' "
tr
y i
JESSIE E, SAMPT1
* t "> *
THEODOR HERZL
From an etching by Hermann Struck
Reprinted by courtesy of the Menorah Journal
A Guide to Zionism
Edited by
JESSIE E. SAMPTER
ZIONIST ORGANIZATION OF AMERICA
55 FIFTH AVENUE
NEW YORK CITY
Copyright 1920
Zionist Organization of America
New York City
Table of Contents
Publisher's Note vii.
Preface 1
Chapter Page
I. Introductory Survey 4
II. The Jewish Situation 14
III. The Jewish Ideal of Nationalism 19
IV. The National Ideal in Jewish History 23
V. Emancipation, Haskalah, Reform 30
VI. Anti-Semitism and Jewish Nationalism 35
VII. Forerunners of Zionism 40
VIII. Hoveve Zion 47
IX. Theodor Herzl 50
X. The International Zionist Organization 57
XI. The Jewish National Fund and the Jewish Colonial
Trust 64
XII. Zionism in America Before the World War 71
XIII. The War and Zionist Political Action 79
XIV. The War and Zionist Political Action (Continued) ... 90
XV. Factions and Tendencies in Zionism. . s/. 101
XVI. The Hebrew Revival in the Dispersion 108
XVII. Ahad Ha-am .y 116
XVIII. Zionism and Judaism. VT. 121
XIX. The Jewish Law and the Jewish Land 126
XX. Social Justice in the Jewish State 132
XXI. The Geography of Palestine 139
XXII. The Geography of Palestine (Economic Aspects) 148
XXIII. The Jews in Palestine Throughout History 152
XXIV. Early Modern Jewish Immigration and Colonization. 159
XXV. The Development of the Jewish Villages 165
XXVI. The Relation of Palestinian Jews with other Peoples. 172
XXVII. Life in the Cities of Palestine 177
XXVIII. The Problems of Sanitation in Palestine 186
XXIX. The Resources of Palestine 191
XXX. Commerce (including Transportation and Finance) . . 197
XXXI. Jewish Education in Palestine 202
XXXII. The Hebrew Revival in Palestine 212
XXXIII. The Effect of the War upon the Jewish Settlement
in Palestine 217
Appendices 226
Index 254
a o *-> q n n
tt & & /<* o U
List of Illustrations
THEODOR HERZL . Frontispiece
PANORAMA OF JERUSALEM 6
THEODOR HERZL 55
THE ANGLO-PALESTINE BANK 70
CHAIM WEIZMANN 87
GENERAL ALLENBY'S ENTRY INTO JERUSALEM 102
MAP OF PALESTINE 151
BARON EDMOND de ROTHSCHILD 166
THE CITY OF HAIFA 183
THE HEBREW UNIVERSITY 198
PUBLISHER'S NOTE
"A Guide to Zionism" appears at the instant when it has
been announced that the Supreme Council at San Remo has
decided that Great Britain is to be the mandatory power for
Palestine to develop it as the Jewish homeland. At any mo-
ment, the Treaty of Peace with Turkey may be signed, to
signalize for the scattered millions of Jews the end of exile,
the beginning of a new era of constructive effort. For a while,
our feelings will be too intense for easy expression and the
necessary perspective lacking for a complete account of the
epochal happenings of the past year. It has therefore been
deemed inadvisable to make a complete revision of the text,
although Miss Sampter's departure for Palestine has delayed
the publication of the volume, and she would now perhaps
desire to make certain changes. In its essentials, the editor's
work is still the most recent and the most complete essay on
Zionism ever published in America, and as such, will do valu-
able service.
A large number of devoted Zionists have helped see the
volume through the press, and a hearty but entirely inadequate
expression of appreciation is here made to every one of them.
PREFACE
It is almost four years since the publication of A Course in
Zionism, the first attempt at a Zionist textbook, and that book is now
out of date as well as out of print. With all its imperfections, its
purpose has been achieved. In its Introduction, we read that "the
book necessarily suffers from many defects that should be corrected
in a later edition." That is its achievement. It has deserved a second
edition.
The present book with its new title and its new form is never-
theless a successor to the Course. Experience has proved what were
the defects to be remedied, and the changes wrought by three years
of tumultuous history have also changed our needs. If the book in
its transformation has grown to more than twice its former size, so,
too, have the problems, the facts and the Zionist movement itself. No
doubt this book with its greater size suffers from even more imper-
fections than did its predecessor. Our hope, then, must lie in a third
edition. We are still in the midst of upheaval, the book goes to press
while the Peace Conference in Paris is deciding the course of action
on which depends the life of nations great and small. Every word
now spoken is provisional.
The purposes of the book are manifold. In contrast to the Course,
it is written in chapter form and in a readable style to encourage indi-
vidual perusal. However, the arrangement is such as to serve es-
pecially the needs of groups of students. The thirty-three short chap-
ters could be read aloud at as many weekly sessions of a study circle,
during one season. For those meeting less frequently, the book can
easily be divided into two or three seasons of study, since the first
ten chapters deal with Zionist theory, history and organization, the
next ten deal with more specialized phases of the movement, and the
last thirteen deal with Palestine. In more intensive classes, such as
those organized for our future leaders, the book may be used as a text-
book to be read between meetings and supplemented by lectures in
class. Each chapter is followed by a short bibliography, whose
brevity should add to its usefulness, and there are suggested topics
for papers on related subjects that might be prepared for and read
at the same meeting. Not the least important part of the book is its
appendices. The review questions, one for each chapter, may be used
; ..Q U.I DE TO ZIONISM
either as leading questions at each successive meeting, or as test ques-
tions at the end of the whole course or of any section thereof. The
suggestions for reading circles are to meet needs which could not be
supplied in the body of the book. The success of a reading circle de-
pends not only on the matter chosen, but on its arrangement and on the
careful limiting of its length. Time should always be allowed for dis-
cussion. The bibliography was chosen with regard to the needs of
students. Hence its subdivisions. So too with the tables. And it is
hoped that the index may make the book of use for general reference.
The effort has been to concentrate in a small space, and in a not uninter-
esting form, a large number of facts.
Except in a limited bibliography, the book does not deal with
Jewish history save by implication and reference, any more than it
deals with Jewish literature, the Hebrew language, Bible study or
any other of the vast fields of Jewish lore. Each of these ought to
be introduced to Zionists by another publication of at least the same
size. It is hoped that such may follow especially with regard to
Jewish history, for which there is no good short text-book in English
since the Department of Education, created by the Zionist Organiza-
tion of America in June, 1918, has undertaken this task. This is only
its first publication of considerable size and scope.
Acknowledgment is due from the editor to many capable and
faithful assistants. A number of the chapters were written by persons
whose names appear in their proper places. This gives us not only the
benefit of expert knowledge, but also diversity of viewpoint. Mr. M.
Sheinkin of Palestine, who wrote the last chapter, saw many of the
events he describes, and was himself one of the Zionists exiled by the
Turks. A few of the chapters are only a revision of material in the
old Course, notably that on Zionist Organization and, in large part,
that on Jewish Education in Palestine, which was originally prepared
by Dr. David de Sola Pool. Some of the chapters, especially those on
Palestinian colonization, were in large measure compiled from the
best existing articles, and direct acknowledgment could not always
be made. For example, certain passages from Recent Jezvish Progress
in Palestine, by Henrietta Szold, from the Palestine Report prepared
for the American Jewish Congress, and from the essay on Jewish Edu-
cation in Palestine, by Moshe Mnuchin, are used almost verbatim.
The Department of Education, in the persons of its Secretary, Henri-
etta Szold, and its Educational Director, Emanuel Neumann, as well
as of Emily Solis-Cohen, and Dr. Eugene Kohn, "have given assistance
both with suggestion and revision. Dr. David S. Blondheim, Lotta
2
PREFACE
Levensohn, Emanuel Neumann, and Nellie Straus (Director of the
Palestine Survey) gave many hours of careful revision to the manu-
script. Others who were helpful in the preparation of individual
chapters are Abraham Goldberg, Dr. Richard Gottheil, Jacob deHaas,
Executive Secretary of the Zionist Organization of America, Louis
Lipsky, its Secretary for Organization, Dr. Ben Zion Mossinsohn,
Director of the Hebrew Gymnasium in Jaffa, Palestine, and Israel Wolf.
The book is forward-looking. We are poised for action, and the
printed word is too static for our purpose. Everything written of
Palestine today may even today no longer be wholly true. Rapidly
as spring changes the aspect of the world, so swiftly are events likely
to color with more vivid hues the soft and still too often barren beauty
of Palestine. It seems artificial to speak of Jewish "colonies". Our
Jewish settlers themselves object to the word with its false connota-
tions of conquest and impermanence. It is the forward straining of
vision that has prompted the use of the more apt and normal term
of "Jewish villages."
The best arguments are facts. This book contains few other
arguments, since its purpose is not to defend the truth, but to tell it.
Many delusions still give support to the defeated forces of Jewish anti-
Zionism, among them the fear-psychology which can even drive our
haunted assimilationists to accuse Zionists of lack of whole-hearted
Americanism. They fear an unjust accusation which has been brought
against Jews often enough throughout history they fear the accusa-
tion, not the crime but here and now the only danger of it springs
from their expression of fear. Present-day history must startle them
out of that nightmare. A full statement of facts should cure that, as
well as other hazy misconceptions, with their unhealthy and possibly
harmful effects. The nobility of our ideal is its guarantee of American
soundness. Facts, facts, and more facts alone will prepare us for our
pioneering here or in Palestine.
JESSIE E. SAMPTER.
NEW YORK
A GUIDE FOR THE STUDENT OF ZIONISM
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY^
The Jews are a people with a continuous and recorded history of
more than three thousand years. This people numbers today nearly
fourteen million souls. The greater part of this dispersed people is
living in national concentration within a number of countries, in
distinct and self-contained communities that are kept separate by the
inner pressure of a peculiar way of life or a peculiar emotional char-
acter, both preserved to a greater or less extent by religious sanction,
and frequently by the outer pressure of prejudice or special legislation.
The millions of Jews in the world are descendants of the nation
in Palestine that was conquered and that was dispersed two thousand
years ago. They are as distinct a national element as the Belgian or
Polish people, since they have preserved their national individuality.
No one can point to a moment of time at which the Jewish people
lost their national character.
Besides a purity of race as great as that of any nation living on
its own soil, the Jewish people has also preserved at least four of the
chief factors of national life; namely, laws, customs, history, and
language. A fifth national factor, religion, has been the means of pre-
serving the other four. Religion has therefore been the chief national
asset of the Jew.
The Jews Recognized Everywhere as Distinct People
Certain portions of the Jewish people have lost national will and
energy, and it is this fact that has led to the use of the word "race"
instead of "nation" or "people" to designate the Jews. It is a degrading
term, for it implies that the Jews have kept the body but lost the soul
of nationalism. The modern anti-Semitism of Western Europe is a direct
outcome of this weakening of national will, for anti-Semitism is not
national or religious hatred, but race hatred. It arises as a protest against
Jewish efforts to assimilate. The older Jew-hatred and persecutions
were directed against the Jew's efforts to retain his individuality.
Whether the Jews attempt to preserve their national individuality
or to destroy it, they meet the opposition accorded to aliens. The
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
name "Jews" is the designation of a certain people conquered and
driven from their homeland. The name of their national religion,
Judaism, is derived from their national designation. An unreligious
Jew is still a Jew, and he can with difficulty escape his allegiance only
by repudiating the name of Jew. In some countries the Jews are
despised as a subject people without civic rights. But even in many
of the countries where they are emancipated and legally accepted
as citizens, they are still looked upon as aliens with special privileges.
They are always a special economic problem, envied when too suc-
cessful, because they are not actually the people of the land. Any
unusual situation reveals their detachment, such as war, for instance,
which causes them to be specially praised for a loyalty that is taken
for granted within a nation.
Though in certain places and ages the Jews may be highly valued
as individuals and in small communities, a very large immigration
always meets with a partly justifiable resistance. Each nation has a
right to its land and its individuality. And too large an immigration
may be considered almost an invasion. The Jew is like the beggar
"on the town" who has no house. When he is driven from one house,
he must perforce seek another. He does not come because he desires
it, but because he cannot help himself. His visit is no honor and his
welcome must always be precarious.
Neither the high standing of the Jew nor his approach to assimi-
lation, nor yet the enlightenment of the country in which he seeks
refuge, nor even liberal laws and emancipation are any adequate
defence. One cannot legislate away prejudice and hatred. The Drey-
fus case occurred in enlightened France. In the United States, where
the unformed national character and the foreign background of the
majority of the people, make the position of the Jew peculiarly favor-
able at present, we have the agitation against the Negro in the South
and the Asiatic in the West to remind us that we cannot depend on
American enlightenment as an unfailing safeguard against race-
prejudice.
The "haven of refuge" idea must be abandoned. No nation ought
to concentrate wholly within another nation. National justice demands
that each nation should have its own land.
The Three Possible Ways Out
The conclusion is obvious. The Jews must either reconcile them-
selves to a present and future of calamity and disaster, or they must
assimilate and disappear as a separate people, or they must once again
become a nation with a land of their own.
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The first is inhuman. Even those Jews who believe that all
nationalism in itself is evil, the cosmopolitans, must grant that were
such a loss of national individuality possible or desirable, it could not
come to pass for many generations. No thinking and feeling Jew can
say, "Until that consummation, let the Jewish tragedy continue."
Furthermore, why should the Jew accept and profess every nationality
but his own?
The second is impossible. The whole Jewish population cannot
be absorbed. It assimilates by absorption of its outer fringes, like all
other peoples, but it cannot and it will not disappear in bulk. It
reproduces itself more rapidly than it loses in numbers by assimilation,
as figures could easily show. Such a process, too, being slow moral
suicide, would be degrading beyond words. In the process the Jews
would indeed become merely a race, a people different but not
distinctive, an anti-climax, a caricature of their former selves, and a
blot on their own heroic history. But the Jews are saved from such
a fate by their strong will to live and their sense of personal dignity.
By a negative process, a process of elimination, we have reached
the conclusion that the only hope for the Jew lies in a land of his own.
But Zionism is not merely a balm for wounds or even merely a cure.
It is an enhancement of life, a promise of achievement. To the world,
the Jewish race is a race worth preserving, and the Jewish national
ideal is a noble and valuable ideal.
The strength and quality of the Jewish race are proved by three
facts : its endurance and increase through centuries of oppression and
persecution ; its large number of individuals of high achievement in all
departments of life in spite of numberless obstacles and handicaps;
and lastly, the high standard of social morality in its communities.
No signs of permanent physical race deterioration have appeared.
The Ideals of Jewish Nationalism
It is hard to evaluate the national ideal of a people without a
land and without a state. The prophetic or missionary character of
the Jewish people, implied by the word "chosen," recognized in all
ages, has been variously interpreted. To the Christians, this quality
culminated in Jesus, their Christ, who, according to them, gave to the
Christian world the divine inheritance cut off from a sinful Israel. To
a certain minority among the Jews the word "chosen" means a literal
and individual superiority of the Jews, whose mission it is, scattered
among the nations, to enhance the morality of their Gentile neighbors.
Such a view is not only rightfully resented by their quite normal and
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
quite moral Gentile neighbors, but it is disgusting to the modest and
sensible Jew himself. The Jews claim no individual superiority. Nor
do the exhortations of Moses and the later Prophets point to the fact
that as a mass of individuals they could ever all claim such surpassing
virtue. It is true that Jesus transmitted to the Gentile world the
Jewish code of personal morals. This has now been thoroughly
assimilated by the Christian world. Nor have the Jews anything to
gain or give by a claim to priority and a dowager's testy demand for
gratitude.
To the traditional Jew the meaning of "chosen" is quite different.
It was the nation that was chosen for a national task; not the indi-
vidual Jew. To justify this choice, the nation must suffer and labor
and be severely punished and be lashed into obedience. God manifests
his justice through human history, the history of nations. National,
international morality is the peculiar and still untried and unfulfilled
ideal of Jewish teaching. "All the nations shall walk in the way of
the Lord." The Jewish people is a chosen people not a chosen mass
of individuals. Palestine is a Holy Land : that means the land where
the Jewish people is to work out its destiny. Imperialism is precluded.
One land for one people. If the Jewish people, chosen for this task
of national regeneration, proves itself unworthy, it is to forfeit the
land. Unless you are a righteous people, says the Lord, you cannot
keep the land I lend to you on this condition. How different from the
principle that necessity knows no law, and that the welfare of the
nation is the supreme and only moral criterion of individual action!
The Jews today believe and repeat in their prayers that they were
banished from their land because they were unworthy. They also
believe and repeat that their exile is a punishment and a discipline,
and that they are at last to return to Jerusalem with singing, and to
Zion with everlasting joy. Then will all the nations accept the yoke
of the Lord, and walk in His ways.
Such is the poetry, the romance of Jewish ideals. Practically,
it expresses itself in laws of social righteousness and in the ideal of
law itself. The Jewish people have from the first stood for the ideal of
democracy, both international and intra-national. Democracy is a
religious ideal, based on the fatherhood of God and upon faith in the
equality of man an equality of what may be called primal soul-
dignity the relation of each to God and therefore to ultimate justice.
For in what other way are men equal? The acceptance of the ideal
of democracy is a matter of faith, for it cannot be based on expediency,
since undemocratic states are often more efficient than democratic
G U I D TO ZIONISM
ones. And so far democracy has never been fully tried. In Jewish
life it expresses itself in the ideal of impersonal law, which precludes
the necessity for an arbitrary human ruler. One of these laws demands
general education "And thou shalt teach them diligently to thy chil-
dren" others, also essential to democracy, dictate the conditions of
land ownership or lease ; restrict by protective laws the ancient and
formerly accepted institution of slavery; safeguard the equal rights
of all before the law; make equal provision for the support of all
members of the community.
But it is not so much the individual laws that express this demo-
cratic spirit, as the two facts that the law was given to the whole
people, and that at all times, while there was a commonwealth of
social unity, the law could be interpreted and developed to meet the
changing needs of the people. As a theory of individual morality,
democracy was passed on to Christianity, which is a personal religion.
As a theory of national and international morality it is still untried ;
it is the ideal to be worked out by the Jewish people in the Jewish
nation. Scattered individuals cannot fulfill a national ideal. And it is
an ideal so noble that its advocates ought at least to be given a chance
to fulfill it.
Democratic Ideal of Zionism
That this ideal will be attained may be inferred from the facts of
Jewish history and the persistence of the Jewish people. The move-
ment is based on the Prophetic and democratic character of Jewish
thought. In the Zionist movement democracy is complete. Equal
suffrage and equal representation for man and woman, poor and rich,
are basic principles in the Organization. And the continual self-
criticism and ferment that as in Prophetic days still express them-
selves in opposition parties seem to insure at least the preservation
and possibly the complete fulfillment of the Prophetic ideals in a
regenerated Land of Israel.
Palestine in Jewish Thought
By the mass of the Jews these Biblical ideals have never been
intellectualized. They are transmuted into habit and emotion, the
character of the people, the habits of democratic organization and
lawfulness, and the religious love of Palestine. This passion for the
Holy Land, an inarticulate, unreasoning passion, has expressed itself
so far in pilgrimages and in individualistic migrations. Many causes
have combined until recently to prevent a national movement. In
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
such a movement the love of the Jewish people for Palestine, and the
place of Palestine in their religion and history, make it the only spot on
earth that could draw to itself the masses of the Jewish people.
Zionism Expressive of Jewish People
The Zionist movement, which was officially and politically organ-
ized in 1897, might be called the articulate and self-conscious agent of
the Jewish people. This gives it its representative character, although
its organized membership may form a minority among the Jews. The
Zionist Congress, with its many delegates from every civilized coun-
try, has been the Jewish Congress. For inertia cannot be represented,
and constitutes no opposition by its failure to be represented. Could
the Zionist sympathizers be counted, they would surely be found to
constitute the bulk of the Jewish people. Hundreds of years of
oppression have left the stamp of timidity upon the national will. But
the will is there. The Zionist movement is a folk movement, a repre-
sentative movement, as is proved by the fact of its rapid growth among
all classes and in all lands, and by the other fact that most of the
money which actually supported the practical work in Palestine until
recently came from Jews who were not directly affiliated with the
Zionist movement. The Zionists are the agents of the Jewish people
in the regeneration of Palestine. The Zionists and their Jewish
co-workers have proved themselves fit to be the agents of the Jewish
people. Against enormous odds, "without the help of anything on
earth" except their own resolution and courage, with opposition from
some governments and with concrete help or encouragement from
almost none, at the cost of many lives, and the consecration of many
more lives at any cost, they have built in Palestine the normal, whole-
some and flourishing life of Jewish agricultural villages, where the
Hebrew language and Jewish institutions blossom with the soil. They
have trebled Palestinian trade in less than twenty years; they have
reclaimed death-dealing swamps and arid deserts for the purposes of
agriculture. They were returning to its normal uses and fertility a
land devastated by war and neglect, but whose topography and cli-
mate are comparable only with those of California. All this had come to
pass unnoticed by the busy world until the crisis of war, when the
special tragedy created in an always tragic land drew the attention of
practical philanthropists to a social organization that went far to meet
the need for philanthropy. The Zionist Bank met the money crisis in
Palestine and eased the situation for Jew and Gentile alike. It issued
paper notes that for a while were the only accepted media of exchange.
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The well-organized villagers had their grain supply ready to avert or
at least postpone famine. With all things against them, including the
government officials, they managed to be the saving element in an
otherwise hopeless situation. And where they failed, the organized
Zionists of the rest of the world stepped in.
Value of Zionism to Jews
Zionism, both in its practical Palestinian work and in the organ-
izing of the Jewish people everywhere, is of immeasurable value to
the Jewish people itself, even before the attainment of its avowed
aim. From the Jewish point of view this cannot be doubted. A Jew
who appreciates the organizing and educational power of Zionism in
all lands, who values the noble ideals of devotion and discipline that it
demands everywhere of Jewish men and women, one who understands
and rejoices that the revival of Jewish education in the last years is
due to the development of Hebrew language and thought in Palestine
such a one must, to be consistent, support the Zionist Organization.
International Value of a Jewish Center
These are the facts : Such is the people, and such is the ideal of
the self-conscious, articulate, organized part of that people. What is
the attitude of the world of nations towards this dispossessed orphan
of a princely race? Every nation has its fraction of this broken nation.
Every land has its Jewish problem, whatever varying forms it may
take. Zionism will not appreciably lessen the number of Jews in any
land, but it will diminish the flux, the congestion, the disorganiza-
tion caused by the international mal-adjustment of a people without a
polity. It would probably solve the problem of Jewish mass migra-
tions from one country to another, because if Jews were to be con-
strained by social or economic causes to leave one land, they would
naturally turn to their own land rather than to another strange coun-
try. And the loyalty of those Jews who remain in all lands as citizens
will be assured, because they will no longer be there from necessity,
but from choice.
The Great War and the Jewish Restoration
All these ideas were matters of mere Jewish speculation until
very recent times one may say until November 2, 1917. Zionism,
until then, was a struggling, an unfashionable, a minority movement.
Although the fruit of our redemption did not fall suddenly into our
laps, but was a long time ripening, and although the Zionists them-
selves, and especially the leaders of the Zionists whose labors and
10
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
devotion helped bring the fulfillment, saw long in advance what the
happy end must be, yet to the bulk of the Jews the British Declaration
in favor of Zionism came as a surprise and in some cases as a shock.
The Zionists, who had claimed to represent the Jewish people, were
now recognized as its representatives to whom the nations addressed
themselves. Upon the British Declaration there followed in rapid
succession within less than a year the providential steps in the
Jewish regeneration : the entry of British troops into Jerusalem on
the first day of Hanukkah; the sending of a Zionist Commission to
Palestine to co-operate with the British military government; the
declarations in favor of Zionism by international socialist and labor
conferences and by one after another of the Allied Governments,
notably by France, whose interest in Palestine is great, and by our
own government, which, although not at war with Turkey, expressed
its approval through a letter written by President Woodrow Wilson
to the former Chairman of the Provisional Zionist Committee; and,
following quickly thereon, the complete conquest and the rout of the
Turks by General Allenby during the week of the following Sukkot
festival. The closeness of life and death, of horror and rejoicing, in
the crises of war, was exemplified also in Palestine. The new Jewish
life there was on the verge of destruction, had already its thousands
of victims of persecution and hunger, when the final deliverance came.
Meanwhile from the Jewish spirit there sprang forth also the
force and dignity to meet the new situation. In spite of the stupid
Jewish opposition which had blindly striven to block the path of light
and justice, and which in some measure still persisted and persists in
increasingly stupid forms, the general unanimity of the Jewish people
in acclaiming the British and subsequent declarations was truly
remarkable. Rarely has any national movement advanced in such
serried ranks. So closely was the Jewish ideal of nationality bound
up with the Allied ideal of the rights of small nations, that whereas
some anti-Zionists had mistakenly questioned whether one could be
both a Zionist and a good American, that question, with its implied
insult both to America and to the Jews, now threatened to become a
boomerang. Another element which was instrumental in solidifying
the Jews was the presence in all the Allied Governments, among the
national leaders and workers, of Zionists who were also Zionist
leaders. Especially marked was this in the Government of the United
States. High in the Government service were such men as Justice
Louis D. Brandeis, Judge Julian W. Mack, Dr. Felix Frankfurter.
From all sides came the Jewish response, in money, in service,
11
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
and in grappling with problems. This was not strange when we
remember that Zionist statesmanship had been continually active to
bring about the result. A legion of Jewish soldiers from all the Allied
countries was organized, through Jewish initiative, to serve in the
British army in Palestine. Immediately the problem 1 of Jewish rela-
tions to the Arab and Armenian nations was considered with a view
to justice and peaceful co-operation. Medical and engineering help
was dispatched to the war-harassed land, and, last but not least, the
Zionist Commission, in the person of its leader, Dr. Chaim Weizmann,
laid the foundation stone of the Hebrew University on Mount Scopus,
near the Mount of Olives.
Zionism and the Nations
This act, appropriate to a spiritual, a developed people, expressing
itself first of all in a deed of the spirit, has greatly impressed all the
nations that have fostered the Jewish restoration. For they now
understand, after two thousand years of misunderstanding, the mean-
ing and the value of Jewish nationality. They have not only done
belated justice, but they are planting security for themselves. For
the new Zion is to be a pledge of peace to the world. "Peace, peace
to those that are far and to those that are near." The Jews have a
distinct national task at the gateway between three continents, Asia,
Africa, Europe. They may come to be the guarantee of the world's
peace, and the nations will expect of them no less than what our
Prophets foretold. The nations have understood also the claim of
justice, that the Jewish people is a nation whose vital interests were
at stake in the war, whose chief centers of settlement have suffered
horrible disruption, millions of whose members have, through no fault
of their own, been harassed and decimated from within and without,
and, above all, a nation whose loyal service in all the armies, whose
sacrifice and devotion in every land, have entitled them to justice from
the nations they have served. At last the nations understand.
The Jewish Obligation to Learn and Understand
Now, shall the Jews do less? Shall the Zionists do less? It is
a fact that many Gentiles have more quickly grasped the full import
of Zionism, its political as well as its spiritual implications, than have
some of the Jews themselves. Through their long dispersion some
Jews seem to have lost the capacity for political thinking. But the
day for action has come. The Gentiles now understand us, and it is
our first duty to understand ourselves, in order that we may be fit to
12
INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
serve. A lifetime is not enough in which to gather the vast store of
Jewish knowledge. But a few hours of intensive study may give us
enough knowledge to understand ourselves at least as well as our
neighbors know us, and to fit us for the task, which, though it may
in fact keep us through toil and sacrifice even from the fruits of study,
will make possible a full, free, rich Jewish life for those Jews that
will inherit the promised land of our fathers.
For our task is not yet ended. In truth, it has only begun.
References:
What Is Zionism? by Weizmann and Gottheil. Zionism, its Theory, Origins, and
Achievements, by Israel Goldberg.
13
CHAPTER II
THE JEWISH SITUATION
To understand the solution of the Jewish problem, one must first
of all understand the Jewish problem. Many persons are out of
sympathy with the purposes of Zionism because they do not know the
conditions which make it inevitable. In some communities in America,
where there are half a dozen Jewish families, assimilated to the general
population and Jewish only in name, it is practically impossible to
conceive of the existence of the Jewish people except through definite
historic and political knowledge.
The Jewish Population in Various Lands
In the world today there are nearly fourteen millions of Jews.
About half of these are living in Eastern Europe, that is, Russia,
Poland, Rumania, and in those new-born nations, formerly the border
provinces of Russia and Austria, where the fires of war have raged
the hottest. Jewish statistics, which were never accurate, are still
less so since the smashing and devastating blows of war have struck
into the heart of the world's most densely populated Jewish centers.
In the British Isles there are, approximately, 263,600 Jews, in France
100,000, in Italy 34,300, in the Netherlands, 106,300, in Germany
615,000, in Austria-Hungary 2,258,000. In the Balkans there are scat-
tered a considerable number of Jews, including those in Salonica,
which has been called a Jewish city, and which has changed its na-
tional status several times in recent history, but not its Jewish
population. Scattered throughout Turkey there were before the war
about 357,500 Jews. Of these, over one hundred thousand were settled
in Palestine, and almost half of them in the new national Jewish
settlements of Palestine. Practically every country in the world has
its settlement of Jews, including Morocco and China. All the coun-
tries of North and South America have some Jews in certain South
American communities a single family is sometimes found in a city.
The United States has, however, stood out predominantly as the new
Jewish center of gravity, so far as numbers are concerned, to which
have fled the millions who sought to escape Russian, Rumanian, and
Polish persecution. There are more than three millions of Jews in
14
THE JEWISH SITUATION
the United States, of whom about one and a half million are concen-
trated in the one city of New York. New York City today contains
more than five times as many Jews as any other city in the world.
But numbers do not tell the whole story. One of the smallest
centers of Jewish life has always had, and continues to have, and
promises to have for the future more importance than all the vast
Jewish centers of the dispersion.
Palestine
Palestine, which has contained some Jews at all times since the
dispersion, has recently allowed the Jews freedom of development
along all lines but the economic. Not so much direct or discriminating
oppression on the part of the Turkish Government, but the neglected
condition of the country and the confiscatory taxes, have made eco-
nomic progress impossible. However, cultural freedom, and a status
of equality in civil rights with the Arab and other populations, was
granted to the old settlements of those Orthodox Jews who went to
the homeland to die, and to the new settlements of nationalist Jews
who were building up a regenerated Jewish life. The agricultural
village communities were autonomous, as is the case with all villages
under Turkish rule. The culture of the neighboring Arabs was too
low to tempt the Jews to assimilation. Hence, with the impetus of
national idealism, of the anxious watching gaze of the whole Diaspora
upon them, and of the hope of cultural and political independence, these
Jews surpassed all others in freedom of intellect and spirit. They de-
veloped a distinctive Jewish life, with beauty and grace of expression.
Hebrew became the tongue of their daily speech, the Jewish Sabbaths
and festivals their national holidays. A new regime began December
10, 1917. (See Ch. XIII, XIV, XXXIII.)
Poland
The center of Jewish life and culture since the thirteenth century
had been in Poland, when it offered to the Jews autonomy and a large
measure of freedom and security, and when the Jews who were perse-
cuted in Germany found there a haven of refuge and made of it a
center of Jewish learning. The Yiddish tongue was brought with
them by these German refugees and gradually adopted by their East-
ern brethren. Yiddish is about 70 per cent medieval German, with
an infusion of about 20 per cent, of Hebrew words and forms, as well
as of some Slavic elements, written in the Hebrew characters and
modified by usage in each locality. It has not a well-defined grammar
15
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
and hence no standard of purity. Until within the last century,
Hebrew was considered the literary language of the Jews. Never-
theless, Yiddish is the spoken language of about one-half of the Jews
of the world and has developed a considerable literature in recent times.
Poland, through the three partitions of 1772, 1793, and 1795, was split
up, with its Jews, among Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Anti-Semi-
tism seems to have flourished especially well in oppressed Poland,
taking the form of intensive trade boycotts and, since the Great War, of
pillage and massacre.
Russia
Conquering Eastern Poland and the Baltic provinces, Russia
thus became a huge empire, and absorbed the Polish Jews. Since
then, until the Russian revolution of 1917, their fate has been one of
increasing bitterness. From Russia proper they were almost wholly
excluded. In so brief a sketch as this, it is preferable to draw one
picture of Eastern European Jewry, including Rumania and Galicia.
In these countries, as contrasted to Western Europe, we find a
certain condition : The Jews were considered a distinct and alien
people, and under the racial and autocratic conception of nationality,
they were therefore persecuted, segregated, treated almost as out-
casts. All this was done in the name of religion. Political, civil,
economic, and educational rights were denied them. Everything was
denied them except the right to breathe, and even that occasionally
was taken from them by the direct means of pogroms or the indirect
means of expulsions. At present the disorganization and the passions
incident to the close of war are causing the Jews unspeakable suffer-
ing. But it is impossible to foretell the future. The Jews are every-
where claiming national and individual rights, on an equality with
other peoples. The measure of democracy attained will no doubt
determine the measure of their release from a bitter bondage. But
these Jews had settled in a simpler age, when they found here com-
parative freedom and self-determination. They had had autonomous
communities, they had developed especially in Lithuania a high
degree of Jewish culture, learning and social organization. They
had become compact, national, self-conscious communities. And so
in spite of persecution, of pitiful poverty, and of the degrading influ-
ences that accompany these, partly because of their strong foundation
of learning and traditionalism they still remain to this day the
treasure-house of Jewish culture and learning and of Jewish national
idealism. The forced segregation, the exclusion from the economic
16
THE JEWISH SITUATION
melting-pot, the low state of culture of the surrounding peoples, pro-
tected them from dissolution.
Western Europe
Before the eighteenth century Western Europe was the scene
of the most brutal torture and persecution of the Jews, but it
has within the last hundred and fifty years given them complete civil
emancipation. This was granted only after fierce struggle and upheaval
and at a great price. The Jews of France, Germany, Italy sacrificed
their Jewish national spirit to the cosmopolitan nationalism of the
Europe which emancipated them. (See Ch. V.) But this emancipa-
tion did not preclude anti-Semitism; so that the Jews of Western
Europe have had only a limited and nervous security which seemed
constantly to demand more sacrifices of Jewishness. The Jews have
left their Ghettos; they have general education, culture, modernity.
In England, France, and Italy individual Jews have risen to high
government positions. But each generation is less Jewish than the
last. Anti-Semitism, which, combined with civic and educational
opportunities, tends to destroy Jewish cultural and national values,
on the other hand is perhaps the chief force in preserving the Jewish
race through forcing the Jews to recognize their own racial solidarity.
America
From the first, almost every State in America has given full civil
liberty to the Jews as to all other individuals, and has also through its
government given official recognition to the social equality of the Jews.
All positions of trust have been open to them. In theory, the United
States grants the fullest possible freedom, not only to the individual, but
to the Jewish community for all cultural purposes. Notwithstanding this
official attitude, social prejudice is widespread in peculiarly irritating
forms, and even at times results in economic exclusion, especially in
the case of the poorer paid workers. The Jews, too, fail to take full
advantage of American opportunities for Jewish development. The
earliest and smallest immigration, the Portuguese or Sephardic, has
almost disappeared through intermarriage. The German Jews, com-
ing in the middle of the nineteenth century, brought with them
German ideas of Reform and anti-nationalism, and withal little Jewish
learning. They became the well-to-do Jewish middle class. The East-
ern European immigration of the last thirty years has in large measure
staved off complete assimilation. It is responsible for the vitality of
American Jewish life. Yet, being looked down upon socially by the
17
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
earlier German immigration, which set the pace, it has often followed
the path made easy by the Jews themselves. A constant decay of
Jewish values is to be seen, which is counteracted only by the stream
of new immigration and by Zionism.
The Causes of Assimilation
The conditions that everywhere lead to assimilation are: (1)
A wide scattering of small groups, so that they lose the national con-
sciousness produced by physical contact (as in the Western United
States and South America). (2) Business and industrial intercourse
with Gentiles, which breaks down Sabbath and dietary observance,
and tends, like all selfish rivalry, to weaken moral resistance. (3)
The consequent breaking away from religious life, which is national,
destroys the Jew's chief national expression in dispersion. (4) The
attraction of all kinds of learning and knowledge tempts him to forget
or neglect specific Jewish culture. In Russia many Jews underwent
baptism to gain the privilege of studying and the possibility of a suc-
cessful professional career. (5) The bait of social, political, or edu-
cational dignities in Germany, for instance, army and university
appointments. (6) The infectious weakening of organized religion in
the Christian churches, and the tendency of Jews to judge Judaism
by Gentile religious standards. (7) All the demoralizing forces of
wealth, comfort, ease, which after long suffering tend toward ma-
terialism.
Is the break-up of the Ghetto with its persecutions and depriva-
tions to be the break-up of Judaism and Jewish national life? Must
we choose between abnormality or extinction, between disease or
death? Or is the normal, healthy Zionist position to be the savior
of Judaism and of the Jewish people? For they are dependent on each
other as the wine is on the cup.
References:
The Jews of To-day, by Arthur Euppin. Jewish Life in Modern Times, by
Israel Cohen.
Subjects for Papers:
The Jews and the Russian Revolution. The effects of Jewish immigration into
America.
18
CHAPTER III
THE JEWISH IDEAL OF NATIONALISM
Why should not the Jewish people disappear? Simplest of an-
swers is that it would not. The right to life and the pursuit of happi-
ness belongs as truly to nations as to individuals. But why should
not all nations disappear? Is not nationalism the cause of human
hatred, war, and oppression?
Nationalism and Imperialism
The same thing can be said of individuality. Before the organiza-
tion of a lawful society, individuals practised hatred, violence, and
oppression against their neighbors. The strongest robbed and en-
slaved the others. We cured that by establishing law, not by killing
off humanity. War is not caused by the cultural differences between
nations, such as language, religion, customs, arts. An oppressed na-
tion may fight to preserve these things, but the cause of the oppression
is always covetousness. Even religious wars of aggression, when
studied carefully, are seen to have had economic and political causes
based on greed or love of power. Many of the worst wars have been
civil wars or revolutions involving a single people with uniform cul-
ture and language. And the Great War did not divide peoples along
national or racial lines. The English and Germans are far nearer to
each other racially and culturally than the English and Japanese, the
Germans and Turks.
The real cause of practically all wars is not nationalism, but that
diseased form of nationalism which is called imperialism. Nations
have robbed each other without remorse, and have gloried in their
conquests. This sin has been so common to nations that it has come
to be considered normal. Hence the desire to destroy all nationalism.
But the nations are not deserving of death. They will presently learn
the lawful co-operation which has long since been learned, more or
less, by the individuals that compose them and by the communities in
their interrelations within the state. Imperialism is in fact the foe
of all that makes nationalism possible and noble. It wipes out dis-
tinctions between nations; it attempts to remake its conquered terri-
tory in its own mold. Where it neglects to do that, it at least ad-
ministers the conquered territory for its own interests, not for the
national interests of the inhabitants. And when a conquered territory
adopts the customs or culture of its conquerors, it usually picks out
19
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
the worst features for imitation. Civilization spreads most rapidly,
not its art, poetry, music, but its intoxicating drugs and liquors, its
implements of war and its contagious diseases. On the contrary, it
often happens that the conquering nation loses its own distinctive
culture through the long neglect due to war, and adopts the culture
of its new dependencies. Note how Greek and Jewish culture domi-
nated Rome, how Roman culture dominated the conquering northern
hordes. In either case, imperialism is a levelling force that destroys
national individuality.
Internationalism Is a Development of Nationalism
Internationalism does not mean the destruction of nations and
one vast undifferentiated humanity, but the co-operation of nations
in a society of nations. The very word international implies nations.
Nations are the units in internationalism as individuals are the units
in society. Higher organization does not mean disorganization lower
down the scale. Human society began with the family. Before we
had nations, each city was independent. But we still have families,
cities, provinces, and states. And so we can have internationalism, a
league or society of nations only on the basis of existing nations.
Oppression always results from long-distance government. The ideal
of democracy is to keep government as local as possible. Hence
nations would always remain natural centers of administration.
Variety Is Essential to Harmony
It is a curious perversion of ideas to think we should have peace
if we were all alike. Monotony does not insure peace. Harmony
and sameness are not only not identical, but in fact they are opposites.
One can have harmony only where there is variety. Music needs more
than one note for its production. Think of humanity not as an arti-
ficial organization but as a living organism. Each nation is one
organ, each different, doing its own part in relation to the whole.
As individuals scatter and travel, but each has his own national center,
so do the blood vessels center in the heart, and the nerves in the brain.
In the economic as well as the cultural life of nations this holds true.
Internationalism, in giving security from war, would tend to allow
each nation to develop the specific industry for which its land and
population best fitted it, without fear of being left unprovided. There
would be a tendency to greater division of labor between peoples, to
the break-down of commercial barriers and discriminations, and hence
to less rivalry and waste. The fullest development of nationalism is
possible only under internationalism.
THE JEWISH IDEAL OF NATIONALISM
Nationalism Is a Spiritual Fact
Nationality is character. It is a state of mind. Nationalism is
the sense of cultural identity among the individuals of a political or
historic group. It is much more a spiritual than a physical fact.
Even identity of race is not absolutely essential to it, and where race
is the strongest bond it becomes so through common family tradi-
tions more than through the physical fact of birth. National character
consists of mental developments such as language, manners, customs,
tastes, and expresses itself in art and religion. Religions are always
national in their origins and purpose even though their outlook may
be universal, like that of the Jewish religion. And of art this is also
true. Each school of art expresses a certain nation at a certain point
of its history. The great man is he who is supremely normal and
sensitive, who expresses the soul of his people. Hence art becomes
the bond between nations, for it is national in its expression and
universal in its appeal. Although internationalism may need a diplo-
matic and commercial language of its own, yet national spiritual
values, and even international sympathy and understanding, require
that languages shall flourish as the speech of the national soul. To
decrease what must be understood is not to increase understanding.
We should all learn several languages. We should exchange cultures
but then we must have cultures to exchange.
Each Nation Needs Its Own Land
A land and its people are like a body and its soul. Geography
and climate affect character, and for this reason alone nations would
have to continue their individuality. Except for war, the number of
people in a nation does not matter. What matters is its solidarity, its
loyalty, its quality. Those who migrate cannot and should not be
held. They should be free to form national cultural groups or to
assimilate to other peoples. They can have that freedom only if
their national center is free and secure. Such freedom and security
can come only from international organization, from a League of
Nations.
The League of Nations Is an Old Jewish Ideal
This ideal of nationalism and internationalism is now coming
to be understood by the world. But the Jews have held it for three
thousand years. It is the foundation of Judaism, implied in the most
fundamental teachings of our Law and Prophets. (Note the citations
21
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
from the Prophets in the list of references. These are incomplete;
they are simply the most compact and striking statements.)
"All the nations shall walk in the way of the Lord" means inter-
national morality. Our most universalist Prophets were nationalists
and internationalists, not cosmopolitans. Their ideal of brotherhood
included the brotherhood of nations. The Jewish God-ideal implies
democracy and internationalism. Men are brothers because God is
their Father. All ancient nations except the Jews had their own
particular god or gods, who created and fought for their own people
alone. But Israel conceived of the universal God of all nations who
created mankind and fought for righteousness, not for Israel. We
were chosen in that he gave us the law of righteousness. But when we
transgressed it we were punished even more severely than those
nations who had not accepted it.
Rome tried to force us into its empire by forcing emperor-worship
upon us as upon the other nations that it had conquered. We stubbornly
refused. Medieval Europe tried in vain to force us into its Christian
Empire either through persuasion or persecution. We have always
remained true to the ideal of the freedom of small nations. Our re-
ligion, which taught us that we were a people chosen for an interna-
tional task, made it possible for us to keep our nationhood, our spiritual
freedom, through two thousand years of physical subjection.
Hence Zionism has a peculiar religious and international signifi-
cance, above its national Jewish claims. Not only does it aim to
fulfill one of the oldest of God's commands to his people "You shall
be unto me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation" not only is it
the logical climax of Jewish history and of Jewish faith, but it comes
into the world providentially when the world at last is ripe and ready
to see, to understand, and to follow the law of God's family of nations.
Already the Zionist demand for justice and freedom for a small nation
has profoundly influenced the Allied Governments in their pronounce-
ment of the rights of all small nations. And we stand awed before
the call to a new Jewish leadership.
References:
The Book of the Nations, by J. E. Sampter. Lecture, Department of Education :
Nationalism, Internationalism, and the Jewish Nation. Bible: Isaiah, Ch. 2, 10, 11,
19, 42, 49. Jeremiah, Ch. 25, 51. Ezekiel, Ch. 28, 29. Book of Amos. Micah, Ch. 4.
Habakkuk, Ch. 1, 2. Zechariah, Ch. 2, 3, 8.
Subjects for Papers:
The national movement in Italy, Greece, Serbia. (Choose one of these or any
other recent national movement to write upon.) The national ideals of the Prophets
as exemplified by quotations.
CHAPTER IV
THE NATIONAL IDEAL IN JEWISH HISTORY*
Zionism Is as Old as Judaism
When one considers the facts of Jewish history, it becomes clear
that Jewish nationalism is at least as old as the Jewish nation. Nor-
mally one ought to expect that. We were a people in our own land.
We lost our land through war and conquest, and just because of the
unusual spiritual and religious depth of our patriotism we remained a
people intact for 2,000 years without a land or a polity. Zionism is as
old as the Jewish people itself. Certainly it is as old as Jewish history.
The account of the Patriarchs in the Bible is full of references to the
future Jewish nation and full of national fervor ; and the ideal of faith
concerns itself not with individual souls, but with the welfare and the
role of the whole Jewish nation in human history.
In the days of the Egyptian bondage, we already find the factors
of the Chosen People, the Promised Land, the national leader, and
the concept of a national-spiritual role among the nations. Before
the land had even been won, the people had already pledged itself at
the foot of Mount Sinai to put into action a complete program of
national arid private morality. These laws included purely civil and
state laws which could have no application outside of the land. The
Prophets, the scribes, the rabbi-sages, the poets, and the statesmen in
whom the Jewish people has been so rich, were the bearers of the
historic message of Zionism, through all the national vicissitudes.
Only the term, the name, of Zionism, remained to be coined. Mathias
Acher (Nathan Birnbaum) was the first to use that name for the
modern Zionist activity in 1886. The idea and the ideals embedded
within it have had other manifestations and other names; essentially,
the prime motives in Jewish thought are to be looked for in national
idealism.
Zionism Is an Outgrowth of Messianism
Zionism is the lineal descendant of the Messianic idea. The
Messianic idea assumed various forms at different periods, and it
* Adapted from papers by Lotta Levensohn and Dr. Aaron Schaffer.
23
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
varied, too, with the leaders of the times: that is to say, it was not
necessarily expressed in a more advanced form at later periods. For
instance, Isaiah's conception of the millenium, of the golden age when
Zion was to become the spiritual center of mankind, is hardly com-
parable with the Kabbalistic speculations during the middle ages as
to the date of the Messiah's miraculous appearance to lead the children
of Israel back to their own land. The Messiah was at times conceived
as an individual, a descendant of David "Mashiah ben David
Avdeha," who would appear to save the people at a critical time. In
another conception, he was to be the model king who would re-ascend
the throne of David at the "end of days" as the biblical phrase has
it to rule in righteousness and justice. However, in the popular
sense, he was (and still is) to be the Heaven-sent redeemer to lead
Israel out of the Exile to a glorious future in the Land of the Fathers.
Then again, we have the inspiring prophecies of a Messianic era,
"When they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain,"
"When the nations shall not learn war any more," "When the knowl-
edge of the Lord shall cover the earth as the waters cover the sea."
The Prophets of Israel were all Zionists
More specifically, we find the idea of a chastened remnant re-
stored to the Land of Israel enunciated by Amos and Isaiah, in times
when the kingdoms of Israel and of Judah, respectively, were at the
zenith of their power and prestige. Amos was accused of sedition
for prophesying both the destruction and the ultimate restoration of
Israel, when he chose the royal sanctuary at Bethel whence to sound
his warning of woes to come. Such words as "Israel shall surely be
led captive out of his land" could hardly have been welcomed, or for
the matter of that believed, by the powers that be. Amos concluded
his message with the excellent Zionist doctrine that "God will plant
them upon their land, and they shall no more be plucked out of their
land which He has given them."
Isaiah, more than a hundred years before the destruction of the
First Temple, iterated and reiterated the doctrine of Sh'ar Yashub: "A
remnant shall return." In the same breath that he foretold national
ruin, he promised the resumption of a purified national life by a frac-
tion of the people in later times, who would take up the national-
spiritual role for which God had destined the Jewish people from
the beginning.
And the great unknown Prophet, whom for lack of better knowl-
edge we call the Second Isaiah, arose in the Babylonian captivity to
24
THE NATIONAL IDEAL IN JEWISH HISTORY
preach, in terse, vivid phrases, that Palestine would become the center
of the world ; that all the peoples would be drawn there by the spiritual
and moral power generated by the People Israel.
Ezra and Nehemiah
The return to the Holy Land under Ezra and Nehemiah was
curiously like the present return under modern Zionism. It was
made possible by the declaration and good will of the government of
an Empire; and it, too, was undertaken by a very small part of the
Jewish people, strengthened and supported in their effort by those
who stayed behind. But, at the time, it must have seemed to have
far less international significance than the present movement, and
also, since it took place after only seventy instead of two thousand
years of exile, it was less extraordinary and marvelous.
The Jewish Golden Age in the Future
The Jews have ever seen a divine purpose in their history. It is
this which gave us strength to endure. The ideal of the millenium
is bound up with the life of the Jewish people.
Always the Jewish idea of the golden age differed from the
beliefs of the other peoples of the ancient world (with whom the
Jews were coeval). For the Greeks, for instance, the golden age had
coincided with the childhood of the human race, with its "age of
innocence," as it were. The Jew, on the contrary, always set the
millenium ahead of his own day which proves what an incorrigible
optimist he is. His faith in progress, in the divine, upward trend of
human nature, has never wavered, however seemingly conclusive his
experience to the contrary.
Persistence of the National Ideal in Many Forms
The national significance of the Maccabaean revolt must not be
overlooked. Begun as a defensive war against the religious oppres-
sion of Antiochus who would have destroyed Judaism by enforcing
idol worship and the desecration of Jewish Law, it ended as the
mightiest effort to preserve political and national independence ever
displayed by so small a nation. So closely are Jewish religion and
Jewish nationality interwoven.
In the early days after the destruction of the Second Common-
wealth by the Romans, the regaining of national independence was
still thought of in political terms, as witness the rebellion of Bar
Kochba. Though Rabbi Akiba hailed Bar Kochba as the Messiah, his
25
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
rabbinical colleagues and the bulk of the Jewish people regarded
him as a political rebel. His failure, tragic as it was, did not militate
against the Messianic hope, because that was a thing apart in the
minds of the people.
We must not forget how closely the study of the Law at this
period was bound up with national life and hope. Akiba himself
died a martyr because he persisted in studying Jewish Law, in defiance
of the Roman prohibition. That prohibition was of course on national
grounds. When, half a century earlier, after the destruction of Jeru-
salem by the Romans, Johanan ben Zakkai had asked and obtained
permission to found the Academy at Jabneh, he did so to preserve
the Jewish national spirit even though the national body was stricken.
The Law was to be preserved for the certain future national restora-
tion. This same hope and faith underlie all the legalism of the
Diaspora.
Christianity arose at the time when the whole ancient world was
on edge with expectation for the Messiah, the savior, who would set
up a new order of things, and provide the corrupt pagan civilization
with ideals worth living for. Though Christianity grew out of Jewish
soil, both literally and figuratively, the Messiahship of Jesus was at
first ignored and then emphatically rejected by the consensus of
Jewish opinion. Christianity has had not the slightest influence
except by negation upon the trend of the Messianic idea or of Jewish
thought generally.
As the darkness of the middle ages settled down upon Europe, the
Jews were subjected to breath-taking cruelties. The simplest, most
elementary human rights were withheld from them; and they had
to exist as best they could on the tolerance of the devotees of the
religion of love. The Jews kept alive because they came of a race
endowed with such superb physical and spiritual vitality that it would
not die. But neither could it live. And so, while Europe lay in the
torpor of the middle ages, the Jews lived in a state of suspended
animation, and dreamed their way through those dark days.
And the Jewish nation continued to live in the hearts and minds
of the Jews. Even after the center of Jewry had been definitely re-
moved from Palestine to Babylon, the Holy Land always remained
uppermost with the great leaders of the people the sages of the
Talmud. We need to read only such an injunction as the one calling
upon Jews to prefer to live in a Palestinian city, whose inhabitants
are mostly non-Jews, rather than in a city outside of Palestine, whose
inhabitants are mostly Jews, to understand their feelings on the sub-
26
THE NATIONAL IDEAL IN JEWISH HISTORY
ject. And these feelings are constantly exhibited, and in a hundred
different ways in the law that a man could compel his wife to ac-
company him to Palestine under penalty of forfeiting her dower right
but could not compel her to emigrate from Palestine with him, or in
the popular belief that the resurrection of the Jewish dead would take
place in Palestine.
As the centuries rolled by, this hope of a return to Palestine never
died in the breast of the Jew. As a return in force, however, grew
more and more unlikely, the hope took on a spiritual, deeply religious
form. The order of daily and holiday prayers, which became fixed
during these centuries, is full of references to the return of the divine
Presence to the Holy Land.
Nor did days of ease and plenty weaken that yearning, that
national passion. The medieval Jewish poets of Spain, in the golden
days of Judaism there, sang of Zion, their beloved. And Judah
Ha-Levi even translated his poems into action, by leaving home and
ease and friends in Spain, to make a pilgrimage to his beloved Zion, at
whose gates, legend tells us, he was slain.
The masses of Jews throughout the middle ages were always
ready to exchange their state of dispersion for a permanent national
home in Palestine. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, for ex-
ample, large settlements of Jews flourished in the principal cities of
the Holy Land. These settlements included men of international
Jewish renown men like Nahmanides and Joseph Kara, among many
others. Cut f &
Messianic Predictions and False Messiahs
The possibilities of freedom by political rebellion or by rational
measures were excluded. Almost inevitably the Jews fell back for
solace upon mystic fancies. They lived in a world of the imagination
where the pressure of their outlawed state did not reach their con-
sciousness. The study of Kabbalah absorbed Jewish energies for a
large part of the middle ages. The Kabbalah concerned itself with
fanciful investigations of the nature of God, prescribed the degrees
(Sefirot) through which the human spirit must pass on its path to
perfection, and speculated much on the date of the coming of the
Messiah, by means of the numeric value of the letters of various
biblical texts. When a date so fixed passed without fulfillment, it was
simple by another set of ingenious calculations to advance another
date. Things came to such a pass that a rabbinic prohibition was
passed against such computations, but it did not prove to be
27
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
much of a deterrent. The fancies and legends that cluster about the
Messiah and the Messianic era are as pathetically naive as the popular
acceptance of self-appointed, often self-deluded, saviors, the famous
pseudo-Messiahs who appeared on the scene all the way from Moses
of Crete, in the fifth century, to Sabbatai Zebi, in the seventeenth. It
would take us too far afield to discuss all these men, their personalities,
their motives and their influence on the fate of large communities of
Jews. Among those who stand out in undesirable pre-eminence is
Moses of Crete, whose Messiahship resulted in the drowning of a*
large number of people whom he promised to lead dryshod across the
seas to Palestine.
Then there was David Alroy of Bagdad who proclaimed himself
Messiah in the twelfth century and organized an armed rebellion.
Only a few facts are known about him, and those are swathed in a
mass of legends. However, it seems certain that he paid his life for
his rashness. He will be recalled as the hero of one of Disraeli's
novels.
David Reubeni was a mysterious figure who emerged from West-
ern Asia about 1520. He represented himself as the brother of a
Jewish king in Arabia, who was ready to drive the Turks out of
Palestine if the Christian governments would furnish him with fire-
arms. He managed to be received by the Pope and to have himself
invited to the court of the Portuguese king. Though he was very non-
committal with the Jews of Spain and Portugal, he was widely ac-
claimed as the Messiah or the forerunner of the Messiah. Reubeni's
mission so worked upon the imagination of a young neo-Christian,
Diego Pires, who held a high office in the state, that he voluntarily
became a Jew and assumed the name of Solomon Molko. He had
delved deeply into the Kabbalah, and preached the approach of the
Messianic era, the return to Palestine, and his own Messiahship. He
attached himself to Reubeni. Finally, they both lost their lives
through their diplomatic activities.
A most unfortunate and unprecedented effect was left upon
Jewish history by another disciple of the Kabbalah, Sabbatai Zebi,
of Smyrna, who not only proclaimed himself Messiah, but blasphe-
mously claimed to be God incarnate. The whole Jewish world was
in a ferment, from Western Europe to Asia Minor. The soberest of
men went wild with frenzy, and wound up their business affairs in
expectation of the return to Palestine and the end of the world. Even
Christian circles were affected. Though the impostor turned Moham-
medan to save his life, all sorts of delusions were cherished about him.
THE NATIONAL IDEAL IN JEWISH HISTORY
The pseudo-Messianism of Sabbatai Zebi did immeasurable harm,
and an aftermath of self-appointed successors sprouted up in Turkey,
in Egypt, in Poland, and in Germany.
The lamentable careers of the pseudo-Messiahs by this time con-
clusively demonstrated that while the Kabbalah contained many pure
and noble elements and stimulated a sort of saintliness, it was danger-
ously susceptible to misuse. The rabbis henceforth discouraged its
general study, and this time effectively. New historic forces, too,
began to leaven Europe in the eighteenth century, and the new intel-
lectual tendencies would in any event have relegated mysticism to ob-
scure byways.
Zionism Expresses Modern Needs
With the emancipation of the Jews modern Zionism became in-
evitable. For one thing, the legalism and the national safeguards of
Ghetto segregation were destroyed and left Jewish nationalism in
greater danger than at any other time during the dispersion. For
another thing, the freedom, power, and material resources of the Jews
once again opened up the possibility of a rational, political restora-
tion to their land.
References:
The Messiah Idea in Jewish History, by J. Greenstone. Lecture, Department of
Education: The Zionist Ideal in Jewish History.
Subjects for Papers:
Sabbatai Zebi and his followers. The Zionist poetry of the Spanish period. The
legal distinctions in the Talmud between Palestine and the Diaspora.
CHAPTER V
EMANCIPATION, HASKALAH, BEFOEM
Jewish Emancipation Part of Eighteenth Century Liberalism
The beginnings of the civil emancipation of Jewry in Western
Europe late in the eighteenth century were part of the general move-
ment of national and social forces. Until then the Jews had lived
everywhere segregated in their Ghettos, either actively persecuted or
passively shunned, considered as aliens with no civil rights and also
as religious outcasts with no human rights. The Renaissance of the
sixteenth century, which brought to birth the nationalism of Europe
in conflict with the imperialism of Catholic Rome, did so on a racial
basis, and therefore only embittered the feeling against the Jews.
The Jews were not permitted to leave Medievalism and their Ghettos
until after the French Revolution. The eighteenth century's ideas of
freedom and of "the rights of man", were a revolt against personal
privilege within the state, including race privilege. The ruling class
in most nations belonged to a ruling race ; the race which at one time
had conquered and subjected the population. Hence eighteenth century
liberalism first raised the ideal which all civilized nations have since
accepted : That citizenship and not race is the basis of national unity.
In the effort to obliterate race distinctions within the democracy, in
the only form in which they were then known, that of race privilege,
national cultures and values were not respected. The ideal of the
rights of small nations had not yet emerged. Civil and individual
rights were granted on the basis of the "equality of man" within the
nation. The universalism or cosmopolitanism then preached was a
form of self-deception, and was in fact a means of solidifying the new
conglomerate democratic nations.
To be consistent, eighteenth-century liberal Europe had to eman-
cipate the Jews. The Jews had been deprived of both their national
and their personal rights, and when it seemed possible to them to
obtain their personal rights under conditions which appealed to their
democratic nature, they either failed to see or were willing to accept
the danger to their national existence. The opportunity of western
enlightenment, of decent living and of political freedom could not be
refused.
30
EMANCIPATION, HASKALAH, REFORM
Moses Mendelssohn and German Jewish Assimilation
The Jewish people, emerging from the twilight of Ghetto medi-
evalism into the glare of European nationalism, was dazzled and
bewildered. But, as usual, the Jews who are said to be the
most adaptable people in the world made a brave attempt at
adjustment. Forerunner of the Reform movement in Germany and
also indirectly of the Haskalah movement in Russia, was Moses
Mendelssohn. A great personality in German as well as in Jewish
life, scholar, philosopher, and educator, he stands at the head of Jewish
liberalism. But as with many another teacher, the course of events
that resulted from his influence was the opposite of what he would
have desired. Born in Dessau, in northern Germany, in 1729, he came
to Berlin as a young Talmudic scholar, and soon attracted the atten-
tion of both Jews and Christians by his gifts of mind and character.
He became a leader with a definite goal : To win the political emanci-
pation of the German Jews through their intellectual emancipation.
If the Jew would be free to leave his Ghetto, he must learn to live
like his German neighbor. For the sake of teaching not the Bible but
German to the Yiddish-speaking Jews, Mendelssohn translated the
Bible into classic German. He advocated the secular German school
for Jewish children. But he also fathered a new Hebrew development
and advocated, and always practised, the life and ritual of traditional
Judaism. The effect of his teaching, however, was to make German-
ization and de-Judaization the chief object of the German Jew. His
own children were converted to Christianity and married Christians.
Mendelssohn died in Berlin, in 1786.
With Mendelssohn as their leader, there had grown up a school of
propagandists of European culture through the medium of the Hebrew
language for this purpose they published a Hebrew journal called
ha-Meassef but neither the development of German nor of Hebrew
as a means of adjusting the Jew to emancipation had the expected
result. Germanization led to apostasy; Hebraization led in the end
through its development in Russia, to Jewish nationalism and Zionism.
In Germany itself Hebrew was discarded as a literary medium as soon
as possible, and the later "Jewish Science" of the German Jewish
scholars was written not in Hebrew, but in German.
Elijah of Vilna
In Russia, where the Hebrew revival as a means to modern cul-
ture was to have marvelous and unforeseen effects, the forerunner of
"enlightenment" was Elijah of Vilna, the Gaon, (1720-1779), a true
31
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Jewish sage whose gentleness and sanity and learning went far to-
wards saving Russian Jewry from the perversions of a false concep-
tion of assimilation. He reintroduced not only the study of modern
science, philosophy and mathematics, but he purified the study of the
Talmud, insisting on accurate knowledge of Hebrew grammar and
the Bible, and a vital, rational way of approaching Jewish learning.
Through his inspiration was founded the greatest of modern Talmud-
ical colleges, the Tree of Life Academy at Wolosin. And his in-
fluence, founded on no assumed authority but solely on the power
of his wisdom and character, no doubt shaped the course of events, if
only by keeping intact for a later time the spirit of Hebraism.
The Haskalah Movement in Russia
The Haskalah movement means literally "enlightenment". In
Russia was concentrated the best educated and most vital part of the
Jewish people. The reign of Alexander II seemed to offer the Jews
an outlet from the Ghetto into Russian and European life and culture.
If the Russian Jew were to take his place among Russians, he must
acquire that secular education which is the common heritage of man-
kind. Hitherto his whole education had been traditionally Jewish,
based on the Bible and more especially on the Talmud.
The Gaon had done much to keep that secularization thoroughly
Jewish. The Russian Jews used their own classic Hebrew as the
vehicle, by means of translations, for all modern knowledge. Stimu-
lated at first by the MeasseUm imported from Germany, there grew up
a virile secular literature in Hebrew. (See Chapter XVI.) However
some of the Maskilim preachers of Haskalah may have repudiated
Jewish religious and national segregation, they nevertheless strength-
ened one of the firmest of all national bonds, the national language.
The movement was a break from traditional Judaism rather than from
Jewish nationalism. The obscurantist religion of the Hassidim, (a
mystic ecstatic sect founded by Baal Shem Tov as a protest against
formalism and emotional decay, but that degenerated into supersti-
tion), hastened that break by fermenting the religious atmosphere
and discrediting both Talmudism and itself. Many were the brilliant
Jewish personalities of this period in Russia, among them Leon
Gordon, Perez Smolenskin, and M. L. Lilienblum, which would well
repay detailed study. (See Ch. XVI.)
Reaction to Jewish Nationalism
The reaction after the death of Alexander II and the Russian
persecutions of the eighties, forced the Jews to realize that the
EMANCIPATION, HASKALAH, REFORM
attempt at assimilation would never bring them true freedom. Then
the Maskilitn, with their strong Hebraic background, quickly reacted
to national emotion, and in many cases became Zionist leaders. Leo
Pinsker was one of these. His father, a Maskil, was master of a
secular Hebrew school. Jewish nationalism, stripped of its ancient
protection, traditional Judaism, cried out for a new means of preserva-
tion, and so made itself felt with new force.
