- ture is expedient is not judicial; 010 but where the power is 902 City E. E. Co. v. Citizens' E. E. Co., 166 U. S. 563, 17 S. Ct. 653, 41 L. ed. 1114. 903 People v. Hills, 46 Barb. 340; Proprietors v. Haskell, 7 Me. 474; State v. Commissioners, 37 N. J. L. 228; Morris etc. E. E. Co. v. Commissioners, 37 N. J. L. 228. 904 Wagner Free Institute v. Philadelphia, 132 Pa. St. 612, 19 Am. St. Eep. 613, 19 Atl. 297. 905 People v. O'Brien, 111 N. Y. 1, 7 Am. St. Eep. 684, 18 N. E. 702, 2 L. E. A. 255. And see Eailroad Tax Cases, 13 Fed. 754. 906 Shields v. Ohio, 95 U. S. 324, 24 L. ed. 357; Hill v. Glascow E. E. Co., 41 Fed. 616; United States v. Western Union Tel. Co., 50 Fed. 36; San Joaquin etc. Co. v. Stanislaus County, 113 Fed. 930; Leep v. Bailway Co., 58 Ark. 433, 41 Am. St. Eep. 127, 25 S. W. 83, 23 L. E. A. 264. 907 Buffalo etc. E. E. v. Dudley, 14 N. Y. 336; Troy etc. E. E. Co. v. Kerr, 17 Barb. 581; White v. Eailroad Co., 14 Barb. 559; StaU v. Adams, 44 Mo. 576; Eailroad Co. v. Veazie, 39 Me. 571. 908 Sinking Fund Cases, 99 U. S. 721, 25 L. ed. 504: Pearsall v. Great Northern Ey. Co., 161 U. S. 660, 16 S. Ct. 708, 40 L. ed. 838; Feople ex rel. Schurz v. Cook, 148 U. S. 397, 13 S. Ct. 645, 37 L. ed. 498; Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276, Fed. Cas. No. 229; Commissioner* v. Holyoke Water Power Co., 104 Mass. 448, 6 Am. Eep. 250; Black Eiver Imp. Co. v. Holway, 87 Wis. 587, 59 N. W. 127. 0(i9 Miller v. Eailroad Co., 21 Barb. 513. 9io Greenwood v. Freight Co., 105 U. S. 22, 26 L. ed. 961; Spring Valioy Waterworks v. Schottler, 110 U. S. 355, 4 S. Ct. 50, 28 L. ed. 173, 377 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 limited to alterations that shall work no injustice, it is for the courts to determine whether injustice has been done. 911 This reserved power becomes, by operation of law, a part of every contract or mortgage entered into by a corporation, 912 but the power does not extend to the alteration of contracts made pursuant to charter powers. 913 Where the reservation is contained in a statute all charters subsequently granted are subject to this power, 914 and where the power to alter is re- served, the state may from time to time designate the agents or organs, and prescribe the manner in which the power shall be exercised. 915 Extent and Exercise of Reserved Power. Where the power to alter a corporate charter is reserved it may be exercised to almost any extent to carry into effect the original purposes of the grant or to secure due administration of the corporation's affairs; 916 but it must be exercised reason- ably, in good faith, and consistent with the object of incorpora- tion, 917 and it should not be allowed to extend beyond the terms 911 Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 340. 912 Macon etc. E. E. Co. v. Gibson, 85 Ga. 1, 21 Am. St. Eep. 135, 11 S. E. 443. 913 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 214, 20 L. ed. 550; Ter- rett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 43; Peik v. Chicago etc. E. E. Co., 94 U. S. 164, 24 L. eel. 97; Bank v. McVeigh, 20 Gratt. 457. 914 Sherman v. Smith, 1 Black, 587, 17 L. ed. 163; Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 495, 21 L. ed. 98; Suydam v. Moore, 8 Barb. 358; Griffin v. Kentucky Ins. Co., 3 Bush, 592, 96 Am. Dec. 259; Central Banking Co. v. State, 54 Ga. 409; New Orleans v. Santa Anna's Asylum, 31 La. Ann. 295; Watson Seminary v. Pike County Court, 149 Mo. 67, 50 S. W. 882, 45 L. E. A. 675; State v. Commissioners, 37 N. J. L. 237; Fort Plain Bridge v. Smith, 30 N. Y. 44. 915 In re Eeciprocity Bank, 22 N. Y. 9, 29 Barb. 369. 916 Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 498, 21 L. ed. 98; Holyoke Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 519, 21 L. ed. 133; St. Louis etc. Ey. v. Paul, 64 Ark. 87, 62 Am. St. Eep. 157, 40 S. W. 706, 37 L. E, A. 504; Macon etc. Ey. v. Gibson, 85 Ga, 15, 21 Am. St. Eep. 139, 11 S. E. 443; Attorney General v. Looker, 111 Mich. 508, 69 N. W. 932; State v. Brown etc. Co., 18 E. I. 26, 25 Atl. 250, 17 L. E. A. 856. 917 Shields v. Ohio, 95 U. S. 324, 24 L. ed. 357; Hill v. Glascow E. E. Co., 41 Fed. 616; United States v. Western Union Tel. Co., Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 378 in which it is expressed. 918 It is no objection to an amenda- tory law that it may harshly affect the particular case or the parties interested, 919 and the power is not affected by the fact that its exercise might work an injustice. 920 The courts can- not interfere with the legislative discretion in amending a charter within the scope of the power reserved. 921 Where the right to amend is statutory, and not constitutional, it may be waived by a subsequent legislature, and the intent in each ease must govern. 922 So an act amending a charter and providing that it shall not thereafter be altered without the concurrence of the corporation, operates as a waiver of the statutory reservation. 923 But the mere nonuser of the power does not constitute a waiver. 924 The power to alter or modify is not exhausted by one alteration. 925 Where this power is reserved, a corporation authorized to maintain a dam across a river may be required to construct and maintain a fishway at the same point, 926 or the trustees of a charitable educational institution may be required to lease a part of its unused lands to county school commissioners* 927 A charter exemption from or commutation of taxation may be 50 Fed. 36; Leep v. Eailway Co., 58 Ark. 433, 41 Am. St. Rep. 127, 25 S. W. 83, 23 L. E. A. 264. 918 New Jersey v. Yard, 95 U. S. 113, 24 L. ed. 352. 919 Hamilton Gaslight Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 27i>, 11 S. Ct. 90, 36 L. ed. 963. 920 Bienville Water etc. Co. v. Mobile, 186 TJ. S. 223, 22 S. Ct. 820, 46 L. ed. 1132. 921 Spring Valley Waterworks v. Schottler, 110 TJ. S. 355, 4 S. Ct. 48, 28 L. ed. 173; Greenwood v. Freight Co., 105 TJ. S. 22, 26 L. ed. 961. 922 New Jersey v. Yard, 95 TJ. S. Ill, 24 L. ed. 352; Hancock v. Singer Mfg. Co., 62 N. J. L. 328, 14 Atl. 847, 42 L. E. A. 852. 923 Louisville Gas Co. v. Citizens' Gas Co., 115 TJ. S. 698, 6 S. Ct. 265, 29 L. ed. 510. 924 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Iowa, 94 TJ. S. 162, 24 L. ed. 94. 925 People v. Hills, 46 Barb. 340; Proprietors v. Haskell, 7 M*. 474; State v. Commissioner, 37 N. J. L. 228. 926 Holyoke Water Power Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 500, 21 L. ed. 133, affirming 104 Mass, 448, 6 Am. Eep. 250. 927 Webster v. Cambridge Seminary, 78 Md. 204, 20 Atl. 26. 379 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 withdrawn, 928 or the method of taxation may be changed. 929 A different tax may be imposed than that stipulated in the charter, 930 or a right to assess lands for improvements may be withdrawn. 931 A charter provision authorizing corporate directors to fix rates of charges is subject to change under a general" reservation of the power to alter or amend. 932 The reserved power extends to an amendment giving the minority stockholders representation on the board of directors, although formerly the majority could elect a full board. 933 A statute fixing the individual liability of stockholders is valid, and applies to existing corporations. 934 The stockholders may be made personally liable for all debts until the entire capital stock is paid in, 935 or the legislature may provide that the di- rectors of an insolvent corporation shall be primarily liable for the corporate debts whereas before they were only second- arily liable. 936 Where the power is reserved, the legislature 928 Tomlinson v. Jessup, 15 Wall. 454, 24 L. ed. 204; Kailroad Co. v. Maine, 96 U. S. 511, 29 L. ed. 836; Louisville Water Co. v. Clark, 143 U. S. 12, 12 S. Ct. 349, 36 L. ed. 55; Citizens' Bank v. Owenboro, 173 IL S. 645, 19 S. Ct. 533, 43 L. ed. 840; Covington v. Kentucky, 173 "U. S. 239, 19 S. Ct. 386, 43 L. ed. 679; Hewitt v. New York etc. B, E. Co., 12 Blatchf. 467, Fed. Cas. No. 6443; City v. Metropolitan Bank, 27 La. Ann. 648; State v. Maine Central E. E. Co., 66 Mo. 505; State v. Eailroad Co., 44 Md. 165; State v. Mayor, 31 N. J. L. 575, 86 Am. Dec. 240; State Board v. Patterson etc. E. E. Co., 50 N. J. L. 450, 14 Atl. 612; Commonwealth v. Fayette Co. E. E. Co., 55 Pa. St. 452; Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 345. 929 Dubuque v. Illinois Central E. E. Co., 39 Iowa, 94. 930 Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 340. 931 Marion etc. Co. v. Sleeth, 53 Ind. 41. 932 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 162, 24 L. ed. 94; St. Louis etc. Ey. Co. v. Gill, 54 Ark. 101, 15 S. W. 18, 16 L. E. A. 787; Spring Valley Waterworks v. Schottler, 110 U. S. 347, 4 S. Ct. 48, 28 L. ed. 173; Attorney General v. Eailroad Cos., 35 Wis. 563; Mobile etc. E. E. Co. v. Steiner, 61 Ala. 592; Spring Valley Waterworks v. Board of Supervisors, 61 Cal. 5. 933 Attorney General v. Looker, 111 Mich. 501, 69 N. W. 930. 934 Sherman v. Smith, 1 Black, 587, 17 L. ed. 163; In re Eeci- procity Bank, 20 Barb. 369; In re Lee's Bank, 21 N. Y. 14; Bailey v. Hollister, 26 N. Y. 112; In re Empire City Bank, 18 N. Y. 199. 935 Butler v. Walker, 8 Chic. L. N. 92. 936 Falconer v. Campbell, 2 McLean, 195, Fed. Cas. No. 4620. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 380 may prohibit insolvent corporations from giving preferences, 937 or may, as against subsequent creditors, permit assignments for the benefit of creditors. 938 If the interests of the creditors de- mand it, the legislature may remove the corporate assets from the custody of the trustees and place them in the custody of a state officer, 939 or may authorize a receiver to make assess- ments on premium notes instead of the directors ; 940 but it can- not appoint additional trustees. 941 The payment of dividends is also subject to legislative regulation under this power, and a corporation may be required to pay the excess of the dividend instead of one-third of the net profits. 942 Under the reserved power to alter or amend, the legislature may make any alterations or amendments which do not defeat or substantially impair the object of grants or rights vested thereunder. 943 Eights acquired which do not constitute part of the contract of incorporation, however, stand upon a differ- ent footing. 944 Accordingly a contractual exemption from tax- ation upon consideration of certain payments cannot be changed under the reserved power, so as to continue the obligation in full and yet withdraw the exemption, 945 and the imposition of a tax contrary to a charter exemption is not a legitimate exer- cise of the reserved power merely to dissolve a corporation. 946 New duties and liabilities may, however, be imposed by the legislature in the exercise of its reserved power, 947 and the 937 Robinson v. Gardiner, 18 Gratt. 509. 938 Denny v. Bennett, 128 U. S. 495, 9 S. Ct. 136, 32 L. ed. 491. 939 Lathrop v. Stedman, 42 Conn. 583. 940 Hyatt v. McMahon, 25 Barb. 457. 941 Sage v. Dillard, 15 B. Mon. 340. 942 Massachusetts Gen. Hosp. v. State etc. Ins. Co., 70 Mass. 227. 943 Holyoke etc. Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 522, 21 L. ed. 133; Close v. Glenwood Cemetery, 107 U. S. 476, 2 S. Ct. 267, 27 L. ed. 408; New York etc. E. E. Co. v. Bristol, 151 U. S. 567, 14 S. Ct. 437, 38 L. ed. 269. 944 Maine Central E. E. Co. v. Maine, 96 U. S. 510, 24 L. ed. 836. 945 Stearns v. Minnesota, 179 U. S. 240, 21 S. Ct. 73, 45 L. ed. 162; Duluth etc. E. E. Co. v. St. Louis County, 179 U. S. 304, 21 S. Ct. 124, 45 L. ed. 201. 946 Asylum v. New Orleans, 105 TJ. S. 369, 26 L. ed. 1128. 947 Atchison etc. E. E. Co. v. Matthews, 174 U. S. 104, 19 S. Ct. 609, 43 L. ed. 909. 381 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 corporate management ma}- be changed. 943 Burdens connected with the grant ma)'- be imposed by the legislature, 949 and rights in franchises may be diminished. 950 Instances of valid laws imposing new duties or liabilities are : laws requiring railroads to erect depots, 951 or requiring several railroads to unite in erecting a station in a city; 952 authoriz- ing another company to lay a similar track, or to use the track of the first company upon making compensation for wear and tear; 953 requiring railroad companies to raise or lower high- ways across their tracks; 954 to fence their tracks, 955 or to con- struct cattle-guards ; 956 directing excavations and embankments to be made, 957 or requiring the widening of a bridge over an excavation. 958 A statute permitting each stockholder to cumulate his votes upon any one or more candidates for directors is within the reserved power of the state. 959 A corporation may also be re- quired by subsequent statute to pay its employees weekly. 960 The legislature may require a government aided railroad to maintain a sinking fund, although the original charter did not so require, 961 or may increase the number of directors to which a city is entitled in consideration for aid given. 962 A charter 948 Close v. Glenwood Cemetery, 107 U. S. 466, 2 S. Ct. 267, 27 L. ed. 408. 949 English v. New Haven Co., 32 Conn. 240. 950 Perrin v. Oliver, 1 Minn. 202. 951 Commonwealth v. Eastern E. E. Co., 103 Mass. 254, 4 Am. Eep. 555. 952 Mayor v. N. & W. E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 103. 953 Metropolitan E. E. Co. v. Highland Ey. Co., 118 Mass. 290. 954 City of Eoxbury v. Eailroad Co., 6 Cush. 424. 955 Staats v. Hudson Eiver E. E. Co., 3 Keyes, 196. 956 Bulkley v. New York etc. E. E. Co., 27 Conn. 479. 957 Fitchburg E. E. Co. v. Grand Junction E. E. Co., 86 Mass. 198; Albany E. E. Co. v. Brownell, 24 N. Y. 345. 958 English v. New Haven Co., 32 Conn. 240. 959 Looker v. Maynard, 179 U. S. 54, 21 S. Ct. 21, 45 L. ed. 79, 960 State v. Brown etc. Co., 18 E. I. 24, 25 Atl. 249, 17 L. E. A. 856. 961 Sinking Fund Cases, 99 U. S. 748, 25 L. ed. 504. 962 Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 493, 21 L. ed. 98. Art. I, § 10, 01. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 382 provision requiring the consent of a majority to levy a pew tax may also be modified under this power. 963 Power to Repeal. The reservation of power to repeal or revoke corporate charters is valid. 964 If the power to repeal depends on the abuse or misuse of corporate privileges, it is not necessary that such abuse or misuse should be judicially ascertained, 965 and the forfeiture of a corporation's license to do business in a state, for violation of the act under which the license was given, vio- lates no contract obligation. 966 An act of incorporation may be repealed by implication where the power to repeal is re- served, 967 and power to withdraw an entire franchise includes power to modify or restrict its exercise. 968 While, under this reserved power to repeal, the state may terminate the existence of a corporation, it can take from the corporation by legislation no more than it has granted to the corporation by legislation. 969 Property acquired by a corpora- tion under its charter is not confiscated by reason of the re- peal of the charter, nor are contract rights of third persons dis- turbed thereby; 970 the courts retain power to protect the rights 963 Bailey v. Trustees, 6 E. I. 491. 964 Bridge Co. v. United States, 105 TJ. S. 481, 26 L. ed. 1143; Late Corporation etc. v. United States, 136 U. S. 1, 10 S. Ct. 80S, 34 L. ed. 478, affirming 5 Utah, 69, 15 Pac. 477; Baltimore etc. Co. v. Mayor, 64 Fed. 160; Crease v. Babcock, 23 Pick. 340, 34 Am. Dec. 63; McLaren v. Pennington, 1 Paige, 102; People v. O'Brien, 111 N. Y. 49, 7 Am. St. Eep. 702, 18 N. E. 702, 2 L. E. A. 255; State v. Southern Pacific E. R. Co., 24 Tex. 125. 965 Crease v. Babcock, 23 Pick. 334, 34 Am. Dec. 63; Miners' Bank v. United States, 1 Iowa, 553; Erie etc. E. E. Co. v. Casey, 26 Pa. St. 287. But see Mayor etc. v. Pittsburgh etc. E. E., 1 Abb. U. S. 9, Fed. Cas. No. 827; Flint etc. v. Woodhull, 25 Mich. 99. »66 Waters-Pierce Oil Co. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 47, 20 S. Ct. 518, 44 L. ed. 657. 967 Union E. E. Co. v. East Tennessee E. E. Co., 14 Ga. 327. 968 West End etc. E. E. Co. v. Atlanta Street E. E. Co., 49 Ga. 151. 969 Ashnelot E. E. Co. v. Elliott, 58 N. H. 451; Black Eiver Imp. Co. v. Holway, 87 Wis. 587, 59 N. W. 127. 970 Greenwood v. Freight Co., 105 U. S. 19, 26 L. ed. 961. 383 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 of such third persons. 971 Franchises granted for a longer period than the life of the corporation exercising them survive the dissolution of the corporation, 972 and upon the same prin- ciple, where a corporation has acquired franchises from another source than the legislature, as from a municipality, such fran- chises are property, of which the corporation cannot be de- prived without due process of law; 973 they constitute a part of the corporate assets, to be distributed as other property. 974 The executory contracts of a corporation cannot be destroyed under the power to repeal the charter, and rights thereunder may be asserted in the courts against the .property. 975 If the power to repeal is reserved by one constitution, it cannot be affected by the subsequent adoption of another. 976 Under the reserved power to repeal the state may regulate tolls or rates of trans- portation of persons or property. 977 A state may alter or re- peal a charter of incorporation where it is the sole contributor to the fund which supports the corporation. 978 971 Lake Shore etc. By. v. Smith, 173 TJ. S. 690, 19 S. Ct. 567, 43 L. ed. 80S; Lafayette Co. v. Neely, 21 Fed. 739; Hill v. Glascow Ey., 41 Fed. 616; Citizens' Street Ey. Co. v. City Ey. Co., 64 Fed. 651. 972 Detroit v. Detroit City Ey. Co., 56 Fed. 883. 973 Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States, 148 U. S. 344, 13 S. Ct. 633, 37 L. ed. 463. 974 People v. O'Brien, 111 N. Y. 57, 7 Am. St. Eep. 709, 18 N. E. 707, 2 L. E. A. 255. 975 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 312, 14 L. ed. 705; Edison Light Co. v. New Haven Co., 35 Fed. 237; Smith v. Huckabee, 53 Ala. 195; Whitney v. Sheboygan Co., 25 Wis. 207, 3 Am. Eep. 47. 976 State v. Northern Cent. E. E. Co., 44 Md. 131. 977 Peik v. Northwestern E, E. Co., 94 TJ. S. 164, 24 L. ed. 97- Parker v. Metropolitan etc. E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 506; Plankroad Co', v. Eeynolds, 3 Wis. 287; Attorney General v. Eailroad Co., 35 Wis. 425; Hinckley v. Chicago etc. E. E., 38 Wis. 194; Shields v. State, 26 Ohio St. 86. 978 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 309, 14 L. ed. 705; Dart v. Houston, 22 Ga. 506; Trustees v. Winston, 5 Stew. & P. 17; Bass v. Fontleroy, 11 Tex. 698; Mobile School Com. v. Putnam, 44 Ala. 406." Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 384 Obligation of Contract, What is. The obligation of a contract is the law which binds the par- ties to perform their agreement; the law in force at the time when the contract is made, and which enters into and becomes a part of the contract. 1 It is that duty to perform the con- tract which is recognized and enforced by law; 2 it depends upon the terms of the contract and the means which the law in existence at the time affords for its enforcement, 3 and consists of that right or power over his will or actions which a party confers on another, 4 and includes everything within its object and scope. 5 The obligation contemplated by this clause is a valid and subsisting, and not a contingent or speculative, ob- ligation. 6 It does not inhere and consist in the contract itself, but in the law applicable to the contract. 7 Laws relating to the validity, construction, discharge and enforcement of the contract constitute the obligation and are a part of the con- tract. 8 The binding force of a contract depends upon the laws in existence when it is made. 9 It is the legal and not the 1 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 197, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogde,i v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 257, 259, 6 L. ed. 606; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 552, 18 L. ed. 403; Bedford v. Eastern Building etc. Assn., 181 U. S. 241, 21 S. Ot. 597, 45 L. ed. 834; Blann v. State, 39 Ala. 353, 74 Am. Dec. 788; Trustees v. Eider, 13 Conn. 96; Young v. Har- rison, 6 Ga. 156; Wachter v. Famachon, 62 Wis. 121, 22 N. W. 161. 2 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 319, 14 L. ed. 705; Louisiana v. New Orleans, 102 U. S. 206, 26 L. ed. 132; Louisiana v. Police Jury, 111 U. S. 720, 4 S. Ct. 648, 28 L. ed. 574. 3 Murray v. Charleston, 96 TJ. S. 448, 24 L. ed. 760. 4 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, 6 L. ed. 606; Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47. 6 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 TJ. S. 601, 24 L. ed. 793. 6 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 319, 14 L. ed. 705. 7 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 353, 6 L. ed. 606; Sturges v. Crown- inshield, 4 Wheat. 122, 4 L. ed. 529; Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; McCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Blair v. Williams, 4 Litt. 34; Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47; Blanch- ard v. Bussell, 13 Mass. 1, 7 Am. Dee. 106. 8 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 601, 24 L. ed. 793; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 535, 18 L. ed. 403; McCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 317, 21 L. e 1. 357. 9 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 122, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden r. 385 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 moral, obligation of a contract which the constitution protects, 10 and ft is the obligation of contracts only that the constitution refers to. 11 The obligation of a contract commences at its date, 12 and continues until the debt is paid or the act is performed. 13 The legal remedies for the enforcement of the contract which be- long to it at the time and place where it is made continue to be a part of it until performance. 14 The validity, construc- tion, and remedy are parts of the obligation, 15 and any subse- quent law which so affects the remedy as to impair and lessen the value of the contract is forbidden. 16 The protection of the obligation clause extends to future acquisitions under a eon- tract valid when made. 17 Statutes in force at the time of the issuance of bonds form a part of the contract of the parties. 18 Contracts based for consideration upon Confederate money or securities, not issued in aid of Rebellion, have a legal, binding obligation protected by this clause. 19 Parties are not pre- Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, 6 L. ed. 606; McCracken v. Hay ward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Eobinson v. Magee, 9 Cal. 84, 70 Am. Dee. 638; Aycock v. Martin, 37 Ga. 124, 92 Am. Dec. 56; Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 531, 6 Am. Dec. 675; Bruce v. Schuyler, 4 Gilm. 221, 46 Am. Dec. 447; West Sav. Fund v. Philadelphia, 31 Pa. St. 175; Wood v. Wood, 14 Rich. 14S; Smith v. Cleveland, 17 Wis. 556; Fitzgerald v. Grand Trunk Ey. Co., 63 Vt. 169, 22 Atl. 76, 13 L. R. A. 70. io Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, 6 L. ed. 606; Webster v. Rose, 6 Heisk. 93, 19 Am. Rep. 583. ii Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, & L. ed. 606; Robinson v. Magee, 9 Cal. 84, 70 Am. Dec. 638; Blair v. Williams, 4 Litt. 34. 12 Blair v. Williams, 4 Litt. 34. 13 Bailey v. Gentry, 1 Mo. 164; Forsythe v. Marbury, R. M. Charl-. 324. 14 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 623, 21 L. ed. 212; In re Ayers, 123 U. S. 505, 8 S. Ct. 164, 31 L. ed. 216. 15 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 1, 5 L. ed. 547; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, 6 L. ed. 606; Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357. 16 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 607, 24 L. ed. 793; Seibert v. Lewis, 122 U. S. 294, 7 S. Ct. 1190, 30 L. ed. 1161. 17 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 600, 24 L. ed. 793. 18 Butz v. City of Muscatine, 8 Wall. 583, 19 L. ed. 490. 19 Thorington v. Smith, 8 Wall. 1, 19 L. ed. 361; Delrnas v. Mer- Notes on Constitution — 25 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 3bG sumed to have contracted with reference to every existing law, however, but only with reference to those laws which in their direct or necessary operation, control or affect their obliga- tions. 20 What Constitutes Impairment. To impair the obligation of a contract means to alter it so as to make the contract more beneficial to one party and less to the other than by its terms it purports to be. 21 A law releasing any part of the obligation of a contract impairs it to that extent, and is unconstitutional. 22 So, also, as to a law which enlarges, abridges, or in any manner changes the in- tention of the parties, resulting from stipulations in the con- tract, 23 or a law which imposes new conditions or dispenses with those expressed. 24 Any means which lessens the validity, gives diminished value, or devests priority of lien, obligation or recovery, violates the obligation, 25 or anything which affects the validity of the contract, 26 as where the remedy is dimin- ished, weakened, or rendered less operative. 27 The obligation of a contract is impaired by acts preventing its enforcement, or materially abridging remedies, without supplying others equally chants' Ins. Co., 14 Wall. 661, 20 L. ed. 757; Hanauer v. Woodruff, 15 Wall. 439, 21 L. ed. 224; Confederate Note Case, 19 Wall. 548, 22 L. ed. 196; Wilmington etc. E. E. v. King, 91 U. S. 3, 23 L. ed. 186; Eoach v. Gunter, 44 Ala. 209, 4 Am. Eep. 132; Branch v. Baker, 53 Ga. 502; Henderson v. Merchants' Mut. Ins. Co., 25 La. Ann. 343. But see Hale v. Huston. 44 Ala, 134, 4 Am. Eep. 124. 20 Connecticut Mut. Life Ins. Co. v. Cushman, 108 U. S. 65, 2 S. Ct. 236, 27 L. ed. 648; Eosenplanter v. Provident Sav. etc. Soc, 90 Fed. 727, 728, 46 L. E. A. 473, affirming 91 Fed. 735. 21 Bailey v. Gentry, 1 Mo. 164. 22 Sturges v. Crowninslrield, 4 Wheat. 197, 4 L. ed. 529. 23 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 84, 5 L. ed. 547; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 261, 6 L. ed. 606. 24 Railroad Co. v. Pennsylvania, 15 Wall. 320, 21 L. ed. 179. 25 Grimball v. Boss, Charlt. 175. 26 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 595, 24 L. ed. 793; Planters' Bank V. Sharp, 6 How. 301, 12 L. ed. 447. 27 Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47; Nevitt v. Bank, 14 Miss. 513. 387 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 adequate, 28 or diminishing the duty or denying or ohstructing the rights accruing from it, 29 or dispensing with any part of its force. 30 So the discharge of a contract is a direct impair- ment of its obligation; 31 so where the contract is destroyed, 32 or where an essential part is annulled, 33 or partly rescinded. 34 The time, place, parties or subject of a contract cannot be changed, 35 and the obligation is impaired by a statute which authorizes a discharge of the contract by a smaller sum, or at a different time, or in a different manner than stipulated, 36 as the alteration of the terms of a condition in a mortgage, 37 or a statute authorizing a defendant to give up the property, for which the contract on which he is sued, was made in full discharge of his indebtedness. 38 If, however, neither party is relieved from performing anything of that which he bound himself to do, the obligation of the contract is not impaired. 39 Acts declaring void, contracts which were valid when made, impair contract obligations and are void, 40 and statutes declar- ing that a certain, hitherto good, consideration shall be void, are inoperative as to prior contracts; 41 e. g., a statute declaring 28 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 693, 10 S. Ct. 972, 34 L. ed. 304; State v. Young, 28 Minn. 525, 9 N. W. 739. 29 MeCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 612, 11 L. ed. 397. 30 Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 327, 12 L. ed. 447. 31 Farmers' etc. Bank v. Smith, 6 Wheat. 131, 5 L. ed. 224. 32 Robinson v. Magee, 9 Cal. 84, 70 Am. Dec. 638. 33 New Jersey v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 164, 3 L. ed. 303. 34 Grimball v. Ross, Charlt. 175. 35 Townsend v. TWnsend, Peck (Tenn.), 1, 14 Am. Dec. 722. 36 Golden v. Prince, 3 Wash. C. C. 313, Fed. Cas. No. 5509; Edmond- son v. Ferguson, 11 Mo. 344. 37 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; Pool v. Young, 7 Mon. 58. 38 Abercrombie v. Baxter, 44 Ga. 36. 39 Oshko-sh Waterworks Co. v. Oshkosh, 187 U. S. 437, 47 L. ed. 249, affirming 109 Wis. 208, 95 Am. St. Rep. 811, 85 N. W. 376. 40 Mays v. Williams, 27 Ala. 267; Berrett v. Oliver, 7 Gill & J. 191; Harrison v. Styres, 74 N. C. 290. 41 McNealy v. Gregory, 13 Fla. 417. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 388 that contracts the consideration of which was slaves, void. 42 or a statute declaring the consideration of Confederate notes, bonds, or money to he void. 43 So, also, verbal contracts, valid when made, cannot lie invalidated by a subsequent act requiring such contracts to be evidenced by writing, 44 nor can a statute requiring certain contracts to be stamped be applied to con- tracts previously executed. 45 A statute which releases one party from any article of a stipulation is a violation of the obligation; 46 e. g., a statute releasing a sheriff and sureties from liability on an official bond, 47 or releasing sureties on a bail bond after condition broken and an assignment of the bond to the creditor. 48 The sureties on an official bond cannot be held liable for the failure of their principal to discharge the duties of an additional office imposed by a subsequent act, 49 nor can a statute change the liability of sureties from joint to joint and several. 50 A statute releasing a tenant from his 42 Osborn v. Nicholson, 13 Wall. 654, 20 L. ed. 689; Boyce v. Tabb, 18 Wall. 546, 21 L. ed. 757; McElvain v. Mudd, 44 Ala. 48, 4 Am. Eep. 106; Fitzpatrick v. Hearne, 44 Ala. 171, 4 Am. Rep. 128; Eoach v. Gunter, 44 Ala. 209, 4 Am. Rep. 132. 43 Delmas v. Merchants' Ins. Co., 14 Wall. 661, 20 L. ed. 757; Hanauer v. Woodruff, 15 Wall. 439, 21 L. ed. 224; Confederate Note Case, 19 Wall. 548, 22 L. ed. 196; Wilmington etc. R. R. v. King, 91 TJ. S. 3, 23 L. ed. 186; Forseheimer v. Holly, 14 Fla. 239; Roach v. Gunter, 44 Ala. 209, 4 Am. Rep. 132; Hatch v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 439, Fed. Cas. No. 6203; Henderson v. Merchants' Mut. Ins. Co., 25 La. Ann. 343. 4 4 Von Hoffman v. Quincy. 4 Wall. 535, 18 L. ed. 403; Hayes v. Clinkscales, 9 Rich. 441; Richardson v. Cook, 37 Vt. 599, 88 Am. Dec. 622. 45 Hunter v. Cobb, 1 Bush (Ky.), 239. 46 Jones v. Crittenden, 1 Car. Law Rep. 385, 6 Am. Dec. 531; Pool v. Young, 7 Mon. 587; Townsend v. Townsend, Peck (Tenn.), 1, 14 Am. Dec. 722; Greenfield v. Dorris, 1 Sneed, 548. 47 State v. Gatzweiller, 49 Mo. 18, 8 Am. Rep. 119. 48 Lewis v. Brackenridge, 1 Blackf. 220, 12 Am. Dec. 228; Starr v. Robinson, 1 Chip. 257, 6 Am. Dec. 732. 49 Eeynolds v. Hall, 2 111. 35. 50 Fielden v. Lahens, 6 Blatchf. 524, Fed. Cas. No. 4773. 51 Clark v. Ticknor, 49 Mo. 144. 51! Coles v. Celluloid Mfg. Co., 39 N. J. L. 326. 389 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 liability for rent is void, 51 as also is a statute terminating a prior lease upon the destruction of the premises by fire. 52 Degree of Impairment. Under the constitution the obligation of a contract is not to be impaired at all. 53 It is not a question of degree, manner or cause, but of encroaching in any respect on its obligation — dispensing with any part of its force; 54 and any deviation by postponement or acceleration of the period of performance, or imposing conditions not expressed, or dispensing with those expressed, is a violation of the obligation. 55 The slightest vari- ation of the obligation impairs it to that extent and is uncon- stitutional. 56 Instances of su^h variation are: laws compelling a party to do more than his contract requires or enforcing payment be- fore a debt becomes due under a contract; 57 providing for the 53 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 84, 5 L. ed. 547; Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 327, 12 L. ed. 447; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 553, 18 L. ed. 403; Antoni v. Greenhow, 107 U. S. 797, 2 S. Ct. 115, 33 L. ed. 301; United States v. Jefferson County, 1 McCrary, 361, 5 Dill. 315, Fed. Cas. No. 15,472; Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Eichardson, 77 Fed. 398; Phinney v. Phinney, 81 Me. 461, 10 Am. St. Pep. 269, 17 Atl. 407, 4 L. E. A. 348; State v. Young, 29 Minn. 547, 9 N. W. 751; Lessley v. Phipps, 49 Miss. 800; Skinner v. Holt, 9 S. Dak. 434, 62 Am. St. Eep. 883, 69 N. W. 597. 54 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 197, 4 L. ed. 529; Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 84, 5 L. ed. 545; Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 327, 12 L. ed. 447; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357; Von Hoffman v. Quiney, 4 Wall. 553, 4 L. ed. 403; Gault's Appeal, 33 Pa. St. 194; Farnsworth v. Eeeves, 2 Cold. Ill; Winter v. Jones, 10 Ga. 190, 54 Am. Dec. 379; Woodruff v. State, 3 Ark. 285; Commer- cial Bank v. State, 4 Smedes & M. 439. 55 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 84, 5 L. ed. 547; McCracken v. Hay- ward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Eailroad Co. v. Pennsylvania, 15 Wall. 320, 21 L. ed. 179; McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 693, 10 S. Ct. 972, 34 L. ed. 304; New York etc. E. E. Co. v. Pennsylvania. 153 IT. S. 647, 14 S. Ct. 958, 38 L. ed. 846. 56 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 197, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 21, 6 L. ed. 606; Goodale v. Fennell, 27 Ohio St. 432, 22 Am. Eep. 326; People ex rel. v. Otis, 90 N. Y. 52; Blanch- ard v. Eussell, 13 Mass. 1, 7 Am. Dec. 106. 57 Jones v. Crittenden, 1 CaT. L. Eep. 385, 6 Am. Dec. 531; Town- send v. Townsend, Peck (Tenn.), 1, 14 Am. Dec. 721. Art. I, § 10, 01. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 390 of substitute bonds tending to lessen a city's liability; 58 altering a law providing for the assessment of a tax so as to impair bonds issued in reliance upon it; 59 providing that the estate of one jointly liable with another shall not be discharged by his death; 60 authorizing the sale of property free from en- cumbrance before the maturity of a mortgage; 01 providing that all contracts shall be payable in installments; 62 changing a joint bond into a several bond; 63 depriving a creditor of in- terest on an overdue debt; 64 requiring the payment of interest on a debt which did not bear interest ; 65 giving courts and juries power to remit interest; 66 requiring the payment of a higher rate of interest than that allowed when the contract was exe- cuted; 67 authorizing recovery of damages in addition to inter- est; 68 enlarging the liability of a surety by changing the con- tract of his principal; 69 changing the place of payment stipu- lated for the payment of a debt; 70 authorizing a party to sur- render property in full discharge of indebtedness; 71 withdraw- ing the property of a debtor from the operation of legal process of his creditor; 72 authorizing a debtor, by assignment of his 58 Goodale v. Fennell, 27 Ohio St. 432, 22 Am. Rep. 326. 59 Edwards v. Williamson, 70 Ala. 152; County Commissioners v. King, 13 Fla. 476; State v. Young, 29 Minn. 528, 9 N. W. 741. 60 Eandall v. Sackett, 77 N. Y. 482. 61 Eandolph v. Middleton, 26 N. J. Eq. 543. 62 Aycock v. Martin, 37 Ga. 124, 92 Am. Dec. 56; Jacobs v. Small- wood, 63 N. C. 112. 63 Fielden v. Lohens, 6 Blatchf. 524, Fed. Cas. No. 4773. 64 Bleakley v. Williams, 20 Pitts. L. J. 66, 65 Goggins v. Turnipseed, 1 Rick., N. S., 80, 98 Am. Dec. 397, 7 Am. Rep. 23. 66 Roberts v. Cocke, 28 Gratt. 215. 67 Woodruff v. State, 3 Ark. 285; Hubbard v. Callahan, 42 Conn. 524, 19 Am. Rep. 564; Lee v. Davis, 1 A. K. Marsh. 397, 10 Am. Dee. 746; Bryan v. Moore, 1 Minor, 377. 68 Steen v. Finley, 25 Miss. 535. 69 Schuster v. Weiss, 114 Mo. 174, 21 S. W. 443, 19 L. R. A. 182. 70 Bank v. McVeigh, 20 Gratt. 465. 71 Abercrombie v. Baxter, 44 Ga. 36. 7 2 State v. Bank, 1 S. C. 78. 391 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 property, to defeat a levy made thereon within ten days ; 73 pro- viding that indorsers shall be bound without demand, notice or protest. 74 Any act of the legislature in contravention of a compact is an impairment of the obligation of a contract and is void. 75 A declaratory act may be unconstitutional under this clause, as well as any other statute, 76 and a law providing that all future contracts shall be subject to the power of future legisla- tures cannot render the obligation clause inoperative as a pro- tection. 77 Laws not Violating Obligation. A statute which affects the value of a contract does not neces- sarily impair its obligation; so long as the obligation to per- form remains in force, legislation which retroacts on previous contracts and enhances the cost and difficulty of performance or diminishes the value of such performance is constitutional. 78 The states may pass laws which will operate to devest ante- cedent rights if they do not technically impair the obligation of contracts. 79 The legislature may validate past transac- 73 Peninsular etc. v. Union Oil Co., 100 Wis. 492, 76 X. W. 361, 42 L. E. A. 331; Second etc. Bank v. Schranck, 97 Wis. 262, 73 X. W. 35, 39 L. E. A. 569. 74 Farmers' Bank v. Grinnell, 26 Gratt. 131. 75 Green v. Bidclle, 8 Wheat. 84, 5 L. ed. 547; Pennsylvania v. Wheeling etc. Bridge Co., 18 How. 433, 15 L. ed. 449. 76 Dundas v. Bowler, 3 McLean, 397, Fed. Cas. No. 4141; Union Iron Co. v. Pierce, 4 Biss. 327, Fed. Cas. No. 14,367. 77 Green v. Schroeder, 8 Minn. 3S7. 78 Curtis v. Whitney, 13 Wall. 71, 20 L. ed. 513; Hamilton Gaslight Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 268, 13 S. Ct. 93, 36 L. ed. 963; Gria- wold v. Bragg, 18 Blatchf. 208, 48 Fed. 522, 4S Conn. 582. 79 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 386, 1 L. ed. 648; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 110, 8 L. ed. 876; Baltimore etc. E, E. v. Nesbit, 10 How. 395, 13 L. ed. 469; Carpenter v. Pennsylvania, 17 How. 463, 15 L. ed. 127; Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 380, 7 L. ed. 458, affirming 16 Serg. & E. 186; Lewis v. Lewis, 7 How. 784, 12 L. ed. 909; Charle3 Eiv. Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 11 Pet. 420, 9 L. ed. 773; Freeland v. Williams, 131 U. S. 420, 9 S. Ct. 768, 33 L. ed. 193; Albee v. May, 2 Paine, 79, Fed. Cas. Xo. 134; Buckner v. Street, 1 Dill. 254, Fed. Cas. Xo. 209S; Wilson v. HarJesty, 1 Md. Ch. 6S; Coles v. Madison Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 392 tions. 80 A law which gives validity to a void contract cannot he said to impair the obligation of such contract. 81 Accord- ingly the legislature may cure irregularities in conveyances, 82 or mortgages; 83 and laws passed to remedy defective execu- tion of powers are not unconstitutional. 84 Statutes validating defective acknowledgments affect merely evidence of facts and do not impair contract obligations; 85 but such statutes cannot operate to devest the title of third persons not parties to deeds attempted to be corrected. 80 Acts curing defective regis- tration of deeds stand upon the same footing and are valid. 87 Curative statutes in general are not open to objection as im- County, Breese, 156, 12 Am. Dec. 163; Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 10, 18 Am. Eep. 669; Henderson R. R. Co. v. Dickerson, 17 B. Mon. 177, 66 Am. Dec. 149; Cochran v. Van Surlay, 20 Wend. 365, 32 Am. Dec. 570. 80 Leland v. Wilkinson, 10 Pet. 294, 9 L. ed. 430; Pelt v. Payne, 60 Ark. 637, 30 S. W. 426; Dulany v. Tilghman, 6 Gill & J. 473; Wis>- tar v. Foster, 46 Minn. 484, 24 Am. St. Rep. 241, 49 N. W. 247. 81 Satterlee v. Matthewaon, 2 Pet. 380, 7 L. ed. 458, affirming 16 Serg. & R. 186; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 88, 8 L. ed. 876; Hess v. Werts, 4 Serg. & R. 356; Bleakney v. Farmers' Bank, 17 Serg. & R. 64, 17 Am. Dee. 635; Bridgeport v. Railroad Co., 15 Conn. 475; Welsii v. Wadsworth, 30 Conn. 154; Mather v. Chapman, 6 Cow. 57; Central Bank v. Empire S. D. Co., 26 Barb. 23. 82 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 380, 7 L. ed. 458, affirming 16 Serg. & R. 186; Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 88, 8 L. ed. 876; Leland v. Wilkinson, 10 Pet. 294, 9 L. ed. 430; McFadden v. Evans-Snider- Buel Co., 185 TJ. S. 513, 22 S. Ct. 758, 46 L. ed. 1012; Sidway v. Law- son, 58 Ark. 117, 23 S. W. 648; Grove v. Todd, 41 Md. 633, 20 Am. Rep. 76; Ross v. Worthington, 11 Minn. 438, 88 Am. Dec. 95. 83 Gross v. United States Mortgage Co., 108 U. S. 477, 2 S. Ct. 940, 27 L. ed. 795, affirming 93 111. 483. 84 Sohn v. Watterson, 17 Wall. 596, 21 L. ed. 737; Randall v. Kreiger, 23 Wall. 137, 23 L. ed. 124, affirming 2 Dill. 444, Fed. Cas. No. 11,554; Dentzel v. Waldie, 30 Cal. 138. 85 Carpenter v. Dexter, 8 Wall. 525, 19 L. ed. 426; Barnet v. Bar- net, 15 Serg. & R. 72, 16 Am. Dec. 516; Montgomery v. Hobson, 19 Tenn. 437; Alabama Life Ins. Co. v. Baldwin, 38 Ala. 510; Cupp v. Welch, 50 Ark. 294, 7 S. W. 139; Summer v. Mitchell, 29 Fla. 179, 30 Am. St. Rep. 106, 10 South. 562, 14 L. R. A. 815. 86 Grpon v. Drinker, 7 Watts & S. 440. 87 Hughes v. Cannon, 2 Humph. 589; Green v. Goodall, 1 Cold. 404. 393 Obligation op Contkacts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 pairing contract obligations. 88 Accordingly the legislature may pass an act curing defective bond issues; 89 curing defec- tive organization of public or private corporations; 90 curing ir- regularities or want of authority in the levy of taxes; 91 pro- viding for the validation of prior marriages. 02 But the power to pass curative acts to legalize proceedings depends upon the existence of power to authorize such proceedings originally. 93 If a party is not precluded by a statute from enforcing a right or asserting a title, the statute cannot be said to impair a contract obligation. 94 So a statute declaring valid contracts based upon what was deemed an illegal consideration at the time they were made, is constitutional. 95 A law altering the statute of frauds and giving validity to a parol contract has been declared constitutional. 96 The use of the word "void" in a usury statute has been declared to have the force of voidable, and the repeal of such a statute to merely deprive a debtor of his statutory defense. 97 So the repeal of a usury statute vali- dates contracts otherwise unenforceable. 98 And a statute mak- 88 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 412, 7 L. ed. 458; McMasters v. Commonwealth, 3 Watts, 244; Gibson v. Hibbard, 13 Mich. 219. 89 Gelpcke v. Dubuque, 1 Wall. 204, 17 L. ed. 520; Beloit v. Mor- gan, 7 Wall. 624, 19 L. ed. 205; Bridgeport v. Kailroad Co., 15 Conn. 497; Bass v. Columbus, 30 Ga. 851; McMillan v. Lee County, 6 Iowa, 394; Kunkle v. Franklin, 13 Minn. 137, 97 Am. Dec. 226. 90 State v. Squires, 26 Iowa, 348; Shields v. Land Co., 94 Tenn. 148, 45 Am. St. Rep. 716, 28 S. W. .674, 26 L. R. A. 509. 91 Grimm v. Weissenberg School Dist., 57 Pa. St. 433, 98 Am. Dec. 237. 92 Jacquins v. Commonwealth, 63 Mass. 282; Goshen v. Richmond, 86 Mass. 461. 93 Thompson v. Lee County, 3 Wall. 331, 18 L. ed. 177; Kimball v. Rosendale, 42 Wis. 407, 24 Am. Rep. 421. 94 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 595, 19 L. ed. 508. 95 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 412, 7 L. ed. 458; Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 304; Aspinwall v. Commissioners, 22 How. 365, 16 L. ed. 296. 96 Baker v. Herndon, 17 Ga. 568. 97 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 U. S. 149, 2 S. Ct. 414, 27 L. ed. 682. 98 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 U. S. 151, 2 S. Ct. 414, 27 L. ed. 6S2; Wood- ruff v. Scruggs, 27 Ark. 26, 11 Am. Rep. 777; Baugher v. Nelson, Gill, 305, 52 Am. Dec. 698; Andrews v. Russell, 7 Blackf. 475; Grime; Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 394 ing previous payments of usurious interest valid is likewise un- objectionable." A statute reducing the rate of interest pay- able by redemptioners of property sold under mortgages does not impair the obligation of mortgages previously executed. 100 Laws validating defective judgments do not impair contract ob- ligations. 101 Laws requiring the registration of certain instruments are not invalid as to existing contracts if a reasonable time is left in which to comply with them. 102 The legislature may repeal a statute under which certain contracts were illegal, and authorize suits thereon; 103 e. g., a statute repealing a statute prohibiting stock-jobbing and mak- ing contracts in relation thereto void. 104 Days of grace are no part of the original contract expressed in a negotiable instru- ment, and a state may change the rule as to the allowance of grace. 105 An act requiring an oath of loyalty from an attorney v. Doe, 8 Blaekf. 371; Savings Bank v. Bates, 8 Conn. 505; Savings Bank v. Allen, 28 Conn. 97; Welch v. Wadsworth, 30 Conn. 155, 79 Am. Dee.. 239; Nichols v. Gee, 30 Ark. 145; Wilson v. Hardesty, 1 Md. Ch. 68; Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 10, 18 Am. Rep. &69; Curtis v. Leavitt, 15 N. Y. 9. But see Morton v. Rutherford, 18 Wis. 298. 09 Sparks v. Clapper, 30 Ind. 204. 100 Connecticut Mut. Life Ins. Co. v. Cushman, 108 IT. S. 51, 2 S. Ct. 236, 27 L. ed. 648; Eobertson v. Van Cleave, 129 Ind. 217, 26 N. E. 899, 15 L. R. A. 68. But see Hillibert v. Porter, 28 Minn. 496, 11 N. W. 84. 101 Tilton v. Swift, 40 Iowa, 78; Underwood v. Lilly, 10 Serg. &■ R. 97. 102 Jackson v. Lamphire, 3 Pet. 280, 7 L. ed. 679; Vance v. Vance, 108 TJ. S. 514, 2 S. Ct. 854, 27 L. ed. 808; Stafford v. Lick, 7 Cal. 479; Bird v. Keller, 77 Me. 270; Tarpley v. Hamer, 9 Smedes & M. 310; Weil v. State, 46 Ohio St. 450, 21 N. E. 643; Miles v. King, 5 Rich. 146. 103 Milne v. Huber. 3 McLean, 212. Fed. Cas. No. 9617; Hill v. Smith, Morr. 70; Johnson v. Bentley, 16 Ohio, 97; Lewis v. McElvain, 16 Ohio, 347. See, also, Barings v. Dabney, 19 Wall. 1, 22 L. ed. 99; Van Home v. Dorrance, 2 Dall. 304, Fed. Cas. No. 16,S57; Walker v. Tipton, 3 Dana, 3. 104 Washburn v. Franklin, 35 Barb. 599. 105 Barlow v. Gregory, 31 Conn. 268. 395 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 is not an impairment of the obligation of a contract. 1053 Betterment laws, allowing ejected occupants of land to recover for improvements, are also valid. 100 The legislature may enact such laws as have for their object the application to public use of the property of any member of the community/ 07 provided a fair and just equivalent is awarded to the owner. 108 A law may be good in part and bad in part; it may be bad as to past, and good as to future, trans- actions. 109 A law passed before a contract is made cannot be said to impair the obligation of that contract, 110 and the legis- lature may pass a declaratory statute, which, although inoper- ative as to past transactions, may be effective as to future con- tracts. 111 So a law may prohibit the making of contracts of certain kinds. 112 The repeal of a statute is no more void than a new law would be which would operate on the contract to 105a State v. Garesche, 36 Mo. 256. 106 Albee v. May, 2 Paine, 74, Fed. Cas. No. 134; Griswold v. Bragg, 48 Fed. 519; Bacon v. Callender, 6 Mass, 303; Lunrb v. Pinck- ney, 21 S. C. 471; Brown v. Storm, 4 Vt. 37; Pacquette v. Picknesj, 19 Wis. 219. 107 Young v. MeKenzie, 3 Ga. 31; Jackson v. Linn, 4 Litt. 323; Beekman v. Kailroad Co., 3 Paige, 45, 22 Am. Dec. 679; Bloodgood v. Eailroad Co., 18 Wend. 9, 31 Am. Dec. 313. 108 People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195, 8 Am. Dec. 362; Bonaparte v. Camden etc. Co., 1 Bald. 220, Fed. Cas. No. 1617. 109 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 213, 6 L. ed. 606; Berry v. Haines, 2 Car. Law Eep. 428; Commonwealth v. Kimball, 24 Pick. 359, 35 Am. Dec. 326; Norris v. Boston, 45 Mass. 282; State v. Paul, 5 E. I. 185; Berry v. Iseman, 14 Eich. 129, 91 Am. Dec. 262; State v. Newton, 59 Ind. 173. no Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; Eailroad Co. *7. McClure, 10 Wall. 515, 19 L. ed. 997; Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 600, 24 L. ed. 793; Provident Inst. etc. v. Mayor, 113 U. S. 515, 5 S. C.t. 612, 2S L. ed. 1102; Lehigh Water Co. v. Easton, 121 U. 3. 391, 7 S. Ct, 916, 30 L. ed. 1059; Pinney v. Nelson, 183 U. S. 147, 22 S. Ct. 52, 46 L. ed. 125; Moore v. Fowler, Hemp. 536, Fed. Cas. No. 9761; Blair v. Williams, 4 Litt. 34; Eoby v. Boswell, 23 Ga. 51; Powers v. Dougherty, 23 Ga. 65; Sparrow v. Eailroad Co., 7 Ind. 369; Davis v. Bronson, 6 Iowa, 410; Burns v. Crawford, 34 Mo. 330. in Postmaster General v. Early, 12 Wheat. 14S, 6 L. ed. 577. 112 Churchman v. Martin, 54 Ind. 380. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 39G affect its validity, construction or duration, but it cannot affect past contracts. 113 So the repeal of a law regulating the manner in which notice of protest of negotiable paper shall be given does not impair the obligation of any contract, 114 and the repeal of a statute making certain contracts unassignable is not unconstitutional as to prior contracts, since the obligations of such contracts are in nowise changed nor their terms affected. 115 Relation of Obligation and Remedy. Eemedies for the enforcement of a contract existing at the time of its execution enter into, and form a material part of, the obli- gation of the contract, which the state may not so change as to im- pair a substantial right. 116 A statute can no more impair the ef- ficacy of a contract by changing the remedy given for its enforce- ment than by attacking its vitality in any other way. 117 If the obligation is impaired it is immaterial how such a result is ac- complished, whether by acting on the remedy or directly on the contract itself. 118 A party has a right at all times to some adequate and available remedy, 119 and so an act denying all remedy is unconstitutional. 120 So where the legal obligation 113 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 1, 6 L. ed. 23; Atwater v. Wool- bridge, 6 Conn. 223; Osborne v. Humphreys, 7 Conn. 335; Landon v. Litchfield, 11 Conn. 251. 114 Levering v. Washington, 3 Minn. 323; but see Farmers' Bank of Virginia v. Grinnell, 26 Gratt. 131. us Harlan v. Sigler, 1 Morr. 39; Ford v. Hale, 1 T. B. Mon. 23. 116 Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 535, 18 L. ed. 403; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357; Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 610, 21 L. ed. 212; Peninsular Iron Works v. Union etc. Co., 100 Wis. 483, 69 Am. St. Rep. 934, 76 N. W. 359, 42 L. E. A. 331; Johnson v. Hig- gins, 3 Met. (Ky.) 566; Beverly v. Barnitz, 55 Kan. 466, 49 Am. St. Rep.' 257, 42 Pac. 723, 31 L. R. A. 74; Cochran v. D'Arcy, 5 Ricn. 125; Spangler v. Green, 21 Colo. 505, 52 Am. St. Rep. 259, 42 Pac. 674. 117 Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357. 118 Skinner v. Holt, 9 S. Dak. 427, 62 Am. St. Rep. 878, 69 N. W. 595; Beverly v. Barnitz, 55 Kan. 466, 49 Am. St. Rep. 257, 42 Pac. 725,' 31 L. R. A. 74; Spangler v. Green, 21 Colo. 505, 52 Am. St. Rep. 259. 42 Pac. 674. 119 Coffman v. Bank. 40 Miss. 29, 90 Am. Dec. 311. 120 West v. Sansom, 44 Ga. 295. 397 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 is diminished, suspended or destroyed by relaxing or abolishing the legal remedy, the obligation of the contract is impaired. 121 The validity and remedy of a contract are inseparable; 122 without the remedy, the contract in the sense of law ceases to exist, and one of the tests as to whether a contract has been im- paired is whether its value has been diminished; 123 and if the law is so changed that the means of enforcing it are materially unpaired, the obligation of the contract no longer remains the same. 124 This result may be accomplished by taking away a remedy entirely, 125 or by burdening the proceedings by new conditions or restrictions. 126 121 McCraeken v. Hayward, 2 How. 612, 11 L. ed. 397; Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 27. 122 Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 535, 18 L. ed. 403; Scaine v. Belleville, 39 N. J. 10. 123 Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 552, 18 L. ed. 403; Ochiltree v. Eailroad Co., 21 Wall. 252, 22 L. ed. 546; Kring v. Missouri, 107 U. S. 233, 2 S. Ct. 443, 27 L. ed. 506; Bobert v. Coco, 25 La. Ann. 199; Lessley v. Pliipps, 49 Mo. 790; Commissioners' Court v. Bather, 48 Ala. 433; Adams v. Creen, 100 Ala. 218, 14 South. 54; Biggs v. Martin, 5 Ark. 50G, 41 Am. Dec. 103; Davis v. Pierse, 7 Minn. 13, 82 Am. Dec. 65. 124 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; McCraeken v. Hayward, 2 How. 612, 11 L. ed. 397; Gantly v. Ewing, 3 How. 717, 11 L. ed. 794; Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 304, 14 L. ed. 705; Butz v. Muscatine, 8 Wall. 583, 19 L. ed. 490; Walker v. Whitehead, 10 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357; Olcott v. Supervisors, 16 Wall. 678, 21 L. ed. 382; Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 623, 21 L. ed. 212; Jackson v. Lamp- hire, 3 Pet. 280, 7 L. ed. 679; Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 601, 24 L. ed. 793; Memphis v. United States, 97 U. S. 295, 24 L. ed. 920; Taylor v. Stearns, 18 Gratt. 244; Nevitt v. Bank, 14 Miss. 513; Vou Baumbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559, 76 Am. Dec. 283; Woodruff v. Scruggs, 27 Ark. 26, 11 Am. Bep. 777; Smith v. Morse, 2 Cal. 524; Watkinj v. Glenn, 55 Kan. 417, 40 Pac. 316; Webster v. Eose, 6 Heisk. 93, 19 Am. Bep. 583. 125 Woodruff v. Trapnall. 10 How. 190, 13 L. ed. 383; Eichmond E. E. Co. v. Louisiana B. E. Co., 13 How. 71, 14 L. ed. 5'5; Bingham- ton Bridge Case, 3 Wall. 51, 18 L. ed. 137; East Hartford v. Hartford Bridge Co., 10 How. 535, 13 L. ed. 518; Boston etc. E. E. Co. v. Salem etc. B. E. Co., 2 Gray, 1; Piscataqua Bridge v. New Haven Bridgo Co., 7 N". H. 35; Brewster v. Hough, 10 N. H. 138; Johnson v. Dun- car. 3 Mart. 531, 6 Am. Dec. 75. 126 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; McCraeken r. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 398 Power of Legislature Over Remedy. While the obligation of a contract may be impaired as ef- fectually by striking at the remedy, and the states are pro- hibited from impairing that obligation under the guise of regu- lating the remedy, yet a violation of the obligation is not nec- essarily implied from a reasonable change in the mode of en- forcing the contract. 127 Unless it substantially lessens the rights of the parties, 128 the change must necessarily embody the intent of the parties. 129 As has been said, the remedy for the enforcement of a con- tract forms a material part of its obligation, and the existence of a remedy is essential to the value of a contract, but the remedy constitutes no part of the contract itself, and may be changed or modified at the will of the legislature, 130 and this power of the legislature to regulate the remedy and modes of proceeding for the enforcement of a contract is subject only to the restriction that it cannot be so exercised as to take away Hayward, 2 How. 612, 11 L. ed. 397; Curran v. Arkansas. 15 How. 304, 14 L. ed. 705; Biggs v. Martin, 5 Ark. 506, 41 Am. Dec. 103; Mundy v. Monroe, 1 Mich. 68; Commercial Bank etc. v. Chambers, 8 Smedes & M. (Miss.) 9; Penrose v. Eeed, 2 Grant, 472; West Sav- ings Fund v. Philadelphia, 31 Pa. St. 175; Putnam v. Bond, 15 Wis. 20. 127 Mason v. Haile, 12 Wheat. 370, 6 L. ed. 660; Templeton v. Home, 82 111. 491; Bader v. S. E. "Road Dist., 37 X. J. 273; Baldwin v. Newark, 38 N. J. 160; Billings v. Eiggs, 56 111. 483. 128 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 122, 4 L. ed. 529; Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 190, 13 L. ed. 383; Hawthorne v. Calef, 2 Wall. 10, 17 L. ed, 776; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357. 129 Commercial Bank v. State, 12 Miss. 439. 130 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 200, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 262, 284, 349, 6 L. ed. 606; Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 315, 11 L. ed. 143; Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 623, 21 L. ed. 212; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 318, 21 L. ed. 357; Hill v. Merchants' Ins. Co., 134 U. S. 527, 10 S. Ct. 589, 33 L. ed. 994; Woodhull v. Wagner, 1 Baldw. 298, 301, Fed. Cas. No. 17,975; Towne v. Smith, 1 Wood & M. 130, 131, Fed Cas. No. 14,115; McCormick v. Eusch, 15 Iowa, 136, 83 Am. Dec. 408; In re Penni- man, 11 E. I. 33S, 341; Lowden v. Moses, 3 McCord, 102; Woodfin v. Hopper, 4 Humph. 21; Baldwin v. Newark, 38 N. J. L. 158; Neass V. Mercer, 15 Barb. 318; People v. Carpenter, 46 Barb. 619. 399 Obligatiox of Contracts. Art. I, § 10. CI. 1 all remedy upon the contract or impose burdens or restrictions which will materially impair its value. 131 Thus the legislature may alter, modify, or even take away a remedy, 132 provided a substantial remedy is left, 133 or provided a new, adequate and efficacious remedy is substituted. 134 A statute may give a remedy not already existing, 135 and this notwithstanding the new remedy may be less convenient, or more tardy or difficult. 136 Where, however, the application of the new remedy is so expensive and difficult as to render it valueless and inoperative the prohibition applies and the stat- ute is void. 137 If a remedy given be as good as that taken 131 Tennessee v. Sneed, 96 TJ. S. 74, 24 L. ed. 610; Terry v. Ander- son, 95 TJ. S. 637, 24 L. ed. 365; South Carolina v. Gaillard, 101 TJ. S. 438, 25 L. ed. 937; Briscoe v. Anketell, 28 Miss. 361, 61 Am. Dec. 553; Van Rensselaer v. Eead, 26 N. Y. 55S; Ward v. Hubbard, 6 J Tex. 559. 132 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 200, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 349, 6 L. ed. 606; Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 535, 18 L. ed. 403; Crawford v. Branch Bank of Mobile, 7 How. 279, 12 L. ed. 700; Kenyon v. Stewart, 44 Pa. St. 179; Stocking v. Hunt, 3 Denio, 274; Corner v. Miller, 1 Bank. Eeg. 99; In re Jordan, 8 Bank. Reg. 186, Fed. Cas. No. 7514; Bruce v. Schuyler, 4 Gilm. 221, 46 Am. Dec. 447; Wood v. Child, 20 111. 209; Read v. Frankfort Bank, 23 Mo. 318; Penrose v. Erie Canal Co., 56 Pa. St. 46, 93 Am. Dec. 778; Lord v. Chadbourne, 42 Me. 429, 66 Am. Dec. 290; Mason v. Waitc, 5 111. 134; Evans v. Montgomery, 4 Watts & S. 218; Conkey v. Hart, 14 N. Y. 22. 133 Cutts v. Hardee, 38 Ga. 350; Lockhart v. Usry, 28 Ga. 345; State v. Judge, 12 La. 352; State v. Assessors, 43 N. J. L. 338. 134 Louisiana v. Pillsbury, 105 TJ. S. 301, 26 L. ed. 1090; Poin- dexter v. Greenhow, 114 TJ. S. 303, 5 S. Ct. 962, 29 L. ed. 1S5; City etc. R, R, Co. v. Xew Orleans, 157 TJ. S. 224, 15 S. Ct. 581, 39 L. ed. 679. 135 Freeborn v. Smith, 2 Wall. 175, 17 L. ed. 922; Foster v. Esses; Bank, 16 Mass. 245; Rich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 325; Schenley v. Commonwealth, 36 Pa. St. 29, 78 Am. Dec. 359; Hepburn v. Curts, 7 Watts, 300, 32 Am. Dec. 760; Wheat v. State, Minor, 199; Blann v. State, 39 Ala. 353, 84 Am. Dec. 788. 136 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; Guild v. Rogers, 8 Barb. 502; Kirkman v. Bird, 22 Utah, 100, 61 Pac. 338, S3 Am. St. Eep. 774, 58 L. R. A. 669. 137 Riggs v. Martin, 5 Ark. 506, 41 Am. De-. 103. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 400 away no contract obligation is impaired. 138 If, when a con- tract was in ado, there was no legal remedy for its enforcement, the legislature may, without impairing its obligation, repeal a statute subsequently passed providing a remedy. 139 A mere change in one of two remedies does not impair any contract ob- ligation, 140 and this is true in case of a law abolishing abso- lutely one of two remedies. 141 So where the law has conferred an extraordinary remedy on a certain class of creditors a stat- ute abolishing that remedy and leaving the ordinary remedy for the collection of debts, is constitutional. 142 Although a particular remedy is agreed upon in a contract, a law substi- tuting another equally efficacious remedy is unobjectionable; 143 but this is not true where the remedy provided at the inception of a contract is absolutely essential to the contract, and the legislature cannot abrogate it. 144 So long as contracts are sub- mitted to the ordinary and regular course of justice, and ex- isting remedies are substantially preserved, the obligation of the contracts is not impaired, 145 and a mere alteration in the remedy gives no ground for objection. 143 So the remedy for the enforcement of a right may be changed from equity to law, 138 Mason v. Haile, 12 Wheat. 370, 6 L. ed. 660; Louisiana v. New Orleans, 102 IT. S. 203, 26 L. ed. 132; New Orleans v. Morris, 3 Wood-;, 115, Fed. Cas. No. 10,183; Milne v. Huber, 3 McLean, 212, Fed. Gas. No. 9617; Brandon v. Gaines, 7 Humph. 130; Simmons v. Hanover, 40 Mass. 188; Commercial Bank v. State, 12 Miss. 439; Wheat v. State, Minor, 199; Davis v. Ballard, 1 J. J. Marsh. 563; McMillan v. Sprague, 4 How. (Miss.) 647, 35 Am. Dec. 412; Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47; Townsend v. Townsend, Peck (Tenn.), 1, 14 Am. Dec. 722. 139 Young v. Oregon, 1 Or. 213. 140 Hey ward v. Judd, 4 Minn. 483. 141 Watts v. Everett, 47 Iowa, 269; State v. Gaillard, 9 Rep. 725. 142 Stocking v. Hunt, 3 Denio, 274. 143 Conkey v. Hart, 14 N. Y. 22. 144 Thompson v. Commonwealth, 81 Pa. St. 314. 145 Holmes v. Lansing, 3 Johns. Cas. 73. 14G Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 190, 13 L. ed. 383; Hawthorne v. Calef, 2 Wall. 10, 17 L. ed. 776; Morse v. Goold, 11 N. Y. 281; Jones v. Davis, 6 Nev. 33; Richardson v. Akin, 87 111. 141; Templeton v. Home, 82 III. 491; Cox v. Berry, 13 Ga. 306. 401 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 or vice versa. 147 and mere incidental delay following from a general law does not impair the remedy. 148 The states may pass remedial laws which are retrospective, 149 but not such as impair vested rights, or create personal liabil- ities, or impose new obligations or duties. 150 The sole fact that such a law purports to be retrospective in its operation is no objection to it. 151 The giving of an additional remedy for the enforcement of a contract or debt is not objectionable under the obligation clause, 152 especially where the new remedy simply tends to make enforcement more speedy and certain. 153 So a state may give an additional and more summary remedy for breach of contract, if it does not thereby enlarge the obli- gation; e. g., by mandamus. 154 A statute authorizing an at- tachment on a claim not yet due does not contravene this clause, 155 nor does a statute providing a more efficacious and speedy remedy for the collection of a claim for labor per- 147 Paschal v. Whit sell, 11 Ala. 472; Bethune v. Dougherty, 30 Ga. 770; Baugher v. Nelson, 9 Gill, 299; Bartlett v. Lang, 2 Ala. 401. 148 Eathbone v. Bradford, 1 Ala. 312; Jones v. Crittenden, 1 Car. Law Bep. 385, 6 Am. Dec. 531; Townsend v. Townsend, Peck (Tenn.), 1, 14 Am. Dec. 722; Wood v. Wood, 14 Bich. 148. 149 Freeborn v. Smith, 2 Wall. 175, 17 L. ed. 922; Foster v. Essex Bank, 16 Mass. 245; Bich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 304; Searcy v. Stubbs, 12 Ga. 437; Johnson v. Boockogy, 23 Ga. 183. 150 Brandon v. Gaines, 7 Humph. 130; Bich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 304; De Cordova v. Galveston, 4 Tex. 470; Hope v. Johnson, 2 Yerg. 125; Van Zandt v. Waddell, 2 Yerg. 260; Coffin v. Bich, 45 Me. 507, 71 Am. Dec. 559; Kennebec Purch. v. Laboree, 2 Me. 275. 151 United States v. Samperyac, 1 Hemp. 118. 152 Hope v. Johnson, 2 Yerg. 125. 153 Bichardson v. Akin, 87 111. 138; Chapin v. Billings, 91 111. 539; State v. New Orleans City etc. By. Co., 42 La. Ann. 550, 7 South. 606; Litchfield v. Verncon, 41 N. Y. 123; Brown v. Brittain, 84 N. C. 552; Winn v. Bowles, 6 Munf. 23; Paine v. Woodworth, 15 Wis. 298. 154 New Orleans etc. B. B. Co. v. Louisiana, 157 U. S. 224, 15 S. Ct. 581, 39 L. ed. 679; Union Street By. Co. v. Snow, 168 U. S. 707, 18 S. Ct. 948, 42 L. ed. 1214; Bed Eiver Valley Bank v. Craig, 18J. U. S. 558, 21 S. Ct. 703, 45 L. ed. 994. 155 Mosher v. Bay Circuit Judge, 108 Mich. 503, 66 N. W. 384. Notes on Constitution — 26 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 402 formed. 156 A statute may change the remedies available be- fore judgment, but not those after judgment so as to materially affect rights under a contract, 157 and if the change materially affects rights and interests it is so far a violation of the obliga- tion. 138 The grant of a new remedy by way of review is valid, 159 and the state may provide for new trials and create new tribunals of review, in order to detect fraudulent grants or reverse fraudulent judgments, without impairing contract obligations. 160 The state may suspend the remedy for the en- forcement of a contract in time of war and other controlling circumstances; such a statute conduces to the administration of justice. 161 What not an Impairment of Kemedy. The right to imprison for debt is never part of a contract and a law abolishing such imprisonment does not impair any ob- ligation, 162 such a law bars arrest upon a judgment debt, 163 and bail bonds in effect at the time of its passage are thereby discharged. 164 A statute may take away the remedy by at- 156 Paine v. Woodworth, 15 Wis. 298. 157 Oliver v. McClure, 28 Ark. 555; Woods v. Buie, 5 How. (Miss.) 285; Lockhart v. Usry, 28 Ga. 345; Read v. Frankfort Bank, 23 Me. 318; Oriental Bank v. Freeze, IS Me. 109, 36 Am. Dec. 701. 158 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 1, 5 L. ed. 547; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 535, 18 L. ed. 403; Billings v. Riggs, 56 111. 4S3. 159 Stephens v. Cherokee Nation, 174 U. S. 478, 19 S. Ct. 722, 43 L. ed. 1041. 160 League v. De Young, 11 How. 202, 203, 13 L. ed. 657; Herman v. Phalen, 14 How. 79. But see In re Handley's Estate, 15 Utah, 212, 62 Am. St. Eep. 926, 49 Pac. 829. 161 Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 531, 6 Am. Dec. 75; Ex parte Pollard, 40 Ala. 77. 162 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 200, 4 L. ed. 529; Beers v. Houghton, 9 Pet. 359, 9 L. ed. 145; Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 553; Penniman's Case, 103 TJ. S. 717, 26 L. ed. 602; Woodhull v. Wagner, 1 Baldw. 298, Fed. Cas. No. 17,975; Towne v. Smith, 1 Wood. & M. 130, Fed. Cas. No. 14,115; McCormick v. Rusch, 15 Iowo, 136, 83 Am. Dec. 40S; In re Penniman, 11 R. I. 338; Lowden v. Moses, 3 McCord, 102; Woodfin v. Hopper, 4 Humph. 21. 163 In re Nichols, 8 R. I. 55; Ex parte Hardy, 68 Ala. 318. 164 Mason v. Haile, 12 Wheat. 378, 6 L. ed. 660; Beers v. Hough- 403 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 tachment, 165 or may provide for amendments in attachment suits. 166 Attachment laws do not impair the obligation of con- tracts between the garnishee and the debtor, 167 and a statute authorizing attachments may apply to actions commenced be- fore its passage. 168 The legislature may deprive a plaintiff in ejectment of the right to recover mesne profits in that form of action, 169 or may provide that judgments in ejectment shall not be rendered until improvements are paid for. 170 The remedies provided for the enforcement of contracts of lease are no part of those contracts; accordingly the remedy of forcible entry and detainer may be abrogated without affecting any obliga- tion, 171 and, a fortiori, a statute giving a speedier remedy for unlawful detention would be constitutional. 172 A statute ex- tending the provisions of a law relative to the remedies avail- able to landlords to grants or leases in fee reserving rent does not impair the obligation of grants and leases made prior to its passage. 173 The remedy of distress for rent is not an es- sential part of the contract contained in a lease, and it may be abrogated by statute, provided a substantial remedy is left, 174 and such a statute is invalid only as to cases where the right to distrain had accrued before its enactment. 175 ton, 9 Pet. 359, 9 L. ed. 145; Newton v. Tibbatts, 7 Ark. 153; Towsey v. Avery, 11 Ohio, 93; Bronson v. Newberry, 2 Doug. (Mich.) 47. 165 Darnley v. State Bank, 15 Ark. 16; Krebs v. State Bank, io Ark. 19; Allis v. State Bank, 15 Ark. 19; Leathers v. Shipbuilders' Bank, 40 Me. 386; Bigelow v. Pritehard, 38 Mass. 169. But see Peninsular etc. Works v. Union etc. Co., 100 Wis. 488, 69 Am. St. Eep. 934, 76 N. W. 359, 42 L. E. A. 331. 166 Knight v. Dorr, 36 Mass. 48. 167 Philbrick v. Philbrick, 39 N. H. 468; Klaus v. City, 34 Wis. 628. 16S Coosa Eiver S. Co. v. Barclay, 30 Ala. 120. 169 Society for the Propagation etc. v. Town of Pawlet, 4 Pet. 509, 7 L. ed. 927. 170 Griswold v. Bragg, 18 Blatchf. 202, 48 Fed. 519. 171 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 595, 19 L. ed. 508. 172 Brubaker v. Poage, 1 T. B. Mon. 123, 128. 173 Van Eensselaer v. Smith, 27 Barb. 104. 174 Guild v. Kogers, 8 Barb. 502; Van Eensselaer v. Snyder, 13 N. Y. 299; Conkey v. Hart, 14 N. Y. 22. 175 Madland v. Benland, 24 Minn. 372. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation or Contracts. 404 "Without impairing any contract obligation the legislature may pass an act curing defective levies and sales under execu- tion, 176 or mitigate the severity of the penalties in bonds, 177 or may extend the time for the advertisement of mortgage sales, 178 or diminish the period for publication of notices of foreclosure, 179 or may give to debtors the right to procure obli- gations of their creditors and use them as setoffs. 180 So, also, the legislature may change the remedy on a judgment, 181 may repeal a judgment tax as to judgments on torts, 182 or may abolish judgment ' liens, 1 82a or may alter the remedy for the enforcement of forfeiture of corporate charters. 183 A guardian and his bondsmen have no vested right in the remedy on bonds existing when the bond was executed and a change in such remedy is unobjectionable. 184 A change in the law prescribing the order of payment of debts of decedents likewise impairs no contract obligation or vested right. 185 A provision that in money judgments the decree shall be for the judgment and interest is valid, 186 and the legislature may require creditors of corporations to act or be bound by the action of other creditors ; such a requirement goes only to the remedy for the recovery of their claims. 187 176 Mather v. Chapman, 6 Conn. 54; Beach v. Walker, 6 Conn. 190,. Norton v. Pettibone, 7 Conn. 319, 18 Am. Dec. 116; Booth v. Booth, 7 Conn. 350; Menges v. Wertman, 1 Pa. St. 218; Bell v. Boberts, 13 Vt. 582; Selsby v. Eedlon, 19 Wis. 17. 177 Wood v. Kennedy, 19 Ind. 68; Potter v. Sturdevant, 4 Me. 154. 17S Von Banmbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559, 76 Am. Dee. 283; Stark- weather v. Hawes, 10 Wis. 125. 179 Hopkins v. Jones, 22 Ind. 310; Webb v. Moore, 25 Ind. 4. 180 Amy v. Shelby County Taxing District, 114 U. S. 393, 5 S. Ct. 895, 29 L. ed. 172; Vermont State Bank v. Porter, 5 Day, 316. 181 Williams v. Waldo, 14 111. 264; Grosvenor v. Chesley, 48 Me. 369; Sprott v. Eeid, 3 G. Greene, 489. 182 Louisiana v. New Orleans, 109 U. S. 285, 3 S. Ct. 211, 27 L. ed. 936. 182a Moore v. Holland, 16 S. Ct. 15. 183 Aurora T. Co. v. Holthouse, 7 fml. 59. 184 Winslow v. People, 117 111.152, 7 N. E. 135. 185 McLure v. Melton, 24 S. C. 559, 5S Am. Eep. 272. 186 Fleming v. Holt, 12 W. Va. 144. 187 Gilfillan v. Union Canal Co., 109 U. S. 404, 3 S. Ct. 304, 27 L. ed. 977, affirming 93 Pa. St. 95. 405 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 An act compelling the acceptance of anything but the stipu- lated payment impairs the obligation of a contract, and where a creditor is entitled to payment in lawful money the legisla- ture cannot deprive him of that right. 188 So where existing law permits the recovery of interest on overdue coupons, a sub- sequent law declaring interest not recoverable upon interest is inapplicable to such existing contracts; 189 but the discretion exercised by the legislature in prescribing what damages, by way of interest, for delay must be allowed in the payment of judgments is based upon reasons of public policy, and is out- side the sphere of private contracts. 190 So, also, an act provid- ing for the forfeiture of land by judicial proceeding for non- payment of interest is no part of the purchasers contract, and a subsequent act providing for forfeiture without judicial pro- ceeding impairs no obligation. 191 Where a deed of trust au- thorizes the trustee to sell upon default in payment of certain notes, the sale cannot be suspended by statute for a fixed term. 192 Acts changing remedies of or against corporations are not repugnant to the obligation clause; e. g., an act giving a corporation a summary remedy by a proceeding in the nature of attachment against its debtors; 19 -" a law changing the mode of administering a remedy provided in a charter; 194 a law authorizing a bank to sue in its own name upon notes given to the cashier for its use; 195 a law providing for the single liability of stockholders, 196 or changing the remedy for enforc- ing stockholder's liability, 197 or a law changing the method of serving process on corporations. 198 188 Blount v. Windley, 95 U. S. 179, 24 L. ed. 424. 189 Koshkonong v. Burton, 104 TJ. S. 679, 26 L. ed. 886. 190 Morley v. Lake Shore etc. By., 146 U. S. 171, 13 S. Ct. 54, 36 L. ed. 925. 191 Wilson v. Standefer, 184 U. S. 409, 46 L. ed. 612. 192 Tayler v. Stearns, 18 Gratt. 244. 193 Bank of Columbia v. Okely, 4 Wheat. 243, 4 L. ed. 559. 194 Bank of Columbia v. Okely,- 4 Wheat. 245, 4 L. ed. 559. 195 Crawford v. Bank of Mobile, 7 How. 282, 12 L. ed. 700. 196 Ochiltree v. Eailroad, 21 Wall. 255, 22 L. ed. 546. 197 Fourth Nat. Bank v. Francklyn, 120 U. S. 755, 7 S. Ct. 757, 30 L. ed. 825. 198 Eailroad Co. v. Hecht, 95 U. S. 170, 24 L. ed. 423. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 406 Acts of Limitation. Statutes of limitation affect only the remedy given for the enforcement of contracts and not the merits; 199 they rather establish that certain circumstances shall amount to evidence that a contract has been performed than dispense with its per- formance. 200 Being part of the remedy, statutes of limitation may be modified by shortening the time prescribed at the will of the legislature, provided'a reasonable time is left for the com- mencement of an action before the bar takes effect. 201 The reasonableness of the time allowed for bringing actions on exist- ing contracts is the true test of the validity of such statutes, 202 199 Brent v. Bank of Washington, 10 Pet. 617, 9 L. ed. 547; Town- send v. Jemison, 9 How. 413, 13 L. ed. 194; Campbell v. Holt, 115 U. S. 626, 6 S. Ct. 209, 29 L. ed. 483. 200 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 "Wheat. 207, 4 L. ed. 529. 201 Jackson v. Lanrphire>, 3 Pet. 290, 7 L. ed. 679; Hawkins v. Barney, 5 Pet. 468, 8 L. ed. 190; Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 315, il L. ed. 143; McCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 613, 11 L. ed. 397; Phalen v. Virginia, 8 How. 168, 12 L. ed. 1030; Terry v. Anderson, 95 U. S. 632, 24 L. ed. 365; Koshkonong v. Burton, 104 U. S. 675, 26 L. ed. 886; Vance v. Vance, 108 U. S. 521, 2 S. Ct. 859, 27 L. ed. 808; Christmas v. Eussell, 5 Wall. 290, 18 L. ed. 475; Sohn v. Wattexson, 17 Wall. 596, 21 L. ed. 737; Mitchell v. Clark, 110 U. S. 643, 4 S. Ct. 170, 2S L. ed. 279; Wheeler v. Jackson, 137 U. S. 255, 11 S. Ct. 76, 34 L. ed. 659; Turner v. New York, 168 U. S. 94, IS S. Ct. 38, 42 L. ed. 392; Samples v. Bank, 1 Woods, 523, Fed. Cas. No. 12,278; Barker v. Jackson, 1 Paine, 559, Fed. Cas. No. 989; Cleveland Ins. Co. v. Reed, 1 Biss. 1S6, Fed. Cas. No. 2S89; Griffin v. McKenzie, 7 Ga. 166, 50 Am. Dec. 391; Blackford v. Peltier, 1 Blackf. 36; Lewis v. Harbin, 5 B. Mon. 567; Louisville etc. E. R. Co. v. Williams, 41 S. W. 287; Mason v. Walker, 14 Me. 166; State v. Jones, 21 Md. 438; Briscoe v. Anketell, 28 Miss. 371, 61 Am. Dec. 555; Stephens v. Bank, 43 Mo. 389; Smith v. Tuekor, 17 N. J. 86; Morse v. Goold, 11 N. Y. 288, 62 Am. Dec. 107; Strickland v. Draughan, 91 N. C. 104; Pearce v. Patton, 7 B. Mon. 162, 45 Am. Dec. 61; Stearns v. Gittings, 23 111. 387; Newland v. Marsh, 19 111. 376; McKenny v. Compton, 18- Ga. 170; George v. Gardner, 49 Ga. 441; Butler v. Palmer, 1 Hill, 324; State v. Bermudez, 12 La. 352; De Cordova v. Galveston, 4 Tex. 470;' Coffman v. Bank of Kentucky, 40 Miss. 29, 90 Am. Dec. 311; Adamson v. Marshall, 47 Mo. 273; Billings v. Hall, 7 Cal. 1; Henry v. Henry, 31 S. C. 1, 9 S. E. 726; Eelyea v. Tomahawk Paper etc. Co., 102 Wis. 301, 72 Am. St. Eep. 878, 7S N. W. 412. 202 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 705, 10 S. Ct. 985, 34 L. ed. 304. 407 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 and this reasonableness is to be determined in the first instance by the legislature, 203 subject to final determination by the courts whether the legislature has committed palpable error. 204 If a statute fails to fix the time as to existing cases the ques- tion is for the courts to determine. 205 In determining whether the time remaining is reasonable all the circumstances must be taken into consideration, 206 and to invalidate the law it must appear that its unmistakable purpose and effect is to cut off the right of the party and not merely to limit the time. 207 The fact that a substantial remedy remains is determinative of the validity of the law. 208 A" limitation of one year in which to present tax receivable coupons, where there was originally no limitation, has been held unreasonable, 209 and a similar limitation on municipal bonds for negotiation in a foreign market has been declared void; 210 but a limitation of one year for exhibiting claims for damages assessed in condemnation proceedings has been up- held as reasonable. 211 A limitation of six months after the passage of an act, within which actions to redeem lands sold to the state for nonpayment of taxes may be brought is not repugnant to the obligation clause, 212 and an act which con- clusively presumes the release and extinguishment of an irre- deemable ground rent on which no payment or demand has 203 Terry v. Anderson, 95 U. S. 633, 24 L. ed. 365; Wilson V. Iseminger, 185 U. S. 62, 22 S. Ct. 573, 46 L. ed. 804. 204 Parmenter v. State, 135 N. Y. 167, 31 N. E. 1069; Merchants' Nat. Bank v. Braithwaite, 7 N. Dak. 358, 66 Am. St. Eep. 653, 75 N. W. 244; Pereles v. Watertown, 6 Biss. 79. And see Smith v. Morrison, 39 Mass. 430. 205 Merchants' Nat. Bank v. Braithwaite, 7 N. Dak. 358, 66 Am. St. Eep. 653, 75 N. W. 244. 206 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S. 705, 10 S. Ct. 905, 34 L. ed. 304; Berry v. Bansdall, 4 Met. (Ky.) 294; Eakin v. Eaub, 12 Serg. & E. 372. But see Pope v. Ashley, 13 Ark. 268. 207 Eexford v. Knight, 11 N. Y. 308. 208 Von Baumbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559, 76 Am. Dec. 283. 209 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 U. S .705, 10 S. Ct. 905, 34 L. ed. 304. 210 Pereles v. Watertown, 6 Biss. 79, Fed. Cas. No. 10,980. 211 Eexford v. Knight, 11 N. Y. 308. 212 Turner v. New York, 168 U. S. 94, 18 S. Ct. 38, 42 L. ed. 392. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 408 been marie Tor twenty-one years, and which has not been ac- knowledged during that period, does not impair any contract obligations where it allows three years for the enforcement of existing rights. 213 An act providing that no mortgage or judgment should constitute a lien on land twenty years after the creation of the same, unless the holder should file a note of payment or acknowledgment, was upheld where seven years remained between the passage of the act and the expiration of the limitation. 214 Any act in the nature of a statute of limitation is valid if it will stand the test stated. 215 So a statute prescribing the time within which to exercise authority to establish a lottery is valid. 216 And a statute requiring a new promise to be in writing is valid, if ample time is al- lowed to enforce the demand. 217 An extension of the time prescribed for bringing an action does not impair any contract obligation,' 218 and a party may be deprived of the right to plead a statute of limitation by its repeal. 219 But these statements of general rules are subject to qualification, in that the right to plead the statute of limi- tations after it has become a bar is a vested right which can- not be taken away by the legislature. 220 So a statute of limi- 213 Wilson v. Iseminger, 185 U. S. 62, 22 S. Ct. 573, 46 L. ed. S04; Biddle v. Hooven, 120 Pa. St. 221, 13 Atl. 927. 214 Henry v. Henry, 31 S. .0. 1, 9 S. E. 726. For other instances where the time remaining was held reasonable, see Adamson v. Davis, 47 Mo. 268; Adamson v. Marshall, 47 Mo. 273; Coffman v. Bank of Kentucky, 40 Miss. 29, 90 Am. Dee. 311; Hill v. Boyland, 10 Miss. 618; Burt v. Williams, 24 Ark. 91; Coxe v. Martin, 44 Pa. St. 322, 215 George v. Gardner, 49 Ga. 441; Bertrand v. Taylor, 87 111. 235. 216 Phalen v. Commonwealth, 8 How. 163, 12 L. ed. 1030. 217 Briscoe v. Anketell, 28 Miss. 361, 61 Am. Dec. 553; Joy v. Thompson, 1 Doug. 383. 218 Cox v. Berry, 13 Ga. 306; Winston v. McCormick, 1 Ind. 56; Edwards v. McCaddon, 20 Iowa, 520; Swiekard v. Bailey, 3 Kan. 507; Gilman v. Cutts, 23 N. H. 376; Smith v. Tucker, 17 N. J. 82; Wardlaw v. Buzzard, 15 Bich. 158, 94 Am. Dec. 148; Pleasants v. Roher, 17 Wis. 577. 219 Bradford v. Shine, 13 Fla. 393, 7 Am. Eep. 239; Swiekard v. Bailey, 3 Kan. 507; Edwards v. McCaddon, 20 Iowa, '520; Sturm v. Fleming, 31 W. Va. 701, 8 S. E. 263. 220 Lawrence v. Louisville, 96 Ky. 595, 49 Am. St. Eep. 309, 29 S. W. 450, 27 L. B. A. 560; Mellinger v. City of Houston, 68 Tex. 409 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 tations repealing a prior act is void as to actions pending at the time of the repeal. 221 The power of the legislature to enact or change statutes of limitation is plenary, subject only to the restriction that such legislation shall not impair con- tract obligations while professing to operate only upon reme- dies. 222 A statute changing the condition of a right of action for damages given by statute is a condition precedent to the right to such damages, hence acts direct.lv on the right, and is not a statute of limitation in the ordinary sense of that term. 223 It has been held that statutes changing periods of limitation do not retroact unless the letter of the statutes or their neces- sary and inevitable intent so requires. 224 Exemption Laws. It may be stated as a general rule that laws creating or ex- tending exemptions from attachment or execution impair the obligation of contracts, so far as they relate to debts previously contracted, in that they operate to destroy the remedy, 225 al- 36, 3 S. W. 249; Eingartner v. St. Louis Steel Co., 103 Wis. 373, 71 Am. St. Eep. 871, 79 N. W. 433. But see Cox v. Berry, 13 Ga. 306. 221 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 207, 4 L. ed. 529; Mc- Ehrroyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 312, 10 L. ed. 177; Society v. Wheeler, 2 Gall. 141, Fed. Cas. No. 13,156; Bank of Alabama v. Dalton, 9 How. 522, 13 L. ed. 242; Kennebec Land Co. v. Laboree, 2 Me. 293; Kings- ly v. Cousins, 47 Me. 91; Call v. Hagger, 8 Mass. 429; Beal v. Nasou, 14 Me. 344; Woart v. Winnick, 3 N. H. 473, 14 Am. Dec. 384; Swick- ard v. Bailey, 3 Kan. 507; Mellinger v. City of Houston, 68 Tex. 3\5, 3 S. W. 249." 22 2 Swickard v. Bailey, 3 Kan. 507. 223 Eelyea v. Tomahawk Paper etc. Co., 102 Wis. 301, 72 Am. St. Eep. 878, 78 N. W. 412. 224 Walker v. Burgess, 44 W. Va. 399, 67 Am. St. Eep. 775, 30 S. E. 99. 225 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 624, 21 L. ed. 212; Edwards v. Kear- zey, 96 U. S. 604, 24 L. ed. 793; In re Shipman, 2 Hughes, 228, Fed. Cas. No. 12,791; Townsend Bank v. Epping, 3 Woods, 393, Fed. Cas. No. 14,120; Kelly v. Garrett, 67 Ala. 309; Horn v. Wiatt, 60 Ala. 300; Wilson v. Brown, 58 Ala. 65, 29 Am. Eep. 728; Fearn v. Ward, 65 Ala. 39; Cohn v. Hoffman, 45 Ark. 385; Wofford v. Gaines, 53 Ga. 487; Tuolumne Eedemption Co. v. Sedgwick, 15 Cal. 516; Forsyth v. Marbury, E. M. Charlt. 324; Mitchell v. Wolfe, 70 Ga. 627; New Or- leans Canal & Banking Co. v. New Orleans, 30 La. Ann. 1371; Dor- Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 410 though a few cases have held that laws exempting property from execution or attachment operate only upon the remedy given for the enforcement of contracts, and hence may exempt property which was subject to execution or attachment when a contract was made. 226 A distinction has been drawn between exemptions of real property and exemptions of personal property, and while the original expressions of this distinction were but dicta, 227 it seems now to be established that reasonable exemptions of per- sonal property are valid as to prior debts, the reasonableness of the exemption to be determined by the court in each case. 228 In any case where the exemption is palpably too large and ma- terially affects remedies, it will be declared void. 229 A statute absolutely exempting the earnings of married men and heads of families for personal services rendered within sixty days next preceding the levy of execution is directed to the remedy and does not impair previous contracts; 230 but a statute exempting proceeds of life insurance policies from exe- cution is unconstitutional in so far as it applies to antecedent debts. 231 An act withdrawing the property of a debtor from rington v. Myers, 11 Net>. 388, 9 N. W. 555; Berry v. Ewing, 91 Mo. 398, 3 S. W. 878; Danks v. Quackenbush, 1 N. Y. 129; Hannum v. Mclnturf, 6 Baxt. 225. 226 Sneider v. Heidelburger, 45 Ala. 126; Hardeman v. Downer, 39 Ga. 427, 428; Eockwell v. Hubbell, 2 Doug. (Mich.) 203, 45 Am. Dee. 450; Lessley v. Phipps, 49 Miss. 799; In re Kennedy, 2 S. C. 221; Stephenson v. Osborn, 41 Miss. 129, 90 Am. Dee. 364. 227 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 315, 11 L. ed. 143; Bigelow v. Pritch- ard, 21 Pick. 169. 228 In re Owens, 6 Biss. 434, Fed. Cas. No. 10,632; Rockwell v. Hubbell, 2 Doug. 199, 45 Am. Dec. 247; Stephenson v. Osborn, 41 Miss. 128, 90 Am. Dec. 364; Morse v. Goold, 11 N. Y. 291, 62 Am. Dec. 110; Mineral Point R. E. v. Barron, 83 111. 367; Grimes v. v. Byrne, 2 Minn. 89; Evans v. Montgomery, 4 "Watts & S. 218. 229 Edwards v. Kerzey, 96 IT. S. 611, 24 L. ed. 793; Grimes v. Byrne, 2 Minn. 89; Stephenson v. Osborn, 41 Miss. 119, 90 Am. Dec. 358; Morse v. Goold, 11 N. Y. 291, 62 Am. Dec. 110; Lessley v. Phipps. 49 Miss. 790. 230 Kirkman v. Bird, 22 Utah, 100, S3 Am. St. Rep. 774, 61 Pac. 338, 58 L. R. A. 669. 231 Rice v. Smith. 72 Miss. 42, 16 South. 417; Skinner v. Holt, 9 411 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 all legal process, leaving only the right to sue, so affects the remedy as to impair the obligation; 232 likewise as to an act providing that all the property of a corporation shall be ex- empt from execution save in certain cases. 233 The criterion of reasonableness has been rejected in some cases, and it has been declared that no distinction can properly be taken whether the amount exempted be little or much. 234 The limitation of the prohibition to exemptions of real prop- erty has been denied in a few cases which declare it to be- within the power of the legislature to exempt real as well as personal property, 235 unless the effect of the law is to enable the holding of large properties rather than to secure the well- being of citizens, in which case it is void. 230 It is immaterial that the new exemption is created by the state constitution; if it impairs the obligation of prior contracts it is void. 237 An exemption law cannot properly devest the lien of a judgment and leave no means for the collection of the debt; 23S but this has been denied in cases where the judgment was based on an action for a tort. 239 An exemption law which merely provides a substitute for a prior law which permitted a debtor to select specified articles up to the value prescribed in the new law, is valid. 240 The subjection to execution of property which was S. Dak. 427, 62 Am. St. Rep. 878, 62 N. W. 878; In re Heilbron, 14 Wash. 536, 45 Pae. 153, 35 L. R, A. 602. 232 State v. Bank of South Carolina, 1 Rich. 63. 233 Penrose v. Erie Canal Co., 56 Pa. St. 46, 93 Am. Dec. 778. 234 Johnson v. Fletcher, 54 Miss. €28, 28 Am. Rep. 388; Rice v. Smith, 72 Miss. 42, 16 South. 417; Quackenbush v. Danks, 1 Denio, 128. See, also, Appeal of Neff, 21 Pa. St. 243; Homestead Cases, ?2 Gratt. 266, 12 Am. Rep. 507. 235 Hill v. Kessler, 63 N. C. 436; Jacobs v. Smallwood, 63 N. C. 112. 236 Cusie v. Douglas, 3 Kan. 23, 87 Am. Dec. 458. 237 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 610, 21 L. ed. 212; Jones v. Brandon, 48 Ga. 593; Homestead Cases, 22 Gratt. 266, 12 Am. Rep. 507. 238 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 610; Smith v. Morse, 2 Cal. 524; Til- lotson v. Millard, 7 Minn. 513, 82 Am. Dec. 112; McKeithan v. Terry, 64 X. C. 25; Forsyth v. Marbury, R. M. Charlt. 324. 239 McAfee v. Covington, 71 Ga. 273, 51 Am. Rep. 264; Peerce v. Kitzmiller, 19 W. Va. 576. 240 Earle v. Hardie, 80 N. C. 177; State v. Ryhue, 80 N. C. 183. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 412 exempt when a contract was made does not impair the obliga- tion of the contract. 241 Homestead exemption laws are upon the same footing as other statutes of this character, and a constitutional or stat- utory provision creating or enlarging such exemptions is void as to prior contracts. 242 While this is undoubtedly the correct rule, a number of cases going upon the principle that the right of a man's family to a homestead is paramount and fundamental, and that it is the duty of the state to secure and protect it against creditors, have upheld laws exempting them as against prior debts, 243 and this, notwithstanding the exemption left no property available to creditors. 244 Such a law, however, is clearly valid as to debts created after its passage but prior to a declaration of homestead. 245 A mort- gage cannot be defeated by a homestead exemption law passed after its execution. 246 The repeal of an act providing that the homestead of a debtor becomes assets of his estate at his death, for the payment of his debts, is also void as to prior debts. 247 An act which takes from a purchaser at an execution sale the right to rents and profits during the period allowed for re- 241 Eeardon v. Searcy, 2> Bibb, 202. 242 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. 610, 21 L. ed. 212; Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 595, 24 L. ed. 793; Wilson v. Brown, 58 Ala. 62, 29 Am. Bep. 727; Nelson v. McCrary, 60 Ala. 310: Cohn v. Hoffman, 45 Ark. 385; Lessley v. Bhipps, 49 Miss. 800; Quackenbush v. Danks, 1 Demo, 132; Hannum v. MeTnturf, 6 Baxt. 230; Douglas v. Craig, 13 S. C. 371; Homestead Cases, 22 Gratt. 290, 12 Am. Rep. 517; MeLane v. Pasehal, 62 Tex. 102. See, also, Deering v. Boyle, 8 Kan. 532, 12 Am. Bep. 487. 243 Kimball v. Greig, 47 Ala. 235; Maxey v. Loyal, 38 Ga. 538; Hardeman v. Downer, 39 Ga. 431; Helfenstein v. Cave, 3 Iowa, 289; Grimes v. Bryne, 2 Minn. 95; Hill v. Kessler, 63 N. C. 440; Garrett v. Cheshire, 69 N. C. 403, 12 Am. Eep. 653; In re Kennedy, 2 S. C. 223; Boot v. McGrew, 3 Kan. 215; Cusic v. Douglas, 3 Kan. 23, 87 Am. Dec. 462. 244 Hill v. Kessler, 63 N. C. 436. 245 In re Henkel, 2 Saw. 305, Fed. Cas. No. 6362. 246 Shelor v. Mason, 2 Eich., N. S., 233; Cole v. La Chambre, 31 La. Ann. 41. 247 Duun v . Stevens, 62 Minn. 380, 64 N. W. 924. 413 Obligation of Contbacts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 demption is void so far as it purports to retroact, 248 and this is true of a statute providing that the grantor under a trust deed shall not be liable f or rents and profits during the redemp- tion period. 249 But a law making the occupant of land, other than the mortgagor, liable for rent during that period, where he was not liable before, impairs no contract right. 230 Stay Laws as Affecting Remedies. The so-called "stay laws," which had for their object the postponing, in certain cases, of the rendition of judgments or of the issuance of execution on judgments already rendered, have generally been denied a retrospective operation on the ground that they impaired contract rights. 251 Clearly, such laws, so far as they abridge the remedy, impair the obligation of contracts, 252 and are in conflict with the obligation clause 248 Travelers' Ins. Co. v. Brouse, 83 Ind. 62. 249 Greenfield v. Dorris, 1 Sneed, 548. 250 Edwards v. Johnson, 105 Ind. 594, 5 N. E. 716. And see Davis v. Eeipe, 114 Ind. 588, 17 N. E. 163. 251 Aycock v. Martin, 37 Ga. 135, 92 Am. Dec. 64; Coffman v. Bank of Kentucky, 40 Miss. 33, 90 Am. Dec. 314; Stevens v. Andrews, 31 Mo. 208; Dorrington v. Myers, 11 Neb. 388, 9 N. W. 555; Billmeyer v. Evans, 40 Pa. St. 327; Goggans v. Turnipseed, 1 S. C. 82, 98 Am. Dec. 398; State v. Carew, 13 Kich. 511, 91 Am. Dec. 250; Berry -i. Iseman, 14 Kich. 138, 91 Am. Dec. 266. 252 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; McCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Gantly v. Ewing, 3 How. 707, 11 L. ed. 794; Howard v. Bugbee, 24 How. 461, 16 L. ed. 753; Scobey v. Gibson, 71 Md. 572, 79 Am. Dec. 490; Burt v. Williams, 24 Ark. 91; Domire v. Cogly, 8 Blackf. 177; Hudspeth v. Davis, 41 Ala. 389; Jones v. Crittenden, 1 Car. Law Eep. 385, 6 Am. Dee. 531; Garling- ton v. Priest, 13 Fla. 559; Aycock v. Martin, 37 Ga. 124, 92 Am. Dec. 56; Webster v. Eose, 6 Heisk. 93, 19 Am. Eep. 583; Strong v. Daniel, 5 Ind. 348; Barnes v. Barnes, 8 Jones (N. C), 366; Cargill v. Power, 1 Mich. 369; Baumgardner v. Circuit Court, 4 Mo. 50; Grayson v. Lilly, 7 Mon. 6; Jacobs v. Smallwood, 63 N. C. 112; Stevens v. Andrews, 31 Mo. 205; Townsend v. Townsend, Peck (Tenn.), 1, 14 Am. Dec. 722; State v. Carew, 13 Eieh. 498, 91 Am. Dec. 245; Sequestration Cases, 30 Tex. 688, 98 Am. Dec. 494; Canfield v. Hunter, 30 Tex. 712; Levison v. Krohne, 30 Tex. 714; Bunn v. Gorgas, 5 Wright, 441; Billmeyer v. Evans, 4 Wright, 324; People v. Hays, 4 Cal. 127; Terrill v. Eankin, 2 Bush (Ky.), 453, 92 Am. Dec. 500; Frey v. Habenstreit, 1 Eob. 561; Hill v. Boyland, 40 Miss. 618. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 414 of the constitution. 253 It has been held, however, that if they affect the remedy only and not the right, such laws are valid, 254 and it is upon the theory that the same remedy existed as be- fore the passage of the stay law, its enforcement being merely postponed, that such laws have been upheld. 255 Other cases hold that a law procrastinating the remedy destroys part of the right, 256 and the right to suspend the recovery of a debt for one period implies the right of suspending it for another. 257 Where a contract provides for a remedy which may be en- forced without the assistance of any legal process, if such rem- edy was legal when the contract was made it cannot be sus- pended; 258 e. g., postponing sales provided for in deeds of trust upon default in payment. 