UC-NRLF SB E7D Ebl CanaMan Its Resources and Possibilities By REV. F. A. WIGHTMAN TORONTO WILLIAM BRIGGS 1905 100$ Entered according to Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year one thousand nine hundred and five, by WILUAM BRIGGB, at the Department of Agriculture. CANADA How fair her meadows stretch from sea to sea With fruitful promise ; changing vale of green, Varying ever, till the golden sheen Of autumn marks a glad maturity ! How gay 'neath orchard boughs the russets be ! The uplands, crowned with crimson maples, bear Long cooling arms of shadow, while between In sun and shade the flocks roam far and free. From east to west the harvest is her own ; On either hand the ocean ; at her feet Her cool lakes' sweetest waters throb and beat Like cool, firm pulses of her temperate zone. Gracious and just she calls from sea to sea, ' No room for malice, none for bigotry.' " [36781 PREFACE FOB many years a deep longing has filled my heart for a fuller knowledge of my native land. The search for it has been a task most delightful, though arduous, and in some respects expensive. This book is the outgrowth of the search. There was no original intention to do more than undertake a few lectures under the heads of the chapters herein contained. Having, however, been urged by appreciative friends to preserve the material gathered at such toil in a more permanent form, the evolution of the book is explained. This is done the more confidently in the belief that there are many who have shared with me this thirst for knowledge of the land in which they dwell. In several chapters, where occasion required for the support of theories advanced, I have quoted extensively from other sources. Various authors, the reports of the Geological Survey, the Sessional Papers and the public press have been used in this way. The character of the matter quoted and its purpose, it is hoped, will be a sufficient apology. A few chapters have appeared in print, in the 5 6 Preface form of magazine or 'newspaper articles, in the recent past, and with necessary modification are here reproduced. The original plan of the book has been materially changed to meet the exigencies of publi- cation. That inaccuracies will be found is certain, and they are acknowledged and apologized for in advance, the forbearance of the reader being humbly asked. The book is not presented as a model of literary style, but as a stimulant to patriotic devotion to a great country and to nobler ideals of citizenship. " Standing on a prominence and overlooking the harbor of Quebec and the St. Lawrence River is a statue of Champlain. The great discoverer is repre- sented, hat in hand, saluting Canadian soil, at the moment of his first landing. A bronze shield in relief shows a woman, representing the City of Quebec, writing in letters of gold on the pages of her annals the name and deeds of her founder. To her right stands a child, the genius of naviga- tion, recalling the fact that Champlain was a soldier before he was the Governor of New France. Above them is a winged figure with a trumpet proclaim- ing his glory, and inviting young Canadians to walk in his footsteps and seek to extend their country's sphere of influence and power." This commemorates a well authenticated event in Canadian history, and yet there is a sense in Preface 7 which Canada is still an undiscovered country a veritable terra incognita. It is one thing to discover a territory, and know perfectly Its geographical position and chief features, but quite another to understand its vastness, its wealth and possibili- ties. In the former sense Canada is well known ; in the latter she has yet to be discovered. Not only is this true concerning the foreigner, be he Briton or alien, but it is also true of the vast majority of those who live within her borders. Canadians themselves have yet to discover the land in which they live. What the country to-day needs more than any- thing else is some modern Champlain or Cabot, who will penetrate the mists and fogs of ignorance and prejudice and discover to the Canadian people and the world this glorious heritage of ours a heritage that the stranger has called, "The best half of the best continent God ever made." The " writer does not claim to be able to fill this role, but if, in these pages, the reader may be led to a better knowledge and higher appreciation of our fair Dominion, the chief purpose of this work will have been accomplished. CONTENTS PART I. GENERAL OUTLINE OF RESOURCES AND POSSIBILITIES. CHAPTER PAGE I. General Description - - - - - - 1 1 II. The Status of a Nation - - - - 21 III. Historical Retrospect 28 IV. Climate 3ri 1. Misconceptions and General Description - 36 2. Winter : Its Value and Charm - - 43 3. Summer ..... -47 4. Comparisons 50 V. Resources 55 1. General Remarks 55 2. Forests - 56 3. Precious Metals - ... - 60 4. The Baser Metals and Minerals - - 62 5. Iron - - - 66 6. Fisheries - - 68 7. Agriculture 70 8. Water Power - 74 9. Tourist Attractions .... 75 PART II. DESCRIPTIVE OUTLINE OF LESS KNOWN SECTIONS. I. Laurentia - - 81 II. Saguenay - . 87 III. Hudson Sea - - - 92 IV. Ruperta, or North Quebec ..... 99 V. North Ontario - - - . - 104 VI. Algoma 109 VII. Keewatin : The Country of the North Wind - 116 9 io Contents CHAPTER PAGE VIII. Creesylvania : The Country of the Wood Crees 122 IX. Centralia : The Centre of the Continent - - 127 X. The Border Provinces of the West - - 131 XI. Saskatchewan - 133 XII. Chippewan : The Country of the Chippewyans 138 XIII. Athabasca 142 XIV. British Columbia - 146 XV. Queen Charlotte Islands - - 154 XVI. Slavonia .... - 160 XVII. Translavonia, or Mackenzie - 166 XVIII. Yukon 174 XIX. The Northern Barren Lands of the Arctic Ocean 181 PART III. DEVELOPMENT AND DESTINY. I. The Possibilities of Inland Navigation 191 II. Railway Development Northward - - - '199 III. Industrial and Commercial Centres of the Future 203 "* IV. Immigration and Repatriation - - 209 V. Assimilation 216 VI. Fusion 220 VII. The Native Races and their Future 227 VIIJ. Citizenship 232 IX. Education for Citizenship - 239 X. Canada for the Canadian People 249 XI. The Twentieth Century for Canada - - 257 XII. Population - 262 XIII. How to Realize Our Ideals - 266 XIV. Canada and the North American Continent - 269 XV. Canada and Transportation - - 274 XVI. Canada's Security of Position - - 278 XVII. Destiny 281 PART I. General utline of IResoutces anfc possibilities CHAPTER I. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. "Canada is a country so vast that it is difficult to convey an adequate idea of its size ; so fertile that nothing short of official returns will exon- erate a description of it from a charge of exaggeration ; so prosperous as to not only rival, but to surpass all other countries on the face of the earth ; so healthy in climate, so beautiful in scenery, so abundantly sup- plied with magnificent lakes and rivers, so full of commercial resources, and so rich in minerals, that I am overpowered with the magnitude of the task I have imposed upon myself in attempting to convey even a faint idea of \i"Haliburton, THE Dominion of Canada occupies a position chiefly in the North Temperate Zone, though ex- tending to the Arctic regions. Notwithstanding the fact that she has a southern frontier of some three thousand miles, she cannot truthfully be called " a country of length without breadth." This will be apparent when we remember that the south touches the 42nd degree of latitude, and that the northern coast is some two thousand miles north of this point. Neither are these northern regions barren wastes, as is sometimes supposed ; but to this we will refer later on. Suffice it to say, that wheat can be grown one thousand four hundred miles north of the latitude mentioned above, while a like dis- tance, measured south of the 42nd parallel, would wholly traverse the breadth of the United States and terminate in the Gulf of Mexico. Within this 13 14 Our Canadian Heritage vast space there is an area of some three million square miles, including a great variety of climate and products. The territory of the Dominion for convenience may be divided into seven great natural sections determined by the drainage systems of the coun- try. They may be styled as follows : The Gulf and Atlantic ; the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence, a continuation of the first ; Hudson Bay, east and west ; the Saskatchewan Valleys ; Mackenzie Basin ; the Pacific ; and the Yukon. Each one of these great divisions is within the agricultural area .to a greater or less extent, rich in many of the resources of nature, and fitted for permanent human habitation. Two of these sec- tions, the Atlantic and the Lake, contain at pre- sent most of the population of the country; two others, the Saskatchewan and Red River basins, and the Pacific slope, have a moderate population, while the remaining are, with the exception of the Klon- dike region, almost without inhabitants. Federal subdivisions that is, the provinces and territories as at present constituted consist of nine perfectly autonomous provinces, and a number of organized and unorganized territories. The Mari- time group embraces New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island. Then follow Quebec and Ontario, formerly Upper and Lower Canada, which, with the exception of Prince Edward Island, constitute the charter members of the Canadian federation. The remaining provinces are Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia, repre- senting the centre and extreme west, and represent- ing also the prairie and mountain regions of the General Description 15 Dominion. The Yukon country has recently been organized as a separate federal territory, with a limited measure of self-government, and now has a representative in the Dominion Parliament. There still remain four large unorganized territories, as fol- lows: Athabasca, Mackenzie, Keewatin, and Ungava. The large and numerous islands of the Arctic Ocean are grouped under the name of the Franklin regions of the Dominion. When we remember that this entire country, equal in area to the Continent of Europe, contains less population than the City of London, we are reminded of the words of Jean Blewett, concerning great regions in Canada : " Nothing breaks the monotony of these vast plains. No rancher's shack, no settler's cot, no man at the plough, no woman at the open door nothing to lessen the weird effect of the greatness. No sound of life, no shock of hammer, no lowing of cattle, no cry of children at play, lifts the curtain of silence." Though the leading physical features and resources of the country are to be treated in detail, the following may be stated by way of general description : " In the year 1888 a special committee of the Canadian Senate entered into a thorough examina- tion of the available evidence bearing upon the question of the agricultural, mineral and timber resources of that portion of this great North Land lying north of the Saskatchewan watershed, east of the Rocky Mountains, and west of the Hudson Bay. Before this committee were summoned Hud- son Bay factors from as far north as Great Bear Lake, missionaries, travellers, voyageurs, trappers, 1 6 Our Canadian Heritage members of geological survey parties, who had traversed portions of this great region, botanists and naturalists. From these various sources of information a mass of evidence was derived which was deemed sufficient to warrant the committee in arriving at the conclusion that the region north of the Saskatchewan watershed, and drained by the Athabasca, Peace River, Liard River, Slave River, and portions of the Hay River valley and the Mac- kenzie valley, possessed soil and climatic conditions that gave it adaptability for settlement and cultiva- tion. The estimate formed by this committee was, that in the great region north of the Saskatchewan watershed, west of Hudson Bay and east of the Rocky Mountains, there were three hundred thou- sand square miles of land adapted to the growth of wheat ; four hundred and seven thousand square miles, including the wheat area, adapted to the growth of barley and oats ; six hundred and fifty- six thousand square miles, including the wheat and barley area, adapted to the growth of potatoes and turnips, and eight hundred and sixty thousand square miles of good pasturage lands. This im- mense region contained great stretches of prairie land and extensive forests of spruce, poplar, balm of Gilead and Banksiana pine. " South of the region covered by the investiga- tions of this committee lies a great stretch of prairie country, including the Province of Mani- toba and the new provinces of Alberta and Saskat- chewan, with a total area, south of the north water- shed of the Saskatchewan, roughly placed at two hundred and seve ity thousand square miles. This region is within the wheat-growing belt, and gives, General Description 17 with the areas suitable for the. cultivation of cereals north of the Saskatchewan watershed, a total in the Canadian North-West of five hundred and seventy thousand square miles adapted to the growth of wheat, and seven hundred and eighty thousand square miles adapted to the growth of barley and oats. Stated in acres, this would give a wheat area of 360,000,000 acres, and it is believed that 250,000,000 acres of wheat land in this region is a safe calculation. " A bare commencement only has been made towards bringing the wheat lands of the Cana- dian North-West under cultivation. Possibly one- eightieth part of the land well adapted to the growth of wheat has been brought under the plough, and yet tne export of wheat, mostly No. 1 hard, reaches about forty million bushels each year. " As settlement extends northward, it is found that the rigor of the climate does not increase. At Prince Albert, on the Lower Saskatchewan, three hundred miles north of the latitude of Winnipeg, the wheat crop is less liable to injury from frost than in Southern Manitoba, and the yield is heavier. In the Edmonton region, on the North Saskat- chewan, oats are said to yield one hundred bushels to the a,cre, and weighing forty pounds to the bushel. The extensive buffalo grass region, extending along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, from the boundary line to the North Saskatchewan, is the finest ranching country in America. This great North-West region is rich in coal, gold, silver, copper, iron and petroleum, and the great forests north of the Saskatchewan will be of immense value in the future. The Upper Yukon Valley, within the 1 8 Our Canadian Heritage bounds of Canada, has extensive pasture areas, and is one of the most productive gold fields in the world." * The general physical features of the Dominion are, in a measure, common to the continent, yet there is a sense in which they are distinctly Cana- dian. The grandeur of her mountains, the breadth of her prairies, the extent of her forests, her vast and numerous lakes ; the length, variety and beauty of her rivers, together with her countless islands, great and small, as well as her fiords and indenta- tions, are all on a grander scale and in richer profusion than those of any other country. A glance at the map will show that this is particularly true with respect to our lakes and rivers and inland seas. It is said that Canada contains one-half of the fresh water of the globe. Kipling came to Canada in winter and visited Quebec City when the snow was piled high. He has ever since called this country " Our Lady of the Snows." If he would come here in summer he might call it "Our Lady of the Lakes." The peculiar charm of Canada in summer is the mix- ture of land and water. We have innumerable lakes and rivers, and countless islands suitable for camping. Nowhere else in all the world IB there such a land for summer enjoyment. In Ontario the whole country, from the Great Lakes to the Hudson Bay, abounds in small lakes and rivers, and most of the lakes are beautified by the islands in them. Georgian Bay, cutting deep into the province, and almost dividing it in two, is * John Charlton, M.P General Description 19 full of lovely islands which charm the summer visitors. Quebec Province has not the Great Lakes at the south, as Ontario has, but all the water of them flows through this province in the mighty volume of the St. Lawrence River, and mingles with the sea where mountains rise beside the water. Que- bec owns a share of Lake Champlain, has Lakes St. John and Mistassini, and there are small lakes scattered throughout the province from the inter- national boundary to Hudson Bay. New Brunswick is a, land of mighty rivers that expand into lakes of rare beauty at many points. Sea-girt Nova Scotia has some pretty little lakes, and Cape Breton is not only surrounded by the sea, but has beautiful salt water lakes in its interior. No part of Prince Edward Island is distant from the sea, and there are great bays extending into the interior of the island. In the Maritime Pro- vinces and the lower part of Quebec we have a wonderfully extensive coast line, where rare sea bathing can be obtained. Manitoba has Lake Winnipeg, Lake Winni- pegosis, Lake Manitoba, and some smaller lakes, while in the North-West the lake reservoirs of the Mackenzie and Churchill rivers almost rival in magnitude the Great Lakes that separate Ontario from the United States. In British Columbia there are many long, narrow and deep lakes lying in the valleys between the mountains, and regarding the inlets of the sea which break the coast-line of that magnificent province, Lord Dufferin once said : " Such a spectacle as its coast-line presents is not to be paralleled by any country in the world. 2O Our Canadian Heritage Day after day for a whole week, in a vessel of nearly two thousand tons, we threaded interminable labyrinths of watery lanes and reaches that wound endlessly in and out of a network of islands, promon- tories and peninsulas for thousands of miles, un- ruffled by the slightest swell from the adjoining ocean, and presenting at every turn an ever-shifting combination of rock, verdure, forest, glacier and snow-capped mountains of unrivalled grandeur and beauty. When it is remembered that this wonderful system of navigation, equally well adapted to the largest line-of-battle ship and the frailest canoe, fringes the entire seaboard of the Province, and communicates, at points sometimes more than a hun- dred miles from the coast, with a multitude of val- leys stretching eastward into the interior, while at the same time it is furnished with innumerable harbors on either hand, one is lost in admiration at the facilities for intercommunication which, are thus provided for the future inhabitants of this wonderful region." CHAPTER II. THE STATUS OF A NATION* IN a general way reference has already been made to the area of the Dominion ; we will now make some more particular reference to this subject. This is a question concerning which even the native born have little adequate idea, to say nothing of the stranger both within and without our gates. It is quite an easy thing to say that Canada is a country containing some three million five hundred thou- sand square miles ; but who can have any adequate idea of these figures without further contrasts ? Let us, therefore, make a few comparisons, which may help us to take in the immensity of these figures, which merely express the superficial area in square miles. It may help us when we say that Canada is larger than the United States with its fifty-one states and territories, and its eighty millions of people ; or that it is larger than Europe, wherein ^^M^ is the seat of twenty national governments, and twice that number of races and languages, spoken by four hundred millions of people. In Europe is the seat of nations, the home of civilization and commerce, setting pace for the rest of the world, and yet, all combined, only equal in extent the area of the Dominion. The ability to sustain human life in *As indicated by achievements rather than politically understood. 21 22 Our Canadian Heritage numbers and comfort is probably as great in Canada as in any other part of the world. Again, as compared with the British Empire as a whole, Canada forms a large proportion. We, in common with other fellow-subjects of the crown of Britain, are wont to think with pride of the Empire on which the sun never sets, and wherein is in- cluded the great colonies and dependencies of national proportions. Canada, however, furnishes nearly forty per cent, of this vast and magnificent Empire. England, which contains the largest por- tion of the United Kingdom, and which is not only the heart and soul of the British Empire, but also exerts a predominating influence in the affairs of the world itself by virtue of her commercial supremacy, is but a small speck when laid on the map of Canada. Even the United Kingdom is equalled in area by the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland, or, as Mr. George Johnson points out, "While England, Wales and Scotland form together an area of eighty-eight thousand square miles, you could cut forty such areas out of Canada." The united area of the Canadian lakes would make a sea in which the United Kingdom could still retain her insular character, with room enough for the Royal Navy to sail without danger of col- lision. The ' navigable rivers of Canada would make in their united length a waterway probably long enough to belt the globe*. The German Empire in Europe, with all its mil- lions, could be contained fifteen times within our borders, while the land of the Bourbons and Napoleons could snuggle in the bosom of the Great Dominion with as much ease as her German sister. The Status of a Nation 23 In other words, each one of the countries named would make quite moderate provinces of the Do- minion. Even European Russia, the home of the Slavic race, with her eighty millions, could be twice placed on Canadian soil and still be girdled by a good strip of Siberia. Little Denmark, that excels us in the British market, is about half the size of Nova Scotia. Belgium, Holland and Switzerland could nestle down in the single province of New Brunswick. The Province of Ontario would stretch from Paris to Copenhagen, while Quebec* would cover the Russian provinces from St. Petersburg to the Ural Mountains; and British Columbia, placed east and west, would reach from Spain to Constantinople, and from the Mediterranean to the North Sea. " Surely no pent-up Utica is ours." These vast areas, with all their richness of nature strewn with a prodigal hand, must in time feel the throb of a mighty potency when, in proportion to her area, her population and industrial life shall have multiplie even to the quarter of that now found in Europe. Speaking of the Prince of Wales' visit to Canada some years ago, the Weston, Eng., Mercury said : " The Duke of Cornwall, during his visit to Canada, has seen corn fields in which England could be lost; he has looked on forests that might build the navies of the wprld, if ships were still made of oak and pine; he has been carried through the mountain region where it is believed that more gold lies buried ithan has yet been taken from California and Australia. He has come from plains which seemed fitted to nurture tens of thousands of horsemen, the cavalry of a Tartar host; from that ' New Scotland,' indented with firths and bays, which should be the 24 Our Canadian Heritage home of a great maritime population in the future. Canada needs only men to develop her vast resources. In all things else she has the materials of a mighty nation ready to her hand." Though it is true that Canada is still in her in- fancy, so far as her possibilities are concerned, yet her progress during the past century has been great, and especially since Confederation. " The majority of Canadian people are as yet confined to the old Acadian and Canadian provinces, which stretch from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the head of Lake Superior. Still, within thirty years, a considerable population has flowed into the North- West, and the capital of Manitoba is now an enter- prising, prosperous city, with over seventy thousand people. The population of the Dominion has in- creased twenty times since 1800, and consequently numbers about 5,600,000, of whom thirty per cent, are French-Canadians. " The total annual trade of imports and exports now realizes $470,000,000, an increase of $460,000,- 000 in one hundred years. The revenue has reached $69,474,000, mainly made up of customs and excise duties. The people have deposited in Government savings banks about $85,000,000, apart from the large amounts deposited in the chartered banks, loan companies, and building societies. More than seventeen thousand miles of railway are in opera- tion from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. Up- wards of $400,000,000 is invested in cotton, woollen, wooden and other manufactures, while at the present time American capital is creating in the town of Sydney, in conjunction with the rich bituminous coal mines of Cape Breton, one of the The Status of a Nation 25 largest iron industries of the continent. The ship- ping industry is very active, and fourteen lines of steamers call regularly at Montreal, which has a total population of nearly four hundred thousand, and must always be the commercial metropolis of the Confederation." Though it is true development has been some- what slow as compared with other parts of this con- tinent, yet the progress made has been substantial, and even rapid, as compared with many nations of the Old World, and even with some states in the American Union, and there are not wanting evi- dences to justify Canada in assuming the status of a nation. Tn the matter nf population a^one Canada surpasses at least eight of the sovereign states qf Europe, some of whom hold vast colonial posses- sions, and whose history and national foundations go back to remote ages. Perhaps it may not be generally known that the purchasing power of the average Canadian is to fifteen of the inhabitants of some other countries. In other words, reckoned on this basis the commer- cial value or power of the Canadian people is equal to a population of eighty millions of some other nationalities. This fact should greatly enhance the value of the present population in the commer- cial world. Quality in this respect also is at least equal to quantity. The cities of Canada com- pare in population and splendor, in many respects, favorably with the chief cities of Europe or the United States of similar population. Perhaps no city in the world of similar age is so substantial in appearance or better equipped with magnificent buildings than the commercial metropolis of the Do- 26 Our Canadian Heritage minion. Many Canadians have risen to distinc- tion, both at home and abroad, in the various walks of life, and have proven themselves the peers of any. The products of the land take a high place in 7 tne markets of the world, as is witnessed by the international exhibitions, as well as by the trade returns. Many of the industries of the country are of national importance, and compare favorably with the great enterprises of the world. The natural wealth of the Dominion, the beauty of our lakes and rivers, are all on a scale worthy of a great nation. This is not only true of the natural products, but holds good with respect to other things. The rail- way systems of Canada are on a magnificent scale, and probably no people in the world have so many miles of railway to the population as have Cana- dians. At least one of these systems challenges our admiration in the difficulties overcome in its con- struction, as well as its vast extent and wealth. o railway system in the world un der one manage- ment can compare with the Canadian Pacific. This, after traversing an entire continent, is supplemented on the Atlantic and Pacific by the best equipped ocean steamers afloat, making close and rapid connection with the most distant Orient. Thus we have in Canada the largest and best equipped transportation agency ever known to man. There are in Canada about twenty thousand miles of railway. The roads were owned originally by one hundred and fifty-four companies, but by amalgamations and leases controlling influence is now in the hands of eighty-six companies and of the Government of Canada, which operates two roads-- The Status of a Nation 27 the Intercolonial and the Prince Edward Island Railway. Twenty-five million passengers are carried each year by the railways. The system of Canadian canals is, perhaps, no less important than her railways, and, like them, are among the most extensive in the world. It is certain that no people have spent so much per capita for transportation purposes and the improvement of inland navigation as have Canadians. The success which Canadians have achieved in the realm of industry and art they have proved themselves capable of attaining on the field of battle. More than once have Canadians been called upon to defend their country against an invading foe, and in these unhappy tasks they have proved themselves worthy of standing beside the trained soldiers of the Imperial Army. In recent years also, in the defence of the Empire abroad, the soldiers of the King from Canada have proved themselves to be worthy sons of worthy sires. Paardeberg and Hart's River will ever be remembered in Canada's history as mani- festing the valor of her sons on the field of battle. Thus, in many departments of life in Canada nature's bounty and human worth and activity unite in such a manner as to give her a worth}* claim to stand among the nations of the world, as well as to bespeak for her a high place, when, by the magnificence of her endowments, she comes to the zenith of her glory. ' Our father's God, from out whose hand The centuries fall like grains of sand, We meet to-day, united, free, And loyal to our land and Thee ; To thank Thee for the era done, And trust Thee for the opening one." Whittier. CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. . THOUGH we have disclaimed intention of writ- ing in any sense a history of Canada, yet a brief resume of the past is essential to an intelligent knowledge of the present and a judicious forecast of the future. Canada is generally regarded as being one of the youngest countries of the world. This is true only when regarded from the standpoint of her united political history or life. There is a sense in which Canada is one of the oldest of countries. Geologically Canada represents the oldest formation known to man. Similarly we are told from well authenticated data that not Columbus but the early Norsemen were the European discoverers of America, and that Canada, rather than tropical America, has the distinction of first greeting members of the European race. Whatever of mystery or uncertainty there may be in connection with these prehistoric events, it is well known that Acadia became a prominent Euro- pean settlement nearly a quarter of a century before the Pilgrim Fathers landed on the shores of New England. The little settlement planted by De Monts at Port Royal, 1604, marks the beginning of Cana- dian history, and no country could wish a more romantic and historical setting than has ours. 28 Historical Retrospect 29 The heroism of the pioneers, in the early struggles for empire by two great nations, furnishes a tale of national romance of wondrous fascination. When, at last, on the Plains of Abraham, the die was cast which decided that Briton rather than Gaul should dominate the western world, Canada's his- tory had reached its first stage, and was one of con- siderable import. Montreal and Quebec were each places of importance, while the adventurer, ex- plorer and missionary had found their way as far west as the valley of the Mississippi. The conquest of Quebec, which was chiefly im- portant then as . a measure of safety for the New England colonies, was, however, destined to assume a greater importance to the Empire than was at first surmised. England was building better than she knew. If she blundered, in ignorance, toward her own colonies, she seemed, also in ignorance, to be inspired by a far-seeing wisdom for the protection of her dominion in America. The possession of Quebec was the rock of refuge in the dark hours of revolution by which she lost her thirteen original colonies. It is hard to conceive of the course the history of British America would have taken apart from this tragic event. The loss of the New England colonies, however, made Canada all the more important to England. Towards her, all efforts in America must now be confined and concentrated. The influx of the United Empire Loyalists to the remaining provinces of Britain gave new life and new promise to them, adding new provinces and fusing, in part, two differ- ent races in a common citizenship. Canadian his- tory, under the British regime, was now fairly 3O Our Canadian Heritage launched, but though it had entered upon a larger life it was beset with new dangers. Its stability was menaced from within by the commingling of two races, so entirely different in language, religion, history and political ideas as were the French and English at that time. There was danger that this " new wine " of empire would break the old bottles of