The French Revolution
In France the Revolution, with its slogan of "liberty, equality,
fraternity," automatically brought civil emancipation to the Jews, an
emancipation in political life which had to be struggled for bit by bit
in every other country except only the United States of America, which
had now also emerged into full political freedom. But even France
fell short of American ideals of racial freedom. The Jewish question
as a national question was not solved by individual civil emancipa-
tion. Both in France, under the imperial reaction of Napoleon and in
Germany, the Jews felt themselves faced with this choice: Jewish
nationality or a European nationality. Napoleon called a Sanhedrin of
Rabbis in Paris, in 1807, to clarify the Jewish position. The Rabbis
practically bartered Jewish national existence for French citizenship.
They defined Judaism as merely a religious persuasion.
The Reform Movement in Germany
The Reform movement in Germany, which took rise in the genera-
tion following Mendelssohn, stood midway between those whose en-
lightenment ended in conversion and those who adhered rigidly to
traditional Judaism. The impulse behind it was a praiseworthy and
thoroughly Jewish one, the desire to adjust Jewish life to changed
conditions. It claimed, in fact, to be the savior of Judaism, a compro-
mise that alone could save Judaism from utter destruction. It accen-
tuated Jewish religion purely as a belief religion in the western,
Christian sense. The avowed purpose was to make Germans of the
emancipated Jews by denying Jewish nationality. The German Jews
were called "Germans of the Mosaic persuasion." Relief was to be
the only bond between Jews, and Judaism was to be saved without
the Jewish people. This sacrifice of a patriotism preserved through
2,000 years of heroic struggle was made ostensibly out of gratitude
for bare justice received, really out of fear of renewed injustice.
Therefore Jewish worship was gradually stripped of all national ele-
ments, of the Hebrew language, of the prayers for the restoration of
33
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Zion, and of those ritual laws which may be called sublimated national
customs. Reform Judaism arose in an individualistic age; it too was
individualistic. The Jew accepted his personal civic liberty at the
price of the spiritual freedom of the Jewish people. Reform Judaism
offered him a philosophy, a system of truth and ethics, quite harmless,
which he could accept without injuring his social and civic life. It
evolved the ideal of a Jewish mission in dispersion, of teaching the
unity of God to the nations. But unfortunately the missionaries were
out of date. That part of Judaism which they were to teach, ethical
monotheism, is already common human property, no longer distinc-
tively Jewish. Hence, it could not hold even Jews together, much less
influence progressive humanity. What is more, Reform Judaism
imitated in its method Protestant Christianity, a religion which is
also losing its vitality. In an age of religious upheaval, it could only
imitate, not create and lead, as Judaism has always done. It became
a respectable and pleasant path toward assimilation.
But other forces, among them the negative force of anti-Semitism
and the positive force of Zionism, blocked the way of Reform Judaism
toward its goal of painless death. In our day many Reform Jews,
among them Reform Rabbis, have come into the Zionist movement,
because they realize that reforming the ritual of Judaism in no way
affects its national significance, and that Jewish religion in any form
today depends for its vitality on the renationalization of the Jewish
people. Zionism alone can solve not only the national but also the
religious problem of the Jews, and perhaps of the whole world. Every-
where we see a new national life springing up beside religions that
belong to a dead past, and everywhere the nations are groping for
faith. May not the Jewish nation, which alone sees in religion the ex-
pression of social, of community living and of national and political
justice, hold once more the religious salvation of mankind in its
hands?
References:
The Reform Movement in Judaism, by D. Philipson. The Easkalah Movement,
by J. S. Eaisin. Studies in Judaism, by S. Schechter; First Series, Ch. Ill, "Rabbi
Elijah Wilna, Gaon." Leon Gordon, by A. B. Rhine. Jewish Emancipation: The
Contract Myth, by H. Sacher.
Subjects for Papers:
A brief history of Reform Judaism. A brief history of the Maskalah Movement.
34
CHAPTER VI
ANTI-SEMITISM AND JEWISH NATIONALISM
"And Haman said unto King Ahasuerus: There is a certain
people scattered abroad and dispersed among the peoples in all the
provinces of thy kingdom; and their laws are diverse from those of
every people, neither keep they the king's laws; therefore it profiteth
not the king to suffer them."
National Persistence after Defeat Is Cause of Anti-Semitism
These lines from the Book of Esther give the underlying cause and
motive of all anti-Semitism. Primarily, anti-Semitism is the fault of the
Jews, for remaining Jewish. Had the Jews disappeared, naturally Jew-
hatred would have disappeared with them. Our crime is to have re-
mained alive as a distinct people, to have defied the loss and destruction
of our land, and to have maintained our spirit and will. Nor can we escape
that hatred by clipping off this or that element of our Jewishness
our religion, our patriotism, our legalism for the name Jew desig-
nates that ancient people which was conquered and dispersed from
its land 2,000 years ago, and whose crime is to refuse to die. Only
complete disappearance can satisfy our foes. Or a change of front on
the part of humanity, a new conception of the rights of nationality,
may eliminate our foe. That new conception of national rights, in also
granting us our land, would justify and satisfy the national aspiration
of 2,000 years.
Jew Hatred in Old Times
We must distinguish between anti-Semitism in modern Western
Europe and the Jew-hatred of earlier times. Anti-Semitism is an
intellectualized form of the older instinctive antagonism. In old times
the primitive feeling against the stranger or alien, who had no land
of his own and yet held aloof from assimilation, took various forms
of prejudice and superstition. From the first dispersion of the Jews in
Greece and Rome, even before the Christian Era, we find this antago-
nism, sometimes taking literary forms. The Jews are accused of wor-
shipping a pig or an ass's head, of being descended from a race of
lepers who were driven out of Egypt, etc., etc. In Christian times
35
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
the hatred took a religious form, though not without political implica-
tions. The sharpest break between Jews and Christians in early times
probably came from the Jews, through their bitter resentment against
the early Christianizing Jews who refused to take part in the Jewish
national struggle against Rome, and who even acted as informers to
the Romans. Throughout the middle ages, and even to our own time,
religious Jew-hatred was based on the assumption that the Jews had
killed Christ, that they were originally the chosen people, but by their
denial of the divinity of Christ had forfeited that heritage, whicn
became the spiritual heritage of all Christians. The Jews are rejected
of God; the Christians become his chosen people. Thus the nations
deprived Israel not only of his land, but tried to rob him also of his
spiritual patrimony. So long as Christianity lasts in its traditional
forms this hatred must have to the Christian mind a logical justifica-
tion. However, this religious aversion was often used merely as a
cloak for economic antagonism. The Jew, looked upon as a foreigner,
could not accumulate wealth without arousing envy. His peculiar
situation as a countryless sojourner who could not own land, drove
him naturally into commercial occupations ; and gradually restrictions
in most countries forced him exclusively into brokerage and^ into
usury. He became practically the property of the nobility and king's,
and so was used by them in many cases as an instrument to fleece
the common people. Then the nobility, to protect themselves, often
found it expedient to turn popular hatred against their vassal Jews.
The forms of persecution practised were generally forced segregation
in Ghettos, forced conversion at the point of the sword, expulsion
from cities or whole countries, riot and murder sometimes wholesale
murder and all of these offered opportunities for plunder. During
the middle ages, the forms of persecution were especially violent and
horrible, as in the time of the Crusades, but the periods between
allowed of much freedom and development. The bitterest degrada-
tion of the Jew -came after the Reformation in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, when the general hatred and oppression of
the Jews was most systematic and constant. It may be called the
darkest period in the history of the Jewish dispersion. Gleams of light
there were, also, and the first dawning of a new day, especially in
England and Holland. But altogether the effect on the Jews was
terrible. An intensification and narrowing of national life took place
that shut the Jew into Medievalism when all the world was striding
forward. Jewish obscurantism in the Ghettos turned against all
modern culture, and fed the suffering national spirit only on Talmudic
36
ANTI-SEMITISM AND JEWISH NATIONALISM
lore and on the hard nuts of a legalism which could not function in
life. Also, the long and bitter oppression, the social ostracism and
the terrible economic suffering which forced upon them low standards
of living, often gave the Jews those repelling social habits, obsequious-
ness and lack of decorum, which became an excuse for social prejudice.
Modern Anti-Semitism Social and Political
That social prejudice came into full swing after legal emancipa-
tion in the nineteenth century. When the Jew came forth from his
Ghetto with his sharpened wits, he rose at once to the top level in every
profession and walk of life, and yet of course retained his personality.
Quickly enough, in less than a generation, does he throw off the Ghetto
habits; but he still pours forth from the Ghetto; and not only Gentiles,
but even Jews, foolishly describe as the effect of his superficial man-
ners a prejudice that is rooted in quite other ground.
In speaking of modern anti-Semitism, Russia and Rumania are
left out of account, as there the conditions are still those of an earlier
period, and Jew-hatred runs the old cruel course with certain quite
modern aggravations; for example, the exclusion in Russia, until
the Revolution, of Jews from schools and colleges, and the laws of
segregation in the Pale which outdid perhaps all previous Ghetto
restrictions. In Rumania, Jews are considered and treated as aliens
with no civic rights but that of compulsory military service. In
Poland, the popular economic persecution has had a distinctly na-
tionalist coloring. To say nothing of the savage cruelty against the
Jews practised in all these lands during the war.
Modern political anti-Semitism was born in Germany after the
Franco-Prussian War, that is, after 1870. It was a natural result of
the new German national spirit. Its occasion was the breaking of
the bubble of over-speculation that resulted from the huge French
indemnity. In that burst bubble a number of Jews as well as non-
Jews were implicated. However, the Jews were the scapegoats.
Two Jews, Edward Lasker and Ludwig Bamberger, had played a
leading part in creating, in 1866, the National Liberal Party, which
included the great majority of German Jews, and which had helped
Bismarck to weld the German States into an empire. Naturally, the
anti-Semitic agitation took political form, especially when Bismarck
no longer needed the Liberal Party, but was glad to use anti-Semitism
as an instrument for its overthrow. An anti-Semitic political party
arose, which later had its counterpart in Austria, but Bismarck gave
the party no further support after it had served his purposes, and to-
37
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
day it is practically out of existence. However, anti-Semitism as an
intellectual force, with dire physical and social consequences, con-
tinued to develop. It has been the stronghold of conservatism, in
France and in Germany ; in the former its hotbed was the army, which
brought forth the Dreyfus case, and raised a storm of popular anti-
Jewishness which was a staggering blow to those who had put their
faith in French liberalism. However, the French Government vindi-
cated itself by its just verdict. In Germany and German Austria, anti-
Semitism has been chiefly official and literary. Government positions
and commissions in the army, as well as university honors, have been
withheld from Jews. All professional advancement has at times been
barred. The highest point of repression was reached in 1882; then the
pogroms in Russia shocked the Germans into their senses.
Literary anti-Semitism is based on various philosophic theses
that merge into each other. First, the Christian or Christian Socialist :
This sees in Judaism a disintegrating force that must naturally
undermine Christianity and Christian national life, and that is re-
sponsible, since Jewish emancipation, for the decay of Christianity
and the consequent upheavals in European Christian nationalism.
Curiously enough, this conservative view was linked with a form of
Socialism, which saw in the Jews the typical bourgeoisie and capital-
ists. Second, the economic: This is very complicated, since its incep-
tion was with the landlord class, the Junkers, who fought, in the Jew,
the bourgeoisie. Later the Christian bourgeoisie turned against the
Jew as the Socialist. Always it was the Jew who was held responsible
really too great a compliment. It is true that the Jew is often a
revolutionist. Since he believes justice can and must be attained on
this earth, he must fight for it ; since he holds all men equally children
of God, he insists on democracy; and his sense of personal dignity
gives him a love of freedom. Also, he belongs to an oppressed
minority. But, with all his share in the leadership of social revolution,
he is not responsible for the spiritual awakening of Europe. Third,
the ethnological: Scientific claims which have been since discredited
by science try to prove the inferiority of the Semitic race to the rul-
ing Aryan race, the danger to Europe of an infusion of Jewish blood
and Jewish ideals, and go so far as to try to prove that Jesus was an
Aryan. As a matter of fact, neither of these "races" can be proved
to exist. Fourth, the anti-Christian, typified by Nietzsche. This
attacks not only Judaism as the religion of the weak and cowardly, but
also Christianity as a product of Judaism, and sees the superman in
him who lives by his power to overcome and rule others.
38
ANTI-SEMITISM AND JEWISH NATIONALISM
Racial Basis of Anti-Semitism
Anti-Semitism, arising in Western Europe, after emancipation
had actually succeeded in denationalizing a large section of the Jews,
stood on a racial foundation, as was indicated by its name, and so
made it clear that only the complete elimination of the Jews as a
people could eliminate Jew-hatred. The answer to such a challenge
could be only either surrender or defiance assimilation or Zionism. Ac-
cordingly it was said by the foes of Zionism by the capitulators
that Zionism was merely a negative movement, a council of despair,
springing from anti-Semitism. The falsity of this view need hardly
be pointed out. Zionism arose in its might because Jewish nationality
was threatened. ^Xt was the active militant heir of the passive nation-
alism of the Ghetto. It is true that to men like Leo Pinsker and
Theodor Herzl an anti-Semitic outbreak was the direct occasion of
their Zionist activity. However, that merely means that they sud-
denly realized wherein lies the only Jewish salvation. Men of another
temperament would perhaps have been converted instead.
Zionist Attitude Toward Anti-Semitism
To the Zionist anti-Semitism loses its paramount importance.
^.Social anti-Semitism he can ignore, because his realization of positive
Jewish values makes him less the dupe of social whims. And even
in the more violent forms of anti-Semitism he sees a passing phase
that must disappear when the Jew is renationalized and again becomes
normal, when segregation and separatism and alienism lose their
purpose in the dispersion, because the Jew is secure in his own home-
land. The Zionist demands justice to the Jew everywhere, which in-
cludes the national justice due to the claim on his land. The burning
question is no longer anti-Semitism. The burning question is Jewish
rehabilitation. So the Zionist feels himself free to ignore prejudices
and false deductions; as a citizen from choice in every country, he
feels himself justified in working for the repatriation of the nucleus
of the Jewish people which desires to return to its homeland. By
dropping apologetics and assuming this positive position, he has won
the respect of the non-Jewish world, which now sees in the Jewish
question, and partly through the Jewish question, the claim for justice
to all the small and disinherited peoples.
References:
Anti-Semitism, by B. Lazare. Zionism and the Jewish Future, edited by K
Sacher; Chapter on "Anti-Semitism." Anti-Semitism- in Germany, by Israel Cohen.
Subjects for Papers:
The status of the Jew in America. German political anti-Semitism.
39
CHAPTER VII
FORERUNNERS OF ZIONISM*
Two ideas are implied in the term "Forerunners of Zionism". For
one thing, the word "forerunners" gives notice that we are speaking of
Zionism in the political sense, and that we refer to the movement founded
by Herzl in 1897. That this modern Zionist movement is no abrupt inno-
vation, but is part and parcel of an ancient and dominant Jewish
motive, is our second implication.
Our primary purpose is to describe the men and the activities that
preceded Herzl and political Zionism during the latter half of the
nineteenth century. The names of Moses Hess, Hirsch Kalischer,
Perez Smolenskin, Leo Pinsker, and Ahad Ha-Am loom large in the
annals of Jewish nationalism of modern times. Each of these men was
a distinct type, varying as widely as only Jews can vary, and yet
they were closely akin, identical almost, in their conclusion that for
the Jew all roads lead to Zion.
These protagonists of Jewish nationalism had contemporary in-
centives not only in Jewish misery, but also in the nationalist strivings
of their times. When Greece and Italy to mention notable examples
secured their national independence, the sympathies of all of cul-
tured Europe were with them. Byron and the Brownings at once
come to mind when the Greek and Italian struggles for independence
are recalled. And it is frustrated, but rightful, national aspirations,
that kept Europe in turmoil throughout the nineteenth century.
In German Jewry, the denationalizing motive of the Reform move-
ment was very strongly opposed by the Orthodox party. But even
though Orthodoxy whole-heartedly held to the principle of Jewish
nationality (which had never before been questioned), it stood, after
all, for a status quo policy. It prayed for and 'devoutly believed in the
restoration, but by way of a Heaven-sent Messiah who would appear
miraculously. Practical measures were thought to be an impious
forcing of the hand of Providence.
Moses Hess
We nevertheless find in the 60's of the nineteenth century men
strongly opposed to the Reformers, and yet willing to do practical
* By Lotta Levensohn.
40
FORERUNNERS OF ZIONISM
work to redeem their people. Foremost among the "Forerunners of
Zionism", Herzl's predecessors in Germany stand Moses Hess
(1812-1875), and Rabbi Hirsch Kalischer (1795-1874). Their intel-
lectual outlook and their method of approaching the problem of the
Eternal Jew were poles apart, but their conclusions were the same.
The Communist-Socialist Hess's admiration for the Orthodox Rabbi is
shown by his quoting entire Kalischer's draft of a plan for colonizing
Palestine, in his own work on Jewish nationalism, Rom und Jerusalem.
Early in his career, Hess was a Communist. He was a contemporary of
Karl Marx, the converted Jew, and became a tower of strength to Social-
ism. But, unlike Marx, Hess realized that the cosmopolitanism of his
day, which ignored the historic evolution of races and nationalities, could
not be the last word. Hess, a humanitarian of the warmest and widest
sympathies, outlined, half a century ago, in Rom und Jerusalem, ideas
that are only now becoming common property, as they have been forged
on the anvil of the terrible World War; the self-determination of the
small peoples without let or hindrance by the great powers master-
nations, he called them; the indisputable and equal rights of small na-
tions; the fact that every cultural-historical group has something of its
own to contribute to civilization; and that relations between nation and
nation ought to be based not on armaments but on justice the League
of Nations, as our new phrase has it. Only through a family of nations,
based on social and economic justice within the respective states, could
the millenium come. That humanity and human institutions must, in the
nature of things, be on the road to perfection, he never dreamed of
doubting. It logically followed, from his premises, that the Jewish
people must again be constituted to take its place among the nations,
not only because of the justice of its claim to freedom, but also because
its genius was represented in one of the two great cultures that had
influenced civilization for 2,000 years Hebraism and Hellenism. The
Jewish people still had much to contribute, but could do so only on
the basis of a normal national life; that is, political independence in
a land of its own. This was so important, he said, that if emancipation
necessary as it was could be had only on the surrender of Jewish
nationalism, he would forego emancipation. He was a political Zionist,
too, because he strongly urged that colonization in Palestine be placed
under some form of international guarantee, preferably with a French
protectorate.
Rabbi Hirsch Kalischer
Rabbi Hirsch Kalischer, of Thorn, Prussia, a learned Talmudist,
through word and deed fostered agricultural settlement in Palestine by
41
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
East European Jews. His premise was religious, as Hess's was eco-
nomic and nationalistic. In his D'rishat Zion, published in the same
year as Rom und Jerusalem (1862), he laid down the principle that
the ancestral land must be reclaimed by natural, practical measures.
The Messiah would surely appear, but after, and not before, the Jewish
people had done all that was humanly possible. As he saw it, God
helps him who helps himself. Kalischer's agitation inspired the found-
ing of the Mikveh Israel Agricultural School near Jaffa by Charles
Netter of the Alliance Israelite Universelle in 1871, and also gave rise
to two or three unsuccessful attempts at founding Jewish settlements.
Nevertheless, he achieved something of two-fold value. He gained
sympathy for Palestinian colonization in rigidly Orthodox circles,
and he inspired the first organized attempt in 2,000 years to reclaim
Palestinian soil by Jewish labor.
Perez Smolenskin, Maskil
In Russia, the occasional gleams of freedom in the nineteenth
century gave way in the early 80's to pogroms and further restrictions
of the Pale of Settlement. When the humanitarian phrases of the
time turned to Dead Sea fruit in the mouths of cosmopolitan Jews, it
was natural that they should seek comfort in the warmth of their own
fold. However, it is not just to ascribe the rising wave of Jewish
nationalist sentiment in Russia, at that time, merely to the reflex action
of anti-Semitism. We must remember the intense Jewish self-con-
sciousness of the masses fostered by centuries of seclusion in Ghettos,
their absorption in the study of the Torah, their persistent, unalterable
belief that in God's good time when Israel should have atoned for
its early sins they would be restored to Erez Israel. The Messianic
idea had gathered only strength with the passing ages, and in a time of
technical and political progress, the old hope clothed itself in new
garments.
As the culture of the nineteenth century penetrated to the dark
Russian Ghettos, it was avidly welcomed by the younger generation
through the medium of biblical Hebrew ! Hebrew was the medium of
transmission for poetry, literature, philosophy, science, modern language,
for everything, in fact! (See Ch. V and XVI.) The movement for
enlightenment, the Haskalah, was spread with characteristic Jewish
zeal and energy. However, for nearly a generation the tendency was
to set up new idols in place of the old Jewish God. The older genera-
tion, most of whom had bitterly opposed admitting the knowledge
of the Gentiles, now pointed out that the results more than justified
42
FORERUNNERS OF ZIONISM
their attitude. It has been well said that the "Haskalah was a right
step, but in the wrong direction." The introduction to general culture
became a signal to cast off Judaism and Jewish ties. In the end,
the poison produced its own antidote. The fullest Russification did
not serve, it appeared, to avert pogroms, or the May Laws which con-
gested the Pale to the stifling point. It remained for one of the most
gifted of the Maskilim to point out that the true path of the Haskalah
lay through Jewish nationalism. Perez Smolenskin (1842-1885),
writer and poet, was an inspiring exponent of the nationalism of the
Prophets. The Am Olam, the Eternal People, he said, has an eternal
spiritual-cultural task. In Palestinian colonization he saw the first
stepping-stone towards his aim. The Hebrew language he loved for
its own sake, and as the vehicle of the Prophetic message. He founded
a little monthly journal, Hashahar (The Dawn), and kept it going at
the most painful sacrifices. A group of young Maskilim gathered
about Smolenskin, and the Hashahar served both as a medium for
nationalist propaganda and for the evolution of modern literary
Hebrew. He strove for a synthesis of modern culture with the Hebraic
spirit, and saw in that synthesis, that assimilation to itself of western
progress and civilization, the only possibility of a full development for
Jewish national life. It was to be a reversed assimilation, not the Jew
lost in the world, but adding the world to his own spiritual possessions.
Leo Pinsker
More closely akin to Herzl than any other of his forerunners was
Leo Pinsker (1821-1891), a Russian physician and Maskil, who re-
sembled Herzl both in his method of approach to the Jewish problem,
and in his proposal to deal with it by political measures. Though
Pinsker had never been remote from the Jewish people, it was the
pogroms and the May Laws which stung him to take thought for the
position of the Jews, just as the Dreyfus case was later to bring Herzl
to self-realization. In his brochure Auto -Emancipation (since become
one of the classics of Zionism), written in 1882, Pinsker analyzes the
Jewish situation. Both his logic and his sense of dignity bring him
to the conclusion that there is no remedy but by way of self-help,
and that self-help must be achieved through political means. The
Jewish people is an anomaly among the nations, he contends: it is
neither alive, as a properly constituted nation ought to be, with a com-
mon land, language, and institutions ; nor is it dead, as might reason-
ably be expected of a people so long deprived of the attributes of na-
tionhood. Instead, the Jews are the living-dead, a ghost-nation that
43
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
inspires fear (and therefore hatred) in the living nations. They lack
group-consciousness, national dignity, national self-respect; conse-
quently, they can inspire no respect in others. They are everywhere
aliens, and do not receive the toleration accorded to other foreigners,
who can reciprocate both good and ill in their own homelands. The
cry of economic exploitation is raised against the Jews, despite their
dire mass-poverty. Nor is there a Jewish nation with which the other
nations can treat; they know only Jews, to be used as interest or
prejudice may dictate. There can be but two alternative courses of
action open to the Jews : Assimilation, national suicide consciously
planned ; or, reconstitution as a nation among the nations. The pres-
ent state is intolerable. Assimilation is the way of death. Even if
self-destruction were not abhorrent, the other nations could not and
would not absorb so many millions of a strongly characterized race.
If the path of life be chosen, the national self-consciousness must be
stimulated, until by organized effort, self-help becomes possible. "We
are no more justified," he says, "in leaving our national fortunes in the
hands of other peoples, than we are in making them responsible for our
national misfortunes." He refers to the rise of small nationalities in
Europe in the early nineteenth century. "Would not similar action
on the part of the Jews be justified?" Political action is the only ade-
quate method of self-help. First and foremost comes the question of a
homeland. When writing Auto-Emancipation, he held no brief for
Palestine. The God-idea and the Bible would make holy any land
whither the Jewish people took them. He was to learn, as Herzl
learned, how inbred is the attachment of the Jewish masses to Pales-
tine. The land was to be honorably acquired by purchase, the Great
Powers concurring. The means he proposed were actualized (though
he did not live to see it) in the Zionist Congress, the Jewish Colonial
Trust, the National Fund, the Palestine Bureau and the Ahoozahs.
But in 1882 the times were not yet ripe for a great political movement.
The then existing Palestine colonization societies (the Hoveve Zion)
rallied about Pinsker, and his call for an international conference
eventuated in November, 1884, at Kattowitz (Silesia). (See Ch. VIII
and XXIV.) A federation was formed, of which Pinsker became
president. The Hoveve Zion embarked on no political activity, and
confined themselves strictly to practical colonizing work in Palestine,
which in itself strained their resources. Wisely, Pinsker took half a
loaf when no more was to be had. His political ideas were not forgot-
ten, and, indeed, prepared the ground for the Zionist movement in
very definite ways.
44
FORERUNNERS OF ZIONISM
The Kadimah
Pinsker's Auto-Emancipation became a "Bible" for all the na-
tionally-minded Jewish university students of the time. At the Uni-
versity of Vienna, which seethed with anti-Semitism, the Russian and
Rumanian Jewish students were organized by Smolenskin, Birnbaum,
and other leading nationalists, into a society which was destined for
an important part in the genesis of the Zionist movement. They
called it Kadimah, the Hebrew for both "Eastward" and "Forward".
The Kadimah gave the impetus to the formation of Jewish students'
societies and federations all over Central and Eastern Europe, which
did much at the universities to invest the Jewish name with a dignity
before unthought of. When Herzl published his Judenstaat, the
Kadimah petitioned him to take the lead in executing his own ideas.
They were his devoted lieutenants in the enormous preparations for
the first Zionist Congress at Basle and, at the Congress itself, joyous-
ly served as pages and ushers. The Kadimah has ever since been a
training ground for Zionist workers and leaders.
Lilienblum and Mohilewer
Among those who did yeoman's work for Palestinian colonization
were Moshe Loeb Lilienblum (1843-1911) and Rabbi Samuel Mohilewer
(1824-1898). Lilienblum was of the type of the earlier Maskilim,
who believed that the Russification of the Jews would solve all their
problems. The pogroms brought him a rude awakening, as they did
so many others of his mind. Lilienblum was converted to Jewish
nationalism by Pinsker. He became secretary of the Hoveve Zion fed-
eration, and did much to further Palestinian colonization through his
literary propaganda.
Rabbi Samuel Mohilewer consistently advocated European cul-
ture for the Russian Jews. With his balanced outlook, however, he
could not imagine that university education alone would save the sore-
ly oppressed people. He enlisted the invaluable aid of Baron Edmond
de Rothschild for Palestinian colonization, and tried, though unsuc-
cessfully, to induce Baron de Hirsch, also, to concentrate his efforts on
Palestine. Rabbi Mohilewer himself was one of the leading spirits in
the founding of the Jewish village of Rehobot by a group of well-to-do
Russian Jews. When the political Zionist movement arose, he sup-
ported it with might and main. He even left a Zionist testament to the
Jewish people, written on the day before his death.
45
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Ahad Ha-Am and Eliezer ben Yehudah
The factors that went to the making of Zionism are in their nature
practical, political, and, supremely important from the Jewish stand-
point, spiritual. We have seen that once the Haskalah movement found
its true course in Jewish nationalism, the Prophetic teachings found
able and fervent presentation by the Maskilim. Concomitantly, the
revival of Hebrew proceeded apace. Head and front of the propa-
ganda for the national-spiritual idea is Asher Ginsberg (better known
by his pen name of Ahad Ha-Am, "One of the People)", distinguished
philosopher and master Hebrew stylist. He was a deeply interested
member of the old Hoveve Zion. Ahad Ha-Am has been popularly
thought to be an opponent of political Zionism. Yet his cardinal idea
of a "spiritual center" involves some sort of political status for the
Palestinian Jews. It was not that he disapproved of Political Zionism
in theory; but he feared, rather, that all the glorious old hopes and
teachings would be ignored by a movement frankly organized out of
political and economic considerations. As the years went by, Ahad
Ha-Am's philosophy took an ever greater hold on many adherents of
the Herzlian movement. There is, in truth, no contradiction between
Zionism and Ahad Ha-Amism, but rather a synthesis of political and
cultural motives blending for a common purpose. (See Ch. XVII.)
One of the surest signs that a spiritual as well as a physical reju-
venation of the Jewish people is in process through contact with the
soil of Palestine, is the re-instatement of Hebrew as a living tongue. It
was a task that might have daunted the boldest of spirits. Literary
and liturgical usage is not precisely the means by which a language
is kept flexible and responsive to everyday requirements. It re-
mained for another Russian Jew, and one of the earliest protagonists
of Zionism, Eliezer ben Yehudah, to establish Hebrew as the national
language in Palestine. He went there a generation ago, and had to
work for a while almost single-handed. We know him now as the
compiler of a great all-inclusive Hebrew dictionary. To-day the He-
brew speech is alive and virile, and it is the most precious treasure of
the New Palestine. (See Ch. XXXII.)
References:
Borne and Jerusalem, by Moses Hess. Auto-Emancipation, by Leo Pinsker.
Pinslcer and His Brochure, by Ahad Ha-Am.
Subjects for Papers:
A digest of Borne and Jerusalem. A digest of Auto-Emancipation.
CHAPTER VIII
HOVEVE ZION*
From the 1860's on, Palestine colonization societies began to
spring up. By 1882 there were quite a number of societies all over
Europe known as Hoveve Zion (Lovers of Zion) which constituted, in
an informal way, the Hibbat Zion movement. Societies were formed
also in America. In his Auto-Emancipation, Pinsker appealed for a
general Jewish assembly to consider the idea of Jewish self-liberation.
The Odessa Committee
As a result, representatives of Hoveve Zion societies in various
countries gathered at Kattowitz (Silesia) in November, 1884, and
formed a federation. It was not until 1890, however, that the federa-
tion, which had headquarters in Odessa, was able to obtain official
sanction from the Russian Government. It is popularly known as the
"Odessa Committee", and has done much to uphold the settlers and to
further Jewish education in Palestine. (See Ch. XXIV.) Pinsker be-
came president of the new federation. True, it fell far short of his ad-
vanced political thinking, since it could manage only colonizing activi-
ties on a very small scale ; and of diplomatic negotiation there was no
thought. Pinsker did not even live to see the rise of the great politi-
cal movement that he would so warmly have welcomed.
Early Attempts at Colonization
When the Kattowitz conference was held, Palestinian colonization
was already several years old. And a curious and unprecedented
picture it presented; a land neglected and sterile for twenty cen-
turies ; a few little groups of Jews, from Russia and Rumania, for the
most part, rich in idealism and the courageous pioneering spirit,
but pitifully poor in information about the inhabitants, the climate,
the possibilities of the land, its laws and customs. They had some
backing, it is true, in Europe. There were the Hoveve Zion, who were
at one with them in idealism and love of Palestine; some Orthodox
* By Lotta Levenaohn.
47
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
West European Jews who deemed support of Yishub Erez Israel a re-
ligious duty; the great Jewish philanthropic organizations like the
ICA (The Jewish Colonization Association) and the Alliance Israelite
Universelle; and, in a class by himself, that ever present friend-in-need
of the colonists, Baron Edmond de Rothschild of Paris, "our Baron",
as he is affectionately called in Palestine. But the fact remains that
Hibbat Zion, for all its fervor and idealism, was a philanthropic move-
ment, and that fact had undesirable implications and effects for the
colonists.
The Bilu
To appreciate the struggles, the costly errors costly in terms of
human life as well as in money and in time the grit and courage and
"stick-to-itiveness" of the one-time Ghetto dwellers, one must take up
the story of the Jewish villages one by one. Even in the most general
reference to the new Yishub, one must mention the Russian students'
organization, the Bilu (formed from the Hebrew initials of "O House
of Jacob, come, let us go up"). The Bilu abandoned their university
careers so that they might help to reclaim the land. They were con-
tent to do the roughest work for the smallest wage as long as they
could give service to the Land, and many gave life itself.
The Measure of Achievement
But those early pioneers learned how to do things, somehow.
There are now about fifty Jewish settlements in Judaea, Samaria,
Upper and Lower Galilee, and even trans-Jordania. Great vine-
yards and orange groves form the bases of thriving export indus-
tries. The once sterile soil produces grain and olives and vegetables
and fruits abundantly. The swamps that cost so many precious lives
through malarial infection, have been dried out near the Jewish settle-
ments by the beautiful groves of eucalyptus trees, imported by the
Jews from Australia. Police protection in the rural districts was con-
spicuously absent, though taxes were heavy. A Jewish constabulary
was therefore formed (the Shomerim). These graduates of Russian
and Rumanian Ghettos can ride and shoot well enough to win the re-
spect of the Bedouin, themselves not inexpert in such arts.
The Jewish villages suffered much during the philanthropic phase,
which lasted, of course, until they could become self-sustaining. When
the Zionist Organization began to operate in Palestine, through the
National Fund and the Anglo-Palestine Bank, it served a most useful
48
HOVEVE ZION
economic purpose by creating sound conditions of credit for the Jew-
ish settlers.
It is almost redundant to remark that in the Jewish Settlement the
needs of the spirit were at no stage neglected, however untoward ma-
terial conditions. The Jewish educational system of Palestine ranges
all the way from the kindergartens to the projected Hebrew Univers-
ity, for which the cornerstone was laid in July, 1918.
(For a fuller account of early colonization, see Ch. XXIV to
XXXII.)
Reference:
Recent Jewish Progress in Palestine, by Henrietta Szold; Rural Development;
First Period, p. 37.
Subjects for Papers:
Baron Edmond de Rothschild. The danger of philanthropy to democracy.
49
CHAPTER IX
THEODOR HERZL*
Boyhood and Youth
Theodor Herzl was born May 21, I860, in Budapest, the capital of
Hungary. His parents, people of fine grain, were in a comfortable
financial position. Although he received but a very meager Jewish
education, his Jewish pride asserted itself in his earliest years.
When he was eighteen years old, his family removed to Vienna.
Here he took up the study of law. In the university he belonged to a
student fraternity which decided one day to admit no more Jews to
membership while "graciously" allowing those Jews already members
to stay. Herzl immediately sent in his resignation to those "elegant
young men".
After securing his juridical degree in 1884, he retired to the Tyrol-
ean city of Salzburg, attracted by its beautiful scenery, there to prac-
tise his profession. But he gave himself up almost entirely to litera-
ture. His enormous capacity for work revealed itself at this time, and
resulted in the production of a large number of plays, essays, sketches,
critical studies, etc. Many of his plays were successfully produced.
He became famous as a journalist and writer of feuilletons, or short
sketches. His interests were far removed from things Jewish. His
literary successes and his travels made him lose touch with the miser-
ies and problems of Jewish life.
"A Jewish State"
In 1891 he went to Paris as correspondent of the Vienna news-
paper, Die Neue Freie Presse, an event which brought a new turn to
his thought and action. He learned the intricacies of French politics,
he learned the ways of courts and salons an unconscious preparation
for a national task. In Paris the Dreyfus affair was at that time ab-
sorbing attention, and there he witnessed such a violent and unreason-
ing exhibition of hatred and spite against the Jews that he was forced
to look into his own soul and define his attitude to his own people. He
saw the vast majority of the French nation eager "to convict one Jew,
* By Israel Goldberg.
50
THEODOR HERZL
and, in him, all Jews." He underwent a painful and tremendous inner
struggle, from which he emerged with a clear conception of the Jewish
problem and with a simple but fundamental plan for its solution. Herzl
came back to his own people, not alone to suffer with them, but to lead
them to a new and dignified life.
He embodied his ideas in a pamphlet, which he called The Jewish
State. During the last two months of his stay in Paris he worked on
this pamphlet every day, until he was exhausted. While writing, as
he tells us in his little Autobiography, he seemed to hear the rushing of
eagles above his head.
In this pamphlet, Herzl emphasized the following two proposi-
tions :
First: The Jews are a distinct nation, whose problem can be
solved only by restoring them to a normal national life in a land of
their own. He mentions Palestine and Argentina as possible Jewish
lands.
Second : The Jewish problem can be solved only through the self-
activity of the Jewish people that is to say, the Jewish problem can
be solved only by the Jews themselves.
With the precision of an architect and the inspired vision of a
prophet, Herzl proceeds to outline in detail the process of creation of
the Jewish State. The "Society of Jews" is to be the recognized po-
litical agency for the Jewish people, the "Jewish Company" its finan-
cial and executive arm. The territorial rights are to be secured by a
charter with the sanction and good-will of all the European govern-
ments. Colonization is to proceed by organized groups. The seven-
hour working day is to be instituted. The Jewish masses, and even
some from the upper classes, will flock to the new land to gain eco-
nomic and spiritual freedom. "A generation of wonderful Jews will
spring from the earth. The Maccabees will rise again." Let the open-
ing words once more be repeated: "The Jews who will it, shall have a
State of their own."
Herzl Hailed as Leader
It was neither the intention nor the desire of Herzl to take the
lead in a movement for the creation of a Jewish State. Even before
publishing his pamphlet he had conferred and corresponded with the
great Jewish philanthropist, Baron Maurice de Hirsch, who, he hoped,
would start the movement. But the timidity and lack of imagination
which has characterized so much of Jewish philanthropy made even
the great Hirsch unresponsive to Herzl's plea.
51
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
In fact, of the notable Jewish personalities of that day, only one,
the famous writer, Max Nordau, came at once to his support. The
others remained either hostile or indifferent.
But as for the great masses of the Jewish people, Herzl in his
Judenstaat had spoken the word for which they were waiting. The
first public expression of adherence came from Jewish students in Aus-
tria and Germany, from whom he received an address covered with
thousands of signatures. From Russia, Galicia, Rumania, Bulgaria,
and Hungary he received enthusiastic expressions of adherence and
pleas for action. Herzl was thus forced by circumstances to take the
lead. At the same time, he reached the conclusion that the only land
which could fire the imagination and energize the will of the Jewish
people was Palestine. From this belief he never swerved. When
Herzl wrote the Judenstaat, he did not even know that he lived in the
same world with others who had seen the same vision. He had never
heard of Hess, Kalischer, Pinsker. He did not know of the Hoveve
Zion; and yet it was he who now gathered under his leadership the
various struggling groups of unorganized Zionist enthusiasts. In-
spired with his great mission, Herzl now began his career of wonder-
ful activity. In order to acquaint himself with the political and diplo-
matic ground he made a special journey to Constantinople (April,
1896). He returned buoyantly optimistic, and on his way through
Sofia received a stirring ovation from the Bulgarian Jews. In Eng-
land, although he found opposition or indifference among the rich and
distinguished Jews, he was hailed as leader by the Zionists of the East
End of London.
The First Zionist Congress
He came to the conclusion that it was most important to win the
Jewish masses, and in order to give them the opportunity to declare
themselves, as well as to provide a general forum for the discussion of
the Jewish problem, he conceived the idea of convening a Jewish Con-
gress. In the name of a commission organized for the purpose, he
issued a call for such a Congress, which was to convene in Munich in
August, 1897. "The direction of Jewish affairs," said he in this call,
"must not be left to the will of individuals, no matter how well-inten-
tioned they may be. A forum must be created, before which each one
may be made to account for what he does or fails to do in Jewry."
A storm of opposition arose from most of the prominent Jews of
Western Europe, who were unaccustomed and afraid to discuss Jewish
affairs openly and before a democratic Jewish body. The representa-
52
THEODOR HERZL
tives of the Munich Jewish community objected to the holding of the
Congress in their city. As a result, the Swiss city of Basle was chosen.
Finally, a number of German Rabbis, fearful lest their German patriot-
ism be questioned, issued a formal protest against the holding of the
Congress. They have been known henceforth as the Protestrabbincr.
But the enthusiasm and support which Herzl found among the Jews
of Eastern Europe more than made up for the opposition of the
"emancipated".
In the meantime, in order to have a weapon of defence against his
numerous opponents and a means of advancing the Jewish cause,
Herzl had with his own funds founded the weekly newspaper, Die Welt.
The first representative Jewish assembly since the dispersion, the
first Zionist Congress brought together 197 delegates from almost
every land of the earth. The movement for the redemption of the
Jews through the national organization and self-activity of the Jewish
people was inaugurated, and its program defined to be the creation of
"a publicly recognized, legally secured home for the Jewish people in
Palestine." Over the entire event hovered the magnetic personality
and creative spirit of Theodor Herzl.
Through the first Congress Herzl came to know the Russian Jews.
He found among them his staunchest friends and his staunchest oppo-
nents. From the begining there was opposition on the part of some
of the Hoveve Zion to Herzl's political program.
Statesman and Diplomat
As leader of an organized movement, Herzl now took up with
feverish energy the numerous tasks which crowded in upon him, chief
of which, at this moment, was the creation of the financial instrument of
the movement, the Jewish Colonial Bank. (See Ch. XI.) Here again
it was the masses of the Jewish people who subscribed the greater
portion of the Bank's capital.
The second Congress, held in 1898, was another triumph for the
ideas and personality of Herzl. The enthusiasm with which he was
greeted was indescribable. The principles he advocated for the con-
trol of Palestinian colonization were practically adopted. Herzl al-
ways discouraged haphazard colonization, and insisted on protection by
political guarantees. That is what was meant by political Zionism. He
opposed infiltration, seeking instead an organized mass migration, an
entrance, as he put it, through the front door, not the back door. A
commission was elected to institute the Colonial Bank. During the year
the movement had grown enormously.
53
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
To secure the consent of the governments, Herzl sought to win
the good-will of the European monarchs. He was received in au-
dience by some of the most powerful rulers or their chief ministers.
Upon all of them his wonderful personality made a profound impres-
sion. He appeared before them not as a suppliant for favors, but as
the emissary of a people, the guardian of their political interests and
their dignity, in presence and bearing a king among kings.
In the fall of 1898, Herzl, at the head of a Jewish deputation, was
received by the German Emperor, William II, in the city of Jerusalem.
In May, 1901, he had his first audience with the Sultan of Turkey.
In the summer of 1903, upon the invitation of the Russian minister,
Von Plehve, he visited the Russian capital and had interviews with the
principal Russian ministers. Later, he was also received by the King
of Italy, Victor Emanuel II, and by the Pope. For the first time the
problem of the Jewish people, through Herzl, was being treated as a
political question.
In the meantime, as the movement continued to grow, its needs'
and problems multiplied. The Colonial Bank, after numerous difficul-
ties had been overcome, was at length founded. At the third Congress,
Herzl reported : "It was a good year ; we have moved a step for-
ward." But the strain and struggle were intense and the heart of the
great champion was beginning to be affected.
It seemed doubtful if Herzl would find the strength to attend the
fourth Zionist Congress in London. But the mighty will compelled
the weak heart. He left his sick bed and in the midst of a group of
the foremost men in Jewry, Nordau, Mandelstamm, Gaster, Zangwill,
his majestic personality stood forth and thrilled the vast throng that
gathered in the great assembly hall, as well as the delegates at the
sessions of the Congress. The English press and English statesmen
hailed the movement and promised their support.
If only the rich and powerful among the Jews had come to sup-
port him ! Then his audiences with the Turkish ruler, upon whom he
produced so deep and favorable an impression, would have resulted in
the obtaining of that charter for the Jewish occupation of Palestine
which Herzl sought. But the rich and complacent Jews held aloof,
and Herzl, although he suffered keen disappointment, resolved to
put his trust in the poor. At the fifth Congress, held at Basle (1901),
the Jewish National Fund was created, the fund through which the
vast masses of the people, by uniting their strength, might gather the
means which the short-sighted and timid rich withheld. (See Ch. XI.)
54
THEODOR HERZL
THEODOR HERZL
In the midst of these labors, Herzl found time to write his novel
of Zionist vision, Altneuland.
On July 16, 1902, Herzl testified as an expert on Jewish affairs
before the Alien Commission which was investigating immigration
into England. His personality and his testimony produced a pro-
found effect, and from that moment the British Government began to
interest itself in his plans with far-reaching consequences.
Trip to Russia
Early in August, by invitation of the Russian minister, Von
Plehve, he journeyed to Petrograd in order to try to convince the
Russian Government that Zionism did not conflict with Russian inter-
ests. He succeeded in obtaining from the Russian ministers important
promises in the interests of Zionism. The most formidable obstacles
seemed to melt away from his triumphal path. At that time the Gov-
ernment approved of Zionism because it supposed it would remove the
Jews. Later the Zionist movement, showing its democratic and re-
generative character, was bitterly opposed and persecuted by the Im-
perial Russian Government. During Herzl's stay in Russia he was
the witness of the misery and oppression of the Jewish population.
On his return, the streets of Vilna were dense with the throngs
who came out to greet him. In the crowded synagogue, when the old
Rabbi in his tremulous voice gave him the blessing, the people burst
into loud weeping. It was the prayer of gratitude and love addressed
by a helpless people to its champion. In Vilna, too, Herzl saw the
Cossacks use their whips upon the crowds who gathered at the sta-
tion to hail him. His great heart was wrung with pity. But the
speedy redemption of his people seemed to be in sight.
In order, however, to obtain from the Sultan the charter for the
colonization of Palestine, very large sums were required, sums much
larger than could be obtained soon enough from the impoverished
masses of the Jewish people. The Kishineff massacre had occurred,
and, while it horrified the civilized world, the threat and danger of
further massacres, like a dreadful shadow, hovered over the life of the
Jews of Russia. Immediate relief was imperative.
Uganda : A Shelter for the Night
And now, as if in answer to this need, came the British Govern-
ment and offered territory in one of its East African colonies, known
as Uganda, for colonization by the Jews. Even before this, El-
Arish, south of Palestine, had been offered by Great Britain, but for
important reasons could not be accepted. Herzl laid the Uganda offer
55
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
before the sixth Zionist Congress held in Basle on August 23, 1903.
But even in his opening speech Herzl declared the ultimate aim of the
Jewish people to be no land other than Palestine. And his closing
speech he ended with the words : "If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let
my right hand forget its cunning." Uganda he looked upon merely as a
"shelter for the night," and as a political weapon in the struggle for
Zion. (SeeCh. X.)
Nevertheless, there were many men who declared that by his will-
ingness to accept Uganda, Herzl had surrendered Palestine. No
amount of assurance could convince them or pacify them. They at-
tacked Herzl. Feeling ran high. A number of the foremost Russian
Jews met in the famous Conference at Charkow and chose a deputa-
tion to lay certain ultimatums before Herzl. The Charkow deputation
came, but, having come as accusers, they went away as the accused.
With infinite patience, Herzl answered his opponents and reiterated
his assurance. At the sessions of the Greater Actions Committee of
April 11-15, 1904, peace was finally re-established and a vote of con-
fidence was given to the leader.
The Last Struggle
Throughout this conflict Herzl suffered acutely. The heart attacks
increased, but in spite of the entreaties of his friends he refused to
spare himself. In the little mountain town of Edlach, whither he
had gone for rest and cure, Herzl, early in July, 1904, was at
last forced to bed. He knew that the end was near. "Greet Palestine
for me," are his words to a friend, "I have given my lifeblood to my
people!" In spite of great suffering he remained uncomplaining,
cheerful, and self-possessed. Finally, on the afternoon of July 3rd,
1904, after having kept Death at bay by sheer power of will until he
could again see his mother and children, Herzl, aged only forty-four
years, breathed his last. The Jewish people lost the strongest, the
most glorious personality it has produced in modern times.
References:
The Jewish State, by Theodor Herzl. Congress Addresses, by Theodor Herzl.
Das Leben Theodor Herzls (German), by A. Friedemann.
Subjects for Papers:
A digest of Altneuland. A digest of The Jewish State.
5(5
CHAPTER X
THE INTERNATIONAL ZIONIST ORGANIZATION
The Zionist Congress
Since the calling of the first Zionist Congress by Herzl in 1897,
the Congress has been the supreme authority and organ of the Zionist
Organization. The Zionist Congress is the Jewish Congress. For
2,000 years there had been no political expression of Jewish national-
ity. Representatives came to the Congresses from every country, to
speak not for a party in Jewry, but for the Jewish people. After the hedg-
ing of many West European Jews, who attempted to hide everything
Jewish lest it be the cause of prejudice, this public demonstration of
Jewishness came as a shock, and frightened those Jews who believed
that emancipation must be bought with assimilation. Hence the bit-
ter opposition to the first Congress on the part of certain Rabbis and
their communities in Austria and Germany, which made it impossible
to hold the Congress in Munich as originally planned. Perhaps the
democratic nature of Jewish aspirations appealed to the Swiss de-
mocracy, which welcomed the first Congress at Basle, and recognized
the Jewish flag.
It is Democratic
Democratic representation is the keynote of the Congress. Its
delegates are elected upon the basis of one for every 400 shekel payers.
All Zionists that means all shekel payers without distinction of
sex, above the age of 18, are eligible to vote in the elections, and those
above the age of 24 are eligible for election as delegates.
It is Representative
In order that the Congress may be representative, Zionists in all
countries must be properly organized, at least for purposes of election.
The Congress is the highest expression of the ideal of Zionism in the
Diaspora, an organized Jewish people. Since the Congress is the only
representative organ of world Jewry, it must be accounted as such
even if a majority of Jewish individuals should not take advantage of
this opportunity to be represented. It is the only democratic body in
Jewry open to every Jew on a common national basis, without regard
to party, religious affiliation, or citizenship.
<f" 57
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The Zionist Organization has been officially recognized by the
nations of the world as the political representative of the Jewish
people.
Earlier Modern Attempts at International Jewish Action
Former attempts at international Jewish representation were al-
ways due to abnormal Jewish conditions, to a desire to repair damage,
and always degenerated into local charitable undertakings. In 1860
there was founded in Paris the Alliance Israelite Universelle, organ-
ized for defence and relief as a result of the Damascus affair, when
the horrors attending a blood accusation convulsed the whole Jewish
world. But European national jealousies made the Alliance Univer-
selle anything but universal. Der Hilfsvercin der Deutschen Juden
was an offshoot of it. Both of these societies were organized for relief,
and under abnormal conditions. Later these two European philanthropic
societies were drawn into educational work in the Orient and especially
in Palestine. But their political interests could be only European,
not Jewish, and so they proved a danger to the new Yishub. The
pupils of the Alliance schools had only one ambition, to settle in
Paris, and the Hilfsverein turned into a long arm of the German Gov-
ernment to Germanize the Palestinian Jews. Zionism alone has or-
ganized Jewry on a constructive, normal, Jewish basis.
Organization of the Zionist Congress
At the first Zionist Congress in Basle, Switzerland, August 29-31,
1897, the Zionist Organization was created in the following form:
The Central Committee, to which each national Federation
elects a number of members proportionate to its own membership, has
the authority to adopt important decisions in the interval between one
Congress and the next. It meets once between Congresses with the
Inner Actions Committee.
The Actions Committee is the executive committee of the Congress,
and consists of 25 members elected by the Congress, and of the mem-
bers of the Inner Actions Committee. It carries the mandates of the Con-
gress and conducts the business of the Organization.
The Inner Actions Committee is the administrative committee of the
Actions Committee. It is elected by the Congress itself. Its number has
varied from five to seven members. All its members must reside in
the same city, that they may meet frequently.
Federations are organized in all countries which hold conventions
and have democratic organization. Local organization, dues, etc., are
determined by local needs.
58
THE INTERNATIONAL ZIONIST ORGANIZATION
The Shekel
The shekel or poll-tax of $0.25 per annum must be paid by every
organized Zionist in the world, through his local Federation or party.
It is used by the Actions Committee for organization purposes. It is
based on the Biblical poll-tax which was in post-Biblical times col-
lected from all Jews everywhere for the support of the Temple.
The Zionist Flag
The Zionist flag is a white ground with a light blue stripe near
each border, running horizontally, and a light blue Magen David, or
double triangle (six-pointed star), in the center between the two
stripes. After the first Zionist Congress this flag was suggested by
one of the members, it being based upon the Talit worn by all pious
Jews, which is white with a blue stripe near the border. The star is, of
course, the traditional "Star of David" used in all synagogues. Hence
the flag embodies ancient Jewish custom and law.
The First Congress Basle Program
At the first Congress there was adopted the Basle Program, which
has since remained the official expression of Zionist aims, and which
was made the basis of the British and other Allied declarations in sup-
port of Zionism :
THE BASLE PROGRAM
The aim of Zionism is to create for the Jewish people a publicly
recognized and legally secured home in Palestine.
To realize this aim, the Congress proposed the following meas-
ures :
1. To promote through effective means the settlement of
Palestine by Jewish agriculturists, artisans, and trades-
men.
2. To organize and unify the whole Jewish people by means
of local and general institutions suitable for the purpose
and conforming with the laws of the respective coun-
tries.
3. To strengthen and augment Jewish self-consciousness in
the individual and in the community.
4. To take the proper preliminary steps towards securing the
concurrence of the Powers, insofar as their assent may be
necessary for the attainment of the Zionist goal.
59
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
At the first Congress an overwhelming enthusiasm was com-
bined with effective organization. Already then the idea of the Na-
tional Fund was suggested by its founder, Dr. Hermann Schapira.
The Second Congress
At the second Congress, held in Basle, August, 1898, the religion-
ists asserted themselves, and with the co-operation of Dr. Max Nordau
rationalist and of Theodor Herzl, who pleaded for a return to
Judaism before the return to Palestine, there was passed a resolution
that Zionism shall do nothing opposed to Judaism. In later years
(1903) this tendency was crystallized in the Mizrahi or Orthodox party.
The Third, Fourth, and Fifth Congresses
The third Congress was held in Basle, August, 1899, the fourth in
London, August, 1900. England had always been friendly to Zionism,
and in the previous year the Zionist Bank, the Jewish Colonial Trust,
had been established in London. The Jewish National Fund, founded
in 1901, was also under English registry. (See Ch. XL) At the fifth
Congress in Basle, December, 1901, the Democratic Fraktion, which
was the first attempt on the part of political radicals to form a party
within Zionism, definitely asserted itself. The Congress has always
had all the factionalism and strife that one usually finds in democratic
national assemblies. Even Herzl, though followed with devotion, was
still not spared. All languages as well as all lands are represented,
and the Hebrew language has played a large and increasing part in
the proceedings. Every phase of Judaism is also represented, for
within the Zionist movement there is as much variety of faith and ob-
servance as without. It was inevitable that the Mizrahi (Orthodox)
and the Poale Zion (Socialist) parties should have developed. (See
Ch. XV.)
The Sixth Congress Uganda
The sixth Congress, Basle, August, 1903, the last which Herzl at-
tended, was faced with unusual problems and difficulties. During the
previous year the British Government had offered El-Arish in Egypt,
on the Sinai peninsula south of Palestine, to the Zionists to be colon-
ized by Jews. This was near enough to Palestine to fit into the Zion-
ist policy of colonizing neighboring lands. Herzl, as diplomat more
than as scientist, insisted on immediate investigation, despite certain
scientific obstacles. The consequence was that the too hastily ar-
ranged expedition lacked the proper men and equipment, and failed to
60
THE INTERNATIONAL ZIONIST ORGANIZATION
get results. Meanwhile the Egyptian Government objected, and Eng-
land was forced to withdraw the offer on the ground that the neces-
sary water from the Nile could not be spared for irrigation.
England then offered Uganda, in East Africa, to Herzl. This
could in no way be called a neighboring land. However, out of re-
spect for the British Government, and in fairness to himself and to the
delegates, Herzl presented this offer to the sixth Congress. It precipi-
tated a storm that finally split the Zionist Organization. Some of the
Politicals (see Ch. XV), the Socialists, but chiefly the opportunists,
repudiating all sentiment, were for acceptance. The Hoveve Zion
and practically all the Russian Jews were bitterly against it. They
called it treason to the Zionist ideal. Max Nordau made an impressive
speech in which he called Uganda a Nachtasyl a shelter for the
night and explained that it would in no way interfere with acquiring
Palestine whenever that were possible. Herzl, himself, felt the need
of a temporary refuge for the driven Russian Jews. But these suf-
fering Russian Jewish idealists, the Zione Zion, were the very ones
who would have only Palestine, at any cost. Without pre-arrange-
ment, and many of them in tears, they left the Congress in a body.
Herzl followed them, and spent the whole night arguing and pleading
with them, until he convinced them that he also was a lover of Pales-
tine, and that he had in no way deserted the Basle Program.
The Seventh Congress The I. T. O.
It was voted at this Congress to send a commission to explore
Uganda. Before the next Congress the commission had returned to
report that land unfit for colonization. Meanwhile, Herzl had died.
The inherent strength of the Zionist movement and its deep-rooting in
the Jewish folk-soul are proved by the fact that it withstood not only
the calamity of Herzl's death at so crucial a moment, but also the
break in Zionist ranks that followed the next Congress, and that took
with it some of the most prominent workers. The failure of the
Uganda project, and the bitter controversies that preceded and fol-
lowed it, caused the secession from Zionism of Israel Zangwill and
those others who believed in abandoning the idea of Palestine for
some other land. Many of the radical Zionists, disclaiming all senti-
ment, went with them. They organized as the I. T. O., the Jewish
Territorial Organization, and their varied but fruitless activities since
then form an interesting page in Jewish history, but one that cannot
be studied here for lack of space. Recently they have returned into
the Zionist fold. Their world-wide search for a territory has proved
61
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
that for quite other than sentimental reasons, Palestine is the only
territory available for the Jewish Commonwealth. And when with the
end of Turkish misrule one of the chief obstacles was removed, and
when British sympathy proved an added safeguard, the Territorialists
were constrained to renew their Zionist allegiance.
Eighth and Ninth Congresses
The eighth Congress was held in the Hague, August, 1907. At
the ninth Congress, Hamburg, December, 1909, the Poale Zion were
recognized and some of their theories adopted.
The Tenth Congress Politicals and Practicals
During the next five years the chief issue in Zionism was one
which by the light of later events proved a futile struggle, that be-
tween the Political Zionists the Herzlians who believed that the
settlement of Palestine must be preceded by national rights secured in
the name of the Jewish people, and the Practical Zionists heirs of the
Hoveve Zion movement who put their trust in colonization, be-
lieving that guarantees would follow settlement. Each faction ex-
pressed a distinct need and obligation of the Zionists, the Practicals
stressing the necessity to strengthen and support the actual center in
Palestine, and the Politicals the need for firmer organization in the
Diaspora, and for recognition from the world. David Wolffsohn suc-
ceeded Herzl as chairman of the Inner Actions Committee. But at the
tenth Congress, Basle, August, 1911, he forfeited his place as its chair-
man because of his staunch support of Political Zionism, which in-
deed, he defended, as a member of the Committee, until his death in 1914.
Professor Otto Warburg succeeded him. At this Congress for the
first time the Mizrahi protested against the support of any but strictly
Orthodox schools in Palestine.
The Eleventh Congress
The Practicals were now in power, and continued to be so at the
eleventh Congress, Vienna, September, 1913, where there was a sharp
controversy as to the control of the financial institutions. David
Wolffsohn, by an extraordinary effort, kept it in the hands of the
Politicals. Less than a year later the European War broke out; since
then no Congress has been held. The division along practical and
political lines has been swept away by the torrent of practical and
political events. It is now seen that all Zionists must combine in
everything if we are worthily to meet the coming restoration.
62
THE INTERNATIONAL ZIONIST ORGANIZATION
Since the outbreak of the war the Inner Actions Committee has been
scattered. As the Allies made Zionism part of their program, the cen-
ter of Zionist activity shifted from Germany to England and America.
The East European countries were too exhausted to lift the yoke. Yet,
Zionism has spread in all countries. The number of shekel payers before
the war (200,000) must have been much augmented, as evidenced in
America alone. (See Ch. XIV.) For Europe, figures are not now
available. With the Peace Conference, all Zionist expectation cen-
tered in Paris, and it is hoped that the International Zionist Organiza-
tion may soon make its headquarters in Palestine.
References:
Zionism, its Organization and Institutions, by S. Landmann. Zionism, by
Richard Qottheil.
Subjects for Papers:
An analysis of the Basle program. The Jewish Territorial Organization.
09
CHAPTER XI
THE JEWISH NATIONAL FUND AND THE JEWISH COLONIAL
TRUST *
Land Laws in Palestine
The land laws and the credit system of Palestine, during the Turk-
ish regime, followed the course, usual in semi-civilized countries.
Private ownership in land had not been developed in the form known
and recognized in English and American law. Under Turkish law no
plot of ground could be left vacant for more than three years; after
that time it might be taken up for settlement by any "squatter". In-
deed, it was not safe to permit any piece of land to lie uncultivated for
more than a year, under the penalty of having it appropriated by any
wandering Bedouin tribe, and the legal process of ejectment had not
been developed to an extent sufficient to protect the holder of the
title. We might say that under Turkish rule possession and cultiva-
tion of the land were prerequisites to ownership, and anyone who ac-
quired the title through purchase could maintain it only by occupying
and working the land. This did not preclude absentee landlordism,
which is very common and very oppressive among the Arabs.
Organization of the Jewish National Fund
The Jewish National Fund was organized in December, 1901, for
the purpose of acquiring land in Palestine as the inalienable estate of
the Jewish people. It had first been suggested by Dr. Hermann
Schapira, as early as the second Congress in 1898. It derives its funds
as free-will offerings from Jews. Although it thus partakes of the na-
ture of philanthropy, it is not a charitable institution, for it does not
pretend to alleviate present-day suffering nor to relieve present-day
poverty. On the contrary, it aims to develop a Jewish national estate
which will help to eliminate poverty in the future Jewish common-
wealth. The Jewish National Fund, organized under the laws of Great
Britain as an association or corporation, has no shares of stock. Its
charter sets forth that the Jewish National Fund shall purchase lands
and other immovable property in Palestine and adjacent territory, "for
* By Bernard A. Rosenblatt.
64
THE JEWISH NATIONAL FUND
the purpose of settling Jews on such lands", and it further provides
that nothing "shall enable the association to divest itself of the para-
mount ownership of any of the soil of the prescribed region which it
may from time to time acquire." At the time of its establishment, it
was intended that the National Fund should not begin to purchase
land until its capital should amount to 5,000,000 francs. But already
at the sixth Zionist Congress, Basle, 1903, there was urged the neces-
sity of the immediate purchase of land. Therefore it was resolved and
laid down by the statute that one-fourth of the capital of the National
Fund must remain an inviolable reserve. The reserve was looked upon
as a possible instrument for political action. The association is con-
trolled by members who are at the same time the owners of record of
the Founders' shares of the Jewish Colonial Trust, so that the two
main financial institutions of the Zionist Organization are not only in-
terrelated but are controlled from the same source. In order to insure
its Zionist character beyond question, the directors of the Jewish
National Fund are themselves limited in all important activities by the
resolutions of a "controlling committee", which consists of the mem-
bers of the Inner Actions Committee, as elected by the Zionist Congress.
Thus the ultimate control of the Jewish National Fund is vested in
the Zionist Organization, the National Fund being virtually the Land
Division or Department of Interior of the Zionist Government.
Means of Collection of the Jewish National Fund
The Jewish National Fund has offices in practically every civil-
ized country, i. e., wherever Jews reside. Collections are made
through Jewish National Fund boxes, which are placed in the homes
of Zionists; through Jewish National Fund stamps, used on letters,
invitations, cards for New Year's greetings, etc. ; by means of a Golden
Book, where for $100 may be inscribed the names of those we "delight
to honor", and in numerous other ways. In various countries, the
Jewish National Fund has instituted a "Flower Day" at Shabuot time,
and a "Flag Day" in the Hanukkah season. The most desirable means
of collection would seem to be a stated yearly self-taxation of indi-
viduals.
The following quotation from a statement issued by the Jewish
National Fund in 1911 shows some of the other methods of collection
that have become popular during the last few years :
"The Olive Tree (or Fruit Tree) Fund enjoys considerable popu-
larity. The olive trees contribute towards the afforestation of Pales-
tine; they already provide many Jewish families with employment,
65
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
and they are destined later, out of the sale of their fruits, to supply
the means of maintaining Jewish educational institutions. A donation
of six shillings {\y 2 dollars) enables anybody to have a tree planted
and registered in the name of any person desired by the donor.
"The Land Donations Fund is intended to give every Jew the op-
portunity of purchasing a dunam (a quarter acre) of land in Palestine
in his own name and presenting it to the National Fund. The price of a
dunam is two pounds (10 dollars). Every donor will have his name
entered into a special land register and receive an artistic certificate. The
land acquired by means of these donations will be devoted exclusively
to settlement by Jewish agricultural laborers."
Achievements of the Jewish National Fund
In the same statement we find a resume of the achievements of
the Jewish National Fund before the war:
"The Promotion of Agricultural Colonization
"The Jewish National Fund owns a large estate of about 6,000
dunam of fruitful land in the region where the Jordan flows into the
Sea" of Tiberias. Upon this estate the Palestine Land Development
Company, founded and conducted under Zionist auspices, has erected
a model farm, Kineret, where a number of Jewish laborers find remun-
erative employment and receive a thorough training as farmers.