259 So a statute which subjects parties to a longer credit than was allowed by law when the contract was made is unconstitutional, 260 and a law which pro- vides that certain debts which did not previously bear interest should do so while the act remains in force impairs the right itself and is void. 261 Nor can the legislature provide for a stay as to contracts which expressly stipulate that no stay shall be allowed. 262 A provision for a stay unless the plaintiff will 253 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 601, 24 L. ed. 793; Barnes v. Barnes, 8 Jones (N. C), 366; Jones v. Crittenden, 1 Car. Law Ret.. 385, 6 Am. Dec. 531; Jacobs v. Smallwood, 63 N. C. 112; Wood v. City of New York, 34 How. Pr. 501; Johnson v. Winslow, 64 N. C. 27. 254 Coriell v. Ham, 4 G. Greene (Iowa), 455, 61 Am. Dec. 134; Grosvenor v. Chesley, 48 Me. 369; Swift v. Fletcher, 6 Minn. 550. 255 Ex parte Pollard, 40 Ala. 88; Farnsworth v. Vance, 2 Cold. 118; Beeson v. Beeson, 1 Harr. 470; "Wardlaw v. Buzzard, 15 Rich. 160, 94 Am. Dec. 149. 256 Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 531, 6 Am. Dec. 75; Wood v. Wood, 14 Rich. 148; Luter v. Hunter, 30 Tex. 688, 98 Am. Dec. 494. 257 Jones v. Crittenden, 1 Car. Law Rep. 385. 6 Am. Dec. 531. 258 White v. Crawford, 84 Pa. St. 433; Hunt v. Thomas, 3 Phila. 121. 259 Taylor v. Stearns, 18 Gratt. 244. 260 January v. January, 7 T. B. Mon. 542, 18 Am. Dec. 211; Pool v. Young, 7 Mon. 587. 261 Goggans v. Turnipseed, 1 Rich. 80, 98 Am. Dec. 397. 262 Griffith v. Thomas, 34 Leg. Lit. 150; Billmeyer v. Evans, 40 Pa. St. 324; Lewis v. Lewis, 47 Pa. St. 127. 415 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 take property levied on at two-thirds its appraised value is un- constitutional, 263 but a statute providing for a reasonable stay unless the property levied on shall bring two-thirds of its ap- praised value is unobjectionable as to its retrospective opera- tion. 264 On the other hand, a statute adding the condition that no sale under execution shall be made for any sum less than two-thirds of the appraised value of the property levied on violates contract obligations and is void. 265 A stay law cannot operate as to a judgment rendered prior to its passage, 266 nor can it apply to a mortgage executed prior to its passage, 267 although it has been held that a state may grant a stay of ex- ecution upon a judgment due to a municipal corporation. 268 Eeasonableness has been made the criterion of validity in a number of cases, and laws whicb merely suspended tempor- arily proceedings for the collection of debts have been up- held. 269 So, where a stay is not so unreasonable as to impair the right it is valid. 270 And this test has been applied in up- holding statutes suspending actions against persons shown to 263 Gantly v. Ewing, 3 How. 717, 11 L. ed. 794; Bailey v. Gentry, 1 Mo. 164. 264 Thompson v. Buckley, 34 Leg. Int. 148; Chadwick v. Moore, 3 Watts & S. 49. 265 McCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 603, 11 L. ed. 397; Gantley v. Ewing, 3 How. 707, 11 L. ed. 794; Hunt v. Gregg, 8 Blackf. 105; Robards v. Brown, 40 Ark. 426; Smoot v. Lafferty, 2 Gilm. 383; Bosier v. Hales, 10 Iowa, 470, 77 Am. Dec. 129; Eawley v. Hooker, 21 Ind. 144; Bailey v. Gentry, 1 Mo. 164; Bhinney v. Bhinney, 81 Me. 463, 10 Am. St. Eep. 271, 17 Atl. 408, 4 L. R. A. 348; Swinburne v. Mills, 17 Wash. 622, 61 Am. St. Rep. 939, 50 Bac. 492. But see Waldo ?. Williams, 4 111. 764; Catlin v. MuDger, 1 Tex. 598. 266 Domire v. Cogly, 8 Blackf. 177. 267 Harrison v. Styres, 74 N. C. 290. 268 Governor v. Gridley, Walk. 328. 269 United States v. Conway, Hemp. 313, Fed. Cas. No. 14,S49; Grimball v. Ross, Charlt. 175; Barkley v. Glover, 4 Met. (Ky.) 44; Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 530, 6 Am. Dec. 675; Chadwick v. Moore, 8 Watts & S. 49, 42 Am. Dec. 267; Wolf kill v. Mason, 16 Abb. Br. 221; State v. McGinty, 41 Miss. 435, 93 Am. Dec. 269; Breitenbach v. Bush, 44 Ba. St. 313, 84 Am. Dec. 442; Coxe v. Martin, 44 Fa. St. 313. 270 Huntzinger v. Brock, 3 Grant, 243. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 416 be in the actual military service of the United States. 271 But in addition to being reasonable the stay prescribed must be for a definite period, 272 as that actions to enforce judgments shall be suspended for seven months. 273 A statute staying all suits "until after the ratification of peace between the United States and the Confederate states'' is open to the objection that it is indefinite. 274 So, also, as to an act where the period was specified as "during the war." 275 A statute allowing a stay for any indefinite time, 275 * as upon the consent of two-thirds of the creditors, is void. 276 So, also, a statute allowing a stay of execution so long as installments are paid is unconstitu- tional; 277 but a statute may provide for a stay of execution on a judgment obtained by confession until the demand is due, 278 or until an appraisement is made. 279 A statute grant- ing a stay for a certain period upon a judgment superseded with sureties impairs the obligation of contracts made before its passage, and is void, 280 and when the liability of bail is fixed the legislature cannot deprive the plaintiff of his right to a judgment. 281 271 McCormiek v. Euseh, 15 Iowa, 127; Edmondson v. Ferguson, 11 Mo. 344; Lindsey v. Burbridge, 11 Mo. 545; Burns v. Crawford, 34 Mo. 330. But see Clark v. Martin, 49 Pa. St. 299; Hasbrouck v. Shipman, 16 Wis. 296. 272 State v. MeGinty, 41 Miss. 435, 93 Am. Dee. 269; Breitenbacn v. Bush, 44 Pa. St. 313, 84 Am. Dee. 442; Coxe v. Martin, 44 Pa. St. 322. 273 Johnson v. Higgins, 3 Met. (Ky.) 566; Barkley v. Glover, 4 Met. (Ky.) 44. 274 Luter v. Hunter, 30 Tex. 688, 98 Am. Dec. 494; Burt v. Williams, 24 Ark. 91. 275 Clark v. Martin, 3 Grant, 393, 49 Pa. St. 299. 275a Hudspeth v. Davis, 41 Ala. 389. 276 Bunn v. Gorgas, 41 Pa. St. 441. 277 Jones v. McMahan, 30 Tex. 319; Earle v. Johnson, 31 Tex. 164. 278 'Wood v. Child, 20 111. 209; Barnes v. Barnes, 8 Jones (N. C), R66. 279 Catlin v. Munger, 1 Tex. 598. 280 Blair v. Williams, 4 Litt. 34; Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47. But see Farnsworth v. Vance, 2 Cold. 108. 2Si Lewij v. Brackenridge, 1 Blackf. 220, 12 Am. Dec. 228. 417 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 A statute providing that the obligation on official bonds shall not have the benefit of stay laws or appraisement laws is valid. 2 * 2 Acts providing for the postponement of trials in certain cases relate to the remedy and are valid, 283 and acts extending the time in which to answer in foreclosure suits have been upheld. 284 State Insolvency Laws. The power of the states to enact insolvent laws is subject to tbe prohibition against laws impairing the obligation of con- tracts; such a law purporting to discharge liability on contracts entered into before its passage impairs the obligation of those contracts and is void. 285 In their operation upon residents of the state this is the only restriction upon the power to enact them, and while they cannot retroact upon previously con- tracted debts, such laws providing for discharge from subse- quently contracted debts are valid. 286 A state insolvency law 282 Pierce v. Miell, 21 Ind. 27. 253 Ex parte Pollard, 40 Ala. 477; Dours v. Cazentre, 1 McGIoiu, 251. 254 Holloway v. Sherman, 12 Iowa, 282; Von Baumbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559, 76 Am. Dec. 283; Starkweather v. Hawes, 10 Wis. 125. 285 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 196, 197, 4 L. ed. 529; Farm- ers' etc. Bank v. Smith, 6 Wheat. 134, 5 L. ed. 224; Bank of United States v. Frederickson, 2 Fed. Gas. 745; Golden v. Prince, 3 Wash. C. C. 313, Fed. Cas. No. 5509; Smith v. Mead, 3 Conn. 256, 8 Am. Dee. 1S4; Boardman v. De Forest, 5 Conn. 12; Schwartz v. Drink- water, 70 Me. 410; Kimberly v. Ely, 6 Pick. 440; Vanuxem v. Hazel- hursts, 4 N. J. L. 172, 7 Am. Dec. 5S2; Olden v. Hart, 5 N. J. L. 466; Koosevelt v. Cebra, 17 Johns. 108; Hicks v. Hotchkiss, 7 Johns. Ch. 297, 11 Am. Dec. 472; Salters v. Tobias, 3 Paige Ch. 244; Elton v O'Connor, 6 N. Dak. 6, 68 N. W. 85, 33 L. B. A. 524; Post v. Riley, 18 Johns. 54; In re Wendell, 19 Johns. 153. 286 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 264, 275, 276, 307, 314, 369, 6 L. ed. 606; In re Reiman, 7 Ben. 466, Fed. Cas. No. 11,673; Mather v. Nesbit, 4 McCrary, 506, 13 Fed. 873; State v. Curran, 12 Ark. 352; Rhodes v. Borden, 67 Cal. 8, 6 Pac. 850; Hempstead v. Reed, G Conn. 490, 491; Orr v. Lisso, 33 La. Ann. 477; Felch v. Bugbee, 48 Me. 11, 77 Am. Dec. 204; Marsh v. Putnam, 3 Gray, 555; Gorely v. Butler, 147 Mass. 12, 16 N. E. 737; Blanchard v. Russell, 13 Mass. 1, 7 Am. Dec. 106; Wendell v. Lebon, 30 Minn. 238, 15 N. W. Ill; Stevens v. Brown, 49 Miss. 599; Sebring v. Messereau, 9 Cow. 346; Notes on Constitution — 27 Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 418 cannot, however, even as to subsequent contracts, operate ex- traterritorially.- 87 This rule is subject to the modification that if a foreign creditor has submitted himself or his claim to the jurisdiction of the courts of the state where the dis- charge was granted he is barred.- ss As to claims existing prior to the passage of the act, of course, a submission to juris- diction does not make the law operative. 289 It is the residence of the creditor, and not the place where the contract was made or to be performed, that determines the operation of state insolvency laws, and a discharge cannot bar action on a claim payable in the state but to a person resident in another state; 290 a fortiori where a claim is payable out of Elton v. O'Connor, 6 N. Dak. 5, 68 N. W. 85, 33 L. E. A. 524; In re Keynolds, 8 E. I. 189, 5 Am. Eep. 617; Merrill v. Bowler, 38 Atl. 116. 287 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 207, 4 L. ed. 529; Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 255,6 L. ed. 606; Suydam v. Broadnax, 14 Pet. 75, 10 L. ed. 357; Boyle v. Zaeharie, 6 Pet. 635, 8 L. ed. 527; Cook v. Moffatt, 5 How. 295, 12 L. ed. 159; Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 223, 17 L. ed. 531, affirming 1 Cliff. 514, Fed. Cas. No. 5913; Stevenson v. King, 2 Cliff. 2, Fed. Cas. No. 13,417; Van Eeimsdyk v. Kane, 1 Gall. 630, Fed. Cas. No. 16,872; Hinkley v. Mareau, 3 Mason, 88, Fed. Cas. No. 6523; Ehodes v. Borden, 67 Cal. 8, 6 Pac. 850; Hawley v. Hunt, 27 Iowa, 308, 1 Am. Eep. 275; Pugh v. Bussell, 2 Blackf. 266; Norton V. Cook, 9 Conn. 314, 23 Am. Dec. 342; Larxabee v. Talbott, 5 Gill, 439, 46 Am. Dec. 643; Herring v. Selding, 2 Aik. 17; Hicks v. Ho-tca- kiss, 7 Johns. Ch. 301, 11 Am. Dec. 472; Witt v. Follett, 2 Wend. 458; Bradford v. Farrand, 13 Mass. 18; Donnelly v. Corbett, 7 N. Y. 500. 288 Denny v. Bennett, 128 TJ. S. 497, 9 S. Ct. 137, 32 L. ed. 491; Towne v. Smith, 1 Wood. & M. 127, Fed. Cas. No. 14,115; Newton v. Hagerman, 10 Saw. 462, 22 Fed. 526; Von Glahn v. Varrenne, I Dill. 517; Eosenheim v. Morrow, 37 Fla. 488; 20 South. 245; Brown v. Smart, 69 Md. 327, 14 Atl. 470. 289 Easterly v. Goodwin, 35 Conn. 279, 95 Am. Dec. 237. 200 Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 233, 17 L. ed. 531; Gilman v. Lock- wood, 4 Wall. 411, 18 L. ed. 432; Ehodes v. Borden, 67 Cal. 9, 6 Pac. 851; Pullen v. Hilliman, 84 Me. 131, 30 Am. St. Eep. 341, 24 Atl. 795; Kelly v. Drury, 9 Allen, 28; Stoddard v. Harrington, 100 Mass. 88, 97 Am. Dec. 81; Phoenix National Bank v. Batcheller, 151 Mass. 590, 24 N. E. 917, 8 L. E. A. 644; Perley v. Mason. 64 N. H. 7, 3 Atl. 630; Carbee v. Mason, 64 N. H. 11, 4 Atl. 792; Pratt v. Eeath, 44 N. Y. 599, 4 Am. Eep. 719; Phelps v. Borland, 103 N. Y. 410, 57 Am. Eep. 756, 9 N. E. 309; Eobert v. Atherton, 60 Vt. 565, 6 Am. St. 419 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 the state to a nonresident, 291 or where a judgment has heen rendered in another state in favor of a nonresident. 292 A debt due a partnership is not barred if one member thereof was not a resident of the state of discharge. 293 If the attorney of a foreign creditor takes a note for the debt, the courts will re- gard the rights of the beneficial owner. 294 A state law is valid against a foreign creditor, however, so far as it merely releases the person of the debtor from imprisonment, 295 and the rule does not operate to prevent a state from providing that debtors may assign for the benefit of all creditors, resident and non- resident. 296 Laws which merely abolish imprisonment for debt affect only the creditor's remedy against an insolvent and do not impair the obligation of contracts, 297 and a statute changing the mode of procedure to obtain a discharge from imprisonment does not affect any substantial right. 298 The effect of a law abolishing imprisonment for debt is to discharge bail bonds existing at the time of its passage. 299 Eep. 154, 15 Atl. 160; Stirn v. McQuade, 66 N. H. 404, 49 Am. St. Eep. 623, 22 Atl. 452. 291 McKim v. Willis, 83 Mass. 512. 292 Bean v. Loryea, 81 Cal. 153, 22 Pac. 513; Lowenberg v. Levine, 93 Cal. 220, 28> Pac. 942, 16 L. B. A. 159. 293 Chase v. Henry, 166 Mass. 579, 55 Am. St. Eep. 424, 44 N. E. 988. 294 Isley v. Merian, 61 Mass. 242; Crow v. Coons, 27 Mo. 512. 295 Glenn v. Humphreys, 4 Wash. C. C. 424, Fed. Cas. No. 5880; Choteau v. Eichardson, 94 Mass. 368; Carey v. Conrad, 2 Miles, 92; Donnelly v. Corbett, 7 N. Y. 500. 296 Denny v. Bennett, 128 U. S. 497, 9 S. Ct. 137, 32 L. ed. 491. 297 Sturges v. Crowninshield, 4 Wheat. 200, 4 L. ed. 529; In re Penniman, 103 U. S. 717, 26 L. ed. 602; affirming, 11 E. I. 338; Wood- hull v. Wagner, 1 Baldw. 298, Fed. Cas. No. 19,975; Towne v. Smith, 1 Wood. & M. 130, Fed. Cas. No. 14,115; Beers v. Houghton, 9 Pet. 329, 9 L. ed. 145; Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 328, 12 L. ed. 447; Newton v. Tibbatts, 7 Ark. 150; Taylor v. Keeler, 30 Conn. 324; Fisher v. Lacky, 6 Blackf. 373; Eay v. Cannon, 2 Mart. 26; Bronson v. Newberry, 2 Doug. (Mich.) 38; Brown v. Dillahunty, 12 Miss. 713, 43 Am. Dec. 499; Woodfin v. Hopper, 4 Humph. 21. 298 Oriental Bank v. Freeze, 18 Me. 109, 36 Am. Dec. 701; Mor^e v. Eice, 21 Me. 53. 299 Mason v. Haile, 12 Wheat. 378, 6 L. ed. 660; Beers v Hough- ton, 9 Pet. 359, 9 L. ed. 145; Newton v. Tibbatts, 7 Ark. 153; Towsey v. Avery, 11 Ohio, 93; Bronson v. Newberry, 2 Doug. (Mich.) 47, 48. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 420 An act providing for the discharge of debtors from all fu- ture actions at the suit of suing creditors or creditors who have received dividends from the debtor's estate is valid, 300 as also is a law allowing debtors to assign for the benefit of consent- ing creditors. 301 The legislature may also provide that cred- itors of insolvent corporations must dissent from measures adopted for the welfare of all parties, or be deemed to assent thereto.' 50,2 A law providing for the distribution of the assets of an insolvent estate is valid as against general creditors. 303 and an act to secure the payment of debts without preference of the debts of certain manufacturing corporations organized under general law does not impair contract obligations. 304 General provisions for the appointment of receivers for insol- vent corporations are unobjectionable, 305 but it is beyond the power of the legislature to provide for receivers for property in possession of mortgagees under existing chattel mortgages, un- less it is imperatively necessary to secure the rights of other parties. 306 The assignment of a corporation's property and the cancellation of its charter with the legislature's consent is not unconstitutional as violating the corporation's contracts, 307 and a state law authorizing banks to assign for the benefit of their creditors does not impair a contract by which a bank re- ceives its notes in payment of debts. 30S Acts providing for the dissolution of attachments made within a certain time prior to assignments do not impair contract obligations. 309 So, also, 300 Alexander v. Gibson, 1 Nott & McG. 480; Downes v. Parshall, 3 Wyo. 425, 26 Fac. 994. 301 Keating v. Vaughn, 61 Tex. 518. 302 Gilfillan v. Union Canal Co., 109 U. S. 404, 3 S. Ct. 304, 27 L. ed. 977, affirming 93 Pa. St. 95. 303 Appeal of Deichman, 2 Whart. 395, 30 Am. Dec. 271. 304 Story v. Fnrman, 25 N. Y. 214. 305 Hall v. Carey, 5 Ga. 239. 306 Patten v. Accessory Traction Co., 13 How. Pr. 502, 4 Abb. Pr. 235. 307 Momma v. Potomac Co., 8 Pet. 287, 8 L. ed. 945. 308 Knox v. Exchange Bank, 12 Wall. 384, 20 L. ed. 414. 309 Denny v. Bennett, 128 IT. S. 489, 9 S. Ct. 134, 32 L. ed. 491; Sloane v. Chiniquy, 22 Fed. 213; Bank of Columbia v. Overstreet, 10 Bush (Ky.), 148; Bigelow v. Pritchard, 21 Pick. 169; "Wendell v. Lc- bon, 30 Minn. 234; Baldwin v. Buswell, 52 Vt. 57. 121 Obligation of Contracts. Art. 1, § 10, CI. 1 an act providing that conveyances preferring creditors made within four months before the commencement of insolvency proceedings shall be void is not unconstitutional as to a non- resident creditor whose conveyance was made subsequently; 310 such an act is a legitimate regulation of transfers of prop- erty. 311 After the creation of debts of equal rank the legislature can- not interfere to provide that one class of debts shall have priority over the other. 312 On the other hand, it has been held that a law creating preference in favor of certain classes of debts constitutes no part of a contract, and an act passed after a debt was contracted abrogating the preference is valid. 313 An insolvent law discharging the person and after-acquired property is not repugnant to the constitution. 314 An amendment to an insolvent act is ineffectual to discharge a debtor from liability previously contracted, the effect of the amendment being to reduce the number of creditors who may grant a release; 315 but an amendatory act which is more strin- gent and burdensome on the debtor than the act amended can- not be objected to by a creditor on the ground that it is retro- active. 316 Creditors who have accepted dividends under an assignment by a corporation cannot claim the invalidity of the assignment law in order to collect the balance from the stock- holders. 317 3io Brown v. Smart, 145 U. S. 454, 12 S. Ct. 958, 36 L. ed. 773, affirming 69 Mel. 320, 14 Atl. 468. 311 Knower v. Haines, 31 Fed. 513. But see Lloyd v. Akin, 78 N. C. 258. 312 Sun Mutual Ins. Co. v. Board of Liquidation, 24 Fed. 4; Atcha- falaya E. R. etc. Co. v. Bean, 3 Bob. (La.) 415. But see Luther v. Saylor, 8 Mo. App. 424; Umbenhauer v. Miller, 1 Woodw. Dec. 69. 313 Inglefritz v. Inglefritz, 5 Watts, 158; Appeal of Deichman, 2 Whart. 395, 30 Am. Dec. 271. 314 Wilson v. Matthews, 32 Ala. 332. 315 I n . re Wendell, 19 Johns. 153. 316 Hundley v. Chaney, 65 Cal. 363, 4 Pac. 238. 317 Van Hook v. Whitlock, 26 Wend. 53, 37 Am. Dec. 248. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 422 Mortgage and Redemption Laws. The right to redeem according to the laws existing at the time a mortgage is executed constitutes part of the mortgage contract and not part of the remedy merely, 318 and it is a right which inheres in the contract as to both mortgagor and mort- gagee. Accordingly a law giving a right of redemption where none previously existed, or extending the period allowed, so alters the remedy of the creditor as to impair the obligation of an existing mortgage. 319 On the other hand, laws abolishing the right to redeem or shortening the period previously al- lowed cannot operate to impair the rights of a mortgagor under an existing mortgage. 320 A statute giving the right to redeem at any time within a certain period cannot retroact. 321 The legislature may give to the mortgagor the right to remain in possession during the re- demption period, 322 but a statute providing that the mortgagor shall not be liable for rents and profits after the sale is void 3is Brine v. Insurance Co., 96 U. S. 637, 639, 24 L. ed. 858. 319 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 318, 11 L. ed. 143; Howard v. Bugbee, 24 How. 464, 16 L. ed. 753; Clark v. Reyburn, 8 Wall. 322, 19 L. ed. 354; Barnitz v. Beverly, 163 U. S. 129, 16 S. Ct. 1043, VI L. ed. 93, reversing 55 Kan. 469, 49 Am. St. Eep. 260, 42 Pae. 726, 31 L. R. A. 74; Lehman v. Moore, 93 Ala. 189, 9 South. 592; Robards v. Brown, 40 Ark. 426; Oliver v. McClure, 28 Ark. 561; Allen v. Allen, 95 Cal. 197, 30 Pae. 215, 16 L. R. A. 646; Bixby v. Bailey, 11 Kan. 368; Watkins v. Glenn, 55 Kan. 429, 40 Pae. 319; Phinney v. Phinney, 81 Me. 462, 10 Am. St. Rep. 270, 17 Atl. 40S, 4 L. R. A. 348; Benson v. Bunting, 127 Cal. 532, 78 Am. St. Rep. 81, 59 Pae. 991; State v. Sears, 29 Or. 508, 54 Am. St. Rep. 808, 43 Pae. 482; Gorham v. Wing, 10 Mich. 498; Heyward v. Judd, 4 Minn. 490; Canadian etc. Co. V. Blake, 24 Wash. 102, 85 Am. St. Rep. 946, 63 Pae. 1100. 320 Clark v. Reyburn, 8 Wall. 322, 19 L. ed. 354; Singer Mfg. Co. v. MeCollock, 24 Fed. 669; Cargill v. Power, 1 Mich. 371, 372; Beck v. Burnett, 22 Ala. 822. But see State ex rel. v. Gilliam, 18 Mont. 99, 44 Pae. 396; Tuolumne Redemption Co. v. Sedgwick, 15 Cal. 528, 529. 321 Howard v. Bugbee, 24 How. 461, 16 L. ed. 753, overruling 32 Ala. 317; Seale v. Mitchell, 5 Cal. 401; Thorn v. San Francisco, 4 Cal. 127; Malony v. Fortune, 14 Iowa, 417. 322 Heyward v. Judd, 4 Minn. 483; Berthold v. Holman, 12 Minn. 335; Berthold v. Fox, 13 Minn. 501, 97 Am. Dec. 243. 423 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 so far as it purports to apply to prior mortgages. 323 Where the contract between the mortgagor and mortgagee is not af- fected, a law passed subsequent to the mortgage providing that an occupant other than the mortgagor shall be liable for the rents and profits during the redemption period is unobjection- able. 324 Laws providing for a stay of foreclosure under mortgages, or denying the right to sell under deeds of trust without legal proceedings, are also subject to the constitutional prohibition • and cannot operate retrospectively, 325 although the allowance to a defendant of six months in which to answer has been held unobjectionable. 326 The legislature cannot change the estate which the trustee is authorized to sell under a deed of trust and create or extend a redemption period; 327 but a statute may prescribe a shorter period for the advertising of foreclosure sales, and apply to existing mortgages. 328 A law authorizing sales on credit cannot operate as to mortgages executed previ- ously. 329 So, also, a mortgagee, having title, is entitled to ejectment upon breach of condition before foreclosure, and this right cannot be impaired by a subsequent statute, 330 and where a mortgagee takes title to the growing crops of a mortgagor or his tenant, who leased with knowledge of the mortgage, a sub- sequent statute exempting the tenant's* property is inoperative to defeat any right of the mortgagee under the previous law. 331 The same rule exists in the case of sales of property under execution to satisfy judgments. 332 A law authorizing the re- 323 Greenfield v. Dorris, 1 Sneed, 548; Canadian etc. Co. v. Blake, 24 Wash. 102, 85 Am. St. Eep. 946, 63 Pac. 1100. 324 Edwards v. Jordan, 105 Ind. 594, 5 N. E. 716; Davis v. Eeipe, 114 Ind. 588, 17 N. E. 163. 325 Fisher v. Green, 142 111. 93, 31 N. E. 176; Fanning v. Kerr, 7 Iowa, 462; Taylor v. Stearns, 18 Gratt. 286; Swinburne v. Mills, 17 Wash. 617, 61 Am. St. Kep. 936, 50 Pac. 490. 326 Von Baumbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 576, 76 Am. Dee. 287. 327 Heyward v. Judd, 4 Minn. 483; Goenen v. Schroeder, 8 Minn. 387; Carroll v. Eossiter, 10 Minn. 174. 328 James v. Stull, 9 Barb. 482. 329 Tooley v . Gridley, 3 Smedes & M. 516, 41 Am. Dec. 632. 330 Mundy v. Monroe, 1 Mich. 75, 76. 331 Eeed v. Swan, 133 Mo. 109, 34 S. W. 485. 332 People v. San Francisco, 4 Cal. 139; Scobey v. Gibson, 17 Ind. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 424 demption of property sold at forced sale impairs the obligation of contracts. 333 The legislature cannot extend the time for the redemption of land sold for taxes, 334 nor give a right to redeem land sold to satisfy municipal claims. 335 Nor can the legislature, as to tax sales previously made, amend a statute al- lowing redemption so as to impose new and more onerous con- ditions upon the exercise of the right. 3 " 6 So, also, laws for the release and discharge of securities are in conflict with this provision, 337 and laws allowing a debtor to remove his prop- erty are void as to prior judgment liens. 338 A distinction may be drawn, however, between laws provid- ing for redemption before execution and sale and those per- mitting it after. A statute may provide that all judicial sales shall be made subject to the right of redemption without vio- lating the obligation of existing judgments. 339 But after a sale under execution, the rights of purchaser and judgment debtor are fixed as by contract and the legislature cannot sub- sequently authorize redemption after a longer time or for a less sum. 340 Acts depriving purchasers at execution sales of 578, 79 Am. Dec. 492; Danks v. Quackenbush, 1 N. Y. 132; Hepburn v. Kerr, 9 Humph. 728, 51 Am. Dec. 686; Collins v. Collins, 79 Ivy. 91; Inglehart v. Wolfin, 20 Md. 32. 333 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311, 11 L. ed. 143; McCracken v. Hayward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Gantly v. Ewing, 3 How. 716, 11 L. ed. 794; Howard v. Bugbee, 24 How. 464, 16 L. ed. 753; Weaver v. Maillot, 15 La. Ann. 395; Billmeyer v. Evans, 42 Pa. St. 324; Bunn v. Gorgas, 41 Pa. St. 441; Oliver v. McClure, 28 Ark. 555; Scobey v. Gibson, 17 Ind. 572, 79 Am. Dec. 490. 334 Eobinson v. House, 13 Wis. 341; Dikeman v. Dikeman, 11 Paige, 484. But see Gault's Appeal, 33 Pa. St. 94. 335 Hull v. State, 29 Fla. 88, 30 Am. St, Pep. 98, 11 South. 98, 16 L. R. A. 308; Gault's Appeal, 33 Pa. St. 101. 336 Teralta Land etc. Co. v. Shaffer, 116 Cal. 518, 5S Am. St. Pep. :94, 48 Pae. 613. 337 Swift v. Fletcher, 6 Minn. 550. 338 Tillotson v. Millard, 7 Minn. 513, S2 Am. Dec. 112. 339 Moore v. Martin, 38 Cal. 428; Turner v. Watkins, 31 Ark. 429; Tuolumne Redemption Co. v. Sedgwick, 15 Cal. 515; Wilson v. Wold, 21 Wash. 398, 75 Am. St. Rep. 846, 58 Pac. 223. 340 Thresher v. Atchison, 117 Cal. 73, 59 Am. St. Rep. 159, 4S Pac. 1020. 425 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CL' 1 the right to rents and profits up to the time of redemption are denied retroactive effect as to prior sales; 341 but where a sale was made after the passage of the law. there can be no objec- tion to the law, for it does not impair any obligation as be- tween the original debtor and creditor, and all sales under exe- cution are to be governed by the laws in force at the time of sale, 342 and it is on this theory that it was held that when a mortgagor applies to a court for the enforcement of his mort- gage he must take the remedy as he finds it. 343 Appraisement laws are subject to the constitutional prohibi- tion against impairing the obligation of contracts, and an act providing for the appraisal of mortgaged property and forbid- ding sales for less than two-thirds of the appraised value can- not apply to mortgages previously executed. 344 The law in re- gard to valuation and appraisement in force when a mortgage is executed enters into and becomes part of the mortgage con- tract and cannot be affected by subsequent laws, 345 and sales made pursuant to a later law may be avoided. 346 The judg- ment of foreclosure is not a new contract which will give the new law operation. 347 It has been held that a contract made in one state could not be deemed to have been made with refer- ence to the law of another, and a valuation law of the latter state, passed after the execution of a contract, governed a sale to satisfy a judgment on the contract. 348 341 Greenfield v. Dorris, 1 Sneed, 550; Travelers' Ins. Co. v. Brouse, 83 Tnd. 66. 342 Davis v. Eupe, 114 Ind. 594, 17 N. E. 116; Wilson v. Wold, 21 Wash. 398, 75 Am. St. Rep. 846, 58 Pac. 223. 343 Heyward v. Judd, 4 Minn. 483. 344 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 318, 319, 11 L. ed. 143; McCrackea v. Hayward, 2 How. 608, 11 L. ed. 397; Gaiitly v. Ewing, 3 How. 707, 11 L. ed. 794; Moore v. Fowler, Hemp. 536, Fed. Cas. No. 9761; Eo- bards v. Brown, 40 Ark. 423; Eosier v. Hale, 10 Iowa, 470, 77 Am. Dec. 127; Olmstead v. Kellogg, 47 Iowa, 460; Benedict v. Thompson, Walk. Ch. 447; Willard v. Longstreet, 2 Doug. 175. Contra, United States v. Conway, Hemp. 314, Fed. Cas. No. 14,S49; Chadwick v. Moore, 8 Watts & S. 49, 42 Am. Dec. 267. 345 Dorrington v. Myers, 11 Neb. 388, 9 N. W. 555; Lancaster Sav. list. v. Eeigart, 2 Clarke, 23S. 346 Sheets v. Peabody, 7 Blackf. 614, 43 Am. Dec. 108; Franklin v. Thurston, 8 Blackf. 161; Burton v. Emerson, 4 G. Greene, 395. 347 Crane v. Hardy, 1 Mich. 62. 348 Hefferlin v. Sinsinderfer, 2 Kan. 403, 85 Am. Dec. 593. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 426 Lien Laws. Liens created by law are subject to alteration, modification or repeal. 349 A lien created by statute in favor of a creditor on property of his debtor is merely a part of the remedy af- forded for the collection of his debt, 350 and a law creating a lien upon the property of a debtor in favor of an existing con- tract creditor is valid. 351 So, also, the legislature may give to mechanics and laborers a lien for their services although at the time the contract to build was executed no such right ex- isted; 35 - likewise as to liens given to materialmen, 353 and laws giving such liens priority over existing encumbrances have been upheld. 354 Merely altering and enlarging the remedy for the enforcement of mechanics' liens after foreclosure sale does not impair the contracts of the mortgagee or the purchaser. 355 Nor does a statute extending the time for the enforcement of 349 Evans v. Montgomery, 4 Watts & S. 218; Patin v. Prejean, 7 La. 301; Woodbury v. Grimes, 1 Colo. 100; Templeton v. Home, 82 Jll. 401; Wilson v. Simon, 91 Md. 1, SO Am. St. Eep. 427, 45 Atl. 1022. 350 Bangor v. Goding, 35 Me. 73, 56 Am. Dec. 688. 351 Gordon v. Canal Co., 1 McAr. 513, Fed. Cas. No. 5621; Brien 7. Clay, 1 E. D. Smith, 649; Bolton v. Johns, 5 Pa. St. 145, 47 Am. Pee. 404. But see Kinney v. Sherman, 28 111. 520. 352 Gordon v. Canal Co., 1 McAr. 513, Fed. Cas. No. 5621; O'Neil v. St. Olaf ' s School, 26 Minn. 329, 4 N. W. 47; Colpetzer v. Trinity Church, 24 Neb. 113, 37 N. W. 931; Sullivan v. Brewster, 1 E. D. Smith, 739; Albright v. Smith, 2 S. Dak. 577, 51 N. W. 590, 3 S. Dak. 631, 54 N. W. 816; Bolton v. Johns, 5 Pa. St. 145, 47 Am. Dec. 404; Spokane etc Co. v. McChesney, 1 Wash. 609, 21 Pac. 198. But see Kinney v. Sherman, 28 111. 520. 353 Kellogg v. Howes, 81 Cal. 170, 22 Pac. 509, 6 L. E, A. 588; Davies-Henderson Lumber Co. v. Gottschalk. 81 Cal. 641, 22 Pac. 860; Doughty v. Devlin, 1 E. D. Smith, 625; Gurney v. Walsham, 16 E. 1. 698, 19 Atl. 323; Albright v. Smith, 3 S. Dak. 631, 54 N. W. 816. 354 Walker v. Mississippi Valley etc. Ey. Co., Fed. Cas. No. 17,070; Sitton v. Dubois, 14 Wash. 624, 45 Pac. 303; Wimberly v. Mayberry, 94 Ala. 240, 10 South. 157, 14 L. R. A. 305; Garr v. Clements. 4 N. Dak. 559, 62 N. W. 640. But see Yeatman v. Foster Co., 2 N Dak. 421, 33 Am. St. Eep. 797, 51 N. W. 721; Meyer v. Berlandi, 39 Minn. 438, 12 Am. St. Eep. 663, 40 N. W. 513, 1 L. E. A. 777. 355 Eed Eiver Valley Bank v. Craig, 181 U. S. 55S, 21 S. Ct. 703, 45 L. ed. 994. 427 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 mechanics' liens impair any contract obligations. 356 There can be no objection to any law which operates merely upon the remedy given by a mechanic's lien law. 357 A party may be deprived of a lien given him by statute, 358 unless the right to the lien has become vestecl. 358a And if the rights of the parties to a building contract have accrued before the passage of amendments to a mechanic's lien law the amendments can- not govern. 359 Judgment liens are subject to the same rules, and a law pro- viding that a judgment shall constitute a lien upon the debtor's property may apply to existing judgments. 360 The repeal of a statute giving a judgment creditor a lien has been held retro- active, 361 but later cases have declared the judgment lien to be a material part of the remedy, which cannot be abrogated without impairing existing contracts. 362 A statute requiring the recordation of judgments in order to preserve the lien may retroact, 363 and a statute authorizing the sale of property free from encumbrance and transferring the lien to the proceeds is 356 Garland v. Irrigation Co., 9 Utah, 360, 34 Pac. 370. 357 Albright v. Smith, 2 S. Dak. 577, 51 N. W. 590; Best v. Baum- gardner, 122 Pa. St. 17, 15 Atl. 691, 1 L. E. A. 356; Osborn v. D. Johnson etc. Co., 99 Ala. 309, 13 South. 776. 358 Wilson v. Simon, 91 Md. 1, 80 Am. St. Eep. 427, 45 Atl. 1022. 358a Kirkwood v. Hoxie, 95 Mich. 62, 35 Am. St. Rep. 549, 54 N. W. 720. 359 Spangler v. Green, 21 Colo. 505, 52 Am. St. Eep. 259, 42 Pac. 674. 360 Livingston v. Moore, 7 Pet. 546-562; Moore v. Letchford, 35 Tex. 213, 14 Am. Eep. 367. 361 Bank v. Longworth, 1 McLean, 35, Fed Cas. No. 923; Iverson v. Shorter, 9 Ala. 713; Beck v. Burnett, 22 Ala. 822; Daily v. Burko, 28 Ala. 328; Curry v. Landers, 35 Ala. 280; Moore v. Holland, 16 S. C. 24; McCormick v. Alexander, 2 Ohio, 285. 362 Murphy v. Gaskins, 28 Gratt. 207; Eatcliffe v. Anderson, 31 Gratt. 105, 31 Am. Eep. 716; Gilnian v. Tucker, 128 N. Y. 190. 26 Am. St. Eep. 464, 28 N. E. 1040, 13 L. E, A. 304; Merchants' Bank v. Ballou, 98 Va. 112, 81 Am. St. Eep. 715, 32 S. E. 481, 44 L. E. A. 306. 363 Louisiana v. New Orleans, 102 U. S. 207, 26 L. ed. 132; Tarp- ley v. Hamer, 17 Miss. 310. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 428 valid; 304 but a statute permitting a sale whether the property brings the amount of the encumbrance, or giving preference to other claims on the proceeds, is void. 365 The legislature cannot discharge absolutely a lien already existing under attachment, although it may suspend the en- forcement of the lien; 366 nor can the legislature change a privileged into an ordinary creditor. 367 An act whereby the legislature undertakes to restore an attachment already dis- solved and after the property has been sold to a bona fide pur- chaser is equally void. 368 The legislature cannot interfere with a lien created by special contract whereby a debtor makes his property absolutely liable for his debts. 369 Rights of Action and Defenses. A statute creating a right of action on a contract previously executed or on a debt previously incurred does not impair any contract obligation; it rather declares a means by which the obligation may be enforced. 370 So where an equitable right exists the legislature may create a legal remedy in favor of the holder, 371 and where a moral obligation exists for which there 364 Potts v. Water Power Co., 9 N. J. Eq. 592; Potts v. New Jersey Arms Co., 17 N. J. Eq. 395. 365 Martin v. Somervillo, 3 Wall. Jr. 206, 27 How. Pr. 161, Fed. Cas. No. 9165. 366 Eyan v. Wessels, 15 Iowa, 145. 367 Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart., O. S., 530; Sebatier v. Creditors, 6 Mart., N. S., 585. 368 Eidlon v. Cressey, 65 Me. 128. 369 Sebatier v. Creditors, 6 Mart., N. S., 589. 370 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 TJ. S. 151, 2 S. Ct. 408, 27 L. ed. 682; Milne v. Huber, 3 McLean, 212, Fed. Cas. No. 9617; Leavitt v. Kail- way Co., 90 Me. 164, 37 Atl. 890, 38 L. R. A. 152; Police Jury v. McDonough, 7 Mart., O. S., 8; Wilbur v. Gilmore, 21 Pick. 250; James v. Emmet Min. Co., 55 Mich. 335, 21 N. W. 361; Watson v. Chicago etc. Ey. Co., 46 Minn. 321, 48 N. W. 1129. But see Coosa Eiver Steam- boat Co. v. Barclay, 30 Ala. 120; Sutherland v. De Leon, 1 Tex. 250, 46 Am. Dec. 100. 371 Whipple v. Farrar, 3 Mich. 436, 64 Am. Dec. 99; Atkins v. At- kins, 18 Neb. 474, 25 N. W. 724; Pittsburg etc. Turnpike Co. v. Com- monwealth, 2 Watts, 433. 429 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 is no remedy at law the legislature may provide a remedy. 372 The repeal of usury laws, thus giving a right of action on a contract previously unenforceable, does not impair contract ob- ligations. 373 A contract for the payment of money to an association which has no corporate existence may be rendered actionable by subsequent incorporation. 374 The legislature may allow a suit on an official bond, instead of scire facias on the judgment; 375 or may repeal a statute prohibiting suits against Indians; 376 or may allow one firm to sue another al- though some of the members of one are members of the other; 377 or may authorize one plaintiff to recover, although the other does not establish his title; 378 or may render a per- son liable to suit by the repeal of a statute under which he was exempt. 379 While the legislature cannot declare that certain facts shall constitute a defense to a cause of action on a previously exist- ing contract, 380 nor deprive a party of a substantial defense the right to which has become vested, 381 yet where the right to avoid a contract is merely technical and the defense involves no substantial equities the legislature may abrogate it. 382 So 37 2 Lycoming County v. Union County, 15 Pa. St. 166, 53 Am. Dec. 575. 373 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 U. S. 143, 2 S. Ct. 408, 27 L. ed. 682; Mechanics' etc. Savings Bank v. Allen, 28 Conn. 97; Welch v. Wads- worth, 30 Conn. 149, 79 Am. Dec. 236; Hinman v. Goodyear, 56 Conn. 210, 14 Atl. S04. 374 Stein v. Indianapolis etc. Assn., 18 Ind. 237, 81 Am. Dec. 353. 375 White v. Wilkins, 24 Me. 299. 376 Stokes v. Rodman, 5 R. I. 405. 377 Hepburn v. Curts, 7 Watts, 300, 32 Am. Dec. 760. 378 Hinkle v. Riffert, 6 Pa. St. 196. 379 Stckes v. Rodman, 5 R. T. 405. 3S0 Cornell v. Hichens, 11 Wis. 353; Hubbard v. Brainerd, 35 Conn. 563; Craig v. Fowler, 59 Iowa, 200, 13 N. W. 116; State v. Williams, 10 Tex. Civ. App. 346. 30 S. W. 477. ssi Maguiar v. Henry, 84 Ky. 1; Wieland v. Shillock, 24 Minn. 345; Williar v. Baltimore Butchers' etc. Assn., 45 Md. 546. 382 Gibson v. Hibbard, 13 Mich. 314; Hoppack v. Stone, 49 Barb. 524; First School Dist. of Stratford v. Ufford, 52 Conn. 44; Baker v. Herndon. 17 Ga. 568; Christian v. Bowman, 49 Minn. 99, 51 N. W. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation or Contracts. 430 a statute rendering a certain illegality of consideration no de- fense is valid as to prior contracts ; 383 e. g., a statute repealing usury laws and thus abrogating the defense of usury, 384 or validating unauthorized acts of corporations and so doing away with the plea of ultra vires. 383 The legislature may grant new trials and create new tribu- nals of review in order to detect fraudulent grants or reverse fraudulent judgments, 380 or may grant the right to appeal, or allow appeal without security for costs or permit one of sev- eral parties to appeal, 387 or may take away the right of ap- peal, 388 or provide for appeals to different courts of review, 389 or authorize the filing of a bill of review, 390 and a law affect- ing judgments not yet rendered on contracts is valid. 391 A statute declaring a judgment absolutely void and. authorizing a new trial is unconstitutional. 392 A statute may provide that no scire facias shall issue to revive a dormant judgment, 393 or 663; Bank of Missouri v. Snelling, 35 Mo. 190; Sparks v. Clapper, 30 Ind. 204. 383 Satterlce v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 380, 7 L. ed. 458; Hill v. Smith, 1 Morris, 70. 384 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 U. S. 151, 2 S. Ct. 408, 27 L. ed. 682; Mechanics' etc. Savings Bank" v. Allen, 28 Conn. 97; Welch v. Wads- worth, 30 Conn. 149, 79 Am. Dec. 239; Andrews v. Russell, 7 Black:. 474; Wilson v. Hardesty, 1 Md. Ch. 66; Baugher v. Nelson, 9 Gill, 299, 52 Am. Dec. 694; Town of Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 1, 18 Am. Rep. 663. 385 Gross v. United States Mortgage Co., 108 U. S. 489, 2 S. Ct. 947, 27 L. ed. 795; Butler v. United States etc. Assn., 97 Tenn. 686, 37 S. W. 386; Mutual etc. Ins. Co. v. Winne, 20 Mont. 39, 44 Pac. 449. 386 League v. De Young, 11 How. 202, 13 L. ed. 657. 387 Todd v. Neal, 49 Ala. 266; Wilder v. Lumpkin, 4 Ga. 208; Converse v. Burrows, 2 Minn. 229; Davis v. Ballard, 1 J. J. Marsh. 563; Bradlee v. Brownsfield, 2 Watts & S. 271. 388 Grover v. Coon, 1 N. Y. 536. 3S9 Stephens v. Cherokee Nation, 174 U. S. 485, 19 S. Ct. 722, 43 L. ed. 1041. 390 Lampeyreac v. United States, 7 Pet. 222, 8 L. ed. 665; Ex parte Norton, 44 Ala. 184. 301 Sprott v. Reid, 3 G. Greene, 480. 392 Weaver v. Lapsley, 43 Ala. 224. 093 Parker v. Shannonhouse, Phill. (N. C.) 209. 431 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 may change the law of costs as to pending judgments, 394 or may reduce costs below the previously legal amount or deny them altogether. 395 But a right to costs already vested can- not be taken away. 396 A statute may require a creditor to exhaust his securities before bringing suit on his claim, 397 or may require that a holder of a certificate of purchase give notice to occupants of land of his intent to apply for a deed a certain time before application. 398 Where at the time coupons of state bonds were issued there was a remedy by mandamus to compel a tax collector to take such coupons in payment of taxes, but there was nothing to prevent collection pending the mandamus suit, a new law requiring payment under protest does not impair the obligation of the bonds. 399 The legislature cannot, how- ever, require, as a condition precedent to a suit on a debt, that the plaintiff show that the debt was returned for taxes, and that taxes due thereon were paid; such an act impairs the ob- ligation of existing contracts. 400 Nor can a suitor be required to take a test-oath of loyalty as to past occurrences before being allowed to sue on his claim. 401 Statutes prescribing the names in which suits shall be brought may retroact; such statutes relate only to the remedies provided for the enforcement of contracts and not to the ob- ligation. 402 So a statute may provide that suits must be brought in the name of the real party in interest, 403 or may 394 Taylor v. Keeler, 30 Conn. 324. 395 Free v. Howortk, 19 Ind. 404; Potter v. Sturdevant, 4 Me. 154; Bader v. S. B. Dist., 36 N. J. L. 273. 396 State v. Auditor, 33 Miss. 287. 397 Swift v. Fletcher, 6 Minn. 550. 398 Curtis v. Whitney, 13 Wall. 71, 20 L. ed. 513; Coulter v. Staf- ford, 56 Fed. 566; Oullahan v. Sweeny, 79 Cal. 539, 12 Am. St. Bep. 173, 21 Pae. 961; Herrick v. Niesz, 16 Wash. 78, 47 Pae. 415. 399 Antoni v. Greenhow, 107 U. S. 780, 2 S. Ct. 91, 27 L. ed. 468. 4f>o Lathrop v. Brown, 1 Woods, 474, Fed. Cas. No. 8108; Mitchell v. Cothrans, 49 Ga. 125; Kimbro v. Bank of Fulton, 49 Ga. 419. But see Garrett v. Cordell, 43 Ga. 366; Walker v. Whitehead, 43 Ga. 538. 401 Pierce v. Carskadon, 16 Wall. 239, 21 L. ed. 276. 402 Tompkins v. Forrestal, 54 Minn. 119, 55 N. W. 813. 403 Hancock v. Eitchie, 11 Ind. 43. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 432 allow the holder of a detached coupon to sue thereon in his own name, 404 or may authorize the grantee of a rent charge to sue in his own name, 405 or allow an administrator de bonis non to sue in the name of the state on the bond of his prede- cessor, 406 or may authorize the holder of a note to sue in his own name on a guaranty of collection indorsed on it. 407 An act authorizing the executors of a deceased person to revive a judgment obtained by another in the same manner as if they "were the latter's executors impairs the obligation of contracts and is void. 408 A statute requiring makers and indorsers of promissory notes to be sued in joint actions does not impair the obligation of any contract, 409 nor does a statute allow- ing a purchaser who has obtained a deed to sue in his own name for the recovery of the land. 410 So a purchaser may re- cover money paid for taxes and costs. 411 A statute directing that promissory notes given to a cashier may be sued and col- lected on in the name of the bank is valid as to notes pre- viously given, 412 and an act giving the right to sue one joint promisor alone does not affect the right but merely the remedy. 413 A statute authorizing assignees of non-negotiable notes to sue in their own names embraces notes assigned pre- viously, but it cannot cut off any defense which may have been made in the payee's names. 414 An administrator may be authorized to apply to the court .for the sale of an intestate's real estate to pay his debts, 415 or a guardian may be empowered to sell real estate and invest 404 Augusta Bank v. Augusta, 49 Me. 507. 405 Van Kensselaer v. Hays, 19 N. Y. 68, 75 Am. Dec. 278. 406 Graham v. State, 7 Ind. 470. 407 Waldron v. Harring, 28 Mich. 493. 408 Tate v. Bell, 4 Yerg. 202, 26 Am. Dec. 221. 409 McMillan v. Sprague, 4 How. (Miss.) 647, 35 Am. Dec. 412. 410 Justice v. Eddings, 75 N. C. 581. 411 Smith v. Merchand, 7 Scrg. & E. 260, 10 Am. Dec. 465. 412 Crawford v. Branch Bank of Mobile, 7 How. 279, 12 L. ed. 700. 413 Polyart v. Goulding, Fed. Cas. No. 10,701, 1 Brim. Col. Cas. 2. 414 Harlan v. Sigler, 1 Morr. 39. 415 Florentine v. Barton, 2 Wall. 210, 17 L. ed. 783. And see Brenham v. Story, 39 Cal. 179; Eosier v. Fagan, 46 111. 404. 433 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 the proceeds in other securities. 416 The legislature may au- thorize the discharge of a testamentary trustee upon his own request and the appointment of his successor without impair- ing any contract obligations. 417 Laws "Regulating Procedure. Laws regulating procedure and practice in the courts are also valid if they operate only on the remedy, and the forms and system of courts and proceedings may be changed at the will of the legislature. 418 So the state may create, alter, or abolish courts and change their sessions. 419 The delay in enforcing claims resulting from the abolish- ment of certain courts relates only to the remedy and does not impair any contract obligations. 420 But a change which operates to deprive a creditor of all legal remedy for the en- 416 Lobrano v. Milligan, 9 Wall. 295, 19 L. ed. 694. 417 Williamson v. Suydam, 6 Wall. 738, 18 L. ed. 967. 41 s Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 349, 6 L. ed. 606; Livingston v. Moore, 7 Pet. 469, 8 L. ed. 751; Terry v. Anderson, 95 U. S. 633, 24 L. ed. 365; Hill v. Insurance Co., 134 U. S. 527, 10 S. Ct. 592, 33 L. ed. 994; Ritbbone v. Bradford, 1 Ala. 312; Grubbs v. Harris, 1 Bibb, 567; Cutts v. Hardee, 38 Ga. 356; Stoddard v. Smith, 5 Binn. 355; Smith v. Bryan, 34 111. 264; Burbank v. Rumsey, 90 111. 555; Maynes v. Moore, 16 Ind. 116; Hopkins v. Jones, 22 Ind. 310; Webb v. Moore, 25 Ind. 4; Williams v. Haines, 27 Iowa, 254, 1 Am. Rep. 270; Citizens' Bank v. Deynoot, 25 La. Ann. 628; Wheat v. State, Minor, 199; Vanzandt v. Waddell, 2 Yerg. 260; Miller v. Smith, 10 Wend. 441. 419 Warren Mfg. Co. v. Etna Ins. Co., 2 Paine, 501, Fed. Cas. No. 17,206; Rathbone v. Bradford, 1 Ala. 312; Ex parte Pollard, 40 Ala. 77; Woods v. Buie, 5 How. (Miss.) 285; Newkirk v. Chapron, 17 111. 344; Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47; Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 531, 6 Am. Dec. 675; Johnson v. Higgins, 3 Met. (Ky.) 566; Morse v. Goold, 11 X. Y. 281; Scott v. Smart, 1 Mich. 295; State v. Barringer, Phill. (N. C.) 554; State v. Slevin, 16 Mo. App. 541; Wood v. Wood, 14 Rich. 148; Hansrick v. Rouse, 17 Ga. 56; Home v. State, S4 N. C. 362; McElrath v. Pittsburgh etc. Ry. Co., 55 Pa. St. 189; Mexican National Ry. Co. v. Musette, 86 Tex. 70S, 26 S. W. 1075, 24 L. R. A. 642. 420 Newkirk v. Chapron, 17 111. 344; Johnson v. Higgins, 3 Met. (Ky.) 566. Notes on Constitution — 2S Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 434 forcement of his contract is void; 421 e. g., a constitutional pro- vision taking from all the courts jurisdiction to enforce con- tracts based upon considerations previously valid. 422 The legislature may reduce the number of courts and thus incident- ally postpone the remedy. 423 Laws creating new tribunals of review and giving new rights of appeal in certain cases have been upheld. 424 Laws prescribing the venue in certain classes of actions relate only to the remedy upon previously executed contracts, 425 and alterations in the law relating to changes of venue are not repugnant to the obligation clause. 426 An act confirming proceedings previously open to question is likewise unobjectionable. 427 The legislature may regulate the time and mode of trial of causes of action on contracts previously executed, 428 or change the manner of commencing actions, serving notices and pro- cess. 429 An act prohibiting waiver of process and confession of judgment by attorneys relates only to remedies and does not impair the obligation of contracts executed prior to its pas- sage.* 30 A statute may extend the time for taking a default 4 21 Jacobs v. Smallwood, 63 N. C. 112; Johnson v. Winslow, 64 N. C 27. 422 French v. Tumlin, Fed. Cas. No. 5104. 423 Parker v. Sanders, 46 Ark. 235; Newkirk v. Chapron, 17 III. 348. 424 League v. De Young, 11 How. 202, 13 L. ed. 657; Long's Ap- peal, 87 Pa. St. 119; Treasurer v. Wygall, 46 Tex. 462. 425 Sanders v. Hillsborough Ins. Co., 44 N. H. 328. 426 Long's Appeal, 87 Pa. St. 119; Treasurer v. Wygall, 46 Tex. 462. 427 Kearny v. Taylor, 15 How. 517, 14 L. ed. 787; Goshen v. Ston- ington, 4 Conn. 310, 10 Am. Dec. 121; Thornton v. McGrath, 1 Duvall, 349; Davis v. State Bank, 7 Ind. 316; Underwood v. Lilly, 10 Serg. & E. 97. 428 Woods v. Buie, 5 How. (Miss.) 285; Ex parte Pollard, 40 Ala. 77; Von Bauinbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559, 76 Am. Dee. 283. 4 29 Railroad Co. v. Hecht, 95 U. S. 170, 24 L. ed. 423; McCreary v. State, 27 Ark. 425; New Albany etc. R. R. Co. v. McNamara, 11 Ind. 543; United Companies v. Weldon, 47 N. J. L. 63, 54 Am. Rep. 116; Holgate v. Oregon etc. R. R., 16 Or. 124, 17 Pac. 680. 430 Worsham v. Stevens, 66 Tex. 89, 17 S. W. 404. 435 " Obligation of Conteacts. Art. I, § 10. CI. 1 judgment. 431 But a statute extending the time for the prose- cution of an action cannot operate to revive a cause of action already barred. 432 The legislature may change or modify the rules as to evi- dence receivable in the state courts, and if the remedy for the enforcement of an existing contract is thereby affected, its ob- ligation is not necessarily impaired. 433 A law establishing a rule of evidence respecting past transactions cannot be said to impair contract obligations. 434 But a statute which so changes the rules of evidence as to render the enforcement of a con- tract impossible does impair its obligation and is unconstitu- tional. 435 So also as to a statute which makes certain evi- dence conclusive of the fact of indebtedness, thus depriving the defendant of a defense which was legal when the contract was made. 430 The legislature cannot cut off or destroy the rights of a bona fide holder of commercial paper by changing the rules of pleading or evidence. 437 An act making a col- lector's report in an application for execution against land for unpaid taxes prima facie evidence of the regularity of the as- sessment is valid, 43S as also is an act making the report of an auditor prima facie evidence of the facts stated therein. 439 A statute changing the presumption arising from a tax deed is 431 Von Baumbaeh v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559, 76 Am. Dec. 283; Hollo- way v. Sherman, 12 Iowa, 282, 79 Am. Dec. 537. 432 State v. Sneecl, 25 Tex. Supp. 66. 433 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 349, 6 L. ed. 606; Scheible v. Bachs, 41 Ala. 423; Tarleton v. Southern Bank, 41 Ala. 722; Kirtlaml v. Molton, 41 Ala. 548; Herbert v. Easton, 43 Ala. 547; Slaughter v. Culpepper, 35 Ga. 26; Cutts v. Hardee, 38 Ga. 356; Roby v. Chi- cago, 64 111. 447; Falls v. Wadsworth, 23 Me. 553; Oriental Bank •. Freese, 18 Me. 112; Holmes v. Hunt, 122 Mass. 516, 23 Am. Rep. 386; Howa-rd v. Moot, 64 N. Y. 262; People v. Mitchell, 45 Barb. 208. 434 Herbert v. Easton, 43 Ala. 547; Eich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 304; Tabor v. Ward, 83 N. C. 291. 435 Marsh v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 463, Fed. Cas. No. 9112. 436 Hope Mutual Ins. Co. v. Flynn, 38 Mo. 483. 437 Cornell v. Hicheus, 11 Wis. 353. 43S Burbank v. Rumsey, 90 111. 555. 439 Holmes v. Hunt, 122 Miss. 516, 23 Am. Rep. 386. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. " 436 constitutional. 440 A statute making a sheriffs deed prima facie evidence that the title of the judgment debtor passed to and vested in the grantee relates only to the remedy, 441 and a statute permitting certified copies of sheriff's deeds, previ- ously recorded, to be given in evidence to the same extent as the originals does not impair any obligation. 442 An act regu- lating proofs is valid. 443 So the legislature may dispense with the necessity of proving the names of the individual members of a firm, 444 or of the proving the signature to a written in- strument. 445 An act abolishing the distinction between sealed and unsealed instruments is likewise unobjectionable. 446 The legislature may pass new laws calculated to facilitate the means of ascertaining what a contract really was, 447 or may permit inquiry into the consideration of a sealed instrument executed in another state ; 44S but a statute which requires proof of consideration upon a plea under oath that it has been used for illegal purposes is void. 449 A statute dispensing with the necessity for proof of demand in replevin suits may apply to pending suits. 450 The removal of the disqualification of witnesses on the ground of interest gobs only to the remedy on existing contracts, 451 and a statute may make a party to a previously executed contract a competent witness in his own behalf. 452 So also a statute imposing disqualifications upon certain classes of witnesses is valid. 453 440 Hickox v. Tallman, 38 Barb. 608; Roby v. City, 64 111. 447; Smith v. Cleveland, 17 Wis. 556; Lain v. fcjnepardson, 18 Wis. 59. 441 Ehle v. Brown, 31 Wis. 405. 442 Foster v. Gray, 22 Pa. St. 9. 443 Wood v. New York, 6 Robt. 463. 444 Ballard v. Ridgley, Morr. 27. 4 45 Ingraham v. Dooley, Morr. 2^. 446 Williams v. Haines, 27 Iowa, 254, 1 Am. Rep. 270. 447 Woodfin v. Slader, Phill. (N. C.) 200. 448 Williams v. Haines, 27 Iowa. 254, 1 Am. Rep. 270. 449 Marsh v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 463, Fed. Cas. No. 9112. And see Edwards v. Dixon, 53 Ga. 334. 450 Stockwell v. Robinson, 9 Houst. 313, 32 Atl. 528. 45i Rich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 323. 452 Ralston v. Lothian, 18 Ind. 303; Neass v. Mercer, 15 Barb, 318; Walthall v. Walthall, 42 Ala. 450; Wormley v. Hamburg, 40 Iowa, 22. 453 O 'Bryan v. Allen, 108 Mo. 227, 18 S. W. 892. 437 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 A law allowing the jury to determine the value of a contract in suit independently of the stipulations of the parties is un- constitutional ; 454 but the legislature may provide that either party may give in evidence the consideration, its value, the intent of the parties as to its payment, and may direct that the verdict and judgment be based upon principles of equity. 455 A retrospective statute which provides that no verdict shall be rendered unless a contract has been legally returned for taxes is unconstitutional. 456 A law merely regulating the mode of issuing executions on judgments previously rendered affects only the remedy, and is constitutional. 457 So an act confirming irregular levies is valid/ 58 and this is true of a law providing for the vacation oi irregular levies and the correction of errors within a cer- tain time. 459 So also the repeal of a law authorizing execu- tory process on foreign judgments is valid although applied to process issued before the repeal. 460 Police Regulations as Affecting Obligation. All contracts are inherently subject to the paramount power of the sovereign, the exercise of which is never understood to involve their violation within the meaning of the obligation 454 Wilmington etc. B. K. Co. v. King, 91 U. S. 5, 23 L. ed. 186; Effinger v. Kenny, 115 U. S. 571, 6 S. Ct. 182, 29 L. ed. 495; Palmer v. Love, 82 N. C. 479; Leach v. Smith, 25 Ark. 246; Woodruff v. Tilly, 25 Ark. 309. 455 Slaughter v. Culpepper, 35 Ga. 25; Cutts v. Hardee, 38 Ga. 350: Taylor v. Flint, 35 Ga. 124; Kirtland v. Molton, 41 Ala. 548; Tarleton v. Southern Bank, 41 Ala. 722; Herbert v. Easton, 43 Ala. 547; Rutland v. Copes, 15 Eich. S4. 456 Lathrop v. Brown, 1 Woods, 474, Fed. Cas. No. 8108; Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 314, 21 L. ed. 357; Gardner v. Jeter, 49 Ga. 195; Griffiths v. Shipp, 49 Ga. 231; Kimbro v. Bank, 49 Ga. 419; Dougherty v. Fogle, 50 Ga. 464. 457 Bank of United States v. Longworth, 1 McLean, 35; Williams v. Waldo, 4 111. 264; Delahay v. McConnell, 5 111. 156; Coriell v. Ham, 4 G. Greene, 455, 61 Am. Dec. 134; Carnes v. Eed Eiver Parish, 2y La. Ann. 608. 458 Mather v. Chapman, 6 Conn. 54. 450 Bell v. Roberts, 13 Vt. 582; Pratt v. Jones, 25 Vt. 303. 460 Scott v. Duke, 3 La. Ann. 253. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 438 clause of the constitution; the power acts upon property, not upon contract. 461 Neither the legislature nor the people them- selves can bargain away the power to regulate the public health and morals, 462 or legislative discretion concerning such regu- lation, 463 and the power is inalienable even by express grant. 464 So one legislature cannot by contract restrain the power of a subsequent legislature to legislate for the public welfare, and to that end to suppress any and all practices tending to cor- rupt the public morals or impair the public health. 465 The legislative power extends only to irrevocable grants of property and franchises which do not impair this sovereign right ' of police regulation, 466 but while this power cannot be abdicated, it may in some instances be delegated, subject always to the power of revocation. 467 The police power comprehends all those general laws of in- ternal regulation necessary to secure peace, good order, health, and the comfort of society, 408 private interests being subser- 461 OsboTn v. Nicholson, 13 Wall. 660, 20 L. ed. 689; New Orleans Gas Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 U. S. 672, 6 S. Ct. 252, 29 L. ed. 516; New Orleans Waterworks v. Rivers, 115 U. S. 681, 6 S. Ct. 273, 29 L. ed. 525. 462 Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 U. S. 25, 24 L. ed. 989; New Orleans Gas Co. v. Louisiana Light Co., 115 U. S. 650, 6 S. Ct. 252, 29 L. ed. 516; Birmingham Mineral etc. Co. v. Parsons, 100 Ala. 662, 46 Am. St. Bep. 92, 13 South. 662, 27 L. E. A. 263; Chicago etc. By. Co. v. State, 47 Neb. 549, 66 N. W. 624, 41 L. E. A. 48JL; Thorpe v. Rutland etc. Ry. Co., 27 Vt. 140, 62 Am. Dee. 625. 4 63 Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U. S. 819, 25 L. ed. 1079; Boyd v. Alabama, 94 U. S. 645, 24 L. ed. 302; Butchers' Union Co. v. Crescent City Co., Ill TJ. S. 751, 4 S. Ct. 652, 28 L. ed. 585. 464 Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 IT. S. 25, 24 L. ed. 989; New York etc. R. R. Co. v. Bristol, 151 U. S. 567, 14 S. Ct. 437, 38 L. ed. 269; Holden v. Hardy, 169 TJ. S. 392, IS S. Ct. 383, 42 L. ed. 780. 465 Boyd v. Alabama, 94 TJ. S. 650, 24 L. ed. 302; Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 TJ. S. 670, 24 L. ed. 1036. 466 Stone v. Mississippi, 101 TJ. S. 821, 2-5 L. ed. 1079. 467 Illinois Cent. R. R. Co. v. Illinois, 146 TJ. S. 453, 13 S. Ct. 110, 36 L. ed. 1018. 468 Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 62, 21 L. ed. 394; Munn v. Illinois, 94 TJ. S. 125, 24 L. ed. 77; Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 TJ. S. 33, 24 L. ed. 989; Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 TJ. 8. 439 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 vient to the general interests of the community. 469 The pos- session and enjoyment of all rights are subject to such reason- able conditions as may be deemed by the governing authority essential to the safety, health, peace, good order and morals of the community, 470 and for the commonwealth individuals must suffer the destruction of property, and even of life, rights of necessity being part of the law. 471 The legislature may forbid a person to engage in a dangerous employment ex- cept at his own risk, 472 or it may prohibit a hazardous or per- nicious business, although it thereby affects prior contracts. 473 So also it may regulate the sale of naphtha or inflammable oils, 474 and a subsequent statute may forbid the transporta- tion of dead animals under a charter provision permitting their use in the manufachire of fertilizers. 475 A statute pro- hibiting lotteries is valid although intended to operate on a lottery authorized by a corporate charter. 476 The legislature may enact laws regulating the observance of the Sabbath, 477 and may provide a remedy against nuisances. 478 669, 24 L. ed. 1036; Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 U. S. 504, 24 L. eel. 1115; Cotting v. Kansas City Stockyards Co., 183 U. S. 84, 22 S. Ct. 30, 46 L. ed. 92; Ex parte Schrader, 33 Cal. 279; Philadelphia etc. B. E. Co. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506; New Orleans Gaslight Co. v. Hart, 40 La. Ann. 474, 8 Am. St. Eep. 544, 4 South. 215. 469 Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 62, 21 L. ed. 394; Common- wealth v. Alger, 7 Cush. 53. 470 Crowley v. Christensen, 137 U. S. 89, 11 S. Ct. 13, 34 L. ed. 620. 471 Bowditch v. Boston, 101 U. S. 18, 25 L. ed. 980. 472 Kirby v. Pennsylvania etc. E. E. Co., 76 Pa. St. 506. 473 People v. Hawley, 3 Mich. 330. 474 United States v. Dewitt, 9 Wall. 41; Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 IT. S. 503, 24 L. ed. 1115, affirming 11 Bush, 315, 21 Am. Eep. 222. 475 Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 TJ. S. 669, 24 L. ed. 1036, af- firming 70 111. 634. 476 Phalen v. Virginia, 8 How. 169, 12 L. E. A. 1030; Boyd v. Alabama, 94 IT. S. 650, 24 L. ed. 302; Stone v. Mississippi, 101 TJ. S. 819, 25 L. ed. 1079; Douglas v. Kentucky, 168 U. S. 498, 18 3. Ct. 199, 42 L. ed. 553; Moore v. State, 48 Miss. 147, 12 Am. Eep. 367. 477 People v. Havnor, 149 N. Y. 195, 52 Am. St. Eep. 707, 43 N. E. 541, 31 L. E. A. 689; Bohl v. State, 3 Tex. App. 683; People v. Bellet, 99 Mich. 151, 41 Am. St. Eep. 589, 22 L. E. A. 286; Vogel- song v. State, 9 Ind. 112; Shaver v. State, 10 Ark. 259; Specbt v. Commonwealth, 8 Pa. St. 312, 49 Am. Dec. 518. 47S Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 U. S. 669, 24 L. ed. 1036. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 Obligation of Contracts. 440 Every individual holds his property subject to such police regulation as the legislature in its wisdom may enact for the general welfare, 479 and it is the province of the legislature to de- termine the exigency calling for the exercise of the police power, and of the courts to decide as to the proper subjects of its exercise. 480 As to whether a purported police regulation is wise or reasonable the courts will not determine; 481 the legislature possesses a wide discretion in this respect. 482 The mere fact of pecuniary injury is not sufficient to warrant the holding of a police regulation invalid. 483 A state may regu- late the carrying on of business within its limits, 484 and may impose reasonable police regulations for the protection of mar- kets against the sale of commodities unfit for commerce, 485 or may regulate the sale of any commodity the use of which would be detrimental to the morals of the people. 486 The legislature may regulate or prohibit the sale of intoxi- cating liquors, 487 and the regulation or prohibition may oper- 479 Brown v. Keener, 74 N. C. 714; Pool v. Trexler, 76 N. C. 297. 480 Lawton v. Steele, 152 U. S. 136, 14 S. Ct. 499, 38 L. ed. 385; Allgeyer v. Louisiana, 165 U. S. 590, 17 S. Ct. 427, 41 L. ed. 832, Lake View v. Kose Hill Cemetery, 70 111. 191, 22 Am. Rep. 71; Daniels v. Hilgard, 77 111. G40. 4Si Railroad Co. v. Richmond, 96 XJ. S. 528, 24 L. ed. 734; Patter- son v. Kentucky, 97 U. S. 504, 24 L. ed 1115. 4S2 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U. S. 550, 16 S. Ct. 1138, 41 L. ed. 256. 483 L'Hote v. New Orleans, 177 TJ. S. 598, 20 S. Ct. 788, 44 L. ed. 899. 484 Higgins v. Rinker, 47 Tex. 381. 485 State v. Fosdick, 21 La. Ann. 256; New Haven etc. Co. v. Bunnell, 4 Conn. 59; .Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 U. S. 669, 24 L. ed. 1036. 486 State v. Gurney, 37 Me. 156, 58 Am. Dec. 782. 487 Pervear v. Commonwealth, 5 Wall. 479, 18 L. ed. 608; Barto- meyer v. Iowa, 18 Wall. 132, 21 L. ed. 929; Boston Beer Co. v. Massa- chusetts, 97 TJ. S. 32, 24 L. ed. 989; Eilenbecker v. Plymouth Co., 134 TJ. S. 40, 10 S. Ct. 424, 33 L. ed. 801; Giozza v. Tiernan, 148 U. S. 662, 13 S. Ct. 723, 37 L. ed. 599; Jacobs Pharmacy Co. v. Atlanta, 89 Fed. 246. 441 Obligation of Contracts. Art. I, § 10, CI. 1 ate to revoke licenses already granted and not yet expired. 4SS So a state may tax the sale of intoxicating liquors. 489 The fact that the federal government has granted a license to sell liquor does not authorize any violation of state laws nor pre- clude prohibition on the part of the state. 490 A clause in the charter of an educational institution forbidding the sale of liquor within the neighborhood cannot be construed as a grant of a power or privilege, but as an exercise of the police power, and as such subject to repeal. 491 A statute prohibiting the sale or keeping for sale of liquors previously manufactured does not impair any contract obligations by reason of the fact that it lessens the value of liquors already owned. 492 There is no inherent right in a citizen to sell intoxicating liquors, nor is it a privilege of United States citizenship. 493 Since the Wilson Act of 1890, subjecting imported liquors to the operation of the police regulations of the states, there can be no objection to a prohibitory law on the ground that it impairs the contract between a manufacturer and an importer. 494 The reasonable regulation of a business or trade is within the police power of the states, 495 and such regulation may ex- tend to both the exercise and mode of exercise of the business or trade. 496 So the regulation of the business of mining and the prescribing of certain precautions to secure the safety, health and comfort of laborers is a valid exercise of the 4S8 Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 U. S. 32, 24 L. ed. 98fc>; Kresser v. Lyman, 74 Fed. 767; Powell v. State, 69 Ala. 10; HevTen v. Beed, 126 Cal. 222, 58 Pac. 537; Moore v. Indianapolis, 120 Tnd. 492, 22 N. E. 427; Young v. Blaisdell, 138 Mass. 345. 489 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 730, 18 L. ed. 96; Sinclair v. State, 69 N. C. 47. 490 McGuire v. Commonwealth, 3 Wall. 395, 18 L. ed. 164; Terri- tory v. O'Connor, 5 Dak. 408, 41 N. W. 751; Commonwealth v. Casey, 12 Allen, 222; State v. Elder, 54 Me. 383; State v. Lillard, 7S Mo. 138. 491 Dingman v. People, 51 111. 277. 402 State v. Paul, 5 B. I. 185. And see Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U. S. 657, 8 S. Ct. 273, 31 L. ed. 205. 403 Crowley v. Christensen, 137 U. S. 91, 11 S. Ct. 13, 34 of causes to the federal courts. So a statute prohibiting foreign corporations from doing business in the state without filing an agreement not to remove causes is void, and an agreement pur- suant thereto is not binding. 100 On the other hand, it has been held that as a state may prescribe any terms it sees fit upon which foreign corporations shall do business, and it may pro- vide that in case such a corporation removes a cause to the federal courts, the Secretary of State may revoke its license to do business. 161 A statute requiring foreign corporations to submit to service of process may serve to give the proper state courts jurisdiction of foreign corporations. 162 Parties to a suit cannot, by agreement, oust the jurisdiction of the federal courts, 163 but the right of removal is inconsistent with the vol- untary submission to a state court's jurisdiction, 164 and the right may be waived by such submission. 165 159 Mason v. Boom Co., 3 Wall. Jr. 252, Fed. Cas. No. 9232. 160 Insurance Co. v. Morse, 20 Wall. 458, 22 L. ed. 365; Doyle v. Continental Ins. Co., 94 IT. S. 538, 24 L. ed. 148; Barron v. Burnside, 121 U. S. 200, 7 S. Ct. 931, 30 L. ed. 915; Southern Pacific Co. v. Denton, 146 U. S. 207, 13 S. Ct. 44, 36 L. ed. 942; Chicago etc. By. Co. v. Becker, 32 Fed. 853; Bigelow v. Nickerson, 70 Fed. 121, 30 L. B. A. 336; Commonwealth v. East Tennessee, 97 Ky. 244, 30 S. W. 610. 161 Doyle v. Continental Ins. Co., 94 U. S. 540, 24 L. ed. 148; Phenix Ins. Co. v. Burdett, 112 Ind. 205, 13 N. E. 705; State v. In- surance Co., 115 Ind. 266, 17 N. E. 578; State v. Phipps, 50 Kan. 617. 34 Am. St. Rep. 157, 31 Pac. 1099, 18 L. R. A. 657; State v. Stone, 118 Mo. 401, 40 Am. St. Rep. 394, 24 S. W. 166, 25 L. R. A. 243. 162 Southern Pacific Co. v. Denton, 146 U. S. 207, 13 S. Ct. 44, 36 L. ed. 942. 163 Davis v. Packard, 6 Pet. 41, 8 L. ed. 312, 7 Pet. 276, 8 L. ed. 684; Ducat v. Chicago, 10 Wall. 415, 19 L. ed. 972; Martin v. Balti- more etc. R. R. Co., 151 U. S. 689, 14 S. Ct. 533, 38 L. ed. 311; Hobbs v. Manhattan Ins. Co., 56 Me. 417, 96 Am. Dec. 472. 164 Manning v. Amy, 140 U. S. 141, 11 S. Ct. 707, 35 L. ed. 386. 165 Brooks v. Clark, 119 U. S. 513, 7 S. Ct. 301, 30 L. ed. 482; Han- over Bank v. Smith, 13 Blatchf. 225, Fed. Cas. No. 6035. Art. Ill, § 1 Judges. 616 — Judges. This clause removes from Congress all control over the ten- ure of office of federal judges, and precludes any diminution in their compensation during their term of office. 166 Judges of inferior federal courts established by Congress must be ap- pointed to hold office during good behavior. 167 The extra com- pensation received by a district judge holding court outside his own district is no part of his official salary. 168 The fees al- lowed to justices of the peace in the District of Columbia can- not be diminished during their continuance in office. 169 The imposition of a tax upon the salary of a judge is in violation of this clause. 170 A person appointed to be judge of a terri- torial court is not contemplated by this clause, 171 and hence the constitution is not violated by a statute prescribing a fixed term of years for the office of such a judge or authorizing his displacement. 172 The provision that the compensation shall not be reduced accordingly has no application to judges of ter- ritorial courts. 173 166 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97. 167 United States v. Ferreira, 13 How. 49, 14 L. ed. 42; United States v. Todd, 13 How. 52, note; Hayburn's Case, 2 Dall. 410, note, 1 L. ed. 436. 168 Benedict v. United States, 176 U. S. 361, 20 S. Ct. 458, 44 L. ed. 503. 169 United States v. Moore, 3 Or. 160, 2 L. ed. 397. 170 Commonwealth v. Mann, 5 Watts & S. 415. 171 Wingard v. United States, 141 U. S. 201, 11 S. Ct. 959, 35 L. ed. 719. 17 2 American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 546, 7 L. ed. 242; Mc- Allister v. United States, 141 U. S. 188, 11 S. Ct. 949, 35 L. ed. 693. 173 Fisher's Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 323. .517 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 SECTION 2. JUDICIAL POWEES. 1. Jurisdiction of Courts in general. 2. Of Supreme Court, original and appellate. 3. Jury trials, place of trial. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority; — to all cases af- fecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and con- suls; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdic- tion ; — to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to controversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizens of another State; — between citizens of different States; — between citi- zens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. Extent of the Judicial Power. The object of this section is to define the judicial power which the constitution intended to be confined to courts created by Congress. 1 It enables the judicial department to receive jurisdiction to the full extent of the constitution, laws and treaties of the United States. When any question respecting them is submitted by a party who asserts his rights in the form prescribed by law, it then becomes a "case" of which the federal' courts have cognizance. 2 "Shall extend" is used in an impera- tive sense, and imports an absolute grant of power. 3 In thus de- 1 Eobertson v. Baldwin, 165 U. S. 279, 17 S. Ct. 326, 41 L. ed. 715. 2 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 819, 6 L. ed. 204. 3 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 518 fining the judicial power the constitution contemplates the cases enumerated as being in three distinct classes. In the latter class as to controversies, Congress may qualify the jurisdiction, either original or appellate, 4 and the grant of jurisdiction over one of the classes does not confer any jurisdiction over either of the ■other two. 5 Jurisdiction is the power to hear and determine the subject matter in controversy between the parties to a suit; to adjudicate or exercise judicial power over it. 6 It has reference (1) to the court's power over the parties; (2) over the subject matter, i. e., the nature of the cause of action; (3) over the property in contest; (4) and to its authority to render judg- ment. 7 An affirmative description of jurisdiction implies a negative on the exercise of power not comprehended within it. 8 How jurisdiction shall be acquired, whether original or appel- late, and the mode of procedure, are left to the wisdom of the legislature; 9 so Congress may give the federal courts original jurisdiction in any case to which appellate jurisdiction ex- tends, 10 and may invest inferior federal courts with jurisdic- tion over matters in which the supreme court has original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction, 11 and lawfully provide for suits, at the option of the parties, on all controversies between citizens of different states. 12 Congress is empowered to give the federal courts jurisdiction over every case wherein a question within the judicial power is an ingredient. 13 The questions involved in a case must de- 4 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 411, 18 L. ed. 397. 5 American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 545, 7 L. ed. 242. 6 United States v. Arredondo, 6 Pet. 709, 8 L. ed. 547; Ehode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 718, 9 L. ed. 1233; Grignon v. Astor, 2 How. 338, 11 L. ed. 283; Ex parte McCardle, 7 Wall. 514, 19 L. ed. 264; Windsor v. McVeigh, 93 U. S. 284, 23 L. ed. 914; Overby v. Gor- don, 177 U. S. 220, 20 S. Ct. 603, 44 L. ed. 741. 7 Cooper v. Keynolds, 10 Wall. 316, 19 L. ed. 931. 8 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 173, 2 L. ed. 60; National Exchango Bank v. Peters, 144 U. S. 573, 12 S. Ct. 767, 36 L. ed. 545. 9 Mayor v. Cooper, 6 Wall. 247, 18 L. ed. 851. 10 Osborne v. Bank of United States, 9 Wheat. 820, 6 L. ed. 204. u Ames v. Kansas, 111 U. S. 469, 4 S. Ct. 437, 28 L. ed. 482. 12 Gaines v. Fuentes, 92 U. S. 18, 23 L. ed. 524. 13 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 823, 6 L. ed. 204, 519 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 termine its character in this respect, and if there are such as to bring the case within the judicial power, it is imma- terial that other questions of law or fact are involved. 14 So the judicial power extends to the trial of a revenue officer for an act done in the discharge of his duty; 15 to a suit in- volving the rights of a railroad company as a corporation of the United States; 16 to a case involving the construction of a bankruptcy law; 17 to a suit involving the application of the interstate commerce act; 18 to a suit by or against a national bank. 19 In all such cases jurisdiction of the federal courts may be made exclusive at the will of Congress. 20 The judicial power is the instrument provided for adminis- tering security to an officer acting in the discharge of his duty ; 2 1 the power to declare what the law is. 22 It covers every legislative act of Congress, 23 and is the final arbiter in matters involving the construction of the constitution ; 24 and the federal 14 Osborne v. "United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 823, 6 L. ed. 204; Tennessee v. Davis, 100 U. S. 264, 25 L. ed. 648; Eoberts v. North- ern Pac. E. E. Co., 158 U. S. 22, 15 S. Ct. 763, 39 L. ed. 873; Nashville etc. E. E. v. Taylor, 86 Fed. 177; Fisk v. Union Pacific E. E. Co., 8 Blatchf. 248, Fed. Cas. No. 4828. 15 Tennessee v. Davis, 100 U. S. 264, 25 L. ed. 648. 16 Eoterts v. Northern Pacific E. E. Co., 158 U. S. 22, 15 S. Ct. 763", 39 L. ed. 873. it Connor v. Scott, 4 Dill. 247, Fed. Cas. No. 3119. is Toledo etc. E. E. Co. v. Pennsylvania Co., 54 Fed. 749, 19 L. E. A. 387. 19 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, & L. ed. 204; Petrie v. Commercial Bank, 142 U. S. 648, 12 S. Ct. 326, 35 L. ed. 1144; Ex parte Jones, 164 U. S. 692, 17 S. Ct. 223, 41 L. ed. 601. 20 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 337, 4 L. ed. 97; The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 428, 18 L. ed. 397; The Glide, 167 U S. 615, 17 S. Ct. 933, 42 L. ed. 296. 21 Hodgson v. Millward, 3 Grant, 412. 22 Ex parte McCardle, 7 Wall. 514, 19 L. ed. 264. 23 Ableman v. Booth, 21 How. 506, 16 L. ed. 169; Mayor v. Cooper, 6 Wall. 247, 18 L. ed. 851. 24 Van Home's Lessee v. Dorranee, 2 Dall. 304, Fed. Cas. No. 16,857; Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; Cohens v. Vir- ginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257; Ableman v. Booth, 21 How. 506, 16 L. ed. 169. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Tower. 5?0 courts may be given by Congress power to construe every law with reference to its validity under the constitution. 25 In order that the judicial power may extend to a case arising under the constitution or laws of the United States or a treaty, it must be "a case in law or in equity" in which a right under such constitution, law or treaty is asserted in a court of jus- tice. 20 A suit in which a party seeks protection under a law is one arising under that law; 27 and where the right of either party to a suit depends upon the validity of an act of Congress, the case is one arising under the constitution. 28 The construc- tion of a treaty is deemed to be drawn into question for the purposes of federal jurisdiction where the issue is as to whether an act done or omitted was in conformity to the treaty. 29 But the case must really and substantially involve a question con- templated by this clause; 30 the mere controverting a right or disputing an act is not necessarily sufficient. 31 The jurisdiction of the federal courts is exclusive over ques- tions arising under treaties, where such questions are not politi- cal. 32 As between the legislative and judiciary departments, 25 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 819, 6 L. ed. 204; Smith v. Adams, 130 U. S. 174, 9 S. Ct. 564, 32 L. ed. 895; Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 475, 14 S. Ct. 1132, 38 L. ed. 1047; Nashville etc. R. R. Co. v. Taylor, 86 Fed. 172. 26 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 379, 5 L. ed. 257; Minnesota Co. v. St. Paul Co., 2 Wall. 634, 17 L. ed. 886; Railroad Co. v. Mississippi, 102 U. S. 140, 26 L. ed. 96. 27 Hodgson v. Millward, 3 Grant, 412, Fed. Cas. No. 6568; Kulp v. Ricketts, 3 Grant, 420. 2S Patton v. Brady, 184 IT. S. 611, 22 S. Ct. 493, 46 L. ed. 713. 29 Smith v. Maryland, 6 Cr. 304, 3 L. ed. 225. 30 Bier v. McGehee, 148 U. S. 141, 13 S. Ct. 580, 37 L. ed. 397; Western Union Tel. Co. v. Ann Arbor R. R. Co., 178 U. S. 250, 20 S. Ct. 867, 44 L. ed. 1052; Gableman v. Peoria etc. Ry. Co., 179 U. 3. 339, 21 S. Ct. 171, 45 L. ed. 220. 31 Ferry v. King Co., 141 U. S. 673, 12 S. Ct. 128, 35 L. ed. 895. 32 Wilson v. Wall, 6 Wall. 89, 18 L. ed. 727; United States v. Reese, 5 Dill. 409, Fed. Cas. No. 16,137; Ex parte Leon, 1 Edm. Sel. Cas. 301; United States v. Lathrop, 17 Johns. 9; United States v. Campbell, 6 Hall L. J, 113; Haney v. Sharp, 1 Dana, 442; Scharpf v. Schmidt, 172 111. 262, 50 N. E. 184. 521 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 however, so far as the provisions of a treat}- can become the sub- ject of judicial cognizance, they are subject to acts of Congress jiassed for their enforcement, modification or repeal. 33 "Cases" Contemplated by this Clause. The jurisdiction of the federal courts is commensurate with every right and duty created, declared, or necessarily implied by and under the federal constitution and laws. 34 A "case" is a question contested before a court of justice, 35 and a case in law or equity consists in the right of one party as well as of the other, and it "arises" when its correct decision depends on the construction of the constitution or laws of the United States. 36 It is a suit instituted according to the regular course of ju- dicial procedure. 87 The interests of the parties must be ad- verse; 38 the clause does not contemplate suits merely to deter- mine abstract principles. 39 It is limited to such suits as are between parties and are of a judicial nature, 40 and does not include purely political questions. 41 When the subject of a 33 Head Money Cases, 112 TJ. S. 5S0, 5 S. Ct. 247, 28 L. ed. 798. 34 Irvine v. Marshall, 20 How. 564, 15 L. ed. 994. 35 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 352, 4 L. ed. 97; Cohens v. Vir- ginia, 6 Wheat. 407, 5 L. ed. 257; Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 113, 18 L. ed. 281; King v. McLean Asylum, 64 Fed. 336, 26 L. R, A. 784; Appleton v. Turnbull, 84 Me. 76, 24 Atl. 593; State v. Newell, 13 Mont, 305, 34 Pac. 29. 36 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 407, 5 L. ed. 257; Railroad Co. v. Mississippi, 102 TJ. S. 140, 26 L. ed. 96; Ex parte Carll, 106 TJ. S. 522, 1 S. Ct. 535, 27 L. ed. 288; United States v. Williams, 4 Cr. O. C. 372, Fed. Cas. No. 16,712. 37 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 138, 2 L. ed. 60; Owings v. Norwood's Lessee, 5 Cr. 348, 3 L. ed. 120; Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 352, 4 L. ed." 97. 38 Wood-Paper Co. v. Heft, 8 Wall. 336, 19 L. ed. 379. 39 Foster v. Mansfield etc. R. R. Co., 146 TJ. S. 101, 13 S. Ct. 28, 36 L. ed. 899. 40 Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 1, 12 L. ed. 581; United States v. Ferreira, 13 How. 40, 14 L. ed. 42. 41 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 438, 7 L. ed. 903; Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 20, 8 L. ed. 25; United States v. Blaine, 139 U. S. 326, 11 S. Ct. 607, 35 L. ed. 183; In re Cooper, 143 U. S. 503, 12 S. Ct. 453, 36 L. ed. 232. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 522 controversy is political — e. g., where it involves a question purely governmental — the courts cannot take cognizance of it. 42 Cases at law, under the constitution, are those suits in which legal rights are ascertained and determined, in contradistinction to those where equitable rights alone are recognized and equi- table rights administered. 43 Equity cases are those suits in which relief is sought according to the principles and practice of the equity jurisdiction as established in English jurispru- dence. 44 A case can be considered only when the subject matter is submitted in the form prescribed by law, 45 and the record must show, not only that some law or treaty or right under the constitution is drawn into question, 46 but that such law or treaty or constitutional right is substantially involved. 47 The validity of a statute is not drawn into question every time rights claimed under that statute are controverted, nor is the validity of an authority drawn into question every time an act done under such authority is disputed, 48 and a suit to enforce a right or title taking its origin from United States laws, is not necessarily such as federal courts may entertain regardless 42 Georgia v. Stanton, 6 Wall. 71-76, 18 L. ed. 721; In re Cooper, 143 U. S. 503, 12 S. Ct. 453, 36 L. ed. 232. 43 Parsons v. Bedford, 3 Pet. 447, 7 L. ed. 732; Fenn v. Holme, 21 How. 486, 16 L. ed. 198; Irvine v. Marshall, 20 How. 565, 15 L. ed. 994. See, also, Strother v. Lucas, 6 Pet. 768, 8 L. ed. 573; Parish v. Ellis, 16 Pet. 453, 10 L. ed. 1028; Bennett v. Butterworth, 11 How. 669, 13 L. ed. 859; Sherbourne v. De Cordova, 24 How. 423, 16 L. ed. 741. 44 Irvine v. Marshall, 20 How. 565, 15 L. ed. 994; National Surety Co. v. State Bank, 120 Fed. 593, 61 L. E. A. 394. 45 Bobinson v. Campbell, 3 Wheat. 212, 4 L. ed. 372; Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204; Parsons v. Bedford, 3 Pet. 433, 7 L. ed. 732. 46 Lawler v. Walker, 14 How. 149, 14 L. ed. 364; Mills v. Brown, 16 Pet. 525, 10 L. ed. 1055; Railroad Co. v. Rock, 4 Wall. 180, 18 L. ed. 381; Ryan v. Thomas, 4 Wall. 603, 18 L. ed. 460; La Abra etc. Mining Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 455, 20 S. Ct. 168, 44 L. ed. 223. 47 Gableman v. Peoria etc. R. R. Co., 179 U. S. 339, 21 S. Ct. 17.1, 45 L. ed. 220. 48 Ferry v. King Co., 141 U. S. 673, 12 S. Ct. 128, 35 L. ed. 895. 523 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 of citizenship. 49 The pleadings need not, however, point out what particular clause in the constitution is in question. 50 The courts of the United States have no jurisdiction of of- fenses at common law. 51 Suits in winch relief is sought ac- cording to the principles and practice of equity jurisdiction are "cases in equity/' 52 and the equity jurisdiction is the same a& that of the high court of chancery in England. 53 The true test is whether there is a plain, adequate and complete remedy at law in the same court. 54 The judicial power extends to cases in state courts and to statutes, whether passed by state legislatures or by Congrebs, which are claimed to be repugnant to the constitution of the United States, 55 but not to statutes claimed to be void under 49 Shoshone Mining Co. v. Butter, 177 TJ. S. 507, 20 S. Ct. 726, 44 L. ed. 864. 50 Chrystal Springs etc. Water Co. v. City of Los Angeles, 76 Fed. 148. 51 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554; Turner v. Bank of North America, 4 Dall. 10, 1 L. ed. 718; United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 104, 5 L. ed. 37; Jones v. United States, 137 U. S. 211, 11 S. Ct. 80 34 L. ed. 691; Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 262, 11 S. Ct. 559, 35 L. ed. 159; United States v. Lancaster, 2 McLean, 431, Fed. Cas. No. 15,556; Kitchen v. Strawbridge, 4 Wash. C. C. 84, Fed. Cas. No. 7854. 52 Eobinson v. Campbell, 3 Wheat. 212, 4 L. ed. 372; United States v. Howland, 4 Wheat. 108, 4 L. ed. 526; Lorman v. Clarke, 2 McLeau, 568, Fed. Cas. No. 8516; Gordon v. Hobart, 2 Sum. 401, Fed. Cas. No. 5609; Peatt v. Northam, 5 Mason, 95, Fed. Cas. No. 11,376; Cropped v. Coburn, 2 Curt. 465, Fed. Cas. No. 3416. 53 Sheffield Furnace Co. v. Witherow, 149 U. S. 574, 13 S. Ct. 936, 37 L. ed. 853; Mississippi Mills v. Cohn, 150 U. S. 202, 37 L. ed. 1052. 54 United States v. Howland, 4 Wheat. 108, 4 L. ed. 526; Boyce v. Grundy, 3 Pet. 215, 7 L. ed. 655; Gaines v. Chew, 2 How. 619, 11 L. ed. 619; Williams v. Benedict, 8 How. 107, 12 L. ed. 1007; National Surety Co. v. State Bank, 120 Fed. 593, 61 L. R. A. 394. 55 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 399, 1 L. ed. 648; Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 137, 2 L. ed. 60; Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 625, 4 L. ed. 629; Parsons v. District of Columbia, 170 U. 3. 45, 18 S. Ct. 521, 42 L. ed. 943; Chrystal Springs etc. Water Co. v. City of Los Angeles, 76 Fed. 148. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 524 a state constitution only. 56 The judiciary can only inquire whether the means cfevised by Congress in the exercise of a power granted are repugnant to the constitution, 57 not whether Congress acted wisely, 58 or with a proper motive. 59 And to warrant the judiciary in declaring an act of Congress void it must he clearly repugnant to the constitution; 00 the objection must not be doubtful, 61 but must show a clear violation of the constitution. 62 The judicial power extends to all cases affecting ambassadors and consuls, notwithstanding they are not parties to the rec- ord. 63 The jurisdiction of circuit courts over a controversy be- tween a citizen and an alien is not defeated because the alien is the consul of a foreign government, 64 and citizens of the 50 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 392, 1 L. ed. 648; State v. Hufty, 11 La. Ann. 316; Williams v. Bank of Michigan, 7 Wend. 553. 57 Interstate Commerce Com. v. Brimson, 154 U. S. 447, 14 S. .Ct. 1125, 38 L. ed. 1047. 58 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 176, 2 L. ed. 60; Dred Scott v. San- ford, 19 How. 405, 15 L. ed. 691; United States v. Union Pacific E. E. Co., 91 U. S. 91, 23 L. ed. 224; Brass v. North Dakota, 153 U. S. 403, 14 S. Ct. 857, 38 L. ed. 757; Li Sing v. United States, 180 U. S. 495, 21 S. Ct. 449, 45 L. ed. 634; Treat v. White, 181 U. S. 269, 21 S. Ct. 611, 45 L. ed. 853. 59 Fletcher v. Peck, 6. Cr. 131, 3 L. ed. 162; Ex parte MeCardle, 7 Wall. 514, 19 L. ed. 264; Soon Hing v. Crowley, 113 U. S. 710, 5 S. Ct. 730, 28 L. ed. 1145; United States v. Des Moines etc. K. R. Co., 142 U. S. 544, 12 S. Ct. 308, 35 L. ed. 1099. 60 Hylton v. United States, 3 Dall. 175, 1 L. ed. 556; Calder v. Bui!, 3 Dall. 395, 1 L. ed. 648; Mnnn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 123, 24 L. ed. 77; Livingston v. Darlington, 101 U. S. 410, 25 L. ed. 1015; Hooper v. California, 155 U. S. 657, 15 S. Ct. 207, 39 L. ed. 297. 61 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 625, 4 L. ed. 629; Parsons v. Bedford, 3 Pet. 448, 7 L. ed. 732; Fairbank v. United States, 181 U. S. 285, 21 S. Ct. 648, 45 L. ed. 862; Chesapeake etc. Tel. Co. v. Manning, 186 U. S. 245, 22 S. Ct. 881, 46 L. ed. 1144. 62 Chesapeake etc. Ey. Co. v. Kentucky, 179 U. S. 394, 21 S. Ct. 101, 45 L. ed. 244; Fairbank v. United States, 181 U. S. 285, 21 S. Ct. 648, 45 L. ed. 862. 63 Osborne v. Bank of United States, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204; United States v. Ortega, 11 Wheat. 467, 6 L. ed. 521; United States v. Eavara, 2 Dall, 297, Fed. Cas. No. 16,112. 64 Bors v. Preston, 111 U. S. 261, 4 S. Ct. 407, 28 L. ed. 419. 525 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 United States, although consuls of foreign nations, may be sued in the district court, where they are not received as diplomatic agents, though they may be acting for the minister in his ab- sence. 65 The constitutional grant of original jurisdiction to the supreme court of cases affecting ambassadors and consuls is not exclusive, and subordinate federal courts may be in- vested with jurisdiction in such cases. 66 Jurisdiction Dependent upon Parties. The federal courts have exclusive jurisdiction of all cases in which the United States is a party, 67 and under the act of 1888 this jurisdiction attaches when the government is a plaintiff without regard to the value of the matter in dispute; 68 e. g., to a suit brought by the United States as guardian of Indians who have never become citizens. 69 But while the judicial power extends to controversies to which the government is a party, 70 yet where the United States is merely a nominal party the same rules will apply in determining jurisdiction as if the suit were between private individuals appearing as parties to the record. 71 So, where an act of Congress requires that contractors shall give bonds for the benefit of materialmen and laborers, who are authorized to sue thereon in the name of the United States, such a suit is not one brought by the United States so as to give the federal courts jurisdiction regardless of the subject matter and the citizenship of the real parties in interest. 72 Whether a suit is one against the United States is to be deter- mined by the result of the decree that may be rendered. 73 65 in re Baiz, 135 U. S. 425, 10 8. Ct. 854, 34 L. ed. 222. 66 Bors v. Preston, 111 U. S. 256, 4 S. Ct. 407, 28 L. ed. 419. 67 The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 430, 18 L. ed. 397. 68 United States v. Sayward, 160 U. S. 498, 16 S. Ct. 371, 40 L. ed. 508; United States v. Winans, 73 Fed. 75; United States v. Eeid, 90 Fed. 5Z2. 69 United States v. Boyd, 68 Fed. 577. 70 Mississippi v. Johnson, 4 Wall. 501, 18 L. ed. 437. 71 United States v. Beebe, 127 U. S. 347, 8 S. Ct. 1083, 32 L. ed. 121; Curtner v. United States, 149 U. S. 673, 13 S. Ct. 985, 37 L. ed. 890. 72 United States v. Sheridan, 119 Fed. 236. 73 Minnesota v. Hitchcock, 185 U. S. 386, 22 S. Ct. 650, 46 L. ed. 854 Art. Ill, § 2, 01. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 526 An action of trespass to try title against officers of the United States in possession of land is an action against the United States and its land and not merely against its officers, 74 as also is a suit by a state against the Secretary of the Interior to enjoin the sale of lands claimed by the state and which the United States agreed to protect for Indians. 75 But a bill by a state against the President to enjoin the execution of the re- construction laws is not a suit against the United States. 76 This clause extends the judicial power to suits wherein a state is a party. 77 By the constitution as originally adopted a state was suable in the supreme court by an individual citizen of another state, 78 and it was this ruling that led to the adop- tion of the Eleventh Amendment prohibiting suits in the fed- eral courts against a state by the citizens of another state or by aliens. 79 Jurisdiction of the federal courts attaches only when a state is a party to the record, 80 and the governor or chief executive and the attorney general are served with pro- 74 Stanley v. Schwalby, 162 U. S. 272, 16 S. Ct. 754, 40 L. e.l. 960. 75 Minnesota v. Hitchcock, 185 U. S. 384, 22 S. Ct. 650, 46 L. ed. 854. 76 Mississippi v. Johnson, 4 Wall. 498, 18 L. ed. 437; Georgia v. Stanton, 6 Wall. 50, 18 L. ed. 721. 77 New York v. Connecticut, 4 Dall. 1, 1 L. ed. 715; Governor v. Madrazo, 1 Pet. 122, 7 L. ed. 73; New Jersey v. New York, 5 Pet. 290, 8 L. ed. 127; Georgia v. Brailsford, 2 Dall. 402, 1 L. ed. 433; Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 450, 1 L. ed. 440; Grayson v. Virginia, 3 Dall. 320, 1 L. ed. 619; Ehode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 760, 9 L. ed. 1233; Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 288, 8 S. Ct. 1373, 32 L. ed. 239. 78 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 450-4S0, 1 L. ed. 440. 79 Governor v. Madrazo, 1 Pet. 122, 7 L. ed. 73; Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 321, 9 L. ed. 709; United States v. Lee, 106 U. S. 207, 1 S. Ct. 249, 27 L. ed. 171; New Hampshire v. Louisiana, 108 U. S. 86, 2 S. Ct. 180, 27 L. ed. 656; Buckner v. Street, 1 Dill. 259, Fed. Cas. No. 2008; Thebo v. Choctaw Tribe, 66 Fed. 375; Smith v. Eacliffe, 87 Fed. 968. 80 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204; New York v. Connecticut, 4 Dall. 3, 1 L. ed. 715; Fowler v. Lindsay, 3 Dall. 411, 1 L. ed. 658; United States v. Peters, 5 Cr. 115, 3 L. ed. 53. 527 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, (31. 1 cess; 81 or when an officer is sued in his official capacity. 