the established order, and that all would once more be lost. Another, and perhaps at that time greater menace, was the existence on the southern border of a young and ambitious republic, flushed by victory, cherishing animosities, and with an am- bition for a larger dominion in the western world. The War of 1812-14 indicated the grave and real char- acter of the dangers to which the early Canadian provinces were exposed. If, however, the War of 1812 intensified one dan- ger, it modified the other, for in that unequal struggle, in which Canada so heroically and success- fully defended herself, Canadians, both French and English, stood shoulder to shoulder in the defence of their common country. The French, all honor to them, proved entirely true to their new allegiance. Indeed, it is doubtful if England could have retained Canada if it had not been for the loyal and heroic support of the French-Canadians. This strength- ened Canada in many ways. It gave- to her a con- sciousness of her own ability to defend herself, while at the same time it soothed, for the time being, the political and race animosities which had risen. Moreover, the Americans found that Canadians were not, as they formerly supposed, anxious for an- opportunity to revolt, but that they were loyal, united and able to hold their own against almost Historical Retrospect 31 overpowering odds. Furthermore, renewed invasion received a decided check by the unexpected success of Canadian arms. Perhaps the most important out- come of the war to Canada was the influence it had in helping to weld the two races in the bonds of mutual respect and confidence. They could now, at least, more easily live together as brethren and as equals, each struggling for the development of' the country in which they lived. Thus another epoch in our history was reached and passed. There were during all these years other influ- ences also working their part in the mysterious events from which a new nation was to come. Can- ada, bounded by Ontario on the west and the Mari- time Provinces on the east, vast as this territory is, could hardly be regarded as possessing a promising future under existing conditions ; the various pro- vinces were separate colonies, with little in common, except the bond which bound them to the Mother Land. Moreover, the new nation to the south bids Hair to become a continental power, for her hands were already reaching across the Rocky Mountains, towards the Pacific. The West was essential to Britain's true security in America and to Canada's true prosperity in the future. The vast plains of the West and the far-away Pacific coast were wait- ing for occupancy. The fact that the trading posts of the great Hudson's Bay Company were being estab- lished all over these western lands under a British charter was the one factor above all others which determined their future place in the Canadian com- monwealth. Thus, in a mysterious way and without any apparent design, were laid the foundations of a 32 Our Canadian Heritage colonial empire, embracing vast areas of untold wealth and full of promise for the years to come. "At the commencement of the nineteenth century the total population of the five provinces did not reach one hundred and seventy thousand souls, of whom at least one hundred and fifty thousand were French-Canadians. Their total trade did not exceed ten million dollars, the public revenues were in- adequate for the public requirements and the British Government was obliged to give considerable aid to the provincial treasuries " This continued to char- acterize the state of affairs for some time after- wards. The different provinces, as well as being dis- united politically, failed to receive the benefits of united action in trade policies, and suffered from tariff walls between themselves, which militated greatly against intercolonial trade and the cultiva- tion of Canadian sentiment. A colonial administra- tion, slow to learn from the lessons of the past and without precedent or, perhaps, desire to adapt itself to the new needs of the present, caused the young colonies to pass through a political crisis most try- ing to their loyalty. The struggle for responsible government and representative institutions, cul- minating in the rebellion of 1837, brought the young country near to a repetition of the history of 1776. Serious trouble was averted because a truly loyal people were willing to bear long with grievous dis- abilities, and, for the most part, to wait their removal by constitutional agencies. This political struggle, however, was not without its advantages. As from the troublous times of 1812 there came oroader views of citizenship and a stronger basis for Historical Retrospect 33 union, so from these troubles there sprang a bond of common sympathy which paved the way for the real birth of the Dominion in the federation of its various parts. The importance of and true place which Con- federation holds in relation to Imperial sentiment and Canada's present prosperity will, perhaps, never be fully known ; in early times in some quarters, for many years Confederation was looked upon as a questionable advantage and had many bitter op- ponents. It is true that many of the predictions made concerning its advantages failed of materiali- zation. Some localities, once prosperous, afterwards declined ; some industries, once of great import- ance, practically ceased to exist. The population as a whole has not increased so rapidly as was ex- pected, and the development and prosperity of the Maritime Provinces especially, seemed to decline for a time as a result of the union. There were reasons, however, for all these quite apart from Confedera- tion ; difference in transportation routes and methods, the decline of wooden ship building, and the opening of the West, were all events con- tributing to the prevailing conditions and furnished causes which would have prevailed under any cir- cumstances ; indeed, it is a question if the British provinces of North America could long have been retained without Confederation. It was the saving salt to the Empire in North America, and, perhaps, in the world. Apart from the consolidating of British interests in Canada and the making possible the systematic and extensive development of the great resources of the country, the status gained, by the union gave 34 Our Canadian Heritage Canada an influence with the Mother Country not heretofore shared by any colony of any country, ancient or modern. Moreover, that prestige was 110 less important as a factor in the conserving of Imperial rights on the American continent. This influence, both within and without the Empire, has been steadily growing until the present time. The moral influence of United Canada may also be re- garded as the chief factor in the bringing about of United Australia, while other disunited parts of Britain's colonial possessions have been led to look in the same direction. The Fathers of Confederation, through many dif- ficulties and much opposition, proved themselves to be men of far-seeing judgment, possessed with a genius for empire. If the United Empire Loyalists be compared with the Pilgrim Fathers, the Fathers of Confederation lose nothing in comparison with the signers of the Declaration of Independence. They were statesmen in the truest sense of the word and well worthy of a wider sphere, but the work they accomplished in obscurity was destined to grow in splendor and cover their names with glory in the thoughts of generations yet to be. The birth of a nation, though unaccompanied by the sound of war or the romance of discovery, was none the less glorious, nor were the sacrifices that led thereto less patriotic. But, like the actors in many another im- portant event, these men builded better than they knew. July 1st, 1867, marks the accomplishing of the most important event yet passed in Cana- dian history ; let the memory of the men who made it possible be revered, and the anniversary of the Historical Retrospect 35 day have its full significance as we celebrate it from year to year. " One of the most encouraging results of this poli- tical system has been not merely the material de- velopment of the Dominion, but the creation of a powerful national sentiment, which best enables the whole political structure to resist successfully any storms of racial antagonisms or passionate partyism which may from time to time beat against its walls. French Canada, with its population of more fthan a million and a half of people still maintaining their language and special institutions, is no longer restive and uncertain of its future, as in the years preceding and following the rebellion. It is true that at times, when the French-Canadians press their national pre- judices to extremes, a spirit of antagonism is at once evoked between them and the English classes, but the unfortunate state of things that existed before 1837 is no longer likely to return, and whatever jealousies or rivalries break out now and then above the surface are, sooner or later, carried away by a current of some public opinion, anxious for the har- mony of all classes and creeds, and only solicitous for the safe working of the Union." * "Time sped, and saw many a flag unfurled In fierce contention for that virgin world ; Saw France's star by Britain's sun effaced, And Britain's flag by kindred hands abased ; Yet time beheld the trampled banner rise To float triumphant 'neath Canadian skies, And races nurtured 'neath its sway go forth In welded strength, the nation of the north." C. Man: Sir John I^ourinot. CHAPTER IV. CLIMATE. I. Misconceptions and General Description. IN the consideration of Canadian topics that of climate is amongst the most important ; we shall, therefore, treat it at some length, chiefly because of the great misconceptions obtaining abroad con- cerning this subject. Indeed, so greatly have these misconceptions impressed themselves upon the public that they are, to a certain extent, reflected in the minds of Canadians themselves. It is a fact that the so-called " rigors of the Canadian climate " have been so dwelt upon that many of the inhabi- tants of this country think of our climate as being the worst in the world, while other lands are bathed in perpetual sunshine. The fact is that there are few countries in the world, when all things are considered, that have so favorable a climate as Canada. The reputation of a country, like that of an individual, is a matter of importance, and when prejudices or slanders be- come current they are hard to live down. Canada has suffered much from misrepresentation in this respect. The French king may have consoled himself in his loss of Canada by referring to her as " a few 36 Climate 37 square miles of snow and ice," but the calumny has had a long life and dies hard. This is wit- nessed in the absurd notions entertained concerning Canadian climate in England, even at the present time. " Immense frozen plains of morasses covered with icy lakes," is a sentence purporting to be descrip- tive of Canada. It occurs in a school geography in- tended for the use of candidates for the Oxford and Cambridge local examinations. The late Mr. Glad- stone said that Canada was a country " of perpetual ice and snow." The London Outlook, in one of its bright and clever articles, uses this expression : " In lands where snow is a* condition of nature for half the year, in Canada, Russia, and the Alps, it never fails to bring to the people an exhilaration and sense of beauty." When thinking of this country, it is safe to say that the majority of Englishmen have visions of icebergs, frozen lakes and snow-clad wastes. The Yankee was a little more complimentary when he re- ferred to us as " a country where they had nine months winter and three months bad sleighing." For the most part these misconceptions grown up in a simple but yet not unnatural way. A glance at their source is, perhaps, necessary, that we may the better counteract them and guard against their repetition. The Hudson's Bay Com- pany has, to a considerable extent, unconsciously . , contributed to these misunderstandings. For many ft* years that great company represented the largest industry of this country, and the very fact of furs suggests cold, just as the spices of the East India y Company suggested warmth. Moreover, the winter 38 Our Canadian Heritage was the season for the great fur harvest, and all its pursuits spoke of that season of the year. The chief centres of the trade were for many years situated in the coldest and most northern parts of the coun- try about Hudson Bay, and the stories and souvenirs carried back to England all savored of the far north, and seemed to speak of a country of almost perpetual winter. Many missionaries have also inadvertently con- tributed to these misconceptions by giving great prominence to the scenes and hardships peculiar to the winter. Illustrations have been largely made up of howling blizzards, dog teams, and winter camps, all of which have had their part in producing mis- conceptions in the minds of strangers. Canada herself has contributed considerably, and with quite as little intention, to these wrong im- pressions. The ice palaces and winter carnivals, once so popular in the chief cities of the Dominion, the glories of which have been heralded to the ends of the earth in our newspapers, have aided in this work of peculiar education to a surprising degree, all of which has done harm to the country. Another fruitful source of this peculiar delusion is the ignorance concerning the tremendous area of jr**^ the country, and the consequent diversity of its \ / *-*3 **- 1 climatic character ; this is true of all large coun- * e*-txv^?' tries, and no more true of any than of Canada. " If it be true that Canada owns the North Pole, as is seriously claimed by some, then there are very long and cold winters in Canada. Even this side of the unexplored end of the world we have some Arctic territory where pretty warm clothing can be com- fortably used for a good many months of the year. Climate 39 There are even places on the tops of mountains where perpetual ice and snow can be found. Excur- sionists go thousands of miles to see the strange sight, and travel through millions of acres of the finest wheat-growing land in the world in the course of their journey." A leading London newspaper somewhat recently referred to Canada as a " genteel Siberia." The fol- lowing fitting reply is a fair presentation of the facts : " The larger part of Canada is somewhat warmer in summer than the mean temperature of Great Britain during the same season, and somewhat colder in winter. But Canada covers such a vast area that the settler can have almost any climate he wants. There is enough of Canada where winter as it is understood in England is unknown, to cover the whole British Isles. There are parts of Canada where cattle enough to keep the whole of the United Kingdom constantly supplied with beef and butter and cheese, can graze out of doors all winter. " It would be a good idea for some of our British journalistic friends to appoint a commission to come out to Canada, see the country they are talking about, and- ascertain whether we are within the tem- perate zone and what kind of people and crops grow in ' that genteel Siberia.' " * The following general summary of Canadian climate may be regarded as giving a good general description : " In the Dominion of Canada, a country embrac- " Montreal Star. 40 Our Canadian Heritage ing one-half of the continent of America, we natur- ally find a very diversified climate. On the Pacific coast, with the ocean on the one side and lofty mountain ranges on the other, it is moist and tem- perate, while on the east side of the Rocky Moun- tains, on the high level plateaux of the North-West Territories and in Manitoba, is found a climate with large extremes of temperature, but withal bright, dry, bracing and healthy atmosphere. In the valleys of the St. Lawrence and Ottawa Rivers a cold but bright, bracing winter is followed by a long, warm and delightful summer, while the Maritime Pro- vinces, lying between the same parallels of latitude as Prance, and with shores laved by the waters of the Atlantic, rejoice in a climate the praises of which have been sung by successive generations of their people from the old Acadians to the present day." " The climate of those portions of the territories which lie near the mountains is one of peculiar in- terest, presenting, as it does, features which are un- known in countries nearer the sea and away from the mountains. Among the marked features are the rapid changes of temperature, which frequently occur in short intervals of time, the great variability in different years, both of the mean temperature of the winter season and of the summer rainfall, also the fact that the summer season in the great Mackenzie Basin, just under the Arctic Circle, is nearly as warm as in Alberta, on the south border." The following, which relates to the Province of Ontario, is given verbatim : " The Province of Ontario can boast of as many distinctly different climates as can any country in Climate 41 the world. That part of the province which lies immediately north and north-east of Lake Superior, and which forms the northern watershed of that great lake, has a long cold winter, and at times extremely low temperatures are recorded. As a rule the snow does not disappear from the woods until the beginning of May, after which time, how- ever, the summer advances very rapidly, and four months of superb weather follow. Travelling east and south-east the climate quickly improves, and in the valleys of the Ottawa and Upper St. Lawrence we find a moderately cold winter, but a singularly exhilarating, bracing atmosphere, which makes a zero temperature by no means unpleasant. Signs of spring are not wanting. Early in April and by the beginning of May foliage is well advanced, and then follows a decidedly warm summer. The whole of this region is between the middle of May and the middle of September included between the same isotherms as the greater portion of France, and after a protracted autumn winter sets in again in November." The mean annual temperature of Mont- real is 41.8 degrees, and of St. Petersburg, 38.7 degrees. " In the peninsula of Ontario, or that portion of the province which lies east of Lake Huron and north of Lake Erie, and the western portion of Lake On- tario, the winters are by no means severe, and the summers are seldom oppressively hot, this being due to the tempering influence of the lakes by which this part of Ontario is surrounded. In the western counties the April mean temperature corresponds nearly to that of Southern Scotland, and in May the 42 Our Canadian Heritage mean temperature of the whole district is slightly higher than for the south of England. The tempera- ture conditions during the summer months may, as in the Ottawa and Upper St. Lawrence Valleys, be compared with those of France, the nominal, tem- perature for July ranging between 66 degrees and 72 degrees. September and October are generally delightful months, and seldom does snow remain on the ground until well on in December, except on the high lands of the interior counties. That portion of Ontario which lies immediately east of the Geor- gian Bay, the district of Muskoka, at an elevation of 700 feet above the sea, abounding in small lakes, possesses a wonderful bracing atmosphere, which, with a very high percentage of bright sunshine and a pleasant temperature, has made this region a summer resort much frequented by people from the cities and towns further south. " The summers in the south-western part of Quebec are as warm as in the greater part of Ontario. In July the 70 degrees isothern passes not far south of Montreal, the 65 degree line passes through Que- bec City, and most of the Gaspe Peninsula has a mean temperature somewhere below 60 degrees. The winter throughout the province is cold, and between December and March the ground has usually a deep covering of snow." The concluding paragraph runs thus: "The Great Lakes never freeze over, but usually most of the harbors are closed by ice by about the middle of December, and remain frozen over until the end of March or the beginning of April. The average date of the closing of navigation on the St. Lawrence river Climate 43 is December, and of the opening, April 21st. Harbors on the Gulf of St. Lawrence are likewise closed by ice during the winter months, but on the Bay of Fundy and the coast of Nova Scotia they are open all the year round, as are all the harbors on the Pacific coast as far north as Alaska." * II. Winter: Its Value and Charm. There is a certain charm in the bright, crisp and frosty air of winter, with its sparkling sun- shine, that makes it altogether one of the most pleasant seasons of the year. The scenery of winter, though to some extent monotonous, is nevertheless charming and novel. Winter is also the season particularly devoted to the cultivation of the social and literary instincts, and, perhaps, nowhere more so than in Canada ; all classes improve it and profit by it in this way. The young find abundant amuse- ment in the winter games so popular and character- istic in this country, such as sleighing, skating, tobogganing, snowshoeing and many other sports. The long evenings give ample opportunity to the enjoying of social amenities in both city and coun- try. Self-culture and general improvement are given an impulse in the winter season which has resulted in the making of careers which could not possibly have been made in other countries. " Canada really lives its life and assumes its busiest aspect when all the sports that are typical * At the 1897 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, "The Climatology of Canada" was the subject of a highly in- teresting and carefully prepared paper by Mr. R. F. Stupart, of the Toronto Meteorological Department. 44 Our Canadian Heritage of the country and the people take place, when rich and poor, great and small, hasten out to taste the joys which the winter brings. ' Our Lady of the Snows,' as Kipling called her, is no offensive term, as some would have it for it is as our Lady of the Snows, and a pleasant, robust, healthy dame it is that one's brightest memories of Canada are fixed. " Here in London we can hardly conceive of the glories of the Canadian tobogganing and sleighing, and of fireworks illuminating the ice carnivals ; for here, with the thermometer at 50 degrees, and the air heavy with smoke and the streets often slippery only with the greasy mud, our winter is a delusion which gives us no joys." * The winter, contradictory as it may seem, is most conducive to agriculture. Not only is it a season of complete rest to the world of nature, but the influence of frost on the soil acts as a solvent in a manner more complete than any chemical or mechanical appliances could possibly be made to do at any cost. In the spring, when the frost disap- pears, the ploughed ground is left completely pul- verized and friable, and with little preparation is adapted to the reception of seed. The winter season is conducive tn a large de- gree to the commercial activity and prosperity of the country. The great lumbering interest of the country could not be carried on without a tremen- dous increase of expenditure if it were not for the kindly aid of frost and snow. Then, and only then, can this work be carried on with despatch and profit to the operator and the country. The frost makes bridges without a cent of cost ; the snow provides Windsor Magazine. Climate 45 the best roads over the roughest of countries ; the melting snow of the spring provides force and carries the winter's cut out of the streams from the interior at a minimum of cost and in the shortest space of time. All of this is worth millions to the country annually. An English observer says: "The roads are alive with sleighs; without this same slippery snow to drag to the distributing centres sleigh load after sleigh load of hay, and wood and grain, pork and eggs and butter and cheese, and drag out again to the farmers from whom this produce came tea, flour, sugar, clothes, oil, furniture and bricks, teaming would be arduous labor indeed. So both farmers and shop-keepers hail the snow, and without it produce would not be exchanged for wares, money would not be circulated at least, not to the extent that it then does. To the town itself, too, the winter seems to give a fillip. Winter is Canada's season, a back- country Canadian town in winter in its own phrase is ' up and jumping.' " * The Canadian winter is also conducive to health. Probably no country in the world, taking in all its seasons, is so generally healthy. Statistics, I think, jhow this to be abundantly true, and strange as it may appear, the winter is the most generally healthy of all seasons in this remarkably healthy country. " The death-rate is lower in cold months than in July and August. Twenty times as many persons die from the effects of sunstrokes than from the effects of cold in nearly all the large cities. We have to be careful of our diet in the hot weather, but in winter we can eat what we please and plenty of it. Mr. Arnold Haultin. 46 Our Canadian Heritage The Canadian winter has its compensations, and although the cold is a distinguishing feature, it does not prevent thousands of our people living to num- ber as many years as are attained by the oldest in the most favored lands." * It ought to be quite apparent, then, that while Canada in the larger portion of her area has a winter, so far as mean temperature is concerned, somewhat colder than that of corresponding European latitudes, that it is not on that account unpleasant, unhealthy or unprofitable. Indeed the winter is a feature of the country that could not be well dispensed with. Moreover, it is prophetic, judging from the past, of a race, in mind and body and moral culture, of the highest type. In this connection we are reminded of the words of Sir Charles Dilke, who said of Scot- land, but with equal application to this country, " The long winters cultivate thrift, energy and fore- thought, without which civilization would perish, and at the same time give leisure for reading and study. So the Scottish, the Icelanders, the Swedes, and the northern races generally, are much better educated than the Latin and southern races. Scot- land," says Dilke, " is blessed with a rigorous climate, while the islands of the southern seas are cursed with the bread-fruit and perpetual summer." It has been well said, " the one environment breeds philoso- phers, the other naked savages." " Banish gloom and sadnesn, Banish carking care ; Welcome glowing gladness, Fairest of the fair. * Winnipeg Free Press. Climate 47 See the sun is shining, Smooth and crisp the snow, Everything combining, Makes our faces glow. Summer days are pleasing, With their warmer cheer ; With the autumn's freezing, Varying tints appear. Springtime brings its brightness, And inspiring day?, But of winter's whiteness I will trill the praise. " Rnv. Andrew III. Summer. Having spoken of the Canadian winter, it re- mains to speak of Canada as' a summer land and a land of sunshine, for this, after all, is her chief climatic feature. Her summers are simply superb and lovely in every respect. This is true of all parts of the country, from Cape Breton in the east to Vancouver in the west, and from Southern On- tario to the Arctic Ocean. When summer comes it is summer without pretence or discount, changing the scene rapidly from one of frost and snow to one of semi-tropical warmth and beauty. The opening of the summer season comes with the opening of spring. This, of course, varies in different parts of the country, and to some extent also in different years. In the Maritime Provinces, for instance, where the spring manifests its approach comparatively early about the 15th of March its progress is some- what retarded by the Atlantic Ocean currents. Far- 48 Our Canadian Heritage ther to the west summer follows closely on the heels of winter, and when spring comes it comes to stay. Farming is frequently begun in the month of March. In consequence of the long days and bright sun- shine vegetation has a very rapid growth, and sum- mer, with its bloom and fragrance, is ushered in as if by magic. Canada has been shown to have more hours of actual sunshine than Italy, " The land of sunshine." " If Canada has earned the title of ' Our Lady of the Snows,' she certainly equally deserves the title of ' Our Lady of the Sunshine ' ; nowhere is sun- shine so bright and abundant, and it is not unreason- able to suppose that it has not a little to do with the elimination of the 'phlegm' from the descend- ants of the immigrants of that land, of the folk of which the French attribute that characteristic. 'There are few, if any, places in England,' says the Director of Meteorological Service in Canada, ' that have a larger normal annual percentage (of bright sunshine) than thirty-six, and there are as many as low as twenty-five; whereas in Canada most stations exceed forty, and some few have as high a percentage as forty-six.' ' Weather permitting/ is a phrase but rarely heard in Canada." The heat of the Canadian summer is not the smothering sultry heat of the south, for though the thermometer registers high, this is modified by re- freshing breezes and cool nights, which is in marked contrast to the summers in most parts of the United States so near our borders. Here summer days are bright and breezy, full of health and song and glad- ness ; a time when nature is joyous and buoyant, and calls loud to the heart of man, and when the Climate . 49 heart of man proclaims that it is good to be alive. The early autumn is no less glorious perhaps, even more so than the summer. This is the time of the still calm days, when the gentle haze lingers on the landscape like the breath of a goddess, and when the hand of the Divine artist has, though unseen, yet with marvellous skill touched the landscape with all the colors possible, with wondrous diversity and yet all with a harmony equally rare. In the fulness of harvest, with its fruitage of vine and field in wondrous plenty, we have a land with features pecu- liarly its own and the peer of any on earth. The character of Canada's summer climate may, to some extent, be indicated by the character of her products. Canada's exhibit at the somewhat recent Paris and Edinburgh Expositions has been Bome- what of a revelation to the world. It has been said concerning her superior wheat-growing climate, " If therefore, the product of this most valuable cereal is the truest test of climatic advantage, if the tender- ness of the wheat plant in its cultivation is a deli- cate standard of conditions, as it really is, it is sub- mitted that the prejudice against the Canadian climate should, in the first place, prevail no longer than it prevails against the climate in similar lati- tudes where the highest success has been achieved; second, that the advantages which the northernmost portions of Canada possess over even parallels far to the south should be recognized." But Canada is more than a grain country most of the climate and soil is suited to the growth of some of the best and most delicate fruits. Concerning southern Ontario it has been said: "The climatic conditions created by the practical encircling of the great lakes are 5O Our Canadian Heritage especially favorable, and such stretches as are in- cluded in the Niagara Peninsula, and those bordering upon Lake Erie force themselves upon the attention of the student of North America as among the most favored spots on the whole continent. So far as climate, then, is concerned, there is no one thing in all the catalogue of advantages which Canada pos- sesses of greater value." This is largely true to many sections, other than the one especially men- tioned. In parts of this favored land are to be found some of the most extensive vineyards and fruit orchards on the continent, or, indeed, in the world. Cotton grows in southern Ontario, and the sweet potato flourishes over wide areas. The fig and almond succeed in a few places, while the peach thrives at an elevation of a thousand feet above sea level, and grows in parts of the maritime provinces and British Columbia, as well as in Ontario. In quality the fruit surpasses that of California. Many species of grapss are cultivated in large vineyards over wide areas, and the yield of wine per acre is greater than in California, and twice as great as in France. Other delicate fruits and vegetables which cannot be pro- duced in England, except under glass, are here grown in abundance in the open air. IV. Comparisons. But why should not Canada have a delightful and superior climate ? While many features of a special character contribute to its excellence, it is the result of no miracle, but when her position: is considered, it is both natural and reasonable. Her Climate 5 1 geographical position is in every way admirable. Few persons, however, take the trouble to make comparisons of our latitude with other countries, and Canada is naturally relegated at least, in thought to a place somewhere near the Arctic Circle. Why we should be referred to as the great " Dominion of the North," or the " Great North- land," by England and other European critics gener- ally, is not quite apparent in the light of facts. Take the City of London, England, for instance, and place it on its appropriate latitude on the meridian of Toronto, and it will be found situated very near Charlton Island, in James Bay, nearly six hundred miles north of Toronto. Take Edin- burgh, in southern Scotland, and its corresponding latitude in Canada would be within sixty miles of York Factory, on Hudson Bay, and about one thou- sand miles north of Windsor, Ontario, and much farther north than any settled portion of Canada except Dawson City. Most of the capitals and chief cities of Europe fall within Canadian latitudes, and some far within. Paris, the gayest capital of Europe, is several hundred miles north of Montreal, while St. Petersburg, the capital of all the Russias, is situated nearly as far north as the shores of Great Slave Lake, and twelve hundred miles north of Canada's southern point. Three-quarters of the German Em- pire in Europe is north of Winnipeg, while its south- ern limit is considerably north of Sudbury, in Northern Ontario. Norway and Sweden, for the most part, correspond with the Mackenzie Basin and Yukon Territory. Canada, therefore, as compared with European countries generally, has a southern location. 