"On the land bordering on the railway-line from Jerusalem to Jaffa
the J. N. F. possesses two plots, Huldah and Ben-Schamen, upon
which olive groves are planted.
"In the Jewish colony, Hederah, the J. N. F. possesses a garden,
Gan-Schmuel (Garden of Samuel), in which oranges and citrons are
grown.
"Upon another estate of the J. N. F. a large workmen's colony, in
the form of a co-operative settlement, in accordance with the proposals
of the well known economist, Dr. Franz Oppenheimer, has been es-
tablished with the aid of a special fund. . .
"The Promotion of Rural and Urban Settlements
"To raise the prestige of the Jews in Palestine and to improve the
hygienic conditions of their dwellings, the J. N. F. has granted Jewish
building societies loans amounting to a total of 300,000 francs. By
means of these loans the beautiful Jewish quarter Tel Aviv in Jaffa,
and the district of Herzlia in Haifa, have been brought into existence.
"Through the agency of the Jewish Bank in Palestine, the Anglo-
Palestine Company, the J. N. F. has granted to agricultural co-operative
societies in the Jewish colonies long term credits, amounting to a total
of 220,000 francs.
THE JEWISH NATIONAL FUND
"It has also granted long-term credits to the workmen's colony,
Ain Ganim (near Petah Tikvah), and to the farm-laborers' society of
Umdjuni.
"The J. N. F. has built workmen's dwellings at a cost of 35,000
francs to facilitate the settlement of Jewish laborers in the Palestinian
colonies."
By providing workmen's dwellings, the J. N. F. has greatly
facilitated the migration of the hard pressed Yemenite Jews from
Arabia, whose labors have proved invaluable.
Since its organization, the Jewish National Fund has collected
over $2,000,000.
Ideals of the Jewish National Fund
The Jewish National Fund stands for the ideal of national owner-
ship of the land of Palestine. However meagre the results to-day as
compared with the great program before us, the Jewish National Fund
has shown the path. It has now adopted the principle of "Heredi-
tary Lease", whereby it leases its land to individuals under contracts
which permit the land to pass to children and other heirs, but under
the terms of which the occupant must pay increased rent as the land
becomes more valuable through the increase in population and social
development. In the contract for the hereditary lease, provision is
made for periodical assessments of the value of such lands. This se-
cures continuity of possession for the settler, whereas he shares the
advantages with the whole people whenever the land increases in
value. Perhaps the most important work of the Jewish National Fund
in the future will be to obtain possession and control over strategic
plots of land in Palestine, regions that are essential for the future prog-
ress and prosperity of the Jewish State, such as ports, plots of ground
near railroad terminals, water power sites, and choice agricultural
tracts. It is improbable that the Jewish National Fund will be able
to secure possession of all the lands in Palestine, but if it should secure
the valuable plots that are indispensable to national safety and pros-
perity, it would form the basis for a commonwealth of social justice in
the land of our forefathers.
Credit in Palestine
Credit in Palestine under Turkish rule differed as much from the
system of credit, as we know it, as its land tenure differed from Eng-
lish and American practice. The ordinary basis of credit is the sol-
vency of the debtor and the creditor's ability to utilize available police
67
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
forces as his collectors. Thus there were numerous instances in Turk-
ish Palestine of the creditor, with the help of the military forces, carry-
ing off the cattle of the debtor who could not pay ; the creditor mean-
while taking good care that interest, compounded, be charged on the
debt.
The Organization of the Jewish Colonial Trust
It was the necessity to cope with this situation as well as with
the problem of Jewish immigration into Palestine, as Herzl foresaw it,
that prompted the organization of the Jewish Colonial Trust in
March, 1899, as an English joint stock company. The Jewish Colonial
Trust Ltd. was incorporated in London, England. It was ready to begin
business by the end of 1901. It was organized as the financial
bulwark of the Zionist Organization, and Herzl intended that it should
be the chief instrument in the peaceful conquest of Palestine. In
order to insure democratic ownership, shares were issued of only one
pound (approximately $5.00) each. Very soon it succeeded in en-
listing thousands of stockholders scattered far and wide, from the
remote villages of Siberia to the frontier towns of the western states
of America. It has been estimated that the Jewish Colonial Trust
has over 100,000 individual stockholders, and no corporation in the
United States, with the single exception of the Pennsylvania Railroad
Co., has as many individual holders of its shares of stock as the Jewish
Colonial Trust. In Russia there are many small towns where no
single individual can afford to purchase a share, so that groups of
Jews organize themselves into societies for the purpose of buying
one or more shares of the Jewish Colonial Trust.
The Anglo-Palestine Company
At the present time the Jewish Colonial Trust has a paid-in capital
of nearly $1,500,000. This falls short of the $10,000,000 which Dr.
Herzl expected to raise in a few years, and yet it has proven of extraor-
dinary value to the Zionist movement. Through its subsidiary bank,
the Anglo-Palestine Co. in Jaffa, Palestine, with branches in Jerusalem,
Haifa, Hebron, Gaza, Beirut, Safed and Tiberias, the Trust has been
able to raise the level of the whole industrial life of Palestine. Through
the introduction of the modern conception of credit, whereby the
debtor's responsibility does not rest upon the possible coercive power
of the state, but almost exclusively upon his character and his financial
strength, Palestine has been prepared for important industrial develop-
ment. The Anglo-Palestine Company has been largely instrumental
68
THE JEWISH COLONIAL TRUST
in the fostering of credit unions and co-operative societies, whereby
the obligation of the individual is guaranteed by the endorsement of
a group of his friends and neighbors. This is one of the most signi-
ficant by-products of the activities of the Anglo-Palestine Company,
for it has given impetus to forms of co-operation which should prove
invaluable in the future. On the one hand, the Anglo Palestine Com-
pany promotes the organization of owners of plantations into co-opera-
tive groups whereby the individual member, by receiving the endorse-
ment of the other members of his group, may receive larger credit
facilities from the bank. On the other hand, the endorsers, who are
also his neighbors, will naturally see to it that the money so loaned
to him is properly used. The bank also encourages the growth of
workmen's unions and circles, so that even the poorest laborer,
through the aid of the guarantee of his friends, may receive financial
help from the bank. It is obvious that such a system encourages the
growth of a spirit of co-operation and brotherhood which passes far
beyond the ordinary field of banking.
The War and the Bank
During the war the bank in Palestine has had to weather the
storm caused by the financial breakdown of Turkey. There was prac-
tically a continuous moratorium and Turkish money fell to an
extremely low level. However, so strong was the credit of the bank
that it was able to issue its own checks, which to all intents and
purposes passed as currency during the war. In this way the Jewish
Colonial Trust and its subordinate company, the Anglo-Palestine
Bank, enabled the Jewish farmers to tide over the dangerous period
after 1914, when to the horrors of war were added the ravages of the
locust. It is certain that in the future industrial development of
Palestine, the Jewish Colonial Trust and its branches will play a signi-
ficant role.
Furthermore, the manner of organization of the Jewish Colonial
Trust gives it the opportunity to become ultimately the State Bank
of the Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine. The capital of the com-
pany consists of two million shares of one pound (approximately
$5.00) each, of which however the first hundred are classified as
"Founders' Shares" and are held by trustees who are responsible to
the Zionist Organization of the world. These hundred "Founders'
Shares" have as much voting power as all the other shares, so that
virtually the bank is controlled (in everything but the declaration of
dividends) by the trustees who act for the world Zionist Organization.
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
With the establishment of the Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine,
its government will be the natural successor to the Zionist Organiza-
tion, since Zionism will have achieved its aim. Thus the control of
the Jewish Colonial Trust would pass from its trustees to the Jewish
Commonwealth, i. e., the Trust would become the State Bank, main-
taining its office in London, supplemented by the branches in Palestine.
It can become the great medium not only for economic intercourse
between Great Britain and the Jewish Commonwealth, but also for
financial and political relations between Great Britain, the "trustee,"
and the Government of Palestine. Thus would be realized the dream
of Herzl in establishing the Jewish Colonial Trust as the State Bank
of the Jewish Commonwealth.
References:
The Work and Problems of the Jewish National Fund, by Leo Dana. The Jeivish
National Fund, by J. D. Jacobs. Land Tenure in Palestine, by Jacob Ettinger
and Franz Oppenheimer. The Yemenite Jews, by J. Feldman.
Subjects for Papers:
The Yemenite Jews in Palestine. Rural credit in Palestine.
70
CHAPTER XII
ZIONISM IN AMERICA BEFORE THE WORLD WAR
The First American Zionists
The same cause Russian persecution of the Jews that stimu-
lated the first few societies for the colonization of Palestine, sent a
huge wave of Jewish immigration from Eastern Europe into the
United States. This migration carried with it Zionist forces. But
even before that the Zionist idea had appeared spontaneously in
America. It seems that Zionism grows naturally in the atmosphere
of freedom ; hence its early American manifestations. Mordecai
Manuel Noah (1785-1851), member of a prominent old American
family of Portuguese Jews, diplomat, journalist, and publicist, was
the first American Zionist. In 1824 he said: "We will return to
Zion as we went forth, bringing back the faith we carried away with
us." As a first step toward Jewish concentration in an agricultural
settlement and under autonomous government, he purchased Grand
Island near Buffalo, New York, where he hoped to create a small
Jewish Commonwealth, a sort of Nachtasyl, with himself as first
Judge. The romantic scheme, inaugurated with ceremony and pomp,
was a complete failure. But even that dream had its value and its
significance. Every early manifestation of an idea, however erratic,
has at least prophetic value. Warder Cresson, a Christian contem-
porary of Noah (1798-1860), became deeply interested in Judaism and
its organic expression, the Zionist ideal, and had himself sent to Jeru-
salem as the first American consul. There he turned Jewish, adopting
the name of Michael Boaz Israel. He advocated agricultural settle-
ment of Jews in Palestine as a first step toward renationalization. His
practical attempt to start a Jewish village settlement did not succeed.
It came before its time.
The first wave of Russian Jewish immigration, the tragic after-
math of pogroms, deeply stirred another Portuguese Jew, the poet
Emma Lazarus of New York (1849-1887) ; and despite her surround-
ings and associations of ease and culture, far removed from all Jewish
associations, she identified herself with the tragedy and the hope of her
people. Her later poems are a rallying-cry for the dispersed of Israel,
full of authentic vision of Israel restored to his land. She did not live
71
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
to see the Zionist movement develop in America. But her older sister,
Josephine, became a staunch supporter of the Zionist cause, in whose
service she spoke and wrote.
Hoveve Zion in America
Hoveve Zion societies were organized in America, notably in New
York and Baltimore, almost as early as in Russia, the stronghold
of Zionism. Towards 1890, a Jewish colonization society, Shove
Zion, was organized in the United States, with headquarters in New
York and members all over the country. The money collected for
land purchase for the members reached a considerable sum, and an
emissary was sent to Palestine to procure land. Reaching there at
the most critical period of Jewish colonization (see Ch. XXIV), he
was unable to make a purchase. He came back with funds greatly
reduced, which were returned, minus the fruitless expenses, to the
contributors. This failure did not prevent the formation of a Shove
Zion, No. 2, with even more disastrous results. The smaller sums
collected were dissipated in the mere negotiations to buy land.*
But despite these disconcerting failures, the spirit persisted. It
manifested itself in Hebrew-speaking clubs and in groups of Zionists
scattered all over the country.
Early Organization of American Zionism
Immediately after the first Zionist Congress, in 1897, the Zionists
in America came in direct touch with Dr. Herzl, and organized the
Federation of American Zionists. Dr. Gustav Gottheil and his son,
Dr. Richard Gottheil, were the first to act. An article in The Jeivish
Chronicle of London, whose editor, J. L. Greenberg, had ever been
at the service of Dr. Herzl, vividly described the Congress. Dr.
Richard Gottheil was stirred to call a conference of New Yorkers.
He became the first president of the American Federation, with Dr.
Stephen S. Wise as its first secretary. An effort was made to organize
societies throughout the United States. Israel Wolf, as representative
of a Yiddish newspaper in New York, traveled all over the country,
and this gave him the opportunity, between 1898 and 1900, to organize
fifty-two Zionist societies, in Louisiana, Minnesota, North Dakota,
Tennessee, Texas, and other Western and Southern states, as well as in
Canada. But their organization was precariously weak. The Shove
Zion failures made it difficult to raise money; the members paid yearly
dues of only $1.00, which was not enough to enable the Organization
in New York to keep in close touch with its societies. Hence societies
died almost as soon as born, and had to be reorganized each year.
72
ZIONISM IN AMERICA
Gradually the Organization was strengthened. Persistent and devoted
service overcame all inner and outer handicaps. When the Jewish
Colonial Trust was organized, (see Ch. XI), Dr. Gottheil could find
no banker to handle the shares, and for a while he had practically to
go into the banking business. With two or three exceptions, the
wealthy Jews of America would have nothing to do with the bank
shares or with Zionism in any shape or form. But among the poor
immigrants there was a mighty response. Letters came from all over
the country from persons asking to invest in the bank shares, and
though these cost only $5.00, they usually had to be paid for in install-
ments. After a time, the East Side banker, S. Jarmulowsky, took over
the management of the Zionist Bank's affairs for America.
The Zionist Organs
Cleveland had a Yiddish Zionist paper, The Jezvish Star, as
early as 1894. In 1900, The Maccabaean Magazine, the official
organ of American Zionism, was founded, with Dr. Gottheil as its first
editor. Later the editorship was taken over by Louis Lipsky, who,
throughout the years when, as Chairman of the Executive Committee
of the Federation of American Zionists he carried the chief burden
of Zionist work in America, kept up an interest in the magazine and
continued to write its editorials. Dos Yiddishe Folk, the Yiddish
organ of the movement in America, was founded by Senior Abel in
1909.
Types of Membership and Societies
New York and Baltimore were the two strongholds of early
American Zionism, not only in membership but in leadership. Dr.
Harry Friedenwald, of Baltimore, was for many years President of
the Federation; and Miss Henrietta Szold, daughter of the Baltimore
Rabbi, was one of the first in America to speak and work for Zionism,
and did yeoman's service in New York, where for a while she carried
the secretaryship of the Organization. Herzl took a deep interest in
American Zionism, and it was in 1902 that, due to his urging, Jacob
deHaas was sent for from England to serve as secretary in New York.
The offices were then at 320 Broadway, but later they were moved
to East Broadway and then to Henry Street, to be in the heart of the
Jewish section. In New York, especially, Zionism was a folk move-
ment which made its appeal to the East Side masses.
Even before the Federation was fully organized, there had already
been organized by Leon Zolotkoff in Chicago the Order Knights of
73
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Zion, a Zionist organization which controlled all Zionist activities
throughout the Middle West, and which was proposed to have some of
the features of a fraternal order.
The first Convention of the Federation of American Zionists was
held in New York in 1898, and since then a Convention has been held
annually. A couple of years later an arrangement was made where-
by the Order Knights of Zion was affiliated with the F. A. Z., which
always recognized its prerogatives in the Middle West. The Order
never became in fact a fraternal association, having no insurance or
benefit features, but was devoted exclusively to Zionist work. It
always kept a certain independence of the F. A. Z., although it virtu-
ally agreed to become subordinate to and be included in the Federa-
tion. At one time, it paid a per capita tax to the Federation, and was
given representation at the Federation Conventions. Of recent years
their relation was much closer, and, in 1917, the Order Knights of Zion
changed its name to the Federated Zionist Societies of the Middle
West. The whole basis of Zionist organization in America was that
of societies in contrast to the international form of organization and
that of several European Federations, whose unit is the individual^
and representation at the Conventions was through societies, which
were allowed a certain number of delegates according to their size.
The membership of these societies was determined by social grouping
rather than neighborhood. Age, language, and education, were the
main factors. In some cases they were composed of persons coming
from a certain section of the Russian Empire. Certain cultural and
idealistic tendencies manifested themselves through special societies;
there were radicals in religion or politics, conservatives, Hebraists.
The Poale Zion (Socialists) and the Mizrahi (Orthodox), who are
internationally organized under the Congress, organized themselves
also in the United States. (See Ch. XV.) Considering themselves
international parties with a specific extra-Zionist aim, both have held aloof
from the organized body of American Zionists. At times there has been
an attempt to co-operate, but no form of organization has been found
which would make co-operation permanent and effective.
Of the societies within the F. A. Z., the following were nationally
organized for special purposes :
The Order Sons of Zion
This was formed by members of the- F. A. Z. in 1907. The
organizers were Joshua Sprayragen and Dr. H. J. Epstein. They
wished to create a fraternal insurance association that would hofd
to the Zionist movement members who, because of middle age or of
74
ZIONISM IN AMERICA
newer interests, were being drawn away from Zionist activities. Self-
interest, they felt, was an asset that could be used ; the benefits of fraternal
insurance might bind many to Zionism through a stable organization that
offered practical advantage, whereas these same people would not be held
by abstract ideals alone. The insurance system was based on the soundest
ideas in insurance. The O. S. of Z. was always an integral part of the
F. A. Z., paying its shekolim and a modified per capita tax direct to the
Federation, and being represented by several delegates on the Federation
Executive Committee.
Young Judaea
The educational or junior department of the Zionist Organization
came into existence in 1909. Before that time there had been sporadic
attempts in New York City and elsewhere to found organizations
similar to Young Judaea. The Federation of American Zionists finally
was successful in welding a number of juvenile Jewish clubs into one
central junior organization. This was effected by Mr. David Schnee-
berg, who for years was the guiding spirit in Young Judaea. The
medium through which Young Judaea works is the club or group
of clubs of Jewish children, ranging in age from about ten to twenty
years. These clubs usually meet in some communal center under the
supervision of a leader or director who is in constant touch with the
central organization. The actual work of the individual club, although
necessarily prescribed in certain details by the organization, is left in
general to the leader, and consists of the celebration of Jewish
holidays by means of public gatherings and festive meetings, the
study of Jewish history and of topics of general Jewish interest, dis-
cussions and debates on Zionism and on other related subjects, and
the fostering of the Jewish spirit by insistence upon a positive and
reverent attitude towards the Jewish religion and an intelligent inter-
est in all Jewish affairs. Young Judaea has grown from a merely
local group to a national organization of about 800 clubs with a mem-
bership of 15,000. Among its other activities are the publication of a
magazine, The Young Judaean, a bulletin for leaders, books of essays
and poems, Hebrew songs, and other educational matter. At first,
the tendency was to regard the organization as one that should be
used for the accomplishment of actual Zionist work, but more and
more the emphasis has been put on education, in the conviction that
75
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
children should not be used except as a means for their own develop-
ment. When, in 1918, Young Judaea came under the Education
Department of the Zionist Organization as its juvenile section, it was
already a powerful force for good in the Jewish communities of numer-
ous cities, and a training ground for future Zionists.
Hadassah
The Woman's Zionist Organization, Hadassah, was organized in
1912 to meet the need for special propaganda among certain types of
women, especially married women, who could not be reached by a
mixed society. It was always an integral part of the F. A. Z. Its
special appeal to women lay in its program of Palestinian work, which
drew in lovers of Palestine, whether or not they were Zionists, and
made Zionists of them. It established a system of district visiting
nursing and midwifery in Jerusalem, as well as of trachoma treatments
in the schools under the supervision of physicians of Jerusalem, and
also general hygienic educational work which centered in its settle-
ment house. (See Ch. XXVIII.) Its ideal was a system of nursing
and hospitals throughout Palestine. After the outbreak of war it
employed Dr. Helene Kagan, a Zionist woman physician of Jerusalem,
who established a clinic, and co-operated with other health agencies
in meeting a succession of disasters. A Jewish nurse was also dispatched
from New York to the encampment of Palestinian Jewish refugees
in Alexandria. At the request of the Inner Actions Committee and the
Provisional Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs,
Hadassah organized and dispatched a Zionist Medical unit of over
forty members to Palestine after the British occupation. Hadassah
was well organized and successful, gaining above 5,500 members in
six years, and doing much active welfare work for Palestine and much
educational Zionist work among women and young girls. After the
reorganization, in which Miss Henrietta Szold, who had from the first
been chairman of Hadassah, played an active part, Hadassah' s welfare
work merged into the Woman's Department, which still maintains the
societies by that name, and its educational work became part of the
Department of Education.
The Intercollegiate Zionist Association
The Intercollegiate Zionist Association the academic branch of
the Zionist Organization was founded in 1915, and has since come
76
ZIONISM IN AMERICA
under the direction of the Department of Education. The work in the
thirty-five undergraduate and three graduate chapters consists of lec-
tures, forums, intensive study groups, music and drama festivals, and
a summer agricultural course. Among its literary activities are the
publication of a yearbook Kadimah, a monthly Bulletin, and the con-
ducting of the Brandeis prize essay contest.
Colonization Societies
Mention must here be made of Palestine colonization societies
originated by American Zionists, but which, under the general prin-
ciples of Zionist organization, could not be officially recognized by
the F. A. Z. because they were for the benefit of individuals and for the
acquisition of individual property. Such was the Ahoozah plan, orig-
inated in 1909 by Simon Goldman of St. Louis. This plan was for
the establishment of a Jewish settlement in Palestine by persons
living in a given locality in this country, who would agree to pay a certain
amount every year into a fund, and in the course of a definite number
of years would, with the investment of the previously paid capital, be
assured of a comfortable livelihood in Palestine. The colony of Poreah
was established, where Mr. Goldman spent the rest of his life. The
plan has been successfully imitated by Zionists in several European coun-
tries, and Russia now has abour 200 Ahoozah groups. In America, too,
new groups were organiz^L And the Zion Commonwealth, organized
by Bernard A. Rosenblat^^hich draws its membership from all parts
of the United States, and which has a definite program of social justice,
with common ownership of communal values, also grew out of the
Ahoozah movement. (See Ch. XX.)
Zionist Membership before
Before 1914, American JH Mras largely confined to the Jewish
immigrants from Eastern Eurl^^t was an unfashionable movement,
sneered at by the well-to-do middle class German Jews a folk move-
ment. It had headquarters in a dingy room on Henry Street. Its
leaders were idealists with a devoted following, but unknown outside
Jewish ranks. And when in its gradual growth it attracted the ideal-
ists among those who had matured under the influence of American
Jewish assimilationism, these converts were looked upon askance by
their Jewish associates and had to bear ridicule and even persecution.
Zionists who needed money for Jewish national work among the
masses, expressed their Zionism through general Jewish organizations
in order to procure funds from the prejudiced rich and thus reach
77
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
a larger public. At that time a few prominent Jews, among them
Louis D. Brandeis, had declared themselves Zionists, but had as yet
taken little active part in the movement. There were then about
20,000 shekel payers in the United States.
References:
Mordecai M. Noah, by A. B. Makover. Mordeoai M. Noah, by Simon Wolf.
Poems of Emma Lazarus, Vol. II; Houghton, Mifflin Co. Convention Numbers of
the Maccabaean Magazine.
Subjects for Papers:
A brief history of Zionism in your city (or state). A brief history of the Jews
in America.
*
78
CHAPTER XIII
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
The four and one-half years of the World War caused no less
complete a revolution in the affairs of Zionism than in those of the
whole world. And as with other peoples, there was the tremendous
contrast between acute suffering and all but despair, and, on the
other hand, a fulfillment more rapid and complete than could have
been dreamed of a few years earlier. Zionism, which previously had
been in the view of the anti-Zionists an obscure movement chiefly of
the masses, now emerged to public view as a political factor embracing
every section and every class of Jewry and commanding the attention
of statesmen in all lands.
The Immediate Crisis in Palestine
In no land did the war more quickly cause calamity than in
Palestine, which even before it became an actual war zone, suffered
as much as the actual belligerents. Although in August, 1914, when
the war broke out, Turkey was still a neutral, yet within a few weeks
of the declaration of war by Germany, Palestine was in acute financial
distress, acute in the sense that the masses were threatened with
starvation. This was due to the unhealthy state of dependence of the
Palestinians upon other countries. And not only were the large actu-
ally dependent populations, those in the monasteries and institutions,
as well as the Jews dependent upon the Halukkah, at once cut off
from their source of supply, the charitably inclined in Russia and
Western Europe and America, but even the self-supporting, the farmers
and planters, were cut off from their one source of trade, the foreign
markets. European ships stopped coming to Palestine. During the first
two years of the war, owing to a number of circumstances, the cessation of
all trade, the requisitions of the Turkish Government, and also the locust
plague of 1915, the new Yishub in Palestine, the whole Jewish settlement
and the work of the past forty years, was actually threatened with destruc-
tion. (See Ch. XXXIII.)
Dispersion of Members of Inner Actions Committee
The Zionists did not fail to grasp the situation, but their power
79
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
to help was impeded by their own immediate difficulties. The Inner
Actions Committee, which met regularly in Berlin and transacted all
international business between Congresses, was international in its
composition. Its members at the time war was declared were in
various countries. Dr. Schmarya Levin had come to America to be
present at the Zionist Convention in June. His presence in America
during the war was valuable both for American Zionism and the
international cause. In the latter's service he returned to Europe
soon after the cessation of hostilities. Warburg and Hantke,
two of the German members, were in Berlin and remained there prac-
tically throughout the war. Jacobson, another member, was then in
Constantinople. There he stayed, serving Zionist political ends, until
the drama of war revealed the new setting in which the Allies took
upon themselves the vindication of Jewish nationalism. When he
saw that Constantinople could no longer be the center of Zionist
politics, he left and went to Copenhagen, Denmark, where in a neutral
country he could be of practical usefulness to the Zionists by trans-
mitting information and funds. He established a Zionist Bureau in
Copenhagen. Tschlenow, one of the Russian members, went back
and forth between Russia and Denmark, and eventually went to
England. He was very helpful to the English Zionists. Immediately
after the Russian Revolution of April, 1917, as leader of the Russian
Zionists, he presided at their first open and untrammelled demonstra-
tion, and he made a stirring address, which foreshadowed the great
events that have since come to pass. But unfortunately he died before
that fulfillment. The third Russian member, Nahum Sokolow, moved
about freely in the Allied countries, and later became one of the
chief instruments in bringing about the political triumph of Zionism.
So the members of the Inner Actions Committee were perforce scattered,
and the Committee could not function.
American Zionists Assume the Burden
This disaster for world Zionism brought forth an opportunity
which could not have been foreseen. Those very forces that were
set in motion through a great calamity, afterward became the means
of forceful, constructive action. For the moment, the center of gravity
was shifted to America.
American Zionists of prominence now were moved to step for-
ward and put the best of their strength at the service of the cause.
As early as August 30, 1914, a month after the outbreak of war, an
extraordinary conference of American Zionists was called in New
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
York City to deal with the new situation. The Americans felt it necessary,
for the time being, to take upon themselves many of the responsi-
bilities of the Inner Actions Committee. Dr. Schmarya Levin
being present as representative of the Committee, could in a way give
its sanction to the action taken. A Provisional Executive Committee
for General Zionist Affairs was elected to act in agreement with the
members of the Actions Committee, and to raise an Emergency Fund
for the relief of Palestine. Louis D. Brandeis was unanimously elected
chairman. To many of the representative Zionists present at this
meeting, this was the first indication of his paramount leadership in
America. His power over the body of Zionists was more than that
simply of a man who already had a nation-wide reputation as an Ameri-
can statesman and who would therefore naturally hold the respect
of his fellow Jews. In him, they felt a leader. His personality in itself
was commanding. He had come to Zionism after a life-time spent in
a non-Jewish environment and in the service of the American Com-
monwealth. He came to Zionism because he saw in that movement
the expression of the democratic spirit of his own people and he could
not deny its claim. There is a certain quality in his appearance and
manner which reminds one of the pictures and descriptions of Abraham
Lincoln. There is the same combination of stern, almost tragic force,
of geniality and pathos. His are the qualities of the liberator. The
leadership of Mr. Brandeis drew to the movement many who had
previously despised or ignored it. From that time forth, American
Zionism grew by leaps and bounds. Very early in the war, questions
of nationalism arose which threw quite a new light on Zionism. Jews
who had lived self-centered and smug lives were roused to wider
issues, and the disaster that overshadowed East European Jewry
stirred and lashed Jewish consciousness to self-realization. The next
four Conventions in Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Pittsburgh
had more the character of Congresses, dealing with international as
well as nation-wide interests. There was a constant interchange of
ideas between the Zionists of Europe and those of America, so that
action taken here assumed a world-wide significance. One after the
other, the leaders of American Jewish life with their followers came
into the Zionist movement. Whole fraternal orders with thousands
of members adopted resolutions endorsing the Basle Platform. Upon the
Provisional Committee for General Zionist Affairs fell the chief finan-
cial burden for the four years of war. And this burden was nobly
borne, due partly to the commanding leadership of such men as Justice
Louis D. Brandeis, Judge Julian W. Mack, and Rabbi Stephen S.
81
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Wise, partly to the devoted and huge labors of the old-time faithful
Zionists on the Committee, such as Jacob deHaas, Louis Lipsky, and
Henrietta Szold, and partly to the aroused race consciousness of the
masses of the American Jews. The Palestinian budget was met at
first by the Emergency Fund, inaugurated at the meeting on
August 30, 1914, and later, after the British Declaration, by the Pales-
tine Restoration Fund. Its first installment was one million, and its
second installment three million dollars. The American Zionist budget
rose between 1914 and 1919 from $14,000 to $3,000,000. To contribute
to this Fund was more than a duty or an act of generosity. It became
a privilege in the sense that those who gave of their means were lay-
ing the foundation of reconstructed Jewish national life. Throughout
the war there was co-operation between the general Jewish relief
agencies and the Zionist Funds. The Zionists in Europe also did
their share and more than their share, but naturally their means were
limited by the exigencies of war. The general agencies, grouped in the
Joint Distribution Committee, met on the whole, those requirements
in Palestine which might be called purely relief, such as soup kitchens
and doles, whereas the Zionists, so far as practical, confined themselves
to constructive and preservatory measures, such as loans to farmers
and employers, truck-gardening (carried on by the Jewish National
Fund), the maintenance of schools (including feeding of the pupils), and
of other institutions. However, in certain instances, the Joint Distribution
Committee co-operated with the Zionist Organization, as in the case of
the Medical Unit.
In America, events moved rapidly. Mr. Brandeis had been made
a member of the United States Supreme Court during the first term
of President Wilson. Justice Brandeis could not be as active in
public work for the Zionist movement as Mr. Brandeis had been.
But his influence and power increased a hundredfold. Although his
official acts as a Zionist had to be reduced to a minimum, he held
in his hands all the reins of the movement. He was in daily communi-
cation by telephone, telegraph, and conference with the other leaders
of the movement, and nothing escaped his attention. This fact was
well known even to the rank and file of Zionists, and there was
developed a certain spirit of discipline, which created what was very
nearly a Zionist army. Mr. Brandeis appealed directly to the loyalty
of the organized Zionists. He spoke constantly of the need of organ-
ization and discipline, and by this means he built up a remarkable
spirit of co-operation and subordination.
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
The Transfer Department
America entered the war. A number of Zionists, prominent in
American national affairs, were put in positions of trust by the Gov-
ernment. It was known months before President Wilson's official
letter that the American Government was in sympathy with Zionist
aims. The Provisional Committee, besides its original purpose of
acting in a neutral country in the interests of the dispersed Actions
Committee, had gradually assumed other and indispensable functions.
Perhaps most important was that of the Transfer Department,
which undertook to forward money free of charge for individuals not
only to Palestine, but to Poland, Rumania, Russia, and other occupied
territories. A well devised system of office management was installed
in the now large and impressive offices of the Zionist Organization
in New York, and the Transfer Department, by its efficiency and
reliability, won the confidence of all those whom it served. This
means that it won the confidence of the governments in all those
countries with which it had dealings, and that it won the confidence
of the individuals who forwarded money by this means. Not only
Jews, but other peoples, especially the Arabs, Greeks, and other races
of Palestine were helped by this service and turned to the Zionist
Organization in preference to less reliable agencies. The Transfer
Department created confidence in itself by its dependable financial
methods, and so established what was practically a Zionist credit
throughout the world. This had no small share in bringing about that
attitude on the part of the governments of the Allied countries which
later caused them to recognize the Zionist Organization as the official
representative of the Jewish people.
The British Eastern Campaign and the Jewish Legion
International events shaped themselves toward the Zionist con-
summation. Great Britain inaugurated its Eastern Campaign. The
eventualities of war after the entrance of Turkey proved plainly to
the Jews of Palestine that their salvation, especially their national
salvation, lay in the hands of the Allies. Turkey, which previously
had sinned against the Jews more by omission than aggression, and
whose neglect had at times been set off by a corresponding leniency,
now changed to a harsh master. Goods, animals, and men were con-
scripted without the least regard for the necessities of the inhabitants.
Zionists were systematically persecuted. Save for the appeals of
German Jews, massacres such as that of the Armenians might have
taken place. Soon after the entry of Turkey into the war, practically
83
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
all Jews who were Russian or subjects of other Allied States were expelled
from Palestine. Such was the irony of the fate that had driven them
as refugees from Russian Ghettos to the farms and garden cities of
the land of their fathers. These Jews sought refuge in Alexandria,
Egypt, under British protection, whither they were carried by Ameri-
can warships, and where most of them lived in concentration camps,
poised for the return to Palestine. It was at this time that Great
Britain undertook the much criticized and disastrous Gallipoli cam-
paign. Whatever may have been the hazards or the mistakes of this
campaign, to control or subdue Turkey was a political necessity to
Britain at that time, for the Suez Canal and the communications with
India were threatened. A young Russian Zionist, Vladimir Jabotinsky,
who had recently travelled in Palestine, happened to be in Alexandria.
He was acquainted with many of the refugees, and he conceived the idea
of organizing among them a volunteer force of Jewish soldiers who
would fight with the British troops for the liberation of Palestine from
Turkish rule. He succeeded in raising a fairly large company of
Jewish volunteers. The British authorities gladly accepted the ser-
vices of the Jewish soldiers, and formed them into a distinct Jewish
battalion. These Jewish troops were later sent to the Dardanelles
under Colonel Patterson and were known as the Zion Mule Corps.
They fought under the Zionist flag as well as under the British flag.
Although they were assigned to the dangerous task of carrying ammu-
nition and supplies to the trenches, they were trained to the use of
arms, and on several occasions they took part in hot and decisive
fighting. After the failure of the Dardanelles campaign, this unit was
disbanded. However, Jabotinsky did not rest until by travelling to
Italy and to England and by reiterating his idea of a Jewish army for
Palestine, he won the consent of the British authorities in London
and brought about the organization of the Judaeans in England and,
indirectly, of the Jewish Legion in the United States. The latter was
composed of only such Jewish volunteers in America as were excluded
from the operation of the draft law. They had to enlist in the British
army. Yet 2,722 young men were sent from America. In Palestine
itself about 1,200 young men volunteered for service with the Judaean
battalions. Many of the Jewish troops took an active and creditable
part in the final fighting in Palestine under General Allenby; and
again their leader was Colonel (now Brigadier-General) Patterson.
These Jewish troops marched under the Zionist flag, wore the Magen
David as their insignia, received all their orders in Hebrew, and had
84
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
many Jewish officers. Those that trained in England made a fine
record for themselves there, among other things, as boxers.
The British Declaration
When General Allenby began his successful campaign in
Palestine, the political work of European Zionists bore its first
fruits. Nahum Sokolow had been in England. There, too, Professor
Chaim Weizmann, President of the English Zionist Federation, had
won his way by personal merit and service into the favor of the British
Government. England was traditionally friendly to Zionism, as Herzl
himself had discovered. Zionism appealed both to British idealism
and to British political sense. Weizmann is a Russian Jew, a British
subject, who became professor of chemistry at the University of
Manchester. During the war he perfected a certain chemical that
was essential to Britain in the making of munitions. As a non-Jewish
observer says: "He has a genius for a very useful department of
diplomacy. He has a genius for being charming. . . . He has a
pointed beard, a bald head, a tallish and slender and lithe body, an
agile step, a luminous and lovable smile, a tongue instant at argument
and at retort, always pounding something home and always poking
fun at something. He is that paralyzing and undepictable combina-
tion a zealot who is a wit. Mr. Arthur James Balfour liked him.
And the war came. And Chaim Weizmann served Britain and
served Israel with his chemistry."* Weizmann asked no reward for
his chemical discovery. But the reward came on November 2, 1917.
Arthur James Balfour, then Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,
wrote his famous letter to Lord Walter Rothschild, embodying the
following declaration :
"His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment
in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people and will use
their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being
clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice
the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine,
or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country."
This declaration was sent from the Foreign Office to Lord Walter
Rothschild as representative of the English Zionist Organization. It
came perhaps as a surprise to large sections of the Jewish people,
and notably to those who had either opposed or not interested them-
selves in Zionism. But to those who were active in Zionist circles,
the declaration was no surprise. Among the leaders it had been
expected for many months. The wording of it came from the British
* William Hard in ' ' Israel. ' '
85
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Foreign Office, but the text had been revised in the Zionist Offices
in America as well as in England. The British Declaration was made
in the form in which the Zionists desired it, and the last clauses were
added in order to appease a certain section of timid anti-Zionist
opinion. The declaration followed a long period of preparation on
the part of the Zionist representatives of the Jewish people. They
were now recognized by the nations as a political entity. Like the
decree of King Cyrus, the British Declaration will go down in Jewish
history as a national charter.
Very soon after the Declaration, a conference was held by the
Provisional Executive Committee of America in order to endorse the
British action, and to prepare the country for its tremendous tasks in
raising the Restoration Fund. At this conference, held in Baltimore,
December 19th, resolutions were passed endorsing the action of Chaim
Weizmann in his relations with the British Government and acclaim-
ing his leadership.
Endorsements of Other Nations
The British Declaration was soon followed by pronouncements
from other governments, from international parties, and from influen-
tial and representative individuals. Nahum Sokolow travelled to
France and Italy, where he elicited from the ministers of foreign
affairs endorsements of the British Declaration. The Pope also gave
him an audience in which he expressed his sympathy with Jewish
efforts at repatriation in Palestine and his confidence that the Jews
would protect all religious interests there. Greece, Serbia, Holland,
and Siam, and later China and Japan, also endorsed the British Decla-
ration. The British Labor party in its war aims included a free
Palestine for the Jews. And the American Alliance for Labor and
Democracy urged the re-establishment of a national homeland for
the Jews in Palestine. The Interallied Socialists adopted similar
resolutions. (See Ch. XV.) Georg Brandes, the Danish critic, and
Gustav Herve, French Socialist and editor, also came out in favor
of Zionism, and the chairman of the New York branch of the
Armenian Union, H. H. Khazoyan, declared that Jewish and Armen-
ian liberation were bound up together. The leaders of the new Arab
state have also made friendly declarations. Notably, during the
Peace Conference, Prince Feisal of the Kingdom of the Hedjaz, took
occasion to declare anew his good will. These latter manifestations
are extremely important, as the Arabs and Armenians, as well as the
Syrians, will be our national neighbors in Palestine, and co-operation
86
CTTA1M WEIZMANN
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
with them on a friendly basis is the first of political necessities. The
Syrian opposition may be overcome only by wise and tolerant political
action. Our Zionist leaders have good ground to claim that the
Zionist political activity has had a much wider influence on the whole
trend of international politics than appears on the surface. It seems
that the Zionists were the first to bring to the attention of the chancel-
lories of contemporary Europe the claims and necessities of small and op-
pressed nations. The solution of self-determination and the recognition of
the necessity for a League of Nations to protect these small peoples
from future aggression, have grown in large measure out of the claims
of the Zionists. So, throughout the war, the Jewish people have made
their own claims, the claim for a general system of justice and
democracy.
Opposition among English and American Jews
Both in England and in America the Jewish opposition to Zionism,
which had intrenched itself in the upper circles of Jewish society,
suffered a sad defeat. In England, a heated struggle took place. The
Conjoint Committee, a committee of wealthy Jews, which assumed
to represent English Jewry, had bitterly opposed Zionism, especially in
those months before the British Declaration when the Zionists were
intensely active and surprisingly successful. The British Declaration
with its outspoken sympathy on the part of the British Government,
caused a crisis which resulted in the break-up of the Conjoint Com-
mittee and a complete victory for the Zionists. The self-constituted
leaders of Jewry had either to abdicate or to follow the people. In
most cases they did the latter. A number of English Jews prominent
in government circles joined the Zionists, among them Sir Alfred
Mond and the Hon. Herbert Samuel, former British Home Secretary.
In America, anti-Zionism found itself reduced to petty manoeuvring
by petty persons, which made itself politically ridiculous, but managed
to interfere in a measure with the collection of funds.
The Turkish and German Statements
In the Central Powers a tendency had appeared to give some
sort of sanction to a Jewish Palestine, in order not to be outbid by
the Allies in winning Jewish favor. The Allied declarations were
there decried as having political motives and being for that reason
untrustworthy. Talaat Pasha, the Turkish Minister for Foreign
Affairs, had made an unsatisfactory statement in an interview in
Vienna, which gave the questionable assurance that, "As far as Pales-
87
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
tine is concerned, the Turkish Government has always maintained
a favorable attitude toward the Jews who have been immigrating
there for the last century. It ever looked with favor on the enterprises
which tended toward improving the industrial and economic condi-
tion of the land. The Government, however, looks with disfavor upon
Zionists who have political ambitions for Palestine, and it regards
them as enemies to the Government."
This was seconded by Baron von dem Bussche, German Under-
Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, as follows : "As regards the
aspirations in Palestine of Jewry, especially Zionism, we welcome the
recent statement of the Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha expressing the
Turkish Government's intention in accordance with the friendly atti-
tude they have always adopted toward the Jews, to promote flourish-
ing settlement within the limits of the capacity of the country, local
self-government corresponding to the country's laws, and the free
development of their civilization."
In other words, Germany favored the continued economic develop-
ment of Turkey at the hands of the Jews. She graciously apprised
the Jews of this fact.
The German Zionists
In those difficult days the attitude of the German Zionists deserved
special commendation. It was truly heroic. Without doing violence
to their natural German loyalty, they refrained in their publications
from either underestimating the British Declaration or overestimating
the wholly inadequate German and Turkish statements. Seeing that
the opportunity for action lay with Zionists in the Allied countries,
they effaced themselves and served as they could in practical work.
The English Zionist Commission to Palestine
On December 10, 1917, less than six weeks after the British Declara-
tion, General Allenby entered Jerusalem. Very soon thereafter,
Great Britain, in confirmation of its pledge, dispatched to Palestine an
English Zionist Commission, with Dr. Weizmann at its head. This
Commission consisted of the Englishmen, Eder, Sieff, Jos. Cowen, and
Leon Simon, and attached to it were Walter Meyer from the United States,
and Aaron Aaronsohn of Palestine. Others, already in Palestine, were
coopted. The Italian representatives were Bianchini and Arton. They
were joined later by the American representatives, E. W. Lewin-
Epstein, Robert Szold, and David de Sola Pool. Dr. Weizmann's con-
tingent arrived in Palestine in time to celebrate the Passover in the
spring of 1918. With them as British Liaison Officer, or link between
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
the Zionist Commission and the British Military authorities, was Major
Ormsby-Gore, a man thoroughly imbued with the Zionist idea. The
tasks set the Commission are to rehabilitate the Jewish settlements
and institutions in Palestine, to repatriate the refugees ; to make plans
and surveys for future mass migration and for physical development
of the country, for harbors, roads, irrigation and sanitation ; to organ-
ize Palestinian Jewry; to make connections with the neighboring
peoples, and in general to prepare for future Jewish national life. One
of the first acts of Dr. Weizmann as head of the Commission was to
lay the cornerstone of the Hebrew University on Mount Scopus at
Jerusalem, on July 24, 1918. This ceremony, heralded to the far
corners of the world, gave notice of the spiritual significance of Jewish
renationalization.
The Zionist Medical Unit
Early in the summer of 1918 there was dispatched from the
United States a Zionist Medical Unit of 45 members, consisting of
physicians, specialists, trained nurses, and administrators, with ade-
quate equipment and large medical and relief supplies. This Unit
arrived in Palestine in time to witness the drive of the latter half of
September, when General Allenby finally swept Palestine clear of the
Turks. And the havoc wrought by Turkish measures during the last
months of the occupation made medical and other relief acutely neces-
sary. (See Ch. XXXIII.) The Medical Unit established a dispensary,
a training school for nurses, and a hospital of one hundred beds in
Jerusalem, an eye-clinic and medical service in Jaffa, and sent groups
of workers throughout the country.
Dr. Harry Friedenwald, well known as a physician in Baltimore,
former president of the Federation of American Zionists, and Vice-
president of the Zionist Organization of America, who had previously
studied health conditions on the spot in Palestine, proceeded thither
early in 1919, in order to act as a member of the Zionist Administrative
Commission, to study the situation in regard to medical needs, and to
investigate and prepare the ground for a medical faculty in the Hebrew
University at Jerusalem.
References:
A Jewish State in Palestine, by D. W. Amram. Lecture, Dept. of Education:
The Military Campaign in Palestine. England and Palestine, by Herbert Sidebotham.
Subjects for Papers:
Relations of the British Government with the Zionists since the inception of the
Zionist movement. The military campaign in Palestine.
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
CHAPTER XIV
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION (CONTINUED)
The Reorganization of American Zionists
With the cessation of war, all Zionist forces were immediately
put in motion to prepare for the Peace Conference, and to reap the
fruit of four years of struggle. If among other peoples the problems
of reconstruction may have been neglected, that cannot be said of the
Zionists. Throughout the war there had been preparation for peace.
In America a Palestinian Survey had been created with a large library
service, that had gathered and tabulated all the information which
might be of service to the peace delegates. The whole structure of
American Zionism had undergone a complete change during the
previous year, largely with a view to the enormous tasks that would
confront it. Throughout the years of its activity, the Provisional
Executive Committee for General Zionist Affairs had gradually
assumed perhaps more than its share of control of all phases of
American Zionism. The Zionists of the Middle West, who had never
whole-heartedly accepted the jurisdiction of the Executive Committee
of the Federation of American Zionists, put themselves wholly at the
disposal of the Provisional Committee. Zionism in the West and
South had grown tremendously, and a number of states had been
organized with separate bureaus under the control of the Provisional
Committee. Gradually the Executive Committee of the Federation
of American Zionists had become almost a subordinate body of the
Provisional Executive Committee, upon which it had a number of
members. The Federation of American Zionists was the first to recog-
nize the anomaly of its position and the weakness of its form of
organization, which could not long handle the vast problems that had
arisen. A Federation of Societies was too immature and unpolitical a
form for a movement which was coming to be the vital, progressive
force in all American Jewry. It was also out of harmony both with
American and Zionist political ideals which make the individual, and
not the group, the unit of organization. Hence, it was decided by
agreement between the Federation of American Zionists and the
Provisional Executive Committee to present to the Twenty-first
Annual Convention of American Zionists at Pittsburgh, in 1918, a
reorganization plan whereby the Provisional Executive Committee arid
the Federation of American Zionists were to be merged in the Zionist
Organization of America, and the whole system of organization
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
changed from a federation of societies to a federation of individuals,
organized in local Districts and paying their shekel and membership
dues through the District to the Zionist Organization of America.
This radical change, of which the societies had of course been apprised
in advance, was fully discussed and finally passed upon by the dele-
gates at a Convention of extreme fervor and enthusiasm. The tre-
mendous international events that were transpiring had their solemn
effect upon the assembled Zionists. In a week the whole structure of
American Zionism was changed by the adoption of a constitution
which provided for the division of the whole country into Zionist
districts, as governmental districts are divided, so that locality
became the basis of organization. Although the constitution defines
and safe-guards the existence of societies for cultural, social, or other
purposes, the effect of the change was as follows : From the point
of view of fiscal matters and of representation at Conventions the
societies ceased to exist. Societies might take on the character of
political parties or social or intellectual groups, perhaps influencing
the election of delegates, but, politically, the individual was the unit
and the District was made responsible for the organization of these
individuals, irrespective of interest, age, or education. The Zionist
Organization became responsible for all American Zionists, not only for
those who had chosen to join some special Zionist society. A National
Executive Committee of 50 and an Administrative Committee, consisting
of the officers and of the secretaries for Organization and Education, were
elected.* There was also adopted a statement of principles for the
social reconstruction of Palestine, worthy of the goal set before
us. This statement is fully discussed elsewhere, with all of its impli-
cations for the future social commonwealth in Palestine. (See
Ch. XX.) It was unanimously adopted and has proved the
thoroughly democratic and progressive point of view of the Zionists
of America. American Zionism was keeping pace with the vast strides
of the times. It made itself ready for the stupendous events that
were to follow a few months later.
President Wilson Approves of Zionism
On August 31, 1918, President Wilson wrote his memorable letter
to Rabbi Stephen S. Wise, Vice-President of the Zionist Organization
of America :
* Honorary President, Justice Louis D. Brandeis ; President, Judge Julian W.
Mack; Vice-Presidents, Dr. Stephen S. Wise and Dr. Harry Friedenwald; Secretary
for Organization, Louis Lipsky; Secretary for Education, Miss Henrietta Szold;
Executive Secretary, Jacob deHaas.
91
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
"My Dear Rabbi Wise:
"I have watched with deep and sincere interest the reconstructive
work which the Weizmann Commission has done in Palestine at the
instance of the British Government, and I welcome an opportunity to
express the satisfaction I have felt in the progress of the Zionist move-
ment in the United States and in the Allied countries since the declara-
tion by Mr. Balfour on behalf of the British Government of Great
Britain's approval of the establishment in Palestine of a national home
for the Jewish people, and his promise that the British Government
would use its best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of that
object, with the understanding that nothing would be done to preju-
dice the civil and religious rights of non- Jewish peoples in Palestine, or
the rights and political status enjoyed by the Jews in other countries.
"I think that all Americans will be deeply moved by the report
that even in this time of stress the Weizmann Commission has been
able to lay the foundation of the Hebrew University at Jerusalem with
the promise that that bears of spiritual rebirth.
"Cordially and sincerely yours,
(Signed) WOODEOW WILSON"
Secretary of the Navy Daniels, in his speech delivered a few
weeks later, added that President Wilson had spoken for the American
people. And a number of legislatures of the states have since passed
resolutions supporting the Zionist demands.
The American Jewish Congress
Immediately after the signing of the armistice on November 11,
1918, the National Executive Committee of the Zionist Organization
of America was called together to decide on the steps to be taken.
Three subjects had to be discussed and acted upon. One was the
international Jewish situation, due to the realignment of national
forces in Eastern Europe and the horrible persecutions of the Jews
which resulted, and also to the national Jewish demands within vari-
ous countries that were being formulated by Zionist leaders in Central
Europe. The second was the sending of a Commission of American
Zionists to Europe to co-operate with the international Zionists in any
action that might be planned, and the third was the attitude to be
taken by the Zionist Organization toward the convening of the Ameri-
can Jewish Congress, of which it was a constituent member. The
second question resolved itself into the choosing of delegates to join
the European Zionists. Those sent were Dr. Stephen S. Wise, Louis
Robison, and Mrs. Joseph Fels, with Bernard Flexner as legal advisor.
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
The first and third questions were closely bound up together, as action
in regard to the international Jewish situation ought to be taken by
the whole of Jewry and not by the Zionists alone.
As early as the conference in New York of August 30, 1914, there
had been broached the subject of an American Jewish Congress for
the purpose of presenting to the world the claims of Jewry. It was
also intended that this American Congress should co-operate with
international Jewry. The Zionists, having more specifically under-
taken to act for the Palestinian interests of Jewry, felt called upon to
enlist the co-operation of all sections of the Jewish people. The
Congress idea grew rapidly. Initiated by the Zionists, it appealed
strongly also to other bodies. However, there developed at once an
intensely bitter opposition on the part of the self-constituted leaders
of American Jewry. The American Jewish Committee, composed
of wealthy and influential Jews who had a mandate from a compara-
tively limited body of Jews, had assumed control of communal Jewish
affairs in America in so far as such control existed. They resented the
shifting of that control to a body democratically elected, and which
to their mind would therefore not be efficient and trustworthy. The
struggle threatened to split American Jewry hopelessly. It seemed
that the very effort for unity had created disunity. However, the
forces of democracy won out. When finally, under pressure, the New
York members of the American Jewish Committee themselves, in
their capacity as members of the Kehillah of New York, (which is a
constituent of the American Jewish Committee), voted for the Con-
gress, they hoped to keep the Congress in their own hands, and evolved
a system of representation which would have been wholly undemo-
cratic. Another type of opposition developed among the Jewish labor
organizations. The Zionists were resolved to organize American
Jewry on democratic lines. More conferences followed, and in order
to bring the idea to what seemed its only possible fruition, the Zionists
entered into an agreement with the other bodies to be represented, an
agreement that at the time seemed to some to endanger certain principles
of Zionism. The agreement reads in part, that the American Jewish
Congress shall meet "exclusively for the purpose of defining methods
whereby, in co-operation with the Jews of the world, full rights may
be secured for the Jews of all lands and all laws discriminating against
them may be abrogated. It being understood that the phrase 'full
rights' is deemed to include :
"1) Civil, religious, and political rights, and in addition thereto
"2) Wherever the various peoples of any land are or may be
93
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
recognized as having rights as such, the conferring upon the Jewish
people of the land affected, of like rights, if desired by them, as deter-
mined and ascertained by the Congress.
"3) The securing and protection of Jewish rights in Palestine.
"No resolution shall be introduced, considered or acted upon at
the Congress which shall in any way purport or tend to commit the
Congress as a body, or any of its delegates or any of the communities
or organizations which shall be represented therein, to the adoption,
recognition or endorsement of any general theory or philosophy of
Jewish life, or any theoretical principle of a racial, political, economic,
or religious character, or which shall involve the perpetuation of such
Congress.
"The calling and holding of the Congress shall in no manner
affect the autonomy of any existing American Jewish organizations,
but in so far as the Executive Committee selected by such Congress
shall take action for the securing of Jewish rights as defined in the
Call for such Congress, the activities of such Executive Committee
shall, during the period of its existence, be regarded as having prece-
dence over those of any other organizations which shall participate
in such Congress."
This seemed to tie the hands of the Zionists in certain respects.
However, it proved a triumph for them. At a meeting at the Hotel
Savoy, New York, December 25, 1916, the machinery for the Congress
was finally and fully set in motion. Soon after the acceptance of the
agreement, elections were held throughout the country. For the
first time American Jewry acted as an organized unit. The returns
from these elections showed an overwhelming majority for the Zion-
ists. This was a surprise to some who had not realized how
deeply Zionism had permeated among the masses of the American
Jews. The Congress itself, however, had to be postponed, owing to
the entrance of America into the war. America having lost its posi-
tion as a neutral country, the immediate purpose of the Congress
could not be served. Too great agitation at that time would have
been dangerous to Jews in some of the occupied countries.
With the cessation of war the Administrative Committee of the
American Jewish Congress immediately planned to resume its activity.
The National Executive Committee of the Zionist Organization, meet-
ing just before it, felt the necessity, under the vastly changed condi-
tions, to make recommendations to the American Jewish Congress
Committee, of which it was a constituent part. In honor bound to
stand by their agreement and the decisions of the Congress, the
94
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
Zionists faced that obligation with some fears and anxieties. Later
events proved these to be wholly groundless.
So precarious and so rapidly changing were international condi-
tions that only on the evening before the convening of the Administra-
tive Committee of the American Jewish Congress did the National
Executive Committee of the Zionist Organization take action in regard
to its own attitude toward the Congress. Its recommendation to the
Congress Committee was as follows:
"The Executive Committee of the Z. O. A. is of the opinion that
the American Jewish Congress should be convened at the earliest
possible date. In view of the British Declaration addressed to the
Zionist Organization and of its endorsement by other governments,
and in view of the great political changes in Europe since the call for
the Congress, fundamentally affecting the status of the Jews, the
Executive Committee of the Z. O. A. believes that the Congress should
take the necessary action with regard to its program that is required
by the changed conditions."
The Administrative Committee of the American Jewish Congress
was fully in accord with this resolution. The Congress was called
for and convened in Philadelphia on December 15th. About four
hundred delegates came from all parts of the United States. A won-
derful spirit animated the meetings. American Jewry seemed to have
emerged from the parochial into the political state. Despite the great
diversity of the groups represented, including spokesmen of the American
Jewish Committee and of the workmen's organizations, the chief resolu-
tions were practically unanimously adopted. The resolution on
Palestine was acclaimed by an enthusiastic ovation, and it was some
time before the delegates could be persuaded to calm down sufficiently
to take a vote. When that vote was taken a rising vote only two
delegates remained seated. There followed also a resolution on inter-
national rights. By these resolutions the weight of American Jewry
has been put on the side of a League of Nations, and of that demo-
cratic organization of the world which is absolutely necessary to
Jewish well-being and to human well-being.
Resolutions Adopted by the Congress
The following are the resolutions adopted :
"Resolved, that the American Jewish Congress instruct their
delegation to Europe to co-operate with other representatives of other
Jewish organizations, and specifically with the World Zionist Organ-
ization, to the end that the Peace Conference may recognize the
95
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
aspirations and historic claims of the Jewish, people in regard to
Palestine, and declare that in accordance with the British Govern-
ment's declaration of November 2, 1917, endorsed by the Allied Gov-
ernments and the President of the United States, there shall be
established such political, administrative and economic conditions in
Palestine as will assure under the trusteeship of Great Britain, acting
on behalf of such a League of Nations as may be formed, the develop-
ment of Palestine into a Jewish Commonwealth, it being clearly under-
stood that nothing shall be done which shall prejudice the civil and
religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or
the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country."
"Resolved, that the American Jewish Congress respectfully
requests the Peace Conference to insert in the treaty of peace as con-
ditions precedent to the creation of the new or enlarged states which
it is proposed to call into being that express provision be made a part
of the constitutions of such states before they shall be finally recog-
nized as states by the signatories of the treaty, as follows :
"1. All inhabitants of the territory of , including such
persons together with their families, who subsequent to Aug. 1, 1914,
fled, removed, or were expelled therefrom, and who shall, within ten
years from the adoption of this provision, return thereto, shall for all
purposes be citizens thereof, provided, however, that such as have
heretofore been subjects of other states, who desire to retain their
allegiance to such states or assume allegiance to their successor
states, to the exclusion of citizenship may do so by a formal
declaration to be made within a specified period.
"2. For a period of ten years from the adoption of this provision
no law shall be enacted restricting any former inhabitant of a state
which included the territory of from taking up his residence
in and thereby acquiring citizenship therein.
"3. All citizens of , without distinction as to race, nation-
ality or creed, shall enjoy equal civil, political, religious, and national
rights, and no law shall be enacted or enforced which shall abridge
the privileges or immunities of, or impose upon any person any dis-
crimination, disability, or restriction whatsoever on account of race,
nationality, or religion, or deny to any person the equal protection of
the laws.
"4. The principle of minority representation shall be provided
for by law.
"5. The members of the various national as well as religious
bodies of shall be accorded autonomous management of their
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
own communal institutions whether they be religious, educational,
charitable, or otherwise.
"6. No law shall be enacted restricting the use of any language,
and all existing laws declaring such prohibition are repealed, nor shall
any language test be established.
"7. Those who observe any other than the first day of the week
as their Sabbath shall not be prohibited from pursuing their secular
affairs on any day other than that which they observe ; nor shall they
be required to perform any acts on their Sabbath or holy days which
they shall regard as a desecration thereof."
Note that the word "J ew " is not specifically used in this resolu-
tion, as the appeal is based on common human justice.
Jewish Representatives to Europe
The chief task of the Congress was to elect a Committee to pro-
ceed to Europe to carry out the mandates of the Congress, and which would
upon its return, reconvene the Congress. This Committee consisted of the
following :
Judge Julian W. Mack, President of the Zionist Organization,
who had been chosen Chairman of the Congress, Rabbi Stephen S.
Wise, Louis Marshall, Jacob deHaas, Executive Secretary of the
Zionist Organization, Nahum Syrkin, one of the representative Poale
Zion, Joseph Barondess, Morris Winchevsky, Col. Harry Cutler, Rabbi
B. L. Levinthal, and Bernard G. Richards, as Secretary. Action was
also taken upon the Polish situation, the Poles having protested that
they were guiltless of the massacres in Galicia, and having asked that
a delegation of six, two Jews, two Poles, and two Americans, be sent to
investigate. Judge Mack and Mr. Marshall were authorized to name the
two Jewish delegates.
Growth of American Zionism
American Zionism was meeting its tremendous responsibilities.
From a mere handful of about 20,000 shekel payers before the war,
they had increased to 150,000 in 1917, and in the new District Organ-
izations over 171,000 were enrolled by April, 1920; that means 171,000
Jews who pay two dollars a year to the Zionist Organization of
America. Also a spirit of understanding was gradually penetrating
the masses.
Zionist Demands
The resolution in regard to Palestine adopted by the Jewish Con-
97
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
gress, which was representative of the Jews of America, made plain
to all the world what the Zionists expected of the Peace Conference.
Similar resolutions have since been passed by representative Jewish
bodies in other countries. The demand for British trusteeship, and in
fact the phrasing of the whole resolution, had been strongly influenced
by cable messages from the Zionists of Great Britain. In Paris, Chaim
Weizmann (returned from Palestine), Nahum Sokolow, Dr. Wise
and others were in constant touch with the Peace Delegates. Early
in 1919 a Zionist Bureau was established in Paris, which became the
headquarters for all Jewish activities at the Peace Conference.
From the Maccabaean Magazine, March, 1919
"We laid our claims before the 'Council of Ten,' on the twenty-
seventh day of Adar Rishon 5679, which will remain the most impor-
tant day in the annals of our history since our dispersion." Such is the
opening sentence of a message to the Zionist Conference in London,
signed by the three Zionist diplomatic representatives, Weizmann,
Sokolow and Ussischkin.
The Zionist Conference in London opened on Tuesday, February
24th, with representatives from the Allies and neutral countries and
a special delegation from Palestine.
The first report of what took place at this conference reflected
a certain amount of dissatisfaction in a number of the delegates with
what they considered the modesty of the claims of the Zionist diplo-
matic representatives in Paris. Then came the appearance before
the Supreme Council of the Zionist representatives, the results of
which were hailed with general satisfaction.
The Zionist delegation consisted of Dr. Weizmann, Nahum
Sokolow, M. M. Ussischkin and Andre Spire. Prof. Sylvain Levi
also appeared, but not as a member of the Zionist delegation. In a
powerful speech which lasted only six minutes, Nahum Sokolow laid
before the world's representatives the picture of the twenty centuries
of wandering of the Jewish people. Weizmann followed, and in a
speech of equal length, emphasized the point that the war had left
the Jews in a more precarious plight than any other people. Ussischkin
addressed the council as a representative of the Ukrainian Jews. He
spoke in Hebrew. He thus demonstrated to the Powers of the world
that Hebrew is a living language. A discordant note was introduced
by Prof. Sylvain Levi, who spoke as a representative of the French
Jews, and after paying a tribute to the achievements of the Zionists
in Palestine, proceeded to belittle the larger claims of Zionism and cast
THE WAR AND ZIONIST POLITICAL ACTION
reflections on the character of the East European Jews. He was the
last speaker, officially, but fortunately his speech was not permitted
to create the final impression. Secretary Lansing took the initiative,
and by asking Weizmann a question, he gave him the opportunity to
speak again and remove the painful impression which Prof. Levi's speech
had created.
No opposition was advanced by any of the nations represented
in the council to the claims of the Zionists. Mr. Balfour took occasion
to congratulate the Zionist representatives on the results they had
achieved, and M. Andre Tardieu, representative of the French Gov-
ernment, made the following statement:
"There is not the slightest difference of opinion among the great
Powers on the establishment of a Zionist State nor on giving Great
Britain the mandatary."
To the record of these reiterations of assurances from the Powers
should be added the statement made by President Wilson to the dele-
gation of the American Jewish Congress :
"/ have before this expressed my personal approval of the Decla-
ration of the British Government regarding the aspirations and historic
claims of the Jewish people in regard to Palestine. I am, moreover,
persuaded that the Allied nations with the fullest concurrence of our
own Government and people are agreed that in Palestine shall be laid
the foundations of a Jewish Commonwealth."
There should also be added a letter from Emir Feisal, heir-
apparent to the throne of Hedjaz, to Professor Felix Frankfurter, one
of the Zionist representatives in Paris wherein the Prince sets at rest
all doubts as to the position of the Arabian people in the following
statement :
"We Arabs look with the deepest sympathy on the Zionist movement.
Our deputation in Paris is fully acquainted with the proposals submitted
by the Zionists to the Peace Conference, and regards them as moderate
and proper. We will do our best to help them through, and wish the Jews
a most hearty welcome home."
In an interview Dr. Weizmann gave to the press after the appear-
ance of the Zionist delegation before the "Council of Ten," he stated :
"We have obtained full recognition of the historic title of the
Jewish people in Palestine and of the Jewish right to constitute a
National Home there."