82 But a suit against an officer is not a suit against the state unless it is against him solely in his representative capacity. 83 A suit against the attorney general and assistant attorney general of a state to enjoin a prosecution in the name of a state under a state law is a suit against the state. 84 The power extends to controversies between two or more states, 85 including suits to settle disputed boundaries; 86 but a suit by a state on claims assigned to it, against another state, is not a suit between states within the meaning of this clause. 87 The "controversies" contemplated by this clause are suits of a civil nature only. 88 The grant of judicial power was not in- tended to confer jurisdiction of a suit by one state, of such a nature that it could not, on settled principles of public and international law, be entertained by the judiciary of the other state at all. 89 This provision applies only to states that are 81 Georgia v. Brailsford, 2 Dall. 402, 1 L. etf. 433; Oswald v. New- York, 2 Dall. 415, 1 L. ed. 438; Grayson v. Virginia, 3 Dall. 320, 1 L. ed. 619; New Jersey v. New York, 3 Pet. 464, 7 L. ed. 741; New Jersey v. New York, 5 Pet. 289, 8 L. ed. 127; Poydras De La Land v. Treasurer of Louisiana, 17 How. 2, 15 L. ed. 93; Kentucky v. Den- nison, 24 How. 97. 82 Kentucky v. Ohio, 24 How. 97, 16 L. ed. 717; Governor of Georgia v. Madrazo, 1 Pet. 110, 7 L. ed. 73; In re Ayers, 123 U. S. 506, 8 S. Ct. 164, 31 L. ed. 216; Pennoyer v. McConnaughy, 140 U. S. 9, 11 S. Ct. 699, 35 L. ed. 363. 83 Kolston v. Missouri Fund Commissioners, 120 U. S. 411, 7 S. Ct. 599, 30 L. ed. 721; Illinois etc. E. E. Co. v. Adams, 180 U. S. 37, 21 S. Ct. 251, 45 L. ed. 410. 84 Union Trust Co. v. Stearns, 119 Fed. 740. 8!> Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204; Dun- das v. Bowler, 3 McLean, 204, Fed. Cas. No. 4140. 86 Ehode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 657, 9 L. ed. 1233; Ala- bama v. Georgia, 23 How. 510, 16 L. ed. 556; Brainerd v. Williams, 1 McLean, 122, Fsd. Cas. No. 1804. 87 New Hampshire v, Louisiana, 108 U. S. 91, 2 S. Ct. 176, 27 L. ed. 656. 88 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 431, 1 L. ed. 440; In re Pacific Eailway Commission, 12 Saw. 559, 32 Fed. 255. 89 Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 289, 8 S. Ct. 370, 32 L. ed. 239. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 528 members of the Union, and to public bodies owing obedience and conformity to its constitution and laws. 90 To constitute a state a political organization it must be a state in the contem- plation of the constitution, and that term does not embrace Indian nations. 91 So a territory cannot be deemed a state within the meaning of the constitution. 92 The power extends to controversies between a state and citizens of other states, but this does not include a suit by the citizens against the state, 93 Nor does it include a suit in which some of the de- fendants are citizens of the complainant state. 94 This clause gives to the federal courts jurisdiction over con- troversies between citizens of different states. 95 The object of the grant of power in this respect was to secure for the trial of controversies between citizens of different states a more im- partial tribunal than the courts of the state where one litigant resided would be. 96 It is the situation of the parties, and not their character, that determines the jurisdiction of the federal courts. 97 The test of jurisdiction is diversity of citizenship, 98 and it is indispensable that all the parties have jurisdictional capacity; each plaintiff must be capable of suing each defend- ant in the federal court; 99 accordingly if a necessary party de- 90 Scott v. Jones, 5 How. 378, 12 L. 181. 91 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 18, 8 L. ed. 25; McElvaiu v. Mudd, 44 Ala. 65; Shorter v. Cobb, 39 Ga. 299. 92 Smith v. United States, 1 Wash. Ter. 269. 93 Cohen v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 406, 5 L. ed. 257. See Eleventh Amendment. 94 Minnesota v. Northern Securities Co., 184 U. S. 199, 22 S. Ct. 308, 46 L. ed. 499. 95 Brown v. Keene, 8 Pet. 115, 8 L. ed. 885; McMicken v. Webb, 11 Pet. 38, 9 L. ed. 618; Ohio v. Wheeler, 1 Black, 297, 17 L. ed. 130; Board of Commissioners v. Aspinwall, 24 How. 384, 16 L. ed. 735. 96 Barrow Steamship Co. v. Kane, 170 U. S. Ill, 18 S. Ct. 526, 42 L. ed. 964. 97 Connolly v. Taylor, 2 Pet. 556, 7 L. ed. 518. 98 Wickliffe v. Eve, 17 How. 470, 15 L. ed. 163; Mail Co. v. Flanders, 12 Wall. 135, 20 L. ed. 249; Anderson v. Watt, 138 U. S. 706, 11 S. Ct. 449, 34 L. ed. 1078. 99 Strawbridge v. Curtiss, 3 Cr. 267, 2 L. ed. 435; New Orleans v. Winter, 1 Wheat. 95, 4 L. ed. 44; Coal Co. v. Blatchford, 11 Wall. 529 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 fendant is a citizen of the same state with the plaintiff, the federal courts have no jurisdiction. 100 The mere allegation of diverse citizenship by plaintiffs electing to assert a joint claim cannot create jurisdiction. 101 For the purposes of jurisdiction a party is not necessarily a citizen of the state of which he is a resident. 102 An averment that one is a "resident" of a state is not sufficient ; it must affirmatively appear that he is a "citi- zen." 103 So, also, as to an averment that a party is "of" a particular state. 104 3STor is it sufficient to allege that the de- fendant is a citizen of a particular state and that none of the plaintiffs are citizens of that state ; it must be alleged that they are citizens of another named state or aliens. 105 But a party is sufficiently described as a citizen where he alleges that his rights as such have, been infringed and avers that he is a "res-' ident," and the sufficiency of the allegation is not questioned' below. 106 174, 20 L. ed. 179; Case of Sewing-Machine Companies, 18 Wall. 573, 21 L. ed. 914. 100 Smith v. Lyon, 133 U. S. 316, 10 S. Ct. 303, 33 L. ed. 635; Massachusetts etc. Co. v. Cane Creek, 155 U. S. 285, 15 S. Ct. 91, 39 L. ed. 152; Hooe v. Jamieson, 166 U. S. 397, 17 S. Ct. 596, 41 L. ed. 1049. 101 Florida etc. E. E. Co. v. Bell, 176 U. S. 334, 20 S. Ct. 399, 44 L. ed. 486; Wheeless v. St. Louis, 180 U. S. 382, 21 S. Ct. 402, 45 L. ed. 583. 102 Brown v. Keene, 8 Pet. 115, 8 L. ed. 885; Shelton v. Tiffin, 6 How. 184, 12 L. ed. 387; Edwards v. Tanneret, 12 Wall. 450, 20 L. ed. 415; Timmons v. Elyton Land Co., 139 U. S. 379, 11 S. Ct. 585, 35 L. ed. 195; Southern Pacific Co. v. Denton, 146 U. S. 205, 13 S. Ct. 44, 36 L. ed. 942; .Cooper v. Newell, 155 U. S. 533, 15 S. Ct. 355, 39 L. ed. 249. 103 Wood v. Wagnon, 2 Cr. 9, 2 L. ed. 191; Eobertson v. Cease, 97 IT. S. 648, 24 L. ed. 1057; Menard v. Goggan, 121 U. S. 253, 7 S. Ct. 873, 30 L. ed. (914; Denny v. Pironi, 141 U. S. 123, 11 S. Ct. 966, 35 L. ed. 657; Wolfe v. Hartford Life etc. Ins. Co., 148 U. S. 38s), 13 S. Ct. 602, 37 L. ed. 493. 104 Wood v. Wagnon, 2 Cr. 9, 2 L. ed. 191; Jackson v. Ashton, 8 P«t. 149, 8 L. ed. 898. 105 Cameron v. Hodges, 127 U. S. 324, 8 S. Ct. 1154, 32 L. ed. 132. 106 Sully v. American National Bank, 178 U. S. 298, 20 S. Ct. 935, 44 L. ed. 1072. Notes on Constitution — 34 Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 530 A corporation is a citizen for the purpose of suit in the fed- eral courts; 107 but it must be organized as such. 108 A limited partnership is not within the rule notwithstanding its capacity to sue and be sued in its association name. 109 Under this clause a corporation will be deemed to be a citizen of the state where it was created, 110 regardless of the actual citizenship of its members, 111 which for purposes of jurisdiction over the cor- poration is conclusively presumed to be in the state of incor- poration. 112 The adoption of a foreign corporation by a state does not make the corporation a citizen of that state within this clause, but it remains a citizen of the state of its crea- tion. 113 A corporation organized in two different states can- not be joined in a suit as one and the same plaintiff, nor sue in the federal court a citizen of either of the states in which it was organized, 114 and a corporation chartered by two or more states is not, if sued in one of those states, a citizen of any other state; 115 but a railway company merely operating in sev- 107 Case of Sewing-Machine Companies, 18 Wall. 575, 21 L. ed. 914; Chapman v. Barney, 129 U. S. 682, 9 S. Ct. 426, 32 L. ed. 800. 108 Chapman v. Barney, 129 U. S. 682, 9 S. Ct. 426, 32 L. ed. 800. 109 Great Southern etc. Hotel Co. v. Jones, 177 U. S. 455, 20 S. Ct. 690, 44 L. ed. 842. no Hope Ins. Co. v. Boardman, 5 Cr. 57, 3 L. ed. 36; Marshall ▼. Baltimore etc B. E. Co., 16 How. 314, 14 L. ed. 953; Kailroad Co. ▼. Koontz, 104 U. S. 12, 26 L. ed. 643; Nashua etc. B. B. Co. v. Lowell etc. E. K. Co., 136 IT. S. 370, 10 S. Ct. 1004, 34 L. ed. 363; St. Louis etc. By. Co. v. James, 161 U. S. 555, 16 S. Ct. 621, 40 L. ed. 802; West- heider v. Wabash E. E. Co., 115 Fed. 840. in Louisville etc. E. B. Co. v. Letson, 2 How. 555, 11 L. ed. 353. H2 Muller v. Dows, 94 TJ. S. 445, 24 L. ed. 207; Shaw v. Quincy Mining Co., 145 TJ, S. 451, 12 S. Ct. 935, 36 L. ed. 768; Barrow Steam- ship Co. v. Kane, 170 U. S. 106, 18 S. Ct. 526, 42 L. ed. 964. 113 Bailway Co. v. Whitton, 13 Wall. 285, 20 L. ed. 571; Fenn- sylvania Co. v. St. Louis etc. E. B. Co., 118 U. S. 297, 6 S. Ct. 1094, 30 L. ed. 83; St. Louis etc. By. Co. v. James, 161 TJ. S. 566, 16 S. Ct. 621, 40 L. ed. 802; Southern By. Co. v. Allison, 190 TJ. S. 326, 23 3. Ct. 713, 47 L. ed. 1079. 114 Ohio etc. E. E. Co. v. Wheeler, 1 Black, 297, 17 L. ed. 130. U5 Bailway Co. v. Whitton, 13 Wall. 283, 20 L. ed. 571. 531 Extent of Judicial Power. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 eral states under authority granted by each cannot be deemed a citizen of each. 116 Representatives and persons occupying fiduciary capacities generally stand on their own citizenship in determining the jurisdiction of the federal courts. 117 So the citizenship of a beneficiary in a trust deed is immaterial in a suit by the trustee to foreclose. 118 A guardian, and not his ward, is the party plaintiff so far as jurisdiction is concerned, where he has au- thority to sue in his own name, 119 and the citizenship of an administrator is material in an action for killing his intes- tate. 120 The courts will always have regard to the real, rather than to the nominal, party to a suit, in order to determine their jur- isdiction. 121 So the federal courts have no jurisdiction of a suit on a right of action fictitiously assigned, 122 and a corpora- tion collusively organized by the members of a corporation of another state for the purpose of suing in a federal court can- not bring such suit. 123 Where, however, a transfer of interest is real and for a consideration, the mere fact that it was made to give jurisdiction is immaterial. 124 The jurisdiction of the 116 St. Joseph etc. E. E. Co. v. Steele, 167 U. S. 663, 17 S. Ct. 925, 42 L. ed. 315. 117 New Orleans v. Gaines, 138 U. S. 606, 11 S. Ct. 428, 34 L. ed. 1102; Chappedelaine v. Dechenaux, 4 Cr. 308, 2 L. ed. 629; Childress v. Emory, 8 Wheat. 660, 5 L. ed. 705; Eiee v. Houston, 13 Wall. 67, 20 L. ed. 484; Continental Ins. Co. v. Ehoads, 119 U. S. 240, 7 S. Ct. 193, 30 L. ed. 380. 118 Dodge v. Tulleys, 144 U. S. 455, 12 S. Ct. 728, 36 L. ed. 501; Plant Investment Co. v. Jacksonville etc. Ey. Co., 152 U. S. 77, 14 S. Ct. 483, 38 L. ed. 358. H9 Mexican Central Ey. Co. v. Eckman, 187 TJ. S. 429, 23 S. Ct. 211, 47 L. ed. 245. 120 Bishop v. Boston etc. E. E. Co., 117 Fed. 771. 121 Blocklock v. Small, 127 U. S. 104, 8 S. Ct. 1096, 32 L. ed. 70; Stewart v. Baltimore etc. E. E. Co., 168 U. S. 449, 18 S. Ct. 105, 42 L. ed. 537. 122 Barney v. Baltimore City, 6 Wall. 288, 18 L. ed. 825; Crawford v. Neal, 144 U. S. 593, 12 S. Ct. 759, 36 L. ed. 552. 123 Lehigh Min. etc. Co. v. Kelly, 64 Fed. 401. 124 Crawford v. Neal, 144 TJ. S. 593, 12 S. Ct. 759, 36 L. ed. 552; Lehigh Min. Co. v. Kelly, 160 U. S. 336., 16 S. Ct. 307, 40 L. ed. 444; Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Extent of Judicial Power. 532 federal courts over assigned causes of action will be denied un- less the record affirmatively shows the assignor's capacity to sue. 125 This clause does not embrace cases where one of the parties is a citizen of a territory or of the District of Columbia. 126 Controversies between citizens claiming lands under grants from different states are within the jurisdiction of the federal courts, notwithstanding one of the states at the time of the first grant was a part of the other; 127 it is the grant which passes the legal title and fixes the jurisdiction. 128 This clause gives the federal courts jurisdiction where foreign states or individual foreigners are parties; 129 but it does not authorize cognizance of suits between aliens, 130 and a citizen must be the adverse party. 131 The jurisdiction extends to a suit between citizens of the same state where the plaintiff is merely nominal and suing for an alien. 132 One who is an alien at the time a suit is commenced may sue in the federal courts. 133 The diversity of citizenship must, as in other cases, appear Dickerman v. Northern Trust Co., 176 TJ. S. 192, 20 S. Ct. 311, 41 L. ed. 423. 125 Metcalf v. Watertown, 128 TJ. S. 587, 9 S. Ct. 173, 32 L. ed. 543; Parker v. Ormsby, 141 TJ. S. 86, 11 S. Ct. 912, 35 L. ed. 654; Benjamin v. New Orleans, 169 U. S. 164, 18 S. Ct. 298, 42 L. ed. 700. 126 Hepburn \. Ellzey, 2 Cr. 453, 2 L. ed. 332; New Orleans v. Winter, 1 Wheat. 94, 4 L. ed. 44; Barney v. Baltimore City, 6 Wall. 287, 18 L. ed. 825; Cameron v. Hodges, 127 U. S. 325, 8 S. Ct. 1154, 32 L. ed. 132; Hooe v. Jamieson, 166 U. S. 397, 17 S. Ct. 596, 41 L. ed. 1049. 127 Town of Pawlet v. Clark, 9 Cr. 292, 3 L. ed. 735. 128 Colson v. Lewis, 2 Wheat. 377, 4 L. ed. 266. 129 Chappedelaine v. Dechenaux, 4 Cr. 308, 2 L. ed. 629; Brown v. Strode, 5 Cr. 303, 3 L. ed. 108; Cook v. Lillo, 103 U. S. 793, 26 L. ed. 460. 130 Mossman v. Higginson, 4 Dall. 14, 1 L. ed. 720; Montalet v. Murray, 4 Cr. 47, 2 L. ed. 545. 131 Jackson v. Twentyman, 2 Pet. 136, 7 L. ed. 374; Gassiea v. Ballou, 6 Pet. 761, 8 L. ed. 573; Brown v. Keen, 8 Pet. 112, 8 L. ed. 885; Picquet v. Swan, 4 Mason, 443, Fed. Cas. No. 11,133; Case v. Clark, 5 Mason, 70, Fed. Cas. No. 2490. 132 Brown v. Strode, 5 Cr. 303, 3 L. ed. 108. 133 Cook v. Lillo, 103 U. S. 793, 26 L. ed. 460. 533 Admiralty Jurisdiction. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 from the record, 134 and although one party be described as an alien, the other must be expressly stated to be a citizen of a particular state, 135 An averment that a plaintiff is "a citizen of London, England," is insufficient. 136 At common law an alien cannot maintain a real action, 137 but the disability is purely personal. 138 A court may have jurisdiction as to par- ties and subject matter, yet if it makes a decree which is not within the powers granted to it, such decree is void, 139 and a circuit court may entertain a suit between two aliens to im- peach a decree in a former suit in the same circuit. 140 The Chinese Exclusion Acts do not deprive a Chinaman of the right to have the federal courts determine his right to land. 141 An Indian tribe is not a foreign nation within this clause. 142 A foreign corporation is an alien for the purposes of suit in the federal courts. 143 Admiralty and Maritime Jurisdiction. Jurisdiction is conferred on the federal courts in admiralty because, as the seas are the joint property of the nations, the jurisdiction is essentially national, 144 and an additional reason 134 Jackson v. Twentyman, 2 Pet. 136, 7 L. ed. 374; Baird v Byrne, 3 Wall. Jr. 1, Fed. Cas. No. 757; Bors v. Preston, 111 U. S. 263, 4 S. Ct. 407, 28 L. ed. 419. 135 Hodgson v. Bowerbank, 5 Cr. 304, 3 L. ed. 308. 136 Stuart v. Easton, 156 U. S. 47, 15 S. Ct. 268, 39 L. ed. 341. 137 Jones v. McMasters, 20 How. 20, 15 L. ed. 805; Lanfear v. Henley, 4 Wall. 209, 18 L. ed. 325; McDonough v. Millandon, 3 How. 693, 11 L. ed. 787; Semple v. Hager, 4 Wall. 433, 18 L. ed. 402. 138 Kemp v. Kennedy, 5 Cr. 173, 3 L. ed. 70, Pet. C. C. 40. 139 United States v. Walker, 109 U. S. 258, 3 S. Ct. 277, 27 L. ed. 927. 140 Lacassagne v. Chapins, 144 U. S. 126, 12 S. Ct. 659, 36 L. ed. 368. 141 United States v. Jung Ah Lung, 124 U. S. 627, 8 S. Ct. 663, 31 L. ed. 591. 14 2 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 1, 8 L. ed. 25; Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 515, 8 L. ed. 483. 143 Society for Propagation of Gospel v. New Haven, 8 Wheat. 464, 5 L. ed. 662; Commercial etc. Bank v. Sloeomb, 14 Pet. 60, 10 L. ed. 354. 144 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 475, 1 L. ed. 440. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Admiralty Jurisdiction. 534 is to be found in the fact that because of thoir nature such cases are closely connected with the grant of the commerce power. 145 The jurisdiction is not restricted to admiralty, but includes all "maritime" jurisdiction. 146 The constitutional provision for federal jurisdiction referred to a system of law operating uniformly in the whole country, 147 and regard must be had to our legal history, constitution, legislation, customs and adjudications. 148 The admiralty jurisdiction was not in- tended to be as limited as it was in England, at the time of the adoption of the constitution, 149 and it was to guard against a narrow construction of the word "admiralty" that "maritime" was added. 150 The maritime law is a part of the common law, 151 but the term belongs to the law of nations, as well as to domestic and municipal law, 152 and partaking, as it does, of an international character, the courts will frequently resort to continental col- 145 New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 392, 12 L. ed. 465. 146 De Lovio v. Boit, 2 Gall. 398, Fed. Cas. No. 3776; The Seneca, Gilp. 28, Fed. Cas. No. 3650; The Huntress, 2 Ware (Dav.), 82, Fed. Cas. No. 6914; Kynoche v. The S. C. Ives, Newb. 205, Fed. Cas. No. 7958. 147 The Lottawanna, 21 Wall. 575, 22 L. ed. 654; New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6i How. 344, 12 L. ed. 465; Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 441, 12 L. ed. 226; The Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 443, 13 L. ed. 1058. 148 The St. Lawrence, 1 Black, 522, 17 L. ed. 180; The Lottawanna, 21 Wall. 576, 22 L. ed. 654. 149 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 441, 12 L. ed. 226; De Lovio v. Boit, 2 Gall. 398, Fed. Cas. No. 3776; The Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 458, 13 L. ed. 1058; The Glide, 167 U. S. 614, 17 S. Ct. 933, 42 L. ed. 296; Ex parte Easton, 95 TJ. S. 72, 24 L. ed. 373; The Louis- ville Underwriters, 134 U. S. 493, 10 S. Ct. 589, 33 L. ed. 991; The Congress, 1 Biss. 44, Fed. Cas. No. 3099; Gloucester Ins. Co. v. Younger, 2 Curt. 333, Fed. Cas. No. 5487. 150 Fretz v. Bull, 12 How. 466, 13 L. ed. 1068; The Hine v. Trevor, 4 Wall. 555, 18 L. ed. 451; The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 411, 18 L. ed. 397. 151 Thompson v. The Catharina, 1 Pet. Adm. 104, Fed. Cas. No. 13,949. 152 The Huntress, 2 Ware (Dav.), 82, Fed. Cas. No. 6914. 535 Admiralty Jurisdiction. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 lections and treatises as sources of the rules. 133 The courts of admiralty are not bound by the strict rules of the common law, but act upon enlarged principles of equity. 154 The jurisdiction, while granted partly because of its close alliance to the commerce power, is nevertheless independent of that power. 155 This clause makes the judicial power in ad- miralty and maritime cases coextensive with the power of Con- gress over the same subject. 156 The whole subject belongs ex- clusively to the federal government, 1569 and the jurisdiction of the federal courts is exclusive, 157 not only as to the cognizance of the case, but the jurisprudence and principles by which it is administered. 158 Jurisdiction in admiralty and maritime is expressly granted by the constitution, 159 but its exercise, as in all other cases of grants of judicial power to inferior federal courts, depends upon congressional legislation, 160 and Congress may limit or 153 The Maggie Hammond, 9 "Wall. 452, 19 L. ed. 772; Butler v. Boston Steamship Co., 130 U. S. 556, 9 S. Ct. 612, 32 L. ed. 1017, 154 The Virgin v. Vyfhius, 8 Pet. 550, 8 L. ed. 1036; Oakes v. United States, 174 U. S. 790, 19 S. Ct. 864, 43 L. ed. 1169; O'Brien v. Miller, 168 U. S. 287, IS S. Ct. 140, 42 L. ed. 469. 155 The Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 443, 13 L. ed. 1058; The Belfast, 7 Wall. 624, 19 L. ed. 266; The Sarah Jane, 1 Low, 203, Fed. Cas. No. 12,349. 156 The Huntress, 2 Ware (Dav.), 82, Fed. Cas. No. 6914. 156a United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 389, 4 L. ed. 404; In r9 Garnett, 141 U. S. 1-18, 11 S. Ct. 840, 35 L. ed. 631. 157 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 511, 7 L. ed. 242; The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 411, 18 L. ed. 397; The Hine v. Trevor, 4 Wall. 555, 18 L. ed. 451; Ex parte Easton, 95 U. S. 70, 24 L. ed. 373; Moran v. Sturges, 154 U. S. 276, 14 S. Ct. 1019. 38 L. ed. 981. 158 The Chusan, 2 Story, 455, Fed. Cas. No. 2717. 159 Carpenter v. The Emma Johnson, 1 Cliff. 633, Fed. Cas. No. 2430. 160 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 337, 4 L. ed. 404; Jackson v. The Magnolia, 20 How. 296, 15 L. ed. 909; The City of Panama, 101 U. S. 457, 25 L. ed. 1061. 161 Carpenter v. The Emma Johnson, 1 Cliff. 633, Fed. Cas. No. 2430. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Admiralty Jurisdiction. 536 control it, 161 or modify the practice. 162 But the jurisdiction cannot be enlarged by any law or rule of court. 163 The term includes jurisdiction of all things done upon and relating to the sea and for damages for injuries on the high seas, 164 the subject matter in cases of contract and the locality in cases of tort being the true tests of jurisdiction. 165 The jurisdiction is not confined to the high seas, but extends to the navigable lakes and rivers of the United States, 166 re- gardless of the ebb and flow of the tide. 167 The grant does not operate to extend control over waters ceded to the several states and does not affect general state jurisdiction over state waters. 168 The power of the states to regulate their fisheries was not surrendered by the grant of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. 1 69 162 The Lottawanna, 21 Wall. 577, 22 L. ed. 654; The Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 443, 13 L. ed. 1058. 163 The Steamer St. Lawrence, 1 Black, 526, 17 L. ed. 180; Butler v. Boston Steamship Co., 130 TJ. S. 557, 9 S. Ct. 619, 32 L. ed. 1017; The Electron, 74 Fed. 695. 164 Bingham v. Cabbot, 3 Dall. 33, 1 L. ed. 491; Janney v. Colum- bian Ins. Co., 10 Wheat. 418, 6 L. ed. 354; Mauro v. Almeida, 10 Wheat. 486, 6 L. ed. 369; Sears v. Wills, 1 Black, 113, 17 L. ed. 35; The Barnstable, 181 U. S. 467, 21 S. Ct. 684, 45 L. ed. 954. 165 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 452/459, 12 L. ed. 226; New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 392, 12 L. ed. 465. 166 The Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 454, 13 L. ed. 1058; Fretz v. Bull, 12 How. 468, 13 L. ed. 1068; The Eagle, 8 Wall. 20, 19 L. ed. 365; Ex parte Boyer, 109 U. S. 632, 3 S. Ct. 435, 27 L. ed. 1056; Malony v. Milwaukee, 1 Fed. 613; The Arkansas, 5 McCrary, 366, 17 Fed. 384. 167 The Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 454, 13 L. ed. 1058; Jackson v. The Magnolia, 20 How. 301, 15 L. ed. 909; The Hine v. Trevor, 24 Wall. 565, 18 L. ed. 451; In re Garnett, 141 TJ. S. 15, Ij. S. Ct. 840, 35 L. ed. 631. 168 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 387, 4 L. ed. 404; Steam- boat Co. v. Chase, 16 Wall. 531, 21 L. ed. 369; Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 76, 15 L. ed. 269; The Wave v. Hyer, 2 Paine, 143, Fed. Cas. No. 1730; United States v. Peterson, 64 Fed. 147; In re Kelley, 71 Fed. 547. 169 Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 76, 15 L. ed. 269; Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 261, 11 S. Ct. 563, 35 L. ed. 159; Corfield v. Coryell, 4 Wash. C. C. 371, Fed. Cas. No. 3230; The Elexena, 53 Fed. 366; Dunham v. Lamphere, 3 Gray, 270. 5S ? Admiralty Jurisdiction. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 What are Admiralty and Maritime Cases. The subject matter of a transaction or the locality of an act done determines the character of the particular case, 170 but jurisdiction over the case does not constitute the case itself. 171 The citizenship of the parties to the cause is of no moment in determining jurisdiction; 172 but one having a right to enforce a lien in admiralty may waive the lien and sue in personam if the citizenship of the parties is diverse, 173 the suit thus ceasing to be of one cognizable in a court of admiralty. 174 The jurisdiction extends to all maritime contracts, and all torts committed on navigable waters, 175 and to all suits for liens of materialmen and for services, both in personam and in rem. 176 But in matters of contract the jurisdiction of courts of ad- miralty is limited to those, and those only, which are mari- time. 177 A bond given to secure the performance of a maritime con- tract is itself a maritime contract enforceable in admiralty; 178 170 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 452, 459, 12 L. ed. 226; New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 392, 12 L. 465. 171 American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 545, 7 L. eel. 242. 172 Peyroux v. Howard, 7 Pet. 324, 8 L. ed. 700; The Calisto, 2 Ware, 30, Fed. Cas. No. 2316. 173 Norton v. Switzer, 93 U. S. 356, 23 L. ed. 903; American Steam- boat Co. v. Chase, 16 Wall. 533, 21 L. ed. 369. 174 Johnson v. Chicago etc. Elevator Co., 119 U. S. 397, 7 S. Ct. 254, 30 L. ed. 447. 175 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 489, 12 L. ed. 226; Gloucester Ins. Co. v. Younger, 2 Curt. 332, Fed. Cas. No. 5487; De Lovio v. Boit, 2 Gall. 398, Fed. Cas. No. 3776, 176 Sheppard v. Taylor, 5 Pet. 711, 8 L. ed. 269; The General Smith, 4 Wheat. 443, 4 L. ed. 609; The Thomas Jefferson, 10 Wheat. 429, 6 L. ed. 358; Leon v. Galceran, 11 Wall. 188, 20 L. ed. 74; Gardner v. New Jersey, 1 Pet. Adm. 227, Fed. Cas. No. 5233; Wick v. The Samuel Strong, 6 McLean, 587, Fed. Cas. No. 17,607; The Eobert Fulton, l Paine, 620, Fed. Cas. No. 11,890; Zane v. The President, 4 Wash. 0. C. 453, Fed. Cas. No. 18,201. 177 The Orleans v. Phoebus, 11 Pet. 183, 9 L. ed. 677; The Thomas Jefferson, 10 Wheat. 489, 6 L. ed. 358; Andrews v. Wall, 3 How. 572, 11 L. ed. 729; People's Ferry Co. v. Beers, 20 How. 401, 15 L. ed. 96; Ex parte Easton, 95 U. S. 72, 24 L. ed. 373; The Kesolute, 16S U. S. 439, 18 S. Ct. 112, 42 L. ed. 533. 178 Holler v. Fox, 51 Fed. 298. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Admiralty Jurisdiction. 538 as also is a bottomry bond; 179 but a mere mortgage of a ship, other than that of an hypothecated bottomry, is not such a contract. 180 A contract to build a ship or to furnish materials for that purpose is not maritime, 181 and so a lien based upon a contract is not enforceable in admiralty; 182 but a contract to repair a ship is maritime and a lien may be enforced, 183 un- less the repairs were made in the vessel's home port, when the enforcement of the lien will depend upon its existence under local law. 184 An agreement of consortship may be enforced in admiralty; 185 also a contract of affreightment; 186 of wharf- age; 187 of pilotage; 188 of marine insurance. 189 A partnership agreement between owners of a vessel or a charter is not a maritime contract, 190 and admiralty cannot entertain an ac- 179 Blaine v. The Charles Carter, 4 Cr. 332, 2 L. ed. 636. 180 Bogart v. The Steamboat John Jay, 17 How. 402, 15 L. ed. 95; Schuchardt v. Babbidge, 19 How. 240, 15 L. ed. 625; The J. E. Rumbell, 148 U. S. 15, 13 S. Ct. 498, 37 L. ed. 345. 181 Boach v. Chapman, 22 How. 132, 16 L. ed. 294; Morewood v. Enequist, 23 How. 494, 16 L. ed. 516; Edwards v. Elliott, 21 Wall. 556, 22 L. ed. 487. 182 People's Ferry Co. v. Beers, 20 How. 401, 16 L. ed. 96; Norton v. Switzer, 93 U. S. 366, 23 L. ed. 903. 183 The Aurora, 1 Wheat. 105, 4 L. ed. 45; The General Smith, 4 Wheat. 443, 4 L. ed. 609. 184 The General Smith, 4 Wheat. 443, 4 L. ed. 609; New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 391, 12 L. ed. 465; The Glide, 167 IT. S. 624, 17 S. Ct. 930, 42 L. ed. 296. 185 Andrews v. Wall, 3 How. 571, 11 L. ed. 729. 186 New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 385, 12 L. ed. 465; Morewood v. Enequist, 23 How. 493, 16. L. ed. 516; Sears v. Wills, 1 Black, 112, 17 L. ed. 35; The Moses Taylor, 4 Wall. 427, 18 L. ed. 397; The Eddy, 5 Wall. 494, 18 L. ed. 486; Baltimore etc. Co. v. Patterson, 106 Fed. 736. 18T Ex parte Easton, 95 U. S. 72; Braisted v. Denton, 115 Fed. 428. 188 Hobart v. Drogan, 10 Pet. 120, 9 L. ed. 363; Ex parte McNeil, 13 WalL 242, 20 L. ed. 624; Ex parte Hagar, 104 U. S. 521, 26 L. ed. 816. 189 Croudson v. Leonard, 4 Cr. 437, 2 L. ed. 670; New England etc. Ins. Co. v. Dunham, 11 Wall. 31, 20 L. ed. 90. loo Ward v. Thompson, 22 How. 333, 16 L. ed. 249. 539 Admiralty Jurisdiction. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 tion for an accounting under such an agreement. 191 Admiralty has jurisdiction of a suit to recover a seaman's wages, both in rem and in personam, 192 A contract for services, such as are usually performed by a ship's brokers and business agents, and performed on land, is not, however, a maritime contract. 193 The jurisdiction extends to actions of tort committed on navigable waters. 194 although committed within the body of a county, 195 and without reference to the voyage or destination of the vessel. 196 It depends solely upon the commission of the wrongful act upon navigable water. 197 A case of collision is a marine tort, 198 and admiralty has jurisdiction of a suit for an injury caused to a vessel by running upon a sunken obstruc- tion. 199 Where, however, the substance and consummation of the wrong take place on land and not upon the water admiralty lias no jurisdiction. 200 So where the injury consists in setting buildings on fire from a passing vessel a suit cannot be main- tained in admiralty. 201 To be cognizable in admiralty a tort need not arise on the high seas or upon the navigable waters of the United States; it may even originate in a foreign port and 191 Steamboat Orleans v. Phoebus, 11 Pet. 183, 9 L. ed. 677; Grant v. Poillon, 20 How. 169, 15 L. ed. 871. 192 Sheppard v. Taylor, 5 Pet. 711, 8 L. ed. 269; Leon v. Galeeran, 11 Wall. 188, 20 L. ed. 74. 193 The Humboldt, 86 Fed. 351. 194 Philadelphia etc. R. R. Co. v. Philadelphia etc. Towboat Co., 23 How. 215, 16 L. ed. 433. 195 Roberts v. Skolfield, 3 Ware, 184, 8 Am. Law Reg. 156, Fed. Cas. No. 11,917; Lathers v. Blessing, 105 XL S. 630, 26 L. ed. 1192. 196 In re Garnett, 141 TJ. S. 16, 11 S. Ct. 840, 35 L. ed. 631. 197 The Belfast, 7 Wall. 637, 19 L. ed. 266; American Steamboat Co. v. Chase, 16 Wall. 531, 21 L. ed. 364; In re Fassett, 142 U. S. 479, 12 S. Ct. 295, 35 L. ed. 1087. 198 Hine v. The Trevor, 4 Wall. 568, 18 L. ed. 451. 199 Panama R. R. Co. v. Napier etc. Co., 166 U. S. 285, 17 S. Ct. 572, 41 L. ed. 1004. 200 Johnson v. Chicago etc. Elevator Co., 119 TJ. S. 397, 7 S. Ct. 254, 30 L. ed. 441. 201 Ex parte Phenix Ins. Co., 118 TJ. S. 616, 7 S. Ct. 25, 30 L. ed. 274. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 Admiralty Jurisdiction. 540 be the subject of an action in United States courts. 202 An in- jury to a passenger from a boiler explosion is a maritime tort. 203 In the absence, however, of some statute, state or federal, a court of admiralty cannot entertain an action for the death of a person caused by another's negligence on the high seas, 204 and even where a local statute permits an action, admiralty cannot entertain a libel in rem if the statute gives no lien. 205 Every violent dispossession of property on the seas is prima facie a maritime tort, 206 but admiralty jurisdiction is not confined to torts committed by direct force; it extends to torts of neg- ligence and malfeasance. 207 The states cannot, by local legislation, enlarge or limit the jurisdiction of the federal courts in admiralty. 208 By this clause the states parted with all power to legislate concerning admiralty and maritime matters; 209 accordingly they cannot confer on their own courts jurisdiction of suits cognizable solely in admiralty. 210 But in certain cases jurisdiction is concurrent, and the ninth section of the judiciary act expressly saves to suitors in all cases a common-law remedy where the common law is competent to give it. 211 So personal suits on 202 Panama etc. E. E. Co. v. Napier etc. Co., 166 U. S. 285, 17 S. Ct. 572, 41 L. ed. 1004. 203 The New World v. King, 16 How. 472, 14 L. ed. 1019. 204 The Harrisburg, 119 U. S. 214, 7 S. Ct. 140, 30 L. ed. 358; The Alaska, 130 U. S. 209, 9.S. Ct. 461, 32 L. ed. 923; Butler v. Boston Steamship Co., 130 U. S. 555, 9 S. Ct. 612, 32 L. ed. 1017. 205 The Corsair, 145 U. S. 343, 12 S. Ct. 949, 36 L. ed. 727. 206 L 'Invincible, 1 Wheat. 257, 4 L. ed. 80. 207 Philadelphia etc. E. E. Co. v. Philadelphia etc. Towboat Co., 23 How. 215, 216, 16 L. ed. 433. 208 The Steamer St. Lawrence, 1 Black, 526, 17 L. ed. 180; The Hine v. Trevor, 4 Wall. 570, 18 L. ed. 451; The Lottawanna, 21 Wall. 580, 22 L. ed. 654; The J. E. Eumbell, 148 U. S. 12, 13 S. Ct. 498, 37 L. ed. 345; New Zealand Ins. Co. v. Earnmoor S. S. Co., 79 Fed. 369; The H. E. Willard, 53 Fed. 599. 209 Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 76, 15 L. ed. 269. 210 Taylor v. Carryl, 20 How. 598, 15 L. ed. 1028. 211 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 461, 12 L. ed. 226; New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 390, 12 L. ed. 465; Taylor v. Carryl, 20 How. 598, 15 L. ed. 1028; The Belfast, 7 Wall. 644, 19 L. 54:1 Admiralty Jurisdiction". Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 1 maritime contracts may be maintained in state courts, 212 and an action to enforce a lien for towage by foreclosure under a state law is a suit in personam to enforce a common-law remedy saved by the Eevised Statutes, section 563. 213 An action for damages caused by a burning vessel cut loose by the defend- ant's servants is an action for a remedy which the common law is competent to give. 214 While the states cannot confer any jurisdiction upon ad- miralty courts, 215 yet a lien given by local law for a mari- time service may be enforced in admiralty. 216 In all such cases, however, the jurisdiction to enforce the lien is, because of the maritime nature of the service for which it is given, exclusive in the admiralty courts. 217 ed. 266; Leon v. Galceran, 11 Wall. 190, 20 L. ed. 74; Schoonmakcr v. Gilmore, 102 U. S. 119, 26 L. ed. 95. 212 Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 262, 11 S. Ct. 559, 35 L. ed. 159. 213 Knapp v. McCaffrey, 177 U. S. 647, 20 S. Ct. 854, 44 L. ed. 921. 214 Chappell v. Bradshaw, 128 U. S. 134, 9 S. Ct. 40, 32 L. ed. 369. 215 The Steamer St. Lawrence, 1 Black, 526, 17 L. ed. 180; The H. E. Willard, 53 Fed. 600; The Electron, 74 Fed. 695. 216 Peyroux v. Howard, 7 Pet. 341, 8 L. ed. 700; Steamboat Orleans v. Phoebus, 11 Pet. 184, 9 L. ed. 677; Maguire v. Card, 21 How. 251, 16 L. ed. 118; The Ship Potomac, 2 Black, 583, 17 L. ed. 263. 217 The J. E. Eumbell, 148 U. S. 12, 13 S. Ct. 498, 37 L. ed. 345; The Glide, 167 U. S. 624, 17 S. Ct. 930, 42 L. ed. 296.. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 Supreme Court. 542 2. In all cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court shall have original juris- diction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. Original Jurisdiction. The supreme court of the United States exists by virtue of a direct grant of power from the people, 1 and this clause de- clares the extent of its original jurisdiction, 2 which Congress cannot enlarge or abridge. 3 Congress cannot confer original jurisdiction in cases other than those expressly enumerated by the constitution. 4 Its jurisdiction is both original and exclu- sive, 5 and coextensive with the judicial power; 6 but it is special and limited, and confined to particular cases, controversies and parties, 7 and in those cases where the constitution confers original jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction is impliedly forbid- den. 8 1 Rhode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 720, 9 L. ed. 1233. 2 Pennsylvania v. Quicksilver Co., 10 Wall. 553, 19 L. ed. 998; Delafield v. State, 2 Hill, 159. 3 Cohen v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 396, 5 L. ed. 257; United States v. Ferreira, 13 How. 49, 14 L. ed. 42; Ex parte Yerger, 8 Wall. 98, 19 L. ed. 332; United States v. Old Settlers, 148 U. S. 466, 13 S. Ct. 650, 37 L. ed. 509; California v. Southern Pacific Co., 157 U. S. 261, It S. Ct. 1138, 39 L. ed. 683. 4 Ex parte Yerger, 8 Wall. 98, 19 L. ed. 332; In re Metzger, 5 How. 176, 12 L. ed. 104; In re Kaine, 14 How. 103, 14 L. ed. 345. 5 United States v. Ortega, 11 Wheat. 467, 6 L. ed. 521; Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 1, 5 L. ed. 19; Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 137, 2 L. ed. 60; Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204. But see United States v. Eavara, 2 Dall. 297, Fed. Cas. No. 16,122; Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 419, 1 L. ed. 440; The Exchange v. McFaddin, 7 Cr. 116, 3 L. ed. 287. 6 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 820, 6 L. ed. 204. 7 Rhode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 657, 9 L. ed. 1233. 8 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 820, 6 L. ed- 204. 543 Supreme Court, Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 The grant of original jurisdiction in the cases specified implies a prohibition against the concurrent exercise of that jurisdiction by any other courts. 9 The practice in the su- preme court is regulated by the common law and acts of Congress, 10 but the court may make rules, not inconsistent with federal laws, prescribing forms of writs and other pro- cess, at common law, as well as in equity or admiralty, in all the federal courts, 11 and in the absence of congressional legislation may prescribe the form and mode of proceedings so as to attain the object for which jurisdiction was given. 12 It cannot, however, by rule, enlarge or restrict its own inherent jurisdiction and powers, or those of any federal court or judge. 13 The constitution left it to Congress to organize the supreme court and to define its powers consistently with the constitution, and to distribute the residue of the judicial power. 14 The original jurisdiction of the supreme court should be sparingly exercised and not expanded by construction; it does not follow that because a case, by virtue of its subject matter, comes within the federal judicial power, it is within the original jurisdiction of the supreme court. 15 Its original jurisdiction depends solely upon the character of the parties, and is confined to cases in which are the parties enumerated. 16 The supreme court's original jurisdiction extends to all cases affecting foreign ministers, although they may not be parties to the record, 17 but although the constitution vests in the su- preme court, original jurisdiction in cases affecting ambassadors 9 Martmry v. Madison, 1 Cr. 173, 2 L. ed. 60; Virginia v. Kives, 100 U. S. 327, 25 L. ed. 667. 10 Graham v. Bayne, 18 How. 62, 15 L. ed. 265. li Hudson v. Parker, 156 TJ. S. 282, 15 S. Ct. 450, 39 L. ed. 424. 12 Florida v. Georgia, 17 How. 478, 15 L. ed. 181. 13 Hudson v. Parker, 156 U. S. 284, 15 S. Ct. 450, 39 L. ed. 424. 14 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 419, 1 L. ed. 440; Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257; Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 738, 6 L. ed. 204; Rhoda Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 657, 9 L. ed. 1233. 15 California v. Southern Pacific Co., 157 U. S. 261, 15 S. Ct. 59], 9 L. ea. 1233. 16 Louisiana v. Texas, 176 U. S. 16, 20 S. Ct. 251, 44 L. ed. 347. 17 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 854, 6 L. ed. 204. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 Supreme Court. 544 and consuls, that jurisdiction is not exclusive, and subordinate federal courts may be invested with a concurrent jurisdiction, 18 and the jurisdiction of an inferior court over a controversy be- tween a citizen and an alien is not defeated because the alien is a citizen of a foreign government. 19 A state court has no jurisdiction over an action against a foreign minister; his per- son is inviolable and his residence is regarded as a part of the territory of the government from which he is sent. 20 The ser- vants of foreign ministers have been held to be entitled to the same protection, 21 and the secretary of a foreign legation has been held exempt from civil and criminal process. 22 But it has been held that a consul is not a foreign minister, and in the absence of any federal law to the contrary, a state may en- tertain a suit against him, or imprison him for a crime. 23 An indictment against a private person for assault upon an ambas- sador or public minister is not a case affecting such minister within this clause. 24 Jurisdiction of suits wherein a state shall be a party was given to the supreme court to secure an impartial tribunal for their adjudication. 25 This clause does not contemplate politi- cal communities other than states. 26 The "state" must be a member of the Union, with a government competent to repre- sent it in its relations with the national government, 27 and the 18 United States v. Ravara, 2 Dall. 297; Bors v. Preston, 111 U. S. 256, 4 S. Ct. 407, 28 L. ed. 419; St. Luke's Hospital v. Barclay, 3 Blatchf. 259, Fed. Cas. No. 12,241; Graham v. Stucken, 4 Blatchf. 50, Fed. Cas. No. 5677; Gittings v. Crawford, Taney, 1, Fed. Cas. No. 5465; Froment v. Duclos, 30 Fed. 385; In re Iasigi, 79 Fed. 754. 19 Bors v. Preston, 111 IT. S. 261, 4 S. Ct. 407, 28 L. ed. 419. 20 United States v. Benner, Baldw. 234, Fed. Cas. No. 15,568; Ex parte Cabrera, 1 Wash. C. C. 232, Fed. Cas. No. 2278; United States v. La Fontaine, 4 Cr. C. C. 173, Fed. Cas. No. 15,550. 21 United States v. La Fontaine, 4 Cr. C. C. 173, Fed. Cas. No. 15,550. 22 Ex parte Cabrera, 1 Wash. C. C. 232, Fed. Cas. No. 2278. 23 Wilcox v. Luco, 118 Cal. 642, 62 Am. St. Eep. 307, 50 Pac. 759, 45 L. R. A. 579. But see Miller v. Van Loben Sels, 66 Cal. 342, 5 Pac. 513; Commonwealth v. Kosloff, 5 Serg. & R. 545. 24 United States v. Ortega, 11 Wheat. 467, 6 L. ed. 521. 25 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 475, 1 L. ed. 440. 26 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 719, 19 L. ed. 227. 27 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 726, 19 L. ed. 227. 545 Supreme Court. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 jurisdiction conferred is jurisdiction over civil cases. 28 The su- preme court has no original jurisdiction in a case where a state is endeavoring to enforce its domestic penal laws. 29 Unlike suits affecting ambassadors and public ministers, in a suit in which a state is a party, it must be a party to the record to give the supreme court jurisdiction; 30 it must be a case where a state is at the same time nominally a party and substantially affected, 31 or has a direct interest in the contro- versy, 32 as where the suit is by or against the governor in his official capacity, 33 or a suit against any other state officer where the state is the real party in interest. 34 The mere fact, how- ever, that a state is a party is not a conclusive test of jurisdic- tion. 35 Thus the original jurisdiction of the supreme court does not extend to a suit by a state against one of its own cor- porations : 36 nor to a suit by a state to recover a penalty for a breach of its own laws, 36a nor to an action by a state upon a 28 Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 431, 1 L. ed. 440; In re Pacific Kail- way Com., 12 Saw. 582, 32 Fed. 255. 29 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257; Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 298, 8 S. Ct. 738, 32 L. ed. 239. 30 Bank of United States v. Planters' Bank, 9 Wheat. 906, 6 L. ed. 244; Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 854, 6 L. ed. 204; Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 9 How. 647, 13 L. ed. 294. 31 Fowler v. Lindsey, 3 Dall. 411, 1 L. ed. 658; New Jersey v. New York, 5 Pet. 287, 8 L. ed. 127; Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 1, 8 L. ed. 25; Ei parte Madrazo, 7 Pet. 627, 8 L. ed. 808; Khode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 67, 9 L. ed. 1233; Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 18 How. 421, 15 L. ed. 435. 32 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 9 How. 647, 13 L. ed. 294. 33 Georgia v. Brailsford, 2 Dall. 402, 1 L. ed. 433; Kentucky v. Dennison, 24 How. 97, 16. L. ed. 717; Governor of Georgia v. Slaves, 1 Pet. 124, 7 L. ed. 73. 34 Hagood v. Southern, 117 U. S. €7, 6 S. Ct. 608, 29 L. ed. 805; Louisiana v. Steele, 134 U. S. 232, 10 S. Ct. 511, 33 L. ed. 891. 35 Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 257, 8 S. Ct. 738, 32 L. ed. 239; California v. Southern Pacific Co., 157 U. S. 261, 15 S. Ct. 591, 39 L. ed. 683. 30 Pennsylvania v. Quicksilver Co., 10 Wall. 556, 19 L. ed. 998. 36a Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 294, 8 S. Ct. 738, 32 L. ed. 239. Notes on Constitution — 35 Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 Supreme Cotjet. 546 judgment recovered in its own courts. 37 Nor will the supreme court, in the exercise of its original jurisdiction, determine political questions as between states. 38 There must be some substantial right of property involved. 39 A suit to determine boundaries between states involves such a right and is cogniz- able; 40 as also does a suit by the United States to determine the boundary Between a state and a territory. 41 A suit by one state against another to determine the right of the latter to deprive the former of water from a river flowing through both is within the original jurisdiction of the supreme court. 42 Appellate Jurisdiction. In those cases where the constitution confers original juris- diction upon the supreme court appellate jurisdiction is forbid- den; in every other case the power is to be exercised as original or appellate as Congress may direct, 43 and its appellate juris- diction extends to all other cases to which the judicial power of the United States extends, "with such exceptions as Con- gress shall make"; 44 but, as is the case with the exercise of original jurisdiction by inferior courts, the power to exercise appellate jurisdiction must come from Congress. 45 The con- 37 Huntington v. Attrill, 146 U. S. 672, 13 S. Ct. 224, 36 L. ed. 1123. 38 Louisiana v. Texas, 176 TJ. S. 23, 20 S. Ct. 251, 44 L. ed. 347. 39 New York v. Connecticut, 4 Dall. 4, 1 L. ed. 715. 40 New Jersey v. New York, 5 Pet. 290, 8 L. ed. 127; Rhode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 720, 9 L. ed. 1233; Missouri v. Iowa, 7 How. 677, 12 L. ed. 861; Florida v. Georgia, 17 How. 491, 15 L. ed. 181; Missouri v. Kentucky, 11 Wall. 395, 20 L. ed. 116; Virginia v. Ten- nessee, 148 U. S. 504, 13 S. Ct. 728, 37 L. ed. 537. 41 United States v. Texas, 143 TJ. S. 641, 12 S. Ct. 488, 36 L. ed. 285. 42 Kansas v. Colorado, 185 TJ. S. 142, 22 S. Ct. 552, 46 L. ed. 838. 43 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 820, 6 L. ed. 204. 44 United States v. American Bell Telephone Co., 159 U. S. 543, 16 S. Ct. 69, 40 L. ed. 255. 45 United States v. More, 3 Cr. 173, 2 U. ed. 397; United States v. Young, 94 U. S. 259, 24 L. ed. 153; United States v. Sanges, 144 U. S. 319, 12 S. Ct. 609, 36 L. ed. 445; National Exchange Bank r. Peters, 144 U. S. 572, 12 S. Ct. 767, 36 L. ed. 545; Colorado Min. Co. v. Turck, 150 U. S. 141, 14 S. Ct. 35, 37 L. ed. 1030. 547 Supreme Court. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 stitution gives the supreme court capacity to take jurisdiction.. and an act of Congress is necessary to give the requisite au- thority to exercise it. 46 So if Congress has provided no rule to regulate the proceedings of the supreme court, it cannot exercise appellate jurisdiction ; 47 but if the rule has been given it cannot be departed from. 48 By the judiciary act of 1789, Congress made exceptions to the appellate jurisdiction of the court by affirmatively stating its jurisdiction, thus implying a negative on its exercise of a greater jurisdiction; but where the jurisdiction is described in general terms so as to compre- hend a particular case, no presumption can be indulged of an intent to restrict such jurisdiction. 49 "Where original jurisdiction is founded on the character of the parties, the judicial power cannot be exercised in its ap- pellate form; 50 but where it is founded on the nature of the controversy the appellate jurisdiction attaches. 51 The essential criterion of appellate jurisdiction is that it raises and corrects proceedings in a cause already instituted. 52 The object and policy of the acts of Congress in relation to appeals have been to save the expense and delay of repeated appeals in the same suit, 53 and the principle upon which appellate jurisdiction from state courts is allowed is to grant efficient and just means of self-protection. 54 The jurisdiction of the supreme court over inferior courts is strictly appellate. 55 It is not limited to any particular 46 Daniels v. Railroad Co., 3 Wall. 254, 18 L. ed. 227. 47 Wiscart v. D'Auchy, 3 Dall. 328, 1 L. ed 619. 48 Wiscart v. D'Auchy, 3 Dall. 328, 1 L. ed. 619; Ex parte Mc- Cardle, 7 Wall. 513, 19 L. ed. 264; The Francis Wright, 105 U. S. 384, 26 L. ed. 1100; American Construction Co. v. Jacksonville etc. Ky. Co., 148 U. S. 378, 13 S. Ct. 758, 37 L. ed. 486. 49 United States v. American Bell Telephone Co., 159 U. S. 549, 16 S. Ct. 69, 40 L. ed. 255. 50 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 820, 6 L. ed. 204. 51 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; Cohen v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257. 52 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 175, 2 L. ed. 60. 53 Forgay v. Conrad, 6 How. 206, 12 L. ed. 404. 54 Scott v. Jones, 5 How. 343, 12 L. ed. 181. 65 Gaines v. Eelf, 15 Pet. 17, 10 L. ed. 642. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 Supreme Court. 548 courts. 558 It may be exercised over territorial courts, 56 but not without authority of Congress. 57 The twenty-fifth section of the judiciary act allows writs of error to the supreme court from state courts where federal rights and questions are in- volved, and was within the power of Congress to enact, 58 but this gives to the supreme court no general power of review for the correction of errors. 69 The supreme court may review judgments of the court of claims in the exercise of its general jurisdiction ; 60 but the act confers power to review questions of law only. 61 Its jurisdiction in prize cases is appellate only. 62 It has no appellate power over special tribunals, and cannot take jurisdiction of any decision, on appeal, unless made by an in- ferior court exercising independently the judicial power granted to the United States. 63 The federal system of criminal law does not contemplate a general right of appeal to the supreme court in criminal cases ; 64 the authority to review such cases must be expressly given. 65 55a Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 304, 4 L. ed. 97; Cohen v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 264, 5 L. ed. 257; Dodge v. Woolsey, 18 How. 331, 15 L. ed. 401; Ableman v. Booth, 21 How. 506, 16 L. ed. 169. 56 Benner v. Porter, 9 How. 244, 13 L. ed. 119; Hunt v. Palao, 4 How. 589, 11 L. ed. 1115; Freeborn v. Smith, 2 Wall. 173, 17 L. ed. 922. 57 McNulty v. Batty, 10 How. 79, 13 L. ed. 333. 58 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 351, 4 L. ed. 97; Murdock v. City of Memphis, 20 Wall. 619, 22 L. ed. 429. 59 Central Land Co. v. Laidley, 159 U. S. 110, 16 S. Ct. 80, 40 L. ed. 91. 60 United States v. Jones, 119 U. S. 480, 7 S. Ct. 283, 30 L. ed. 440. ci Talbert v. United States, 155 U. S. 46, 15 S. Ct. 4, 39 L. ed. 64. 62 The Alicia, 7 Wall. 573, 19 L. ed. 84. 63 Gordon v. United States, 117 U. S. 704, 2 Wall. 561, 17 L. ed. 921. 64 Ex parte Watkins, 3 Pet. 201, 7 L. ed. 650; Forsyth v. United States, 9 How. 572, 13 L. ed. 262; United States v. Perrin, 131 U. S. 57, 9 S. Ct. 681, 33 L. ed. 88. 65 Cross v. United States, 145 U. S. 574, 12 S. Ct. 842, 36 L. ed. 821; Bucklin v. United States, 159 U. S. 681, 16 S. Ct. 182, 40 L. ed. 304. 549 Supreme Court. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 The jurisdiction of the supreme court to issue the prerogative writs is limited to those cases where they are necessary to the exercise of jurisdiction already acquired. 66 The cases wherein it can issue the writs in aid of its original jurisdiction are very limited under this clause. 67 Mandamus may issue to inferior federal courts, but only in such cases as involve the exercise of the supreme court's appellate jurisdiction. 68 The same rule applies to the writ of habeas corpus. 69 The writ may issue to examine into the cause of a commitment by an inferior federal court. 70 Where, however, the court has no appellate power to review the proceedings of a court, that power cannot be usurped by means of habeas corpus. 71 So the writ cannot be issued to review the proceeedings of a court-martial acting within its jurisdiction. 72 Nor will certiorari issue to review the proceedings of a court-martial or a military com- mission. 73 In such cases it is only where the tribunal acted en- 66 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 173, 2 L. ed. 60; California v. South- ern Pacific Co., 157 U. S. 261, 15 S. Ct. 604, 39 L. ed. 683. 67 Virginia v. Eives, 100 U. S. 327, 25 L. ed. 667; Ex parte Hung Hang, 108 TJ. S. 552, 2 S. Ct. 863, 27 L. ed. 811. 68 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 173, 2 L. ed. 60; Ex parte Crane, 5 Pet. 200, 8 L. ed. 92; Ex parte Newman, 14 Wall. 165, 20 L. ed. 877. 69 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 100, 2 L. ed. 554; Ex parte Watkins, 7 Pet. 572, 8 L. ed. 786; In re Metzger, 5 How. 191, 12 L. ed. 104; In re Kaine, 14 How. 119, 14 L. ed. 345; Ex parte Wells, 18 How. 317, 15' L. ed. 421; In re Yerger, 8 Wall. 97, 19 L. ed. 332; Ex parte Clarke, 100 U. S. 408, 25 L. ed. 715. 70 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 101, 2 L. ed. 554; Ex parte Watkins, 7 Pet. 572, 8 L. ed. 786; In re Kaine, 14 How. 146, 14 L. ed. 345; Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 110, 18 L. ed. 281; Ex parte McCardle, 6 Wall. 324, 18 L. ed. 816. 71 Ex parte Watkins, 3 Pet. 207, 7 L. ed. 650; Ex parte Milburn, 9 Pet. 704, 9 L. ed. 280; Ex parte Wilson, 114 U. S. 421, 5 S. Ct. 935, 29 L. ed. 89; In re Lennon, 150 U. S. 400, 14 S. Ct. 123, 37 L. ed. 1120. 72 Ex parte Mason, 105 TJ. S. 697, 26 L. ed. 1213; McClaughry v. Deming, 186 U. S. 69, 22 S. Ct. 786, 46 L. ed. 1049. 73 Ex parte Vallandigham, 1 Wall. 251, 17 L. ed. 539; In re Vidal, 179 TJ. S. 127, 21 S. Ct. 48, 45 L. ed. 118. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 2 Supreme Court. 550 tirely without jurisdiction that relief will be granted by habeas corpus. 74 The repeal of an act authorizing appeal in habeas corpus cases does not affect jurisdiction antecedently exercised. 75 The review of cases in the supreme court is regulated solely by act of Congress and not by state law, 76 and a compact be- tween two states cannot deprive Congress of any of its power in this respect 77 74 Ex parte Parks, 93 U. S. 18, 23 L. e d. 787. 75 Ex parte McCardle, 7 Wall. 506, 19 L. ed, 264. 78 Boogher v. New York Life Ins. Co., 103 U. S. 95, 26 L. ed. 310; Belden v. Chase. 150 U. S. 691, 14 S. Ct. 264, 37 L. ed. 1218. 77 Wilson v. Mason, 1 Cr. 91, 2 L. ed. 29. 551 Trials for Crimes. Art. Ill, § 2, CL 3 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of im- peachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but; when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Trial by Jury.* This clause applies only to criminal proceeedings in the fed- eral courts and does not govern trials in state courts. 1 The "trial" here referred to is the examination of the accused before a competent tribunal, according to the law of the land; 2 it is the hearing and deciding on a criminal charge, and can take place only after that charge has been legally made. 3 Congress must first make an act a crime, affix the penalty and declare the court having jurisdiction. 4 The "jury" referred to in the constitution is a jury con- stituted, as it was at common law, of twelve persons; 5 and "trial by jury" is a trial by such a jury in the presence and under the superintendence of a judge empowered to instruct them upon the law and advise them upon the facts. 6 Any law dispensing with the requisites to constitute a jury is uncon- stitutional. 7 1 Eilenhecker v. Plymouth County, 134 U. S. 35, 10 S. Ct. 424, 33 L. ed. 801; Murphy v. People, 2 Cow. 815. 2 United States v. Curtis, 4 Mason, 232, Fed. Cas. No. 14,905. 3 United States v. Patterson, 150 U. S. 68, 14 S. Ct. 20, 37 L. ed, 999. 4 United States v. Hudson, 7 Cr. 33, 3 L. ed. 259; United Statea v. Coolidge, 1 Wheat. 416, 4 L. ed. 124; United States v. Britton, 108 U. S. 206, 2 S. Ct. 535, 27 L. ed. 698; United States v. Eaton, 144 U. S. 687, 12 S. Ct. 767, 36 L. ed. 591. 5 Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 349, 18 S. Ct. 620, 42 L. ed. 1061; Maxwell v. Dow, 176 U. S. 587, 20 S. Ct. 448, 44 L. ed. 597. o Capital Traction Co. v. Hof, 174 U. S. 13-16, 19 S. Ct. 580, 43 L. ed 873. 7 Work v. State, 2 Ohio St. 296, 59 Am. Dec. 671; State v. Cox, 3 Eng. 436. * See, also, amendment VI, post. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 3 Trials foe Crimes. 552 While this clause provides for trial by jury in criminal cases according to settled common-law rules, the Sixth Amendment declares what those rules are, and the two provisions are not conflicting. 8 As soon as it judicially appears of record that a person has pleaded "not guilty," an issue has arisen which the courts are bound to direct to be tried by a jury; 9 but when the question arises whether the case is one wherein the accused is entitled to a jury, recourse must be had to the principles of the common law which are determinative of that question. 10 Ex- cept as to those petty offenses which by common law may be summarily tried, the guaranty of a jury accrues to an accused person the moment he is put on trial. 11 So a statute which provides that a person may be tried by the court on a charge of libel is void, although it gives him a right of appeal to a court where trial may be had by jury. 12 A trial upon a charge of conducting a market in a forbidden district is not one requiring a jury; 13 nor is a proceeding to annul the license of a pilot for neglect of duty; 14 nor a proceeding to strike an attorney 1 from the rolls for criminal offenses. 15 An act authorizing the summary destruction of unlawful fishing nets is valid under this clause; 16 but a statute providing for the confiscation of the property of a person engaged in rebellion, in any district in which property may be found, is void. 17 A citizen in civil life in no wise connected with the military service cannot be tried by a military commission so long as the courts are open to hear criminal accusations and redress griev- ances. 18 8 Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 549, 8 S. Ct. 1301, 32 L. ed. 223. 9 United States v. Gibert, 2 Sum. 19, Fed. Cas. No. 15,204. 10 Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 549, 8 S. Ct. 1301, 32 L. ed. 223. U Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 557, 8 S. Ct. 1301, 32 L. ed. 223. 12 Ex parte Dana, 7 Ben. 1, Fed. Cas. No. 3554. And see Callan v. Wilson, 127 IT. S. 557, 8 S. Ct. 1301, 32 L. ed. 223. 13 Natal v. Louisiana, 139 U. S. 624, 11 S. Ct. 637, 35 L. ed. 283. 14 Low v. Commissioners, E. M. Charlt. 302. 15 Ex parte Wall, 107 U. S. 265, 2 S. Ct. 569, 27 L. ed. 552. 16 Lawton v. Steele, 152 U. S. 142, 14 S. Ct. 503, 38 L. ed. 385. 17 Norris v. Doniphan, 4 Met. (Ky.) 346. 18 Ex parte Milligan, 4 Wall. 123, 18 L. ed. 281. 553 Trials foe Crimes. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 3 The constitutional guaranty of a jury trial applies to the people of the territories, 19 and to the District of Columbia. 20 Where, on a prosecution by information, the defendant refuses to plead and the court enters a plea, an issue is framed which must be tried by a jury. 21 Place of Trial. The provision as to place of trial has reference only to trials in the federal courts. 22 Congress has the sole power to pre- scribe the place of trial for offenses against federal laws not committed within any state; 23 such an offense is not local and may be tried at such place as Congress may designate. 24 The place of trial may be directed by Congress after the offense has been committed and before proceedings have been commenced. 25 Congress has power to enact laws for the arrest, commitment and custody of persons committing offenses against the United States, and such persons are in the exclusive custody of the United States, and not subject to state process or warrant. 26 An offense committed on the high seas is contemplated by this clause, 27 and an act of Congress providing for the punishment of murder on the high seas or in any bay, etc., out of the jur- isdiction of any state means that the bay, etc., must be out of the jurisdiction, and not the offense itself. 28 The jurisdiction of a court is not affected by the manner in which an accused person is brought before it. 29 Under the 19 Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 346, 18 S. Ct. 620, 42 L. ed. 1061. 20 Callan v. Wilson, 127 TJ. S. 550, 8 S. Ct. 1301, 32 L. ed. 223. 21 United States v. Barger, 19 Blatchf. 250, 7 Fed. 193. 22 Nashville etc. By. Co. v. Alabama, 128 U. S. 101, 9 S. Ct. 23, 32 L. ed. 352. 23 Jones v. United States, 137 U. S. 211, 11 S. Ct. 80, 34 L. ed. 691. 24 United States v. Dawson, 15 How. 488, 14 L. ed. 775; United States v. Jaekalow, 1 Black, 486, 17 L. ed. 225. 25 Cook v. United States, 138 U. S. 182, 11 S. Ct. 268, 34 L. ed. 906; Post v. United States, 161 U. S. 587, 16 S. Ct. 611, 40 L. ed. 816, 26 Logan v. United States, 144 U. S. 264, 12 S. Ct. 617, 36 L. ed. 429. 27 United States v. Jaekalow, 1 Black', 487, 17 L. ed. 225. 28 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 390, 4 L. ed. 404. 23 Mahon v. Justice, 127 U. S. 708, 8 S. Ct. 1204, 32 L. ed. 283. Art. Ill, § 2, CI. 3 Trials tor Crimes. 554 act of March 3, 1825. a person is triable for an offense on the high seas in the district into which he is brought, 30 and for this purpose the district in which he is delivered to the marshal is the district into which he is brought, although he is first de- livered to state officers in another district for safekeeping. 31 A bank president fraudulently procuring the acceptance in another state of a check against funds deposited there is triable in that state. 32 30 Jones v. United States, 137 U. S. 211, 11 S. Ct. 80, 34 L. ed. 691. 31 United States v. Arwo, 19 Wall. 490, 22 L. ed. 67. 82 Putnam v. United States, 162 U. S. 710, 16 S. Ct. 923, 40 L. ed. 1118. 555 Treason. Art. Ill, § 3, CI. 1 SECTION 3. TREASON. 1. Definition and evidence of. 2. Punishment of. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No per- son shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi- mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. Treason, What is. Treason is a breach of allegiance. 1 The elements which con- stitute treason under this clause are: a combination of con- spiracy by which several are united in one common purpose; 2 the purpose must be to prevent the execution of some public law, 3 and actual force must be employed by such combination 4 to overthrow the government or coerce its conduct. 5 So war must actually be levied. 5 * The breach of allegiance may be either perpetual or temporary. 6 Where the object of an insur- 1 United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat* 97, 5 L. ed. 37. 2 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 126, 2 L. ed. 554; Druecker v. Salomon, 21 Wis. 621. 3 Druecker v. Salomon. 21 Wis. 621. 4 Ex parte Burr, 9 Wheat. 529, 6 L. ed. 152; United States v. Mitchell, 2 Dall. 348, Fed. Cas. No. 15,788; United States v. Hanway, Wall. Jr. 139, Fed. Cas. No. 15,299; United States v. Hoxie. 1 Paine, 265, Fed. Cas. No. 15,407; United States v. Fries, 2 Whart. St. Tr. 482, Fed. Cas. No. 15,170. 5 United States v. Greathouse, 2 Abb. U. S. 364, 4 Saw. 457, Fed. Cas. No. 15,254. 5a Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 126, 2 L. ed. 554. 6 United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 76, 5 L. ed. 37. Art. Ill, § 3, CI. 1 Treason. 556 rection of armed men is to suppress the excise offices and to prevent by force and intimidation the execution of an act of Congress, the participants therein are guilty of treason, 7 To complete the crime of levying war against the United States there must be an actual assemblage of men for the pur- pose of executing a treasonable design. 8 The mere enlistment of men to serve against the government is insufficient; but the meeting of particular bodies of men and their marching from places of partial to places of general rendezvous. 9 The term "levying war" is used in the sense in which it was understood to have been used in 25 Edward III, from which it was taken, and it means to raise, create, make, or carry on war. 10 When war has been levied, all who aid in its prosecu- tion by performing any part, however minute, or however re- mote from the scene of action, are traitors. 11 Although no one can be convicted of treason who was not present when war was levied, 12 yet the crime may be committed by those not per- sonally present, if they are leagued with the conspirators and perform any part; 13 but the overt act and the intention must concur to constitute the crime. 14 The occupation of a fortress by men in military array to detain it constitutes levying war. 15 The offense is complete when it is directed to the overthrow of the government of por- 7 United States v. Mitchell, 2 Dall. 348, Fed. Cas. No. 15,783; United States v. Vigol, 2 Dall. 346, Fed. Cas. No. 16,621. 8 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 127, 2 L. ed. 554; United States v. Great- house, 2 Abb. U. S. 364, 4 Saw. 457, Fed. Cas. No. 15,254. 9 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 134, 2 L. ed. 554. 10 United States v. Burr, 4 Cr. 470, Fed. Cas. No. 14,693. li Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554; United States v. Great- house, 2 Abb. U. S. 364, 4 Saw. 457, Fed. Cas. No. 15,254. 12 United States v. Burr, 4 Cranch, 469, Fed. Cas. No. 14,693; United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 76, 5 L. ed. 37. 13 In re Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554; Druecker v. Salomon, 21 Wis. 621. 14 United States v. Fries, 3 Dall. 515, Fed. Cas. No. 15,170; Unite! States v. Burr, 4 Cr. 469, Fed. Cas. No. 14,693; United States v. Hodges, 2 Wheel. C. C. 477, Fed. Cas. No. 15,374. 15 United States v. Greiner, 4 Phila. 396, Fed. Cas. No. 15,262. 55? Treason. . Art. Ill, § 3, CI. 1 tions of the country only; 16 hence to revolutionize hy force the government of any territory of the United States would con- stitute levying war. 17 The crime of treason is not to he extended by construction beyond the terms of this clause. 18 Conspiracy to levy war and the actual levying of war are two distinct offenses. 19 So re- sistance to the execution of a law must be of a political and not of a private nature. 20 An alien domiciled in the United States is bound by its law, owes it allegiance and can claim no im- munity from statutes punishing treason. 21 Rebels, being citizens, are not "enemies" under this clause. 22 A de facto government exists in the highest degree when the de jure government has been entirely displaced by it, and such a government is not treason. 23 Furnishing saltpeter by par- ties who knew that it was to be used in manufacturing powder for the enemy constitutes "giving aid and comfort/' 24 and a person who sells goods to an agent of the enemy is guilty of treason or a misprision thereof. 25 The delivery of a prisoner to the enemy is treason. 26 A person who, being with a squadron, 16 United States v. Greathouse, 2 Abb. TJ. S. 364, 4 Saw. 459, Fed. Cas. No. 15,254. 17 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554. 18 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554. 19 Ex parte Bollman, 4 Cr. 75, 2 L. ed. 554; United States v. Mitchell, 2 Dall. 348, Fed. Cas. No. 15,788. 20 United States v. Fries, 3 Dall. 515, Fed. Cas. No. 15,170; United States v. Hanway, 2 Wall. Jr. 139, Fed. Cas. No. 15,299; United States v. Hoxie, 1 Paine, 265, Fed. Cas. No. 15,407. 21 Hanauer v. Doane, 12 Wall. 342, 20 L. ed. 439; Carlisle v. United States, IS Wall. 147, 21 U ed. 426; Radich v. Hutchins, 95 U. S. 211, 24 L. ed. 409. 22 United States v. Greathouse, 2 Abb. U. S. 364, 4 Saw. 457, Fed. Cas. No. 15,254; United Spates v. Cheneweth, 4 West. L. Mo. 165, 6 McLean, 139, Fed. Cas. No. 14,792. 23 Thorington v. Smith, 8 Wall. 8, 19 L. ed. 361. 24 Carlisle v. United States, 16 Wall. 150, 21 L. ed. 426. 25 Hanauer v. Doane, 12 Wall. 347, 20 L. ed. 439. 26 United) States v. Hodges, 2 Wheel. C. C. 477, Fed. Cas. No. 15,374. Art. Ill, § 3, CI. 1 Treason. 558 comes peaceably ashore to procure provisions, does not commit an overt act within this clause. 27 The only compulsion which will excuse marching with rebels is force on the person and present fear of death. 28 While mere attempts to enlist men in the enemy's service is not treason, yet it may be proved to show, .quo animo, that the accused had joined the enemy, and to show aid to the enemy. 29 Proof of Treason. The requirement of two witnesses refers to the proof on the trial and not to proceedings before the grand jury, or to pre- liminary investigations. 30 While a confession proved by two witnesses is not sufficient to convict, evidence thereof is admis- sible in corroboration of other evidence. 31 27 United States v. Pryor, 3 Wash. C. C. 234, Ted. Cas. No. 16,09(3. 28 United States v. Hodges, 2 Wheel. C. C. 477, Fed. Cas. No. 15,374; United States v. Greiner, 4 Phila. 396, Fed. Cas. No. 15,262. 29 Eespubliea v. Roberts, 1 Dall. 39. 30 United States v. Hanway, 2 Wall. Jr. 138, Fed. Cas. No. 15,299; United States v. Burr, 4 Cr. 469, Fed. Cas. No. 14,693; United States v. Greiner, 4 Phila. 396, Fed. Cas. No. 15,262. But see United Status v. Fries, 3 Dall. 515, 2 Whart. St. Tr. 480, Fed. Cas. No. 15,170. 31 United States v. Greathouse, 2 Abb. U. S. 364, 4 Saw. 457, Fed. Cas. No. 15,254. 559 Treason. Art. Ill, § 3, CI. 2 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. Punishment of Treason. The power to declare the punishment for treason is exclusively in CongTess, 1 but in those cases in which this exclusive right of legislation exists it rests with Congress to determine whether the general government shall exercise its power to punish ex- clusively or give to the states a concurrent power. 2 The prohibition against corruption of blood or forfeiture beyond the life of the person attainted was inserted for the benefit of the children and heirs of such person. 3 Only a life estate terminating with the death of the offender could be sold under the confiscation act of 1862, 4 and children of the per- son whose estate was condemned under that act at his death take the fee-simple, by descent as his heirs, and do not derive any title from the United States. 5 The confiscation act was an exercise of the war power, and not a criminal proceeding. 6 A full pardon by the President of all offenses committed by the owner of property confiscated relieves the owner from for- feiture so far as any right of the government is concerned; 7 1 People v. Lynch, 11 Johns. 553. 2 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 34, 5 L. eel. 19. 3 Wallach v. Van Eiswick, 92 U. S. 213, 23 L. ed. 473; Pike v. Wassell, 94 U. S. 714, 24 L. ed. 307; New York Guaranty etc. Co. v. Taeoma Ey. etc. Co., 93 Fed. 56. 4 Bigelow v. Forrest, 9 Wall. 350, 19 L. ed. 692; Day v. Micou, IS Wall. 160, 21 L. ed. 860; Avegno v. Schmidt, 113 U. S. 293, 5 S. Ct. 487, 28 L. ed. 976; Shields v. Schiff, 124 U. S. 356, 8 S. Ct. 510, 31 L. ed. 445. 5 Day v. Micou, 18 Wall. 156, 21 L. ed. 860; Avegno v. Schmidt ; 113 U. S. 293, 5 S. Ct. 4SV, 28 L. ed. 976; Shields v. Schiff, 124 U. S. 359, 8 S. Ct. 510, 31 L. ed. 445; Illinois Central E. E. Co. v. Bosworth, 133 U. S. 101, 10 S. Ct. 231, 33 L. ed. 550. 6 Miller v. United States, 11 Wall. 305, 20 L. ed. 135. 7 Armstrong's Foundry, 6 Wall. 769, 18 L. ed. 882. Art. Ill, § 3, CI. 2 Treason. 5G0 but a pardon cannot operate to devest the interest acquired by third persons during the lifetime of the person attainted. 8 8 Wallach v. Van Eiswick, 92 U. S. 214, 23 L. ed. 473; Semmes v. United States, 91 U. S. 21, 23 L. ed. 193; Knote v. United States, 95 U. S. 149, 24 L. ed. 442; Illinois Cent. E. E. Co. v. Bosworth, 133 U. S. 103, 10 S. Ct. 231, 33 L. ed. 550. 561 State Records. Art. IV, § 1 ARTICLE IV. STATE EIGHTS. SECTION 1. ACTS AND OFFICIAL RECORDS OF STATES, AUTHENTICATION AND EFFECT OF. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect there- of. Scope of Clause. This clause declares the attributes and qualities which judicial proceedings and records of one state shall have when offered in evidence in the courts of another, 1 and it implies that they shall be given the same effect in the courts of another state as they have by law and usage at home. 2 But this provision, and the laws giving it effect, establish a rule of evidence, and not of jurisdiction; 3 they do not operate to make records and judg- 1 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 324, 10 L. ed. 177; Lynde v. Co- lumbus etc. By. Co., 57 Fed. 996; Alkire Grocery Co. v. Kichesin, 91 Fed. S3; Lucas v. Copeland, 2 Stew. 153; Wyman v. Campbell, 6 Port. 237, 31 Am. Dec. 686; Bank of North America v. Wheeler, 28 Conn. 439, 73 Am. Dec. 684; Joice v. Scales, 18 Ga. 725; Tucker v. Harris, 13 Ga. 10, 58 Am. Dec. 493; Morris v. Burgess, 116 N. C. 42, 21 S. E. 28; Shelton v. Johnson, 4 Sneed, 672, 70 Am. Dec. 265; Sanborn v. Perry, 86 Wis. 366, 56 N. W. 399. 2 Chicago etc. R. E. Co. v. Wiggins Ferry Co., 119 U. S. 622, 7 S. Ct. 398, 30 L. ed. 519. 3 Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 292, 8 S. Ct. 370, 32 L. ed. 239; Huntington v. Attrill, 146 U. S. 671, 13 S. Ct. 229, 36 L. ed. 1123; Wood v. Augustins, 70 Vt. 640, 41 Atl. 584. Notes on Constitution — 36 Art. IV, § 1 State Records. 562 ments domestic for all purposes, but only to give them a gen- eral validity and credit as evidence. 4 This clause does not require courts to recognize as valid judg- ments of other states rendered without' jurisdiction, or which are irresponsive to the complaint and rendered in the defend- ant's absence; 5 it applies to records and proceedings of courts only so far as the courts have jurisdiction, 6 and that jurisdic- tion may be the subject of inquiry whenever a foreign judgment is relied upon. 7 And the record is always subject to contra- diction as to facts necessary to give jurisdiction. 8 So the rec- ord showing of service of process may be impeached, 9 and con- structive service may be shown to have been insufficient, 10 , and the recital of the death of a person, upon whose estate letters of administration have been granted, may be contradicted. 11 It may be shown that a defendant against whom a judgment was rendered was a nonresident, and that he was not served with process and did not voluntarily appear, 12 and the findings 4 Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 112, 10 S. Ct. 269, 33 L. ed. 533. 5 Reynolds v. Stockton, 140 U. S. 264, 11 S. Ct. 773, 35 L. ed. 46*. 6 Board of Public Works v. Columbia College, 17 Wall. 528, 21 L. ed. 687; Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 112, 10 S. Ct. 269, 33 L. ed. 538. 7 Thompson v. Whitman, 18 Wall. 461, 21 L. ed. 897; Simmons v. Saul, 138 U. S. 448, 11 S. Ct. 369, 34 L. ed. 1054; Thormann v. Frame, 176 tT. S. 356, 20 S. Ot. 446, 44 L. ed. 500. 8 Thompson v. Whitman, 18 Wall. 457, 21 L. ed. 897; Owens v. Henry, 161 U. S. 646, 16 S. Ct. 694, 40 L. ed. 837; Cooper v. Newell, 173 U. S. 566, 19 S. Ct. 510, 43 L. ed. 808; Hood v. State, 56 Ind. 263, 26 Am. Rep. 21; Wilson v. Hawthorne, 14 Colo. 533, 20 Am. St. Rep. 292, 24 Pac. 549; Neff v. Beauchamp, 74 Iowa, 94, 36 N. W. 906. 9 Knowles v. Gaslight Co., 19 Wall. 61, 22 L. ed. 70; Downs v. Allen, 23 Blatchf. 59, 22 Fed. 808; Rose v. Northwest Ins. Co., 67 Fed. 439; Pennywit v. Foote, 27 Ohio St. 600, 2 Am. Rep. 340; Bowler v. Huston, 30 Gratt. 275, 32 Am. Rep. 678. 10 Pennoyer v. Neff, 95 U. S. 730, 24 L. ed. 565, affirming 3 Saw. 301, Fed. Cas. No. 10,083. 11 Scott v. McNeal, 154 U. S. 47, 14 S. Ct. 1113, 38 L. ed. 896. 12 D'Arcy v. Ketchum, 11 How. 175, 13 L. ed. 647; Grover etc. Co. v. Radeliffe, 137 U. S. 295, 11 S. Ct. 94, 34 L. ed. 670; Wilson v. Seligmsn, 144 U. S. 45, 12 S. Ct. 542, 36 L. ed. 338; Goldey v. Morn- ing News, 156 U. S. 521, 15 S. Ct. 560, 39 L. ed. 517. 563 State Eecords. Art. IV, § 1 as to residence are not conclusive in a collateral action. 13 If a judgment is properly authenticated it proves itself when offered in the courts of another state. 14 "Records" are all acts, legislative, executive, judicial and ministerial, which constitute the public records of a state. 15 The object of the clause is to declare that full faith and credit shall be given to such, the manner of authenticating the same, and their effect when properly authenticated, 16 and to prevent judgments from being disregarded in other states, when a proper tribunal having jurisdiction has rendered them. 17 Legislative acts are to be authenticated by the seal of the state, 18 which imports absolute verity. 19 The constitution has effected no change in the nature of judgments; 20 it merely places judg- ments rendered in sister states in a different category from strictly foreign judgments, as to their force and effect. 21 A judgment in any state is, as to that state, to be regarded as a domestic judgment. 21 * The clause relates only to judgments in civil actions and not to judgments in criminal prosecutions. 22 It does not embrace an alleged discrepancy between two de- crees of a state court in the same case. 23 This clause relates only to the validity and force of judg- ments rendered in one state when proved in another; 24 it does 13 Gregory v. Gregory, 78 Me. 190, 57 Am. Eep. 793, 3 Atl. 281. 14 Hanley v. Donoghue, 116 U. S. 3, 6 S. <0t. 242, 29 L. ed. 535. 15 White v. Burnley, 20 How. 250, 15 L. ed. 886; McGrew v. Wat- rous, 16 Tex. 509; Chase v. Caryl, 57 N. J. L. 558, 31 Atl. 1029. 16 Green v. Sarmiento, 1 Pet. C. C. 74, 3 Wash. C. C. 17, Fed. Cas. No. 5760. 17 People v. Dawell, 25 Mich. 247, 12 Am. Pep. 260. is United States v. Johns, 4 Dall. 412, 1 Wash. C. C. 363, Fed. Cas. No. 15,481; Craig v. Brown, 1 Pet. C. C. 354, Fed. Cas. No. 3328. 19 United States v. Johns, 4 Dall. 416, 1 Wash. C. C. 363, Fed. Cas. No. 15,481; United States v. Amedy, 11 Wheat. 407, 6 L. ed. 502. 20 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 312, 10 L. ed. 177. 21 Oldens v. Hallet, 3 N. J. L. 466; Gibbons v. Livingston, 6 N. J. L. 236. 21 a Baxley v. Dinah, 27 Pa. St. 247. 22 Commonwealth v. Green, 17 Mass. 514. 23 Mitchell v. Lenox, 14 Pet. 49, 10 L. ed. 349. 24 Claflin v. McDermott, 12 Fed. 375. Art. IV, § 1 State Records. 564 not impose upon the states the duty to follow the decisions of the courts of another state construing the latter's statutes. 23 A state law providing that the records of its courts shall im- port absolute verity has no extraterritorial force; 26 nor can a statute exempting the state debt from taxation operate to ex- empt any portion of the debt held in another state from taxation by the latter. 27 Effect of Judgments Under this Provision. This clause, and the act of Congress declaring the effect of domestic judgments, do not require that they shall have any greater force and efficacy in other courts than in the courts of the states in which they are rendered, but only such faith and credit as, by law or usage, they have there. 28 It operates merely to give to a state judgment the same validity, credit and effect in every other state that it has in the state where it is rendered. 29 It does not give any validity to a void decree. 30 It is only when the jurisdiction is not impeached that a judgment is entitled to full faith and credit in another state. 31 25 Wiggins Ferry Co. v. Chicago etc. Ky. Co., 3 McCrary, 609. 11 Fed. 381; Miller v. Miller, 18 Hun, 507. 26 Thompson v. Whitman, 18 Wall. 468, 21 L. ed. 897. 27 Bonaparte v. Tax Court, 104 U. S. 592, 26 L. ed. 845. 28 Robertson v. Pickrell, 109 TJ. S. 611, 3 S. Ct. 407, 27 L. ed. 1049; Frame v. Thurmann, 102 Wis. 670, 79 N. W. 43. 29 Mills v. Duryee, 7 Cr. 484, 3 L. ed. 411; Hampton v. McConnell, 3 Wheat. 235, 4 L. ed. 378; Mayhew v. Thatcher, 6 Wheat. 129, 5 L. ed. 223; Caldwell v. Carrington, 9 Pet. 101, 9 L. ed. 60; Bank of Ala- bama v. Dalton, 9 How. 522, 13 L. ed. 242; Board of Public Works v. Columbia College, 17 Wall. 529, 21 L. ed. 687; Insurance Co. v. Harris, 97 U. S. 336, 24 L. ed. 959; Chicago etc. Ry. Co. v. Sturm, 174 U. S. 718, 19 S. Ct. 797, 43 L. ed. 1144; Hancock National Bank v. Farnum, 176 U. S. 644, 20 S. Ct. 506, 44 L. ed. 619; Burnham v. Webster, 1 Wood. & M. 175, Fed. Cas. No. 2179; Westerwelt v. Lewis, 2 McLean, 511, Fed. Cas. No. 17,446; Barnes v. Gibbs, 31 N. J. L. 318, 86 Am. Dec. 210; Kingman v. Paulson, 126 Ind. 509, 22 Am. St. Rep. 613, 26 N. E. 393; Suydam v. Barber, 18 N. Y. 468. 30 Siit a v. Wollfolk, 119 U. S. 149, 5 S. Ct. 1177, 29 L. ed. 357; Carpenter v. Strange, 141 U. S. 106, 11 S. Ct. 960, 35 L. ed. 640. 31 Thompson v. Whitman, 18 Wall. 463, 21 L. ed. 897; Colt v. Colt, 111 U. S. 578, 4 S. Ct. 558, 28 L. ed. 520, affirming 19 Blatchf. 466, 565 State Eecords. Art. IV, § 1 Generally speaking, if a decree is enforceable in the state where it is rendered it is enforceable in any other state; 32 but the courts of one state are not bound to uphold, on grounds of comity, a judgment of another state, invalid by its laws for want of jurisdiction, although it would be deemed valid where it was rendered. 33 The records and judicial proceedings to which full faith and credit are to be given are only such as are duly rendered by a competent court, 34 but without regard to whether they are su- perior courts of record or inferior tribunals. 35 A judgment recovered in one state does not carry with it into another state the efficacy of a judgment to be enforced simply by an execu- tion; it is merely evidence in the latter state that the subject matter of the suit has become matter of record in the former, which cannot be avoided except by the plea of nul tiel record. 36 So a judgment of a sister state has the force of a judgment in a sister state only so far as to preclude inquiry into the merits of the controversy. 37 In an action on a judgment by confes- sion rendered in another state the defendant may show want of authority in the attorney to confess. 38 48 Fed. 427; L'Engle v. Gates, 74 Fed. 514; Peel v. January, 35 Ark. 337, 37 Am. Eep. 31; Newcomb v. Newcomb, 13 Bush, 571, 26 Am. Eep. 236. 32 Caldwell v. Carrington, 9 Pet. 86, 9 L. ed. 60; Glenn y. Williams, 60 Md. 113. 33 Grover Machine Co. v. Eadcliffe, 137 TJ. S. 299, 11 S. Ct. 92, 34 L. ed. 670; Bodgers v. Adriatic Ins. Co., 148 N. Y. 39, 42 N. E. 516. 34 Aldrich v. Kinney, 4 Conn. 380, 10 Am. Dec. 151; Bissell v. Eriggs, 9 Mass. 462, 6 Am. Dec. 88. 35 Taylor v. Barron, 30 N. H. 78, 64 Am. Dec. 281; Silver Lake Bank v. Harding, 5 Ohio, 545; Pelton v. Platner, 13 Ohio, 209, 42 Am. Dec. 197. 36 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 325, 10 L. ed. 177; Huntington r. Attrill, 146 TJ. S. 685, 13 S. Ct. 234, 36 L. ed. 1123; Claflin v. Mc- Dermott, 20 Blatchf. 524, 12 Fed. 376; Walser v. Seligman, 21 Blatchf. 133, 13 Fed. 417. 37 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 326, 10 L. ed. 177; Pennoyer v. Neff, 95 TJ. S. 729, 24 L. ed. 565; Simmons v. Saul, 138 TJ. S. 459, 11 S. Ct. 376, 34 L. ed. 1054; Glass v. Blackwell, 48 Ark. 54, 2 S. W. 258; Eaton v. Hasty, 6 Neb. 426, 29' Am. Eep. 367; Bowler v. Huston, 30 Gratt. 274, 32 Am. Eep. 677. 88 First National Bank v. Cunningham, 48 Fed. 514. Art. IV, § 1 State Records. 566 Where a statute of one state provides that service on the res- ident agent of a foreign corporation shall he effectual, a judg- ment recovered against a corporation of another state on such service is entitled to the same faith and credit in the latter as in the former. 39 So, also, a judgment against a director, individually, under a state statute is conclusive evidence of a direct liability between the parties, and is a debt of record upon which an action will lie in another state. 40 Full faith and credit is not denied to the judgment of another state by admitting evidence to show that a discontinuance was not in- tended as satisfaction but was pursuant to an agreement never fulfilled; 41 nor is this provision violated by a finding in a suit on a judgment of a sister state rendered pursuant to an agree- ment that the agreement was not in controversy; 42 but the re- fusal of a state court to enforce the decree of a court of a sister state by reason of an erroneous decision that the latter court was without jurisdiction is a violation of this clause. 43 Where in the original suit the question was as to whether the plaintiff had accepted a provision in a will, a decree in another suit in a sister state, between the same parties, which denies the bind- ing force of the original decree is unconstitutional and void. 44 A judgment by confession is entitled to the same faith and credit as any other judgment. 45 The guaranty of faith and credit extends to judgments of courts in the District of Columbia. 46 and, under the act of 1790, state judgments are entitled to full faith and credit in the District of Columbia. 47 39 Lafayette Ins. Co. v. French, 18 How. 406, 15 L. ed. 451. 40 Huntington v. Attrill, 146 U. S. 686, 13 S. Ct. 224, 36 L. ed. 1123. 41 Jacobs v. Marks, 182 U. S. 595, 21 S. Ct. 865, 45 L. ed. 1241. 42 Texas etc. Ry. Co. v. Southern Pacific Co., 137 U. S. 55, 11 S. Ct. 10, 34 L. ed. 614. 43 Laing v. Rigney, 160 U. S. 539, 16 S. Ct. 366, 40 L. ed. 525. 44 Carpenter v. Strange, 141 U. S. 104, 11 S. Ct. 960, 35 L. ed. 640. 45 Van Norman v. Gordon, 172 Mass. 580, 70 Am. St. Rep. 307, 53 N. E. 268, 44 L. R. A. 840. 46 Savin v. Bond, 57 Md. 28. 47 Mills v. Duryee, 7 Cr. 485, 3 L. ed. 411. 567 State Kecords. Art. IV, § 1 Power of Congress. This provision does not confer npon Congress the power to give a judgment all the legal properties, rights and attributes to which it is entitled by the laws of the state where it is ren- dered; 48 nor does it guarantee that the effect and consequences of litigation in one state shall follow it into other states. 49 It does not have the effect of extending the local jurisdiction, or the operation of a local decree. 50 The probate of a will being, in effect, a decree in rem, can- not operate on property beyond the state wherein it is ren- dered, 51 and a judgment as to the effect of a will rendered in the testator's domicile is not conclusive in another state where land devised is situated; 52 and this is true of insolvency pro- ceedings. 53 A discharge granted in one state will not bar a nonresident creditor, 54 and a discharge from imprisonment in one state cannot bar an arrest of the debtor in another state. 55 But the constitution does not forbid a court of equity in one state to enjoin a suit by one of its citizens in another; e. g., where, pending proceedings in insolvency, a citizen of the same 48 Brengle v. McClellan, 7 Gill & J. 434. 49 Shelton v. Johnson, 4 Sneed, 672, 70 Am. Dee. 265. 50 Pennoyer v. Neff, 95 U. S. 727, 24 L. ed. 565; Brown v. Camp- tell, 100 Cnl. 641, 38 Am. St. Eep. 317, 35 Pae. 431; Bowen v. John- son, 5 E. I. 112, 73 Am. Dec. 49. 51 Darby v. Mayer, 10 Wheat. 469, 6 L. ed. 367; Eobertson v. Pick- rell, 109 U. S. 611, 3 S. Ct. 409, 27 L. ed. 1049; Calloway v. Doe, 1 Blackf. 372; Sneed v. Ewing, 5 J. J. Marsh. 466, 22 Am. Dee. 47; Bullock v. Bullock, 51 N. J. Eq. 446, 27 Atl. 436. 52 Clarke v. Clarke, 178 TJ. S. 195, 20 S. Ct. 873, 41 L. ed. 1028. 53 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 325, 10 L. ed. 177; Ogden v. Saundeis, 12 Wheat. 363, 6 L. ed. 606; Denny v. Bennett, 128 U. S. 497, 9 S. Ct. 137, 32 L. ed. 491; Newton v. Hagerman, 10 Saw. 462, 22 Fed. 526. 54 Denny v. Bennett, 128 U. S. 497, 9 S. Ct. 137, 32 L. ed. 491; Felch v. Bugbee, 48 Me. 13, 77 Am. Dec. 20(3; Phelps v. Borland, 103 N. Y. 410, 57 Am. Rep. 756, 9 N. E. 309; Brengle v. McClellan, 7 Gill & J. 434; Cameron v. Wurtz, 4 MeCord, 278; Colts' Estate, 4 Watt^ & S. 314. 55 Woodhull v. Wagner, Baldw. 298, Fed. Cas. No. 17,975; Wood v. Malin, 10 N. J. L. 210; Joice v. Scales, 19 Ga. 725. Art. IV, § 1 State "Records. 5G8 state as the debtor endeavors by attachment to secure property in another state. 56 The authenticity of a judgment and its effect depend upon the law made pursuant to the constitution, 57 which declares that Congress may mark out the effect and define the general power given. 58 Under this clause Congress is vested with power to declare the judgments of one state conclusive in every other state; but Congress has never executed its power to this extent and has merely declared that such judgments shall have the same effect in other states as in the states where they were rendered. 59 Congress has provided that the judicial records of one state shall be proved by a certified copy, which, when duly authenticated, shall have, in the courts of every other state, the same faith and credit as it has in the state where rendered. 60 In order to have this effect, however, it must be authenticated as required by the act of Congress; 61 but this does not preclude a state from requiring that, when offered in its own courts, a judgment shall require less proof than that prescribed by the act of Congress. 62 A state may give to the judgment of a sister state any effect it may deem proper, provided it does not deny to such judgment the effect guaranteed to it by the constitution and acts of Con- gress. 63 The legislature may fix different times for barring suit upon judgments of other states. 64 56 Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 116, 10 S. Ct. 269, 33 L. ed. 538; Allen v. Buchanan, 97 Ala. 403, 38 Am. St. Rep. 191, 11 South. 779. 57 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 312, 10 L. ed. 177. 58 Curtis v. Gibbs, 1 Pen. N. J. 435. 59 Mills v. Duryee, 7 Cr. 484, 3 L. ed. 411; Green v. Van Buskirk, 7 Wall. 145, 19 L. ed. 109; Caperton v. Ballard, 14 Wall. 243, 20 L. ed. 885; Robertson v. Pickrell, 109 U. S. 611, 3 S. Ct. 409, 27 L. ed. 1049; Warren Mfg. Co. v. Aetna Ins. Co., 2 Paine, 501, Fed. Cas. No. 17,206; Green v. Sarmiento, 3 Wash. C. C. 17, 1 Pet. C. C. 74, Fed. Cas. No. 5760. 60 Christmas v. Russell, 5 Wall. 301, 18 L. ed. 475; Green v. Vaa Buskirk, 7 Wall. 145, 19 L. ed. 109. 61 Caperton v. Ballard, 14 Wall. 243, 20 L. ed. 885. 62 Parke v. Williams, 7 Cal. 247; Whitwell v. Barbier, 7 Cal. 54; Wickersham v. Johnston, 104 Cal. 414, 43 Am. St. Rep. 122, 38 Pac. 89. 63 Bissell v. Briggs, 9 Mass. 462, 6 Am. Dee. 88. 64 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 312, 10 L. ed. 177; Bacon v. How- ard, 13 How. 22, 15 L. ed. 811; Robinson v. Peyton, 4 Tex. 276. 569 State Citizenship. Art. IV, § 2, CI. 1 SECTION 2. PEIVTLEGES AND IMMUNITIES OF STATE CITIZENS, ETC. 1. Entitled to same alike in every State. 2. Fugitives from justice. 3. Fugitives from servitude. 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the sev- eral States. Who are Citizens. The word "citizen," in its largest sense, means a native-born or naturalized person who is entitled to protection in the exer- cise and enjoyment of his private rights. 1 As used in the con- stitution it means a member of the nation owing allegiance thereto and entitled to protection therefrom. 2 Persons may be citizens, although they exercise no share of the political power and are incapacitated from holding particular offices. 3 The term "citizen" is often used to convey the idea of mem- bership in a nation, and in that sense a woman is a citizen when born within the jurisdiction of the United States, 4 or when married to a citizen, regardless of the time of the mar- riage or of the husband's naturalization. 5 All white persons 1 Walsh v. Lallande, 25 La. Ann. 188. 2 Minor v. Happersett, 21 Wall. 166, 22 L. ed. 627; United State? v. Cruikshank, 92 TJ. S. 549, 23 L. ed. 588; Boyd v. Thayer, 143 U. S. 158, 12 S. Ct. 380, 36 L. ed. 103; Blair v. Silver Peak Mines, 93 Fed. 335. 3 Dred Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 422, 15 L. ed. 691; Lyons v. Cunningham, 66 Cal. 42, 4 Pac. 938; Blanck v. Pausch, 113 111. 60; State v. Fairlamb, 121 Mo. 137, 25 S. W. 895. 4 Minor v. Happersett, 21 Wall. 166, 22 L. ed. 627; In re Lockwood, 154 U. S. 117, 14 S. Ct. 1082, 38 L. ed. 929. 5 Kelly v. Owen, 7 Wall. 498, 19 L. ed. 283; Ware v. Wisner, 4 McCrary, 69, 50 Fed. 312; Kreitz v. Behrensmeyer, 125 111. 197, 8 Am. St. Eep. 376, 17 N. E. 254. Art. IV, § 2, CI. 1 State Citizenship. 570 who were born in the Colonies and adhered to the cause of in- dependence up to July 4, 1776, were citizens. 6 The nationality of the inhabitants of acquired territory changes with sovereignty; accordingly, when the United States acquires foreign territory by conquest or cession the inhabitants become United States citizens subject to their election. 7 All free inhabitants of Texas at the time of annexation became citizens of the United States at their own election. 8 So also the inhabitants of California after the treaty Guadalupe Hi- dalgo, who remained and adhered to the United States, are to be deemed citizens, 9 and the treaty by which Florida was ceded to the United States operated to admit the inhabitants to the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, al- though they were not thereby admitted to all political rights. 10 A citizen of the United States is a citizen of the state where he resides, 11 and the admission of a territory on an equal foot- ing with the original states involves the adoption of its inhabi- tants as citizens of the United States. 12 6 Ware v. Hylton, 3 Dall. 224, 1 L. ed. 568; Inglis v. Sailors' Snug Harbor, 3 Pet. 121, 7 L. ed. 617; Dawson v. Godfrey, 4 Cr. 321, 2 L. ed. 634; Fairfax v. Hunter, 7 Cr. 603, 3 L. ed. 453; United States v. Kitchie, 17 How. 538, 15 L. ed. 236; Shanks v. Dupont, 3 Pet. 245, 7 L. ed. 666; Kelly v. Harrison, 20 Johns. Cas. 29, 1 Am. Dec. 154. 7 McKinney v. Saviego, 18 How. 240, 15 L. ed. 365; Boyd v. Ne- braska, 143 U. S. 162, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103; Cryer v. Andrews, 11 Tex. 105; Tobin v. Wilkinshaw, McAll. 186, Fed. Cas. No. 14,070; People v. Naglee, 1 Cal. 232, 52 Am. Dec. 312; Quintana v. Tomkin?, 1 N. Mex. 29. 