52 Our Canadian Heritage In addition to this, however, there are certain natural laws, caused by various influences, some of which have already been alluded to, which conspire to carry Canada's agricultural region, notably in the valley of the great Mackenzie River, farther north than in any other country in the world. " It must not be forgotten that the climate is much more the result of altitude than "latitude." It has been stated that Europe has a mean elevation of six hundred and seventy-one feet, and North America a mean eleva- tion of seven hundred and forty-eight feet, while the Canadian portion of North America is said to have a mean elevation of three hundred feet. This ad- vantage is said to be equal to at least thirteen de- grees of latitude. There are some evidences of the truthfulness of this claim. The isothermal lines, as indicated on the map, show the trend of the summer climate northward. Let us look at some of the press despatches published within recent years : Vienna, Mar. 24. Austria is experiencing an- other heavy snowfall, the third of the season. In some places it has been snowing for thirty-six hours, seriously delaying railway transportation. Several rivers in Bohemia have overflowed and flooded the villages, and further floods are feared when the heavy snows on the mountains melt. People were farming in Western Canada, sur- rounded by summer conditions at the time these con- ditions prevailed in Central Europe. Here are two despatches that appeared almost side by side in a Canadian newspaper : Port Townsend, Wash., Nov. 4. The steamer Dirigo, from Skaguay, has brought one hundred Climate 53 passengers and seven hundred tons of canned salmon. Navigation is practically ended on the Yukon. London, Nov. 4. The mercury in the ther- mometers in London touched the freezing point this morning, and a sharp frost prevailed in the Mid- lands, where ponds were covered with ice. London, Nov. 15. (Special.) The gale has been succeeded by frost and snow of unprecedented severity. Hundreds of sheep have been drowned in the neighboring meadows and the lakes are covered with ice. By this it is not intended to prove that the Yukon Territory and England have a similar climate, but it does go to show that at a comparatively late date in the fall the conditions in both countries are not so very dissimilar, and that other countries besides Canada know what the rigors of winter mean as well as the beauties of summer. Up to that time, in this particular year, throughout the whole of Eastern Canada, at least, no sign of winter had yet made its appearance. Comparison with the United States reveals condi- tions somewhat similar. The Northern States, occupying the northern continental watershed, have consequently a higher altitude and colder winter than southern Canada. Frequently the trains on the Northern Pacific Railway are entirely snow- bound while the Canadian Pacific Railway is mak- ing schedule time with ease. New York has been known to spend thousands of dollars in the removal of snow from the streets while the most northern of Canadian cities suffered no interruption to the street cars during the whole winter. 54 Our Canadian Heritage Mr. Fraser, the novelist, has said : " Literature has done little for Canada ; it has taught that the great North-West is a land of blizzards, peopled with Indians. I wanted to do some blizzard litera- ture myself and started to get the genesis of these frozen siroccos. I asked people about them, and I wrote to people about them. I found only one man who had been in a true blizzard, but he was too badly frightened to remember anything about the physical aspect. It was like a hunt for the sea serpent. They are rare as literature has taught us that they are plentiful." * Canada will likely survive the slanders against her climate, and show to the world that she has just as much to offer her people in the line of that de- sirable commodity as any other country beneath the blue. If necessary, too, evidence could here be adduced to show that for some reason or other the climate of Canada is undergoing a change in the line of further modification. Some law is certainly at work carrying the summer still farther north, ushering the spring in at an earlier date and modi- fying the winter season. In the meantime Cana- dians have every reason to be well satisfied with the climatic conditions that now prevail. * Canadian Magazine, May, 1899. CHAPTER V. RESOURCES. I. General Remarks. THE resources of the country have already been referred to in the chapter on general description. Their importance, however, demands a more exten- sive treatment. Though the area, the climate, and geographical position of Canada afford room for a large prospective population, yet this can only be fully understood when the great richness in natural resources is taken into consideration. Vast extent and genial sunshine is not everything, otherwise the Sahara Desert would be a valuable possession. The area and location, however, united with a suit- able climate and rich natural resources, are the true secret of a country's greatness and the basis ft***-*-**** * her hopes for the future. What is the extent of ^^ resources? is, therefore, a question of supreme im- portance, and presumably, of deep interest to all , . who are interested in this country. { v *& Natural resources may be fully classified under four general departments, namely: Agriculture, forests, minerals and fisheries; the product of all ot which enters largely into the commerce of the world. All nations are not blessed with this fourfold source *" of natural wealth. Some nations, indeed, manage to (V 55 56 Our Canadian Heritage maintain a dense population and a high state of prosperity with only one. Take the case of the Netherlands, or Denmark, for instance. The inhabi- tants of these countries are almost wholly occupied in the pursuit of agriculture, outside of commercial centres. This is the one great national industry, and yet they are densely populated, prosperous and independent. The resources of some other countries are chiefly confined to mining, and yet others to lumber or fish. It goes without saying, therefore, that the more varied the character of nature's supply, the larger the degree of prosperity ought to be. The country which has various forms of nature's products certainly ought to have many advantages over the country confined to one or two. It is not necessary to say that Canada's resources cover the whole scope as generalized above. So far as variety is concerned, then, Canada takes a foremost place. But what of the extent, distribution and richness of these various sources of national wealth? This also is a question of vital importance, and one to which we will now give our attention. II. Forests. The products of the forest have ever meant much to mankind, and they must continue to con- tribute in increased measure to hjs necessities and comfort. Apart from the commercial value of forest products, their existence in any country is of untold importance as conservators of moisture, and hence as exerting important influences on the climate and products of the soil. This is indicated amply by ~*-~- -g~^ Resources 57 the conditions which prevail in South Africa, India, Australia, and large portions of the United States. Not only have the inhabitants of a treeless country to import at great cost lumber for all necessary uses, and forego the advantages of the various indus- tries depending thereon, but they are compelled also to suffer from the sterility of the soil caused by the lack of moisture and insufficient rainfall. The whole eastern section of the Dominion, as far north as the centre of the Labrador Peninsula, and as far west as the eastern boundary of Mani- toba, is a forest region. This is also true of the; western section of the Dominion, from the inter- national boundary, in eastern British Columbia, to the mouth of the Mackenzie River. This section has a length of about fifteen hundred miles and a ' breadth of some six hundred miles, for the most part an unbroken forest. These two great forest sections of the Dominion are united by a belt of forest country running north-westerly between the prairie regions in the central west and the treeless regions of the north ; this belt is about equal in extent to either of the other sections. In other words, it may be said, with the exception of the prairies in the valleys of the Red and Saskatchewan Rivers and the northern barren grounds, that Can- ada is an entirely forested country. Of course, portions of these forests, especially from Ontario eastward, have given way to the development of agriculture, yet the deforested portions are scarcely appreciable when compared with the whole. The great forests of the country have Just been tnnfftpfl TjpEhe merest wav aaT'vftt. r and are stHI practicably in their virgin and primitive 58 Our Canadian Heritage The forests of Canada include a very great variety of woods, both deciduous and evergreen, a large number of which are of much commercial value. Among the deciduous varieties are oak, elm, birch of various kinds, maple in a number of varieties, ash, balsam, poplar, butternut, hickory, walnut and many others of less importance. Among the evergreens the most important are the various varieties of pine, spruce and fir, notably the celebrated Douglas pine of British Columbia, also cedar, juniper and hemlock. The products of Canadian forests annually are valued at many millions of dollars, but the present output is not a tithe of what they are capable of yielding. It is no vain boast, therefore, to say that no country in tne world is so magnificently furnished with this profitable form of natural wealth. This is generally conceded, as the following may indicate : " The forest wealth of Canada is greater than that of any other country. The total area of the timber land is nearly twice that of Russia, the next rival, and likewise nearly twice that of the United States, which stands next and nearly equal to Russia. Ontario is the leading province in the export of timber, and sends the greater part of its product to the United States in the shape of planks, boards, logs and shingles. Quebec ships most of its product to Great Britain, exporting spruce and other lum- ber, pine deals and white pine timber. New Bruns- wick stands third in exports. The resources of the other provinces are comparatively little de- veloped, although British Columbia possesses the largest compact timber reserves in the world, only a fringe of which has been cut. The Pacific Coast Resources 59 is heavily timbered as far north as Alaska, and it is estimated that the Douglas pine, cedar, spruce, Alaska pine, etc., along the railway line, are worth $25,000,000. There are also vast areas of unde- veloped wood land in the entire north df the Do- minion, from Quebec to the Pacific Coast, a large proportion of which is almost wholly unexplored." The Commercial, an American paper, says : " Canada seems destined to become the greatest supply depot of the world, especially for pulp-wood." The late Erastus Wiman, a man not interested in giving Canada any undue credit, said : " In timber Canada possesses a wealth of very great importance to the United States. When the wide stretches of treeless prairies which this country contains are recalled, and the rapidly disappearing forests within the United States, it is with a sense of satisfaction that one turns to the northern half of the continent con- taining, as it does, the finest forests and the greatest supply of this most essential element of human pro- tection and comfort. Within the catalogue of the woods of Canada there are sixty-five species of forest trees, including nineteen of the pine family, while the space covered by timber within the Domin- ion is something enormous. Excepting the great trian- gular prairie east of the Rocky Mountains, lying be- tween the United States boundary and a line drawn from the Red River to the Upper Peace River, the whole of Canada up to the northern limit of the growth of trees presents one vast forest area, except where it has been cleared by the hand of man. It is needless to further dilate upon the enormous value which this area is to the south. It is sufficient to say that the source of supply, within the next hundred 60 Our Canadian Heritage years, for the progress of the United States, lies largely within the Dominion, and that no estimate of wealth on the one hand, or of advantage or possible convenience on the other, is possible so far as the United States is concerned." ///. Precious Metals. Beneath Canada's towering forests, below her virgin soil, and associated with her great moun- tains, there lies hidden mineral wealth of untold and countless value. Canada is pre-eminently a mining country. This is more or less true of all sections, from the extreme east to the remotest west. It is true that the surface only has been scratched, so to speak, as yet, and that the great deposits are still to a large extent intact, and as complete as' when they came from the hand of the Creator. The value of the products, however, for the single year 1900 was estimated at the magnificent sum of $65,000,000. This is being added to very materially from year to year. The following summary is taken from Mr. Wil- mott's work on " The Mineral Wealth of Canada " : " Nearly the equal of Europe in size, we surpass any one nation of that continent in the variety of our mineral deposits, and may yet equal the richest of them in the total value of our production. Great Britain has had (so far as known) larger deposits of coal, and her production is still the greatest in the world.* Her output must, however, shortly begin to lessen, while ours will increase. The copper out- put of Spain at present exceeds ours, but the de- * Since Mr. Wilmott's work was written the U.S. has surpassed Great Britain's coal production, and now considerably exceeds it. Resources 61 posits here are quite as extensive as there. Similarly with other minerals, different European nations may now surpass us in production, but it is likely that our deposits are the most extensive. Already in asbestos we have not only surpassed Europe but the world. Italy, our only competitor, is far be- hind. With nickel we occupy the same proud position. Our gold production, although it may never equal that of Australia, South Africa, or the United States, may easily exceed that of all Europe combined. Our deposits of iron, lead, silver, copper, salt and other minerals are enormous. They are, however, almost entirely undeveloped. We can only guess at their value." Gold production in Canada, though still in its infancy, has from the Atlantic to the Pacific yielded considerable quantities from deposits of varying rich- ness. The recent discoveries of gold in the Yukon Territory very materially augmented the output till, in 1900, it reached a total of nearly $30,000,000, giving Canada fifth place in the gold-producing coun- ^ "/*** tries of the world. The life of placer deposits is always brief, however, and the output of the Yukon has considerably decreased the last few years, re- ducing our gold production some $10,000,000, but there has been a constant and steady increase from the lode mines of the Dominion, which will soon make good the variable nature of the placer output. The silver deposits of the Dominion are also known to be very great, and are probably only faintly understood. It is doubtful if any deposit has ever been found to equal that of the once famous Silver Isle, near the north shore of Lake Superior. The amount of free ore taken from this mine in a 62 Our Canadian Heritage single year is almost beyond belief. A consider- able portion of that section of New Ontario, in the vicinity of Port Arthur, is a silver producing coun- try of great promise. It is not improbable that the Silver Isle deposits are many times duplicated in this region, and in due time will be discovered. Very rich silver ore has also been found recently in the Temiscaming district, associated with cobalt, a very valuable by-product. It is a poor man's district, as the ore lies on the surface, is easily mined and gives large returns, but some doubt has been expressed as to its continuity with depth. Carload lots have netted as high as $40,000 per car to the fortunate owners, and silver to the value of over $2,000,000 has already been produced. The other chief silver producing section is in British Columbia, where it is found chiefly associated with lead and other ores, and is said to be of great richness. Platinum and many other rare metals and minerals are found in Canada in considerable quanti- ties, and may in the future be of great commercial value. IV. The Baser Metals and Minerals. Important as are these deposits of precious min- erals, Canada's greatest mineral wealth is found in the abundance of baser varieties which enter so largely into the mechanical and mercantile pursuits of the age. Iron and coal and similar products are of vastly more importance to man than gold and silver and diamonds. In the possession of these baser, though more valuable deposits, Canada is a veritable Croesus among the nations. Let us glance briefly at some of the more im- portant of these. For instance, in the matter of Resources 63 coal Canada holds an enviable position. The extent of the united coal areas of the Dominion already discovered is not definitely known, probably one hundred thousand square miles would be a conserva- tive estimate. These great deposits, consisting of excellent qualities of both bituminous and anthra- cite coal, place Canada in the foremost rank of coal producing countries. Her annual output is increas- ing by leaps and bounds from year to year. These deposits are well distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific, another feature of prime importance. The chief deposits in the eastern sec- tion are those of Cape Breton, though extensive deposits also exist on the mainland of Nova Scotia. The development of these great deposits are revolu- tionizing Eastern Canada in an industrial sense. The estimated quantity of coal in Nova Scotia is 7,000,000,000 tons, not including the smaller areas and the areas still undiscovered. These areas cover a territory of some six hundred and thirty-five square miles, of which the Cape Breton basin is the largest and most valuable. The most of this coal is of excellent quality, and is now used by the Royal Navy when in North American waters. The Maritime Provinces, however, have another deposit of coal of great extent and prospective value in the New Brunswick coal areas. These deposits cover a large part of the interior basin of New Brunswick in Queen's, Sunbury and Kent counties, and it is thought that they practically continue over the whole field. If so, they are several hundreds of square miles in extent. It has been estimated that there is in New Brunswick alone sufficient coal to supply the world for three hundred years. 64 Our Canadian Heritage Turning westward, no coal in paying quantities has yet been discovered either in Quebec or On- tario. In Eastern Assiniboia and Manitoba, how- ever, there are large deposits, and all through the Canadian North-West, but chiefly along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. British Columbia has long been a coal producing country of much importance, though it is only In recent years that the vastness of its deposits has been realized. At Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island, mining has been carried on quite extensively for a considerable time, this being absolutely the only deposit of any kind known on the Pacific Coast. These deposits have supplied the local demand, and the Pacific Squadron of the Royal Navy, though their chief markets are the American cities of the Pacific coast. Probably the most extensive known deposits in Canada are those of Eastern British Columbia, situ- ated on the line of the Crow's Nest Pass Railway. Within the last few years these deposits have not only been discovered, but have been developed to a considerable extent, and the town of Fernie is now the centre of one of the most extensive coal mining industries in the country. These deposits are practi- cally inexhaustible, and lying, as they do, so near the great ore beds of that section, must greatly enhance the value of both. The following may give some idea of their im- portance: " In East Kootenay, just west of the Crow's Nest Pass, lies that stretch of country which is probably better known to politicians than to capitalists, but which is immensely rich in a very high grade of bituminous coal. All around the town Resources 65 of Fernie, which is the chief centre of the coal busi- ness of this region, the country for many miles is full of coal beds, there being some twenty seams varying in thickness from a mere sheet to a solid mass of coal thirty feet high. These seams, if laid one on top of the other, would aggregate a thickness of one hundred and fifty feet. These great beds ex- tend over an area of many thousand acres, and the Geological Survey of Canada estimates that if fifty per cent, of this be allowed as unworkable, there would still be an accessible body of coal containing about 10,000,000,000 tons. We get a faint idea of the magnitude of these figures when we consider that, taking 300,000,000 tons to be the amount of coal now consumed in the United States and Canada each year, there is enough fuel in the Crow's Nest country to supply the entire North American continent for over three hundred and thirty years at its present rate of consumption. In the mines alone this would afford employment to every able-bodied man in Canada from this time until the year 2000, to say nothing of the thousands who would find work in its transportation and sale." A significant feature of coal mining in Canada is the amount that finds a market in the United States. Over 53 per cent, of the product of the Nanaimo collieries in British Columbia is distri- buted among the cities of the American Pacific coast, and while the Crow's Nest collieries shipped 27,000 tons of coke to American smelters in 1903, in 1904 they shipped 97,690 tons. To a lesser degree the same is true of the Nova Scotia coal mines. The inexhaustible coal resources of the Dominion 66 Our Canadian Heritage may yet enable it to surpass the United States, even as the latter has recently passed Great Britain. One surprising feature of these great deposits of coal in almost all parts of the country is that they are so uniformly on the Canadian side of the boundary, and seem to have a faculty of ending as soon as the boundary is reached. If coal is king, it speaks much for our industrial pre-eminence in the future. V. Iron. The consideration of Canadian iron deposits is of no less importance than her coal. In fact, both are on an immense scale, and each is essential to the highest value of the other. The fact that these two great industrial minerals are generally found in close proximity still further enhances their value, and must, in time, help also to decide the question of industrial supremacy. A shrewd American de- clared " that no country in the world possessed so much iron as Canada ; in no land is it so easily mined, and nowhere is it quite so accessible to manufacturing centres." More recent developments have made this statement more emphatically true. In Nova Scotia there are extensive deposits of good quality ore. Iron is also found in New Bruns- wick, and in various parts of Quebec, where it is worked to some extent. The proximity of these ores of Eastern Canada to__the Atlantic Sea ports is a factor of great importance. The iron deposits of Northern and Western Ontario are equally great, if not greater, than those of Eastern Canada. Those claiming the most atten- tion at presnt are Michipicoten, near Sault Ste. Resources 67 Marie, and the iron ores of the Atikokan range west of Fort William. The deposits of Michipicoten supply the furnaces at the Soo. Iron ore also exists in large quantities in various parts of the North- West, about Lake Winnipeg, and also near Lakes Athabasca and Great Slave ; also on the east coast of Hudson Bay. Extensive deposits are also found in different parts of British Columbia. The Texada Island ore, in the Straits of Georgia, near Nanaimo coal mines, suggest the same conditions and possi- bilities as are found in Sydney in the east. Surely under these conditions Canada must hold a prom- inent place in this age of steel. Casual reference has already been made to the nickel and copper deposits of the Dominion. Rich copper deposits also exist in Newfoundland. This im- portant metal is quite widely distributed in Canada, being found in paying quantities in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario and British Columbia, in some of which places it is being worked. The de- posits at Copper Cliff, near Sudbury. Ontario, are, ngrha.ps r the most important and extensive of any in the world. Evidence exists of the working of these mines in prehistoric times. Closely associated with the copper in the Sudbury district are also found the great nickel beds for which the place is noted r and which are the richest known. The demand for this mineral in connection with the manufacture of nickel steel, gives this bed of ore a peculiar value, and no less so because Canada possesses the monopoly of it. The Dominion heretofore has not figured very largely as a petroleum producer, as compared with either the United States or Russia. Recent dis- coveries in New Brunswick, and the very promising 68 Our Canadian Heritage indications in the North-West, together with the wells already in operation at Petrolea, in Ontario, indicate that Canada's supply of this important product is very great. The lignite areas and tar sands of the Mackenzie Basin are of immense extent, and though not as yet placed on the markets of the world, they are of great commercial value. The same may be true of the bituminous springs and gas wells in the same region. Added to these more important minerals are rich deposits of salt, gypsum, phosphates, asbestos, mica- manganese, arsenic, pyrites, corundum, oxides, graphite, marble, lime, antimony and many others. Truly " the earth and fulness thereof " has a peculiar application to the Dominion. " Its mines and mineral resources, deep down in the earth, scattered over al- most every portion of this broad land, have sitting on them gnomes and genii, waiting to give the lead to the one who captures them, and to open up riches and splendor and power not even dreamed of in the old tales of the Middle Ages." * VI. Fisheries. Perhaps with all the richness of nature's re- sources, there are none that yield so large a profit on the capital expended as do the harvests of the sea. Great as have been the riches gathered from golden sands, those from the sea have been still greater. The waters of British North America are unrivalled in the world, not only as to the quality, but also as regards the extent of their fisheries. This is owing chiefly to two reasons : First, there * Hon. Geo. E. Foster. Resources 69 is the great extent of coastal waters, both on the Atlantic and Pacific, besides the vast inland lakes, thus affording ample room for the fish, and scope for the plying of this industry. The coast line of the Maritime Provinces, from Grand Manan, in New Brunswick, to the Straits of Belle Isle, represents a distance of about five thousand six hundred miles. This is exclusive of the coast line of Newfoundland, which is also very great, and everywhere abounds in fisheries. The coastal waters of British Columbia are even greater than those of the Atlantic, repre- senting a distance of seven thousand one hundred and eighty miles, something more than double the coast line of the United Kingdom. It is also exclu- sive of minor indentations. The Canadian portion of the Great Lakes are estimated at seventy-two thousand square miles, and with Canada's other inland waters, constitute a valuable fishery in them- selves. Added to these must be the waters of the Hudson Bay, the value of which, from this stand- point, is said to be very great. When one considers this great area of productive waters, it in part explains the value of this industry, but only in part. Another, and, perhaps, the chief reason for Can- ada's pre-eminence in this great wealth of the sea, is her peculiarly favorable position in relation to northern ocean currents, making her coastal waters natural feeding grounds of the very first order, and rendering her fish fine and well flavored, as well as inexhaustible as to supply. The following is a summary of the report of the fisheries for 1903, the latest at this time of writing. Na less than 87,000 men were in that season earn- ing their livelihood by exploiting our waters, using 7O Our Canadian Heritage 5,506,760 fathoms of nets and other fishing gear, representing a capital of $12,000,000. Nearly twelve hundred schooners and tugs, manned by 9,200 sailors, as well as 77,800 other fishermen, using over 38,000 boats, found occupation in this industry. The lobster plant alone is estimated at $1,287,656 comprisng 723 canneries, dispersed on the seaboard of the Maritime Provinces. No less than 13,563 per- sons found employment in this branch of the fish- ing industry, using over 1,360,000 traps. The sal- mon preserving industry of British Columbia, com- prising 69 canneries and representing a capital of $1,380,000, gives employment to 18,977 hands. The total value of the catch of fish in Canada was $21,- 959,433. VII. Agriculture. Agriculture is generally regarded as the truest basis of national prosperity, and while we have said that Canada is pre-eminent in her possession of other resources, that of agriculture must ever re- main the greatest of all. Nature has made ample provision for the operation of agriculture on the largest and most profitable scale within our borders. In no department of human activity are there such opportunities for national wealth as in the tilling of the soil. The tillers of the soil constitute in all great countries the backbone of the nation's pros- perity and progress. Canada's importance as an agricultural country has been much misunderstood abroad, and sometimes at home. Misconceptions concerning our climate have prejudiced the minds of foreigners, while lumber- ing, mining or fishing has frequently engaged the Resources 7 1 attention of the native Canadian to the detriment of agriculture as well as his own prosperity. In this important matter, however, Canadians and others are beginning to discern the wonderful possi- bilities of the country in this the most ancient, most honorable, and probably the most profitable of all pursuits. In this connection it is a hopeful augury to find the great bulk of foreigners who are now coming to our country seeking homes upon the land as tillers of the soil. This is what we and they need, and is in marked contrast with the United States, where they flock to the great centres of population. It is to be hoped that this condition with respect to the incoming stranger will long continue. It will be noticed that the variety of agricultural products, for a supposedly northern climate are of considerable number. This is a most pleasing feature made possible by the great extent of the country, and the wide diversity of climate by which it is characterized. Agriculture is becoming more and more specialized and adapted to the prevailing conditions. Applying this to Canada, it might in a general way be said that from Ontario eastward, including the Maritime Provinces, the country is naturally best adapted to dairying, mixed farming and fruit rais- ing. Through the central portion, comprising the western prairies, we have essentially a grain grow- ing and grazing country, though mixed farming is also profitable. The northern regions when popu- lated must be regarded as a dairying and mixed farming country ; the same is also true of British Columbia, though fruit does well in