The claims of the Zionist delegates as they are briefly communi-
cated in the official communication to the London Zionist Conference
contain everything that may now be demanded: full recognition of
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
our historic claims in Palestine; the assurance of an independent
Jewish Commonwealth as soon as the Jews in Palestine will consti-
tute a majority of the population and will be able to dispense with
their mandatory ; the creation of such conditions under the trusteeship
of England as will fulfill the desire of Jewish development in Palestine
as soon as possible; the recognition, as one of the principal conditions,
of a Jewish Council which is to have from the beginning a voice in the
administration of the country and receive all necessary concessions
to further the development of Jewish immigration on a large scale;
the immediate recognition of the Hebrew language and the Jewish
Sabbath and holidays; and, finally, the determination of the bounda-
ries of Palestine as they were in the reign of King Solomon : from the
Lebanon in the north to the boundary of Egypt and the port of Akabah
in the south, and to the east the whole of Transjordania as far as the
Hedjaz railroad, which includes the Bashan and Gilead.
The London Conference to whom the Zionist delegates reported
the success of their mission, received this report with a remarkable
demonstration. The delegates rose from their seats and pronounced
the benediction, "Who hath permitted us to live and preserved us until
this season." All parties expressed satisfaction and confidence in the
delegates.
References:
Israel, by William Hard. Publications of the American Jewish Congress Com-
mittee. A Jewish Palestine, by H. Sacher.
Subjects for Papers:
The American Jewish Congress. Comments on the Zionist budget for Palestine.
100
CHAPTER XV
FACTIONS AND TENDENCIES IN ZIONISM*
Parliamentary government, in nearly every instance, presents a
scene in which three contending- groups are actors the Right, the
Left, and the Center. The latter represents, usually, the views of the
majority of the population, but it must be ever ready to face a struggle
with either of the wings with the Right, who represent the ultra-
conservative forces in the nation, and the Left, or the champions of
radicalism. It is the constant struggle between the Right and the Left
that usually offers the opportunity for the growth of the Center
party, which works as the "administration."
A famous radical philosopher once declared that the members of
the Left except in short periods of revolution can never be the
rulers of a nation, because just as soon as any theory or policy becomes
sufficiently popular to receive the support of the majority, the clever
politicians and administrators, who are nearly always found in the
Center party controlling the government, will proceed to appropriate
the ideas, and to "steal the thunder" of their opponents in order to
keep themselves in power. In this view, it is the chief function of the
Left to prepare the minds of men for the radical changes which the
Center party ultimately enacts into legislation. In short, the strength
of the Left is in denunciation and in theorizing, of the Center, in actual
administration, and it might be added, of the Right, in traditionalism.
The Poale Zion
The Zionist Congress, as a parliamentary body, has developed
more or less along these lines, with the so-called "general Zionists" in
the Center, for though the Mizrahi (or Orthodox group) is religious
and not political in its conservatism, and so can hardly be called the
Right, the Poale Zion (or Labor party) might well be called the Left.
As early as the seventh Zionist Congress, in 1905, the Poale Zion was
recognized as a "Fraktion" (or party) within the International Zionist
Congress. This party represents the Socialist element in Zionism.
But it would be a mistake to regard Poale Zionism as merely Socialism
within the Zionist Organization. The Poale Zionist is a Jew who
* By Bernard A. Rosenblatt and the Editor.
101
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
endorses the Zionist program, who not only interprets that program
in accordance with Socialist ideals, but who supplements and "cor-
rects" that program so as to fit in with his concept of what a Jewish
State ought to be. Poale Zionism is not something added to Zionism
it is a different kind of Zionism. Perhaps nothing illustrates this
so vividly as the following quotations from a pamphlet on the Aims of
Jewish Labor, prepared by the Poale Zion of America, and issued in the
early part of 1918 :
"There are two fundamental causes which are responsible for the
peculiar condition and the unusual sufferings of the Jewish masses.
"These causes lie at the basis of modern society in general and
the world position of Jewry in particular. . . .
"These fundamental causes are:
"1) Capitalism as a system of production, and
"2) Lack of a Jewish-national economic system. . . .
"The all-embracing aim of Poale Zionism is to free the Jewish
worker both as proletarian and as Jew : to set up a free Jewish nation in a
family of equal and class-free peoples. . . .
"The Poale Zion is a separate organization of the Jewish work-
ing class which carries on its activity in behalf of social freedom and
national liberty quite independently, joining the Zionist movement
as a distinct party and recognized as such by the constitution of the
International Zionist Congress.
"If occasion or policy demands, the Poale Zion unite temporarily
or for specific purposes with other groups at the Zionist Congress,
just as Socialists do in any National Assembly or Parliament. . . ."
The Poale Zion is allowed representation in the Larger Actions
Committee, but is not entitled, as a matter of course, to party representa-
tion in the Inner Actions Committee, which actually administers Zionist
affairs during the periods between Congresses. This is proper,
because, while there may be differences of opinion upon legislation
and policies, the administrators or those who are to carry out policies
must be chosen entirely from the point of view of personal fitness
irrespective of party affiliation.
In Palestine, the Poale Zion may be regarded as the Socialist and
labor party of the future Jewish State. It has helped to organize
Jewish farm labor there, which has a strong union. The party has
encouraged the growth of co-operative farming colonies and of co-opera-
tive labor groups. It has published a workman's journal, Ha-ahdut,
and is active in the co-operative Society of Shomerim or Jewish police
force. During the war the Poale Zion has striven, with great success,
102
GENERAL ALLENBY'S ENTRANCE INTO JERUSALEM
FACTIONS AND TENDENCIES IN ZIONISM
to win the support of the various Socialist and Labor parties through-
out the world, toward the establishment of a Jewish State in Palestine.
In the words of the pamphlet referred to above, the Aims of Jewish
Labor:
"The Poale Zion Confederation was officially invited to participate
in the deliberations of the International Socialist Conference which
was to have been held at Stockholm, June, 1917. Thus we were placed
on a par with all the other Socialist elements of the world ; thus also
the Jews were recognized by the Socialist International as a separate
and distinct nation with its own specific problems and its own legiti-
mate Socialist representatives.
"The Holland-Scandinavian Socialist Committee has in its Peace
Manifesto of October, 1917, made the fundamental demands of Poale
Zionism its own in the following language :
" 'The International solution of the Jewish problem ; personal-
national autonomy in Russia, Austria, Roumania, and Poland, where
the Jews live in compact masses; security and protection of Jewish
colonization in Palestine.' . . .
"The Socialist Party of England and the Independent Socialists
of Germany have upon several occasions pledged their support to the
Poale Zionists. . . ."
In this way the Poale Zion has rendered a definite service to the
Zionist movement in that it has won for us the support of radical
groups the world over.
The Mizrahi
The Mizrahi, or Orthodox party, was formally recognized by the
Zionist Actions Committee in 1903. As the Poale Zion would convert
political Zionism into a social movement, so the Mizrahi would trans-
form it into a religious movement. There is no inherent opposition
between the Poale Zion and the Mizrahi, for we can conceive of a
member of the Poale Zion who is a Socialist, being also a religious
Zionist. It has even happened at the Congress that the two parties
voted together against the Center. But, roughly speaking, the two
parties represent respectively the radical and the conservative forces
in Zionism, and one who refuses to work as a "general" Zionist must
choose between the two factions. This is perhaps one of the strongest
reasons for the majority of Zionists remaining members of the Center
(or "general Zionist") since, as such, they may entertain the most
radical outlook on the social question, and yet combine with it the
most Orthodox interpretation of Judaism. As a member of either
103
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
of the two parties, a Zionist must perforce subordinate one to the
other. Also, there are many who consider the division into parties in
advance of a national government as a weakening of the movement
and as a danger to undivided loyalty to the nationalist cause.
A Mizrahist is a Zionist who accepts the whole of the Jewish
religion including the laws and their authoritative interpretation
(from the Talmud and the Rabbis), as the necessary counterpart of
his Zionism. The Zionist movement itself is in the eyes of the
Mizrahist merely the necessary logical step in the upbuilding of a Jewish
national religious life in Palestine. The Mizrahist regards Jewish nation-
alism as part and parcel of Jewish religion. He hopes for an ultimate
theocracy in Palestine.
The Mizrahi roots deep in the beginnings of Zionism, for some
of the first pioneers in Jewish nationalism were men who belonged to
Orthodox Jewry. Rabbi Hirsch Kalischer regarded the planting of
Jewish colonies on the soil of Erez Israel as part of the religious duty
of the Jew, and Rabbi Samuel Mohilever of Bialystock, Russia, the
famous exponent of religious Zionism, joined Herzl at the very foun-
dation of the Zionist movement. Zionism is an expression of the
national will-to-live and, like the will-to-live of the individual, it can
be reconciled with every shade of belief. For 2,000 years this will
was concentrated in Jewish religious life. The Orthodox Jew would
therefore seem the most open to Zionist influence. But this is not the
case. Much opposition comes from the Orthodox on the ground that
we must not force the hand of Providence, but must wait for a
miraculous redeemer from God. The Mizrahi by their very existence
refute this argument. Following the leadership of Hirsch Kalischer
in this matter, they hold that the Messiah will come only after tKe
Jews have done their duty by resettling Palestine. Since the Jews
were given many religious commands that can be obeyed only in
Palestine, the first religious duty of the Jew must be to attempt to
live there, and there to replant his people.
The co-operation of the Mizrahi with the general movement has
always been tinged with resentment at all purely economic, social,
national, or even cultural interpretations of Zionism that ignore the
religious aspect. So, too, they mistrust the leadership of men who
are non-religious.
Rabbi Jacob Reines of Lida, who founded the Mizrahi in Febru-
ary, 1903, also brought about co-operation with the general Zionist
movement and representation at the following Congress, which has
continued ever since. Amidst all the disputes that have arisen between
104
FACTIONS AND TENDENCIES IN ZIONISM
the Mizrahi and the Zionist Organization, there has been preserved,
at all times, a certain spirit of co-operation. Believing that education
is the groundwork of a national life, the Mizrahi have made Palestinian
education their chief concern. They have opposed the subsidizing of
secular schools, such as the Hebrew Gymnasium at Jaffa. They have
established their own school at Jaffa, the Tahkemoni. It is interesting
to note that this Orthodox high school educates only boys, whereas
the Gymnasium is co-educational.
Like the Poale Zion, the Mizrahi are not entitled, as a matter of right,
to representation on the Inner Actions Committee, but it has several
members on the Larger Actions Committee. The chief value of the
Mizrahi lies in its propaganda among pious Jews, who form a majority
of the Jews. It links Zionism with Orthodox Judaism, and therefore is
in a position to enlist the support of congregations and synagogues for
work for the Jewish State in Palestine. It is valuable as the bridge be-
tween the Zionism of the parents and the Zionism of the second genera-
tion. Through its support of Hebrew and Jewish learning as a necessary
part in the redemption of Palestine, it insures to the older genera-
tion a Zionism that is not a mere youthful enthusiasm without any
roots in the past, but a necessary and desirable development in tradi-
tional Judaism. Broadly considered, we might say that, while the
general Zionist represents the present, with its political and practical
problems for Palestine, and while the Poale Zion might be regarded
as the harbinger of the future, the Mizrahi is our link with the past, and
aims to insure that our progress shall be in line with the whole of
Jewish history.
Cultural Zionism
Besides the parties, there are other tendencies not crystallized into
parties, which have had a shaping influence in the development of
Zionism. The most important of these has been named "Cultural
Zionism," and its chief exponent is Ahad Ha-Am. (See Ch. XVII.)
The movement for cultural Hebraic development was a natural out-
growth of the Haskalah (see Ch. V), with its emphasis on Hebraism.
It accentuates Jewish learning and social ideals, not traditional reli-
gion. Cultural Zionism emphasizes the need of preparing the Jews for
Palestine by Hebrew education, the study of Jewish history and the
upbuilding of the Hebraic character even as we must prepare Pales-
tine for the Jews. This type of Zionism won many adherents among
those who until recently regarded the practical plan for a Jewish
State as chimerical, for even those who scoffed at political Zionism saw
105
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
the value of cultural Zionism. Many have been induced to give
large sums for Palestinian purposes, though they have refused to
endorse the political Zionist program. But since the Declaration on
Zionism by Great Britain on November 2, 1917, and its subsequent
endorsement by the Allies, Zionism is no longer only a dream of the
idealists. It has become a practical question of world politics. It
is therefore not surprising that those who were attracted by cultural
Zionism, but who had refused to endorse the Zionist movement, should
now give it their full support. Many such "delayed" Zionists are now
giving yeoman's service in the Organization. So, too, all opposition
between Cultural and Political Zionism has disappeared, and both are
recognized as necessary phases of renationalization.
Political and Practical Zionism
What was for many years the center of Zionist politics, the
struggle for control of the Congress, without definite party organiza-
tion, between the "Practicals," descended from the old Hoveve Zion
and the "Politicals," or Herzlian Zionists, has also ended through the
eventualities of war in a strong union of purpose. (See Ch. X.) Since
the Balfour Declaration, Political and Practical have the same mean-
ing; colonization and guarantees must now go hand in hand.
The Yiddishists
Another tendency in Zionism, which is of utmost importance for
the future of Palestine, is the "Yiddishist" movement. It is not
thoroughly organized, and represents only a tendency. It gathers its
strength largely through a certain inertia. About half of the Jews
of the world are now speaking Yiddish, and therefore we have a con-
dition conducive to the acceptance of Yiddish as the Jewish language
of Palestine in the future; for that is the "easy way". Of course,
some of the Yiddishists also have their philosophy.
The Zionist Yiddishists are a cross current, as it were, from a
Jewish national tendency which is not at all Zionist but opposed to
Zionism. Indeed, the scattered Jewish people, comprising 14,000,000
of fairly intelligent and generally educated individuals, is seething
with all manner of social and political currents. It is this which
makes Jewish life so interesting and stimulating and worth while.
Hitherto anti-Zionist, this Jewish national idea is held by the fol-
lowers of S. M. Dubnow, in Russia, who maintain that the Jews are
a nation wherever they may live and that they should claim national
rights in their present abodes. To them, Yiddish is the national
Jewish language because Jews speak it. Palestine, when it becomes
106
FACTIONS AND TENDENCIES IN ZIONISM
Jewish, will be to them simply an annex, another Jewish abode where
of course Yiddish must also be spoken. They ignore the fact that
great masses of Jews, notably the Spanish Ladino-speaking Jews of
the Orient, and large numbers of West European and American Jews
do not know Yiddish at all.
The Zionist position is an opposite one. To Zionists, Yiddish is a
"Golus" speech developed by the abnormal conditions of Jewish life.
Dear as it may be to some of them, with the homely charm of a folk
tongue, it has the ear-marks of slavery and of forced adaptiveness.
The effort to Hebraize German has had some curious results. The
two languages have an opposite character and construction. Hence
the strange consequence that, whereas Hebrew is one of the most concise
of languages both as spoken and written, Yiddish is one of the most
long-winded. Zionists have proven, in Palestine, the correctness of their
position. Hebrew is already the living language of the Palestinian Jews.
It alone can unite all Jews; its dignity makes it dear to a liberated
people; it has the straightforward simplicity that expresses the soul
of a people coming upright into its own land. And it is at home in
the Orient, which Yiddish never could be. Hebrew is first cousin to
Arabic. For Zionists and Palestinians the question is decided. How-
ever, the first years of a general immigration may again raise the prob-
lem, and we must be prepared to meet it. Our Jewish pioneers in
Palestine have had experience with such struggles. (See Ch. XXXI,
XXXII.) And throughout the world there are Jews, especially among
the Yiddish-speaking, ready to make untold sacrifices for the sake of
Hebrew. In Palestine we find Yiddish-speaking parents, who barely
understand Hebrew, insisting that their children speak Hebrew at
home. And in the Diaspora we find articles written in Yiddish on
the Hebraic movement which condemn Yiddish as a possible Pales-
tinian tongue. It is a self-denying ordinance. The young Hebraists
in Palestine do not even tolerate plays or lectures given in Yiddish.
We may hope that when the question again becomes a practical one,
all Israel will be imbued with the spirit of the tongue of its Prophets.
References :
Zionism and Socialism, by Lewis Eifkin. Poale Zionism, by H. Fineman. The
Palestine Workers' Fund, by I. Zar. The Mizrachi, by Meyer Waxman. Hebraism
un Yiddishism (Yiddish), by Abe Goldberg.
Subjects for Papers:
Jews in socialism. Yiddish as a language.
107
CHAPTER XVI
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN THE DISPERSION
The Hebrew Language throughout Jewish History
At no time in history has Hebrew been a dead language. To
the masses of the Jewish people, it has for hundreds of years been
the language only of prayer and study, and to the intellectuals among
them who formed a large proportion it was also the language of
literature and correspondence. Merchants and bankers kept their
books in Hebrew. Hebrew as the commonly spoken language
of the Jewish people in its own land was replaced, even before we lost
our land, by the Aramaic dialect which is closely related to Hebrew.
In this dialect certain parts of the prayer-book are written, notably
the Kaddish, and also a large part of two of the late books of the Bible,
Daniel and Ezra. But on the whole, Jewish literature was produced
in Hebrew, as exemplified by the Mishnah, written in Aramaic-speak-
ing times, and by other legal and philosophical writings. Through-
out the Middle Ages, too, the chief works of Jewish learning were
produced in Hebrew, with the exception of a few philosophic works
as those of Halevy, Ibn Gebirol, Saadia and Maimonides originally
written in Arabic during the Arabic-Jewish period of culture, but later
translated into Hebrew. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries in the
"Golden Era" of the Jews in Spain, there was a remarkable revival
of Hebrew literature which produced, besides books of travel, tales
and philosophy, works on Hebrew grammar, and a wonderful flowering
of lyric poetry. Greatest among these poets were: Judah Halevi,
the passionate Zionist who, legend tells us, was slain at the gates of
Jerusalem while on the dangerous pilgrimage from his luxurious home
in Spain to the then desolate Holy Land, and Shlomo Ibn Gebirol,
singer of love, human as well as divine. Many of Halevy's best poems
have been rather well translated into English and appear in various
collections. And the best of the piyutim or holy-day poems in the
ritual can be traced to this period.
Relation of Language to Nationality
In modern times seven centuries later there has been another
Hebrew revival, comparable in quality and much wider in extent. For
108
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN THE DISPERSION
at no time since the dispersion has Hebrew become as now the lan-
guage of daily, intercourse of thousands upon thousands of Jews. This
miracle a miracle of will and endurance and devotion is closely
associated with the new Jewish national movement. However, we
should not forget that the Hebrew revival of modern times preceded
in its beginnings the national movement, and is in no small measure
responsible for the impetus toward Zionism and for the spread of
Zionism, especially among the Russian masses.
To understand this, one must realize the relation of language to
nationality. Our native language is our most intimate possession.
Since it has been pretty clearly proven by science that thought is
impossible except in words, so the language in which we think is the
body of our intellectual life. Also, our language determines which
literature shall be most familiar to us. And what is literature but the
spiritual and intellectual history of a people? Language therefore
determines our national sympathies. This was demonstrated in the
Great War especially by Switzerland, the nation composed of three
peoples with three languages. Although Switzerland remained
neutral, the sympathies of its inhabitants with the various belligerents
were pretty well divided along linguistics lines. So, naturally, a gen-
eration of Jews which was at home in Hebrew speech and literature
would be open and prepared for the revival of national aspiration as
the plowed ground is ready for the seed. A still deeper relation exists
between nationality and speech. Each language has, as it were, a spirit
or soul of its own. Whoever learns it comes into direct possession of
certain spiritual treasures. The knowledge of German inspires to
thoroughness and order, the knowledge of French to precision and
beauty of form. And Hebrew has a quality which may be called truth
in action. One of the great Jewish creations has been the Hebrew
language itself. Any student of Hebrew soon discovers its rare quality,
its directness, its swift motion and brevity, its simplicity, unity,
universality. These are qualities of the Hebraic soul. Created by the
Jews, Hebrew has also created the Jews. The Bible is a Hebrew book ; it
could have been only a Hebrew book. To fulfill its spiritual promise
in national life the Jewish people must again be a Hebraic people.
Hebrew Revived for the Sake of European Culture
The modern revival of Hebrew began with that very group whose
purpose was to escape from the dangers and privations of Jewish
separatism or nationalism, in dispersion. Moses Mendelssohn and
his followers (see Ch. V) were responsible for the first return to
109
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Hebrew as a literary medium. As Hebrew was the preferred lan-
guage of the Jewish reading public, these writers used it for trans-
mitting modern thought and culture to the Jewish masses. Their
purpose was to prepare the masses of German Ghetto Jews for Euro-
pean culture and intellectual assimilation. The Meassefim, as their
Hebrew publications were called, which served their purpose so far as
Germany was concerned, and were discarded for German literature
as soon as possible, found their way also into the hands of Jews in
Lithuania, Poland, Galicia, and the Ukraine, and there they ended by
having quite another result. Hebrew literature, revived there for
practically the same reasons as in Germany, as a way of escape from
the intellectual narrowness and stagnation of the Ghetto into the
freedom of European culture, was bound to take other forms because
of the different social conditions. These Jews, living in dense masses,
were steeped in Hebraic forms of learning, life and sentiment. The
Haskalah movement (see Ch. V) soon developed writers who loved
Hebrew not merely as a vehicle for modern thought, but for its own
sake.
Return to Biblical Style
Even the editors of the Meassefim had their notions of Hebrew
style. Opposed as they were in all things to Talmudic Judaism, they
avoided the Hebrew style of the contemporary Talmudists, which
was not purely Biblical but was compounded also from Talmudic and
other post-Biblical literature. The Hebrew of the Eastern Jews,
while rich and pliant, had sacrificed manner to matter, had suffered
from the neglect of Hebrew grammar and of the Bible itself, and
had lost all beauty of rhythm and form. Hence the editors of the
Meassefim adopted the slogan: "Back to the Bible!" Such a reaction
could not in the long run be fruitful of a rich literature, but for the
moment it was healthy at least in a negative sense. It purified
Hebrew style and reawakened the love of poetry and beauty in speech.
This style, used largely by the earlier writers of the Hebrew revival,
has been termed Melitzah. Its tendency was to overburden prose
with Biblical quotations and forms, sometimes without due considera-
tion of their appropriateness.
The First Hebrew Novel
The first Hebrew novel, published at Vilna in 1853, was written
by Abraham Mapu. It was Ahavat Zion (The Love of Zion) , and
related in limpid Biblical style a love story of the period of Heze-
110
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN THE DISPERSION
kiah in Palestine. Abraham Mapu was born in Slobodka, near Kovno,
in 1808, and died in 1867. His early education was the traditional
Jewish one. In his later 'teens, however, he delved deep into classical
and then into European culture, and so, with a good foundation of
Jewish learning, he was able to Hebraize the romantic form, and to
keep thoroughly Jewish a type of literature until then strange to the
Ghetto. It was a liberating breath. Mapu's novel found an enthus-
iastic response from the young people who thus escaped Ghetto medi-
evalism by the path of a living Hebrew literature. The older genera-
tion, scenting a danger to tradition, put a ban on this innocent novel,
which many a youngster read in secret with the relish for forbidden
fruit.
Yehudah Leib Gordon
While Mapu was still writing, Yehudah Leib Gordon (Leon
Gordon) began to stir the Jewish people, or rather the Jewish pro-
gressives and the Jewish youth, with Hebrew poems of extraordinary
merit. He voiced in the Hebrew language that rebellion against a
sordid and cramping life, that reaction to extreme free thought which
but for him and others like him would have driven the younger Jews
to alien literatures. He was born at Vilna in 1831, and was graduated
from the Rabbinical Seminary there. For about twenty years he
taught Hebrew in government schools. He was secretary of the
"Society for the Promotion of Culture among the Jews of Russia" ;
he took an active part in communal work. His life was full of strug-
gle, and he tasted deep of the Jewish tragedy. Some time he spent
even in prison and exile. He died in 1892. His numerous books of
poetry, tragic, poignant, are intensely Jewish despite, and perhaps
because of, their spirit of rebellion. Although Gordon was not a con-
scious Jewish nationalist, although his message was in fact only nega-
tive and destructive, his masterly development of Hebrew style proved
of inestimable worth to the national revival.
Perez Smolenskin
Such, indeed, was the unintended result of all the Hebrew labors
of the Maskilim (see Ch. V), even of those whose avowed purpose
was assimilation of Jewish thought with alien cultures. The first
conscious nationalist of note in this group was Perez Smolenskin.
(See Ch. VII.) From the beginning of his literary labors, he valued
and developed the Hebrew language as an end in itself. And later
he became a passionate and yet clear-sighted exponent of the Jewish
ill
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
national ideal in pre-Zionist days. To him Hebraic renationalization
was the only fitting role for the people of the Prophets. When he
founded the monthly Hebrew Journal, Hashahar, the little group of
Hebrew writers who rallied to his support made the Hebrew revival
a definite and conscious means for the Jewish national revival.
Development of the Language
The translation of classic and scientific works from all European
languages into Hebrew had, besides its avowed purpose of educating
the masses of Hebrew-reading Jews, also the effect of enriching and
diversifying the Hebrew language. A number of Hebrew periodicals
were founded, and the daily Hebrew newspapers that arose did much
to render the language flexible. It also, however, unfortunately tended
to adulterate it by an infusion of borrowed foreign words. A news*
paper must deal with every sort of news. Under pressure of neces-
sity the newspaper man coined or compounded new Hebrew words.
Effect of Nationalism on Hebrew
With the rise of the Hoveve Zion movement (see Ch. VIII), num-
bers of clubs and societies were formed to develop Hebrew as a spoken
tongue. Most of the societies did not live long. It was a hard task to
convert a written into a spoken language. The societies rose and
fell, but the movement persisted. Although Hebrew was now a
modern literary language, it was spoken freely by only a few scholars.
It was a written not a spoken tongue. Such it must have remained
except for the revival of Jewish national life on the Jewish soil. Its
revival there as the language of school and market place and home
is recounted elsewhere. (See Ch. XXXII.) The reviving and shaping
influence of Hebrew speech in Palestine has been felt throughout the
dispersion. The language recreated in Palestine has borrowed its
wealth from every period of Hebrew literature, and yet does not sacri-
fice beauty and unity to fluency. So, too, the Hebrew writers of
other lands gradually freed themselves from the purifying but narrow-
ing effects of too Biblical a style. Such a style was bound to be arti-
ficial as well as restricted. The purpose of Hebrew literature is now
altogether Hebraic; one no longer asks whether a Hebrew writer is
a Jewish nationalist. One takes it for granted.
Modern Hebrew Poetry
The new literature has been especially rich in poets, practically all
of them of East European extraction. Gordon was followed by Mena-
hem Dolitzki, who was the forerunner of a remarkable group of
112
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN THE DISPERSION
modern Hebrew poets. The best of these are Hayim Nahman Bialik,
Saul Tchernichovsky, and Zalman Schneier, of whom the greatest is
no doubt Bialik. He has chosen a wide field for his work, varying in
his themes from light love songs to passionate Zionist lyrics, from care-
ful studies of Jewish cultural values to fiery denunciations of pogroms.
He has also distinguished himself as a prose writer. He has, more-
over, actively aided the Hebrew revival in another way, for he is the
moving spirit of the Moriah, a publishing house which has been issu-
ing Hebrew text-books, particularly the monumental work Sefer
Agadah, a collection in several volumes of the best legends from the
Talmud and Midrashim.
Tchernichovsky's poetry is full of appreciations of nature, and
tends to defy the Jewish traditional view of life. At times he likes
to consider himself a "Greek," and addresses Hebrew odes to Apollo
or sings the praises of Bacchus.
Schneier, who is the youngest of this group, has nevertheless writ-
ten poems comparable with Bialik's best works. He is distinguished by
a quality of lyric beauty and music in his verse.
Modern Hebrew Prose
Among the prose writers, Ahad Ha-Am, the greatest of modern
Hebrew thinkers and philosophers (see Ch. XVII), stands forth pre-
eminent as a stylist. He has revolutionized Hebrew prose. Without
adopting many foreign words or departing from idiomatic Hebrew, he
has been able to express his philosophic ideas with the utmost precis-
ion and clearness. About him has gathered a school of writers wrio
model their work upon his.
Solomon Rabinowitz, better known as Shalom Aleichem (1859-
1916) and Solomon Jacob Abramowitsch, or Mendele Mocher Sefarim
(1836-1917), wrote most of their novels and short stories in Yiddish,
but since they either themselves translated into Hebrew or else caused
to be translated a large part of their work, and since they also wrote
a considerable amount originally in Hebrew, they rank as high in
Hebrew literature as they do in Yiddish. These men tasted so deep
of Russian Ghetto life that the color, the humor and pathos of their
writings, are of the very stuff of reality. Mendele in his youth
wandered all over the Jewish Pale, from town to town. Shalom
Aleichem came twice to America where, on his second visit, he died.
These men helped to create the new life by holding up a mirror to
the old.
113
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Other Writers and Publications
Among the other celebrated Hebrew writers of today are David
Frischman, the short story writer, poet, critic, and translator, Jacob
Kahn, the poet, Joseph Klausner, publicist, essayist and historian, and
Reuben Brainin, writer of stories and essays, and translator. The pub-
licist and litterateur, Nahum Sokolow, one of the foremost Hebraists,
has recently sacrificed his literary to his political activities. A host
of Hebrew newspapers, weeklies and monthlies as well as dailies, has
sprung up, not only in Palestine but also in Eastern Europe and even
in America, Hashiloah, published in Odessa, the organ of Ahad Ha-Am,
Bialik and Klausner; Hatzefirah, in Warsaw, a daily paper under the
guidance of Nahum Sokolow; and Hazeman, another Russian daily,
functioned until the war. Ha-olam, Hebrew Zionist weekly in Russia,
also stopped by the war, has reappeared under the title of Ha-Am.
In the United States, Hatoren is a Hebrew Zionist weekly, published
under the auspices of the Zionist Organization; and Ha-ivri is the
organ of the Mizrahi party in America.
Re-creation of an Ancient Tongue
Many of the words of this new-old language have been revived,
recreated from all epochs of Hebrew literature, and many have had
to be created. But most of them have been born in the spirit of our
ancient Hebrew speech. Scientific terms are often compounded of old
Hebrew words, or are based on primal Semitic forms, so that they have
sprung new-blown from the old roots. This re-creation has been
stimulated by the new Jewish life in Palestine, where Hebrew writers
are forced to deal with such subjects as agriculture, medicine, geog-
raphy, and music.
Effect of Palestinian Hebrew on the Diaspora
The revival of Hebrew speech, if not yet of Hebrew literature, is
a gift to the Diaspora from Palestine. (For Ben Yehudah and his
Millon and the Va-ad Halashon, see Ch. XXXII.) In Palestine, He-
brew is spoken with the Sephardic accent, with a crispness and beauty
and rhythm that ought to guide the teachers in the dispersion. It
has not yet been adopted by all the Hebrew schools in other lands.
And even most of our poets use the Ashkenazic pronounciation learned
and used by them in the Russian Ghetto, so that their poems cannot
be read properly with the Sephardic accent. This is perhaps inevitable,
because of the general use of the Ashkenazic Hebrew and its associa-
tion with the synagogue service, which compels its use also in the
114
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN THE DISPERSION
schools. But in all else, Palestinian Hebrew has re-shaped and, in fact,
created a spoken Hebrew in the Diaspora. The Ivrit be-Ivrit (or
modern, spoken) method of teaching Hebrew has been adopted in our
Hebrew schools, so that in all countries not only in Eastern Europe
Jewish children and adults are learning to speak Hebrew fluently. In
England and America, a remarkable modern Hebrew school system has
developed, based on the Palestinian methods. The teachers are gen-
erally college-bred, enthusiastic young men and women, with an
infusion, since the war, of young Palestinians in temporary exile. And
it need hardly be added that practically all the teachers are Zionists.
Large Hebrew Folk Schulen taught by similar methods, have been
established by Zionists in New York and Chicago.
The eighth Zionist Congress adopted Hebrew as its official lan-
guage, and since then at each successive Congress more and more
speeches have been made in Hebrew. (See Ch. X.) In America the
Histadrut Ivrit, an organization for the spread of Hebrew knowledge
which operates through publications, classes, and clubs, is officially
related with the Department of Education of the Zionist Organization.
It has gained much from the stimulus of Palestinian Jews stranded
here by the war. The popularity of Hebrew is making of Hebrew
teaching a remunerative profession. Hebrew-speaking clubs abound,
and even Hebrew lectures and plays are well attended. A new cul-
tural value has been created from one of the oldest of cultural tongues.
References:
The "Renascence of Hebrew Literature, by Nahum Slouschz. Zionism and Jewish
Culture, by Norman Bentwich. Leon Gordon, by A. B. Rhine.
Subjects for Papers:
The novel in modern Hebrew literature. Poetry of Bialik.
115
CHAPTER XVII
AHAD HA-AM*
Boyhood and Youth
Asher Ginsberg, more widely known by his pseudonym of "Ahad
Ha-Am" (One of the People), was born on August 5, 1856, in the
town of Skvira, government of Kiev, Russia. His parents were of
good Hassidic stock, and enjoyed a comparatively fair measure of
worldly prosperity. Brought up as a Hassid, Ginsberg received the
Heder training common among Jewish youths of his day. His assidu-
ous study of Hebrew soon made him an adept in Biblical and Talmudic
lore. But this was not sufficient for him. Fired by an ambition to
master the more important secular branches of knowledge and yet un-
willing to incur the wrath of those dear to him, he studied Russian in a
clandestine manner, which enabled him, nevertheless, to ground him-
self thoroughly in that language. In 1873, at the age of only seventeen,
he was married to a young lady who was descended from a well-known
Rabbinical family. Five years later, with the object of making what
might be called his "grand tour," he visited Odessa. So impressed
was he by the incidents of his trip that he determined to spend several
years in travel and study.
Years of Study and Preparation
The year 1882 saw him in Vienna, 1883 and 1884 in Berlin and
Breslau ; all this time he occupied himself with German, French, Eng-
lish, and Russian philosophy, by no means neglecting, in the meantime,
the systems of the great thinkers of his own people. Fully equipped
with natural talents and with the treasures of learning he had acquired
during these formative years, he revisited Odessa in 1884. His ability
was at once recognized, and he was made a member of the central
committee of the Hoveve Zion, of which Dr. Pinsker was then
president.
Criticism of the Hoveve Zion
Having taken up a permanent residence in Odessa, he became
deeply interested in the method of solving the Jewish problem whicn
* Adapted from an Essay by Dr. Aaron Shaffer.
116
AHAD HA -AM
the Lovers of Zion were at that time exploiting. He came under the
eye of the publicist, Alexander Zederbaum, the editor of a Hebrew
periodical, Hamelitz, and himself an ardent champion in the cause
of his stricken brethren. The very first article contributed by Ahad
Ha-Am to Hamelitz showed clearly the trend of his thoughts. An
idealist from the very first, he rebelled against the spirit of crass
materialism which seemed to dominate the minds of some of the
leaders of the Hovcve Zion. The chief aim of these men, it seemed to
him,, was to attempt to relieve the physical distress of the fugitives
from Russia and Rumania ; to their spiritual needs, but little attention
was paid. The colonists, it is true, had been prompted by only the
purest motives to undertake their great pioneer work; but even they
were rapidly losing this idealism under the degenerating influence of
Baron Edmond de Rothschild's philanthropic system of finance. In
a word, Palestine was being utilized as a safe refuge, not for Judaism,
but solely for the Jews.
Lo Zu Haderech (This is not the Way), an article written in
1889, laid down Ahad Ha-Am's theories on the question of the
improvement of Jewish conditions. The aspiring young writer pointed
out the fact that the Hoveve Zion had been hasty and unscientific in
their schemes of colonization. The great defect in their system,
according to him, had been the absence of that communistic spirit
on which so much stress is laid in the Bible, and the consequent domi-
nance of individualism. The only way to bring about a renascence
of Jewish nationalism (and this was written, we must not forget,
in Ahad Ha-Am's first printed article, proving that he had thought out
the matter while he was still a very young man) was to create a
renascence of the Jewish heart, of the spirit of Judaism. Palestine, he
asserted, must not solve the Jewish problem ; it must solve the problem
of Judaism. This could be brought about only by developing in
the Jewish people their rich and peculiar culture.
The B'ne Moshe
These theories Ahad Ha-Am embodied in practical form in the
constitution of a secret Zionist league organized by him at about this
time, the B'ne Moshe (Sons of Moses). Ahad Ha-Am, who is a great
believer in leadership and in the responsibility of the elect, gathered
in it a group of exceptional men. This league remained in existence
during the eight years from 1889 to 1897, disbanding, as we see, in
the very year in which the first Zionist Congress was held. The
purposes of the B'ne Moshe were threefold: first, the betterment and
117
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
broadening of Hebrew education; secondly, the fostering of a love
for Hebrew literature; and lastly, the furthering of agricultural settle-
ment in Palestine. The league accomplished much, and was of impor-
tance in developing a number of the later Zionist leaders, among
them, M. M. Ussischkin and Shmarya Levin.
Literary Activity
It is at about this period in Ahad Ha-Am's life that his literary
activity really begins. In 1890, he became the editor of a Zionist
Hebrew periodical, the Kaveret. Here was published the series of
articles known by their general caption Emet me-Erez Israel
(Truth from the land of Israel). These articles were exhaustive
reports on education and colonization in Palestine, and were the
direct results of visits paid to the Holy Land by Ahad Ha-Am in
1893 and 1894, as the representative of numerous Palestinian commit-
tees. They contained mercilessly objective criticisms of the short-
comings of the colonization work. There then took shape in his
mind that doctrine which was to play so large a part in Zionist thought
and activity, and which he preached, and is still preaching, so whole-
heartedly the doctrine of the cultural as well as the material rebirth
of a nation at once rich in treasures of learning and in the goods of
this world, a rebirth that must be attended by infinite patience and
rational activity.
A collection of essays was published in 1895 and revised for a
second edition in 1902, under the title of Al Parashat Derachim
(At the Parting of the Ways), a collection many of the essays of
which have since been translated into Russian, German, and English.
Ahad Ha-Am's literary activity earned for him, in 1896, a post of
great significance for the development of modern Hebrew literature,
that of head of the great Hebrew publishing establishment, the
Ahiasaf. In this capacity he modified and enlarged the program of the
institution under his direction, always with the welfare of his cherished
language, Hebrew, at heart. At about this time, too, he became the
editor of Hashiloah, a Hebrew monthly which, until its discontinu-
ance at the outbreak of the Great War, enjoyed the reputation of
being the best among contemporaneous Hebrew periodicals. In the
early years of the present century, Ahad Ha-Am accepted a respon-
sible position in the great Russian tea firm of the Wissotzkys, but this
did not take him away completely from the field of letters. In recent
years, as the representative of the Wissotzky Tea Company, he has
been living in London, where he is one of the best-beloved and most
influential leaders of English Jewry and of English Zionism.
118
AHAD HA -AM
i
His Philosophy
For Ahad Ha-Am, Judaism is a living and functional organism
which asserted itself centuries ago in the creation of a specific type
of life, a life which embodies the Hebrew spirit. The early history
of the Hebrews is nothing more nor less than the history of the
development and formulation of this Hebrew spirit. This Hebrew
genius was at all times essentially religious and moral, never mate-
rialistic. Thus, the typical products of this spirit are the Prophets,
men who fearlessly enunciated the mighty truths leading toward
morality and social justice. For Ahad Ha-Am, Moses, the most im-
posing figure in Jewish history, if not in the history of mankind, was
not primarily a military hero, nor a statesman, nor even a lawgiver.
Moses was, to use Ahad Ha-Am's own words, "the lord of the
Prophets," and, as such, "the ideal archetype of Hebrew prophecy in
the purest and most exalted sense of the word." In the nation at
large, the welfare and salvation of the individual was subordinated
to that of the whole. "So it was," we read in Flesh and Spirit, "that
Israel as a community became a nation consecrated from its birth to
the service of setting the whole of mankind an example by its law."
Yet, paradoxical though this may seem, despite the fact that the
individual good is merged in that of the community, individualism
is by no means barred. Indeed, Judaism, as Ahad Ha-Am points
out in what is perhaps one of the most inspired of all his essays, Trans-
valuation of Values (1898), demands that each Jew be a moral super-
man, so that the Jewish nation might thereby fulfill the prophetic
visions of a moral supernation. As the Prophet is, in our author's
estimation, the Hebrew superman, par excellence, the Jewish nation
must in time become, not a "kingdom of Priests", but a "nation of
Prophets".
What Judaism needs today, in the opinion of Ahad Ha-am, is
the "possibility of combining the unadulterated Jewishness of the
Ghetto with the breadth and freedom of modern life." The breadth
and freedom of modern life, be that life as broad and free as it may be,
is, without this unadulterated Jewishness, of no value to the Jew.
In his essay, Slavery in Freedom (1891), Ahad Ha-Am holds up to
ridicule the mixture of chauvinism and cosmopolitanism which dom-
inates the Jews of France, and the ethical slavery in which they live.
In another essay, Doctor Pinsker and His Brochure, written shortly
after the death of the author of Auto-Emancipation, after giving an
interesting and valuable resume of the practical work accomplished
by Dr. Pinsker and the ideas set forth in his book, Ahad Ha-Am tells
119
I
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
us his own view of the solution of the Jewish problem. We read:
"What we lack above all is a fixed spot to serve as a national and
spiritual center, a safe retreat, not for the Jews, but for Judaism, for
the spirit of our people. Only in the land of Israel can such a center
be established."
Thus the two, the growth of the Jewish spirit throughout the
world and the gradual infiltration of settlers into Palestine, will work
hand in hand.
How is such a Jewish spirit to be cultivated among those who
do not at present possess it? Chiefly, says Ahad Ha-Am, through
a renascence of the Hebrew language. Himself the greatest Hebrew
writer of the present day, and using Hebrew always and alone as his
literary medium, he advocates a thorough study of Hebrew literature
and a revival of the Hebrew language.
Relation with the Zionist Organization
It is only natural that Ahad Ha-Am should not have found him-
self in complete accord with Herzl's platform of "political Zionism".
Though he attended the first Zionist Congress, in 1897, he seems to
have been somewhat disappointed. Since that time, he has been
constantly preaching his creed of "Cultural" or "moral" Zionism, as it
is sometimes called. In recent years he has advocated the establish-
ment in Palestine of a university and of more institutions like the
Bezalel.
Recent developments, which have welded Zionism into a closer
unity, have integrated the ideas of Ahad Ha-Am with the very stuff
of political Zionism. He himself is now closely identified with the
movement, having joined the Political Committee in England just
before the Balfour Declaration. The development of Hebrew as our
national language has come to the forefront, especially in view of the
possible danger to that language from a large Yiddish-speaking migra-
tion to Palestine in the near future. Dr. Chaim Weizmann, head of the
British Zionist Commission to Palestine, is deeply imbued with the ideas
of Ahad Ha-am. And the first political act of the Jewish people on its
own soil has been the laying, on Mount Scopus, of the corner-stone of the
Hebrew University.
References:
Selected Essays, by Ahad Ha-Am.
Subjects for Papers:
Resumes of any of the following essays: Moses, Slavery in Freedom, Prophet
and Priest, The Spiritual Bevival, Pinslcer and His Brochure, Imitation and Assimila-
tion, or Flesh and Spirit.
120
CHAPTER XVIII
ZIONISM AND JUDAISM
Historic Causes for an Apparent Contradiction
The early Zionists were in many cases men who had broken with
traditional Judaism. In as many other cases, they were rabbis of the
most conservative type and Orthodox Jews who saw in Zionism a
traditional Jewish aspiration taking practical shape. However, the
former are those who have attracted attention, and who have raised
the question as to the relation of Zionism to Judaism. Since Zionism
with them especially in Russia was often the last stage of a reaction
against the superstitions of Hessidism and the narrowness of Tal-
mudism, the national ideal appeared as unreligious or even anti-
religious. On the other hand, since the Reform Jews based their
attenuated "religion" on a divorce from nationalism, there arose in
the West too the notion that Jewish nationalism had nothing to do
with Jewish religion.
Relation of Zionism with Judaism as Proved by Prayers
The fact is that Zionism and Judaism are warp and woof of the
fabric of Jewish life, and that they were separated and unravelled only
when that life came in danger of complete unravelment. Proof of this
is to be found in every aspect of Jewish religious life prior to the
Reform and Haskalah movements. For example, take the daily,
Sabbath, and festival prayers. Not only is a large part of them
directly national, in that they refer to the restoration of Zion and to
the rebuilding of the Temple, but even those which are not directly
so, imply nationalism (1) by referring to Israel as a unit and in
terms of a people, (2) by being almost exclusively in the first person
plural, that is, by speaking not in behalf of the individual but in
behalf of the community, and (3) by using the form : "Our God and
God of our fathers," which refers back to the historic national descent.
The Union Prayer Book of the Reform Jews had practically to be
rewritten to avoid national references; and even so it avoided only
the direct, not the indirect ones. The Sh'ma, from beginning to end,
has national implications. Note, too, in the Orthodox prayer book,
121
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
the prayers for the restoration of the sacrifices in Jerusalem, and also
the repetition in the ritual of the laws regarding them. These were
preserved because of the conviction of a speedy national return when
they might again be used, and have been retained always for their
ancient national significance.
As Proved by Festivals and Ceremonies
The ceremonies and festivals are predominantly national. For
example: Passover, which is the festival of national liberation. Note
its songs and exclamations (Next year in Jerusalem, El B'ne, etc.),
which refer to the future redemption. The harvest festivals of
Shabnot and Sukkot: To celebrate the harvest in a land far off, and
recall always the beauty of the lost homeland, can be nothing else than
national. The lulab, for example, recalls the vegetation of Palestine.
Hanukkah is the celebration of a national victory, the sanctification
of Jewish patriotism. Even the Sabbath is referred to in the ritual
as "a memorial of the coming forth from Egypt", of the national liberation.
As Proved by Laws
Jewish legal development in the dispersion was a national
phenomenon. When Yohanan ben Zakkai fled from Jerusalem in
siege and founded the Academy of Yavneh, he did so in order to save
Jewish national life and culture. The subject of study was Jewish
law. This Law was national. The traditional development of Jewish
law has always included those national laws which applied only to the
land, the Mitzvot Hateluyot Ba-arez, and which were preserved and
discussed and developed in order that the Jews, on their return to
their own land, should be able again to apply them. (See Ch. IV.)
As Proved by the Bible
The Bible is nationalist throughout, from the very first covenant
of God with Abraham to the last Prophetic utterances. And this
nationalism nowhere even vaguely foreshadows the ideal of a people
in dispersion. On the contrary, the dispersion is everywhere referred
to as a horrible calamity, and the land of Israel is from first to last an
intrinsic part not only of the national life of Israel but also of the
internationalism which is finally to come about through the salvation
of Israel. Note the lyrical Prophetic portions that foretell the restora-
tion to Zion.
Historic Role of the Jewish People
But compared to the complete conception of the historic role of
122
ZIONISM AND JUDAISM
the Jewish people, all these are only phases of its expression. Prayer-
book, ritual, and festival, the Bible and the vast store of legalism
and tradition that has developed from its laws, are all in the service of
a simple and definite conception of the role of the Jewish people in
history. It was a conception common to all Jews and taken for
granted by them before the Reform movement. The Jewish people
was chosen by God to become His people, that is, to live by His laws,
in order that through the example of their national life mankind
might return to the laws of God. God gave them, or lent them, the
Land of Canaan Palestine a land flowing with milk and honey, to
keep so long as they kept His laws. If they failed to keep their side
of this covenant, the nations would have to learn from the punish-
ment of Israel what Israel had failed to exemplify in practice. In
other words, God having chosen the Jewish people for this task, He
was resolved that at last they should fulfill it, even if they must be
schooled to it by centuries of exile and even if only a remnant should
return. The dispersion is a punishment. At last, when we are
worthy and when the time is ripe, God will return us to our land and
through our national restoration bring about the salvation of mankind
and the brotherhood of nations.
The Miracle of Zionism
History has so far apparently not belied this Jewish conception of
Jewish history which, indeed, kept the Jewish people in life and the
present climax in history seems to point to its speedy fulfillment.
Those who on so-called religious grounds believe that this fulfillment
must be brought about by a miracle, an act of God, and who therefore
denounce the Zionist movement as trying to force God's hand, are
historically and ethically unjustified. The return under Ezra and
Nehemiah was brought about much like the present one, by human
effort and through the good will and the official declaration of Cyrus,
a Gentile ruler. And why should we no longer be the instrument of
God? If He is to use us as the instrument of redemption of the nations,
why should He not use us as the instrument of our own redemption?
The Messiah and the Messianic period may be expected as well after
as before our return. And who dare deny a higher mandate to those
of our Zionists who have been conscious of acting under divine com-
pulsion, either as individuals or as a body?
The Zionist Movement and the Jewish Faith
The official Zionist Organization is not a religious organization
123
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
any more than the Board of Trustees of a synagogue is distinctly a
religious organization, or deals with religious questions. The Organi-
zation has to do with the means, not the end. But the Organi-
zation from the first (see Ch. X) has respected Judaism and all Jewish
values. Even Zionists who had been far removed from Jewish life
admitted the necessity of taking that position. But why are many
Zionists anything but observant Jews? That proves rather than dis-
proves the Jewish, the religious value, of the movement. For these
Zionists were far removed from Jewish life before they became Zion-
ists. Zionism did not make them unobservant. Zionism alone was
able to draw them back, even partially, into Jewish life, because it
appealed to the deepest thing in Judaism, the sense of national elec-
tion. Zionism has not yet done for them all it can and must do for the
Jewish people.
Relation of Religious to National Life
In the Jewish nation there will no doubt be Jews of every shade
of opinion. A normal religion has little to do with opinion. There
will be ho State Church. The State Church tyranny grew out of
Christianity, where a religion was thrust from above upon a people
which had not developed it. From the day of Protestantism the State
Church was imperilled, and democracy cannot endure it. However,
national religion is very different from a State Church. Our national
religion will be Judaism not because it will be forced upon anyone
for indeed minority religions and other interests must be carefully
safeguarded but because it will be the natural expression of the life
of the Jewish people.
If the community observes the Sabbath in its public life, the
national festivals and the holy-days, if Jewish law is embodied in the
law and moral and social code and public opinion of the country, if
Jewish ideals of internationalism and justice are practised in our
dealings with foreign powers, will not the Jewish nation be living by
the Jewish faith? A new conception of religion is attracting the
attention of psychologists and sociologists, the conception of religion
as the soul of a people, as a corporate manifestation of group life,
not merely, in the Christian sense, as a form of personal belief. That
new conception is the ancient Jewish conception which must now be
tested by modern experience. And only under normal conditions will
our faith live once more, will it be not merely a pious memory, to be
preserved and cherished, but a living soul that will grow and develop
and bless mankind with its works? We have heard much of Jewish
124
ZIONISM AND JUDAISM
ethics, but Jewish ethics without a Jewish land can have little meaning
save for the individual, and can have no development. For unless a
people can make laws as it can do only under autonomy it cannot
have distinctive ethics. For laws are the embodiment of the ethical
ideals of a people. Unless ethical thinking can finally find its expres-
sion in laws, it is to no purpose. Whatever today we call Jewish ethics,
is only a reflection from the legalism of the past.
Zionism came into the world at a time of crisis and disintegration,
and came as a savior to gather about its standard the remnant that
remained true to the living Jewish ideal. As such, it is not only com-
patible with Judaism, but Judaism without it is not compatible with
life.
References:
Zionism and the Jewish 'Religion, by F. S. Spiers. Zionism and Religious Juda-
ism, by Israel Friedlaender.
Subjects for Papers:
Jewish nationalism in the Jewish festivals and holy days. Zionism in the Bible
(Quotations). Zionism in the Prayer Book (Quotations).
125
CHAPTER XIX
THE JEWISH LAW AND THE JEWISH LAND*
Confusion in Use of Term "Jewish" to Designate Land and Religion
The difficulty which presents itself in the consideration of this
question arises out of the confusion caused by the use of the word
"Jewish". The Jewish land is so-called because it is the land of our
forefathers, to which our people are turning for the purpose of re-ac-
quiring a home there. The term does not connote a land inhabitated
exclusively by Jews. It is a land which will ultimately be largely
settled by Jews, who will become the dominant element in the popula-
tion and exercise the strongest influence on its economic and legal
policy and development.
The Jewish law is the law of the Jews, but not necessarily the
law of the Jewish land. Furthermore, we must take care in speaking
of Jewish law to distinguish sharply between the religious and the
secular law. Although both have the same origin, there is no doubt
that Jewish law recognizes its division into law relating to matters of
faith and ritual, or what we should call religious law, and law relating
to matters of property, contract, wrongs, crimes, or what we should
call civil law. The administration of the religious law is the function
of the Church ; the administration of the civil law is the function of the
state. x Where there is a state church or a national religion exercising
a direct influence in governmental affairs, the state may also make
and administer religious law; but Zion will be a modern state in
which church, or rather synagogue, and state will be absolutely
divorced! In Zion, Jews may live a Jewish life, and Judaism may
flourish free from the interference of alien and hostile religious sys-
tems, but no religion or religious observance will be forced on either
Jews or non-Jews. The Jewish religious law is entirely beyond the
sphere of modern state legislation. In Zion, as in all other modern
states, breach of religious law will be a social and not a legal offense.
Social forces will exact a certain conformity to it and social ostracism
may punish its breach. Much of the confusion of thought which has
* By David Werner Amram. The views herein expressed are personal to the
author.
126
THE JEWISH LAW AND THE JEWISH LAND
manifested itself in reference to this problem would disappear, if we
would speak of the Palestinian State or Judaea or the Zion Republic
or the Land of Israel instead of the Jewish State or the Jewish Land.
Separation of Religious from Secular Law
To recapitulate, the Jewish land, being a land occupied by Jews
and non-Jews, must have a system of laws wherein the religious and
the civil law are separate. The former being administered by the
religious organization of society and not by the state, may be as
varied as the religious groups; the latter being administered by the
state and not by the church, or synagogue or mosque, should be
uniform and equally binding on all the people. There may be some
legal categories that partake of the nature of both civil and religious
law, as for example, the law of domestic relations, and for these, special
provision will have to be made in the system.
Secular Law in a Modern Palestinian State
The entire problem of the law in Palestine depends on the inter-
pretation which the Powers will permit the people of Palestine to
give to their life. If Palestine is to be an asylum for oppressed and
exiled Jews, it will be a place of vastly different complexion than if it
is to become the ground upon which Jews will build up a new nation,
incorporating the existing communities and such other people, of
whatever race or faith, who may choose to go there hereafter. The
Ghetto conception of the New Zion may be dismissed as practically
impossible. Ghettos arise only among unfree people living in limited
areas. No Ghetto can arise among people living an agricultural or
farming life. Neither the free people living in the Jewish villages
today, nor the many who will go there, can be presumed to desire to
establish a religious, rabbinically-governed state in Palestine. All
that has been said by Zionists in America and Europe indicates that
the state in Palestine is intended to be a modern state in which religion
and politics are to be kept separate.
Influence of Jewish Civil Law
The Jewish civil law will be one of the sources of the law of the
new state, but only insofar as its principles are in conformity with
the ideals of modern jurisprudence will they be considered as at all
essential in its legal thought. The Palestinian state, for its own sake
and for the sake of the principle upon which it shall be established,
cannot permit rules and principles of an older day to limit and deflect
127
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
the healthy growth of a modern community. The law which shall
again go forth from Zion will be a law acceptable to all the free men
of the world.
The foregoing observations broadly indicate the probable fate
of the Jewish law in Palestine. The religious law will be left to the
subtle and irresistible influence of social forces working silently
through the logic of events, and may be modified and developed by a
specifically religious Sanhedrin which may be invested with the ample
power and authority of its ancient prototype. The civil law will be
boldly handled by the national legislature and courts, and will be
shaped by conscious processes of legislation and judicial decision.
Changes in Jewish Law
There can be no doubt that large areas of the field of old Jewish
civil law will be abandoned or modernized. For example, the old law
renders women and children incompetent as witnesses in legal pro-
ceedings. Can this continue in the light of the modern conception
of the civil and political status of women and the modern rule of
evidence that children who know the difference between right and
wrong may testify, the question of credibility in each case being left,
as in all other cases, to the tribunal? American Zionists, by declaring
for political and civil equality irrespective of race, sex, or faith of all
the inhabitants of the land, have expressed the opinion that the Jewish
law, insofar as it militates against this declaration, should be abolished.
To take an example from the field of partly religious, partly civil law,
shall the state recognize mixed marriages? The Jewish law does not
recognize such marriages and no doubt may continue to deprive the
parties of their rights as members of the religious community, but the
law of Zion must recognize such marriages created by civil contract
and must provide for their solemnization by civil authority. No doubt
such marriages will be infrequent, but when they do occur they must
be sanctioned by law. Declaring them illegal, because Jewish or
Moslem religious law does not recognize them, will create rather
than solve a problem. We may go further and take for granted that
even the purely religious law will be modified by custom or San-
hedrial legislation.
The Palestinian state must recognize the religious day of rest of
every religious group, and allow the members of such group to work
on any other day. The Jew resting on the seventh day may work on
the first. But what of the Jew who works on the seventh day? He
may be deprived of synagogal or religious rights, but can the old
128
THE JEWISH LAW AND THE JEWISH LAND
Jewish law be invoked to punish him? Obviously not. Who would
attempt, even if it were legally possible, to enforce the old law that
provides the death penalty for the Sabbath-breaker? Until the Pales-
tinian State becomes autonomous, its Jewish courts will have no
criminal jurisdiction, and when the State shall become autonomous
its courts will no longer be Jewish in the sense that they will be
administering Jewish religious law. Nor will they be administering
Jewish civil law except as it has been modified to conform to modern
juristic thought. The Jewish civil law, that is to say, the law of the
Jewish land, will be an amalgam of Jewish, Moslem, Turkish, English,
and international law, welded into a modern system inspired by
world thought.
The old Jewish criminal law, practically obsolete for centuries,
will never be revived. It lives only in the Yeshibot as an exercise
in legal logic. Much of the Jewish criminal law applied to Jews only,
for example the case just cited, breaking the Sabbath. A Gentile
cannot be guilty of a breach of the Jewish law which binds Jews only.
But whatever is a crime for Jews only, cannot be crime at all in the
Palestinian state in which Jews and non-Jews are equal before the
law. Eating forbidden food was severely punished by flagellation.
But non-Jews cannot be punished for this offense, because they are
not bound by the restriction which the law placed on the Jew's diet.
Shall the law in Zion penalize non-Jews for eating forbidden food?
Obviously not. Then it cannot punish Jews for this offense, and we
are driven to the legal conclusion that a Jew may eat forbidden food
with legal impunity in Zion. A modern state cannot classify crimes
according to the racial or religious character of the offender.
Shall the death penalty for murder be inflicted? The Jewish
law is clear on this point, and insists on the death of the murderer.
But it is quite probable that the legislative authority in Zion will
abolish this survival of ancient systems of penology, which investiga-
tion has proven inefficient, and which a more refined sense of
the relation of men in society has declared a barbarism. It is most
likely that in Zion social and economic conditions, which are the
fundamental causes of most crimes, will be so readjusted as to
minimize criminal acts. The example of the existing Jewish settle-
ments shows that crime may practically disappear in communities in
which social justice is an actuality instead of a mere hope. And when
crime does appear, it will be recognized as the result of disease rather
than of wickedness.
129
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The Administrators of Law
As the law of Zion will not be merely the old Jewish law but a
new and modernized system of jurisprudence, there is no reason why
any competent person may not act as its administrator. Zion will be
a state in which no religious test of fitness for civil or political rights
will be admitted. Social selection will determine the choice of judges,
and when the community is preponderatingly Jewish the judges will
be mostly Jews. But none will or ought to be excluded from full
participation in all public functions by reason of religious or racial
affiliations. A contrary principle would destroy the entire raison
d'etre of the Palestinian state, except as an asylum for the oppressed.
This, while eminently desirable, is not the object of Zionism as con-
ceived by its modern interpreters.
The People will Recreate a Law to Live By
However reasonable our view of future events may appear to us,
the events themselves may mock our effort to anticipate them. The
law in Palestine will be made by its people, and until we know who
they are, what they want, and how they will express their will, we
can only grope blindly toward a solution of the problem we have set
ourselves. Of two things we may be assured: first, that changes in
the law will be made, and that the existing law will be adapted to the
conditions of a new social life ; second, that the future administrators
and interpreters of the law will find ample authority for their method
of changing the law and for the changes themselves in the law as it
exists. Every system of law is inherently endowed with the power
to change itself, and it confers that power through inevitable necessity
on persons whom it qualifies in anticipation of their appointment, or
in ratification of their accomplished acts. Neither the Jewish religious
law nor the Jewish civil law can remain immutable. Legal unchange-
ableness is a legal fiction. The laws were given that man might live
by them, and the Talmudist who interpreted this Biblical text to mean
"not to die by them", uttered a dictum which may well be invoked by
future legal reformers in Palestine in support of the radical changes
that a new era may demand.*
* See Appendix I, p. 226, for a note on the subject matter of this Chapter.
130
THE JEWISH LAW AND THE JEWISH LAND
References:
The Law in the Jewish State, by D. W. Amram. The Macoabaean, Vol. 31, p.
275, 1918. Some Aspects of the Growth of Jewish Law, by D. W. Amram, The Green
Bag, June and July, 1896. "The Load" and the Law of Change, by Nathan Isaacs,
University of Pennsylvania Law Beview, Vol. 65, pp. 659, 679. The Jewish Law in
the Jewish State, by Nathan Isaacs, The Jewish Forum, 1918, p. 29.
Subjects for Papers:
Social legislation in the Pentateuch (Quotation). Talmudic laws in relation
to women.
131
CHAPTER XX
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE JEWISH STATE
Our Present Opportunity and Our Past Tradition
In the Zionist social opportunity, we have the remarkable and
unique combination of a practically clean slate to write upon and of
a progressive, cultivated people to do the writing. We will have few
precedents to overcome. Even the United States had not so free a
hand, for there was less opportunity for planning in advance, and
there was not a unified people to carry its plans into effect. Yet the
Western states, which came nearer to this ideal than the East, are
far more progressive and democratic. More important, however, than
our practical freedom is our spiritual tradition. Our Prophets were
they who helped teach to the world the ideal of democracy. The social
legislation laid down by Moses before the Jewish state came into being is
still a model for the most advanced democracies, and as the world
progresses, we discover ever new depths of national, intra-national
and international morality in our Bible which gain meaning from our
modern problems, and hold the solution that humanity seeks. The
new Jewish law will no doubt be found to embody all the important
principles of the old, which are capable of application in every age
and express the essential character of the Jewish spirit. Their con-
crete application will necessarily vary in accordance with changed
conditions. This variation will not mean a surrender of any valid
principle, but the adoption of the necessary method of making such
principles effective in modern society. Jewish law has developed
thus throughout the ages, even when theorizing alone was left to us,
and it holds within itself the seeds of development. There will be an
evolution in Jewish law but not a revolution, and the new law will
resemble the old in the same way that the man of forty resembles the
youth of twenty, despite the changes that the years have wrought in
his body and soul. Change in the concrete form of the law is, however,
inevitable. (See Ch. XIX.) Our genius has been that of law-givers.
Our past puts on us this tremendous obligation which we must expect
ourselves, and which the world also expects us to meet.
132
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE JEWISH STATE
Democratic Organization of Zionism
The Zionist Organization, at least, has fulfilled this obligation
from the start. Its form is completely democratic. In the manage-
ment of the Organization, there is universal equal suffrage for both men
and women. The government is representative and by elected committees.
Social Problems in Modern Palestine
In Palestine, in spite of the small present population of the
country, which gives us practical freedom for the future, certain
social and economic problems already exist, which it should be our
first business to solve. These are as follows: The conditions of
poverty in the towns, where the old quarters are horribly unsanitary,
where among certain sections of the people there have been genera-
tions of filth, disease, dependence, underfeeding and ignorance; bad
hygienic conditions through bad engineering, such as inadequate or
poor water-supply, swamps and other conditions that breed vermin;
improper housing, even in some of the new Jewish villages, where the
poorer working people have lived under conditions that compare
unfavorably with American and European slums; the extremely low
standard of the native Arab population, which reacts badly also on
the Jewish settlers in keeping down the wages of Jewish workmen ;
the problem of the Yemenite or Arabian Jews, whose standard of
living approaches that of the native Arabs, and who are therefore
contented to accept wages which are nowhere near a living wage for
the Russian Jewish workman ; the wage problem in general ; the lack
of industry and commerce and the consequent dearth of employment ;
the growth of a small capitalist class with private holdings in land
and natural resources ; and, finally, the whole question of the relation
between Jews, Arabs, and other nationalities in the land. A mass
migration of Jews, planned in advance and based upon principles as
definite as those by which Moses guided the mass migration from
Egypt, will solve many of these problems automatically. Several of
them have already been appreciably lessened by recent events. For
example: It was Turkish taxation and mal-administration that kept
the people poor and wages down; it was largely the Halukkah a
system that during the war failed to function which perpetuated
Jewish dependency. British engineering has already improved water
and other hygienic conditions. So far as numbers go, these are all
miniature problems, which need not reproduce themselves, especially
since the Zionist Organization, as well as the Jewish pioneers in Pales-
133
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
tine, have already created instruments of justice to forestall or correct
them.