8 Calkins v. Cocke, 14 How. 227, 14 L. ed. 398; Barrett v. Kelly, 31 Tex. 476. But see Coutzen v. United States, 179 U. S. 195, 45 L. ed. 148, 21 S. Ct. 98. 9 McKinney v. Saviego, 18 How. 289, 15 L. ed. 365; United States v. Eitchie, 17 How. 538, 15 L. ed. 236; Tobin v. Wilkinshaw, McAlL 186, Fed. Cas. No. 14,070; People v. De La Guerra, 40 Cal. 311. 10 American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 582, 7 L. ed. 242; United States v. Gratiot, 14 Pet. 526, 10 L. ed. 573; Cross v. Harrison, 16 How. 189, 14 L. ed. 889. u Gassies v. Ballou, 6 Pet. 762, 8 L. ed. 573; Marks v. Marks, 75 Fed. 328; Easterly v. Goodwin, 35 Conn. 286, 95 Am. Dec. 239. 12 Boyd v. Thayer, 143 U. S, 170, 12 S. Ct. 375, 36 L. ed. 103. 571 State Citizenship. Art. IV, § 2, 01. 1 The term is of the same import as the word "freeman," and includes every person who, by birth or naturalization, is or may be qualified to enjoy all the rights which a native-born inhabi- tant does or can enjoy. 13 Prior to the Fourteenth Amendment, however, it did not include free negroes and mulattoes. 14 This amendment not only conferred on persons of color the privileges and immunities of citizenship, but prohibited the states from denying to them the equal protection of the laws. 15 The Indian tribes are separate political communities, and a member of such a tribe is not a citizen, although born within the limits of the United States. 16 He may become a citizen by voluntarily separating himself from his tribe and indicating an intention to sever the tribal relations. 17 But mere separation from his tribe is insufficient; there must be some recognition of his status as a citizen by the United States or a state. 18 Birth and allegiance go together except in the case of the child of an ambassador or public minister. 19 So a child born of Chinese parents domiciled in the United States, carrying on business here, and not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity by the Chinese Government, is a citizen of the United States. 20 13 Slaughter-house Cas^s, 16 Wall. 129, 21 L. ed. 394; Douglass V. Stephens, 1 Del. Ch. 465. 14 Drecl Scott v. Sandford, 19 How. 404, 15 L. ed. 691; Donovan v. Pitcher, 53 Ala. 415, 25 Am. Rep. 636; Pendleton v. State, 6 Ark. 509; Clark v. Gautier, 8 Fla. 362. 15 Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U. S. 303, 25 L. ed. 664. 16 McKay v. Campbell, 2 Saw. 118, Fed. Cas. No. 8840; In ra Sah Quah, 31 Fed. 327. 17 Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U. S. 103, 5 S. Ct. 41, 2S L. ed. 643; Smith v. United States, 151 U. S. 56, 14 S. Ct. 234, 38 L. ed. 67. is Elk v. Wilkins, 112 U. S. 103, 5 S. Ct. 41, 2S L. ed. 643; United States v. Osborn, 6 Saw. 406, 2 Fed. 58; Paul v. Chilsoquie, 70 Fed. 402. 19 Inglis v. Sailors' Snug Harbor, 3 Pet. 99, 7 L. ed. 617; Slaughter- house Cases, 16 Wall. 73, 21 L. ed. 394; Geofroy v. Biggs, 133 U. S. 264, 10 S. Ct. 295, 33 L. ed. 642; United States v. Ehodes, 1 Abb. U. S. 40, Fed. Cas. No. 16,151. 20 United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U. S. 653, 18 S. Ct. 453, 42 L. ed. 890. Art. IV, § 2, CI. 1 State Citizenship. 573 The term applies only to natural persons, members of the body politic owing allegiance to the state, and not to corpora- 1ions. 20a Privileges and Immunities Guaranteed.* The privileges and immunities here referred to are those which are fundamental: protection by the government and the right to acquire and possess property of every kind, and to pur- sue and obtain happiness and safety, subject to governmental restraints exerted, for the general good. 21 In construing this constitutional guaranty the meaning of the word "privileges" must be determined in each case upon a view of the particular rights asserted and denied therein. 22 This clause did not oper- ate to create any new rights, but merely guaranteed the same measure of rights. 23 Nor did it make the privileges and im- 20a Liverpool Ins. Co. v. Massachusetts, 10 Wall. 573, 19 L. el. 1029; Philadelphia etc. Assn. v. New York, 119 TJ. S. 117, 7 S. Ct. 112, 30 L. ed. 342; affirming 92 N. Y. 325, 44 Am. Eep. 388; Blake v. McClung, 172 U. S. 259, 19 S. Ct. 165, 43 L. ed. 432; Orient Ins. Co. v. Daggs, 172 U. S. 561, 19 S. Ct. 281, 43 L. ed. 552; Lake Shore etc. Ey. Co. v. Smith, 173 U. S. 690, 19 S. Ct. 565, 43 L. ed. 858; Wai- ren Mfg. Co. v. Aetna Ins. Co., 2 Paine, 502, Fed. Cas. No. 17,206; Insurance Co. v. New Orleans, 1 Woods, 85, Fed. Cas. No. 7052; American Union Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 67 Ala. 26, 42 Am. Rep. 90; Baltimore & Ohio Tel. Co. v. Delaware etc. Co. 7 Houst. 269, 31 Atl. 714; Phoenix Ins. Co. v. Commonwealth, 5 Bush, 68, 96 Am. Dec. 331; Commonwealth v. Milton, 12 B. Mon. 242, 54 Am. Dec. 522. 21 Slaughter-house Cases, 16 Wall. 76, 97, 117, 21 L. ed. 394; Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 430, 20 L. ed. 449; Corfield v. Coryell, 4 Wash. C. C. 371, Fed. Cas. No. 3230; Bennett v. Boggs, Baldw. 60, Fe7; Ex parte Yar- brough, 110 U. S. 665, 4 S. Ct. 159, 28 L. ed. 274. 8 McKay v. Campbell, 2 Saw. 129, Fed. Cas. No. 8840; Hedgman v. State, 26 Mich. 151. 9 Williams v. Mississippi, 170 U. S. 220, IS S. Ct. 583, 42 L. ed. 1012. 10 Giles v. Harris, 189 U. S. 475, 23 S. Ct. 639, 47 L. ed. 909. Am. XV, § 2 Suffrage. 740 SECTION 2. POWER TO ENFORCE PROVISION'S. The Congress shall have power to enforce this Article by appropriate legislation. Amendment, proposed 26th February, 1869; declared ratified 30th March, 1870. The power given to Congress by this clause may be exercised only when the discrimination forbidden by the preceding clause is attempted. 1 This power can be directed only to the correc- tion of state action; it does not embrace the punishment of in- dividuals acting upon their own responsibility, and not under color of law. 2 The act of May 31, 1870, providing penalties for depriving a qualified voter of his right to vote, being too general in its terms to be upheld as "appropriate legislation" to prevent discrimination against colored voters, is invalid, and will not warrant the indictment of an inspector for refusing negro votes. 3 1 United States v. Eeese, 92 TJ. S. 218, 23 L. ed. 562; United States v. Arrrsden, 10 Biss. 283, 6 Fed. 822; United States v. Munford, 16 Fed. 223. 2 Le Grand v. United States, 12 Fed. 579; United States v. Ams- den, 10 Biss. 283, 6 Fed. 822. 3 United States v. Eeese, 92 U. S. 221, 23 L. ed. 563; United States v. Sanies, 48 Fed. 82; State v. Strauder, 11 W. Va. 816, 27 Am. Hep. 619. TABLE OF CASES CITED. A. & C. E. E. Co. v. Allen, 15 Fla. 15 351, 352, 355 Abeel v. Clark, 84 Cal. 22-6 725 Abercrombie v. Baxter, 44 Ga. 36 387, 390 Aberdeen Bank v. Chehalis County, 166 U. S. 449 93 Ableman v. Booth, 21 How. 516 37, 82, 504, 507, 508, 512, 513, 519, 548, 591, 593, 609, 611, 615, 671 Abraham, In re, 93 Fed. 778 510 Acorn, The, 2 Abb. 444 153, 156 Adams v. Boston etc. E. E., 1 Holmes, 31 331 Adams v. Commissioners, 23 Fed. 212 505 Adams v. Creen, 100 Ala. 218, 14 South. 54 397 Adams v. Bogan, 11 111. 336 316 Adams v. Eeed, 11 Utah, 502, 40 Pac. 724 284 Adams v. Storey, 1 Paine, 79 162 Adams v. Ulmer, 91 Me. 54 102 Adams Express Co. v. Ohio, 165 U. S. 228 133, 134, 135, 731 Adamson v. Davis, 47 Mo. 268 408 Adamson v. Marshall, 47 Mo. 273 406, 408 Addison v. Sauliner, 19 Cal. 82 450 Addyston & Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 246 96, 98, 100, 101, 105, 646 Adirondack Ey. Co. v. New York, 176 U. S. 349 265, 651 Adkins v. Eichmond, 98 Va. 91 141 Aetna Standard etc. Co. v. Taylor, 4 Ohio Dec. 180, 3 Ohio N. P. 152 297 Agawam Co v. Jordan, 7 Wall. 602 185 Ager v. Murray, 105 U. S. 128 177, 185 Agnew v. Piatt, 15 Pick. 420 168, 170, 287 Ah Chong, In re, 6 Saw. 461, 2 Fed. 733 645 Ah Fong, Ex parte, 3 Saw. 144 106, 116, 729 Ah Fook, In re, 49 Cal. 402 642 Ah Kow v. Nunan, 5 Saw. 552 697 Ahl v. Gleim, 52 Pa. St. 324 198 A h Yup, In re, 5 Saw. 155 700 Aiken v. Western Eailroad, 20 N. Y. 3S0 361 Alabama v. Georgia, 23 How. 510 527 Alabama etc. E. E. Co. v. Kenney, 39 Ala. 307 342 Alabama Life Ins. Co. v. Baldwin, 38 Ala. 510 392 (741) 742 Table of Cases Cited. Alaska, The, 130 U. S. 209 540 Albany National Bank v. Maher, 19 Blatchf. 177, 6 Fed. 419 94 Albany R. R. v. Brownell, 24 N. Y. 345 381 Albee v. May, 2 Paine, 74 229, 257, 294, 391. 395 Albertson v. Wallace, 81 N. C. 479 139 Albright v. Smith, 2 S. Dak. 577, 3 S. Dak. 631 426, 477 Aldrich v. Kinney, 4 Conn. 380 28, 31, 565 Aldridge v. Tuscumbia Railroad, 2 Stew. & P. 199 229, 257 Alexander v. Gibson, 1 Nott & McC. 480 162, 420 Alexander v. Railroad Co., 3 Strob. 594 234, 455, 542 Alexander's Cotton, 2 Wall. 419 195 Alicia, The, 7 Wall. 573 548 Alkire Grocery Co. v. Richesin, 91 Fed. 83 561 Allen v. Allen, 95 Cal. 197 422 Allen v. Buchanan, 97 Ala. 403 568 Allen v. Colby, 47 N. H. 544 197, 475, 625 Allen v. Georgia, 166 U. S. 141 709, 711 Allen v. McKean, 1 Sum. 276 282, 370, 373, 375, 377 Allen v. Pioneer Press Co., 40 Minn. 117 729 Allen v. Sarah, 2 Harr. 434 573, 648 Allen v. Smith, 173 U. S. 393 237 Allen v. Wyckoff, 48 N. J. L. 90 722 Alley v. Denson, 8 Tex. 297 ' 309, 316 Allgeyer v. Louisiana, 165 U. S. 590 440, 577, 646, 684, 706, 708 Allis v. State Bank, 15 Ark. 19 403 Allison, In re, 13 Colo. 530 485, 637 Almy v. California, 24 How. 173 99, 233, 448, 449 Ambrose Light, The, 25 Fed. 416 191 American Asylum v. Phoenix Bank, 4 Conn. 177 330 American Coal Co. v. Consolidated Coal Co., 46 Md. 15 365 American Construction Co. v. Jacksonville etc. Ry. Co., 148 IT. S. 378 547 American Express Co. v. People, 133 111. 649 722 American Harrow Co. v. Shaffer, 68 Fed. 755 140 American Ins. Co. v. Cotton, 1 Pet. 545 188, 194, 471, 472, 481, 482, 505, 508, 516, 518, 537, 570, 594, 596, 598, 599, 612 American Pub. Co. v. Fisher, 166 U. S. 467 668, 669 American Rapid Tel. Co. v. Hess, 125 N. Y. 641 723 American Steamboat Co. v. Chase, 16 Wall. 531 536, 537, 539 American Sugar Co. v. Louisiana, 179 U. S. 95 732 American Union Exp. Co. v. St. Joseph, 66 Mo. 675 135 American Union Tel. Co. v. Western Union Tel. Co., 67 Ala. 26 122,572 American etc. Transit Co. v. Hall, 174 U. S. 82 137 Ames' Case, Taft, 317 53 Ames v. Kansas, 111 U. S. 471, 4 S. Ct. 437 498, 514, 518 Ames v. Port Huron etc. Co., 11 Mich. 139 645 Table of Cases Cited. 743 Ammidown v. Freeland, 107 Mass. 303 27S Amnions, Ex parte, 34 Ohio St. 518 584, 586 Amy v. Galena, 7 Fed. 163 326 Amy v. Shelby County Tax. Dist., 114 U. S. 393 404 Amy v. Smith, 1 Litt. 326 285 Amy v. Supervisors, 11 Wall. 138 512 Anderson v. Baker, 23 Md. 566 228, 252, 258, 680 Anderson v. Dunn, 6 Wheat. 215 62, 63, 68, 171, 212, 213, 504, 664, 678, 679 Anderson v. Louisville etc. Ey. Co., 62 Fed. 48 693 Anderson v. O'Donnell, 29 S. C. 355 260, 638 Anderson v. Santa Anna, 116 U. S. 361 274, 331 Anderson v. Watt, 138 U. S. 706 528 Anderson v. Wheeler, 25 Conn. 607 168 Andres v. Arnold, 77 Mich. 88 153 Andrews, Ex parte, 14 Cal. 678 620 Andrews v. Auditor, 28 Gratt. 127 84 Andrews v. Garrett, 1 Flipp. 448 s. . . . 514 Andrews v. Hovey, 124 U. S. 717 503 Andrews v. Pond, 13 Pet. 78 287 Andrews v. Eussell, 7 Blackf. 574 273, 393, 430 Andrews v. Schwartz, 156 U. S. 275 711 Andrews v. State, 3 Heisk. 165 622 Andrews v. Wall, 3 How. 572 537, 538 Angle v. Chicago etc. Ey. Co., 151 U. S. 18 502, 503 Anglo-American etc. Co. v. Davis & Co., 169 N. Y. 506 729 Ankrim, In re, 3 McLean, 285 73 Ann, The, 5 Hughes, 296, 8 Fed. 926 646, 723 Ann Eyan, The, 7 Ben. 23 113, 454 Anonymous, 1 Opin. Atty. Gen. 629 116 Anonymous, 2 Opin. Atty. Gen. 266 625 Anonymous, 2 Opin. Atty. Gen. 426 116 Anonymous, 2 Opin. Atty. Gen. 711 470 Anonymous, 3 Opin. Atty. Gen. 188 489 Anonymous, 3 Opin. Atty. Gen. 370 591 Anonymous, 3 Opin. Atty. Gen. 673 486 Anonymous, 5 Opin. Atty. Gen. 288 486 Anonymous, 6 Opin. Atty. Gen. 20 477, 591 Anonymous, 7 Opin. Atty. Gen. 186 489 Anonymous, 9 Opin. Atty. Gen. 524 493 Anonymous, 14 Opin. Atty. Gen. 20 476 Ansehutz v. Hoerr, 1 Fed. 593 158 Antelope, The, 10 Wheat. 121 191 Antoni v. Greenhow, 107 U. S. 780 277, 305, 389, 431 Antoni v. Wright, 22 Gratt. 833 305 Antrim's Case, 1 Fed. Cas. 1063 203, 217 Appleton v. Turnbull, 84 Me. 76 521 744 Table of Cases Cited. Appointment of Supervisors, In re, 52 Fed. 252 738 Appold, In re, 1 Bank. Eeg. 178 159 Archer v. Allen, 1 Bart. 169 59 A rchy, Ex parte, 9 Cal. 147 575 Arizona v. Duffield, 1 Ariz. Ter. 69 508 Arkansas, The, 5 McCrary, 366, 17 Fed. 384 536 Arkansas Valley etc. Co. v. Mann. 130 U. S. 69 670 Armington v. Barnet, 15 Vt. 749 82, 341, 342 Armistead v. State, 43 Ala. 340 473 Armstrong v. Dearborn County Commrs., 4 Blackf. 208 316 Armstrong v. Jackson, 1 Blackf. 210 294 Armstrong v. Treasurer, 16 Pet. 281 303, 355 Armstrong v. United States, 182 U. S. 243 473 Armstrong 's Foundry, 6 Wall. 769 559 Arndt v. Griggs, 133 U. S. 323 511, 681, 682 Arnold v. Maynard, 2 Story, 354 158 Arnold v. Mundy, 1 Halst. 1 130 Arnold v. United States, 9 Cr. 120 73 Arnold v. Yanders, 56 Ohio St. 421 102, 128, 139 Aron v. Manhattan E. E. Co., 132 U. S. 90 184 Ashen, Ex parte, 23 Tex. App. 662 142, 445 Asher v. Texas, 128 U. S. 132 141 Ashley v. Port Huron, 35 Mich. 301 655 Ashley v. Eyan, 153 U. S. 446 130, 132, 143 Ashnelot E. E. Co. v. Elliott, 58 N. H. 451 . . .' 382 Ashton v. Burbank, 2 Dill. 435 372 Aspinwall v. Commissioners, 22 How. 365 393 Astrom v. Hammond, 3 McLean, 107 283 Asylum v. New Orleans, 105 U. S. 368 301, 380 Atchafalaya etc. E. E. v. Bean, 3 Bob. (La.) 415 421 Atchison v. Huddleson, 12 How. 298 282 Atchison etc E. E. Co. v. Baty, 6 Neb. 37 '. . 647 Atchison etc. Ey. Co. v. Campbell, 61 Kan. 439 720 Atchison etc. E. E. v. Denver etc. E. E., 110 U. S. 679 79 Atchison etc. E. E. v. Matthews, 174 U. S. 104 380, 705 Atkins v. Atkins, 18 Neb. 474 428 Atkins v. Eandolph, 31 Vt. 226 318 Atkinson v. Lainer, 69 Ga. 460 91 Atlantic etc. E. E, Co. v. Mingus, 7 N. Mex. 371 332 Atlantic etc. E. E. Co. v. Allen, 15 Fla. 637 351, 352, 355 Atlantic and Pacific Ey. v. United States, 76 Fed. 192 363 Atlantic & Pacific Tel. Co. v. Philadelphia, 190 U. S. 160 135 Atlantic Express Co. v. Eailroad Co., Ill N. C. 472 366 Atlantic Works v. Brady, 107 U. S. 200 1S3 Attorney, In re, 86 N. Y. 569 480 Attorney General v. Chicago etc. Ey., 35 Wis. 425 338, 365, 366 Attorney General v. Clergy Soc, 10 Eich. Eq. 604 370 Table of Cases Cited. 745 Attorney General v. Jamaica & Aqueduct, 133 Mass. 366 341 Attorney General v. Jochim, 99 Mich. 358 648 Attorney General v. Looker, 111 Mich. 508 377, 379 Attorney General v. Kailroad Co., 35 Wis. 563 375, 379, 383 Attorney General v. Western Union Tel. Co., 33 Fed. 129 135 Atwater v. Seely, 1 McCrary, 208, 2 Fed. 137 273, 274 Atwater v. Townsend, 4 Conn. 47 167 Atwater v. Woodbridge, 6 Conn. 223 301, 396 Auburn etc. Plank Eoad v. Douglass, 9 N. Y. 452 362, 363 Auer v. City of Dubuque, 65 Iowa, 650 715 Auffmordt v. Hedden, 137 U. S. 127 485 Augsbury v. Crossman, 10 Hun, 389 162 Augusta Bank v. Augusta, 49 Me. 507 432 Augusta v. Sweeny, 44 Ga. 463 287, 291 Augustine v. McFarland, 2 Fed. Cas, 214 162 Aurora T. Co. v. Holthouse, 7 Ind. 59 337, 404, 538 Austin v. Alderman, 7 Wall. 699...' 81, 84, 92 Austin v. State, 101 Tenn. 563 126, 146 Austin v. Tennessee, 179 U. S. 355 145, 445 Austin v. United States, 155 U. S. 427 237 Avegno v. Schmidt, 113 U. S. 293 559 Avery v. Fox, 1 Abb. U. S. 246 651 Aycock v. Martin, 37 Ga. 124 229, 385, 390, 413 Ayers, In re, 123 U. S. 505 305, 306, 385, 527, 6S7, 688 Babbitts' Case, 1 Bart. 116 60 Babcock v. Weston, 1 Gall. 168 167, 168, 170, 287 Baehman v. Lawson, 109 U. S. 660 483 Backus v. Fort Street etc. Co., 169 U. S. 567 660 Backus v. Lebanon, 11 N. H. 19 342 Bacon v. Collender, 6 Mass. 303 395 Bacon v. Howard, 13 How. 22 568 Bacon v. Robertson, 18 How. 486 337 Bader, Ex parte, 4 Woods, 190 56 Bagg v. Wilmington etc. R. B. Co., 109 N. C. 279 102, 120 Baggs v. Martin, 179 U. S. 209 512 Bagnell v. Broderick, 13 Pet. 450 597 Bailey's Case, CI. & H. 411 42 Bailey v. Barbour, 2 Ells. 679 43 Bailey v. Gentry, 1 Mo. 164 249, 385, 386, 415 Bailey v. Hollister, 26 N. Y. 112 379 Bailey v. Magwire, 22 Wall. 215 80, 299, 352 Bailey v. Milner, 1 Abb. U. S. 263 242, 247, 248 Bailey v. Milner, 35 Ga. 330 245 Bailey v. People, 190 111. 2S 716, 721 Bailey v. Eailroad Co., 4 Harr. 389 359 Bailey v. Trustees, 6 K. I. 491 382 746 Table of Cases Cited. Bain, Ex parte, 121 U. S. 13 629, 630 Bain v. Richmond etc. R. R., 105 N. C. 363 138 Baines v. The James and Catherine, Baldw. 544 669, 670 Baird v. Byrne, 3 Wall. Jr. 1 533 Baiz, In re, 135 U. S. 142 461, 489, 494, 502, 525 Baker v. Commonwealth, 20 Ky. Law Rep. 879 637 Baker v. Grice, 169 U. S. 290 507 Baker v. Herndon, 17 Ga. 586 393, 429 Baker v. Johnson, 2 Hill, 342 82 Baker v. Pope, 2 Hun, 556 299 Baker v. Selden, 101 U. S. 105 180, 181, 182 Baker v. Westcott, 73 Tex. 134 157 Baker v. Wise, 16 Gratt. 80 235, 449 Baker v. Wise, 16 Gratt. 139 454 Baker and Yell's Case, 1 Bart. 92 46, 70 Baldwin v. Bank of Newbury, 1 Wall. 239 167 Baldwin v. Buswell, 52 Vt. 57 420 Baldwin v. Hale, 1 Wall. 228 161, 166, 167, 168, 418 Baldwin v. Newark, 38 N. J. L. 159 273, 317, 398 Baldwin v. Trowbridge, 2 Bart. 46 55 Ballard v. Mississippi etc. Co., 81 Miss. 507 733 Ballard v. Ridgley, Morris, 27 436 Ballard v. Webster, 9 Abb. Pr. 404 168 Baltic, The, 2 Ben. 399 104 Baltimore v. State, 15 Md. 376 31, 309, 315 Baltimore etc. Co. v. Patterson, 106 Fed. 736 538 Baltimore etc. R. R. Co. v. Allen, 17 Fed. 171 305 Baltimore etc. R. R. Co. v. Mayor, 64 Fed. 160 382 Batimore etc. R. R. Co. v. Nesbit, 10 How. 402 229, 259, 264, 342, 391 Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. v. Chase, 43 Md. 23 295 Baltimore & Ohio R. R. Co. v. Van Ness, 4 Cr. C. C. 595 652 Baltimore etc. Railroad v. State, 45 Md. 596 364 Baltimore & Ohio Tel Co. v. Delaware etc. Co., 7 Houst. 269 572 Baltimore Trust Co. v. Baltimore, 64 Fed. 153 292 Baltzer v. North Carolina, 161 U. S. 245, 500 271, 307 Baltzer v. State, 104 N. C. 265 306 Bamberger v. Terry, 103 U. S. 40 673 Bancher v. Fisk, 33 Me. 316 167 Bancroft v. Thayer, 5 Saw. 502 307 Bangor v. Goding, 35 Me. 73 426 Bangor v. Smith, 83 Me. 425 119 Bangor R. R. v. Smith, 47 Me. 34 375 Bank v. Clark, 4 Mo. 59 247 Bank v. Commissioners, 90 Fed. 10 272 Bank v. Deming, 7 Fed. 55 289 Bank v. Edwards, 5 Fed. 516 289 Table of Cases Cited. 747 Bank v. Hamilton, 21 111. 33 336, 340 Bank v. Hart, 67 N. C. 264 357 Bank v. McVeigh, 20 Gratt. 457 377, 390 Bank v. New Albany, 11 Ind. 139 289, 317 Bank v. Spillman, 3 Dana ; 150 245 Bank v. Supervisors, 7 Wall. 26 89, 92 Bank v. Tennessee, 104 U. S. 495 300, 348 Bank v. Thompson, 173 111. 599 219 Bank for Savings v. Collector, 3 Wall. 495 87 Bank of Alabama v. Dalton, 9 How. 520 409, 564 Bank of Albia v. Albia, 86 Iowa, 37 85, 93 Bank of Augusta v. Earle, 13 Pet. 591 143, 288, 510, 577, 682, 683 Bank of Cape Fear v. Edwards, 5 Ired. 516 349 Bank of Columbia v. Attorney General, 3 Wend. 588 337 Bank of Columbia v. Okely, 4 Wheat. 245 358, 405, 642, 643, 673 Bank of Columbia v. Overstreet, 10 Bush (Ky.), 148 161, 420 Bank of Commerce v. New York, 2 Black, 632 85, 91, 92, 93 Bank of Gallipolis v. Donnigan, 12 Ohio, 224 357 Bank of Hamilton v. Dudley, 2 Pet. 492 672 Bank of Kentucky v. Clark, 4 Mo. 61 245 Bank of Kentucky v. Commonwealth, 4 Bush, 48 92 Bank of Kentucky v. Wister, 2 Pet. 323 246, 684, 689 Bank of Maryland v. Buff, 7 Gill & J. 448 357 Bank of Missouri v. Snelling, 35 Mo. 190 420 Bank of North America v. Wheeler, 28 Conn. 439 561 Bank of State v. Bank of Cape Fear, 13 Ired. 75 249, 357 Bank of United States v. Bank of Georgia, 10 Wheat. 347 250 Bank of United States v. Daniel, 12 Pet. 33 239, 456, 682 Bank of United States v. Frederickson, 2 Fed. Cas. 745 417 Bank of United States v. Halstead, 10 Wheat. 53 219 Bank of United States v. Longworth, 1 McLean, 35. .268, 286, 427, 437 Bank of United States v. Northumberland Bank, 4 Conn. 333. .. . 503 Bank of United States v. Planters' Bank, 9 Wheat. 906 545, 684, 686, 6S9 Bank of United States v. Boberts, 4 Conn. 323 503 Bank of Utica v. Card, 7 Ohio, pt. 2, 170 168 Bank of Washington v. Arkansas, 20 How. 530 306, 688 Banks v. Manchester, 128 U. S. 252 178, 181, 182, 307 Banks v. Manchester, 23 Fed. 145 182 Banks v. Mayor, 7 Wall. 16 84, 89, 90, 92 Bank Tax Cases, 2 Wall. 200 92, 93 Banning v. Taylor, 24 Pa. St. 289 671 Bannon v. Burnes, 39 Fed. 898 84, 211 Barber, In re, 39 Fed. 648 105 Barbour, In re, 46 Me. 9 267 Barber v. Andover, 8 N. H. 398 341, 342 Barbier v. Connolly, 113 U. S. 30 698, 706, 732 748 Table of Cases Cited. Bardin v. Northern Pacific R. R., 154 U. S. 325 365 Barings v. Dabney, 19 Wall. 11 355, 358, 394 Barker v. Ja«kson, 1 Paine, 559 406, 672 Barker v. Kelly, 11 Minn. 480 642 Barker v. People, 3 Cow. 686 628, 675 Barker v. Pittsburgh, 4 Pa. St. 49 290 Barkley v. Glover, 4 Met. (Ky.) 44 415, 416 Barlow v. Gregory, 31 Conn. 268 394 Barnes v. Barnes, 8 Jones (N. C), 366 413, 414, 416 Barnes v. District of Columbia, 91 U. S. 546 309, 677 Barnes v. Gibbs, 31 N. J. L. 318 564 Barnes v. Hornegay, 62 Fed. 671 35:5 Barnes v. Railroads, 17 Wall. 307 S7 Barnet v. Atlantic etc. Ry., 68 Mo. 56 720 Barnet v. Barnet, 15 Serg. & R. 72 392 Barney v. Baltimore, 6 Wall. 287 531,532 Barney v. McCreery, CI. & H. 167 40, 41 Barney v. Tax Collector, 2 Bail. 654 133 Barnitz v. Beverly, 163 U. S. 129 422 Barnstable, The, 181 U. S. 467 530 Barranger v. Baum, 103 Ga. 475 581, 582, 583, 585, 588 Barrett v. Alton etc. R. R., 13 111. 504 373 Barrett v. Benjamin, 15 Mass. 354 514 Barrett v. Holmes, 102 U. S. 655 1S8, 280 Barrett v. Kelly, 31 Tex. 476 570 Barrington v. Neuse etc. Ferry, 69 N. C. 172 360 Barron v. Burnside, 121 U. S. 200 515, 578, 684 Barron v. Mayor of Baltimore, 7 Pet. 248 37, 226, 227, 607, 619, 627, 659, 663, 675, 677 Barrow S. S. Co. v. Kane, 170 U. S. Ill 528, 530 Barry, In re, 136 U. S. 609 187, 506 Bartemeyer v. Iowa, 18 Wall. 138 440, 706, 717 Barthelmy v. Johnson, 3 B. Mon. 90 265 Bartholomew v. Austin, 85 Fed. 364 333, 340 Bartlett v. Kane, 16 How. 272 459, 460, 493, 501 Bartlett v. Lang, 2 Ala. 401 401 Barton's Appeal, 57 Pa. St. 213 309 Barton v. Barbour, 104 U. S. 133 670 Bartram v. Central Turnpike Co., 25 Cal. 287 362 Bas v. Tingy, 4 Dall. 40 193 Bass v. Columbus, 30 Ga. 851 393 Bass v. Fontkroy, 11 Tex. 698 313, 3S3 Bass v. Mayor, 38 Ga. 875 320 Bass v. Mayor, Meigs, 421 297 Bateman's Case, Taft, 96 50, 58 Bates v. Rowley, 33 Leg. Int. 202 165 Battle v. Mobile, 9 Ala. 234 131, 137 Table of Cases Cited. 749 Baugher v. Nelson, 9 Gill, 305 229, 273, 393, 401, 430 Baum v. Raphael, 56 Cal. 361 164 Baum v. Stem, 1 S. C. 419 162 Baumann v. Boss, 167 U. S. 574 659, 660, 661, 669, 671, 714 Baumgardner v. Circuit Court, 4 Mo. 50 413 Baxley v. Dinah, 27 Pa. St. 247 563 Baxter, In re, Fed Cas. No. 1118 297 Bay v. Gage, 36 Bart. 447 265, 273 Baylis v. Travelers' Ins. Co., 113 U. S. 316 674 Beach v. Walker, 6 Conn. 190 404 Beal v. Mason, 14 Me. 344 409 Beall v. Burchstead, 64 Mass. 523 170 Beall v. New Mexico, 16 Wall. 539 601 Beall v. State, 4 Blackf . 107 139 Bean v. Loryea, 81 Cal. 153 419 Beard v. State, 74 Md. 132 253, 254 Beatty v. United States, 1 Dev. 231 496, 503 Beauregard v. New Orleans, 18 How. 502 188 Beavins, Ex parte, 33 N. H. 89 155, 156, 214, 497 Beck v. Burnett, 22 Ala. 822 268, 286, 427 Beckerford, In re, 4 Bank. Reg. 59 159 Beckman v. Skaggs, 59 Cal. 544 277 Bedell v. Scranton, 54 Vt. 494 167 Bedford v. Eastern Bldg. etc. Assn., 181 U. S. 241 384 Bedford v. Gibson, 15 Ala. 521 290 Beekman v. Railroad Co., 3 Paige, 45 395 Beers v. Arkansas, 20 How. 529 306 Beers v. Haughton, 9 Pet. 359 188, 402, 419 Beers v. Rhea, 5 Tex. 354 166, 167, 169 Beeson v. Beeson, 1 Harr. 470 414 Begerow, In re, 133 Cal. 349 ' 664 Belcher v. St. Louis Grain Elevator, 101 Mo. 192 719 Belcher Sugar Ref. Co. v. St. Louis Grain etc. Co., 101 Mo. 205. . . 314 Belden v. Chase, 150 U. S. 691 550 Belfast, The, 7 Wall. 624 535, 539,541 Belfast, The, v. Boon, 41 Ala. 70 101 Belford v. Woodward, 158 111. 129 91 Belknap v. Board, 94 Mich. 916 59 Belknap v. Schild, 161 U. S. 18 179, 185, 470 Bell's Case, Taft, 26 51, 52 Bell v. Clapp, 10 Johns. 263 625 Bell v. Roberts, 13 Vt. 582 404, 437 Bell v. Snyder, Smith, 250 39 Bell v. State, 103 Ga. 397 636 Bellona Comp. Case, 3 Bland, 442 342 Belmont Br. v. Wheeling Br., 138 U. S. 293 361 Beloit v. Morgan, 7 Wall. 624 274, 393 750 Table of Cases Cited. Benedict v. Thompson, Walk. Ch..447 425 Benedict v. United States, 176 U. S. 361 516 Benedict v. Vanderbilt, 1 Bob. 194 454 Benf ord v. Gibson, 15 Ala. 541 290 Benito Estenger, The, 176 U. S. 575 30 Benjamin v. New Orleans, 169 U. S. 164 532 Benner v. Dredging Co., 134 N. Y. 163 212, 216 Benner v. Porter, 9 How. 240 500, 548, 594,595 Bennett v. American Express Co., 83 Me. 236 110 Bennett v. Boggs, Baldw. 76 130, 572 Bennett v. Butterworth, 11 How. 669 522 Bennett v. Harms, 51 Wis. 259 573 Benson v. Bunting, 127 Cal. 532 422 Benson v. New York, 10 Barb. 223 334, 336, 442 Benson v. United States, 146 U. S. 329 210 Bergemann v. Backer, 157 U. S. 658 513, 709 Berkowitz v. United States, 93 Fed. 452 635 Berrett v. Oliver, 7 Gill & J. 191 292, 387 Berry v. Ewing, 91 Mo. 398 409 Berry v. Haines, 2 Card. L. L. 428 395 Berry v. Iseman, 14 Kich. 129 395, 413 Berry v. Eansdall, 4 Met. (Ky.) 294 407 Berthelon v. Betts, 4 Hill, 577 165 Berthold v. Fox, 13 Minn. 501 422 Berthold v. Holman, 12 Minn. 335 422 Bertholf v. O'Eeilly, 74 N. Y. 509 139, 642, 647, 649, 651, 653 Bertonneau v. City Directors, 3 Woods, 177 704, 731 Bertrand v. Taylor, 87 111. 235 408 Best v. Baumgardner, 122 Pa. St. 17 427 Bethune v. Dougherty, 30 Ga. 770 401 Bethurum, Ex parte, 66 Mo. 545 261 Betsey, The, 4 Cr. 443 670 Bettman v. Warwick, 108 Fed. 46 81, 82 Betts v. Bagley, 29 Mass. 572 162 Beverly v. Barnitz, 55 Kan. 466 396 Bevin Bros. Mfg. Co. v. Starr Bros. Bell Co., 114 Fed. 362 184 B. F. Woolsey, The, 18 Blatchf. 344 669 Bibb v. Commissioners, 44 Ala. 119 243 Biddle v. Commonwealth, 13 Serg. & E. 405 447 Biddle v. Hooven, 120 Pa. St. 221 408 Biddle v. Eichards, CI. & H. 407 40 Biencourt v. Parker, 27 Tex. 558 69 Bienville Water etc. Co. v. Mobile, 186 U. S. 222 370, 374, 378 Bier v. McGehee, 148 U. S. 140 270, 520, 649 Bigelow v. Forrest, 9 Wall. 350 559 Bigelow v. Nickerson, 70 Fed. 121 515 Table of Cases Cited. 751 Bigelow v. Pritchard, 21 Pick. 169 403, 410, 420 Billings v. Hall, 7 Cal. 1 283, 406 Billings v. Riggs, 56 111. 483 398, 402 Billmeyer v. Evans, 40 Pa. St. 327 . . 413, 414, 42-4 Bills v. State, 2 McCord, 12 245, 247 Billy v. State, 2 Nott & McC. 361 488 Bingham v. Cabbot, 3 Dall. 33 536 Binghamton Bridge, The, 3 Wall. 75 333, 334, 340, 358, 397 Binns v. Woodruff, 4 Wash. C. C. 48 181 Bird v. The Josephine, 39 N. Y. 19 510 Birdseye v. Shaeffer, 37 Fed. 824 • 514 Birmingham etc. St. Ry. v. Birmingham St. Ry., 79 Ala. 465.... 324 Birmingham Mineral etc. Co. v. Parsons, 100 Ala. 662 438 Bishop v. Boston etc. R. R. Co., 117 Fed. 771 531 Bishop v. City of Macon, 7 Ga. 200 656 Bissell v. Briggs, 9 Mass. 462 565, 568 Bissel v. Davidson, 65 Conn. 186 725 Bissel v. Heath, 98 Mich. 472 '. 346 Bissel v. Heyward, 96 TJ. S. 587 90 Bissell v. Jeffersonville, 24 How. 294 309 Bittenhaus v. Johnston, 92 Wis. 588 709, 732 Bixby v. Bailey, 11 Kan. 368 422 Black v. Delaware & Raritan Canal Co., 24 N. J. Eq. 455 342, 372 Black v. Lusk, 69 111. 76 91 Blackford v. Peltier, 1 Blackf. 36 406 Blackham v. Gresham, 16 Fed. 609 177 Blackman v. Green, 24 Vt. 17 170 Black River Imp. Co. v. Holway, 87 Wis. 587 376, 382 Blaine v. The Charles Carter, 14 Cr. 232 538 Blair's Case, Taft, 36 52 Blair v. Ostrander, 109 Iowa, 204 269 Blair v. Pathkiller, 2 Yerg. 407 149 Blair v. Ridgley, 41 Mo. 171 : 252, 258 Blair v. Silver Peak Min. Co., 93 Fed. 335 156, 505, 569 Blair v. Williams, 4 Litt. 34 384, 385, 395,416 Blake v. McClung, 172 U. S. 256 143 Blake v. McClung, 176 IT. S. 64 572, 573, 575, 577, 707, 72S Blake v. Stafford, 3 Fish, 305 184 Blake v. United States, 103 IT. S. 232 486 Blake v. Winona etc. R. R., 19 Minn. 41S 338, 344, 367 Blakey v. Golladay, 2 Bart. 417 41, 46 Blanchard v. Russell, 13 Mass. 1 162, 384, 389, 417 Blanchard v. Sprague, 3 Sum. 535, 2 Story, 164 183 Blanchard v. The Martha Washington, 1 Cliff. 463 106 Blanchard G. S. Fact. v. Warner, 1 Blatchf. 25S 178, 179 Blanck v. Pausch, 113 111. 60 569 752 Table of Cases Cited. Blanding v. Burr, 13 Cal. 351 315 Blann v. State, 39 Ala. 353 384, 399 Blanque's Syndic, v. Beale, 1 Mart. (La.), N. S., 429 269 Bleakey v. Williams, 20 Pitts. L. J. 66 317, 327, 390 Bleakney v. Farmers' Bank, 17 Sejg. & K. 64 336, 392 Bledsoe 's Case, 01. & H. 869, Taft, 95 52 Bleistein v. Donaldson Lith. Co., 188 U.S. 239 181 Bliss, Ex parte, 63 N. H. 135 141, 576 Bliss v. Commonwealth, 2 Litt. 99 622 Bliss v. United States, 105 Fed. 508 638 Blitz v. United States, 153 U. S. 314 56, 57 Blocklock v. Small, 127 U. S. 104 531 Bloodgood v. Mohawk Co., 18 Wend. 9 82, 331, 395, 659 Bloomer v. McQueewan, 14 How. 553 179, 649 Bloomer v. Millenger, 1 Wall. 350 179 Bloomer v. Stolley, 5 McLean, 158 ....78, 178, 179, 186, 220, 263 Bloomington v. Bourland, 137 111. 534 14J Blount 's Case, Taft, 74 63 Blount 's Trial 495 Bloimt v. Moore, 54 Ala. 360 282 Blount v. Windley, 95 U S. ISO 265, 273, 276, 405 Bluedorn v. Missouri Pac. Ry., 108 Mo. 239 120, 368 Board v. Bearse, 25 Ind. 110 198 Board v. Fowler, 18 Cal. 11 328 Board v. Pleasants, 23 La. Ann. 349 44 Board v. Searce, 2 Duvall, 576 340 Boardman, In re, 169 U. S. 43 223 Boardman v. De Forest, 5 Conn. 12 166, 417 Board of Commissioners v. Aspinwall, 24 How. 384 528 Board of Commissioners v. Merchant, 103 N. Y. 43 710 Board of Education v. Bakewell, 122 111. 344 330 Board of Liquidation v. Louisville etc. R. R., 109 U. S. 228. .314, 315 Board of of Liquidation v. McCombs, 92 U. S. 541. . .459, 460, 493, 501 Board of Liquidation v. Municipality, 6 La. Ann. 21 327 Board of Police Commissioners v. Wagner, 93 Md. 182 727 Board of Public Works v. Columbia College, 17 Wall. 528 562, 564 Board of Selectmen v. Spalding, 8 La. Ann. 87 145 Bode v. State, 7 Gill, 326 447 Boedefeld v. Reed, 55 Cal. 299 162, 164 Boese v. King, 108 U. S. 386 163 Bogan v. Edinburgh Land Co., 63 Fed. 197 156 Bogart, In re, 2 Saw. 401 200, 611, 631 Bogart v. The John Jay, 17 How. 402 538 Boggs, In re, 45 Fed. 475 732 Bohanon v. State, 18 Neb. 77 607, 628 Bohl v. State, 3 Tex. App. 683 439 Bohuaud v. Bize, 105 Fed. 485 482 Table of Cases Cited. 753 Bolles v. Brimfield, 120 TJ. S. 763 274 Bollman, Ex parte, 4 Cr. 75 187, 188, 210, 223, 506, 523, 549, 555, 556, 557, 626 Bolln v. Nebraska, 176 U. S. 86 710 Bolton v. Johns, 5 Pa. St. 145 268, 426 Bolton v. Martin, 1 Dall. 296 63, 67 Bonaparte v. Camden B. E., Baldw. 205 331, 395, 627, 671, 677 Bonaparte v. Tax Court, 104 U. S. 592 564, 647 Bond v. Dustin, 112 U. S. 607 673 Bonner, In re, 151 U. S. 259 223 Bogart v. Steamship John Jay, 17 Hew. 402 538 Boogher v. New York Life Ins. Co., 103 U. S. 90 550 Boom Co. v. Patterson, 98 TJ. S. 406 514, 651, 658, 660 Booth, In re, 3 Wis. 125 590 Booth v. Booth, 7 Conn. 350 404 Booth v. Illinois, 184 U. S. 430 727, 732 Booth v. Woodbury, 32 Conn. US 19S Borden v. State, 11 Ark. 544 499 Boring v. Williams, 17 Ala. 516 607 Boring v. Williams, 27 Ala. 14 668 Bors v. Preston, 111 U. S. 256 498, 524, 525, 533, 544 Boske v. Dominique, 177 U. S. 468 214, 215 Boston v. Cummins, 16 Ga. 107 229, 257, 273, 274 Boston etc. Corp. v. Boston & Maine E. E., 5 Cush. 375 365 Boston etc. E. E. Co. v. Salem etc. E. E. Co., 68 Mass. 1 341, 397 Boston etc. E. E. Co. v. State, 32 N. H. 215 369 Boston Beer Co. v. Massachusetts, 97 U. S. 32 298, 340, 343, 344, 345, 375, 438, 440, 441, 717, 725 Boston Wat. Eev. Co. v. Eailroad, 40 Miss. 360 341, 342 Bottiller v. Dominguez, 130 U. S. 247 484, 613 Boucicault v. Hart, 13 Blatchf. 50 181 Bound v. Wisconsin Cent. E. E., 45 Wis. 543 324 Bowditch v. Boston, 101 U. S. 18 225, 291, 439, 715 Bowdoinham v. Eichmond, 6 Me. 112 312 Bowen v. Blount, 48 Ala. 674 266 Bowen v. Clark, 46 Ind. 410 91 Bowen v. De Large, Smith, 100 69 Bowen v. Johnson, 5 E. I. 112 567 Bowerbank v. Morris, Wall. Sr. 118 4S7. 488 Bowler v. Huston, 30 Gratt. 275 562, 565 Bowlin v. Commonwealth, 2 Bush 5 693, 694, 695 Bowman v. Chicago etc. By. Co., 725 IT. S. 488 102, 105, 111, 123, 125, 126, 127, 41S Bowman v. Croffroth, 59 Pa. St. 19 59 Boyce v. Grundy, 3 Pet. 215 523 Boyce v. Tabb, 18 Wall. 548 388, 693 Boyd, Ex parte, 105 U. S. 652 498 Notes on Constitution — 48 754 Table of Cases Cited. Boyd v. Alabama, 94 U. S. 650 343, 438, 439 Boyd v. Mills, 53 Kan. 604 738 Boyd v. Nebraska, 143 U. S. 162 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 570, 593, 698, 700, 701 Boyd v. State, 12 Lea, 689 140 Boyd v. Thayer, 143 U. S. 161 155, 569, 570 Boyd v. United States, 116 U. S. 621 624, 625, 628, 640 Boyd v. United States, 142 U. S. 454 476, 480 Boyer, Ex parte, 109 U. S. 631 98, 536 Boyer v. Boyer, 113 U. S. 695 94 Boyer v. Dively, 58 Mo. 510 150, 151 Boyle v. Zacharie, 6 Pet. 348 168, 287, 418 Boyzer v. McMillan etc. Co., 105 Ala. 397 98 Braceville Coal Co. v. People, 147 111. 66 647, 649 Braddy v. Milledgeville, 74 Ga. 516 724 Bradford v. Cary, 5 Me. 339 309 Bradford v. Ferrand, 13 Mass. 18 418 Bradford v. Shine, 13 Fla. 393 408 Bradlee v. Brownsfield, 2 Watts & S. 271 430 Bradley v. McAtee, 7 Bush, 673 301 Bradwell v. State, 16 Wall. 138 576, 706 Bragg v. Tufts, 49 Ark. 562 242, 245, 281 Brainerd v. Colchester, 31 Conn. 407 300, 303 Brainerd v. Williams, 4 McLean, 122 527 Braisted v. Denton, 115 Fed. 428 533 Branch v. Haas, 4 Woods, 589, 16 Fed. 55 243, 24S Brand v. Multnomah County, 34 Or. 79 ... : 655 Brandon v. Gaines, 7 Humph. 130 400, 401 Brashear v. Mason, 6 How. 101 460 Brashear v. Williams, 10 Ala. 630 148, 151, 152 Brass v. North Dakota, 153 U. S. 403 503, 524, 719 Braynard v. Marshall, 1 Pick. -196 167 Breechbill v. Eandall, 102 Ind. 529 117, 179 Breed v. Cunningham, 2 Cal. 361 318 Breitenbach v. Bush, 44 Pa. St. 313 415 Breitenbach v. Turner, 18 Wis. 140 90 Breneman, Ex parte, Crabbe, 465 158, 159, 160 Brengle v. McClellan, 7 Gill & J. 434 567 Brenham v. Story, 39 Cal. 175 432 Brennan v. Titusville, 153 U. S. 308 134, 141 Brent v. Bank of Washington, 10 Pet. 617 406 Brewer v. Otoe County, 1 Neb. 373 276, 326 Brewster v. Hough, 10 How. 138 397 Bridge Co. v. Spaulding, 63 N. H. 299 360 Bridge Co. v. United States, 105 IT. S. 470 96, 107, 382 Bridgeport v. Hubbell, 5 Conn. 237 229, 257, 310 Bridgeport v. Eailroad Co., 15 Conn. 497 392, 393 Table of Cases Cited. 755 Bridge Proprietors v. Hoboken Co., 1 Wall. 146 283, 332, 335, 358, 360, 361 Brien v. Clay, 1 E. D. Smith, 649 268, 426 Briggs ' Case, 14 Ct. of CI. 48 236 Briggs' Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 48 236 Briggs v. Johnson Co., 1 Dill. 151 183 Briggs v. United States, 143 U. S. 356 195 Brigham v. Henderson, 1 Cush. 432 168 Brights' Case, Taft, 217 63, 64 Bright, Ex parte, 1 Utah, 155 19S Brighton v. Wilkinson, 2 Allen, 29 332 Bright Star, The, Woolw. 275 101 Brimmer v. Eebman, 138 U. S. 82 123 Brine v. Insurance Co., 96 U. S. 637 422 Brinkley v. Louisville etc. Ey. Co., 95 Fed. 355 117 Brinsfield v. Carter, 2 Ga. 143 265 Briscoe, Matter of, 51 How. Pr. 422 585 Briscoe v. Anketell, 28 Miss. 361 399, 407, 408 Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky, 11 Pet. 257 31, 171, 245, 246, 249, 250, 357, 526, 678, 684, 689 Bristoe v. Evans, 2 Over. 341 295 Bristol v. New Chester, 3 N. H. 524 312 British Prisoners, The, 1 Wood. & M. 66 497 Brittle v. People, 2 Neb. 198 594 Britton v. Butler, 9 Blatchf. 462 195 Broadfoot v. Fayetteville, 121 N. C. 422 276, 709 Broadf oot v. Fayetteville, 124 N. C. 478 276, 709 Broadhead v. Milwaukee, 19 Wis. 624 85 Brockenborough v. Cabell, 1 Bart. 79 59 Broeck v. The J. M. Welch, 18 Blatchf. 72, 2 Fed. 381 99 Bronson v. Kinzie, 1 How. 311 265, 384, 385, 387, 395, 397, 398, 399, 400, 406, 410, 413, 422, 424, 425 Bronson v. Newberry, 2 Doug. (Mich.) 38 403,419 Bronson v. Kodes, 7 Wall. 250 91 Bronson v. Taylor, 33 Conn. 116 371 Brooklyn, In re, 143 N. Y. 614 325, 332 Brooklyn v. Franz, 87 Hun, 54 725 Brooklyn C. E. E. v. Brooklyn etc. Co., 32 Barb. 358 319 Brooklyn Park Commrs. v. Armstrong, 45 N. Y. 234 327, 329 Brookman v. Hamill, 43 N. Y. 554 510 Brooks v. Clark, 119 U. S. 513 515 Brooks v. Fiske, 15 How. 223 183 Brooks v. Missouri, 124 U. S. 397 665 Brooks v. State, 88 Ala. 124 252 Brosnahan, In re, 4 McCrary, 6, 18 Fed. 65 179, 184, 185, 722 Broughton v. Pensacola, 93 U. S. 269 320 Brown, Ex parte, 5 Cr. C. C. 554 197 75 G Table of Cases Cited. Brown, Ex parte, 28 Fed. 654 579 Brown, Ex parte, 48 Fed. 436 Ill, 445 Brown, Ex parte, 38 Tex. Cr. 295 716 Brown, In re, 3 Bank Beg. 61 161 Brown 's Case, 9 Opin. Atty. Gen. 508 70 Brown 's Case, 112 Mass. 411 581, 583, 585 Brown v. Bridge, 106 Mass. 563 170 Brown v. Brittain, 84 N. C. 552 ' 401 Brown v. Brown, 8 Cr. 123 195, 395 Brown v. Campbell, 100 Cal. 641 567 Brown v. Commonwealth, 73 Pa. St. 321 666 Brown v. Denver, 7 Colo. 312 650 Brown v. Dillahunty, 12 Miss. 713 419 Brown v. Duchesne, 19 How. 198 178, 179,183 Biown v. Grant, 116 U. S. 212 595. Brown v. Hiatt, 1 Dill. 381 193, 194 Brown v. Houston, 114 U. S. 628 101, 102, 111, 145, 444, 445, 446 Brown v. Houston, 33 La. Ann. 845 448 Brown v. Keene, 8 Pet. 115 528, 529, 532 Brown v. Keener, 74 N. C. 714 440 Brown v. Maryland, 12 Wheat. 437. . . , 27, 31, 32, 77, 95, 96, 99, 111, 138, 145, 444, 445, 447, 448, 449, 450, 611, 678, 680, 6:84 Brown v. Nash, 1 Wyo. 85 ^/T. 65 ->sj Brown v. New Jersey, 175 U. S. 175 588, 607, 642, 683, 709, 710 Brown v. Penobscot Bank. S Mass. 445 327 Brown v. Smart, 145 U. S. 454 166, 421 Brown v. Smart, 69 Md. 327 169, 418 Brown v. State, 82 Ga. 225 29S, 344 Brown v. Strode, 5 Cr. 303 532 Brown v. Swinef ord, 44 Wis. 282 635 Brown v. United States, 8 Cr. 153 195, 196 Brown v. Walker, 161 U. S. 591 29, 476, 477, 639, 640, 6 U Brown v. Welch, 26 Ind. 116 90 Brubaker v. Poage, 15 B. Mon. 123 403 Bruce v. Schuyler, 4 Gilm. 321 279, 288, 292, 385, 399 Bruffett v. Great Western B. B. Co., 25 111. 312 332 Brummagim v. Tillinghast, 18 Cal. 265 418, 449 Bruss-Bitter Co., In re, 90 Fed. 652 162 Bryan v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 526 306 Bryan v. Moore, 1 Minor, 377 390 Bryant v. Eich, 106 Mass. 193 672 Buchanan v. Litchfield, 102 U. S. 293 30 Buchanan v. Smith, 43 Miss. 90 244 Buck v. Colbath, 3 Wall. 345 512 Bucklin v. United States, 159 U. S. 681 548 Buckner v. Finley, 2 Pet. 586 239, 456, 686 Buckner v. Street, 1 Dill. 254 391, 526, 590 Table of Cases Cited. 757 Bnekwalter v. United States, 11 Serg. & B. 193 512 Budd v. New York,- 143 U. S. 547 718, 719 Buffalo v. Chadeayne, 134 N. Y. 163 298 Buffalo etc. E. E. v. Dudley, 14 N. Y. 336 377 Buffalo etc. E. E. Co. v. Falconer, 103 U. S. 821 324 Buffalo etc. E. E. Co. v. Ferris, 26 Tex. 588 659 Buffalo etc. E. E. Co. v. Pottle, 23 Barb. 21 372 Buffington v. Grosvenor, 46 Kan. 738 572 Buford v. Holley, 28 Fed. 680 508 Buford v. Speed, 11 Bush (Ky.), 338 728 Buie v. Parker, 63 N. C. 131 195 Bulkley v. New York etc. E, E,, 27 Conn. 479 381 Bullock v. Bullock, 51 N. J. Eq. 446 567 Bunch v. Wolverstein, 62 Miss. 56 304 Bunn v. Gorgas, 41 Pa. St. 441 413, 416, 424 Bunn v. Morrison, 5 Ark. 217 264 Burbank v. Eumsey, 90 111. 555 433,435 Burch v. Hardwicke, 23 Gratt. 51 459 Burch v. Newberry, 10 N. Y. 390 257, 273, 683 Burdick v. People, 149 111. 600 117, 121, 572 Burf ord, Ex parte, 3 Cr. 448 625 Burgess v. Salmon, 97 U. S. 382 227, 229, 253, 257 Burgess v. Western Union Tel. Co., 92 Tex. 125 122 Burhop v. Milwaukee, 21 Wis. 260 331 Burke, Ex parte, 59 Gal. 6 721 Burke v. Miltenberger, 9 Wall. 525 472 Burlington v. Beasley, 94 U. S. 314 719 Burlington etc. Ey. Co. v. Dey, S2 Iowa, 312 338, 365 Burlington etc. Ey. Co. v. State, 32 N. H. 215 33t* Burlock v. Taylor, 16 Pick. 341 168 Burnham v. Webster, 1 Wood. & M. 175 564 Burns, In re, 136 U. S. 590 807 Burns v. Crawford, 34 Mo. 330 395, 416 Burns v. Multnomah Ey. Co., 8 Saw. 543, 15 Fed. 177 659, 715 Burr, Ex parte, 9 Wheat. 529 555 Burrows etc. Lith. Co. v. Sarony, 111 U. S. 508 30, 180, 182 Burt v. Merchants' Ins. Co., 106 Mass. 356 658 Burt v. Williams, 24 Ark. 91 408, 413, 416 Burton, Ex parte, 3 Gill, 9 358 Burton v. Emerson, 4 G. Greene, 395 425 Burwell v. Burgess, 32 Gratt. 47S 233, 449 Busell Trimmer Co. v. Stevens, 137 U. S. 433 184 Bush v. Kentucky, 107 U. S. 717 698, 730 Bush v. Lester, 55 Ga. 579 159 Bush v. Peru Bridge Co., 3 Ind. 21 3C0 Bush v. Shipman, 5 111. 186 250, 310 Butchers' Union Co. v. Crescent City Co., Ill U. S. 751 343, 438 758 Table of Cases Cited. Butler 's Case, 2 Bart. 461 41 Butler v. Boston S. S. Co., 130 U. S. 556 107, 535, 536, 540 Butler v. Chariton, 13 Mo. 112 318 Butler v. Gorely, 146 U. S. 313 163 Butler v. Hopper, 1 Wash. C. C. 499 221 Butler v. Horowitz, 7 Wall. 258 91 Butler v. Palmer, 1 Hill, 324 406 Butler v. Pennsylvania, 10 How. 415 283, 287, 290, 611 Butler v. United States etc. Assn., 97 Tenn. 686 430 Butler v. Walker, 80 111. 345 340, 375, 379 Butler v. Walker, 8 Chic. L. N. 92 591 Butler v. White, 83 Fed. 581 216 Butterfield v. Sawyer, 187 111. 598 265 Butz v. Muscatine, 8 Wall. 574 272, 320, 385, 397 Byers, Ex parte, 32 Fed. 406 192 Byers v. McAuley, 149 U. S. 618 507 Byington v. Vandever, 1 Bart. 397 69, 70 Byrd v. Badger, 1 McAll. 265 167 Byrne v. Missouri, 8 Pet. 40 247 Cabell v. Cabell, 1 Met. (Ky.) 326 260 Cabrera, Ex parte, 1 Wash. C. C. 232 506, 544 Cairo etc. B. E. Co. v. Turner, 31 Ark. 499 607, 628 Calder v. Bull, 3 Dall. 386 78, 223, 226, 227, 228, 229, 253, 254, 256, 257, 264, 273, 391, 523, 524, 611, 612, 627, 682, 683 Calder v. Kurby, 5 Gray, 597 297 Caldwell v. Carrington, 9 Pet. 86 564, 565 Caldwell v. State, 55 Ala. 133 255 Caldwell v. Texas, 137 U. S. 698 705, 709 Calhoun v. Calhoun, 2 Rich, N. S., 283 263, 264, 281 Calhoun v. Kellog, 41 Ga. 240 244 Calhoun v. Lanaux, 127 U. S. 640 513 California Case, Mobley, 481 45 California v. Central Pacific R. R. Co., 127 U. S. 40. .85, 107, 176, 651 California v. Chue Fan, 14 Saw. 578, 42 Fed. 865 737 California v. Southern Pacific Co., 167 U. S. 261 542, '543, 545, 549 California Pacific R. R. Co., In re, 3 Saw. 240 160 Calisto, The, 2 Ware, 30 537 Calkins v. Cocke, 14 How. 227 570 Call v. Chadbourne, 46 Me. 206 312 Call v. Hagger, 8 Mass. 429 409 Callaghan v. Myers, 128 U. S. 647 182 Callahan v. Callahan, 36 S. C. 464 274 Callan v. Wilson, 127 U. S. 549 552, 553, 664, 665, 669 Calloway v. Doe, 1 Blackf . 372 567 Camblas v. Philadelphia etc. R. R., 4 Fed. Cas. 1102 365 Table of Cases Cited. 759 Camden, City of, v. Allen, 26 N. J. L. 398 80 Camden etc. E. E. v. Briggs, 22 N. J. L. 647 363, 367 Camden etc. E. E. Co. v. Commissioners, 18 N. J. L. 11. .289, 318, 350 Camden etc. E. E. Co. v. Hillegas, 18 N. J. L. 11 318 Cameron v. Hodges, 127 U. S. 325 529, 532 Cameron v. Wurtz, 4 McCord, 278 567 Camfield v. United States, 167 U. S. 526 597 Cammeyer v. Newton, 94 U. S. 226 185 Camon v. United States, 171 U. S. 287 601 Campbell's Case, 2 Bland Ch. 236 266 Campbell, Ex parte, 74 Cal. 20 718 Campbell v. Claudius, 1 Pet. C. C. 484 167 Campbell v. Cook, 86 Tex. 630 732 Campbell v. Gordon, 6 Cr. 183 153, 157, 700 Campbell v. Holt, 115 U. S. 626 405 Campbell v. James, 17 Blatchf. 54 185, 658 Campbell v. Missouri Pacific Ey. Co., 121 Mo. 340 346, 720 Campbell v. Morris, 3 Har. & McH. 535 573, 574 Campbell v. People, 109 111. 565 G3.j Campbell v. State, 11 Ga. 353 628, 663 Campbell Press Co. v. Duplex Press Co., 86 Fed. 320 184 Campeau v. Langley, 39 Mich. 441 726 Canadian etc. Co. v. Blake, 24 Wash. 102 422, 423 Canal Commrs. v. People, 5 Wend. 448 Ill Canal Company's Case, 83 Md. 626 270, 289 Canal Co. v. Eailroad Co., 4 Gill & J. 1 282, 288, 334, 361, 373 Canfield v. Gresham, 82 Tex. 17 6S Canfield v. Hunter, 30 Tex. 712 413 Cannon v. Campbell, 2 Ells. 652 40, 41 Cannon v. New Orleans, 20 Wall. 581 452, 454, 455 Canyonville etc. Eoad Co. v. Stephenson, 8 Or. 267 362 Caperton v. Ballard, 14 Wall. 243 568 Capital City Dairy Co. v. Ohio, 183 U. S. 238 718, 722, 733 Capital City Light Co. v. Tallahassee, 186 U. S. 410 324 Capital Traction Co. v. Hof, 174 U. S. 13 205, 551, 666, 669 Carbee v. Mason, 64 N. H. 11 418 Cardie v. Tracy, 11 Blatchf. 114 498 Cardwell v. American Bridge Co., 113 U. S. 210 97, 100, 103, 114 Carey v. Conrad, 2 Miles, 92 419 Carey v. Giles, 9 Ga. 253 337, 358 Cargill v. Power, 1 Mich. 371, 372 413, 422 Carleton v. Eugg, 149 Mass. 550 726 Carling v. Seymour Lumber Co., 113 Fed. 4S3 16!! Carlisle v. Pullman Co., 8 Colo. 327 82 Carlisle v. United States, 16 Wall. 151 478, 480, 557 Carll, Ex parte, 106 U. S. 523 173, 218, 521 760 Table of Cases Cited. Carnes v. Red River Parish, 29 La. Ann. 608 437 Oarondelet Canal etc. Co. v. Parker, 29 La. Ann. 4 30 455 Carpenter v. Dexter, 8 Wall. 525 274, 392 Carpenter v. Northfield Bank, 39 Vt. 49 90 Carpenter v. Pennsylvania, 17 How. 463 223, 226, 229, 257, 391 Carpenter v. Strange, 141 U. S. 106 564, 566 Carpenter v. The Emma Johnson, 1 Cliff. 633 535 Carr v. Georgia etc. R. R. Co., 1 Kelly, 524 659 Carr v. State, 104 Ala. 13 588 Carr v. State, 127 Ind. 204 2S9, 303 Carr v. State, 19 Tex. App. 660 480 Carrick v. Lamar, 116 U. S. 426 460 Carroll v. Campbell, 108 Mo. 550 113 Carroll v. Rossiter, 10 Minn. 174 423 Carrow v. Washington Toll Bridge, Shell. (N. C.) 119 360 Carson v. Carson, 40 Miss, 349 258, 287 Carson v. State, 57 Md. 251 138 Carson River Lumbering Co. v. Patterson, 33 Cal. 334 113, 449 Carter v. Cambridge etc. Bridge Props., 104 Mass. 236 315 Carter v. Dow, 16 Wis. 298 726 Carter v. McClaughry, 183 U. S. 401 200, 636 Carter v. Texas, 177 U. S. 447 730 Carthage v. Bank, 71 Mo. 509 85, 93 Carthage v. Frederick, 122 N. Y. 268 651 Carton v. Illinois Cent. R. R. Co., 59 Iowa, 151 96, 115 Carver v. Peck, 131 Mass. 294 178 Gary v. Curtis, 3 How. 245 187, 497, 503, 505, 506 Cary Library v. Bliss, 151 Mass. 375 288 Case v. Citizens' Bank, 2 Woods, 26 158 Case v. Clark, 5 Mason, 70 532 Case of State Freight Tax, 15 Wall. 278 80, 95, 96, 101, 104, 107, 114. 134, 444, 447, 453 Cassard v. Kroner, 4 Bank. Reg. 569 162 ( assidy v. Hunt, 75 Fed. 1017 649 Castle v. Hutchinson, 25 Fed. 394 179 Castelberg v. Wheeler, 68 Md. 281 163 Castleberry v. State, 69 Ark. 346 730 Cates v. Allen, 159 U. S. 459 670 Catini v. Tillman, 54 Fed. 969 441 Catlin v. Munger, 1 Tex. 598 415, 416 Central etc. Bank v. United States, 137 U. S. 355 87, 231 Central etc. Telegraph Co. v. Bradbury, 106 Ind. 9 186 Central etc. Tel. Co. v. State, 118 Ind. 194 123, 719 Central Bank v. Empire S. D. Co., 26 Barb. 23 392 Central Bank v. Little, 11 Ga. 346 246 Central Bank v. Pratt, 115 Mass. 439 217 Central Banking Co. v. State, 54 Ga. 409 377 Table of Cases Cited. 761 Central Bridge v. Lowell, 70 Mass. 472 341, 342, 657 Central Land Co. v. Laidley, 159 U. S. 110 269, 271, 54S Central Nat. Bank v. Stevens, 169 U. S. 462 512 Central Pacific B. E. Co. v. California, 162 U. S. 121. .82, 84, 85, 133 Central E. B. Co. v. Collins, 40 Ga. 624 332 Central B. B. Co. v. Georgia, 92 U. S. 676 355 Central B. B. etc. Co. v. Georgia, 54 Ga. 420 3 10 Central E. E. etc, Co. v. Georgia Const, etc. Co., 32 S. C. 319 574 Central Eailroad Co. v. Ward, 37 Ga. 515 240, 242 Central By. Co. v. Pennsylvania By. Co., 31 N. J. Eq. 492 653 Central Stockyards Oo. v. Louisville etc. By. Co., 118 Fed. 113.. 96 Central Trust Co. v. Hennen, 90 Fed. 597 654 Chaddock v. Day, 75 Mich. 527 716 Chadwick v. Moore, 8 Watts & S. 49 415, 425 Chaffin v. Taylor, 116 U. S. 567 246, 305 Chaffraix v. Board, 11 Fed. 638 303, 304, 687 Chalmers v. Manning, Mobley, 305 70 Chamberlain v. Perkins, 51 N. H. 340 102 Chambers v. Church, 14 B. I. 400 572 Chambliss v. Jordan, 50 Ga. 81 270 Champaign Co. Bank v. Smith, 7 Ohio St. 42 277 Champion v. Ames, 188 U. S. 321 96, 101, 109 Chancely v. Bailey, 37 Ga. 532 240, 284, 685 Chandler v. Saddle, 3 Dill. 477 164 Chapin v. Billings, 91 111. 539 401 Chapman, In re, 166 U. S. 668 63, 64 Chapman v. Barney, 129 U. S. 682 529 Chapman v. Miller, 2 Spear, 769 575 Chappedelaine v. Dechenaux, 4 Cr. 308 530, 531, 532 Chappell v. Bradshaw, 128 U. S. 134 541 Chappell v. United States, 160 U. S. 510 660 Chappell v. United States, 81 Fed. 764 .209, 652 Chappell v. Williamson, 49 Ala. 153 244 Charles Biver Bridge v. Warren Bridge, 11 Pet. 582 264, 273, 292, 300, 333, 334, 341, 359, 391 Charleston v. Oliver, 16 S. C. 47 138 Charleston v. Sogers, 2 McCord, 295 124 Charlotte etc. B. E. Co. v. Gibbes, 142 U. S. 394 731 Chase v. Caryl. 57 N. J. L. 558 563 Chase v. Flagg, *8 Me. 182 168 Chase v. Henry, 166 Mass. 579 419 Chattanooga v. Dowling, 101 Tenn. 34.5 055 Chatteaux v. State, 52 Ala. 388 622 Chenning Canal Bank v. Lowery, 93 U. S. 72 576, 707 Cheraw etc. By. Co. v. Commissioners, 88 N. C. 525 354 Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, 5 Pet. 1 32, 49, 148, 4S3, 501, 521, 528, 533, 545, 603 762 Table of Cases Cited. Cherokee Nation v. Kansas E. E. Co., 135 U. S. 656 148, 213, 219, 483, 660, 679 Cherokee Nation v. Southern etc. E. E. Co., 39 Fed. 914 653 Cherokee Tobacco, The, 11 Wall. 619 152, 484, 599, 613, 614 Cherry Creek v. Becker, 123 N. Y. 161 324 Chesapeake etc. E. Co. v. Kentucky, 179 U. S. 394 524 Cresapeake etc. Ey. v. Miller, 114 U. S. 188 364 Chesapeake etc. Tel. Co. v. Manning, 186 U. S. 245 524, 611, 719 Chesapeake & Ohio Co. v. Key, 3 Cr. C. C. 559 652, 661 Chesapeake Bank v First Nat. Bank, 40 Md. 269 217 Chestnut v. Shanes, 16 Ohio, 610 273,274 Chew Heong v. United States, 112 U. S. 540 481, 612 Chicago v. Lunt, 52 111. 414 92 Chicago v. Netcher, 183 111. 104 710 Chicago v. Eumsey, 87 111. 348 270 Chicago v. Sheldon, 9 Wall. 55 272, 324, 364 Chicago etc. Ey. Co. v. Becker, 32 Fed. 853 515 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Chicago, 166 U. S. 235 644, 661, 672, 697 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Erickson, 91 111. 615 126 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Haggerty, 67 111. 113 368 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Guffey, 122 U. S. 575 351, 354 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Howard, 7 Wall. 410 337 Chicago etc. Ey. v. Iowa, 94 U. S. 162 113, 114, 120, 283, 332, 339, 363, 365, 367, 378, 379, 718, 719 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Joliet etc. E. E. 105 111. 105 368 Chicago etc. Ey. v. Jones, 149 111. 361 115, 339, 36-j, 366, 719 Chicago etc. E. E. v. McGlinn, 114 U. S. 545 208 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 461 338, 339, 366, 370, 374, 719 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Morehouse, 112 Wis. 1 652 Chicago etc. E. E. v. Nebraska, 170 U. S. 73 367 Chicago etc. E. E. v. People, 56 111. 365 367 Chicago etc. E. E. v. People, 67 111. 11 367 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. People, 105 111. 657 120, 368 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Pontius, 157 U. S. 211 731 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Eeidy, 66 111. 43 120 Chicago etc. Ey. Co. v. Solon, 169 U. S. 133 121 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. State, 47 Neb. 549 438, 643, 717 Chicago etc. Ey. v. Sturm, 174 U. S. 718 564 Chicago etc. E. E. Co. v. Wiggins Ferry Co., 118 U. S. 622 561 Chicago Life Ins. Co. v. Needles, 113 U. S. 580 335 Chicot Co. v. Sherwood, 148 U. S. 534 189, 507 Childress v. Emory, 8 Wheat. 669 531,669 Chillicothe v. Brown, 38 Mo. App. 616 124 Chilvers v. People, 11 Mich. 43 138 Chinese Exclusion Case, 130 U. S. 603 37, 108, 484, 494 Chirac v. Chirac, 2 Wheat. 269 154, 483, 484 Table of Cases Cited. 763 Chisholm v. Caines, 67 Fed. 294 98 Chisholm v. Coleman, 43 Ala. 204 685 Chishc 1m v. Georgia, 2 Dall. 471 35, 36, 37, 501, 503, 526, 527, 533, 542, 543, 544, 545, 686 Choctaw Nation v. United States, 119 U. S. 27 4S3 Choteau v. Kichardson, 94 Mass. 368 419 Chrisman v. Anderson, 1 Bart. 328 58 Christensen, Ex parte, 83 Cal. 208 139 Christian, In re, 39 Fed. 637 105 Christian v. Bowman, 49 Minn. 99 429 Christmas v. Russell, 5 Wall. 290 406, 568 Christy, Ex parte, 3 How. 318 162 Christy v. Wimpy, 2 Bart. 465 41, 60 Chrystal Springs etc. Co. v. Cox, 49 Fed. 561 233 Chrystal Springs Water Co. v. Los Angeles, 76 Fed. 148 523 Church v. Kelsey, 121 U. S. 283 285 Churchman v. Martin, 54 Ind. 380 91. 269, 395 Chusan, The, 2 Story, 455 106, 535 Chy Lung v. Freeman, 92 U. S. 275 104, 116, 119, 727, 728 Cicero Lumber Co. v. Cicero, 176 111. 9 723 Cilley, In re, 58 Fed. 978 187 Cincinnati v. Steinkamp, 54 Ohio St. 284 725 Cincinnati etc. R. R. Co. v. Bowling Green, 57 Ohio St. 345 719 Cincinnati etc. R. R. v. Clifford, 113 Ind. 460 342, 373 Cincinnati etc. R. R. Co. v. Commonwealth, 115 U. S. 321 731 Cincinnati etc. Ry. Co. v. McKeen, 64 Fed. 46 282 Cincinnati etc. Co. v. Rosenthal, 55 111. 90 577 Cisco v. Roberts, 36 N. Y. 295 106 Cissell v. McDonald, 16 Blatchf . 151 206, 506 Citizens' Bank v. Deynoodt, 25 La. Ann. 628 433 Citizens of Cincinnati, In re, 2 Flipp. 228 490 Citizens' S. & L. Assn. v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 663 78, 80 Citizens' Sav. Bank v. Owensboro, 173 U. S. 654. .348, 370, 374, 379 Citizens' St. Ry. Co. v. City Ry. Co., 56 Fed. 746 323 Citizens' St. Ry. Co. v. City Ry. Co., 64 Fed. 651 383 City v. Churchill, 36 N. Y. 693 84 City v. Erie Canal Co., 59 Pa. St. 174 359, 361 City v. Hannibal etc. R. R., 39 Mo. 476 348 City v. Lamson, 9 Wall. 486 272 City v. Metropolitan Bank, 27 La. Ann. 648 379 City v. Railroad Co., 15 Conn. 475 320 City v. Society, 24 N. J. L. 385 350 City Bank v. Paducah, 2 Flipp. 66 94 City Council v. Parker, 114 Ala. 118 723 City of Panama, The, 101 U. S. 460 508, 535 City of Salem, The, 13 Saw. 612, 37 Fed. 850 212, 216 City of South Bend v. Martin, 142 Ind. 42 445 764 Table of Cases Cited. City Railway Co. v. Citizens' Railway Co., 1GG U. S. 564 285, 334, 364, 374 City etc. R. R. v. New Orleans, 157 U. S. 224 399 Civil Rights Cases, 109 U. S. 25 693, 694, 697, 737 Claasen, In re, 140 U. S. 204 629 Claflin v. Houseman, 93 U. S. 136 510, 512 Claflln v. McDermott, 12 Fed. 375 563, 565 Clark, In re, 9 Wend. 221 583 Clark v. Board of Health, 11 Chic. L. N. 94 124 Clark v. Boston etc. R. R., 64 N. H. 323 120. 368 Clark v. Commonwealth, 29 Pa. St. 129 665 Clark v. Dick, 1 Dill. 8 227, 252, 514, 627 Clark v. Gautier, 8 Fla. 362 571 Clark v. Kansas City, 176 U. S. 118 311 Clark v. Keith, 106 U. S. 465 244 Clark v. Martin, 3 Grant, 393, 49 Pa. St. 299 416 Clark v. Mitchell, 64 Mo. 564 656 Clark v. Ray, 1 Har. & J. 318 164 Clark v. Reyburn, & Wall. 322 422 Clark v. Saybrook, 21 Conn. 313 82 Clark v. Smith, 13 Pet. 203 511, 682 Clark v. State, 142 N. Y. 101 308 Clark v. Ticknor, 49 Mo. 144 3SS Clark v. Titusville, 184 U. S." 333 731 Clarke, Ex parte, 100 U. S. 408 56, 549 Clarke, Ex parte, 103 Cal. 354 640 Clarke v. Clarke, 178 U. S. 195 567 Clarke v. Clarke, 3 Woods, 410 444, 567 Clarke v. McCreary, 40 Miss. 347 265 Clarke v. Philadelphia etc. Co., 4 Houst. 158 131 Clark Thread Co. v. Williamantic Linen Co., 140 U. S. 4S9 184 Clay v. Robinson, 7 W. Va. 356 244 Clay v. State, 4 Kan. 49 208 Clay v. Smith, 3 Pet. 411 170 Clay County v. Society, 104 U. S. 590 320 Claybrook v. Owensboro, 16 Fed. 297 697, 698, 704, 730 Clayton v. Stone, 2 Paine, 283 181 Clayton v. The Harmony, 1 Pet. Adm. 78 193 Clearwater v. Meredith, 1 Wall. 40 372 Cleaveland v. Stewart, 3 Ga. 291 330 Clepper v. State, 4 Tex. 244 g30 Cleveland v. Board of Finance, 38 N. J. L. 259 325 Cleveland v. City Council, 102 Ga. 243 343 ; 344 Cleveland v. Clements Bros. etc. Co., 67 Ohio St. 197 712 Cleveland etc. Ry. Co. v. Backus, 154 U. S. 445 137 133 Cleveland etc. Co. v. Franklin Canal Co., Fed. Cas. No. 2S90 176 Cleveland etc. Ry. Co. v. Illinois, 177 U. S. 516 117, 120 Table of Cases Cited. 765 Cleveland Gaslight Co. v. Cleveland, 71 Fed. 610 338 Cleveland Ins. Co. v. Reed, 1 Biss. 186 406 Cline v. State, 36 Tex. Cr. 320 666 Clinton v. Englebrecht, 13 Wall. 447 509, 599, 600, 601 Clinton Bridge, The, 10 Wall. 454 95 Clinton Bridge, The, Woolw. 164 10y Clinton St., In re, 2 Brewst. 599 310 Close v. Glenwood Cemetery, 107 U. S. 476 373, 380, 381 Clough v. Curtis, 134 U. S. 638 501,601 Coal Co. v. Blatchford, 11 Wall. 174 528 Coast Line etc. Co. v. Savannah, 30 Fed. 650 284, 324 Coates v. New York, 7 Cow. 585 303, 318 Cobb v. Kingman, 15 Mass. 137 310 Coburn v. Odell, 30 N. H. 540 641 Cochran v. D 'Arcy, 5 Rich. 125 396 Cochrane v. Frostburg, 81 Md. 54 726 Cochran v. Van Surlay, 20 Wend. 372 273 Cochran v. State, 24 Tex. 394 622, 623 Coe v. Errol, 116 U. S. 527 110, 445 Coffin vs Coffin, 4 Mass. 1 67, 68 Coffin v. Portland, 27 Fed. 412 314 Coffin v. Rich, 45 Me. 507 345, 401 Coffin v. State, 7 Ind. 157 290 Coffman v. Bank, 40 Miss. 29 396, 406, 408, 413 Coffntan v. Keightly, 24 Ind. 509 198 Cofrode v. Circuit Judge, 79 Mich. 342 572 Cohen v. Solomon, 66 Fed. 411 510 Cohen v. Wright, 22 Cal. 319 266 Cohn v. Hoffman, 45 Ark. 3S5 409, 412 Cohens v. Virginia, 6 Wheat. 395 28, 30, 31, 32, 36, 37, 171, 205, 210, 211, '500, 519, 520, 521, 528, 542, 543, 545, 547, 548, 600, 606, 686, 687, 688 Coit v. Sutton, 102 Miih. 327 105, 134 Cole v. Cunningham, 133 U. S. 114 168, 562, '568 Cole v. La Chambre, 31 La. Ann. 41 269, 412 Cole v. La Grange, 113 U. S. 9 80 Cole v. Randolph, 31 La. Ann. 535 141 Coleman, In re, 15 Blatchf. 406 626,664 Coleman v. Tennessee, 97 U. S. 515 225, 473, 475,507 Coles v. Celluloid Mfg. Co., 39 N. J. 326 383 Coles v. Madison County, Breese, 156 229, 257, 273, 391 Collar Co. v. Van Dusen, 23 Wall. 563 184 Collector v. Day, 11 Wall. 124 36, 83, 677, 678, 679, 680 Collet 7. Collet, 2 Dal! 294 155 Collins' Case, 14 Ct. of CI. 56S, 15 Ct. of CI. 22 236, 490 Collins v. Chicago, 4 Biss. 472 93 Collins v. Collins, 79 Ky. 91 424 HG6 Table of Cases Cited. Collins v. New Hampshire, 171 U. S. 33 126 Collins v. Rodolph, 3 Greene (Iowa), 299 167, 170 Collins v. Sherman, 31 Miss. 679 334, 360, 365 Colorado Case (Hunt & Chilcott), 2 Bart. 164 59 Colorado Min. Co. v. Turck, 150 U. S. 141 546 Colpetzer v. Trinity Church, 24 Neb. 113 426 Colson v. Lewis, 2 Wheat. 377 532 Colt v. Colt, 111 U. S. 578 564 Colt v. Eves, 12 Conn. 252 607, 628, 668 Columbia Ins. Co. v. Peoria Br., 6 McLean, 70 100 Columbia Ins. Co. v. Ashley, 4 Pet. 144 479 Columbus v. Rodgers, 10 Ala. 37 313 Columbus City v. Cutcomp, 61 Iowa, 672 298, 344 Comer v. Folsom, 13 Minn. 219 198 Comingore, In re, 96 Fed. 562 625 Comitis v. Parkerson, 56 Fed. 558 154 Commercial Bank v. Chambers, 96 Minn. 9 398 Commercial Bank v. Rodney, 4 Smedes & M. 495 358 Commercial Bank v. Slocomb, 14 Pet. 60 533 Commercial Bank v. State, 12 Miss. 439 333, 336, 389, 398, 400 Commerford v. Thompson, 2 Flipp. 616, 1 Fed. 421 176, 626 Commrrrissioners of Patents v. Whitely, 4 Wall. 534 460 Commissioners v. Board, 39 Ohio St. 634 103 Commissioners v. Holyoke W. P. Co., 104 Mass. 448 310, 374 Commissioners v. Hudson, 20 Kan. 75 291 Commissioners v. Lucas, 93 U. S. 114 292, 313, 315, 320, 652 Commissioners v. Lellew, 99 U. S. 628 272 Commissioners v. The Cuba, 28 Ala. 185 124 Commissioners v. Thayer, 94 U. S. 642 272 Commissioners' Court v. Rather, 48 Ala. 433 397 Commissioners of Laramie County v. Albany County, 92 U. S. 308 310 Common Council of Detroit v. Board of Assessors, 91 Mich. 78.. 277 Commonwealth v. Abrahams, 156 Mass. 57 731 Commonwealth v. Alger, 7 Cush. 53 118, 439, 649 Commonwealth v. Anrer, 149 Pa. St. 35 636 Commonwealth v. Arnold, 83 Ky. 1 633 Commonwealth v. Aves, 18 Pick. 215 591 Commonwealth v. Bacon, 13 Bush, 212 361, 373, 649 Commonwealth v. Bacon, 6 Serg. & L. 322 290, 291 Commonwealth v. Bailey, 13 Allen, 541 295 Commonwealth v. Barker, 5 Binn. 423 197 Commonwealth v. Bean, Thach. C. C. 85 261 Commonwealth v. Bird, 12 Mass. 443 290 Commonwealth v. Bonsall, 3 Wheat. 559 374 Commonwealth v. Booker, 82 Va. 964 305 Commonwealth v. Bosworth, 113 Mass. 200 637 Table of Cases Cited. 767 Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea 836 Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea Commonwea th v. Casey, 12 Allen, 222 th v. Clary, 8 Mass. 72 208, 209, 210, th v. Cook, 6 Serg. & R. 577 th v. Covington etc. Bridge Co., 14 Ky. Law Eep. th v. Cullen, 13 Pa. St. 133 th v. Daniels, 6 Pa. L. J. 428 th v. Deacon, 10 Serg. & E. 135. . . 584, 586, th v. Delaware etc. By. Co., 1 Pearson, 356 th v. Delaware etc. Canal Co., 150 Pa. St. 245 th v. Dorsey, 103 Mass. 412 th v. Eastern E. E. Co., 103 Mass. 254 th v. East Tennessee, 97 Ky. 244 th v. Edison Co., 145 Pa. St. 140 th v. Edison Co., 157 Pa. St. 529 th v. Electric Light Co., 145 Pa. St. 140 th v. Erie By. Co., 1 Pearson, 345 th v. Farmers' Bank, 38 Mass. 542 th v. Fayette County B. E., 55 Pa. St. 542. .340, 353, th v. Feely, 1 Va. Cas. 321 th v. Fitzpatrick, 121 Pa. St. 109 632, th v. Folsom, 13 Minn. 219 th v. Fowler, 98 Ky. 648 th v. Fuller, 8 Met. 313 th v. Gamble, 11 Serg. & E. 94 th v. Gardner, 11 Gray, 438 th v. Getchell, 16 Pick. 452 th v. Green, 17 Mass. 514 563, 585, th v. Graves, 155 Mass. 163 th v. Griffin, 3 B. Mon. 208 th v. Griffith, 19 Mass. 11 th v. Hall, 9 Gray, 267 th v. Has, 122 Mass. 42 th v. Homer, 153 Mass. 343 th v. Huntley, 156 Mass. 248 th v. Irish, 3 Serg. & E. 176 th v. Ives, 18 Pick. 193 th v. Jarvis, 1 Mon. 5 th v. Johnson, 78 Ky. 509 th v. Jones, 10 Bush, 732 th v. Jones, 82 Va. 789 304, th v. Kimball, 24 Pick. 359 139, 161, 395, 682, th v. Kosloff, 5 Serg. & E. 345 th v. Lewis, 6 Binn. 266 th v. Manchester, 152 Mass. 243 130, th v. Mann, 5 Watts & S. 415 290, th v. Merrill, Thaeh. C. C. 1 441 211 633 359 370 581 587 233 278 261 381 515 845 180 180 233 333 379 511 633 329 718 174 197 256 254 '587 255 576 624 583 620 260 126 202 154 370 730 251 306 683 544 216 723 516 633 768 Table of Cases Cited. Commonwealth v. Milton, 12 R. Mori. 212 572, 525, 576 Commonwealth v. Morrison, 1 A. K. Marsh. 75 84, 212 Commonwealth v. Mott, 21 Pick. 492 254 Commonwealth v. Mulhall, 162 Mass. 496 723 Commonwealth v. Murphy, 166 Mass. 172 623 Commonwealth v. Murphy, 174 Mass. 374 255 Commonwealth v. Murray, 4 Binn. 487 197 Commonwealth v. Myer, 92 Va. 809 141 Commonwealth v. New Bedford Br., 68 Mass. 339 360 Commonwealth v. New York etc. Ry. Co., 150 Pa. St. 234 278 Commonwealth v. Ober, 12 Cush. 493 140 Commonwealth v. O 'Hara, 1 Bank. Reg. 19 162 Commonwealth v. Owens, 114 Mass. 252 140 Commonwealth v. Paul, 170 Pa. St. 284 146 Commonwealth v. Pennsylvania Ry. Co., 1 Pearson, 379 233 Commonwealth v. Peters, 53 Mass. 387 634 Commonwealth v. Petty, 96 Ky. 454 86, 179 Commonwealth v. Philadelphia etc. Ry. Co., 1 Pearson, 379 102 Commonwealth v. Philadelphia etc. R. R., 62 Pa. St. 292 112 Commonwealth v. Philadelphia Co., 157 Pa. St. 527 180 Commonwealth v. Phillipps, 11 Pick. 28 260 Commonwealth v. Plaisted, 148 Mass. 381 309, 620 Commonwealth v. Roby, 12 Pick. 496. 635 Commonwealth v. Schaffer, 4 Dall. App. 86 511 Commonwealth v. Smith, 6 Bush, 303 142 Commonwealth v. Smith, 92 Ky. 38 133, 135, 136, 139, 144 Commonwealth v. Sullivan, 150 Mass. 315 254 Commonwealth v. Telephone Co., 145 Pa. St. 127 180 Commonwealth v. Towles, 5 Leigh, 746 153, 155 Commonwealth v. Tracy, 46 Mass. 536 584, 586 Commonwealth v. Vaughn, 101 Ky. 603 635 Commonwealth v. Weatherhead, 110 Mass. 175 130 Commonwealth v. Weller, 82 Va. 721 305 Commonwealth v. Westinghouse Air Brake Co., 151 Pa. St. 276 ISO Commonwealth v. Westinghouse Electric Co., 151 Pa. St. 265.... 180 Commonwealth v. Wilson, Phila. 80 586 Commonwealth v. Wood, 2 Cush. 149 630 Commonwealth v. Wright, 158 Mass. 149 581, 58 S Commonwealth v. Wynian, 12 Cush. 239 256 Commonwealth v. Young, Bright. 302 208, 209 Commonwealth, ex rel v. Slipo, 25 Pa. St. 29 487 Compagnie Francaise v. Louisiana State Board, 51 La. Ann. 645. 125 Compagnie Francaise v. Louisiana State Board, 186 U. S. 391, 125, 650, 716 Compo v. Jackson Iron Co., 50 Mich. 583 149 Conant v. Vanschaiek, 24 Barb. 87 345 Table of Cases Cited. 769 Concord v. Portsmouth Savings Bank, 92 U. S. 630 26;) Confederate Note Case, 19 Wall. 5-18 386, 388 Confiscation Cases, 20 Wall. 109 470 Confiscation Cases, 1 Woods, 226 243 Congress, The, 1 Biss. 44 534 Coniff v. San Francisco, 67 Cal. 47 655 Conkey v. Hart, 14 N. Y. 22 399, 400, 403 Connecticut Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Cushman, 108 U. S. 65.. 386, 394 Connecting By. v. Union By., 108 U. S. 272 365 Conner v. Elliott, 18 How. 593 138, 572, 573, 575, 704 Connolly v. Taylor, 2 Pet. 556 528 Connolly v. Union etc. Co., 184 U. S. 558 443, 733 Connor v. New York, 2 Sand. Ch. 355 290 Connor v. Scott, 4 Dill. 247 519 Conover v. Boach, 4 Fish, 16 184 Conrad v. Waples, 96 U. S. 284 195 Consolidated Assn. of Planters v. Lord, 35 La. Ann. 425 291 Consolidated Chan. Co. v. Central Pacific B. B. Co., 51 Cal. 269 653 Consolidated Coal Co. v. Illinois, 183 U. S. 203 732 Consolidated Fruit Jar Co. v. Wright, 94 U. S. 96 185 Continental Ins. Co. v. Bhoads, 119 U. S. 239 505, 530 Converse, In re, 137 U. S. 632 69S Converse v. Bradley, 1 Cush. 434 168 Converse v. Burrows, 2 Minn. 229 430 Converse v. United States, 21 How. 463 70 Conway v. Seamons, 55 Vt. 11 160 Conway v. Taylor, 1 Black, 603 113, 118, 360 Cook, In re, 48 Fed. 843 579, 582 Cook v. Hart, 146 U. S. 193 513, 582 Cook v. Lillo, 103 U. S. 793 532 Cook v. Moffatt, 5 How. 316 161, 166, 169, 418 Cook v. Oliver, 1 Woods, 437 244 Ccok v. Pennsylvania, 97 U. S. 573 Ill, 145, 447, 448 Cook v. Port Fulton, 106 Ind. 173 131 Cook v. Eogers, 31 Mich. 391 164 Cook v. Smith, 30 N. J. L. 387 277 Cook v. State, 23 N. J. L. 474 350 Cook v. United States, 138 U. S. 182 260, 553 Cooley v. Board of Wardens, 12 How. 314 30, 31, 96, 101, 104, 106, 235, 449, 454 Cooper, In re, 143 U. S. 500 461. 470, 481, 521, 522, 612 Cooper v. Newell, 155 U. S. 533, 15 S. Ct. 355 529 Cooper v. Newell, 173 U. S. 566 562 Cooper v. Eeynolds, 10 Wall. 316 518 Cooper v. Schultz, 32 How. Pr. 107 72?,, 725 Cooper v. Telfair, 4 Dall. 18 33, 610 Notes on Constitution — 49 770 Table of Cases Cited. Cooper Mfg. Co. v. Ferguson, 113 U. S. 735 108, 144 Coosa River Steamboat Co. v. Barclay, 30 Ala. 120 403, 428 Coosaw Min. Co. v. South Carolina, 144 U. S. 562 333, 340 Copell v. Hall, 7 Wall. 554 193 Corbin v. Butler, Taf t, 582 50 Corbin v. Marsh, 2 Duvall, 193 659 Corbin v. Washington County Commissioners, 3 Fed. 356 279 Corbitt v. Bank, 2 Harr. (Del.) 252 250 Corfield v. Coryell, 4 Wash. C. C. 388 100, 112, 130, 436, 572, 576 Coriell v. Ham, 4 G. Greene, 455 414, 437 Corliss, In re, 11 R. I. 63S 464 Cornelius v. Glenn, 7 Jones, 512 295 Cornell v. Hichens, 11 Wis. 353 429, 435 Cornell v. Walsh, 107 Ind. 372 309 Corner v. Miller, 1 Bank. Reg. 99 162, 399 Corning v. Greene, 23 Barb. 33 289 Corsair, The, 145 U. S. 343 540 Corson v. Maryland, 120 U. S. 505 142 Cory v. Carter, 48 Ind. 345 572, 730, 731 Costor v. Brush, 23 Wend. 631 361 Cotting v. Kansas City Stockyards Co., 183 U. S. 84 439 Cotting v. Kansas City Stockyards Co., 79 Fed. 682 339 Coughran v. Bigelow, 164 U. S. 308 670 Coulter v. Stafford, 56 Fed. 566 279, 431 Council Bluffs v. Kansas etc. R. R. Co., 45 Iowa, 338 105, 106 Counselman v. Hitchcock, 142 IT. S. 562 639, 640, 665 County of Mobile v. Kimball, 102 U. S. 698 80, 101, 103 County Commissioners v. King, 13 Fla. 476 390 Coupland, Hx parte, 26 Tex. 386 197, 217, 573 Coutzen v. United States, 179 U. S. 195 570 Covell v. Heyman, 111 U. S. 182 512 Covington v. Covington etc. Bridge Co., 10 Bush, 69 296 Covington v. Kentucky, 173 U. S. 239 379 Covington v. Menzies, 24 S. W. 242 316 Covington etc. Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 154 U. S. 212, 14 S. Ct. 1087 101, 112, 115, 137 Covington etc. Co. v. Sandford, 164 U. S. 578 325, 333, 338, 340, 351, 354, 359, 363, 628, 72S, 731 Cowan v. Prowse, 93 Ky. 172 480 Cowden v. Pacific Coast S. S. Co., 94 Cal. 470 112 Cowell v. Springs Co., 100 U. S. 60 577 Cowles v. Mercer County, 7 Wall. 122 507 Cox v. Berry, 13 Ga. 306 400, 408, 400 Cox v. State, 3 Blackf . 193 282 Coxe v. Martin, 44 Pa. St. 322 408, 415, 416 Coxe v. McClenachan, 3 Dall. 478 66, 67 Coy, In re, 127 U. S. 752 56, 57 Table of Cases Cited. 771 Coyle v. Mclntyre, 7 Houst. 44 290 Cozzens v. Frink, 13 Am. Law Eeg. 700 224 Craft v. Lofinck, 34 Kan. 365 315 Craig v. Brown, 1 Pet. C. C. 354 56b Craig v. Fowler, 59 Iowa, 200 429 Craig v. Leitensdorfer, 123 U. S. 211 459, 493, 501 Craig v. Missouri, 4 Pet. 435 29, 89, 245, 246, 247, 461, 501, 521 Craighead v. Bank, 1 Meigs, 199 24b Crain v. United States, 162 U. S. 645 648 Crandall v. Nevada, 6 Wall. 39. . .104, 103, 116, 134, 196, 446, 447, 575 Crane, Ex parte, 5 Pet. 200 549 Crane v. Hardy, 1 Mich. 62 425 Cranson v. Smith, 37 Mich. 309 179, 183 Crapo v. Kelly, 16 Wall. 624 190 Crawford v. Branch Bank, 7 How. 279 399, 405, 432 Crawford v. Neal, 144 TJ. S. 593 530 Crawford v. The Caroline Keed, 42 Cal. 469 510 Crawfordsville etc. Co. v. Smith, 89 Ind. 295 362 Crease v. Babcock, 23 Pick. 340 332, 371, 375, 382 Cregg, Ex parte, 2 Curt. 100 153 Creighton v. San Francisco, 42 Cal. 446 315 Crenshaw v. State River Co., 6 Rand. 245 292 Crescent City Co. v. New Orleans, 33 La. Ann. 934 29S Crescent City Gas Light Co. v. New Orleans Gas Light Co., 27 La. Ann. 138 313, 319 Crittenden v. White, 23 Minn. 24 170 Crocker v. State, 47 Ga. 568 637 Cronin v. Patrick County, 89 Fed. 79 225 Cronise v. Cronise, 54 Pa. St. 262 266 Crook etc. v. Old Point Comfort Hotel Co., 54 Fed. 604 208 Cropper v. Coburn, 2 Curt. 465 523 Crosby v. Hanover, 36 N. H. 404 341, 342 Cross v. Harrison, 16 How. 191 472, 473, 4S3, 570, 594, 598 Cross v. North Carolina, 132 U. S. 138 511, 635 Cross v. United States, 145 U. S. 574 548 Crossley v. California, 168 U. S. 641 511, 638 Croudon v. Leonard, 4 Cr. 437 538 Crow v. Coons, 27 Mo. 512 4lJ Crow Dog, Ex parte, 109 U. S. 560, 3 S. Ct. 398 147, 150 Crowe v. Aiken, 2 Biss. 214 181 Crowley v. Christensen, 137 U. S. 89 439, 441, 716 Crown Cork etc. Co. v. State, 87 Md. 699 86, 180 Croy v. Obion County, 104 Tenn. 525 142 Crutcher v. Kentucky, 141 U. S. 59 107, 114, 126, 139, 144, 57S Cryer v. Andrews, 11 Tex. 105 570 Cuban Steamship Co. v. Fitzpatrick, 06 Fed. 67 106 Cubreth, Ex parte, 49 Cal. 435 5S4, 586 772 Table of Cases Cited. Cudahy Packing Co. v. Sioux Nat. Bank, 69 Fed. 782 673 Cuddy, Petitioner, 131 U. S. 284 505, 50G Cully v. Baltimore etc. R. R. Co., 1 Hughes, 536 699, 701 Culverhouse v. Beach, 1 Johns. Cas. 399 157 Cumberland etc. Ry. Co. v. Barren County Court, 73 Ky. 604.... 320 Cumming v. Board of Education, 175 U. S. 545 704, 731 Cummings v. Missouri, 4 Wall. 323 226, 227, 228, 229, 251, 253, 254, 593, 612, 615 Cumminga v. National Bank, 101 U. S. 156 93 Cummings v. Spaunhorst, 5 Mo. App. 21 343 Cummings v. Wingo, 31 S. C. 435 572, 573 Cupp v. Welch, 50 Ark. 294 392 Curran v. Arkansas, 15 How. 318 245, 303, 337, 357, 383, 384, 393, 397, 39S, 6S9 Curry v. Landers, 35 Ala. 280 268, 286, 427 Curtis v. Butler Co., 24 How. 44S 340 Cuitis v. Gibbs, 2 N. J. L. 405 32, 568 Curtis v. Morehouse, 12 La. Ann. 649 360 Curtis v. Whitney, 13 Wall. 70 273, 2S0, 391, 431 Curtner v. United States, 149 U. S. 673 525 Cushman v. Hale, 68 Vt. 452 291 Cusic v. Douglas, 3 Kan. 23 411, 412 Cutler's Case, Taft, 248 49 Cutler v. Board of Supervisors, 56 Miss. 122 275 Cutter v. Folsom, 17 N. H. 139 161 Cutting v. Florida etc. Co., 40 Fed. 644 110 Cutts v. Hardee, 38 Ga. 350 399, 433, 435, 437 Dabney v. Bank, 3 S. C. 158 357 Daggs v. Insurance Co., 130 Mo. 391 577 Daily v. Burke, 2S Ala. 328 268, 286, 427 Dainese's Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 64 489 Dale v. State, 3 Stew. 387 291 Dallas v. Fosdick, 40 How. Pr. 249 741 Damman v. Commissioners, 4 Wis. 414 294 Damon, In re, 70 Me. 154 164 Dana, Ex parte, 7 Ben. 1 552 Dana, In re, 68 Fed. 901 188 Danforth v. Groton Water Co., 178 Mass. 472 275 Danforth v. Robinson, 80 Me. 472 2S4 Daniel v. Richmond, 78 Ky. 542 576 Daniel Ball, The, 10 Wall. 557 95, 96, 97, 100, 110, 111 Daniels v. Hilgard, 77 111. 640 440, 443 Daniels v. McCabe, 3 Cliff. 117 140 Daniels v. Railroad Co., 3 Wall. 254 547 Daniels v. Tearney, 102 IT. S. 48 240 Danks v. Quackenbush, 1 N. Y. 129 410, 424 Table of Cases Cited. 773 Danolds v. State, 89 N. Y. 36 269 Danville v. Pace, 25 Gratt. 1 257, 273, 274, 394, 430, 659 D 'Arcy v. Ketchum, 11 How. 175 562 Darby v. Mayer, 10 Wheat. 469 567 Darling v. Berry, 13 Fed. 659 159 Darlington v. New York, 31 N. Y. 165 313 Darlington v. United States, 82 Pa. St. 382 358 Darnley v. State Bank, 15 Ark. 16 403 Darrington v. Bank of Alabama, 13 How. 16 245 Dart v. Houston, 22 Ga. 506 383 Dartmouth College Case. See Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward. Dash v. Van Kleeck, 7 Johns. 447 265, 273, 285, 683 Dashing v. State, 78 Ind. 358 174 Daughdrill v. Life Ins. Co., 31 Ala. 91 289, 352 Davenport v. Cloverport, 72 Fed. 689 730 Davenport Bank v. Board of Equalization, 123 U. S. 85 9i Davenport County v. Davenport, 13 Iowa, 229 31S Davidson v. Champlin, 7 Conn. 248 188, 512 Davidson v. New Orleans, 96 U. S. 101 627, 641, 642, 644, 645, 714 Davidson v. Smither, 1 Biss. 349 169 Davidson v. State, 4 Tex. App. 545 120, 367 Davis, In re, 1 Saw. 262 162 Davis v. Ballard, 1 J. J. Marsh. 563 273, 400, 430 Davis v. Beason, 133 U. S. 342 259, 629 Davis v. Bohle, 92 Fed. 326 164 Davis v. Bronson, 6 Towa, 410 395 Davis v. Burke, 179 IT. S. 403 33, 710 Davis v. Burton, 52 Pa. St. 9 91 Davis v. Central E. E. Co., 17 Ga. 323 118, 346 Davis v. Champlain, 7 Conn. 244 497 Davis v. Gray, 16 Wall. 203 244, 245, 292, 293, 304 Davis v. Log Driving Co., 82 Me. 350 341 Davis v. Massachusetts, 167 U. S. 47 698 Davis v. Minor, 1 How. (Miss.) 193 273 Davis v. Packard, 7 Pet. 281 498, 515 Davis v. People, 22 Colo. 1 638 Davis v. Pierse, 7 Minn. 13 397, 574, 575 Davis v, Police Jury, 1 La. Ann. 296 361 Davis v. Eeipe, 114 Ind. 588 413, 423 Davis v. Eichardson, 45 Miss. 503 81, 83 Davis v. State, 68 Ala. 58 718 Davis v. State Bank, 7 Ind. 316 434 Davis v. Texas, 139 U. S. 653 663 Davis Coal Co. v. Polland, 158 Ind. 607 720 Davis-Henderson Lumber Co. v. Gottschalk, 81 Cal. 641 426 Davison v. Gilbert, Eep. 3000, 5th Cong., 2d Sess 45 774 Table of Cases Cited. Davison v. Sealskins, 2 Paine, 333 190 Dawson, Ex parte, 83 Fed. 308 5«S Dawson v. Godfrey, 4 Cr. 321 570 Dawson v. Lee, 83 Ky. 49 730 Dawson v. Shaver, 1 Blackf. 204 60S Dawson v. State, 6 Tex. 347 , 262 Day v. Bardwell, 3 Bank. Reg. 455 15y Day v. Bardwell, 97 Mass. 250 162 Day v. Buffington, 3 Cliff. 388 83 Day v. Micou, 18 Wall. 160 559 Dayton Coal Co. v. Barton, 183 U. S. 24 143, 684, 708 Dean, Petitioner, 83 Me. 498 153 De Bara, Ex parte, 179 U. S. 322 176 Debs, In re, 158 U. S. 581 37, 105, 176, 212, 215, 560, 609 Decatur v. Paulding, 14 Pet. 515 460, 504 Decker v. Baltimore etc. E. R. Co., 30 Fed. 726 97, 98 Decker v. Hughes, 63 111. 33 324 Deckert, In re, 10 Bank. Reg. 1 159 De Cordova v. Galveston, 4 Tex. 470 401, 406 Deems v. Mayor, 80 Md. 164 698, 722 Deering v. Boyle, 8 Kan. 532 412 De Graff v. St. Paul etc. R. R. Co., 23 Minn. 144 <369 De Giacomo, In re, 12 Blatchf. 401 226, 228, 254 Deichman, Appeal of, 2 Whart. 295 420, 421 De La Croix v. Chamberlain, 12 Wheat. 600 462, 502 Delafield v. State, 26 Wend. 192 246, 510 Delahay v. McConnell, 5 111. 156 437 De La Land v. Treasurer, 17 How. 2 527 Delaware etc. Co. v. Delaware, 50 Fed. 677 122 Delaware etc. Co. v. Raritan Co., 16 N. J. Eq. 336 365 Delaware R. R. Co. v. Thorp, 5 Harr. 454 375 Delaware Railroad Tax Case, 18 Wall. 232 83, 114, 133, 279, 283, 299, 332, 341, 355 De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U. S. 197 482 Delmas v. Insurance Co., 14 Wall. 667 269, 385, 388 Delovio v. Boit, 2 Gall. 398 534, 537 Demarest v. Mayor, 74 N. Y. 166 290 De Moss v. Newton, 31 Ind. 220 264 Den v. Foy, 1 Murph. (N. C.) 58 296 Den v. Hoboken Land Co., 18 How. 280 30, 624, 625, 627, 62S, 642, 643, 644 Denoale v. Archer, 8 Pet. 530 207 Denio v. Van Riper, 16 N. J. L. 14 273 Dennis v. Railroad Co., 34 La. Ann. 956 341 Denny v. Bennett, 128 U. S. 497, 9 S. Ct. 137 167, 160, 3S0, 418, 420, 490, 567 Denny v. Pironi, 141 U. S. 123. 11 S. Ct. 966 529 Dent v. West Virginia, 129 U. S. 124 251, 650, 714, 718 Table of Cases Cited. 775 Dentzel v. Waldie, 30 CaL 138 274, 392 Denver etc. By. Co. v. Davidson, 2 Colo. App. 443 721 Deny, Ex parte, 10 Dev. 214 223 Depew v. Trustees, 5 Ind. 8 594 Depuy v. Stewart, 3 Wend. 130 282 Derby etc. Co. v. Parks, 10 Conn. 52 283, 332, 334, 361 Desnoyer v. Jordan, 27 Minn. 2iJ 5 267 De TreviUe v. Smalls, 98 U. S. 517 232 Detroit v. Blackeby, 21 Mich. 84 31U Detroit v. Detroit City Ey. Co., 56 Fed. 8S3 383 Detroit v. Osborne, 135 U. S. 49S 573 Detroit etc. Co. v. Osborn, 189 U. S. 3S3 718 De Vignier v. New Orleans, 16 Fed. 11 277 Dewal v. McLaskey, 1 Ala. 708 129 Dewey v. Central Car etc. Co., 42 Mich. 402 356 Dewey v. Des Moines, 173 U. S. 204 684 Dewey v. United States, 178 U. S. 521 679 Dewing v. Perdicaries, 96 U. S. 195 242 Dewing v. Sears, 11 Wall. 380 91 Diamond Match Co. v. Ontonagon, 1SS U. S. 82 116 Dickason v. Marion County Court, 128 Mo. 427 316 Dickerman v. Northern Trust Co., 173 U. S. 192 532 Dickey v. Turnpike Co., 7 Dana, 113 175, 176, 177 Dickinson v. Dickinson, 3 Murph. (N. C.) 330 228, 258 Dickinson v. Marion County Court, 128 Mo. 427 314 Dikeman v. Dikenian, 11 Paige, 484 280, 424 Dillard, In re, 9 Bank. Reg. 8 159, 161 Dillard v. Webb. 55 Gal. 468 726 Dillingham v. Hawk, 60 Fed. 497 672 Dingman v. People, 51 111. 277 441, 442 Dinkey v. Commonwealth, 17 Pa. St. 126 636 Dinsmore v. Police Board, 12 Abb. N. C. 436 121 District Attorney, Case of, 16 Am. Law Reg. 786 ' 487, 492 District Court v. Bailey, 171 U. S. 176 2U6 Divina Pastora, The, 4 Wheat. 63 462, 494, 502 Division, In re, 15 Kan. 194 312 Dixon's Case, Taft, 13 52 Dixon v. United States, 1 Brock. 177 36 Dize v. Lloyd, 36 Fed. 651 130 Dobbins v. Commissioners' of Erie Co., 16 Pet. 445 37, 80, 84, 609, 678, 68U Dobbs, In re, 21 How. Pr. 68 198 Dodge v. Tullcys, 144 U. S. 455 531 Dodge v. Woolsey, IS How. 347 32, 269, 270, 299, 332, 352, 548, 609, 686 Dodge Mfg. Co. v. Ohio etc. Pulley Works, 101 Fed. 584 184 Doe v. Braden, 16 How. 657 4,81, 612 Dole v. Irish, 2 Barb. 639 14S, 150 776 Table of Cases Cited. Doll, Ex parte, 7 Phila. 595 .' 507 Doll v. Evans, 15 Int. Rev. Eec. 143, Fed. Cas. No. 3969 500 Dominic v. Sayre, 3 Sand. 555 317 Dominick v. State, 134 Ala. 90 635 Domire v. Cogly, 8 Blackf. 177 413, 415 Donegan v. Wood, 49 Ala. 249, 278 242 Donnell v. Lewis County Bank, 80 Mo. 172 168 Donnelly v. Corbett, 7 N. Y. 5U0 168, 169, 418, 419 Donnelly v. Decker, 58 Wis. 4(31 725 Donnelly v. Ivers, 20 Blatchf . 383, 18 Fed. 593 181 Donohue v. County of Will, 100 111. 106 29U Donovan v. Pitcher, 53 Ala. 415 571 Dooley v. Smith, 13 Wall. 604 90, 91 Dooley v. United States, 182 U. S. 222 444, 446, 473 Doremug v. Walker, 8 Ala. 200 162 Dorman v. State, 34 Ala. 216 28 Dorrington v. Myers, 11 Neb. 38S 409, 412, 425 Dorsey, In re, 5 R. I. 190 253 Dorsey v. Brigham, 177 111. 250 701 Dorsey v. State, 80 Minn. 446 722 Doty v. Jones, 1 Barb. 18 240 Doty v. Strong, 1 Pinn. (Wis ) 88 68 Dougherty v. Fogle, 50 Ga. 464 437 Doughty v. Devlin, 1 E. D. Smith, 625 426 Douglas v. Craig, 13 S. C. 371 412 Douglas County v. Timme, 32 Neb. 275 290 Douglass v. Kentucky, 168 U. S. 496 2S5, 298, 343, 439 Douglass v. Stephens, 1 Del. Ch. 465 571 Douglass County Road Co. v. C. & G. R. Co., 8 Or. 108 362 Dours v. Cazentre, 1 McGloin, 251 417 Dover v. Portsmouth Br., 17 N. H. 200 457 Dow's Case, 6 How. 39 584, 586 Dow v. Beidelman, 125 U. S. 688 365, 719 Dow v. Beidelman, 49 Ark. 325 114, 338, 366 Dow v. Johnson, 100 U. S. 169 646, 656 Dowdell, Petitioner, 169 Mass. 387 711 Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U. S. 254 30, 88, 472, 482, 599 Downes v. Parshall, 3 Wyo. 425 420 Downham v. Alexandria, 10 Wall. 173 138, 139 Downs v. Allen, 23 Blatchf. 59, 22 Fed. 80S 562 Downing v. Board, 129 Tnd. 449 330 Doyle, In re, 16 R. I. 537 712 Doyle v. Continental Ins. Co., 94 U. S. 540 143, 515, 577, 683 Drady v. Des Moines etc. Ry., 57 Iowa, 293 324 Draper v. Johnson, CI. & H. 710 615 Draper v. United States, 164 U. S. 247 513 Dred Scott v. Sanford, 19 How. 417 35, 149, 153, 154, 155, 222. 482, 483, 502, 524, 569, 571, 573, 591, 593, 594, 596, 598, 599, 600, 613, 701 Table of Cases Cited. r <77 Drehman v. Stifle, 8 Wall. 601 226, 227, 251, 252, 265, 268, 270, 393, 403 Dresser v. Brooks, 3 Barb. 429 ICO Dreueker v. Salomon, 21 Wis. 629 -159, 471, 555, 556 Drew v. New York etc. R. R. Co., 181 Pa. St. 46 293 Drexel v. Commonwealth, 46 Pa. St. 31 297 Dreyer v. Illinois, 1S7 U. S. 71 633, 711 Dryden v. Commonwealth, 16 B. Mon. 598 106 Duanesborough v. Jenkins, 57 N. Y. 177 318 Dubuque v. Illinois Cent. R. R. Co., 39 Iowa, 94 379 Dubuque v. Stout, 32 Iowa, 86 454 Dueat v. Chicago, 10 Wall. 415 143, 515, 577, 578, 683, 707, 708 Dudley v. James, 83 Fed. 349 461 Duer v. Small, 4 Blatchf . 263 138 Duerson, In re, 13 Bank. Reg. 183 159 Duffield v. Smith, 3 Serg. & R. 590 201 Dugan v. United States, 3 Wheat. 179 36, 216 Duke v. Navigation Co., 10 Ala. 82 594 Dulaney v. Tilghman, 6 Gill & J. 473 392 Duluth etc. Ry. v. Douglas County, 103 Wis. 81 350 Duluth etc. R. R. v. St. Louis County, 179 U. S. 304 380 Duncan, In re, 139 U. S. 461 72, 603 Duncan v. Atchison etc. R. R. Co., 72 Fed. 811 679 Duncan v. Darst, 1 How. 308 507, 510, 511, 513 Duncan v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 382 259, 702, 729 Duncan v. State, 105 Ga. 457 138 Dundas v. Bowler, 3 McLean, 397 356, 357, 391, 527 Dundee Mtg. Trust Ind. Co. v. Parrish, 24 Fed. 107 277 Dunham v. Lamphire, 3 Gray, 268 129, 436 Dunn, Ex parte, 25 How. Pr. 467 224 Dunn v. Commonwealth, 105 Ky. 834 724 Dunn v. Stevens, 62 Minn. 380 412 Dunne v. People, 94 111. 120 204, 458, 622 Dunphy v. Kleinsmith, 11 Wall. 614 601 Dunton v. Halstead, 4 Pcnn. L. J. 237 68 Dunwoody v. United States, 143 U. S. 5S6 236 Du Puy, In re, 3 Ben. 316 478 Durand v. Hollins, 5 Blatchf. 451 4.59^ 483 Durham v. People, 4 Scam. 172 635 Durham v. Railroad, 10S N. C. 402 246 Durkee v. Board of Liquidation, 103 U. S. 646 303, 304 Durrett v. Crosby, 28 Tex. 635 29 1 Dutrher v. Wright, 94 U. S. 557 158 Dutton v. Palairet, 154 U. S. 563 91 Dwight v. Williams, 4 McLenn, 586 642 Dyer v. Tuscaloosa B^. Co., 2 Port. 296 319, 652 Dynes' v. Hoover, 20 How. 65 199, 200, 631 778 Table of Cases Cited. Eagan, Ex parte, 5 Blatchf . 319 475 Eagle, The, 8 Wall. 20 536 Eagle Ins. Co. v. Ohio, 153 U. S. 455 336 Eakin v. Kaub, 12 Serg. & E. 372 407 Eames, In re, 2 Story, 322 162 Earl v. Godley, 42 Minn. 362 149, 151 Earle 's Case, CI. & H. 314 69 Earle v. Hardie, 80 N. C. 177 411 Earle v. Johnson, 31 Tex. 164 416 East etc. Ey. v. Bushing, 69 Tex. 314 365 Easterly v. Goodwin, 35 Conn. 279 168, 287, 418, 570 Easterwood v. State, 34 Tex. Or. 409 476, 480 East Hartford v. Hartford Br. Co., 10 How. 511.309, 310, 313, 360, 397 East Lonisana E. Co. v. New Orleans, 46 La. Ann. 526 319, 324 Eastman v. Clackamas County, 12 Saw. 624, 32 Fed. 31 273 Eastman v. State, 109 Ind. 278 718 East on, Ex parte, 95 U. S. 72 534, 535, 537, 538 Easton v. Scott, CI. & H. 276 615 Eaton v. Hasty, 6 Neb. 426 565 Eaton v. Lewis, 115 Fed. 635 185 Eaves, In re, 30 Fed. 23 486 Ebersole v. Adams, 10 Bush, 83 164, 165 Eckoff v. District of Columbia, 135 IT. S. 241 486 Eclipse Mfg. Co. v. Holland,. 62 Fed. 468 185 Eden v. Feople, 161 111. 296 721 Edgerton, Ex parte, 59 Fed. 118 128 Edison v. Lubin, 119 Fed. 993 182 Edison Light Co. v. New Haven Co., 35 Fed. 237 3S3 Edmonson v. Ferguson, 11 Mo. 344 387, 416 Edwards' Case, CI. & H. 92 46 Edwards v. Commonwealth, 78 Va. 42 480 Edwards v. Dixon, 53 Ga. 334 436 Edwards v. Elliott, 21 Wall. 556 538, 668 Edwards v. Jager, 19 Ind. 417 270. 292 Edwards v. Jordan, 105 Ind. 594 413, 423 Edwards v. Kearzey, 96 U. S. 606 249, 282, 332, 384, 386, 395, 397, 410, 412, 413 Edwards v. Lesueur, 132 Mo. 440 309 Edwards v. MeCaddon, 20 Iowa, 520 408 Edwards v. Panama, 1 Or. 418 106, 600 Edwards v. Tanneret, 12 Wall. 449 ., 514, 529 Edwards v. Williamson, 70 Ala. 152 3S9 Edye v. Eobertson. See Head Money Cases. Effinger v. Kenny, 115 U. S. 571 437 Ehle v. Brown, 31 Wis. 405 436 Ehrenzeller v. Canal Co., 1 Eawle, 181 370, 371 Eikenberry v. Edwards, 67 Iowa, 619 648 Eilenbeeker v. Plymouth Co., 134 U. S. 40 440, 551, 633, 665 Table of Cases Cited. 779 Eingartner v. Illinois Steel Co., 94 Wis. 76 409, 575 Eingartner v. St. Louis Steel Co., 103 Wis. 373 409, 575 Ekiu v. United States, 142 U. S. 662 108, 223, 462, 490, 502, 648 Eldridge v. Binghamton, 120 N. T. 313 607, 628 Eldridge v. Smith, 34 Vt. 484 653 Eldridge v. Trezevant, 160 U. S. 469 697, 729 Electric Imp. Co. v. San Francisco, 45 Fed. 593 724 Electron, The, 74 Fed. 695 , 536 Elexena, The, 53 Fed. 366 536 Elk v. Wilkins, 112 TJ. S. 102 148, 154, 483, 571, 699 Elkinson v. Dehesseline, 2 Whart. Cr. Cas. 56 116 Ellerman v. Mains, 30 La. Ann. 190 313 Ellett v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 517 305 Elliott v. Elliott, 38 Md. 362 258, 287 Elliott v. Mayfield, 4 Ala. 423 257, 273 Elliott v. Pearce, 20 Ark. 515 274 Elton v. ; Connor, 6 N. Dak. 6 166, 417, 418 Ely v. M. & B. Mfg. Co., 4 Fish Pat. Cas. 64 670 Ely v. Peck, 7 Conn. 239 512 Emblen v. Lincoln Land Co., 184 U. S. 660 649 Emblen v. Lincoln Land Co., 102 Fed. 559 597 Emert v. Missouri, 156 U. S. 313 138, 140, 141, 445 Emery v. Greenough, 3 Dall. 369 167 Empire City Bank, In re, 18 N. Y. 199 346, 379 Endleman v. United States, 86 Fed. 460 79 Enfield Br. v. Connecticut Eiver Co., 7 Conn. 28 334, 339 Enfield Br. Co. v. Eailroad Co., 17 Conn. 454.. 341, 359, 360, 371, 657 Englehart v. State, 88 Ala. 100 63S English v. New Haven Co., 32 Conn. 210 381 English v. State, 35 Tex. 473 622 Enterprise Savings Assn. v. Zumstein, 67 Fed. 1005 175, 461, 501 Erb v. Moraseh, 177 U. S. 585 120, 368, 731 Erie etc. E. E. Co. v. Casey, 26 Pa. St. 287 3S2 Erie E. B. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 158 U. S. 439 131, 133, 134 Erie By. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 21 Wall. 498 133, 348 Erie Ey. Co. v. State, 31 N. J. L. 541 448 Erskine v. Steele Co., 87 Fed. 634 310, 329 Ervine 's Appeal, 16 Pa. St. 256 646, 649 Erwin v. State, 29 Ohio St. 186 665 Escandaba Co. v. Chicago, 107 U. S. 688 96, 97, 98, 103, 114, 595 Esser v. Spaulding, 17 Nev. 289 290 Essex etc. Eoad Board v. Skinkle, 140 U. S. 342 313 Eunson v. Dodge, 18 Wall. 416 179 Evans v. Eaton, 3 Wheat. 450, 7 Wheat. 356 183, 263 Evans v. Hettich, 7 Wheat. 453 183 Evans v. Jordan, 9 Cr. 199 178, 183, 25:) Evans v. Meyers, 25 Pa. St. 114 172 780 Table of Cases Cited. Evans v. Montgomery, 4 Watts & S. 218 268, 399, 410, 426 Evans v. Kichmond, Chase, 551 243 Evans v. Sprigg, 2 Md. 470 163 Evans v. Weiss, 2 Wash. 0. C. 342 259 Evansville etc. K. E. Co. v. Commonwealth, 9 Bush, 438 355 Everett, In re, 9 Bank. Keg. 93 161 Everhart v. Westchester etc. B, E. Co., 28 Ba. St. 339 372 Everts, Ex parte, 1 Bond, 178 507 Ewell v. Daggs, 108 U. S. 149, 2 S. Ct. 41 274, 393, 428, 429, 430 Ewell v. Tucker, 1 Blackf. 2S5 309, 316 Exchange, The, v. McFadden, 7 Cr. 116 199, 216, 542 Exchange Bank v. Teddy, 67 N. C. 169 357 Experiment, The, 8 Wheat. 264 196 Express Co. v. Kountze, 8 Wall. 350 219 Expulsion of Senators, Taf t, 195 64 in, Ex parte, 2 Sprague, 91 224 Fagan v. Illinois, 84 111. 233 84 Fairbank v. United States, 181 U. S. 305 27, 30, 233, 524, 611 Fairfax v. Hunter, 7 Cr. 627 481, 570, 612 Falconer v. Campbell, 2 McLean, 195 345 Fall v. Sutter County, 21 Cal. 252 341, 360 Fallbrook Irr. Dist v. Bradley, 164 U. S. 169 644, 452, 653, 714 Fall Eiver Iron Works v. Bailroad, 5 Allen, 221 372 Falls v. Wadsworth, 23 Me. 553 435 Fanning v. Gilliland, 37 Or. 369 652 Fanning v. Kerr, 7 Iowa, 462 42'J Fareira v. Keevil, 18 Mo. 188 167 Fargo v. Michigan, 121 U. S. 238 116, 130, 133, 134, 453 Farmers' Bank v. Grinnell, 26 Gratt. 131 391, 396 Farmers' etc. Bank v. Smith, 6 Wheat. 134 166, 417, 587 Farmers' etc. Bank v. Smith, 3 Serg. & E. 69 172 Farmers' etc. Ins. Co. v. Dabney, 189 U. S. 301 732 Farmers' etc. Ins. Co. v. Harrah, 47 Inch 240 109 Farmers' Loan and Trust Co. v. Chicago etc. E. E. Co., 27 Fed. 149 574 Farmers' L. & T. Co. v. Lake St. Ey. Co., 177 U. S. 61 512 Farmers' Mfg. Co. v. Spruks Mfg. Co., 119 Fed. 594 184 Farmers' etc. Nat. Bank v. Dearing, 91 U. S. 34 84, 217, 609, 610 Farnsworth v. Montana, 129 U. S. 113 223 Farnsworth v. Eeeves, 2 Cold. Ill 389 Farnsworth v. Vance, 3 Cold. 10S 282, 414, 416 Farnum, Tn re, 51 N. H. 376 311 Farrand, In re, 1 Abb., N. S., 146 108 Farrell v. Fingree, 5 Utah, 449 265 Farrington v. Tennessee, 95 U. S. 688 278, 284, 350, 352, 610 Farwell v. Eockland, 62 Me. 300 290 Table of Cases Cited. 781 Fassett, In re, 142 IT. S. 479 539 Faulkner v. Campbell, 2 McLean, 195 358, 379 Faw v. Marsteller, 2 Cr. 32 91 Fazende v. Houston, 34 Fed. 95 327 Fearn v. Ward, 65 Ala. 39 409 Felch v. Bugbee, 48 Me. 11 162, 167, 168, 417, 567 Fell v. State, 42 Md. 71 344 Fellows v. Blacksmith, 19 How. 372 613 Fellows v. Denniston, 23 N. Y. 420 612 Ferguson v. Landram, 1 Bush, 548 198 Ferguson v. Lowery, 54 Ala. 510 282 Ferguson v. Miners' etc. Bank, 3 Sneed, 609 375 Ferry v. King Co., 141 U. S. 673 520, 522 Ferris v. Higley, 20 Wall. 380 601 Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 97 U. S. 666 341, 342, 349, 438, 439, 683, 725, 726 Fertilizing Co. v. Hyde Park, 70 111. 634 336 Fessenden v. Willey, 84 Mass. 67 168 Fetter, In re, 3 Zab. 311 5S1, 583, 584, 585, 586 Ficklen v. Shelby County, 145 U. S. 21 1'42 Fidelity etc. Life Assn. v. Mettler, 185 U. S. 308 732 Fidelity and Deposit Co. v. United States, 187 U. S. 315 670 Fidelity Trust Co. v. Gill Car Co., 25 Fed. 737 504 Field, Ex parte, 5 Blatchf. 80 225, 471, 625, 631 Field v. Clark, 143 U. S. 671 30, 73, 74, 79, 463 Fielden v. Illinois, 143 TJ. S. 456 711 Fielden v. Lohens, 6 Blatchf. 524 3S9, 390 Fife v. State, 31 Ark. 458 607, 622, 628 Fifield v. Close, 15 Mich. 505 83, 680 Finley v. Bisbell, 1 Ells. 99 615 First National Bank v. Cunningham, 48 Fed. 514 565 First Nat. Bank v. Peterborough, 56 N. H. 42 81 First National Bank v. Searlls, 129 Ind. 201 725 First National Bank v. Stone, 88 Fed. 411 94 First School Dist. v. Ufford, 52 Conn. 44 429 Fischel v. Mills, 55 Ark. 346 479 Fishback v. Baxter, Taft, 240, 49 Fisher's Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 323 516 Fisher v. Commonwealth, 1 Bush (Ky.), 211 637 Fisher v. Green, 142 111. 93 423 Fisher v. Hepburn, 48 N. Y. 52 499 Fisk v. Jefferson Police Jury, 116 U. S. 13 1 2S4, 287 Fisk v. Montgomery, 21 La. Ann. 446 164 Fisk v. Union Pacific E. E. Co., 6 Blatchf. 362 514, 519 Fiske, Ex parte, 72 Cal. 125 725, 731 Fitch v. Bright 's Case, Taft, 164 58 Fitch v. Eailroad Co., 30 Conn. 38 360 782 Table of Cases Cited. Fitchburg E. R. Co. v. Grand Junction R. R. Co., 86 Mass. 198.. 3S1 Fitzgerald v. Grand Trunk Ry. Co., 63 Vt. 169 385 Fitzpatrick v. Hearne, 44 Ala. 171 388 Flagg v. Baldwin, 38 N. J. Eq. 224 288 Flanders v. Tweed, 9 Wall. 429 673 Flannagan v. Philadelphia, 22 Pa. St. 219 99 Fleet v. Hagenran, 14 Wend. 42 130 Fleitas v. Coekrem, 101 U. S. 301 673 Fleming v. Holt, 12 W. Va. 144 404 Fleming v. Page, 9 How. 615 194, 223, 467, 472, 594 Flemming v. Stahl, 83 Fed. 940 491 Fletcher v. Peck, 6 Cr. 87 29, 78, 113, 226, 227, 239, 251, 253, 264, 282, 283, 284, 292, 293, 332, 502, 524, 679, 682 Fletcher v. Rultand etc. R. R., 13 Vt. 535 293 Flewellin v. Proetzel, 80 Tex. 191 325 Flint v. Woodhull, 25 Mich. 99 382 Flint etc. Co. v. Foster, 5 Ga. 213 673 Florida v. Georgia, 17 How. 478 456, 545, 546, 685 Florida etc. R. R. Co. v. Bell, 176 U. S. 334 529 Florida Central R. R. v. Reynolds, 182 U. S. 481 731 Florentine v. Barton, 2 Wall. 210 432 Florio, In re, 43 Fed. 115 108 Flourney, In re, 1 Kelly (Ga.), 606 479 Floyd v. Blanding, 54 Cal. 41 269, 295 Floyd v. National Loan etc. Co., 49 W. Va. 327 728 Floyd Acceptances, The, 7 Wall. 675 89 Fogg v. Williams, 2 Head, 474 294 Folsom v. United States, 4 Ct. of CI. 366 233 Foltz v. Kerlin, 105 Ind. 223 4S5 Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 149 U. S. 716 108, 154, 462, 463, 484, 502, 613, 648, 700 Foot v. Buchanan, 113 Fed. 156 640, 641 Foote v. Johnson County, 5 Dill. 285 272 ■ Foote v. State, 59 Md. 264 675 Forbes v. Seannell, 13 Cal. 242 483 Ford v. Delta etc. Land Co., 164 U. S. 668 350, 351 Ford v. Delta Pine Land Co., 43 Fed. 181 303, 304 Ford v. Hale, 1 T. B. Mon. 23 '. 396 Ford v. Surget, 97 U. S. 605 193, 195, 243 Forgay v. Conrad, 6 How. 206 547 Forscheimer v. Holly, 14 Fla. 239 38S Forstall v. Consolidated Assn., 34 La. Ann. 770 306 Forster v. Forster, 129 Mass. 566 275 Forsyth's Case, CI. & H. 497 42 Forsyth v. Hammond, 166 U. S. 519 188 Forsyth v. Marbury, R, M. Charlt. 324 385, 409, 411 Forsyth v. United States, 9 How. 572 548 Table of Cases Cited. 783 Forsythe v. City of Hammond, 68 Fed. 774 714 Fort Leavenworth E. E. v. Lowe, 114 U. S. 525 208, 209 Fort Plain Bridge Co. v. Smith, 30 N. Y. 44 330, 377 Fort Smith v. Dodson, 46 Ark. 300 650, 726 Foseue v. Lyon, 55 Ala. 441 282 Foster v. Chamberlain, 41 Ala. 156 282 Foster v. Davenport, 22 How. 244 124 Foster v. Essex Bank, 16 Mass. 245 346, 399, 401 Foster v. Gray, 22 Pa. St. 9 436 Foster v. Jackson, 57 Ga. 206 668 Foster v. Mansfield etc. E. E. Co., 146 U. S. 101 521 Foster v. Neilson, 2 Pet. 314 461, 462, 4S1, 501, 611, 612, 613 Foster v. New Orleans, 94 U. S. 247 124, 611 Foster v. Police Commrs., 102 Cal. 483 257 Fouke v. Trumbull, 1 Bart. 167 40, 41 Fountain v. Eevenel, 17 How. 3S4 187, 497, 505, 677 Fourteen Diamond Eings v. United States, 183 U. S. 1S1 482 Fourth Nat. Bank v. Francklyn, 120 U. S. 755 405 Fowler v. Lindsay, 3 Dall. 412 526, 545, 688 Fox v. Ohio, 5 How. 433. .171, 173, 174,511,601,619,627,635, 663,668 France v. State, 57 Ohio St. 22 706 France v. United States, 164 U. S. 682 176 Francia Hatch, The, 25 Fed. Cas. 1204 463 Francis Wright, The, 105 U. S. 384 547 Francois, Ex parte, 3 Woods, 367 702, 704 Franklin v. Schermerhorn, 8 Hun, 112 299 Franklin v. State, 85 Ga. 570 636 Franklin v. Thurston, 8 Blackf . 161 425 Franklin Bank v. State, 1 Black, 47£ 352 Franklin County Court v. Deposit Bank, 87 Ky. 370 352 Frasher v. State, 3 Tex. App. 273 680, 6S2, 701, 704 Frazer, Ex parte, 54 Cal. 94 718 Frazer v. Seibern, 16 Ohio St. 622 92 Free v. Howarth, 19 Ind. 404 431 Freeborn v. Smith, 2 Wall. 175 399, 401, 548, 595 Freedman v. Sigel, 10 Blatchf. 328 83 Freeland v. Williams, 131 U. S. 420 273, 285, 391 Freeman v. Howe, 24 How. 450 508- Freeman v. Eobinson, 7 Ind. 323 590 Freight Cases, 95 N. C. 428 115 Freligh v. State, 8 Mo. 606 297 Frelinghuysen v. Baldwin, 12 Fed. 335 490 Frellson v. Mahan, 21 La. Ann. 104 277 Fremont v. United States, 17 How. 542 513 French v. O'Brien, 52 How. Pr. 394 163 French v. Tumlin. Fed. Cas. No. 5104 434 Fretz v. Bull, 12 How. 468 534, 536 784 Table of Cases Cited. Frevail v. Bache, 14 Pet. 97 482 Frey v. Habenstreit, 1 Lob. 561 413 Frey v. Kirk, 4 Gill & J. 509 167 Frierson v. Geneial Assembly, 7 Heisk. 705 244 Freis v. Brugler, 12 N. J. L. 79 641 Frisbie v. United States, 157 U. S. 165 630 Fritts v. Palmer, 132 U. S. 288 143, 577, 70S Frolickstein v. Mobile, 40 Ala. 725 620 Froment v. Duclos, 30 Fed. 385 498, 544 Frost v. People, 193 111. 635 727 Fry v. Lexington etc. E. R. Co., 2 Met. (Ky.) 322 372, 373 Fry v. State, 63 Ind. 552 122 Fugitive Slave Law, The, 1 Blatchf. 635 591 Fulty v. Fox, 9 B. Mon. 499 266, 286 Furman v. Nichol, 8 Wall. 63 355 Gableman v. Peoria etc. Ey. Co., 179 U. S. 339 520, 522 Gabler v. Elizabeth, 42 N. J. L. 79 327 Gage v. Gage, 66 N. H. 294 273 Gage v. Stewart, 127 111. 207 279 Gaines v. Buford, 1 Dana, 510 226, 251, 256, 257, 258 292, 293 Gaines v. Chew, 2 How. 619 523 Gaines v. Coates, 51 Miss. 335 Gaines v. Fuentes, 92 U. S. 18 187, 503, 506, 514, 51S Gaines v. Eelf, 15 Pet. 17 547 Gaines v. Eives, 8 Ark. 220 249 Gaines v. Thompson, 7 Wall. 350 460, 461,493 Gainesville etc. Ey. Co. v. Hall, 78 Tex. 169 655 Gainesville Mfg. v. Eoper, 15 Eich. 138 356 Galena v. Amy, 5 Wall. 709 317, 328 Galena etc. Ey. v. Loomis, 13 111. 548 115, 336, 343, 367, 368, 442 Gallatin's Case, CI. & H. 851 53 Galley v. Ginshard, 27 La. Ann. 396 315 Gallup v. Schmidt, 183 U. S. 307 645, 714 Galpin v. Page, 18 Wall. 367 511 Galveston etc. E. E. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 103 247, 373 Galveston Co. v. Gorham, 49 Tex. 279 138 Gans, Ex parte, 5 McCrary, 395, 17 Fed. 473 500 Gantly v. Ewing, 3 How. 717 397, 413, 415, 424, 425 Garcia v. Lee, 12 Pet. 516 462, 482, 502 Garcia v. Territory, 1 N. Mex. 415 675 Gardner 's Case, 2 Johns. 477 584, 586 Gardner v. Jeter, 49 Ga. 195 437 Gardner v. Lee 's Bank, 11 Barb. 558 170 Gardner v. New Jersey, 1 Pet. Adm. 227 537 Gardner v. The Collector, 6 Wall. 506 72, 73 Table of Cases Cited. 785 Garland, Ex parte, 4 Wall. 380 226, 227 228, 229, 253, 254, 257, 258, 476, 477, 478, 479, 612, 615, 619, 620 Garland v. Irrigation Co., 9 Utah, 360 268, 427 Garlington v. Priest, 13 Fla. 559 413 Garnett, In re, 141 U. S. 12 107, 535, 536, 539 Garr v. Clements, 4 N. Dak. 559 426 Garrabad, In re, 84 Wis. 585 731 Garrett v. Cheshire, 69 N. C. 403 412 Garrett v. Cardell, 43 Ga. 366 431 Garrett v. Memphis, 5 Fed. 860 326 Garrett v. Weinberg, 54 S. C. 144 259 Garrison v. New York, 21 Wall. 203 263, 326, 341 Gas and Water Co. v. Downington, 175 Pa. St. 341 310 Gas Co. v. Parkersburg, 30 W. Va. 439 341 Gassies v. Ballon, 6 Pet. 762 155, 532, 570, 701 Gates v. Bucki, 53 Fed. 966 188 Gates v. Lansing, 5 Johns. 282 223 Gatzweiller v. People, 14 111. 142 310,316 Gault's Appeal, 33 Pa. St. 194 389,424 Geer v. Connecticut, 161 U. S. 531 101, 112, 128 Geery, Appeal of, 43 Conn. 289 164 Geissler, Ex parte, 9 Biss. 492, 4 Fed. 188 56 Galena etc. E. E. v. Appleby, 28 111. 283 368 Gelpi v. Treasurer, 48 La. Ann. 1537 448 Gelsthorpe v. Turnell, 20 Mont. 307 232 Gelston v. Hoyt, 3 Wheat. 323 494, 500, 502 General Smith, The, 4 Wheat. 443 536, 537 Genessee Chief v. Fitzhugh, 12 How. 456 30, 97, 534, 535, 536 Gentile v. State, 29 Ind. 409 130 Geofroy v. Biggs, 133 U. S. 266 4g2, 571 George v. Concord, 45 N. H. 434 89, 90, 171, 213, 218 George v. Gardner, 49 Ga. 441 406, 408 Georgia v. Brailsford, 2 Dall. 402 527,545 Georgia v. Georgia etc. Co., 54 Ga. 426 289 Georgia v. Stanton, 6 Wall. 77 460, 462, 468, 491, 501, 522, 526 Georgia etc. Co. v. Macon, 60 Fed. 774 139 Georgia etc. Co. v. Mayor, 6 Fed. 780 139 Georgia etc. Companies v. Nelms, 71 Ga. 301 30g Georgia Packing Co. v. Mayor, 60 Fed. 779 124 Georgia E. E. etc. Co. v. Smith, 128 U. S. 174 338, 366, 720 Georgia E. E. v. Smith, 70 Ga. 700 341 German Savings Bank v. Archbold, 15 Blatchf. 402 87 Gholson & Claiborne's Case, 1 Barb. 9 46 47 60 Gibbes v. G. & C. B, E. Co., 13 S. C. 242 '....' 281 Gibbes v. Town Council of Beaufort, 21 S. C. 217 360 Gibbins v. District of Columbia, 116 U. S. 404 44 205 Notes on Constitution — 50 786 Table of Cases Cited. Gibbons v. Livingston, 6 N. J. L. 236 . 563 Gibbons v. Ogden, 9 Wheat. 191 27, 31, 79, 80, 82, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 108, 109, 111, 113, 118, 123, 125, 129, 215, 221, 222, 235, 396, 443, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 611, 677, 678, 680 Gibbs v. Green, 54 Miss. 592 304 Giboney v. Cape Girardeau, '58 Mo. 141 311 Gibson v. Chouteau, 13 Wall. 99 597 Gibson v. Hibbard, 13 Mich. 219 393, 429 Gibson v. Mississippi, 162 U. S. 589 256, 261 Gilchrist v. Helena etc. R. E., 47 Fed. 595 356 Giles v. Harris, 189 U. S. 475 739 Gilfillan v. Union Cent. Canal Co., 109 U. S. 404 404, 420 Gill v. Scowden, 14 Phila. 626 309, 316 Gillan v. Board of Regents, 88 Wis. 13 291 Gillespie v. People, 188 HI. 176 049, 712, 713 Gilman v. Contra Costa County, 8 Cal. '52 327 Gilman v. Cutts, 23 N. H. 376 408 Gilman v. Lockwood, 4 Wall. 411 418 Gilman v. Philadelphia, 3 Wall. 725 96, 97, 101, 103, 113, 114, 124, 129, 139, 441, 678, 680, 681 Gilman v. Sheboygan, 2 Black, 513 300,304 Gilman v. Tucker, 128 N. Y. 190 268, 286, 427 Gilmer v. Lime Point, 18 Cal. 229 610, 652, 658 Gilnrore v. Sapp, 100 111. 297 642 Giltner v. Gorham, 4 McLean, 402 591 Giovanna, In re, 93 Fed. 660 700 Giozza v. Tiernan, 148 U. S. 662 440, 698, 706 Girard College, Ex parte, 31 Leg. Int. 164 342, Gist, Ex parte, 26 Ala. 156 490, 498, 503, 511 Gittings v. Crawford, Taney,- 5 498, 544 Given v. Wright, 117 U. S. 657 303 Gladney v. Sydnor, 172 Mo. 318 257 Gladson v. Minnesota, 166 U. S. 421 307 Glascow v. Bowse, 43 Mo. 489 80 Glaspell v. Northern Pacific R. R. Co., 144 U. S. 219 '595 Glass v. Blackwell, 48 Ark. 54 565 Glenearne, The, 7 Saw. 202, 7 Fed. 607 104 Glenn, Ex parte, 111 Fed. 257 634 Glenn v. Clabaugh, 65 Md. 69 168, 287 Glenn v. Hodges, 9 Johns. 67 591 Glenn v. Humphreys, 4 Wash. C. C. 424 419 Glenn v. Williams, 60 Md. 113 565 Glidden v. Harrington, 189 U. S. 255 714 Glide, The, 167 U. S. 615 '519, 534, 53S, 541 Globe Ins. Co. v. Cleveland Ins. Co., 10 Fed. Cas. 491 164 Gloucester Ferry Co. v. Pennsylvania, 114 U. S. 203 100, 102, 105, 107, 132, 133, 453 Table of Cases Cited. 787 Gloucester Ins. Co. v. Younger, 2 Curt. 333 534, 537 Glover v. Powell, 10 N. J. Eq. 211 295 Goenen v. Sehroeder, 8 Minn. 387 423 Goetze v. United States, 103 Fed. 72 480 Goggins v. Turnipseed, 1 Kich., N. S., 80 390, 413, 414 Golden v. Prince, 3 Wash. C. C. 313 154, 387, 417 Goldey v. Morning News, 156 U. S. 521 562 Goldsmith v. Brown, 5 Or. 418 328 Gon-Shay-Ee, Petitioner, 130 U. S. 349 509 Good v. Martin, 95 U. S. 98 508 Goodale v. Fennell, 27 Ohio St. 426 318, 325, 389, 390 Goodall v. Tuttle, 3 Biss. 219 161 Goode v. Epes, 53 Cong. Rep. 1952 615 Goodell v. Jackson, 20 Johns. 693 149, 150, 151 Goodhue 's Case, 1 City H. Eec. 153 584, 586 Goodrich v. Detroit, 184 U. S. 439 645 Goodtitle v. Kibbe, 9 How. 477 129 Gordon 's Case, 7 Ct. of CI. 1 503 Gordon v. Appeal Tax Court, 3 How. 147 352, 354 Gordon v. Canal Co., 1 McA. 513 268, 426 Gordon v. Hobart, 2 Sum. 401 523 Gordon v. Ker, 1 Wash. C. C. 322 613 Gordon v. United States, 117 U. S. 704 38, 548 Gorely v. Butler, 147 Mass. 12 162, 417 Gorham v. Wing, 10 Mich. 498 422 Gorham Co. v. White, 14 Wall. o24 184 Gorman v. Pacific R. R. Co., 26 Mo. 441 336, 368 Goshen v. Richmond, 86 Mass. 461 393 Goshen v. Stonington, 4 Conn. 209 274, 434 Gotchens v. Matheson, 40 How. Pr. 97, 58 Barb. 192 227, 228 Gottfried v. Phillip Best Co., 10 Fed. Cas. 851 184 Gottschalk v. Meyer, 28 La. Ann. 8S5 16u Gougar v. Timberlake, 148 Ind. 47 701, 738 Gould v. Mayor, 55 Ga. 685 574 Governeur's Heirs v. Robertson, 11 Wheat. 350 156 Governor v. Gridley, Walk. 328 415 Governor v. Maclrazo, 1 Pet. 122 526, 527,687 Governor of Georgia v. Slaves, 1 Pet. 124 545 Gowen v. Harley, 56 Fed. 979 356 Gowen v. Shute, 4 Baxt. 63 246 Gozzler v. Georgetown, 6 Wheat. 598 318 Grace v. American Cent. Ins. Co., 109 U. S. 283 505 Grafflin's Case, 1 Bart. 464 55 Graffty v. Rushville, 107 Ind. 502 v . 141 Graham v. Bayne, 18 How. 62 543 Graham v. State, 7 Ind. 470 432 Graham v. Stucken, 4 Blatchf . 50 542 788 Table of Cases Cited. Grammar School v. Bailey, 62 Vt. 478 292 Grammar School v. Burt, 11 Vt. 682 308 Grand Gulf etc. R. R. v. Buck, 53 Miss. 246 350 Grand Lodge v. New Orleans, 166 U. S. 149 301, 349 Grand Rapids v. Braudy, 105 Mich. 670 717 Grand Trunk Ry. Co. v. Backus, 46 Fed. 214 97 Grannahan v. Railroad Co., 30 Mo. 546 345 Grant v. Leach, 20 La. Ann. 331 340 Grant v. Raillon, 20 How. 169 539 Grant v. Raymond, 6 Pet. 218 183 Grapeshot, The, 9 Wall. 132 472, 498, 509, 514 Gratiot v. United States, 14 How. 117 200, 470, 486 Gray v. Coffin, 63 Mass. 192 345 Gray v. Coffman, 3 Dill. 401 150 Gray v. Connecticut, 159 U. S. 74 718 Gray v. Monongahela Nav. Co., 2 Watts & S. 160 274 Gray v. Monroe, 1 McLean, 532 273 Grayson v. Lilly, 7 Mon. 6 413 Grayson v. Virginia, 3 Dall. 320 526, 527 Great Falls Mfg. Co. v. Attorney General, 124 U. S. 597 659, 660 Greathouse, In re, 4 Saw. 499 476 Great Southern Hotel Co. v. Jones, 177 U. S. 455 530 Greeley v. Townsend, 25 Cal. 604 514 Green, In re, 134 U. S. 379 464, 466, 691 Green, Ex parte, 114 Fed. 959 141 Green v. Abraham, 43 Ark. 424 274 Green v. Biddle, 8 Wheat. 89 2-64, 282, 2)83, 293, 341, 385, 386, 389, 391, 402, 450, 451, 457, 672 Green v. Biddle, 3 Smedes & M. 673 624 Green v. Briggs, 1 Curt. 311 643 Green v. Drinker, 7 Watts & S. 440 392 Green v. Elbert, 63 Fed. 309 736 Green v. Goodall, 1 Cold. 404 392 Green v. Holway, 101 Mass. 250 676 Green v. Salas, 31 Fed. 107 153 Green v. Sarmiento, 1 Pet. C. C. 74 564, 5o8 Green v. Schroeder, 8 Minn. 387 391 Green v. Shumway, 39 N. Y. 418 252, 258 Green v. Sizer, 40 Miss. 530 246 Green v. State, 58 Ala. 190 704, 730 Green v. State, 66 Ala. 40 666 Green v. Van Buskirk, 7 Wall. 145 568 Green v. Weller, 32 Miss. 652 32 Greenfield v. Dorris, 1 Sneed, 548 388, 412, 423, 425 Greenleaf v. Township, 22 111. 236 312 Greenough, Ex parte, 31 Vt. 279 579, 583, 585 Greensboro v. Ehrenreich, 80 Ala. 579 125 Table of Cases Cited. 789 Greenwood v. Freight Co., 105 U. S. 22 369, 376, 378, 382, 657 Greenwood v. State, 64 Ind. 250 637 Gregg v. Hilsen, 34 Leg. Int. 20 165 Gregory v. Gregory, 78 Me. 190 563 Gregory v. Morris, 96 U. S. 625 91 Gregory v. Shelby, 2 Met. (Ky.) 589 297 Grenada County v. Brogden, 112 U. S. 272 329 Grether v. Wright, 75 Fed. 753 85, 92 Gretna Green, The, 20 Fed. 902 100, 112 Griffin, Ex parte, 25 Tex. Supp. 623 606 Griffin's Case, Chase, 364 31, 734 Griffin v. Martin, 7 Barb. 297 726 Griffin v. Kentucky Ins. Co., 3 Bush, 592 . 340, 377 Griffin v. McKenzie 7 Ga. 166 406 Griffin v. Wilcox, 21 Ind. 370 224, 225, 468, 474, 475, 647 Griffith v. Bank, 4 Mo. 255 247 Griffith v. Thomas, 34 Leg. Int. 150 414 Griffiths v. Shipp, 49 Ga. 231 437 Grignon v. Astor, 2 How. 341 505, 518 Grimball v. Boss, Chailt. 175 386, 387, 415 Grimes v. Byrne, 2 Minn. 89 410, 412 Grimes v. Doe, 8 Blackf . 271 393 Grimes v. Eddy, 126 Mo. 168 125, 126 Grimley, In re, 137 U. S. 150 200 Grimm v. Wiessenberg School Dist., 57 Pa. St. 435 229, 275, 393 Griner, In re, 16 Wis. 423 198, 469 Grissom v. Hill, 17 Ark. 489 263 Griswold's Case, Taft, 94 53 Griswold v. Bragg, 18 Blatchf. 208 391, 395, 403 Griswold v. Hepburn, 2 Davall, 29 : 171, 249 Griswold v. Pratt, 9 Met. 17, 163, 164 Griswold v. Waddington, 16 Johns. 449 193 Grogan v. San Francisco, 18 Cal. 590 292, 313 Gross v. United States Mortgage Co., 108 U. S. 477 274, 392, 430 Grosvenor v. Chesley, 48 Me. 369 404, 414 Groton v. Hurlburt, 22 Conn. 1S6 98 Grove v. Mott, 46 N. J. L. 328 473, 475 Grove v. Todd, 41 Md. 633 392 Grover v. Coon, 1 N. Y. 536 430 Grover v. KadclifTe, 137 U. S. 295 562, 565 Grover etc. Co. v. Butler, 53 Ind. 454 183 Groves v. Slaughter, 15 Pet. 449 28, 95, 119, 222, 270. 591 Grubbs v. Harris, 1 Bibb, 567 433 Guenther v. People, 22 Colo. 121 635 Guild v. Rogers, 8 Barb. 502 399. 403 Guilford v. Supervisors, 13 N. Y. 1432 315 Guillote v. New Orleans, 12 La. Ann. 432 663 Gulf etc. By. v. Dwyer, 75 Tex. 572 103, 113, 115, 120 790 Table of Cases Cited. Gulf etc. Ey. Co. v. Eddins, 7 Tex. Civ. App. 116 121 Gulf etc. Ry. v. Ellis, 165 U. S. 155 443, 731 Gulf etc. By. Co. v. Hefley, 158 U. S. 102 102, 115 Gulf etc. E. E. Co. v. Hewes, 1^3 U. S. 71 302, 374 Gulf etc. Ry. Co. v. Nelson, 4 Tex. Civ. App. 345 120 Gulf etc. Ey. Co. v. State, 72 Tex. 404 121 Gumm v. Hubbard, 97 Mo. 311 700 Gundliug v. Chicago, 177 U. S. 183 441, 717, 732 Gunn v. Barry, 8 Bank. Eeg. 1 161, 263, 269, 385 Gunn v. Barry, 15 Wall. €23. .263, 269, 281, 396, 397, 398, 409, 411, 412 Gunn v. White Sewing-Machine Co., 57 Ark. 35 105, 107 Gunther v. City of Baltimore, 55 Md. 457 131, 452 Gurney v. Walsham, 16 E. I. 698 426 Gut v. State, 9 Wall. 37 ! 260 Gutierrez, Ex parte, 45 Cal. 430 255 Guy v. Baltimore, 100 U. S. 434 139, 235, 444, 574 Gyer 's Lessees v. Irwin, 4 Dall. 107 66 Hacker, In re, 73 Fed. 467 223 Hackley v. Geraghty, 34 N. J. L. 332 455 Hagan v. Lucas, 10 Pet. 404 513 Hagar, Ex parte, 104 U. S. 521 538 Hagar v. Reclamation Dist., Ill U. S. 708 82, 91, 295, 684, 709, 715 Haggerty v. Illinois Mfg. Co., 143 Mo. 243 128 Hagood v. Southern, 117 U. S. 67 ,. . . 545, 688 Hague v. Powers, 39 Barb. 427 27, 89, 90, 171, 249 Hale v. County Commissioners, 137 Mass. 114 331 Hale v. Huston, 44 Ala. 134 247, 386 Haley v. State, 42 Neb. 559 127, 146 Hall, In re, 167 U. S. 42 187 Hall v. Boardman, 14 N. H. 3S 168, 169 Hall v. Carey, 5 Ga. 239 337, 420 Hall v. De Cuir, 95 U. S. 512 101, 102, 104, 106, 117 Hall v. Hall, 43 Ala. 502 239, 241 Hall v. State, 130 Ala. 90 635 Hall v. Wells, 54 Miss. 301 272 Hall v. Williams, 6 Pick. 243 170 Hall v. Winchell, 38 Vt. 588 170 Hall v. Wisconsin, 103 U. S. 8 2S2, 2S9, 304 Hallinger v. Davis, 146 U. S. 320 627, 708 Hamill v. Littner, 7 Pac. 707 277 Hamilton v. Avery, 20 Tex. 634 294 Hamilton v. Brown, 161 U. S. 250 296 Hamilton v. Dillin, 21 Wall. 97 196, 216 Hamilton v. Keith, 5 Bush (Ky.), 45S 338 Hamilton v. Railroad Co., 34 La. Ann. 973 103 Hamilton Av., In re, 14 Barb. 405 359 Table of Cases Cited. 791 Hamilton Co. v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. 639 82, 84, 92 447 Hamilton Gaslight Co. v. Hamilton City, 146 U. S. 266 271, 281, 325, 370, 374, 378, 391 Hammond v. Herrick, CI. & H. 289 69 Hammond v. Place, 116 Mich. 628 326 Hampton, The, 5 Wall. 376 196 Hampton v. MeConnell, 3 Wheat. 235 564 Hanauer v. Doane, 12 Wall. 345 243, 557 Hanauer v. Woodruff, 15 Wall. 439 243, 248, 386, 388 Hancock v. Ewing, 55 Mo. 101 308 Hancock v. Eitchie, 11 Ind. 48 431 Hancock v. Singer Mfg. Co., 62 N. J. L. 343 232, 350, 352, 378, 447 Hancock v. Yaden, 121 Ind. 370 213 Hancock National Bank v. Farnum, 176 U. S. 644 ; 564 Handley's Estate, In re, 15 Utah, 22'6 402 Handlin v. Wickliffe, 12 Wall, 175 473 Handy v. Clark, 4 Houst. 6 694 Haney v. Sharp, 1 Dana, 442 512, 520 Hanford v. Davies, 163 U. S. 279 505 Hanford v. Davies, 51 Fed. 259 271, 272 Hanley v. Donoghue, 116 U. S. 3 563 Hannah v. Fife, 27 Mich. 172 307 Hannibal etc. E. E. Co. v. Chacklett, 30 Mo. 550 354 Hannibal etc. E. E. v. Marion, 36 Mo. 294 320 Hannum v. Mclnturf, 6 Baxt. 225 410, 412 Hanover Bank v. Smith, 13 Blatchf. 225 515 Hanover National Bank v. Moyses, 186 TJ. S. 18 159, 263, 646 Hanrick v. Hanrick, 54 Tex. 114 157 Hans v. Louisiana, 134 U. S. 11 306, 686 Hanson, Ex parte, 28 Fed. 127 141 Hansrick v. Rouse, 17 Ga. 56 316, 433 Harbin v. Bell, 54 Ala. 389 282 Harbison v. Knoxville Iron Co., 103 Tenn. 421 647, 728 Harbor Master v. Southerland, 47 Ala. 516 455 Hardeman v. Downer, 39 Ga. 425 410, 412 604 Harding v. Alden, 9 Me. 150 266 Harding v. People, 160 111. 459 642, 712 Hardy, Ex parte, 68 Ala. 318 402 Hardy v. Waltham, 24 Mass. 10S 302, 351 Harlan v. People, 1 Doug. (Mich.) 207 174 Harlan v. Sigler, 1 Morris, 39 396, 432 Harley v. State, 40 Ala. 697 156, 241 Harmison v. Lewistown, 153 111. 313 717 Harmon v. Chicago, 147 U. S. 413 97, 144 Harmon v. United States, 50 Fed. 922 176 Harold v. Herrington, 95 Ala. 395 327 Harriet, The, 1 Story, 260 191 Harrigan v. Connecticut L. Co., 129 Mass. 580 103, 119 792 Table of Cases Cited. Harris v. Shaw, 13 111. 456 316 Harrisburg, The, 119 U. S. 209 540 Harrison v. Gieen, 18 Cal. 91 454 Harrison v. Mayor, 3 Sn.edes & M. 581 132, 444, 445 Harrison v. Styres, 74 N. C. 290 387, 415 Harrison v. Young, 9 Ga. 151 360 Hart, Ex parte, 59 Fed. 895 582 Hart 's Case, 16 Ct. of CI. 459 239 Hart v. Cornwall, 14 Conn. 22S 302 Hart v. Gilbert, Taft, 321 50 Hart v. State, 40 Ala. 22 253, 256 Hart v. United States, 118 U. S. 65 478 Hartford Br. Co. v. East Hartford, 16 Conn. 149 334, 373 Hartford Br. Co. v. Union Ferry Co., 29 Conn. 210 334, 360 Hartford Fire Ins. Co. v. Doyle, 6 Biss. 465 78 Hartford Fire Ins. Co. v. Baymond, 70 Mich. 502 143, 577 Hartman v. Aveline, 63 Ind. 344 580 Hartman v. Beehtel, 1 Woodw. Dec. 32 339, 361, 362 Hartman v. Fishbeck, 18 Fed. 295 510 Hartman v. Greenhow, 102 U. S. 672 276, 282, 288, 289 Hartnung v. People, 22 N. Y. 95 253, 254, 256 Harvey v. Ehode Island L. Works, 93 U. S. 671 682 Harvey v. Virginia, 20 Fed. 411 30.) Hasbrouck v. Shipman, 16 Wis. 296 416 Haskell v. City of Burlington, 30 Iowa, 232 278 Haskell v. Jones, 86 Pa. St. 173 179 Haskett v. Maxey, 134 Ind. 191 272 Hastings v. Fowler, 2 Ind. 216 160 Hatch v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 439 243, 388 Hatch v. Spofford, 22 Conn. 497 239, 456 Hatch v. Willamette Iron Br. Co., 7 Saw. 127 96 Hauenstein v. Lynham, 100 U. S. 489 484 Havemeyer v. Iowa County, 3 Wall. 303 272 Haverill Bridge Props, v. County Commissioners, 103 Mass. 120.. 657 Haverty v. Bsss, 66 Me. 71 725 Hawaii, Territory of, v. Mankichi, 190 U. S. 197 599, 632, 667 Hawkins, Ex parte, 61 Ark. 324 478 Hawkins, In re, 34 Conn. 348 164 Hawkins v. Barney, 5 Pet. 468 406 Hawkins v. Filkins, 24 Ark. 2S6 241, 270 Hawkins v. Lawrence, 8 Blackf . 226 82 Hawkins v. Learned, 54 N. H. 333 165 Hawley v. Hunt, 27 Iowa, 307 168, 169, 287, 418 Hawley v. Hurd, 72 Vt. 122 708, 728 Hawthorn v. People, 109 HI. 302 118 Hawthorne v. Calef, 20 Wall. 10 345, 398, 400 Hay v. Hill, 65 Cal. 383 277 Ha'vburn's Case, 3 Dall. 409 38, 516 Table of Cases Cited. 793 Hay-den v. Thompson, 71 Fed. 63 337 Hayes v. Clinkscales, 9 Rich. 441 388 Hayne, Ex parte, 1 Hughes, 571 464 Haynes v. State, Humph. 4S0 290 Hays v. Pacific Mail S. S. Co., 17 How. 593 131, 137 Hazel Kirke, The, 25 Feci. 605 ' 98 Hazen v. Union Bank, 1 Sneed, 115 270, 357 Head v. Amoskeag Mfg. Co., 113 U. S. 26 654 Head v. Porter, 48 Fed. 487 185 Head v. University, 9 Wall. 531 291 Head Money Cases, 112 U. S. 5S0 88, 96, 108, 4S4, 521 Head Money Cases, 18 Fed. 135 232 Heaclnotes to Opinions, In re, 43 Mich. 641 307 Health Department v. Eector, 145 N. Y. 32 716, 725 Hebard, Ex parte, 4 Dill. 384 209 Hedges v. Price, 2 W. Ya. 231 195 Hedgman v. State, 2i6 Mich. 151 739 Hefferlin v. Sinsinderf er, 2 Kan. 403 425 Hefferman v. Porter, 6 Cold. 396 473 Hegeman v. Western E. E., 16 Barb. 353 120 Hegler v. Faulkner, 153 U. S. 117 460 Heilbron, In re, 14 Wash. 536 410 Helena v. Dwyer, 64 Ark. 424 718, 722 Helf enstein v. Cave, 3 Iowa, 289 412 Helm v. First National Bank, 43 In.l. 167 183 Helm v. Webster, 85 111. 116 264 He-mpstead v. Eeed, 6 Conn. 480 162, 169, 417 Henderlite v. Thurman, 22 Gratt. 480 590, 693 Henderson v. Griffin, 5 Pet. 155 188 Henderson v. Mayor, 92 U. S. 259. .95, 104, 108, 116, 119, 125, 447, 681 Henderson v. Merchants' Mut. Ins. Co., 25 La. Ann. 343 386, 388 Henderson v. Tompkins, 60 Fed. 763 180 Henderson Br. Co. v. Henderson City, 141 U. S. 689 132 Henderson Br. Co. v. Henderson City, 173 U. S. 623 81, 132 Henderson Bridge Co. v. Kentucky, 166 U. S. 154 131, 132 Henderson E. E. v. Dickerson, 17 B. Mon. 177 229, 273 Henkel, In re, 2 Saw. 305 412 Hcnnen, Ex parte, 13 Pet. 230 4S5, 486, 487, 490 Hennick, In re, 5 Mackey, 4S9 142 Hennington v. Georgia, 163 U. S. 315 117, 121, 620, 721 Henry, In re, 123 U. S. 375 176 Henry v. Henry, 31 S. C. 1 406, 408 Henry v. State, 33 Ala. 389 636 Henry Ward, Ex parte, 173 U. S. 456 488 Hepburn v. Curts, 7 Watts, 300 399, 429 Hepburn v. Ellzey, 2 Cr. 453 206, 532 Hepburn v. Kerr, 9 Humph. 728 424 794 Table of Cases Cited. Hepburn v. Griswold, 8 Wall. 616 S9, 90, 91, 213, 263, 611, 673 Herbert v. Easton, 43 Ala. 547 435, 437 Herera v. State, 35 Tex. Cr. 607 636 Herman v. Phalen, 14 How. SO 269, 402 Herrick v. Niesz, 16 Wash. 78 43 1 Herrick v. Kandolph, 13 Vt. 525 233, 293, 301, 302 Herring v. Selding, 2 Aikens, 17 413 Herschf eld v. Dexel, 12 Ga. 586 288 Hess v. Johnson, 3 W. Va. 645 253 Hess v. Muir, 65 Md. 605 291 Hess v. Werts, 4 Serg. & E. 356 392 Hester v. Memphis etc. B. E., 32 Miss. 3S0 372 Hester v. Watkins, 54 Ala. 44 23 L Hevren v. Eeed, 126 Cal. 222 298, 343, 441 H. E. Willard, The, 53 Fed. 599 540, 541 Hewitt v. New York etc. E. E., 12 Blatchf. 407 301, 353, 379 Hewitt v. Story, 64 Fed. 523 42 Heyneman v. Blake, 19 Cal. 579 652 Heyward, Ex parte, 1 Sand. 701 586 Heyward v. Judd, 4 Minn. 483 400, 422, 423, 425 Hibler v. State, 43 Tex. 201 579, 584 Hickman v. Hickman, 1 Wash. 257 242, 258, 287 Hickman v. Jones, 9 Wall. 200 6S5 Hickox v. Tallman, 38 Barb. 608 436 Hicks v. Cleveland, 106 Fed. 429 317 Hicks v. Euhartonah, 21 Ark. 106 147 Hicks v. Hotchkiss, 7 Johns. Ch. 297 .417, 418 Higgins v. Keuffel, 140 IT. S. 431 178, 181, 1S2 Higgins v. Lime, 130 Mass. 13 611 Higgins v. Einker, 47 Tex. 381 440 High v. Coyne, 93 Fed. 451 93, 231, 232 High Bridge Lumber Co. v. United States, 69 Fed. 325 660 Hilands v. Commonwealth, 114 Pa. St. 372 635 Hill's Case, 2 Opin. Atty. Gen. 336 492 Hill, Ex parte, 38 Ala. 450 204 Hill v. Boyland, 40 Miss. 618 244, 408, 413, 615 Hill v. Glascow E. E., 41 Fed. 616 376, 377, 383 Hill v. Insurance Co., 134 IT. S. 527 433 Hill v. Kessler, 63 N. C. 440 411, 412 Hill v. Low, 4 Wash. C. C. 326 591 Hill v. Merchants' Ins. Co., 134 IT. S. 527 398 Hill v. Smith, 1 Morris, 70 394, 430 Hillibert v. Porter, 28 Minn. 496 394 Hinckley v. Chicago etc. E. E., 38 Wis. 91 383 Hine, The, v. Trevor, 4 Wall. 555 510, 534, 535, 536, 539, 540 Hinkle v. Eipfert, 6 Pa. St. 196 429 Hinkley v. Mareau, 3 Mason, 88 167, 169, 418 Table of Cases Cited. 795 Hinmon v. Goodyear, 56 Conn. 210 429 Hinson v. Lott, 8 Wall. 148 86, 102, 444, 447 Hinton v. Hinton, Phill. (N. C.) 410 265 Hiriot v. Ballou, 9 Pet. 167 671 Hirn v. Ohio, 1 Ohio St. 21 297 Hirsch's Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 385 659 Hitchcock v. Aiken, 1 Caines, 460 32 Ho Ah Kow v. Nunan, 5 Saw. 552 728 Hobart v. Drogan, 10 Pet. 120 53S Hobbs, Ex parte, 1 Woods, 542 704 Hobbs, Ex parte, 32 Tex. Cr. 312 584, 586 Hobbs v. Manhattan Ins. Co., 56 Me. 417 515 Hockett v. State, 105 Ind. 259 649 Hodge's Case, 18 Ct. of CI. 700 73 Hodges v. Easton, 106 IT. S. 411 673 Hodgson v. Bowerbank, 5 Cr. 303 503, 505, 533 Hodgson v. Millward, 3 Grant, 406 514, 519, 520, 64S Hodgson v. Vermont, 168 U. S. 272 710 Hoff v. Jasper County, 110 IT. S. 53 320 Hoffman v. State, 20 Md. 425 633, 634 Hoge's Case, CI. & H. 135 47.55 Hogg v. Canal Co., 5 Ohio, 410 2S2 Hogg v. Emerson, 6 How. 486 183, 185 Hoke v. Henderson, 4 Dev. 15 646 Holden v. Hardy, 169 IT. S. 392 438, 442, 703, 704, 721 Holden v. Joy, 17 Wall. 242 149, 482, 595, 613 Holden v. Minnesota, 137 IT. S. 495 256, 262, 711 Holgate v. Oregon etc. E. K., 16 Or. 124 434 Holladay v. Auditor, 77 Va. 430 290 Hollen, The, 1 Mason, 431 479 Holler v. Fox, 51 Fed. 298 537 Holley v. New York City, 59 N. Y. 170 4S7 Hollida v. Hunt, 70 111." Ill 86, 179, 183 Hollingsworth v. Thompson, 45 La. Ann. 222 65 Hollingsworth v. Virginia, 3 Dall. 381 75, 607, 683 Hollingsworth Parish v. Tensas, 4 Woods. 288, 17 Fed. 115 654 Hollister v. Benedict Mfg. Co., 113 U. S. 73 184, 185 Hollister v. Union Co., 9 Conn. 436 295, 628 Holloway v. Sherman, 12 Iowa. 282 417, 435 Holly Springs Co. v. Marshall, 52 Miss. 281 349 Holman v. Bank, 12 Ala. 417 257 Holmes v. Hunt, 122 Mass. 516 435 Holmes v. Hurst, 174 U. S. 86 179, 180, 181, 182 Holmes v. Jennison, 14 Pet. 540 32, 124, 240, 456, 457, 483, 504. 586. 587, 676, 681 Holmes v. Lansing, 3 Johns. Cas. 73 400 Holmes v. Oregon etc. E. E., Co., 7 Saw. 386, 9 Fed. 232 499 796 Table of Cases Cited. Holmes v. Sevier, 154 U. S. 583 693 Holt, In re, 104 Fed. 336 56 Holt v. State, 2 Tex. 363 262 Holyoke Co. v. Lyman, 15 Wall. 512. . .341, 369, 371, 393, 377, 378, 380 Home Ins. Co. v. Augusta, 93 U. S. 122, 123 263, 297 Home Ins. Co. v. New York, 134 U. S. 594 85, 93, 731 Home Ins. Co. v. Virginia-Carolina etc. Co., 109 Fed. 681 669 Home of the Friendless v. Rouse, 8 Wall. 437 278, 301, 303, 333 Homestead Cases, 22 Gratt. 283.. 240, 241, 270, 281, 411, 412, 413, 605 Homestead Co. v. Valley R. R., 17 Wall. 166 598 Honduras Com. Co. v. State Board, 54 N. J. L. 27S 133 Hood v. Maxwell, 1 W. Va. 219 240,685 Hood v. State, 56 Ind. 263 562 Hooe v. Jamieson, 166 U. S. 397 206, 529, 532 Hooker v. New Haven etc. Co., 15 Cow. 322 331 Hooper, In re, 57 Wis. 702 580,582 Hooper v. California, 155 U. S. 657 109, 145, 214, 524, 577, 611 Hoover v. McChesney, 81 Fed. 478 176, 461 Hope v. Henderson, 4 Dev. 15 643 Hope v. Johnson, 2 Yerg. 125 401 Hope Insurance Co. v. Boardman, 5 Cr. 57 530 Hope Mutual Ins. Co. v. Flynn, 38 Mo. 483 435 Hopkins v. Commonwealth, 3 Bush, 481 622 Hopkins v. Jones, 23 Ind. 310 404, 433 Hopkins v. United States, 171 U. S. 504 113 Hoppack v. Stone, 49 Barb. 524 429 Hoppin v. Jenekes, 8 R. I. 453 67 Hopt v. Utah, 110 U. S. 578 260, 666 Borland v. Pack, Peek (Tenn.), 151 151 Horn v. Loekhart, 17 Wall. 581 244, 281, 685 Horn v. Wiatt, 60 Ala. 300 409 Hornbuckle v. Toombs, 18 Wall. 655 600 Home v. State, 84 N. C. 362 433 Horner v. United States, 143 U. S. 578 176, 484, 613 Horn Silver Min. Co. v. New York, 143 U. S. 314 107, 132. 143, 144, 577, 578, 70S Horntrager v. Bates, IS Iowa, 174 90 Hospital v. Philadelphia, 22 Pa. St. 229 349 Hotema v. United States, 186 U. S. 413 637 Hough, Ex parte, 69 Fed. 330 140 Houghton, Ex parte, 7 Fed. 658, 8 Fed. 897 173, 218 Houghton v. Maynard, 71 Mass. 552 168 Houston, In re, 47 Fed. 539 141 Houston v. Deloach, 43 Ala. 464 281 Houston v. Jefferson College, 63 Pa. St. 428 308, 374 Houston v. Moore, 5 Wheat. 49 31, 154, 172, 176, 1S7, 202, 203, 204, 496, 497, 509, 542, 559, 677 Table of Cases Cited. 797 Houston etc. Nav. Co. v. Insurance Co., 89 Tex. 1 110, 121 Houston etc. Ry, Co. v. Texas, 170 U. S. 261, 270, 364 Houston etc. E. E. Co. v. Texas, 177 U. S. 97 246, 247, 305, 684 Houston etc. Ey. v. Texas etc. Ey., 70 Tex. 657 293 Hovelman v. Kansas City Ey., 79 Mo. 632 324 Hovey v. Elliott, 167 U. S. 417 642 Howard v. Bugbee, 24 How. 461 413, 422, 424 Howard v. Insurance Co., 13 B. Mon. 282 346 Howard v. Moot, 64 N. Y. 262 435 Howe Machine Co. v. Gage, 100 U. S. 679 140 Howell v. Miller, 91 Fed. 135 182, 688 Howell v. State, 3 Gill, 14 131 Howker v. New York, 170 N. Y. 196 252, 256 Hows v. Middleborough, 108 Mass. 127 203 Hubbard v. Brainerd, 35 Conn. 563 429 Hubbard v. Callahan, 42 Conn. 524 390 Hubbard v. Hamden Exp. Co., 10 E. 1. 249 243 Huber v. Eeily, 53 Pa. St. 112 39, 155, 510, 511, 643, 683 Hudson v. Parker, 156 U. S. 282 543, 675 Hudson v. Schwab, 12 Fed. Cas. 815 163 Hudspeth v. Carrigues, 21 La. Ann. 684 735 Hudspeth v. Davis, 41 Ala. 389 413, 416 Huff v. Winona etc. E. E. Co., 11 Minn. 192 335 Huffman v. Western Mortgage etc. Co., 13 Tex. Civ. App. 170.. 577 Hughes, Ex parte, Phill. (N. C.) 57 473, 581 Hughes v. Cannon, 2 Humph. 589 392 Huling v. Kaw Valley E. E. Co., 130 U. S. 564 653 Hull, Ex parte, 12 Fed. Cas. 856 158 Hull v. State, 29 Fla. 79 280, 424 Humboldt, The, 86 Fed. 351 539 Humphrey v. Pegues, 16 Wall. 224 355 Humphrey v. Sadler, 40 Ark. 102 2S1, 290 Humphreys v. United States, 1 Dev. 204 500 Humphries v. District of Columbia, 174 U. S. 195 674 Hundley v. Chaney, 65 Cal. 363 166, 421 Hung Hang, Ex parte, 108 U. S. 552 549 Hunnieutt v. State. 18 Tex. App. 519 480 Hunsaker v. Borden, 5 Cal. 288 316, 322 Hunsaker v. Wright, 30 111. 146 272 Hunt, Appellant, 141 Mass. 520 24S Hunt, Ex parte, 10 Ark. 288 47^ Hunt v. Gregg, 2 Blackf. 105 415 Hunt v. Hunt, 131 U. S. clxv 266, 286 Hunt v. Hunt, 72 X. Y. 217 682 Hunt v. Jacksonville, 34 Fla. 501 63S Hunt v. Palao, 4 How. 590 219, 548, 599 798 Table of Cases Cited. Hunt v. Thomas, 3 Phila. 121 414 Hunter, Ex parte, 2 W. Va. 159 228 Hunter v. Cobb, 1 Bush, 239 388 Huntington v. Attrill, 146 IT. S. 672 546, 561, 565, 566 Huntington v. Bishop, 5 Vt. 186 668 Huntington v. Cheesbro, 57 Ind. 74 139 Huntington v. Mahan, 142 Ind. 695 95, 142 Huntington v. Texas, 16 Wall. 413 244 Huntress, The, 2 Ware (Dav. 82), 89 29, 534, 535, 670 Huntsman v. Eandolph, 5 Hay w. 263 265 Huntizinger v. Brock, 3 Grant, 243 415 Hurf ord v. State, 91 Tenn. 699 141 Hurman v. Beef Slough etc. Co., S Biss. 344 103 Huron v. Second etc. Bank, 86 Fed. 281 356 Hursey v. Hassam, 45 Miss. 133 115 Hurst v. Warner, 102 Mich. 238 125 Hurtado v. California, 110 U. S. 535 32, 643, 709, 710 Huse v. Glover, 119 U. S. 548 103, 451, 455, 595 Huston v. Wadsworth, 5 Colo. 213 668 Eyatt v. Esmond, 37 Barb. 601 375 Hyatt v. McMahon, 25 Barb. 457 3S0 Hyatt v. New York, 188 U. S. 691 580 Hyatt v. Whipple, 37 Barb. 595 375 Hyde v. Continental Trust Co., 157 IT. S. 654 231, 232 Hyde v. White, 34 Tex. 145 72 Hyde Park v. Oak Woods Cem. Assn., 119 111. 114 342 Hyde's Ferry Turnpike Co. v. Davidson County, 91 Tenn. 291... 362, 363 Hylton v. United States, 3 Dall. 175 45, 86, 231, 232, 233, 524, 611 Hynes v. Briggs, 41 Fed. 470 142, 448 lasigi, In re, 79 Fed. 755 497 Illinois v. Illinois Cent. E. E., 33 Fed. 71 329 Illinois v. Michigan Cent. E. E. Co., 14 111. 314 342 Illinois v. Wright, 28 111. 509 91 Illinois etc. Canal v. Chicago etc. E. E., 14 111. 314 360, 362 Illinois etc. E. E. Co. v. Adams, 180 IT. S. 37 527 Illinois etc. E. E. Co. v. Bentley, 64 111. 441 333 Illinois Cent. Ey. Co. v. Bosworth, 133 IT. S. 104 479, 559, 560 Illinois etc. E. E. Co. v. Chicago, 141 111. 602 651 Illinois Cent. Ey. Co. v. Decatur, 147 IT. S. 198 80 Illinois Cent. Ey. Co. v. Illinois, 146 IT. S. 453 438, 593 Illinois Cent. E. E. Co. v. McLean County, 17 Til. 291 272, 289 Illinois Central Ey. v. People, 143 Til. 434 120, 367 Immigration Commissioners v. Brand, 26 La. Ann. 31 119 Improvement Co. v. Slack, 100 IT. S. 648 87 Table of Cases Cited. 799 Independent Dist. v. Beard, 83 Fed. 14 499 Independent Ins. Co., In re, 1 Holmes, 103 163 Indian etc. Eoad v. Robinson, 13 CaJ. 519 362 Indiana v. American Exp. Co., 7 Biss. 230 116, 134, 453 Indiana v. Pullman Car Co., 11 Biss. 566 107 Indiana v. Woram, 6 Hill, 33 246 Indiana County v. Agricultural Soc, 85 Pa. St. 359 324 Indianapolis etc. Co. v. Kercheval, 16 Ind. 84 346, 368, 369 Indianapolis etc. B. R. Co. v. Backus, 154 U. S. 349 644 Indianapolis etc. R. R. Co. v. Backus, 133 Ind. 609 132 Inglefritz v. Inglefritz, 5 Watts, 158 421 Inglehart v. Wolfin, 20 Ind. 32 421 Toman v. Tripp, 11 R. I. 525 655 Inman S. S. Co. v. Tinker, 94 TJ. S. 245 451, 452, 454, 678 Inglis v. Sailors' Snug Harbor, 3 Pet. 121 570, 571 Insurance Co. v. Commonwealth, 87 Pa. St. 183 109, 145 Insurance Co. v. Comstock, 16 Wall. 358 669 Insurance Co. v. Dunn, 19 Wall. 226 514 Insurance Co. v. Harris, 97 TJ. S. 336 564 Insurance Co. v. Morse, 20 Wall. 458 188, 515, 577 Insurance Co. v. New Orleans, 1 Woods, 85 572, 578, 208 Insurance Company of North America v. Commonwealth, 87 Pa. St. 182 578 International Ins. Co. v. Scales, 27 Wis. 640 280 Interstate Commerce Commission, In re, 53 Fed. 479 500 Interstate Commerce Commission v. Brimson, 154 TJ. S. 447 78, 98, 101, 115, 212, 213, 214, 215, 501, 520, 524, 648 Iowa Cent. R. R. Co. v. Iowa, 160 TJ. S. 393 574, 644, 665, 707, 709 Iowa City v. Foster, 10 Iowa, 189 291 Iron City Bank v. Pittsburgh, 37 Pa. St. 340. .292, 353, 371, 376, 379 Iron Mountain Ry. v. Memphis, 96 Fed. 126 281 Irvine, Ex parte, 74 Fed. 954 641 Irvine v. Marshall, 20 How. 563 520, 521, 597, 669 Irvine v. Townpike Co., 2 Penr. & W. 474 373 Isaacs v. Richmond, 90 Va. 31 243, 281 Tsley v. Merian, 61 Mass. 242 419 Iverson v. Shorter, 9 Ala. 713 268, 427 Jack v. Martin, 12 Wend. 311 591 Jackson, Ex parte, 96 TJ. S. 735 175, 219, 620, 626 Jackson, In re, 14 Blatchf. 245 175, 176, 213, 214 Jackson v. Ashton, 8 Pet. 149 529 Jackson v. Bullock, 12 Conn. 38 576 Jackson v. Butler, 8 Minn. 117 574 Jackson v. Chew, 12 Wheat. 162 188 Jackson v. Lamphire, 3 Pet. 280 293, 394, 397, 406, 608 Jackson v. Linn, 4 Litt. 323 395 800 Table of Cases Cited. Jackson v. Rose, 2 Va. Cas. 34 497, 510 Jackson v. The Magnolia, 20 How. 296 535, 536 Jackson v. Twentyman, 2 Pet. 136 532, 533 Jackson v. "Wood, 7 Johns. 290 149 Jackson v. Wood, 2 Cow. 819 663 Jacksonville v. Jacksonville Co., 67 111. 540 373 Jacksonville v. Ledwith, 26 Fla. 103 716 Jacob v. Louisville, 9 Dana, 114 659 Jacobs, Ex parte, 12 Abb. Pr., K. S., 273 165 Jacobs, In re, 98 N. Y. 112 611, 654, 716 Jacobs v. Marx, 182 U. S. 595 566 Jacobs v. Smallwood, 63 N. C. 112 390, 411, 413, 414, 434 Jaeobson v. "Wisconsin etc. B. E. Co., 71 Minn. 528 120, 719 Jacobs' Pharmacy Co. v. Atlanta, 89 Fed. 246 440 Jacoway v. Denton, 25 Ark. 625 195, 201, 263, 270 Jacquins v. Commonwealth, 63 Mass. 2S2 393 James v. Campbell, 104 U. S. 358 185 James v. Commonwealth, 12 Serg. & E. 220 675 James v. Emmet Min. Co., 55 Mich. 335 428 James v. Milwaukee, 16 Wall. 161 340 James v. Eeynolds, 2 Tex. 251 642 James v. Stull, 9 Barb. 4S2 423 James Gray, The, v. John Fraser, 21 How. 187 103, 119 James Eiver Co. v. Thompson, 3 Gratt. 270 341 Janesville v. Carpenter, 77 Wis. 288 78, 713 Janesville Bridge Co. v. Stoughton, 1 Pinn. 672 360 Janney v. Columbian Ins. Co., 10 Wheat. 418 536 January v. January, 7 Mon. 542 414 Janvrin v. Scammon, 29 N. H. 2S0 641 Jarrolt v. Moberly, 103 U. S. 5S6 27 Jefferson Bank v. Skelley, 1 Black, 436.. 289, 299, 300, 332, 348, 352 Jecker v. Montgomery, 13 How. 515 471, 509 Jenkins v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 449 276 J. E. Rumbelk The, 149 U. S. 15 510, 538, 541 Jervey, Ex parte, 66 Fed. 9(31 128 Jervey v. The Carolina, 66 Fed. 1019 128 Jett v. Commonwealth, 18 Gratt. 953 174 J. L. Mott Iron W. v. Clow, 83 Fed. 318 181 Johns ' Case, Taf t, 1 52 Johnson's Case, Taft, 215 64 John M. Welch, The, 9 Bon. 507 455 Johnson, Impeachment of 54 Johnson, In re, 167 IT. S. 125 513 Johnson v. Bently, 16 Ohio, 97 394 Johnson v. Chicago Elevator Co., 119 IT. S. 397 115, 221, 234, 235, 537. 539 Johnson v. Commonwealth, 7 Dnna, 338 289 Table of Cases Cited. 801 Johnson v. Drummond, 20 Gratt. 419 452, 453 Johnson v. Duncan, 3 Mart. 530. . .225, 385, 397, 402, 414, 415, 428, 433 Johnson v. Fletcher, 54 Miss. 628 410 Johnson v. Goodyear Min. Co., 127 Cal. 4 728 Johnson v. Hanscom, 90 Tex. 329 71 Johnson v. Higgins, 3 Met. (Ky.) 566 396, 416, 433 Johnson v. Johnson, 30 Mo. 72 151 Johnson v. Jones, 44 111. 142 225, 648 Johnson v. Lewis, 2 Mont. 159 667 Johnson v. Mcintosh, 8 Wheat. 589 473 Johnson v. Monell, Woolw. 390 514 Johnson v. People, 173 111. 134 228 Johnson v. Bichardson, 44 Ark. 373 274 Johnson v. Boockogy, 23 Ga. 183 401 Johnson v. Sayre, 158 U. S. 114 200, 470 Johnson v. State, 88 Ala. 180 340 Johnson v. Tompkins, 1 Baldw. 598 591, 686 Johnson v. United States, 5 Mason, 438 488 Johnson v. Winslow, 64 N. C. 27 43 1 Johnson County v. Wharton, 152 U. S. 260 187, 503, 505 Johnston v. Eiley, 13 Ga. 97 581, 583, 585 Johnston v. Van Dyke, 6 McLean, 441 273 Johnston v. Wilson, 2 N. H. 203 488 Joice v. Scales, 18 Ga. 725 561 Joliffe v. Brown, 4 Wash. 155 720, 721 Jollie v. Jacques, 1 Blatchf . 618 181 Jolly v. Terre Haute D. Co., 6 McLean, 237 100 Jones, Ex parte, 164 U. S. 692 419 Jones' Appeal, 57 Pa. St. 369 266, 2S6 Jones v. Bank of Tennessee, 8 B. Mon. 123 '245 Jones v. Board of Eegistrars, 56 Miss. 768 480 Jones v. Brandon, 48 Ga. 593 270, 411 Jones v. Brim, 165 U. S. 182 698, 723, 731 Jones v. Commonwealth, 20 Gratt. 848 635 Jones v. Crittenden, 1 Car. Law Eep. 385 3S8, 389, 401, 414 Jones v. Davis, 6 Neb. 33 400 Jones v. Eisler, 3 Kan. 134 148 Jones v. G. etc. E. E. Co., 16 Iowa, 6 368 Jones v. Hobbs, 4 Baxt. 113 2S7, 290, 307 Jones v. Horsey, 4 Md. 306 170 Jones v. Jones, 2 Over. 2 258, 287 Jones v. Keep, 19 Wis. 376 83 Jones v. Leonard, 50 Iowa, 110 585 Jones v. McMahan, 30 Tex. 319 416 Jones v. McMasters, 20 How. 20 532 Jones v. Mann, 2 Bart. 471 41 fSTotes on Constitution — 51 302 Table of Cases Cited. Jones v. Meehan, 175 U. S. 1 148 Jones v. Overstreet, 4 T. B. Mon. 550 250 Jones v. Pensacola, 13 Fed. Cas. 1005 309 Jones v. People, 2 Colo. 509 668 Jones v. Perry, 10 Yerg. 59 643 Jones v. Handle, 68 Ala. 264 280 Jones v. Seward, 40 Barb. 563 475 Jones v. Seward, 3 Grant, 431 225 Jones v. Smith, 48 Barb. 552 91 Jones v. State, 1 Ga. 610 261 Jones v. State, 66 Miss. 380 636, 637 Jones v. United States, 137 U. S. 212 188, 462, 494, 502, 523, 553, 554 Jones v. Van Zandt, 5 How. 229 590, 591, 592 Jones & Garland v. McDonald & Eice, Taft, 282 49 Jonesboro v. Cairo etc. E. E., 110 U. S. 197 320 Jones v. Walker, 2 Paine, 688 614 Jordan, Tn re, Fed. Cas. No. 7514 161 Jordan, In re, 8 Bank. Beg. 186 159, 399 Jordan v. Dayton, 4 Ohio, 294 186 Jordan v. Dobson, 4 Fish, 232 178 Jordan v. Hall, 9 E. I. 220 165 Jose Ferreira Dos Santos, In re, 2 Brock. 507 190 Joseph v. Eandolph, 71 Ala. 490 117, 143 Joseph, The, 8 Cr. 455 196 Jourdan v. Barrett, 4 How. 185 596 Journeay v. Gardner, 65 Mass. 355 170 Joy v. Jackson County, 11 Mich. 155 370 Joy v. Thompson, 1 Doug. 383 40S J. S. Keator etc. Co. v. St. Croix etc. Corp., 72 Wis. 82 101, 103 Judd v. Ives, 4 Met. 401 162 Judd v. Porter, 7 Me. 340 169 Judson v. Bradford, 14 Fed. Cas. 9 184 Juillard v. Greenman, 110 U. S. 440 89, 90, 91, 213, 214. 218 Julia v. McKinney, 3 Mo. 270 575 Julienne v. Mayor, 69 Miss. 34 727 Juniata Limestone Co. v. Fagley, 187 Pa. St. 193 713 Justice v. Eddings, 75 N. C. 581 432 Justices v. Murray, 9 Wall. 274 607. 668, 672 J. W. French, The, 5 Hughes, 429 646 Kaieser v. Illinois Cent. E. E. Co., 5 McCrary, 499, 18 Fed. 153. .96, .107 Kaine, In re, 14 How. 103 459, 493, 499, 549, 587 Kane v. Durston, 153 U. S. 687 711 Kansas v. Colorado, 185 IT. S. 142 546 Kansas City v. Bacon, 147 Mo. 273 654 Kansas City v. Ward, 134 Mo. 177 654 Table of Cases Cited. 803 Kansas Indians, The, 5 Wall. 758 148 Kansas etc. Ry. v. Payne, 49 Fed. 119 360 Kansas Pacific Ey. Co. v. Mower, 16 Kan. 573 367, 368 Karahoo v. Adams, 1 Dill. 344 148 Katie, The, 40 Fed. 493 99 Kauffman v. Oliver, 10 Pa. St. 517 591 Kaufman v. Stein, 138 Ind. 49 725 Kaukauna Water Co. v. Green Bay etc. Canal Co., 142 U. S. 273 . . 652,653 Kearney v. Case, 12 Wall. 275 672, 673 Kearney v. Farmers' etc. Bank, 16 Pet. 94 189, 511 Kearney v. Taylor, 15 How. 517 274, 434 Keating v. Vaughn, 61 Tex. 518 420 Keating etc. Machine Co. v. The Favorite Carriage, 12 Tex. Civ. App. 666 : 108 Keeler, In re, Hemp, 306 198, 460 Keely v. Harrison, 20 Johns. Cas. 29 60S Keely v. Sanders, 99 U. S. 446 462, 502 Keen v. Mould, 18 Ohio, 12 160 Keim v. United States, 177 U. S. 293 460, 494, 501 Keith v. Clark, 97 U. S. 461 240, 241, 244, 270, 2S1, 356, 357, 685 Keith v. Estill, 9 Port. 669 285 Keith v. Rockingham, 18 Blatchf. 246, 2 Fed. 834 669 Keller v. Corpus Christi, 50 Tex. 529 155, 701 Keller v. State, 11 Md. 525 139 Kelley v. Drury, 9 Allen, 29 167, 41 8 Kellogg v. Howes, 81 Cal. 170 426 Kellum v. State, 66 Ind. 577 333 Kelly, In re, 71 Fed. 549 208, 536i Kelly v. Garrett, 67 Ala. 309 409 Kelly v. Harrison, 20 Johns. Cas. 29 570 Kelly v. McCarthy, 3 Bradf. 7 266, 267, 286 Kelly v. Owen, 7 Wall. 498 569, 701 Kelly v. People, 115 111. 583 255 Kelly v. Pittsburgh, 104 IT. S. 80 645, 715 Kelly v. Pittsburgh, 85 Pa. St. 182 78 Kelsey v. King, 33 How. Pr. 39 314 Kemmler, In re, 136 U. S. 448 699, 703. 708, 710 Kemp, In re, 16 Wis. 359 224, 225, 468, 493, 631 Kemp v. Kennedy, 5 Cr. 173, Pet. C. C. 40 505, 506, 533 Kemp v. Thorp, 3 Ala. 291 129 Kemper v. Commonwealth, 8'5 Ky. 219 638 Kemper v. Louisville, 14 Bush, 92 655 Kendall v. State, 65 Ala. 492 632 Kendall v. United States, 12 Pet. 626 205, 210, 460, 462, 463, 468, 490, 494, 500, 503, 506, 507 Kennard v. Louisiana, 92 U. S. 4S1 642, 644 80-A Table of Cases Cited. Kennebec Land Co. v. Laboree, 2 Me. 293 401, 409 Kennedy, In re, 2 Kich. 116 263, 281, 605 Kennedy, In re, 2 S. C. 221 41U, 412 Kennedy v. Georgia State Bank, 8 How. 612 506 Kennett v. Chambers, 14 How. 50 462, !>02 Kenny v. Hudspeth, 59 N. J. L. 322 287, 290 Kentucky v. Denison, 24 How. 97 489, 527, 545, 581, 582, 583, 585, 586, 683 Kentucky v. Ohio, 24 How. 97 527 Kentucky Kailroad Tax Cases, 115 U. S. 331 714 Kenyon v. Stewart, 44 Pa. St. 179 399 Keokuk etc. Br. Co. v. Illinois, 175 U. S. 632 132 Keokuk etc. K. R. Co. v. Missouri, 152 U. S. 306 300, 348, 351, 354, 364 Keppel v. Petersburg R. E., Chase, 167 242 Ker v. Illinois, 119 IT. S. 441 587, 710 Kerr, In re, 42 Barb. 119 342 Ketchum v. Buckley, 99 U. S. 190 473 Key's Case, CI. & H. 221 42 Keystone Mfg. Co. v. Adams, 151 U. S. 145 186 Kidd v. Alabama, 188 U. S. 730 731 Kidd v. Pearson, 128 U. S. 17 100, 104, 110, 127, 679 Kiernan v. Multnomah, 95 Fed. 849 697 Kilbourn v. Thompson, 103 U. S. 168 54, 60, 62, 63, 68, 501, 503, 642 Kilgore v. Magee, 85 Pa. St. 401 290 Kilpatrick v. Grand Trunk Ry. Co., 74 Vt. 288 442 Kimball v. Greig, 47 Ala. 235 412 Kimball v. Rosendale, 42 Wis. 407 393 Kimball v. Taylor, 2 Woods, 37 473 Kimberly v. Ely, 6 Pick. 440 417 Kimbro v. Bank of Fulton, 49 Ga. 419 431, 437 Kimnrel, In re, 41 Fed. 775 141 Kimmish v. Ball, 129 U. S. 22i2 125, 126 Kincaid v. Francis, 3 Tenn. 49 574, 576 King v. American Transportation Co., 1 Flipp. 1 123, 124 King v. Dedham Bank, 15 Mass. 447 269 King v. Gallun, 109 U. S. 101 184 King v. Greenway, 71 N. Y. 413 115 King v. Hayes, 80 Me. 26 727 King v. McLean Asylum, 64 Fed. 336 507, 521 King v. Mullins, 171 U. S. 429 715 King v. Panther Lumber Co., 171 U. S. 438 715 King v. Portland, 184 U. S. 70 714 King v. United States, 59 Fed. 12 654 King Bridge Co. v. Otoe County, 120 U. S. 226 505 King v. Wilson, 1 Dill. 558 627 Table of Cases Cited. 80j Kingman v. Paulson, 126 Ind. 509 564 Kingsbury 's Case, 106 Mass. 223 583 Kingsley v. Cousins, 47 Me. 91 409 Kinne, Ex parte, 3 Hughes, 1 155, 266, 286, 702, 704 Kinney v. Sherman, 28 111. 520 268, 426 Kirby. v. Pennsylvania etc. E. R. Co., 76 Pa. St. '506 439 Kirby v. United States, 174 U. S. 55 666 Kirkman v. Bird, 22 Utah, 100 399, 410 Kirkwood v. Hoxie, 95 Mich. 62 427 Kirtland v. Hotchkiss, 100 U. S. 498 81 Kirtland v. Molton, 41 Ala. 548 435 Kissell v. St. Louis Public Schools, IS How. 24 597 Kitchen v. Strawbridge, 4 Wash. C. C. 84 523 Klauber v. Biggerstaff, 47 Wis. 559 250 Klaus v. City, 34 Wis. 628 403 Klein, In re, 1 How. 277, note 159, 160, 161, 263 Klein's Case, 7 Ct. of CI. 240 477, 508 Kleinschnridt v. Dunphy, 1 Mont. 118 668 Klinger v. Missouri, 13 Wall. 257 226, 251 Klinger v. Bickel, 117 Pa. St. 326 .' 725 Knapp v. McCaffrey, 177 U. S. 647 541 Knapp v. Thomas, 39 Ohio St. 381 480 Knappen v. Supervisors, 46 Mich. 24 299 Kneedler v. Lane, 45 Pa. St. 238 77, 195, 196, 197, 198, 201, 224 Knight v. Dorr, 36 Mass. 48 403 Knight v. United States Land Assn., 142 U. S. 183 595 Knote v. United States, 95 U.S. 149 236, 237, 476, 479 Knott v. Jefferson etc. Ferry, 9 Or. 535 360 Knoop v. Piqua Branch Bank, 1 Ohio St. 616 290 Knower v. Haines, 31 Fed. 513 421 Knowles, Ex parte, 5 Cal. 300 153, 154, 155, 156, 497 Knowles v. Gaslight Co., 19 Wall. 61 562 Knowlton v. Doherty, 87 Me. 518 127 Knowlton v. Moore, 178 U. S. 83 86, 87, 88, 232 Knox v. Exchange Bank, 12 Wall. 284 356, 420 Knox County Commissioners v. Aspinwall, 24 How. 376 461 Koehler, Ex parte, 23 Fed. 529 366 Koehler v. Iowa, 60 Iowa, 656 611 Koenig v. Omaha etc. By., 3 Neb. 373 264, 283, 293 Koenigsberger v. Richmond Silver Min. Co., 158 U. S. 49 219 Kohl v. Lehlbach, 160 U. S. 297 711 Kohl v. United States, 91 U. S. 373 37, 219, 609, 651, 652, 658, 660 Kohler, Ex parte, 74 Cal. 38 722 Kohn v. Melcher, 29 Fed. 433 139 Kollock, In re, 165 U. S. 537 79, 463 Korn v. Mutual Assur. Soc, 6 Cr. 199 207 Koshkonong v. Burton, 104 U. S. 679 405, 406 806 Table of Cases Cited. Kreitz v. Behrensmeyer, 125 111. 197 569, 701 Kresser v. Lyman, 74 Fed. 767 298, 342, 344, 441 Kring v. Missouri, 107 U. S. 221 228, 256, 397 Kuback, Ex parte, 85 Cal. 274 713 Kulp v. Kicketts, 3 Grant, 420 224, 514, 520 Kumler v. Fraber, 5 Ohio St. 442 302 Kunkle v. Franklin, 13 Minn. 127 329,393 Kunzler v. Kohaus, 5 Hill, 317 27, 160, 161, 263 Kurtz v. Moffitt, 115 U. S. 503 223, 469, 470 Kurtz v. State, 22 Fla. 43 588 Kusenberg v. Browne, 42 Pa. St. 182 454 Kynoche v. The S. C. Ives, Newb. 205 534 La Abra Mining 'Co. v. United States, 175 U. S. 454 73, 484, 522 Lacassagne v. Chapins, 144 U. S. 126 533 La Croix v. County Corrrmrs., 50 Conn. 329 298, 343, 344 Lacy v. Palmer, 93 Va. 159 122, 126 Ladd, In re, 74 Fed. 31 208 Ladd v. Portland, 32 Or. 271 276 Lafayette Co. v. Neely, 21 Fed. 739 383 Lafayette Insurance Co. v. French, 18 How. 407 143, 566, 577 Laflin v. Chicago etc. Ky. Co., 33 Fed. 420 661 Lain v. Shepardson, 18 Wis. 59 280,436 Laing v. Rigney, 160 U. S. 539 566 Lake v. Virginia etc. R. R., 7 Nev. 299 361 Lake County v. Rollins, 130 U. S. 670 27, 28, 29, 500 Lake Erie R. R. Co. v. Heath, 9 Ind. 559 628 Lake Roland etc. Ry. v. Baltimore, 77 Md. 381 318, 343 Lake Shore etc. R. R. v. Cincinnati etc. R. R., 30 Ohio St. 604 344, 368, 442 Lake Shore etc. Ry. v. Ohio, 173 U. S. 301 120, 367 Lake Shore Ry. Co. v. Smith, 173 U. S. 696 383, 572, 577, 708, 719, 720 Lakevipw v. Rose Hill Cemetery, 70 111. 131 308, 344, 369, 440, 442 Lalor v. Wattles, 3 Gilm. 225 160 Lamar v. Browne, 92 U. S. 187 196 Lamar v. Micou, 112 TJ. S. 476 242 Lamb v. Bowser, 7 Biss. 315 287 Lambert, In re, 134 Cal. 626 712 Lanrkin v. Sterling, 1 Idaho, 92 306 Lancaster Sav. Inst. v. Reigart, 2 Clarke, 23S 425 Land v. Pierce, 25 Me. 233 160, 161 Landa v. Hoick, 129 Mo. 663 121 Landon v. Litchfield, 11 Conn. 251 301, 302, 396 Lane, In re, 135 U. S. 449 630 Lane v. Anderson, 67 Fed. 566 461, 501 Lane v. Nelson, 79 Pa. St. 407 265, 266, 274 Table of Cases Cited. b07 Lane County v. Oregon, 7 Wall. 76 36, 37, 80, 82, 91, 132, 233, 678 Lanf ear v. Henley, 4 Wall. 209 533 Landon v. Sherwood, 124 U. S. 85 597 Lange, Ex parte, 18 Wall. 170 635 Lanman's Case, CI. & H. 871, Taft, 5 51, 52, 59 Lansing v. County, 1 Dill. 522, 2 Abb. U. S. 53 317 Lansing v. Smith, 4 Wend. 9 295 Lanz v. Randall, 4 Dill. 425 155 Lapeyre v. United States, 17 Wall. 198 73 Lapsley v. Brashears, 4 Litt. 47 287, 384, 387, 397, 400, 416, 433, 683 Larrabee v. Baldwin, 35 Cal. 156 285 Larrabee v. Talbot, 5 Gilm. 426 162, 168, 287 Lascelles v. Georgia, 148 U. S. 542 581, 582, 588 Lascelles v. State, 90 Ga. 366 581 Lasere v. Eochereau, 17 Wall. 43S 645 Late Corporation etc. v. United States, 130 U. S. 1. .3S2, 598, 599,600 Lathers v. Blessing, 105 U. S. 630 539 Lathrop v. Brown, 1 Woods, 474 431, 437 Lathrop v. Stedman, 42 Conn. 583 380 Laube v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 530 305, 306 Laughlin v. Commonwealth, 13 Bush, 261 259 Laura, The, 144 U. S. 414 30, 477 Lavender v. Gosnell, 43 Md. 153 162 Lavin v. Emigrant etc. Bank, 18 Blatchf. 1, 1 Fed. 64 646 Law, Ex parte, 35 Ga. 302 226,251 Lawler v. Walker, 14 How. 149 522 Lawrence, In re, 5 N. Y. Supp. 310 289 Lawrence v. Hodges, 92 N. C. 677 106 Lawrence v. Louisville, 96 Ky. 595 408 Lawrence v. Miller, 1 Sand. 516 267 Lawton v. Steele, 152 U. S. 136 128, 440, 552, 706, 723, 733 Layton v. New Orleans, 12 La. Ann. 515 310 Leach v. Smith, 25 Ark. 246 437 Leadville Coal Co. v. McCreery, 141 U. S. 477 507 League v. De Young, 11 How. 203 269, 294, 402, 430. 434 League v. Texas, 184 U. S. 161 275 Leak v. Commissioners, 64 N. C. 132 243 Lear v. United States, 50 Fed. 65 210 Leary, In re, 10 Ben. 208 583 Leathers v. Shipbuilders' Bank, 40 Me. 3S6 337, 403 Leavell v. Western Union Tel. Co., 116 N. C. 211 145 Leavenworth v. Miller, 7 Kan. 506 309 Leavitt v. Lovering, 64 N. H. 609 284 Leavitt v. Railway Co., 90 Me. 164 428 Lee v. Davis, 1 A. K. Marsh. 397 390 Lee v. Sogers, 7 Wall. 181 320 808 Table of Cases Cited. Lee v. Tillotson, 24 Wend. 337 668 Lee Lung v. Patterson, 186 U. S. 175 648 Leep v. St. Louis etc. Ky. Co., 58 Ark. 407 376, 378, 713 Leeper v. Texas, 139 U. S. 468 642 Lees v. United States, 150 U. S. 480 108, 640 Lee 's Bank, In re, 21 N, Y. 9 270, 379 Lee Sing Far v. United States, 94 Fed. 836 iOO Legal Tender Cases, 12 Wall. 534 30, 37, 77, 78, 89, 90, 91, 171, 172, 173, 195, 212, 215, 262, 607, ii09, 611, 649. Le Grand v. United States, 12 Fed. 581 697, 738, 739, 740 Lehew v. Brummell, 103 Mo. 546 704, 731 Lehigh Min. & Mfg. Co. v. Kelly, 160 U. S. 336 505, 531 Lehigh Min. & Mfg. Co. v. Kelly, 64 Fed. 401 531 Lehigh Valley R. R. v. Kearney, 158 U. S. 476 186 Lehigh etc. R. R. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 146 U. S. 200 99, 131 Lehigh Water Co. v. Easton, 121 U. S. 391 268, 395 Lehman v. Moore, 93 Ala. 189 422 Leisy v. Hardin, 135 U. S. 100 95, 98, 111, 127, 445 Leitensdorfer v. Webb, 20 How. 177 473, 474, 509, 514, 599 Leland v. Wilkinson, 10 Pet. 294 392 Leloup v. Mobile, 127 U. S. 645 105, 107, 135, 144 Lemmon v. People, 5 Sand. 681, 20 N. Y. 562. ..108, 119, 575, 591, 682 Lem Moon Sing v. United States, 158 U. S. 549 108, 484 L'Engle v. Gates, 74 Fed. 514 565 Lennon, In re, 150 U. S. 400 549 Lent v. Tillson, 140 U. S. 327 650, 714 Leon, Ex parte, 1 Edm. Sel. Cas. 301 520 Leon v. Galceron, 11 Wall. 188 537, 539, 541 Leroy v. East S. C. R. R., 18 Mich. 233 353 Le Roy v. Tatham, 14 How. 177 184 Lessley v. Phipps, 49 Miss. 799 3S9, 397, 410, 412 Leszynsky, In re, 16 Blatchf . 9 226, 635 Letcher v. Moore, CI. & H. 715 60 Levering v. Washington, 3 Minn. 323 396 Levins v. Sleater, 2 G. Greene, 608 266 Levy 's Case, 1 Bart. 41 42 Levy v. Hitscher, 40 La. Ann. 508 272 Levy v. Stewart, 11 Wall. 253 194 Lewis, In re, 114 Fed. 963 694 Lewis v. Brackenridge, 1 Blackf. 220 388, 416 Lewis v. Cocks, 23 How. 469 473, 509 Lewis v. Elmendorf , 2 Johns. Cas. 222 67 Lewis v. Harbin, 5 B. Mon. 567 406 Lewis v. Lewis, 7 How. 784 391 Lewis v. Lewis, 47 Pa. St. 127 414 Lewis v. McElvain, 16 OhR 347 394 Lewis v. Shreveport, 108 U. S. 287 329, 340 Table of Cases Cited. 809 Lewis v. United States, 146 U. S. 372 667 Lewison v. Krohne, 30 Tex. 714 413 Lexington v. Aull, 30 Mo. 480 348 L'Hote v. New Orleans, 177 U. S. 597 440, 680, 724 Liberman v. State, 26 Neb. 464 732 License Cases, 5 How. 594 81, 84, 118, 444, 445, 447, 448, 483, 484, 614, 718 License Tax Cases, 5 Wall. 416 86, 87, 88, 139, 232 Lick v. Faulkner, 25 Cal. 404 90, 213, 218 Liedersdorf v. Flint, 8 Biss. 327 178 Lightburne v. Taxing Dist., 4 Lea, 219 145 Lincoln v. Grant, 38 Neb. 369 327 Lincoln etc. Min. Co. v. District Court, 7 N. Mex. 502 600 Lincoln Bank v. Bichardson, 1 Me. 79 336 Lincoln Co. v. Luning, 133 U. S. 898 507, 689 Lindzey v. Burbridge, 11 Mo. 545 416 Lindzey v. State, 65 Miss. 545 228, 254 Linehan etc. Co. v. Pendergass, 70 Fed. 2 131, 137 Linford v. Ellison, 155 U. S. 506 601 Linn v. State Bank, Scam. 90 245 Lin Sing v. Washburn, 20 Cal. 534 106, 108, 116 Linthicum v. Fenley, 11 Bush, 131 164 L 'Invincible, 1 Wheat. 2o7 540 Lionberger v. Rouse, 9 Wall. 477 93 Li Sing v. United States, 180 U. S. 495 214, 503, 524 List v. Commonwealth, 118 Pa. St, 327 109, 577 List v. Wheeling, 7 W. Va. 501 320 Litchfield v. Vernon, 41 N. Y. 123 401 Little v. Barreme, 2 Cr. 170 470 Little v. Gould, 2 Blatchf . 364 182, 183 Little Falls etc. Co. v. Little Falls', 102 Fed. 663 324 Little Miami etc. R. E. Co. v. United States, 108 U. S. 277 87 Little Rock v. Prather, 49 Ark. 477 138 Little Rock etc. Ey. v. Hanniford, 49 Ark. 291 120 Little Eock etc. Ry. Co. v. Payne, 33 Ark. 816 720 Little Eock etc. E. E. Co. v. Woodruff, 49 Ark. 381 651 Live Stock etc. Assn. v. Crescent City etc. Co., 1 Abb. U. S. 397 573, 702, 703, 704, 705 Liverpool etc. Ins. Co. v. Massachusetts, 10 Wall. 573 109, 132, 145, 572 577, 707 Livingston v. Darlington, 101 U. S. 410 503, 524, 611 Livington v. Hannibal etc. E. E., 60 Mo. 516 348 Livingston v. Hollenbeck, 4 Barb. 9 278 Livingston v. Jefferson, 1 Brock. 203 505 Livingston v. Livingston, 73 N. Y. 377 285 Livingston v. Mayor, 8 Wend. 85 607, 668 Livingston v. Moore, 7 Pet. 546 268, 308, 427, 433, 607, 668, 676 810 Table of Cases Cited. Livingston v. Story, 9 Pet. 655 598 Li 1 Lngston v. Van Ingen, 9 Johns. 507 178, 183 Lizzie E., The, 30 Fed. 878 455 Lloyd v. Silver Bow County, 11 Mont. 411 290 Loan Association v. Topeka, 20 Wall. 663 82, 501, 610 Lobdell v. Hull, 3 Nov. .107 148 Lobrano v. Milligan, 9 Wall. 295 433 Locke v. New Orleans, 4 Wall. 173 229, 257, 270, 277 Lockhart v. Usry, 2S Ga. 345 399, 402 Lockwoofl, In re, 154 U. S. 117 567, 700, 706, 738 Loekwood v. Bartlett, 130 N. Y. 340 125 Loesch v. Koehler, 144 Ind. 278 727 Logan v. State, 5 Tex. App. 303 442 Logan v. United States, 144 U. S. 283 214, 218, 553, 634, 705 Logansport v. Seybold, 59 Ind. 225 138 Logwood v. Planters' Bank, 1 Minor, 23 270, 231 Lonas v. State, 3 Heisk. 287 704 Londonderry v. Deny, 8 N. H. 320 312 Lone Jack Min. Co. v. Megginson, 82 Fed. 94 156 Loney, In re, 134 U. S. 375 61 Long's Appeal, 87 Pa. St. 119 434 Longis v. Creditors, 20 La. Ann. 15 162 Long Island Water Supply Co. v. Brooklyn, 166 U. S. 69 264, 341, 342, 653, 657, 658 Looker v. Maynard, 179 U. S. 54 375, 381 Look Tin Sing, In re, 21 Fed. 905 700 Lord v. Chadbourne, 42 Me. 429 399 Lord v. Litchfield, 36 Conn. 116. 301, 303, 355 Lord v. Steamship Co., 102 U. S. 541 95, 97, 99, 101, 111 Lord v. Thomas, 64 N. Y. 167 307 Lorman v. Clarke, 2 McLean, 468 523 Los Angeles v. Los Angeles City Water Co., 177 U. S. 583 272, 324, 325, 337 Los Angeles v. Los Angeles etc. Co., 61 Cal. 65 318 Los Angeles County v. Hollywood etc. Assn., 124 Cal. 344.. 717, 726 Los Angeles Water Co. v. Los Angeles, 88 Fed. 743 329 Lott v. Cox, 43 Ala. 697 452, 453 Lott v. Mobile Trade Co., 42 Ala. 578 452, 453 Lott v. Morgan, 41 Ala. 246 452 Lottawanna, The, 21 Wall. 577 106, 510, 534, 536, 540 Lotus, No. 2, The, 26 Fed. 6-10 131 Loughborough v. Blake, 5 Wheat. 324 44, 80, 205, 211, 231 Louisa Simpson, 2 Saw. 57 462 Louisiana Cases, Taf t, 426 50 Louisiana v. Chandler, 5 La. Ann. 589 622 Louisiana v. Jumel, 107 U. S. 711 303, 304 Louisiana v. Jumel, 13 La. Ann. 399 622 Louisiana v. Mayor, 109 U. S. 287 285, 315, 404 Table of Cases Cited. 811 Louisiana v. New Orleans, 102 IT. S. 203 326, 384, 427 Louisiana v. New Orleans, 32 La. Ann. 493 269, 285, 400 Louisiana v. Pilsbury, 105 U. S. 294 264, 272, 317, 328, 399 Louisiana v. Police Jury, 111 U. S. "21 2S5, 32S, 384 Louisiana v. Steele, 134- U. S. 232 545 Louisiana v. Taylor, 105 U. S. 458 324 Louisiana v. Texas, 176 IT. S. 16 543, 546 Louisville v. University, 15 B. Mon. 669 330, 336 Louisville Gas Co. v. Citizens' Gas Co., 115 U. S. 698 378 Louisville etc. By. Co. v. Baldwin, 85 Ala. 619 121, 720 Louisville C. L. R. Co. v. Commonwealth, 73 Ky. 43 352 Louisville etc. B, B. v. Davidson, 1 Sneed, 637 320 Louisville etc. B. B. v. Eubank, 184 U. S. 36 105, 115 Louisville etc. B. B. Co. v. Kentucky, 161 U. S. 685 117, 121, 373 Louisville etc. E. B. v. Kentucky, 183 U. S. 512. .30, 115, 340, 374, 731 Louisville etc E. B. Co. v. Letsom, 2 How. 555.... ,530, 687, 688, 689 Louisville etc. By. Co. v. Mississippi, 138 U. S. 590 117 Louisville etc. By. Co. v, Mississippi, 66 Miss. 662 117 Louisville etc. B. B. Co. v. Bailroad Commission, 19 Fed. 707.... 96 Louisville etc. B. B. Co. v. Schmidt, 177 U. S. 239 645 Louisville etc. E. E. v. Williams, 41 S. W. 287 406 Louisville T. Co. v. Lounsbury, 2 Met. (Ky.) 165 346 Louisville Trust Co. v. Cincinnati, 73 Fed. 726 333 Louisville Underwriters, The, 134 U. S. 493 534 Louisville Water Co. v. Clark, 143 U. S. 12 353, 379 Lovell v. Seeback, 45 Minn. 465 724 Loving v. Auditor, 76 Va. 947 290 Low v. Austin, 13 Wall. 33 84, 145, 445, 448 Low v. Commissioners, E. M. Charlt. 302 552, 671 Low v. Bees Printing Co., 41 Neb. 127 712, 713 Lowden v.. Moses, 3 McCord, 102 398, 402 Lowe 's Case, 1 Bart. 448 45 Lowe v. Kansas, 163 U. S. 88 644, 729 Lowe v. State, 86 Ala. 53 666 Lowenberg v. Levine, 93 Cal. 220 419 Loweree v. Newark, 9 Vroom, 151 317 Lowrey v. Weaver, 4 McLean, 32 210 Lowrie, Ex parte, 4 Utah, 177 665 Lowry v. Francis, 2 Yerg. 534 283 Lowry v. McGhee, 8 Yerg. 242 249 Lowry v. Eainwater, 70 Mo. 152 727 Lowry v. White, Mobley, 623 42 Lucas v. Copeland, 2 Stew. 15.°, 561 Lucas v. Sawyer, 17 Iowa, 517 267 Luce v. Fensler, 85 Iowa, 601 .. : 309 Ludwigson, In re, 3 Woods, 13 646 Lumb v. Pinekney, 21 S. Ct. 471 395 Luter v. Hunter, 30 Tex. 688 414, 416 812 Table of Cases Cited. Luther v. Borden, 7 How. 43 201, 202, 204, 223, 225, 458, 462, 471, 472, 475, 500, 502, 521, 603, 604, 624, 677 Luther v. Saylor, 8 Mo. App. 424 421 Luxton v. North Kiver Bridge Co., 153 U. S. 529 107, 176, 215, 219, 658 Lybarger v. State, 2 Wash. 557 261, 628 Lycoming Co. v. Union Co., 15 Pa. St. 166 429 Lyman v. B. etc. E. K. Co., 58 Mass. 2-S8 369 Lynch v. Clarke, 1 Sand. Ch. 583 153, 154 Lynch v. Forbers, 161 Mass. 309 651 Lynch v. Lafland, 4 Cold. 96 310 Lynde v. Columbus etc. Ey., 57 Fed. 996 561 Lyng v. Michigan, 135 U. S. 166 127, 130 Lynn v. State, 84 Md. 78 229, 256 Lynn v. State, 33 Tex. Cr. 153 727 Lyons v. Cunningham, 66 Cal. 42 569 M. & E. E. E. v. Commissioners, 37 N. J. L. 228 371 McAffee v. Covington, 71 Ga. 272 273, 285, 411 McAllister v. United States, 141 U. S. 174 508, 509, 516, 599, 600 McBride v. Stradley, 103 Ind. 465 669 McCabe v. Goodwin, 106 Cal. 486 294 McCalPs Case, 15 Fed. Cas. 1226 203 McCall v. California, 136 U. S. 109 117, 131, 143 McCall v. McDowell, Deady, 233 77, 224, 463, 471 MeCallie v. Chattanooga, 3 Head, 317 311 McCann v. Eddy, 133 Mo. 59 121 McCann v. New York Central etc. E. E. Co., 50 N. Y. 176 285 McCardle, Ex parte, 7 Wall. 514 502, 518, 519, 524, 547, 549, 550 McCarthy v. Froelke, 63 Ind. 511 155 McCarthy v. Marsh, 5 N. Y. 263 156 McCarty v. Gibson, 5 Gratt. 307 169, 170 McCauley v. Brooks, 16 Cal. 11 288, 303, 304, 306 McClaughry v. Deming, 186 U. S. 69 200, 202, 549 McCless v. Meekins, 117 N. C. 40 317 McClos-key v. Kreling, 76 Cal. 511 725 McClung v. Silliman, 6 Wheat. 604 187, 496, 504, 505 McClurg v. Kingsland, 1 How. 206 179, 183 McClusky, Ex parte, 40 Fed. 74 629 McConnell v. Wilcox, 2 111. 344 209, 597 MeCoppin v. McCartney, 60 Cal. 367 277 McCormiek v. Alexander, 2 Ohio, 285 26S, 286, 427 McCormick v. Fayette County, 150 Pa. St. 193 290 McCormick v. Humphrey, 27 Ind. 144 514 McCormick v. Pickering, 4 N. Y. 276 160, 229 McCormick v. Eusch, 15 Iowa, 136 398, 402, 416 McCormick v. Sullivant, 10 Wheat. 199 506 McCoy v. Washington County, 3 Wall. Jr. 381 246, 328 Table of Cases Cited. 813 McCracken v. Hay-ward, 2 How. 612 265, 385, 386, 387, 389, 397, 406, 413, 415, 424, 425 McCracken v. Moody, 33 Ark. 81 276, 327 McCracken v. Poole, 19 La. Ann. 359 242 MeCreary v. State, 27 Ark. 425 434 McCulloch v. Brown, 41 S. C. 243 611 McCulloch v. Maryland, 4 Wheat. 406.. 28, 30, 31, 35. 36, 37. 67, 76, 81, 82, 84, 85, 91, 93, 212, 213, 215, 217, 218, 609. 615, 678, 680 McDonald v. Maddux, 11 Cal. 187 314 McDonald v. Massachusetts, 180 U. S. 313 255, 638, 675 McDonald v. State, 81 Ala, 279 121 McDonald v. State, 79 Wis?. 651 632, 634 McDonnell v. Alabama etc. Ins. Co, 85 Ala. 407 345 McDonough v. Millandon, 3 How. 693 533 McEldcrry v. Jones, 67 Ala. 205 91 McElmoyle v. Cohen, 13 Pet. 312 409, 561, 562, 5o4 565, 567, 568 McElrath 's Motion, 12 Ct. of CI. 312 671 McElrath v. Pittsburgh etc. Ey. Co., 55 Pa. St. 189 433 McElrath v. United States, 102 U. S. 426 486, 671 McElvain v. Mudd, 44 Ala. 48 3S8, 523, 590, 693 McElvaine v. Brush, 142 U. S. 158 607, 675 McFaddin v. Evans-Snider-Buel Co., 185 U. S. 513 263, 274, 392 McFall v. Austin, 1 Tex. App. Civ. 207 290 McFarland v. Butler, 8 Minn. 110 574 McFarlaud v. Culpepper, CI. & H. 221 615 McFarland v. State Bank, 4 Ark. 44 245 McGahey v. Commonwealth, 85 Va. 519 305, 306 McGahey v. Virginia, 135 TJ. S. 693 305, 306, 387. 389, 406, 407 McGavisk v. State, 34 N. J. 509 353 McGee v. Mathis, 4 Wall. 155 283, 289, 302, 349 McGee v. Young, 40 Miss. 164 267 McGinnis v. Anderson, Powell, 638 615 McGoon v. Shirk, 54 HI. 411 91 McGregor v. Cone, 104 Iowa, 469 46. 123, 127, 445 McGrew v. Watrous, 16 Tex. 509 563 McGuire v. Commonwealth, 3 Wall. 395 139, 441 McGuire v. State, 47 Md. 485 255 McHenry v. Alford, 168 U. S. 670 453, 601 McHenry v. Downer, 116 Cal. 25 94 Mcllvaine v. Cox's Lessee, 2 Cr. 280, 4 Cr. 212 677 Mclntyre v. Ingraham, 35 Miss. 25 356 Mclntyre v. Wood, 7 Cr. 506 503, 506 McKane v. Durston, 153 TJ. S. 687 573, 576 McKay v. Campbell, 2 Saw. 129 149, 571, 731 Mackel v. Eochester, 102 Fed. 314 640 Maekey v. Coxe, 18 How. 100 148 150, 152, 483 Mackey v. O 'Connor, 2 Ells. 565 46 814 Table of Cases Cited. MeKee v. Rains, 10 Wall. 25 672 McKee v. Young, 2 Bart. 422 41, 60 McKeever v. United States, 14 Ct. of CI. 396 185 McKeithan v. Terry, 64 N. C. 25 411 McKcnny v. Conipton, 18 Ga. 170 406 McKim v. Willis, 83 Mass. 512 419 Mackin v. United States, 117 U. S. 354 629 McKinney v. Salem, 77 Ind. 214 298 McKinney v. Saviego, 18 How. 240 570, 593 McKnight v. United States, 115 Fed. 972 640 MeLane v. Paschal, 62 Tex. 102 412 McLaren v. Pennington, 1 Paine, 102 370, 375, 382 McLaughlin v. South Bend, 126 Ind. 471 141 McLean, In re, 2 Bank. Keg. 170 270 McLean v. Lafayette Bank, 3 McLean, 415 161 McLeod v. Burroughs, 9 Ga. 213 33 1 MeLeod v. Receveur, 71 Fed. 455 714 McLeod v. Savannah etc. E. R., 25 Ga. 457 361 McLure v. Melton, 24 S. C. 570 264, 404 McMahan v. Mayor, 2 Har. & J. 41 319 MeMasters v. Commonwealth, 3 Watts, 294 393 McMichael etc. Co. v. Stafford, 105 Fed. 380 186 McMicken v. Webb, 11 Pet. 38 528 McMillan v. Boyles, 6 Iowa, 304 320 McMillan v. Lee County, 6 Iowa, 394 274, 393 McMillan v. McNeill, 4 Wheat. 209 166, 167 McMillan v. Sprague, 4 How. (Miss.) 647 400, 432 MeMillen v. Anderson, 95 U. S. 41 714 McMillen v. County Judge, 6 Iowa, 394 274 McMurray v. Sidwell, 155 Ind. 560 284 McNaughton Co. v. McGirl, 20 Mont. 134 99, 107, 130, 578 McNealy v. Gregory, 13 Fla. 417 250, 270, 387 McNeil, Ex parte, 13 Wall. 242 102, 104, 454, 538, 717 McNulty, Ex parte, 77 Cal. 164 718 McNulty v. Batty, 10 How. 78 548, 595 McNulty v. California, 149 Cal. 64S 710 McNutt v. Bland, 2 How. 16 510 Macon County v. Shores, 97 U. S. 278 323 Macon etc. B. R. Co. v. Gibson, 85 Ga. 1 375, 377 McPherson, In re, 104 U. S. 306 715 McPherson v. Blacker, 146 U. S. 3S 30, 39, 464, 466, 677, 691. 701, 703, 705, 720, 739 McPherson v. Secretary of State, 92 Mich. 390 703 McQueen v. McQueen, 55 Ala. 433 281 McRae v. Mayor, 59 Ga. 168 63S McReady v. Virginia, 94 U. S. 394 130, 575, 706, 732 Macready v. Wilcox, 33 Conn. 321 324 Table of Cases Cited. 815 McBee v. Wilmington etc. Co., 2 Jones (X. C), 186 360 McBeynolds v. Smallhouse, 8 Bush, 447 103 McVeigh v. Bank, 26 Gratt, 200 195 Madison etc. B. E. v. Whiteneck, 8 Ind. 217..... 368 Madland v. Benland, 24 Minn. 372 403 Madrazo, Ex parte, 7 Pet. 627 545, 687 Maenhaut v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 10S 326,327 Magee v. Young, 40 Miss. 164 267 Maggie Hammond, The, 9 Wall. 452 535 Magill v. Parsons, 4 Conn. 325 506 Magin v. Karle, 150 U. S. 392 184 Mag-ner v. People, 97 111. 320 128, 129 Magoun v. Illinois etc. Bank, 170 U. S. 299 93, 707, 729, 731 Maguiar v. Henry, 84 Ky. 1 429 Maguire v. Board, 71 Ala. 42 92 Maguire v. Card, 21 How. 251 541 Mahon v. Justice, 127 U. S. 706. . .239, 240, 456, 553, 584, 586, 588,686 Mahoney, Estate of, 133 Cal. 180 707 Maier, Ex parte, 103 Cal. 476 ] 29, 722 Mail Co. v. Flanders, 12 Wall. 135 52S Main v. Messner, 17 Or. 79 167 Maine v. Grand Trunk By. Co., 142 U. S. 228 134 Maine Central E. E. Co. v. Maine, 96 U. S. 510 380 Mallett v. North Carolina, 181 U. S. 597 262 Malony v. Fortune, 14 Iowa, 417 422 Malony v. Milwaukee, 1 Fed. 613 536 Maltbie v. Hotchkiss, 38 Conn. 80 161 Maltby v. Beading etc. E, E. Co., 52 Pa. St. 140 278 Manchester, Ex parte, 5 Cal. 237 5S5, 586 Manchester v. Massachusetts, 139 U. S. 262 128, 130, 188, 523. 536, 541 Manchester Fire Ins. Co. v. Herriot, 91 Fed. 718 143 Manley, In re, 20 Wash. 509 58) Manley v. Ealeigh, 4 Jones Eq. 370 311 Mann v. Mann, 1 Johns. Ch. 326 99 Mann v. Tacoma Land Co., 152 U. S. 984 595 Manning, In re, 135 U. S. 506 710 Manning v. Amy, 140 IT. S. 141 515 Manro v. Almeida, 10 Wheat. 486 536 Mansfield etc. By. v. Swan, 111 U. S. 382 505 Manuel v. Wulff, 152 IT. S. 511 156 Marbury v. Madison, 1 Cr. 138 28, 29, 32, 459, 460, 461, 463, 4S7, 488, 493, 494, 500, 501, 518, 522, 523, 524, 542 543. 547. ."49, 611 612, 679 Marchant v. Pennsylvania B. B. Co., 153 IT. S. 3S8 708, 729 Marden v. Portsmouth, 59 N. H. 20 290 Margaret, The, 9 Wheat. 421 670 816 Table of Cases Cited. Marianna Flora, The, 11 Wheat. 40 190 Marion etc. E. E. Co. v. Sleeth, 53 Ind. 41 379 Marietta etc. E. E. Co. v. Elliott, 10 Ohio St. 57 371, 372 Marion v. State, 16 Neb. 354 228, 254, 261 Market St. E. E. v. Hellman, 109 Cal. 587 364 Marks v. Donaldson, 24 La. Ann. 242 313 Marks v. Marks, 75. Fed. 328 155, 570, 701 Markson v. Haney, 1 Dill. 503 163 Marsh v. Burroughs, 1 Woods, 463 270, 435, 436, 605 Marsh v. Fulton County, 10 Wall. 684 329 Marsh v. Putnam, 69 Mass. 551 168, 417 Marshall's Case, Taft, 68 60 Marshall v. Baltimore etc. E. E., 16 How. 314 530 Marshall v. Sherman, 148 N. Y. 18 270, 271 Marshalship for Alabama, In re, 20 Fed. 3S2 485, 486, 490 Marshaltown v. Blum, 58 Iowa, 184 141 Martha Anne, The, Olcott, 22 130 Martin, In re, 2 Paine, 348 504, 512, 590, 671 Martin, Ex parte, 7 Nev. 140 44S Martin v. Baltimore etc E, E, Co., 151 U. S. 689 450, 451, 515 Martin v. Berry, 37 Cal. 208 162, 163 Martin v. Dix, 52 Miss. 58 311, 607, 628 Martin v. Hous?, 39 Fed. 694 208 Martin v. Hunter, 1 Wheat. 326 27, 30, 31, 35, 37, 76, 77, 171, 213, 482, 497, 500, 503, 504, 509, 510, 511, 514, 516, 517, 518, 519, 521, 535, 543, 547, 548, 609, 678 Martin v. Mott, 12 Wheat. 19 201, 202, 223, 225, 471, 604, 644 Martin v. Eosedale, 130 Ind. 109 141 Martin v. Snowden, 18 Gratt. 100 227, 645 Martin v. Somerville, 3 Wall. Jr. 206 268, 428 Martin v. State, 18 Tex. App. 225 174, 262 Martin v. Waddell, 16 Pet. 316 129, 130 Martindale v. Moore, 3 Blackf . 280 332 Martinnetti v. Maguire, Deady, 216, 1 Abb. 356 182 Marx v. Hanthorn, 30 Fed. 679 2S0 Mary and Susan, The, 1 Wheat. 57 72 Mary Clinton, The, Blatchf. Pr. 558 470 Marye v. Baltimore etc. E. E., 127 U. S. 124 137, 6S4 Maryland v. Baltimore etc. E. E. Co., 3 How. 552 310, 442 Mason, Ex parte, 105 U. S. 697 '..200, 549 Mason v. Boom Co., 3 Wall. Jr. 252 515 Mason v. Haile, 12 Wheat. 370 398, 400, 402, 419 Mason v. Harper's Ferry Bridge Co., 17 W. Va. 42 361 Mason v. Kennebec etc. E. E. Co., 31 Me. 215 647 Mason v. McLeod, 57 Kan. 109 180, 186 Mason v. State, 55 Ark. 535 466 Mason v. Waite, 5 111. 134 399 Table of Cases Cited. 817 Mason v. Walker, 14 Me. 166 406 Mason etc. Co. v. Main Jellico etc. Co., 87 Ky. 467 255, 308 Massachusetts v. Western Union Tel. Co., 141 U. S. 640 136, 137 Massachusetts etc. Co. v. Cane Creek, 155 U. S. 285 529 Massachusetts Gen. Hosp. v. State etc. Ins. Co., 70 Mass. 227.. 380 Massey v. Wise, Mobley, 367 70 Master v. Prats, 10 Bob. (La.) 459 455 Matheny v. Golden, 5 Ohio St. 361 270, 289, 302, 353 Mathfer v. Bush, 16 Johns. 233 162 Mather v. Chapman, 6 Cow. 57 392, 404, 437 Mather v. Nesbit, 4 McCrary, 506, 13 Fed. 873 162, 167, 417 Mathews v. St. Louis etc. Ky., 121 Mo. 298 332, 346, 369 Matthew v. Eae, 3 Cr. C. C. 699 154 Matthews v. McStea, 91 U. S. 12 194, 196, 470 Matthews v. People, 202 111. 389 713 Matthews v. Zane, 7 Wheat. 211 73 Mattingly v. District of Columbia. 97 U. S. 690 205, 275 Mattox v. United States, 156 U. b. 242 29, 666 Mauran v. Alliance Ins. Co., 6 Wall. 13 241, 685 Maxey v. Loyal, 38 Ga. 538 412 Maxwell v. Dow, 176 U. S. 601 30, 551, 574, 665, 706, 707 Maxwell v. Stewart, 21 Wall. 73, 22 Wall. 79 674 May, In re, 82 Fed. 425 140 May v. New Orleans, 178 U. S. 507 Ill, 145, 146, 445 May v. Sloan, 101 U. S. 237 95 Mayberry v. Brien, 15 Pet. 37 267 Mayer v. Hellman, 91 U. S. 502 164 Mayer v. Knight, 27 Tex. 719 263 Mayfield v. Bichards, 115 U. S. 142 196 Mayhew v. Thatcher, 6 Wheat. 129 561 Maynard v. Hill, 125 U. S. 214 265, 286 Maynard v. Newman, 1 Nev. 271 90, 171, 218, 249 Maynes v. Moore, 16 Ind. 116 433 Mayor v. Cooper, 6 Wall. 251 504 Mayor v. Baltimore etc. E. E. Co., 6 Gall. 288 349, 353, 354 Mayor v. Cooper, 6 Wall. 252 514, 518, 519 Mayor v. N. & W. E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 103 371, 375, 381 Mayor v. Pittsburgh etc. E. E, Co., 1 Abb. (U. S.) 9 382 Mayor v. Proprietors, 7 Md. 517 350 Mayor v. Eailroad Co., 113 N. Y. 318 353 Mayor v. Second Ave. etc. Co., 34 Barb. 41 319 Mayor v. State, 15 Md. 376 246, 310 Mayor v. Twenty-third St. Ey., 113. N. T. 318 374 Mayor of Macon v. Jones, 67 Ga. 492 277 Mayor of New York, In re, 11 Johns. 80 80 Mays v. Williams, 27 Ala. 267 .187 Maysville T. Co. v. How, 14 B. Mon. 26 334 Notes on Constitution — 52 818 Table of Cases Cited. Meade v. United States, 2 Ct. of CI. 224 659 Meador, Ex parte, 1 Abb. (U. S.) 317 216, 624, 639, 642, 643 Meadville v. Erie Canal Co., 18 Pa. St. 66 359, 361 Mechanics' etc. Bank v. Allen, 28 Conn. 97 429, 430 Mechanics' Bank v. Debolt, 18 How. 380 289, 332, 352 Mechanics' Bank v. Thomas, 18 How. 384 352 Mechanics' Bank v. Union Bank, 22 Wall. 276 274, 275, 472, 473, 474, 498, 509 Medley, In re, 134 U. S. 171 228, 253, 254, 255 Meekins v. Creditors, 10 La. Ann. 497 162 Melcher v. Boston, 9 Met. 75 84 Mellen v. Moline Iron Works, 131 U. S. 366 337 Mellinger v. Houston, 68 Tex. 36 408, 409 Members Elected by General Ticket, 1 Bart. 52 57 Memphis v. United States, 97 U. S. 295 291, 397 Memphis City Bank v. Tennessee, 161 U. S. 190 299, 303 Memphis Gas Co. v. Shelby County, 109 U. S. 400 300, 34S Memphis etc. K. B. v. Berry, 41 Ark. 445 341 Memphis R. R. Co. v. Commissioners, 112 U. S. 623 302, 351 Memphis etc. Ey. v. Tennessee, 101 U. S. 340 303 Menard v. Goggan, 121 U. S. 253 529 Menges v. Wertman, 1 Pa. St. 218 ". . 404 Mercantile Bank v. New York, 121 U. S. 152 94 Mercantile Bank v. Shields, 59 Fed. 956 575 Mercer's Case, CI. & H. 44 46 Merchants' Bank v. Ballou, 98 Va. 112 264, 286, 427 Me chants' Ins. Co., T n re , 3 Biss. 162 163 Merchants' Nat. Bank v. Braithwaite, 7 N. Dak. 358 407 Merchants' National Bank v. Pennsylvania, 167 U. S. 466.... 93 Meriwether v. Garrett, 102 U. S. 511 309 Merrill v. Bowler, 38 Atl. 116 418 Merrill v. Sherburne, 1 N. H. 209 683 Merryman, Ex parte, Taney, 246 225, 493 Mershon v. Pottsville Lumber Co., 187 Pa. St. 12 144 Me-shing-go-me-sia v. State, 36 Ind. 316 149 Messervey 's Case, 1 Bart. 148 60 Metcalf v. State, 49 Ohio St. 5S6 312 Metcalf v. Watertown, 128 U. S. 587 532 Metropolitan Bank v. Van Dyck, 27 N. Y. 400 27, 77, 89, 90, 171, 173, 195, 201, 212, 213, 218, 229, 249, 263, 467 Metropolitan Board v. Barrie, 34 N. Y. 657 139, 297, 29S Metropolitan B. E. Co. v. District of Columbia, 132 U. S. 9 206 Metropolitan E. E. Co. v. Highland Ry. Co., 118 Mass. 290 381 Metzger, In re, 1 Park. C. C. 108 542, 613 Metzger, In re, 5 How. 176 549 Mexican Central Ry. Co. v. Eckman, 187 U. S. 429 531 Mexican Central Ry. Co. v. Pinckney, 149 U. S. 194 507 Table of Cases Cited. 819 Mexican National Ey. Co. v. Musette, 86 Tex. 708 284, 433 Meyer v. Berlandi, 39 Minn. 438 426 Meyer v. Bichmond, 172 U. S. 94 649 Meyers v. Shields, 61 Fed. 718 650 Miami County v. Brackenridge, 12 Kan. 122 353 Michigan State Bank v. Hastings, 1 Doug. 225 332 Michigan Tel. Co. v. St. Joseph, 121 Mich. 502 324 Micou v. Ashhurst, 55 Ala. 607 281 Middlesex Turnpike Co. v. Locke, 8 Mass. 267 372 Milam v. Bateman, 54 Tex. 153 313 Milan Milling Co. v. Gorten, 93 Tenn. 594 108 Milburn, Ex parte, 9 Pet. 704 549 Miles v. King, 5 Eich. 146 394 Miller, In re, 1 Abb. (U. S.) 263 246 Miller, In re, 110 Mich. 677 256 Miller 'a Case, Brown Adm. 157 192 Miller v. Craig, 3 Stock. 106 569 Miller v. Dunn, 72 Cal. 462 31 Miller v. Horton, 152 Mass. 540 726 Miller v. Little, 47 Cal. 348 598 Miller v. Mayor, 109 U. S. 394 73, 97 Miller v. Mayor, 18 Blatchf. 215, 10 Fed. 516 97 Miller v. McQuerry, 5 McLean, 460 591, 671 Miller v. Miller, 18 Hun, 507 584 Miller v. Moore, 1 E. D. Smith, 739 268 Miller v. Bailroad Co., 21 Barb. 513 377 Miller v. Smith, 16 Wend. 441 433 Miller v. State, 15 Wall. 588 283, 316, 332, 370, 371, 373, 377, 3S1 Miller v. Texas, 153 U. S. 539 709 Miller v. United States, 11 Wall. 305 193, 195, 559, 671 Miller v. Van Loben Sels, 66 Cal. 342 54 1 Millett v. People, 117 111. 294 713 Milligan, Ex parte, 4 Wall. 2 195, 223, 224 225, 470, 474, 475, 476, 498, 499, 521, 549, 552, 624, 625, 631 Milligan v. Hovey, 3 Biss. 13 225, 631 Milliken v. Sloat, 1 Nev. 5S5 218 Mills' Case, Taft, 136 60 Mills v. Brown, 16 Pet. 525 523 Mills v. Duryee, 7 Cr. 4S5 564, 566, 568 Mills v. Martin, 19 Johns. 24 202 Mills v. St. Clair Co., 8 How. 569 334, 358, 360 Mills v. St. Clair Co., 2 Gilm. 197 341, 342, 361 Mills v. Williams, 11 Ired. 558 310 Milne v. Huber, 3 McLean, 212 394, 400, 428 Milner, In re, 1 Bank. Eeg. 107 457 Milner v. Pensacola, 2 Woods, 632 272. 317, 328 Milwaukee Industrial School v. Supervisors, 40 Wis. 328 724 820 Table of Cases Cited. Mimmack v. United States, 97 U. S. 427 492 Minder v. Georgia, 183 U. S. 559 709 Miner v. Markham, 28 Fed. 387 67 Miner v. New York etc. R. R., 123 N. Y. 251 364 Miners' Bank v. Iowa, 12 How. 7 598, 600 Miners' Bank v. United States, 1 Iowa, 553 357, 382 Mineral Paint R. R. v. Barron, 83 111. 367 410 Minneapolis v. Reum, 56 Fed. 581 155, 701 Minneapolis etc. Co. v. McGillivray, 10 Fed. 258 441 Minneapolis Ry. Co. v. Beckwith, 129 U. S. 29 698, 728 Minneapolis etc. R. R. Co. v. Emmons, 149 U. 3. 363. ...368, 442, 720 Minneapolis etc. Ry. Co. v. Gardner, 20 S. Ct. 656 341 Minneapolis etc. Ry. Co. v. Milner, 57 Fe 1. 256 124 Minneapolis' etc. Ry. v. Minnesota, 134 U. S. 467 338 Minnesota v. Barber, 136 U. S. 326 123 Minnesota v. Barber, 39 Fed. 641 123 Minnesota v. Hitchcock, 185 U. S. 386 525, 526 Minnesota v. Northern Securities Co., 184 U. S. 199 528 Minnesota Co. v. St. Paul Co., 2 Wall. 634 520 Minor, In re, 69 Fed. 325 448 Minor v. Happersett, 21 Wall. 166 42, 569, 603, 699, 701, 703, 738 Minot v. Philadelphia etc. R. R. Co., 18 Wall. 231 352 Minot v. Thacher, 48 Mass. 348 162 Minot v. Winthrop, 162 Mass. 118 232 Minturn v. Brower, 24 Cal. 663 212 Minturn v. Larue, 1 McCall, 376 360 Mississippi v. Johnson, 4 Wall. 500 460, 462, 46S, 493, 494, 501, 525, 526 Mississippi Mills v. Cohen, 150 U. S. 202 523 Mississippi etc. R. R. v. State, 46 Miss. 21S 243 Missouri v. Illinois, 180 U. S. 219 29 Missouri v. Iowa, 7 How. 667 457, 546 Missouri v. Kentucky, 11 Wall. 395 546 Missouri v. North, 27 Mo. 464 138 Missouri v. Telegraph Co., 23 Fed. 539 719 Missouri ex rel. v. Murphy, 170 U. S. 97 719 Missouri etc. R. R. Co. v. Haber, 169 U. S. 637 104, 125, 681 Missouri etc. R. R. v. Mackey, 127 U. S. 208 336, 705, 720, 729 Missouri Pacific Ry. Co. v. Fitzgerald, 160 U. S. 582 508 Missouri Pacific Ry. Co. v. Huir.es, 115 U. S. 523 720 Mitchell 's Case, 18 Ct. of CI. 281 236 Mitchell, In re, 62 Fed. 576 141 Mitchell v. Board, 91 U. S. 208 92 Mitchell v. Campbell, 19 Or. 306 274 Mitchell v. Clark, 110 U. S. 641 406, 514 Mitchell v. Cothrans. 49 Ga. 125 431 Mitchell v. Great Works etc. Co., 2 Story, 648 161 Mitchell v. Harmony, 13 How. 115 646. 656 Table of Cases Cited. 821 Mitchell v. Lenox, 14 Pet. 49 563 Mitchell v. Steelman, 8 Cal. 363 95, 98, 99, 105, 106, 212 Mitchell v. Tibbetts, 34 Mass. 298 203 Mitchell v. Wolfe, 70 Ga. 627 409 Mobile v. Emanuel, 1 How. 100 595 Mobile v. Eslava, 16 Pet. 254 129 Mobile v. Kailroad Company, 84 Ala. 120 284 Mobile v. Watson, 116 U. S. 305 317 Mobile Ins. Co. v. Columbia etc. Co., 41 S. C. 40S 369, 720 Mobile etc. E. R. v. Sessions, 28 Fed. 593 107 Mobile etc. B. E. v. State, 29 Ala. 573 265, 371 Mobile etc. By. v. State, 51 Miss. 137 344 Mobile E. E. Co. v. Steiner, 61 Ala. 592 379 Mobile etc. E. E. v. Tennessee, 153 IT. S. 506 271, 299, 696 Mobile School Com. v. Putnam, 44 Ala. 406 310, 383 Mock v. Commonwealth, 6 Bush, 397 141 Moffatt v. Soley, 2 Paine, 103 503 Mohawk Bridge Co. v. Railroad Co., 6 Paige, 544 360 Mohawk Bridge Co. v. Utica etc. Co., 6 Paige, 564 360, 361 Mohr, In re, 73 Ala. 509 585 Moncure v. Zants, 11 Wall. 416 673 Monongahela Nav. Co. v. Coon, 6 Pa. St. 375 370, 371, 375 Monongahela Nav. Co. v. United States, 148 U. S. 342 95, 97, 103, 383, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662 Montana Co. v. St. Louis Min. Co., 152 U. S. 170 643, 644 Montalet v. Murray, 4 Cr. 47 532 Montclair v. New York etc. By., 45 N. J. Eq. 442 364 Montello, The, 11 Wall. 411 Ill MonteUo, The, 20 Wall. 433 97 Montgomery v. Hobson, 19 Tenn. 437 392 Montgomery v. Kasson, 16 Cal. 194 292, 294 Montgomery Academy v. George, 14 La. Ann. 395 330 Montpelier v. East Montpelier, 29 Vt. 12 313 Moon Sing v. United States, 158 U. S. 543 108 Moor v. Beading, 21 Pa. St. 188 171 Moor v. Veazie, 32 Me. 343 95 Moore v. American Transp. Co., 24 How. 39 Ill Moore v. Fowler, Hemp. 536 395, 425 Moore v. Holland, 16 S. C. 24 268, 286, 404, 427 Moore v. Holliday, 4 Dill. 53 352 Moore v. Illinois, 14 How. 20 119, 182, 586, 590, 591, 724 Moore v. Indianapolis, 120 Ind. 492 298, 299, 344, 441 Moore v. Litchford. 35 Tex. 213 36S, 427 Moore v. Martin, 38 Cal. 428 424 Moore v. Missouri, 159 U. S. 677 255, 260, 732 Moore v. New Orleans, 32 La. Ann. 747 270 Moore v. State, 71 Ala. 307 256 Moore v. State, 48 Miss. 147 439 822 Table of Cases Cited. Moore v. State, 43 N. J. L. 214 22S, 253, 256, 259, 633 More v. Steinbach, 127 U. S. 80 461 Moran v. Sturges, 154 U. S. 286 512, 513, 535 Moran v. Goodman, 130 Mass. 158 299 Moran v. New Orleans, 112 U. S. 74 131, 144, 453 Moredock v. Kirby, 118 Fed. 180 707 Morf ord v. Unger, 8 Iowa, 82 311 Morgan 's Case, Taf t, 581 59 Morgan, In re, 26 Colo. 415 712 Morgan v. Dudley, 18 B. Mon, 693 156, 1S8, 497 Morgan v. Keenan, 1 S. Ct. 331 244 Morgan v. Louisiana, 93 U. S. 221 300, 302, 348, 351, 355 Morgan v. McGehee, 5 Humph. 13 150, 151 Morgan v. Nagadish, 40 La. Ann. 252, 3 South. 639 191 Morgan v. Neville, 74 Pa. St. 52 574 Morgan v. Parham, 16 Wall. 476 131, 137, 453 Morgan etc. S. S. Co. v. Board of Health, 118 U. S. 465 104, 124, 221, 234, 235, 453 Morgan's etc. Co. v. Board of Health, 36 La. Ann. 669 117 Morley v. Thayer, 3 Feci. 740 270 Morley Machine Co. v. Lancaster, 129 U. S. 286 184, 186 Morley v. Lr;ke Shore etc. By, 146 U. S. 162 285, 286, 405 Morrill v. State, 38 Wis. 428 140 Morris v. Burgess, 116 N. C. 42 561 Morris V. Columbus, 102 Ga. 792 725 Morris v. People, 13 Wend. 325 316 Morris v. State, 66 Tex. 728 317 Morris v. United States, 174 U. S. 236 129 Morris & E. E. R. Co. v. Commissioners, 38 N. J. L. 472 352, 377 Morse v. Goold, 11 N. Y. 288 400, 406, 410, 433 Morse v. Home Ins. Co., 30 Wis. 506 97 Morse v. Ho\ey, 1 Barb. Ch. 404 158, 160, 161 Morse v. Rice, 21 Me. 53 419 Morton v. Daily, 1 Bart. 402 59 Morton v. Grenada Academy, 16 Miss. 773 312 Morton v. Eutherf ord, 18 Wis. 298 394 Morton v. Skinner, 48 Ind. 124 583 Mosely v. Tuthill, 45 Ala. 647 243 Moses v. Kearney, 31 Ark. 261 309, 316 Moses v. United States, 116 Fed. 526 470 Moses Taylor, The, 4 Wall. 430. .498, 510, 518, 519, 525, 534, 535, 538 Mosher v. Bay Circuit Judge, 108 Mich. 503 401 Mossrnan v. Higginson, 4 Dall. 14 505, 532 Motes v. Bennett, 2 Fish. Pat. Cas. 642 670 Motes v. United States, 178 U. S. 462 213, 214, 666 Moultrie County v. Fairfield, 105 U. S. 375 320 Moultrie County v. Savings Bank, 92 U. S. 635 270, 320 Mount Hope Cemetery v. Boston, 158 Mass. 512 313 Table of Cases Cited. 823 Mount Pleasant v. Beekwiih, 100 U. S. 525 309, 311 Mower v. Kemp, 42 La. Ann. 1007 296 Mowrey v. Indianapolis etc. E. E. Co., 4 Biss. 86 345, 372 Mrous v. State, 36 Tex. Cr. 597 256, 259, 260 Mudge v. Oitunissioners, 10 Eob. (La.) 460 337 Mugler v. Kansas, 123 U. S. 661 214, 441, 500, 611, 698, 710, 717 Mullen v. Log etc. Co., 90 Me. 567 112 Muller v. Dows, 94 U. S. 445 538 Mulligan v. Corbin, 7 Wall. 491 296 Munford's Case, CI. ■& H. 318 69, 70 Mumford v. Sewall, 11 Or. 67 277 Mumf ord v. Wardwell, 3 Wall. 713 129 Mumma v. Potomac Co., 8 Pet. 286 337, 370, 520 Munday v. Assessors, 43 N. J. L. 338 326 Mundy v. Monroe, 1 Mich. 68 398, 422 Mungosah v. Steinbrook, 3 Dill. 419 149 Municipality v. Commercial Bank, 5 Eob. (La.) 151 350 Municipality v. State Bank, 5 La. Ann. 394 289 Municipal Inv. Co. v. Gardiner, 62 Fed. 955 507 Munn v. Illinois, 94 U. S. 113 113, 114 118, 221, 234, 235, 344, 345, 438, 524, 650, 651, 661, 714, 718, 719 Munn v. People, 69 111. 80 717 Murck v. Tomer, 21 Me. 535 148 Mnrdock v. Cincinnati, 39 Fed. 891 645 Murdoch v. Memphis, 20 Wall. 619 548 Murdoek v. Ward, 178 U. S. 146 232 Murphy's Case, 41 Mo. 339 251, 257 Murphy, In re, 87 Fed. 551 228 Murphy, In re, 1 Woolw. 141 228, 229 Murphy v. Commonwealth, 172 Mass. 269 228, 255 Murphy v. Gaskins, 28 Gratt. 207 268, 286, 427 Murphy v. Manning, 134 Mass. 489 169 Murphy v. Massachusetts, 177 U. S. 158 639, 711 Murphy v. People, 2 Cow. 815 551, 619, 663 Murphy v. Eamsay, 114 U. S. 42 252, 258, 259 Murray, Ex parte, 93 Ala. 78 141 Murray v. Chicago etc. Co., 62 Fed. 24 512 Murray v. Charleston, 96 U. S. 449 263, 271, 276, 277, 280, 2S2, 288, 289, 326, 328, 384 Murray v. Hoboken Land etc. Co., 18 How. 272 216, 499, 500, 624, 625, 627, 645 Murray v. Louisiana, 163 U. S. 101 730 Murray v. McCarty, 2 Munf . 393 573 Murray v. Menefee, 20 Ark. 566 361 Murray v. Patrie, 5 Blatchf . 343 514 Murray v. Wooden, 17 Wend. 5'51 147 Muskogee Nat. Tel. Co. v. Hall. 118 Fed. 382 10? Mutual etc. Co. v. Hillyard, 37 N. J. L. 489 193 824 Table of Cases Cited. Mutual Assur. Soc. v. Watts, 1 Wheat. 282 207 Mutual Benefit Ins. Co. v. Tisdale, 91 U. S. 2:58 156 Mutual etc. Ins. Co. v. Winne, 20 Mont. 39 274, 430 Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Cohen, 179 U. S. 264 288 Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Haight, 34 N. J. L. 130 92 Mutual Life Ins. Co. v. Richardson, 77 Fed. 398 389 Myers v. Baltimore County, 83 Md. 389 Ill, 146, 233, 445, 655 Myers v. Boyd, 144 Ind. 499 272 Myers v. Dodd, 9 Ind. 290 726 Myers v. English, 9 Oal. 349 * 284 Myers v. Sanders, 7 Dana, 5.9 226, 251 Myrick v. Battle, 5 Fla. 345 284 Narragansett Indians, In re, 20 R. I. 771 149 Nashua etc. R. R. Co. v. Lowell etc. R. R. Co., 136 U. S. 370 530 Nashville etc. Ry. Co. v. Alabama, 128 U. S. 101. . . .121, 553, 664, 720 Nashville etc. Ry. Co. v. Taylor, 86 Fed. 168 499, 519, 520, 697 Natal v. Louisiana, 139 IT. S. 621 552 Nathan v. Louisiana, 8 How. 73 85, 138, 143, 245 National Bank v. Colby, 21 Wall. 613 158 National Bank v. Commonwealth, 9 Wall. 353 85, 93, 678, 680 National Bank v. Dearing, 91 U. S. 35 32, 84 National etc. Bank v. Mayor, 62 Ala. 292 84 National Bank v. Sebastian Co., 5 Dill. 416 326 National Bank v. United States, 101 U. S. 6 89 National Bank v. United States, 104 U. S. 212 National Bank of Yankton County, 101 U. S. 133 599, 601 National Distilling Co. v. Cream City Imp. Co., 86 Wis. 352 112 National Exch. Bank v. Peters, 144 U. S. 572 518, 546 National Surety Co. v. State Bank, 120 Fed. 593 522. 523 Neagle, In re, 135 U. S. 67 219, 494 Neal v. Delaware, 103 U. S. 370 727, 730, 739 Neass v. Mercer, 15 Barb. 318 398, 436 Ned, The, 1 Blatchf . Pr. 119 195 Neely v. Henkel, 180 U. S. 126 462, 473, 484, 502 Neff, Appeal of, 21 Pa. St. 243 411 Neff v. Beauchamp, 74 Iowa, 94 562 Neil v. State, 3 How. 720 176, 282 Neill, In re, 8 Blatchf. 156 198 Neilson, Petitioner, 131 U. S. 3 88 636 Neilson v. Garza, 2 Woods, 287 449, 450 Neilson v. Lagow, 12 How. 108 36 Nelson v. Allen, 1 Yerg. 360 265, 295 Nelson v. Loraine, 22 Fed. 57 444, 446 Nelson v. McCrary, 60 Ala. 310 412 Nelson v. Vermont etc. R, R. Co., 26 Vt. 717 368* Neuendorff v. Duryea, 69 N. Y. 557 620 Nevada Bank v. Sedgwick, 104 U. S. Ill 82, 684, Table of Cases Cited. 825 Nevada Nat. Bank v. Dodge, 119 Fed. 57 94 Nevitt, In re, 117 Fed. 622 477 Nevitt v. Bank, 14 Miss. 513 337, 387, 397 New Albany etc. B. E. v. McNamara, 11 Ind. 543 434 New Albany etc. B. E. v. Tilton, 12 Ind. 3 336, 368 New Buffalo v. Iron Co., 105 U. S. 75 329 Newcastle etc. E. E. Go. v. Beru etc. E. E. Co., 3 Ind. 464 341 Neweomb v. Newcomb, 13 Bush, 571 565 Neweomb, v. Smith, 1 Chand. 71 643, 651, 653, 656 New England Ins. Co. v. Dunham, 11 Wall. 31 538 New Hampshire v. Louisiana, 108 U. S. 86. .458, 459, 460, 526, 527, 688 New Hampshire v. Whittemore, 50 N. H. 245 155 New Hampshire County v. Franklin County, 16 Mass. 76 312 New Haven v. City Bank, 31 Conn. 106 353 New Haven v. Sheffield, 30 Conn. 160 303 New Haven etc. E. E. v. Bunnell, 1 Conn. 59 440 New Haven etc. Ey. Co. v. Hamersly, 104 U. S. 1 319 New Jersey Case, 1 Bart. 19 47 New Jersey v. New York, 3 Bet. 464 527 New Jersey v. New York, 5 Bet, 290 526, 527, 545, 546 New Jersey etc. Co. v. Strait, 35 N. J. L. 322 372 New Jersey v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 167 299, 301, 302, 387, 609 New Jersey v. Yard, 95 U. S. 114 288, 369, 374, 378 New Jersey Steam Nav. Co. v. Merchants' Bank, 6 How. 392.. 534, 536, 537, 538, 540 Newkirk v. Chapron, 17 111. 344 433, 434 New Lamp etc. Co. v. Ansonia etc. Co., 91 TJ. S. 661 162, 163 Newland v. Marsh, 19 111. 376 406 Newman, Ex parte, 14 Wall. 165 549 Newmarket Bank v. Butler, 45 N. H. 236 168 New Mexico v. United States Trust Co., 172 U. S. 181 350 New Orleans v. Cazelar, 27 La. Ann. 156 311 New Orleans v. Clark, 95 TJ. S. 654 82, 276 New Orleans v. Cordiviolle, 13 La. Ann. 260 265 New Orleans v. De Armas, 9 Bet. 224 595 New Orleans v. Eclipse Towboat Co., 33 La. Ann. 650 331 New Orleans v. Taber, 105 La. 208 718 New Orleans v. Gaines, 138 U. S. 606 531 New Orleans v. Great Southern etc. Co., 40 La. Ann. 41 324 New Orleans v. Houston, 119 IT. S. 278, 7 S. Ct. 198 300, 340 New Orleans v. Morris, 3 Woods, 115 400 New Orleans v. New Orleans etc. E. R., 35 La. Ann. 682 275 New Orleans v. New Orleans Waterworks Co., 142 TJ. S. 88 284, 285, 310, 317, 318, 319, 649 New Orleans v. Fontz, 14 La. Ann 853 265 New Orleans v. Santa Anna's Asylum, 31 La. Ann. 295 377 New Orleans v. Steamship Co., 20 Wall. 398 472 New Orleans v. Texas etc. E. E. Co., 171 IT. S. 343 341 826 Table of Cases Cited. New Orleans v. Turpin, 13 La. Ann. 56 297 New Orleans v. Winter, 1 Wheat. 95 528, 532 New Orleans v. Wood, 34 La. Ann. 755 271 New Orleans Canal etc. Co. v. New Orleans, 30 La. Ann. 1371. .. 409 New Orleans Gas Light Co. v. Hart, 40 La. Ann. 474 118, 439 New Orleans Gas Light Co. V. Louisiana Light Co., 115 U. S. 672 : 125, 270, 282, 288, 343, 438, 442, 443 New Orleans etc. R. R. v. Delamore, 114 U. S. 510. . .324, 334, 335, 364 New Orleans etc. R. R. Co. v. Ellerman, 105 U. S. 172 31 1 New Orleans etc. Ry. Co. v. Harris, 27 Miss. 517 372 New Orleans etc. R. R. v. Louisiana, 151 U. S. 224 401 New Orleans etc. R. R. v. New Orleans, 143 U. S. 195 300, 343 New Orleans Waterworks Co. v. Louisiana, 185 U. S. 351 271 New Orleans Waterworks v. Louisiana Sugar Co., 125 U. S. 31. . , 271,281 New Orleans Waterworks v. Rivers, 115 U. S. 681 343, 438 Newport v. Taylor, 16 B. Mon. 699 113 Newport etc. Co. v. United States, 18 Fed. Cas. 125 97 Newport Light Co. v. Newport, 151 U. S. 540 325 Newstadt v. Illinois Cent. R. R. Co., 31 111. 484 272 Newton v. Bushong, 22 Gratt. 633 243 Newton v. Commissioners, 100 U. S. 561 300 Newton v. Commonwealth, 82 Va. 647 305 Newton v. Hagerman, 10 Saw. 462 167, 169, 418, 567 Newton v. Mahoning County Commrs., 100 U. S. 559 309, 316 Newton v. Tibbatts, 7 Ark. 153 -103, 419 New World, The, v. King, 16 How. 472 540 New York v. Connecticut, 4 Dall. 1 526, 546 New York v. Miln, 11 Pet. 102, 96, 106, 118, 119, 611, 622, 679, 681, 725 New York v. Roberts, 171 U. S. 665 93, 133 New York Cable Ry., In re, 40 Hun, 1 373 New York Guaranty etc. Co. v. Board, 105 U. S. 624 304 New York Guaranty etc. Co. v. Tacoma Ry. etc. Co., 93 Fed. 56. . 559 New York Indians v. United States, 170 U. S. 23 482 New York Life Ins. Co. v. Cravens, 178 U. S. 401 109, 684 New York etc. R. R. Co. 's Appeal, 62 Conn. 538 649 New York etc. R. R. v. Bridgeport Traction Co., 65 Conn. 429 356 New York etc. R. R. Co. v. Bristol, 151 U. S. 567 343, 344, 368, 380, 438, 680, 731 New York etc. R. R. Co. v. Long, 69 Gonn. 437 662 New York etc. R. R. Co. v. New York, 165 U. S. 663. .. .102, 117, 731 New York etc. R. R. v. Pennsylvania, 153 U. S. 655 83, 134, 364, 389, 578 New Zealand Ins. Co. v. Earnmoor etc. Co., 79 Fed. 369 540 Niagara Fire Ins. Co. v. Cornell., 110 Fed. 816 611 Nichols, In re, 8 R. I. 55 142, 402 Table of Cases Cited. 827 Nichols v. Bertram, 20 Mass. 342 359 Nichols v. New Haven etc. Co., 42 Conn. 125 350, 354 Nichols v. S. & K. K. E. Co., 43 Me. 356 337 Nicol v. Ames, 173 U. S. 518, 89 Fed. 149 86, 232 Nixon v. State, 2 Smedes & M. 497 664 Noah, In re, 3 City H. Eec. 13 176 Noble v. Union etc. Co., 147 U. S. 171 461 Nobles v. Georgia, 168 U. S. 405 712 Nock v. United States, 2 Ct. of CI. 451 507 Noel v. Ewing, 9 Ind. 37 265, 286 Nofire v. United States, 164 U. S. 662 151 Noles v. State, 24 Ala. 691 607, 62S Nones v. Edsall, 1 WalL, Jr. 189 67, 68 Nordstrom v. Washington, 104 U. S. 705 151 Norfolk etc. Ey. Co. v. Commonwealth, S8 Va. 95 121 Norfolk etc. E. E. v. Commonwealth, 93 Va. 749 110, 126 Norfolk etc. Ey. v. Pennsylvania, 136 U. S. 118 133, 144 Norman v. Heist, 5 Watts & S. 171 646 Norris v. Androscoggin E. E. Co., 39 Me. 273 367 Norris v. Boston, 45 Mass. 282 395 Norris v. Clymer, 2 Penn. 277 171 Norris v. Doniphan, 4 Met. (Ky.) 409 217, 226, 251, 552, 648, 659 North Bloomfield Min. Co. v. United States, 88 Fed. 675 100 North Cape, The, 6 Biss. 505 451, 452, 453 North Carolina v. Mamel, 4 Dev. & B. 20 154, 699 North Carolina v. Newsonr, 5 Ired. 250 154, 622 Northern Counties Trust Co. v. Sears, 30 Or. 402 71 Northern etc. E. E. Co. v. Barnes, 2 N. Dak. 351 134 Northern E. E. v. Concord E. E., 27 N. H. 183 341 North Missouri E. E. Co. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 46 277 North Missouri E. E. v. Maguire, 40 Mo. 499 353, 607 North Eiver etc. Co. v. Livingston, 3 Cow. 733 27, 36, 78, 113, 451 Northrup v. Shook, 10 Blatchf. 254 87 Northwestern etc. Co. v. St. Louis, 4 Dill. 15 454 Northwestern U. P. Co. v. St. Paul, 3 Dill. 454 452, 455 Northwestern Univ. v. Illinois, 99 U. S. 309 349 North Yarmouth v. Skillings, 45 Me. 133 310, 312 Norton, Ex parte, 44 Ala. 184 241, 430 Norton v. Cook, 9 Conn. 314 167, 169, 170, 418 Norton v. Pettibone, 7 Conn. 319 404 Norton v. Shelby County, 118 U. S. 450 329, 4S5, 488 Norton v. Switzer, 93 U. S. 356 537, 538 Norwood v. Blodgett, Taft, 331 50 Nougue v. Clapp, 101 U. S. 555 512 Nuestra Senora de la Caridad, The, 4 Wheat. 494 494 Nugent 's Case, 18 Fed. Cas. 472 63, 65 Nugent v. State, 18 Ala. 52 505 828 Table of Cases Cited. Nunn v. State, 1 Ga. 243 622, 623 Nutt v. United States, 125 U. S. 655 237 .Nutting v. Massachusetts, 183 U. S. 553 717 Oakes v. United States, 174 U. S. 790 535 Oakland Sugar Mill Co. v. Fred W. Wolf Co., 118 Fed. 239 132 O'Brien v. Miller, 168 U. S. 287 535 O'Brien v. Wheelock, 184 U. S. 489 697 O 'Brien v. Young, 95 N. Y. 428 285 O'Bryan v. Allen, 108 Mo. 227 436 Ochiltree v. Railroad, 21 Wall. 253 263, 345, 397,405 O'Conley v. City of Natchez, 9 Miss. 31 454 O'Connell v. Reed, 56 Fed. 534 498 O'Connor, Tn re, 37 Wis. 379 210, 211 Oconto, The, 5 Biss. 463 112 O'Donnelly v. Bailey, 24 Miss. 386 318,353 Officer v. Young, 5 Yerg, 320 265, 336 Ogden v. Saunders, 12 Wheat. 266 27, 30, 31, 154, 161, 162, 166, 167, 172, 229, 257, 282, 287, 382, 385, 386, 389, 395, 398, 399, 417, 418, 433, 435, 511, 567, 611, 681 Ogden v. Walker, 59 Imd. 464 92 Ohio Life Ins. Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 432 ; 271, 289, 291, 341, 348, 352 Ohio Oil Co. v. Indiana, 177 U. S. 203 721 Ohio etc. R, R. v. McClelland, 25 111. 140 336 Ohio etc. E. R, Co. v. Wheeler, 1 Black, 297 528, 530 Ohio Trust Co. v. Debolt, 16 How. 428 291, 299, 334, 356, 68 i Olcott v. Supervisors, 16 Wall. 590 272, 397 Olden v. Hart, 5 N. J. L. 466 417 Oldens v. Hallett, 3 N. J. L. 466 563 Oldham v. Birmingham, 102 Ala. 366 287 Olds Wagon Works v. Benedict, 67 Fed. 1 507 Old Town R. R. Co. v. Veazie, 39 Me. 571 372 Oliver, In re, 17 Wis. 681 225, 463 Oliver v. McClure, 28 Ark. 561 402, 422, 424 Oliver v. Memphis etc. R. R. Co., 30 Ark. 131 240, 281, 349 Oliver Finney Grocery Co. v. Speed, 87 Fed. 415 138 Olmstead's Case, Bright. 9 687 Olmstead v. Kellogg, 47 Iowa, 460 425 O 'Neal v. American Ins. Co., 166 Pa. St. 72 38 O'Neal v. St. Olaf ' s School, 26 Minn. 329 426 Opel v. Shoup, 100 Iowa, 424 481 Opinion of Justices, 80' Mass. 548 204 Opinion of Justices, 41 N. H. 556 155 Opinion of Justices, 53 N. H. 636 92 Orchard v. Alexander, 157 U. S. 383 645 Ordinary v. Central R. R. Co., 40 Ga. 646 353 Table of Cases Cited. 829 Oregon etc. Ey. Co. v. Oregonian Ey. Co., 130 U. S. 20 683 O 'Eeilly v. Morse, 15 How. 119 184 Organ v. State, 56 Ark. 267 128 Oriental Bank v. Treeze, 18 Me. 109 265, 400, 419, 435 Orient Ins. Co. v. Daggs, 172 TJ. S. 566 143, 336, 572, 577, 684, 707 Origet v. Hedden, 155 U. S. 238 650 Ornelas v. Euiz, 161 II. S. 509 584 Orono, The, 1 Gall. 137 463 Orr v. Gilman, 183 U. S. 278 350, 707 Orr v. Lisso, 33 La. Ann. 477 162, 417 Orr v. Meek, 111 Ind. 40 718 Orr v. Quimby, 54 N". H. 654 236 Ortiz, Ex parte, 100 Fed. 955 225 Osborn v. Johnson etc. Co., 99 Ala. 309 427 Osborn v. Nicholson, 13 Wall. 654 438, 590, 693 Osborn v. Nicholson, 1 Dill. 235 119, 270, 388, 646 Osborn v. United States, 91 U. S. 478 477, 478, 479 Osborne v. State, 33 Fla. 179 135, 139, 578 Osborne v. Florida, 164 U. S. 656 145 Osborne v. Humphreys, 7 Conn. 335 301, 302, 396 Osborne v. Mobile, 16 Wall. 481 133, 144, 453, 576 Osborne v. Mobile, 44 Ala. 499 138, 681 Osborne v. United States Bank, 9 Wheat. 866 84, 85, 93, 153, 187, 217, 500, 501, 506, 510, 517, 518, 519, 520, 522, 524, 526, 527, 542, 543, 545, 546, 547, 628, 680, 687, 688, 689, 701 Oshkosh Waterworks Co. v. Oshkosh, 109 Wis. 208 309, 3S7 Osterman v. Baldwin, 6 Wall. 122 157 Oswald v. New York, 2 Dall. 415 527 Oswego Bridge Co. v. Fish, 1 Barb. Ch. 547 359 Otis v. Bacon, 7 Cr. 589 470 Ouachita Packet Co. v. Aiken, 121 U. S. 447 103, 454 Ouachita Packet Co. v. Kimball, 16 Fed. 890 Oulton v. Savings Institution, 17 Wall. IIS 87 Oullahan v. Sweeny, 79 Cal. 539 431 Overby v. Gordon, 177 U. S. 220 518 Owen v. Branch Bank, 3 Ala. 258 245, 246 Owen v. Peebles, 42 Ala. 343 274 Owen v. St. Louis etc. E. E., 83 Mo. '~\ 365 Owen v. Sioux City, 91 Iowa, 196 344 Owens, In re, 6 Biss. 434 410 Owens v. Henry, 161 U. S. 646 562 Owensboro Bank v. Owensboro, 173 U. S. 667 So, 93 Owings v. Norwood, 5 Cr. 348 521, 612 Owings v. Speed, 5 Wheat. 420 37, 269, 616 Pabst Brewing Co. v. Crenshaw, 120 Fed. 144 450 Pace v. Alabama, 106 Ala. 585 704 830 Table of Cases Cited. Pace v. Burgess, 92 TJ. S. 372 233, 449 Pacific Express Co. v. Seibert, 142 U. S. 352 135, 729 Pacific Gas. Imp. Co. v. Ellert, 64 Fed. 430 697 Pacific Insurance Co. v. Soule, 7 Wall. 446. ..86, 87, 231, 447, 452, 678 Pacific E. R. Co. v. Cass, 53 Mo. 17 348 Pacific E. E. Co. v. Maguire, 20 Wall. 36 270, 299, 349, 350, 352, 354 Pacific Railway Commission, In re, 12 Saw. 559, 32 Fed. 255.... 527, 543, 625 Packet Co. v. Catlettsburg, 105 U. S. 563 102, 103, 104, 454, 456 Packet Co. v. Keokuk, 95 U. S. 84 454, 455 Packet Co. v. St. Louis, 100 TJ. S. 429 454 Packing Co. v. Provision Cos., 105 U. S. 572 184 Pacquette v. Pickness, 19 Wis. 219 395 Padelford v. Mayor, 14 Ga. 438 27, 445, 450 Padgett v. Post, 106 Fed. 600 317 Paducah Hotel Co. v. Long, 92 Ey. 278 574 Page v. Allen, 58 Pa. St. 338 27, 153 Page v. United States, 127 TJ. S. 69 66 Paine v. Woodworth, 15 Wis. 298 401, 402 Palfrey v. Boston, 101 Mass. 329 85 Palmer v. Allen, 7 Cr. 565 517 Palmer v. Barrett, 162 TJ. S. 399 208 Palmer v. Hixon, 74 Me. 448 164 Palmer v. Love, 82 N. C. 479 437 Palmer v. McMahon, 133 U. S. 670 92, 94, 715 Palmer v. State, 39 Ohio St. 239 179 Pana v. Bowler, 107 TJ. S. 541 272 Panama, The, 176 TJ. S. 535 193, 194 Panama E. E. Co. v. Napier etc. Co., 166 TJ. S. 285 539, 540 Parent v. Walmsley, 20 Ind. 82 148 Paris v. Farmers' Bank, 30 Mo. 575 34S Parish v. Ellis, 16 Pet. 453 522 Park v. Detroit Free Press Co., 72 Mich. 560 620 Parke v. Williams, 7 Cal. 247 56S Parke, Ex parte, 37 Tex. Cr. 590 641 Parker v. Breckner, 67 Tex. 20 327 Parker v. Metropolitan E. E. Co., 109 Mass. 506 359, 383 Parker v. Ormsby, 141 TJ. S. 86 532 Parker v. Otis, 130 Cal. 322 727 Parker v. Eedfield, 10 Conn. 490 301, 302 Parker v. Sanders, 46 Ark. 235 433 Parker v. Savage, 6 Lea, 406 285 Parker v. Shannonhouse, Phill. (N. C.) 209 430 Parker v. State, 111 111. 581 268 Parker v. United States, 1 Pet. 296 471 Parkham v. Justice, 9 Ga. 341 646 Table of Cases Cited. 