southern sec- 72 Our Canadian Heritage tions. The reader will not here be troubled with statistics ; they are too extensive even to be in- teresting, suffice it to say that the grain crop of the Dominion now amounts to more than 100,000,- 000 bushels. The surplus for export alone amounts to more than 50,000,000 bushels from Manitoba and the North-West. It may here be stated that Canada is^ now producing as mnch wheat as was produced by the United States between the years 1830-40. when their population was three times that of the Dominion. However great the value of Canada's past agri- cultural products, and however gratifying it may be to have the leading place that this industry is tak- ing in this new country, it does not, of itself, throw much light on the possible agricultural resources of the country. That is not only another, but it is a much larger story, not so easily told. Perhaps it will help us to understand this if we apply a mathe- matical comparison. For instance, Canada has in round numbers some 2,000,000 square miles within the northern limit of the wheat belt. Of course, a certain percentage of this must be deducted for waste land, but it is likely that the amount of good land suitable for the growth of wheat is quite as great as in any other territory of similar size. It only needs a little mental calculation to indicate the vastness of her possible yield of wheat. She has certainly been appropriately referred to as " the bread-basket of the British Entire." " It so happens that north of the international boundary and within the Canadian territories the wheat area possesses all the advantages of the regions of the south, but In richness, fertility and extent Resources 73 is infinitely greater. It would be a startling state- ment to make, as showing the advantages of the much derided Canadian climate, that in its extreme northern latitudes the Dominion possesses a greater wfieaF producing area than does the United States; that the soil of this wheat area. }s richer and last longer, and will prod"^ better_wheat than can be produced on the continent, if not in the world. Manitoba No. 1 hard is, perhaps, the best wheat grown anywhere in the world. It averages a yield of twenty-five bushels to the acre, as compared with twelve and fourteen on the adjoining sections of the American- Union. " Canada already, strange as it may seem to many, figures very largely as a fruit-producing^ country. and horticulture is engaging the attention of agri- culturists in a constantly increasing degree. The Maritime Provinces, Southern Ontario and Southern British Columbia are especially adapted to this indus- try. The best apples in the world are grown in Can- ada, and in the Niagara Peninsula and the Okanagan District of British Columbia grapes and peaches are grown on a scale equal to any part of the continent. The results of the judging in the Horticultural De- partment at the Pan-American Exhibition, which were received by the Department of Agriculture, con- stitute a victory for Canada over all others. No less than twenty gold medals, thirty-two silver medals, thirty-eighty bronze medals and eighty honorable mentions come to Ontario. Some of the notable victories won were gold medals on honey, on general excellence of all the fruits shown ; two on cold stor- age apples of 1900, taken out on August 17th, 1901, 74 Our Canadian Heritage ninety-seven per cent, sound ; also silver medal for installation of exhibit ; a similar medal being awarded to California. It is notable that Florida, California, Delaware and other notable fruit-produc- ing states stand away down the list in their total awards when compared with Ontario." No better ranching country is to be found on the continent, or, for that matter, in the world, than exists in Alberta, and this industry has assumed gigantic proportions in recent years, and is capable of great expansion. Everything points to the fact that Canada has a pre-eminent place among the great food-producing nations of the globe, and situated as she is, between the teeming millions of Europe and those of more ancient Asia, she is in a position to cater more easily than any other country to the needs of both, for both continents now demand more than they create, and even the United States must probably within half a century cease to be a food exporting country. It may be that Providence has designed that this country is to be a sort of modern Egypt, to which the nations of the world will come to buy in time of need. The fact that there is raised in Canada, in ordinary seasons, seventy-five per cent, more wheat, oats and barley per head than in the United States, is an indication of her ability to meet all demands made upon her. VIII. Water Power. Water as a motive power has been used from time immemorial, but it is not until recent years that it has attained its real importance. For a time it was largely supplanted by steam, and there is a Resources 75 sense still, in which it cannot wholly take the place of steam, since that power can be placed in any lo- cality, but the keen competition of the present age i^as resulted in the demand for the strictest economy in manufactures. It is, consequently, necessary to make use of the cheapest power, and to manufacture on the largest possible scale; with this in view there is nothing that so ideally fills the bill as does suit- able water power. Mostly all of the large industries of the country are now carried on by this power. Electricity, so valued now for its varied uses, is most economically gener- ated by this means. It is easy, therefore, to under- stand the growing importance of, and the modern revival, in the use of water as a motive power. No country in the world is so well furnish^] in t.hfo re- spect as Canada. In all sections of the country, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Niagara to the Arctic Ocean, there are natural water powers of unlimited extent and ideal in situation. These natural advantages makes the production of this power cheaper in Canada than perhaps in any other country. An elaborate comparison shows that water power is being produced at a cost of $6.25 per annum per horse power, while in England the lowest cost of steam per horse power is $20.00 per annum. Though the United States is an adjoining country, their natural conditions in this regard are in strong con- trast to those which prevail in this country. This fact, also, must go far towards solving the industrial problems of the future. A speech recently delivered by Lord Rosebery in Wolverhampton, upon the question of the keen in- dustrial competition among the nations at the present 76 Our Canadian Heritage time, realizes Canada's advantages and points to this country as the hope for British supremacy in the future in manufactures. IX. Tourist Attractions. Though quite different in its nature, yet with an importance perhaps scarcely less, we may now speak of the attractions this country has to offer to the tourist. The money that is expended in hotels and transportation facilities indicate to some extent the importance of the financial side of this question. It may very properly be classed among the country's sources of wealth. No form of recreation is so pleasant or profitable as that of travel, and there has been no age in the past when travelling for pleasure or health has been so popular as at the present time. The facilities for travel in these modern days, and the cosmo- politan character of modern civilization, all con- tribute to this increase in the movements of the pleasure-seeking millions. The motives which prompt people to travel, apart from business neces- sities, are very few they may be regarded as health, sport, recreation, scenery and historic associations. Pew countries combine these various attractions in any marked degree. Palestine furnishes historic attractions such as can be furnished by no other land. In other respects it has nothing special to offer. Europe is also rich in historic attractions, and has considerable scenic splendor, but from a stand- point of health or sport it has little or nothing of a special character to give. To these transatlantic countries, however, the great tide of travel has been Resources 77 setting for long years, and it will doubtless continue to flow in that direction, especially as it represents the lovers of scenes and associations immortalized by the events of past ages. Those who seek health have heretofore generally sought it in the south, or on the Pacific coast, in California. Modern medical opinion, however, no longer regards a warm climate as offering special advantages for those who formerly sought it there, and these places are likely to decline as popular resorts to some extent. There is a growing class, peculiar to the present busy age, which must be classed among these mov- ing masses of humanity. They are not seeking health, neither do they care much for historic asso- ciations, nor have they time to seek them. They are the busy upper classes who stand in the fore- front of the world's great commercial and profes- sional battles, and they recognize the importance of rest and recreation. These men, with their fami- lies, coming from the blistering streets, and swelter- ing offices of the great cities, desire a country near at hand where they can get in touch with nature, away from the busy haunts of human life. They can appreciate good scenery, mountains, forests, lakes and rivers ; they love sea beaches and the haunts of wild birds and animals. For this large and ever-increasing multitude no country has so much to offer as has Canada. Indeed, probably, no country combines so fully the various attractions of an ideal tourist land. Here we have historic asso- ciations, not equal, it is true, to those of the Old Land, but Quebec and the Land of Evangeline repre- sent the best that America has to offer. ' Many choose them in preference to those of a more hoary 78 Our Canadian Heritage age. As a health resort Canada has much to offer. The cool nights and refreshing sea breezes and abundant ozone give tone and health to those who seek it, while for special reasons those suffering from pulmonary trouble find Southern Alberta pre- ferable to California. For big game, towering mountains and magnifi- cent lakes Canada is without a peer. A quotation or two may serve to emphasize these statements. Mr. Tyrrell says, when travelling in the north country, " One of the party called attention to something mov- ing on the distant shore to our right. It turned out to be not one, but a band of reindeer. Our canoe was then turned to leeward of the herd, that they might not scent us as we approached the shore. Drawing near we found that there was not only one band, but that there were many bands, literally covering the country over great areas. The valleys and hills for miles seemed to be a moving mass of reindeer. To estimate the numbers would be im- possible, they could only be reckoned in acres or square miles." PART II. Descriptive Outline of SLess Known Sections 8o Our Canadian Heritage CHAPTER I. LAURENTIA. As the more settled portions of Canada are fairly well known, let us turn our attention to some of the more remote and less familiar sections of our great Dominion, which may be located by means of the accompanying map. Assuming that Canada will one day come into the possession of Newfoundland and Labrador by the admission of that colony into the Dominion, a region of provincial area is made possible by unit- ing Eastern Labrador with the County of Saguenay as far west as the Saguenay River, and bounded on the north near the fifty-fifth parallel, which, for convenience, we will call " Laurentia." Though most of this region is an outlying and much neglected portion of the Province of Quebec, it is of itself of immense proportions, being nearly one hundred thousand square miles in area. The country is also very rich in various resources, and her agricultural possibilities are quite extensive, though all are now quite undeveloped. Notwithstanding the fact that this large section of country is situated comparatively near the com- mercial centres of the Dominion, having the great transatlantic highway passing close to her coast, yet there are few portions of Canada more completely 6 81 82 Our Canadian Heritage isolated or unfrequented than this. In consequence of this isolation the territory has been much mis- understood. The popular mind is accustomed to think of it as a hopelessly desolate and barren region, inhabitated by Eskimos and Indians, to- gether with a few trappers and fishermen, and wholly devoid of interest or attraction. Legends of pirates and wreckers, with stories of wild beasts and well-nigh perpetual winters, have instilled these ideas into our minds. Such stories must be classed with that large body of literature sometimes alluded to as " fiction founded on fact." There is, indeed, in parts of this region plenty of winter, desolation, poverty and uninhabited space, but notwithstand- ing all this, it is a country with a different aspect and a different story. That other story of genial summer, rich resources, magnificent scenery and grand possibilities is just as true as the other, and must be briefly told. The natural resources of this region, though little known, are both rich and varied, and are already beginning to attract the attention of capital- ists. The great deposits of magnetic iron sands which occur at intervals and in large quantities for hundreds of miles along the coast have long been known to exist, though as yet little use has been made of them commercially. The early attempts made for their development were rendered unprofit- able by hostile tariffs, but now that the iron and steel industry of Canada has been permanently estab- lished these deposits, because of their nearness to Sydney and from being easily accessible, must take on a new. importance. In addition to these iron sands, explorers have discovered other deposits of Laurentia 83 the richest iron in solid form. Besides this, there are immense deposits of Labradorite, valuable graph- ite mines, and traces of gold are found in several places along the coast. Some geologists, indeed, express the belief that gold will some day be found in this region in greater richness than that of the Klondike or Cape Nome. The prospects of mineral wealth are certainly very promising. It must not be forgotten that this great country is pre-eminently a lumber coun- try. Perhaps no province in the Dominion is more magnificently supplied with valuable forests than is this section so long considered barren. Even the extreme eastern section, as far north as Hamilton Inlet, except on the bleak and rocky coast line, and on the higher elevations, is one majestic forest of valuable timber. The following report, given by the representative of a company of capitalists, with a view to the establishing of a pulp industry, will be of interest as confirming these statements : Referring to the head of the Hamilton Inlet he says : " The geological formation of the country indicates mineral deposits, but our time was too limited to investigate, as timber was the primary object of our visit. The timber here is all spruce, and some of it is of immense size, the large timber being nearly all on the margins of rivers. Straight thrifty spruce timber of smaller size is literally un- limited in quantity. I think I can say there is enough pulp wood on Hamilton Inlet to last one hundred years at one hundred cords a day. Hamil- ton Inlet is a remarkable arm of the sea, and with- out doubt before many years much capital will be placed there to develop the wonderful resources of 84 Our Canadian Heritage that interesting region." The forests which have made New Brunswick wealthy and famous probably in some respects do not excel those of Laurentia still in their virgin state.* Associated with this timber and mineral wealth there are also found in this region some of the most important water powers in all Canada. On the great river flowing into the head of Lake Melville, or Hamilton Inlet, there is a waterfall which for height and volume and general grandeur is said to take the palm from Niagara. The presence of these great waterfalls must greatly enhance the value of the forest and mines by affording power for develop- ment. The name of " Labrador " is already made famous by the importance of its deep sea fisheries as well as those of its coastal waters. The best quality of all the chief varieties of the fish of commerce abound in its waters and streams in their season. Some twenty-five thousand people are engaged an- nually in this industry alone, and this great source of wealth is too well known to need further comment here. But what of the climate and agriculture ? The climate of this promising section of the Do- minion is, like its resources, varied according to locality. A section of country extending six hun- dred miles east and west, and four hundred miles north and south, must necessarily have considerable variety of climate, especially when located as the one under consideration. The climate of the western section, and extending as far east as Natashquan, is about identical with that of the Gaspe Peninsula, differing very little from that of other portions of * Extensive lumber concerns have recently been established in Labrador. Laurentia 85 Eastern Canada, and capable of producing to per- fection and in abundance the grains and vegetables and most of the fruits of the North Temperate Zone. The report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for Quebec is not only interesting, but also instructive to a surprising degree. He says : " With a proper selection of hardy stocks, fruit growing can be car- ried on most profitably even in Gaspe, and pears can be grown successfully to full ripening among the Laurentian Mountains." The occupation of the people since the settle- ment of the country has not been calculated to encourage agriculture, or the development of agri- cultural instincts, yet some progress has been made in this noble calling. The Census Commissioner, who visited this coast in 1901, says : " From Tadou- sac to Port Neuf the people live by farming and lumbering, while from Port Neuf to Blanc Sablon the residents depend almost wholly on fishing and hunting. From Port Neuf to Natashquan, however, potatoes are cultivated successfully and almost every family has a kitchen garden in which as good vege- tables are raised as any grown around Quebec." He further states : " In 1881 nothing like this was seen, nor were there any cows or horses owned by the residents east of Port Neuf, but to-day horses, cows, etc., are to be seen, and fresh milk, butter and eggs can be had as far east as Natashquan." It would seem by these reports that the people to their own great advantage are gradually turning to the cultivation of the soil. This country may not be essentially an agricultural one, but it is clear that there are sections, comparable to some provinces in extent, as well as in soil and climate, well 86 Our Canadian Heritage adapted to this most staple of occupations. The climatic and agricultural character of the extreme east is, of course, much less favorable, but even here in the more favored sections a limited degree of agriculture may be carried on. The great need of this territory is population. The inhabitants, all told, in both sections, now num- ber some fifteen thousand souls, and are entirely confined to the coastal settlements. Though the country, except in the extreme west, is absolutely without roads or public works, it is gratifying to know that in some sections the population has quadrupled in the last decade. A natural increase, even without being supplemented from the outside, would in the next decade mean a poulation of con- siderable importance. Within the next generation, and perhaps much earlier, this section of the coun- try is likely to witness a great development of its resources and an increase of population. The country seems to have sufficient attractions to draw, and means to support a comparatively large number of people, and these would quickly find their way thither if it were brought more fully in touch with the outside world by means of better trans- portation facilities, especially by land and in winter season. What is really needed is a railway line ex- tending from the Lake St. John region right down to some good harbor in the Straits of Belle Isle. A branch line should also run through to the head of Hamilton Inlet. This would doubtless be an ex- pensive line to build, but it would undoubtedly ultimately become profitable. CHAPTER II. SAGUENAY. THE country containing the famous Lake St. John region, which, together with the County of Charlevoix, we have for description associated with the name of Saguenay, in recognition of the great river which forms one of its chief physical features. This territory, extending from the seventieth to the seventy-fifth degree of west longitude, a breadth of about two hundred and twenty miles by about four hundred and fifty miles north and south, represents an area from eighty to one hundred thousand square miles. This is about twice as large as the State of Pennsylvania, which supports a population of over five million people. The southern part of the territory here outlined is very well known, being in intimate touch with the outside world by the Lake St. John Railway, and in summer also by steamer. We shall turn our attention, therefore, first to the northern section of the country. North of the height of land it has long been shrouded in mystery. It has, however, in recent years been partly explored and surveyed by the Dominion Government, so that its chief features are now pretty well known. Lying just north of the low hills which form the height of land, sometimes called the Laurentian 87 88 Our Canadian Heritage Mountains, is situated the once fabled Lake Mistas- sini, the chief physical feature of that part of the country. While not so vast in extent as tradition made it, this is still a large, even magnificent, body of water, being by far the largest lake in Eastern Canada. The soil of the country around this lake overlies limestone, and is said to be of excellent quality, being a sandy loam with a clay subsoil. Owing, how- ever, to the elevation of the country, the climate is not so favorable as the latitude would indicate, and the great depth of the lake renders its waters, much of which comes from the north, constantly cold, a fact which also influences the climate. Not- withstanding this, the southern end of the lake especially has a very pleasant summer climate and some agricultural possibilities. The highest mean temperature from the 1st of May to the end of August (1885) was something over eighty degrees Fahrenheit, while the general mean was about fifty- six degrees Fahrenheit. This is not a bad show- ing considering that 1885 was a very wet season. It indicates a summer climate very similar to that of Scotland, which, by the Scotchman at least, is regarded as quite satisfactory. At the present time there is a little danger, it is said, from slight sum- mer frosts, though potatoes and other vegetables are grown each year at the Hudson's Bay post. Mr. Lowe says : " The waters of Mistassini and of the adjoining large lakes are full of fish. The principal kinds are lake trout, river trout, white- fish, pickerel and suckers, all of large size and fine quality. These fisheries would be of considerable commercial value if access could be had to them by Saguenay 89 railway." The country is densely covered by forests of spruce, pine and birch, but the growth* is not generally of large size, though this is probably due largely to the frequency of forest fires. The growth as now reported is splendidly suited to the manu- facture of pulp, and the supply is said to be practi- cally inexhaustible. Excellent water powers are also in the vicinity. Lake St. John is a beautiful sheet of water, from seventy-five to eighty miles in circumference, and quite round and regular in shape. Emptying into this immense catch-basin are some nineteen rivers, a number of which are navigable for steamers. These rivers unite their waters in the lake, which becomes the source of the mighty Saguenay, which leaves the lake through the " grand discharge." This lake is called the home of the " Ouananiche," or great fresh water salmon, and on this account attracts a large number of sportsmen and tourists. This country is essentially agricultural, and though comparatively recently colonized, has made great strides in the development of this industry. The soil is almost universally composed of rich gray clay with a fertility well-nigh inexhaustible. The climate of this region is more mild than that of Montreal, and the snowfall less than at Quebec. As an indication of the climate, it is said melons are successfully grown in the open air. This territory has already a considerable popula- tion, not less than sixty thousand people, and is rapidly increasing. Uniting with it, as we have, for the sake of uniformity in this description, the County of Charlevoix, the population would probably amount to eighty or ninety thousand. This is about 9O Our Canadian Heritage double that of the State of Nevada, and nearly double*that of Manitoba when it was admitted as a province of Canada. There are already a number of towns of considerable importance, of which Roberval, Chicoutimi and Murray Bay are the most important. . A brief reference to the Saguenay River must be made before passing from this interesting section of the Dominion : " The Saguenay can hardly be called a river. It is rather a stupendous chasm from one to two miles in width, doubtless of earthquake origin, cleft for sixty-five miles through the Laurentian plateau. Its walls are almost an unbroken line of naked cliffs of syenite and gneiss. Its depth is many hundred feet greater than the St. Lawrence ; indeed if the St. Lawrence were drained dry all the fleets of the world might float in the abyss of the Saguenay and yet find anchorage only in a few places. Of mere soft beauty the Saguenay landscape can show none save the one or two valleys where tributary streams flow in. It has been called, indeed, the River of Death. Silence, nakedness and awe brood over it. Its grim solitudes are shunned by bird and insect. The profound immoving waters, on account of their great depth, appear as black as pitch, with purple gleams in the sunlight, and are broken only when the back of a white whale rises for a moment into view. Its overpowering sublimity and noiseless desolation becomes oppressive to some visitors. A writer in the London Times called it ' Nature's sarcophagus.' " * Appleton's Guide to Eastern Canada. Saguenay 91 "Capes Trinity and Saguenay guard its entrance, and are called the climax of Saguenay scenery. These great cliffs, the one 1,600 and the other 1,800 feet in height, watch each other across the black gulf of Eternity Bay, the narrow fiord wherein the sounding line must descend a thousand feet to reach the bottom. The dreadful sublimity of these pro- montories, springing sheer from the black depths of the mysterious river, compels the reverence of the most indifferent." Taking this territory as a whole, it is one of great natural wealth and big with future promise, and it is bound, in time, to become the scene of great achievement and a teeming population. CHAPTER III. HUDSON SEA. WE now approach for description a series of territories bordering on the great Hudson Bay, or sea, as it should more properly be called. Before taking up any description of the surrounding coun- try we will devote a chapter to this important inland sea of the Dominion, that the value of the surround- ing country may be the better understood. Probably no land-locked body of salt water can be found to equal it in the world, with the single exception of the Mediterranean Sea. Its dimensions, roughly speaking, are a thousand miles long, by six hundred broad. It has been fittingly called the "Mediter- ranean of the North." It is not necessary to dwell upon this most wonderful physical feature of North America ; its discovery by the intrepid navigator, Sir Henry Hudson, and his tragic end somewhere within its waters, are matters of common knowledge. Ever since the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany ships have constantly visited its waters by way of the straits which unite it with the ocean. It is, therefore, one of the earliest visited portions of Canada, and the fact that no further progress and no increase of shipping has developed in all these years seems at first a little strange. It is the same 92 Hudson Sea 93 lonely, unfrequented sea that it was hundreds of years ago, and the surrounding country gives no further evidence of the millions of Europeans on this continent than were to be found two centuries ago. Indeed, so long has this condition continued that even Canadians seem to have become quite reconciled to it, and look upon both the sea and the surrounding land as a place of little or no value, and always destined to remain as it is. Except the fur traders and a few missionaries there is absolutely no civilization anywhere on the thousands of miles of coast which encircle it. There is no way, except by the Indian canoe, of reaching it overland from any Canadian point, though at one place its tidewater is within two hundred miles of the Canadian Pacific Railway.. Supplies of any importance that are sent to its shores have to be shipped by way of Liverpool or London, necessitating two trips across the Atlantic. Since the year 1883 the Canadian Government has sent a few expeditions into the bay, chiefly for the purpose of testing the navigability of Hudson Strait. The official reports of these expeditions have been invariably favorable to those regions. In the month of February, 1882, a report was laid before the Parliament of Canada detailing the results of an expedition despatched by the Govern- ment of that country particularly for the purpose of inquiring into the navigability of Hudson Strait and Bay, and at the same time gathering informa- tion concerning the resources of that region, and its availability as a field for settled habitation. This report represents the first properly organized attempt that has ever been made to pierce the 94 Our Canadian Heritage secrets of Hudson Bay for the public benefit. This report made a deep impression on the public mind, as the following will indicate : " It is at first blush not easy to understand why this mighty expanse of water, 'occupying the peculiarly important position that it does, should remain for so many generations comparatively -unex- plored, and wholly unutilized, except as a hunt- ing-ground for a few New Bedford whalers, or a medium of easy communication between some half- dozen scattered factories of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany. Although called a bay, it is really an inland sea, one thousand miles in length by six hundred miles in width, having thus an area of about five hundred thousand square miles, or quite half that .of the Mediterranean. It drains an expanse of coun- try spreading out more than two thousand miles from east to west, and fifteen hundred miles from north to south, or an area of three million square miles." * Into its majestic waters pour feeders which take their rise in the Rocky Mountains, on the west, and in Labrador in the east, while southward it stretches out its river roots far below .the 49th parallel until they tap the same lake source which sends a stream into the Gulf of Mexico. Despite its dis- tance northward its blue waves are never bound by ice fetters, and its broad gateway to the Atlantic is certainly navigable four months out of the year, and possibly all the year round to properly equipped steamships. Its depths abound in finny wealth, from the mammoth whale to the tiny caplin. Its shores are serrated by numerous streams, some 'Popular Science Monthly. Hudson Sea -95 navigable for a long distance inland, and all stocked with, the finest of fresh water fish, and clothed, as to their banks, with valuable timber ready for the lumberman's axe. Its islands are rich in mineral ore of many kinds. The country whose margin its tide laves is well adapted for tillage and pasturage, while all round the region swarms with animals and birds, whose flesh or fur renders their chase a highly lucrative employment. Other published statements concerning this wonderful region are as follows : " As to the marine resources of Hudson Bay, it is known that for more than forty years American whalers have regularly found harvests there. Reports of the United States Fisheries Department shows that the return of fifty whaling voyages there amounts to $1,571,000, or $27,240 per voyage. The value of fish and whale oil alone taken from the Hudson Bay by United States whalers and the Hudson's Bay Company is esti- mated at $150,000 per year for the past ten years. The Hudson's Bay Company reap over $50,000 a year from the blubber of the porpoise and walrus here, while the bay teems in certain parts with salmon, cod, whiting, trout, hake, pollock and many other fish. The salmon abound in the streams run- ning into the Hudson Strait so plentifully that a ship can be loaded with them in a few days. They