Zionist Instruments for Social and Economic Justice
The Zionist Organization, early in its history, created two finan-
cial institutions based upon ideals that are thoroughly Jewish that
is, democratic and just and which have already had and are destined
still more to have a great influence on Palestinian development. These
are the Jewish National Fund and the Jewish Colonial Trust. (See
Ch. XI.) The National Fund is based on the principle that the land
in Palestine should belong to the whole Jewish people, and should
be only leased to individuals on long term and hereditary leases, under
such guarantees and safeguards as to make profiteering impossible.
Naturally the holdings of the J. N. F., administered on these principles,
have in the past been limited. The Jewish Colonial Trust, with it?
democratic system of shareholding, bids fair to become a government
bank, controlled by the people, which would from the first eliminate
private banking and make the giving of rural credits a government
function. In Palestinian colonization the Zionist Organization has
consistently supported only those schemes which embodied Jewish
ideals of social and economic justice. The two co-operative workmen's
farms, Dagania and Merhavia, which were planned by Dr. Franz
Oppenheimer with a view to profit-sharing and ultimate complete con-
trol of the villages by the workmen, were founded on National Fund
land and with the aid of the Zionist Congress. In America the Zion
Commonwealth, with its features of social legislation, has been sanc-
tioned by the Organization and works in relation with it. The Zion
Commonwealth is a nation-wide organization of American Jews who
wish to settle later on their own land in Palestine. The members
buy land certificates in the Commonwealth, through partial payments,
which entitle them, after a period of six years, to a piece of agricul-
tural land on which they may either settle or which will be worked
for them by the Corporation on a co-operative basis of labor and will
pay them a certain small definite percentage on their investment. At
least ten per cent, of all land will be retained by the Corporation for
communal purposes, all town lands being so held, and the land can
be sold only to the Corporation or with the consent of the Corporation,
and at a fixed sum excluding all profit beyond the regular percentages.
All land values beyond this fixed agricultural value will revert to
the community. Thus, although the individual has the benefits of
private possession, private ownership is not permitted to become an
abuse of public rights.
134
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE JEWISH STATE
Democracy in Jewish Palestine
The Jewish villages in Palestine were from the first autonomous and,
without any agreement or inter-village organization, all developed demo-
cratic forms of community government. That was a natural sequel to
democratic Jewish community life wherever else Jewish communities
have been autonomous. Both men and women have voted for the mem-
bers of the Vaad or town committee, and have served on it; but in
some cases there have been property qualifications for voters, a thing
not to be tolerated in our new state. The public school system in Jewish
Palestine, even in the pre-war days, had reached a high state of
development. The Jewish devotion to education is closely bound up
with the instinct for democracy, which is possible only where there
is general education. Other forms of co-operation adopted early by
the Jewish settlers themselves were : ( 1 ) Mutual loan societies, whereby
farmers were organized in groups, guaranteeing each other's credit,
and so securing loans from banks and societies on fair terms. This
is the most effectual means of eliminating the loan sharp evil, and it
is only now that we in the United States are beginning to catch up
with this program. (2) Sales organizations among the Jewish farmers.
Two societies practically control the production, sale, and export of
oranges in Palestine. The co-operative vine-growers' associations now
control the famous wine-cellars of Rishon l'Zion, and have stabilized
the investments in that important industry. (3) The Teachers' Union
practically controls education in the only possible democratic way.
(4) Hashomer. (5) Co-operative workmen's organizations for buying
and selling and mutual protection. A force for social justice in Palestine
is the two workingmen's organizations, Hapoel Hazair and the Poale Zion,
the Socialist faction of the Zionist Organization. (See Ch. XV.) In
Palestine they have organized workmen's unions, published workmen's
journals, taken part in the co-operative system of Shomerim, or Jewish
police force, for guarding the Jewish villages against marauders, and
furnished most of the members for the co-operative workmen's colonies.
Democracy among Zionists
But although the Poale Zion are the specifically Socialist wing
of the Zionists, the large majority of Zionists, as individuals, are
social-minded, with the natural Jewish tendency to erect the Jewish
state along lines of social justice. As for the organization and the
official utterances and acts of its leaders, they are all in agreement.
135
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Many writers on the Zionist position, from Moses Hess to Louis D.
Brandeis and more especially Herzl in all his writings have
emphasized the social and democratic aspects of the movement, and,
indeed, it is these aspects which have chiefly attracted and interested
many of our leaders, notably Brandeis himself. Herzl it was who
advocated the seven-hour work day and other forms of progressive
economic organization. It is not surprising, therefore, that one of
the first acts of the Zionist Commission was to prevent the buying of
land for speculative purposes, nor that the Zionist Convention held in
the United States, at Pittsburgh, in the June following the British
Declaration (see Ch. XIV) should have unanimously adopted the follow-
ing program:
The Pittsburgh Program
In 1897, the first Zionist Congress at Basle defined the object of
Zionism to be "the establishment of a publicly recognized and legally
secured homeland for the Jewish people in Palestine." The recent
declarations of Great Britain, France, Italy, and others of the Allied
democratic states have established this public recognition of the
Jewish national home as an international fact.
Therefore we desire to affirm anew the principles which have
guided the Zionist movement since its inception and which were
the foundations laid down by our lawgivers and Prophets for the
ancient Jewish state, and were the inspiration of the living Jewish
law embodied in the traditions of two thousand years of exile.
First. Political and civil equality irrespective of race, sex, or
faith of all the inhabitants of the land.
Second. To insure in the Jewish national home in Palestine
equality of opportunity, we favor a policy which, with due regard to
existing rights, shall tend to establish the ownership and control of
the land and of all natural resources and of all public utilities by
the whole people.
Third. All land, owned or controlled by the whole people, should
be leased on such conditions as will insure the fullest opportunity for
development and continuity of possession.
Fourth. The co-operative principle should be applied so far as
feasible in the organization of all agricultural, industrial, commercial,
and financial undertakings.
SOCIAL JUSTICE IN THE JEWISH STATE
Fifth. The fiscal policy shall be framed so as to protect the
people from the evils of land speculation and from every other form
of financial oppression.
Sixth. The system of free public instruction which is to be
established should embrace all grades and departments of education.
Seventh. The medium of public instruction shall be Hebrew, the
national language of the Jewish people.
Interpretation of the Program
The inferences to be drawn from these principles are far reaching.
The first has a direct bearing on the Arab question and the Jewish
obligation of equal justice toward what after a large Jewish immi-
gration will become a minority people. The second probably will
embody itself in some such system as the Single Tax which tends to
destroy private ownership without any forcible dispossession of indi-
viduals. As we begin with a clean slate, and with such instruments
as the J. C. T. and the J. N. F. to carry out our policies, it should
be comparatively easy to keep control of natural resources. In an
agricultural country, such as Palestine is destined always to be, the
land and natural resources are at the base of every social and economic
question. This is essentially true even of industrial states, but there
it is not so self-evident. Hence the most important step is to adopt
a just land policy. Out of it will naturally grow what may be called
modified or adapted Socialism, that is, Socialist theory adapted to
the particular needs of our society and our land. The seventh article
in the Program refers to an internal Jewish question, and is directed
against Yiddish. It has no reference to Arabic, which must of course
be duly respected, and which, as a very widely used language in
the Orient, and as one closely related to Hebrew, will naturally have
its place in all the schools. Nor is there any intention to prohibit
the instruction of Arabs by means of Arabic, if they so desire.
The Basis of Social Justice
The ideal of social justice in Palestine is based on a simple Biblical
conception, that of Palestine as the holy land, which is only lent to us
to administer it.
"The land is Mine," saith the Lord.
"And the land shall not be sold in perpetuity; for the land is
Mine; for ye are strangers and settlers with Me. And in all the
land of your possession ye shall grant a redemption for the land."
(Leviticus, XXV, 23, 24).
137
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
"Woe unto them that join house to house,
That lay field to field,
Till there be no room, and ye be made to dwell
Alone in the midst of the land!" (Isaiah, V, 8.)
"Therefore, because ye trample upon the poor,
And take from him exactions of wheat,
Ye have built houses of hewn stone,
But ye shall not dwell in them,
Ye have planted pleasant vineyards,
But ye shall not drink the wine thereof." (Amos, V, 11.)
References:
The Constitutional Foundations of the New Zion, by H. M. Kallen. Land
Tenure in Palestine, by Jacob Ettinger and Franz Oppenheimer.
Subjects for Papers:
Modern forms of social injustice. A brief statement of the purpose of the
Single Tax.
138
CHAPTER XXI
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE*
A General Survey
When we speak of a country, we are primarily concerned with
the inhabitants, those who actually live in it, have lived in it, or will
live in it. It needs no special argumentation that the interest of
Palestine for us lies in the fact that it formerly was the home of the
Jews, and that it will again become so, indeed, is becoming so. But
it is a truism among historians that a people are at least in part
what the country they live in makes them. Its position on the surface
of the earth, its physical features, its distribution of land and water,
its rocks and its soil and the things dug therefrom or planted therein,
the winds that blow over it, all these facts are not merely useful as
bits of general information, but are vitally necessary for us to know,
if we wish to understand what manner of men dwell in the country,
what they may be able to accomplish, and what things are denied to
them.
The Climate
Palestine is a sub-tropical country. That means, for practical
purposes, that Palestine is somewhat hotter than New York,
but it is not nearly as hot as a tropical country, Central Africa, for
instance, or Southern India. There are indeed parts of Palestine the
Jordan valley, e. g., where the river enters the Dead Sea which in
climate, in fauna and flora, are very much like fully tropical regions,
but in the main Palestine has a climate much resembling that of our
Southern states.
The first great effect of such a climate is that though life in the
open air is a necessity, it has dangers of its own. At certain seasons
and certain hours, almost everywhere, practically all the inhabitants
are in the open air, though it is not always in the streets or in public
places. It cannot be there, for the simple reason that shade is as
necessary as air. For several thousands of years the Palestinian has
found a means of securing shade and air in his house by the simple
methods of utilizing inner courts and the flat roofs of the houses.
* By Dr. Max Radin.
139
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The Water Supply
Palestine, in the parts that are most associated with the Jews, is
poorly watered. It is not arid. We must not imagine that any part
of Palestine proper, except in the most southerly section, presents
anything like the appearance of a desert. Nor is the lack of water
serious enough to constitute a real detriment to the physical well-
being of the inhabitants, but rain is infrequent except at certain
definite times of the year. The water supply must be carefully hus-
banded and wisely distributed. It will admit of neither waste nor
profusion. Centuries of wretched mismanagement have largely con-
tributed to the poverty of the present water supply, and we have
every right to believe that a reasonably competent administration
will work something like a revolution in that particular respect.
Vegetation
The effect of the condition just described on the land is the rela-
tive absence of trees, especially large ones. Trees are more or less
plentiful in the north, although even here much less numerous than
in the United States. But in Judaea and the section just north of
it, trees of any kind are a rarity. But if trees are scarce, there is an
abundant growth of other things. On the plains and some of the
hillsides, the meadows are alive with flowers, and the variety is
as bewildering as the display is dazzling. There are few more gor-
geous displays on the face of the earth than the Spring investiture of
the plains of Sharon. And even where the hues are less alluring there
is no lack of green shrubbery, bearing constant witness to the readi-
ness of the soil to do its part, if man will do his.
Boundaries
There is a general resemblance between the map of Palestine
and the map of the State of New Hampshire. It is a four-sided
perhaps five-sided figure, of which one side tilts northeast and of
which the upper part is markedly narrower than the lower. Just what
its boundaries are is not easy to determine.
There is one boundary of Palestine that cannot readily be dis-
puted and that is the western boundary. That is the Mediterranean
Sea. The southern coast of Asia Minor and the northern coast of
Egypt and Sinai make almost right angles with a line running north
and south and marking the eastern limit of the Mediterranean. One-
fourth of this line is the western boundary of Palestine. At the
extreme south of it is the little village of Rapha, now an important
140
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
station on the railroad that made Allenby's campaign possible. It
is the south-westerly point of the boundaries of Palestine.
And now for its northern limit: Considerably to the south of
Beirout, which before the war was fast becoming one of the great
cities of the East, between the ancient Sidon and Tyre, we come to
the mouth of a river. It is called the Nahr el-Khasimiyeh, and at
least for part of its course it is called the Litany, a name that per-
petuates its ancient designation, the Leontes (not the Orontes, as
some maps mistakably put it). That Palestine, on its western border,
goes as far north as this, will not be seriously gainsaid, and for the
present we shall rest content with that.
This coast, from Rapha to the Khasimiyeh is practically straight,
until we come to Haifa, the Bay of Akko or Acre, the first step in the
"Syrian Stair". The straight shore line is, of course, a geographic
fact of the first importance. It means, with the exception noted, that
there are no harbors. It is true that the absence of harbors can be
partially overcome by the erection of artificial moles and breakwaters,
but they will not permit the creation of ports that can seriously com-
pete with those in the vicinity that have good natural harbors. So
we shall have to omit from our calculations the making of even Haifa
into a port that shall, at least under conditions that are not likely to
change for a long time, outdistance Beirout or Alexandria or Port
Said. However, at Haifa there is the promise that a harbor can at
least be created by competent engineering (it is in a very inchoate
state at present), which will be adequate for a certain part of the
commerce that we are confident will be developed.
Accepting the Khasimiyeh as the northern boundary and it is a
deep and impressive stream for that region we may follow it till it
abruptly bends to the north, not very far from the Jewish settlement
of Metulah. Taking a line from there, due east, we shall have a
northern boundary that we are not likely to see challenged.
After we cross the Jordan we shall not go far before we strike
the great Hedjaz railroad, running between Damascus and Medina.
It runs through what is a desert only in the sense that it has been
deserted by man. It was not always a desert and need not be so.
Somewhere near the railroad to the east or the west will run the
eastern boundary of Palestine, perhaps as far as Ma'an, which is an
important station. That would permit us to constitute the southern
boundary by running a straight line from Ma'an to Akabah on the
gulf of that name, and from there, almost at right angles to Rapha
on the Mediterranean, from which we started.
141
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The line from Rapha to Akabah is the official limit of the
Sultanate of Egypt. That cuts off from Palestine the whole of the
Sinai peninsula and even the "River of Egypt" (the Wadi-el-Arish),
which in ancient times were usually taken as the southern boundary of
Israelitish pretensions. Except for the historic connections with
Sinai (if the Jebel Musa is the historic Sinai; and the matter is not
free from doubt), the loss of Sinai is not to be too keenly regretteH.
It might, however, be well to recall in passing, that it was precisely
in this Sinaitic peninsula that Lord Cromer hoped to establish a Jewish
community. (See Ch. X.)
This, then, is the rough outline of Palestine: from Rapha on the
Mediterranean north to the mouth of the Nahr el Khasimiyeh, thence
due east to near the Hedjaz Railroad; from there south to a point
at or near Ma'an ; from there southwest to the Gulf of Akabah and
again northwest back to Rapha. This makes a five-sided figure, of
which the longest side is about 180 or 200 miles and the shortest side
cannot be more than 60 and may be much less than that. We may
say that roughly it equals either Massachusetts alone, or Massachu-
setts and Connecticut combined.
The Maritime Plain
What sort of land is there in this irregular pentagon? It divides
itself quite naturally into a number of longitudinal strips. Beginning
again at Rapha and following the coast we have the Maritime Plain.
We have first the ancient Philistia, so long a thorn in the side of Israel
and Judah, which continues into the Plain of Sharon, and after being
interrupted by Mt. Carmel, is continued into Phoenicia.
This maritime plain, which varies in width from 200 feet at the
Bay of Acre, to 30 miles below Jaffa, is of remarkable fertility. Most
of the Jewish villages are located here. In ancient times this plain
was notable not merely for the intrinsic value of the soil, but chiefly
as the great route from the North into Egypt. The hosts of forgotten
nations rolled along here to and from the granary of the Nile, and kept
so close to the shore that to many of them the very existence of such
cities as Jerusalem may well have been unknown. The southern por-
tion of it, seized by Cretan pirates, became under the Philistines the
domain of a confederation of cities that achieved little of permanent
value, but are remembered chiefly for having given Palestine its name,
and for having given Israel that discipline of struggle and adversity
from which alone significant nations arise.
142
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
North of Mt. Carmel was the region occupied by the earliest
Semitic invasion of Canaan, that of the Phoenicians. The great group
of Phoenician cities performed such notable functions in the spread
of civilized arts that the petty little villages that alone recall the glories
of Tyre and Sidon are melancholy reminders of the most common-
place of historical truisms. This section of the maritime plain was
never a part of Jewish or Israelitish dominion and its inclusion in
modern Palestine is due simply to considerations of geography.
The Maritime Plain is cut in two by Mt. Carmel, which juts into
the sea from the highlands of Samaria to the Bay of Haifa. That
ancient river, the River Kishon, flows into the bay past Mt. Carmel.
And just north of Mt. Carmel the great plain of the sea is continued
into the broad valley of Esdraelon, straight to the Jordan. All that
can be said of the fertility and economic importance of the coast plain
can be repeated and emphasized of Esdraelon. Even in the last
years of the Turkish nightmare, it was producing great quantities of
wheat as well as fruits and vegetables. What it will do under happier
conditions may be confidently predicted.
The Shephela
The second of the longitudinal strips which constitute Palestine
consists of a series of low limestone hills. In the south they form
the Shephela, in which the date and olive flourish and in which the
coarser forms of grain will readily thrive. North of Samaria these
hills are interrupted by the Plain of Esdraelon and do not form so
recognizable a feature of the land.
The Western Mountain Range
It is the next strip, the Western Mountain Range, that has seen
the major part of Jewish history. And it is precisely with the most
forbidding and least fertile section, the mountains of Judaea, that our
holiest memories are associated. The Jews were mountaineers, high-
landers. If the bare limestone of their native soil offered them but a
niggardly subsistence, it put no obstacle in the way of that vastly
higher development to which alone the Jews owe their survival and
their national individuality. Among its hills stands the symbol and
crown of their greatness, the Holy City of Jerusalem. Judaea is a stony
plateau wholly without running water, but none the less capable of a
certain cultivation, principally of olive and barley. The pasturing of
flocks in ancient times an important occupation is almost precluded
by modern conditions. Pasturing demands larger stretches of land
than an intensively organized Palestine can afford.
143
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The plateau of Judaea, after a slight depression, is almost continu-
ous with the highlands of Samaria, the Mount of Ephraim of the
Bible. Here, however, a number of fertile valleys give the country a
wholly different aspect. One of these contains both Schechem and
Samaria, the capitals of Israel and sites of undoubted importance for
future development.
As we cross Esdraelon again to enter the highlands of Galilee,
it is in a wholly different region that we find ourselves. There are
hills covered with thick shrubbery which might well be trees. Are not
the cedars of Lebanon not far off? These hills of Galilee as well as
the valleys below them were once thickly populated. Their fertility
is apparent from the fact that even gross neglect has not impaired
their productivity. And if Galilee is made to become again a land
dotted with thriving towns, there will rest a certain responsibility upon
the organizers of these towns, that increase in well-being shall not,
as in the days of old, be deemed a reason for a relative neglect of
spiritual growth.
The Jordan Valley
To the east, the hills of Galilee, of Samaria, and of Judaea, fall
rapidly into the Jordan Valley, which has been denominated "the
deepest trench on the surface of the earth." Beginning far north on
the slopes of Mt. Hermon, the headwaters of the Jordan gather into
sizable streams, and at the site of the ancient Dan already form a river
to be reckoned with. It flows due south, as the bird flies, for a distance
of 110 miles. It flows at very nearly the level of the sea till we reach
Lake Huleh (or Merom), the smallest and most northerly of the three
lakes through which the Jordan runs. Then the bed sinks rapidly, as
the temperature of the valley rises, until at about the northern half
of Esdraelon we reach the sea of Gennesaret (Lake of Tiberias, Kin-
neret, Sea of Galilee), 680 feet below the level of the sea, in a warm
fertile valley capable of indefinite fruit production. The lake is about
70 square miles in size. It abounds in many sorts of fish.
When the Jordan leaves Gennesaret, it descends deeper and deeper
through the deep cleft called the Ghor to the Dead Sea, nearly 1,300
feet below the surface of the sea. This body of intensely salt water,
400 square miles in size, is one of the most famous of natural pheno-
mena. Yet in spite of its fame for it has excited the interest and
curiosity of strangers for much more than three thousand years
sections of the shore are only slightly known. Until recently the
southern part of its eastern region was distinctly unsafe. Besides
144
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
the luxuriant fertility of the entire Ghor, it will afford an admirable
field for thorough scientific research.
Transjordania
As far as sheer richness of soil is concerned, the West-Jordan
territory must yield to that across the Jordan, into which neglect and
maladministration have allowed the desert to creep almost to the
Jordan valley. Beginning at Mt. Hermon the anti-Lebanon we
come to the highlands of Iturea, famous in Roman times for the
sturdy soldiers that it bred. Below Iturea is Bashan, equally famous
for its forests of oaks and its magnificent cattle. Very few of the
oaks are left. Particularly the plains are almost entirely devoid of
trees. But there is everywhere unmistakable proof that this is due
to man's improvidence and may be remedied.
Iturea and Bashan as well as Golan, right at the Jordan, form
part of the region which in its entirety is called Hauran. The southern
boundary of Hauran is at the River Yarmuk, a rapid and perennial
river just below Gennesaret. The soil of the whole of Hauran is of
volcanic origin and, as in all such cases, of remarkable fertility.
The wheat of Hauran in variety and quality is famous through-
out the East. It was and will doubtless again become one of the
granaries of Syria.
Further than that, the climate of Hauran, with its even, moderate
days and cool nights, is of singular amenity. In Greek and Roman
times the region just below the Yarmuk, which is of much the same
character as Hauran itself, was the seat of the city-federation known
as the Decapolis. Magnificent ruins attest their past prosperity.
With modern means of communication and a modicum of pioneer
effort, there is practically no limit to the possibilities of this land. In
a very real sense the wilderness will rejoice and blossom as the rose.
Between the Yarmuk and the vigorous stream of the Yabbok,
about forty miles further south, at about the line of Samaria, lies
Gilead. Gilead is a series of limestone hills. Its climate is like that of
Hauran, fresh and even, and its fertility almost as exuberant. In
marked contrast with most of western Palestine, trees are fairly
numerous, and the country is lined with streams that could be admir-
ably used for irrigation, as indeed is the case with both the Yarmuk
and the Yabbok themselves.
145
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Below the Yabbok begin the ancient lands of Israel's hereditary
enemies and kinsmen, Ammon and Moab. This is a high wind-swept
plateau of gray limestone, bearing wheat and abundant pasture.
Though it seems difficult to associate severe winters with Palestine,
the winters of Moab are somewhat too rigorous. The Eastern Plateau
has an average elevation of 2,000 feet.
At present Moab and Ammon are among the most sparsely in-
habited parts of the country. That is due to the fact that these regions
run imperceptibly into the desert and are open on two sides to Bedouin
raids. Only a vigorous government, that has no such interest as the
Turks had in perpetuating tribal feuds, can remedy that situation.
The country to the south of the Dead Sea is little known. It
has rarely been visited because of the insecurity of the trip, although
it contains such famous ruins as those of Petra. There can be no
doubt, however, that here we are in practically a real desert country.
Doubtless land can be reclaimed here, particularly for pasture pur-
poses, and irrigation is distinctly feasible. If Akabah becomes an
important port, the rise of the economic value of the whole section is
assured.
The Negeb
As we swing west again, or rather northwest, we reach Rapha
over the Arabah, the ancient Negeb or Parched Land, as it should be
correctly rendered. The country is almost waterless, except that in
the short rainy season the dry and deep gullies, still called Wadis,
suddenly swell into torrents and waste their priceless moisture in the
thirsty soil. A proper husbanding of this overflow will enable newer
settlers to utilize even this uninviting section, as it seems it was
utilized in Byzantine times.
This sudden filling of the gullies, dry for the greater part of tlTe
year, gives life to the exultant simile of the Shir Hamaalot, that Song
of Ascents (Psalm 126), sung in countless Jewish homes on Friday
evening. "Turn again our captivity, O Lord, like the streams in the
Negeb." We can readily imagine with what a sense of an annual
miracle this rapid change from arid waste to abundance impressed the
ancient dwellers. Just as they accepted it for an omen for themselves,
those who look forward to a new turning of the captivity may equally
take as the type and model of their renewed life the streams of the
Negeb, the turning of a land parched by human neglect and wilful
misuse into one of exuberant and living productiveness.
146
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
References:
Palestine and its Transformation, by Ellsworth Huntington. The Holy Land
in Geography and History, by Townsend MacCoun. Historical Geography of the
Holy Land, by George Adam Smith. Eres Yisroel (Yiddish), by Ben Gorion and
Ben Zvie.
Subjects for Papers:
The geology of Palestine. Variations of climate in Palestine, and their effects
upon industry and agriculture. Palestine and California, a comparison.
147
CHAPTER XXII
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE*
Some Economic Notes
The Fertility of the Land
Unfortunately, the seeker after information regarding Palestine
is likely to be met by conflicting statements ; for the literature on
Palestine, both Gentile and Jewish, is so colored by sentiment as to be
largely unreliable. According to one writer Palestine is a barren
desert; another describes it in the Biblical locution as "flowing with
milk and honey."
In reality Palestine is neither of these things. Parts of it are un-
usually fertile, other parts, hopelessly barren to the unpractised eye of
the layman, may be rendered arable by means of fertilizing and irri-
gating. Like the people who claim it as its heritage, the soil of
Palestine has undergone centuries of ill-usage, and it will take much
time and effort to restore it to its maximum of productivity. If, under
a benevolent and farsighted government, a proper equilibrium is
established between husbandry, industry and commerce, Palestine
can undoubtedly be made an eminently livable land, accommodating
from four to five million inhabitants, each thriving under his own
vine and fig tree.
Harbors
The coast line of Syria, and particularly of Palestine, is unde-
viating. South of Beirout, it does not offer any natural harbors. The
promontory of Mt. Carmel forms a shelter which promises the possi-
bility of development into a good harbor, as do also in a lesser degree
Sidon, Athlit, Jaffa, Askalon and Gaza, although considerable ingenu-
ity and expense will be needed, for instance, in order to render harm-
less the reefs outside of Jaffa. Nothing but ruins remain of the
historic harbors of Tyre, Artuf, Caesarea, etc.
Hydrography
Western Palestine is poor in rivers, having but few transverse
* By Nellie Straus.
148
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
perennial streams, the Aujeh north of Jaffa, the Kishon near Haifa,
etc., all flowing into the Mediterranean. Besides these there are a
number of wadis (winter streams) flowing both east and west of the
watershed. Transjordania has three rivers; the Yarmuk and the Jabbok
flow into the Jordan, the Arnon into the Dead Sea.
The most important tributaries of the Yarmuk are the Allan and
the Ehreir, both of them long and rapid streams. The rivers of Pales-
tine are not navigable, being either too shallow or else too rapid in
their course. The Jordan has both defects, possessing seventeen fords
and falling about 436 metres between the Lake of Merom and the
Dead Sea.
An important feature of Palestinian hydrography is the springs
and fountains which play throughout the year. These are to be found
chiefly in the foothills of Mt. Hermon and in the Galilean and
Samaritan mountains. In some cases the fountains form considerable
pools and even streams which run a short course. Besides, Palestine,
which in parts seems arid on the surface, possesses a rich store of
water in its depths which can easily be brought to the surface by
means of wells. Along the coastal plain, water is to be found at a
depth corresponding to sea level. Pumping stations for irrigation pur-
poses have been established in several of the Jewish villages.
Climate
No other territory of the same size has so varied a climate as
Palestine. This variety of climate has brought about not only an extraor-
dinary diversity of animal and plant life, but to it is undoubtedly to
be attributed the versatility of temperament which distinguishes the
children of Israel. The glowing heat of the Dead Sea region, the
milder warmth of the coastal plain, the sub-Alpine climate of Upper
Galilee where the white head of Lebanon is always visible all these
are, according to American ideas, almost within commuting distance
of one another. The mean annual temperature is 75 degrees F. in the
Jordan valley, 69 degrees F. in the coastal plain, 61 degrees F. in the
mountain regions. Throughout Palestine, and especially in Trans-
jordania, there are tremendous variations of temperature from day
to night.
Frost never appears in the Jordan valley, and rarely in the coastal
plain, but it is frequent in the mountain ranges. Even as far south
as Jerusalem there is a light snowfall from time to time.
There are two seasons in Palestine, the summer or dry season
lasting from April through October, and the winter or rainy season.
149
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The autumn rains usually begin in the middle of November and last
three or four weeks ; the winter rains fall during January and Febru-
ary, and the spring rains from the middle of March to the end of
April. The rainfall, which varies greatly from one year to the other,
ranges from about 400 mm. in the south of the coastal plain (Gaza) to
610 mm. in Haifa. It is greater in the mountain ranges (660 mm. in
Jerusalem), but much smaller in the Jordan valley (200 mm. in
Jericho). During the dry season a heavy dew falls in the coastal
plain and the mountain districts.
The prevailing wind is from the southwest. In spring and fall
the hot sirocco (Hamsin) blows from the Arabian desert.
The fertility of Palestine, especially the water supply, has been
modified by the destruction of the forests, which have not only
been hewn down for fuel by the natives, but left to the mercy of
those enemies of underbrush and saplings, sheep and goats. (We
know from history of the extensive oak forests which once covered the
Plain of Sharon.) This absence of trees is also responsible for the
inland march of the sand. The coast is now covered with shifting
sand dunes which did not exist there in ancient times.
Health
Palestine is emphatically a healthful land. What diseases are
prevalent, malaria, trachoma and epidemics of various kinds are the
result of three causes, respectively : the marshes, which, as the Jewish
settlers have proved, can be drained within a short time; ignorance
of hygiene and malnutrition of the population ; and the indiscriminate
admission of pilgrims affected with cholera, the plague, etc.
Character of the Soil
The soil of Palestine is composed of disintegrated limestone,
except in Northern Transjordania, where the basalt formation is cov-
ered by a thick layer of disintegrated lava of unusual fertility. In
Western Palestine the soil is deep on the coastal plain, in the Jordan
valley, and in the transverse valleys, but shallow in the mountain dis-
tricts (25-50 cm.), as it is washed down the slopes by the heavy
rains. The soil of the mountain districts is coarse-grained and porous,
that of the plains either rich in clay and not porous, or else sandy.
The sand from the coast is incessantly blown inland by the west wind,
and forms dunes which are partly responsible for the marshes along
the coastal plain. (The dunes block the winter streams in their sea-
ward course.)
150
PALESTINE
Scale m Miles
DAMASCUS!
KalateshShukif///* Hasbtiya
LEGEND
idal JEWISH COL ONIES
Railroads (s)
Roads
- MishmarHayarden
THE GEOGRAPHY OF PALESTINE
Transportation
Another cause for the retarded development of the country was
the lack of transportation facilities, which made it useless to produce
perishable food-stuffs anywhere but in the immediate vicinity of the
cities, and which was fatally prejudicial to the growth of industry.
Up to the period of the war Palestine had few roads and fewer rail-
roads. The roads were so neglected as to render transportation by
wagon impossible. An exception to this rule was formed by the
roads connecting the Jewish villages near Jaffa.
Thanks to military activities, it seems that the country has now
been covered by a network of excellent roads, which lend themselves
to wagon and motor traffic. Similarly, the railroad system, which up
to 1914 consisted of:
1. The Jaffa-Jerusalem line, built by a French company in 1892;
2. The parts of the Hedjaz line (the railway built for the Moslem
pilgrims, connecting Damascus with Medina and Mecca) falling with-
in Palestine, namely : Damascus-Dera'a-Ma'an, Haifa-Der'a-Bosrah,
Haifa-Acre, Haifa-Afuleh (Afuleh being an Arabian village adjoining
the Jewish village Merhaviah in the Plain of Esdraelon), has been
greatly amplified both by the Turkish (under German tutelage) and
the British military forces. In 1916 the Turks had extended the West-
ern Palestinian line from Afuleh to Jenin and Massudiyeh, and from
the latter to Lydda and Nablus (Shechem). Further south Wadi
Serar had been connected up with Beersheba and Hafir. We know
that the British have built a railroad between Port Said and Jaffa,
which is probably to have ramifications to the east. It is to be assumed
that with the conclusion of the war, the problem of communication by
road and rail will be solved. As far as steamship traffic is concerned,
before the war, the Syrian ports, especially Alexandretta and Beirut (and
in a smaller measure Jaffa) were visited by a large number of vessels,
from other parts of Turkey, from Russia, Greece, Austria, Italy,
France, Germany, England, Egypt, India, etc. Whatever are the
resources, or, rather, the latent possibilities of Palestine, it behooves
us to envisage them neither from the point of view of the philan-
thropist nor of the individual settler, but, in so far as it lies in our
power, as economists and statesmen.
References :
Same as Ch. XXI.
Subjects for Papers:
Possibilities of dry farming. The place of Palestine on the world map.
151
CHAPTER XXIII
THE JEWS IN PALESTINE THROUGHOUT HISTORY*
The Jews lost Palestine. They were scattered to the four corners
of the earth. And so we naturally think of Palestine as losing the
Jews too. In fact Palestine never lost all of her Jews. Throughout
every period of history there have been some Jews in Palestine.
However, since the dispersion Palestine, which has always occupied
a central position in Jewish spiritual life, has been far less important
in a material sense to the actual development of the Jewish people
than have some of the other lands of their sojourn ; so it would be out
of proportion, to give fully that history here. But the most general
facts should be noted.
In Biblical Times
The earliest Hebraic association with Palestine is that of the
Patriarch Abraham. This ancient linking of Israel's hope with Pales-
tine finds historic fufillment in actual possession under Joshua after the
Exodus from Egypt, probably about the year 1455 B. C. E. At that
time and for some time thereafter the Jews were no doubt a minority
in the land struggling with a hostile and preponderant population.
Under the Judges, they were at certain periods actually subject to
some of these peoples, and they suffered also from numerous raids
from the Midianites, the roving tribes east of the Jordan, forefathers
no doubt of the still marauding Bedouin tribes of today. That the
Children of Israel at all maintained themselves and finally became a
majority in the land was due to the division and mutual hostility of
their neighbors and to the unity of the Twelve Tribes of Israel. The
defeat of the Jews whenever they deserted God for the idols of their
neighbors, and their interpretation of their history in this sense, as
evidenced throughout the Bible, is a fact of profound political as well
as moral significance. The unity of God implied the unity of Israel.
Thus their faith became their strongest weapon of defence and offence.
Under the Kings David and Solomon that spirit of unity was crystal-
lized in the Temple at Jerusalem to which all Israel was commanded
* Adapted from an article by Lotta Levensohn.
152
THE JEWS IN PALESTINE THROUGHOUT HISTORY
to go up for sacrifice and worship. At that time also the mountain
stronghold of Jerusalem came to be the center of a powerful kingdom,
including at one time even Damascus in the north and Akaba on the
Red Sea, which practically unified Palestine, sweeping away the
Philistine from the coast and gaining a strong foothold east of the
Jordan. That kingdom in its unified strength lasted for barely two
generations. Political existence in Palestine was at all times difficult,
for the following reasons: (1) It was practically an oasis between
two deserts, east and south, open to continuous marauding attacks
from the nomad peoples of the wilderness. (2) It lay on
the highway between powerful empires in Egypt and Mesopotamia,
so that it became their inevitable battle-ground and was likely to fall
prey to either. (3) It was inhabited by a medley of tribes thrown over
it by successive waves of migration. (4) Its great variety of climate
and conformation made unified control difficult. Most of these diffi-
culties were due to its unique and remarkable position at the juncture
of three continents. These difficulties, too, developed the marvelous
political insight of the Jewish teachers, exemplified especially in the
statesmanlike utterances of the Prophets. (See Ch. IV.) This political
insight transcends the political vision of all succeeding ages. And
it was violation of the laws laid down for national guidance which
caused the final overthrow of the Israelitish nation in about 722
B. C. E. The nation was divided in two parts, due to the oppressive
kingship of Judah, its southern portion. The division of worship
caused thereby undermined the morale especially of Israel, the north-
ern portion, which could not worship at the sanctuary in Jerusalem.
Idol worship reappeared in force. The armies of Assyria and Baby-
lonia swept over the weakened and divided nation, and found only
divided resistance. The northern kingdom, which fell first, utterly
disappeared. But the southern kingdom, which had Jerusalem, the
Temple and the faith of God in its midst, resisted destruction even in
exile in Babylonia. The Prophetic voice recalled it to its unique
political role. Isaiah's teaching of its spiritual role among the nations
no doubt saved Judah from the fate of the Ten Tribes. Although in
586 B. C. E. the Temple was despoiled and Jerusalem laid waste, the
Jews after seventy years returned to Jerusalem and rebuilt the Temple
at the behest of Cyrus, the Persian King who repatriated them.
Under Persia, Greece, and Rome
Chastened by suffering, they set up a religious or moral common-
wealth which flourished for several centuries under Persian suzerainty.
153
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
During this time the Bible took its final form. Jewish communities
began to grow up in many parts of the world, who all, however, looked
to Jerusalem and the Temple as their center, and who for centuries
yearly collected the shekel or poll tax that was sent by Jews from all
parts of the world for the upkeep of the Temple. True for that period
to its ideals of democratic autonomy, the little nation in Palestine
needed no further independence, and the transfer of power from Persia
to the Greece of Alexander seems not greatly to have affected Jewish
conditions there. However, after the death of Alexander, his Syrian
minions, more Greek than the Greeks, tried to force Hellenistic Kultur
on all the peoples of Syria. It was then that they met first the passive
and later the active resistance of the greater part of the Jewish nation,
whose religious freedom was assailed by the assault on customs, cere-
monies and forms of worship that were bound up with the whole life
of the Jewish polity. The indestructability of Jewish nationalism lies
in the fact that it is a faith. After the Maccabaean revolt (168
B. C. E.) had ended gloriously for the Jews, a Jewish kingdom was
again set up in Palestine. (For warnings against kingship, see Judges
8:22, 23 and Samuel I, 10: 17-19 and 12: 6-15 and 19-22.) That king-
dom of the Hasmoneans and the Herods did not long keep the noble
spirit of the Maccabaeans, but degenerated into an Oriental monarchy,
splendid and despotic. However, the kernel of the Jewish people
remained true. The Pharisees, as against the priestly and military
classes, carried forward in their own way the traditions of Prophet
and Scribe ; that is, of a leadership of ability and election, not of
heredity. Palestine was overrun and shot through by strands of
many civilizations and peoples. Greek culture lived side by side with
the Jewish, and Rome gradually dominated the land and sapped Jewish
political independence. Finally came Jewish revolt, the destruction of
Jerusalem and the Temple and in 70 C. E. the complete overthrow
of Judaea by the Romans. But though the Jews were defeated, they
were not conquered. The heart of Jewish life, the school and the
court of religious legislation (Sanhedrin), were transferred by Yohanan
ben Zakkai, one of the Pharisaic teachers, from the ruined temple at
Jerusalem to the little coast town of Yavneh. This was done with
the permission of the conqueror Titus, who could not have dreamed
that he was releasing a force stronger than his invincible legions. The
school at Yavneh saved the Jewish people. Around it gathered scholars
and disciples. The Palestinian schools for many generations amplified
and expounded the Oral Law, that body of interpretation and rulings
that had grown up around the Bible or Written Law. Judah I, about
154
THE JEWS IN PALESTINE THROUGHOUT HISTORY
189 C. E. codified this Oral Law in the Mishnah, written down at last,
to save it in case all the scholars should be slain. Such was the danger
to Jewish life in Palestine. During the next 200 years, this Mishnah was
further interpreted, and around it grew up the Jerusalem Talmud, which
ranks far below the Babylonian Talmud. The lot of the Jews in Palestine
at that time was not conducive to great intellectual achievement.
The first six centuries of the Common Era in Palestine were
punctuated by a series of Jewish rebellions against the might of
Rome. The most important of these, and one that seemed for awhile
to promise Jewish triumph, was led by Bar Kochba in 132 C. E., who
recaptured Jerusalem and made Judaea independent for two years.
He was hailed by Rabbi Akiba as the Messiah. But, after a desperate
defense Bar Kochba was defeated and slain by the overwhelming
might of Rome, and the Jewish lot became harder than ever. Jeru-
salem was razed; Jews were forbidden to approach it; and on its site
rose a Roman city called Aelia Capitolina. At this time the Jewish
Christians first turned sharply against the Jews, refusing to support
the revolt and even acting as informers. It now happened, too, that
Rome realized the national significance of the study of the Law and
made it a capital offence. Akiba, among others, died a martyr to
this oppression of the study of Torah. Each unsuccessful rebellion
left the Jews in a more pitiable state.
Under the Byzantian Empire
In 324, the Roman Emperor Constantine adopted Christianity,
and Palestine fell under the shadow of the Cross. Palestine now
became a land of Christian pilgrimages, of churches, nunneries, hermit-
ages. Fanaticism was preached, and the Jews were its constant prey.
The Patriarchate which was a Rabbinic succession of Jewish teachers
in Palestine who were accepted practically as rulers and judges by
the Jews came to an end in 425, under the reign of Theodosius I,
Emperor of the East. Under Byzantian rule, for over 200 years, the
Jews suffered great oppression, which was only intensified by their
occasional unsuccessful rebellions. Under Christian rule the strictest
of Roman anti-Jewish edicts were revived and surpassed. As under
the Roman Hadrian, Jews were again forbidden to enter Jerusalem.
Under Islam
Islam, the second great religion to spring from Judaism, had its
origin in Arabia. From there it swept over the Eastern world, by
means of the sword, and in 633 Palestine too came under its sway. In
principle, Islam greatly restricted the freedom of both Jews and Chris-
155
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
tians, but in practice the rule of the Caliph Omar was a boon to the
Jews. About 684, the Mosque of Omar was erected in Jerusalem
on the Temple site. For 200 years Palestine had rest and quiet under
the Damascus Caliphate and later under the rule of Moslem Egypt.
The population of Palestine was compounded of many peoples, Chris-
tian, Moslem, and Jewish. There was much flux because of the central
position of the land. In the eleventh century a group of Jews from
Germany came to find refuge in Palestine under liberal Moslem rule,
and for a while Jerusalem became once more famous as a seat of Jewish
learning.
The Latin Kingdom The Crusades
But the Crusades ended that happy interval. The first Crusade
deluged Europe with Jewish blood before ever these Christian
"redeemers" neared the soil of the Holy Land. In 1099 Jerusalem was
taken from the Moslems by Godfrey de Bouillon, who founded the
Latin Kingdom. He celebrated by a massacre of Moslems and by
burning all the Jews of Jerusalem alive in a synagogue. After a
time, however, a stable government was set up, the country was irri-
gated and became fruitful and beautiful as in its happiest days, and
industry and commerce flourished to such an extent that Palestine
became a commercial center for Europe, Asia, and Africa. Then, the
cosmopolitan life of the country did away with much of the Christian
fanaticism against the Jews. Jewish artisans, merchants, and physi-
cians prospered. Jewish pilgrims again came to their land, among
them, in the twelfth century, Judah Halevi, the great Hebrew poet
of Spain, Maimonides, most renowned of Jewish philosophers, and the
noted traveler, Benjamin of Tudela.
The Moslems Again
With the end of the twelfth century, the Moslems under the
Saracen Saladin overthrew Christian rule, and after a century of strug-
gle Palestine again prospered. It was a comparatively happy time
for the Jews. As early as 1267 the famous Spanish Jewish scholar
Nahmanides re-established a Jewish community in Palestine. He in-
troduced the study of the Kabbalah. Later followed a migration of
Jews from the Rhine. Under Egyptian Moslem rule in the fourteenth
century, the Jews found shelter and freedom when church-ridden
Europe persecuted them. The country flourished. Jewish pilgrims
and immigrants abounded. Commerce and industry prospered. Jeru-
salem and Hebron had wealthy and cultured Jewish communities, and
there were even shepherd communities in southern Palestine.
156
THE JEWS IN PALESTINE THROUGHOUT HISTORY
However, the religious and spiritual leadership of Jewry remained
in the Diaspora. It passed from Babylon to Spain, and later to Poland.
The expulsion of the Jews from Spain, in 1492, resulted in a large
Jewish migration to Palestine, where Sultan Bejazet welcomed the
immigrants. Many settled in Jerusalem and Safed, the latter becoming
a famous center of Kabbalistic study.
Under the Turk
In 1516 Palestine passed to the sovereignty of Constantinople
and the Turk. This rather improved the political status of the Jews.
Joseph Nassi, a wealthy and cultured Spanish exile, was confidential
adviser to the Sultan Suleiman, who made him Duke of Naxos. For
a time a revival of Jewish colonization seemed possible. However,
later, Turkish rule degenerated; it became incompetent and corrupt;
and in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Jews sank into
a slough of poverty and dependency. The whole land degenerated eco-
nomically. Those Jews who were artisans could find little work, and
the majority, meagrely supported by charity from abroad, devoted
their time to study.
Revival of European Interest in Palestine
The invasion of Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1798, was an episode that
had no lasting effect upon the country. So, too, the political bicker-
ings of Turkey and Egypt during the early part of the nineteenth
century. The nineteenth century saw a revival of interest in Palestine
on the part of Christians as well as Jews. Missionaries came from
the West; pilgrims from Russia flocked every Eastertide to the Holy
Land. The Greek and Latin churches established headquarters in
Jerusalem. The quarrels among Christian sects became so scandalous
that the Sultan was forced to install a Turkish guard to keep the peace
in the church of the Holy Sepulchre.
National political rivalries were the inspiration of a number of
apparently religious foundations. France for a time regarded herself
as the protector of all Roman Catholics in Palestine of whatever
nationality.
The year 1840 saw a horrible revival of the blood-accusation in
Damascus. The tortures endured by the Jews there aroused Christian
as well as Jewish indignation in Europe, caused international political
action, and brought to Palestine Adolphe Cremieux and Sir Moses
Montefiore.
157
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Jewish Organizations in Palestine
The West European Jews became actively interested in the help-
less situation of the Palestinian Jews, and in the course of the nine-
teenth century established schools, workrooms, hospitals and other
institutions. The most prominent of the organizations which worked
in behalf of the old Yishub are the Hilfsverein der Deutschen Juden,
the Alliance Israelite Universelle, and the Anglo-Jewish Association.
Their palliative efforts have not, naturally, been able to change the
economic status of the Jews of the old Yishub (settlement).
The Halukkah
For many centuries, it has been the custom all over the Jewish
world to send money for the support of students of the Law in Pales-
tine. This pious motive, coupled with the lack of economic opportuni-
ties, has operated to build up an elaborate system of distribution of
funds the Halukkah and of collection in the Diaspora by paid agents
sent out from Palestine {M eshullahim) . Many abuses have crept
into the Halukkah. Questionable methods are used both in its collec-
tion and its distribution. Though the recipients and their families live
in the extremest poverty, they have been pauperized by the unearned
dole. With the revival of the country, the Halukkah problem as it
affects the young people will drop away as soon as they attain to the
dignity of self-support, which they have shown themselves eager to
do whenever opportunity has afforded. The Halukkah for really
meritorious students and their families is one of the problems of the
Old Yishub that the New Yishub will have to solve.
Jewish Culture
It was obviously impossible for the Jews in Palestine, during the
ages of disinheritance, even to approach the spiritual attainments of
the Kingdom or of the Second Commonwealth. But despite their
status (or lack of it) they did keep the lamp of Jewish learning alight
in the Land, however dimly, to this day. And they did help to preserve
the Hebrew language, one of the chiefest treasures of the Jewish
people, until a virile nationalism arose to nourish and to foster it.
References :
Palestine, by A. Hyamson, (First Edition), Ch. 1 to 6, pp. 1-58. A History of
the Jews, by Paul Goodman. Palestine of the Jews, by Norman Bentwich, Ch. 1,
pp. 1-20.
Subjects for Papers:
The Jewish mystics of Safed. The relation of early Christianity to Judaism;
158
CHAPTER XXIV
EARLY MODERN JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION
The Population
In Palestine, just before the Great War, the estimated population
was 700,000, of whom the great majority were Arabic-speaking Mos-
lems. Of this population the Jews numbered about one-seventh, that
is, between 100,000 and 125,000 souls. During the past century, there
has been no marked increase in the general population, but the Jews
increased to their present number from about 3000, in 1800. This
increase was in large measure due to the impetus given by ^nationaliza-
tion and agricultural resettlement in Palestine, which culminated in the
Zionist movement. The present Jewish population of Palestine may
roughly be divided in half, the one-half representing what is known as the
Old Settlement or Old Yishub, and the other the New Settlement or New
Yishub. The lines are not hard and fast, and fortunately they are be-
coming more blurred all the time. The Old Settlement consists of those
Jews, settled chiefly in the "holy" cities of Jerusalem, Hebron, Safed,
and Tiberias, who went to Palestine for religious reasons, often in
old age to die in the Holy Land, and who to a large extent are sup-
ported from abroad or, even if independent, usually live in the most
abject poverty. This includes all the Halukkah Jews. (See Ch.
XXIII.) The immigration of the past century has been chiefly
Ashkenazic that is, of Yiddish-speaking Jews from Eastern or Central
Europe using the Polish ritual. The bulk of the earlier population
was Sephardic that is, consisting of Oriental Jews using the Portu-
guese ritual, in large part descendants from the Spanish and
Portuguese exiles, who still speak the Judeo-Spanish jargon called
Ladino. At present the Ashkenazic Jews form about 85 per cent, of
the Jewish population. In the Old Yishub there is a great variety of
types and great disunity. Each little national group has its own
synagogue and minhag, its own language and customs, its own
jealousies and grievances. Some of the lands that are represented by
their Jews in Palestine are Russia, Poland, and all the Baltic states,
Bulgaria, Galicia, Bukovina, Transylvania, Hungary, Rumania,
Germany, Holland, the United States, Morocco, Algiers, Tunis and
159
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Tripoli in North Africa, Arabia, Persia, Bokhara, Mesopotamia, Syria,
and Transcaucasian Doghestan, and Georgia (The Gurdji or Grusi-
nians). In the Old Yishub, the distinctions remain perpetuated in part
by the Halukkah, which binds European groups financially to their
respective countries. In the New Yishub, or the nationalist Jewish
villages and city garden suburbs, the distinctions begin to be blotted
out as early as in the Hebrew-speaking kindergarten. The Jewish
national idea supersedes all adopted nationalities, and gives its own
distinctive stamp. The New Yishub new and young in its spirit
by no means consists of newcomers only ; it has in some cases drawn
upon the oldest Sephardic population as well, upon the "Turkish" Jews.
Of the newcomers, comparatively few adopted Turkish citizenship,
on account of the system of national capitulations which gave them
the greater protection of the courts and consuls of their native coun-
tries. The Russian Jews, whose own Government did not protect
them, were looked after by the representatives of the British
government.
Among the most interesting of modern Jewish immigrants are the
Arabian Jews from Yemen, where they claim to have lived since the
first Exile, long before the present Arabic population. In about 1880
they began to suffer acute persecution, and instinctively fled to Palestine,
their ancestral home. In later years their immigration was encouraged
by the Zionists and directed to the Jewish villages, where they have
settled in workmen's colonies. They are a thrifty, sturdy folk, inured
to hardship, learned and pious, and speaking a pure Sephardic Hebrew.
In appearance, dress, and standard of living they resemble the Arabs.
History of Colonization Philanthropic Period
At no time have the Jews wholly deserted the land in Palestine.
Near Safed in the Arabic village of Pekiin are about twenty families of
Arabized, Arabic-speaking Jews who are farmers and who claim to
have lived there ever since the Second Exile. In everything but religion
they seem like Arabs. The idea of Jewish repatriation through agri-
culture in Palestine found numerous abortive expressions during the
nineteenth century. Several non-Jews were active in these attempts,
among them Lawrence Oliphant, who had the support of British diplo-
matic circles. In 1839 Sir Moses Montefiore had an ambitious and
statesmanlike scheme for resettling the Jews as agriculturists in Pales-
tine. It failed for political reasons. The founding of the Mikveh
Israel Agricultural School in 1870 (see Ch. XXXI) was the direct
160
MODERN JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION
outgrowth of the nationalist urgings of Hirsch Kalischer. In 1873
a few Jews from Jerusalem founded the settlement of Moza just
west of the city. This venture never succeeded, but never wholly
failed, and even today the farm at Moza has at least the distinction
of containing the cypress planted by Theodor Herzl and known as
the Herzl tree, and of being a favorite excursion ground for the Jewish
school children of Jerusalem who picnic there on every Hamisha Asar
Bishevat. In 1878 a handful of Jews from Jerusalem, nationalist ideal-
ists, bought land and attempted to settle as agriculturists in Petah
Tikvah, near Jaffa. They were city dwellers unused to the soil; the
place was swampy, and malaria either killed or drove out all of this
small group of valiant pioneers.
After 1880, European anti-Semitism and the Russian pogroms
were a driving force, both physical and spiritual, toward Jewish
renationalization in Palestine. The Hibbat Zion movement (see Ch.
VIII) made strides in all countries, including America, and groups
of Jews in Russia and Rumania organized themselves for Palestinian
colonization. These first settlers were chiefly city dwellers. Of con-
ditions in Palestine, its climate, its soil, the intricate Turkish land laws,
or the ways and language of the Arab population they knew as little as
of plowing, planting and harvesting. Very few had any capital to
start with. About ninety of them were young students, members of
the Bilu groups. (See Ch. VIII.) These young men faced unspeak-
able hardships and stuck to their settlements in the face of death
itself. Some of them hired themselves out as day laborers to the
Mikveh Israel School and even to the Arabs themselves at a mere
pittance. Many died of malaria. Despite their grim determination,
an appeal for help had to be sent to Russia. This found its way to
Baron Edmond de Rothschild in Paris, who received a delegation of
the settlers, and became to them and to Palestinian colonization hence-
forth an ever present help. He came to the rescue of the village of
Rishon le-Zion (1882) with money and with agricultural instructors.
So, too, he saved Petah Tikvah, which had been resettled in 1883 and
was again threatened with ruin, but which has since become the most
populous of the Jewish villages. His devotion to the cause rivalled
that of the organized Hoveve Zion and of the settlers themselves.
And their devotion to him has been a not unworthy repayment. He
not only aided these early Russian and Roumanian settlers in the best
way known to him, but he also himself undertook colonization. He
at various times supported in part or in whole besides his own
settlements at Ekron (1884) and Metullah (1896), Rishon le-Zion,
161
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Petah Tikvah, Hederah (1891), Zichron Ya-acob (1882), and Yessod
ha Ma-alah (1883). To drain the swamps, he planted the eucalyptus
trees imported from Australia. He purchased land. He engaged
administrators for the villages. And when he himself saw that this
system of philanthropic management was having unwholesome con-
sequences, he took steps to change it. For it turned out that these
administrators, acting also as instructors, only added to the troubles
of the settlers. The administrators seem to have distinguished them-
selves chiefly by mistaken judgments. By autocratic methods they
fostered at the same time a spirit of dependence and of insurrection. As
instructors, their failure was even more marked. They turned out to
be almost as ignorant as the settlers of the peculiar needs of the land,
and were forced to learn by experience. In Rishon le-Zion the Baron
installed the remarkable wine-cellars which have since proved the
economic bulwark of this and the neighboring villages. But an over-
production of wine in the Judaean villages forced an economic crisis,
since no real market existed and the Baron could not indefinitely
maintain an artificial one. One of the gravest errors of the early
colonization was the dependence on a single crop, which has since
been practically everywhere remedied.
In the meantime, the Hoveve Zion, organized into the Montefiore
Federation of Hibbat Zion groups at Kattowitz in 1884, and incorpor-
ated in Odessa in 1890 (See Ch. VIII), since when it is known as the
Odessa Committee, gave all its resources to the encouragement and
assistance of Jewish colonization in Palestine, assisting all of the
Jewish villages and establishing new ones. It co-operated with "the
Baron". Private initiative and independent colonization ventures were
added to the Palestinian medley. The most hopeful of all the enter-
prises was the founding in 1890 of the village of Rehovot, near Jaffa.
From its inception, it was independent, and it has been self-reliant and
successful ever since. It was founded by a group of 55 persons with
adequate capital, members of a Warsaw colonization society, Menuha
ve-Nahalah. For a time, the land was managed jointly, and the actual
owners did not go to live there until the land had been prepared by
Jewish workmen and was bearing fruit. A great many Jewish work-
men were employed, and were thus prepared as settlers for other
villages. Rehovot produces wine, oranges, almonds and olives. The
village is prosperous and nationalistic and progressive in spirit. In
it, takes place each year at Hoi Moed Pesah, the Hagigah, the joyous
Jewish national festival with its outdoor games, contests and choruses.
162
MODERN JEWISH IMMIGRATION AND COLONIZATION
The Critical Period Ahad Ha-am
With perhaps this one exception, the prospects of Jewish coloniza-
tion in Palestine looked very dark in 1890. Jewish villages were
scattered throughout the country; a group in Judaea between Jaffa and
Jerusalem and southward from Jaffa ; another group between Jaffa
and Haifa in Samaria ; and another group north of Carmel in Galilee,
with lone outposts at Metullah in the north and at Bene Yehudah east
of the Sea of Tiberias. On the whole, the northern villages raised
grain and the southern ones grapes, oranges, and other fruit. Each
section developed a quite distinctive local character. Besides a hap-
hazard and philanthropic method of colonization which gave the
Jewish settlement no unity or dignity, they had to contend with
(1) their own ignorance of farming and of the land, (2) lack of suffi-
cient capital, (3) unorganized immigration, (4) swamps which bred
malaria, (5) lack of water and of a system of irrigation, (6) long
neglect of the land, (7) the hostility, especially in the north, of the
Arab population, or, more frequently, of the Bedouin or nomad Arabs,
(8) the complete lack of wagon roads and of other means of com-
munication (the railroad between Jaffa and Jerusalem was not finished
until 1892), (9) lack of police protection, (10) excessive taxation
the minimum being 12*^ per cent. which did not spare even fruit
trees and which had to be supplemented by graft (Baksheesh). Add
to this, discontent among the settlers in the Rothschild villages,
renewed Turkish prohibition against Russian Jewish immigration
and the enforcement of an old prohibition against selling land to Jews.
The Turkish laws, however stringent, were always softened by the
incompetence and more especially the corruptibility of Turkish offi-
cialdom. However, at this time, 1890, the "red ticket" was instituted,
every Jew entering the country receiving a red ticket which allowed
him only one month's stay. The rush of refugees from European persecu-
tion and the multiplicity of land-buying agencies had given rise to
unseemly speculation and competition. If land and government
offered difficulties, an added hindrance was the lack of system and
unitary organization in the Jewish efforts.
Ahad Ha-am went to Palestine in 1891, in the darkest period, and
again in 1893 and 1899, as representing the Odessa Committee. His
sweeping criticisms and his radical advice along lines that made for
political action and control (1) to centralize land purchasing and
colonization, (2) to act only with the full knowledge and approval of
the Turkish Government, (3) to study land laws, to introduce diversified
crops, and to give no pecuniary aid to individuals all these recommenda-
163
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
tions had a decided influence. Other forces were also at work to
revolutionize Jewish colonization. Baron de Rothschild saw and
judged the conditions. In 1900 he decided to transfer all his interests
in the Palestinian Jewish villages, together with an additional fund, to
the Jewish Colonization Association (I. C. A.), the Baron Maurice de
Hirsch Foundation. This change of business method the transference to
an experienced and impersonal society was an act of vision and self-
denial on the part of Baron de Rothschild. The new business relation
in no way abated his interest in the villages, which has continued
active until this day. The most important influence on Palestine at
that period was the newly created Zionist Organization, whose para-
mount leadership had, by 1902, been unreservedly accepted by the
Odessa Committee.
References:
Beoent Jewish Progress in Palestine, by Henrietta Szold. The Yemenite Jews,
by J. Feldman.
Subjects for Papers:
Activities of the Baron de Hirsch Fund (the Jewish Colonization Association)
throughout the world. Types of Jewish population in Palestine.
lte
CHAPTER XXV
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JEWISH VILLAGES
Thenceforth Palestinian colonization was put on a business basis.
Gradually the Jewish villages became self-supporting and acquired
the dignity that goes with self-reliance. Baron de Rothschild was
being repaid for his "loans", which had at first been received as gifts.
In 1911 he was repaid $90,000. In 1912 the village of Petah Tikvah,
the largest of the Jewish villages, with about 3,000 inhabitants, was
paying $13,002 to the state in taxes, and taxed itself $16,793 for
communal purposes.
Zionist Methods of Colonization
The Zionist institutions at this time helped to put Jewish coloniza-
tion on a sound basis. The Jewish Colonial Bank (see Ch. XI) made pos-
sible a modern system of credit. The Jewish National Fund (see Ch. XI)
in some measure controlled land problems, and together with other
and related land development companies, prepared the land for Jewish
settlement. The Palestine Land Development Company (founded
1908) had acquired large areas of land, and subdivided it into small hold-
ings, laid out plantations, built homes and roads, and helped new set-
tlers to acquire estates or independent farms. It has acted in close
relation with the Jewish National Fund. Its director, except during
the war, has been Dr. Arthur Ruppin, director of the Palestine Bureau
of the Zionist Organization (founded 1908) in Jaffa. This Palestine
Bureau has as its chief business the advice and direction of Jewish
immigrants, especially in matters relating to land. One of its purposes
is to gather and to give information. Smaller land development
companies are the Geulah and the Agudat Netaim, which also purchase
land to develop and resell it.
In America was developed the Ahoozah idea, which has since been
adopted by Zionists in Russia and Germany. Companies were formed,
each in a single locality, to purchase land in Palestine for their
own members and to develop the land for a period of years during
which time the owners gradually paid for the property. At the end
of this period, the owner either settled on his land or received an
income from it. The first American Ahoozah village is Poriah in
165
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Galilee, near the Sea of Tiberias. (See Ch. XII.) The Zion Common-
wealth (see Ch. XII and XX) is a development of the Ahoozah idea,
which aims to combine economic and social control with land purchase
and preparation. Its colonizing activities have not yet begun.
Co-operative Colonization
Zionism has changed the whole aspect of Jewish colonization. It
has replaced philanthropy with national self-help. It is the democratic
as against the philanthropic solution of the Jewish problem, and it is
reflected in the whole trend and development of Jewish agricultural
life in Palestine. In 1911 the Zionist Organization, which on principle
had stood aloof from individualistic colonization schemes in Palestine,
stepped into that field with a democratic and co-operative plan. Dr.
Franz Oppenheimer, the German economist, is responsible for the
ideas underlying the Erez Israel Colonization Association, an under-
taking assumed by the National Fund, which is financing it through a
special fund. Its purpose is to assist the organization of workmen's
co-operative agricultural enterprises. There are now a number of such
farm villages in operation, at Merhaviah, Deganiah, Kinneret, and
Sejerah (the I. C. A. settlement), in Galilee, at Huldah, Ben Shamen,
Kastinieh, and Gan Shmuel (near Hederah in the south), all of them on
National Fund Property. Sejerah was recently acquired by the J. N. F.
The method of applying the co-operative principle differs, but in all the
aim is self-help through organization and sound economics. The
pioneer settlements in Galilee have had to face many dangers, among
them marauding raids from the trans-Jordanian Bedouin.
The Labor Problem
But co-operative workingmen's colonies cannot solve the agricul-
tural labor problem in Palestine, which is peculiarly acute and yet full
of promise. The low standard of life of the Arab laborer creates the
chief difficulty. It takes a high degree of idealism to induce the Jewish
farmer to employ higher priced Jewish labor when the Arabs will come
for a mere pittance and can be called from the neighboring village for
seasonal work, whereas the Jewish laborer is dependent on steady
employment. Of course the Arab should also be employed on occa-
sion; but nothing could be more dangerous to Jewish Palestine than
to create an Arab proletariat. The villages of Rishon le-Zion, Petah
Tikvah, Katrah, Zichron Ya-acob and Rehovot employ upwards of
5,000 Arab laborers. Some of these actually live in the Jewish villages,
166
\?
BARON EDMOND de ROTHSCHILD
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JEWISH VILLAGES
which largely depend upon the Arab markets for milk, eggs, vegetables
and garden produce.
One of the solutions attempted for this problem has been the
creation of villages of Jewish workmen with their houses on plots large
enough for considerable truck-gardening. The houses are gradually
bought by the workmen. These villages are near such labor-employ-
ing centers as Petah Tikvah and Rishon le-Zion, which also offer the
advantage of schools and other communal institutions. And the home
garden, tended by the wife, ekes out the income. The Yemenite Jews
make very good agricultural laborers, but the fact that they can live
on very little, and so compete with the Arabs, does not solve the
problem. Its solution would probably be education of the Arab and a
minimum wage. (See Ch. XXVI.) Our hope lies in the high intel-
lectual status of the Jewish agricultural laborer and in the democratic
and co-operative tendencies of Jewish life. Ha-Poel Hazair, a work-
men's organization, is strong in Palestine, and has its own Hebrew
periodical. So too has the Poale-Zion.
The Housing Problem
Strange as it may seem, the housing problem has been an acute
one in Palestine, especially when the Yemenites began to immigrate.
Two thousand of them arrived in Palestine within two years (1911-
1912) and were drawn to the Jewish villages as laborers. The
National Fund, the Odessa Committee, and the Ezra of Berlin
attempted to meet the situation. Barracks were put up for unmarried
workers and small houses for families, which were built on the loan
system. These are being gradually paid off by the workmen, who thus
own their houses.