831 Parkhill, The, 18 Fed. Cas. 1197 195 Parkhurst v. Capital City Ey., 23 Or. 479 310 Parkinson v. United States, 121 U. S. 282 629, 630 Parks, Ex parte, 93 U. S. 18 550 Parks v. Coffey, 52 Ala. 36 241 Parmenter v. State, 135 N. T. 167 407 Parrott, In re, 1 Fed. 481 240, 456, 697, 728 Parrott v. Lawrence, 2 Dill. 537 333, 340 Parsons v. Armor, 3 Pet. 425 673 Parsons v. Bedford, 3 Pet. 483 522, 524, 669, 672 Parsons v. District of Columbia, 170 U. S. 45 81, 205, 523 Parsons v. Bussell, 11 Mich. 113 643 Parsons v. United States, 167 U. S. 331 486 Paschal v. Whitsell, 11 Ala. 472 400 Passaic Bridges, 3 Wall. 782 100, 114 Passenger Cases, 7 How. 283 28, 81, 96, 99, 106, 108, 113, 114, 116, 119, 154, 182, 221, 222, 234, 447, 453, 6 ! M. Patapsco Guano Co. v. Board of Agriculture, 52 Fed. 694 123 Patapsco Guano Co. v. North Carolina, 171 U. S. 359 138, 444, 449 Patin v. Prejean, 7 La. 301 267, 426 Patrie v. Murray, 43 Barb. 323, 29 How. Pr. 312 672 Patten v. Accessory Traction Co., 13 How. Pr. 502 420 Patterson's Case, Taft, 271 60, 64 Patterson v. Belf ord, 1 Ells. 55 47 Patterson v. Kentucky, 97 U. S. 506 179, 180, 185, 439, 440, 443 Patterson v. Kentucky, 1 Bush, 311 124 Patton v. Brady, 184 U. S. 608 232, 520 Faul v. Chilsoquie, 10 Fed. 402 154, 57, 699 Paul v. Virginia, 8 Wall. 183 107, 109, 145, 573, 575, 576, 577, 578 Paup v. Drew, 10 How. 224 250, 355, 356 Payne v. Baldwin, 11 Miss. 661 333, 355 Payne v. Kansas etc. E. E., 46 Fed. 503 654, 655 Payne v. Treadwell, 16 Cal. 220 314 Peabody v. Stetson, 88 Me. 279 166 Pearee, Ex parte, 32 Tex. Cr. 305 5S2 Pearce v. Madison E. E. Co., 21 How. 441 372. Pearee v. Patton, 7 B. Mon. 162, 45 B. Mon. 61 406 Pearce v. Texas, 155 U. S. 313 588 Pearsall v. Great Northern Ey. Co., 161 U. S. 667 284, 293, 341, 364, 373, 376 Pearsall v. Great Northern By. Co., 73 Fed. 939 345 Pearson v. Yewdall, 95 U. S. 294 645, 668 Pearson v. Zehr, 138 111. 48 726 Peatt v. Northam, 5 Mason, 95 523 Peck's Case, 14 Ct. of CI. 84 661 Peck's Trial 4t)f) 832 Table of Cases Cited. Peck v. Hibbard, 26 Vt. 704 168 Peck v. Jenness, 16 N. H. 534 497, 512 Peck v. LnckwootI, 5 Day, 22 130 Peck v. Moody, 23 Tex. 95 294 Pedro, The, 175 U. S. 354 194 Peel v. January, 35 Ark. 337 565 Peerce v. Kitzmiller, 19 W. Va. 564 227, 253, 285, 411 Peete v. Morgan, 19 Wall. 581 131, 453 Feik v. Chicago etc. Ey., 94 U. S. 176 Ill, 114, 339, 340, 367, 377, 383 Pelonge Scale etc. Co. v. American Cutlery Co., 102 Fed. 916 184 Pelton v. National Bank, 101 IT. S. 545 94 Pelt v. Payne, 60 Ark. 637 392 Pelton v. Platner, 13 Ohio, 209 565 Penrbina Min. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 125 U. S. 187 107, 143, 144, 577, 728, 729 Pendleton v. State, 6 Ark. 509 571 Penhallow v. Doane, 3 Dall. 93 35 Peninsular Lead Works v. Union etc. Co., 100 Wis. 488. .391, 396, 403 Penn v. Tollison, 26 Ark. 545 242, 243, 685 Penniman's Case, 103 U. S. 717 402,419 Penniman, In re, 11 E. I. 338 398, 402 Pennock v. Dialogue, 2 Pet. 210 184 Pennoyer v. Neff, 95 U. S. 720. .510, 511, 562, 565, 567, 643, 680, 682 Pennoyer v. Connaughy, 140 U. S. 25 294, 527, 687, 688 Pennsylvania Cases, 52 Pa. St. 15 89 Pennsylvania v. Quicksilver Co., 10 Wall. 553 541, 545 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br., 9 How. 647 545 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling Br. Co., 18 How. 430 97, 100, 103, 107, 111, 113, 114, 129, 176, 234, 235, 282, 391, 457, 545 Pennsylvania v. Wheeling etc. Br. Co., 13 How. 560 684 Pennsylvania Co. v. St. Louis etc. R. E. Co., 118 U. S. 297 530 Pennsylvania College Cases, 13 Wall. 212 324, 333, 334, 370, 371, 373, 374, 377 Pennsylvania E. E. Co. v. Miller, 132 U. S. 84 300, 341, 343, 363, 366, 370. 374, 375, 655 Pennsylvania E, E, v. National E. E., 23 N. J. Eq. 455 365! Pennsylvania etc. E. E. Co. v. Eiblet, 66 Pa. St. 164 368 Pennsylvania Tel. Co., In re, 48 N. J. Eq. 91 136 Penny v. Walker, 64 Me. 434 67 Pennywit v. Eaton, 15 Wall. 384 473 Pennywit v. Foote, 27 Ohio St. 620 240, 241, 242, 562, 685 People v. Adirondack Ey., 160 N. Y. 248 654 People v. Alameda County, 26 Cal. 641 312 People v. Arnold, 46 Mi n h. 268 637 1 eople v. Auditor, 2 HI. 537 290 People v. Babcoek, 11 Wend. 586 113, 13S Table of Cases Cited. 833 People v. Barker, 60 Mich. 277 633 People v. Bell, 10 Cal. 570 317 People v. Bellet, 99 Mich. 151 439, 721 People v. Bene, 130 Cal. 159 665 People v. Berrien Circuit Judge, 124 Mich. 664 717 People v. Bilsecker, 169 N. Y. 53 718, 720 People v. Bond, 10 Cal. 563 328 People v. Bowen, 3 Cal. 442 476 People v. Brady, 56 N. Y. 182 581, 583 People v. Brady, 40 Cal. 198 680, 693, 694 People v. Brooks, 4 Benio, 469 95, 96, 99 People v. Buffalo, 140 N. Y. 300 325 People v. Buffalo Fish Co., 164 N. Y. 93 129 People v. Campbell, 59 Cal. 243 261 People v. Campbell, 138 N. Y. 543 180 People v. Carpenter, 46 Barb. 619 398 People v. Central Pacific E. E. Co., 43 Cal. 398 133 People v. Chicago West Div. Ey. Co., 18 111. App. 125. 324 People v. Clarke, 9 N. Y. 349 293 People v. Clayton, 4 Utah, 432 600 People v. Cogswell, 113 Cal. 139 330 People v Coleman, 4 Cal. 46 82, 104, 576 People v. Coler, 166 N. T. 1 712 People v. Commissioners, 4 Wall. 244 84, 92, 93 People v. Commissioners, 104 IT. S. 468 446 People v. Commissioners, 35 N. Y. 426 92 People v. Commissioners, 47 N. Y. 501 349 People v. Commissioners, 5 Denio, 401 82 People v. Compagnie Generale etc., 107 IT. S. 61 106, 108, 116, 222, 446, 447, 450 People v. Constant, 11 Wend. 511 171 People v. Cook, 148 IT. S. 408 297, 336, 374, 376 People v. Cook, 44 Cal. 640 91 People v. Cross, 135 N. Y. 536 582, 584 People v. Curtis, 50 N. Y. 321 240, 456, 457, 483, 587 People v. Dawell, 25 Mich. 247 28, 563 People v. Def oor, 100 Cal. 150 635 People v. De La Guerra, 40 Cal. 311 570 People v. Donohue, 84 N. Y. 441 581 People v. Downer, 7 Cal. 169 108, 116, 447 People v. Fish, 125 N. Y. 151 703 People v. Fishkill etc. Co., 27 Barb. 445 316, 318 People v. Fitch, 148 N. Y. 78 81 People v. Flagg, 46 N. Y. 401 315 People v. Gallagher, 93 N. Y. 438 731 People v. Gallagher, 11 Abb. N. C. 187 702 People v. Gerke, 5 Cal. 381 483 Notes on Constitution— 53 834 Table of Cases Cited. People v. Gillson, 109 N. Y. 389 716 People v. Girard, 145 N. Y. 105 722 People v. Godfrey, 17 Johns. 225 208, 209 People v. Goodwin, 18 Johns. 187 633 People v. Green, 2 Wend. 274 171 People v. Hall, 8 Colo. 492 288 People v. Havnor, 149 N. Y. 195 439, 732 People v. Hawkins, 157 N. Y. 1 128, 139, 714 People v. Hawley, 3 Mich. 330 82, 439 People v. Hayes, 140 N. Y. 491 256 People v. Hays, 4 Cal. 127 413 People v. Highway Commrs., 53 Barb. 77 314 People v. Hill, 126 N. Y. 504 204, 310 People v. Hills, 46 Barb. 340 316, 377, 37S People v. Home Ins. Co., 29 Cal. 533 277 People v. Howker, 152 N. Y. 234 229, 257 People v. Huntington, 4 N. Y. Leg. Obs. 187 Ill People v. Jenkins, 1 Hill, 469 119 People v. Heeler, 99 N. Y. 476 63 People v. King, 2 Caines Eep. 98 630 People v. Lee Fat, 54 Cal. 531 666 People v. Lent, 2 Wheel. C. C. 548 209 People v. Lippincott, 67 111. 333 290 People v. Livingston, 6 Wend. 526 265 People v. Loeffler, 175 111. 609 290, 572 People v. Lord, 12 Hun, 282 253 People v. Lynch, 11 Johns. 553 559 People v. McDaniels, 137 Cal. 192 636, 637 People v. McDonnell, 80 Cal. 2SS 174 People v. McGowan, 17 Wend. 386 635 People v. McGowan, 77 111. 647 153 People v. Mallary, 195 111. 582 711 People v. Manhattan Co., 9 Wend. 351 333 People v. Marshall, 1 Gilnr. 672 370 People v. Marx, 99 N. Y. 377 722 People v. Mather, 4 Wend. 230 641 People v. Mayhew, 26 Cal. 663 250 People v. Mayor, 4 N. Y. 425 82 People v. Mayor, 32 Barb. 102 359 People v. Mayor of Brooklyn, 6 Barb. 309 659 People v. Miner, 144 111. 348 635 People v. Mitchell, 45 Barb. 20S 320, 435 People v. Mitchell, 35 N. Y. 552 275 People v. Montgomery, 67 N. Y. 109 304 People v. Moring, 3 Abb. Dec. 539 143, 448 People v. Morris, 13 Wend. 325 310 People v. Morse, 43 Cal. 535 329 Table of Cases Cited. 835 People v. Mortimer, 46 Cal. 114 262 People v. Naglee, 1 Cal. 231 614, 682 People v. Ny Sam Chung, 94 Cal. 304 636 People v. O'Brien, 111 N. Y. 49 332, 377, 382, 383 People v. Oehotski, 115 Mich. 601 637 People v. O 'Neil, 110 Mich. 324 128 People v. Pacific Mail S. S. Co., 8 Saw. 640 446 People v. Pacific Rolling Mills, 60 Cal. 327 455 People v. Penhallow, 42 Hun, 103 666 People v. Pinckney, 32 N. Y. 377 ... 290, 310 People v. Plank-road Co., 9 Mich. 285 337 People v. Piatt, 17 Johns. 195 Ill, 292, 293, 295, 395 People v. Powell, 87 Cal. 359 261 People v. Power, 25 111. 187 314, 318 People v. Quigg, 59 N. Y. 83 671 People v. Raymond, 34 Cal. 498 108, 116,449 People v. Raymond, 96 N. Y. 3S 255 People v. Rensselaer etc. R. R., 15 Wend. 113 112, 113, 451 People v. Robb, 126 U. S. 182 486 People v. Roberts, 92 Cal. 659 454 People v. Roberts, 158 N. Y. 166 448 People v. Roberts, 159 N. Y. 75 179 People v. Roper, 35 N. Y. 629 284, 289,290 People v. Russell, 49 Mich. 619 186 People v. San Francisco, 4 Cal. 139 423 People v. Schenck, 2 Johns. 479 586 People v. Sharp, 107 N. Y. -^45 63 People v. Squire, 107 N. Y. 593 724 People v. Squires, 1 N. Y. St. Rep. 633 324 People v. Stanley, 47 Cal. 113 255, 638 People v. Supervisors, 73 N. Y. 397 191, 315, 328 People v. Tax Commissioners, 17 N. Y. Supp. 255 235 People v. Terney, 57 Hun, 327, 10 N. Y. Supp. 940 136 People v. Tice, 131 N. Y. 651 641 People v. Tighe, 9 Misc. Rep. 607 727 People v. Turner, 117 N. Y. 227 710,715 People v. United States, 93 111. 35 593 People v. Wabash etc. Ry. Co., 104 111. 476 113 People v. Walling, 53 Mich. 270 444 People v. Warden, 144 N. Y. 529 718 People v. Warden, 157 N. Y. 116 716 People v. Washington, 36 Cal. 658 154, 614, 692, 694, 695 People v. Weaver, 100 U. S. 543 94. 21S People v. Welch, 141 N. Y. 266 106 People v. Wemple, 117 N. Y. 136 132 People v. West, 166 N. Y. 293 ' 722 People v. White, 34 Cal. 183 174 836 Table of Cases Cited. People v. Woods, 7 Cal. 579 328 People v. Wright, 2 Caines, 213 586 People ex rel. v. Assessors, 156 N. Y. 420 86 People ex rel. v. Carrique, 2 Hill, 98 69, 487 People ex rel. v. McDonald, 5 Wyo. 533 261 People ex rel. v. Otis, 90 N. Y. 52 389 People ex rel. v. Perkins, 85 Cal. 513 487 People ex rel. v. Whitman, 10 Cal. 38 488 People's Ferry Co. v. Beers, 20 How. 401 537,538 People's Nat. Bank v. Marye, 107 Fed. 570 94 Penrose v. Eeed, 2 Grant, 472 398 Pensacola etc. Tel. Co. v. Western Tel. Co., 96 U. S. 9 95, 105, 111, 122, 144, 176, 610 Penrose v. Erie Canal Co., 56 Pa. St. 46 346, 399, 410 Peoria v. Preston, 35 Iowa, 115 372 Pepin v. Laehennreyer, 45 N. Y. 34 242 Perdicaries v. Charleston etc. Co., Chase, 435 242 Pereles v. Watertown, 6 Biss. 79 407 Perkins, Ex parte, 29 Fed. 906 738 Perkins, In re, 2 Cal. 455 270, 590, 591, 600 Perkins v. Corbin, 45 Ala. 119 287 Perkins v. Rogers, 35 Ind. 163 194, 241 Perkins v. Slack, 86 Pa. St. 270 315 Perkins v. Watertown, 5 Biss. 320 316, 327 Perley v. Mason, 64 N. H. 7 41S Permoli v. First Municipality, 3 How. 609 593, 595, 619, 620, 682 Perrin v. Oliver, 1 Minn. 202 375, 381 Perrine v. Chesapeake etc. Canal, 9 How. 192 363 Perris v. Hexamer, 99 U. S. 676 181, 182 Perry v. Commonwealth, 3 Gratt. 632 261 Perry v. Haskins, 111 Fed. 1002 185 Perry v. Langley, 2 Bank. Eeg. ISO 162,164 Perry v. State, 87 Ala. 30 262 Pervear v. Commonwealth, 5 Wall. 475 81, 86, 139, 140, 440, 448, 607,675 Peters v. Eailroad Co., 23 Mo. 103 343,345 Peters etc. E. E., In re, 70 N. Y. 327 319 Peterson v. Society, 24 N. J. 385 310 Petrie v. Commercial Bank, 142 U. S. 648 519 Petty, In re, 22 Kan. 477 253, 255 Peyaud v State, 13 Miss. 491 246 Peyroux v. Howard, 7 Pet. 324 535, 537, 541 Phalen v. Commonwealth, 8 How. 163 297, 406, 408, 439, 726 Phelps ' Case, Taft, 16 52 Phelps v. Borland, 103 N. Y. 410 167, 418, 567 Phelps v. Oaks, 117 U. S. 239 498 Phelps v. Eacey, 60 N. Y. 15 443 Table of Cases Cited. S37 Phelps v. Sowles, 19 Wend. 547 196 Phenix Ins. Co., Ex parte, 118 U. S. 616 539 Philadelphia v. American Union Tel. Co., 167 Pa. St. 406 136 Philadelphia v. Fox, 14 P. F. Smith, 169 310, 311, 316 Philadelphia etc. Assn. v. New York, 119 U. S. 18. .109, 143, 684. 707 Philadelphia etc. Co. v. Gortland, 6 Phila. 128 339, 361, 362 Philadelphia etc. E. E. v. Bowers, 4 Houst. 506 292, 337, 344, 364, 366, 369, 439 Philadelphia etc. E. E. v. Maryland, 10 How. 393 299, 347, 355 Philadelphia By. Co. v. Morrison, 19 Fed. Cas. 488 245 Philadelphia etc. E. E. Co. v. Philadelphia etc. Towboat Co., 23 How. 215 540 Philadelphia etc. E. E. v. Southwestern Pennsylvania E. E., 77 Pa. St. 173 368 Philadelphia S. S. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 122 U. S. 343..., 107, 115, 130, 132, 134, 453 Philbriek v. Philbrick, 39 N. H. 468 403 Philbrook v. Newman, 85 Fed. 142 702, 706 Phillips, In re, 10 Int. Eev. Eec. 107 639 Phillips v. Detroit, 111 U. S. 60S 184 Phillips v. Hatch, 1 Dill. 576 193,194 Phillips v. Payne, 92 U. S. 132 210, 462, 494, 502 Phillips v. State, 85 Tenn. 551 637 Phinney v. Phinney, 81 Me. 461 389, 415, 422 Phoenix Ins. Co. v. Burdett, 112 Ind. 205 515 Phoenix Ins. Co. v. Commonwealth, 5 Bush, 68 572 Phoenix Ins. Co. v. Levy, 12 Tex. Civ. App. 45 732 Phoenix Ins. Co. v. Tennessee, 161 U. S. 178 300, 348, 351, 354 Phoenix Nat. Bank v. Batcheller, 151 Mass. 590 168, 418 Pickard v. Pullman Car Co., 117 U. S. 49 104, 107, 137, 144 Pickard v. Eailroad Co., 117 U. S. 48 129 Piekard v. Tennessee etc. E. E. Co., 130 U. S. 642 351, 355 Pickler v. McLellon Drydock Co., 38 Da. Ann. 412 315 Picquet v. Swan, 5 Mason, 55 206, 532 Piedmont etc. E. E. Co. v. Eeidsville, 101 N. C. 407 133 Pierce v. Carskadon, 16 Wall. 239 229, 251, 258, 431 Pierce v. Mill, 21 Ind. 27 417 Pierce v. Somersworth, 10 N. H. 369 342 Piggott 's Case, 1 Bart. 463 43 Pike v. Wassell, 94 U. S. 714 559 Pinckney v. Lanahan, 62 Md. 450 163 Pine Grove Twp. v. Talcott, 19 Wall. 676 272 Pingree v. Michigan Cent. E. E., 118 Mich. 329 341. 365 Pingree v. Washburn, 1 Aik. 264 339, 361, 362, 370 Pinney v. Nelson, 183 U. S. 147 269, 395 Pintsch etc. Co. v. Bergin, 84 Fed. 141 156 Piott v. Covington etc. Bridge, 8 Bush (Ky.), 37 360 838 Table of Cases Cited. Piqua Branch Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 3S9 275, 282, 288, 289, 299, 330, 332, 333, 336, 349, 352, 357, 684 Piscataqua Bridge v. New Haven Bridge, 7 N. H. 35 113, 341, 397 Pitkin v. Thompson, 30 Mass. 64 169 Pittelkow, In re, 92 Fed. 903 163 Pitts v. Hall, 2 Blatchf. 234 184 Pittsburgh v. National Bank, 55 Pa. St. 45 85, 93 Pittsburgh Coal Co. v. Bates, 156 U. S. 587 444 Pittsburgh etc. Coal Co. v. Louisiana, 156 U. S. 600 118, 124, 444, 451 Pittsburgh etc. E. R. Co., Appeal of, 122 Pa. St. 571 657 Pittsburgh etc. Ry. Co. v. Backus, 154 U. S. 421. .83, 133, 644, 714, 731 Pittsburgh etc. Ry. v. Board, 172 U. S. 43 132 Pittsburgh etc. Ry. Co. v. Montgomery, 152 Ind. 1 731 Pittsburg etc. R. R. v. Southwestern Pennsylvania R. R. Co., 77 Pa. St. 173 344, 366 Pittsburg etc. Turnpike Co. v. Commonwealth, 2 Watts, 433.... 428 Plankroad etc. Co. v. Arndt, 31 Pa. St. 317 372 Plankroad Co. v. Reynolds, 3 Wis. 287 383 Planters' Bank v. Sharp, 6 How. 328. .166, 334, 355, 386, 387, 389, 419 Planters' Ins. Co. v. Tennessee, 161 U. S. 197, 16 S. Ct. 466 303 Plant Inv. Co. v. Jacksonville etc. Ry. Co., 152 U. S. 77 531 Piatt, In re, 7 Ben. 272 216, 645 Piatt v. Archer, 9 Blatchf. 559 163 Plaht etc. Co. v. Dowell, 17 Colo. 376. . .' 343, 344, 442 Playford v. Commonwealth, 4 Pa. St. 144 479 Pleasants v. Roher, 17 Wis. 577 408 Plessy, Ex parte, 45 La. Ann. 87 693, 703, 705 Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U. S. 550 440, 6S2, 693, 703, 705, 732 Ploek v. Cobb, 64 Ala. 127 269 Plumley v. Massachusetts, 155 U. S. 473 117, 721 Plummer v. Coler, 17S IT. S. 115 93 Plymouth v. Jackson, 15 Pa. St. 44 330 Poe v. Duck, 5 Md. 6 169 Poindexter v. Greenhow, 114 TJ. S. 287 78, 246, 247, 270, 2S2, 288, 305, 399, 687 Police Jury v. McDonouph, 7 Mart., O. S., 8 428 Police Jury v. Shreveport, 5 La. Ann. 661 310 313 Polk's Case, Taft, 213 .'643 Pollard, Ex parte, 40 Ala. 77 402, 414, 417, 433, 434 Pollard v. Files, 3 Ala. 47 . 129 Polbrd v. Hagan, 3 How. 212 129, 210, 593, 594, 595, 596, 598 Pollard v. Kibbe, 14 Pet. 412 481, 610, 612 Pollard v. State, 65 Ala. 630 85, 87, 93 Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 157 U. S. 584 • S3, 88, 231, 232, 233, 500, 611, 6S0 Table of Cases Cited. 839 Pollock v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 158 U. S. 601 45, 77, 86, 231, 232, 610 Pollock v. Steamboat Laura, 5 Fed. 136 476 Polyart v. Goulding, Fed. Cas. No. 10,701 432 Pomeroy & Caldwell's Case, Taft, 368 60 Pool, Ex parte, 2 Va. Cas. 276 106, 497, 498, 504, 511 Pool v. Young, 7 Mon. 587 3S7, 388, 414 Poole v. Fleegler, 11 Pet. 209 457 Pope v. Ashley, 13 Ark. 26S 407 Porter v. Eockford etc. K. E. Co., 76 111. 574 352 Portland v. Meyer, 32 Or. 371 298, 343, 718 Portland etc. E. E. Co. v. Boston etc. E. E. Co., 65 Me. 122. .344, 367 Portland etc. E. E. Co. v. Peering, 78 Mo. 61 368 Portland E. E. Co. v. Eailroad Co., 46 Me. 69 367 Port of Mobile v. Watson, 116 U. S. 305 320, 32S Port Wardens v. The Martha J. Ward, 14 La. Ann. 289 454 Portword v. Montgomery County, 50 Miss. 523 312 Post v. Riley, 18 Johns. 54 417 Post v. United States, 161 U. S. 587 553, 6,32 Postal Tel. Co. v. Adams, 155 U. S. 696 132, 135, 136 Postal Tel. Cable Co. v. Charleston, 153 U. S. 699 81, 131, 136, 287 Postal Tel. Co. v. Eichmond, 99 Va. 102 135, 145 Postmaster General v. Early, 12 Wheat. 148 395 Pott v. Sheboygan County, 25 Wis. 506 315 Potter v. Kerr, 1 Md. Ch. 275 167, 169 Potter v. Sturdevant, 4 Me. 154 404, 431 Potts v. Creagher, 155 U. S. 608 184 Potts v. New Jersey Arms. Co., 17 N. J. Eq. 395 268, 423 Potts v. Water Power Co., 9 N. J. Eq. 592 268, 428 Poughkeepsie etc. Plank Eoad Co. v. Griffin, 24 N. Y. 150 372 Pound v. Turck, 95 U. S. 462 101 Powell, Ex parte, 73 Ala. 519 478 Powell, Ex parte, 20 Fla. 809 582 Powell v. Boon, 43 Ala. 469 281, 604, 734 Powell v. Madison, 107 Ind. 115 270 Powell v. Pennsylvania, 127 U. S. 686 69S, 706, 722, 732 Powell v. Sammons, 31 Ala. 552 362 Powell v. State, 69 Ala. 10 124, 139, 29S, 344, 441 Powers v. Dougherty, 23 Ga. 65 395 Pratt v. Chase, 44 N. Y. 597 167, 254 Pratt v. Jones, 25 Vt. 303 437 Pratt v. Eeath, 44 N. Y. 599 418 Prairie v. Worth, 78 N. C. 173 290 Prentice v. Duluth Storage Co., 58 Fed. 442 510 Prentiss v. Brennan, 2 Blatchf . 164 206 Presbyterian Church v. New York, 5 Cow. 538 303 Prescott v. State, 19 Ohio St. 184 62S 840 Table of Cases Cited. President etc. v. Shaef er, 104 Mo. 267 301 President v. State, 45 111. 399 241 President v. Trenton City Br. Co., 13 N. J. Eq. 49 332 Presser v. Illinois, 116 U. S. 204 623, 682, 703 Press Pub. Co. v. Palk, 59 Fed. 326 180, 182 Preston, Tn re, 36 Ohio St. 428 713 Preston v. Finley, 72 Fed. 855 . v 140 Preston v. Walsh, 10 Fed. 1015 293, 687 Price v. McCarty, 89 Fed. 87 588 Price v. People, 119 111. 114 717 Price v. St. Louis Ins. Co., 3 Mo. App. 267 345 Priestly v. Watkins, 62 Miss. 798 327 Prigg v. Commonwealth, 16 Pet. 614 27, 28, 212, 215, 497, 504, 511, 590, 591, 592, 609 Prince, Ex parte, 27 Fla. 203 89 Printing House v. Trustees, 104 U. S. 711 372 Pritchard v. Norton, 106 U. S. 137 288 Privett v. Stevens, 25 Kan. 275 735 Prize .Cases, 2 Black, 680 193, 463, 470, 471, 493, 494 Proprietors v. Haskell, 7 Me. 474 377, 378 Protector, The, 12 Wall. 702 194 Providence Bank v. Billings, 4 Pet. 560 80, 81, 282, 288, 299, 334, 340, 341, 347, 680 Providence etc. B. E., Petitioner, 17 E. I. 344 341 Providence S. S. Co. v. Hill Mfg. Co., 109 U. S. 589 106 Provident Inst. v. Massachusetts, 6 Wall. 629 92, 93 Provident Inst. v. Mayor, 113 U. S. 515 395 Pryor, In re, 55 Kan. 730 719 Pryzbylowicz v. Missouri Ey. Co., 3 McCrary, 586 660 Pugh v. Bussel, 2 Blackf. 394 162, 164, 167, 168, 418 Pullan v. Kinsinger, 2 Abb. U. S. 94 82, 645 Pullen v. Hillman, 84 Me. 131 418 Pulliam v. Osborne, 17 How. 475 512 Pullman Co. v. Adams, 189 IT. S. 420 137 Pullman Car Co. v. Missouri etc. E. E. Co., 115 U. S. 594 364 Pullman Palace Car Co. v. Hay ward, 141 U. S. 36 137 Pullman etc. Car Co. v. Nolan, 22 Fed. 276 144 Pullman Palace Car Co. v. Pennsylvania, 141 U. S. 23.. 133, 137, 133 Pullman Southern Car Co. v. Nolan, 22 Fed. 280 107 Pnmpelly v. Green Bay Co., 13 Wall. 177 653, 654, 656, 658 Pumphi ev v. Mayor, 47 Ind. 145 315 Putnam v. Bond, 15 Wis. 20 398 Putnam v. Buch, 56 Fed. 418 332 Putnam v. United States, 162 IT. S. 710 554 Quackenbush v. Danks, 1 Denio, 128 411, 412 Quackenbush v. United States, 177 U. S. 25 459, 494, 501 Table of Cases Cited. 841 Quarles, In re, 158 IT. S. 537 37, 212, 215, 216, 219, 621 Quimby v. Boyd, 8 Colo. 207 488 Quincy v. Jackson, 113 U. S. 338 323 Quinn 's Case, 12 Int. Kev. Bee. 151 205 Quintana v. Tomkins, 1 N. Mex. 29 56-J Eabasse, Succession of, 47 La. Ann. 1452 431 Eacehorse, In re, 70 Fed. 607 612 Eademacher v. Milwaukee etc. Ey. Co., 41 Iowa, 297 346, 369 Eader v. S. E. Eoad Dist., 37 N. J. L. 273 327, 398, 431 Eadick v. Hutchins, 95 TJ. S. 211 557 Eae v. Hulbert, 17 111. 572 285 Eahrer, In re, 140 IT. S. 562 79, 128, 680, 698 Eailroad Commission Cases, 116 U. S. 325 339, 649 Eailroad Commissioners v. Portland etc. E. E. Co., 63 Me. 269.. 367 Eailroad Co. v. County of Otoe, 16 Wall. 673 331 Eailroad Co. v. Equalizers, 85 Fed. 307 94 Eailroad Co. v. Fuller, 17 Wall. 568 95, 96, 114, 443 Eailroad Co. v. Gaines, 97 U. S. 708 300, 348, 351, 355 Eailroad Company v. Hamblen County, 102 IT. S. 279 302, 531 Eailroad v. Harris, 12 Wall. 86 20G Eailroad Co. v. Heath, 9 Ind. 558 663 Eailroad Co. v. Hecht, 95 II. S. 170 405, 434 Eailroad Co. v. Husen, 95 U. S. 473 95, 96, 104, 107, 117, 118, 126 Eailroad Co. v. Johnson, 15 Wall. 195 90 Eailroad Co. v. Koontz, 104 IT. S. 12 530, 683, 708 Eailroad Co. v. Loftin, 98 U. S. 564 300, 34S Eailroad Co. v. Loftin, 105 IT. S. 261 300, 343 Eailroad Co. v. McClure, 10 Wall. 515 268, 269 ; 395 Eailroad Co. v. Maine, 96 IT. S. 510 364, 379 Eailroad Co. v. Maryland, 21 Wall. 472 116, 130, 718 Eailroad Co. v. Mississippi, 102 IT. S. 140 520, 521 Eailroad Co. v. Peniston, 3 Stew. & P. 302 450 Eailroad Co. v. Peniston, 18 Wall. 29 28, 82, 610 Eailroad Co. v. Pennsylvania, 15 Wall. 320 387, 389 Eailroad Co. v. Eichmond, 19 Wall. 590 99 Eailroad Co. v. Eichmond, 96 U. S. 528 440, 649, 714 Eailroad Co. v. Eock, 4 Wall. ISO 522 Eailroad Co. v. Veazie, 39 Me. 571 376 Eailroad Tax Cases, 13 Fed. 754 37C. 715, 729 Eailroad Tax Cases, IS Fed. 385 62S, 697 Eailway Co. v. Allerton, 18 Wall. 233 372 Eailway Co. v. Harris, 99 Tenn. 710 Ill Eailway Co. v. Philadelphia, 101 U. G. 536 2S3, 301, 333, 343, 373, 374 Eailway Co. v. Eenwick, 102 IT. S. 132 661 Eailway Co. v. Whitton, 13 Wall. 2SS 510, 514, 530 842 Table of Cases Cited. Raleigh etc. Co. v. Davis, 2 Dev. & B. 451 82 Raleigh etc. R. R. v. Reid, 13 Wall. 269 352, 353 Ralli v. Troop, 157 U. S. 405 65G Ralls County v. Douglass, 105 U. S. 732 329 Bulls County Court v. United States, 105 U. S. 738 328 Ralston v. Lothain, 18 Ind. 303 430 Ramsay v. Smith, CI. & H. 23 42 Ramsey v. Cox, 28 Ark. 369 246 Rand v. Commonwealth, 9 Gratt. 738 255 Rand v. State, 65 N. C. 194 243 Randall v. Kreiger, 23 Wall. 137 273, 392 Randall v. Sackett, 77 N. Y. 482 390 Randolph v. Good, 3 W. Va. 541 252 Randolph v. Larned, 27 N. J. Eq. 557 254 Randolph v. Middleton, 26 N. J. Eq. 545 390 Ranger v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 128 328 Rank, In re, Crabbe, 493 165 Ransom v. Abbott, Taft, 336 00 Ransom v. Mayor, 1 Fish, 264 184 Rapier, In re, 143 U. S. 134 77, 175, 176, 219, 620 Rash v. Farley, 91 Ky. 344 138 Rash v. Halloway, 82 Ky. 674 576 Rasmussen v. Idaho, 181 U. S. 198 125 Ratcliffe v. Anderson, 31 Gratt. 105 268, 286, 427 Rathbone v. Bradford, 1 Ala. 312 401, 433 Ratterman v. Western Union Tel. Co., 127 U. S. 425 95, 131, 136 Ratzky v. People, 29 N. Y. 124 253, 251 Rawley v. Hooker, 21 Ind. 144 415 Rawson v. Spencer, 113 Mass. 40 312 Ray v. Cannon, 2 Mart. 26 410 Ray v. Natural Gas Co., 138 Pa. St. 592 271 Ray v. Thompson, 43 Ala. 434 243 Ray County v. Van Sycle, 96 U. S. 6S4 324 Raymond v. Raymond, 83 Fed. 723 151 Raymond v. Thomas, 91 U. S. 716 195, 473 Rea v. Newport etc. R. R, Co., 50 Fed. 20 103 Read v. Frankfort Bank, 23 Me. 318 337, 375, 399, 402 Reading R. R, Co. v. Pennsylvania, 15 Wall. 296 134, 449 Reagan v. Farmers' L. & T. Co., 154 U. S. 392 689 Reapers' Bank v. Willard, 24 111. 433 357 Reardon v. San Francisco, 66 Cal. 492 655 Reardon v. Searcy, 2 Bibb, 202 412 Rechendorfer v. Fabe'r, 92 U. S. 356 184 Reciprocity Bank, In re, 22 N. Y. 9, 29 Barb. 369 377, 379 R-ector etc. v. County of Philadelphia, 24 How. 302 300, 34S Rcdall v. Bryan, 14 Md. 444 206 Redfield v. Windom, 137 U. S. 643 460 Table of Cases Cited. 843 Eedlon v. Barker, 4 Kan. 387 288 Red River Br. Co. v. Clarksville, 1 Sneed, 176 341 Red River Valley Bank v. Craig, 181 U. S. 558 268, 401, 426 Reed, Ex parte, 101 U. S. 22 200, 410 Reed v. Cosden, CI. & H. 353 58 Reed v. Mississippi, 69 Ark. 365 323 Reed v. Swan, 133 Mo. 109 423 Reed v. Taylor, 32 Iowa, 209 162, 164 Rees v. Watertown, 19 Wall. 122 643 Reese v. Stearns, 29 Cal. 273 91 Reeside v. "Walker, 11 How. 290 460 Reetz v. Michigan, 188 U. S. 505 259, 713 Reeves v. Corning, 51 Fed. 784 179, 186 Reeves v. Texas etc. Ry. Co., 11 Tex. Civ. App. 514 121 Regents v. McConnell, 5 Neb. 427 331 Regents v. Williams, 9 Gill & J. 365 282, 283, 330, 333, 371, 442 Reggel, Ex parte, 114 U. S. 650 581, 582, 583, 587 Reichart v. Felps, 6 Wall. 160 484, 646 Reid v. Colorado, 187 U. S. 137 125 Reid v. Ham, 54 Minn. 305 588 Reid v. People, 29 Colo. 333 125 Reilley v. United States, 106 Fed. S96 109 Reilly v. Lamar, 2 Cr. 356 207 Reiman, In re, 7 Ben. 463 15S, 160, 161, 162, 217, 417 Reinhart v. McDonald, 76 Fed. 405 137 Reithmiller v. People, 44 Mich. 285 299 Relyea v. Tomahawk Paper etc. Co., 102 Wis. 304 406, 409 Renner v. Bennett, 21 Ohio St. 431 208, 209, 210 Representative Election, In re, 17 R. I. 820 47 Republic of Honduras v. Soto, 112 N. Y. 310 36 Reside 's Claim, 9 Opin. Atty. Gen. 200 66S Resolute, The, 168 XL S. 439 537 Respublica v. Roberts, 1 Ball. 39 558 Retzer v. Wood, 109 U. S. 185 87 Revel's Case, Taft, 312 49, 53 Rexf ord v. Knight, 11 NY. 308 407 Reynolds, In re, 8 R. I. 489 162, 163, 165, 418 Reynolds, In re, 6 Park. Cr. Rep. 276 198 Reynolds v. Baldwin, 1 La. Ann. 162 310 Reynolds v. Bank of Indiana, 18 Ind. 467 90 Reynolds v. Geary, 26 Conn. 183 574, 573 Reynolds v. Hall, 2 HI. 35 388 Reynolds v. Hamilton, Tuft, 323 50 Reynolds v. People, 1 Colo. 179 209 Reynolds v. People, 83 111. 479 36, 38 Reynolds v. State, 1 Ga. 228 228, 261 Reynolds v. Stockton, 140 U. S. 264 562 844 Table of Cases Cited. Key n olds v. Taylor, 43 Ala. 420 281 Reynolds v. United States, 98 U. S. 154 619, 665, 666 Rhea v. Newport etc. R. R. Co., 50 Fed. 20 103 Rhode Island v. Massachusetts, 12 Pet. 723 29, 457, 482, 496, 499, 518, 526, 527, 542, 543, 545, 546, 677 Rhodes v. Bell, 2 How. 404 207 Rhodes v. Borden, 67 Cal. 8 162, 167, 417, 418 Rhodes v. Iowa, 170 U. S. 42G 96, 126, 128 Rice v. Ames, ISO U. S. 378 583 Rice v. Houston, 16 Wall. 37 531 Rice v. Railroad Co., 1 Black, 358 292 Eice v. Smith, 72 Miss. 42 410 Rich v. Flanders, 39 N. H. 313 399, 401, 435, 436 Richard's Case, CI. & H. 95 58, 59 Richards v. Rock Rapids, 31 Fed. 502 94 Richardson, In re, 2 Story, 571 73, 74 Richardson v. Akin, 87 111. 138 264, 345, 400, 401 Richardson v. Brown, 6 Me. 355 300 Richardson v. Cook, 37 Vt. 599 388 Richardson v. Monson, 23 Conn. 94 309 Richardson v. Thomas, 28 Ark. 389 093 Richland County v. Lawrence County, 12 111. 1 314 Richmond v. Lawrence, 12 111. 1 312 Richmond v. Smith, 15 Wall. 429 673 Richmond R. R. Co. v. Louisiana R. R. Co., 13 How. 71 334,341,397,657 Richmond etc. R. R. v. Richmond, 26 Gratt. 83 442 Riddle v. Locks and Canals, 7 Mass. 169 370 Ridlon v. Cressey, 65 Me. 128 428 Riebling, Ex parte, 70 Fed. 311 500 Rielly, Ex parte, 2 Abb. Pr., N. S., 334 198 Riggs v. Johnson County, 6 Wall. 194 317, 328, 499, 512 Riggs v. Martin, 5 Ark. 506 397, 398, 399 Rigney v. Chicago, 102 U. S. 72 655 Riley v. Lee, 88 Ky. 603 620 Rison v. Farr, 24 Ark. 168 611 Ritchie v. Franklin County, 22 Wall. 75 274 Ritchie v. People, 155 HI. 98 572, 647, 644, 700, 712 Ritter v. Kunkle, 39 N. J. L. 262 499 Roach v. Gunter, 44 Ala. 209 386, 388 Robards v. Brown, 40 Ark. 426 415, 422, 425 Robb v. Connolly, 111 U. S. 639 507, 513, 588 Robbins v. Shelby County Taxing Dist., 120 U. S. 492 101,104,105,118,130,42 Robert v. Atherton, 60 Vt. 565 418 Robert v. Coco, 25 La. Ann. 199 397 Robert v. Sadler, 104 N. T. 232 655 Robert Fulton, The, 1 Paine, 620 537 Table of Cases Cited. 84:5 Roberts' Case, Eep. 85, 56th Cong., 1st Sess 41, 60, 63 Roberts v. Cocke, 28 Gratt. 215 390 Roberts v. Hill, 23 Blatchf. 315, 24 Fed. 573 158 Roberts v. Missouri etc. R. R., 43 Kan. 108 283 Roberts v. Northern Pac. R. R. Co., 158 U. S. 22 519 Roberts v. Reilly, 116 IT. S. 97 579, 580, 5S2, 583, 585, 587, 588 Roberts v. Skolfielcl, S Am. Law Reg. 156 539 Roberts v. Washbourne, 10 Minn. 33 359 Robertson v. Baldwin, 165 U. S. 281 79, 497, 517, 607, 640 Robertson v. Cease, 97 U. S. 648 42, 529, 699 Robertson v. Land Commissioner, 44 Mich. 278 288 Robertson v. Pickrell, 109 U. S. 611 564, 567, 568 Robertson v. Van Cleave, 129 Ind. 217 394 Robinson 's Case, 131 Mass. 377 706 Robinson, Ex parte, 6 McLean, 355 490 Robinson, Ex parte, 12 Nev. 263 138, 140, 578 Robinson, In re, 2 Biss, 309 179, 183 Robinson, In re, 29 Neb. 135 588 Robinson v. Campbell, 3 Wheat. 212 287, 522, 523 Robinson v. Flanders, 29 Ind. 10 587, 586 Robinson v. Gardiner, 18 Gratt. 509 380 Robinson v. House, 13 Wis. 341 280, 424 Robinson v. Magee, 9 Cal. 81 282, 327, 385, 386 Robinson v. Oceanic Steam Nav. Co., 112 N. Y. 315 574, 576 Robinson v. Peyton, 4 Tex. 276 568 Robinson v. State, 84 Ind. 452 260 Roby v. Boswell, 23 Ga. 51 395 Roby v. Chicago, 34 111. 447 435 Roby v. Smith, 131 Ind. 342 707 Roche v. Washington, 19 Ind. 53 151 Rochester v. West, 164 N. Y. 510 723 Rockland Water Co. v. Water Co., 80 Me. 563 341 Rockwell v. Hubbell, 2 Doug. (Mich.) 203 410 Rodgers v. Adriatic Ins. Co., 148 N. Y. 39 565 Rodgers v. McCoy, 6 Dak. 238 140 Rodriguez, In re, 81 Fed. 350 154 Roff v. Barney, 168 U. S. 221 148, 4S3 Rogers v. Burlington, 3 Wall. 665 331 Roland etc. Ry. v. Baltimore, 77 Md. 3S1 344 Roller Mill Patent, 156 II. S. 269 186 Rolston v. Missouri Fund Comn:rs., 120 U. S. 411 527 Romaine, In re, 23 Cal. 585 5S6, 609, 610 Roosevelt v. Cebra, 17 Johns. 108 167, 417 Root v. McGrew, 3 Kan. 215 412 Ropes v. Church, 8 Blatchf. 304 613 Rose v. Estudillo, 39 Cal. 270 326, 329 Rose v. Himely, 4 Cr. 441 494, 502 Rose v. Northwest Ins. Co., 67 Fed. 439 562 84.6 Table of Cases Cited. Rose v. Rose, 104 Ky. 48 268 Rosen v. United States, 161 U. S. 42 175 Rosenberger v. Weeks, 67 Tex. 5S5 94 Rosenblatt, Ex parte, 51 Cal. 285 586 Rosenblatt, Ex parte, 19 Nev. 439 141 Rosenheim v. Morrow, 37 Fla. 488 169, 418 Rosenplanter v. Provident Sav. etc. Soc., 96 Fed. 727 386 Rosier v. Fagan, 46 111. 404 432 Rosier v. Hales, 10 Iowa, 470 415, 425 Ross' Case, 2 Pick. 165 255 Ross, In re, 140 U. S. 480 478, 482 Ross v. Worthing ton, 11 Minn. 438 392 Rosser, In re, 96 Fed. 308 640 Roth v. State, 51 Ohio St. 209 129 Roundtree v. Baker, 52 111. 241 693 Rouse v. Donovan, 104 Mich. 234 643 Rowan v. Holcomb, 16 Ohio, 463 160 Rowan v. State, 30 Wis. 129 642 Rowe v. Page, 54 N. H. 190 163, 165 Rowland v. State, 12 Tex. App. 418 299 Roxbury v. Railroad Co., 6 Cush. 424 381 Royall v. Virginia, 116 U. S. 578 305 Royer v. Coupe, 146 U. S. 531 186 Rozelle, In re, 57 Fed. 155 143 Rubber Tip Pencil Co. v. Howard, 20 Wall. 507 184 Rubideaux v. Vallie, 12 Kan. 2S 148 Rubotham v. McClure, 4 Blaekf. 505 82, 84, 85 Ruder v. Whitfield, 1 Bart. 204 40 Rudolph, In re, 6 Saw. 295, 2 Fed. 65 138, 141, 444 Ruggles v. Illinois, 108 U. S. 534 114, 340, 363, 365, 366, 719 Ruggles v. People, 91 111. 256 338 Ruggles v. Simonton, 3 Biss. 329 188 Rule of Court, In re, 3 Woods, 502 626 Rump v. Commonwealth, 3 Pa. 475 156 Rundle v. Canal Co., 14 How. 89 298 Bundle v. Delaware etc. Canal, 1 Wall. Jr. 291 331, 341 Runkle v. United States, 122 U. S. 557 460 Rush v. Newman, 58 Fed. 160 673 Rushville v. Gas Co., 132 Ind. 575 719 Rushworth v. Judges, 58 N. J. L. 98 1SS, 497 Russell's Case, 7 Ct. of CI. 227 659 Russell v. Allen, 107 U. S. 171 207 Russell v. Cheatham, 16 Miss. 703 160 Russell v. LiOW-th, 21 Minn. 167 593 Russell v. New York, 2 Den. 461 82 Ruth, In re, 1 Bank. Reg. Supp. 154 159 Rutland v. Copes, 15 Rich. 84 270, 437 Rutledge v. Fogg, 3 Cold. 554 473 Table of Cases Cited. 847 Ryan v. People, 21 Colo. 122 607 Ryan v. Thomas, 4 Wall. 603 522 Ryan v. Wessels, 15 Iowa. 145 , 428 Ryer v. Odd Fellows etc. Assn., 157 Mass. 373 144 Sacio v. De Graff, 1 Cow. 358 166 Saekett v. Andros, 5 Hill, 327 160 Sage v. Dillard, 15 B. Mon. 340 371, 3S0 Sage v. St. Paul etc. Ry. Co., 47 Fed. 4 498 Sagendorph v. Hughes, 95 Fed. 479 185 Sah Quah, In re, 31 Fed. 327 571 Sailley v. Smith, 11 Johns. 500 625 St. Albans v. Car Co., 57 Vt. 85 82 St. Anthony Falls etc. Co. v. St. Paul Water Conimrs., 1G8 U. S. 359 98 St. Clair v. Cox, 106 U. S. 356 143, 577, 684 St. Clair County v. Interstate etc. Co., 109 Fed. 741 129, 144 St. John 'a College v. State, 15 Md. 330 291 St. Joseph v. Levin, 12 Mo. 588 717 St. Joseph v. Hannibal etc. Ry. Co., 39 Mo. 476 279 St. Joseph etc. B. R. v. Steele, 167 U. S. 663 530 St. Joseph Township v. Rogers, 16 Wall. 663 274 St. Lawrence, The, 1 Black, 526 534, 536, 540, 541 St. Louis v. Boffinger, 19 Mo. 3 125 St. Louis v. Consolidated Coal Co., 158 Mo. 342 144 St. Louis v. Gaslight Co., 5 Mo. App. 513 310 St. Louis v. Bicheson, 76 Mo. 470 697 St. Louis v. Russell, 9 Mo. 507 311 St. Louis v. St. Louis R. R. Co., 89 Mo. 44 721 St. Louis v. Schulenburg etc. Co., 13 Mo. App. 60 452, 455 St. Louis v. Sternberg, 69 Mo. 289 297 St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 148 U. S. 97 80, 323, 334 St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 39 Fed. 60 107 St. Louis v. Western Union Tel. Co., 63 Fed. 46 284, 324 St. Louis etc. By. Co. v. Alexander, 49 Ark. 194 284 St. Louis etc. R. R, Co. v. Gill, 156 U. S. 549 720 St. Louis etc. Ry. Co. v. Gill. 54 Ark. 101 367, 379 St. Louis etc. Ry. v. Harbine, 2 Mo. App. 139 (345 St. Louis etc. R. E. v. James, 161 U. S. 555 530 St. Louis etc. E. E. Co. v. Loftin, 30 Ark. 693 349, 354 St. Louis etc. Ey. Co. v. Mathews, 165 U. S. 25 698 St. Louis etc. Ey. v. Paul, 64 Ark. S7 337 St. Louis etc. Ey. Co. v. Vickers, 122 U. S. 363 511 St. Louis Consolidated Coal Co. v. Illinois, 185 U. S. 207 442, 463, 721 St. Luke 's Hospital v. Barclay, 3 Blatchf. 259 544 St. Paul etc. E. E. Co. v. Parcher, 14 Minn. 297 351 St. Paul etc. E. E. v. St. Paul, 21 Minn. 526 350 848 Table of Cases Cited. St. Paul Gaslight Co. v. St. Paul, 181 IT. S. 148 269, 281, 324, 327 St. Vincent's College v. Shaefer, 104 Mo. 261 349 Sala v. New Orleans, 2 Woods, 194 283, 288, 318 Salem v. Maynes, 123 Mass. 372 725 Salem etc. Co. v. Lynne, 18 Conn. 457 362 Salentine v. Fink, 8 Biss. 503 161 Salt Co. v. East Saginaw, 13 Wall. 377 291, 299, 301, 349 Salters v. Tobias, 3 Paige Ch. 244 166, 417 Samuel v. People, 164 111. 379 641 Samperyac v. United States, 7 Pet. 222 430 Samples v. Bank, 1 Woods, 523 406 Sanborn, In re, 148 U. S. 224 499 Sanborn v. Carlton, 15 Gray, 402 63 Sanborn v. Perry, 86 Wis. 366 561 Sanders v. Hillsborough Ins. Co., 44 N. H. 328 346, 434 San Diego Water Co. v. San Diego, 118 Cal. 556 720 Sands v. Manistee Eiver Imp. Co., 123 U. S. 296 103, 112, 455, 593, 595 Sandusky City Bank v. Wilbor, 7 Ohio St. 4S1 279, 349 Sanf ord v. Nichols, 13 Mass. 286 625, 626 Sanford v. Poe, 69 Fed. 546 714 San Francisco v. Spring Valley W. W., 48 Cal. 520 332 San Francisco etc. E. E. Co. v. Dinwiddie, 8 Saw. 312, 13 Fed. 789 646, 715 Sang Lung v. Jackson, 8 Fed. 505 98 San Joaquin etc. Co. v. Stanislaus County, 113 Fed. 930 377 San Mateo v. Southern Pacific E. E. Co., 8 Saw. 238 628, 646, 697 Santa Ana v. Harlin, 99 Cal. 542 661 Santa Ana Water Co. v. San Buenaventura, 65 Fed. 328 275, 337 Santa Anna's Asylum v. New Orleans, 105 U. S. 362 353 Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Co., 118 U. S. 396 728 Santissima Trinidad, The, 7 Wheat. 137 283, 462, 494, 502 Santissima Trinidad, The, 1 Brock. 497 199 Santo v. State, 2 Iowa, 165 139 Sapphire, The, 11 Wall. 168 484 Sarah Jane, The, 1 Low. 203 535 Sargent v. Wilder, 71 Me. 383 290 Satterlee v. Matthewson, 2 Pet. 413 78, 263, 264, 273, 391, 392, 393, 430, 612, 683 Satterthwaite v. Ambercrombie, 23 Blatchf. 309, 24 Fed. 544 167 Saunders v. Wilson, 19 Tex. 196 295 Savannah v. Steamboat Co., Charlt. (Ga.) 34G 292 Savin v. Bond, 57 Md. 28 56G Savings Bank v. Allen, 28 Conn. 97 394 Savings Bank v. Bates, 8 Conn. 505 394 Savings Instn. v. Maken, 23 Me. 360 .' 337 Savory v. Caroline. 20 Ala. 19 222 Table of Cases Cited. 849 Savoye v. Marsh, 10 Met. 595 168 Sawyer, In re, 124 U. S. 219 229, 257, 627, 641, 665 Sawyer v. Concordia, 12 Fed. 754 278 Sawyer v. Davis, 136 Mass. 239 276 Sawyer v. Vilas, 19 Vt. 47 285 Sayre v. Phillips, 148 Pa. St. 482 139, 140 Scaine v. Belleville, 39 N. J. 10 397 Scales v. State, 4 Ark. 485 620 Scharpf v. Schmidt, 172 111. 262 520 Scheazle, In re, 1 Wood. & M. 66 506 Sensible v. Bachs, 41 Ala. 423 434 Schenck v. Blair, Eep. 110, 1st Sess., 38 Cong 70 Schenk v. Jeffersonville, 152 Ind. 217 274 Schenck v. Peay, 21 Fed. Cas. 682 219 Schenley v. Commonwealth, 36 Pa. St. 29 399 Schoenberger, In re, 21 Fed. Cas. 1335 158 Scholey v. Reed, 23 Wall. 347 45, 87, 232 Schollenberger v. Brinton, 52 Pa. St. 9 77, 89, 90, 171, 21 S Schollenberger v. Pennsylvania, 171 U. S. 24 105, 123, 126, 448 Scholtz, In re, 106 Fed. 834 164 Schoonmaker v. Gilmore, 102 U. S. 119 541 Schrader, Ex parte, 33 Cal. 279 118, 439 Schuchardt v. Babbidge, 19 How. 240 538 Schumacher v. Schwencke, 26 Fed. 818 178, 181 Schuster v. Weiss, 114 Mo. 174 390 Schwab v. Berggren, 143 U. S. 450 710 Schwartz, Ex parte, 2 Tex. App. 74 675 Schwartz v. Drinkwater, 70 Me. 410 166, 417 Scobey v. Gibson, 71 Md. 572 413, 423, 424 Scotland County v. Thomas, 94 U. S. 688 323 Scotland County Court v. United States, 140 U. S. 47 328 Scott v. Bilgerry, 40 Miss. 119 473, 669 Scott v. Donald, 165 U. S. 99 123, 127 Scott v. Duke, 3 La. Ann. 253 437 Scott v. Jones, 5 How. 377 528, 547, 603, 604 Scott v. McNeal, 154 U. S. 46 562, 642, 697 Scott v. Neely, 140 U. S. 109 670 Scott v. Sandford. See Dred Scott v. Sandford. Scott v. Smart, 1 Mich. 295 229, 273, 433 Scott v. State, 6 Tex. Civ. App. 348 4S0 Scott v. Strobach, 49 Ala. 488 153 Scott v. Toledo, 36 Fed. 285 ." 650, 708 Scott v. United States, 1 Wyo. 40 211 Scott v. Wilson, 3 N. H. 321 Ill, 295 Scranton v. Wheeler, 179 U. S. 162 100 Scranton v. Wheeler, 57 Fed. S10 97 Scranton Gas Co. v. Northern C. & I. Co., 192 Pa. St. 80 657 Notes on Constitution — 54 850 Table of Cases Cited. Scruggs v. Huntsville, 45 Ala. 220 241 Scully v. Kirkpatriek, 79 Pa. St. 324 1*35 Seabury v. Field, 1 McCall, 1 597 Seale v. Mitchell, 5 CaL 401 422 Seamon v. Northwestern Mut. Life Ins. Co., 86 Fed. 499 487 Searcey v. Stubbs, 12 Ga. 437 337, 401 Searight v. Stokes, 3 How. 151 86, 175, 176, 282 Searl v. School Dist. Lake County, 133 TJ. S. 562 651, 660 Sears v. Warren County, 36 Ind. 267 140 Sears v. Wills, 1 Black, 112 536, 538 Seat of Government, In re, 1 Wash. Ter. 135 601 Seat on v. Norfolk etc. E. E,, 111 N. C. 284 655 Seattle v. Smyth, 22 Wash. 237 712 Seattle Coal Co. v. Thomas, 57 Cal. 197 164 Sebatier v. Creditors, 6 Mart., N. S., 585 428 Sebring v. Messereau, 9 Cow. 346 417 Secombe v. Eailroad Co., 23 Wall. 118 652, 653 Second Nat. Bank v. Caldwell, 13 Fed. 433 85 Second etc. Bank v. Schronck, 97 Wis. 262 391 Secretary v. McGarrahan, 9 Wall. 312 460 Seeley v. Bridgeport, 53 Conn. 1. . 669 Seevers v. Clement, 28 Md. 434 239, 456 Segar's Case, 2 Bart. 810 45 Seibert v. Lewis, 122 U. S. 294 385 Selma etc. E. E. Co., Ex parte, 45 Ala. 728 611 Selsby v. Eedlon, 19 Wis. 17 404 Semmes v. United States, 91 U. S. 21 47S Semple v. Hager, 4 Wall. 433 533 Seneca, The, Gilp, 28 534 Senior, Ex parte, 37 Fla. 17 639 Sequestration Cases, 30 Tex. 688 240, 242, 244, 413, 685 Sere v. Pilot, 6 Cr. 336 194, 594, 599 Sessinghaus v. Frost, 2 Ells. 387 57 Sessions v. Eomadka, 145 U. S. 45 186 Sevier 's Case, Taf t, 7 51 Seward v. Beach, 29 Barb. 239 731 Sewing Machine Cos., In re, 18 Wall. 577 1S7, 528, 529, 530 Seymour v. Hartford, 21 Conn. 481 301 Seymour v. Osborne, 11 Wall. 549 184, 185 Shanks v. Dupont, 3 Pet. 246 570, 701 Shopleigh v. San Angelo, 167 U. S. 657 372 Sharp v. Contra Costa County, 34 Cal. 284 306 Sharpless v. Philadelphia, 21 Pa. St, 147 273 Shaumburg, Ex parte, 21 Fed. Cas. 654 4S6, 487 Shaver v. State, 10 Ark. 259 439 Shaw v. Cooper, 7 Pet. 319 17S Shaw v. McCandless, 36 Miss. 296 106 Table of Cases Cited. 851 Shaw v. Quincy Min. Co., 145 IT. S. 451 530 Shears v. Solhinger, 10 Abb. Pr., N. S., 287 165 Sheehan v. Good Samaritan Hosp., 50 Mo. 155 350 Sheehy v. Kansas City Ey. Co., 94 Mo. 574 655 Sheets v. Peabody, 7 Blackf. 614 425 Sheffield, In re, 64 Fed. 835 86, 179 Sheffield v. Parsons, 3 Stew. & P. 302 447, 451, 452, 455 Sheffield Furnace Co. v. Whiterow, 149 U. S. 574 523 Sheldon v. Sill, 8 How. 448 187, 506 Shelor v. Mason, 2 Rich., N. S., 233 412 Shelton v. Johnson, 4 Sneed, 672 561, 567 Shelton v. Marshall, 16 Tex. 351 271 Shelton v. Tiffin, 6 How. 184 529 Shelton v. Wade, 14 Tex. 52 * 167 Shepardson's Appeal, 36 Conn. 23 164 Shepherd v. Grimmett, 2 Idaho, 1129 252, 258, 259, 264 Shepherd v. People, 25 N". Y. 406 228, 253, 256 Shepherd v. Taylor, 5 Pet. 711 537, 539 Shepperd v. Sumpter County Commrs., 59 Ga. 535 143 Sherbourne v. De Cordova, 24 How. 423 522 Sheriff v. Lowndes, 16 Md. 357 330 Sherlock v. Ailing, 93 U. S. 104 103, 104, 113, 117 Sherman, Matter of, 153 N. Y. 4 93 Sherman v. Bingham, 1 Low. 575 161 Sherman v. Smith, 1 Black, 592 345, 375, 377, 379 Shiel v. Thayer, 1 Bart. 349 55 Shields' Case, Taft, 138 53 Shields' Case, Taft, 187 49 Shields v. Land Co., 94 Tenn. 148 393 Shields v. Ohio, 95 U. S. 323 364, 376, 377 Shields v. Schiff, 124 U. S. 356 559 Shields v. State, 26 Ohio St. 86 367, 383 Shields v. Thomas, 18 How. 353 669, 670 Shiner v. Jacobs, 62 Iowa, 394 291 Shipman, In re, 2 Hughes, 228 409 Shipman, In re, 14 Bank. Reg. 570 150 Shipping Commissioners, In re, 13 Blatchf. 346 490 Shiveley v. Bowlby, 152 U. S. 15 129, 595, 598 Short v. State, 80 Md. 392 702 Shoemaker v. United States, 147 U. S. 301 205, 487, 651, 652, 653 Shorter, In re, 22 Fed. Cas. 19 226 Shorter v. Cobb, 39 Ga. 285 201, 528 Shorter v. Smith, 9 Ga. 524 341, 360 Shortridge v. Macon, Chase, 136 241, 242 Shoshone Mining Co. v. Rutter, 177 U. S. 507 523 Shortwell v. Moore, 45 Ohio St. 640 92 Shreverjort v. Cole, 129 U. S. 42 33, 326 852 Table of Cases Cited. Shryoek v. Bashore, 82 Pa. St. 159 165 Shurtleff v. United States, 189 U. S. 311 486 Shute v. Davis, Pet. C. C. 431 503 Sidway v. Lawson, 58 Ark. 117 392 Siebold, Ex parte, 100 U. S. 390 55, 56, 155 Sievers, In re, 91 Fed. 368 164 Silver Bow County v. Davis, 6 Mont. 316 94 Silver Lake Bank v. Harding, 15 Ohio, 545 565 Silverman, In re, 1 Saw. 410, 2 Abb. U. S. 243 159, 160 Sim's Case, 7 Cush. 301 591, 610 Simmons v. Hanover, 40 Mass. 180 400 Simmons v. Saul, 138 U. S. 448 562, 565 Simmons v. State, 12 Mo. 268 297 Simmons v. Van Dyke, 138 Ind. 380 589 Simmons' Hardware Co. v. McGuire, 39 La. Ann. 848 141 Simms v. Simms, 175 U. S. 168 599 Simms v. Stanton, 75 Fed. 10 181 Simon v. Craft, 182 IT. S. 426 712 Simon v. House, 46 Fed. 319 505 Simpson v. City Savings Bank, 56 N. H. 469 164, 165, 275, 358 Sinclair v. State, 69 N. C. 47 140, 441 Singer Mfg. Co. v. MeCollock, 24 Fed. 669 422 Singer Mfg. Co. v. Wright, 33 Fed. 121 132 Singleton v. State, 38 Fla. 300 476, 480 Sinking Fund Cases, 99 U. S. 718 38, 377, 381 Sinnot v. Davenport, 22 How. 242 124,681 Sioux City St. Ey. v. Sioux City, 13S U. S. 108 324, 370, 373 Siren, The, 13 Wall. 393 196 Sitton v. Dubois, 14 Wash. 624 426 Sizemore v. State, 3 Head, 26 174 Skeen v. Monkheimer, 21 Ind. 1 474 Skinner v. Holt, 9 S. Dak. 427 389, 396, 410 Slaughter v. Culpepper, 35 Ga. 26 435, 437 Slaughter-House Cases, 16 Wall. 62 118, 124, 438, 439, 443, 571, 572, 573, 651, 679, 692, 698, 699, 701, 702, 705, 729 Slawson v. Grand St. B. E. Co., 107 U. S. 655 183 Sleeper v. Eice, 1 Bart. 472 59 Sloan v. Pacific E. E., 61 Mo. 24 344, 364, 366 369, 442 Sloane v. Chiniquy, 22 Fed. 213 420 Slocum v. Mayberry, 2 Wheat. 1 , 510 Smead v. Indianapolis etc. Ey. Co., 11 Ind. 104 370 Smith's Case, 1 Bart. 107 60 Smith's Case, 1 Hall L. J. 459 63 Smith's Case, Taft, 4 51 Smith, Ex parte, 22 Fed. Cas. 380 155, 160 Smith, Ex parte, 5 Cow. 273 511 Smith, Ex parte, 3 McLean, 121 586 Table of Cases Cited. 853 Smith, Ex parte, 10 Wend. 449 663 Smith, In re, 2 Woods, 460 160, 263 Smith v. Adams, 130 U. S. 174 520 Smith v. Alabama, 124 U. S. 474 98, 102, 120, 144 Smith v. Appleton, 19 Wis. 468 327, 328, 329 Smith v. Bivens, 56 Fed. 355 627 Smith v. Brazleton, 1 Heisk. 67 243 Smith v. Brown, 2 Bart. 395 41, 60 Smith v. Bryan, 34 111. 264 433 Smith v. Callaghan, 6 Iowa, 555 273, 274 Smith v. Cleveland, 17 Wis. 556 280, 385 Smith v. Gardner, 4 Bosw. 54 168 Smith v. Harrison, 33 Ala. 106 285 Smith v. Huckabee, 53 Ala. 195 383 Smith v. Jackson, Bowell, 21 615 Smith v. Jackson, 1 Paine, 453 503, 504, 506 Smith v. Lake Shore etc. Ey. Co., 114 Mich. 462 364 Smith v. Lathrop, 44 Pa. St. 330 239, 456 Smith v. Lyon, 133 U. S. 316 529 Smith v. Mclver, 9 Wheat. 535 512 Smith v. Marston, 5 Tex. 432 116 Smith v. Maryland, 18 How. 73 118, 129, 130, 520, 536, 540, 607, 624, 625, 722, 723 Smith v. Mead, 3 Conn. 256 ' 166, 168, 417' Smith v. Merchand, 7 Serg. & E. 260 280, 432 Smith v. Milwaukee Bldrs. Exch., 91 Wis. 360 724 Smith v. Moody, 26 Ind. 305 153, 155, 573, 699 Smith v. Morrison, 39 Mass. 430 407 Smith v. Morse, 2 Cal. 524 397,411 Smith v. New Orleans, 23 La. Ann. 5 246 Smith v. Nichols, 21 Wall. 11& 184 Smith v. Owen, 42 Mo. 508 252 Smith v. Eeeves, 178 U. S. 39 688 Smith v. Smith, 2 Johns. 235 167 Smith v. State, 162 U. S. 592 730 Smith v. State, 100 Tenn. 503 102, 117 Smith v. Stewart, 55 Fed. 482 184 Smith v. Tucker, 17 N. J. L. S6 408 Smith v. Union Bank, 5 Pet. 527 288 Smith v. United States, 151 U. S. 56 571, 699 Smith v. United States, 1 Wash. Ter. 269 528 Smith v. Webb, 11 Minn. 507 94 Smith v. Whitman Co., 148 U. S. 678 ]&5 Smith v. Whitney, 116 U. S. 118 199, 200, 470 Smith v. Woolfolk, 119 U. S. 149 561 Smoot v. Kentucky Cent. E. E., 13 Fed. 337 697 Snroot v. Lafferty, 3 Gilm. 8S3 415 854 Table of Cases Cited. Smyth v. Ames, 169 U. S. 466 720, 728 Sneed v. Ewing, 5 J. J. Marsh. 466 567 Sneider v. Heidelburger, 45 Ala. 126 410 Smell v. Chicago, 133 111. 440 341 Snow, In re, 120 U. S. 286 635 Snow v. United States, 18 Wall. 319 599,600 Society v. Pawlet, 4 Pet. 509 403 Society v. Wheeler, 2 Gall. 139 229, 265, 409 Society v. New Haven, 8 Wheat. 294 484, 533,613* Society for Savings v. Coite, 6 Wall. 604 92, 93, 334, 684 Sohn v. Watterson, 17 Wall. 596 392,406 Soon Hing v. Crowley, 113 U. S. 708 441, 502, 524, 706, 717, 727, 728, 733 Soule v. Chase, 39 N. Y. 344 169, 170 Souter v. Madison, 15 Wis. 30 326 South etc. Ey. v. Alabama, 101 XL S. 832 306 South etc. Ey. Co. v. Morris, 65 Ala. 193 721 South Bay Meadow Dam Co. v. Gray, 30 Me. 547 346 South Bend v. Martin, 142 Ind. 46 138 South Cambria, The, 27 Fed. 526 106 South Carolina v. Charleston, 4 Rich. 289 114, 133, 451 South Carolina v. Gaillard, 101 U. S. 438 399 South Carolina v. Georgia, 93 U. S. 10 95, 96, 97, 98, 113, 234 South Carolina v. Wesley, 155 U. S. 544 688 South Covington etc. R. E. v. Berry, 93 Ky. 49 649, 721 Southern etc. Assn. v. Norman, 98 Ky. 304 143 Southern Bell Tel. Co. v. Francis, 109 Ala. 224 723 Southern Exp. Co. v. Hood, 15 Rich. 66 135 Southern Pacific Co. v. Denton, 146 U. S. 207 188, 1S9, 515, 529, 578 Southern Ey. Co. v. Allison, 190 IT. S. 326 530 Southern Ey. v. North Carolina By., 81 Fed. 600 246, 689 Southern Steamship Co. v. Port Wardens, 6 Wall. 33 99, 104, 117, 452, 455, 681 Southwestern E. E. Co. v. Paulk, 24 Ga. 356 346, 369 Southwestern E. E. Co. v. Wright, 116 IT. S. 236 300, 348 Southwest Missouri Light Co. v. Joplin, 101 Fed. 23 269 Southworth v. City, 24 La. Ann. 312 316 Spangler v. Green, 21 Colo. 505 396, 427 Sparks v. Clapper, 30 Ind. 204 394, 430 Sparrow v. Eailroad Co., 7 Ind. 369 395 Spaulding v. Andover, 58 N. H. 38 313 Spaulding v. Mead, CI. & H. 157 58 Spaulding v. People, 172 111. 48 331 Spears, Ex parte, 88 Cal. 643 581, 583, 588 Specht v. Commonwealth, 8 Pa. St. 312 439, 620 Speer v. Commonwealth, 23 Gratt. 935 142 Table of Cases Cited. 855 Speer v. Directors, 50 Pa. St. 150 198t vSpeneer v. Lapsley, 20 How. 264 672 Spencer v. Merchant, 125 U. S. 355 81 Spencer, In re, 5 Saw. 199 480 Spies v. Illinois, 123 U. S. 166 607, 641 Spinney, Ex parte, 10 Nev. 323 706 Spokane etc. Co. v. McChesney, 1 Wash. 609 42G Spooner, In re, 104 Fed. 334 56 Spooner v. McConnell, 1 McLean, 337 27, 282, 60G Sprague v. Fletcher, 69 Vt. 78 ?«" 5 Sprangler, In re, 11 Mich. 298 198, 202, 460 Spratt v. Spratt, 4 Pet. 40S 153, 156 Sprayberry v. Atlantic, 87 Ga. 125 283 Spreckels etc. Co. v. McClain, 113 Fed, 214 232 Sponger v. Foster, 2 Story, 387 167 Springer v. United States, 102 IT. S. 594 45, 87, 219, 231, 232, 645 Springfield v. Smith, 138 Mo. 655 341 Springfield Ey. Co ; v. Springfield, 85 Mo. 674 323 Spring Valley Water Co. v. Bartlett, 8 Saw. 589, 16 Fed. 642.353, 719 Spring Valley W. W. v. Board of Supervisors, 61 Cal. 5 379 Spring Valley W. W. v. San Francisco, 82 Cal. 286 719 Spring Valley W. W. v. Schottler, 110 U. S. 348 325, 374, 375, 376, 377, 379, 719 Springville v. Thomas, 166 U. S. 70S 669 Sprott v. Eeid, 3 G. Greene, 489 404, 430 Sprott v. United States, 20 Wall. 464 242, 244, 685 Sproule v. Fredericks, 69 Miss. 899 683 Sprowl v. Lawrence, 33 Ala. 689 488 Staats v. Hudson Eiv. E, E, Co., 3 Keyes, 196 3S1 Stacy v. La Belle, 99 Wis. 520 148 Stafford v. Lick, 7 Cal. 479 394 Standard etc. Co. v. Attorney General, 46 N. J. Eq. 270 100 Standard etc. Co. v. Peters etc. Co., 77 Fed. 645 185 Standard Oil Co. v. Combs, 96 Ind. 184 448 Standeford v. Wingate, 2 Duval, 445 287, 290 Stanhilber v. Mutual Mill Ins. Co., 76 Wis. 291 577 Stanley v. Schwalby, 16 U. S. 272 526 Stanley v. Stanley, 26 Me. 191 345 Stanmire v. Taylor, 3 Jones (N. C), 207 283 Stanton v. Lane, Taf t, 205 69, 70 Starkweather v. Hawes, 10 Miss. 125 404, 417 Starr v. Hamilton, Deady, 268 266, 267,286 Starr v. Pease, 8 Conn. 546 266 Starr v. Eobinson, 1 Chip. 257 388 State, Ex parte, 52 Ala. 235 306, 665 State v. Adams, 4.4 Mo. 570 258, 316, 370, 377 State v. Ager, 83 Ala. 110 141 856 Table of Cases Cited. State v. Ah Chew, 16 Nev. 51 700, 730 State v. Aiken, 42 S. C. 248 625 State v. Aldrich, 70 N. H. 391 723 State v. Allen, 2 Humph. 258 585 State v. Alston, 94 Tenn. 681 : 232 State v. Aslesen, 50 Minn. 5 722 State v. Assessors, 43 N. J. L. 338 39S State v. Atkinson, 40 S. C. 371 703 State v. Auditor, 33 Miss. 287 431 State v. Bank, 1 Spears, 502 331 State v. Bank, 1 S. C. 78 390 State v. Bank of Smyrna, 2 Houst. 99 289, 299, 353 State v. Bank of South Carolina, 1 Kich. 63 358, 410 State v. Bank of Tennessee, 3 Baxt. 395 306 State v. Bank of Tennessee, 5 Baxt. 24 240 State v. Baldwin, 45 Conn. 134 254 State v. Baltimore etc. R. R., 12 Gill & J. 399 373 State v. Baltimore etc. R. R. Co., 24 W. Va. 783 121 State v. Barker, 4 Kan. 324 307 State v. Barnett, 3 Kan. 253 607, 628 State v. Barringer, Phill. (N. C.) 55 1 433 State v. Bates, 22 Utah, 65 633 State v. Beardsley, 108 Iowa, 405 298 State v. Becht, 23 Minn. 413 642 State v. Behimer, 20 Ohio St. 572 635 State v. Bell, Phill. (N. C.) 81 84, 229, 230, 258 State v. Benham, 7 Conn. 414 638 State v. Bentley, 23 N. J. L. 540 354 State v. Bermoudy, 36 Mo. 279 258 State v. Bermudez, 12 La. 352 406 State v. Bernheim, 19 Mont. 517 71 State v. Betts, 24 N. J. L. 555 351 estate v. Billings, 55 Minn. 467 711 State v. Blackmo, 8 Blackf . 246 249 State v. Blackwell, 65 Me. 588 145 State v. Blevins, 134 Ala. 213 63b State v. Blundell, 24 N. J. L. 402 350 State v. Board, 76 Wis. 207 593 State v. Board of Assessors, 34 La. Ann. 575 341 State v. Board of Assessors, 46 La. Ann. 146 146 277 448 State v. Board of Liquidation, 40 La. Ann. 398 303 State v. Bond, 4 Jones (N. C), 10 253, 257, 259 State v. Boswell, 104 Ind. 541 607, 628, 708 State v. Bosworth, 13 Vt. 402 362 State v. Bott, 31 La. Ann. 663 298 State v. Bowen, 8 S. C. 400 464 State v. Boyd, 36 Neb. 181 45 Table of Cases Cited. 857 State v. Boylss, 7 Blackf. 90 316 State v. Bracco, 103 N. C. 349 141 State v. Bradley, 26 Fed. 289 625, 627, 708 State v. Branin, 24 N. J. L. 484 350, 354 State v. Bridges, 22 Wash. 64 265 State v. Brown, 2 Or. 221 174 State v. Browning, 52 Mo. 591 140 State v. Brown Mfg. Co., 18 B. I. 20 336, 377, 381, 628 State v. Bryee, 7 Ohio, pt. 2, 83 271 State v. Buchanan, 5 Har. & J. 317 511 State v. Buchanan, 29 Wash. 602 732- State v. Buckley, 54 Ala. 616 270 State v. Burke, 33 La. Ann. 498 270, 285 State v. Burns, 82 Md. 568 445 State v. Butler, 79 Tenn. 493 326 State v. Buzine, 4 Harr. 572 584, 585, 586 State v. Buzzard, 4 Ark. 18 622 State v. Cadigan, 73 Vt. 245 728, 733 State v. Campbell, 53 Minn. 358 147 State v. Capaeller, 6 Ohio Dec. 702 279 Stat© v. Cardozo, 8 Rich. 71 303, 304 State v. Carew, 13 Bich. 511 413 State v. Carr, 111 Ind. 337 331 State v. Cathers, 25 Neb. 250 326 State v. Central Pac. B. E. Co., 21 Nev. 269 84 State v. Chapel, 64 Minn. 130 723 State v. Charleston, 4 Bich. 286 454 State v. Charleston, 10 Bich. 240 235, 444, 445 State v. Cheevers, 7 La. Ann. 40 635 State v. Chester, 39 S. C. 316 65 State v. Chicago etc. Ry. Co., 40 Minn. 267 96 State v. Chicago etc. By. Co., 68 Minn. 3S1 121 State v. Churchill, 48 Ark. 443 459 State v. City of Newark, 39 N. J. L. 3S2 92 State v. Clark, 60 Kan. 455 630 State v. Clarksville etc. E. R., 2 Sneed, 92 363 State v. Cleveland Gaslight Co., 3 Ohio C. C. 254 338 State v. Coal Co., 41 La. Ann. 472 123 State v. Cogshall, 65 N. W. 2 315 State v. Collector, 26 N. J. L. 519 350 State v. Collector, 38 N. J. L. 270 350 State v. Colsem, 130 Ind. 434 315 State v. Commissioners, 37 ' N. J. L. 237 353, 376, 377, 378 State v. Commissioners, 38 N. J. 472 375 State v. Conlon, 65 Conn. 478 32 State v. Cooler, 30 S. C. 105 2m State v. Coonan, S2 Iowa, 401 127 858 Table of Cases Cited. State v. Corbett, 57 Minn. 345 122 State v. County Court, 19 Ark. 367 283, 289 State v. County Treasurer, 4 Rich. 520 349 State v. Cox, 3 Eng. 436 551 State v. Crawford, 28 Fla. 441 53, 58 State v. Crescent Creamery Co., 83 Minn. 284 723 State v. Curran, 12 Ark. 353 162, 331, 417 State v. Cumberland etc. E. R. Co., 40 Md. 48 133 State v. Cunningham, 83 Wis. 155 79 State v. Cutshall, 109 N. C. 764 589 State v. Cutshall, 110 N. C 549 611 State v. Dalton, 22 R. I. 77 712, 718 State v. Davis, 44 Mo. 131 287 State v. Davis, 108 Mo. 666 626 State v. Davis, 12 S. C. 528 499 State v. Delaware etc. R. R. Co., 30 N. J. L. 473 354 State v. Delaware etc. R. R, Co. 31 N. J. L. 531 446 State v. Delesdernier, 7 Tex. 99 341, 494 State v. Demarest, 32 N. J. 52S 198 State v. Deschamp, 53 Ark. 493 127 State v. Dews, R. M. Charlt. 397 289, 290 State v. Dimmick, 12 N. H. 194 198 State v. Duckworth, 5 Idaho, 642 123 State v. Duffy, 7 Nev. 342 730 State v. Duket, 90 Wis. 277 266, 286 State v. Duncan, 7 Wash. 336 641 State v. Dupaquier, 46 La. Ann. 577 722 State v. Edwards, 86 Me. 105 719 State v. Egglesht, 41 Iowa, 474 637 State v. Elder, 54 Me. 383 441 State v. Elder, 65 Ind. 282 637 State v. Emary, 68 Vt. 109 637 State v. Emert, 103 Mo. 245 576 State v. English, 14 Mont. 399 637 State v. Evans, 33 W. Va. 417 637 State v. Fairlamb, 12 Mo. 137 569 State v. Farley, 8 Blatchf . 229 479 State v. Fellowes, 12 La. Ann. 344 297 State v. Fire Creek etc. Co., 33 W. Va. 188 713 State v. Flavell, 24 N. J. L. 370 349 State v. Foreman, 8 Yerg. 256 149 State v. Fosdick, 21 La. Ann. 256 124, 440, 443 State v. Fourcade, 45 La. Ann. 717 722, 732 State v. French, 109 N. C. 722 138 State v. Fry, 4 Mo. 172 266 State v. Furbush, 72 Me. 493 14L State v. Fylpaa, 3 S. Dak. 586 2S0 Table of Cases Cited. 859 State v. Gaillard, 9 Eep. 725 400 State v. Garbraski, 111 Iowa, 496 729 State v. Gardner, 58 Ohio St. 599 252, 712, 717, 713 State v. Garesche, 36 Mo. 256 228, 395 State v. Gas Co., 34 Ohio St. 572 719 State v. Gatzweiller, 49 Mo. 18 252, 388 State v. Georgia etc. Co., 54 Ga. 423 349 State v. Gibson, 36 Ind. 389 680, 704 State v. Gleason, 56 Iowa, 203 636 State v. Glenn, 7 Jones, 321 295 State v. Goetz, 43 W. Va. 495 126, 146 State v. Goodwill, 33 W. Va. 1S4 77, 713 State v. Gorham, 115 N. C. 727 138, 140, 142 State v. Gorton, 32 Ind. 5 83, 680 State v. Goss, 66 Minn. 293 223, 582 State v. Goss, 73 Minn. 127 223, 584 State v. Gozlay, 5 Ohio, 14 297 State v. Graves, 19 Md. 534 31S State v. Gray, 4 Wis. 3S0 265 State v. Guilbert, 56 Ohio St. 575 642 State v. Gurney, 37 Mo. 156 440 State v. Haight, 25 X. J. 40 350 State v. Haight, 34 N. J. L. 130 92 State v. Hall, 50 Ark. 28 636 State v. Hall, 115 N. C. 811 580, 587 State v. Hamlin, S6 Me. 49S 232 State v. Hancock, 35 N. J. L. 537 350 State v. Hannibal & St. Joseph E. E. Co., 60 Mo. 143 352 State v. Hannibal etc. E. E. Co., 37 Mo. 265 354 State v. Harbourne, 70 Conn. 484 122 State v. Harrington, 6S Vt. 628 82 State v. Harrub, 95 Ala. 176 100, 110, 112, 129, 706 State v. Hatcher, 136 Mo. 641 636 State v. Hawthorne, 9 Mo. 389 297 State v. Hay, 126 N. C. 999 725 State v. Heath, 8 Mo. App. 102 632 State v. Heidenhain, 42 La. Ann. 4S3 726 State v. Heighland, 4 Mo. 3S8 251 State v. Heineman, 80 Wis. 257 252, 732 State v. Heyward, 3 Eich. 389 330, 442 State v. Hickman, 9 Mont. 379 270 State v. Hilbert, 72 Wis. 193 374 State v. Hinman, 65 N. H. 103 733 State v. Hitchcock, 1 Kan. 178 601 State v. Hoeflinger, 35 Wis. 400 153 State v. Hood, 15 Eich. 187 354 State v. Hord, 122 N. C. 1092 726 860 Table of Cases Cited. State v. Hoyt, 47 Conn. 532 259 State v. Hudson, 23 N. J. 206 359 State v. Hufty, 11 La. Ann. 316 52 1 State v. Hunt, 129 N. C. 686 117 State v. Illinois Cent. E. E., 33 Fed. 774 284 State v. Ingalls, 98 Iowa, 728 635 State v. Insurance Co., 115 U. S. 266 515 State v. Jackson, 80 Mo. 175 704 State v. Jackson, 31 N. J. 189 198 State v. Janesville etc. Ey. Co., 87 Wis. 72 724 State v. Johnson, 12 Minn. 484 228, 253, 257 State v. Jones, 1 Ired. 414 316 State v. Jones, 21 Md. 438 406 State v. Judge, 39 La. Ann. 132 732 State v. Judge, 7 Mo. App. 524 128 State v. Julow, 129 Mo. 163 642, 644, 650, 712 State v. Keith, 63 N. C. 140 253, 254 State v. Kennedy, 19 La. Ann. 426, 427 447 State v. Kenney, 9 Mont. 395 236 State v. Kent, 65 N. C. 312 256 State v. Kent, 5 N. Dak. 516 641 State v. Keokuk etc. E. E., 99 Mo. 41 364 State v. Keyes, 8 Vt. 57 663 State v. Kline, 23 Ark. 587 316 State v. Knowles, 16 Fla. 616 331 State v. Kolsem, 130 Ind. 434 315 State v. Kalb, 50 Wis. 183 290 State v. Laclede Gas. Co., 102 Mo. 472 338 State v. Lagarde, 60 Fed. 186 141 State v. Lancaster, 63 N. H. 267 576 State v. Lancaster County, 2 Neb. 214 322 State v. Layton, 160 Mo. 474 717 State v. Leester, 29 N. J. L. 541 352 State v. Leidigh, 47 Neb. 131 582 State v. Lillard, 78 Mo. 138 441 State v. Littlefield, 70 Me. 452 635 State v. Lockwood, 43 Wis. 403 179 State v. Long, 95 N. C. 582 142 State v. Lord, 28 Or. 525 461 State v. Love, 37 N. J. L. 60 351 State v. McAdoo, 36 Mo. 450 258 State v. McBride, 1 Eice, 400 176, 497, 511 State v. McCann, 21 Ohio St. 198 702 State v. MeCauley, 15 Cal. 456 255 State v. McDonald, 20 Minn. 136 253 State v. Macdonald, 24 Minn. 59 153 State v. McGinty, 41 Miss. 435 415, 4ig Table of Cases Cited. 861 State v. McKenney, 18 Nev. 203 150 State v. McO'Blenis, 21 Mo. 272 479, 666 State v. McPeak, 31 Neb. 139 296 State v. Maine Central E. B. Co., 66 Me. 505 379 State v. Manning, 14 Tex. 402 261 State v. Mansfield, 23 N. J. L. 510 349 State v. Manufacturing Co., 18 E. I. 35 344 State v. Matthews, 3 Jones (N. C), 451 336, 356 State v. Mayor, 31 N. J. L. 575 384, 379 State v. Medbury, 3 E. I. 142 575 State v. Meek, 112 Iowa, 388 289, 295 State v. Miller, 55 Mo. 50 311 State v. Mitchell, 97 Me. 66 733 State v. Montgomery, 92 Me. 440 13S State v. Montgomery, 94 Me. 192 142, 145, 733 State v. Montgomery Light Co., 102 Ala. 594 370 State v. Moor, Walk. 134 633 State v. Moore, 121 Mo. 514 . . . 738 State v. Moore, 42 N. J. L. 228 228 State v. Morris, 49 N. J. L. 222 27, 352 State v. Moss, 69 Mo. 495 715 State v. Navigation Co., 11 Mart. 309 600 State v. Neal, 42 Mo. 119 252 State v. Neff, 52 Ohio St. 404 330 State v. Nelson, 66 Minn. 166 722 State v. Newark, 27 N. J. L. 185 350 State v. Newell, 13 Mont. 305 521 State v. New Haven etc. E. E., 30 Conn. 290 353 State v. New Haven etc. E. E. Co., 43 Conn. 351 368, 373 State v. New Orleans, 27 La. Ann. 521 725 State v. New Orleans, 34 La. Ann. 1149 278 State v. New Orleans, 38 La. Ann. 119 2S5, 286 State v. New Orleans City Ey., 42 La. Ann. 550 401 State v. Newton, 59 Ind. 173 395 State v. North, 27 Mo. 464 447 State v. Northern Cent. E. E. Co., 44 Md. 131 383 State v. Northern Pacific Exp. Co., 58 Minn. 403 128 State v. Norwell, 2 Yerg. 24 634 State v. Noyes, 47 Me. 189 339, 364 State v. Connor, 5 N. Dak. 629 141 State v. . Odell, 4 Blackf . 156 634 State v. Omaha etc. Co., 113 Iowa, 30 115 State v. Osawakee Township, 14 Kan. 420 80 State v. Parish, 43 Wis. 395 63 1 State v. Parsons, 124 Mo. 436 45 State v. Patterson, 116 Mo. 515 582,588 State v. Patterson, 53 N. J. L. 120 314 SC2 Table of Cases Cited. State v. Paul, 5 R. I. 1S5 229, 230, 258, 395, 441 State v. Paysson, 47 La. Ann. 1029 726 State v. Peckham, 3 R. I. 289 139 State v. Peelle, 124 Ind. 520 488 State v. People 's etc. Co., 46 La. Ann. 1031 309 State v. Perry County Commrs., 5 Ohio St. 497 316 State v. Petway, 2 Jones Eq. 396 352, 354 State v. Philadelphia etc. S. S. Co., 45 Md. 378 82, 133, 350 State v. Phipps, 50 Kan. 69 145, 515, 577 State v. Pilsbury, 31 La. Ann. 1 310 State v. Pinckney, 10 Rich. 474 445, 448 State v. Pinkerman, 63 Conn. 196 287 State v. Pitman, 1 Brew. 32 174 Stats v. Police Jury, 34 La. Ann. 95 278 State v. Powers, 24 N. J. L. 400 349, 354 State v. Prather, 19 Wash. 340 644 State v. Pratt, 59 Vt. 590 140, 445 State v. Pullman Palace Car Co., 11 Biss. 566, 16 Fed. 200 134 State v. Railroad Co., 44 Md. 165 379 State v. Randall, 2 Ark. 89 173, 174, 510, 511 State v. Randolph, 1 Mo. App. IS 129 State v. Randolph, 23 Or. 82 252, 717 State v. Rash, 1 Houst. Del. Cr. 271 694 State v. Ratts, 63 N. C. 503 256 State v. Reid, 1 Ala. 612 622 State v. Reid, 115 N. C. 741 738 State v. Richards, 32 W. Va. 353 140, 576 State v. Richmond etc. R. R. Co., 73 N. C. 527 296, 369 State v. Richter, 37 Minn. 438 579 State v. Rogers, 79 Mo. 291 92 State v. Rosenbaum, 23 Ind. App. 236 635 State v. Russell, 8 Ohio N. P. 54, 10 Ohio S. & C. P. Dec. 255. .40, 53 State v. Ryan, 13 Minn. 570 261 State v. Ryhne, 80 N. C. 183 411 State v. St. Louis County Court, 34 Mo. 546 314 State v. San Antonio, 2 Tread. 776 174 State v. Saunders, 19 Kan. 130 102, 104, 128 State v. Schleiman, 4 Harr. 577 585 State v. Schlenker, 112 Iowa, 642 698 State v. Schuman, 36 Or. 16 722 State v. Scott, 9 Ark. 270 32 State v. Scougal, 3 S. Dak. 70 572 S.tate v. Sears, Phill. (N. C.) 146 241, 261 State v. Sears, 29 Or. 508 422 State v. Seavey, 22 Neb. 454 315 State v. Sharpleigh, 27 Mo. 464 454 State v. Sheriff, 48 Minn. 236 733 Table of Cases Cited. 863 State v. Simpson, 1 Bail. 378 479 State v. Slevin, 16 Mo. App. 541 433 State v. Sluby, 2 Har. & J. 480 447 State v. Smalls, 11 S. C. 262 67 State v. Smedes, 26 Miss. 47 291) State v. Smith, 53 Ark. 24 636 State v. Smith, 62 Minn. 542 255 . State v. Smith, 43 Vt. 324 ... 636 State v. Smithson, 106 Mo. 149 140 State v. Sneed, 25 Tex. Supp. 66 253, 435 State v. Snow, 81 Iowa, 642 722 State v. Snowman, 94 Me. 99 717 State v. Sopher, 25 Utah, 318 721 State v. Southern Pacific E. E., 24 Tex. 80 336, 343, 382 State v. Southern Ey. Co., 119 N. C. 814 121, 126 State v. Speyer, 67 Vt. 502 725 State v. Springfield, 6 Ind. 83 312 State v. Squires, 26 Iowa, 348 393 State v. State Bank, 1 S. C. 67 331 State v. State Board, 3 S. Dak. 388 135 State v. State Medical etc. Board, 32 Minn. 324 718 State v. Steamship Constitution, 42 Cal. 588 106, 116, 119 State v. Stephens, 146 Mo. 681 86, 131, 137 State v. Stilsing, 52 N. J. L. 517 140 State v. Stirling, 8 Mo. 697 297 State v. Stone, 118 Mo. 403 515, 577 State v. Stoll, 17 Wall. 436 356 State v. Strauder, 11 W. Va. 816 740 State v. Stuenkens, 60 Minn. 327 157 State v. Sullivan, 14 Eich. 281 260 State v. Taft, 118 N. C. 1190 717 State v. Telegraph Co., 47 Fed. 663 1S6, 719 State v. Telephone Co., 36 Ohio St. 227 180 State v. Thayer, 46 Neb. 137 296 State v. Thomas, 98 N. C. 599 641 State v. Thompson, 141 Mo. 417 260 State v. Thompson, 160 Mo. 333 ' 727 State v. Toledo, 48 Ohio St. 112 323, 324 State v. Tombeckbee Bank, 2 Stew. 30 336, 337, 358 State v. Toole, 69 Minn. 104 586 State v. Topeka, 36 Kan. 76 727 State v. Tower, 84 Me. 445 130 State v. Town Council, 39 S. C. 307 344 State v. Tutt, 2 Bail. 44 174, 511 State v. Tutty, 41 Fed. 762 266, 698 State v. Van Wye, 136 Mo. 236 176 864 Table of Cases Cited. State v. Wabash etc. Ey. Co., 83 Mo. 144 367 State v. Wagener, 74 Minn. 718 458 State v. Wagener, 77 Minn. 483 127 State v. Wagner, 69 Minn. 206 718 State v. Waite, 101 Iowa, 380 67 State v. Walbridge, 119 Mo. 390 251 State v. Walker, 119 Mo. 469 588 State v. Waples, 12 La. Ann. 343 297 State v. Ward, 48 Ark. 36 633, 634 State v. Webster, 150 Ind. 616 252 State v. Welch, 65 Vt. 54 260 State v. Wells, 2 Hill (S. C), 687 176, 511 State v. Wheelock, 95 Iowa, 577 127, 576 State v. White, 64 N. H. 49 620 State v. Whittemore, 50 N. H. 251 153 State v. Wilbor, 1 E. I. 199 e 255 State v. Wilforth, 74 Mo. 528 622 State v. Williams, 152 Mo. 115 635 State v. Williams, 1 Nott & MeC. 26 479 State v. Williams, 10 Tex. Civ. App. 346 318, 429 State v. Willingham, 9 Wyo. 290 142 State v. Wills, 26 Minn. 381 636 State v. Wilson, 7 Cr. 164 283 State v. Wilson, 121 N. C. 462 702 State v. Winona etc. Co., 21 Minn. 315 351 State v. Woodruff, 36 N. J. L. 94 350 State v. Woodruff etc. Co., 114 Ind. 155 107 State v. Yopp, 97 N. C. 477 649, 723 State v. Young, 28 Minn. 525 387 State v. Young, 29 Minn. 474 306, 389, 390 State v. Zaphey, 14 S. Dak. 119 110 State v. Zeno, 79 Minn. 80 71& State and Watson v. Bank, 5 Baxt. 65 357 State Bank v. Charleston, 3 Eich. 342 349 State Bank v. Cooper, 2 Yerg. 599 643 State Bank v. Knoop, 16 How. 408 331 State Bank v. Madison, 3 Ind. 43 317 State Bank v. People, 5 111. 303 289 State Bank v. Wilborn, 6 Ark. 35 160, 161 State Board v. Paterson etc. E. E. Co., 50 N. J. L. 450 332, 379 State Board v. Central E, E., 4S N. J. L. 290 88 State ex rel. v. Ashbrook, 154 Mo. 375 716, 73a State ex rel. v. Assessors, 46 La. Ann. 146 445 State v. ex rel. v. Barbour, 53 Conn. 85 488 State ex rel. v. Corrigan Ey. Co., 85 Mo. 263 323 State ex rel. v. Gilliam, 18 Mont. 99 422 State ex rel. v. Governor, 17 Fla. 74 460 Table of Cases Cited. 865 State ex rel. v. Insurance Co., 115 Ind. 265 578 State ex rel. v. Livandias, 36 La. Ann. 127 106 State ex rel. v. Meier, 143 Mo. 446 461 State ex rel. v. Porter, 89 Ind. 260 303 State ex rel. v. Secretary of State, 43 La. Ann. 655 75, 607 State ex rel. v. Watkins, 21 La. Ann. 631 736 State Home Soc. v. Mayor, 35 N. J. L. 157 350 State Lottery Co. v. FTtzpatrick, 3 Woods, 222 297 State Eailroad Tax Cases, 92 U. S. 611 133 State Tax on Railway Gross Receipts, 15 Wall. 295 116, 444, 453 State Tax on Foreign Held Bonds, 15 Wall. 300 83, 278 State Tonnage Tax Cases, 12 Wall. 212 81, 82, 131, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 455 Steacy v. Little Rock etc. Ry. Co., 5 Dill. 348 345 Steamship Co. v. Juliffer, 2 Wall. 457 454 Steamboat Co. v. Chase, 16 Wall. 531 536 Steamboat Orleans v. The Phoebus, 11 Pet. 184. .188, 506, 537, 539, 541 Steamer Coquitlam v. United States, 163 U. S. 352 599 Steamship Oregon, The, 14 Saw. 463, 45 Fed. 77 510 Steam Stone-Cutter Co. v. Jones, 21 Blatchf. 156, 13 Fed. 582... 498 Stearns v. Atlantic etc. Ry. Co., 46 Me. 95 720 Stearns v. Barre, 73 Vt. 281 656> Stearns v. Gittings, 23 111. 387 406 Stearns v. Minnesota, 179 U. S. 240 380 Stearns v. United States, 2 Paine, 308 36, 1S8, 497, 512, 610 Steed v. Harvey, 18 Utah, 367 729 Steelman v. Mottix, 36 N. J. L. 344 165 Steen v. Finley, 25 Miss. 535 390 Stein v. Bienville etc. Co., 141 U. S. 80 325, 333, 340 Stein v. Indianapolis etc. Assn., 18 Ind. 237 429 Stein v. Mobile, 49 Ala. 368 284 Stella Block, The, v. Richmond, 26 La. Ann. 642 140 Stelle v. Carroll, 12 Pet. 205 207 Stephens, Ex parte, 70 Mass. 559 156, 497, 503 Stephens, Petitioner, 4 Gray, 561 155 Stephens v. Bank, 43 Mo. 389 406 Stephens v. Cherokee Nation, 174 U. S. 483 148, 402, 430, 484, 613 Stephens v. Smith, 29 Vt. 160 375 Stephenson v. Osborn, 41 Miss. 128 409, 410 Steeler's Case, Phill. (N. C.) 302 477 Stetson v. Bangor, 56 Me. 279 92 Stevens v. Andrews, 31 Mo. 208 413 Stevens v. Brown, 49 Miss. 599 417 Stevens v. Gladding, 17 How. 451 178 Stevens v. Norris, 30 N. H. 466 168 Stevens v. Ohio, 93 Fed. 795 79,128 Notes on Constitution — 55 866 Table of Cases Cited. Stevens v. Walker, 15 La. Ann. 577 113 Stevens County v. St. Paul etc. Ey., 36 Minn. 471 302 Stevenson v. King, 2 Cliff. 2 168, 418 Stevenson v. Williams, 19 Wall. 576 672 Stewart v. Baltimore etc. B. E. Co., 168 U. : .. 449 531 Stewart v. Blaine, 1 Mc Ar. 453 62 Stewart v. Hunter, 16 Or. 62 72b Stewart v. Kahn, 11 Wall. 506 194, 195, 196, 213, 216 Stewart v. Palmer, 80 Va. 81 240 Stirn v. McQuaide, '66 N. H. 404 419 Stockard y. Morgan, 185 U. S. 37 141 Stocking v. Hunt, 3 Denio, 274 268, 399, 400 Stockton 's Ca*se, Taf t, 264 50 Stockton v. Baltimore etc. R. E., 32 Fed. 13 528 Stockton v. Powell, 29 Fla. 43 103 Stockton etc. E. E. Co. v. Stockton, 41 Cal. 189 71, 81, 684 Stockwell v. Eobinson, 9 Houst. 313 436 Stockwell v. Silloway, 100 Mass. 287 165 Stoddard v. Harrington, 100 Mass. 87 168, 418 Stoddard v. Smith, 5 Binn. 355 433 Stokes v. Eodman, 5 E. I. 405 148, 429 Stokes v. United States, 60 Fed. 598 629 Stolz v. Thompson, 44 Minn. 271 722 Stone v. Bassett, 4 Minn. 298 268 Stone v. Charlestown, 114 Mass. 214 312 Stone v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co., 116 U. S. 325 338, 339, 363, 366, 719 Stone v. Illinois Cent. E. E. Co., 116 U. S. 347 360 Stone v. Mississippi, 101 U. S. 816 283, 298, 342, 343, 438, 439, 442 Stone v. New Orleans etc. E. E. Co., 116 U. S. 352 666, 367 Stone v. Tibbetts, 26 Me. 112 168 Stone v. Wisconsin, 94 U. S. 182 373 Stone v. Yazoo etc. E. R., 62 Miss. 607 338, 367 Stoner v. Flournoy, 28 La. Ann. 850 311 Stork v. Chesapeake Ins. Co., 7 Cr. 423 156 Storrs v. St. Luke's Hospital, 180 111. 375 93 Storrs v. State, 129 Ala. 101 636 Storti v. Massachusetts, 183 U. S. 138 709 Story v. Furman, 25 N. Y. 214 346, 420 Stoutenburgh v. Hennick, 129 U. S. 147 206, 207 Strader v. Graham, 10 How. 82 591, 594, 595, 682 Stratford v. Montgomery, 110 Ala. 619 143 Strauder v. West Virginia, 100 U. S. 307. . .154, 315, 571, 705, 730, 737 Strawbridge v. Curtiss, 3 Cr. 267 528 Streep v. United States, 160 U. S. 134 57:1 Street v. United States, 133 U S. 307 197 Strieker, Ex parte, 109 Fed. 145 64* Table of Cases Cited. 867 Strickland v. Draugham, 91 N. C. 104 406 Strickler v. Yager, 29 Fed. 244 305 Strobridge v. Lindsey, 2 Fed. 695 184 Strode v. Washer, 17 Or. 50 280 Strong v. Daniels, 5 Ind. 348 413 Strong v. State, 1 Blackf . 193 228, 256 Strong v. Waterman, 11 Paige, 607 148, 149 Strother v. Lucas, 12 Pet. 439 481, 522, 598, 612 Strouse, Ex parte, 1 Saw. 605 639 Stuart v. Easton, 156 U. S. 47 506, 533 Stuart v. Laird, 1 Cr. 309 187, 51o Sturgeon etc. Canal Co. v. Leatham, 164 111. 243 363 Sturges v. Carter, 114 U. S. 16 275 Sturges v. Crowinshield, 4 Wheat. 202. . .31, 158, 161, 162. 166, 172 282, 384, 387, 389, 398, 399, 402, 406, 409, 417, 418, 419, 678, 681 Sturgis v. Spofford, 45 N. Y. 446 106 Sturm v. Fleming, 31 W. Va. 701 408 Sturtevant v. Alton, 3 McLean, 393 176 Stuttsman v. State, 57 Ind. 19 130 Sullivan v. Brewster, 1 E. D. Smith, 739 26S, 426 Sullivan v. Heiskell, Crabbe, 525 165 Sully v. American National Bank, 178 U. S. 299 529, 707, 728 Sultan, In re, 115 N. C. 61 579, 580 Sulzer v. Watson, 39 Fed. 415 673 Sumner v. Mitchell, 29 Fla. 179 274, 392 Sumpter Co. v. Gainesville Nat. Bank. 62 Ala. 464 87 Sun Mutual Ins. Co. v. Board of Liquidation, 24 Fed. 4 421 Sunset Telephone Co. v. Medford, 115 Fed. 202 324 Superior v. Norton, 63 Fed. 359 340 Supervisors v. Durant, 9 Wall. 418 509 Supervisors v. Kennicott, 103 U. S. 554 673 Supervisors v. Randolph, 89 Va. 622 275 Supervisors v. Stanley, 105 U. S. 308 94 Sutherland v. De Leon, 1 Tex. 250 42S Susan, In re, 2 Wheel. Cr. Cas. 594 590 Suydam v. Barber, 18 N. Y. 468 564 Suydam v. Broadnax, 14 Pet. 75 167, 413 Suydam v. Moore, 8 Barb. 358 368, 377 Suydam v. Receivers, 3 N. J. Eq. 313 337 Suydam v. Williamson, 24 How. 433 188, 499 Swaim v. United States, 165 U. S. 561 200 Swan v. Buck, 40 Miss. 268 283, 288, 290, 294, 306 Swan v. Robinson, 5 Fed. 294 158 Swan v. Williams, 2 Mich. 427 82, 651, 652, 661 Swann, In re, 150 U. S. 653 675 Sweaney v. United States, 62 Wis. 400 660 Swearingen, Ex parte, 13 S. C. 74 579 8G8 Table of Cases Cited. Sweatt v. Boston etc. E. E. Co., 3 Cliff, 352 217, 331, 680 Sweet v. Eechel, 159 U. S. 392 214, 651, 659, 660, 726 Swickard v. Bailey, 3 Kan. 507 408, 409 Swift v. Fletcher, 6 Minn. 550 414, 424, 431 Swift v. Eichardson, 7 Houst. 355 333 Swinbum v. Mills, 17 Wash. 622 415, 423 Sykes v. Spencer, Taf t, 556 50 Tabor v. Ward, 83 N. C. 291 435 Taggart v. McGinn, 14 Pa. St. 155 268 Talbert v. United States, 155 U. S. 46 54S Talbot v. Seeman, 1 Cr. 33 193, 613 Talbott v. Silver Bow County, 139 U. S. 444 85, 206, 21S Talbutt v. State, 39 Tex. Cr. 64 141 Talton v. Mayes, 163 U. S. 383 148, 151, 612 Tarble's Case, 13 Wall. 408 197, 476, 507, 513 Tarleton v. Southern Bank, 41 Ala. 722 435, 437 Tarpley v. Hamer, 17 Miss. 310 268, 286, 394, 427 Tate v. Bell, 4 Yerg. 202 432 Taunton v. Taylor, 116 Mass. 254 118 Tax Cases, 12 Gill & J. 117 353 Tayloe v. Thompson, 5 Pet. 368 207 Taylor, In re, 48 Md. 28 706 Taylor v. Barron, 30 N. H. 78 565 Taylor v. Beckham, 178 U. S. 578 462 Taylor v. Carryl, 20 How. 597 188, 509, 540 Taylor v. Flint, 35 Ga. 154 437 Taylor v. Griswold, 14 N. J. L. 234 33] Taylor v. Keeler, 30 Conn. 324 419, 431 Taylor v. Kercheval, 82 Fed. 497 501 Taylor v. Morton, 2 Curt. 454 612, 613, 614 Taylor v. Porter, 4 Hill, 140 643, 646, 647 Taylor v. Eailroad Co., 6 Cold. 646 656 Taylor v. Stearns, 18 Gratt. 224 284, 397, 405, 414, 423 Taylor v. Taintor, 16 Wall. 370 512, 580, 583, 585, 586, 609, 610 Taylor v. Thomas, 22 Wall. 490 240, 242, 243, 244, 685 Taylor v. Thompson, 42 Ga. 9 198 Taylor v. Ypsilanti, 105 U. S. 72 272, 329 Teal v. Felton, 12 How. 254 510 Teal v. Walker, 111 U. S. 252 288 Telegraph Co. v. Texas, 105 U. S. 464 95, 107 Templeton v. Home, 82 111. 401 '. 398, 400, 426 Tennessee v. Claiborne, 1 Meigs, 331 573 Tennessee v. Davis, 100 U. S. 264 519 Tennessee v. Pullman Car Co., 117 IT. S. 52 144 Tennessee v. Sneed, 96 U. S. 74 399 Tennessee v. Whitworth, 117 U. S. 136 278. 300 Table of Cases Cited. 869 Tennessee etc. E. E. Co. v. Moore, 36 Ala. 386 288, 289 Teralta Land etc. Co. v. Shaffer, 116 Cal. 518 424 Terlinder v. Ames, 184 U. S. 288 462, 502 Terrett v. Taylor, 9 Cr. 43 283, 292, 308, 310, 332, 334, 377, 607, 609 Terrell v. Eankin, 2 Bush, 453 413 Territory v. Cox, 6 Dak. 521 149 Territory v. Day, 2 Okla. 411 667 Territory v. Evans, 2 Idaho, 634 128 Territory v. Farnsworth, 5 Mont. 317 445 Territory v. O 'Connor, 5 Dak. 408 441 Terry, In re, 128 U. S. 289 223, 506, 648 Terry v. Anderson, 95 U. S. 637 399, 406, 407, 433 Texas v. White, 7 Wall. 700 36, 49, 201, • 239, 240, 241, 243, 244, 472, 473, 544, 603, 604, 677, 682, 685, 693 Texas etc. Ey. Co. v. Interstate Commerce Commission, 162 U. S. 233 215 Texas etc. Ey. Co. v. Southern Pacific Co., 137 U. S. 55 566 Thames Bank v. Lovell, 18 Conn. 511 103, 454, 455 Thayer v. Hedges, 22 Ind. 301 78, 89, 171, 172, 249 Thayer v. Hedges, 23 Ind. 141 90 Thayer v. Seavey, 11 Me. 284 285 Thebo v. Choctaw Tribe, 66 Fed. 375 526 Theilon v. Porter, 14 Lea, 622 725 Thomas, Ex parte, 71 Cal. 204 139 Thomas v. American Land Co., 47 Fed. 559 674 Thomas v. Chicago etc. Ey. Co., 37 Fed. 549 485 Thomas v. Crow, 65 Cal. 471 168 Thomas v. Cay, 169 IT. S. 270 484 Thomas v. Gibbons, The, 8 Cr. 428 196 Thomas v. Grand Junction, 13 Colo. App. 88 325 Thomas v. Leland, 24 Wend. 65 315 Thomas v. Loney, 137 U. S. 370 497 Thomas v. Eichmond, 12 Wall. 357 244, 685 Thomas v. Taylor, 42 Miss. 704 241, 243, 615 Thomas Jefferson, The, 10 Wheat. 429 537 Thomas Swan, The, 6 Ben. 45 96 Thompson, In re, 117 Mo. 90 692 Thompson v. Alger, 12 Met. 428 160 Thompson v. Buckley, 34 Leg. Int. 148 415 Thompson v. Carroll, 22 How. 435 206 Thompson v. Commonwealth, 81 Pa. St. 314 400 Thompson v. French, 10 Yerg. 456 669 Thompson v. Guion, 5 Jones Eq. 113 372 Thompson v. Holton, 6 McLean, 386 301, 302 Thompson v. Hubbard, 131 U. S. 151 182 Thompson v. Lee County, 3 Wall. 331 273, 274, 329, 39.? Thompson v. Mankin, 26 Ark. 586 242. 243. 244 870 Table of Cases Cited. Thompson v. Missouri, 171 U. S. 387 260 Thompson v. Pacific E. R. Co., 9 Wall. 579 81, 85, 133, 212 Thompson v. Railroad Co., 3 Sand. Ch. 625 360, 361 Thompson v. Smith, 79 Me. 162 632 Thompson v. State, 6 Neb. 107 634 Thompson v. The Catbarina, 1 Pet. Adm. 104 534 Thompson v. United States, 142 U. S. 478 233 Thompson v. United States, 155 U. S. 274 633 Thompson v. Utah, 170 U. S. 349 228, 253, 259, 260, 262, 551, 553, 665, 666 Thompson v. Whitman, 18 Wall. 463 562, 564 Thorington v. Montgomery, 147 U. S. 492 607, 627 Thorington v. Smith, 8 Wall. 1 243, 385, 557 Thornburg v. Harris, 3 Cold. 157 242, 247 Thormann v. Frame, 176 U. S. 356 562 Thorndyke v. Bank, 1 Woods, 8 16? Thorndyke v. United States, 2 Mason, 18 89 Thorne v. San Francisco, 4 Cak 127 422 Thornton, Ex parte, 4 Hughes, 230, 12 Fed. 546 142, 574 Thornton v. Hooper, 14 Oal. 9 269, 289 Thornton v. McGrath, 1 Duval.1, 349 434 Thornton v. Marginal F. R. Co., 123 Mass. 32 371 Thornton v. Schreiber, 124 U. S. 613 181, 182 Thorpe v. Burlington etc. R. R., 27 Vt. 160 120, 333 Thorpe v. Rutland etc. R. R., 27 Vt. 140. . .120, 336, 340, 368, 438, 651 Thrasher v. Bentley, 1 Abb. N. C. 39 165 Thresher v. Atchison, 117 Cal. 73 424 Thurston v. Peay, 21 Ark. 85 357 Tiernan v. Rinker, 102 U. S. 127 102, 140 Tilley v. Railroad Commrs., 4 Woods, 438, 5 Fed. 650 115 Tillotson v. Millard, 7 Minn. 513 411, 424 Tilton v. Swift, 40 Iowa, 78 265, 394 Timms v. Grace, 26 Ark. 598 242 Timmons v. Eylton Land Co., 139 U. S. 379 529 Tindal v. Wesley, 167 U. S. 214 68!) Tinsley v. Anderson, 171 U. S. 108 648 Tinsman, In re, 95 Fed. 560 141 Tobin v. Trump, 3 Brewst. 288 163 Tobin v. Wilkinshaw, McCall, 186 56S Tod, In re, 12 S. Dak. 386 580 Tod v. Count of Common Pleas, 15 Ohio St. 387 217, 514 Tod v. Wick Bros., 30 Ohio St. 370 179 Todd v. Johnson, 99 Ky. 554 464 Todd v. Neal, 49 Ala. 266 430 Toland v. Sprague, 12 Pet. 330 189, 506 Toledo Bank v. Bond, 1 Ohio St. 655 290 Toledo Com. Co. v. Glen Mfg. Co., 55 Ohio St. 222 105 Table of Cases Cited. ' 871 Toledo etc. Ry. v. Deacon, 63 111. 91 343 Toledo etc. E. E. Co. v. City of Jacksonville, 67 111. 37 118, 343, 367, 368, 369 Toledo etc. E. E. Co. v. Pennsylvania Co., 54 Fed. 749 519 Tolen v. Tolen, 3 Blackf. 407 260 Tompkins' v. Forrestal, 54 Minn. 119 431 Tom Tong, 108 U. S. 560 223 Tomlinson v. Branch, 15 Wall. 468 299, 300, 355 Tomlinson v. Jessup, 15 Wall. 454 299, 300, 353, 371, 379 Toof v. Martin, 13 Wall. 47 158 Tooley v. Gridtey, 3 Smedes & M. 516 • 423 Topliff v. Topliff, 145 U. S. 171 185 Totten v. United States, 92 U. S. 107 470 Town Council v. Pressley, 33 S. C. 56 728 Towne v. Smith, 1 Wood. & M. 130 168, 169, 398, 402, 418, 419 Town of Pawlet v. Clark, 9 Cr. 292 283, 292, 333, 532 Townsend v. Jemison, 9 How. 413 406 Townsend v. State, 147 Ind. 624 721 Townsend v. Townsend, Peck, 1 249, 387, 388, 389, 400, 401, 413 Townsend Bank v. Epping, 3 Woods, 393 409 Towsey v. Avery, 11 Ohio, 93 403, 41 9 Tracy's Case, Taft, 3 51 Tracy v. Reed, 38 Fed. 69 280 Tracy v. Swartwout, 10 Pet. 80 47d Trademark Cases, 100 U. S. 94 178 Train v. Boston Disinfecting Co., 144 Mass. 531 104, 124, 125 Transit Co. v. Lynch, 18 Utah, 394 137 Transportation Co., In re, 5 Fed. 614 107 Transportation Co. v. Parkersburg, 107 U. S. 702 102, 103, 454, 455, 456 Transportation Co. v. Wheeling, 99 U. S. 277 81, 131, 137, 451, 452, 453 Trask v. Maguire, 18 Wall. 401 351 Travelers' Ins. Co. v. Brouse, 83 Ind. 62 413, 425 Travelers' Ins. Co. v. Fricke, 99 Wis. 377 231 Treadway v. Sehnauber, 1 Dak. 236 601 Tredway v. Riley, 32 Neb. 495 127 Treasurer v. Philadelphia etc. R. R., 4 Houst. 189 116, 134 Treasurer v. Wygall, 46 Tex. 462 434 Treat v. White, 181 U. S. 269 214, 503, 524 Treat Mfg. Co. v. Standard Steel etc. Co., 157 U. S. 675 670 Trebilock v. Wilson, 12 Wall. 695 91 Tribune Co. v. Associated Press, 116 Fed. 126 182 Trigg v. Drew. 10 How. 224 250, 356 Trombley v. Humphrey, 23 Mich. 482 607,658 Troutman, In re, 4 Zab. 604 585 Troy v. Rutland etc. R. R. Co., 17 Barb. 581 371 872 Table of Cases Cited. Troy etc. E. E. Co. v. Kerr, 17 Barb. 581 376 Trumbull 's Case, Taf t, 148 53 Trustees v. Aberdeen, 21 Miss. 645 310 Trustees v. Bailey, 10 Fla. 112 288, 328 Trustees v. Bradbury, 11 Me. 118 330, 331 Trustees v. Indiana, 14 How. 273 601 Trustees v. Eider, 13 Conn. 87 263, 282, 283, 284, 288, 294, 384 Trustees v. St. Johns E. E., 16 Fla. 542 283, 289 Trustees v. Tatman, 13,111. 27 310 Trustees v. Winston, 5 Stew. & P. 17 340, 370, 383 Trustees Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 4 Wheat. 629 28, 266, 282, 283, 284, 290, 292, 309, 324, 330, 332, 333, 334, 335, 370, 523, 643, 677, 679 Trustees of Newport v. Taylor, 6 J. J. Marsh. 134 360 Trustees of Wabash etc. Co. v. Beers, 2 Black, 452 304 Tua v. Carriere, 117 U. S. 210 164, 512 Tuchman v. Welsh, 42 Fed. 555 445 Tuckahoe Canal Co. v. Eailroad Co., 11 Leigh, 73 334, 342, 362 Tucker v.. Alexandroff, 183 U. S. 424 612 Tucker v. Booker, 2 Barb. 772 41, 60 Tucker v. Ferguson, 22 Wall. 575 299, 300, 301, 302, 349 Tucker v. Harris, 13 Ga. 10 561 Tucker v. Potter, 35 Conn. 46 83 Tug Eiver Coal etc. Co. v. Brigel, 67 Fed. 627 505 Tullis & Lake Erie etc. E. E., 175 U. S. 34 731 Tuolumne Eedemption Co. v. Sedgwick, 15 Cal. 516 409, 422, 424 Turman, Ex parte, 26 Tex. 708 664 Turner, In re, 1 Abb. U. S. 184 692 Turner v. Althous, 6 Neb. 54 650 Turner v. Bank of North America, 4 Dall. 10 1S7, 496, 503, 505, 506, 523 Turner v. Detroit, 104 Mich. 326 326 Turner v. Maryland, 107 U. S. 38 123, 449, 450 Turner v. Missionary Union, 5 McLean, 344 613 Turner v. New York, 168 U. S. 94 406, 407 Turner v. State, 40 Ala. 21 256 Turner v. Watkins, 31 Ark. 429 424 Turner v. Wilkes Co., 173 U. S. 464 269 Turney v. Marshall, 1 Bart. 167 40, 41 Turnpike Co. v. Maryland, 3 Wall. 210 362 Turnpike Co. v. Montgomery County, 100 Tenn. 422 360, 362 Turnpike Co. v. Eailroad Co., 10 Gill & J. 392 342 Turnpike Eoad v. Eailroad Co., 81 Md. 256 656 Turpin v. Burgess, 11 7 U. S. 505 449 Turpin v. Commissioners, 7 Ind. 172 290 Tuthill, Matter of, 163 N. Y. 133 654 Tuttle v. Block, 104 Cal. 443 279 Table of Cases Cited. 87.1 Tuttle v. Michigan Air-Line, 35 Mich. 247 372 Twilley v. Perkins, 77 Md. 252 723 Twitchell v. Commonwealth, 7 Wall. 326 37, 607, 627, 663 Tyerman, In re, 48 Fed. 167 142 Tyler, Ex parte, 149 U. S. 164 508 Tyler v. Cass Co., 1 N. Dak. 382 84 Tyler v. Def rees, 11 Wall. 345 194. 201 Tyler v. Pomeroy, 8 Allen, 493 202 Tyler v. Tehama County, 109 Cal. 623 655 Tyson's Case, 4 Opin. Atty. Gen. 30 492 Tyson, In re, 13 Colo. 484 255 Ulrich, Ex parte, 42 Fed. 587 70S Umbenhauer v. Miller, 1 Woodw. Dec. 69 421 Underhill v. Hernandez. 168 U. S. 253 243, 656 Underwood v. Lilly, 10 Serg. & E. 97 394, 43t Underwood v. McDuffee, 15 Miss. 361 613 Union Bank v. State, 9 Yerg. 490 270, 352 Union Gas Co. v. Doak, 88 Fed. 89 184 Union Imp. Co. v. Commonwealth, 69 Pa. St. 140 353 Union Iron Co. v. Pierce, 4 Biss. 327 391 Union National Bank v. Chicago, 3 Biss. 82 574 Union Pacifie Ry. Co. v. De Busk, 12 Colo. 294 346, 369, 720 Union Pacific Ry. Co. v. Porter, 38 Neb. 226 720 Union R. R. Co. v. East Tennessee R. R. Co., 14 Ga. 327 382, 456, 457 Union St. Ry. Co. v. Snow, 168 U. S. 707 401 Union Trust Co. v. Stearns, 119 Fed. 740 527 United Companies v. Weldon, 47 N. J. L. 63 434 United States v. Alberti, Hemp. 444 505 United States v. Alexander, 148 U. S. 187 654, 656 United States v. Allred, 155 U. S. 594 486 United States v. Almeida, 24 Fed. Cas. 776 191 United States v. Amedy, 11 Wheat. 407 563 United States v. American Bell Tel. Co., 159 U. S. 549.. 504, 546,547 United States v. American Bell Tel. Co., 29 Fed. 33 505 United States v. Ames, 1 Wood. & M. 76 208, 210, 497, 652 United States v. Amsden, 10 Biss. 283, 6 Fed. 822 740 United States v. Angell, 11 Fed. 34 87, 666 United States v. Anthony, 11 Blatchf. 210 671, 693 United States v. Arizona, 120 U. S. 488 174, 191 United States v. Arredondo, 6 Pet. 709. . . .265, 460, 499, 502, 518, 613 United States v. Arwo, 19 Wall. 490 551 United States v. Athens Armory, 2 Abb. U. S. 150 476 United States v. Avery, Deady, 207 486 United States v. Bailey, 1 McLean, 234 95 874 Table of Cases Cited. United States v. Baily, 9 Pet. 257 61, 149 United States v. Bainbridge, 1 Mason, 71 197 United States v. Ball, 163 U. S. 669 632, 634 United States v. Ballin, 144 U. S. 6 61, 62, 65 United States v. Baltimore etc. E. K. Co., 1 Hughes, 144 460 United States v. Bank of Arkansas, Hemp. 462 487 United States v. Bank of North Carolina, 6 Pet. 35 217 United States v. Barger, 19 Blntchf. 250, 7 Fed. 193 553 United States v. Barnhart, 10 Saw. 497, 22 Fed. 490 627 United States v. Barrels, 1 Bord. 587 671 United States v. Bashaw, 152 U. S. 443 460, 501 United States v. Bassetts, 5 Utah, 133 4S0 United States v. B«?ebe, 127 U. S. 347 525 United States v. Bell, 81 Fed. 851 641 United States v. Bellingham etc. Co., 81 Fed. 661 97 United States v. Benner, Baldw. 234 54 1 United States v. Bennett, 16 Blatchf. 343 176 United States v. Bevans, 3 Wheat. 337 130, 199, 206, 209, 210, 216, 506, 510, 535, 536, 553. 68! United States v. Blaine, 139 U. S. 319 460. 521 United States v. Blasingame, 116 Fed. 654 79 United States v. Block, 128 U. S. 48 461 United States v. Block, 4 Saw. 211 628 United States v. Boyd, 68 Fed. 577 149, 525 United States v. Boyd, 83 Fed. 554 150 United States v. Boyer, 85 Fed. 425 77, 87, 100, 110, 216, 443 United States v. Bradley, 10 Pet. 343 36 United States v. Bright, Bright. N. P. 19 670 United States v. Britton, 108 U. S. 206 551 United States v. Brown, 4 McLean, 142 173 United States v. Buntin, 10 Fed. 730 704, 731 United States v. Burgess, 3 McCrary, 278 629 United States v. Burlington etc. Ferry Co., 21 Fed. 335 112, 498, 508 United States v. Burns, 12 Wall. 252 185 United States v. Burns, 5 McLean, 23 173 United States v. Burr, 4 Cr. 470 32, 556 United States v. C. O. & G. R. R. Co., 3 Okla. 451 188 United States v. Cadwallader, 59 Fed. 679 629 United States v. Campbell, 6 Hall. L. J. 113 520 United States v. Castillero, 2 Black, 355 194 United States v. Cathcart, 1 Bond. 556 27, 241, 685 United States v. Cha-to-kah-na-he-sha, Hemp. 27 147 United States v. Cheneweth, 4 West. L. Mo. 165 557 United States v. Chicago, 7 How. 195 652 United States v. Chong Sam, 47 Fed. 883 73 United States v. Cisna, 1 McLean, 254 147, 149, 150 Table of Cases Cited. 875 United States v. Coe, 155 U. S. 85 503 United States v. Cole, 5 McLean, 513 191 United States v. Collins, 1 Woods, 499 640 United States v. Combs, 12 Pet. 78 96, 109, 215 United States v. Conway, Hemp. 313 415, 425 United States v. Coolidge, 1 Wheat. 416 506, 551 United States v. Cooper, 4 Dall. 341 67 United States v. Coppersmith, 2 Flipp. 557, 4 Fed. 206 173 United States v. Cornell, 2 Mason, 66 205, 208, 209 United States v. Coryell, 2 Mason, 91 9 1 United States v. Crosby, 7 Cr. 116 20S United States v. Crosby, 1 Hughes, 448 39 United States v. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. 542 37, 39, 42, 155, 212, 471, 472, 569 607, 619, 621, 622, 678, 683, 692, 694, 701, 702, 703, 708, 737, 738 United States v. Cruikshank, 1 Woods, 314 212, 215, 664 United States v. Cullerton, 8 Biss. 171 479 United States v. Curtis, 4 Mason, 232 551 United States v. Cutter, 2 Curt. 623 460, 471 United States v. Cutting, 3 Wall. 443 87 United States v. Davis, 5 Mason, 356 208, 209 United States v. Dawson, 15 How. 488 553, 664 United States v. Des Moines etc. E. E., 142 U. S. 544 502, 524 United States v. DeWalt, 128 U. S. 393 629, 630 United States v. DeWitt, 9 Wall. 41 100, 124, 439, 443 United States v. Diekelman, 92 U. S. 526 224, 473 United States v. Distillery, 6 Biss. 483 227, 671 United States v. Distilled Spirits, 14 Wall. 44 673 United States v. Drennen, Hemp. 325 219, 50.3 United States v. Dunnington, 146 U. S. 344 499, 650, 660 United States v. Easson, 18 Fed. 590 177 United States v. Eaton, 169 U. S. 344 489, 551 United States v. Ebert, Fed. Cas. No. 15,019 629 United States v. E. C. Knight Co., 156 U. S. 15 99, 101, 110, 111, 126, 680 United States v. Edgerton, 80 Fed. 376 640 United States v. Eliason, 16 Pet. 302 200, 207, 469, 470 United States v. Elliott, 64 Fed. 27 498 United States v. Ewing, 47 Fed. 812 147 United States v. Fairchilds, 1 Abb. U. S. 77 217 United States v. Farden, 99 U. S. 19 460, 4S9 United States v. Ferriera, 13 How. 40 489, 499, 500, 516, 521, 542, 613, 644 United States v. Field, 16 Fed. 778 629 United States v. Fisher, 2 Cr. 396 212, 213, 217, 218 United States v. Fitzgerald, 15 Pet. 421 59S 876 Table of Cases Cited. United States v. Flecke, 2 Ben. 456 635 United States v. Forty-three Gallons of Whisky, 93 U. S. 19^. . 100, 146, 147, 156, 481, 482, 483, 612 United States v. Forty-three Gallons of Whisky, 108 U. S. 494. . 100 United States v. Fox, 94 U. S. 320 219, 682 United States v. Fox, 95 U. S. 672 160, 658, 664 United States v. Freeman, 3 How. 567 200, 470 United States v. Fries, 2 Whart. St. Tr. 482 555, 556, 557, 558 United States v. Gale, 109 U. S. 65 56 United States v. Gardner, 10 Pet. 624 173 United States v. Germaine, 99 U. S. 509 490 United States v. Gettysburg etc. E. E. Co., 160 U. S. 685 77, 651, 652, 654, 657, 662 United States v. Gibert, 2 Sum. 101 229, 257 United States v. Gilbert, 2 Sum. 19 552, 633 United States v. Glab, 99 U. S. 2-25 87 United States v. Gleason, 78 Fed. 397 156 United States v. Goldman, 3 Woods, 187 39, 56 United States v. Gratiot, 14 Pet. 537 219, 570, 590, 597, 598, 600 United States v. Great Falls Mfg. Co., 21 Md. 119 294 United States v. Great Falls Mfg. Co., 112 U. S. 654 659 United States v. Greathouse, 2 Abb. U. S. 364 555, 556, 557, 558 United States v. Green, 138 U. S. 296 73 United States v. Greiner, 4 Phila. 396 556, 558 United States v. Grush, 5 Mason, 290 191 United States v. Guthrie, 17 How. 304 236, 460 United States v. Hall, 98 U. S. 357 218 United States v. Hamilton, 3 Dall. 18 514 United States v. Hanway, 2 Wall. Jr. 139 555, 557, 553 United States v. Harris, 106 U. S. 629 76, 214, 576, 678, 679, 694, 696, 697, 737, 733 United States v Harris, 1 Abb. U. S. 114 223, 226, 476, 479, 611 United States v. Haskell, 4 Wash. C. C. 402 633, 63 1 United States v. Harsha, 172 U. S. 572 492 United States v. Hartwell, 6 Wall. 393 485 United States v. Haynes, 29 Fed. 696 187, 513 United States v. Hill, 123 U. S. 681 71 United States v. Hodges, 2 Wheel. C. C. 477 556, 557, 553 United States v. Holliday, 3 Wall. 419 95, 98, 109, 147, 149, 150, 461, 502 United States v. Holmes, 5 Wheat. 417 190 United States v. Hood, 2 Cr. C. C. 133 638 United States v. Hooe, 3 Cr. 91 158 United States v. Hopewell, 51 Fed. 800 71 United States v. Hopkins, 82 Fed. 541 445 United States v. Howell, 11 Wall. 437 17:) United States v. Howland, 4 Wheat. 108 523 Table of Cases Cited. 877 United States v. Hoxie, 1 Paine, 265 555, 557 United States v. Huckabee, 16 Wall. 434 472 United States v. Hudson, 7 Cr. 33 506, 551 United States v. Huff, 13 Fed. 635 191 United States v. Hughes, 8 Ben. 29 229, 253, 257 United States v. Illinois etc. E. E. Co., 154 U. S. 239 678 United States v. Insurance Cos., 22 Wall. 103 244 United States v. Jackalow, 1 Black, 486 553 United States v. James, 13 Blatchf . 207 71 United States v. Jefferson County, 1 McCrary, 361, 5 Dill. 315, 278, 317, 389 United States v. Johns, 4 Dall. 412 563, 637 United States v. Joe, 4 Chic. Leg. N. 105, Fed. Oas. No. 15,478. . 506 United States v. Joint Traffic Assn., 171 U. S. 571 101 United States v. Jones, 18 How. 96 471 United States v. Jones, 109 U. S. 515 660, 671 United States v. Jones, 119 U. S. 480 54S United States v. Judges, 32 Fed. 715 272 United States v. Jung Ah Lung, 124 U. S. 627 533 United States v. Kagama, 118 U. S. 378 100, 147, 483, 59'? United States v. Kelly, 11 Wheat. 418 191 United States v. Keen, 1 McLean, 434 633 United States v. Kelsey, 42 Fed. 8S3 56 United States v. Keokuk, 6 Wall. 516 683 United States v. Kimball, 117 Fed. 156 64 1 United States v. King, 5 McLean, 210 173 United States v. Kirby, 7 Wall. 485 67, 176 United States v. Kirkpatrick, 9 Wheat. 734 488, 492 United States v. Klein, 13 Wall. 142 476, 477, 478 United States v. Klintock, 5 Wheat. 151 190 United States v. Koehler, 9 Wall. 86 242 United States v. La Fontaine, 4 Cr. C. C. 173 544 United States v. Lancaster, 4 Wash. C. C. 66 479, 523 United States v. Lane, 3 McLean, 365 36 United States v. Langston, 118 U. S. 394 2«6 United States v. Langton, 5 Mason, 284 158 United States v. Lathrop, 17 Johns. 4 497, 510, 520 United States v. La Vengeance, 3 Dall. 297 669, 670 United States v. Lee, 106 U. S. 207 501, 526, 650 United States v. Lee, 4 Cr. C. C. 446 '. 637 United States v. Lee Yen Tai, 185 U. S. 220 484, 613 United States v. Dibby, 1 Wood. & M. 235 221 United States v. Lincoln Co., 5 Dill. 184 27S United States v. Loftis, 8 Saw. 197, 12 Fed. 674 170 United States v. Loring, 91 Fed. 882 176 United States v. Louisville etc. Canal Co., 4 Dill 611 292 878 Table of Cases Cited. United States v. Lynah, 188 U. S. 445 (554 United States v. Lynch, 137 U. S. 286 400 United States v. McBratney, 104 U. S. 623 • 147 United States v. McCready, 11 Fed. 225 175, 176 United States v. McCrary, 91 Fed. 296 4S5 United States v. McMillan, 165 U. S. 510 508, 600 United States v. Makins, 26 Fed. Cas. 1114 153 United States v. Marigold, 9 How. 568 171, 173, 174, 212, 218, 249, 511, 679 United States v. Marks, 2 Abb. U. S. 535 217 United States v. Martin, 8 Saw. 478, 14 Fed. 840 100, 146 United States v. Maurice, 2 Brock. 109 36, 485, 489, 490, 492 United States' v. Maxwell, 3 Dill. 275 628, 629 United States v. Miller, 105 Fed. 944 150 United States v. Milwaukee, 100 Fed. 828 21 J United States v. Miner, 71 Blatchf . 511 63S United States v. Minnesota etc. Ey., 1 Minn. 127. . . , 292 United States v. Mitchell, 2 Dall. 348 555, 556, 557 United States v. Mobile, 12 Fed. 768 326 United States v. Monat, 124 U. S. 307 485 United States v. Monte, 3 N. Mex. 125 . 147 United States v. Moore, 95 U. S. 762 485 United States v. More, 3 Cr. 160 205, 516, 546 United States v. Morris, 1 Curt. 23 633 United States v. Morrison, Chase, 521 241 United States v. Munford, 16 Fed. 223 740 United States v. New Bedford Bridge, 1 Wood. & M. 430 99, 101, 112, 113, 114, 187, 505, 616 United States v. New Orleans, 98 U. S. 397 272 United States v. New York Indians, 172 U. S. 469 613 United States v. Nicol, 1 Paine, 640 697 United States v. Noelke, 17 Blatchf. 554, 1 Fed. 426 664 United States v. Northern Securities Co., 120 Fed. 721, Affirmed, 1904 105 United States v. Norton, 91 U. S. 569 71 United States v. O'Connor, 31 Fed. 452 56 United States v. Old Settlers, 148 U. S. 466 542 United States v. Olmstead, 118 Fed. 433 237 United States v. Ormsbee, 74 Fed. 209 79 United States v. Ortega, 11 Wheat. 467 524, 542, 544 United States v. Osborn, 6 Saw. 406, 2 Fed. 58 571 United States v. Packages, Gilp. 235 671 United States v. Packages, 27 Fed. Cas. 288 221 United States v. Padelford, 9 Wall. 542 477, 478 United States v. Paine, 4 Dill. 389 150 United States v. Palmer, 128 U. S. 271 185 United States v. Palmer, 3 Wheat. 634 462, 494, 502 Table of Cases Cited. 879 United States v. Parker, 21 Int. Rev. Rec. 251 639 United States v. Patterson, 150 U. S. 68 551 United States v. Payne, 8 Fed. 888 149, 612 United States v. Percheman, 7 Pet. 51 613 United States v. Perez, 9 Wheat. 599 633 United States v. Perkins, 116 U. S. 485 490 United States v. Perkins, 163 U. S. 630 93 United States v. Perrin, 131 U. S. 57 548 United States v. Peters, 5 Cr. 138 188, 506, 508, 510, 526, 688, 689 United States v. Peterson, 64 Fed. 147 536 United States v. Petit, 114 U. S. 430 628, 629 United States v. Pirates, 5 Wheat. 