are proved to be the best in the world. The same may be said of the trout." These reports, at the time, were regarded as highly colored and much overdrawn, so manifestly were they in opposition to the preconceived prejudices of ignorance and indifference. The manner in which this region, both by land and sea, has been spoken 96- Our Canadian Heritage of has, however, been more than sustained by the more recent reports by Dr. Robert Bell, the Dominion Surveyor. This gentleman paid an official visit to tnis region in 1897-8. He describes it in glowing terms, the following of Which is a synopsis: " The Hudson Bay is half as large as the Medi- terranean Sea. It drains a vast territory, three mil- lion square miles in area. Vast rivers flow into it from the south, east and west, flowing from places as distant as the plains of Minnesota and Dakota. In its waters live undisturbed fish and oil-bearing mammals, along its shores are fine harbors, in the country surrounding it are rich mineral deposits and fine farming lands. But it is a portion destitute of human habitation. White whale, walrus as big as elephants, and fur-bearing seals disport themselves undisturbed in the water. On land there is wealth, with no one to take it away. " But all this is in the Arctic region," you say. " Not a bit of it," says Dr. Bell, Director of the Geo- logical Survey. " Moose Bay is in a latitude further south than London, and the more northern portion of Hudson Bay is at about the same latitude as the north of Scotland. The climate also compares very favorably with that of the same latitude in other portions of the globe. The Bay does not freeze across in the winter, the winter conditions there being similar to those of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. " The Hudson Bay route would bring the great North-West as near to Europe as the city of Quebec. It offers, perhaps, the route to the Yukon district, and is the natural route to the oil wells of the great Nortli-West. Gold is there specimens of the gold- bearing quartz have been brought into the Hudson's Hudson Sea 97 Bay stations pyrites, containing gold, has been found by the Geological Survey party, and alluvial gold has been found, according to Mr. William Ogilvie, in the valleys. Gypsum, iron, copper, silver and lead are abundantly indicated in many places." History has it that Hudson and a few of his men were abandoned in an open boat by a mutinous crew, after a winter of privation in a southern portion of James Bay, leading to the inference that they were drowned miserably. Dr. Bell caused some laughter by stating it to be his belief that the famous explorer rowed ashore and, with his companions, lived out the allotted span of life in that pleasant climate^ and were probably as happy as though living in England. D. A. Jones, explorer for the Ontario Government, recently returned from a trip through the wilds of Northern Ontario, declares " that Hudson and James Bays are destined to become the greatest fishing ground in the world. There is abundance of salmon, trout, sea trout, whitefish and codfish, while in the streams brook trout abound." Mr. Jones says the breeding grounds are a hundred times larger than those on the Atlantic coast, and the* Atlantic cod fisheries are not a shadow to what may be developed around Hudson Bay. The Hudson Straits have a shorter period of navigation than the sea itself, being blocked with ice between seven and eight months of the year. The waters of the bay itself, however, are open to navigation much longer, especially in the west and south, probably for a period not much less than the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Indeed, the bay is said to never freeze in the greater portion of its area, but rather only for a limited distance along its 98 Our Canadian Heritage shallower coast line. This comparatively long open season of navigation on the bay is a matter of much importance to the future, inasmuch as when it is reached by rail and the surrounding country occu- pied, its coast-wise trade is likely to become a feature of importance. CHAPTER IV. RUPERTA, OR NORTH QUEBEC. THE first territory to be described, having a part of its boundary washed by the great Hudson Sea, we have here called Ruperta, from the chief trading-post on its shores. This territory comprises the country between the western border of Quebec and the terri- tory last described ; and from the valley of the Upper Ottawa to a point north of Big River, near the entrance of James Bay. Within these boundaries would be an area of about one hundred thousand square miles, about equal to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. This great scope of country is one of the least known in all Canada east of Manitoba. Much of it is still unexplored, and except for the Indians who inhabit it, it is almost wholly without popula- tion. A few posts of the Hudson's Bay Company represents its only civilization, and yet this country is rich and fair and well-fitted for the home of a large white population. The valley of the Upper Ottawa, which is made the southern limit of this territory for present con- venience, is so comparatively near the heart of civilization that it need not here be described. It is sufficient to say that it is a country rich in lumber and minerals, with a goodly proportion of arable 99 ioo Our Canadian Heritage lands, and will undoubtedly in due time be occu- pied, as settlement is rapidly creeping up in that direction. We will, therefore, turn our attention more particularly to the north of the height of land. It may here be stated that this height of land, or dividing watershed, between the north and south, is so gentle in its elevation that it presents no barrier to easy railway construction. The whole of the northern territory is covered with a dense forest, a goodly portion of which is heavy timber. This, in the future, must prove of great importance from a commercial and domestic point of view. The country is also drained and its surface marked by many lakes and rivers, both great and small. These both add beauty and fertility to the country, as well as afford a means for the easy transportation of the enormous products of its forests when in time they shall seek the outside world. The largest lake in the territory, so far as known, is the Abittibi, a part of which lies within these boundaries. This is a beautiful sheet of water of very irregular shape, having many islands. Nature has designed this territory primarily for an agricultural region, as the great plains stretch- ing away from the height of land towards Hudson Bay may testify. Though now covered with dense forests they have, it is said, a most excellent soil. Mr. L. O. Armstrong, of the C.P.R. Emigration and Colonization Department, speaking of this great northland, said : " The country west of Lake Mistassini, and north of the Laurentian Mountains, has much good land, equal to and even better than that to the south of them." This is corroborated by Ruperta, or North Qftibec ; "ibi many witnesses, and it is well known that the great fertile plains, beginning north of Lake Temiscam- ing, stretch practically unbroken over one hundred miles to the north. This section is well within the wheat belt, and has vast possibilities and a brilliant future. Concerning the most northern section of this territory, on the east coast of James Bay, consider- able skepticism prevails regarding - its agricultural worth. Happily there are some very authoritative reports regarding this particular part. Mr. A. P. Lowe, of the Dominion Survey Department, says of the country about the lower stretches of the Lower Rupert's River : " The timber was much larger than formerly seen on this river, consisting of bal- sam poplar and balsam spruce, while at Rupert House, garden vegetables were cultivated. The soil along the rivers appears to be good, and as the climate to the southward is probably favorable to the growth of cereals and root crops, nothing pre- vents future settlement in this region." The arable area of this wonderful country on the east side of James Bay is about twice as large as the Province of Prince Edward Island, and is, therefore, of great importance. It is thought probable that the climate may be somewhat cooler than that on the west side of the bay, but Mr. Lowe says : " Good crops of potatoes and other roots are constantly grown at the most northern Hudson Bay post at Fort Geocge." The hardier cereals, he thinks, could be grown, and the country is spoken of as 'being, " an excellent grass and grazing land." Exten- sive marshes exist near Fort George, which yield an abundance of hay ; by this means alone IO2 Q.ur Canadian Heritage cattle are successfully kept at this most northern post. As another proof of the comparative excellence of this region, the forest growth in the river valleys is quite as good, if not better, than further south. Mr. Lowe found spruce trees for a considerable dis- tance up the Big River, eighteen inches in diameter, fifteen feet from the ground. The existence of this timber here is not only marvellous in itself, but of the highest importance to the future of the country. It would seem that this side of James Bay was capable of becoming an excellent dairying and mixed farming country. This particular section of the territory has an increased importance attaching to it from the fact that at Fort George, near the mouth of Big River, is situated the only first-class harbor anywhere in the southern part of Hudson Bay. It is also situated in close proximity to the rich fisheries of the east coast, another matter of importance both for it and for the fisheries. It would seem, when the whaling and fishing possibilities of the north are considered, that Fort George, when connected by rail, is destined to become the New Bedford of the Dominion. These are facts of the greatest importance, and Big River harbor, under some more fitting name, must in the future, when the vast resources of this region are being sought, become the site of one of Canada's future cities. As a northern railway ter- minus of the east side, and in touch with an exten- sive country, and being the only suitable port for large ocean steamers in that section of the bay, from its docks in the future must be handled much of Ruperta, or North Quebec 103 the lumber, fish and other products of the surround- ing sea and land. It is nearer Liverpool than Que- bec, and may yet compete with the St. Lawrence for a part of the year in handling the products of a portion of the west. A commercial centre and probably a stately city with far-reaching trade, situated on the eastern coast of Hudson Bay, may to-day seem like a dream of fancy, as, indeed, it is, but in the light of these facts it is quite within the possibilities of the twentieth century. Fort Garry and Fort William for three hundred years remained with little change mere posts of the great fur company, but when the time was ripe and the wave of population and progress touched these regions, they sprang into large centres of trade in an incredibly short time. Some time in the future, perhaps soon, these places, now scarcely known, will have a similar history. CHAPTER V. NORTH ONTARIO. THIS great territory, having its western boundary from a point on the Albany River to Lake Huron, following the western watershed of Moose River basin, is similar in form and area to the last de- scribed. It includes what are now the districts of Nipissing and Algoma to the 48th meridian. Lying side by side, it is quite natural that these two ter- ritories should have much in common, both in climate and general features. There are, however, some differ- ences worthy of note. This territory, which we here call North Ontario, has considerable of its area in a more southern location than Ruperta, and while its northern coast is washed by the waters of James Bay, the southern boundary is on the shores of Lake Huron. It is, therefore, in a double sense maritime as to location. It is traversed by different lines of railway and has a considerable population. This development of the southern section is, for the most part, quite modern, and is still going rapidly for- ward. The population at the present time is, per- haps, from sixty to eighty thousand. The character of this territory is greatly diver- sified, the south being in strong contrast to the north, the former being broken and metalliferous, while the latter is generally level and agricultural 104 North Ontario 105 in character. The richness of the mineral deposits in the southern section has already attracted wide attention. Heavy forests also cover a large part of this section of the territory, and it may be generally described as a mining and lumbering country. It must not be thought, however, that this is not, to some extent, an agricultural country as well. The C.P.R. traverses about the poorest section, fol- lowing the watershed, thus presenting to the tra- veller the worst features of the country. It has, nevertheless, many beautiful valleys and extensive areas of fine farming land, capable of producing the very best quality of the products common to the North Temperate Zone. North of the C.P.R., and stretching away to- wards the waters of Hudson Bay, we find a country that is essentially agricultural in its character, though now covered by heavy forests. Almost this entire section is drained by the waters of the Moose River and its tributaries, and the soil is said to be among the best in the Dominion for agricultural pur- poses. It has been estimated that there are thirteen million acres of good arable land in its northern portion. The climate of this section is all that could be desired, and better than one would expect. An authority says : " North Ontario is somewhat colder than South Ontario, but not any colder than some of the densely populated countries of Europe." The records of the temperature at Moose Factory in the coldest winter months reveals the fact that it is almost identical with that of Port Arthur. Bishop Newnham says: " In my garden at Moose Factory 106 Our Canadian Heritage is grown as fine vegetables as can be grown any- where in Ontario. About the only thing that will not ripen is Indian corn ; tomatoes thrive well, and the district is noted for its fine celery." The records kept during a long series of years indicate that the first snow makes its appearance about the 20th of October ; the rivers freeze about the middle of November, and open towards the last of April. This corresponds almost identically with many sections of Canada much farther to the south. It would seem that this whole territory was highly fitted for extensive and prosperous agricultural pur- suits, and doubtless the time will come when all its advantages will be eagerly sought after. Moose River is a noble stream, and has many large tributaries, covering almost all parts of the country. At the junction of the Abittibi it is over a mile in width. The nature of the country, geologi- cally and otherwise, points to the fact that the streams are shallow as compared with their breadth. It is stated, however, that specially-constructed steam- boats, one hundred and fifty feet long, could navigate the Moose River one hundred and twenty miles from its mouth in the lowest summer season. This is somewhat farther than the St. John River, in New Brunswick, is navigable during the same period. The great Albany River forms a part of the northern boundary and will be referred to later on. The presence of these great rivers must eventually be of utmost importance to the country for transportation and other reasons. Already a number of railway lines have been projected for this section, having their objective North Ontario 107 point at Moose Factory, and probably in a few years the waters of the far-off Hudson Bay will be viewed from a railway train. A railway terminus and sea- port on the north coast of this territory will mean more for it than can be estimated. It is true that the harbor of Moose Factory, on account of the shallowness of the entrance, cannot be compared with that of Fort George as a deep water terminus or port. Its natural defects in this regard, however, could be improved by the expenditure of considerable sums of money, while for smaller-sized crafts it already affords good shelter and a fair supply of water. It is the only really good harbor, except Rupert River and Nottaway, on the -south coast of the bay, and with the possible exception of Severn River, it is the only harbor on the south-west coast south of York. " Lying, as it does, in the bottom of this great sea sack, its location is suggestive of Chicago, on the extreme south of Lake Michigan, and it may not be too much to expect that this strategic position of Moose Factory will one day transform it into a new Chicago of the north. Everything seems to point to the possibility of this being a great railway centre, with connections in all directions, and the common centre of extensive transportation. Moose Factory to-day consists of a small cluster of buildings, comprising the Hudson's Bay Company's stores and residences of its few white inhabitants, and it is visited only once or twice a year by the Hudson's Bay Company's schooner. This great country, as here bounded, should be capable of supporting, when fully occupied and de- veloped, a population of six million people quite as io8 Our Canadian Heritage well as the State of New York does on half its area. " 'Twere to such scenes our fathers came To cultivate the virgin soil, And they have left an enduring name For virtue, truth, and honest toil. " They built their cabins firm and warm To shield them from the winter gales, On some high fertile maple ridge, Or in the deep soiled intervales." CHAPTER VI. ALQOMA. THIS country, as delineated in this connec- tion, is formed by part of the Algoma district of the present Ontario, from the boundaries of the last named territory as far west as Lake Nipigon, and uniting with the eastern section of the present Keewatin Territory north of the Albany River. The northern part of this territory is bounded both by James and Hudson Bays, while the south fol- lows the coast of Lake Superior, from a point a little east of the Soo to the mouth of the Nipigon River. Though . situated almost in the centre of the Dominion, it has more sea coast than almost any other province or territory in Canada. The western boundary is formed by a line run- ning through the valley of the Weenisk River in that portion that runs north and south, being ex- tended in a straight line to Hudson Bay on the north, and Lake Nipigon on the south. This gives a length, north and south, of some six hundred miles, and a width of two hundred and fifty miles, having an area not less than one hundred and twenty thousand square miles. The whole northern coast of Lake Superior, with the St. Mary's River, has been included in this territory, because it is suggested by the natural watersheds, and, further, 109 no Our Canadian Heritage because it gives a section of the country a southern location. It is already in intimate touch with the activities of American and Canadian civilization and industry at the Soo. The present population of this region is about thirty thousand, and its develop- ment has been so rapid of late that any estimate, or even accurate census, cannot long remain reliable. This territory is naturally divided into three sections, each of which will be briefly described. These sections may be regarded as a southern, a central and a northern, while the whole may be said to have the same general features as those of North Ontario of the last chapter. We will first consider the northern section. This part of the territory includes all the country north of the valley of the Albany River, and is about one- half of the entire area. At the present time this section is most isolated, not having any important if, indeed, any post of the Hudson's Bay Company within its borders, and is seldom visited by a white man, either by land or by sea. As compensation for this, however, there is a peculiar attraction in it which always attaches to an unknown country. Doubtless there are many who have regarded this entire section as a perfectly valueless region, con- sisting mostly of swamps, and lying largely in the embrace of winter. It will be an agreeable sur- prise to find that such is not the case. While it is true that certain parts of the country here in the north, owing to the level character and consequent lack of drainage, are at present too wet for agricul- tural purposes, it is also true that the territory, as a whole, has a very large proportion of excellent land, especially that bordering its numerous rivers. Algoma 1 1 1 At the present time the country is a sportsman's paradise, as it abounds in waterfowl, fish, and other large and small game. Its many shallow lakes and marshes are the breeding ground of vast flocks of ducks and geese. Of the fish sturgeon are, per- haps, the most abundant, though whitefish, pike and suckers all abound in its waters. These fish are all esteemed for their food value. Many densely populated countries in Europe are much further north than this section. Finland, and even Denmark, for instance, each having several millions of population, represent countries probably not more favored than the territory now under con- sideration; yet Finland, seven degrees further north, is called the " Granary of Sweden," while Denmark, no larger in area, monopolizes the dairy imports of Great Britain. With these facts before us further reference as to the possibilities of this great region is unnecessary. When the country is made acces- sible by railway, as it certainly will be in time, it may be expected to attract the attention of settlers, for agricultural and other reasons, taking its place worthily among the various sections of the Dominion. From the northern portion of Algoma we now turn our attention to the southern ; that is, the sec- tion lying between the C.P.R. and the lake shore. This is in strong contrast to that of the north ; here is a country of rugged cliffs, almost mountainous in character; the country of minerals, as opposed to one of agriculture. The chief point of interest in this southern section, and, indeed, of the whole west, is the thriving town of Sault Ste. Marie. The position of this busy hive of industry assures its 112 Our Canadian Heritage future greatness. What Sydney is to Eastern Can- ada so Sault Ste. Marie must be to the upper lake regions. The climate of this part of the country is similar to Northern Michigan, and the country, though rough, has many fine valleys affording opportunity for a considerable amount of agriculture. An enthusiastic resident writes : " We can grow every kind of grain to perfection. I hold a diploma and medal from the World's Fair in Chicago for wheat, barley and buckwheat, and several other farmers in Algoma obtained diplomas and medals. We can raise very fine apples and other fruit. Grapes, tomatoes and corn will ripen here in the open air and are of excellent quality. We have lots of beauti- ful lakes, well stocked with fish, and a healthy climate." If the undertaking now entered into by the Government to have five thousand permanent settlers a year brought into this and the adjoining terri- tory for the next twenty years is carried out, it will be seen that a heavy population is likely soon to occupy it* The cool climate and the magnificent scenery of the north shore of Lake Superior is a decided feature of that part of the country, and being situated reasonably near many of the large cities of the west, it may be expected also to attract summer tourists in increasingly large numbers. It is, perhaps, to the central section of this large territory, however, that we look for its true hope and future greatness to spring from, though to the casual observer this is not now in evidence. Some * An arrangement to this effect was made between the Ontario Gov- ernment and Mr. F. H. Clergue. Algoma 113 one has said concerning it : " You may have seen a certain tract burnt and desolate, but you did not see the interior ; you did not see the arable lands stretching away back for many miles ; you did not see there a country capable of sustaining thousands of souls." Those who know it best claim that such is the country's true character. This central section alone represents an area of thirty thousand square miles, about equal to the province of New Brunswick. This great central belt combines the best features of both the north and south already described, much of it being an agricultural country of the highest order. The climate also, for obvious reasons, is more genial than many sections farther to the south. Lake Nipigon, though considerably smaller than any of the great lakes of this system, has an exten- sive area, being about seventy-five miles long by fifty miles broad, and on account of its deep and numerous bays boasts a coast-line of greater extent, it is said, than either Lake Erie or Ontario. It is in every respect worthy to be classed among the great lakes, even in a country celebrated for the grandeur of its inland seas. It differs from the other great lakes of the St. Lawrence system, in that it is thickly studded with islands of varying size and surpassing beauty. The country, where not burnt, is everywhere covered with forests of timber, consisting of balsam, white cedar, spruce, red and white pine, tamarac, poplar, aspen, elm and ash. The variety and char- acter of this timber bear ample testimony both to the character of the climate and soil. It is a well 8 U4 Our Canadian Heritage known fact that, though further north, the climate is superior in some respects to that of the north shore of the great Lake Superior. Mr. Bell, of the Geological Survey, says : " The best illustration of the agricultural abilities of the Nipigon country from actual experiment is the Hudson's Bay Company farm at Nipigon House, on the west side of the lake. This has been cultivated successfully for a great number of years. Wheat is said to ripen well here. Among the numerous garden crops at Nipigon House I observed Indian corn. From all I could observe myself or learn from others, I am of the opinion that the Nipigon country, as regards both soil and climate, is suit- able for agriculture." Most of the rivers, and there are some of con- siderable volume, flow with sluggish current between alluvial meadows, which extend for great distances in various directions. The same report goes on to say, " We paddled up one of these rivers a distance of thirty miles, following its course. In that distance the water was from 18 to 20 feet deep, and the only impediment we met with, except jams of drift wood, was a very short rapid with a fall of four and a half feet, and my Indian guide informed me that he could go an equal distance on the other side be- fore cctaiing to the next rapid. At this little rapid was found the only opportunity to gather a few stones for net sinkers in all the thirty miles." It will have been observed that, together with the ex- tensive lake navigation, the country could be reached for long distances in the interior, by way of these rivers, with fairly deep draft steamers. The country, with these attractions and possibilities, cannot al- ways be hidden away from the eager home-seeker Algoma 115 of the more densely populated portions of the world, but must soon yield up its treasures and assume the more fitting aspect which comes with human activity and population. Allusion has already been made to the Albany River as the most notable stream emptying into the west side of James Bay, its importance, therefore, to this central section can hardly be overestimated. It is comparable to the Ottawa in size, and has unim- peded navigation from its mouth to Martin's Falls, a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. The valley through which it runs is one of rare beauty, in many places furnishing an abundance of splendid lands. In several places called the " long opening," the course is so straight that water and sky merge- in the horizon, so unbending is its course. At other places it expands into lake-like dimensions, some of which are filled with lovely islands. One cannot help but think that the time is not so very far dis- tant when the beauty of this majestic river shall be enhanced by the evidences of domestic comfort, com- mingling with its pastoral beauty. Cities, towns and villages must at some future time rise upon its banks, while its sloping valleys will be adorned with peaceful farmsteads, and upon its bosom will pass to and fro vessels bearing its commerce. That a coun- try so fair could keep the secret of its charms and worth from the busy tide of human life that surges not two hundred miles from its banks, seems wonder- ful Indeed. The near future is likely to find these wonderful valleys echoing to the whistle of the locomotive ; then shall the loneliness be forever past. This country, as a whole, must some time figure largely in the general development of the Dominion. CHAPTER VII. KEEWATIN : " THE COUNTRY OF THE NORTH WIND." THIS is, for the most part, a higher and more broken country, yet not so much so as those sections bordering on Lake Superior. It contains within its borders the source of many of the streams and rivers which flow both into the Hudson Bay and Lake Winnipeg, and is, therefore, on the height of land between these two basins. Indeed, it may be regarded as an extensive, though not elevated, plateau, excepting in the extreme north. Perhaps no part of the Dominion is so well watered with lakes and rivers as this. Many of the lakes are of great beauty, and some are of considerable size. The most notable are God's Lake, Island Lake and Trout Lake, in its central portion ; while Lac Seul and Lake St. Joseph are large sheets of water on its southern border. Though the country on its extreme north and south has for over two hundred years been the high- way for the Hudson's Bay Company's trade, yet so far as permanent settlement is concerned, absolutely no progress has been made. Possibly its population may be less, either white or Indian, than it has been in years past. This settled condition of neglect seems to have confirmed the opinion that the country 116 Keewatin 117 is worthless as a home for white men. In many respects nothing could be more misleading. Though the winters are severe, they are not more so than in many settled portions of the North-West, while it has the advantage *of the shelter afforded all forested countries. The seasons, though, perhaps, a little shorter than those of the prairie regions to the westward, are equally delightful and warm be- yond belief, making agriculture quite within the range of possibility. Since we have regarded the principle of agriculture as the true basis of any country's fitness for permanent white settlement, we will consider Keewatin from this standpoint, and in reaching our conclusions we will not depend alone upon the latitude in which the country is situated, or its relation to the continental isotherms, but will hear the statements made from actual experience and reports of Government inquiry. It will be seen, however, that its latitude, both north and south, is almost identical with that of Germany, while the isotherms, so far as summer temperature is con- cerned, indicate a similar climate. It is also largely within the northern wheat belt. These facts in them- selves should indicate its right to be regarded as an agricultural territory. Actual experiment is, however, always better than theory, and we will extend our observations with this in view, first, along the southern border. Mr. Thomas Fawcett, D.L.S., made a survey of this region in the year 1885, and some extracts from his report will be given.