Agricultural Training
The problem of agricultural training is also gradually being
solved. The Jew has perforce been a city-dweller. His return to the
land requires more than enthusiasm and devotion. Besides the Jewish
Agricultural Experiment Station and the few agricultural schools
(see Ch. XXXI), the I. C. A. has been a potent factor, with its farms,
its scientifically educated supervisors, its training methods for work-
men and its clear-sighted enlistment of the native Arabs, whose
traditional and primitive usages nevertheless are based on thousands
of years of experience and have their value. The Union of the
Judaean Colonies, organized in 1909 chiefly for business and agricul-
tural purposes, has a system of co-operation among the farmers, a
167
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
professional journal and an expert agronomist at its head. So, too, the
Jewish National Fund has a system of training for the workmen on its
farms.
Jewish Agriculture
The Jews in Palestine use American farming machines and the
most advanced methods, which include, of course, irrigation systems.
The results justify the expectations. The yield of the Jewish farms
and plantations has doubled and even tripled that of the Arabs with
their primitive methods. Jews own nearly 2 per cent, of the area of
Palestine, but 8 to 14 per cent, of its cultivated surface. Jewish culti-
vated land consists of from 175 to 200 square miles.
The Jewish Village
A brief description of the appearance of the Jewish village is
necessary to complete the picture. "Its beginning is a single straight
street, with houses on both sides, each house with a garden plot before
it, and a row of shade trees. The houses are set rather close together
for protection and to facilitate social intercourse. When the village
grows, the street throws out branches to right and to left and it
assumes the air of a small town. The houses are all built of stone,
usually but one story high and covered with white plaster. Wood
for building purposes is of course scarce in Palestine. The clustered
red roofs gleam from afar in the pure Palestinian air, peering out
from the surrounding orange groves, vineyards and fields. Acacia-
lined walks lead from the fields up to the houses. The dominant points
usually are the synagogue and the water works, and some of the
villages are completely shrouded in their eucalyptus groves."
In great contrast to the Jewish villages, even at their worst
for in a few instances the Jewish villages do not come up to the usual
high standard there is the Arab village, which consists of mud hovels.
The windowless Arab houses, like cliff swallows' nests, are built
against the earthen quarry from which they are hewn, gray on gray.
Safety demanded this protective coloring which deceived the approach-
ing enemy. In contrast to this the Jewish village is frank and whole-
some, planned for the uses of life, not merely to ward off death.
In Rishon le-Zion and Petah Tikvah some of the houses are villa-like
in appearance. The larger villages have their sights, such as the
beautifully planted public park at Zichron Ya-acob and the Palm
Garden in Rishon le-Zion. Then there are school houses, the Bet
168
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JEWISH VILLAGES
Ha-am or people's house, and hospitals. Occasionally there is also
the Arab market, orientally picturesque, and with it, what one must
call a slum district. Among the institutions that go with practically
every village are a sick-visiting society, a shelter for the stranger,
and a mutual loan society.
The villages are autonomous. Turkey, in spite of its many sins
of omission, had also virtues of omission, among them the complete
autonomy allowed to foreign settlements. All that the government
demanded was that the taxes be promptly paid. In the case of Jewish
villages one individual was designated to act as intermediary between
the government and the Jews the mukhtar who held himself respon-
sible, among other things, for the payment of taxes. This was an
arrangement of value both to the village and to the Turkish Govern-
ment. The former was saved the extortions of the tax collector, and
the latter the uncertainty and inconvenience of personal collection.
Each village has its Va-ad or town committee elected by what is
almost equivalent to a town meeting. At first, only the property-
owning men and women had the vote. In recent years, the work-
men lacking the property qualification have also secured the vote
on condition of two years' residence, but they are not eligible as
members of the Va-ad. The Va-ad is at once the legislative and
executive body. Its functions include the estimating and registration
of property, budget-making, and the collection of taxes. In the larger
villages the Va-ad has sub-committees for various communal purposes.
Differences between individuals are settled by Jewish courts of arbi-
tration, and it has frequently happened that Arabs too have laid their
difficulties before the Va-ad for adjustment. These Jewish village
courts have dealt only with civil cases. In the whole history of the
new Jewish Palestine there has been but one single case of Jewish
criminality.
As Turkey failed to provide for the most elementary communal needs,
these have been provided for by the villagers themselves from their self-
taxation. Among the needs that must be provided for are the Bet
Ha-am, the school, the physician, the apothecary, the public bath and
the hospital. Roads also had to be built by the villagers, as there were
practically no roads in Palestine. The only roads which the Jews
found there were the Roman roads, and they were not in repair. The
Arabs with their donkeys and camels prefer to travel cross-country,
and the Jews have had to provide their own roads as well as their own
coaches and wagons, and have often had to pay bribes for the privilege
of building these roads.
169
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Hashomer
Until after the war the Jewish villages had not been organized into a
federation except that of the Union of Judaean Colonies, whose pur-
poses are chiefly those of a grange. In 1903 a Kenessiah or conference
of delegates of Palestinian Jews, was called at Zichron Ya-acob, but
no permanent organization was effected. But a co-operative police
system was organized in 1910 by Manya Wilbushevitch and her hus-
band, Israel Shochat. This police force, known as Hashomer, is more
in the nature of a Jewish guard or night watch. They are not needed
for internal Jewish policing, but only for protection against depreda-
tions of the Jewish fields and vineyards by the Arabs. At first Arab
watchmen were employed, but the effect was not all that could be
desired. In 1910 a number of Jewish young men organized Hashomer.
There are now over a hundred members and they have an inter-village
organization. They can ride and shoot as well as the Arabs or as our
Western cowboys. They are independent, belonging to the Union of
Hashomer, and hiring themselves out individually or as a posse to
the villages. There have been some clashes between the shomeritn
and the Arabs, but on the whole this group of free and self-reliant
young men has won the respect of the Arab population, and so has
tended to improve relations between the two peoples.
Social Life in the Villages
Social life in the villages is full and self-sufficient. In the Bet
Ha-am there is housed the library; a number of clubs meet there;
lectures and amateur theatricals are given ; and there is usually an
amateur orchestra or a singing society. There are also athletic
societies, notably the Maccabees, who on all occasions of public
festivity may be seen marching in their blue and white uniforms.
Singing is heard everywhere. It seems the natural expression of
Jewish work and play in the Jewish land. The Sabbaths and festivals
have a wonderful Jewish flavor. And yet, though the community
celebrates them, there is no individual compulsion. No man asks
what another does indoors. Early on Friday afternoons the spirit of
Sabbath descends upon the village. The children are released earlier
than usual from school and the laborers hasten home from the fields
several hours sooner than on other days. And the following day the
place is pervaded with the Sabbath peace. Everyone is out-of-doors.
On the Jewish festivals all the villagers unite in celebrating them.
170
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE JEWISH VILLAGES
The festive table is spread on the open street and choruses fill the
air. It is a return to the spirit of their ancestors to the out-of-door
spirit that is voiced in the Song of Songs.
References:
History and Development of Jewish Colonisation in Palestine, by L. Kessler.
Jewish Colonisation in Palestine, by S. Tolkowsky. Palestine of the Jews, by
Norman Bentwich, Ch. Ill and IV, pp. 49-99.
Subjects for Papers:
A synopsis of Merhaviah, by Dr. Franz Oppenheimer. The labor problem in
Palestine.
171
CHAPTER XXVI
THE RELATION OF PALESTINIAN JEWS WITH OTHER PEOPLES*
The Problem Threefold
There is no problem more complex and difficult of solution than
the adjustment of the relation of the Palestinian Jews to the rest of
the world. In order to facilitate a discussion of this problem, let us
consider separately their relation (a) to the other inhabitants of the
land ; (b) to the national groups adjacent to them, and (c) to the Jews
of other countries.
Inhabitants of the Land
The need for the adoption of a definite attitude toward the other
inhabitants of the land is urgent, for upon it rests the fate of the
Jewish resettlement. Although the non-Jewish population of Pales-
tine numbered only 600,000 at the outbreak of the war, and numbers
considerably less (excepting, of course, the British forces) at present,
it is composed of the most diverse elements. First of all there are
the Arabs, about 500,000 in number, of whom the vast majority are
Moslems. These again may be grouped into Fellaheen (peasants),
Bedouin (nomads), and half -Bedouin, that is to say, those tribes who
are sedentary during the rainy season. There are few Bedouin and
half-Bedouin in Western Palestine. They are scattered chiefly on the
high plain east of the Jordan, where at present there are few other
inhabitants.
The Fellaheen
Ethnologists do not agree about the descent of the Fellaheen.
The probability is that they are of the same race as the Arabs of the
peninsula. But other theories have been advanced, such as their being
descendants of the aborigines of the land, or perhaps, even, largely of
Jewish blood. However, even if the first hypothesis is correct, there
is no doubt that they have undergone a not inconsiderable modification
as a result of the infusion of Arian blood, especially at the time of
the Crusades and the Latin Kingdom.
* By Nellie Straus.
172
PALESTINIAN JEWS AND OTHER NATIONALITIES
The Fellaheen are for the most part farmers, even those living in
the vicinity of towns. The city-dwellers are either artisans or small
traders. The Fellaheen are primitive in their way of life, which has
not undergone any perceptible change in the course of twenty cen-
turies. They are illiterate and superstitious, clinging tenaciously to
age-old habits and customs. Their wants are few, and they produce
most of the necessities of life in their homes. In fact, one general
store suffices for a number of villages. Each village consists of a
group of huts without floors or chimneys, in which there are two
rooms, the dwelling-place of the whole family, including goats and
chickens. The Fellah is usually monogamous, because he cannot
afford to pay for more than one wife. He is extremely hospitable
and fond of festivals, which are held on such occasions as circum-
cisions, weddings, etc.
There is no reason to suppose that the Arabs of Palestine are
mentally deficient or incapable of enlightenment. On the contrary,
those who have been educated in mission schools have proved to
possess keen intellects, worthy of their ancestral culture. They have
obviously been crushed by the political and economic oppression
exercised by the Turkish Government, negatively through its denying
them education as well as communication and transportation facilities,
and positively by a vicious system of absentee landlordism and
taxation.
The Bedouin
The Bedouin are even more primitive and unsophisticated than
the Fellaheen. They gain their sustenance by raising cattle, camels,
goats and sheep, and by bringing their products to the markets, gen-
erally Jerusalem or Gaza, to exchange them for commodities such as
coffee, sugar, tobacco, etc. The honesty of the Bedouin is proverbial.
If one of them promises to bring a certain number of camels to a
given place the following spring for wares received in the fall, he will
be sure to fulfill his word ; in case of death his nearest of kin take the
obligation upon themselves.
Relations with Jews
The relation of the Jews to the Arabs has been rather complex.
In the cases where it has been bad, the fault does not rest wholly with
the Arabs. It must be noted that reference is made here only to the
"New Settlement" as the "old" Jews of the cities have had practically
no contact with the Arabs. The settlers of the last four decades have
173
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
made the mistake, with few exceptions, of not trying to understand
the language or the psychology of the natives, and worse still, of
treating them as beings of an inferior order and as usurpers of the
land. It was this last-named attitude which was a source of peculiar
irritation to the Arabs, and rightly so. Many cases of trouble between
the Jewish patrol (shomerim) and the Arabs were due partly to the
fact that the former were chosen from among new arrivals from Russia
or Roumania, instead of from among Palestinian-born Jews. The
attacks upon the Jewish villages were probably not due solely to a
marauding spirit among the Arabs, but also to an envious fear of the
people of superior education and economic ability who were slowly but
surely gaining possession of the land. However, there are significant
instances of a spirit of good-will and mutual helpfulness, which show
that friction between the two groups is avoidable. The physicians of
the Jewish villages have given generously of their time and energies to
neighboring Arab villages, especially women physicians, who are alone
permitted to treat the Moslem women. The Arabs have also availed
themselves of the co-operative drug stores in the Jewish villages. In
fact, health conditions in the Arab villages near the Jewish settlements
have noticeably improved. The Anglo-Palestine Bank, too, has many
Arab depositors and borrowers, especially among the orange planters
of Jaffa. Several Arab children have been enrolled in the Jewish
schools.
Labor Problem
Curiously enough, the Arabs have been the cause of internal dis-
sention among the Jews. The Jewish settlers, in particular the
planters, preferred Arab labor to Jewish because the Arab workman,
with his lower standard of living, demands a lower wage. This
tendency has been severely criticized by the young Jewish men and
women who came to Palestine as farm-hands and were unable to
secure employment. Of recent years many Jewish planters and
farmers, in deference to this prejudice, agreed to engage none but
Jewish labor. It is evident that either extreme is pernicious. The
exclusion of Arab labor from Jewish economic life makes for a rift
between the two groups which may have dire consequences. On the
other hand, it is equally dangerous to withhold the opportunity of
farm-work from Jewish immigrants. The obvious, as well as humane
solution of the problem, is the introduction of a minimum wage.
Unless pressure is exercised from without to incite the Arabs
against the Jews, or vice-versa, there is no reason to suppose that
174
PALESTINIAN JEWS AND OTHER NATIONALITIES
they cannot live side by side in increasing good-will and confidence.
In this connection it is well to note the importance of fostering
Hebrew as the Jewish medium of intercourse, in preference to a
European idiom. Hebrew is much like Arabic, and its use is a power-
ful factor in bringing home to the Arabs the realization that the Jews
are closely related to them, and not an alien people.
Christians in Palestine
The Christians of Palestine, numbering about 100,000, are a
strange medley of peoples of all classes and circumstances, hailing
from every quarter of the globe. Greek Catholics, Armenians and
Copts rub shoulders with Roman Catholics and Protestants from
Western Europe and America. Practically all of them have come to
Palestine from religious motives, either as members of a religious
order, as teachers in mission schools, as medical missionaries, or
simply for the sake of spending their days in the Holy Land. The
Jews have not had intimate dealings with them up to now. Attempts
to proselytize among the Jews have met with so little success that of
late missionary efforts have been directed almost exclusively toward
the Moslems. That the Christians will not permit their Holy Places
to pass into Jewish hands now that they have been wrested from
Turkish dominion is certain. On the other hand, Jerusalem is bound
to be more or less international in character, and a majority of Chris-
tians in Bethlehem and Nazareth can in no way hamper the economic
or cultural development of the Jews.
Neighboring Nations
So far the Jews of Palestine, possessing no political status, have
stood in no distinct relationship either to neighboring peoples or to
the rest of the world. As a matter of fact there have not been any
neighboring peoples, nationally speaking. Turkish suzerainty made
development impossible, even for the Lebanon (north of Palestine),
an autonomous province under the protection of six Christian powers.
Now, however, that the national groups more or less near to Palestine,
such as the Lebanese, the Arabs of the Hedjaz, and the Armenians,
are in process of becoming independent, it is reasonable to suppose
that there will be intimate ties between them. Industrially and
commercially the various groups will have close affiliations. Their
friendship and co-operation should be of the finest and most altruistic,
as peoples who, having suffered ignominy and persecution, have come
into their own without infringement upon the rights either of each
other or the rest of the world.
175
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Jews of the Dispersion
It is often asked what effect the establishment of a Jewish national
center in Palestine will have upon the Jews remaining in the disper-
sion. Obviously, it will in no wise affect their national allegiances,
any more than the restoration of Greece did that of Greeks living in
other countries. That Palestine will exert a tremendous spiritual
influence cannot be doubted. Apart from the fact that Judaism may
in the future once more possess an authoritative body similar to the
Sanhedrin, the effect of knowing that there is a Jewish homeland,
that governments recognize Jewish emissaries, that there is a Hebrew
University fostering the national Jewish tongue, and a merchant marine
flying the Jewish flag, will unquestionably be to increase the self-respect
of every Jew in the world, even though he have no desire to leave the
country of his birth or adoption.
References:
Village Life in Palestine, by J. Robinson Lees.
Subjects for Papers:
The Christian peoples of Palestine. The Syrian national movement.
176
CHAPTER XXVII
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF PALESTINE
Jerusalem
Jerusalem, the Holy City, is built in the mountains. Yet no high
mountains are seen from it it appears comparatively flat because
of its own elevation. It lies at about 2,500 feet above sea level; it
has a number of hills, among them Mount Scopus, the Mount of Olives
and Mount Zion ; on the north it runs into the rocky mountain range of
Judaea; to the east, west, and south are deep ravines. The Jordan is
not visible, but from some points its depression can be seen, and the
opposite line of the mountains of Moab, deep blue like an ocean
congealed.
The inner or old city, within the city walls, was before the British
occupation, dirty, ill-smelling, and overcrowded, yet picturesque in
its hoary age. The crooked streets are ill-paved and so narrow that
no vehicle can be used ; many of them are blind alleys. All the houses
are of stone. The roofs and walls are so arranged as to catch the
rain water which runs into cisterns in the courts. This until recently
has been almost the only water-supply of the inner city, eked out in
summer by the Arab water-seller, who carries water in bags made
of the whole skins of sheep or goats. The dwellings, of one or two
rooms, covered with flat domes, open on a stone court, and all the
stairways and passages are open to the sky. Thus a number of
dwellings are combined into one structure. The rooms in one dwelling
in these old houses are not divided by walls but only by one or two
steps leading to a higher level. Chairs are uncommon in the dwellings
of the Orientals. The couch or sofa is covered with gay stuff and
bright cushions. The rooms are large with very small windows.
Part of the roofs are arranged so they can be used as if they were
balconies. Life in summer is spent out of doors. The shops are open
on the street, with their gay wares projecting. A careless donkey
or camel may cause wild havoc.
Miss Alice Seligsberg, administrator of the American Zionist
Medical Unit, has written the following description in a letter : "We
walked down Jaffa Street, through narrow vaulted thoroughfares open
to the sky for the most part, but here and there completely covered,
177
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
and always leading down lower and lower, by stairs of one step and
a landing space, repeated perhaps a hundred times. On each side
were arched bazaars for the sale of fruits, vegetables, stuffs, and other
vari-colored merchandise. The masonry throughout as well as the
pavements were of pale cream colored stone, the buildings were almost
all two-story structures, the upper floor serving residential purposes.
Here and there balconies projected, brightened with bunches of red
peppers or with green plants. If this ancient quarter of the city were
cleaned out, if the flies and donkeys and human filth were destroyed,
a landscape artist could make this part of Jerusalem look as if it
led higher and higher toward heaven."
The beautiful and impressive dome of the Mosque of Omar, one
of the holiest of Moslem houses of worship, stands on the ancient
site of the Temple. But if Jews as well as Christians are excluded
from its recesses, there is one point near by which is altogether Jewish.
At the Western or Wailing Wall, against the massive and weather-
beaten rocks, groups of old-world Jews still pray and shed their tears,
especially as the Sabbath approaches, testifying in this negative and
plaintive way to the undying Jewish national hope.
The Jaffa Gate, which leads to the outer city, is the busiest center
of the town. Here are shops and bazaars, a medley of costumes and
physiognomies of all nations, carriages, camels, donkeys, dirt, and
bustle. Here stands the massive gray tower, the so-called "Tower of
David", dating from the fourteenth century. Beyond the Jaffa Gate
is the Jaffa Road, leading out into the suburbs. Almost half of Jeru-
salem is suburbs.
Estimates of the inhabitants of Jerusalem since 1912 have varied
from 70,000 to 100,000, but the former number is probably correct,
and of these much more than half were Jews. The war has reduced
the Jews from about 50,000 to 26,000. The Moslems numbered before
the war about one-eighth and the Christians about one-fifth of the
population. And this whole population has been much reduced by the
war, temporarily no doubt. In 1881 Jerusalem is said to have had
35,000 inhabitants, of whom only 12,000 were Jews. The Jewish
population is divided not only into the Ashkenazim, the Sephardim
and other Oriental Jews, but each of these is again divided into infini-
tesimal groups, hailing from various lands, each Kahal having its own
synagogue. The Halukkah has in great measure been responsible for
this division, as also for the jealousies and feuds that often exist. But
if Jerusalem Jewry presents no happy picture, conditions among the
Christians, whose various sects live at daggers' points with each other,
178
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF PALESTINE
are far more deplorable. "The bitter war which rages among them is
carried on with very foul weapons, and the contempt with which the
Orthodox Jews and Mohammedans look down on the Christians is
only too well deserved."*
Every Easter thousands of poor Russian Christians pass as pil-
grims through Jerusalem. The mixture of nationalities, if spiritually
disconcerting, is marvelously picturesque. Among the Jews the older
immigrants keep to their original costumes. The Bokharan Jews
among the wealthiest recent settlers wear on the Sabbath long silk
robes of brilliant and beautiful colors in medieval styles. Both men and
women, tall and aristocratic looking, are clad thus. The Ashkenazim
wear flowing purple or rose-colored velvet gowns and long earlocks.
Their head-dress is trimmed with a wreath of fur.
In Jerusalem there are several Jewish quarters for as everywhere
in the Orient each nationality has its own district and these Jewish
quarters have each a distinct history. Within the old city are chiefly
the Halukkah Jews. But outside of the inner city, along the Jaffa
Road, one Jewish quarter after another has sprung up in recent years,
until Jewish Jerusalem outside the walls is three times as large as
within the walls. There is Shaare Zedek, and behind it the poorest of
Jewish sections, the Yemenite and Persian quarter, called the "tin
quarter" because the floorless, windowless huts are roofed and clamped
with tin from Standard Oil Company cans. There is Ohel Mosheh, a
Montefiore colony, and beyond it, the modern and pleasant Zichron
Mosheh, the most modern of Jewish quarters, with its attractive rose-
colored stone houses surrounded by gardens. Then there is Meah
Shearim, a bit of Russian Ghetto transplanted to Palestine, and in
contrast is Rehobot, a modern quarter, where dwell the well-to-do
Bokharan Jews in large and pleasant houses with balconies and
gardens.
The Jews in Jerusalem have four hospitals, as many orphan
asylums, an insane asylum, an asylum for the blind, two old-folks'
homes, several soup kitchens, and an eye clinic. There are schools, a
nurses' settlement, the health bureau, club-houses, and publishing
houses. There are two good Jewish hotels, the Amdursky and the
Kameriitz, just outside Jaffa Gate. There are three large synagogues
and more than one hundred small ones.
Among the Old Settlement Jews there is a great dearth of indus-
trial training, especially among the women, who have not even proper
training for home-making. Marriages of girls are generally very early,
* Palestine and Syria, by Karl Baedeker, 1912, p. 33.
179
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
among the Yemenites as early as at eleven years. There are numerous
Jewish artisans and shop-keepers, but the low economic development
of the country affords them little work. Hence the dire poverty.
Charity has led to pauperization. About 1850, Mrs. James Finn, wife
of a British consul, started an industrial and agricultural enterprise
for Jews, called "Abraham's Vineyard", to which the Jews flocked
for work. The Bezalel School has employed and trained hundreds
from the Old Yishub. Industrial schools, industrial opportunities, and a
minimum wage would recreate old Jerusalem.
The problem of disunity is a problem for the new settlement. At
first the tendency was for the New Yishub to ignore or defy the old.
But recently, it has become clear that if Palestine is to prosper, they
must merge. The children of the Old Yishub are attending the general
and technical schools of the New. Jewish nationalism is creating
Jewish unity. The war, which disrupted the Halukkah operations,
may be the first step toward its reform. The British in their short stay
have cleaned the streets and have already installed a good part of a
modern water system and drainage. Jerusalem holds within itself the
physical as well as the spiritual possibilities of complete moderniza-
tion. The Weizmann commission more especially Dr. Weizmann
himself has further drawn together all Jewish factions in Jerusalem.
The Jews of the city have taken steps toward organization, and a measure
of order has been brought into the school system.
The hope of Jerusalem, socially and hygienically speaking, lies
outside of Jerusalem. Many Zionists are of the opinion that the old city
ought to become a sort of Roman Forum, a national treasure place of
antiquities through its excavations, and that only the suburbs should
be used for residential and business purposes.
Jaffa
Jaffa, rising creamy white on its hill, is beautiful from the blue
Mediterranean. But within, the old city is anything but lovely. Its
streets are covered ankle deep with dust, which turns to mud in the
rainy season. However, here too the British have already remedied
matters, have introduced a measure of cleanliness and order, and have
cleared a road through the maze of lanes to the port. Djemal Pasha,
too, during his military rule had an avenue built by a Jewish engineer.
The Arab bazaar is busy and picturesque. The city, like Jerusalem,
is divided into the "old" and the "new", and it is surrounded by
wonderfully beautiful gardens and orange groves, among them those
of the neighboring Jewish villages. As a port, Jaffa is very imperfect.
180
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF PALESTINE
The rocky reefs make it necessary to reach land by small boats, since
the steamers cannot dock an uncomfortable and sometimes
dangerous proceeding.
There are three Jewish quarters in Jaffa proper, Neveh Zedek,
Neveh Shalom and Neveh Yafeh, each comprising a block of houses.
Of the 50,000 inhabitants before the war about 30,000 were Moslems,
10,000 Christians, and 10,000 Jews (Baedeker and Trietsch, 1912).
Tel Aviv, the Jewish garden suburb of Jaffa, is the pride of Jewish
Palestine, and here about one-quarter of Jaffa's Jews dwell. Naturally
the Turkish deportations and persecutions have reduced the popula-
tion temporarily. Tel Aviv had been growing, too, into additional
Jewish suburbs. The housing problem, here as in Jerusalem, was an
acute one. With the growth of the Jewish population, rents rose
enormously. In 1909 the Jewish National Fund, diverging from its
accepted policy, made a loan of $48,000 to the Ahuzat Bayit, a co-opera-
tive building association. However, lack of direct control by the
National Fund has resulted in speculation in real estate. Tel Aviv
has grown to be a beautiful, healthful, neat, and dustless quarter,
thoroughly Jewish and nationalist. Its broad streets are lined with
trees. Herzl Street, with the imposing Hebrew high school at its
head, is bright and lovely. The public lighting and water systems
are modern. The houses have running water, the water supply is
ample, and the square-set concrete houses stand in gardens. The
inhabitants are free, progressive, independent, and wholly Hebraic.
Here are the public institutions and buildings, the office of the Odessa
Committee and the Palestine Bureau, the schools, synagogues, Shaare
Zedek Hospital, the Bet-Am, and the library. There is local self-govern-
ment as in the Jewish villages, and self-imposed restrictions as to build-
ing, street width, shops, policing, etc., have made of it a model town.
Haifa
Lying in the Bay of Acre, among its palms, with a spur of Carmel
just behind it, castle-crowned, and with Carmel itself rising clear and
high out of a wreath of gardens and olive orchards, Haifa is indeed
well set. It is the one natural harbor of Palestine, in its deep bay with
its curve of smooth, hard beach. Today it is less important than Jaffa
as a port, but the artificial break-water and harbor that must be built
should make of it the most important harbor of Palestine. It will no
doubt become the largest and richest city of the land. Through it
flows, even now, the wealth of wheat and corn brought on camels from
the fertile plains of Hauran east of Jordan.
181
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Haifa had before the war a population of about 20,000, more
than half of them Moslems, about 5,000 Jews, and the rest various
sects of Christians (Baedeker 1912). The Jews, many of them
Morroccans, have almost all settled there within the last sixty years.
Latterly the Jewish immigration has been chiefly Roumanian. The
town is modern and comparatively clean, due in large measure to the
German Christian colony ; and altogether it is attractive. It is growing
rapidly. The Jews are planning and have begun to build a garden
suburb, Herzlia, on the side of Carmel, of the same type as Tel Aviv,
but even more "restricted". As at Jaffa, the Jewish life is in close
touch and sympathy with that of the neighboring Jewish agricultural
villages. If many of the Jews are poor, yet the community is self-
supporting and industrious. It has created and satisfied its own needs.
Hebron
The three other "holy" cities, besides Jerusalem, prove that in
modern parlance holiness is not akin to cleanliness. Hebron, the city
of the Patriarchs, is a little town which before the war had about
22,000 inhabitants, 20,000 Moslems, 2,000 Jews, and practically no
Christians (Baedeker, 1912). The Jews, we know, have been reduced
by the war to only about 600. Hebron lies 20 miles south of Jerusalem
among the southern mountains of Judaea, 3,400 feet above sea-level,
in a narrow, well-watered and very fertile valley. Good wine is still
made by the Jews from its grapes, and almond and apricot trees
abound. The Moslems here are extremely fanatical. The Haram, the
area surrounding the legendary site of the Cave of Machpelah, is held
to be specially sacred, and no non-Moslem, "unbeliever," is permitted
to go beyond the seventh step in its hoary wall. Within is an ancient
Mosque. "You find fig trees and cactus hedges, and at the bottom of
this shut-in valley there is this wonderful old city, with its tortuous
narrow streets where no wheeled vehicle can go, built over with
arches, with houses five and six stories high, built of the beautiful
yellowish golden limestone of Judaea."* Except for the high houses,
it resembles the other Arab towns ; its roofs, too, are used for balcony
purposes, as elsewhere, and the glorious sunlight and fresh climate
compensate in a measure for human slovenliness.
Until recently fanaticism was so intense that the Jews were
practically prisoners in their Ghettos. For here is indeed Ghetto life.
Even now, though life is gradually growing freer, the walled Ghetto
* Major William Ormsby-Gore, Address.
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF PALESTINE
still has all its gates locked each night. Almost all the Jews, who are
pitifully poor, depend upon the Halukkah. This maintains several
synagogues, Batte Hamidrash, Yeshibot, and Talmud Torah schools
for both the Sephardim and the Ashkenazim. Recently a Hebrew
kindergarten has brought a breath of the new spirit. There are a few
carpenters and shoe makers, and some Jews are employed in a glass
factory which manufactures jewels and trinkets from old glass. There
are three mutual aid societies and a free dispensary. The Jews live in
most appalling squalor and filth in a maze of dark, crooked, narrow
alleys. Here the spirit of the new life has hardly yet come to breathe
upon the dead bones.
Safed
Perched on a mountain in Galilee, 2,750 feet above sea-level, the
holy city of Safed, amid beautiful scenery, in a bracing climate and
lovely to look upon from without, is within hopelessly dirty, ill-
smelling, sordid. Down the center of its streets run open sewers. The
majority of its inhabitants are Jews. Before the war there were about
20,000 inhabitants, of whom only 7,000 were Moslems, and from 400
to 500 Christians (Baedeker, 1912). The war has reduced the Jewish
population to 3,000.
The Jewish community dates from the sixteenth century, when
Safed was a world-famed center of Rabbinism and the Kabbalah
(see Ch. XXIII). Twice, in 1769 and in 1837, the Jewish community
suffered great loss of life from earthquakes; and plagues also made
frequent and terrible ravages. Because of its Rabbinic history, the
city is looked upon as holy, and the Messiah is expected to appear
there. Sir Moses Montefiore and Isaac Vita rebuilt houses and syna-
gogues after 1837, but not their reconstruction nor yet the two well-
conducted schools supported by the Alliance Israelite Universelle and
Baron de Rothschild have been able to revitalize the ancient, decrepit life.
Almost all the Jews are supported by the Halukkah. Their intense
religious life, with even its local festivals and customs such as the
festival of Simeon ben Yohai which attracts many pilgrims have
been recently supplemented by a Zionist society. There is also a lodge
of the B'ne B'rit. Depressed and depressing as is this languishing
Jewish life, a breath of hope has blown upon it.
Tiberias
The holy city of Tiberias is beautifully situated on the shores of
the blue lake of Gennesaret, on a narrow plain between the lake and
183
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
the hills. It is entered through a Roman gateway, beside the ruins of
a Roman castle. The town is predominantly Jewish, having before
the war about 7,000 Jewish inhabitants, 1,400 Moslems, and only about
200 Christians (Baedeker, 1912). The narrow, dirty streets are lined
with little white houses of mud or stone, with no or few windows,
cave-like dwellings, into which man and beast descend together at
the fall of night. It has unpleasant renown for its vermin, the Arabs
claiming that there the king of the fleas holds his court. The Jewish
community is very old, and ever since the dispersion Tiberias has
been famed in Jewish history. At first the Jews refused to dwell
there because it was built over a cemetery, but after the destruction
of Jerusalem it became a center of Jewish learning, and has remained
ever since dedicated to Jewish study. Most of its inhabitants are
Halukkah Jews. It has its Yeshibot and Talmud Torahs and numerous
synagogues. The breath of the Hebrew revival has barely touched it,
yet it cannot long delay. With the revival of modern Palestine, the
Lake of Tiberias is bound to attract tourists to its mineral springs.
Economic revival must bring moral and social awakening. The Mizrahi
(see Ch. XV) among the Zionists have proved that intense traditional
Jewishness is compatible with national life and progress. Soon the day
may come when these ancient cities shall be called not only holy but
wholesome.
Gaza
Although Gaza was before the war inhabited by only about 150
Jews, among a population of 40,000 Moslems, many of them more or
less settled Bedouin, and perhaps 1,100 Christians (Baedeker, 1912),
its position of importance and its promise for the future make it of
interest to Jewish nationalists. It is an oasis on the outskirts of the
desert, many-fountained, beautiful among its gardens and orchards,
on the rim of the blue Mediterranean. The city has an Egyptian
tinge, noticeable in the costumes of its inhabitants. Golden sands,
palm trees, deep wells, rich gardens, white masonry scattered upon its
hills, such is the truly Oriental Gaza. Here the Bedouin come to
trade grain, dates, olives, figs, and lentils. Pottery and weaving were
carried on here before the war, the latter with wool from Manchester
in a German-owned mill. The British occupation has given Gaza a
railroad up from Egypt and up to Jerusalem. Gaza is a natural port
as well as the halting place between Egypt and Syria, yet no light-
house flashes across its roadstead. There is no break- water; there is
no harbor. Lighters load in shallow water and pound the beach when
184
LIFE IN THE CITIES OF PALESTINE
the wind blows. Gaza is not easily reached by coasting boat or by
camel. No steamers call regularly, and there are no banking facilities
nearer than Jaffa. Despite poverty and lack of sanitation, the people
thrive in the healthful climate. The mystic, quiet, often barren beauty
of Palestine holds its breath for a new era.
Notes on Cities
(1) Religions. In the Orient religion is more distinguishing than
nationality, and has its ancient political significance. Where Christians
are mentioned, the term refers to Greek Catholics, Roman Catholics,
various Protestant sects, and so covers a variety of disunified and
often antagonistic peoples.
(2) Size of cities. What is dignified by the name of "city"
often appears as no more than a small town or village. The cities of
Bible fame were even smaller.
(3) Other cities. Damascus, which has a considerable Jewish
population is not accounted part of Palestine. In other cities the
Jewish population is small. Ancient Shechem, or Nablus, is interest-
ing for its few families of Samaritans, unchanged in their creed or
customs since Bible times. In Nazareth and Bethlehem no Jews dwell ;
they are centers of a Christian fanaticism bound up with their later
religious history.
(4) Ruins. "The further you go the more frequently you are
reminded that you are in a land of lost footsteps. Plain and mountain
are haunted with suggestion of vanished populations. Traces of
deserted villages, broken stone dykes, stone presses for wine or oil,
water tanks, rock tombs, perhaps fragments of a church, tell of green
orchards and of fields once fertile. On the uplands almost every ridge
and peak is topped with ruins." From Damn in Palestine, by William
Canton.
References:
Becent Jewish Progress in Palestine, by Henrietta Szold, JJroan Development,
p. 98. Palestine of the Jews, by Norman Bentwich, Ch. V and VI, pp. 100-151.
Palestine, by A. Hyamson, (First Edition), Ch. 7 to 9, pp. 59-91.
Subjects for Papers:
The HaluJcTcah: Its history and prospects for its reform. City planning: How
can it be applied in an ancient land?
185
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE PROBLEMS OF SANITATION IN PALESTINE*
Conditions in Jerusalem
The health of a city is conditioned by two factors, its location and
the standard of life of the inhabitants. The location of Jerusalem from
the standpoint of healthfulness is excellent. It is built on a dry
plateau, 2,400 feet above sea level ; it has a sustained temperate climate,
rarely rising above 85 degrees F. in summer or falling below the
freezing temperature in winter. Throughout the summer a cool sea
breeze plays over the city during the day; there are no swamps in
the neighborhood infested with disease-carrying mosquitoes. These
fine prospects for a healthy city are counteracted by the characteristic
Oriental indifference of the inhabitants to personal hygiene. Partly
this is due to ignorance, partly to its half-brother poverty, and partly
also to the real scarcity of water in Jerusalem.
The immediate problem confronting Jerusalem is the obtaining of
an adequate supply of pure water. This has been partly solved recently
by the British, who piped the water from a series of springs some miles
away direct to the city. These springs furnish about 14,000 gallons
of water per hour and form an invaluable supplement to the cistern
supply. Prior to this, the cistern was the only source, and even now
it still is the main supply on which the bulk of the population depends.
These cisterns store the rain water from one winter to the next. If the
rainfall is low, the supply is inadequate ; even with an abundant rain-
fall the water rarely suffices for the entire summer. Consequently a
degree of economy is practised which naturally leads to uncleanliness.
The cistern is furthermore a great menace because it affords a breeding
place for the anopheles mosquito, the carrier of the malaria parasite
the great scourge of Jerusalem and the whole of Palestine.
Poverty and ignorance are contributing causes of the unhealthy
condition of Jerusalem. Poverty leads to congestion, and congestion
favors the rapid spread of various contagious diseases, particularly
pneumonia, tuberculosis, dysentery and cholera. Filthiness seems to
be the natural condition of most Oriental cities. In Jerusalem as
* By Dr. Israel J. Kligler.
186
THE PROBLEMS OF SANITATION IN PALESTINE
elsewhere in Turkey the outhouse is a crude pit built in the court,
often in close proximity to the cistern. Infiltration of material from
the pit to the well is almost inevitable; this is probably a factor
in the dissemination of dysentery, typhoid, and cholera. Personal
uncleanliness also leads to breeding of vermin, which contribute
largely to the high morbidity in Jerusalem. The vermin are respon-
sible for the transmission of typhus and recurrent fever, both of which
are quite common in Jerusalem.
The diseases most prevalent in Jerusalem are malaria, trachoma,
dysentery, recurrent fever, and typhus fever. About 40 per cent, of
the inhabitants are infected with malaria; while 60 per cent, of the
school children had trachoma before the American Zionist Woman's
Society, Hadassah, began its work in the schools. Dysentery is a
common ailment, especially prevalent during the summer months.
And the sad part is that all these diseases are easily preventable.
It is only under the shiftless Turks that a city of 70,000 to 80,000
people could be permitted to go without a water supply, without
proper disposal of human waste, without provision for collection of
garbage, without any attempt to enforce vaccination against smallpox
or isolation of contagious diseases. It is this indifference to com-
munity hygiene and general sanitation that is responsible for at least
85 per cent, of the morbidity of Jerusalem.
Conditions in Other Cities
The problems of the other cities of Palestine are much the same
as those of Jerusalem. In the order of their importance they are
(1) a pure and adequate water supply; (2) proper sewerage systems
for disposing of the human and animal waste; (3) modern hospital
facilities and hygienic institutes, and (4) modern well ventilated
dwellings.
Most of the cities of Palestine and Syria depend on the cistern
for their water for all purposes. The shortcomings and dangers of
such a supply have been mentioned above. None of the cities of
Palestine, with the exception of Tel Aviv, has a modern sewage dis-
posal system. The primitive pit or vault privy prevails. Before the
war there were several moderately good hospitals in Jerusalem, and
Jaffa, Haifa, Safed and the other large cities had at least one hospital
each. Most of them were either mission or charity hospitals poorly
equipped, with only a few beds and, at best, inadequate for the needs
of a community with a high morbidity. Community control of the gen-
eral hygienic conditions was entirely lacking. Even larger cities such as
187
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Jerusalem, Haifa, Jaffa, and Tiberias had no Public Health Department
for the diagnosis of infectious diseases, control of epidemics, regula-
tion of the handling and purity of food, etc. Finally, paradoxical as
it may sound, there is a real housing problem in all the Palestinian
cities. The streets are as a rule narrow and crooked. The houses are
built close together with the windows facing either a dark alley or a
dark court. They are usually only two to three stories high, but are
poorly built and greatly congested. A family of four or six may be
crowded into two small ill ventilated rooms.
Conditions in the Villages
In contrast with the miserable condition of the cities we have
those of the new Jewish villages. In most of these villages good fresh
water is obtained from pump wells. The houses, if not beautiful, are
substantial, clean and healthful. The free open air life is also con-
ducive to better health and increased vigor. The problem of the
Jewish villages, particularly those near Jaffa (Rishon le-Zion, Rehobot,
etc.), and those surrounding the Sea of Tiberias is one of location.
The low-lying marshlands are breeding places for the malarial
mosquitoes. In all these settlements malaria is more or less common ;
in some it is as prevalent as in Jerusalem or even more so. Attempts
have been made to drain these marshes by planting large numbers of
eucalyptus trees, but this hardly scratched the surface of the problem,
affecting only limited areas. The real and radical solution lies in
extensive ditching and oiling. By proper drainage, the entire coastal
plain would not only be rid of the pest, but would be converted into a
healthful, fertile region.
A serious problem that confronts some of the larger Jewish
villages is the Arabian part of the population. These natives live in a
most primitive manner. Their dwellings consist usually of a house of
a single room, made of clay, without any windows and with but one
low hole in one of the walls. This opening performs the triple function
of door, window, and chimney. In this hut of one room, the whole
family lives, cooks, eats, and sleeps. The effect of such an unsanitary
mode of life on their health is self-evident. In addition to this, their
superstitions and the Moslem fatalism resist any attempts at preven-
tion of pre-ordained ills. These people are an ever-present menace to
the health of the rest of the Jewish village.
Health Agencies in Palestine
It is difficult in this period of transition to say anything definite
regarding the sanitary institutions of Palestine. Some of those that
188
THE PROBLEMS OF SANITATION IN PALESTINE
existed before the war have disappeared. Temporary organizations
sent by various relief agencies have been at work since the British
occupation. Two institutions, both due to American initiative, should,
however, be given first rank. These are (1) the Straus Health Bureau
and (2) the Hadassah Nurses' Settlement House.
The Straus Health Bureau in Jerusalem was organized by the
personal efforts of Mr. Nathan Straus in 1912. A complete health
department was established where hygienic, laboratory, diagnosis, and
vaccine and serum work was carried on. A Pasteur Institute was also
established. Dr. Briinn was put at the head of the Hygienic Depart-
ment and promptly attacked the acute problem of malaria. Dr. Gold-
berg had charge of the Laboratory and Dr. Behan directed the Pasteur
Institute. The war interrupted some of their efforts, but the work was
continued in part even under the greatest difficulties. The need of a
well equipped, properly organized Health Department was never more
urgent than now.
The Nurses' Settlement was also established in 1912. Two Ameri-
can trained nurses, Miss Rose Kaplan and Miss Rachel Landy, were
sent to Jerusalem by the Hadassah, and with true feminine instinct
they devoted themselves to the vital questions of child welfare.
Maternity care and trachoma treatment among school children were
their chief fields of endeavor. In the short time before and during the
trying years of the war these nurses, in addition to their duties as
visiting nurses, supervised the work of six midwives, and, under the
supervision of Dr. Albert Ticho of the Le-Ma-an Zion Eye Clinic,
gave treatments for trachoma in 19 Jewish schools with over 3,000
children, and as a result of their efforts the incidence of the disease
among these children was reduced from 27.9 per cent, to 14.11
per cent.
After the two nurses were forced to leave the country, a Jewish
woman physician of Jerusalem, Dr. Helene Kagan, took over the mid-
wifery supervision and, when the Settlement was closed, opened for
Hadassah a clinic for women and children which functioned through-
out the war. The trachoma work was also continued by probationers
trained by the nurses.
Prior to the war, there were in Jerusalem four Jewish hospitals,
and about eleven of other nationalities. Most of them were forced
to close their doors either for lack of funds or other reasons until
the American Zionist Medical Unit arrived. v With the co-operation
of the British, the Unit refurnished one of the old hospitals with
100 beds, opened a clinic and a training school for thirty nurses,
189
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
and attempted to give the most needed medical aid. Sections of the
Unit went to various parts of the land, especially where epidemics
were raging. Definite information regarding the existing conditions
is not as yet available. One thing, however, seems certain, and that is
that in all matters pertaining to health we shall have to start anew
and build from the bottom. If we are to start anew it will be necessary
to formulate a broad plan. Such a plan should have as a basis the
modern principle of prevention instead of the old doctrine of merely
healing. Medical relief and cure are necessarily of primary importance
when the nature and mode of transmission of a given disease are
unknown. As soon, however, as we obtain definite knowledge regard-
ing these facts, prevention becomes of primary importance, and healing
and relief take a subsidiary place. Especially in an undeveloped
country broad preventive measures are essential in order to render
the country safe for the pioneers who come to blaze the trail, and in
order to make it habitable for the masses of immigrants who follow
them as settlers. It is hoped that the American Medical Unit, with
its body of experts and specialists, may not only render temporary
relief, but may lay the foundation for a national system of Public
Health.
References:
Conquered by Dirt and Disease, by A. R. Hoover, The Survey, 1917-18, No. 38,
p. 467. Hygiene and Diseases in Modern and Biblical Times, by E. W. G. Master-
man, Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly, 1918, p. 156. Tropical Diseases in
Palestine, by E. W. G. Masterman, Journal of Hygiene, 1913, No. 13, p. 49. Weather
Controls, by R. D. C. Ward, Scientific Monthly, April, 1918. Hadassah Bulletins and
Reports.
Subjects for Papers:
The work of Hadassah in Palestine. Jewish hospitals in Palestine.
190
CHAPTER XXIX
THE RESOURCES OF PALESTINE*
The Present Condition of Palestine
The possibilities of Palestine cannot be gauged by the economic
situation of the country as we know it. Of the three principal factors
which go to make up a country's prosperity natural resources, man
power, and a benevolent administration Palestine had only the first ;
and that is useless without the quickening influence on the other two.
However, despite the fact that the native population did nothing, or
practically nothing to exploit the wealth of the land ; despite the
restrictions put upon the more enterprising elements of the popula-
tion by the Turkish administration, the remarkable achievements of
the Jewish and other settlers give one at least a clue as to what may
be expected in the future.
An Agricultural Country Its Products
Nature has destined Palestine to be an agricultural country. There
is practically no part of the land which cannot be rendered productive
by the application of such methods as have served to reclaim vast arid
regions in the West of the United States. We are accustomed to think
of Palestine as the land of the olive and the grape. However, it is
no less the land of wheat and barley, sesame and sorghum, alfalfa
and clover, fruits and vegetables, cotton, sugar and tobacco, stock-
farming, apiculture, and poultry-raising.
The Olive
The olive and the grape, it is true, take precedence over other
branches of Palestinian production. Since time immemorial the
inhabitants of the land have prepared olive-oil by means of primitive
hand-presses. This oil is used for cookery and in soap-making, the
residue serving for fuel and in the manufacture of Halvah (an Oriental
sweet meat).
*By Nellie Straus.
191
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
The Grape
In recent years the grape has become peculiarly prominent in
agriculture and industry as a result of the activities of Baron de Roth-
schild, who constructed spacious wine cellars in the Jewish villages of
Rishon le-Zion (Judaea) and Zichron Ya-acob (Samaria) and
expended money lavishly in the planting of extensive vineyards. This
was in the eighties and nineties, before a judicious distribution of
agricultural enterprises had been evolved. Time showed that it was
precarious to depend on viticulture alone, but wiser to combine it
with cereal cultivation, orchards, poultry-raising, etc., in order to
insure the steady well-being of the farmer. It must not be supposed,
however, that Baron de Rothschild's contribution to Palestinian agri-
culture proved a failure. On the contrary, the vintners of Rishon le-
Zion, Zichron Ya-acob, and Rosh Pinah have succeeded not only in
producing wines and liquors of a superior quality, but moreover in
disposing of them to advantage in Egyptian and European markets.
In 1915, over a million gallons of wine were exported by the Societe
Co-operative Vigneronne des Grandes Caves de Richon le-Zion et
Zichron Ya-acob.
Grain Cultivation
Grain cultivation has been engaged in by the Arab population
rather than by the Jewish farmers, although it has been introduced in
increasing measure in the Jewish agricultural villages of Samaria and
Galilee as well as in certain parts of Judaea, for instance the village
of Gederah. Gaza is the center of barley-raising, and in good years
considerable quantities are exported, mainly to England. In the last
decades the rapid growth of Jerusalem has made it necessary to import
wheat in addition to that received from Hauran. This is not due to the
limited capacity for wheat production of Hauran, but only to its
untilled state. As a matter of fact Hauran produced the finest wheat
of the Roman Empire, and its estimated yield exceeds the needs even
of a populous Palestine. The fruits and vegetables of Palestine are
the boast of the inhabitant and the delight of the visitor. Nowhere
on earth, they claim, are such melons and cucumbers to be found. The
Haifa oranges are famous for their juiciness and fine flavor. In the
Judaean villages of Rishon le-Zion, Petah Tikvah, Rehovot, etc., the
orange groves have proved the most remunerative type of agricul-
ture, paying over ten per cent, on the invested capital. In 1912, for
instance, about 400,000 crates of oranges were exported by the Jewish
planters (who, like the vintners, are banded together in co-operative
192
THE RESOURCES OF PALESTINE
associations). Lemons are also grown, as well as apricots, figs, dates,
pomegranates, St. John's bread, etc. Special mention should be made
of the almond plantations, which have brought prosperity to numbers
of colonists of late years.
Stock-farming and Grazing
The juxtaposition of stock-farming and apiculture recalls the
Biblical promise of "milk and honey". What could be defined as
animal industry, if it were carried on in a less primitive fashion, is the
main pursuit of the country, especially east of the Jordan. The herds
of goats which have contributed so largely to the deforestation of
Palestine supply the peasants and the wandering tribes with milk,
hides, etc. The Bedouin of Trans jordania, in addition to their herds
of goats, raise cattle, sheep, and camels in large numbers, bringing
their products to the Syrian markets for sale and barter. The Jewish
farmers have not yet accustomed themselves to stock-farming* as
such, but in the German Templar colonies dairying proved a highly
remunerative pursuit". Apiculture and poultry-raising have not yet
been undertaken on a large scale, but will undoubtedly become an
important factor in the system of intensive agriculture which will be
carried into effect in Western Palestine.
Tobacco, Cotton, Sugar-cane, Castor-oil, etc.
There has been little actual achievement in the way of the three
commercial crops which could add materially to the wealth of the
country. Tobacco is known to thrive in sections of Palestine, but
could not be cultivated heretofore because of the Turkish monopoly.
Cotton was grown along the coastal plain over half a century ago,
and only lack of capital and transportation facilities have prevented
the isolated ventures with both sugar-cane and sugar beets from
developing. Other agricultural possibilities are the cultivation of
rice and papyrus in the marshes of Lake Huleh and of the castor oil
bush in the Negeb. If one includes forms of agriculture which have
not yet been experimented with, the enumeration can be continued
indefinitely, so varied are the Palestinian soil and climate.
Industries Based on Products
The industries of Palestine have, of necessity, been mainly of an
agricultural nature. Oil, soap, alcoholic beverages, lime, flour, volatile
* There are model dairies and chicken-farms in the colony of Ben-Shamen,
established by the Jewish National Fund.
193
*
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
oils and perfumes, pottery, devotional articles of olive-wood and
mother-of-pearl these have been the chief products of Palestinian
industry. It is a noteworthy fact that with the exception of oil pro-
duction and milling, these few industries have been pursued by the
immigrant population, especially by the European Jews. Wine-mak-
ing has brought with it the production of cream of tartar, and an
abortive attempt which should, however, succeed under more aus-
picious circumstances to establish a glass factory in Tanturah. Other
industries introduced by the Jewish immigrants are the manufacture
of building materials and the construction of barrels and crates (the
latter of eucalyptus wood) for the wine and orange trade. The
Bezalel School in Jerusalem has become a center for arts and crafts
work carpet-weaving, lace-making, wood-carving, etc.
The agricultural industries of the future, besides developing along
the same lines as heretofore, will follow directly upon the growth
and expansion of husbandry. The luxuriant fruits and vegetables of
the coastal plain call for the introduction of canning and dessicating.
There should be sugar refineries, macaroni-making, cotton mills and
cigarette factories. The stock-farms of Transjordania will bring with
them the establishment of dairies, tanneries, etc. Possibly the silk
industry will become popular, although of late years it has declined
in Northern Syria.
Mineral Resources
But Palestine has other resources than those which come under
the heading of agriculture. Its mineral deposits have not yet been
determined with any degree of accuracy. Scientific explorers maintain
that there is neither coal nor iron south of the Lebanon. However, we
may expect to find important oil deposits in the vicinity of the Dead
Sea, the waters of which contain various substances of industrial value.
There are phosphate mines near the city of Es-Salt. Throughout
Palestine limestone quarries are to be found, as well as a few marble
quarries and clay-pits, the last especially in Judaea. Of peculiar
importance industrially are the mineral springs of Tiberias and Cal-
lirrhoe, with medicinal properties which have been famous since
antiquity.
Fishery
Fishery can also add to the wealth of the country. Not only are
the waters of the coast and of the Lake of Tiberias able to supply the
country with fish, but, if hatcheries and preserves are established,
194
THE RESOURCES OF PALESTINE
there will probably be a sufficient quantity to warrant the introduction
of smoking, salting, and canning. The Bay of Acre also contains
sponges.
Forestry
The forest resources of Palestine are practically non-existent, not
because the land is barren of trees by nature (cf. the Bible and medi-
eval history) but through the devastation of many wars and the
improvidence and wastefulness of the Arab population, which has
hewn down the trees for fuel and permitted its herds to destroy the
saplings and underbrush. If once afforestation is undertaken on a
scientific basis the country will gain tremendously, economically and
aesthetically. Not only does the presence of forests prevent the
encroachment of the sand-dunes, but the need for both timber and
fuel will become increasingly great. It should be remarked that the
Jewish farmers introduced Australian eucalypti in order to drain the
marshes. Charles Netter, of the Mikveh Israel School, first introduced
the tree in Palestine. These trees have already grown up into rich
forests. They are known to the Arabs as "J ews ' trees".
It must not be supposed, moreover, that the industries of Pales-
tine need consist solely of the finishing of domestic products. Pales-
tine has a large Hinterland, whence raw products can be imported.
The Tourist "Industry"
The influx of tourists, too, which will be greater than ever before,
thanks to improved traveling arrangements and hotel accommodations,
will cause numbers of new industries to grow up, and will prove a
source of wealth to the country.
What the Country Requires
Let once an energetic population be permitted to develop Pales-
tine under favorable political and economic conditions, and there is
every reason to suppose that the land will prosper. But it will take
well-planned and well-directed efforts to reclaim it from centuries of
neglect and abuse. There is urgent need for irrigation, drainage,
afforestation, terracing and fertilizing ; for the clearing away of stones
on the hillsides and sand-dunes along the coast. The introduction of
industry will demand first of all an adequate supply of electricity.
Several experts assure us that the falls of the Jordan and the Yarmuk
can be made to provide all Palestine with electricity. This, as well as
195
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
adequate transportation and storage facilities, the importation of
up-to-date machinery and implements, and a scientific distribution of
agricultural pursuits, are only a few of the many tasks which confront
the administration of Palestine.
References:
Syria, by Arthur Ruppin, pp. 3-54. Jewish Colonization in Palestine, by Jacob
Ettinger.
Subjects for Papers:
Forestry: Its relation to climate and health. Cereal culture and fruit culture
in Palestine.
196
CHAPTER XXX
COMMERCE (INCLUDING TRANSPORTATION AND FINANCE)*
Oriental Business Methods
In order to visualize the commerce of Palestine as it existed up
to the present time, it is necessary to have some understanding of
Oriental business methods. Business in Asia Minor is not conducted
as it is in New York or even in the smallest American town. There
are neither stock exchanges nor offices in our sense of the term. To
sell any commodity for a fixed price, without bargaining, is unknown.
The Arab merchant serves his customer with coffee, converses with
him for hours, sometimes even for days, on abstract matters, and
finally the deal is closed without the aid of stenographer, dictaphone,
or any of the other complexities of our Western business life.
However, the absence of business mechanism has made trade
exceedingly complicated, especially for the uninitiated Westerner.
For instance, despite various rulings of the Turkish Government,
there was no uniform currency. A lira was worth 141 piastres in
Jaffa, and 255 piastres in Gaza.
Modern Banks and Credit in Palestine
It is only of recent years that several banking houses (such
as the Banque Imperiale Ottomane and the Credit Lyonnais) have
established branches in Palestine. Of particular interest to us is the
Anglo-Palestine Bank, which entered upon its activities in 1903.
(See Ch. XL) The Anglo-Palestine Bank has been an important
factor in the economic development of the land, especially through
its co-operative loan associations and its system of long term credits
for farmers, Arabs as well as Jews. At the beginning of the war it
was the Anglo-Palestine Bank which, by its prompt action in issuing
checks, averted a panic when the moratorium was declared. Closed
by the Turkish Government, it re-entered upon its activities with the
British occupation of Judaea, and is now playing an important role
in Palestine, issuing currency, etc. The Anglo-Palestine Bank has
* By Nellie Straus.
197
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
eight branches at the present writing. Forty-five co-operative loan
associations are affiliated with it.
The introduction of such loan facilities should be particularly
beneficial to the Arab population, for up to now it has been at the
mercy of usurers. The Arab money-lender charges the peasant
exorbitant rates of interest, and makes away with his herds and
even with his house when he is unable to pay. This abuse, added
to the heavy taxes levied by the Turkish Government, and the pre-
vailing system of land tenure (most of the Fellaheen suffering under
the curse of absentee landlordism), has made it literally impossible
for the native population to do more than scrape together the barest
livelihood.
Insurance
Even more recent than the banks is the insurance agent, who has
not done a flourishing business in Palestine thus far. Fire insurance
is not popular, because, thanks to the stone and brick houses of the
land, fires are a rare occurrence. Life insurance, which appeals to
the Jewish population, does not accord with Moslem fatalism.
Co-operative cattle insurance has been introduced in the Jewish colonies.
Lack of Transportation and Storage Facilities
The greatest hindrance in the way of commercial development
was the lack of transportation and storage facilities. Before the war,
the road system of Palestine was inadequate and extremely poor,
for the road tax levied by the Government was never devoted to
its ostensible purpose. The railway system if it could be dignified
by that name consisted of the Jaffa-Jerusalem line, operated by a
French Company since 1892, and of the western arm of the Hedjaz
Railway (the Pilgrims' Line running from Damascus to Medina and
Mecca), branching off at el Mezerib and reaching to Haifa.
New Strategic Railways
However, the war left Palestine a splendid legacy. The Turks
under German tutelage and the British vied with each other in con-
structing excellent roads and a network of railways for strategic
purposes. At present, it is possible to go from Cairo to Jerusalem
by rail. From Jerusalem one can travel to Gaza, to Beersheba, to
Haifa, and even to Beirut and Damascus. Soon there will be a direct
line between Jaffa and Haifa. Lydda (southeast of Jaffa) and Afuleh
(Merhaviah) in the Plain of Esdraelon, have become important junc-
198
COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION
tions. The Hedjaz Railway has thrown out another branch, to Es
Salt. When Jerusalem is connected with Es Salt, and Akabah with
Ma'an, and especially if a route is complete from Palestine to Con-
stantinople, the needs of inland transportation will be on the way to
being filled, and a tremendous impetus will have been given to
industry and commerce.
Harbors
The railways alone, however, are useless without proper shipping
facilities, and these will depend first of all on the construction of
harbors. Plans have already been made for good harbors in Haifa and
Jaffa, and it is not unlikely that Gaza and Akabah may follow in rapid
succession.
Even when steamers had to stop a mile out at sea in order to
avoid the reefs at Jaffa, numbers of lines French, Austrian, Italian,
English, German, Russian, Greek, etc. included this harbor, and to a
smaller extent, Haifa, in their service. This was partly in order to
transport the large numbers of tourists and pilgrims, and partly for
freight purposes.
Need of Storage Warehouses
With the construction of harbors should come storage ware-
houses, especially for grain. Up to now the magnificent wheat of
Hauran lay on open platforms, exposed to dust and rain, until it was
transported westward either by camel or by train.
Import and Export
Under these unfavorable circumstances, added to the difficulties
standing in the way of agriculture and industries, it is small wonder
that the commerce of Palestine should have remained stagnant, con-
sisting for the most part of the import of necessities and the export
of superfluous produce, such as grain, both conducted in an unorgan-
ized and casual manner. Yet since 1886 that is, during the period of
the new Jewish immigration foreign trade, via the port of Jaffa, has
multiplied by five, and it has more than doubled since 1903. In 1912,
it totalled over $9,300,000. Imports exceeded exports by over
$1,575,000. The leading imports were foodstuffs (such as sugar, rice,
coffee, tea), coal, oil, paper, glass, porcelain, wood and other building
materials, iron and hardware, motor engines, clothing, chemicals, etc.
Among the exports were oranges, olive-oil and soap, wine and other
beverages, almonds, wheat, barley, etc. It is interesting to note that
199
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
whereas wheat was exported, flour was imported, due to the fact that
the milling facilities did not permit of the production of fine flour
for pastry.
These articles came mostly from Russia: flour, sugar, alcohol,
oil. England: coal, cotton goods. Austria: sugar, timber, ready-
made clothing. France : cement, tiles. And India : wool, rice, indigo.
The greater part of the oranges exported from Jaffa by the two
Jewish syndicates, Pardess and Merkaz, and by Arab dealers, were
sent to Liverpool. They were packed in crates containing 144 oranges
each. In 1913-1914 the two syndicates exported about 380,000 cases.
Their methods of sale and distribution are worthy of note. The name
of the individual planter is marked on the case, so that the net pro-
ceeds may be distributed according to quality as well as to quantity.
The syndicates have obtained reduced shipping rates, and greatly
increased the profits of their members, besides educating them in the
use of agricultural methods and implements.
The wine exported from the Jewish villages is similarly disposed
of by a co-operative association of vintners, whose distributing agency
is the Carmel Wine Company, with branches in Egypt, Europe, and
America. In 1913-1914 the export totalled 875,920 gallons of wines,
cognacs, and liquors.
Olive-oil soap was also exported in inconsiderable quantities, as
were arts and crafts articles produced at the Bezalel School in Jeru-
salem, and devotional articles fashioned by the Christian communities
in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth, of which large quantities were
bought and taken out of the land by pilgrims and tourists.
Palestine has also its inland trade, including that between the
settled and the nomad population. Whereas the Jewish settlements have
numerous stores, a single store suffices for a whole group of Arab
villages, so few and so primitive are the wants of the Fellah. The
wandering tribes bring their live-stock and their produce (wool, hides,
cheeses, etc.) to various centers, in particular Gaza, and barter them
for coffee, sugar, and tobacco. The wheat of Trans jordania was
brought to Jerusalem by camel until the opening of the Haifa branch
of the Hedjaz Railway; since then there has been a tendency to send
it to Haifa for export. Barley was shipped from Gaza to England,
where it is used in the manufacture of whiskey. Sesame is also
exported.
A Forecast
It is apparent that Palestinian commerce must be built up from
200
COMMERCE AND FINANCE
the very foundations. Its shape and dimensions will depend on
external as well as internal conditions. A quickly growing population
with European standards of living, devoted to agriculture and industry,
will make the import and export business grow by leaps and bounds.
But the commerce of Palestine may become vaster, even world-
embracing, if only the most is made of the situation of the country.
Through it may flow great quantities of raw products and finished
articles, west and east, north and south. It may become commercially
the heart of Asia Minor, the halfway-house between the east and
southeast on the one hand, and the north and west on the other.
Given an energetic population and favorable political conditions, it
may become, through its commercial activity, a preponderant factor
in the awakening of the Orient.
References:
Syria, by Arthur Euppin, pp. 55-90.
Subjects for Papers:
The railroad systems of Palestine. Opportunities for the individual in Palestine.
201
CHAPTER XXXI
JEWISH EDUCATION IN PALESTINE
Jewish Nationalism and Education
When the Jewish people lost their national soil, their substitute
was a national education. Hence with the Jews education has not
been one of the issues of national life. It has itself been the heart
and center of national existence. So one cannot speak of Jewish
education growing up among the Jewish settlers of Palestine, because
Jewish education was the cause of their settlement.