197 190, 191 United States v. Pitman, 1 Sprague, 196 109 United States v. Powell, 65 N. C. 705 735 United States v. Powers' Heirs, 11 How. 577 473 United States v. Preston, 3 Pet. 65 222 United States v. Price, 116 U. S. 44 237 United States v. Pridgeon, 153 U. S. 58 509 United States v. Pryor, 3 Wash. C. C. 334 558 United States v. Pusey, Fed. Cas. No. 16,098 160, 217 United States v. Ragsdale, Hemp. 497 151 United States v. Railroad Bridge Co., 6 McLean, 517 176, 210, 600 United States v. Railroad Co., 17 Wall. 362 80, 83 United States v. Randenbush, 8 Pet. 289 638 United States v. Rathbone, 2 Paine, 578 672, 673 United States v. Rausher, 119 U. S. 412 240, 456, 457, 481, 587, 612 United States v. Ravara, 2 Dall. 297 506, 524, 542, 544 United States v. Realty Co., 163 U. S. 439 237 United States v. Reese, 92 U. S. 218 90, 738, 739, 740 United States v. Reese, 5 Dill. 409 520 United States v. Reid, 90 Fed. 522 525 United States v. Reiter, 27 Fed. Cas. 772 473 United States v. Repentigny, 5 Wall. 260 473 United States v. Reynes, 9 How. 154 462, 502 United States v. Reynolds, 98 U. S. 145 620 United States v. Rhodes, 1 Abb. 45... 87, 108, 153, 154, 175, 176, 197, 199, 214, 483, 571 604, 609, 610, 614, 615, 619, 693, 695, 699 United States v. Riddle, 5 Cr. 313 626 (Tnited States v. Riley, 5 Blatchf. 204 634 United States v. Ringgold, 8 Pet. 164 463 United States v. Ritchie, 17 How. 530 507, 513, 570 United States v. Rogers, 4 How. 572 147 United States v. Russell, 13 Wall. 623 656 United States v. Sa-coo-da-cot, 1 Abb. U. S. 383 210 United States v. Sacramento, 2 Mont. 239 666 880 Table of Cases Cited. United States v. Samperyae, 1 Humph. 118 401 United States v. San Francisco Bridge Co., 88 Fed. 891 209 United States v. Sanges, 114 U. S. 319 546 United States v. Sanges, 48 Fed. 82 740 United States v. Sayward, 160 U. S. 498 525 United States v. Schooner Peggy, 1 Or. 109 482 United States v. Sehurz, 102 U. S. 395 461 United States v. Seagrist, 4 Blatchf. 422 191 United States v. Seaman, 17 How. 230 460 United States v. Seveloff, 2 Saw. 317 150 United States v. Shanks, 15 Minn. 369 148 United States v. Shares of Stock, 5 Blatchf. 237 195 United States v. Shaw-Mux, 2 Saw. 365 147, 150 United States v. Sheppard, 1 Abb. U. S. 431 62S United States v. Sheridan, 119 Fed. 236 525 United States v. Shoemaker, 2 McLean, 114 ...634, 638 United States v. Sims, 1 Cr. 256 207 United States v. Singer, 15 Wall. Ill 87, 88 United States v. Smith, 5 Wheat. 158 190 United States v. Smith, 124 U. S. 532 485, 491 United States v. Smith, 40 Fed. 757 630 United States v. Smith, 27 Fed. Gas. 1135 191 United States v. Speed, 8 Wall. 82 471 United States v. Stahl, McCahon, 206 209, 210 United States v. Stanford, 161 U. S. 433 186 United States v. Sta;k, 27 Fed. Cas. 330 242 United States v. Steever, 113 U. S. 754 196 United States v. Stevenson, 3 Ben. 120 195 United States v. Stewart, Crabbe, 205 197 United States v. Stocksehlager, 129 U. S. 477 288 United States v. Sutton, 47 Fed. 130 630 United States v. Tappan, 11 Wheat. 419 86 United States v. Ta-Wang-ca, Hemp. 304 506 United States v. Texas, 162 U. S. 38 482, 546 United States v. The Amistad, 15 Pet. 593 191 United States v. The Malek Adhel, 2 How. 232 190, 191 United States v. The Marshal etc., 2 Brock. 491 15S United States v. The Queen, 4 Ben. 237 679 United States v. The Three Friends, 167 U. S. 64 191 United States v. The William, 2 Hall L. J. 272 109, 235 United States v. Thoman, 156 U. S. 360 314, 315 United States v. Thomas, 151 U. S. 585 147 United States v. Three Tons of Coal, 6 Biss. 400 87, 88 United States v. Tichenor, 12 Fed. 415 209 United States v. Tierney, 1 Bond, 571 208, 209 United States v. Tingey, 5 Pet. 128 36, 216 United States v. Tobacco Factory, 1 Dill. 265 148, 613 Table of Cases Cited. 881 United States v. Told, 13 How. 52 500, 516 United States v. Tom, 1 Or. 26 147 United States v. Townmaker, Hemp. 229 633 United States v. Travers, 2 Wheel. C. C. 490 20S United States v. Trans-Missouri etc. Assn., 166 U. S. 312 96 United States v. Treasurer, 1 Dill. 528, 2 Abb. U. S. 60 272 United States v. Truesdell, 158 U. S. 196 654 United States v. Turner, 7 Pet. 136 173 United States v. Union Pac. R. R. Co., 91 U. S. 91 214, 502, 524 United States v. Vassar, 5 Wall. 469 214, 233, 502 United States v. Vigol, 2 Dall. 346 556 United States v. Villato, 2 Dall. 372 154 United States v. Waddell, 112 U. S. 76 220 United States v. Walker, 109 U. S. 258 533 United States v. Waller, 1 Saw. 701 628 United States v. Watson, 3 Ben. 1 634 United States v. Webster, 2 Ware, 46 91, 469 United States v. Weise, 3 Wall. Jr. 72 211 United States v. Weld, 127 U. S. 57 482 United States v. Wells, 2 Cr. 45 633 United States v. Western Union Tel. Co., 50 Fed. 36 376, 377 United States v. Williams, 188 U. S. 485 654 United States v. Williams, 4 Cr. C. C. 372 206, 521 United States v. Williams, 1 Paine, 261 73 United States v. Wilson, 7 Pet. 160 178, 223, 226, 476, 635 United States v. Wilson, Baldw. 95 633 United States v. Wilson, 3 Blatchf. 439 191 United States v. Wiltberger, 5 Wheat. 981 88, 192, 523, 555, 556 United States v. Winans, 73 Fed. 75 525 United States v. Wise, 1 Dist. Co. Rep. 82 67 United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169 U. S. 701 29, 154, 571, 692, 696, 699, 700 United -States v. Wonson, 1 Gall. 20 672 United States v. Worrall, 2 Dall. 384 218, 506 United States v. Wynn, 3 McCrary, 266 628, 629 United States v. Yates, 6 Fed. 864 171 United States v. Yorba, 1 Wall. 423 462, 494, 502 United States v. Young, 94 U. S. 259 546 Unite 1 States v. Zucker, 161 U. S. 481 64L United States Bank v. Devaux, 5 Cr. 86 505 United States Exp. Co. v. Allen, 39 Fed. 714 135 United States Exp. Co. v. Hemmingway, 39 Fed. 600 135 United States ex rel. v. Lamont, 155 U. S. 308 461 Untermeyer v. Freund, 37 Fed. 345 185 University v. Board of Education, 4 Mich. 225 331 University v. Indiana, 14 How. 276 330 Notes on Constitution — 56 882 Table of Cases Cited. University v. Maltsby, 9 Irerl. Eq. 257 330 University v. North Carolina R. R., 76 N. C. 108 332 University v. People, 99 U. S. 320 271 Upton >s Case, 1 Bart. 3G9 43 Urton v. Hunter, 2 W. Va. 83 169 Urton v. Sherlock, 75 Mo. 258 126 Utiea v. Churchill, 33 N. Y. 231 ')4 Utter v. Franklin, 172 U. S. 423 599, 600 Vallandingham, Ex parte, 1 Wall. 253 224, 499, 549 Vallandingham, Ex parte, 28 Fed. Cas. 907 201 Valparaiso v. Hagen, 153 Ind. 337 656 Van Allen v. Assessors, 3 Wall. 591 81, 84, 85, 92 Van Brocklin v. Tennessee, 117 U. S. 176 80, 82, 83, 84, 211, 219, 595, 598, 658 Van Bur en v. Downing, 41 Wis. 127 102, 105 Van Buren v. Wells, 53 Ark. 368 638 Vance v. Burtis, 39 Tex. 91 242 Vance v. Vance, 108 U. S. 521 394, 406 Vance v. W. A. Vandercook Co., 170 U. S. 456.... 110, 123, 128, 450 Van Derheyden v. Young, 11 Johns. 150 201 Vanderbilt v. Adams, 7 Cow. 348 119 Vanderlip v. Grand Rapids, 73 Mich. 535 655 Van Dyke v. McVey, 16 111. 41 597 Van Epps v. Walsh, 1 Woods, 607 244 Van Hook v. Whitlock, 26 Wend. 53 166, 421 Van Hoose v. Bush, 54 Ala. 342 281 Van Home v. Dorrance, 2 Dall. 304 259, 265, 294, 394, 519 Van Hostruck v. Madison City, 1 Wall. 296 331 Van Housan v. Kanouse, 13 Mich. 309 89, 90, 171, 172, 249, 681 Van Ness' Case, CI. & H. 122 46., 69 Vannini v. Payne, 1 Harr. 65 186 Van Norman v. Gordon, 172 Mass. 580 566 Van Nostrand v. Barr, 30 Md. 128 160, 162, 163 Van Raugh v. Van Arsdale, 3 Caines, 154 167 Van Reimsdyk v. Kane, 1 Gall. 630 418 Van Rensselaer v. Ball, 19 N. Y. 100 268 Van Rensselaer v. Hays, 19 N. Y. 68 432 Van Rensselaer v. Kearney, 11 How. 318 188 Van Rensselaer v. Read, 26 N. Y. 558 399 Van Rensselaer v. Smith, 27 Barb. 104 403 Van Rensselaer v. Snyder, 13 N. Y. 299 403 Van Scieever, In re, 42 Neb. 780 582 Van Slyke v. Wisconsin, 154 U. S. 581 93 Vanuxem v. Hazelhursts, 4 N. J. L. 172 167, 417 Van Valkenburg v. Brown, 43 Cal. 43 700, 703, 73.9 Van Zandt v. Waddell, 2 Yerg. 260 401, 433, 643 Table of Cases Cited. 883 Varmim v. Camp, 13 N. J. L. 332 288 Vaughan v. Williams, 3 McLean, 530 591 Vaughn v. Congdon, 56 Vt. 127 499 Veatch v. State, 60 Ind. 291 639 Veazie v. Moor, 4 How. 571 97, 99, 100, 101, 111, 112 Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 8 Wall. 548 . .30, 88, 89, 219, 231, 233, 245, 501 Venine v. Archibald, 3 Colo. 163 668 Vega S. S. Co. v. Consolidated Elevator Co., 56 Minn. 108 719 Verges v. Giboney, 38 Mo. 458 90 Vermont Bank v. Porter, 3 Day, 316 245, 404 Vermont etc. E. R. Co. v. Vermont Central Ey. Co., 63 Vt. 1 134, 279, 453 Vicksburg v. Tobin, 100 IT. S. 30 454 Vicksburg E. E. Co. v. Dennis, 116 IT. S. 668 300, 348 Victoria Co. v. Bridge Co., 68 Tex. 67 360 Vidal, In re, 179 17. S. 527 200, 549 Village of Lemont v. Jenks, 197 111. 363 717 Vincinnes University v. State, 14 How. 275 335 Vincent v. Chicago etc. E. E., 49 111. 33 367 Vines v. State, 67 Ala. 73 124, 139, 140, 141 Virgin, The, v. Vyfhius, 8 Pet. 550 535 Virginia, Ex parte, 100 IT. S. 345 703 Virginia v. Bives, 100 IT. S. 313 543, 549, 687, 703, 729, 730 Virginia v. Tennessee, 148 IT. S. 504 457, 458, 459, 546 Virginia v. West Virgina, 11 Wall. 60 450, 451, 457, 458, 459 Virginia Coupon Cases, 114 IT. S. 270 246, 357 Visitors v. State, 15 Md. 330 337 Vogelsang v. State, 9 Ind. 112 439 Voight v. Detroit, 184 IT. S. 122 714 Voight v. Wright, 141 IT. S. 66 123 Von Baumbach v. Bade, 9 Wis. 559. .391, 404, 407, 417, 423, 434, 435 Von Galhn v. Varrene, 1 Dill. 515 167, 168, 169, 418 Von Hoffman v. Quincy, 4 Wall. 549 265, 282, £84, 289, 299, 317, 328, 384, 388, 389, 396, 397, 399, 402, 609, 611 Voorhees' Case, 32 N. J. L. 47 579, 581, 583, 585, 587 Wabash E. Ey. Co. v. Commissioners, 134 111. 384 278 Wabash etc. E. E. Co. v. Ham, 114 IT. S. 595 364 Wabash etc. Ey. Co. v. Illinois, 118 IT. S. 564 94, 115, 334 Wacbter v. Famachon, 62 Wis. 121 384 Wade v. Eichmond, 18 Gratt. 583 311 Wadleigh v. Gilman, 12 Me. 403 725 Wadsworth v. "Union Pacific Ey. Co., 18 Colo. 600 721 Wager v. Hall, 16 Wall. 599 158 Wagner v. Meekins, 92 Fed. 83 105 Wagner v. The Juanita, Newb. 358 195 Wagner Free Inst. v. Philadelphia, 132 Pa. St. 612 377 88-1 Table of Cases Cited. Wakely v. Hart, 6 Binn. 316 625 Waldo v. Williams, 4 111. 764 415 Waldron v. Harring, 28 Mich. 493 432 Waldron v. Railroad Go., 8 Barb. 390 368 Wales v. Whitney, 114 U. S. 570 200 Walker v. Burgess, 44 W. Va. 399 409 Walker v. Jamison, 140 Ind. 591 726 Walker v. Mississippi Valley etc. Ry., Fed. Oas. No. 17,079 426 Walker v. New Mexico etc. R. R. Co., 165 U. S. 511 600, 663 Walker v. Sauvi.net, 92 U. S. 90 663, 668, 707, 709 Walker v. Tipton, 3 Dana, 3 394 Walker v. Whitehead, 16 Wall. 318 263, 276, 384, 385, 389, 396, 397, 398, 431, 437 Wall, Ex parte, 107 U. S. 265 552, 631, 642, 644, 646, 648, 671 Wall v. Williams, 11 Ala. 826 150, 151 Walla Walla v. Walla Walla Water Co., 172 U. S. 9 292, 323, 324, 334 Wallace v. Simpson, 2 Bart. 731 59 Wallace v. State, 33 Tex. 445 244 Wallach v. Van Riswick, 92 U. S. 213 559, 560 Wallamet etc. Br. Co. v. Hatch, 9 Saw. 652, 19 Fed. 353 593, 594 Walley v. The Liberty, 12 La. 101 199 Walling v. Michigan, 116 U. S. 455 101, 140, 447, 611 Walser v. Seligman, 21 Blatchf. 133, 13 Fed. 417 565 Walsh, In re, 104 Fed. 519 640 Walsh v. Lallande, 25 La. Ann. 188 569 Walston v. Commonwealth, 16 B. Mon. 37 228, 261 Walter v. People, 32 N. Y. 147 261 Walthall v. Walthall, 42 Ala. 450 433 Wambersie v. Orange etc. Soc, 84 Va. 453 331 Wanser v. Hoos, 60 N. J. L. 525 606 Ward v. Flood, 48 Cal. 36 703, 730, 731 Ward v. Hubbard, 62 Tex. 559 399 Ward v. Maryland, 12 Wall. 427 82, 83, 85, 104, 138, 139, 452, 572, 574, 576, 684, 702 Ward v. Race Horse, 163 U. S. 514 593 Ward v. Thompson, 22 How. 333 538 Wardlaw v. Buzzard, 15 Rich. 158 408, 414 Ware v. Hylton, 3 Dall. 199 37, 483, 569, 612, 613, 614, 677 Ware v. Wisner, 4 McCrary, 69, 50 Fed. 312 569 Waring v. Clarke, 5 How. 453 101, 534, 536, 537, 540, 670 Waring v. Mayor, 8 Wall. 118 372, 445, 448 Wormbold v. Schlicting, 6 Iowa, 243 90 Warner v. People, 2 Denio, 272 290 Warner v. Sauk Co., 20 Wis. 494 90 Warner v. The Uncle Sam, 9 Cal. 697 610 Warren v. Commonwealth, 37 Pa. St. 45 261 Table of Cases Cited. 885 Warren v. Mayor, 22 Iowa, 351 303 Warren v. Shook, 91 U. S. 712 87 Warren County v. Cowen, 60 Miss. 876 315, 316 Warren Mfg. Co. v. Etna Ins. Co., 2 Paine, 501 73, 433, 568, 572 Washburn, In re, 4 Johns. Ch. 106 587 Washburn v. Franklin, 35 Barb. 599 394 Washburn v. Ripley, CI. & H. 682 46, 69 Washington v. Eaton, 4 Cr. C. C. 352 207 Washington v. State, 75 Ala. 5S2 252, 259 Washington etc. Co. v. District of Columbia, 172 U. S. 367 207 Washington Br. Co. v. State, 18 Conn. 64 332, 334, 337, 371 Washington Home v. Chicago, 15 111. 423 332 Washington etc. Turnpike Co. v. Baltimore etc. E. E., 10 Gill & J. 392 362 Washington University v. Rouse, 8 Wall. 439 278, 301, 340, 349 Waters-Pierce Oil Co. v. Texrs, 177 U. S. 47 144, 373, 382, 577, 708 Watertown v. Mayo, 109 Mass. 315 , lltf Watkins, Ex parte, 3 Pet. 201 210, 223, 505, 548, 549, 675 Watkins, Ex parte, 7 Pet. 572 207, 549 Watkins v. Glenn, 55 Kan. 417 397, 422 Watkins v. Holman, 16 Pet. 62 30 Watson, In re, 15 Fed. 512 140, 574, 576 Watson v. Bourne, 10 Mass. 337 167, 169 Watson v. Chicago etc. Ey. Co., 46 Minn. 321 428 Watson v. Citizens' Sav. Bank, 5 Eich. 159 165 Watson v. Jones, 13 Wall. 720 512 Watson v. Mercer, 8 Pet. 88 223, 226, 227, 229, 253, 273, 274, 391 Watson Seminary v. Pike County Court, 149 Mo. 67 341, 377 Watts v. Everett, 47 Iowa, 269 400 Wave, The, 2 Paine, 143 536 Wayman v. Southard, 10 Wheat. 50 78, 79, 219, 287 Weaver v. Fegley, 29 Pa. St. 27 172 Weaver v. Dapsley, 43 Ala. 224 430 Weaver v. Maillot, 15 La. Ann. 397 424 Weaver v. Mississippi etc. Co., 24 Minn. 539 654 Webb v. Den, 17 How. 578 274 Webb v. Dunn, 8 Fla. 724 99, 447, 451 Webb v. Moore, 25 Ind. 4 433 Webb v. New York, 79 Fed. 622 582 Weber v. Board of Harbor Commrs., 18 Wall. 66 129, 595 Weber v. Virginia, 103 U. S. 347 86, 179, 180, 186 Webster v. Bell, 68 Fed. 185 107 Webster v. Cambridge Seminary, 78 Md. 204 378 Webster v. Eeid, 11 How. 437 613, 668, 669 Webster v. Eose, 6 Heisk. 93 385, 397, 413 Webster v. Seymour, 8 Vt. 135 211 886 Table of Cases Cited. Weeber v. United States, 62 Fed. 741 176 Wehlitz, In re, 16 Wis. 447 155 Weil v. State, 46 Ohio St. 450 394 Weimer, Ex parte, 8 Biss. 325 479 Weimer v. Bunbury, 3 Mich. 208 625 Weir v. Morden, 125 IT. S. 108 184 Weisner v. Village of Douglass, 64 N. Y. 92 653 Welch v. Bowen, 103 Ind. 252 726 Welch v. Cook, 97 U. S. 543 206, 301, 349 Weleh v. Wadsworth, 30 Conn. 149 392, 394, 429, 430 Wellington v. Wellington Twp., 46 Kan. 213 312 Wellman v. Chicago etc. Ry., 83 Mich. 611 339, 365 Wells, Ex parte, 18 How. 311 476, 477, 478, 549 Wells v. Bobb, 9 Bush, 32 91 Wells v. Central Vermont R. R., 14 Blatchf. 430 299 Wells, Fargo & Co. v. Crawford Co., 63 Ark. 588 134 Wells, Fargo v. Oregon Ry., 8 Saw. 616, 15 Fed. 573 363, 360 Wells, Fargo & Co. v. Van Sickle, 6 Nev. 46 91 Welton v. Missouri, 91 U. S. 275 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104, 105, 111, 138, 140, 576 Wendell, In re, 19 Johns. 153 166, 417, 421 Wendell v. Lebon, 30 Minn. 238 164, 417, 420 Wendover v. Lexington, 15 B. Mon. 258 298 Wesley v. Eells, 177 U. S. 370 245, 247 West v. Creditors, 4 Rob. (La.) 92 158 West v. Sansom, 44 Ga. 295 396 West Chicago R. R. Co. v. Chicago, 178 111. 344. . 324 West End etc. R. R. Co. v. Atlanta St. R. R. Co., 40 Ga. 151 382 Western Paving Co. v. Citizens' R. R., 128 Ind. 529 324 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Alabama Board etc., 132 U. S. 475 131, 134 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Ann Arbor R. R. Co., 178 U. S. 250 520 Western Union Tel. Co. v. City Council, 56 Fed. 422 136 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Commonwealth, 110 Pa. St. 405 136 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Eubanks, 100 Ky. 591 121 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Ferris, 103 Ind. 91 122 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Fremont, 39 Neb. 706 136 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Fremont, 43 Neb. 499 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Howell, 95 Ga. 184 122 Western Union Tel. Co. v. James, 162 U. S. 654 94, 114, 122 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Massachusetts, 125 U. S. 549 85, 144 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Mayer, 28 Ohio St. 521 82, 136, 708 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Mayor, 38 Fed. 560 177 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Missouri, 190 U. S. 412 133 Western Union Tel. Co. v. New York, 38 Fed. 552 724 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Norman, 77 Fed. 23 137 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pendleton, 122 U. S. 356 95, 122 Table of Cases Cited. 887 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pendleton, 95 Ind. 12 102, 443, 719 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Pennsylvania, 128 U. S. 39 136 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Reynolds, 100 Va. 459 136 Western Union Tel. Co. v. State, 80 Ala. 273 136 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Taggart, 163 U. S. 18 83, 135, 137 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Texas, 105 U. S. 460 135 Western Union Tel. Co. v. Tyler, 90 Va. 297 122, 136 Westervelt v. Gregg, 12 N. Y. 202 643 Westervelt v. Lewis, 2 McLean, 511 564 Westheider v. Wabash E. R. Co., 115 Fed. S40 530 Weston v. Charleston, 2 Pet. 465 81, 85, 89, 91, 92, 277, 678, 680 Weston v. Sampson, 8 Cush. 347 130 Weston v. State, 63 Ala. 155 632 West Publishing Co. v. Lawyers' Co-op. etc. Co., 64 Fed. 364 182 West River Bridge Co. v. Dix, 6 How. 531 283, 332, 341, 651, 652, 657 West Savings Fund v. Philadelphia, 31 Pa. St. 175 318,328,385,398 West Virginia etc. R. R v. Gibson, 94 Ky. 347 661 West Wisconsin R. R v. Supervisors, 93 U. S. 598 300, 349, 375 Wetherbee v. Johnson, 14 Mass. 412 672 Weyerhaueser v. Minnesota, 176 U. S. 555 715 Weymouth etc. Fire Dist. v. Norfolk County Commrs., 108 Mass. 142 312 Wharf Case, The, 3 Bland, 361 455 Whallon v. Bancroft, 4 Minn. 109 663 Wharton v. Wise, 153 U. S. 173 36, 450, 451, 457 Wheat v. State, Minor, 199 399, 400, 433 Wheaton v. Peters, 8 Pet. 661 32, 182 Wheelan v. United States, 7 Cr. 112 670 Wheeler v. Jackson, 137 U. S. 255 406 Wheeler v. Smith, 9 How. 78 677 Wheeles v. St. Louis, 180 U. S. 382 529 Wheeling Br. etc. Co. v. Steel etc. Co., 41 W. Va. 743 342 Wheeling etc. Bridge Co. v. Wheeling Bridge Co., 138 U. S. 292. . 335 Wheelock v. Leonard, 20 Pa. St. 440 '. igy Whelan v. Railroad Co., 35 Fed. 859 187 Whilder v. State, 25 Ga. 396 636 Whipple v. Farrar, 3 Mich. 436 428 Whitaker v. Haley, 2 Or. 128 91 Whitaker v. The F. Lorents, 29 Fed. Cas. 954 112 Whitbeck v. Mercantile Bank, 127 U. S. 199 94 White, In re, 55 Fed. 57 582, 587, 588 White, Ex parte, 49 Cal. 433 586 White v. Burnley, 20 How. 250 563 White v. Cannon, 6 Wall. 443 . . 241, 685 White v. Commonwealth, 4 Binn. 418 511 888 Table of Cases Cited. White v. Crawford, 84 Pa. tt. 433 414 White v. Hart, 13 Wall. 646 195, 240, 241, 263, 281, 604, 605, 685, 693 White v. Railroad Co., 14 Barb. 559 371, 376 White v. McKee, 19 La. Ann. Ill 615 White v. Shanklin, 19 W. Va. 583 285 White v. Toledo etc. R. R. Co., 79 Fed. 135 79 White v. Wayne, Charlt. 194 259 White v. White, 5 Birb. 474 266, 286 White v. Wilkins, 24 Me. 299 429 White River Turnpike Co. v. Vermont etc. R. R. Co., 21 Vt. 590. . 342, 362 Whites v. Po!k, 36 Tex. 628 243 White's Bink v. Smith, 7 Wall. 655 106 White's Creek Turnpike Co. v. Davidson Co., 3 Tenn. Ch. 396.. 362 Whitford v. State, 24 Tex. App. 489 633 Whitman v. Boston etc. Co., 85 Mass. 138 659 Whitney v. New York, 6 Abb. N. C. 329 319 Whitney v. Robertson, 124 U. S. 194 484, 613 Whitney v. Sheboygan, 25 Wis. 207 383 Whitney v. Stow, 111 Mass. 368 312 Whitney v. Whiting, 35 N. H. 466 169 Whittemore 's Case, 41st Cong 64 Whitwell v. Barbier, 7 Cal. 54 56-i Wick v. The Samuel Strong, 6 McLean, 587 537 Wicke v. Ostrum, 103 U. S. 469 184 Wickelhausen v. Willett, 10 Abb. Pr. 164 62 Wickersham v. Johnston, 104 Cal. 414 568 Wickliffe v. Eve, 17 How. 470 528 Wieland v. Shillock, 24 Minn. 345 429 Wigfall's Case, Taft, 199 64 Wiggins Ferry Co. v. Chicago etc. Ry. Co., 3 McCrary, 609, 11 Fed. 381 564 Wiggins Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 107 U. S. 365 81, 117, 132, 145, 453 Wiggins Ferry Co. v. East St. Louis, 102 111. 594 138 Wilbur's Estate, In re, 8 Wash. 35 157 Wilbur v. Gilmore, 21 Pick. 250 428 Wilburn v. McCalley, 63 Ala. 436 659 Wilch v. Phelps, 14 Neb. 134 171> Wilcox's Case, Rep. 3001, 56th Cong., 2d Sess 41 Wilcox v. Hemming, 58 Wis. 144 726 Wilcox v. Jackson, 13 Pet. 513 460, 596, 597 Wilcox v. Luco, 118 Cal. 642 498, 544 Wilcox v. Nolze, 34 Ohio St. 520 580 Wilder v. Chicago etc. R. R. Co., 70 Mich. 385 78 Wilder v. Lumpkin, 4 Ga. 209 257, 273, 430 Table of Cases Cited. 889 Wiley v. Parmer, 14 Ala. 627 576 Wilkens v. State, 113 Ind. 514 718 Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U. S. 130 600 Wilkes v. Dinsman, 7 How. 127 214, 502 Wilkinson v. Leland, 2 Pet. 657 30, 273, 274, 646, 647 Willamette Iron Br. Co. v. Hat.h, 125 U. S. 12 114, 595 Willamette Valley, The, 62 Fed. 296 498 Willard v. Harvey, 24 N. H. 344 275 Willard v. Longstreet, 2 Doug. 175 425 Willard v. Presbury, 14 Wall. 680 206 William Bogaley, The, 5 Wall. 406 194 Williams v. Bank of Michigan, 7 Wend. 553 524 Williams v. Benedict, 8 How. 107 523 Williams v. Bennett, 1 Tex. Civ. App. 506 156 Williams v. Bruffy, 96 U. S. 188. . .166, 240, 242, 243, 244, 281, 576, 685 Williams v. Commonwealth, 78 Ky. 92 635 Williame v. Duanesburgh, 66 N. Y. 137 275 Williams v. Fears, 179 U. S. 278, 21 S. Ct. 128 117, 143 Williams v. Gaylord, 186 U. S. 164 143, 500, 577 Williams v. Guiguard, 2 How. (Miss.) 724 169 Williams v. Haines, 27 Iowa, 254 433, 436 Williams v. Hert, 110 Fed. 166 628, 665 Williams v. Hintermeister, 26 Fed. 890 108 Williams v. Milwaukee etc. Assn., 79 Wis. 521 274 Williams v. Mississippi, 170 U. S. 219 703, 739 Williams v. Norris, 12 Wheat. 117 309 Williams v. Paine, 169 U. S. 79 273, 274 Williams v. Planters ' Bank, 12 Bob. 125 357 Williams v. State, 13 Tex. App. 285 635 Williams v. State, 23 Tex. 287 334 Williams v. Suffolk Ins. Co., 13 Pet. 420 462, 502 Williams v. Supervisors, 122 U. S. 164 275 Williams v. United States, 1 How. 29S 460 Williams v. Waldo, 4 111. 264 404, 437 Williams v. Wickerman, 44 Mo. 484 656 Williams v. Wingo, 177 U. S. 604 334 Williamson v. New Jersey, 130 U. S. 199 310, 311 Williamson v. Suydam, 6 Wall. 738 433 Williar v. Baltimore etc. Assn., 45 Md. 546 499 Willis v. Miller, 29 Fed. 238 305 Willis v. State, 24 Tex. App. 586 637 Willson v. Blackbird Creek etc. Co., 2 Pet. 252 114, 684 Wilmington Hosiery Co., In re, 102 Fed. 808 164 Wilmington etc. R. R. Co. v. Alsbrook, 146 U. S. 293 300 Wilmington etc. R. R. v. King, 91 U. S. 5 386, 388, 437 Wilmington R. R, v. Reid, 13 Wall. i!64 299, 349, 350, 352, 363 Wilshire, In re, 103 Fed. 620 723 890 Table of Cases Cited. Wilson, Ex parte, 114 U. S. 423 29, 173, 549, 628, 629, 675 Wilson, Ex parte, 39 Tex. Or. 638 640 Wilson, In re, 140 U. S. 577 147, 630 Wilson, In re, 19 D. C. 341 142 Wilson v. Beyers, 5 Wash. 303 726 Wilson v. Brown, 58 Ala. 65 409, 412 Wilson v. Burkman, 13 Minn. 441 199 Wilson v. City Bank, 17 Wall. 487 158 Wilson v. Eureka City, 173 U. S. 37 724 Wilson v. Gaines, 103 U. S. 421 302, 351 Wilson v. Hardesty, 1 Md. Ck. 68 273, 391, 394, 430 Wilson v. Hawthorne, 14 Colo. 533 562 Wilson v. Iseminger, 185 U. S. 62 406, 407 Wilson v. Kansas City etc. Ey. Co., 60 Mo. 198 113 Wilson v. Lambert, 168 U. S. 614 206 Wilson v. Martin- Wilson etc. Co., 151 Mass. 520 178 Wilson v. Mason, 1 Cr. 45 457, 550 Wilson v. Matthews, 32 Ala. 332 421 Wilson v. Polk County, 112 Mo. 126 320 Wilson v. Eiddle, 123 U. S. 608 669 Wilson v. Rousseau, 4 How. 680 186 Wilson v. Seligman, 144 TJ. S. 44 511, 562 Wilson v. Simon, 91 Md. 1 267, 426, 427 Wilson v. Standefer, 184 U. S. 409 405 Wilson v. Wills Valley R. R. Co., 33 Ga. 466 373 Wilson v. Wall, 6 Wall. 89 520 Wilson v. Wall, 34 Ala. 288 614 Wilson v. Wold, 21 Wash. 398 424, 425 Wilson, The, v. United States, 1 Brock. 423 96, 105, 108, 221 Wilton v. Weston, 48 Conn. 325 726 Wimberly v. Mayberry, 94 Ala. 240 426 Winans v. Dunsmead, 15 How. 341 185 Winchester v. Corinna, 55 Me. 9 198 Winchester etc. Road Co. v. Croxton, 98 Ky. 744 338 Windham v. Portland, 4 Mass. 384 312 Windsor v. McVeigh, 93 U. S. 284 518 Wingard v. United States, 141 U. S. 201 516 Winn v. Bowles, 6 Munf. 23 401 Winona v. Whipple, 24 Minn. 61 316 Winona etc. Land Co. v. Minnesota, 159 U. S. 529. . .275, 300, 348, 715 Winona etc. R. R. Co. v. Blake, 94 U. S. 180 365 Winona etc. R. R. Co. v. County of Deuel, 3 Dak. Ter. 13 289 Winona etc. R. R. Co. v. Plainview, 143 U. S. 393 285 Winona etc. R. R. v. Waldron, 11 Minn. 515 368 Winslow v. People, 117 111. 152 404 Winston v. McCormick, 1 Ind. 56 408 Table of Cases Cited. 891 Winter v. Dickerson, 42 Ala. 98 225, 474 Winter v. Jones, 10 Ga. 196 288, 292, 294, 383 Winter v. Muskogee E. R. Co., 11 Ga. 45 372 Wintz v. Girardey, 31 La. Ann. 386 448 Wiscart v. D'Auchy, 3 Dall. 328 547 Wisconsin v. Pelican Ins. Co., 127 U. S. 288 526, 527, 545, 561 Wisconsin R. R. v. Price County, 133 U. S. 504 84, 211 Wisconsin River Imp. Co. v. Manson, 43 Wis. 255 103 Wise v. Rogers, 24 Gratt. 169 265 Wistar v. Foster, 46 Minn. 484 392 Withers v. Buckley, 20 How. 84 37, 607, 619, 627 Witkowski's Case, 7 Ct. of CI. 393 477, 508 Witt v. Follett, 2 Wend. 458 418 Witter v. Mississippi etc. R. R., 20 Ark. 463 372 Woart v. Winnick, 3 N. H. 473 228, 409 Woessner v. Cottam, 19 Tex. Civ. App. 615 144 Wofford v. Gaines, 53 Ga. 487 409 Wolcott v. People, 17 Mich. 68 135 Wolf, In re, 27 Fed. 606 207 Wolfe v. Hartford Life etc. Ins. Co., 148 U. S. 389 529 Wolfe v. Underwood, 91 Ala. 526 332 Wolff v. New Orleans, 103 U. S. 367 288, 317, 328 Wolf kill v. Mason, 16 Abb. Pr. 221 415 Wong Him v. Callahan, 119 Fed. 381 205 Wong Wing v. United States, 163 U. S. 234 628 Wong Yung Quy, 6 Saw. 442 109, 126, 446 Wood, In re, 140 U. S. 289 513 Wood 's Case, 15 Ct. of CI. 151 489 Wood's Case, 18 Ct. of CI. 761 490 Wood v. Augustins, 70 Vt. 640 561 Wood v. Brady, 150 U. S. 22 270 Wood v. Butler, 6 Allen, 516 90 Wood v. Child, 20 111. 209 399, 416 Wood v. City of New York, 34 How. Pr. 501 414 Wood v. Dolbey, 19 Blatchf, 215, 7 Fed. 477 184 Wood v. Fitzgerald, 3 Or. 576 480 Wood v. Kennedy, 19 Ind. 68 404 Wood v; Malin, 16 N. J. L. 209 169, 567 Wood v. New York, 29 N. Y. Sup. Ct. 463 327 Wood v. New York, 6 Robt. 462 436 Wood v. Peters, Mobley, 79 41 Wood v. Wagnon, 2 Cr. 9 529 Wood v. Wood, 14 Rich. 148 385, 401, 414, 433 Woodbridge v. Wright, 3 Conn. 526 169, 170 Woodbury v. Grimes, 1 Colo. 100 220, 268, 42G Woodfin v. Hopper, 4 Humph. 21 398, 402, 419 Woodfin v. Slader, Phill. (N. C.) 24)0 436 892 Table of Cases Cited. Woodford v. Union Bank, 3 Cold. 498 370 Woodhull v. Wagner, Baldw. 296 167, 169, 398, 402, 419, 567 Woodman v. Kilbourne Mfg. Co., 1 Abb. U. S. 163 114 Wood Paper Co. v. Heft, 8 Wall. 336 521 Woodruff v. Mississippi, 162 U. S. 299 246, 250 Woodruff v. North Bloomfield G. M. Co., 9 Saw. 508, 18 Fed. 783 654 Woodruff v. Parham, 8 Wall. 131 87, 138, 444, 576 Woodruff v. Scruggs, 27 Ark. 26 393, 397 Woodruff v. State, 3 Ark. 285 282, 283, 284, 389, 390 Woodruff v. Tilley, 25 Ark. 309 437 Woodruff v. Trapnall, 10 How. 190 246, 250, 35o, 356, 397, 398, 400 Woods v. Buie, o How. (Miss.) 2S5 402, 433, 434 Woodson v. Murdock, 22 Wall. 369 27 Woodward v. Commonwealth, 9 Ky. Law Rep. 670 708 Woodward v. Woodward, 87 Tenn. 648 682 Woodworth v. Rogers, 3 Wood. & M. 135 670 Woolen v. Banker, 2 Flipp. 33 179 Wooley v. Butler, 1 Bank. L. T. 35 66 Wooley v. Watkins, 2 Idaho, 585 252, 259 Wooster v. Plymouth, 62 N. H. 208 310 Worcester v. Georgia, 6 Pet. 557 37, 38, 147, 148, 149, 151, 483, 533, 594, 612 Worcester County, In re. 102 Fed. 808 164 Work v. State, 2 Ohio St. 296 551 Workmeister v. Springer Lith. Co., 63 Fed. 810 ISO Works v. Carrington, 34 Ohio St. 64 583, 585, 586 Works v. Emigrant Co., 164 U. S. 576 310 Wormley v. Hamburg, 40 Iowa, 22 436 Worsham v. Stephens, 66 Tex. 89 434 Worth v. Wilmington etc. R. R., 89 N. C. 291 349 Worthington v. Jerome, 5 Blatchf . 279 169 Worthington v. Scribner, 109 Mass. 487 ...» 459 Worthy v. Barrett, 63 N. C. 199 735 Wright, In re, 3 Wyo. 78 261, 710 Wright v. Davidson, 181 U. S. 379 206 Wright v. Deacon, 5 Serg. & R. 62 591 Wright v. Sill, 2 Black, 544 352 Wright v. Stills, 27 Ind. 341 91 Wright v. United States, 158 U. S. 238 488 Wrisley v. Rouse Soap Co., 90 Fed. 6 505 Wrought Iron Range Co. v. Carver, 118 N. C. 328 140 Wulzen v. Board of Supervisors, 101 Cal. 15 650 Wunderle v. Wunderle, 144 111. 54 481 Wurts v. Hoagland, 114 U. S. 615 729 W. W. Carghill Co. v. Minnesota, 180 U. S. 469 731 Wyandotte v. Corrigan, 35 Kan. 24 341 Table of Cases Cited. 893 Wyandotte v. Drennan, 46 Mich. 480 290 Wyeth v. Eichardson, 10 Gray, 240 584 Wyllie, In re, 2 Hughes, 453 161 Wyman v. Campbell, 6 Port. 237 561 Wyman v. Mathews, 53 Fed. 680 510 Wyman v. Mitchell, 1 Cow. 316 109, 285 Wyneham v. People, 13 N. Y. 392 639, 646 Wynne, In re, 1 Chase, 227 73 Wynne v. Wright, 4 Dev. & B. 19 445, 447 Wyoming National Bank v. Brown, 7 Wyo. 494 285. 286 Yancey, In re, 28 Fed. 445 492 Yang Sing, In re, 13 Saw. 485, 36 Fed. 439 226, 227, 251 Yarborough, Ex parte, 110 U. S. 665 28, 39, 56. 57, 739 Yarmouth v. North Yarmouth, 34 Me. 418 292, 330 Yazoo etc. Ry. Co. v. Adams, 180 U. S. 22 306, 34S Yeatman v. Foster Co., 2 N. Dak. 421 426 Yeaton v. Bank, 21 Gratt. 593 371 Yell 's Case, 1 Bart. 92 46, 70 Yerger, Ex parte, 8 Wall. 85 28, 187, 198, 503, 542, 549 Yeungling v. Schill, 20 Blatchf. 452 179 Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U. S. 38 705, 706, 727, 728 York v. Texas, 137 U. S. 20 683, 710 Young, Ex parte, 36 Or. 247 119 Young v. Bank of Alexandria, 4 Cr. 384 207 Young v. Blaisdell, 138 Mass. 345 299, 344, 441 Young v. Harrison, 6 Ga. 156 384, 659 Young v. McKenzie, 3 Ga. 31 395, 628, 646, 652, 659 Young v. Oregon, 1 Or. 213 400j Young v. United States, 97 U. S. 60 J94 Youngblood v. Birmingham, 95 Ala. 526 698 Youngs v. Hall, 9 Nev. 212 327 Yung Jon, Ex parte, 28 Fed. 308 718 Zabrinskie v. Railroad Co., 18 N. J. Eq. 186 370 Zambrino v. Galveston etc. Ry. Co., 38 Fed. 453 42 Zane v. The President, 4 Wash. C. C. 453 537 Zanesville v. Gas Co., 47 Ohio St. 1 719 Zeigenf uss, In re, 2 Ired. 463 162 Zeigler v. S. N. R. R. Co., 58 Ala. 594 659 INDEX. Abolishment, of slavery, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 1, p. 692. Absentee, from House, provisions concerning, art. 1, sec. 5, cL 1, p. 58. Acceptance, of office or gifts from foreign potentate, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. Accounts of public money, to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. Act of Congress, passage of, pp. 72-75. when to take effect, p. 73. power of Congress to enact, p. 71 et seq. approval by President, p. 72. veto, p. 75. provisions, when constitutional, pp. 610, 611. Actions, re-examination of causes of, Amdt. art. 7, pp. 668, 672. to what section applies, p. 672. Adjournment, of House, for want of a quorum, art. 1, see. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. restriction on power of, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 4, p. 65. when President may adjourn Congress, art. 2, sec. 3, p. 493. Admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, where lodged, art. 3, see. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. interpretation and construction, p. 533. Admission, of new states, power of Congress, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. clause construed, pp. 593, 594. Adoption, of anterior confederation debts and obligations, art. 6, sec. 1, cL 1, p. 608. of state procedure, p. 498. Advice and consent, of Senate, when required, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. (895) 896 Index. Affirmation. See Oath. Agreements, or compacts, not to be entered into by states, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 456. right and duty of protection, where lodged, p. 456. See Contracts. Alliance, no state shall enter into treaty of, art. 1, sec. 10 ; cl. 1, pp. 239, 240. secession and confederation inhibited, p. 240. no right of secession, pp. 240, 684. status of seceding states, p. 242. Alteration, of charter of corporation, state authority, p. 369. power may be reserved in charter, p. 373. exercise of reserved power, p. 377. alteration by consent, p. 371. Ambassadors, President may appoint, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. judicial power extends to, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 542. original jurisdiction over, p. 543. Amendments, to constitution, proposal does not require President 's approval, p. 75. when Congress shall propose, art. 5, p. 606. convention for, art. 5, p. 606. to be ratified by three-fourths of the states, art. 5, p. 606. power of people, without limit, pp. 34, 606. what ones apply exclusively to United States government, p. 608. rules for construing, p. 29. of corporate charter, authority of legislature, p. 369. power may be reserved in charter, p. 373. exercise of reserved power, p. 377. Appeal, right of, may by regulated by statute, pp. 644, 711. allowance of, to state not ex post facto, p. 262. Appellate jurisdiction, of supreme court, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 542. clause construed, p. 546. Appointment, and removal from office, p. 485. power of executive, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, pp. 481, 485. incompatible offices, p. 69. senators and representatives cannot be appointed to civil office, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. Ixdex. 89? Apportionment, of representation and direct taxation, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Repealed, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. of representatives among the several states, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. construction of original clause, pp. 44, 45. Appropriate legislation, power of Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 212. enforcement of Thirteenth Amendment, art. 13, sec. 2, p. 694. enforcement of Fourteenth Amendment, art. 14, sec. 5, p. 737. enforcement of Fifteenth Amendment, art. 15, see. 2, p. 740. Appropriate means, Congress may adopt, p. 213. Appropriation, for army, limited to two years, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 12. p. 197. money not to be drawn but in consequence of, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. disbursements of public money to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. Approval, bills to be presented to President for, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. orders, resolutions, etc., to be approved, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. proposed amendments to constitution need not be presented, p. 75. Armies, appropriations limited to two years, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 12, p. 197. Congress to make rules for government of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 14, p. 200. power to raise and support, construed, p. 197. Congress may provide for trials by caurts-martial, p. 200. may provide for common defense, art. 1, sec. S, cl. 1, p. 76. Arms, right of people to bear, Amdt. art. 2, p. 622. right construed, pp. 622, 623. Arrest, defined, p. 66. privilege of members of Congress from, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. clause construed, pp. 66, 67. extent of privilege, p. 67. Arsenals, exclusive authority of Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. Articles of Confederation, a league of friendship, p. 36. Notes on Constitution — 57 898 Index. Arts, Congress to promote, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. power defined, pp. 178, 179. Attachment law, when superseded by bankrupt law, pp. 162, 163. Attainder, Congress cannot pass bill of, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 3, p. 226. state shall not pass bill of, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 251. of treason not to work corruption of blood, art. 3, sec. 3, cL 2, p. 559. construction of clauses, pp. 226, 251. Attendance, of members of Congress may be compelled, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. Authentication, of state record, Congress to prescribe manner of, art. 4, sec. 1, p. 561. Authority, of state over judicial proceedings, p. 509 et seq. of executive over conquered territory, p. 472. Authors and inventors, Congress to secure rights of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. power defined, pp. 178, 179. Bail, excessive, not to be required, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. Ballot, electors of President to vote by, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. when House to choose President by, Amdt. art. 12, sec. 1, pp. 690, 691. Bank, state may establish, p. 249. may regulate issuance of notes, pp. 250, 356. may exempt from taxation, p. 348. Banking corporations, charter a contract binding on Btate, p. 355. state may incorporate, p. 249. liability of state as stockholder, p. 245. notes of, not bills of credit, p. 245. Bankrupt act, effect of, on state insolvent laws, p. 162. when supersedes insolvent laws, pp. 163, 164. what laws superseded by, p. 163. Index. 899 Bankruptcies, Congress to pass uniform laws on, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 4, p. 158. bankruptcy defined, p. 158. laws to be uniform, p. 159. power of Congress unlimited, p. 159. Basis of representation, what is, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. when to be reduced, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. Belligerent, may by capture enforce authority, p. 195. rights of during war, p. 193. Bill of attainder, Congress cannot pass, art. .1, sec. 9, cl. 3, p. 226. clause construed, p. 226. states shall not pass, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 251. bill of attainder, what is, pp. 226, 251. Bills, for raising revenue, to originate in House, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 1, p. 71. on passage of both Houses to be presented to President, art. 1, see. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. power of President to sign or disapprove them, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. two-thirds of each House may pass over his veto, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. not returned by President within ten days, become law, unless, etc., art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. Bills of credit, Congress may issue, p. 89. may make them legal tender, p. 90. Confederate notes are not, p. 247. states shall not emit, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 245. clause construed, pp. 245-248. bank bills are not, p. 247. Borrow money, power of government, what includes, p. 89. state and municipal corporations may, p. 246. Bounties, debt for, not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. to volunteers, state may give, p. 198. grant of not contract, p. 291. statutes granting, construed, p. 291. Branches of government, separate and independent, p. 38. 900 Index. Breach of peace, no privilege from arrest for, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. Congress may provide penalty for, p. 219. Bribery, all officers liable to impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495. Bridges, authority to build, power conferred on Congress, p. 97. power of Congress, when paramount, p. 103. subject to commerce power, p. 97. grant of franchise a contract, p. 258. when state may charter, pp. 112, 358. power of state to tax, p. 132. California, apportionment act valid, p. 45. Canal companies, state may charter, pp. 112, 113. charter of, a contract, p. 361. Candidates, who deemed elected, pp. 58, 59. Capitation tax, laid in proportion to the census, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 4, p. 231. construction of clause, pp. 231, 232. Captures, Congress to make rules for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, p. 193. extent of power, p. 196. Causes, of action at common law, trial by jury, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. re-examination of, Amdt. art. 7, pp. 668, 672. trial by jury, p. 668. right, when does not attach, p. 671. waiver of jury, p. 673. Ceded property, authority of Congress over, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. over District of Columbia, pp. 205-207. over other places, pp. 207-211. over sites for forts, arsenals, etc., p. 207. extent of state jurisdiction over crimes, p. 210. requisites for cession, p. 209. Census, of people, when to be taken, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. eighth, when took effect, p. 45. capitation tax in proportion to, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 4, p. 231. Certificate, to foreign corporations not a contract, p. 297. of election of members to Congress, pp. 58, 59. Index. 901 Charter, of private corporation, a contract with state, pp. 332, 341, 355, 358, 361, 363. franchise, how construed, p. 334. legislature cannot contravene provisions of, p. 332. right to amend, alter, or repeal, pp. 369-383. includes laws defining its stipulations, p. 335. to what laws subject in case of consolidation, p. 354. effect of immunity from taxation, p. 347. right of eminent domain, p. 342. implied reservations in, p. 335. may be altered or amended by assent of corporations, p. 371. power to alter or amend, may be reserved in, p. 373. power to repeal may be reserved, p. 382. exercise of reserved power, p. 377. of power to repeal, p. 382. granted by Confederate states, valid, p. 244. Cherokee territory, laws of, pp. 151, 152. Chief justice, to preside on impeachment of President, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. Chinese, state cannot discourage immigration of, p. 116. Citizens, no other than, shall be representatives in Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 42. qualifications necessary for senator, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 3, p. 53. "citizen" and "inhabitant" distinguished, p. 42. inhabitants of the District of Columbia not citzens of state, p. 206. no person but natural born shall be President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 5, p. 467. nor Vice-President, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. privileges and immunities preserved to, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 1, pp. 569, 572. citizens, who are, p. 569. privileges and immunities construed, pp. 572, 702. of other states, when bound by state insolvent laws, pp. 118, 119. state rights as to citizens, p. 702. all persons born or naturalized are citizens of United States, and of the state, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. citizens under this amendment, who are, p. 698. not to be deprived of privileges or immunities, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. civil rights, purpose of amendment, pp. 696, 697. not to be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due pro- cess of law, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 708. 902 Index. Citizens — Continued. protection to guaranteed, p. 698. equal protection of the laws, amendment construed, p. 728. right to vote shall not be denied or abridged, Amdt. art. 15, see. 1, p. 738. amendment construed, pp. 738, 739. rights of, may be protected by Congress, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. Citizenship, does not of itself give right to vote, p. 43. right of suffrage not conferred by Fifteenth Amendment, p. 738. what constitutes, p. 153. effect of naturalization, p. 156. Civil actions, trial by jury in, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. right, when not to attach, p. 671. re-examination of causes, p. 672. Civil officers, of United States, removal by impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495. Civil rights, guaranteed to citizens of the United States, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. citizens of the United States, who are, p. 698. purposes of amendment, p. 696. protection of citizens, pp. 696, 697. equal protection of the laws not to be denied, p. 728. act of Congress, "Civil Eights Bill" unconstitutional, p. 737. Civil war, when exists, p. 201. power of President in, p. 470. Classification of senators, into three classes, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 51. Clearance, of vessels not required in interstate commerce, art. 1, sec. 9, el. 6, p. 234. Coin, states not to coin gold and silver, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 249. not to make anything but a legal tender, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 249. Commander-in-Chief, of army and navy, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. power as construed, p. 469 et seq. authority over conquered territory, p. 472. power to proclaim martial law, p. 474. Index. 003 Commerce, Congress shall have power to regulate, art. 1, see. 8, cl. 3, p. 95. defined, p. 95. what it includes, pp. 95-98. includes transportation and navigation, p. 95. construction of clause, pp. 98-100. power of Congress construed, p. 100. nature and origin of power, p. 98. embraces all instruments by which carried on, p. 105. power, what it embraces, pp. 105-110. exclusiveness of power of Congress, p. 101. subjects of regulation, p. 105. power as to passengers, pp. 96, 116. police power of states, when may be exercised, p. 117. quarantine laws as regulations, p. 124. power of state over internal commerce, p. 111. state authority over fisheries, p. 128. state license taxes valid, p. 138. licenses for sale of goods, p. 138. with Indians, power of Congress, p. 146. status of tribes, p. 148. intercourse with Indian tribes, p. 149. Indian laws and customs, p. 150. no preference to be given between ports of states, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. vessels in interstate commerce, not to be obliged to enter clear, etc., art, 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. construction of clause, p. 234. state without consent of Congress not to lay imposts or duties, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. clause construed, p. 444 et seq. state inspection laws may be passed, p. 449. state taxation, when valid, p. 449. state without consent of Congress not to lay any duty on tonnage, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 3, p. 451. tonnage duties construed, p. 451 et seq. compensatory fees, p. 454. Commercial agent, of foreign nation, United States marshal cannot be, p. 238. Commissions, to fill vacancies, to be granted by President, art. 2, sec. 3, p. 492. Common defense, government to provide for, preamble, p. 35. Common law, trial by jury, Amdt. art. 7, see, 1, p. 668. right, when not to attach, p. 671. 904 Index. Common law — Continued. re-examination of causes, p. 672. construction of constitution by rules of common law, p. 29. Compact, states not to enter into, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 456. construction of clause, p. 456. constitution a, p. 36. Compensation, of President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 7, p. 467. of senators and representatives, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. persons holding two offices entitled to, for both, p. 70. of judges of supreme courts, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 496. private property not to be taken without making, Amdt. art. 5. sec. 1, pp. 628, 651. construction of clause, p. 646. Compulsory process, accused to have, Amdt. art. 6, p. 663. Concurrent powers, of states and United States in general, p. 680. Condemnation, right of, p. 650. compensation on, p. 658. Confederation, state not to enter into, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. debts of original, assumed, art. 6, sec. 1, p. 608. Confederate notes in aid of rebellion, void, p. 243. charter granted by, valid, p. 244. was but organized treason, p. 242. not a de facto government, pp. 242, 243. all its acts null and void, p. 241. bonds and notes of, void, p. 243. notes of, were not bills of credit, p. 247. validity of securities of, p. 243. contracts made in Confederate states, not in aid of rebellion, valid, pp. 243, 244. See Articles of Confederation. Confiscation, Congress has exclusive power of, p. 195. Congress, legislative powers vested in, art. 1, sec. 1, p. 38. of what to consist, art. 1, sec. 1, p. 38. election for senators and representatives, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. construction of clause as to elections, p. 55. Congress to assemble at least once a year, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 2, p. 57. Index. 905 Congress — Continued. Congress, each House to judge qualifications of members, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 1, p. 58. to determine rules of its proceedings, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 2, p. 62. may expel a member, p. 62. to keep journal of proceedings, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 3, p. 65. adjournment, restrictions on power of, art. 1, sec. 6, el. 4, p. 65. compensation of members, art. 1, see. 6, el. 1, p. 66. privileged from arrest, when, art. 1, sec. 6, el. 1, p. 66. members ineligible to hold their offices, art. 1, sec. 6, el. 2, p. 69. revenue bills, where to originate, art. 1, sec. 7, el. 1, p. 71. manner of passage of bill, art. 1, sec. 7, el. 2, p. 72. how passed without President's approval, art. 1, see. 7, el. 2, p. 72. course of proceedings, p. 75. orders, resolutions, and votes, approval of President, art. 1, sec. 7, el. 3, p. 75. proposal for amendment to constitution, p. 75. Powers of Congress. in general, pp. 76-79. construction of grant, p. 77. implied limitations, p. 78. delegation of powers, p. 79. to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 1, pp. 76, 80. of taxation, extent of, p. 80. cannot tax state agencies, p. 83. to borrow money on credit of United States, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 2, p. 89. implied power to create a legal tender, p. 90. power to exempt national securities from taxation, p. 91. to regulate commerce, art. 1, see. 8, cl. 3, p. 95. commerce defined, p. 95. nature and origin of power, p. 98. extent of power to regulate commerce, p. 100. when power to regulate is exclusive, p. 101 subjects of regulation, p. 105. powers of state, when concurrent, p. 101. commencement and termination of power, p. 110. internal commerce of states, p. 111. regulation of passenger traffic, p. 116. police powers of states, p. 117. extent of police powers, p. 118. state authority over game and fish, p. 128. effect on state power to tax property, p. 130. state licenses for sale of commercial products, p. 138. traffic in original packages, p. 145. 906 Index. Congress — Continued. power over commerce with Indians, p. 146. with Indian tribes, p. 148. effect of Indian laws and customs, p. 150. Congress to establish uniform rule of naturalization, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 4, p. 153. persons entitled, p. 153. power exclusive, how exerted, p. 154. Congress may make laws on subject of bankruptcies, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 4, pp. 153, 158. definitions, p. 158. uniformity, p. 159. extent of power over subject of bankruptcies, p. 159. over bankruptcies, exclusive only when exercised, p. 161. state insolvent laws, when operative, p. 164. when superseded, p. 165. validity of state insolvent laws, p. 165. validity of discharge under state laws, p. 166. Congress to coin money and regulate its value, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, p. 171. "money" defined, p. 171. to fix standard of weights and measures, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, pp. 171, 172. Congress to provide for punishment of counterfeiting, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 6, p. 173. extent of power, p. 173. effect on states' power, p. 174. to establish postoffices' and post-roads, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 7, p. 175. "to establish," what includes, p. 175. to promote progress of science and useful arts, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 7, p. 178. power defined, p. 178. copyrights to authors, p. 180. patents to inventors, p. 183. to constitute inferior tribunals, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 9, p. 187. to define and punish piracies and felonies on high seas, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 10, p. 190. to define and punish offenses against law of nations, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 10, p. 190. construction of clause, p. 190. "high seas" defined, p. 191. to declare war, and grant letters of marque and reprisal, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, p. 193. to declare war, power exclusive in Congress, p. 194. power, what includes, p. 194. to make rules concerning captures, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, p. 194. construction of clause, p. 196. Index. 907 Congress — Continued. to raise and support armies, restriction as to, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 12, p. 196. power, what includes, p. 197. to provide and maintain a navy, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 13, p. 199. extent of power, and what it embraces, p. 199. to make rules for government of forces, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 14, p. 200. may provide for trials by courts-martial, p. 200. to provide for calling out militia, to execute laws, etc., art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. power construed, p. 201. status of militia, p. 202. to provide for organizing, arming, etc., the militia, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. reserved power of states as to militia, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. power, when and how exercised, p. 204. to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over ceded districts, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. and over territory purchased from states for forts, etc., art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. jurisdiction over District of Columbia, p. 205. exercise of power of legislation for the Union, p. 206. extent of power over property ceded, pp. 207-210. what power retained by states, p. 210. to make laws necessary to carry its powers into execution, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 212. extent of incidental powers of government, p. 212. discretion as to use of means to carry out powers, p. 215. instances of exercise of incidental powers, p. 215. to revise and control state imposts and duties, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. so as to state inspection laws, art. 1, see. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. construction of clause, p. 449. may determine time of choosing presidential electors, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. to legislate for government of conquered province, pp. 598, 599. to incorporate conquered territory in United States, p. 602. to establish courts inferior to supreme court, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. extent of power, p. 496 et seq. may define jurisdiction of territorial courts, p. 506. may provide for removal of causes, p. 513. cannot limit compensation or term of judicial officers, p. 516. may declare punishment for treason, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 559. power exclusive in Congress, p. 559. may prescribe manner of authentication of acts, records, and proceedings, Amdt. art. 4, sec. 1, p. 561. 908 Index. Congress — Continued. power defined, p. 561. exclusive power as to surrender of fugitives from labor, p. 590. may admit new states into the Union, art. 4, sec. 3, el. 1, p. 593. restriction on power, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 594. to dispose of property and make rules to govern territory, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 596. to guarantee republican government to state, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. to govern the territories, p. 598. to propose amendment to constitution, when and how, art. 5, p. 606. laws of, are supreme, art. 6, sec. 2, p. 609. may remove disability for office, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. to protect and enforce the rights of citizens, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 740. to enforce amendments, pp. 694, 737, 740. Restrictions on poicers of Congress. as to migration or importation of persons, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 1, p. 221. clause restrictive of powers of general government, p. 221. as to suspension of the privilege of habeas corpus, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 2, p. 223. clause construed, p. 225. to pass no bill of attainder or ex post facto laws, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 3, p. 226. bill of attainder defined, p. 226. ex post facto laws defined, pp. 112, 227. to lay no capitation or other direct tax, unless, etc., art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 4, p. 231. to lay no tax or duty on exports from a state, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 5, p. 233. to give no preference to ports or vessels of one state over another, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. to draw no money from treasury but on appropriation, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. to grant no title of nobility, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. cannot limit compensation or term of office of United States judges, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 516. not to abridge the privileges and immunities of citizens, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 569. to make no laws respecting the establishment of religion, Amdt. art. 1, p. 619. religion, right of people secured, p. 619. to make no laws abridging the freedom of speech or press, art. 1, pp. 619, 620. to make no laws abridging the right of assembly and petition, art. 1, pp. 619, 621. Index. 909 Congress — Continued. not to infringe the right of people to bear arms, Amdt. art. 2, p. 622. right construed, pp. 622, 623. not to quarter soldiers, except, etc., art. 3, p. 623. not to infringe the right of the people as to security of persons, papers, and effects, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. construction of clause, pp. 624, 625. not to infringe personal rights of the people, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. persons not to be twice put in jeopardy, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627, 632. not to be compelled to testify against himself, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 639. not to be deprived of life, liberty, and property without due pro- cess of law, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 641. not to be deprived of property without compensation, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 658. not to abridge rights of parties accused of crime, Amdt. art. 6, p. 663. right of trial by jury to be preserved, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. to what courts clause refers, p. 668. right, when not to attach, p. 671. re-examination of causes, p. 672. not to require excessive bail, nor fines, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. rights retained by the people not disparaged by grant to federal government, Amdt. art. 9, p. 676. powers not delegated nor forbidden to states are reserved to the states and people, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. Connecticut, representatives in first Congress, p. 44. Conquest, authority of executive over conquered territory, p. 472. authority of Congress over United States territory, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 2, pp. 596, 598. war never presumed one of conquest, p. 194. Conscription, Congress may authorize, p. 197. state may offer bounty for volunteers, p. 198. Consent, of Congress, required for official to receive present, etc., art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. required for state to lay imposts, etc., art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. or to lay duty on tonnage, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. or to enter into agreement or compact with other state, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 456. 910 Index. Consent — Continued. or to engage in war, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 458. to form new state within another state, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. or for the junction of states, or parts of states, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. neither House to adjourn without the consent of other, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 4, p. 65. of Senate required in making treaty, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. or in appointing ambassadors, etc., art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. Conspiracy, to burn ship, Congress may punish for, p. 191. Constitution, construction generally, p. 27. terms in, how interpreted p. 31. preamble, purposes to be secured by, p. 35. people of United States, who are, p. 35. to form a moTe perfect union, p. 36. a grant of powers, p. 27. creates a government of enumerated delegated powers, pp. 36, 37. construction of terms, to be reasonable, p. 31. all power emanates from the people, p. 36. legislative department of government, art. 1, pp. 38-238. restrictions on sovereign power of state, art. 1, sec. 10, pp. 239- 458. executive department of government, art. 2, pp. 459-495. judicial department of government, art. 3, pp. 496-560. state rights, protection of, art. 4, pp. 561-605. amendments, manner of making, art. 5, p. 606. power of people to amend, without limit, p. 606. first ten amendments, not restrictions on state governments, p. 607. genera] provisions in, art. 6, pp. 608-615. ratification of, art. 7, p. 616. names of states, and date of ratification, pp. 616, 617. amendments restrictive of powers of United States government, p. 607. powers not delegated nor prohibited to states, are reserved, Amdt, art. 10, sec. 1, p. 677. restriction on judicial powers, Amdt. art. 11, p. 686. provision for election of President and Vice-President, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. slavery prohibited, Amdt. art. 13, p. 692. citizens of United States who arc, and civil rights of, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. Index. 911 Constitution — Continued. apportionment of representation in Congress, Amdt. art. 14, see. 2, p. 734. certain parties disqualified from holding office, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. payment of debts and pensions not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. rebel debts not to be assumed, Amdt. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. political rights not to be abridged on account of race, color, etc., Amdt. art. 15, p. 73S. Constitution of state, a law as to obligation of contracts, p. 269. Construction, rules of, p. 27. Consuls, President may appoint, art. 2, sec. 2, el. 2, pp. 481, 485. amenable to judiciary, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, pp. 542, 543. Contemporary construction, force of, p. 28. Contempt, power of House to punish for, p. 62. warrant to commit for, when may be served, p. 63.- Contracts, states prohibited to pass laws impairing obligation of, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 263. inhibition applies to the states, and not to Congress, p. 263. valid, cannot be impaired by subsequent legislation, p. 282. laws merely retrospective, not necessarily invalid, p. 273. contract defined, p. 282. with state, created by legislative enactment, p. 288. appointment to office not a contract, p. 290. executory within prohibition, p. 283. when cannot be impaired by subsequent legislation, p. 386. obligation of, what is, p. 384. impairment of obligation, what is, p. 386. time, place, person, or thing to be done, cannot be changed by subsequent statute, p. 387. degree of impairment, p. 389. What no* a violation of obligation, p. 391. validating statutes not inhibited, pp. 273, 302. retrospective statutes, when valid, p. 273. curative statutes valid, pp. 273, 392. state power of eminent domain, p. 342. remedy as a part of obligation, p. 396. change of remedy, when not an impairment, p. 398. what not impairment of remedy, p. 402. 912 Index. Contracts — Continued, usury laws, p. 393. statutes of limitation, p. 406. exemption laws, how far valid, p. 409. stay laws, when impair remedies, p. 413. state insolvency laws, validity of, p. 417. mortgage and redemption laws, p. 422. lien laws, p. 426. legislative authority over judicial procedure, pp. 428, 433. statute rights may be modified, p. 266. taxation impairment of obligation of, p. 276. legislature may bind state by, p. 288. licenses as contracts are revocable at pleasure, p. 296. state exemption from taxation, as a contract, p. 299. state grants generally, as contracts, p. 291. acceptance by state of land grant a contract, p. 291. vested rights how far protected, p. 264. subsequent statute cannot impair vested rights, p. 265. corporate franchises, charter construed, p. 334. charter as a contract with state, p. 341. may be exempted from taxation, p. 347. effect of exemption from taxation, p. 347. bank corporation, charter a contract, p. 355. bridge and ferry franchises construed, p. 358. turnpike and canal charters, p. 361. railroad charter a contract, p. 363. immunity from taxation, effect of, p. 353. state authority over corporations generally, pp. 332, 335. authority to alter or amend charter, pp. 369, 373. reserved power in charter to alter or amend, p. 373. exercise of reserved power in charter, p. 377. power to repeal may be reserved, p. 382. municipal corporation, charter not a contract, p. 309. legislature may authorize subscription to railroad stock, p. 320. authority of legislature over, p. 309. over municipal contracts, p. 317. over contracts for public improvements, p. 323. over municipal liabilities, p. 326. over municipal bonds, p. 328. treaty as contract, cannot devest Congress of its powers, pp. 481, 612. maritime jurisdiction of the United States courts over, p. 537. Contract with state, how created, p. 288. state land grant, a contract, p. 291. cannot be impaired by subsequent legislation, p. 288. See Contracts; Corporations. Index. 913 Convention, for proposing amendments, bow called, art. 5, p. 606. Copyrights, Congress may provide for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, pp. 178, 180. power of Congress defined, p. 178. what may be secured by, p. 180. state legislation as to, pp. 178, 179, 183. Corporations, power of state to tax, pp. 130, 278, 347. amenable to police power of state, pp. 442, 718. state may impos« license tax, pp. 138, 297. as owner of patent, rights of, p. 180. charter a contract, cannot be impaired by state, p. 332. legislative control over, p. 335. dissolution of, does not impair obligation, p. 337. liabilities of, extent of state power over, p. 345. franchise of, construed, p. 340. may be exempted from taxation, p. 347. state concluded by exemption, p. 351. all state agencies bound, p. 349. charter of bank a contract, p. 355. charter of bridge or ferry company, p. 358. charter of turnpike or canal company, p. 361. charter of railroad a contract, p. 363. immunity from taxation on charter, effect of, p. 353. effect of consolidation, p. 354. amendment or alteration of charter, p. 369. restriction on power of legislature, p. 369. power to alter or amend reserved in charter, p. 373. exercise of reserved power by state legislature, p. 377. reservation of power to repeal, p. 382. charter of municipal corporation not a contract, p. 309. legislature may authorize subscription to railroad stock, p. 320. authority of legislature over municipal officers, p. 315. over municipal contracts, p. 317. over municipal liabilities, p. 326. over municipal bonds, p. 328. Costs, law changing right to, valid, p. 431. Counsel, party accused to have right of, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 667. provision to apply to United States courts, p. 663. Counterfeiting, Congress shall provide punishment for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 6, p. 173. distinguished from uttering, p. 174. Notes on Constitution — 58 914 Index. Counterfeiting — Continued. power of Congress construed, p. 173. power exclusive, when exercised, p. 174. state power defined, p. 174. Courts, inferior may be constituted by Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 9, and art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, pp. 187, 496. power construed, pp. 187, 504. judicial power vested in, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 496. judicial power, extent of, p. 499. term of office of judges, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, pp. 496, 516. duty in construing constitution, pp. 28, 30, 500, 610, 611. See Judicial Power; Jurisdiction. Courts-martial, Congress may provide for trials by, p. 200. Credit, to be given to public acts and records, art. 4, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 561. states not to emit bills of, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 245. definition of term, p. 245. Creditor, when bound by state insolvent laws, p. 169. validity of discharge, p. 165. Crimes, state jurisdiction over, in territory ceded to government, p. 210. removal from office for, by impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495. concurrent jurisdiction of state and federal courts, p. 512. trial of except in impeachments, to be by jury, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 551. place of trial, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, pp. 551, 552. treason defined, and evidence required, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 555. punishment for treason, Congress may declare, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 558. rights of accused party, presentment or indictment, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 628. not to be twice put in jeopardy, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 632. not to be compelled to be witness against himself, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 639. not to be deprived of life or liberty without due process of law, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 641. construction, article securing personal rights, p. 628. jeopardy, what is, p. 632. witness against himself, p. 639. depriving of life and liberty, p. 646. due process of law, p. 641. Index. 915 » Crimes — Continued. mode of trial in criminal proceedings, Amdt. art. 6, p. 663. prohibitions in article construed, pp. 663-667. excessive bail, fines, or punishments forbidden, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. Cruel or unusual punishments prohibited, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. Currency, legal tender, p. 90. punishment for counterfeiting, p. 173. Debt of United States, payment of not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Congress has power to pay, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 1, p. 76. under prior confederation assumed, art. 6, sec. 1, p. 608. Debts, incurred in aid of insurrection repudiated, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. such debts illegal and void, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Declaration of war, how made, and effect of, p. 193. power, what includes, p. 194. Defense, constitution adopted to insure, preamble, p. 35. power of Congress to provide for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, p. 76. rights of accused in criminal prosecutions, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 627, 628. Definitions, arrest, p. 66. bankruptcy, p. 158. bill of attainder, pp. 226, 251. capitation tax, p. 231. coin, p. 249. commerce, p. 95. constitution, p. 27. contract, p. 2S2. copyright, p. ISO. declare, p. 193. direct tax, pp. 46, 231. duties, p. 86. excises, p. 86. exports, p. 444. ex post facto laws, pp. 227, 253. high seas, p. 191. impair, p. 386. importation, p. 222. imports, p. 4-14. 916 Index. I Definitions — Continued. imposts, p. 86. insolvency, p. 158. invention, p. 184. migration, p. 222. money, p. 249. necessary, p. 213. obligation, 384. organizing, p. 204. people of United States, p. 35. person, p. 727. proper, p. 213. regulate, p. 99. state, p. 239. taxation, p. 80. toll, p. 80. uniform, p. 159. uniformity, pp. 88, 159. war, p. 193. Delegated powers, United States a government of delegated powers only, p. 677. Departments, appointment of officers may be vested in, art. 2, sec. 2, el. 2, p. 481. branches of government distinct and independent, pp. 38, 501. See Government. Desertion, Congress may provide punishment for, p. 199. statute forfeiture not a bill of attainder, p. 227. Direct tax, when and how laid, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 4, p. 231. what is, p. 231. how apportioned, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. construction of clause, p. 44. clause repealed by, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. Disability, provisions in case of, as to President, etc., art. 2, see. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. for office, p. 735. to hold office by engaging in rebellion, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. may be removed by Congress, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Discharge, in insolvency, who bound by, p. 165. Discretion, of Congress as to use of means to carry out powers, p. 212. of President not reviewable by courts, p. 461. Index. 917 Disqualification, of senator or representative for other office, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. for membership of either House, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 70. by engaging in rebellion, Amdt. aTt. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. for office of elector of President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. District of Columbia, Congress to exercise exclusive legislation, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. inhabitants of, citizens of the United States, p. 205. legislative power of Congress, p. 206. Dockyards, exclusive control of Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. Domestic violence, state right to protection from, art. 4, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 603. Drummers, and peddlers distinguished, p. 141. tax on as commerce regulation, p. 140. Due process of law, persons not to be deprived of life, liberty, or property without, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 641. construction of term, p. 641. state not to deprive of life, liberty, or property without, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. purpose of amendment, pp. 696, 697. Duties, defined, p. 86. imposts and excises, power of Congress to lay, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, pp. 76, 86. to be uniform throughout United States, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, p. 76. Ct uniformity" defined, p. 88. no duty or tax to be laid on exports from a state, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 5, p. 233. vessels clearing from one state not to pay in another, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 6, p. 234. vessels of one state not to pay duties in another, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. no state to lay duty on imports or exports, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, pp. 444, 447. if laid by consent of Congress, net produce to be for use of United States, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, pp. 444, 450. all such laws subject to control and revision of Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, pp. 444, 450. Duties of President, when to devolve on Vice-President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. J) 18 Index. Duties of President — Continued. in case of disability of both, Congress shall declare who shall act, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. Duty on tonnage, no state to lay, without consent of Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. definition of tonnage duty, p. 451. compensatory fees not objectionable, p. 454. Election, of representatives in Congress, art. 1, see. 2, cl. 1, p. 56. of senators, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 56. manner of election prescribed by states, p. 55. each House to judge of returns and qualifications of its mem« bers, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. of President to be by chosen electors, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. of President, how conducted, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. of executive, Congress may determine day of, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. day to be same throughout the Union, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. citizenship of itself does not give right to vote at, p. 43. certificate as evidence, p. 59. ii '- 'native, tie vote, how determined, p. 60. Elective franchise, right of citizen to vote, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. Congress may enforce provision, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 2, p. 740. right comes from states, p. 252. Tight denied by state, effect on apportionment of representa- tives, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. withholding from ex-convicts, not ex post facto, p. 252. Electors, who are, p. 39. for President and Vice-President — each state to appoint, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 465. number equal to senators and representatives, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 465. who not eligible, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 465. disqualification of, p. 465. Congress may determine time of choosing and of voting by, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. day to be the same throughout the United States, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. to meet and vote by ballot, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. ballots for President and Vice-President to be distinct, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. one at least to be inhabitant of another state, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. Index. 2V3 Electors — Continued. distinct list to be made, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. to sign, certify, and transmit lists to President of Senate, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. •who disqualified for office of, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Congress may remove disability, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. intent of section, p. 735. Emancipation, validity of act of Congress, p. 195. slavery prohibited, Anidt. art. 13, sec. 1, p. 692. section construed, pp. 692, 693. of slave, claim for loss by, illegal and void, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Embargo, power of Congress to impose, p. 109. Eminent domain, sovereignty of people of state, p. 342. right of, p. 650. compensation on condemnation, p. 658. Emoluments, United States official not to accept, from foreign king, etc., art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. Enactment of laws, bills, how passed, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. course of proceedings on, pp. 72, 73. attestation by presiding officers, p. 73. orders and resolutions, how passed, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. to be approved by President, p. 75. laws, how passed without President's approval, p. 75. Enlistment, of minors, power of Congress, p. 197. Enumeration, of inhabitants, when to be made, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. ratio of representation, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44; Amdt. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. of rights, not to disparage others retained, Amdt. art. 9, p. 676. means to enforce enumerated powers, p. 212. Equal protection of the laws, no state shall deny, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. purpose of amendment, p. 696. "equal protection" defined, p. 728. Equal suffrage in Senate, secured to states, ait. 5, p. 606. Equity cases, what are, p. 522. party not entitled to jury in, p. GC9, 920 Index. Excessive bail, shall not be required, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. Excises, power of Congress to lay and collect, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, pp. 76, 86. to be uniform, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, pp. 76, 88. Exclusive legislation, by Congress over District of Columbia, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. over places ceded to United States, art. 1, see. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. Executive department, powers vested in President, art. 1, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. power of, beyond control of judiciary, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. acts through heads of departments, p. 460. discretionary acts not reviewable, p. 461. election of President and Vice-President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. only native-born citizens, to be eligible to such office, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 5, p. 467. eligibility to office, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 5, p. 467. heads of may be vested with power to appoint inferior officers, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 4S1. See President. Executive officers, to be bound by oath to support the constitution, art. 6, cl. 3. p. 615. oath to be taken by President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 8, p. 467. of states to be bound by oath, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 651. President may require written opinions of, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. See President; Vice-President. Executive power, vested in President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. See President. Exemption, validity of state laws, p. 409. from taxation, a contract, pp. 299, 347. of corporation from taxation, p. 347. effect of, p. 353. Expenditures, of money to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7. p. 236. Exports, from states, no tax to be laid on, by Congress, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 5, p. 233. construction of clause, p. 233. meaning of term, p. 444. Index. 021 Exports — Continued. no state to lay duties on without consent of Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, el. 2, p. 444. if laid, to be for use of treasury, art. 1, see. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. and be subject to revision of Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. Ex post facto laws, denned, pp. 227, 253. apply to criminal laws only, pp. 229, 257. shall not be passed, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 3, p. 22G. construction of clause, pp. 227-230. state not to pass, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. prohibition, construed, p. 239. what not ex post facto, p. 260. imposing higher punishment for second offense is not, p. 255. laws relating to procedure not ex post facto, p. 259. when not invalid, p. 260. Expulsion of member, by concurrence of two-thirds, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. Expurgatory oath, when may be acquired, p. 252. Faith and credit, to acts, records, and judicial proceedings, of the several states, art. 4, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 561. Fees of office, state may abolish, pp. 287, 316. Felony, members of Congress not privileged from arrest for, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. on high seas, Congress shall have power to define and punish, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 10, p. 190. Ferries, state may charter, pp. 112, 113, 358. grant of franchise construed, p. 360. Terry franchise, construction of, p. 360. reserved power to alter or amend, p. 373. Fines, excessive, not to be imposed, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. Fisheries, state authority over, p. 128. Forcible entry and detainer, state may deprive lessee of action for, p. 403. Foreign coin, Congress may regulate value of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, p. 171. 922 Index. Foreign corporations, state authority over, pp. 132. 143. See Corporations. Foneign nations, ' Congress to regulate commerce with, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 3, p. 95. commerce with, what is, p. 99. Foreign powers, state prohibited from entering into compact with, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 456. Forfeiture, not to extend beyond life of party attained, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 659. of corporate franchises, pp. 331, 336. Formation of new states, provisions for, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. Form of government, states to be guaranteed republican, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. states to be protected from invasion and domestic violence, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. Forts, exclusive legislation by Congress over sites, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. jurisdiction over sites exclusive in Congress, p. 205. Franchise, to corporations, state grant construed, pp. 323, 340. effect on of exemption from taxation, p. 349. may be taken by eminent domain, p. 342. forfeiture grounds of, pp. 331, 336. statute essentially paralyzing, is void, p. 335. reserved power to alter, amend, or repeal, p. 373. Freedom of speech and of the press, guaranteed, Amdt. art. 1, pp. 619, 620. Fugitives, from justice to be delivered up, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 579. demand for surrender, p. 582. duty to surrender, p. 584. crimes embraced, p. 581. rights of accused, p. 588. from service or labor to be delivered up, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 590. exclusive power in Congress, p. 590. "in one state," what includes, p. 591. persons referred to African slaves, p. 591. General laws, not contracts, but expressions of legislative will, p. 289. Index. 923 General welfare, purpose of constitution to secure, preamble, p. 35. Congress shall have power to provide for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, p. 76. Georgia, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Gold and silver coin, restriction on states as to tender in payment, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 249. Good behavior, term of judicial officers, pp. 496, 510. Government, to provide for common defense, preamble, p. 35. right and duty of, p. 36. powers of, construed, p. 35. powers vested in departments are distinct, pp. 38, 501. powers invested by people of United States, p. 35. as a political body, construed, p. 36. branches of, distinct and independent, pp. 38, 501. jurisdiction over ceded territory, p. 207. over property purchased from individuals, pp. 207, 210. power over militia, calling it forth, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. organizing, arming, etc., the militia, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. when authority over militia is exclusive, p. 204. authority over District of Columbia, p. 207. over forts, arsenals, etc., p. 211. restriction on state authority, p. 210. powers may be enforced by laws necessary and proper, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 212. incidental powers of, p. 212. what means may be employed, pp. 213, 214. enumeration of means, p. 215. power over public territory and other property, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 596. to dispose of and make needful rules for, pp. 596, 597. extent of power of, pp. 596, 597. to guarantee republican form to states, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. to protect states from invasion and domestic violence, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. what amendments apply exclusively to, p. 607. constitution, laws of, and treaties, as supreme law, art. 6, cl. 2, pp. 609-614. powers not delegated are reserved to states, Amdt. art. 10. p. 677. oath to be taken by officers of, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. specified limitations on powers, p. 221. 924 Index. Government — Continued. privilege of habeas corpus not to be suspended, p. 223. bills of attainder and ex post facto laws forbidden, p. 226. capitation and direct taxes, p. 231. duties on exports, p. 233. preferences to ports, p. 234. drawing money from treasury, p. 236. not to grant any title of nobility, p. 238. Government of states, republican form guaranteed, art. 4, see. 4, p. 603. protection from invasion or domestic violence, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. power of taxation, pp. 81, 91, 130, 138. police powers as to commerce, pp. 117, 118. power over internal commerce, p. 111. authority over fisheries, p. 128. right of fishery not privilege of citizenship, p. 706. over licenses, pp. 77, 138. as to insolvencies, pp. 161, 417. validity of insolvent laws, p. 161. over counterfeiting, p. 174. to call out militia, p. 202. organization of militia, p. 204. authority over lands within borders, p. 210. power to make contracts, p. 288. land grants, p. 291. to grant charters to corporations, p. 330 et seq. may regulate rates of freights and fares, pp. 114, 365, 718. authority over corporations, p. 143. may alter or amend charters, p. 373. authority over municipal corporations, p. 309. Government, seat of, legislative powers of Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. Grand jury, indictment or presentment, personal rights, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 628. crimes to be tried on presentment of, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 628. exceptions as to land and naval forces and militia, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. change in law relating to, not ex post facto, p. 261. Grant, of letters of marque and reprisal, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, pp. 193, 196. states inhibited, art. 1, sec. 10, el. 1, p. 239. of titles of nobility prohibited to government, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. Index. 925 Grant — Continued. states inhibited from grant of titles, art. 1, see. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. by state, when not subject to subsequent legislation, p. 291. of franchise, construction of, p. 340. Grants, of land by state contracts cannot be impaired, p. 291. of franchises are contracts, p. 332. Grievances, right of petition for redress of, Amdt. art. 1, pp. 619, 621. Guarantee, of republican form of government to states, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. of protection of states from invasion and domestic violence, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. Habeas corpus, privilege of writ not to be suspended, unless, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 2, p. 223. discharge of enlisted persons under, p. 198. power to suspend, where lodged, p. 225. Congress may suspend, p. 225. jurisdiction to issue, p. 549. conflicts of jurisdiction, p. 513. Heads of departments, may be. vested with power to appoint officers, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. President may require written opinions from, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. Health, state may pass laws' for protection of, pp. 124, 438. High crimes and misdemeanors, removal of officers on impeachment for, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495. "High seas," denned, p. 191. History, as aid in construing constitution, p. 27. House of Representatives, composed of members chosen every second year, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 39. qualification of electors, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 39. qualification of member, age and residence, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 40. state executives to issue writs of election, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. shall choose speaker and other officers, art. 1, 3ec. 2, cl. 5, p. 48. shall have sole power of impeachment, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 5, p. 4S. 026 Index. House of Representatives — Continued. shall judge elections, returns, and qualifications of its member?, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 1, p. 58. a majority to constitute a quorum, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, pp. 58, 62. less, may adjourn from day to day, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. may determine its rule of proceeding, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. power as to proceedings generally, p. 62. may punish for disorderly behavior, or expel a member, art. 1, see. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. construction of clause, p. 62. expulsion of members, p. 63. shall keep journal of proceedings, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 3, p. 65. journal as evidence, p. 65. restriction on power to adjourn, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 4, p. 65. members not to be questioned for speech or debate, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, pp. 66, 68. privilege from arrest, p. 66. United States official not eligible to membership, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. members ineligible to offices created during their membership, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, pp. 69, 70. bills for raising revenue to originate in, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 1, p. 71. votes for President and Vice-President to be counted in presence of, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. when and how to choose President, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. vote to be taken by states, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. quorum in such case, what to constitute, Amdt. art. 12, sec. 1, p. 690. majority of states necessary to choice, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. disability to membership by participation in rebellion, Amdt. art 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Congress may remove disability, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. See Congress. Immigration, Congress may prohibit, p. 108. state cannot discourage, p. 116. Immunities, privilege of member of Congress from arrest, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, pp. 69, 70. soldiers not to be quartered in time of peace, Amdt. art. 3, p. 623. rights of citizens, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 569. immunities defined, p. 572. of state and national citizenship, distinguished, p. 698. no person to be twice in jeopardy for same offense, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 632. Index. 