* Ascending the English River on the south-west extremity, he notes the soil and vegetation, and remarks that " wild pea vines were * Sessional Papers, 1886, Volume 19. Ii8 Our Canadian Heritage growing six feet high on some of the portages." He further says : " Good land suitable for farm- ing purposes could be obtained, and I believe all kinds of grain and vegetables could be grown suc- cessfully. . . . We found strawberries ripe, rasp- berries ripening and blackberries turning color on the 12th of July, which is not much later than these mature in many parts of Ontario. Since I left Winnipeg (18th June) there have been no indica- tions of frost. Up to date the temperate has been uniform to a surprising degree, varying from 60 to 80 degrees F., with several showers, yet very little rain on the whole." The timber in this region is largely composed of poplar, which, however, is de- scribed as large, tall and straight, while spruce, pine, oak and ash also occur. On the 15th of July, of an Indian village that was visited on this river, the report says : " They had planted one hundred bushels of potatoes, which were growing well, and also some onions, carrots and turnips, all of which were attaining a good growth. I examined the land in the vicinity and found it to be a loamy clay. Along the ridge is seen some large pine, the trees having attained a growth from thirty to forty inches in diameter and being straight and free from branches. About two miles south some first-class pine of large size is seen ; good spruce is also found here scattered among the poplar timber along the shores of lakes. It is esti- mated that there are considerable tracts of this heavy timber in the immediate vicinity." At Oxford House, two hundred and fifty miles south-west of York, productions of the Hudson Bay and mission gardens have been a matter of frequent Keewatin 119 surprise. Mr. Cochrane, of the Geological staff, says of this region : " The higher ground, where not rocky, presents usually a stiff, light-colored clay, and soil of this description, with more or less loam, is found along the valley of the Trout River. Oxford House is situated on a stiff clayey soil, which here produces barley and all kinds of vegetables in per- fection. A similar character would seem to prevail with more or less uniformity over this section generally. Its adaptation to the growth of small fruits and berries is particularly noted, all varieties of which grow wild and in great abundance." The forest growth of this section is also indicative of favoring conditions of soil and climate. " Balsam fir is common around the lakes, and of good size, some- times attaining a circumference of four feet. Ground maple, mountain ash and other varieties of deciduous trees are found to grow in this apparently favored locality." Rev. John McDougall, the well-known missionary, bears testimony to the beauty and the possibilities of this secluded country at God's Lake: " While breakfast is cooking we inspect the garden and are glad to note how full of plenty it is, and though this is but the 23rd of August everything is well matured. Onions, carrots, beets, beans, peas, turnips, potatoes, all well on, the latter quite ripe and dry and mealy. What a breakfast? Fresh white fish, just out of the lake, and fine, dry, sweet potatoes, both steaming hot. We had been passing through thousands of acres of similar soil; we had experienced days and nights and weeks of similar climate; we had doubtless passed over millions of fish such as this, but had not the time nor the means I2O Our Canadian Heritage to grow the potatoes or catch the fish. Here we are by the boat route fully 800 miles from Winnipeg, even by the shortest canoe route between six and seven hundred, and all this is north-east of Lake Winnipeg, far from the Great Plains, and the big Saskatchewan and Peace Rivers and Mackenzie River and Athabasca countries. Truly we as Cana- dians have a great mission before us, to govern and occupy this big and rich country." Many of the lakes of the central region of Keewatin are of great beauty, and may be said to be literally filled with fish of the very finest varieties. Of these, Island Lake is one of the largest and most beautiful, and may, therefore, claim our attention for a brief space. This beautiful sheet of water is forty-eight miles in length, with an average breadth of twelve miles. It is, like Lake Joseph in the south, literally filled with islands of varying size all through its entire extent. They number many thou- sands, some of which are of wondrous beauty, and nothing could be more charming to the eye of the pleasure-seeker in the depths of nature than the prospect which is spread out on the bosom of this lake. No doubt the day will come when thousands of passengers will thread their way through these enchanted isles in comfortable and swift gliding steamers, as they visit the various villas upon its shore. The Rev. Dr. Taylor, Methodist missionary, who visited this region, gives the following glowing description of this Canadian paradise. He says : " I know all the lochs of my beloved Scotland, for in many of them I have rowed and fished. I have visited all the famed lakes of Ireland, and have Keewatin 121 rowed on those in the lake counties of England ; I have sailed often on our American lakes, and have seen Tahoe in all its crystal beauty. I have rowed on the Bosphorus, and have travelled on a felucca on the Nile. I have lounged in the gondolas on the canals of Venice, and have traced Rob Roy's course on the Sea of Galilee and on the old historic Jordan. I have seen in my wanderings in many lands places of rarest beauty, but the equal of this mine eyes have never gazed upon." This is high praise from high authority, but doubtless not too high, and it is impossible that a place of such rare beauty could be long hidden in this age of progress from the eyes of thousands who seek the beautiful in nature. Fort York is situated in the north-eastern section of this territory, and must, in time, attain new im- portance, based on a surer foundation than the limited resources, though romanatic career, that it has had in the past. It is the natural ocean port of this section and will doubtless one day assume the dignity more befitting a city than an isolated Hudson Bay post. Such seems to be the promise of the twentieth century for the development of these northern lands. CHAPTER VIII. CREE8YLVANIA : THE COUNTRY OF THE WOOD CREES. THIS section of the country embraces an area of one hundred and fifteen thousand square miles, being about half the size of the German Empire in Europe. Its southern border adjoins Northern Mani- toba, while the northern boundary is, for purposes of present description, located at the Seal River, just north of Fort Churchill. This brings the northern boundary a little south of the City of St. Petersburg. The eastern boundary is a continuation of Mani- toba's eastern border until it reaches the Nelson River, while the western border would correspond to a line drawn north from the north-west angle of Lake Winnipegosis. t The present population of this large territory is small, being composed chiefly of Indians, though its capacity for a large white popu- lation would seem to be. very great. Norway House and Fort Churchill" are at present the principal centres within its area. Not only is this territory magnificent in its pro- portions, but also in its resources and possibilities. Like other sections described, it abounds in many beautiful lakes and rivers ; probably in this respect it excels them all. The Churchill, Nelson, a por- tion of the Saskatchewan and many lesser streams 122 Creesylvania 123 flow within its borders, while a large part of Lake Winnipeg would also be within its limits. The position of this territory is also strategical in another sense : it is near the great wheat centres of the west, and it lies in the pathway of the short- est route to the markets of the Old World. Churchill Harbor, on Hudson Bay, at the northern part of this territory, is also the best harbor on the west coast of this great inland sea. Being tributary to the great river systems of the interior, and on the pathway of transatlantic commerce, the pulses of the new cen- tury's development must throb through the heart of this northern land. Favored as the country is by its geographical position, its agricultural possibilities must not be overlooked. The extreme northern location of this territory renders this question the more important. Perhaps few sections of the north have been so mis- understood from this standpoint. It will be ob- served, however, that the summer isotherms place this territory well within the agricultural area, and much of it within the wheat growing belt. This can be still further confirmed from authentic and reli- able reports. The southern section of this territory, from Norway House to its southern boundary, as here given, is quite well known and needs little reference here. Wheat and all crops incident to the west are constantly grown with as much ease and bounty as in any part of the country. The agricultural possi- bilities, however, of the northern section along the coast of Hudson Bay, may be regarded as somewhat more precarious, and, perhaps, regarded as impos- sible. But even here it is found, from actual expert- 124 Our Canadian Heritage ment, that agriculture, to some extent, is still possible. Mr. Bell, in his official report, says of the country about Fort Churchill, in the extreme north : " I saw very good potatoes and turnips growing in the garden at this place. Previous to the advent of Mrs^ Spencer the cultivation of potatoes had not been attempted, and the possibility of raising them at Churchill, when suggested by Mrs. Spencer, was ridiculed by the oldest inhabitant. However, in spite of predictions of certain failure the ground was pre- pared and planted and a good crop harvested. The experiment has been successfully repeated for seven consecutive years, so that the question of the prac- ticability of cultivating the potato on the shores of Hudson Bay has been pretty fully solved." * It would seem that notwithstanding this ex- tremely northern latitude this country has special adaptation for grazing and dairying purposes. Such is the nature of the climate that hay grows abundantly without cultivation, and of such nutri- tious quality that cattle grow fat in a short time when grazing on the natural pastures. The same authority states that hay can be cut in abundance in the neighborhood of Fort Churchill, and cattle thrive well. " The same ignorance as that already referred to formerly prevented any attempts being made to raise stock at this spot, so that every fresh animal required had to be brought from another post. Now the small herd which is kept at the place is replenished by raising the animals calved at the fort itself. The open grassy land near the sea is practically of unlimited extent. Much of it is dry and undulating, affording abundance for cattle. The * 1879. Creesylvania 125 butter made by Mrs. Spencer could hardly be ex- celled for quality, firmness and flavor in any country." Favorable as are the conditions in the extreme north, they are, as we would expect, even more favorable as we move southward. Despite the some- what long winters, it is not impossible that this region, bordering on the so-called barren grounds, will yet become a grazing and dairying country of great extent and value. The central portion of this territory is now largely forested, and the agricultural possibilities are unquestioned ; this is vouched for by the char- acter of the timber growth, both as to soil and climate. Mr. J. B. Tyrrell says : " There are large areas of rich, cultivable lands west of the Nelson, and though wheat is not grown, simply because it would be of no value, all varieties of vegetables are pro- duced in the gardens of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany's posts, and proved hardy. Large stretches of prairie also occur, and I have stood on the banks of the Burntwood River and gazed on just such rich stretches as might have been seen on the Saskat- chewan and Assiniboine, land that will be good for agricultural purposes and excellent for stock-raising some time, though now it is practically inaccessible. " All this country is but a continuation of the Red River Valley. It is all the deposit of a great lake, of which Lake Winnipeg is the sunken repre- sentative, which stretches from a short distance east of the Red River to the Pembina Mountains on the west, and from Grand Forks on the south to a point farther north than was reached this trip." It goes 126 Our Canadian Heritage without saying that fish and game abound in all this virgin country. From the foregoing it will be apparent that this whole section has been fitted by the hand of a bene- ficent Creator for a place and destiny in association with mankind more worthy than that of a fur pre- serve for wandering Indians. These vast areas and vaster wealth must in the progress of this new century reveal themselves, like the treasures of Aladdin, to those who learn their secrets and dare to discover them. In the meantime it seems almost like a crime against this great country, and against the vast homeless multitudes of more crowded lands, to keep such opportunities beyond their reach. Creesylvania is good for a population of at least two millions. CHAPTER IX. CENTRALIA, THE CENTRE OF THE CONTINENT. HAVING now described the various sections bor- dering on Hudson Bay, before going farther west we will give attention to the extreme western portion of the present Ontario, since this has not yet been dealt with. This territory includes Rainy River and part of Thunder Bay districts of Ontario as at present constituted, and may be described as all that section of New Ontario west of the Nipigon Lake and river. This territory embraces some fifty-seven thousand square miles, an area about as large as England and Wales combined. It is very rich in all material resources and also ideally located. Bordering on a portion of the coast of Lake Superior on the east, it is the western terminus of lake traffic, and may indeed be regarded as having direct ocean connection with Liverpool. The loca- tion of the rising towns of Fort William and Port Arthur is indeed very promising. It is about equally distant from the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and is thus in intimate touch with all parts of the continent. It might be appropriately designated Centralia. The present population of this territory is cer- tainly not less than fifty thousand, and rapid in- creases are being constantly made by the incoming of 127 128 Our Canadian Heritage settlers. Its citizens are credited with being among the* most enterprising and ambitious in the whole Dominion. Already there are large towns we might say, cities and numerous thriving villages, in addi- tion to the two already mentioned on the lake coast. Rat Portage, Keewatin* and Fort Frances are places of considerable note. The entire length of this territory, a distance of over three hundred miles, is traversed by two systems of continental railway, namely, the C.P.R. and the Great Northern. Other lines are also under construction or contemplation, and must, with the shipping centres of its two lake cities, give it wide connections and ample facilities for transportation. The general features of this territory are quite well known and need not here be dilated upon at length. The Nipigon section on the eastern border, and the northern boundary along the English and Albany River, have already been described in con- nection with Algoma and Keewatin. Its general character may be summed up by speaking of it as the Nova Scotia of the West. It certainly has much resemblance to, and many features in common with, its smaller eastern sister. Though not maritime in the technical sense, its lake ports are the scenes of much commerce, and it is not impossible that they may yet be the termini of ocean freight steamers. Port Arthur may become a new Halifax. Its great deposits of gold, iron and other valuable ores also afford another point of resemblance between it and the province by the sea. The magnificent valley of the Rainy River gives it fame as an agricultural country, as does the far-famed Annapolis Valley to Now Kenora. Centralia 1 29 the Land of Evangeline ; neither is this new coun- try without its vast forests, its rocky coasts and its important fisheries. But Nova Scotia would have to be multiplied by two to equal it in extent. Whether all dreams concerning its future be fulfilled or not, it stands as a fitting link between the prairies of the West and the older industrial centres of the East, and its future is assured. The country, though considerably broken, has, as already remarked, great possibilities as an agricultural region and almost boundless capacities for popula- tion. " The men of this part of Ontario do not claim that it is continuously fertile, but they do claim that it is sufficiently fertile to support hundreds of thou- sands of people, and that the progress of its mining and lumbering industries will supply a market for the farmer and cattle-raiser second to none in the world." It has been asserted on excellent authority that five hundred thousand people could find homes on the agricultural lands of the Fort William and Port Arthur districts alone, though this is but a small fraction of the whole. In addition to the fertile lands west and north of Lake Nipigon, along the northern boundary, and in many other favored sections, its chief agricultural asset is the valley of the Rainy River. This beautiful section alone is sufficient for the maintenance of a large agricultural population. The following observation is appropriate here : " Along this river is a sight hardly to be matched along the three thousand miles of boundary that arbitrarily separates Canada from the United States. The boundary runs through the river, and on the 130 Our Canadian Heritage Ontario side cultivated land runs down to the water's edge, while on the Minnesota side there has been no attempt at cultivation. The reverse of this picture more usually obtains. The country has a great com- mercial future and is capable of supporting thou- sands of happy homes. It is romantically situated in the midst of many still and running and falling waters, and historically it will always appeal to Canadians. There the Hudson's Bay Company estab- lished one of its first posts, the earliest voyagers passed westward down the Rainy River, the Indians brought theirs furs to Fort Frances for a century and a half, the Jesuits passed it in savage times on their way to the West, and in later days Sir Garnet Wolseley made his way to this point when he went to stamp out the North- West rebellion. The country abounds in water powers, minerals and lumber, and there are thousands of acres of good agricultural lands." Some of the enterprising citizens of this splendid country have already had dreams of a new province, in fact, as well as in theory. Certainly the country is well calculated to fulfil all their most sanguine dreams and to sustain the claims put forth in its behalf. Its future place in our history will be awaited with must interest. CHAPTER X. THE BORDER PROVINCES OF THE WEST. WESTWARD from Centralia, described in the pre- vious chapter, there is a chain of provinces touching the international boundary all the way to the Pacific coast; these are Manitoba, Saskatchewan (till recently Assiniboia and Saskatchewan), Alberta and British Columbia. These Prairie Provinces, especially the first named, are well known, and also fairly well developed and populated. Since much has been said in praise of them, we will not, therefore, dwell upon them; it is sufficient to say that the Prairie Provinces east of the Rocky Mountains represent the very best sections of the Dominion, and are fast filling up. This sec- tion of our country will compare favorably with any portion of the world in the fertility of its soil and quality of its products, and is capable of sustaining many millions of inhabitants. Each section has its individual features, though great similarity prevails throughout all the prairie region. The towns of to-day must become the cities of to-morrow, and the thousands of the present are only prophetic of the millions that shall be. The heart throbs of this great country must, in the near future, find their centre somewhere in this section of the West. Such is the evident trend of development at the present 132 Our Canadian Heritage time. Looking to these fair young provinces of the West, enthusiastically we greet them in the words of Kipling : " To the far-flung fenceless prairie, When the quick cloud shadows trail ; To our neighbor's line in the offing', And the time of the new-cut rail ; To the plough in her league-long furrow, With the gray lake gulls behind ; To the weight of a half year's winter And the warm, wet western wind." CHAPTER XI. SASKATCHEWAN. WE now return to the task of describing the less known and more northern territories just north of the settled portions of the border provinces. This brings us to that great country lying between the west- ern border of Creesylvania, previously described, and the eastern border of Alberta and the Athabasca River, and as far north as the south coast of Lake Athabasca. This embraces a territory quite regular in form and containing over two hundred and twenty-five thou- sand square miles. This territory will be treated in two separate parts of equal size, extending north and south. The first, or more easterly, we shall call Saskatchewan. The valleys of the Saskatchewan and the Churchill Rivers run through the southern and cen- tral sections, while the north extends into the higher and wooded country in the Reindeer Lake region. The northern section of this territory has only in recent years been explored, and while it cannot be claimed that it is to any extent an agricultural country, because of the broken character of the sur- face and considerable elevation, yet south-east of Reindeer Lake the country improves in this respect. The country, however, is densely wooded with spruce forests of medium growth, and may there- 133 134 Our Canadian Heritage fore be regarded as a pulpwood country of the very best character: Its qualities in this respect are enhanced by the presence of this great navigable lake and innumerable water powers. As Reindeer Lake is the chief geographical feature of this section of the country, and is very imperfectly known, a brief description will here be in order. Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, who visited the country in 1896, gives the following description : " By reference to the map it would be seen that this lake, which is very extensive and of large area in its northern part, becomes narrow towards the south, ending in a long arm filled with islands. The total length, from the outlet to the Hudsons' Bay Com- pany post at the north 3nd, is more than one hun- dred and thirty-five miles, while the width of the northern part averages thirty miles. The shores generally are flanked by a numerous array of islands of all sizes, and a string of islands, reach- ing from Vermilion Point on the east, divides the north part into two large sections, in which other islands are seen dotting the more open spaces. The whole of the west shore is of a rough, rocky char- acter. ... To the south, and especially in the narrow portion, both the hills forming the mainland on both sides and the islands appear to rise higher toward the north, giving that part of the lake a very picturesque appearance. The timber also in the south is of a more varied nature. There spruce, poplar and birch are found, but north of the middle of the lake poplar is rarely seen, and the smaller spruce is the principal tree." To the north-west of Reindeer Lake is Wollaston Lake, having an area of eight hundred square miles, Saskatchewan 135 and having many of the general features of Rein- deer Lake, though the country is more inclined to be of a sandy and hilly nature, pine timber being more common. The peculiarity of Wollaston Lake is in the fact that it stands on a height of land, and has two rivers flowing out of it, one on the southern and one on the northern watersheds. Fish are abundant In both of these lakes. Coming to the valley of the Churchill, the central part of this territory is decidedly different in its character. The great Churchill River, with its con- tinuous chain of lakes strung like the beads of a rosary, flows through a valley of rare beauty and considerable breadth some two hundred miles north of the Saskatchewan. Of it Mr. Tyrrell reports : " The Churchill River, from its northern source in the Portage La Loche, following its windings, has a length of four hundred and eighty miles to the mouth of the Reindeer River.* It is a long series of irregular lakes filled with blue water, connected by short, usually rapid reaches, the banks being low and thickly wooded with spruce and balsam." While having considerable quantities of excellent land, the chief importance of this section must be associated with its forest wealth, especially when lying so close to the still more southern prairie sections. The valley of the Churchill agriculturally, as well as from the standpoint of the manufacturer, has also much to commend it to our favor, to say nothing of its scenic beauties. The southern section in the broad valley of the Saskatchewan, apart from the two sections already described, is quite sufficient, with its well known This river is one thousand miles in its entire length. 136 Our Canadian Heritage richness of soil, to sustain millions of people. The country may be regarded as park-like in character and essentially agricultural. The climate is equal and, in some respects, superior to other parts of the West. It is officially described as follows : " The climate is healthy and free from enteric or epi- demic diseases. It is bracing and salubrious, and is undoubtedly the finest country on earth for con- stitutionally healthy people. The average summer temperature is about 60 ; the reason for the equabil- ity of the temperature in summer has not yet been fully investigated." There has never been a failure of crops ; the settlers enjoy a steady home market, at which they realize good prices for their products, while fruit of many varieties grows in profusion, and small game is abundant. At the present time Prince Albert is the chief town of this section, and has railway con- nection with the outside world, while a thrifty, though limited population is found throughout its southern section. Mr. Prazer thus describes this beautiful country : " I have been in many parts of the world, the Orient and the Occident; I have seen beautiful places and magnificent parks, grand gardens, noble avenues ; but let me tell you, gentlemen, that the most beautiful spot on this round earth is the valley of the Saskatchewan, in this strong, rugged country, which stands as a rampart from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Go there in August and September and you will see God's own garden stretching mile on mile, from silver stream to the ethereal blue of the distant Rockies. " Crimson and gold and azure, and the soft Saskatchewan 137 pearly grays of delicate grasses and shrubs that carpet the black mould, until you sink knee-deep in a wreath of trailing purple-tipped pea-vine and pink flesh-colored castillja. Not one blade of all this splendor was sown or planted by the hand of man; not one design of the whole vast park laid out by human gardeners. There you will be face to face with the beauties of God's gifts, with no warning to keep off the grass. You may roll down those jewelled hills, all set with ruby and amethyst and pearl flowers, like a boy, and as you roll there will be in the air the whistle of the crescent wings, as a grouse or partridge cuts through the warm sunshine startled by the queer hobgoblin appearance of a man." Surely there is greatness in store for the Province of Saskatchewan. CHAPTER XII. CHIPPEWAN : THE COUNTRY OF THE CHIP- PEWYAN8. THIS territory, adjoining Saskatchewan on the west and extending west to the Athabasca River, though having many characteristics of the last de- scribed, has yet a personality of its own. The northern section is much smaller than the northern section of the Saskatchewan, and quite different in character. Prom the southern shore of Athabasca Lake southward for a considerable distance the country is a sort of plateau, deeply covered with a sandy soil on the surface, many parts being under- laid by Cambrian rock, locally called Athabasca sandstone. It will >be inferred from this that the northern section of this territory is not pre-eminently fitted for agriculture; it is, however, forested with pine and other varieties of trees. This feature, how- ever, disappears in the west as the valley of the Athabasca River is approached, where a better agri- cultural region is found. The chief value of this northern section, it would seem, must be associated with its timber, though, doubtless, there are limited sections favorable to agriculture. As Lake Athabasca lies to the north of this terri- tory, a brief description may here be appropriate. 138 Chippewan 1 39 This magnificent sheet of water, something over 200 miles in length, is nearly 40 miles in width in the central part. About 50 miles of its eastern ex- tremity is quite narrow, averaging about five miles in width. This lake is of considerable depth, it has an extensive coast line, and is 690 feet above the sea level. The Athabasca, and many other rivers of lesser importance, empty their waters into this lake, all of which find an outlet by way of the Slave River, while the great Peace River joins the Slave not far from the lake. On the coast pinkish sandstone cliffs, sand dunes and beaches and marshy plains with occasional islands, may be said to characterize the southern shore. These sandstone cliffs recede from the lake and gradually increase in height and assume the form of round, sandy bluffs and hills. Towards the eastward they increase in height and are locally known as the Fish Mountains. This unaltered Athabasca sand- stone formation rises to a height of 400 feet in some places above the surface of the laice. The country at the west end of the lake is much flatter and gentle in aspect, the shores in places are marshy and the water shallow, especially the mouths of the rivers. On the northern coast the country is broken and the coast line rocky, though the rocks north of the lake differ from the south, being gneissoid in character. This northern lake has much beauty, is abundantly stocked with fish, and is a splendid feature of this northern country. Connected as it is by so many noble rivers, which make navigation possible through distant and fertile countries, important transporta- tion and general commerce must, in time, be central- ized somewhere in the vicinity of this lake, probably 140 Our Canadian Heritage in some city on its shores. The rich deposits of iron are important features of this section of the country, a veritable mountain of iron being situated close to the north shore of this lake. The central portion of this territory is much larger than the corresponding section in the terri- tory of Saskatchewan. The basin of the Churchill is here much wider than farther east, and is supple- mented on the north by the Clearwater, a tributary of the Athabasca. This may be spoken of as a wooded agricultural region. Similarly, on the south of the Churchill, the Beaver River, a tributary stream, flows through a splendid country far to the south- west. " Its course northward was alone surveyed. Here it is a rapid stream from 100 to 200 feet wide, running between low clayey banks beautifully wooded with spruce and poplar; much of the land along its course seems well adapted to agriculture, and the vegetation gave evidence of abundant harvest." Many of the lakes in this system are of large size and of great beauty, while water power privileges of the greatest value everywhere abound. The prairie section in the south of this terri- tory is quite valuable. It was here that the mistaken and fanatical Louis Kiel and his metis friends plotted to set up their republic, and as a consequence it re- presents the scenes where Canadian valor was dis- played by her native soldiers, who fought and died for the integrity of their country. As yet the popula- tion of this territory is comparatively small, though in the near future it is likely to increase with great rapidity and is capacities for population are, com- paratively speaking, unlimited. Chippewan 141 I sing a song of the West land, Though how shall a song but fail To capture the blue horizons That swallow the prairie trail ; And how shall letters and papers Imprison the breath of life ? They know, who travel the prairie, Who know the song of its strife, The hopes and fears of the prairie, Its word to the sons of men ! Nay, how should a volume hold it, Inscribed with a human pen ? " H. H. Bashford. CHAPTER XIII. ATHABASCA. THIS fine territory comes next and now claims our attention. As here described, it is practically the same as the original Athabasca, except that its position extends a little further south and a little less northerly. The area is about one hundred and ten thousand square miles ; a truly imperial measure. Up to the present, on account of its inaccessi- bility, the territory of Athabasca has not attracted many permanent settlers, though there are some beginnings already made about Lesser Slave Lake and in other sections of the south. The Peace and Athabasca Rivers flow through it diagonally, thus affording excellent facilities for transportation. These are both noble rivers, the Peace being one thousand miles long and navigable throughout the whole territory of Athabasca, with the exception of one break at Vermilion Falls. The general features of the country are those of a gently undulating plain, of many extensive prairie-like openings among the otherwise generally wooded expanses. This prairie-like character of the country is more characteristic of the south-western half. In places groups of earthy hills without any appearance of rock seem to spring out of the general level of the country, and are sometimes dignified 142 Athabasca 143 with the title of mountains. These, however, are entirely forested and lend added interest to the country. In all sections small tributary streams flow into the larger rivers, giving the country abun- dant drainage, while numerous small lakes with marshy margins and surrounded with extensive meadows dot the surface in almost all parts of the country. The timber, mostly spruce and poplar, is of excellent growth and of great prospective value. This may be taken as an indication of both climate and soil; but of this there is abundant testimony concerning the excellence of both. From a geological standpoint the country is regarded as of recent formation. Mr. R. G. McConnell, in his official re- port to the Government, says : " The greater part of this district may be described as a gently un- dulated plain, diversified with numerous shallow lakes, muskegs and marshes. Small prairie patches, manifestly due to prairie fires, occur north-west of Lesser Slave Lake, and at several points along the Loon and Waterfound Rivers, about Fort Vermilion, and other places." If further testimony as to char- acter is necessary it is at hand. The bison, or buf- falo, driven from the plains of the Saskatchewan, found congenial shelter in this region, and though well-nigh extinct, it is claimed they found sub- sistence here quite as easy as they formerly did in the State of South Dakota. Even horses are said to be able to live throughout the winter without shelter as far north as Peace River. The Indians raise potatoes to perfection on the tops of the high- est mountains in the country, and recent experi- ments and actual tests have shown that all kinds of grain and vegetables can be grown without any 144 Our Canadian Heritage trouble and in abundance. The land is fit for culti- vation about the 20th of April. Mr. Warburton Pike says : "I had been told of the beauties of Ver- milion as a farming country, and had expected that all the good things of the world grew there freely, so that I was prepared for the sight of wheat and barley fields, which had this year produced a more abundant harvest than usual ; potatoes and other vegetables were growing beautifully, cattle and horses were feeding on the rich grasses of the prairie, and it seemed that there was little to be gained by leaving so fertile a spot." As agriculture must in the end be the chief in- dustry of this great country, it is pleasing to note how eminently adapted it is for the prosecution of this noble calling, both as regards soil and climate. Apart from agriculture and timber, however, this great region has undoubtedly considerable riches of a mineral character. Gold is found in the sands of the Peace River. The remarkable tar sands, lignite beds and gas deposits of Athabasca give promise of wondrous richness when fully developed. It is also claimed that coal, petroleum and gypsum exist in large quantities. The tar sands of the Athabasca are unique in many ways, and may be briefly described in detail. The official report of the Geological Survey says: " They consist of an almost homogeneous mass of tar-cemented sands, varying in texture from a coarse silt to a grit, and varying in thickness wherever exposed from one hundred and forty to two hundred and twenty feet. . . . The tar sands occur along the Athabasca, from Boulder Rapids to a point about nine miles below the mouth of Clearwater River, a Athabasca 145 distance of about ninety miles. They occur for long distances east and west of the Athabasca, and the areas occupied by them are very extensive." These tar sands, in the native state, are said to be superior as a paving material to any asphalt in any prepara- tion made. The hot and mineral springs are also worthy of note. It would seem that the mineral wealth alone of this region would be sufficient to warrant the pre- diction that it would contribute largely to the wealth and commercial activity of the country in the future. The future of this great province of Athabasca is already assured, and the number of its inhabitants when settled will undoubtedly be counted by the mil- lions. Its beautiful valleys will become still more beautiful when adorned by the presence of human habitation, and when fair cities touch the margin of its lakes and streams. 