The Religious Schools Hedarim, Talmud Torahs, Yeshibot
For centuries ever since the dispersion Jews have gone to
Palestine to study there. The purpose of Jewish settlement was to
keep aflame the torch of Jewish learning. Hence the Old Settlement
is conditioned by its schools, and the Halukkah itself subsidizes its
pauper communities in order that they may spend their lives in the
Yeshibot of the Holy Land. The old system of education is wholly
religious, consisting only of Bible, Talmud and later Rabbinic litera-
ture. No attention whatever is paid to such matters as health and
hygiene, fresh air, play, exercise, mathematics, handicrafts or
languages. The language in which Bible and Talmud are taught is
almost never Hebrew, but Yiddish or Ladino (the Spanish dialect of
the Sephardic Jews) or Arabic. In the Hedarim and the Talmud
Torah School the elementary religious schools the teaching is
unsystematic, carried on by Rabbis whose chief qualification often
seems to be lack of qualification for anything else; the rooms are
badly equipped and usually unsanitary, the hours are excessively
long, and no provision is made for girls. Who cares whether the
children are anaemic, apathetic, diseased, and dirty? The only object
is to prepare Jews learned in the Torah until such time as the Messiah
shall come; and, immediately, to prepare them for reception of the
Halukkah pittance and for a bride with a dowry. The Yeshibot,
where the older men also carry on their studies, are a bit of the
Yiddish Galut transplanted to Palestine. In many cases, superstitious
practices are combined with an extreme orthodoxy. The standard
202
JEWISH EDUCATION IN PALESTINE
of learning is far below that in the Yeshibot of Russia. And the
Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem must always be imported. In Jerusalem
alone there were before the war 17 Yeshibot, 22 Talmud Tor ah
schools, and innumerable Hedarim or private schools, with about 4,000
pupils and 200 teachers. Jaffa, Safed, Hebron, Tiberias, and Haifa
also have their schools of this type. And the larger colonies, such as
Petah Tikvah, Rishon le-Zion, Rehovot, and Ekron, each supports a
Talmud Torah. These schools are all of them independent of each
other, often at odds, because they are supported separately by funds,
although not directed, from abroad. For the same reason, it is
possible for these schools to continue undisturbed side by side with
the new schools that embody a different age and spirit.
In 1866, a sort of revolt from within resulted in the establishment
of the Bet Hamidrash Dorshe Zion, known, also, because of its
founder's name, as the Blumenthal School. It differed from the old
schools only in making the study of a European language compulsory
and in its systematic and hygienically sound management. However,
even it was received with excommunication by the Ashkenazim,
although given a welcome and used by the Sephardim. Of the Old
Yishub in Palestine, the later Ashkenazic immigration from Eastern
Europe is more fanatical and reactionary than the Sephardic Jews settled
there since the Middle Ages, and earlier. The opposition is against
every form of secular education and modernization. But gradually
some of the old schools have in part modernized themselves. The
Talmud Torah schools, Ez Hayim and Meah Shearim, are housed in
fairly good buildings. And the Sephardic Tipheret Yerushalayim in
Jerusalem, in the inner city, has its own building, the oldest school
building in Jerusalem. The HoD Organization of Frankfort (for
Holland und Deutschland) which administers the Halukkah from
Holland and Germany, has been doing educational work in Palestine
since 1909. This Orthodox organization instituted method, sanitation
and order, added to the curriculum of the Talmud Torah the most
necessary secular subjects, and established two girls' schools, in
Petah Tikvah and Ekron, the former teaching domestic science.
The Alliance Schools
When Western Europe in the past century revived its interest
in the Holy Land, it was natural that the more progressive sections
of Jewry should wish from philanthropic motives to give the benefit
of a modern Western education to the Jews of the Orient. The
Alliance Israelite Universelle, organized in 1860, with a special view
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
to relieving Jewish conditions in the Orient, established modern
schools throughout the Near East. As the teachers, although in many
cases Oriental Jews, were themselves educated in and sent out from
France, it was natural that the language of instruction should be
French. The first Alliance School in Palestine was the Mikveh Israel
agricultural school, with its 650 acres and fine buildings near Jaffa,
founded in 1870 by Charles Netter, a Jewish nationalist. Under his
leadership the spirit of the school was nationalistic and Palestinian.
But after his death in 1882, its policy became anti-national and anti-
Hebraic. Although it was not so intended either by the leaders in
Paris or by the teachers, the effect was to educate farmers, or rather,
administrators and teachers, who would wish to migrate to Europe.
The number of students decreased. A recent return to the policy of
Jewish nationalism has tended to revive interest in the school.
The other schools of the Alliance, covering the seven or eight
years of the elementary period, resemble the European public school.
A small tuition fee is generally charged. There are many of these
schools; those in Jerusalem, Jaffa, Haifa, Tiberias, Saida, Safed, and
Hebron number about 2,000 girls and boys (Thon, 1911). All of these
schools except perhaps the one in Jerusalem under Nissim Behar, a
nationalist and Hebraist tended to give the children a European out-
look and the desire to migrate. The chief language of instruction was
French, and Hebrew was used only in teaching religion and Jewish
history. Where, more recently, adequate Hebrew teaching prevailed,
the teachers were paid not by the Alliance, but by other Jewish
nationalist organizations. The French schools in the villages, under
the Rothschild administration, have been superseded by the Hebrew
Bet Hasefer. The anti-national and assimilationist tendency of the
Alliance schools caused them to lose the confidence of Palestinian
Jewry, as evidenced by the fact that during the last ten or fifteen
years the number of pupils in these schools has either decreased or
remained stationary, despite the large increase of Jews in Palestine.
However, the Alliance has done a great service to Jewish educa-
tion in Palestine. It first introduced European methods of instruction
and management, and it first emphasized the need of industrial educa-
tion. As early as 1882 it opened a trade school in Jerusalem for
carpentry, cabinet-making, wood-carving, weaving and dyeing, and
machine construction, and for training blacksmiths, coppersmiths, and
locksmiths. The instruction was excellent. But through the anti-
national spirit of the school, it failed to retain a hold on the industrial
life of Jerusalem.
204
JEWISH EDUCATION IN PALESTINE
A school similar to the Alliance schools, but where English has
taken the place of French as the chief language of instruction, is the
Evelina de Rothschild School for girls in Jerusalem, belonging to the
Anglo-Jewish Association. However, more time is allotted to Hebrew
than in the Alliance schools, and the strong religious tone of the
instruction has won on the whole the confidence of the Sephardim and
also of the Ashkenazim, yet the Anglicizing tendency presented the
same danger as in all the philanthropic schools. The school has had
as many as 650 pupils. Its courses in domestic science are especially
good.
The Hilfsverein Schools
The Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden (or Ezra), established in
Germany in 1901, was a rival of the Alliance in fostering Jewish
education in the Orient. Its attitude at first was in opposition to the
anti-national policy of the Alliance, and its tendency was toward
greater Hebraization. Its schools were also better equipped and
managed than those of the Alliance. Its greatest service has been
the creation of a series of Hebrew-speaking kindergartens (gannim).
In them toddlers from every element of the Jewish population,
speaking Ladino, Yiddish, Arabic, Persian and a medley of other
tongues, were welded into a unit by the use of Hebrew. The Hilfs-
verein created a network of excellent schools, elementary and advanced.
Its standard elementary school was the Laemelschule in Jerusalem,
for boys and girls, an old German foundation with beautiful buildings,
the earliest modern Jewish school established in Palestine, in 1856.
Its first director was the pioneer in Hebrew, Dr. Frankl. The school
was taken over by the Ezra in 1911. Besides these and other
elementary schools in the cities and colonies, it had a teachers'
seminary, a course for kindergartners, a seminary for Rabbis, and a
commercial school, all in Jerusalem, and all of these had evening
extension and continuation classes. The Ezra taught, in all, 3,000
pupils and employed 150 teachers. In its higher schools the language
of instruction was German, and progressively less attention was paid
to Hebrew. A gradual change was clearly noticeable both to teachers
and pupils from the original Hebraic to a Germanizing policy.
The Bet Hasefer in the Villages
All of these foreign schools, unconscious tools of a political
propaganda, instead of unifying the Jewish population, helped to
divide it. Children of the same family spoke different languages,
according to the schools they attended.
205
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
In the meanwhile, another system of schools if anything in this
medley could be called system was growing up alongside of these
foreign philanthropic foundations. It was the national Hebrew school
system springing out of the life of the New Yishub. Its impetus was
not philanthropy, but national self-realization. And this difference
was reflected in its whole spirit.
These schools are thoroughly Hebraic Hebrew in all of them
is the language of instruction and are a free expression of national
Jewish life. The Turkish Government of course made no decent
provision for schooling. The schools of the Arabs are beneath
criticism. Besides this, they are of course exclusively religious
(Mohammedan). Though in most cases the subsidizing of the Jewish
national schools was from abroad, it was such as to leave them com-
plete freedom of action. The Odessa Committee, or Hoveve Zion, has
since 1902, at the instance of Ahad Ha-am, devoted 25 to 30 per cent,
of its income to national education in Palestine, and its fundamental
principle is "freedom of instruction". Once its schools are delivered
into competent hands, it ceases to interfere with their curricula. The
Bet Hasefer, or national Hebrew school, was inevitable in the New
Yishub, where the Heder of the Galut could no longer satisfy, and
the French school of the philanthropic regime was out of touch with
the new national spirit. An abortive attempt to establish a Hebrew
school was made by Israel Belkind in Jaffa as early as 1888. It failed
for lack of funds. Soon afterwards Hebrew national primary schools
began to be established in many of the Jewish villages. Thirteen of
these schools were in large part rather liberally supported by the
Jewish Colonization Association (I. C. A.), and seven were more
meagrely supported by the Odessa Committee. Although the I. C. A.
was not nationalistic, it wisely refrained from interference, and in
fact, if not in principle, allowed as much freedom of instruction as
the Odessa Committee. Two villages, Rishon le-Zion and Rehobot,
wholly support their own schools. These co-educational village schools
were nominally independent of each other, and many of them are
still lacking in system and weak in efficient teachers, but nevertheless
the spirit is remarkable. The teachers are self-sacrificing young
people, usually Russian intellectuals, living on a mere pittance. A
religious spirit pervades the schools, despite much difficulty in
achieving a form of religious instruction. The life of the villages is
reflected in the schools ; they close at noon on Fridays and are closed
on all minor holidays, such as Hamisha Asar Bishevat and Lag
Ba'omer, and they make provision for vacations at vintage time.
20(5
JEWISH EDUCATION IN PALESTINE
Hebrew is of course the language of instruction, but Arabic is taught
in them all. Other subjects common to all are Hebrew, prayers,
drawing, Jewish history, singing, gymnastics, and sewing. Arithmetic
in some schools is taught only as far as fractions, in others as far
as compound interest. The teaching of natural science is in most of
them still very deficient, owing to a lack of competent teachers and
of Hebrew text-books.
Agudat Hamorim
Although the schools are nominally independent of each other,
in fact a unitary system of education has been developing since 1903,
when Ussischkin, as representing the Odessa Committee, called a
conference of teachers in Zichron Ya-acob at the time of the Kenessiah,
who organized themselves into the Agudat Hamorim or Teachers'
Association. Since then their task has been to standardize the village
school system, to certificate teachers and to prepare Hebrew text-
books. They have accomplished remarkable results under great
handicaps. It is noteworthy that in Palestine all the national Hebrew
schools have been organized and are run by committees of parents and
teachers. The Merkaz Hamorim, the Executive Committee of the
Agudat Hamorim, which is in part supported by the Odessa Com-
mittee, also publishes two Hebrew periodicals, Ha-hinuch, a bi-monthly,
edited by Dr. N. Turof and devoted to pedagogy, and Moledet, a
monthly for children. It is also responsible for the publishing society
Kohelet, which issues the Hebrew text-books.
Hebrew Schools in the Towns
In the cities, a number of excellent primary and secondary Hebrew
national schools have developed, among them the Bet Sefer le-Banot,
Girls' School, in Jaffa, which is an outgrowth of the first attempt by
Israel Belkind. With it are associated a manual training school and
a teachers' seminary, all supported except for small tuition fees
by the Odessa Committee, and housed in very fine buildings with a
large playground.
In Jaffa, too, is the Hebrew high school, the Gymnasia Ivrit
Herzlia (co-educational), founded in 1904, which is so far the crown
of the whole Hebrew educational system. Since 1909, it is housed
in an impressive building, the pride of Tel Aviv, at the head of Herzl
Street. The splendid building was given by Alderman Moser, Mayor
of Bradford, England, in response to an appeal from a parents' com-
mittee in Jaffa and from Mr. Sheinkin, Dr. Mossinsohn and other
207
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Palestinian educators. The Gymnasium was created to meet an
urgent need, for previously Jewish parents in Palestine had sent
their children abroad for their higher education. When the war
broke out, the Gymnasium had 900 students from all parts of the
world. The subjects taught are Hebrew, Bible, Talmud, mathe-
matics, natural science, Jewish history, ancient and modern, geog-
raphy, general and commercial, drawing, bookkeeping, French,
Latin, Greek, Arabic, Turkish, singing, gymnastics all through the
medium of Hebrew. The emphasis is on outdoor subjects, gymnastics
and general vigor, in contrast to the Ghetto spirit, and as in all trie
national schools, excursions are part of the school's regular activity.
The programs carried tend to be rather heavy, class hours varying
from 39 to 43 per week. Much time is devoted to the study of the
Bible, Talmud, prayers and ritual law from a literary, historical and
national point of view, but religious instruction as such is avoided.
The graduates of the Gymnasium have been accepted without exam-
ination by the leading universities of America and Europe.
Jerusalem would seem the most suitable spot for the first Hebrew
high school in Palestine. However, the more progressive and well-to-do
Jewish community of Jaffa was better able to support it. In Jeru-
salem there is also a co-educational Gymnasia Ivrit, organized on
the same lines in 1908, but inadequately supported with only a few
over 100 students and with no building of its own.
The Mizrahi (see Ch. XV) have also organized several national
Hebrew schools in Palestine, along Orthodox and Rabbinic lines.
The largest is the Tahkemoni in Jaffa, which aspires to the status of a
high school. This school is only for boys, and most of the pupils
come from among the poor. After years of struggle, it has recently been
well supported until the war by the Misrahists of Frankfort, Ger-
many. Another Mizrahi school is the Heder Torah of Jerusalem.
Special and Technical Schools
A number of special schools have been created by various
agencies to further art, science, agriculture and handicrafts. There
are several orphanages in Jerusalem, supported from abroad, which
aspire to the standard of schools. A few of them are very good ;
others are extremely questionable in methods and results. In Jeru-
salem there is a Bet Hamelachah, dressmaking school, for girls; there
are the needle lace work schools of the Verband juedischer frauen in
Jerusalem, Jaffa, Safed, and Tiberias, where about 400 girls are taught
and employed ; and the Nathan Straus workshops, established in 1913,
for teaching the unskilled to make pearl buttons and trinkets.
208
JEWISH EDUCATION IN PALESTINE
Music conservatories, called Shulammit Schools, in Jaffa and
Jerusalem, besides their direct educational work, influence musical
taste by arranging concerts and occasionally issuing collections of
old and new songs.
It should not be forgotten that singing is compulsory in all the
schools. Music in Palestine seems as necessary as breathing.
Wherever one goes, in field and street, Hebrew songs are heard, the
new happy Hebrew melodies of the Jewish revival.
The thoroughly Zionist Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts was
founded in 1906 by Boris Schaz, artist and Zionist, who won Herzl's
hearty support for the project. The beautiful buildings on the out-
skirts of Jerusalem are built on National Fund ground. Applied art
is taught, and the students are paid for their work. In 1912, 430
persons were employed by the school, who earned $27,000, whereas
the sale of the products amounted to $50,000. The subjects taught
are carpet-weaving, filigree silver work, beaten copper and brass
work, carving, lithography, lace-making, etc. In co-operation with
the National Fund, an industrial settlement of Yemenites has been
established at Ben Shamen, where filigree silver work and rug-weaving
are supplemented by truck- farming. The beginnings of a truly Jewish
art have already been created. The school has a museum of Palestinian
natural objects. Palestinian scenes and the letters of the Hebrew
alphabet have become the themes of design. Through this means,
many from the Old Yishub have been taught the dignity of inde-
pendence and the value of the love of beauty. The products show
excellent workmanship and have unique artistic value ; they are appre-
ciated abroad, where there have been wide sales and numerous
exhibitions.
Agricultural Schools
The provision for agricultural training, which is of supreme
importance, is still wholly inadequate. The Mikveh Israel school has
the plant which may one day serve the purpose. The Petah Tikvah
Agricultural School, founded in 1912, is theoretical rather than prac-
tical in its teaching. An interesting experiment that for the time
being has failed for lack of funds was the agricultural school Kiryat
Sefer founded by Israel Belkind for the education of the Kishinef
orphans. And at Kinneret, near the Lake of Tiberias, is the very
practical farm school for girls founded by the Verband juedischer Frauen
fuer Kulturarbeit in Palaestina. This is an excellent institution, giving
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
an all round training to the city girl as a future farmer's wife or in-
dependent farmer.
Not a school, and yet most important as an educational institution,
is the Jewish Agricultural Experiment Station at Athlit, near Zichron
Ya-acob. It owes its existence to American Jews, and was incorpor-
ated in 1910 in New York State. Its purpose is to further scientific
methods of farming in Palestine. A remarkably complete herbarium
of Palestine had been collected before the war (unfortunately
destroyed), and many successful experiments have been tried with
the raising of cacti for purposes of fodder, fencing, etc. And Mr.
Aaron Aaronsohn, managing director, discovered in Palestine the
original wild wheat, growing in arid regions, and by its cross-fertiliza-
tion and other experiments in dry farming it may add much to the
world's possibilities of wheat-growing in dry countries. A great deal
is to be expected from the Experiment Station.
The Language Struggle and the National Hebrew Schools
In 1913 the projected Polytechnicum at Haifa was the cause of
a language struggle between the Hilfsverein with its Germanizing
tendencies and the now thoroughly Hebraized Jewish population.
(See Ch. XXXII.) The Polytechnicum, whose building was erected
on National Fund ground, was to be jointly financed and managed
by the Hilfsverein, by numerous nationalist organizations and by
individuals. When the Hilfsverein took its uncompromising attitude
on the question of German as the language of instruction, there was
not only a break in the Board of Trustees, but a general and spon-
taneous revolt of a large majority of both pupils and teachers in all
the Hilfsverein schools. This heroic action made it incumbent upon
the Zionist Organization to carry the burden of the new schools
that were organized in order to replace those of the Hilfsverein. The
new nationalist schools were established throughout the villages and
cities. In order to take firm hold of the situation, the Merkaz Hamorim
then organized the Va-ad Ha-hinuch, or Board of Education, which
has functioned ever since. These new schools grew rapidly, attracting
broad sections of the population, Orthodox Ashkenazim, Sephardim,
Yemenites, etc., who had held aloof from the semi-Hebrew schools
of the Hilfsverein. Also they counteracted, more than any of the
previous Jewish schools, the dangerous attractions of the Christian
missionary schools in the cities, which had alienated hundreds of
Jewish children. In Haifa a technical high school was opened to
prepare boys and girls for the Polytechnicum whenever that should
become a reality a Hebrew reality.
210
JEWISH EDUCATION IN PALESTINE
Since the War A National School Board
The war found the new national school system still very new.
One of the marvels of Palestine's reaction to the war has been the
stubborn resolve to keep the schools open at any cost. Often that
included feeding and caring for the children. Many teachers were
banished. Funds failed to arrive. The whole Jewish population of
Jaffa and part of that of Jerusalem were banished to Northern Pales-
estine. Among the refugees' camps the Va-ad Ha-hinuch established
schools. When the Weizmann Commission arrived in Palestine, it
found a thoroughly Zionist Board of Education to deal with. Zionist
funds for subsidizing all Jewish schools in Palestine are administered
by thjs Board, and all the schools are being subsidized, but on two
conditlonslMhat Hebrew be the language of instruction and that there
be a certain standard of hygiene and sanitation. The buildings of the
Hilfsverein will probably pass to the new schools, and every effort
is being made by the Commission, seemingly with the co-operation
of all sections of Jewry, to organize a unified national Hebrew school
system in Palestine.
The Hebrew University
A Hebrew university at Jerusalem had been dreamed of and
written of for many years. Just before the war, in 1913, the eleventh
Zionist Congress brought that dream near realization. Through the
efforts of Dr. Weizmann, Ussischkin and others, a large fund was
raised, ground was given for the building on Mount Scopus, near the
Mount of Olives, overlooking Jerusalem and the Jordan valley, and
much preparatory work was done. The Hebrew University has come
to be almost a symbol of Jewish renationalization, of spiritual rebirth.
It stands as the spiritual rallying point of Israel. Chaim Weizmann
proclaimed that to all the world by making one of his first political acts
in Palestine, on July 24, 1918, the laying of the corner-stone of the
Hebrew University.
References:
Jewish Schools in Palestine, (1912), by Norman Bentwich. Hebrew Education
t Palestine, by Leon Simon. Palestine of the Jews, by Norman Bentwich, Ch. VII,
pp. 152, 177.
Subjects for Papers:
Boris Schatz and the Bezalel School for Arts and Crafts. The Jewish Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.
211
CHAPTER XXXII
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN PALESTINE
Eliezer Ben Yehudah
That Hebrew should have become the language of the Jews in
Palestine was probably inevitable. Now, after the event, we can see
that only Hebrew could have unified the Jews from all ends of the
world who brought with them a multiplicity of languages. Still, as
in most cases where a great movement is initiated, one person was
responsible for the creation of modern Hebrew speech in Palestine.
This pioneer, Eliezer Ben Yehudah, did as great a work in his way as
Theodor Herzl. He was born in Russia in 1858. Before he had
reached the age of twenty he had passed through the spiritual
adventures of a Maskil and of a Nihilist. His love of the Hebrew
language culminated in Jewish nationalism. And when this convic-
tion came upon him, he realized that the first task at least for him
was to create or to revive the Hebrew tongue in the Jewish land.
He went to Paris to study and later, in 1881, he went to Palestine,
where he settled in Jerusalem. There he met the most bitter and
cruel opposition on the part of the Orthodox Jewish community. In
Jerusalem in those days Hebrew was not spoken. There was a babel
of tongues, chiefly Yiddish among the Ashkenazim and Ladino or a
Spanish- Jewish jargon among the Sephardim. Ben Yehudah was
not an Orthodox Jew. He was looked upon by these people not only
as a fool and a silly dreamer, but as an impostor and even a meshumad.
He was excommunicated again and again and yet he remained.
Despite great physical weakness for he was suffering from lung
trouble his mental strength and his iron will carried him through
all adversities. He lived in a cellar with his wife, whom he had
married with the understanding that only Hebrew was to be spoken in
their home. He managed to become editor of a Hebrew weekly, and
he gathered about him a group of enthusiasts. So bitter was the
feeling against him that when his first wife died, there was a protest
against burying her in the Jewish cemetery. And at one time he was
thrown into prison by the Turkish authorities through the machina-
tions of his Jewish enemies. .
212
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN PALESTINE
Early Struggles to Develop Hebrew Speech The Kindergartens
But in the end he triumphed. As the new Jewish settlement
grew up about him, he was the center of the Hebraic movement.
Other individuals took upon them the same pledge to speak only-
Hebrew in their households. Dr. Frankl, the first director of the
Laemelschule, had already done so. Gradually, Hebrew-speaking
clubs grew up. For instance, there were the Palestine B'ne B'rit
lodges, which made it a principle to speak only Hebrew at their
meetings and gatherings. Some of these societies fined their mem-
bers for a lapse into any other language. But the chief strength of
the Hebraic movement was the school children. In the older days
each school, founded by persons from a different European nation,
had a different language of instruction, and the babel was hopeless.
Now there grew up the Hebrew kindergartens where children between
the ages of three and six learned to speak and sing and play in Hebrew
even before they could read. They took home their language, and so
it began in fact to become a mother tongue. The mothers learned
from their children. The method used was the Ivrit be-Ivrit. By
this method young children were taught Hebrew, not through trans-
lation, but by a systematic use of Hebrew itself with the help of charts
and objects.
Va-ad Halashon Millon School Teaching
So, gradually, the life in the villages became Hebraic. All the
various populations were molded into one by their common speech.
And the few enthusiasts in Jerusalem who gave their whole time to
the development of the tongue kept it to its purity. Hebrew drama
grew up and it was the only drama in the country. There was organ-
ized in Jerusalem the Va-ad Halashon, or language committee, with
Ben Yehudah at its head, to pass upon all words, and, in case of
necessity, to create new words. Here the teachers used to meet and
to bring their problems. Often it was little children who gave new
forms to the language. These forms were discussed by the Va-ad
and standardized. New word forms were created from words found
throughout Hebrew literature and from words found on some of
the inscriptions which had been brought to light by excavations in
Palestine and neighboring countries in recent years. Meanwhile Ben
Yehudah was working on his Millon or Hebrew dictionary a vast
work in many volumes which is not yet completed. After he ha'd
done many years of work upon it, he found several backers among
some of the German Jews who were not Zionists, but who appreciated
213
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
his labors. Academic work and practical development went hand in
hand. At the same time that the Millon was being written, there
were created Hebrew nursery songs and folk songs. In the life of
Jewish children in Palestine, the Bible was no longer a dead book,
a dry subject for study, but an intensely interesting account of their
own history in their own land. Thus the whole method was changed
in Jewish religious teaching. It became vitally modern.
Libraries, Reading Rooms and Publications
Libraries grew up in Jerusalem. There was the Jewish National
Library, founded there by Dr. Joseph Chasanovitz. The books had
been turned over to the ownership of the Jewish National Fund. In
1910 there were 34,200 books and 20,549 visits to the library. Most
of the Jewish villages and all of the Jewish town settlements also have
libraries and reading rooms. Usually these are situated in the Bet
Ha-am, the people's house, which is the club house of the community.
In the streets one sees everywhere Hebrew signs and advertisements
and street names. There were a number of Hebrew newspapers,
practically all of which were forced because of the war to suspend publi-
cation, but will no doubt soon resume ; Ha-or and Ha-herut are dailies ;
Ha-ahdut, a weekly, is the organ of the Poale-Zion, and Hapoel Hazair,
a semi-monthly, was at first a workmen's paper, representing the
organization by that name, but is now the organ of the New Settle-
ment in general. Ha-meassef is a monthly magazine; Ha-haklai is the
agricultural journal of the Union of Judaean Colonies. Besides these
there are the educational journals, Ha-hinuch and Moledet. And
recently, since the British occupation, there is a Hebrew paper under
British auspices, Hadashot Ha-aretz, "The Palestine News". Nat-
urally there is need for the numerous Hebrew publishing houses.
The Language Struggle.
In 1913 the Hebraic development of Palestine was put to its
severest test, and it made good. For some years previous the Hilfs-
verein der deutschen Juden, which began by teaching Hebrew and
using Hebrew as the language of instruction in most of its schools,
had gradually changed its policy and inaugurated a process of Ger-
manization. One cannot help suspecting that, consciously or uncon-
sciously, these schools were an instrument of German politics. In
1913, the project was launched for a technical college in Haifa. A
good part of the money for this project was given by the Wissotski
family of Moscow, and another sum by the Hilfsverein. A large share
214
THE HEBREW REVIVAL IN PALESTINE
was also contributed by wealthy American Jews. Ahad Ha-am and
Dr. Schmarya Levin were among the trustees of the fund. Dr. Levin
went to Palestine and busied himself with the initial work. The
land was given by the Jewish National Fund. When Dr. Levin was
in Palestine, he noticed the attitude taken there toward Hebrew by
the heads of the Hilfsverein schools. Therefore he immediately asked
for a definition from the Hilfsverein of their attitude in regard to
Hebrew in the new Technicum. Their reply was decidedly disap-
pointing; they refused to make Hebrew the language of instruction.
At a meeting where none of the American trustees was present, the
Hilfsverein managed to have a vote passed in favor of Germanization.
Thereupon the Zionist members of the board, Ahad Ha-am, Dr. Levin,
and Dr. J. Tchlenow, resigned. Tremendous excitement was created
in Palestine itself. The Merkaz Hamorim protested against the action
of the Hilfsverein. Their protests went unheeded. Many of the pro-
testing teachers were shut out from the Hilfsverein schools, among
them David Yellin, one of the oldest workers for the Hebrew revival,
who had been a Hebrew teacher in Palestine for 25 years, and who is
a writer and educator of high attainments. With the teachers went
the children, and there was a strike in which the greater number of
teachers and students left the Hilfsverein schools. Demonstrations
were held in many cities. The children marched through the streets,
singing Hebrew songs and carrying banners. Then it was that Ben
Yehudah endangered the publication of his Millon by standing firmly
with the young generation whose leader he had been. The Zionist
Organization stood behind the children and the teachers, and so did
the whole New Yishub. The new national schools were created at that
time and the children and teachers went over to them in a body.
Those who had had scholarships in the Hilfsverein schools were hence-
forth supported by collections among the teachers and pupils. The
Zionist Organization took upon itself the budget for the new schools,
which was a departure from its previous policy ; and the budget thus
assumed amounted to nearly $31,000. It was the first step in that
national education which, since the war, the Zionists have proved
themselves ready to assume for the whole of Palestine.
The Hebrew University
One might almost say that the victory of the school children was
the first victory in the Great War, even though it preceded the war
by a year. That the laying of the corner-stone of the Hebrew
University by Dr. Weizmann was one of the first acts of the Zionist
215
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Commission, emphasized the importance to the Zionists of the Hebraic
movement. The agitation for a Hebrew University dates back to the
early days of Zionism. Dr. Hermann Schapira, originator of the
Jewish National Fund, first proposed it. Later the idea was taken
up by many others, not only Zionists, and all agreed that the Univer-
sity must be Hebrew in every sense, using Hebrew as the language
of instruction, yet for some time it seemed possible that it might
have to be founded elsewhere than in Palestine. At the eleventh
Zionist Congress, in 1913, Dr. Chaim Weizmann, who as professor
in the University of Manchester, has a deep interest in democratic
education, presented a report on the founding of the university in
Jerusalem. Mr. Ussischkin was also active in urging the project.
At the congress $90,000 was subscribed to further the work. Later,
a commission of the Actions Committee procured a tract of land on
Mt. Scopus. And so the work was ready to begin. Large funds have
since been given, among them $25,000 by Mr. Jacob Schiff, and the
site was donated by Isaac Goldberg, a Russian Jew. Thus Dr. Weiz-
mann in laying the corner-stone only carried out the mandate of the
the Zionist Organization. Quite apart from the value of the Hebrew
University to Jews all over the world a value which we need not
discuss here it will fill a large place in the practical life of a revital-
ized Palestine. No doubt its first faculties will be scientific. Here,
too, there will be a center for Hebraic study. So we will be training
at once our own physicians and engineers, our own teachers and
Hebraists.
Within forty years a language has been recreated. What sac-
rifices went into that work it is almost impossible to imagine. For-
tunately Ben Yehudah, despite his physical weakness, has had the
strength to outlive all the vicissitudes of life, including political
persecution and exile during the war, and has seen the fulfillment in
one lifetime of his almost prophetic vision of the Hebrew revival.
References:
A Hebrew University for Jerusalem, by H. Sacher. The German Attack on the
Hebrew Schools in Palestine, by Israel Cohen. Palestine and the Hebrew Revival,
by E. Miller.
Subjects for Papers:
The story of the Technicum and the language struggle. Characteristics of the
Hebrew language.
216
CHAPTER XXXIII
THE EFFECT OF THE WAR UPON THE JEWISH SETTLEMENT
IN PALESTINE*
The Danger Foreseen
On Tisha B'ab of the year 5674 (August 1, 1914), news of the
war reached those in Palestine. Although all believed at the time
that the war would not last very long, still they immediately realized
that even a short duration could bring evil effects upon Palestine, and
that they must prepare in order to tide over the crisis.
Through the initiative of the Zionist element, a united meeting
of the city committee (Va-ad Ha-ir) of Tel- Aviv and Jaffa took
place that very day ; a few days later, representatives from the Jewish
villages and from Jerusalem also came together; and a united com-
mittee for the whole of Palestine was formed.
The following dangers were foreseen :
(1) The ports would be closed; it would be impossible to export
for sale the products of the Jewish villages (wine, almonds, oranges,
etc.), the main support of the farmers.
(2) It would be impossible for goods to come in; everything
would become expensive ; there would be no coal and no oil for operating
the machines, the irrigation plants for the farms, and the few factories
that were in the land.
(3) The banks would cease operation, and business would be
crippled thereby.
(4) The greater part of the population of the cities, who had been
dependent on the Halukkah, would no longer receive stipends from
the warring countries, and that at a time when even the independent
population would be suffering from unemployment and cessation of
earning power.
(5) Under such circumstances, speculation in money and in the
chief necessities of life would begin, which might be worse than even
war itself.
Self-Help
In accordance with these impending needs, the work of relief
was divided into various sections:
By M. Sheinkin.
217
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
(1) Finance Committee {Va-ad Hakessafim), whose duty it was
to see that no crisis should arise because of clever speculation in
gold and in small coins. For this purpose the Jewish Bank, the Anglo-
Palestine Company, issued bank notes of over five-franc denomina-
tions, and the Committee of Tel-Aviv issued checks as low as one
franc.
(2) Bread Committee {Va-ad Halehem), which bought wheat at
a low price (especially from the farms of the National Fund and
from the Jewish villages), ground it, and baked and sold bread at
cost price.
(3) Store Committee {Va-ad Hahanuyot), which had in its own
store some of the chief necessities, such as flour, sugar, various kinds
of peas and beans, potatoes, coal, etc., and sold these at cost price.
(4) Merchants' Union {Agudat Hasoharim) was financed by the
Jewish Bank, in order to be able to buy and sell goods at normal prices.
(5) Labor Committee {Va-ad Ha-avodah), which sought employ-
ment and means of livelihood for artisans and workingmen ; money
was lent to those who were capable of doing some definite kind of
work (building, planting, etc.).
(6) Loan Committee {Va-ad Hamalveh) To loan money, upon
security, without interest.
(7) Relief Committee {Va-ad Ha-ezorah To help those who
could not possibly earn their living.
All that had been foreseen came to pass, and the Jews were pre-
pared to meet it.
Such a system of thorough organization existed in the progressive
city of Jaffa. But the other cities were also well organized, having
cheap soup-kitchens and cheap distribution of tea and bread. The
Jewish villages did not at first need any help. The workers and
artisans particularly distinguished themselves with their organization
and self-help.
The first funds for the organizations were raised within Palestine
itself. Everyone was taxed and each one gave more than he could
afford. So, had the war really lasted only a few months, the new
Jewish settlements in Palestine would have weathered the storm with-
out outside aid.
American Aid
When Turkey entered the war in October, 1914, the people began
to feel the rope tightening about their necks, and they turned to foreign
Jews with an appeal for aid. ,The first and practically the only ones
218
THE WAR AND THE JEWISH SETTLEMENT
to answer were the American Jews in general, and the American Zionist
Provisional Committee in particular. There is no doubt that, were it not
for this American help, the old Jewish settlements in Palestine would have
been wiped out. Even the new Jewish villages would have been unable
to continue their productive work, had it not been for the aid of Amer-
ica ; the gardens and fields could be worked only through the loans from
American funds; the Jewish bank was able to make small payments to
its depositors only because of the money that used to come from America.
From these funds employment was also created for the workmen and
artisans. The schools were likewise maintained by the American budget.
Foodstuffs that came on the ship Vulcan also had a certain effect,
probably because almost half was distributed among the non-Jewish
population.
During the course of the first year, the American moneys used to
come directly in gold through American ships. Later, however, the
money came in Turkish notes, which were exchanged for one-third
or even a smaller fraction of their face value in gold. Still, this little
money served to help uphold life.
Economic Oppression
With the entry of Turkey into the war, new economic troubles
began, and even political persecution. Turkey knew of no such thing
as a war loan. Aside from the money that flowed in from Germany,
the only source of Government revenue consisted in requisitions of
products, cattle, horses, and labor. In the cities all sorts of goods
were taken, from flour and sugar, wood and iron, to silk stockings.
In the Jewish villages tin was taken from the roofs, wire from the
gates, and pipes and engines from the irrigation plants. Fear and
disorder probably created more hardship at this stage than did the
damage itself. The Jewish villagers suffered to a greater extent also
because they had better cattle, utensils and wagons than their Arab
neighbors. The men were called for military service ; they were able at
first to buy their freedom legally with money. Eventually, however,
they had to go into the service and endure the terrible conditions in
the Turkish army, where the soldiers suffered hunger, cold, uncleanli-
ness and exposure to disease. People felt the approach of a terrible
storm. Nevertheless, there was a grim determination on the part of
the Jewish inhabitants to remain in the country and to guard the Jew-
ish possessions. Thousands of Jews, subjects of foreign countries, even
took advantage of the Porte's permission to become naturalized, just
so that they might remain in Palestine.
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
All the tourists fled in the last of the European ships. Thousands
of the older Jews, who knew that they could receive no money from
abroad, left the country for Egypt. Some of the younger people,
fearing to be left without work, also went away. But the greater
number of those Jews who were able to work remained. Practically
all the teachers stayed, and not one of the villagers left the country of
his own free will. So attached had they become to the land, that they
decided to share its bitter lot.
Political Persecution
Toward the end of 1914, Djemal Pasha came to Palestine, and
then began the political persecution of the Zionists. Upon his first
arrival in Jerusalem he called out twenty-five Zionist representatives.
This time he only threatened them, and the punishment meted out
was light: A few of the Zionists were sent out of the Jerusalem
district.
After this, false reports were circulated to the effect that the
Jewish villages possessed hidden arms. But nothing of the sort could
be proven.
Djemal Pasha gave stringent orders against Zionist insignia : The
flag, the shekel, National Fund Stamps. Investigations were begun,
and the leaders in Zionist work were arrested. He did not impose
heavy penalties, but he did begin to expel them, singly and in groups,
some being sent to Asia Minor, and the rest deported.
It was thought that this action would cool the anger of Djemal
Pasha. He even promised to live in peace and harmony with the
remaining Zionists. It is true he insisted that the Porte would not
allow any more Jews into Palestine. But after all, at that time it
was merely a question of pulling through to the end of the war.
Locusts
Then another trouble came from an altogether different quarter.
Locusts, which come so rarely to Palestine, and which had not shown
themselves in the course of the previous forty years, appeared just at this
time (in the summer of 1915) in such vast numbers that they covered
the whole face of the land, particularly in Judaea, where the Jewish
plantations are situated. As is their custom, the adult locusts laid
their eggs, and although the Jewish farmers tried all possible methods
of prevention, the Arabian population was not so careful. The best
chemicals for fighting the locusts could not be brought from Europe,
and like overflowing rivers the young locusts flooded the land and
THE WAR AND THE JEWISH SETTLEMENT
devoured everything in field and garden. All the energy and the last
penny of the Jewish settlers went into the unsuccessful fight. The
work in fields and gardens had to be begun all over again ; still more
energy and still greater expenditures had to be forthcoming. This
could not possibly have been accomplished at the time had it not been
for the new loans that were made by the American Zionists to the
Jewish farmers. This saved the day. Employment was created for
the people, and the gardens again began to bloom and to bear.
Disease
Comparatively, the winter of 1915-1916 passed peacefully but not
without much want. During the summer the results of the proximity
of the Turkish army began to show themselves. Epidemics of spotted
fever (typhus), dysentery, etc., broke out. The physicians were away
in the army, there was no medicine. A consignment of drugs which
had been sent from America was roaming somewhere on the high
seas, because permission to deliver it in Palestine could not be had.
Unfortunately, the stout souls of our pioneers dwelt in weakened
bodies, and the number of victims was enormous. Still they made
no complaints. They suffered in silence, and they remained in their
beloved homeland.
New Persecutions
The next winter (1916-1917) the epidemics waned somewhat, but
the economic situation became unbearable. One could buy practically
nothing with the little money that was coming in Turkish paper notes
from America. The few remaining cattle and all other wealth and pos-
sessions were taken away from the Jewish farmers for the use of the
army; there was nothing with which to plow and nothing to sow.
The men were again being called for military service, although they
had bought their freedom several times over, and conditions in the
army became unspeakable. Men perished from need and disease even
before they had the opportunity to go to battle.
When we read the descriptions of those times we wonder how
people could have lived through them at all.
The laborers would under no circumstances leave the Jewish
fields and gardens ; the teachers, especially, would not abandon the
last ray of hope, their schools. Hungry,' half naked and barefooted,
they would steal their way to the schools to do their work, where each
time they found fewer children, more naked ones and more orphans.
221
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
Whenever the Turkish officials found those who had hidden or
fled from military service, they would torment and torture them in the
most brutal manner and would confine them in the vile Turkish dun-
geons. These persecutions brought the whole population into a state
of despondency and despair. The only hope was that England might
soon take possession of the land and redeem them from this hell.
Even though the Turkish Government had no concrete proof of this
state of mind, it still realized where the sympathy of the Jewish
settlers must lie. This vexed Turkey all the more, and the persecu-
tions became more intense and all but unendurable.
The Expulsion from Jaffa
In March, 1917, when the British army approached nearer to the
Palestinian border, the order was given by the Turkish Government
that all the Jews were to be expelled from Jaffa. Thousands of Jews
who had aroused suspicion were sent out of Jerusalem also. The
Jews at the village of Jehudieh were allowed to remain, but their
cattle and much of their wealth were taken away from them.
The Jewish villages in Galilee sent all their horses and wagons
to bring the expelled Jews up to them. The Turkish Government
used this as an excuse, and seized all the horses and wagons. Some
of the Jews were taken away in typhus-infested wagons; thousands
wandered about on foot, thousands remained, sick and in need, in the
neighboring Jewish villages of Petah Tikvah, Kfar Saba, and Hederah.
Living under the open sky, half clothed, they managed somehow
or other to pull through the summer, but winter (1917-1918) with its
rain and snow came again, and need and hunger overwhelmed them.
And the nearer the British approached, the more suspicious did
the Turks become of the Jews. They were charged with treason ;
arrests, executions, and expulsions daily grew in number. It was felt
that the last ounce of energy was exhausted, that all the Jewish settle-
ments were doomed to destruction.
Liberation by Great Britain
Like a message from heaven came the British Declaration on the
second of November, 1917. This, however, only served still further to
infuriate the Turkish officials, and there was great fear that they
would wreak vengeance upon the Jews.
But at the same time began the victories of the British army in
Palestine. The march from Gaza to Jaffa lasted only a few weeks.
Ten days later, on the first day of Hanukkah (5678), Jerusalem was also
222
THE WAR AND THE JEWISH SETTLEMENT
free. The village of Petah Tikvah found itself a "no man's land" for
some time, and was almost ruined by shell fire ; * but in a short time it,
too, was freed. In this way, the two most important cities and about
fifteen Jewish villages in Judaea began to breathe freely. Life became
secure ; people returned to their normal activities. The British military
officials were helpful and friendly; they provided the Jewish villages
with animals and seed and made trade with Egypt possible. The
population even found a livelihood in working for the army itself. The
British officials, on account of the international rules of military occupa-
tion, were as yet unable to abolish the existing Turkish laws; they did,
however, remove the abuse and misuse of them. And then it became
possible again to work and to live.
The Jews, however, were not satisfied with mere economic salva-
tion. They began immediately to give attention to their spiritual
interests and to their political organization, in order to make the
rebuilding of the national homeland possible. With hearts broken
over the fate of the greater part of Palestine, which had not yet been
freed, the liberated cities and villages gradually organized their communal
and cultural institutions and began to prepare themselves for the
future independent national life. Every act of theirs showed that they
still realized what they had been hoping for and for what cause they
had suffered so much.
The Weizmann Commission
In the true sense of the word, however, new life began only when
the Weizmann Commission arrived (in April, 1918). In itself the act
of sending the Zionist Commission proved that England was sincere
in her Declaration. Every deed of the Commission was a step nearer
the glorious goal. Zionism, in the form of the Commission, seemed to
be a ruling and a regulating power and a creative force. Aid, recon-
structive work, and the management of the cities, the villages, the
schools, etc., everything was normalized through Zionist help accord-
ing to the Zionist ideal. Dr. Weizmann did much toward unifying
the Jewish population, especially in Jerusalem, in a way never before
possible. The Hebrew language was recognized by all as predominant
in accordance with the outspoken Zionist purpose. The pinnacle of
the important work of the Commission was the laying of the corner-
stone of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem on the fifteenth day of
Ab (July 24, 1918). The historic hour had struck. It was the official
* Ain Gannim and Kf ar Saba also suffered great damage. In the latter, which
stood in a grove, not one tree was left standing. Editor.
223
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
notification to all elements of the local population and to the great
world outside that the Jewish nation was laying the foundation for a
national existence in its historic home.
The Weizmann Commission also paved the way, by its direct
action, for a mutual understanding with the neighboring populations
in Palestine, especially with the Arabs, for an harmonious, neighborly
life, and a common effort toward the new culture of the old Orient.
*..^~*itiiL\
The Medical Unit
Even though the political elements of the Weizmann Commission
were at first recruited entirely from among European Jews, the Ameri-
can Zionists participated by furnishing the greater part of the neces-
sary funds. The American Jews also contributed a very important
factor at this time in the form of the Zionist Medical Unit, which,
through its forty-five doctors and nurses and with its tons and tons of
medicines and clothes, brought to the country much needed medical and
sanitary aid. They helped to clothe and tend the pitiable refugees who,
sore, sick, and almost naked, came down in hundreds after the final
conquest of northern Palestine.
The Jewish Battalion
That the Jewish population of Palestine was ready for the new
freedom was attested especially through the formation there of a
Jewish battalion. One would think that after so many terrible trials
and hardships the Jews of Palestine might have taken advantage of
their liberation to seek some rest. But on the contrary, hundreds of
Jewish youths and older men who had just come out of their dungeons
and from their hiding places in cellars, joined the Legion with fiery
enthusiasm, in order to fight for the complete liberation of Palestine.
Even women were anxious to join, and vehemently resented the preju-
dice which exists against their going to war. It was a tragic, solemn
moment when the new Maccabaeans lifted the Jewish flag with the
emblem of a lion tearing off his shackles, and went away to fight side
by side with the British soldiers. There seemed a mystic significance
in the fact that the younger Rothschild, son of that great Jew who
saved the first pioneers in Palestine from ruin, was now leading the
new pioneers who were going to give their lives for their homeland.
Complete Emancipation
The fifth Feast of Tabernacles, 5679 (September, 1918) of the
war, saw the last of slavery and the first of freedom. During the course
224
THE WAR AND THE JEWISH SETTLEMENT
of the few days of Sukkot, the victorious British army swept north-
ward and eastward in a most remarkable drive and liberated all of
Palestine east of the Jordan and even beyond the Lebanon. The Jewish
Legionnaires were fortunate enough to take part in the drive. The
whole of Palestine was opened for the new Jewish life. Tired and
exhausted, the exiles and wanderers are now returning. The shadow
of sadness caused by the many who are missing is the one cloud over
the happiness of those who meet once more.
Over there, the bright sun of freedom is rising and is illuminating
the newly-made graves, a few ruined gardens, and a new and more
fortunate era.
References:
A Palestine Packet. Beports of the Weizmann Commission. Palestine of the
Jews, by Norman Bentwich, Ch. VIII, pp. 178-192, and Appendix, pp. 215-284.
Subjects for Papers:
The Jewish war refugees in Alexandria. The effects of the British occupation on
Palestine.
225
APPENDIX I
REGARDING THE IMMUTABILITY OF JEWISH LAW
Note on Chapter XIX, by Rabbi Eugene Kohn
The statement of Mr. Amram to the effect that "neither the Jewish
religious law nor the Jewish civil law can remain immutable" and that "legal
unchangeableness is a legal fiction," is perhaps in need of some qualification.
In the form as stated, it may rouse the apprehension of conservative Jews, lest
the legal foundations of the new Zion represent a radical and even a revolu-
tionary departure from Jewish legal tradition. When we reflect that to most
religious Jews that tradition is holy and the very foundation of their religious
life, and that their very Zionism has been inspired by the hope that in the
New Palestine this tradition will find the opportunity for its preservation and
development which are threatened in the Galut, we can well sympathize with
these alarms. A careful examination of the adjustments of Jewish law to the
conditions of the New Palestine, proposed by Mr. Amram, will, however, show
that it is only his abstract statement regarding the "immutability" of the law
with which the conservative Jew need take issue and not any of the concrete
suggestions advanced.
For the majority of even conservative Jews do not, when they speak of
the immutability of the law, mean thereby that specific laws are not susceptible
of change. Talmudic and rabbinic literature are too full of records of such
changes to make this position tenable. At the same time their belief in the
immutability of the law as they understand it is something more than a legal
fiction. What they mean is that, however individual laws may be changed in
view of changed conditions, the ideal that these laws were intended to enforce
remains valid. Thus the law of release in the Sabbatical year may have been
virtually abrogated by the Prosbul of Hillel, but only because in his day the
law was seen to operate against the purposes for which it was designed.
Instead of protecting the poor from the exactions of their creditors it merely
"shut the door" against their receiving credit. The adherent of traditional
Judaism, therefore, believes that although laws may be changed, they may not
be changed arbitrarily but with due reference to the principles underlying
Jewish legal development in the past. In this way, despite the changes in
specific laws, the spirit of Jewish law retains its distinctive character, and is,
in a sense, immutable. The law of one age may differ from that of another,
but only in the same manner as a man at the age of forty differs from that
same man at twenty years of age. The record of life's experiences may have
modified his original character in certain respects, but he is nevertheless the
same man; the laws of his own development that make possible only certain
reactions to these experiences assure essential spiritual identity.
If we examine the specific recommendations made by Mr. Amram we shall
see that they are in no wise out of accord with the development of Jewish
226
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
law. Take, for example, the matter of capital punishment, to the abolition of
which in the New Palestine, Mr. Amram looks forward. All who are familiar
with the Talmudic literature know that, in the discussion of the penal law in
the Talmud, the abhorrence of capital punishment is shown by the attempt to
hedge about the execution of the law with restrictive measures that would
make it almost impossible to procure a verdict. For example, a capital sen-
tence could not be passed unless the offender had, previous to having committed
the crime, been specifically warned that if he committed it he would be pun-
ished by death. To be sure, these discussions are entirely theoretic, as the
execution of capital sentences was not then in the jurisdiction of the Jewish
courts, which is probably the reason why Mr. Amram does not refer to
these discussions. But we may nevertheless regard them as evidence of the
course Jewish legal development would have taken had it not been arrested by
the Roman domination. Indeed, such theoretic discussions carried with them
as much authority for the rabbinic courts of the middle ages and modern times
as did the law that was actually put into practice.
Similarly, the changes suggested by Mr. Amram in order to adjust the
law to the new status of woman in modern society would be but carrying
to its logical limit the process of equalization of the rights of the sexes which
is clearly discernible in the history of Jewish law. An interesting account of
this development is given in Ahad Ha-am's Judaism and the Gospels. It is
only the arrest in the development of Jewish law, incident to the Jews' being
subject to the laws of other nations rather than their own, that prevented
this development from reaching its logical goal, and, with the conditions
for a renewal of legal development assured through the establishment of the
Jewish Commonwealth in Palestine, this tendency can be permitted to work
itself out to the fullest extent without involving any disloyalty to Jewish
tradition.
There can be no gainsaying that, since the development of Jewish law
has suffered arrest for so many years, far-reaching changes will have to be
made in order to adjust the law to modern conditions, but, if the attempt is
made to keep true to the spirit of our ancient legislation, the continuity of
Jewish legal tradition can be maintained, and the principles that determine
the trend of Jewish legal development can still be held to be immutable.
We are still the same Israel, though subjected to many changes in the course
of our eventful history, and our Torah, though it too has been subjected to
change, is still the same Torah, and the two are inseparable. The continuity
of the Jewish Nation assures the continuity of its law, for that law is not
foreign to it, but is the expression of its* very soul.
327
APPENDIX II
TEST QUESTIONS IN THE ORDER OF THE CHAPTERS
ONE FOR EACH CHAPTER
They may be used either as review questions at each meeting or at stated
intervals during the term or after its completion.
I. In what respect does Zionism differ from other solutions suggested
for the Jewish Problem?
II. Compare the condition of Jews in America to those of other lands.
III. In how far is the prophetic ideal of nationalism embodied in
Zionism?
IV. Distinguish between the Messianism of certain periods of Jewish
history and the recent Zionistic ideal.
V. In how far did Jewish emancipation really emancipate the Jews and
in how far did it fail?
VI. What has been the effect of the modern anti-Semitic movement
upon the Jews?
VII. How could Zionism appeal to men so different in temperament and
conviction as Hess, Kalischer, and Smolenskin?
VIII. What was the value of Hoveve Zionism as a forerunner of Zionism,
and what was the weakness which made it inadequate for its task?
IX. In what way did Herzl change Zionism and in what way did Zion-
ism change Herzl?
X. What inferences as to Jewish capacity for self-government can be
drawn from the organization of political Zionism?
XI. What is likely to be the effect of the principles underlying the
Jewish National Fund and the Anglo Palestine Company on the
future development of Palestine?
XII. Describe the present American form of Zionist Organization and
compare it with that before the Pittsburgh Convention.
--^^"XIII. What were the causes that led up to the British Declaration in favor
of Zionism (a) British; (b) Jewish?
XIV. What were the peculiar Jewish difficulties and problems that the
war brought to American Jewry?
XV. What are the essential points of agreement between all Zionists
and what are some of the differentiations which have found group
expression?
XVI. What has been the relation of the Hebrew revival in the dispersion
to the Palestinian development and what is it likely to be in the
future?
XVII. Compare the ideals of Ahad Ha-am with those of Herzl.
XVIII. Comment on the traditional Jewish, the Reform Jewish and the
Zionist interpretation of the mission of Israel.
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
XIX. What will be the problems, religious and civic, in adjusting Jewish
law to the needs of the Jewish land?
XX. What are to be the chief legal safe-guards against social injustice
in Palestine?
XXI. Describe those geographic peculiarities which differentiate Palestine
from every other land?
XXII. In what ways are human effort and ingenuity likely to change the
present physical characteristics of Palestine?
XXIII. What were the forces which operated to keep a Jewish settlement
continuously in Palestine, despite the unfavorable conditions there,
as compared with those in other lands?
XXIV. What were the motives underlying the early Jewish efforts at col-
onization both on the part of the settlers and of the various agencies
that supported their work?
XXV. How does Jewish life in the new Jewish villages differ from Jewish
life in any other part of the world?
XXVI. Discuss the general aspects of the relation of Jews and non-Jews
in Palestine and its probable economic effects.
XXVII. What has been the effect of the Halukkah on Jewish life in the cities
of Palestine?
XXVIII. What have been the effects on the health conditions of Palestine
of (a) its geographic position; (b) its climate; (c) its government;
(d) the character of its inhabitants?
XXIX. In view of the resources of Palestine, what is likely to be its
chief industry, and why?
XXX. Discuss the export and import trade of Palestine, past, present and
future.
XXXI. What is the relation of Jewish education in Palestine to the Jewish
national revival?
XXXII. Discuss the practical advantages for political and cultural purposes
of Hebrew as the vernacular of the Palestinian Jews.
XXXIII. Discuss the war as a test of Jewish strength in Palestine and as a
test of Jewish good will in the dispersion, toward the Palestinian
venture.
APPENDIX III
READING CIRCLES
The Guide for the Student of Zionism may be used by reading circles,
a chapter being read aloud at each meeting. However, for certain groups other
books may better serve the purpose, books that have more of a literary or
propaganda nature. Groups which have completed the study of the Guide
may care also to take up other courses of reading. For these purposes the
following series are arranged. They are tentative, of course, and may be
supplemented with other matter.
I. ZIONISM (GENERAL SURVEY)
For the first ten meetings read at each meeting, one of the Zionist Pamphlets
(a series of ten) published by the "Zionist" of London, as follows :
1. Zionism and the Jewish Problem. By Leon Simon.
2. Zionism and Jewish Culture. By Norman Bentwich.
3. History of Zionism. By S. Landman.
4. A Hebrew University for Jerusalem. By H. Sacher.
5. Zionism and the State. By H. Sacher.
6. Zionism and the Jewish Religion. By F. S. Spiers.
7. Palestine and the Hebrew Revival. By E. Miller.
8. Hebrew Education in Palestine. By Leon Simon.
9. Jewish Colonization and Enterprise in Palestine. By Israel M. Sieff.
10. Zionism: Its Organization and Institutions. By S. Landman.
Then read in convenient instalments:
11. Auto-Emancipation. By Leo Pinsker.
12. A Jewish State. By Theodor Herzl.
13. The Congress Addresses of Theodor Herzl. Translated by Nellie Straus.
14. Israel. By William Hard.
15. A Jewish State in Palestine. By David Werner Amram.
16. Poale Zionism. By H. Fineman.
II. PALESTINE
For a general survey of conditions:
1. Lecture (Dept. of Education) The Geography of Palestine.
2. Recent Jewish Progress in Palestine. By Henrietta Szold.
3. The Work and Problems of the Jewish National Fund. By Leo Dana.
4. Co-operative Colonization in Palestine. By Dr. Franz Oppenheimer.
5. Hebrew Education in Palestine. By Leon Simon.
6. Constitutional Foundations of the New Zion. By H. M. Kallen.
7. An Industrial Army for Palestine. By B. A. Rosenblatt.
230
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
For further intensive study and special problems:
8. Syria, an Economic Survey. By Dr. Arthur Ruppin. Translated by
Nellie Straus.
9. Jewish Colonization in Palestine. Methods, Plans and Capital. By Jacob
Oettinger.
10. Land Tenure in Palestine. By F. Oppenheimer and J. Oettinger.
11. Co-operative Colonization in Palestine. By Franz Oppenheimer.
12. Merchavia. By Franz Oppenheimer.
13. The Palestine Workers' Fund. By Isidor Zar. Poale Zion Publication.
III. AH AD HA-AM SELECTED ESSAYS
Arranged for Reading Circles
1. Guide for the Student of Zionism, Chapter XVII.
2. Selected Essays, Introduction, p. 12 to p. 21 (III).
3. Ibid. p. 21 to p. 34 (VI)
4. Ibid. p. 34 to p. 40.
5. Ibid. p. 306 (Moses) to p. 312 ("Lord of the Prophets").
6. Ibid. p. 314 to p. 329.
7. Ibid. p. 205 (Ancestor Worship) to p. 216.
8. Ibid. p. 125 (Priest and Prophet) to p. 138.
9. Ibid. p. 253 (The Spiritual Revival) to p. 264 ("its own work").
10. Ibid. p. 265 to p. 279 ("national wealth").
11. Ibid. p. 279 to p. 293 ("in the future").
12. Ibid. p. 293 to p. 305.
13. Ibid. p. 80 (Past and Future) to p. 90.
14. Ibid. p. 107 (Imitation and Assimilation) to p. 117 ("tendency to imitation").
15. Ibid. p. 117 to p. 124.
16. Ibid. p. 242 (A New Savior) to p. 252.
17. Ibid. p. 171 (Slavery in Freedom) to p. 194.
18. Ibid. p. 139 (Flesh and Spirit) to p. 148 ("by its law").
19. Ibid. p. 148 to p. 158.
20. Ibid. p. 217 (Trans valuation of Value) to p. 228 ("denial nor excuse").
21. Ibid. p. 228 to p. 241.
22. Ibid. p. 195 (Some Consolation) to p. 204.
23. Ibid. p. 159 (Many Inventions) to p. 170.
24. Ibid. p. 91 (Two Masters) to p. 106.
25. Ibid. p. 67 (Anticipations and Survivals) to p. 79.
26. Ibid. p. 53 (Positive and Negative) to p. 66.
27. Ibid. p. 46 (Justice and Mercy) to p. 52; p. 41 (Sacred and Profane) to p. 45.
IV. FICTION
1. Yiddish Tales, p. 269. Three Who Ate, by David Frischman.
2. Ibid. p. 29. Earth of Palestine, by Jahalel.
3. Ibid. p. 91. A Gloomy Wedding, by Mordecai Spectar.
4. Ibid. p. 162. Gymnasie, by Sholom Aleichem.
5. Idylls of the Gass, by Martha Wolfenstein. P. 31. Shimmele and Muhme
Maryam.
231
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
6. Ibid. p. 85. Shimmele Chooses a Profession.
7. Ibid. p. 51. How Shimmele Became a Skeptic.
8. Ibid. p. 69. And a Scoffer.
9. Ibid. p. 161. The Kiddush Cup.
10. Ibid. p. 261. The Source of Tears.
11. Ibid. p. 279. Shimmele Prays.
12. Stories and Pictures, by J. L. Perez. P. 21, Domestic Happiness. P. 89,
Seventh Candle of Blessing.
13. Story of the Jewish People, by Jack Myers. P. 136. Hillel.
14. Ibid. p. 171. Akiba.
15. Strangers at the Gate, by Samuel Gordon. P. 142, Towards the Sunrise.
16. Ibid. p. 165. on the Road to Zion.
17. Stories from the Rabbis, by A. S. Isaacs. P. 15, Faust of the Talmud. P. 29,
Wooing of the Princess.
18. Ibid. p. 135. Rabbi's Dream. P. 161, A Four-Leaved Clover.
19. Ibid. p. 185. A String of Pearls.
V. OTHER BOOKS RECOMMENDED FOR READING ALOUD
1. The Palestine Packet. Letters and short articles from and about Palestine
in war time.
2. On the Eve of Redemption. Short, pithy essays on Zionist subjects by S. M.
Melamed. Written in war time.
3. On Zionism and Jewish Religion; four pamphlets:
Zionism: A Statement. By Solomon Schechter.
Zionism and Religious Judaism. By Israel Friedlaender.
Zionism and the Jewish Religion. By F. S. Spiers.
Zionism in the Bible. By Nahum Sokolow.
Two Short Books:
The Book of the Nations. By J. E. Sampter.
The World Significance of a Jewish State. By A. A. Berle
232
APPENDIX IV
ZIONIST CHRONOLOGY
1. Movements Toward Zionism Before 1897
1809. Founding of the German Dutch Palestinian Administration Halukkah.
1840. The Damascus Affair (Blood Accusation).
1845. Colonel Gawler founds in London a Colonization Society for Jews.
1854. Sir Moses Montefiore is received by the Sultan; colonizes thirty-five
Jewish families from Safed.
1856. Ludwig August Frankl founds the Laemel School in Jerusalem.
1860. Hirsch Kalischer (Thorn) and Elias Guttmacher (Graetz) make propa-
ganda for the colonization of Palestine.
1860. Founding of the Alliance Israelite Universelle.
1862. Moses Hess publishes Rom und Jerusalem.
1870. The founding of Mikveh Israel under the management of Charles Netter.
1878. Jews from Jerusalem establish Petah Tikvah.
1881. Widespread pogroms in Russia. The May Laws enforced.
1881. Leo Pinsker publishes Auto-Emancipation.
1881. Eliezer Ben Jehudah settles in Palestine beginning of Hebrew revival
there.
1882. Founding of Rishon le-Zion, Ness Zionah, Zichron Ya-acob and Rosh-
Pinah.
1882. Restrictions on Jewish immigration into Palestine.
1883-1890. Six more colonies established.
1884. Hoveve Zion Conference at Kattowitz as a direct result of Pinsker's
Auto-Emancipation.
1890. Odessa Committee for colonization of Palestine established by Hoveve
Zion.
1890. Red Ticket limits stay of immigrant Jews in Palestine to one month.
1890. Rehobot established.
1890-1897. Fifteen more colonies established.
1891. Founding by Baron de Hirsch of the Jewish Colonization Association
(I. C. A.). Argentinian colonization movement.
1891. Ahad Ha-am visits Palestine.
1892. Prohibition of Jewish immigration into Palestine.
1892. Opening of Jaffa-Jerusalem railway.
1893. Second visit of Ahad Ha-am to Palestine.
1894. The Dreyfus Case in Paris. Dreyfus accused of treason.
1896. Dr. Theodor Herzl publishes The Jewish State.
233
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
JZ O rt
.2 S^'S
8?t> S
. b Q,-*->
?1
go e
|
U. CO
a.aljLg
C/J.tJ rt o co
O. V +, V *
? ^ <^ <
<3 --J3
B 2 - Q .2'.siLe
g.Hcfl.titdow
"- bo
T3 3
rt O
co O
t o
o
C-C
u
u co
S
23
U 3
.fl ft
to O
v be
o-o
c
B
ns H go
5
Si. ~-b? 4 soi
3 o 3 B *3 3
<! B^B rt-O-a
s>l'Seoo
to rt C^J 5 B eo
2 rt^ -'.1-g g rt O
"3 S* 2*C OS o N .
13 .C .^ ^ -> "3 EC cj y to
<"0 rt,
6CQ
rt
O O <- h-
rtiSStJ^CXOco?
< U
>
a
H
o
s ;
co Vjb
lull's
|S(S.SS
o >
P-.-C rt
e > fa
111
o w i:
ego
co & i
9 to
o o S
"O -
<L> CU-O
~-5 5
O -m rt
p-l
V t3
2
** rt
i 1
H .-S
sSs
3 5
22*
u
to
O
fi
cu
CO
o
CO
<
tf
B
u
.2
CL>
V
^
o
_c
N
T3
'5
o
B
o
B
J^
T3
cr
Cfi
Wx
'5
rt
a
u
-C.