927 Immunities — Continued. who are citizens of the United States, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 698. privileges and immunities of citizens not to be abridged, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 702. state not to deprive of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 708. nor deny the equal protection of the law, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 728. from taxation, pp. 299, 347. Impairment, defined, p. 386. Impairment of obligation, state legislation inhibited, pp. 239, 263. inhibition construed, p. 263. what constitutes a "law," p. 268. retrospective statutes, validity of, p. 273. "contract" defined, p. 282. contracts, what comprehend, p. 282. contracts, with state included, p. 288. "obligation" denned, p. 384. "impairment" defined, p. 386. degree of impairment, p. 389. what not a violation of obligation, p. 391. relation of obligation and remedy, p. 396. impairment of remedy, pp. 396, 397. change, not an impairment, p. 398. what not an impairment, p. 402. statute of limitations not an impairment, p. 406. exemption laws, when an impairment, p. 409. stay laws, when an impairment, p. 413. state insolvency laws, validity of, p. 417. mortgage and redemption laws, p. 422. lien laws, p. 426. legislature may regulate judicial proceedings, p. 433. statute rights may be modified, p. 266. taxation as impairment, p. 276. licenses may be modified, p. 296. exemption from taxation, p. 299. state grants of land, contract construed, p. 292. state grants generally, construed, p. 291. vested rights cannot be impaired, p. 264. corporate rights protected, p. 330 et seq. protection of corporate franchise, p. 332. power of state over corporate liabilities, p. 345. exemption of corporations from taxation as a contract, p. 347. how far extends, p. 353. 928 Index. Impairment of obligation — Continued. banking charter a contract, p. 355. franchises to bridges and ferries, p. 358. canal and turnpike charters, p. 361. railroad charter a contract, p. 363. amendment of charter, p. 369. power to amend, when reserved, p. 373. exercise of reserved power, p. 377. power of repeal, p. 382. charter of municipal corporation not a contract, p. 309. authority over municipal corporations, pp. 309-329. Impairment of remedies, when prohibited, p. 396. change of remedy, when may be made, p. 398. what is not, p. 402. acts of limitation not, p. 406. exemption laws, when valid, p. 409. stay laws, when valid, p. 413. state insolvency laws, p. 417. mortgage and redemption laws, p. 422. lien laws, p. 426. right of action and defense subject to legislative control, p. 428. See Contracts. Impeachment, House to have sole power of, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 5, p. 48. Senate the sole power to try, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. to be on oath or affirmation, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. when chief justice to preside, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. two-thirds necessary for conviction, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6. p. 54. judgment, extent of, on conviction, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 7, p. 54. judgment, not to bar indictment and punishment, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 7, p. 54. who removable on impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 495. cases not to be tried by jury, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 551. Implication, in construing constitution, p. 28. Importation of slaves, restriction on powers of Congress, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 1, p. 221. "importation" defined, p. 221. tax may be imposed, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 1, p. 221. Imports, state shall not lay duties on without consent of Congress, art. 1, see. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. if laid by state, for use of treasury, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, pp. 444, 450. Index. 929 Imports — Continued. shall be subject to revision by Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. imports defined, p. 444. Imposts, defined, p. 86. Congress to lay, art. 1, see. 8, cl. 1, pp. 76-86. Imposts and excises, Congress shall have power to lay and collect, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, p. 76. definitions, p. 86. to be uniform throughout states, p. 88. Incidental power, of government, p. 212. instance of exercise, p. 215. Income tax, salaries of state officers not subject to, p. 83. a direct tax, p. 232. Incompatible offices, members of Congress cannot hold other civil office, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. what offices are, pp. 69, 70. effect of acceptance, p. 70. United States marshal cannot be commercial agent, p. 238. Indians, excluded from representation, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44; Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. not foreign subjects or citizens, pp. 148, 699. status of tribes, p. 148. commerce with subject to congressional regulation, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 3, pp. 95, 146. may enforce rights in state courts, p. 148. may be sued in state courts, p. 147. on reservation within state, how governed, pp. 148, 149. • laws and customs of , p. 150. when may be naturalized, p. 699. Indian Territory, within state, power of Congress, p. 149. Indian tribes, Congress to regulate commerce with, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 3, pp. 95, 146. commerce with Indians, p. 146. construction of clause, p. 146. source of power to pass criminal laws for, p. 147. within states, state laws no force over, p. 149. Notes on Constitution — 59 930 Index. Indian tribes — Continued. right to use of soil can only be devested by government, p. 150. Indian laws and customs to rule, p. 150. Indictment or presentment, essential to trial for capital or infamous crime, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 628. except in cases in land and naval forces and militia, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 628. of person convicted on impeachment, art. 1, sec. 3, el. 7, p. 54. Inferior courts, what are, p. 505. power of Congress to establish, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 9, p. 187. territorial courts not included in term, p. 188. judicial power vested in, art. 3, sec. 1, el. 1, p. 496. judges to hold office during good behavior, art. 3, sec. 1, el. 1, pp. 496, 516. compensation not to be diminished during official term, art. 3, sec. 1, el. 1, pp. 496, 516. Inferior officers, Congress may invest appointment of, where they think proper, art. 2, sec. 2, el. 2, p. 481. Inheritance tax, power of Congress to impose, pp. 87, 232. not a direct tax, p. 232, Inhabitant, defined, p. 42. status of, in sites purchased by government, p. 206. Insolvent laws, bankruptcy and insolvency equivalent terms, p. 158. laws, when operative, p. 164. when suspended by bankrupt act, pp. 164, 165. validity of, pp. 165, 417. citizens of other states, when bound by, p. 106. Congress may make the United States a preferred creditor, p. 217. Inspection laws, states may enact, pp. 123, 444, 449. state laws subject to revision by Congress, p. 444. Insurance, business of not commerce, p. 109. Insurrections, Congress to provide for suppression of, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 15, p. 201. power of President, p. 474. participants in, disqualified for office, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Congress may remove disabilities, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. debts contracted in aid of, void, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Index. 931 Internal commerce, states may regulate, p. 111. Intoxicating liquors, state may regulate manufacture and sale, pp. 127, 440. license to sell, not a contract, p. 298. right to sell, not privilege of citizenship, p. 706. Invasion, power of states to repel, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 458. writ of habeas corpus, suspension of, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 2, p. 223. Congress may call militia out to repel, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. power to repel, construed, pp. 201, 202. United States to protect each state against, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. Invention, defined, p. 184. Inventors, Congress 4o pass laws to secure rights to, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. extent of power, p. 183. Involuntary servitude, abolition of, except for crime, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 1, p. 692. power of Congress to enforce provision, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 2, p. 694. Jeopardy of life and limb, person not to be twice subject to, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 632. "jeopardy" defined, p. 632. Joint resolution, approved, effect of, as law, p. 75. Journal of proceedings, each House to keep, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 3, p. 65. presumed correct, p. 65. entitled to judicial notice, p. 65. Judges, of United States courts to hold office during good behavior, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, pp. 496, 516. compensation not to be diminished during term, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, pp. 496, 516. Congress cannot limit, p. 516. judges of territorial courts not contemplated, p. 516. in every state, bound by constitution, laws, and treaties of United States, art. 6, cl. 2, p. 609. Judgment, in impeachment cases to extend only to removal from office, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 7, p. 54. 932 Index. Judgment — Continued. not a bar to indictment and trial at law, art. 1, see. 3, el. 7, p. 54. of state courts entitled to full faith and credit, art. 4, sec. 1, p. 561. of state courts, effect of authentication of, p. 561. judgment not a contract, p. 285. Judicial department, power where vested, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. supreme and inferior courts, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. term of office and compensation of judges, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. judicial power, p. 499. defined, p. 517. extent of power, pp. 499, 517. jurisdiction of courts, p. 504. of United States courts, art. 3, sec. 2, el. 1, p. 517. of territorial and provisional courts, p. 508. authority of state courts, p. 509. removal of causes, p. 513. jurisdiction of supreme court, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 542. extent of jurisdiction, p. 517, original jurisdiction, p. 542. appellate jurisdiction, p. 546. jurisdiction limited by Eleventh Amendment, p. 686. Judicial notice, legislative journal entitled to, p. 65. of treaty, p. 481. Judicial power, where vested, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. Congress may constitute inferior tribunals, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 9, p. 187. power of Congress, p. 496. legislation necessary to vest, p. 496. lodged in supreme and inferior courts, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. judges to hold office during good behavior, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. compensation not to be diminished during continuance in office, art. 3, sec. 1, pp. 496, 516. cannot encroach on legislative or executive, p. 500. jurisdiction of United States courts, p. 504. of territorial and provisional courts, p. 508. authority of state courts, p. 509. removal of causes, p. 513. authority of Congress as to judges and tenure of office, p. 510. to extend to cases in law and equity, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517 to cases arising under constitution, laws, and treaties, art. 3, sec 2, cl. 1, p. 517. to all cases affecting ambassadors, ministers, and consuls, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. Index. 933 Judicial power — Continued. to admiralty and maritime cases, art. 3, sec. 2, el. 1, p. 517. to controversies to which United States is a party, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. to controversies between states, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. to controversies between a state and citizens of another state, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. or between a state or its citizens and foreign states or citizens, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. extent of judicial power, p. 517. what are cases in law and equity, p. 520. as to persons, p. 525. admiralty and maritime, p. 533. what are admiralty and maritime causes, p. 537. in cases affecting ambassadors, etc., supreme court to have orig- inal jurisdiction, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 542. in all other cases to have appellate jurisdiction, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, pp. 542, 546. trial of crimes, except impeachment, to be by jury, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 551. trial to be held in state where crime committed, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, pp. 551, 552. when not committed within state, Congress may direct, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, pp. 551, 553. not to extend to cases against a state by citizens of another state, or a foreign state, Amdt. art. 11, p. 686. extent of restriction, pp. 686, 688. Judicial proceedings, of state, full faith and credit to be given, art. 4, sec. 1, pL 561L manner of proving, may be prescribed by Congress, art. 4, sec. 1, p. 561. Jurisdiction, of government over ceded territory, p. 205. of courts in general, p. 504. of supreme court, pp. 542, 546. of United States courts, p. 504. legislation necessary to vest, p. 496. extent of, p. 517. 5 c mtemplated, p. 520. as to the person, p. 525. admiralty and maritime, p. 533. over maritime contracts, p. 537. over maritime torts, p. 539. original defined, p. 542. appellate defined, p. 546. 934 ISNDEX. Jurisdiction — Continued. of territorial and provisional courts, p. 508. of state courts, p. 509. Jury, trial of crimes except on impeachment to be by jury, art. 3. sec. 2, el. 3, pp. 551, 553. accused to have speedy and public trial by, A.mdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 664. right not extended to territory by treaty of cession, p. 667. suits at law where value over twenty dollars, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. fact not to be re-examined except by rules of common law, Amdt. art. 7, pp. 668, 672. Just compensation, property not to be taken for public use without, Amdr. art. 5, pp. 627, 658. Justice, purpose of constitution to establish, preamble, p. 35. fugitives from, to be delivered up, art. 4, sec. 2, el. 2, p. 579. "fugitive" defined, p. 579. Labor, fugitives from, to be delivered up, art. 4, sec. 2, el. 3, p. 590. power of Congress exclusive, p. 590. "persons" referred to African negroes, p. 591. "in one state" defined, p. 591. Land and naval forces, Congress may govern and regulate, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 14, p. 200. Land grants, by state, conclusive on future legislation, p. 292. Law of the land, constitution, laws, and treaties constitute, art. 6, cl. 2, p. 609. judges in every state bound by, art. 6, cl. 2, p. 609. Law, right to practice not privilege of citizenship, p. 706. within obligation clause, p. 268. retrospective, not necessarily invalid, p. 273. limit of effect of state laws, pp. 417, 561. in conflict with acts of Congress, must give way, p. 681. constitution and treaty as supreme law, p. 609. Law of nations, offense against, Congress may provide punishment for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 10, p. 190. piracy, p. 190. slave trade not piracy, p. 190. Index. 933 Laws, Congress may provide for execution of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. and of powers vested in government or any department or officer, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 212. of United States President to see faithful execution of, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. judicial power to extend to all eases arising under, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. Legal tender, power of Congress to create, p. 90. may make treasury notes a, p. 90. contracts to pay in specie not solvable in legal tender notes, p. 91. inhibition as to states, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 249. statutes creating are void, p. 250. Legislation, power of, vested in Congress, art. 1, sec. 1, p. 38. political power not subject to judicial interference, p. 501. grant of powers, how construed, p. 77. exclusive in Congress, over District of Columbia, art. 1, seo. S, cl. 17, p. 205. and over places purchased for forts, arsenals, etc., art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. Congress to make laws necessary for operation of powers of gov- ernment, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 212. may enforce article prohibiting slavery, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 2, p. 694. may enforce Fourteenth Amendment, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 5, p. 737. may enforce Fifteenth Amendment, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 2, p. 740. Legislative department, powers vested in Congress, art. 1, see. 1, p. 38. House of Eepresentatives, how composed, art. 1. sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 38. electors of, who are, p. 39. qualifications of members of House, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 40. representatives, how apportioned among states, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44; repealed, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. vacancies, how filled, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. shall choose its own officers, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 5, p. 48. Senate, how composed, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 49. classes of senators, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 51. vacancy, how filled, p. 51. qualification for senator, art. 1, sec. 3, el. 3, p. 53. Vice-President to be President of Senate, art. 1, see. 3, cl. 4, p. 54. Senate to choose its own officers, art. 1, sec 3, cl. 5, p. 54. 936 Index. Legislative department — Continued. as a court of impeachment, office of, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 6, p. 54. judgment of, in cases of impeachment, art. 1, sec. 3, el. 7, p. 54. Legislative power, to be vested in Congress, art. 1, sec. 1, p. 38. mode of exercise, p. 72. limitations on, p. 78. delegation of, p. 79. Letters of marque and reprisal, Congress may grant, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, p. 193. state prohibited from granting, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. Liberty, purpose of constitution to secure, preamble, p. 35. defined, p. 647. person not to be deprived of, without due process of law, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 641. of whom, entitled to protection, p. 647. amendment construed, p. 641. state cannot deprive person of, etc., Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 709. purpose of amendment, p. 696. Licenses, state authority over, pp. 296, 441. license not a contract, p. 296. state may impose license taxes, p. 138. from United States, effect and operation of, p. 441. Liens, created by law are subject to legislative control, p. 426. repeal of judgment lien law valid, p. 286. Life, no person to be deprived of, without due process of law, Amdt. art. 5, sec. 1, p. 627. what included in term as here used, p. 646. no person to be twice put in jeopardy of, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 632. prohibition applied to states, Amdt. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. Limitation, statutes of, when do not impair obligation of contract, p. 406. suspension of acts, power of Congress to provide for, pp. 196, 216. of powers of general government, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 1-8, pp. 221-238. of powers of state sovereignty, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1-3, pp. 239-458. of powers of Congress, Amdt. arts. 1-10, pp. 619-685. of judicial power of United States, Amdt, art 11, p. 686. Loss of slave, claim for, illegal and void, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 734. Index. 937 Lotteries, tickets and circulars may be excluded from mails, p. 175. Congress may forbid interstate commerce in lottery tickets, p» 109. Magazines, arsenals, etc., Congress to have special jurisdiction, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 17, p. 205. jurisdiction over sites, p. 207. jurisdiction exclusive, p. 210. Mails, Congress may provide for carriage of, p. 175. may prohibit transportation of certain circulars in, p. 175. such action not interference with freedom of press, p. 175. plenary power of Congress, p. 175. concurrent power of states to punish depredations, p. 176. Majority, of each House to constitute a quorum, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. smaller number may adjourn, and compel attendance, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. quorum of House in case of election of President, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. of Senate in case of election of Vice-President, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. two-thirds of Senate on trial of impeachment, art. 1, sec. 3, cL 6, p. 54. Maritime contract, jurisdiction over, p. 537. Maritime jurisdiction, judicial power to extend to, art. 3, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 517. over maritime contracts, p. 537. Marque and reprisal, Congress may grant letters of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, p. 193. no state shall grant letters of, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. Marriage, between Indians, laws regulating, p. 151. statute creating new cause for divorce not ex post facto, p. 258. marriage not a contract within obligation clause, p. 286. regulated by state laws, p. 704. laws prohibiting between races valid, p. 704. Marshal, of United States cannot be commercial agent of foreign nation, p. 238. Martial law, defined, pp. 225, 475. power of President to proclaim, p. 476. effect of, on privilege of habeas corpus, p. 224. 938 Index. Maryland, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Massachusetts, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Means, of enforcement of power, government to have, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 218. enumeration of means not possible, p. 215. Measures, Congress shall fix standard of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, p. 171. Medicine, right to practice not privilege of citizenship, p. 706. Meeting of Congress, at least once a year, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 2, p. 57. Merchandise, state may license sale of, pp. 138, 437. commerce in original packages, p. 145. Messages, of President, p. 493. '• Migration," defined, p. 222. limitation of power of Congress, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 1, p. 221. section not to apply to state governments, p. 221. See Chinese. Military commander, cannot suspend privilege of writ of habeas corpus, p. 225. Military government, what is, p. 225. Military law, defined, p. 225. power of Congress to prescribe, p. 200. Military reservations, jurisdiction exclusive in government, p. 211. Militia, Congress shall provide for calling forth, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. power of Congress, when supreme, p. 201. may be delegated to President, pp. 201, 202. limitation of power, p. 202. shall provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. authority of government, when exclusive, p. 204. powers of states, p. 204. shall provide for governing, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. status of militia in service, p. 202. Index. 939 Militia — Continued. to execute laws, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. concurrent power of state to call out, p. 202. appointment of officers and training reserved to states, art. 1, sec, 8, cl. 16, p. 204. discipline to be prescribed by Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. maintenance of militia not a keeping of troops, p. 458. right of people to bear arms not to be infringed, Amdt. art. 2, p. 622. right of state to maintain, Amdt. art. 2, p. 622. Minister, appointment of, p. 481. jurisdiction of courts over, pp. 517, 542, 544. recognition of foreign minister a political function, p. 461. Misdemeanor, impeachment and removal for, art. 2, sec. 4, el. 1, p. 495. an extraditable offense, p. 581. when to be prosecuted by indictment, p. 629. Money, Congress may borrow on credit of United States, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 2, p. 89. what power includes, p. 89. issue of legal tender, p. 90. may issue notes to circulate as, p. 90. definition of, p. 91. shall have power to coin, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, p. 171. what is coinage, p. 171. may restrict circulation of other notes, pp. 90, 171. to be drawn from treasury only in consequence of appropria- tions, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. statement of receipts and expenditures to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. no appropriation for armies to be for more than two years, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 12, p. 197. states not to coin silver or gold, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 249. states not to make other than coin a legal tender, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 249. More perfect union, object of constitution to form, preamble, p. 36. construction of term, p. 36. Municipal bonds, authority of state over, p. 328. power to tax to pay cannot be withdrawn, p. 328. 940 . Index. Municipal contract, state authority over, p. 317. Municipal corporation, Congress cannot tax revenues of, p. 83. state may authorize to issue certificates of indebtedness, p. 246. charter not a contract, p. 309. subscription to railroad stock, p. 320. authority of legislature over ofiicers of, p. 315. over contracts of, p. 317. over liabilities of, p. 326 over bonds of, p. 328. Municipal liabilities, authority of state over, p. 326. Mutiny, Congress may punish for attempt to commit, p. 191. Nations, power to regulate commerce "with, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 3, pp. 95, 99. power to punish offenses against law of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 10, p. 190. National banks, means to enforce powers delegated, p. 217. state cannot tax, pp. 84, 93. National conscription, Congress may authorize, p. 197. National militia, how constituted, p. 202. Naturalization, Congress to establish uniform rule of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 4, p. 153. nature of proceeding, p. 153. effect of p. 156. extent of power, p. 154. persons entitled, p. 153. citizens by, to be citizens of United States, and states where they reside, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. purposes of amendment, p. 698. Naval forces, Congress shall make rules and regulations for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 14, p. 200. Navigable rivers, license to erect dams in, is revocable, p. 97. test of navigability, p. 97. state may erect drawbridge, pp. 113, 114. Navigable waters, of state and United States, distinguished, p. 112. power of Congress over, p. 97. Index. 941 Navigation, a part of commerce, p. 96. power of Congress to regulate, p. 96. Navy, Congress to provide and maintain, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 13, p. 199. Necessity, test of incidental powers, p. 213. Negroes, not embraced in term "people of the United States," p. 35. protection of, primary purpose of Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, pp. 693, 696, 738. See Slavery. New Hampshire, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. New Jersey, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. New States, may be admitted by Congress, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. not to be formed within jurisdiction of another without consent of Congress, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. nor be formed by junction of two states without consent, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 593. title to soil under tide waters, vests in, p. 596. New York, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, see. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Nobility, titles of, not to be granted by United States, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. no state to grant title of, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. Nominations, to office by President, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. North Carolina, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Number of electors, for President and Vice-President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. Oath of office, of President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 8, p. 467. exclusively for the President, p. 467. Senate may question member-elect's capacity to take, p. 60. whatl officers to take, art. 6, sec. 1, cl. 3, p. 615. provision directory, p. 615. Oath or affirmation, senators on trial of impeachment to be on, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. W2 Index. Oath or affirmation — Continued. warrants to be supported by, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. to support the constitution, art. 6, el. 3, p. 615. to be taken by all officers, p. 615. effect of omission to take, p. 615. provisions of state constitutions, requiring test-oaths, void, p. 615. religious test not to be required as a qualification for office, art. 6, el. 3, p. 615. to be taken by members of Congress, art. 6, sec. 1, cl. 3, p. 615. Objections by President, on return of bill, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. Obligations, existing, ratified by constitution, art. 6, cl. 1, p. 608. incurred in aid of rebellion, void, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Obligations of contracts, Congress not inhibited from* violating, pp. 161, 263. Congress may change currency in which to discharge contract, p. 91. state constitution cannot impair, p. 269. amendment to, cannot impair, p. 270. not to be impaired by state legislation, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 263. of other things than contracts not protected, p. 284. remedial laws valid, p. 273. validity, construction, and remedy are parts of, p. 384. "obligation" defined, p. 3S4. "impair" defined, p. 386. degree of impairment, p. 389. discharge of contract is an impairment, p. 389. giving diminished value or devesting prior liens is, p. 386. releasing one party from any stipulation in, is, p. 387. validity affected by subsequent statute of frauds, p. 388. any variation postponing or imposing conditions is, p. 387. any statute in contravention is, p. 386. what not impairment, p. 391. remedy as part of obligation, p. 396. remedy, how far may be changed, p. 398. what not impairment of remedy, p. 402. statute of limitations, p. 406. exemption laws, when invalid, p. 409. stay laws, how far invalid, p. 413. insolvency laws, when valid, p. 417. mortgage and redemption laws, p. 422. lien laws, p. 426. rights of action and defenses, p. 428. Index. 943 Obligations of contracts — Continued. laws regulating judicial proceedings, when valid, p. 434. police regulations, when valid, p. 437. Occupations, state may license exercise of, pp. 138, 441. regulation of not forbidden by Fourteenth Amendment, p. 717. Offenses, against law of nations, Congress may provide punishment for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 10, p. 190. President may grant reprieves or pardons, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, pp. 469, 476. no person to be put twice in jeopardy, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. jeopardy construed, p. 632. Office, who ineligible for members of House of Representatives, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 40. qualification for, p. 40. senator and representative not eligible for other office, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. holder of United States office not eligible for Congress, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. if created during his term, art. 1, sec. 6. cl. 2, p. 69. holder of, not to accept present or emolument from foreign king. etc., art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 23S. term of, of President and Vice-President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 458. of President, when to devolve on Vice-President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. who precluded from office of elector, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. appointment to and removal from, power of President, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, pp. 481, 485. clause construed, p. 485. appointment to, not a contract irrevocable, p. 287. vacancy in, when may be filled by President, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 492. commissions to expire at end of next session, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 492. who ineligible as senator, representative, or presidential elector, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. religious test not required as qualification for, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. oath of, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. Officers, Congress may vest appointment of inferior officers where it thinks proper, art. 2, sec. 2. cl. 2, pp. 482, 489. President to commission, p. 493. 944 Index. Officers — Continued. removal on impeachment for certain crimes, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495 ■who removable on impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495. of House of Representatives to be chosen by itself, art. 1, sec. 2, el. 5, p. 48. S&nate to choose its own, art. 1, sec. 3, el. 5, p. 54. civil, of United States, who are, p. 485. Operation, of constitution, p. 32. Opinion of officers, of executive departments, may be required by President, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. Orders, resolutions and vote to be presented to President, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. Ordinance, of secession, null and void, p. 241. Organizing, denned, p. 204. militia, Congress to provide for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. Original jurisdiction, of supreme court, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 542. Original package, commerce in subject to congressional action only, p. 145. Overt act, necessary to treason, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 555. Oysters, state may regulate planting and growth of, p. 129. See Fisheries. Papers, security from unreasonable searches, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. Pardons, President may grant, except in cases of impeachment, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, pp. 476, 479. pardoning power construed, p. 476. effect of pardon, p. 476. Passengers, state no power to levy tax on, p. 116. power of Congress to pass laws concerning, p. 108. State cannot impose burdens and conditions on, p. 116. state may exclude criminals and paupers, p. 119. "separate coach laws" valid, p. 706. Patent rights, Congress may pass laws securing, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. power of Congress defined, p. 183. Index. 945 Tatent rights — Continued. rights of inventors secured, p. 184. states' powers with reference to, p. 179. police powers not displaced by patent laws, p. 186. Payment, if public debt not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. of pensions, not to be questioned, Amdt, art. 14, see. 4, p. 736. Peddlers, and drummers distinguished, p. 141. state may impose license tax on, p. 140. Penalties, of absentees in Congress, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. Pensions and bounties, debts for, not to be questioned, Amdt. art, 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Congress may provide for pensions, p. 216. Pennsylvania, representatives at first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. People, constitution formed by, preamble, p. 35. of United States, who are, p. 35. sovereignty of, dates from revolution, p. 129. right of peaceable assemblage shall not be abridged, Amdt. art. 1, pp. 619, 621. right to bear arms not to be infringed, Amdt. art. 2, sec. 1, p. 622. to be secure in person and property from unreasonable seizures .•mil search, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. power of, as to amendments to constitution, unlimited, p. 606. right of, to petition for redress of grievances, p. 621. rights not disparaged by enumeration of powers in constitution, Amdt. art. 9, p. 672. powers not delegated nor prohibited are reserved to the, Amdt. art. 10, p. 673. all powers emanate from, pp. 36, 606. Persons, judicial power over, p. 525. who are, p. 727. Personal rights, of security against unreasonable searches, seizures, etc., Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. of parties accused of crime, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. rights as to property, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. jeopardy construed, p. 632. party not to be compelled to be witness against himself, p. 639* depriving of life, liberty, etc., p. 641. Notes on Constitution — 60 946 Index. Personal rights — Continued. "due process of law" defined, p. 641. right of eminent domain, p. 650. compensation on condemnation, p. 658. accused entitled to speedy trial, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 664. to be confronted by witness, Amdt. art. 6, sec. 1, pp. 663, 666. to have compulsory process, Amdt. art. 6, sec. 1, pp. 663, 666. to have assistance of counsel, Amdt. art. 6, sec. 1, pp. 663, 667. provisions of section applicable to federal powers only, p. 663. right of trial by jury in civil actions, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. excessive bail not to be required, Amdt. art. 8, sec. 1, p. 675. Petition for redress, right not to be abridged, Amdt. art. 1, pp. 619, 621. Pilots, power of CongTess as to, p. 106. concurrent power of states, p. 104. Piracies, Congress may define and punish, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 10, p. 190. definition of, what constitutes, p. 190. slave trade not, under law of nations, p. 191. felonies on high seas, what are, p. 191. Place of trial, crimes to be tried where, p. 553. Police power, in genera], p. 117. extent over trade and commerce, p. 117. cannot be abandoned, p. 438. as affecting contract obligations, p. 437. not impaired by Fourteenth Amendment, pp. 698, 716. Political power, not subject to judicial interference, p. 501. See Congress; Government. Polygamy, laws prohibiting, valid, p. 620. Ports, preference not to be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. vessels clearing not to pay duties, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. Pcstoflices and post-roads, Congress shall establish, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 7, p. 175. means necessary to exercise of power enumerated, p. 219. Postage rates, bill establishing not a revenue bill, p. 71. Powers, constitution a grant of, p. 27. Index. 947 Powers — Continued. existence of, how deduced, p. 77. delegation of, p. 79. not delegated, are reserved to people, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. construction for purpose of conferring, to be resorted to with caution, p. 28. See Congress; President; States. Powers of government, construed, p. 77. incidental to carry into execution, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 18, p. 212. devolved on people by the revolution, p. 677. not delegated nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. enumeration of, not to deny nor disparage others retained, Amdt. art. 9, p. 676. emanate from the people, p. 677. See Congress. Preamble, to constitution, p. 35. Preference, not to be given to one port over another, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. Present, or emolument from foreign potentate, not to be accepted by United States official, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. Presentment or indictment, necessary to put party on trial, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 628. except in cases in land and naval forces, and militia, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 631. change in mode of charging crime not ex post facto, p. 260. President, chief justice to preside on impeachment of, art. 1, sec. 3, cL 6, p. 54. shall approve and sign all bills, art. 1, see. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. mode of approval, pp. 72, 73. or return any bill with his objections, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. if not returned within ten days to become a law, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. proceedings of two Houses in ease of a veto, art. 1, sec. 7, el. 2, p. 72. orders, resolutions, or votes, when to be presented to, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. proceedings on return the same as on a bill, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. amendment to constitution need not be approved, p. 75. exclusive judge of exigency for calling out militia, pp. 201, 471. 948 Index. President — Continued. how to exercise command of militia, p. 470. cannot suspend writ of habeas corpus, but may be so authorized by Congress, p. 225. executive power to be vested in, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. term of office four years, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. executive powers, in general, p. 459. electors of, how appointed, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. where and how to meet and vote, art. 2, sec. 1, el. 3, p. 465. superseded, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. time of choosing electors of, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. eligibility for office of, art. 2, see. 1, cl. 5, p. 467. in case of removal, death, etc., Vice-President to act as, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 466. when Congress may designate officer to act as, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 465. compensation not to be increased or diminished during term of office, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 7, p. 465. to take oath of office, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 8, p. 465. commander-in-chief of army, navy, and militia, when called out, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. may require opinion of principal officer of departments, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. may grant reprieves or pardons, except in cases of impeachment, art, 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, pp. 469, 476. power as commander-in-chief, p. 469. authority over conquered territory, p. 472. declaring martial law a war power of, p. 474. pardoning power construed, p. 476. may make treaties by and with consent of Senate, art. 2, sec. 2, el. 2, p. 481. treaty defined, p. 481. extent of power, p. 482. may appoint officers by and with consent of Senate, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. power of appointment and removal defined, p. 485. may fill vacancies that happen in recess of Senate, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 492. commissions to fill vacancies, when to expire, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 492. to give information and recommend measures to Congress, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. when may convene both or either House, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. when may adjourn Congress, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. shall receive ambassadors and public ministers., art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. Index. 949 President — Continued. shall take, care that laws be faithfully executed, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. shall commission all officers, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. shall be removed on conviction on impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 495. President and Vice-President, manner of choosing, art. 2, see. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. who disqualified to be elector, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. Congress may determine time of choosing electors, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 4, p. 466. electors to meet and vote by ballot, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. one at least not to be an inhabitant of state, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. electors to name in distinct ballots persons voted for, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. distinct list of votes to be made, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. to be signed, certified, and transmitted to President of Senate, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. duty of President of Senate on receipt of returns, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. person having greatest number of votes to be, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. proceedings, if no person has a majority, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. in choosing President by the legislature, each state to have one vote, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. quorum for this purpose to be two-thirds of states, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. and a majority of states required to elect, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. in case of no choice being made, Vice-President to act, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. President of Senate, Vice-President shall be, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 4, p. 54. when Senate may choose pro tempore, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 5, p. 54. shall have no vote except on equal division, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 4, p. 54. duty on return of votes of presidential electors, Amdt. art. 12, p. 690. Press, freedom of, not to be abridged, Amdt. art. 1, pp. 619, 620. Private property, not to be taken for public use without compensation, Amdt. arc. 5, pp. 627, 658. Privilege, of members of Congress from arrest, except, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. 950 Index. Privilege — Continued. members not to be questioned for speech or debate, art. 1, sec. 6, el. 1, pp. 66, 68. extent of privilege, pp. 66, 67. of writ of habeas corpus and writ itself distinguished, p. 223. of witness, pp. 627, 639. Privileges and immunities, of vessels in ports of states to be common and equal, p. 234. of citizens of states, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 569. "citizen" defined, p. 570. construction of term privileges and immunities, pp. 572, 702. extent of restriction on states, p. 575. soldiers not to be quartered without consent of owner, Amdt. art. 3, p. 623. persons not to be put twice in jeopardy for same offense, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 632. nor be deprived of property without due process of law, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 641. citizens of United States are citizens of state where they reside, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 698. not to be abridged by state laws, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 702. state not to deprive of life, etc., without due process of law, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 708. nor deny to any person equal protection of the laws, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 728. section applies to citizens of United States, p. 699. purpose of amendment, p. 698. civil rights protected, p. 703. equal protection of the laws, construed, p. 728. Prizes, Congress may make rules concerning, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, pp. 193, 196. Probable cause, what is, p. 625. Procedure, Congress may regulate, in federal courts, pp. 187, 189. may adopt state procedure, pp. 498, 507. change in criminal procedure not ex post facto, p. 259. regulation by state not impairment of obligation, p. 398. Process. necessary to search, p. 624. Process of law, person not to be deprived of life, etc., without, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 641. provision made applicable to states, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. for obtaining witnesses, rights of accused, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 666. Index. 951 Profession, state may license the exercise of, pp. 138, 259. Progress of science and art, Congress to have power to promote, art. 1, see. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. Property, parties not to be deprived of, without due process of law, Am«t. art. 5, pp. 627, 643. protection of right to, p. 646. depriving of, construed, p. 648. "due process of law," defined, p. 641. right of eminent domain, p. 650. compensation on condemnation, p. 658. states inhibited from depriving of without due process of law, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 712. protection of citizens, p. 698. citizens, who are, p. 698. equal protection of the laws as to, p. 728. Property of United States, Congress may dispose of, and make rules and regulations for, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 596. terms in clause, construed, pp. 596, 597. Prosecutions, accused to have speedy and public trial, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 664. to be tried by jury in state or district where crime was com- mitted, Amdt. art. 6, p. 663. to be informed of nature and cause of accusation, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 664. to be confronted with witnesses, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 666. to have compulsory process for witnesses, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 666. to have counsel for his defense, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 666. Protection, of interests of states devolves on federal government, p. 603. against invasion and from domestic violence, art. 4, see. 4, p. 663. of life, liberty, and property of persons, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. Public debt, of United States, payment not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Public grants, as contracts, p. 291. may be exempted from taxation, p. 302. Public lands, power to dispose of, p. 596. U52 Index. Public lands — Continued. state may exempt purchaser of, from taxation, p. 302. effect of exemption upon subsequent purchaser, p. 302. Public ministers, power of President to appoint, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. extent of judicial power over, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, pp. 481, 543. Public moneys, statements of, to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 237. Public policy, not a guide in construction, p. 30. Public ships, not subject to local jurisdiction, p. 200. Public use, property not to be taken for, without just compensation, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 658. Punishment, judgment on impeachment not to bar trial, etc., art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 7, p. 54. eruel and unusual, prohibited, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. for treason, Congress to declare, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 559. Congress may prescribe for offenses against commerce, p. 215. for crimes on the high seas, p. 190. for military and naval offenses, p. 200. for fraud under pension laws, p. 216. for crimes and offenses impeding operation of government, p. 216. power of, incidental to operation of sovereignty, p. 218. statutes, when ex post facto, p. 254. increased for second offense — not ex post facto, p. 255. "punishment" denned, p. 254. Qualifications, no religious test shall be required for office, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. of electors and members of House of Kepresentatives, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 1, pp. 39, 40. state rules adopted by constitution, p. 39. of members of House as to age and inhabitancy, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 40. of senators as to age and inhabitancy, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 3, p. 53. state cannot add to constitutional requirements, p. 53. each House to judge of, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. of President of United States, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 5, p. 467. of Vice-President, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. Quarantine, state may legislate as to, p. 124. Quartering soldiers, in time of peace, Amdt. art. 3, p. 623. Index. 953 Quartering soldiers — Continued. in time of war, manner to be prescribed by Congress, Amdt. art. 3, p. 623. Quorum, a majority of each House constitutes, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 1, p. 58. a less number may adjourn and compel attendance, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. in case of choice of President, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. to elect Vice-President by Senate, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. majority of whole number necessary for choice, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. Race or color, rights of citizens not to be denied on account of, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. Railroads, subjects of commerce power, p. 107. extent of powers of state over, pp. 118, 718. state may fix maximum rates of freight, pp. 114, 365, 718. may forbid running of trains on Sunday, p. 120. may authorize appointment of railroad commissioners, p. 367. state may tax property of, p. 130. subject to public supervision, p. 119. statute may render liable for injury to person or property, p. 720. legislature may authorize municipal corporation to subscribe for stock of, p. 320. charter a contract, p. 363. consolidated company, what law to govern, p. 364. immunity from taxation in charter, p. 348. effect of exemption from taxation, p. 354. reserved power to alter or amend charter, p. 373. reserved power to repeal, p. 382. Railroad commissioners, legislature may authorize appointment of, p. 367. Raise and support armies, power of Congress, p. 197. Rates, power of states to regulate fares and charges, pp. 114, 115, 365. restrictions on power by Fourteenth Amendment, p. 718. Ratification of amendments, what required, art. 5, p. 606. of constitution, number of states required, art. 7, p. 616. names of states, with dates, pp. 616, 617. Ratio of representation, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. how apportioned among the several states, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. 954 Index. Ratio of representation — Continued. Indians not taxed excluded from count, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. when reduced, denial of right to vote, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. Rebellion, Congress may suspend statute of limitation during, pp. 196, 216. power of Congress to suppress, p. 201. power of Congress to fix conditions of returning peace, p. 201. power of executive as to calling out troops, pp. 201, 471. privilege of writ of habeas corpus may be suspended during, p. 223. law affecting life or property for participating in. is a bill of attainder, pp. 227, 251. state no right to secede, pp. 240, 684. ordinance of secession null and void, p. 241. Confederate states not a de facto government, p. 242. constitutional objections not affected by, p. 240. what legislation of rebel states is valid, p. 244. contracts in and of, void, pp. 243, 244. states in, never were out of the Union, pp. 240, 243. certain participants disabled from holding office, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Congress may remove disability, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735, debts incurred to suppress not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. debts incurred in aid of, illegal and void, Amdt. art. 14, see. 4, p. 736. Receipts and expenditures, of public money to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. Recess of Senate, President may commission to fill vacancies in office, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 492. Reconsideration, of bill returned by President, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. Records, of state, full faith and credit to be given to, art. 4, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 561. Redemption, right of, power of state, p. 422. Redress of grievances, right to petition for, cannot be abridged, Amdt. art. 1, pp. 619, 621. Re-examination of causes, art. 7, p. 668. section, to what apply, p. 672. Index. 955 Regulations, for election of senators and representatives, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. commerce regulations, what are, pp. 98, 100, 105, 116. police regulations, states' power to enact, pp. 117, 437, 716. Religion, Congress can make no laws as to establishment of, Amdt. art. 1, p. 619. laws prohibiting- polvgamy not objectionable, p. 620. power over, left with states, Amdt. art. 1, p. 619. Religious tests, shall never be required as qualification for office, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. Remedies, as part of contract, cannot be impaired, pp. 396, 398. change of, not necessarily illegal, pp. 396, 402. what not impairment of contract, p. 402. statute of limitations, p. 406. exemption laws, when valid, p. 409. stay laws, when invalid, p. 413. state insolvency laws, p. 417. mortgage and redemption laws, p. 422. lien laws, p. 426. rights of action and defenses, p. 428. state may regulate right of appeal, pp. 644, 711. Removal from office, executive power of, p. 485. on impeachment, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. Removal of causes, Congress may provide for, p. 513. Repeal, of charter, state power, p. 382. Representation and direct taxation, how apportioned, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. changed by amendment, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. until first enumeration, ratio of, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. state executive to issue writs of election to fill vacanaies, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. no state to be deprived of equality in Senate, without consent, art. 5, p. 606. among several states, according to population, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. excluding Indians not taxed, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734, basis reduced on denial of right to vote, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. 956 Index. Representatives, House of, a branch of Congress, art. 1, sec. 1, p. 38. qualifications of electors of members, art. 1, see. 2, el. 1, p. 39. construction of section, p. 39. as to age and inhabitancy, art. 1, sec. 2, el. 2, p. 40. how apportioned among states, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. apportionment a legislative question, p. 44. changed by amendment, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. construction of section, p. 44. may be expelled, causes for, p. 63. effect of resignation, p. 52. shall choose speaker and other officers, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 5, p. 48. shall have sole power of impeachment, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 5, p. 48. state executive to issue writs of election to fill vacancies, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. legislatures to prescribe times, places, and manner of elections, art, 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. Congress may alter regulations, except as to places, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. compensation to be ascertained by law, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. shall be privileged from arrest, except, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. shall not be questioned for speech or debate, art. 1, sec. 6, el. 1, p. 66. shall be ineligible for office created during their term, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. who ineligible to office of, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. bills for raising revenue to originate in House, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 1, p. 71. ineligible to office of presidential elector, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. oath to be taken by, art. 6, sec. 1, cl. 3, p. 615. shall be bound by oath to support constitution, art. 6, sec. 1, cl. 3, p. 615. provisions relative to apportionment of, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. when basis to be reduced, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 2, p. 734. disability for participation in rebellion, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. may be removed by Congress, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Reprieves, President may grant, except, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, pp. 469, 476. Reprisal, Congress may grant letters of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 11, pp. 193, 196. no state shall grant, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. Republican form of government, guaranteed to states, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. Index. 957 Reserved power, of states and people, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. instances of power reserved, p. 681. no right of secession, p. 684. right to alter, amend, or repeal charter may be reserved, p. 373. extent of power or rights reserved, p. 377. Reserved rights, enumeration of rights, not to deny or disparage others retained, Amdt. art. 9, p. 676. powers not delegated to United States nor prohibited to states are reserved, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. powers emanate from the people, p. 677. no reversed right of secession, p. 684. Resignation of President, Vice-President to act, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. Congress may provide for case of, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. Resolution, concurrent to be presented to President, art. 1, see. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. Retrospective statutes, when and when not invalid, p. 273. Revenue, bills to originate in House, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 1, p. 71. what is revenue bill, p. 71. preference not to be given to ports, art. 1, see. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. Congress may use means to collect in its discretion, p. 216. or means to protect collectors, p. 216. Revenue stamp, not to be required on process in state courts, p. 83. or on foreign bills of lading, p. 233. Revolutionary war, cast powers of government on people, p. 677. Rhode Island, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Right of petition, not to be abridged, Amdt. art. 1, p. 619. Right of redemption, legislative power over, p. 422. Right to bear arms, not to be infringed, Amdt. art. 2, cl. 1, p. 622. Rights enumerated, not to deny or disparage other, retained, Amdt. art. 9. p. 676. not delegated to United States or prohibited to states are re- served, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. 958 Index. Eights of citizens, protection of, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. state not to abridge, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 696. purpose of amendment, pp. 696, 697. to vote, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. amendment construed, p. 738. may be protected by Congress, Amdt, art. 15, sec. 2, p. 740. Eights of people, not disparaged by enumeration of rights in constitution, Amdt. art. 9, p. 676. Eights of property, in invention, p. 185. Eoads, authority of Congress to establish, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 7, pp. 175, 176. Eobbery, on high seas is piracy, p. 190. of mail, concurrent power to punish for, p. 176. Eules, of proceedings, each House may determine, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. and regulations respecting territory and property of United States, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 596. of common law, trial by jury, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. re-examination of facts by, Amdt. art. 7, pp. 668, 672. rules of procedure in federal courts, Congress may prescribe, pp. 187, 189. state rules may be adopted, pp. 498, 507. of evidence, when statute not ex post facto, p. 256. Salaries, of office may be reduced, p. 290. See Compensation. Schools, provision for separate valid, pp. 704, 730. Science and art, Congress may promote progress of, art, 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. Searches and seizures, security of people against, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. warrants, what essential to, Amdt, art. 4, pp. 624, 625. Seat of government, exclusive legislation of Congress over, art. 1, sec. 8, el. 17, p. 205. Secession and confederation, prohibited to states, pp. 239, 240. ordinance of, void, p. 241. not a reserved right, p. 684. Index. 959 Secretary of Interior, cannot make penal laws, p. 79. Secretary of Treasury, may make customs regulations, p. 79. Secretary of War, no right to suspend privilege of writ of habeas corpus, p. 225. cannot sell government property, p. 210. may be empowered to supervise government work, p. 79. Secret sessions, in discretion, p. 65. Securities, punishment for counterfeiting, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 6, p. 173. of government, Congress may exempt from taxation, p. 218. of confederacy invalid, p. 243. Seizure, protection from, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. warrants, what necessary to obtain, p. 625. Senate and House of Representatives, components of Congress, art. 1, see. 1, p. 38. Senate, composed of two senators from each state, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 49. chosen by legislatures for six years, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 49. construction of clause, pp. 49, 50. vacancies, how created, p. 51. executive cannot appoint, when, p. 52. qualifications for, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 3, p. 53. division into classes, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 51. Vice-President to be President of, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 4, p. 54. to choose officers and president pro tempore, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 5, p. 54. to have sole power to try impeachments, art. 1, sec. 3, cL 6, p. 54. on such trial to be on oath or affirmation, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. chief justice to preside on trial of President, art. 1, see. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. concurrence of two-thirds required for conviction, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. shall be judge of returns and qualifications of its members, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. majority to constitute a quorum, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. smaller number may adjourn and compel attendance, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 1, p. 58. may determine rules of its proceedings, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. may punish or expel a member, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 62. to keep journal of its proceedings, art. 1, sec. 5, el. 3, p. 65. 960 Index. Senate — Continued. to publish the same, except, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 3, p. 65. restriction on power to adjourn, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 4, p. 65. may propose amendments to revenue bills, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 1, p. 71. shall advise and consent to ratifications of treaties, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. • 481. shall advise and consent to the appointment of ambassadors, etc., art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. and judges of the supreme court and other officers, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. when may be convened by President, art. 2, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 493. no state without its consent to be deprived of its equal suffrage in, art. 5, p. 606. Senators, to be divided into three classes, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 51. seats of classes, when vacated, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 51. qualifications as to age and inhabitancy, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 3, p. 53. time, place, and manner of choosing, how fixed, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. Congress may alter except as to places, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. to be privileged from arrest, except, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. compensation to be ascertained by law, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. shall not be questioned for speech or debate, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. ineligible to offices created during term of service, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. who ineligible to office of, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 2, p. 69. ineligible to office of presidential elector, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 69. shall be bound by oath to support the constitution, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. certain persons disqualified, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Congress may remove disability, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. Service or labor, delivery up of fugitives from, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 590. Servitude, involuntary, except for crime, abolished, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 1, p. 692. rights of citizens not to be abridged on account of prior condi- tion of, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. Shipping, Congress, power to establish rules for, p. 106. state may impose license tax, pp. 113, 144. Ships of war, states shall not keep, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. Index. 961 Slave, claim for loss or emancipation of, void, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Slave trade, not piracy under law of nations, p. 191. Slavery, abolished, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 1, p. 692. power of Congress to enforce provision, Amdt. art. 13, sec. 1, p. 694. Soldiers, not to be quartered in any house without the consent of owner, Amdt. art. 3, see. 1, p. 623. payment of bounties not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4. p. 736. South Carolina, representatives in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. Sovereignty, of the state and United States governments within spheres, p. 677. See Government; State; United States. Speaker, House to choose speaker and other officers, art. 1, see. 2, cl. 5, p. 48. Speech, Congress not to abridge freedom of, Amdt. art. 1, sec. 1, p. 619. Speedy trial, right to, p. 664. Standard of weights and measures, Congress shall fix, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, pp. 171, 172. States, what is "state," p. 239. executives shall issue writs of election to fill vacancies in House, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. cannot tax means and instruments of government, p. 83. cannot tax government securities, pp. 83, 91. may tax estates composed of government securities, p. 93. commerce among, to be regulated by Congress, art. 1 sec. 8, cl. 3, p. 95. cannot lay tax on freight, pp. 130, 134. cannot obstruct navigation, pp. 96, 97. concurrent power over commerce, p. 101. power when exclusive in Congress, p. 101. no power beyond right of self-defense, p. 117. may regulate sale of dangerous commodities, pp. 126, 721. may regulate or prohibit sale of liquors, pp. 127, 440. Notes on Constitution — 61 962 Index. States — Continued. state authority as to naturalization, p. 154. may punish for uttering counterfeit coin, p. 174. or for cheating by base coin, p. 174. or for keeping counterfeit implements, p. 174. power to punish offenses against postal laws, p. 176. power with reference to patents and copyrights, p. 179. power over militia, pp. 202, 204. may punish for neglect to obey orders, p. 202. concurrent power to call out militia, p. 202. authority to officer and train militia, p. 204. authority over corporations, pp. 143, 335, 678, 718. no power to tax passengers, p. 116. police powers of state supreme, pp. 117, 437, 438, 698. power over internal commerce, p. 111. authorities over fisheries, p. 128. license taxes, p. 138. state insolvent laws, validity of, pp. 161, 417. when superseded, p. 164. territorial limit of authority, p. 166. validity of insolvent discharge, p. 165. reserved power as to militia, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 16, p. 204. authority over land ceded to government, p. 210. ports of, not to have preference over other state ports, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. no right to secede, pp. 240, 684. shall not enter into treaties, alliance, or confederation, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 240. shall not grant letters of marque and reprisal, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. shall not coin money, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 249. shall not emit bills of credit, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. "bill of credit," defined, p. 249. restriction as to making a legal tender, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 249. construction, p. 249. shall not pass bills of attainder, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. bill of attainder, what is, pp. 239, 251. or ex post facto law, art. 1 sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 252. "ex post facto law," defined, p. 253. what not, p. 257. may regulate elective franchise, pp. 252, 738. or law impairing obligation of contracts, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 263. inhibition to apply to states, and not to Congress, p. 263. laws merely retrospective not inhibited, p. 273. Index. 963 States — Continued. inhibition construed, p. 263. may contract with individuals, p. 288. bound by their contracts, p. 288. shall not grant any title of nobility, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. consent of state to be sued not a contract, p. 306. not to lay imposts or duties without consent of Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. "imposts" and "duties" denned, p. 447. inspection taxes, power to levy, p. 449. net proceeds for use of United States treasury, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, pp. 444, 449. state laws subject to revision of Congress, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. not to lay duties on tonnage, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. tonnage duties, what are, pp. 451-454. not to keep troops or war-ships in time of peace, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. not to enter into agreement or compact with other state, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. agreements or compacts, what are, p. 456. not to engage in war unless actually invaded, art. 1, sec. 10, cl 3, pp. 451, 458. jurisdiction of state courts coextensive with its territory, p. 510. removal of causes from, p. 513. faith and credit given to state official acts, etc., art. 4, sec. 1, p 561. effect of judgments of state courts, p. 564. privileges and immunities of citizens secured, art. 4, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 569. citizens, who are, p. 569. privileges and immunities, p. 572. state rights as to citizens, p. 575. rights on admission of new state, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, pp. 593, 595. territorial property, claim to not prejudiced, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 596. republican form of government guaranteed to, art. 4, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 603. entitled to protection from invasion, art. 4, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 603. right to maintain militia, Amdt. art. 2, p. 622. powers not delegated are reserved, Amdt. art. 10, p. 677. powers concurrent, when, p. 680. state rights construed, p. 677. sovereignty, p. 677. secession not a reserved right, p. 684. what powers are reserved, p. 681. 964 Index. States — Continued. personal rights protected, Amdt. art. 5, p. 627. states not to abridge privileges and immunities of citizens, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, pp. 696, 702. purpose of amendment, pp. 696, 697. cannot deny or abridge the right of citizens to vote, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. cannot without its consent be deprived of its equal suffrage in Senate, art. 5, p. 606. three-fourths of states may ratify amendments, art. 5, p. 606. State bonds, may be taxed, p. 277. State debts, cannot be repudiated, p. 303. provision that evidences of are receivable in payment of taxes is contract, p. 305. State officers, oath to be taken by, art. 6, cl. 3, p. 615. State records, manner of authentication of, art. 4, sec. 1, pp. 561, 568. effect of judgment of state courts, p. 564. power of Congress, p. 567. State rights, acts and official record to have full faith and credit, art. 4, sec. 1, p. 561. Congress to prescribe manner of authentication and effect of, art. 4, sec. 1, pp. '561, 568. privileges and immunities of state citizens, art. 4, sec. 2, p. 569. republican form of government guaranteed, art. 4, sec. 4, p. 603. right to protection by general government, art. 4, see. 4, p. 603. Congress to decide form of government, p. 604. powers not delegated nor prohibited, are reserved to the states. Amdt. art. 10, sec. 1, p. 677. secession not a reserved right, p. 684. Statement, of receipts and expenditures to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. Statute of limitations, Congress may suspend during rebellion, pp. 196, 216 validity of, as to obligation of contracts, p. 406. Stockholders, state may control liability of, p. 345. Succession tax, Congress may impose, pp. 87, 232. Index. *)65 Suffrage, right not conferred by Fifteenth Amendment, p. 738. derived from states, p. 738. mere citizenship does not confer, p. 738. Sunday laws, not abridgment of religious liberty, p. 620. states may pass, pp. 439, 721. Supreme court, judicial power vested in, art. 3, sec. 1, p. 496. jurisdiction of, pp. 542, 546. original jurisdiction, p. 542. appellate jurisdiction, p. 546. to what cases to apply, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 542. jurisdiction over, what subjects, pp. 542, 546. as to persons, p. 543. See Judicial Power. Supreme law, constitution laws, and treaties to be, art. 6, cl. 2, p. 609. judges in every state bouud by, art. 6, cl. 2, p. 609. constitution as, p. 609. treaty as, p. 612. Suppression of insurrection, Congress to provide for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 15, p. 201. debts incurred for, not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. debts in aid of insurrection, void, p. 735. Suspension, of writ of habeas corpus, effect of, p. 223. Taxation, bills for, to originate in House, p. 71. power of Congress, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1, pp. 76, 80. "taxation" defined, p. 80. power concurrent in national and state government, p. 81. state power of, pp. 81, 276. coextensive with state territory, p. 684. governmental agencies not taxable, p. 83. succession tax not direct tax, pp. 87, 232. exemption of securities from, pp. 92, 217. state taxation as burden on commerce, p. 130. as impairing contracts, p. 276. state licenses, effect of, on, p. 296. state may waive right of, pp. 299, 357. state may exempt from, pp. 299, 357. state prohibited from laying imposts or duties, except, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 2, p. 444. 966' Index, Taxation — Continued. state not to lay tonnage duty on vessels, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. tonnage duty, what is, p. 451. Taxes, how apportioned among the states, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 44. on passenger, when invalid, p. 116. "tax" and "toll" distinguished, p. 80. Congress shall have power to levy and collect, art. 1, sec. 8, cL 1, p. 76. to be uniform throughout the United States, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1^ p. 76. direct taxes, when and how levied, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 4, p. 231. capitation or direct, to be in proportion to census, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 4, p. 231. "capitation tax" defined, p. 231. direct tax, what is, p. 231. on exports from state prohibited, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 5, p. 233. exception as to insurrectionary states, p. 233. Telegraph companies, state may tax, pp. 135, 136. amenable to police power, p. 122. business of is commerce, p. 135. Congress may authorize operation of, p. 177. taxation by state when proper, pp. 135, 136. Telephone companies, same rules applicable as to telegraph companies, p. 123. Tender, restriction on power of state, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, pp. 239, 249. incidental power of United States government, p. 90. Tenure of office, of United States judges, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, pp. 496, 510. Congress cannot limit, p. 496. Term of office, of President and Vice-President, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. of representatives, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 39. of senators, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 49. of United States judges, art. 3, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 496. Territorial courts, Congress may define jurisdiction of, p. 508. not "inferior courts," p. 187. nor United States courts, p. 508. source of power to establish, p. 187. Territorial government, powers of Congress, p. 600. Index. 967 Territory, not entitled to representative till admitted, p. 40. acquired by conquest, authority of Executive over, p. 472. cession of territory does not make it part of United States, pp. 472, 599. Congress to dispose of and to make rules to regulate, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 596. Construction of section, p. 596. title to soil under tide waters, p. 129. Test, religious, not required as qualification for office, art. 6, el. 3, p. 615. Test oath, constitutional provision for, a bill of attainder, pp. 226, 251. Testimony, necessary to conviction for treason, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, pp. 555, 558. Time, fraction of a day, when noted, p. 73. Times, places and manner, of elections to Congress, art. 1, see. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. Congress may alter regulations, except, art. 1, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 55. Title of nobility, United States shall not grant, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. no state shall grant, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. United States official not to accept, from king, etc., art. 1, see. 9, cl. 8, p. 238. Toll, and tax distinguished, p. 80. mail contractor must pay, p. 177. Tolls and freights, authority of legislature, pp. 114, 115, 718. Tonnage, restriction on state as to duty of, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, p. 451. definition of, p. 451. compensatory fees not tonnage taxes, p. 454. Trademarks, copyrights not to apply to, p. 178. Tranquility, purpose of constitution to insure, preamble, p. 35. Transfer, of causes, power of Congress, p. 513. power of Congress to provide for, of records, p. 594. Transportation, an element of commerce, p. 95. 968 Index. Transportation — Continued. state may prescribe regulations for safety, p. 121. power of state over chartered companies, pp. 132, 133. Treason, in what consists, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 555. elements of, p. 555. testimony necessary to convict of, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, pp. 555, 558, definition of offense, p. 555. Congress to declare punishment for, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 559. power exclusive in Congress, p. 559. attainder of, not to work corruption of blood, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 559. shall not work forfeiture, except d\iring life, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 559. removal from office on conviction of, art. 2, sec. 4, cl. 1, p. 495. privilege from arrest not to extend to cases of, art. 1, sec. 6, cl. 1, p. 66. secession was armed treason, p. 242. Treasury, money drawn from, only in consequence of appropriation, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. accounts of receipts and expenditures to be published, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 7, p. 236. Treasury notes, Congress may issue, pp. 89, 90. may make legal tender, pp. 90, 91. state cannot tax, p. 91. Treaties, President, with concurrence of Senate, may make, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. "treaty" defined, p. 481. extent of power to make, p. 482. judicial power to extend to eases under, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. to be supreme law, binding on all judges, art. 6, cl. 2, p. 612. state prohibited from making, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 1, p. 239. Trial, and judgment after conviction, on impeachment, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 7, p. 54. formal trial not necessary to due process of law, p. 643. waiver of in civil cases, p. 673. law regulating mode of, not ex post facto, p. 259. Trial by jury, of all crimes except cases of impeachment, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 551. Index. 969 Trial by Jury— Continued. provision, to what applies, p. 551. to be held in state where crime was committed, art. 3, sec. 2, el. 3, p. 551. when not committed within a state, to be where Congress di- rects, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 551. of accused to be speedy and public, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 665. provision not extended to territory upon cession, p. 667. in civil suits at common law, Amdt. art. 7, p. 668. right, when not to attnch, p. 671. re-examination of causes, p. 672. trial by jury not essential to due process of law, p. 643. Tribunals, inferior to supreme court, Congress may establish, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 9, p. 187. Troops, state shall not keep in time of peace, art. 1, sec. 10, cl. 3, pp. 451, 458. Turnpikes, state may charter, pp. 112, 113, 362. grant of franchise construed, p. 362. power of legislature over franchise, pp. 362, 377. Two-thirds, of Senate to concur in conviction on impeachment, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. of each House may expel a member, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. may pass a bill over President's veto, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. concurrence required to make treaty, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. of states, for call of convention to propose amendments, art. 5, p. 606. of both Houses may propose amendments, art. 5, p. 606. of states represented, required for choice of President by House, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 631. of senators, required for election of Vice-President, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. of Congress, may remove disability to office, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. "Uniform," defined, p. 159. Uniformity, required in bankrupt law, p. 159. in imposition of taxes, p. 88. Union, purpose of constitution to establish more perfect, preamble, p. 36. perpetual and indissoluble, p. 240. states were never out of, p. 240. 970 Index. Union — Continued. state of, to be given to Congress by President, art. 2, sec. 3, p. 493. new states may be admitted into, art. 4, see. 3, el. 1, p. 593. restriction as to formation of new states, art. 4, sec. 3, cl. 1, pp. 593, 594. United States, "people of," defined, p. 35. powers of government of, pp. 36, 680. who are citizens of, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 1, p. 698. See Government. United States bonds, exemption from state taxation, p. 91. United States courts, power of Congress to institute, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 9, p. 187. bound by rule of property of state supreme court, p. 498. jurisdiction of, art. 3, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 517. extent of jurisdiction, pp. 504, 520. territorial courts not, p. 508. jurisdiction as to person, p. 520. admiralty and maritime, p. 33. powers over maritime contracts, pp. 533, 537. United States marshal, cannot be commercial agent of foreign nation, p. 238. Unreasonable searches and seizures, prohibited, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. Unusual punishments, not to be inflicted, Amdt. art. 8, p. 675. Useful arts, Congress to promote progress of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 8, p. 178. Usury laws, validity of, pp. 393, 394. Vacancy, in representation, Executive to issue writs of election to fill, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. how created, p. 46. in Senate, how filled, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 2, p. 51. during recess of Senate to be filled by commission, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 3, p. 492. power of President to fill, p. 492. by Executive appointed, effect of, p. 52. created by acceptance of incompatible office, p. 69. Validity of public debt, not to be questioned, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 4, p. 736. Index. 971 Vessels, from port of one state, not to be obliged to pay duties in an- other, art. 1, sec. 9, cl. 6, p. 234. power of Congress to make regulations for, pp. 106, 107. state may regulate positions in harbors, etc., p. 118. Congress may provide punishment for conspiracy to burn, p. 191. of war, not subject to local jurisdiction, p. 200. of war, Congress may build, p. 200. power of states to tax, pp. 131, 452. state may make inspection laws, p. 449. privileges and immunities of, p. 234. not obliged to enter or clear in interstate commerce, p. 234. Vested rights, term defined, p. 264. constitution does not deprive Congress of power to infringe, p. 161. cannot be devested by state legislation, pp. 264, 265. under land grants, p. 292. under grants from state generally, p. 291. Veto, of bill by President, proceedings of Congress on, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. Vice-President, to be president of Senate, art. 1, see. 3, cl. 4, p. 54. to have no vote except on equal division, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 4, p. 54. Senate may choose president pro tempore, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 5, p. 54. to be chosen for four years, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 1, p. 459. number of electors, and manner of appointing, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 2, p. 464. duties of President, when to devolve on, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. Congress may provide by law for appointment of, in certain cases, art. 2, sec. 1, cl. 6, p. 467. removal from office by impeachment, art. 2, sec. 4, p. 495. manner of choosing by electors, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. to be named by electors in distinct ballots, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. distinct lists to be signed, certified, and sent to president of Senate, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. count of votes by president of Senate, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. person having greatest number of votes to be, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. if no person have majority, Senate to choose, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. 972 Index. Vice-President — Continued. quorum for such purpose to be two-thirds, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. majority of whole number necessary to a choice, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. when to act as President, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. eligibility to office of, Amdt. art. 12, p. 691. Violation of obligation, of contract, prohibition, pp. 239, 263. See Obligation of Contract. Virginia, representation in first Congress, art. 1, sec. 2, el. 3, p. 45. Volunteers, state may give bounty to, p. 198. Vote, each senator shall have one, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 49. Vice-President not to have, except on equal division, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 4, p. 49. requiring concurrence of two Houses to be presented to Presi- dent, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 3, p. 75. each House may expel a member by two-thirds, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 2, p. 62. bill vetoed may be passed by a two-thirds, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72. of two-thirds required for conviction on impeachment, art. 1, sec. 3, cl. 6, p. 54. two-thirds of Congress necessary to propose amendments, art. 5, p. 606. consent of two-thirds Senate necessary to make treaty, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 2, p. 481. two-thirds necessary to remove disability for office, Amdt. art. 14, sec. 3, p. 735. effect of denying right to, on apportionment or representation, Amdt. art. 14, see. 2, p. 734. for President and Vice-President, how taken, Amdt. art. 12, pp. 690, 691. right of citizens, cannot be abridged, Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. right to, not to be abridged by reason of race, color, etc., Amdt. art. 15, sec. 1, p. 738. right to comes from states, p. 738. Waiver, of privilege as witness, p. 641. of jury trial, p. 673. Index. 973 War, defined, p. 193. power of Congress to declare, art. 1, see. 8, cl. 11, p. 194. power exclusive, p. 194. powers incidental to war power, p. 216. power to make rules and articles of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 14, p. 200. no state without consent of Congress, to engage in, art. 1, sec. 10, el. 3, pp. 451, 458. treason consists in levying, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, p. 555. quartering soldiers in time of, to be regulated by Congress, Amdt. art. 3, p. 623. Warehouses, state may regulate storage, etc., p. 113. Warrants, to issue only on probable cause, Amdt. art. 4, p. 624. on oath or affirmation, Amdt. art. 4, pp. 624, 625. Washington, jurisdiction of Congress over, p. 205. See Seat of Government; District of Columbia. Weights and Measures, Congress to fix standard of, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 5, p. 171. power exclusive, when exercised, p. 172. Welfare, purpose of Congress to secure, preamble, p. 35. Congress shall have power to provide for, art. 1, sec. 8, cl. 1. p. 76. Witnesses, no person to be compelled to testify against himself, Amdt. art. 5, pp. 627, 639. amendment construed, p. 627. waiver of privilege, p. 641. accused to be confronted by, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 666. accused to have compulsory process for, Amdt. art. 6, pp. 663, 666. testimony necessary for conviction for treason, art. 3, sec. 3, cl. 1, pp. 555, 558. Writs, of election to fill vacancies in representation, art. 1, sec. 2, cl. 4, p. 46. Written opinion, of heads of departments, President may require, art. 2, sec. 2, cl. 1, p. 469. Yeas and nays, at desire of one-fifth, to be entered on .-journals, art. 1, sec. 5, cl. 3, p. 65. passage over veto to be determined by, art. 1, sec. 7, cl. 2, p. 72.