10 CHAPTER XIV. BRITISH COLUMBIA. BBITISH COLUMBIA, like Ontario and Quebec, has its chief development and population in the southern section. The coal, gold, silver, iron and copper are in this section scattered about with lavish hand, while forests, soil and sea, hold riches not less abun- dant. It is noteworthy, too, that the population of southern British Columbia has increased more rapidly than any other part of the Dominion in the last decade. Vancouver has had a marvellous growth, and is only one of the many important centres of the country. No portion of the Dominion has more to expect in the future. It is believed by very many that the success and increase of the last few years is but the prelude of much greater expansion. In undertaking to speak of the northern portions of British Columbia we find a somewhat more diffi- cult task. If the more southern parts may be regarded as new and undeveloped, the more northern portions may, for the most part, be regarded as vast wildernesses. They are, nevertheless, wildernesses of great possibilities. The section next claiming our attention is the one lying immediately north of the last one described, and including what is generally spoken of as the middle zone of British Columbia. 146 British Columbia 147 In former times this section was designated New Caledonia, and in this connection we may retain the ancient name. In area and general features New Caledonia is, in many respects, similar to what is called southern British Columbia, and in all material resources it is as rich, if not richer. While the country maintains the same broken and mountainous character, it is also true that there are very many beautiful valleys. " Here the soil is almost everywhere rich, and there are many very valuable farming and stock raising tracts." Here also are the so-called Chilcotin prairies, which afford special advantages for stock raising and other forms of agriculture. The agri- cultural possibilities are probably as great as in the south, and the population engaged in this pursuit must in time be extensive. Being in the midst of a rich mining country the pursuit of agriculture will here be rendered more profitable than under ordinary conditions. As to climate, the mean annual readings vary little from that of the south, though there are more ex- tremes in both winter and summer than on the coast and in the south. It is thus described in the climates of Canada : " Northward from the Thomp- son for one hundred miles is another region of rolling bench lands similar to the south, growing somewhat colder with the latitude, but in a sur- prising manner maintaining a dryness far north into the Chilcotin rolling prairie country west of the Eraser ; while at one hundred miles north of Kam- loops such a moderate temperature exists that cattle maintain themselves all winter on the ranches. Except where excessive elevation prohibits, the pro- 148 Our Canadian Heritage ducts of this section are quite similar to other parts of British Columbia." The mineral wealth of this part of the Pacific slope, while, of course, not fully known, is certainly of very great value. Within this section the famous Cariboo district is located, from which many millions of dollars worth of gold was taken in its palmy days. While the creeks of this section have been pretty well prospected for placer gold, there yet remain many ancient river channels, suitable for hydraulicking operations on a large scale. Copper, gold and silver deposits have also been found, but the quartz veins from which the placer gold originally came have yet to be located. This is partially owing to the lack of in- centive for prospectors, who in the past have been deterred from going into the country because of the lack of transportation facilities, which are abso- lutely necessary to the success of lode-mining. With the entrance of a railway, however, a great impetus will be given to mining operations, and the wonder- ful mineral wealth of Cariboo will be developed as never before, and on a more enduring and lasting basis. In climate, minerals, agriculture and other re- sources, therefore, this extensive territory has within itself the elements capable of making it the peer of any province on the American continent. At the present time the population is small and scattered ; some along the coast, some up the valley of the Fraser, and at a few other points. More rapid de- velopment is likely to take place in the near future, as the country seems likely to be opened up by dif- ferent railway lines, making access to the interior more easy. The coast has a succession of magnifi- British Columbia 149 cent harbors and arms, and doubtless many of these will afford harbors on which will be located ports of entry. The most promising of these at the present time is perhaps Port Simpson, at the mouth of the Skeena River. It is not improbable that in time large development may take place there as the ter- minus of the transcontinental railway, the Grand Trunk Pacific. Certainly the outlook for this section of the Pacific slope is full of promise, and we doubt not, in time, more than our anticipations will be realized. The north-east corner of British Columbia, which we will call Omineca, contains about eighty-five thousand square miles. Its geographical position is such that in some respects it is one of the most difficult parts of the country to reach, lying, as it does, outside of most lines of even pioneer travel. It is consequently very im- perfectly known and perhaps the white population in no other section is so small. It is, however, not without its possibilities, and it is quite evident when it becomes more fully known it will be found to be a country of many attractions and much natural wealth. The late Dr. Dawson said of it : " This includes a portion of the Western Cordillera, and a large tract of the interior plateau region, and the component parts of which there is reason to be- lieve consists of agricultural land. It will be noticed that the central core of the Rocky Mountains here trends north-westerly through the centre of this ter- ritory, leaving about half of it on the eastern slope. This eastern section is said to be a rolling country, with the same general features as the eastern foot- hills of the south, partly forested and partly open 150 Our Canadian Heritage country, and as it lies in the path of the Chinook} winds, there is no doubt its climate is milder than one would expect to find in that latitude." Mr. Warburton Pike says : " On October 25th a west wind from across the mountains blew warm as a summer breeze." Considerably to the north of this section, in the Mackenzie Valley, the climatic conditions are beyond expectation, and that of the Peace River is well known to be among the best in the West. It is, therefore, highly probable that over a large section of this little known region a sur- prisingly genial climate prevails. It may be claimed, therefore, that the eastern half of this ter- ritory is suitable for an agricultural country, and it alone represents an area almost as large as Eng- land. In the progress of time there is little doubt that the beautiful valleys of this section will pulsate with the throbs of human activity. The more western sections of this territory are, of course, more mountainous, and their character is quite similar in general features to other parts of the Pacific slope. It is, however, a mineral country and likely one of great richness in deposits of gold. The Omineca gold mines have already yielded consider- able wealth and are still being worked on a small scale. The opening up of the country would make possible the working of these distant ore beds in a manner that cannot now be undertaken. In addi- tion to this, the country is heavily forested, a factor of no small importance in contemplation of future needs. These two sections of this territory its east- ern agricultural lands, and its western metallic are calculated to give added importance the one to the other. British Columbia 151 It will be noticed that the great Peace River pierces the Rocky Mountains in the southern part of this territory, affording, it is said, one of the easiest passes of this great range. No doubt, in the near future, railway lines will penetrate the moun- tains at this point, giving the country communica- tion with the coast, as well as to the East and other sections of the Dominion. When this comes to pass its full value will be known, and doubtless many will be anxious to share in the advantages it has to offer. The territory comprising the whole of the re- maining mainland portion of British Columbia, which we will call Cassiar, or British Alaska, occupies its north-western angle. It touches the coast between the Skeena River and the extreme south coast of Alaska, and is, therefore, maritime in position. Fort Simpson, with its spacious and ever- open harbor, is on its seaboard, and will doubtless more and more claim the attention of shipping in that part of the world. The area of this territory may be considered at one hundred thousand square miles. Comparatively little is known of that region, except on the coast and in the extreme north. It, however, has the same general features of the country to the south, being a series of mountains, valleys and stretches of rolling country. It is everywhere heavily timbered, except on the highest mountains, and the forest growth in some places is said to be superb, quite beyond general expectations. There are also many tracts of good land, and the climate is suited for the growth of a large variety of grains, vegetables and fruit. On the coast, of course, the climate is mild even in the winter, while in the interior there are the usual extremes of heat and 152 Our Canadian Heritage cold common to that part of the Dominion. The scenery is said to be in places magnificent, having already won considerable fame in this respect. Of the character of the country about Atlin City, in the north, a cultured and much travelled person said : " There are the lakes and woods, the white-capped mountains, the beautiful walks, the air like cham- pagne, the atmosphere of romance which discounts that of the most famous resorts. Indeed, after Atlin, Europe lures me no more." It is a mining country. Of course, this great ter- ritory must figure largely in the future in that respect. Of her mineral resources there seems to be no doubt of reality and vastness. Of the Atlin District a recent extensive quartz discovery is said to have assayed from $1,000 to $5,000 per ton in the tests already made. Certain representatives of French capitalists, who visited the country in 1901, are quoted as saying . " The mineral wealth of the country is perfectly amazing, and to all appearance superior in its mineral deposits to South Africa." Mr. G. W. Frazer, who has been recently engaged in making a survey of the northern boundary, is reported as saying : " Although only a most hur- ried perfunctory examination could be made of the country in a geological sense, yet sufficient was seen to demonstrate that it has mineral wealth quite equal to any portion of the north. On the Taklionia River plenty of coal of good quality was found, and more was noticed in the neighborhood of the Dalton Trail." This great country, so virgin and so rich in all that makes for wealth, must in time take a rightful place in the general awakening of this northern British Columbia 153 land, and when it is more fully known it will probably be seen that the half has not been told. Some day its doors, so long closed by the barriers of nature, and so long unsought, owing to the indiffer- ence of man, will be thrown open to all who seek a share in her secret wealth. Till then our hopes of her are large. " And I saw the glooming pine lands And I thrilled to the nor'land cold, Where the sunset fell in silence On the hills of gloom and gold. " And the dusk, still woods lay around me, And I knew that the patient eyea Of rny North as a child's were tender, As a sorrowing mother's wise." Arthur Stringer. CHAPTER XV. QUEEN CHARLOTTE ISLANDS. THIS interesting group of Canadian islands, form- ing a part of the province of British Columbia, now claims our attention. They were discovered about the year 1592, but they have made little or no progress towards development or settlement since that time. Though small when compared with the sections of the mainland of which we have been speaking, yet they are not insignificant in size, and are much larger than some of the .provinces of Canada or states of the American Union. They unitedly contain an area of some 4,500 square miles, which is over twice the area of the province of Prince Edward Island. They are nearly five times as large as the state of Rhode Island, twice the size of Delaware, and about equal to the state of Connecticut. These states have from a half to three-quarters of a million people, and are, perhaps, no better fitted for their maintenance than are these islands. Certainly there seems to be as many advantages in their favor as exists in the island provinces on the Atlantic coast, and with a similar population they would be as much entitled to govern themselves. They are certainly far removed from the seat of authority on the Pacific Coast, and their nearest point to the mainland is from 75 to 100 miles. The 154 Queen Charlotte Islands 155 group consists of three principal islands, Moresby, Graham and Prevost, of which the two former are by far the largest, and are separated only by a very narrow channel, so that they are practically one. Their greatest area is at the north, tapering wedge- shaped to the south. The latitude of these islands is exactly the same as the northern counties of England, and in many respects the climate is similar. They are affected by the great Japan current of the Pacific, as England is by the gulf stream of the Atlantic. The winters are free from excessive cold, but are inclined to be wet. In some years snow never falls, except on the western mountain range; and in ordinary years it never lasts more than a few days at a time. Cattle at the Hudson's Bay post in the north are said to winter themselves on the natural grass of the country, without receiving any attention whatever. Even the summer climate of the islands is somewhat humid, though often delightfully fine. The Rev. B. C. Free- man says: "Considering the high latitude, that of Labrador, the climate is remarkably mild. Snow rarely lies longer than a day or two. Tnis year, in mid-February, daisies, primroses, snowdrops, tulips and crocuses are in full bloom. The summer climate is very temperate, and the weather is frequently delightfully bright." This feature of the climate has produced a forest growth perhaps the most dense, varied and luxuriant of any in Canada; Menzies spruce, western hemlock, and cypress are the principal trees, all of which grow in plenty, and of immense size. Mr. Dawson observes in his report: "Before many years exten- sive saw mills will doubtless be established at 156 Our Canadian Heritage Naiden Harbor, which is well suited for the export of lumber. The quality of spruce timber is excellent, and much stands near the shores of the harbor." No doubt, this industry in time will surpass Mr. Daw- son's anticipations of it. The climate, as far as its suitability to agricul- ture is concerned, is beyond question, as has been demonstrated on the spot. The nature of the climate, however, is more suitable to grass -and root crops than to grain, on account of the tendency to moisture, but this is probably more an advantage than otherwise. There is no department of farming in that part of the country that would be so profitable as cattle raising. Lying so close to the great northern mining camps, agriculture on suitable lines ought to be very profitable on these islands. The physical forma- tion of the country contributes much to agricultural possibilities. A range of irregular and compara- tively high mountains extend from north to south, quite near the western coast; in the broad sections of the north this leaves a low, comparatively level country east of the mountain range, and sheltered by it from the Pacific storms. It is said this large area of undulating country in the north-east, though now heavily timbered, is well adapted to agri- culture. The scenic beauties of the islands are very fine, some of the peaks rising to a height of over 5,000 feet, and being quite steep, seem even higher than they really are. The many inlets and passages studded with large and small coastal islands also add to the general charm of the scenery. Skidegate, Cumshewa, Masset and Naiden are examples of these. Plenty of water of good average depth, as a rule, Queen Charlotte Islands 157 characterize these land-locked harbors. Masset, on the north coast, is rather extraordinary in its forma- tion, and may be briefly described. An opening in the coast seems to indicate the existence of a river of considerable importance, this, however, is the entrance of Masset Inlet, which is reached by following this narrow river-like tidal arm, about a mile in width, twenty miles into the interior. This sometimes cuts through rocky banks, and is from nine to twelve fathoms deep, but at last it opens into the magnificent expanse of Masset Inlet, seventeen miles long by five and a half broad, with many bays, islands, harbors and tributary streams. In some plates there are stretches of gravelly beach, other places the hills rise sheer from the water, while again the shore may be low and marshy. The scenery is thus varied and most beauti- ful and at present great forests everywhere touch the margin of this salt lake. The water in places in this wonderful inlet is very deep, and if some great city were situated some- where on its shores one could not conceive, or desire to have, a more romantic or securely sheltered place for the accommodation of its shipping. At one time there were many Indian villages on this inlet, and evidences of a large population exist here as well as on other parts of the island., The Haida Indians, however, are fast passing away, though in some re- spects they were a superior type of the aboriginal race. A conservative estimate places the Haida race on these islands at one time at 30,000. They now number less than 1,000. There are many indications of mineral deposits on these islands; coal, lignite, gold and copper have 158 Our Canadian Heritage all been found, and in some places attempts have been made to work the mines, but whether these deposits exist in paying quantities or not has yet to be determined. Boiling springs, sulphur springs and mineral waters exist at different points, the medicinal qualities of which are said to be considerable, and it may be that in the future they may become quite as attractive as similar springs in other localities. The surrounding waters at the present time, per- haps, give the largest promise of present wealth and profitable employment. It is said that no part of the Pacific coast is so rich in its fisheries as the waters surrounding these islands. In the past they have contributed the most of the food to the native Indians. Halibut abounds in these waters, and it is regarded by some to be the best halibut fishery in the world. Other varieties are also plentiful, such as different varieties of salmon, cod, herring, mackerel, pollock and others of less importance. The dogfish fishery is, at the present time, carried on chiefly by natives. This fish is a rich oil producer. In time this great fishery of the west coast, in the vicinity of these islands, must assume its true importance among the industries of the country. Queen Charlotte Islands may be regarded as the Newfoundland of the west coast. The natives of these islands are most intelligent people, and in many ways differ from the ordinary Indians of the coast. One marked feature of their superiority is evidenced by their more settled habits; their villages are permanent and their houses large and most ingeniously built, involving much skill and labor. The late Mr. G. M. Dawson gives a most Inter- esting description of the Haida race in his report of Queen Charlotte Islands 159 these islands in 1878; space will not here permit of further reference. It must be apparent to all that these favored islands are of great importance and have great future possibilities, and cannot escape development in time. Probably half a million people could subsist upon them. With the development of the Yukon and northern British Columbia, now apparently so well assured, must come the development of these islands also. CHAPTER XVI. SLAVONIA. "Northward the Star of Empire takes its way." In Europe, when the sixtieth degree of north lati- tude is reached, we have only come to the southern border of several prosperous and extensive nations, and to the south border of a large number of exten- sive provinces in still another country. Stockholm, Copenhagen, Helsingfors and St. Petersburg, the capitals of four different nationalities, are situated on, or very near, the sixtieth degree of north lati- tude, while north of this point are hundreds of towns and cities, and from eight to ten millions of highly civilized people. It is generally admitted that the summer climate of the Mackenzie Basin is superior to the summer climate of any other region in the same latitude, while the winter climate does not greatly differ from similar latitudes in the old land. This being the case, it is only reasonable to suppose that, acre lor acre, this part of the Canadian north can support as many people as any other country similarly located. At the present time this portion of Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains, except for a few mission- aries and fur traders, is absolutely without white population. In view of the conditions which prevail 160 Slavonia 161 in Northern Europe, it is to be expected that as tlie Canadian west fills up, the trend of human life will be constantly toward the north, until it reaches in permanent settlement the Arctic Ocean, at the mouth of the Mackenzie River. Our first section or territory of this more distant northland is that bordering on Great Slave Lake, for which reason we call it Slavonia. This great terri- tory we will consider as stretching from the north shore of Lake Athabasca to the south shore of Great Bear Lake, having its western boundary near Fort Providence, on the Mackenzie River. As thus bounded it would contain, probably, about 180,000 square miles, an area not much inferior in size to the republic of France. This immense region is heavily timbered with evergreen and deciduous trees. Even at the eastern extremity of Great Slave Lake, heavy pine is reported to exist. The minerals of the region are also of much promise; copper and iron ore are said to exist in large quantities in different parts of this territory, besides other important mineral deposits. A high authority gives the following description: " There is copper, and one river bears the name of Copper Mine River. It is found there in great quantities. I have seen little crosses of it made by the savages themselves when they were not able to have other metal. Sulphur abounds in several places. I have seen it on the Clear Water River, and above all, on the Great Slave Lake. It is there in such large quantities that the odor is annoying to those who pass by. Near Fort Smith there is a salt mine which is probably the most beautiful and most abun- dant in the universe. There is there a veritable ii 1 62 Our Canadian Heritage mountain of salt. By digging a little in the earth, from six inches to a foot, rock salt can be found. In addition to that there are salt springs, where, during the winter, salt runs from these springs and forms little hills of salt. You have only to shovel and you can gather a fine salt, pure and clean. On the borders of the Peace River stones are found which are sufficiently precious to make rings of them. I have seen gypsum along the Mackenzie river, and a little below Port Norman." It is said that petro- leum fields occur in this northern country greater than any now known to man. The fisheries of the country are, perhaps, hardly inferior to any source of natural wealth in this region. The various lakes and rivers give it a large water area, and consequently extensive fishing grounds. Great Slave Lake is in itself an inland sea, said to rival in size Lake Superior, while Great Bear and Athabasca are also touched by this territory. All of these great inland seas abound in the finest varie- ties of fresh water fish. Dr. Dawson states that the Hudson's Bay Company took at their station at Great Slave Lake in the season of 1883, seventy-five thou- sand white fish, giving two hundred thousand pounds of food. Besides the white fish, the other principal varieties are blue fish, carp, speckled salmon, arctic trout (some weighing fifteen pounds), salmon, dog salmon, pickerel, pike, perch, goldeyes, and the cele- brated inconner. This latter is a fish little under- stood, not being found in southern waters. It has some peculiar characteristics, is of great econo- mic value, and about the size of a small salmon. Another strange fish is the oolachan or candle fish. This fish is rich in a palatable oil, and when dried, Slavonia 163 it is said, will burn like a candle, hence its name. This may give some idea of the value of the fisheries of these great northern lakes. Their importance must become more and more evident as access to the country becomes more easy. - The agricultural possibilties of this territory up to the present time have not been thought to be very great; ignorance and prejudice, however, in this respect, are beginning to give way before the force of well established facts. Much of the land is of excellent quality, and the only question to decide the practicability of agriculture in these regions is that of the climatic conditions which prevail there. This question, however, has been pretty fully settled by experiments, which are quite in keeping with the trend of the continental isotherns. These indicate a summer temperature similar to that of parts of Ontario; and observation has shown that the decid- uous trees north of the Great Slave Lake are in full leaf quite as early as the same varieties are in Win- nipeg, St. Paul or Ottawa. Where wheat is success- fully grown, it is not necessary to demonstrate the growth of the other grains and roots. This impor- tant or delicate cereal has been, and is, successfully grown in the Mackenzie Basin, north of the Great Slave Lake. Ninety-one days after sowing, what was termed a very fine wheat crop was harvested (1900) at Fort Providence. All the products of a Canadian farm can be successfully grown in that country, and it would seem that the agricultural population in time might be expected to be very numerous. Great Slave Lake being the chief physical feature of this extensive territory, it may here be briefly 164 Our Canadian Heritage described. This great fresh water sea Is over three hundred miles in length, and in places over fifty miles in breadth. It has many deep arms and bays, and in parts is studded by numerous islands, varying in size. It ranks among the great fresh water lakes of the world, and is the largest body of fresh water wholly lying within the Dominion. Its shores are varied in character, sometimes high and rocky, and in other places low, skirted with marshy and sandy beaches. Its scenic beauties are regarded in places as being very fine. A recent visitor says, concern- ing the east end: " This is by far the prettiest part of the country I saw in the north; scattered timber, spruce and birch, clothed the sloping banks down to the shores of the lake, berries of many kinds grew in profusion, and caribou were walking the ridge and swimming in the lakes in every direction; a perfect northern fairyland it was, and it was hard to believe that winter and want could penetrate here." Surely nature's Architect has not located the beauties of nature here with so prodigal a hand for naught. Surely in time the forts of the Hudson's Bay Company here must develop into towns and cities, as they have in the Red River, and in the plains in the south. So far as Canada is concerned, Northward "The Star of Empire " must take its way. " This silent air is musical with thought The sleepy forest nods to lullaby; The mountains lift their faces to the sky That leaneth like a mother o'er her child. I hear the beating of the lake's great heart ; The fragrant breathing of the sleeping world Is soft as any babe's upon my cheek. Slavonia ' A peace profound rests on the silent world, A world fresh from the hand of God This air that fills my lungs was never breathed. I see it as He saw it first when it was done, Its beauty perfect, all its joys undimmed, And bowing low I, too, pronounce it good." W. J. Long. 165 CHAPTER XVII. TRANSLAVONIA, OR MACKENZIE. THIS great territory occupies the whole of the Mackenzie Basin traversed by that great river, and includes all north of the 60th degree of north lati- tude to the shores of the Arctic O^.ean and west of the great Slave Lake to the Rocky Mountains. Its area would be about two hundred thousand square miles about equal to Germany. While this territory is richly supplied with varied resources, it is chiefly of its agricultural possibili- ties that we will here deal. The same causes which contribute so largely to the modifying of the climate in these high latitudes are undiminished here, and to a surprising degree the climatic