"O C5.C c 3
co O
sis in
t0 u
OOb
.-2d
CO * W j w
2 C . j- &o 3 rt *
*j $J co -m O rt co^rt^t-
rt to c
1 c^
CO CJ
5 to C
S b.2
. .N
K ^> co -: to
& S oim
V U coj-j
Vj CO C^2 cy
o-j u J; b
hiiiit
i nT co
rt rt
5 S
o
Jf*
co O,
S rt ' c
.2 o
>>0 co
-5 5.
t Q
^ S rt
O ^rt
- 8
I 1
fe S co
. e i-
2? 9 ^
I
234
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
'*> *j ^>
|;
p.t: *
P *
< c
i* St
R o
J3< 3 ,
*** O 'g .
c -2
11lia
G-5 co JE
Vf* cB <U^
l/l > -_
i CO rt
c TS^ w c
a i"
8*5
j_. c_) P
H
C^9 d _
0-1 1 S S
Sho
I fi
CB e .2
s it
? *" CO v,
2:2.3.2.2
I* fc * rt
ills-
"5 >>
fee
<L> <D
E
g
a o
- .u
22 cu
4JT3 co
!
u
U fi
> cj u
- I
| CO
8
- Is
>H . -2
n-i to
M O "
cB cy
%0 V
. o rt -
lis?
o-o
re cj
cu -M
t3 C rj c Vh
. o u, o
|J CO CJ < ' u
a
.s
S to
Q
S c ^
s cu <u g a
S <u o S 8
*n > , w- BH a c
*2 *~ 4 'n-2 +j
CS Vh OT CO
M r j <u S co
> u> g CO
BT ?
N
boa P-<
.2 rt
Is i
S o||'
o
c3
CB C
to
2 i<df*d*
"^ S-S-J2
'^^ i2 j2 .ti
co "* 2 J3
co . " co r
Pli-ScS
wii&j
rt^L-i-O co
Ja
^2 CB
3PU
fes
.a.a c <
>j- 8 5 rt+J
^o K
w bo
*j53 c -
d o o.s
| UCJ CB
T1 . . !
5 S-2
CU CB g
QQ
O M.S
2 ^
Ngclfe
o ^. 5
^^Ib^
C 4) co
co o i *-
a co O.
n bog g
o^og
.2
n *> S
2f!S
'^ gc^
J H
rt cb ja
a ^ 2
uagc
ii'C-2 S
1 v
I'll
235
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
a.g
* 3
OT 3
** rt
PS .3
ijacs
* -cp4 .
s u o a
3*3 03 3*3
fj w^jm- '-3
Ox? ca
<U O CO.3,5
2 >.
S 3 <S
o a
* .5PO
"SiS-s's
Vt3 O {J
3 <u 3 o
j- C rt rt
rt u N O,
"^ o rt .2*3
O 3 a
.S'Sfc-S'H
t;*o .tile.
3 *S to bO
<-! 5 V O-i h
lilJtii
II
bo o i
o > c
"Si
S c
<U H
WW'S
- rt 3
bO--u-i
.0 rt
4>l > m
"8*
51
o. s o
.2 "S
J? E S -o
* H
3 3 3
** * O
.
2 3
g.S'3
rtJ
3 3 . >
'5 '3>2
& P4
3 u S3 ^ i o bo'rt
u fa
2? fa
8 u 5
^Qfa^ 5
Ti g -
<u"3^ o.H to S
K rt $ ""S A n
h 5
o .
3
d o
5*H
>
s
N
J3
--s bo
Q3 .
s -o^"?*i.|i
3 ^^ *
3CN0
K..2 '5
(\i CQ t/3 3 rt
? w fa
a> 3
i-H r to
^rt
3 E
'13 S3
N .3
'S 5
rt --> 3
tfi.2 S
io.I
N
3 - S
"'rt -w
3 ^S
O 3.5
U 2 c 1
- >,<t5 3
3 9J-- S
.2 u'^>.2
j-.rt ."2^
3,
3 <D p'H
1 c\T.2
= 3 ><*.
w 5 o
fs
2
23t5
GUIDE T
o Si
IS
i o
g
ho?
rf 5
J2 CO
3 s
~i2 3
o <u
3fe' e
x
W
o
Z I O N I
3 v
sa
S^
3H
o
0>*H
.id
U o
C0D
+,
JA o
o
<o rt
'!>>
61
^
.
2S
'C r
S.o
CO O
< o
Pi
o
t-I 60
'""
2-SotJ
<o V
o.2 U.-
*s
gs5
*
> >
S M
1o
bo
c c
. I.I
Is
P3
P3JJ
D O
PkW
b\o
<2
M
V >
bo i (J) c
s S *ts ,*>
^^g^
co 3 co 3
3 o*" 1 g /-n --
T3 -^-2
3 S
o $<
bo <u
3
u
m O
.2 g
.2 *
N *
S3 3 |tj
11 rt
ill
gii
2 3 to
C co" *J
.5 -o
2S -
.11 1
/^s C bo c
jH bo v-
i <u
- J A a g
<4 B b Z
w
.9 5
'UN
*> 1
!*
E
U C.
S?Q
S"
CO >%
> ^
Oil Mh <u
I*]
Ms!
p boCg
<U OT 3
. to c O
5 s
v -' o <o
0)
E
Is* is
II
&j=
* > o e*-
o,80g
3<o.9 C
QQ CO > J3
w bog
S^S E
<u rt"0 3
"S 1- * ESS
ft c^ -S
> a.
M a
^^
3- ai
bO*. C
3 3 O
J H E
3 rt rt
3 W+-
J >> en
3 rt
Sgs
bo
bOO m
o
rt ^4 eo
u*2~ E
^ V 3
rt co co <u
bo
3
ill
iisi
3 v rt
^S -gD ism
55 5?
N 3
O
c 8
o o
EU:
w 3
O co
2
rt tn
co ->
co c co
sirt g
oil
bo o
2o
I 3
N.2
J O - cd
1'nJph
h . .a
^J co co
. co CO co
. r? >=
g H m 2 o
infill
237
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
s
la
Is
II
H
ss
o +>
O CO
xa "
hi
-ill"
O rt 2
s*.2
w o
.2 ge a
u^ 1 ci O
-III
~^> o
s" -
M " C JJ
CO.S
s x i S
S 5 g
> V M CO. 5
CU > <u
W O 3 W i
3 5 rt
''3 a
<U co O
ps-a
a > *
E~
" "O "to
2 c b"3
gw
a e
1 II
1 ,1s
Sri C |f
o.a u
w o o
co rt
' ss
S3 .2 o
4> 2
8 2.2
.t: cpL, 3
few "3
, co o
J? *
g be
8
.CO
II-
21.
en ~
- o 2
E * !
o jz g .. a :
.2 oO^ -m a.* j c
N ^ 2*?; I> rt n C3J?
-312 . a bo .jB
* B^ S^ w "-uoC
< ^05 O^
2
3
a
B <u*S rt a;
J? --.*
S
.2
~o* a
t C rt
a T3
CC>.i
eg
O^'O
CO \3
5^0
sail Egjs
co rt .0 w
oc^ S
S<J3 u\-\ X^ rt
C v
co y
3'C 4>
I" *- c
V co o
^f
t-i O <u
co Z,
o^ ^ 2
C <y co
.*; o 42 w v- 2
co J, cj C . M
2^JJ m^.2^ b
cu
3 S- S ^-
3 i3^ N
H JS'* ? MW
O. c B _e*
3lll'2oi
C0^f_, u^ w y
CO- fch
...Ml-ssBS
_3 V CS co COJ3 cu*-
6 ffi w
4, c .
rt o
a ?
5t E
-A o
H W
.5 8 P
C u {2
;r a I
S^s .1
O C >"3w
.N w cu 1
rt - ' O C
60 to 9
1-1 cu C 'In
O'S K S
coQh rt w rv
+J 'y co Ph
.a o "jj g
2 o^ J ft w -
15 o"Ph _
"c 3 ' ^
O *^ rt rt bO
CU ~ J^ CO **J
j2 V S o O
B
S.JKs*^e3 ^
en Q
co B
h O
60 co
Cttj
60
*
ro c 2
1 1 j 1
- N 1 ^
co B. _
> o
i8'B
i-o ^.2-2.2
r v al3.2N
U 1 -* ^ B U
bo.e
>0 -4-.
B
O co
Ug
S uo
o
00c
N
rjglj 3Sa;
8liga8Ngf
If5 -llw-a i 5 2
N
P4
^ . 5 v w
t^-M CU 5 'U*H
ffjil{kJi
ft*
o > rt
a co C m u
3 ^ E 1- <u
si
cj _;
B^ v- 5f
o, a O 2
c a a
4>
.S^S.ScoO
M^SSl^S* a S
< ^ wm
00 ^r; <
S^.2tS
1 N a
~ s O
.Si - c
Hi
a S
B"
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
o
Ph
.3
co
a
.2
'-
%A
c
o
U
be
*>
u
rt
CO
I
<u
- 1
A
Pi
co
S
13
pS
CJ
B
'co
CO
C
rt
9
Ml
o
B
O
3
"a
a
a
.a
co
1
"a
o
<u
P-,
K
rt
bfl
rt
rt
li
o
CU
rt
a
.2
'8
CO
CU
c
3
a
CO
<3
o
a
a
Sf
o
<u
O
CU
CU
*
Oh
<
^
J
to
T3
o
V
>
3
Q
o
o
o
o
CO
CU
CO
3
rt
.a
CO
r
<*>
a
>,
be
|
i
M-i
o
be
id
u
o
a
"3
'
u
H
3
*
CU
> 1
CO
U
6
"3
rt
"a
1 I
M
CO
'5
o
.2
CO
rt
V
u
iB
'rt
X
.2
IS
o
be
CU
a
a
CJ
*o
co
"3
'%
o
'*
CO
"0
A
_3
.
3
CU
3
u
be
cu
cu
-3
cu
a
rt
'3
CO
CU
B
a
cu
CO
3
bo
"o
CU
U2
l#-
Xi
CO
rt
Ph
*rt
CU
^
CO
u
5
<
co
V
u
a
u
Q
*rt
O
CO
CU
O
CO
U
1
u
'S
rt
u
cu
s
E
o
>i
rt
J
>
rt
u
rt
a
In
'S
3
to o
1 rt
E co
Q
"I
*
J
W
5
Q
.2
be
fl
1*4
,
,
be
CD
,
rt
14
3
3
C
o
s
rt
c
CO
V
rt
U
a
rt
CO
u
a
"a
<u
CU
2
3
rt
be
rt
a
CU
3
O
'
Oh
>
V
<
c
3
.2
s
o
p.
cu
.2
rt
N
rt
bo
a
u
CO
cu
V
3
CO
CO
O
be
s
CO
s
rt
>
o
a,
'
'o
o
co
'c
o
U
CU
be
9
o
CO
'rt
-3
rt
CO
u
CU
o
a
2
3
CU
O
N
CO
CU
o
N
N
"s
rt
i
o
B
3
o
N
u
h
c
2
a
S
8
rt
Oh
'
O
N
=:
u
>
rt
g
s
o
B
3
u
<u
>
O
o
N
H
o
.a
i
K
a
"3
o
CJ
CU
>
C
CO
'
O
N
CO
3
O
'co
cu
hi
Oh
3
1 1
.2
'co
CO
3
Pi
.
o
bo
a
'&
3
XI
T
CO
.s o a
.2
a 2 ti w
S fe S
I ^ &
1 ^ * j
>> a cs
^ rt cs be
& Q B
- .2 a
9 *S "3 .2
W
J o
^5
3 a
tc
3
3
.
to
co"
U
rt
u
O
N
CU
CU
u
V
O
-3
'-3
3
O
M-c
a
"rt
Ph
3
2
a
-3
O
u
CU
3
o
Si
CO
c
3
u
1
3
<
CO
O W Ph Q
S .2
3 N
o ii
g O
-a
Q, CO
*j *o ^
.2 a
'a .2 *? Ph
8 .g 5 'J
2
cu
cu
3
O
CO
CO
rt
1
o
CO
O
A
N
3
Pi
>*H
CU
>
O
L
>
3
o
Mi
'rt
U
.2
CO
o
3
u
O
CO
c
3
.2
'a
V
cu
rt
o
-a
3
rt
Pi
3
Pi
3
l
a
a
3
a
.
'rt
N
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
I Ml
^33
o XoM <u
+. S 3 . B'
S w'rt 5.2-
O S( b.-2
J -3 J h
33
3 a i s
HI S
: -.a
i * <o
bo g S R
oph,-,
gOgS
L"0 !
5 g
-2 B.- 2"rt
is -.si*
- s gS
" .2
s^ g g o ~
^ , -5Bfo +J S
rt 5 rt s, 3 g
tJ o w oh
E'tS , h B.
O rt
rt rt
la
Ml
i .
OT5
fc,B
>>rt
o
_
b h a o
a .St)
2.
g> JJ bo"
_0*J5.g a
o c C o
S"P a
"S rtTJ
S!
Us
Jo-o
rtrn c
Kg*
li
i< a
SL.B u O
rt ^> rt
w 3 -m (0'
o<
^Dh 2 OT
3" rt 03
rt ^"O
s a
o'5t
>,'-2 a
M rt-o O C
oi , J O rt
Z .2
M n
> 10
u. S S.B
^- a^2
UW^
: art
i=ti
j oO
a S a
5 s ? o JJ S
j> a
ah a 2
1 "2 jj -m "rt
a q. o c <n
11*1.9 &S
O C E ? u
^ Q
a
J5
B
C
N
Oh
<-4-l
V
a
c^
o
W
rt
3
,fl
f
u
a
s ?,
3 o^
c a S
g*a
o13D
I CO X
co co u
3 s^
^ a <u
I rt U S
a to ^, co
S3 v c a
a rt ta^
2 o
I rt .H 8-1 rt
! o S c 8 .S
gi-rt-g
fe c c i;
w So 3
.S CN S
*} CO 10
c *-> *-
rt -^ .2 43
Eg
19
3 a
.2 S
III
u ty2 w
o
5 /i\ <u o 3 a a
oQ 5:.i5coc - <v
>> o _ rt f <
-^ *J C^ 1 *-"B
.Sn rt S B rt-3^
ca^3PHii*i E rt rt
(2 rt.S g .& a
j3 co<i "
v
* a.>
to EiO
a c .
cs'w rt sP^D-^
^ ^ 3 $
o bo a
o o a
H-> rt
rt ag
2 g
ite Ji*W
oPi!
Ph
. o o--
'8 .S
0)M
5 K "
u
rt B rt
1-. J
!E * J* B
I .S^ 2
^* i -^
Ojg--^rtO w
C W
o w
Urt
M a
rt o
'cj co
ore
a p
^< w
t .2
rt O
S82
rt o
OS
N 5'
: ^
S*N
.2 fc 1 *"
.H<
3 rt
o a b
;P^6 I
1 . * i
J3 2 8
2>6 c g
u 'g pL.'e
o ? o
to co 3 <J
e ."T 'S rt rt
a >^ a <u <u
^.2^fc
g ^ N PQj=
'lo'co a c
^ - .2 o
E ^c
w s .a c
o tS
240
APPENDIX V
THE JEWISH AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENTS IN PALESTINE
BEFORE THE WAR
Taken from the Palestine News, November 1, 1918
Name
Montefiore Garden Planta-
tion.
Mikweh Israel
Petah Tikwah
Hattin
Rishon le-Zion
Ness Zionah
Zichron Yaacob
Rosh Pinah
Yessod Hamaalah
Yehudiyeh
Mazkeret Batiah (Ekron)
Gederah (Katrah)
Tanturah
Bat Shlomoh
Rehobot
Mishmar Hayarden
Bene Yehudah
Hederah
Meir Shfeyah
Har-Tob
Nahlat Hayyim
Moza
Saham el Jolan
Jolan
Naffa
Bet Amma
Bustas
Metullah
Ain Zeitun
Be-er Tobiah (Kastinieh)
Sedjera
Mahanayim
Kfar Saba
Mes'hah
Yibneel
Melhamiyeh
241
Number
Founded
1
1855
2
1870
3
1878
4
1878
5
1882
6
1882
7
1882
8
1882
9
1883
10
1883
11
1884
12
1885
13
1886
14
1889
15
1890
16
1890
17
1891
18
1891
19
1891
20
1892
21
1892
22
1894
23
1894
24
1894
25
1894
26
1894
27
1894
28
1896
29
1896
30
1896
31
1899
32
1899
33
1900
34
1902
35
1902
36
1902
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
1904
1905
1906
1908
1908
1908
1908
1909
1909
1909
1910
1911
1911
1911
1912
1912
1912
1912
1913
1913
1913
1914
1914
1914
Bet Gan
Hephzibah
Ben Shamen
Beer Yaacob
Mizpah
Kinneret
Ain Gannim
Huldah
Daganiah
Atlit
Migdal
Ruhamah
Merhaviah
Poriah
Nahlat Yahudah
Kfar Mallal
Kfar Uriyeh
Gezer
Kerkur
Ramah
Bitaniyeh
Tel-Adas
Dilab
Kalandieh
THE JUDAEAN SETTLEMENTS
Name Area (Dunam*)
1 Ruhamah 6,000
2 Beer Tobiah (Kastinieh) 5,623
3 Gederah (Katrah) 5,970
4 Mazkeret Batiah (Ekron) 13,000
5 Rehobot 14,193
6 Ness Zionah 2,793
7 Nahlat Hayyim 1,540
8 Rishon le-Zion 14,634
9 Nahlat Yehudah 301
10 Beer Yaacob 2,040
11 Mikweh Israel 2,600
12 Montefiore Garden City 103
13 Yehudiyeh 120
14 Petah Tikwah 25,000
15 Ain Gannim 762
16 Kfar Saba 7,231
17 Kfar Mallal 4,220
18 Ben Shamen 2,329
19 Huldah 1,973
4.4 Dunam equal one acre
Population
34
170
182
360
1,068
199
1,348
80
145
153
5
3,279
194
96
30
120
30
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
20 Kfar Uriyeh 4,800
21 Gezer 6,900
22 Har-Tob 4,727
23 Dilab 1,500
24 Moza 750
25 Kalandieh 2,000
131,109
30
149
40
7,712
THE SAMARIAN SETTLEMENTS (Near Haifa).
Name Area (Dunam)
1 Hederah 32,500
2 Hephzibah 5,908
3 Kerkur 15,500
4 Zichron Yaacob 30,668
5 Meir Shfeyah 6,915
6 Bat Shlomoh 7,642
7 Tanturah 352
8 Atlit 6,800
106,285
Population
300
20
50
1,000
50
80
1,580
THE SETTLEMENTS IN THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON
Name Area (Dunam)
1 Merhaviah 9,415
2 Tel-Adas 10,000
19,415
Population
100
50
150
THE SETTLEMENTS IN LOWER GALILEE
Name Area (Dunam) Population
1 Sedjera 17,720 200
2 Mes'hah 10,120 250
3 Yibneel 23,290 300
4 Poriah 3,545 50
5 Ramah 5,000 50
6 Bet Gan 5,681 50
7 Mizpah 2,941 50
8 Kinneret 9,000 100
9 Daganiah 3,073 30
11 Bitaniyeh 600 30
10 Migdal 6,000 50
12 Melhamiyeh 8,477 100
13 Hattin 1,600
97,047
243
1,260
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
THE SETTLEMENTS IN UPPER GALILEE
Name Area (Dunam)
1 Rosh Pinah 41,987
2 Mishmar Hayarden 7,569
3 Yessod Hamaalah 12,228
4 Metulah 16,731
5 Ain Zeitun 6,016
6 Mahanaim 8,500
7 Bene Jehudah 3,500
96,531
Population
700
100
160
300
30
20
20
,330
THE TRANS-JORDAN SETTLEMENTS
Name Area (Dunam)
Saham el Jolan 30,400
Jolan 12,300
Naffa 22,000
Bet Amma 6,000
Bustas 18,000
Name
Judaea
Samaria (near Haifa)
Plain of Esdraelon . .
Lower Galilee
Upper Galilee
Jolan and Hauran . . .
88,700
SUMMARY
umbers of
Colonies Area (Dunam)
Population
25 131,109
7,712
8 106,285
1,580
2 19,415
150
13 97,047
1,260
7 96,531
1,330
5 88,700
60
539,087
12,032
244
APPENDIX VI
BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. JEWISH HISTORY
ABBOTT, G. R: Israel in Europe. London, 1907.
ABRAHAMS, Israel: Jewish Life in the Middle Ages. Jewish Pub. Soc. of
America. Phila., 1903. $1.50.
DARMESTETER, A.: The Talmud. Jewish Pub. Soc. of America. Phila.,
1895.
DUBNOW, S. M.: Jewish History: An essay in the philosophy of history.
Jewish Pub. Soc. of America, Phila., 1903.
History of the Jews in Russia and Poland. 3 vols., Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila.,
1916-20. $1.50 each vol.
FRIEDLAENDER, Israel: The Jews of Russia and Poland. New York.
1915.
GOODMAN, PAUL: A History of the Jews. Reprint. 1919. New York.
GRAETZ, H. : History of the Jews. 6 vols. Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., 1891-98.
GREENSTONE, JULIUS H.: The Messiah Idea in Jewish History. Jewish
Pub. Society, Phila., 1906. $1.00.
LEROY BEAULIEU, ANATOLE: Israel Among the Nations. New York,
1896.
PHILIPSON, DAVID: Old European Jewries. Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., 1895.
PHILLIPSOHN, MARTIN: Neueste Geschichte des Judischen Volkes. 3 vols.
Leipzig, 1907-1911.
RADIN, MAX: The Jews Among the Greeks and Romans. Jewish Pub.
Soc. Phila., 1915. $1.50.
SCHECHTER, S.: Studies in Judaism. First and Second Series. Jewish
Pub. Soc. Phila., 1895. $1.50.
SULZBERGER, MAYER: Am Ha-aretz; the Ancient Hebrew Parliament.
Phila., 1909.
WIERNIK, PETER: History of the Jews in America. New York, 1912.
WOLF, SIMON: The American Jew as Patriot, Soldier and Citizen. Phila.,
1895.
II. CONTEMPORARY JEWISH LIFE*
ADLER, CYRUS, Editor: The Voice of America on Kishineff. Jewish Pub.
Soc. Phila. $1.00.
ADLER, ELK AN N.: Jews in Many Lands. Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., 1905.
$0.75.
* Historical books with a special bearing on immediate modern problems are included
here.
245
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
ALCALAY, I.: The Jews of Serbia. American Jewish Year Book, 5679 (1918-
19). Jewish Pub. Soc. p. 75-87.
ANIN, MAXIM: Der Jiidische Sozialismus und seine Stromungen, in Judischer
Almanack. 5670. Vienna, 1910.
BEILIS AFFAIR: American Jewish Year Book, 5675 (1914-15) Jewish Pub.
Soc. pp. 19-89.
BERNHEIMER, CHARLES S., Editor : The Russian Jew in the United States.
Philadelphia: John C. Winston Co., 1905.
BILLINGS, JOHN S. : Vital Statistics of the Jews in the United States. Wash-
ington, 1890.
CHAMBERLAIN, HOUSTON STEWART: The Foundations of the Nine-
teenth Century. English Translation from the German, 2 vols. London,
1911.
COHEN, ISRAEL: Anti-Semitism in Germany. London, 1918. $0.05.
Jewish Life in Modern Times. London, 1914. Contains a brief bibliography.
$3.00.
DAVITT, MICHAEL: Within the Pale. Jewish Pub. Soc. of America, Phila.,
1903.
DEUTSCH, GOTTHARD: Art. "Antisemitism" in Jewish Encyclopaedia,
vol. I. New York, 1901.
DIE JUDENPOGROME IN RUSSLAND. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1910.
DREYFUS CASE. Jewish Encylopaedia. Vol. IV, p. 660.
DRUMONT, EDWARD: La France Juive. 2 vols. Paris, 1886.
ERRERA, L.: The Russian Jews: Extermination or Emancipation. New
York, 1894.
FISHBERG, MAURICE: The Jews: A Study of Race and Environment.
London, 1911.
FREDERIC, HAROLD: The New Exodus. London, 1892.
FROM KISHINEFF TO BIALYSTOK. A Table of Pogroms from 1903 to
1906. American Jewish Year Book, 5667 (1906-07), Jewish Pub. Soc. p. 34.
GIDNEY, W. T.: Missions to Jews. London, 1912.
HOFFMAN, M.: Judentum und Kapitalismus. Berlin, 1912.
HOURWICH, ISAAC A. : Immigration and Labor. New York. G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1913.
JEWISH IMMIGRATION BULLETIN, New York, 1912.
JOSEPH, MORRIS: Judaism as Creed and Life. London, 1903.
JOSEPH, SAMUEL: Jewish Immigration to the Unitel States. Columbia
University, New York, 1914. Studies in History, Economics, and Public
Law.
KAPLUN-KOGAN, W. W.: Die Wanderbewegungen der Juden. Bonn, 1913.
LAZARE, BERNARD: Anti-Semitism: Its History and Causes. Interna-
tional Library Pub. Co., New York, 1903.
LAZARUS, M. : Ethics of Judaism. 2 vols. Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., 1900-1901.
LEVIN, SCHMARYA: The Fate of the Jews in Poland. Zionist Organiza-
tion of America. 1918,
PHILIPSON, DAVID: The Reform Movement in Judaism. New York, 1907.
RUBINOW, I. M.: Economic Condition of the Jews in Russia. Bulletin of
the Bureau of Labor, Washington, 1907.
RUPPIN, ARTHUR: The Jews of Today. New York, 1913.
24Q
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
RUSSELL, C. AND LEWIS, H. S.: The Jew in London. With an Introduc-
tion by Canon Barnett, and a Preface by James (Viscount) Bryce. London,
1901.
SAMTER, N. : Judentaufen im 19 Jahr hundert. Berlin, 1906.
SANDBERG, HARRY O. : The Jews of Latin America, in American Jewish
Year Book, 5678 (1917-18) Jewish Pub. Soc. p. 35.
SEMENOFF, E. : The Russian Government and the Massacres. With a Preface
by Anatole France. London, 1907.
SCHWARZFELD, ELIAS ("EDMOND SINCERUS") : Les Juifs en Rou-
manie depuis le Traite de Berlin. London, 1901. (Translated in American
Jewish Year Book, 1901-2).
SINGER, ISIDORE: Russia at the Bar of the American People. New York,
1904.
SOMBART, WERNER: Die Juden und das Wirtschaftsleben. Leipzig, 1911.
English translation by M. Epstein, The Jews and Modern Capitalism, New York,
1913.
Die Zukunft der Juden. Leipzig, 1912.
WIENER, LEO: The History of Yiddish Literature in the Nineteenth Century.
New York, 1899.
WOLF, LUCIEN: Art. "Antisemitism," in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edi-
tion, vol. II, 1910. Contains a full bibliography.
WOLF, LUCIEN, Editor: The Legal Sufferings of the Jews in Russia. With
an Introduction by Prof. A. V. Dicey. London, 1912.
ZOLLSCHAN, IGNAZ: Das Rassenproblem. Vienna, 1912.
III. PALESTINE
AUERBACH, DR. ELIAS: Palaestina als Judenland. Berlin, 1912.
BAEDEKER'S PALESTINE AND SYRIA. Leipzig, 1912. New York, Scribner.
BELKIND, I. : Die Erste Schritt von Yishuv Erets Yisroel. New York, 1917. 2
vols.
BENTWICH, NORMAN: Palestine of the Jews, Past, Present and Future.
New York. 1919.
BEN GORION AND BEN ZVIE: Eretz Yisroel (Yiddish). Poale Zion, New
York, 1918. $2.00.
BEN ZVIE, J.: Erets Yisroel fiir Yiddishe Colonisation. Poale Zion, New
York, 1916. $0.12.
BESANT, WALTER, AND PALMER, E. H.: Jerusalem, the City of Herod
and Saladin. London, 1899.
BEZALEL SCHOOL: Bezalel Exhibition Booklet. New York, 1914.
CANTON, WILLIAM: Dawn in Palestine. With a Preface by Lord Bryce.
London, 1918.
COHEN, ISRAEL: The Zionist Movement. London, 1912.
COHEN, ISRAEL (Editor): Zionist Work in Palestine. London, 1911.
CONDER, C. R. : Palestine. London, 1891.
CONDER, C. R. : Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. London, 1897.
CONDER, C. R.: The City of Jerusalem. London, 1909.
COOKE, ARTHUR W. : Palestine in Geography and History. 2 vols. London,
Kelly, 1901.
COOK'S TOURISTS' HANDBOOK FOR PALESTINE AND SYRIA.
London, Simpkin, 1900.
247
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
CURTIS, W. E. : Today in Syria and Palestine. New York. Revell, 1903.
DANA, LEO: Work and Problems of the Jewish National Fund. New
York, 1916. $0.10.
DAWSON, J. W. : Egypt and Syria. New York, Revell, 1887.
FELDMAN, J.: The Yemenite Jews. London. Jewish National Fund. 1912.
$0.05.
FISHMAN, J. L. : Der Colonial Fund von dem Mizrahi. (Yiddish) New York,
1916. $0.05.
FISHMAN, J. L. : Der Eretz Yisroel Fund von Mizrahi. (Yiddish) New York,
1917. $0.05.
GOODRICH-FREER, A.: Inner Jerusalem, New York, 1904.
Hapoel Hazair, Haaretz, Doar Hayom, Hashiloah, Hahinnuk. Palestinian Hebrew
Periodicals.
HENDERSON, A.: Palestine. Edinburgh, 1893.
HOELSCHER : Die Geschichte der Juden in Palaestina. Leipzig, 1909.
HULL, E. : The Geology of Palestine and Arabia Petraea, London, 1886.
HUNTINGTON, ELLSWORTH : Palestine and its Transformation. New York,
1911.
HYAMSON, ALBERT M.: Palestine: The Rebirth of an Ancient People.
New York, Alfred A. Knopf, 1917.
JACOBS, JOSEPH D.: The Jewish National Fund. London, 1916. $0.05.
JEHOASH : Von New York bis Rehovos un zuruck. New York, 1918. 3 vols.
JOHNSTON, SIR HARRY H.: Common Sense in Foreign Policy. Lon-
don, 1913.
KESSLER, L.: History and Development of Jewish Colonization in Pal-
estine. London, 1918. $0.10.
LEES, J. ROBINSON: Village Life in Palestine. New York, 1905.
LE STRANGE, GUY: Palestine under the Moslems. London, 1890. $4.00.
MacCOUN, T. : The Holy Land in Geography and History. 2 vols. New York,
Revell, 1899.
MacDOUGALL, JAMES : Geography of Palestine ; Historical and Descriptive,
for Young People in Schools and Families. Manchester, 1895.
MacGREGOR, J. : The Rob Roy on the Jordan, Nile, Red Sea, and Gennesareth.
Murray, London, 1886. 7th ed.
MacMILLAN'S GUIDE TO PALESTINE AND EGYPT. New York, Mac-
millan, 1905. 3rd ed.
MacPHAIL, S. R.: Historical Geography of the Holy Land. New York, Scrib-
ner, 1903.
MASPERO, G. : Struggle of the Nations : Egypt, Syria and Palestine. New York,
Appleton, 1902.
McGARVEY, J. W.: Lands of the Bible: A Geographical and topographical
Description of Palestine. Cincinnati, Standard Publishing Co., 1904.
MERRILL, S.: East of the Jordan. A Record of Travel and Observation in
the Countries of Moab, Gilead, and Bashan. New York, Scribner, 1881.
MILLER, W.: Least of all Lands. London, Macniven, 1901. 2nd edition.
MURRAY'S HANDBOOK FOR TRAVELLERS IN SYRIA AND PALES-
TINE. London, 1903.
NAWRATZKI, KURT: Die Judische Kolonisation Palaestinas. Munich, 1914.
Das Neue Judische Palaestina. Berlin, 1919.
NEIL, J.: Palestine Explored. New York, Randolph, 1882.
248
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
NEUFELD, A. : Der Versuch eincr Bibliographic fur die Zwecke der wirt-
schaftlichen Erschliessung Palaestinas. Vienna, 1901. y
ALLIANCE ISRAELITE, NEW YORK BRANCH: Educational Work of the /
Alliance. 1916. y
OETTINGER, JACOB: Jewish Colonization in Palestine. Jewish National S
Fund, Hague, 1917. $0.30. /
OETTINGER, JACOB, AND OPPENHEIMER, FRANZ: Land Tenure in //
Palestine. Hague, Jewish National Fund, 1917. $0.07.
OLIPHANT, L. : The Land of Gilead, with Excursions in the Lebanon.
Edinburgh, Blackwood, 1880. y
OPPENHEIMER, FRANZ: Co-operative Colonization, Jewish National Fund, /
Hague. y*
Merkavia: A Co-operative Colony in Palestine. Jewish National Fund, New ,/
York, 1904. /
PALESTINE PACKET, A.: Federation of American Zionists, 1916. $0.25. '
PATON, L. B.: The Early History of Syria and Palestine. Scribner, New
York, 1901.
POST, G. E.: Flora of Syria, Palestine and Sinai. Beirut, 1896.
PRESS, JESAI AS: Die jiidischen Kolonien Palaestinas. In: Zeitschrift des
deutschen Palaestina Vereins, Leipzig, vol. XXXV, 1912.
RAFFALOVICH, I. AND SACHS, M. E. : Views from Palestine and its Jewish
Colonies. Jerusalem, 1898.
RITTER, C: Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Peninsula.
Appleton, New York. /
ROSENBLATT, BERNARD A.: An Industrial Army for Palestine. Zionist/
Organization of America, New York, 1918. Free. y
Land and Labor Problems of Palestine. Zionist Organization of America,
New York, 1918. Free.
RUPPIN, ARTHUR: Syria: An Economic Survey. Translated by Nellie ,
Strauss. Zionist Organization of America, 1918.
Zionistische Kolonisationspolitik. Berlin, 1914.
Der Aufbau des Landes Israel. Berlin, 1919.
SAUNDERS, T.: An Introduction to the Survey of Western Palestine, its
Waterways, Plains and Highlands. London, 1881.
SCHEINKIN, M. : Eretz Yisroel in Milchomo Tzeiten. Federation of American
Zionists.
Colonisation Meglichkeiten. Federation of American Zionists. 5676. -""
SCHUMACHER, G.: Across the Jordan. London, 1886.
The Jaulan. London, 1888. $1.50. Translated from the German.
SIDEBOTHAM, HERBERT: England and Palestine. London, 1918. $2.25.
SIEFF, ISRAEL M.: Jewish Colonization Enterprise in Palestine. The
Zionist, London, 1915.
SMITH, SIR GEORGE ADAM: Historical Geography of the Holy Land.
London, 1910. 16th ed.
Jerusalem. London, 1908.
STANLEY, A. P.: Sinai and Palestine. Armstrong, New York, 1877.
STEWART, L. J.: Land of Israel. Revell, New York, 1903. New ed.
STODDARD, CHARLES W.: A Cruise under the Crescent. Rand McNally,
New York, 1898.
249
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
STRAUS, NELLIE: Agricultural Possibilities of Palestine. New York, 1918.
Economic Possibilities of Palestine. New York, 1918.
SZOLD, HENRIETTA: Recent Jewish Progress in Palestine. American
Jewish Year Book. Jewish Pub. Soc. of America, Phila., 1915. Reprint.
$0.25.
TEMPLE, SIR R.: Palestine Illustrated. Allen London, 1888.
TERHUNE, A. P.: Syria from the Saddle. Bendett, New York, 1902.
TOLKOWSKY, S.: Jewish Colonization in Palestine. London, 1918
THOMSON, W. M.: The Land and the Book. 3 vols. Harper, New York,
1882-86.
TREVES, SIR FREDERICK: The Land That Is Desolate. London, 1912.
TRISTRAM, H. B. : The Fauna and Flora of Palestine. London, 1884.
The Land of Israel. London, 1865.
TRIETSCH, DAVIS : Handbook of Palestine. London, 1907.
TSCHLENOW, E. W. : Fiinf Jahre der Arbeit in Palaestina. Berlin, 1913.
WATSON, SIR C. M.: The Story of Jerusalem. London, 1912.
WELLS, J.: Travel Pictures from Palestine. Dodd, New York.
WILSON, EDWARD, L.: In Scripture Lands. Scribner, New York, 1895.
WILSON, W.: Picturesque Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt. 2 vols. Appleton,
Yiskor (Yiddish). New York, 1917. 2 vols.
ZAR, ISIDOR: The Palestine Worker's Fund: Poale Zion. New York, 1918.
$0.10.
IV. ZIONISM
Al' Parashat Derachim
AHAD HA' AM (ASHER GINZBERG): Selected Essays. Translated from
the Hebrew by Leon Simon. Jewish Pub. Soc. of America, Phila., 1914.
$1.50.
Pinsker and His Brochure. Federation of American Zionists. New York,
1911. $0.15.
AIMS OF JEWISH LABOR : The Poale Zion. New York, 1918.
AMRAM, D. W. : A Jewish State in Palestine. Zionist Organization of America,
1918. $0.10.
BERLE, ADOLF: The World Significance of a Jewish State. New York,
1918. y
BRANDEIS, LOUIS D.: The Jewish Problem: How to Solve It. Federa-
tion of American Zionists, New York, 1915. Free.
DEINARD, E. : Dibre Ha yammim le-Ziyyon be-Russia. 2 parts. Kearney, New
Jersey. 1904.
DONIGER, SUNDEL (Editor): The Zionist primer. Young Judaea, New
York, 1917.
ELIOT, GEORGE: Zionism, an Exposition. Reprint from Daniel Deronda.
Zionist Organization of America, New York, 1918. $0.10.
FINEMAN, H.: Poale Zionism. Jewish Socialist Labor Party, New York,
1918. $0.15.
FRIEDEMANN, ADOLPH: Das Leben Theodor Herzls. Berlin, 1914.
FRIEDENBERG, ALBERT M.: Zionist Studies. Bloch Pub. Co., New York,
1909.
250
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
FRIEDLAENDER, ISRAEL: Zionism and Religious Judaism. Zionist
Organization of America, 1918. Free.
FRIEDMAN, ELISHA M. : Zionism and Jewish Reconstruction. The Menorah
Journal, April, 1918. Reprint. $0.10.
GOLDBERG, ISRAEL: Zionism: Its Theory, Origin, and Achievements,
Zionist Organization of America, 1919.
GOODMAN, P. and LEWIS, ARTHUR D.: Zionism Problems and Views.
London, 1916.
GOTTHEIL, RICHARD : Zionism. Jewish Publication Society, Phila., 1914. $1.50.
HARD, WILLIAM: Israel. Metropolitan Magazine, Aug. 1918. Reprint.
$0.05.
HAVAIDA HASHLISHIT SHEL MIZRAHI. (Third Convention, in Chica-
go.) New York, 1916.
HEMAN, F. : Das Erwachen der jiidischen Nation. Basel, 1897.
HERZL, THEODOR: The Jewish State. Zionist Organization. $0.25.
Altneuland. Berlin, 1905. 4th Edition, English translation in Young Judaean.
Zionistische Schriften. Jiidischer Verlag. Berlin.
Congress Addresses. Translated by Nellie Straus. Zionist Organization,
New York, 1917. $0.15.
HESS, MOSES : Rome and Jerusalem. Bloch Pub. Co., New York, 1918.
JAFFE, MAX: Die Nationale Wiedergeburt der Juden. Berlin, 1897.
KADIMAH: Issued by the Intercollegiate Zionist Association of America,
New York, 1918.
KALLEN, HORACE M. : Constitutional Foundations of the New Zion. Zionist
Organization of America, New York, 1918. $0.10.
KRONBERGER, EMIL: Zionism und Christen. Leipzig, 1900.
LANDMAN, S.: Zionism, its Organization and Institutions. The Zionist,
London, 1915. $0.10.
History of Zionism. The Zionist. London, 1915. $0.10.
LEVIN, SHMARYA: In Milchomo Zeiten. Federation of American Zionists,
New York, 1915-1917. 2 vols. $2.30.
Philanthropy un Selbsthilf. New York, 1915.
Out of Bondage. London, 1919.
LICHTHEIM, RICHARD: Das Program des Zionismus. Berlin, 1911.
MACK, JULIAN W. : Americanism and Zionism. Federation of American
Zionists, 1918. Free.
MAKOVER, A. B. : Mordecai M. Noah: His Life and Work. Bloch Pub.
Co., New York, 1917. Cloth, $0.75. Paper, $0.50.
MELAMED, S. M. : On the Eve of Redemption. Bloch Pub. Co., New York,
1918. $1.00.
MIZRAHI. (Yiddish). New York, 1917. $0.10.
NORDAU, MAX: Zionistische Schriften. Cologne, 1909.
NORDAU, MAX, AND GOTTHEIL, GUSTAV: Zionism and Anti-Semitism,
Scott-Thaw Co., New York, 1904.
PALESTINE AND JEWISH NATIONALISM: The Round Table, March,
1918. Reprint, $0.05.
PINSKER, LEO: Auto-Emancipation. Federation of American Zionists. New
York. $0.15.
REPORT OF THE ACTIONS-COMITE DER ZIONISTISCHEN ORGAN-
IZATION. Cologne, 1911, and Berlin, 1913.
251
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
REPORT OF THE THIRD CONFERENCE OF THE MIZRAHI. 1916.
RIFKIND, LEWIS: Zionism and Socialism. London, 1918. $0.05.
SACHER, H. (Editor): Zionism and the Jewish Future. The Macmillan
Co., New York, 1916.
Jewish Emancipation: The Contract Myth. London, 1918. $0.10.
A Jewish Palestine; the Jewish Case for a British Trusteeship. London,
1919. $0.10.
Zionism and the State. The Zionist, London, 1915. $0.10.
SAMPTER, JESSIE E. : The Book of the Nations. E. P. Dutton Co., New York,
1917. $1.00.
SCHECHTER, SOLOMON: Zionism, a Statement. Federation of American
Zionists, New York, 1906.
SCHLESINGER, MAX: Reform Judaism and Zionism, Federation of Ameri-
can Zionists. New York, 1907.
SIMON, LEON: Zionism and the Jewish Problem. The Zionist, London,
1915.
SOKOLOW, NAHUM: Zionism in the Bible. Reprinted from History of
Zionism. London, 1918. $0.10.
History of Zionism, 1600-1918, with introduction by Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.
P. Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1912. 2 vols. $15.00.
SPIERS, F. S.: Zionism and the Jewish Religion. The Zionist, London, 1915.
$0.10.
USSISCHKIN, M. M. : Our Program. Federation of American Zionists.
WAXMAN, MEYER: The Mizrachi, Its Aims and Purposes. New York,
1918. $0.10.
WEIZMANN, CHAIM, and GOTTHEIL, RICHARD: What is Zionism?
Two chapters reprinted from Zionism and the Jewish Future. London,
1918. $0.10.
ZANGWILL, ISRAEL: The Problem of the Jewish Race. Judaean Pub. Co.
ZIONIST QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. Leaflet, Zionist Organization. 1919.
$0.02.
ZIONISTISCHES A-B-C- BUCH, HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DER ZIONIST-
ISCHEN VEREINIGUNG FUR DEUTSCHLAND. Berlin, 1908.
ZIONISTEN-KONGRESSE-PROTOCOLS. Vienna-Berlin, 1897-1914.
V. THE HEBREW REVIVAL
ABRAHAMS, ISRAEL: Chapters on Jewish Literature. Jewish Pub. Soc.
of America, Phila., 1899. $1.00.
BENTWICH, NORMAN : Jewish Schools in Palestine. Federation of American
Zionists, New York, 1912. $0.10.
Zionism and Jewish Culture. The Zionist, London, 1915. $0.10.
BIALIK, CH. N. : Dos Yiddishe Buck. Histadrut Ivrit, New York, 1918. $0.05.
COHEN, ISRAEL: The German attack on the Hebrew Schools in Palestine.
London, 1918. $0.05.
COHEN, NETINAH: Jerusalem Gymnasium. Ha-Meir, Jaffa, 1912.
GOLDBERG, ABRAHAM: Hebraism un Yiddishism. Zionist Organization of
America. New York, 1918. $0.15.
MILLER, E.: Palestine and the Hebrew Revival. The Zionist, London,
1915. $0.10.
252
GUIDE TO ZIONISM
RAISIN, JACOB S.: The Haskalah Movement in Russia. Jewish Pub. Soc.
Phila., 1913.
REPORT OF ALL HEBREW SCHOOLS IN PALESTINE. Federation
Palestine Hebrew Schools of American Zionists. 1916.
RHINE, A. B.: Leon Gordon. Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., 1910.
SACHER, H.: A Hebrew University for Jerusalem. The Zionist, London,
1915. $0.10.
SIMON, LEON: Hebrew Education in Palestine. The Zionist, London, 1915.
$0.10.
SLOUSCHZ, N. : The Renascence of Hebrew Literature. Jewish Pub. Soc., Phila.,
1909.
La Poesie Lyrique Hebraique Contemporaine. Paris, 1907.
USSISCHKIN, M. M.: .Die Erziehung in Erez-Israel. Die Stimme der Wahr-
heit, 1905.
WALDSTEIN, ABRAHAM S. : The Evolution of Modern Hebrew Literature,
New York, 1916.
VI. GENERAL REFERENCES
American Jewish Year Book, The, Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., Pa.
Apocrypha. The Cambridge Edition.
Bible, The Translation of the Jewish Pub. Soc. Phila., 1917.
Cambridge Commentaries on the Bible.
Die Jiidische Rundschau.
Dos Yiddishe Volk.
Der Yiddischer Kaempfer.
English Zionist Review.
Hadassah Bulletin.
Haolam.
Hatoren.
Jewish Chronicle, London.
Maccabaean.
Menorah Journal.
Palestine. Published by British Palestine Committee.
Jewish Communal Register of New York City. Pub. by the Kehillah, New York.
Jewish Encyclopaedia, The.
Zionist Organization of America. List on request. Department of Education.
253
INDEX
Page
Aaronsohn, Aaron 88 ; 210
Abel Senior founded Dos Yiddishe Folk 73
Abramowitsch, Solomon Jacob 113
Actions Committee Executive Committee of Zionist Organization 58
Agricultural Experiment Station (at Athlit) 210
Agriculture See Palestine, Agriculture 9
Agricultural Training 167
Ahad Ha- Am:
Life and work of 40 ; 46 ; 116-120
Literary activity 118
Philosophy 119
Relation with Zionist Organization 120
Jewish villages in Palestine 163 ; 215
Ahoozah 44; 77; 165
Ain Ganim 67
Akiba, Rabbi hails Bar Kochba as Messiah 25
Allenby, General:
In Palestine 11
Jewish Legion 84 ; 85
Enters Jerusalem 88
Alliance Israelite Universelle:
Educational work in Palestine 42 ; 48 ; 58
Schools in Palestine 183 ; 203-205
Allied Government Declaration in favor of Zionism (see also Balfour
Declaration) 11
Alroy, David of Bagdad 28
Altneuland 55
America Jewish Communities in (see United States) 14 ; 17
American Jewish Congress 92-100
American Zionism Growth of 97
American Zionist Medical Unit 76 ; 99 ; 189-190 ; 224
Amos 24
Amram, David Werner 126
Anglo Palestine Bank:
Averts crisis in Jewish colonies 9
Creates sound conditions for Jewish Colonists 48
Herzl helps found bank 53 ; 54
Makes long-term loans to co-operative societies 66
Subsidiary bank of Jewish Colonial Trust 68
Its work during the War 69 ; 197
Anti-Semitism :
Of Western Europe, modern 4
In Poland 16
Reasons for 35 ; 36
Social and political ., 37
Literary 38
Arab:
Nation 12
Relations with Jews 173
Assimilation causes of 18
Auto Emancipation written by Pinsker 43
Baal Shem Tob 32
Balfour Declaration 11 ; 85
Other countries endorse 86
Balkan States Jews of 14
Banking see Palestine, Banks.
254
INDEX Continued
Page
Bar Kochba The rebellion of 25
Barondess, Joseph 97
Basle Program 59
Bamberger, Ludwig see National Liberal Party.
Bedouins 173
Behan, Dr. Director of Jerusalem Pasteur Institute 189
Behar, Nissim 204
Belkind, Israel 206; 207; 209
Bene Moshe organized by Ahad Ha- Am 117
Ben Shamen Jewish National Fund, olive groves at 66 ; 193
Ben Yehuda, Eliezer reviver of Hebrew as national language,
46; 212; 213; 215
Bezalel School 180; 209
Bialik Hayim Nahman Hebrew poet, modern 113
Bianchini member Zionist Commission 88
Bilu student organization, founder of Rishon le Zion 48
Birnbaum, Nathan (Mathias Acher) first to use term "Zionism" 23
Bismarck and Anti-Semitism 37
Brainin Reuben Hebraist 114
Brandeis, Justice Louis D 77; 81; 82; 136
Brandes, Georg Danish critic endorses Zionism 86
British Declaration see Balfour Declaration 11
Brunn, Dr., Palestinian physician 189
California Compared to Palestine 9
Central Committee 58
Charkow Deputation 56
Chasanovitz, Dr. Joseph 214
China Jews in 14
' ' Chosen People ' ' the Jewish interpretation 6
Chovevi Zion see Hovevi Zion.
Christianity :
Birth of 26
Anti-Semitism 38
Christians in Palestine 175
Colonies, Jewish, in Palestine see Villages.
Cowen, Joseph member Zionist Commission 88
Co-operative Farms 134 ; 166
Cremieux, Adolphe 157
Cresson, Warder 77
Cutler, Col. Harry 97
Damascus blood-libel 157, 185
Daniels, Josephus 92
DeHaas, Jacob 73 ; 82
Sent to Peace Conference 97
Diaspora and Palestine 176
Diseases see Sanitation.
Djemal Pasha 220
Dolitzki, Menahem 113
Dreyfus Case in France 5 ; 37
D 'rishat Zion written by Kalischer 42
Dubnow, S. M 186
Eder, M. member Zionist Commission 88
Education in Palestine:
Religious schools 202
Alliance schools 203 ; 204
Hilf sverein 205
Beth Hasefer 205 ; 206
Agudas Hamorim 207
Town Hebrew Schools 207 : 208
INDEX Continued
Page
Special schools 208
Agricultural 209
The language struggle 210
El Arish offered as Jewish homeland 55
Elijah of Vilna, the Gaon 31
Emergency Fund 80 ; 82
Emir Feisal 86; 99
England :
See Balfour Declaration 11
Jews of 14; 17
Epstein, Dr. H. J 74
Federated Zionist Societies of the West see Order Knights of Zion 73
Federation of American Zionists:
Organized 1897 72
Merged into Zionist Organization of America 90
Fellaheen 172
Fels, Mrs. Joseph sent to Peace Conference by American Jewish Congress 92
Forerunners of Zionism 40
France :
In favor of Zionism 11
Jews of 14; 17
Frankfurter, Prof. Felix 11; 99
French Revolution:
Jews leave Medievalism and Ghettos after 30
Brings Civil Emancipation to Jews 33
Friedenwald, Dr. Harry goes to Palestine 73 ; 89
Frischman, David Hebrew writer 114
Galicia Jews of 16
Gaster, Dr. Moses present at 4th Zionist Congress 54
Gaza 184
Gentiles and Zionism 12 ; 118
German Jews in America 17
Germany :
Jews of 14; 16; 17
German Zionists 88
Ghettos, Jews leave Ghettos 17 ; 29
Ginsburg, Asher see Ahad Ha-am 116
Goldberg, Dr. Palestinian physician 189
Goldberg, Isaac 216
Gordon, Leon 32 ; 111
Gottheil, Dr. Gustav 72
Gottheil, Dr. Richard:
First president of American Zionist Federation 72
First editor of Maccabaean 73
Greater Actions Committee 56
Greeks 20; 25; 40
Gymnasea :
In Jaffa (Herzlia), supported by Z. O. A 105; 207; 208
In Jerusalem 208
Hadassah "Women 's Zionist Organization 76
Hadassah Nurses Settlement 189
Haifa 181 ; 182
Ha-ivri 114
Ha Levi, Jehudah:
Makes a pilgrimage to Zion 27
Philosophic works in Hebrew 108
Holland Jews of 14
Halukkah Philanthropic fund of "old" Palestine settlement,
79; 158; 178; 180; 183; 202
256
INDEX Continued
Page
Ha-Meassef Hebrew Journal 31 ; 110
Hamelitz Ahad Ha-am, editor of 117
Hantke, Arthur member of Inner Actions Committee 80
Ha-olam 114
Hashiloah 114
Hashomer Jewish guards in Palestine 170
Hassidim 32
Haskalah movement for secular enlightenment 42 ; 46
Hatoren 114
Hatzefirah 114
Hazeman 114
Hebrew Language 15 ; 107 ; 115
Hebrew University 211 ; 215
Hederah Jewish National Fund garden in 66
Hilfsverein der deutscher Juden:
Educational work in Palestine 58 ; 205
Language struggle 219
Hellenism 41
Herv6, Gustav (French Socialist editor) in favor of Zionism 86
Herzl, Theodor 39
Founder of Zionist Movement 40
His life and work .50-56; 136
Autobiography of 51
Herzlia suburb of Haifa 66; 182
Hess, Moses Socialist precurser of Zionism 40 ; 41 ; 136
Hibbat Zion Movement see Hovevi Zion 47
Histadruth Ivrith 115
Housing Problem, the 167
Hoveve Zion:
Palestine colonization society, 1882 44 ; 47
Organized in America 72 ; 162
Palestinian education 206
Huldah Jewish National Fund olive groves at 66
Ibn Gebirol, Shlome philosophical works in Hebrew 108
I. C. A.:
Jewish Colonization Association 48
Becomes manager of Rothschild interests in Palestine 164
Palestinian education 206
Immigration, Jewish East European to America 17
Imperialism foe of Nationalism 19
Inner Actions Committee ceased functioning during war 80
Intercollegiate Zionist Soc. Organized 1915, collegiate branch of Zionist
Organization 78
Internationalism defined 20
Isaiah His conception of return to Zion 24
Italy Jews of 14; 17; 40
I. T. O. (Jewish Territorial Organization) formed at 7th Congress 61
Jabotinsky, Vladimir conceived the idea of the Jewish Legion 84
Jabneh, Academy at see Johanan Ben Zakkai 26
Jacobsohn, Victor member Inner Actions Committee, remained in Con-
stantinople during war 80
Jerusalem :
British Army enters 11 ; 177-180
The old city 177
Population 178
Pilgrims 179
Jewish quarters 179
Sanitary problem 186-188
Hospitals 189
Jesus 6
257
INDEX Continued
Page
Jewish Centre value of 10
Jewish Colonial Trust 44
Established 1899 60
Organization of 68 ; 134
Jewish National Fund:
Creates sound conditions for Jewish Colonists 44 ; 48
Pounded at 5th Congress 54
History of 64
Flag Day, Flower Day, Olive Tree Fund, Land Donations Fund 65
Achievements of 66 ; 134
Makes loans for building of Tel Av 181
Joint Distribution Committee its work in Palestine 82
Judaism and Zionism 23
Judenstaat Herzl's first Zionist work 45
Kabbalah 27
Kadimah :
Student society at Vienna 45
I. Z. A. publication 76
Kagan, Dr. Helen:
Zionist woman physician establishes clinic in Jerusalem 76
Director of Hadassah clinic 189
Kalin, Jacob Poet 114
Kalischer, Hirsch 40; 41 ; 104; 161
Kaplan, Rose Hadassah Nurse . . 189
Kara, Joseph 27
Kattowitz Conference held by Hoveve Zion 44 ; 47
Kehillah of New York and American Jewish Congress 93
Khazayan, H. H 86
Kinneret Jewish National Fund erected model farm at 66
Klausner, Joseph Publicist 114
Labor Problem in Palestine, the 166 ; 174
Landy, Rachel Hadassah nurse 189
Language Struggle see Polytechnicum.
Lasker, Edward see National Liberal Party.
Law:
Jewish and Jewish Land 25 ; 64-67
Religious vs. Secular 127
Civil law 127-128
Administrators 130
Future Laws see Appendix I 130-131
Lazarus, Emma early American Zionist 71
League of Nations 21
Legion, Jewish organized 12 ; 224
See Vladimir Jabotinsky 84
Levi, Prof. Sylvain 98
Levin, Dr. Schmarya:
Member of I. A. O, goes to America during war 80
Present at Extraordinary Conference in America 81 ; 118
Levinthal, Rabbi B. L 97
Lewin Epstein E. "W. member Zionist Commission 88
Library Jewish National 214
Lilienblum, Moshe Loeb 32
Lipsky, Louis edited Maccabaean, secretary Federation of American Zion-
ists and Palestine colonization 45 ; 73 ; 82
Lithuania high degree of Jewish culture developed in 16
Maccabaean, The Founded 1900 73
Maccabaeans, the 25
Mack, Judge Julian W 11 ; 81
Chairman of American Jewish Congress 97
Maimonides 108
Mandelstamm, Prof. leader of the Hoveve Zion 54
INDEX Confirmed
Page
Mapu, Abraham author of first Hebrew novel 110
Marshall, Louis 97
Marx, Karl 41
Medical Unit see American Zionist Medical Unit.
Mendele Moher Sefarim 113
Mendelssohn, Moses:
Eesponsible for first return to Hebrew as literary medium 110
And Jewish German Assimilation 31
Messiahism :
Relation to Zionism 23
False messiahs see Moses of Crete; Sabbatai Zebi; David Alroy;
David Reubeni 27
Meyer, Walter member Zionist Commission 88
Mikveh Israel Agricultural School, near Jaffa founded by Chas. Net-
ter 142 ; 160
Mizrahi (Orthodox party) :
Developed at Third Congress 60
Protests against any but orthodox schools in Palestine 62
Their aims and achievements 103-105
Mohilewer, Rabbi Samuel helped found colony of Rehobot 45; 104
Molko, Solomon see Diego Pires.
Mond, Sir Alfred becomes a Zionist 87
Montefiore, Sir Moses 157; 160; 183
Morocco, Jews in 14
Moser, Alderman 207
Moses 7
Moses of Crete 28
Mossinsohn, Dr. B 207
Nahmanides 27
Nationalism, Jewish:
Ideals of 6; 19
As Spiritual fact 21
National Liberal Party, in Germany 37
Nehemiah the return to the Holy Land under Nehemiah and Ezra 25
Netter, Charles founder of Mikveh Israel Agricultural School 42; 204
New York City, Jews of 15
Noah, Mordecai Manuel first American Zionist 71
Nordau, Max 52 ; 54
Odessa Committee 47
Oliphant, Lawrence 160
Oppenheimer, Dr. Franz co-operative settlement established in accordance
with proposals by 66 ; 134 ; 166
Order Knights of Zion see Zolotkoff 73
Order Sons of Zion affiliated with Federation of American Zionists 74
Ormsby Gore, Major W. attached to Zionist Commission 88
Quoted 182
Orthodoxy 40; 121; 122
Palestine :
Jews' passion for 8
Jews of 14; 15
Effects of the war upon 79
Geography 139 ff
Climate 139
Boundaries 140
The Jordan Valley 144
Tranjordania 145
The Negeb 146
Fertility, harbors 148
Soil 150
Transportation 151
INDEX Continued
History 152-158
Population 159
Resources 191 ff
Stock farming 194
Forestry 195
Banks and credit 197
Insurance 198
Railways 198-199
Harbors 199
Imports and exports 199
Education, see Education in Palestine.
Palestine Bureau 44
Palestine Land Development Co 66 ; 165
Patterson, Colonel led Zion Mule Corps in Dardanelles campaign 84
Pires, Diego 28
Pinsker, Leo:
Became Zionist leader 33 ; 39 ; 40
Wrote Auto Emancipation 43
President of Odessa Committee 47
Ahad Ha-am on 119
Pittsburgh Program 136, 137
Poale Zion Socialist faction developed at 3d Congress ... 60 ; 62; 101-3; 135
Poland 14
As center of Jewish life 15
Anti-Semitism in 16
Polytechnicum at Haifa 210
And language struggle 214
Pool, David de Sola, member Zionist Commission 88
Population, Jewish 14
Protest, rabbiner protested against Basle Convention 53
Provisional Executive Committee for Zionist Affairs:
Organized 1914 81
Assumed control of all phases of Zionism in America 90
Merged into Zionist Organization of America 90
Publications in Palestine 214
Rabinowitz, Solomon see Sholom Aleichem.
Reform Judaism in Germany 33, 34
Attitude toward Zionism 121
Rehobot founded by a group of Russian Jews 45
Reines, Rabbi Jacob of Lida founder of Mizrahi 104
Religion, Jewish as chief national asset 4
Reubeni, David 28
Richards, Bernard G 97
Rishon le Zion 92
Robison, Louis sent to Peace Conference by American Jewish Congress . . 92
Romans 20; 22
Destruction of Second Commonwealth 25
Rothschild, Baron Edmond, de 45; 161; 164; 165; 192
Russia 14 ; 16
Rumania 14
Jews of 16
Anti-Semitism in 37
Ruppin, Dr. Arthur 166
Saadia 108
Sabbatai Zebi 28
Salonica Jews in 14
Samaritans 185
Samuel, Hon. Herbert becomes a Zionist 87
Sanhedrin (1807) called by Napoleon 33
Sanitation' in Palestine .< 186, 190
260
INDEX Continued
PAGE
Schapira, Dr. Hermann 216
Founder of Jewish National Fund 60
Schiff, Jacob H 216
Schneeberg, David organizer of Young Judaea 75
Schneir modern Hebrew poet 113
Sefirot see Kabbalah 27
Sephardic Jews in America 17
Shechem 185
Sheinkin, M 207
Shekel Poll tax of every Zionist 57; 58
Sholom Aleichem 113
Shomerim, Forming of see Hashomer 48
Sieff , Israel member of Zionist Commission 88
Simon, Leon member of Zionist Commission 88
Smolenskin, Perez 32 ; 40
Writer and poet, exponent of nationalism 43
Founded Journal Hashahar 43
Organizes Kadimah 45
Social Justice in Jewish State 132, 138
Opportunity and tradition 132
Democratic organization 133
Problems in Palestine 133
Zion Commonwealth 134
Zionist instruments for social and economic justice 134
Loan societies, teachers' union, Hashomer, co-operative organizations. 135
Pittsburgh Program 136, 137
Sokolow, Nahum member Inner Actions Committee 80 ; 85
Spire, Andre on Zionist delegation to Peace Conference 98
Sprayregen, Joshua organized Order Sons of Zion 74
Statistics of Jews 14
Straus Health Bureau 189
Syrkin, Nahum 97
Szold, Miss Henrietta 73 ; 82
Szold, Robert member Zionist Commission 88
Tahkemoni Mizrahi high school 105 ; 208
Tchernichowsky, Saul modern Hebrew poet 113
Tel Aviv brought into existence by loans from Jewish National Fund . 66 ; 181
Tiberias 183
Ticho, Dr. Albert director of clinic 189
Tschlenow, Jechiel member Inner Actions Committee 80
Turkey:
Jews of 14
Government hinders progress in Palestine .... 15
Turof, Dr. N 207
Uganda :
A shelter for the night 55 ; 56
Offered by Great Britain 60
Umdjuni 67
United States The Jews and 11 ; 14
University, Hebrew foundation laid 12
Ussischkin, M. M 98 ; 118
Verband Juedischer Frauen 208 ; 209
Villages :
In Palestine 9
Early history of 159 ; 164
Vita, Isaac 183
War, The Great:
And Jewish Restoration 9
Its effect on Zionism 79
261
INDEX Continued
Page
And Palestine 217
The danger foreseen 217
Self -Help Committee 217
Economic oppression 219
Political persecution 220
Jews expelled from Jaffa 222
Liberation by Great Britain 222
Warburg, Prof. Otto:
Becomes chairman of Inner Actions Committee, 1914 62
Remains in Germany during war 80
Weizmann, Dr. Chaim:
Lays foundation Hebrew University 12 ; 85
Acclaimed a leader 86
Head of Zionist Commission 88
Influenced by Ahad Ha-am 120
Hebrew University 211; 216; 223-224
Welt, Die started by Herzl 53
Wilson, Pres. Woodrow letter to Dr. Wise favors Zionism 11
Winchevsky, Morris 97
Wise, Dr. Stephen S.:
First secretary American Zionist Federation 72 ; 81
Receives letter from Wilson, favoring Zionism ^. . . . . 91
Sent to Peace Conference by American Jewish Congress 92; 97
Wolf, Israel organized 52 Zionist societies in America 72
Wolfsohn, David succeeded Herzl as chairman of Inner Actions Com-
mittee 62
Yellin, David 215
Yemenite Jews 67
Social problem of 133; 160
Yiddish origin of 15
Yiddishists 106
Young Judaea . 75
Zangwill, Israel:
Present at 4th Congress 54
Secedes from Zionism 61
Zichron Yaacob 192
Zionism :
As folk movement 9
Only solution to national and religious problem 34
See Herzl 40
American Zionists take up burden during war 80
Judaism 121-125
Zionist Bank see Anglo Palestine Bank.
Zionist Commission:
Sent to Palestine 11; 223-224
Founds Hebrew University 12
Its staff, etc 88
Zion Commonwealth 134
Organized by B. A. Rosenblatt 77 ; 166
Zionist Congress 9; 44; 52; 53; 57; 60; 61; 62
Zionist Organization political representative of Jewish people 58
Zionist Organization of America:
Organized at Pittsburgh Convention 90
Becomes responsible for all Zionist work in America 91
Zolotkoff, Leon organized Order Knights of Zion 73
262
HOME USE
CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT
MAIN LIBRARY
This book is due on the last date stamped below.
1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405.
6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books
to Circulation Desk.
Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior
to due date.
ALL BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO RECALL 7 DAYS
AFTER DATE CHECKED OUT.
BECD CIRC DEPT WAR - 9 '74
oc-
LD21-A30m-7,'73 General Library
(R2275sl0)476 A-32 University of California
Berkeley
22230
A LIBRARY
,"';,'," ''',',[