conditions of the south are duplicated here in the extreme north. No other part of the known world is so favored with the climatic conditions found here in so high a latitude. This surprising fact makes agricultural pursuits possible for a distance of six hundred miles north of the 60th degree of north latitude along the Mackenzie Valley. Professor Macoun says that spring seems to advance from north-west to south- east at about the rate of two hundred and fifty miles per day, and that in the fall winter begins in Mani- toba first and goes north-westward at the same rate. Thus, it would appear that these high latitudes are 1 66 Translavonia, or Mackenzie 167 more favored than some of the southern sections of the Dominion. An official report, made in 1889, says : " Through this arable and pasturable area, latitude bears no direct relation to summer isotherms ; the spring flowers and buds of deciduous trees appearing as early north of the Great Slave Lake as in southern Canada and earlier along the Peace and Liard Rivers. The native grasses and vetches are equal and, in some respects, superior to those in Eastern Canada. The prevailing south-west summer winds in the country in question bring the warmth and moisture which render possible the far northern cereal growth, and sensibly affect the climate of the region under consideration as far north as the! Arctic Circle, and as far east as the eastern rim of the Mackenzie Basin." A well-known writer says : " There is still an- other advantage in these northern regions of Can- ada incident to the climate, and that is, that while these latitudes apply to the short winter days they equally apply to the long days of summer. There is an advantage of two hours per day more sunshine during the period of the growth of wheat in the Canadian North-West than is vouchsafed in any other locality where wheat can be produced. Not only is two hours of sunshine in each day an in- estimable advantage, but the sun is stronger and more forced at this period, and in this region not only helping rapidly forward the ripening process, but the heat is also continually sufficient to cause the exudation of the moisture from the ground be- neath. So that in this far northland, despised in the minds of many for its cold and sterility, condi- 1 68 Our Canadian Heritage tions combine to make it the most productive. . . . It would seem as if a conjunction had been formed by the heavens above, and the earth beneath, to illustrate in the highest degree the productiveness of nature where man least expected its development." Another circumstance favorable to agriculture in this region is that spring here, unlike in many parts, sets in with marvellous regularity ; the transi- tion from winter to summer is sudden, and in five or six days trees come into full leaf. The fact that the Mackenzie River valley is wooded to the mouth of the river, far within the Arctic Circle, is an indi- cation of the favorable climatic conditions in these parts. While the possibilities in all parts of this wonder- ful valley are worthy of attention, perhaps the sec- tion favored above all others is the district through which the great Liard River flows. Strange as it may seem, it is claimed that prevailing conditions here are superior to those of Alberta, while one re- port declares that fruit grows well in the Liard River valley. However this may be, there is ample testimony in support of the general excellence of the region. The growth of the timber is phenomenal. The Liard, or balsam poplar, grows to a height of one hundred and twenty feet, with a stump diameter of from five to six feet. Spruce is said to attain the same height, with a diameter from four to five feet at the stump, while the larch is about the same size. Pine attains magnificent growth, and is tall, straight and free from limbs. The climate and soil produc- ing this variety of timber in this excellent quality must be first-class as an agricultural region, and Translavonia, or Mackenzie 169 this is proven by the products of the gardens of the missionaries and Hudson Bay people. It must be borne in mind, too, that agriculture in high latitudes has never seriously engaged the atten- tion of people in western lands. In certain sections of Northern China, where population is dense, the demands of human existence have not only led to experiments, but to successful attainments in agri- culture under conditions that would seem impos- sible with us. Certain cereals are cultivated by the Chinese on the headwaters of the Yangtse River, at an elevation of thirteen thousand feet above the level of the sea. "They grow wheat there in some places at an altitude of twelve thousand feet, whereas in this country (the United States) very little can be raised at an elevation of eight thousand feet, and that is in Arizona, where it is very warm. But the real test of the ability of the Chinese in this direction is afforded by a comparison of cereal elevation with the timber line. They raise wheat within fifteen hundred feet of the timber limit on the plateau of Turkestan, while in Arizona the timber line is four thousand five hundred feet above the wheat. A timber line furnishes a very definite basis of climatic measurement the world over, just as the sea does for the measurement of altitude." * One thousand feet below the timber line in Arizona would mean substantially the same temperature as one thousand feet below the timber line in New Eng- land, and so when it is said that the Chinese raise wheat within fifteen hundred feet of that line, it means that they have developed a grain which is far more resisting of cold and drouth than any in 1 Modern Miller." Our Canadian Heritage the United States or Europe. Their civilization is so much older than ours that the gradual develop- ment of these grains has been brought about, and we could to advantage bring some of them into use here. There seems no doubt that this section of Can- ada must yet take its place as an agricultural coun- try. Its fisheries are quite equal to those of the Slave Lake district, with the addition of the Arctic whale and seal fisheries of the north. It is thought by many that the mineral resources of this land are quite equal to any other section of Canada, and though gold is not now found in any paying quali- ties, the following has been expressed concerning its possibilities : " The Eldorado of this region will be the eastern slope of the Great Rockies, near the Arctic Circle, where the Great Divide between the Yukon streams and the western tributaries of the Mackenzie is found. The country is an extremely difficult one, and a recent expedition was forced to return after reaching within one hundred miles of their desired field. From evidences collected, how- ever, it is felt certain that gold exists equally plenti- ful on the eastern as well as on the western slope." The great Mackenzie River, with its associated lakes, constitutes the chief physical feature of this district. This river alone is over one thousand miles in length, and navigable from end to end for vessels of considerable draught. The Hudson's Bay Com- pany run a steamer during the open season, from Fort Smith, on the Slave River, to Fort McPher- son, on the Peel River, near the mouth of the Mac- kenzie. It is thought by the improvement of navi- gation at a few points that vessels of a much deeper Translavonia, or Mackenzie 171 draught could easily navigate these waters. This fact gives peculiar interest to this section of the country, and some point near the delta of the Mackenzie is likely in time to become a port of con- siderable importance. Without taking into consideration the strate- gical importance of this situation, it is evident that it has an importance as viewed from the stand- point of commerce. The Arctic fisheries, if properly prosecuted by Canadians, must in the future have their headquarters here ; then, again, as the Mac- kenzie Basin becomes populated, the mouth of the Mackenzie affords them the cheapest means of im- port and export to the outside world. For three or four months in the year, and perhaps longer, the Arctic Ocean is quite navigable as far east as the Mackenzie River, and the steamers trading with Siberian, Japanese and Chinese ports would find their journey shortened by three hundred miles, com- paring the mouth of the Mackenzie with the distance from Vancouver. Interior freight would conse- quently seek the sea by way of the Mackenzie River. No cheaper route of export could be given it, and it is not impossible to believe that in time a city of considerable importance may be situated at some deep water harbor at the mouth of the Mackenzie River. This would only be in keeping with conditions which exist in other countries. The city of Arch- angel, in northern Russia, for instance, would be nearly as far north, while the city of Tromso, in northern Norway, is about one hundred and fifty miles farther north than the delta of the Mackenzie, yet both of these European towns carry on exten- 172 Our Canadian Heritage sive shipping and have from ten to twenty thousand inhabitants. The only need of this great territory at the present time is more intimate communication with the outside world and a population in some measure worthy of its vastness and wealth, and both of these will come in time. While the chief benefit of the Mackenzie and Behring Straits route would probably be for the central north, it will, perhaps, be surprising to some to learn of its advantages generally when necessary railway connection is made. The following is a summary of distances : From Liverpool to Yoko- hama, via Hudson Bay, Mackenzie River and Behring Straits, 8,140 miles ; from Liverpool to Yokohama, via Hudson Bay and Port Simpson, 8,406 ; from Liverpool to Yokohama, via Chicoutimi or Quebec, about 8,800 ; from Liverpool to Yokohama, via the Grand Trunk Pacific, about 9,330 ; and from Liver- pool TO Yokohama, via the C.P.R., 10,030. This, it will be observed, gives the Mackenzie River route via Hudson Bay an advantage over the C.P.R. of about 1,890 miles, and over the G.T.P.R. about 1,190 miles, and over the Hudson Bay, Port Simpson route about 265 miles the shortest Pacific coast route possible. Even the Quebec and Mac- kenzie River route is shorter than the C.P.R. by 1,230 miles, and G.T.P.R. by 530 miles. To Vladi- vostock the advantage would be still greater. All this seems incredible, and yet it is about the truth. It also furnishes a strong inducement for carrying railway construction down the Mackenzie River to the shores of the Arctic Ocean. Even the four months of its summer operation would abun- dantly justify its inauguration. By making use of Translavonia, or Mackenzie 173 the Mackenzie River and suitable steamers, connec- tions could be made with only seven hundred and fifty miles of railway, namely, from Hudson Bay to Fort Smith. This might be put in operation almost at once, as it is needed for local and development purposes. Distances that are not officially stated are, of course, approximate ; probably nearly correct. CHAPTER XVIII. YUKON. THIS great territory is one of the farthest north and most remote from the chief centres of Canadian civilization. Its marvellous development in so short a time is a sort of guarantee of the possibilities and prospects of all the territories that lie between. The Yukon territory may be described as includ- ing all the Canadian territory lying north of British Columbia's boundary, and west of the Rocky Moun- tains. Its area is about two hundred thousand square miles, classing it with the largest of Cana- dian territories. Prior to 1896 the Yukon territory was a veritable terra incognita and popularly regarded as a region of almost perpetual cold and devoid of vegetation or value. This ignorance concerning its true character largely resulted from its isolated position. Few white people penetrated the depths of its solitude. With the opening up, however, of the country, upon the discovery of gold on the Klondike and other rivers, much of this ignorance and isolation has been removed. It seems almost incredible that such changes as have been witnessed there could take place in so short a period. Lieut. Schwatka, when passing down the Yukon River as late as 1883, remarked that the present i74 Yukon 175 site of Dawson City would make a good grazing place for cattle if the mosquitoes would not eat them up, to which Major Woodside aptly replies : " The cattle graze on the hillside now, and there are not as many mosquitoes in Dawson in summer as there are in the city of Chicago. . . . From a mosquito haunted muskeg in 1896 the city of Dawson has grown up like magic, and is now a place of probably eight to ten thousand inhabitants. It has broad sidewalks, well-graded streets, an excellent system of drains, electric lights, telephone system, telegraph system, north and south, and many fine buildings, some of brick and a number of ware- houses. " All the principal denominations are represented and have commodious churches. There are banks, excellent stores, while wharves and water fronts are the termini of many lines of steamers running both north and south. There are saw-mills, planing mills, brick yards, electric light and power plants, showing an investment of an immense sum of money. Daw- son City has three daily newspapers and, indeed, all the advantages of an up-to-date city." Moreover, it is still a busy and nourishing city, and when one considers its extreme youth its present development is nothing short of marvellous. Of course, this extraordinary development is the re- sult of extraordinary conditions, and apart from the gold discoveries the population would have been very slow in reaching that distant section of our country, but as a gold producing country it will likely be permanent, and the population now there will in all probability continue to increase. The country, now that it is opened up, will doubtless con- 176 Our Canadian Heritage tinue to develop. Other minerals will be mined, and doubtless agriculture, to some extent, will be fol- lowed. Some $110,000,000 worth of gold has been produced since 1896. This enormous sum is an indication of the mineral wealth of the Yukon, yet it represents but the scratchings of a more permanent source of wealth, the gold-bearing quartz veins from whence it came. The mountain torrents and creeks have acted as nature's stamp mill by grinding together boulders from the surface of the veins till the gold has been freed from the quartz. Thus, placer mining is essentially of a superficial and temporary character, but though the diggings of California and Australia have long been a mere matter of history, the quartz veins found and operated as a consequence are yet yielding a far greater and increasing quantity of gold annually. It takes a considerable amount of time and money to develop lode mines, and in the meantime there may be a diminished output of placer gold from the Yukon, but who can say what its future will be when the mother lodes have been opened up and the vast, and at present unproductive, areas pf low-grade gravel have been subjected to hydraulic mining. The future of the Yukon is still before it, and its varied mineral resources will not be exhausted for genera- tions. As to the other mineral deposits of the Yukonj territory, good authority has the following to say : " Another product of the country that demands attention is copper. It is doubtless to be found some- where in that district in great abundance, although the location of the main deposits has yet to be dis- covered. Yukon 177 " Silver has also been found, and lead, and in addition, to profitably work out precious metals, we have coal in abundance. It is to be found in the Rocky Mountains, or rather the ridges of high moun- tains running parallel to them in the interior. A deposit of coal in this range runs right through our territory. At two points near Forty Mile it crops out prominently ; in one place about three-quarters of a mile from the Yukon River. Farther up the Yukon, on one of its many smaller feeders, at Fif- teen Mile Creek, and on the head of the Trondik, there are also outcroppings of coal. A short distance above this it crops out again, only eight miles from the Yukon, and whenever the Cone Hill Mine is operated the coal to work it with is only some four- teen or fifteen miles distant from the scene of opera- tions. About thirty miles farther up, on one of the small affluents of the Yukon, it again crops out a few miles from the bank of the main river. On the branches of the Stewart, and on some of Five Fingers of the Yukon coal is also exposed. In fact, there is any amount of coal in the country with which to work our minerals when we can get in the necessary facilities." More recently coal has been found close to Dawson City on the Yukon River. The deposit is right on the bank and can be run from the mine onto scows without two handlings. Coal is now being actually mined and shipped, but statistics are not available as yet as to output. Many eminent men who have visited the country and are quite qualified to judge have expressed their faith in the permanency of the gold deposits and other forms of wealth in this territory. The words 12 178 Our Canadian Heritage of Major Woodside may be regarded as a repre- sentative opinion in this regard. He says : " Its permanency does not seem to be doubted by those shrewd financial men who freely invested their money in various kinds of permanent enterprises on the strength of an assured future." The prospect of a permanent and growing popu- lation gives the question of climate and agriculture considerable importance, and in both respects this wonderful country of the north has greatly surprised the world. So much has been said concerning its climate that little need now be told. The winters, of course, are cold, but the general testimony is that they are no harder to withstand than those of other parts of the North-West ; but it is the summer climate of Yukon in which we are the most in- terested. During the summer months the climate is all that could be desired, and whatever lands the gold-seekers have come from they have all expressed their satisfaction with the splendid summer condi- tions of the country. The following is a sample : " Everything is in bloom. I never saw such a beauti- ful climate in my life. The days are warm and long ; the sun rises at 2.30 a.m. and sets at 10 p.m. The thermometer climbs up to 80 and 90 above, but no one seems to mind it, and the nights are lovely and cool. It is dry and hot, and we haven't had a rainy day yet, and I don't believe we will see any either. We have slept outdoors for three weeks now, and we wouldn't bother putting up a tent, as there is no dew at all. I never saw so many beauti- ful wild flowers in my life. I only wish I could send you a bouquet of wild roses I am wearing to-night." This territory, it goes without saying, can never Yukon 179 be pre-eminent as an agricultural country, however favorable the climate. In the pursuit of this in- dustry the comparatively small percentage of good soil and insufficiency of moisture are not favorable features. A limited agricultural population, how- ever, could easily be sustained, and as the bulk of the population of the Yukon will likely be employed in mining, those who do devote themselves to farm- ing should find it profitable, as their products will always be in demand. The experiments of the past have been so encouraging that Mr. Acklin, who has been experimenting on behalf of the Government, speaks of the agricultural possibilities as follows : "There are large bodies of good land capable of producing crops in that section. The vegetables planted consist of onions, radishes, turnips, ruta- bagas, lettuce, cabbage, peas, beans, spinach, beets, potatoes and parsley. All these did well and yielded almost phenomenal crops." . Mr. Acklin experimented with the different grains and the results are highly gratifying. Of these there are royal six-row barley, Canadian Thorp barley, Trooper barley, Odessa six- rowed barley, Bannamon oats, Preston, Ladoga, Percy, white and red Fife wheat, all sown May 22nd. It seems quite evident, therefore, that agriculture, to' a considerable extent, can be carried on in this far northern section of the Dominion. The fact that it is possible to live and grow rich in the Yukon Territory, over fifteen hundred miles north of the most southern part of Canada, has been a revelation to Canadians. A few years ago no one dreamed that there would ever be any settlement in that extreme north-west corner of Canada, even cen- turies hence. There is no doubt that the develop- 180 Our Canadian Heritage ment of the Yukon will greatly increase Canadian confidence in the future of many uninhabited sec- tions of the Dominion more than a thousand miles south of Dawson City. " The days of pessimism have passed away and Canadians in general now believe that the Dominion is destined to have a great future, but they do not yet fully understand how wide the habitable area of Canada really is." Towards the development of this great land the present century will be devoted. CHAPTER XIX. THE NORTHERN BARREN LANDS OF THE ARCTIC OCEAN. THOUGH we have spoken of the various sections of the Dominion where climatic and agricultural conditions would iseem to permit of a permanent white population, there remains a very large and im- portant section of the country still undescribed. This, as the heading of this chapter indicates, is represented by the northern barren lands and the islands of the Arctic Sea. The area of this great outlying portion of the country is very great, and cannot accurately be expressed in square miles. If we take the map of the Dominion and start in the extreme east, on a point of land just north of Hamil- ton Inlet on the Labrador coast, and follow the northern borders of the territories already described, until we reach the north-east angle of Great Bear Lake, we will have travelled 2,400 miles; and if we start at the same point and follow the coast in its north-westerly trend till we reach the island of North Lincoln in Baffin's Straits, we will have travelled a distance of 1,800 miles; to unite this line with the Arctic Coast north of Great Bear Lake would require a line some 800 miles in length. Marvellous as it may seem, the land area alone within these lines is not less than 1,500,000 square 181 1 82 Our Canadian Heritage miles, or about one-half the extent of the continent of Europe. It is true that a large portion of this great territory lies within the Arctic Circle, and the whole of it is but imperfectly known, yet it must be remembered that this large area of Canadian territory, though unfitted for any considerable agri- culture, is rich in many resources, and is capable of considerable population and development. As compared with European latitudes, much of the coun- try should not be considered as being extremely north, and possibly a great mistake is made in regarding it as the inhospitable wilderness it is supposed to be. The following, doubtless, is quite true of very much of these regions: " Who knows that the country is all barren and rocky, and that the great solitude is only broken by the terrible rumble of the avalanche? Why is it that all these islands and peninsulas north of the main- land have been classed as ' bleak and barren, rocky and rugged, with perpetual ice and snow ' ? Has anyone explored Baffin Land thoroughly? Has any- one penetrated the wilds of Prince Albert Land, or Victoria, Wollaston, and Bank's Land, Prince of Wales and Melville Islands, Southampton, Grant and Cumberland, Cornwallis and King William's Land, Boothia, Milne and Somerset Land, Cockburn, Green and Hoppner Land, Melbourne, Kent and Adelaide Land? No. Explorers have repeatedly sailed by those rugged shores, without even making an attempt at discoveries in the interior." " Now, again, referring to the chart, you will notice that the 65th parallel of latitude passes through Baffin Land, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia and Siberia. All of the*se countries The Northern Barren Lands 183 are inhabited, and that by civilized beings why not Baffin Land? In the interior, away from those bleak and desolate shores, there may be a fine coun- try. The Czar of Russia has made a capital of his great Empire not two degrees of latitude south of it; so also has the King of Sweden. The Shetland Islands lie hardly one degree south of it, while exactly in the same latitude Swedes and Norwegians grow grain and vegetables and lead a most enjoyable life. In the dead of winter, when the shores of Baffin Land are thronged with seal, bear and walrus, and the great country within lies still and silent, the revels in Christiania and St. Petersburg are in full sway." With the exception of eastern Labrador " not one civilized being, according to the world's knowledge, is living upon this vast tract of land to- day. Not a settlement, trading post or whaling sta- tion upon the whole of its surface. A few wandering tribes of Esquimaux, who have seldom or never seen or heard of a white man, are the only inhabitants.*' The Ungava section of this great northern region being surrounded by water, and, therefore, more accessible, is more fully known, though its interior has as yet hardly been penetrated by an explorer. Its great richness, however, in minerals and products of the sea, has impressed itself upon all who have visited this region. The following is a result of careful observation in that distant territory: " Ungava is the home of speckled trout. There are, perhaps, not less than 100,000 lakes in Ungava, with tributaries in and out of them, say of ten miles to each lake, making about 1,000,000 miles of creeks and rivers, which is simply a breeding and feeding place for fish. Millions of dollars' worth of fish 184 Our Canadian Heritage could be shipped every year from this region without lessening the quantity in the waters, providing the large ones only were taken out. The trout run from one-half to five pounds, and some run to seven pounds. Most of them run from one to two pounds. Other merchantable fish are equally plentiful, one feature of it all being that a fish caught here after lying out for two days is as hard and firm as our fish caught fresh. The fish is very much finer in quality tnan what we get in the Georgian Bay or Lake Superior. Salmon trout are very plentiful and very fine, running up to forty pounds. There is also a sea trout that can be caught in immense quantities. The natives use a short net, about fifty or one hundred feet in length, set out along the shore or around the islands, and they get all they can use. The same mode here would not catch one where they catch a thousand. There is also said to be cod and other salt water fish in abundance. Seals are very plentiful, and form one of the principal foods of the Esquimaux. There are im- mense numbers of whales and many walruses in the northern part of Hudson Bay. " This great source of natural wealth must in time attract the attention of capitalists, and engage consideraole capital in its development." The section of the far north-west of Hudson's Bay is still more extensive, and probably still more interesting. The fisheries and other sources of wealth found in the Ungava region are probably not less in this section, while the American reindeer and musk- ox abound in numbers probably not equalled in any other part of the world. These animals, mysterious as it may seem, thrive on the great islands hundreds of miles from the mainland in the Arctic Ocean. The Northern Barren Lands 185 Myriads of water fowl also make their summer home in these far distant regions. It is the presence especially of these large wild food-producing animals that suggest the future use- fulness of these regions. When we consider the characteristics and general features of Laplanders, and other tribes of northern Europe and Asia, and their comparative prosperity and success with the domesticated reindeer, we think of the possibilities of these people in these northern sections of Canada. Certainly this country affords them more scope and better opportunities for reindeer grazing than are to be found in their native Lapland. Many European Laplanders keep as many as one thousand reindeer, from which they make not only a good living, but have much cheese and butter to dispose of, and rein- deer meat is also quite a feature in the markets of northern Europe. It is easy to imagine what im- portance would attach to these far distant regions of Canada if they were occupied by hardy people. They would then contribute materially not only to the population, but to the national wealth. This country is freckled with lakes and scarred by streams both small and great, and though for the most part bare of trees, is in many parts a pleasant rolling country, with eskers and buttes, rounded hills, covered in summer by a growth of most nutritious grass, and bright with many colored flowers. Mr. Pike said of the country between the Great Fish River and the coast: "We had a long day's walk through a pleasant grassy country, ,and towards evening crossed an unusually high range of hills, through which the river canyons. Finding a few willows here, we left our blankets and walked 1 86 Our Canadian Heritage on along the bank for an hour or two, finally climb- irg a solitary sand butte at sundown for a last sur- vey of the country before turning our faces to the south. . . . Below us lay a broad valley, so green and fertile in appearance, that we could hardly realize that for many months of the year it lay frost bound and snow covered under the rigors of an Arctic climate. . . . This was the end of our voyage of discovery, though I should have liked to have pushed on for a day or two to see what lay beyond the blue hills in the distance." All along the coast, from eastern Labrador to the Mackenzie River, and on the islands of the north it may be regarded as the land of the Eskimo. These mysterious people are most intelligent and capable of easy civilization. Because of their very northern location they have been brought very little in touch with the outside world, and for the most part they still live in the crudeness of their aboriginal condi- tion. Their love for their native north, and their adaptation, through long centuries of life there, is an illustration of how man may be inured to tha conditions by which he is surrounded, and even learn to prefer what to others might be death. There are very many points of resemblance be- tween the Eskimo and the Lapp, though the Eskimo is probably the better type of physical man. He, how- ever, has never sought the domestication of the rein- deer which frequent his country, and here is where the Lapp may be regarded as being in advance of the Eskimo. Recent experiments in Alaska with Lap- landers and reindeer show that these men and animals thrive well in North America. It would seem to be a wise policy to seek to instruct the The Northern Barren Lands 187 Eskimo, of whom there are many thousands in the north, in the domestication of this useful animal. It is, indeed, quite within reason to believe that the Lapp and the Eskimo might easily be fused into a new and superior race of Eskimo-Lapp, to take possession of these vast northern plains, rich in the possession of their flocks and herds. The develop- ment of the barren lands, and the causing of them to contribute to the general prosperity of the coun- try, is worthy of the best efforts of our philanthro- pists and statesmen. * Certainly these lands have a beauty and a charm which is deeply fixed in the hearts of those whose homes are within their borders. The Indian's reply to the priest, who was speaking to him of heaven, is significant of this, and is a worthy tribute to these distant regions. He said: "My father, you have spoken well. You have told me that heaven is very beautiful; tell me one thing more. Is it more beau- * Dr. Johnson believes that Northern and Central Alaska can support over 9,000,000 head of reindeer. He bases this estimate upon statistics he collected in Lapland and Siberia. Taking the northern provinces of Nor- way and Sweden, which he designated as Lapland, he finds that in the 14,000 square miles of territory there are approximately 322,568 head of reindeer, making an average of 23 deer to the square mile. Alaska is so similar to Lapland in physical features and climate that the two can be closely compared, and if the same ratio is applied Alaska could support 9,200,000 head of reindeer. The average price paid for a reindeer in Lapland is nine dollars, and at this valuation the increase in the resources through stocking the coun- try with deer would amount to about $83,000,000. The average number of reindeer to each native of Lapland is thirty-two ; with such a ratio of animals to the population about 287,500 people could live in Alaska, de- riving their support entirely from the deer. This applies with greater force to Northern Canada. i88 Our Canadian Heritage tiful than the land of the musk-ox in summer, when sometimes the mists blow over the lakes, and some- times the water is blue, and the loons cry very often? That is beautiful, and if heaven is still m'ore beauti- ful, my heart will be glad, and I shall be content to rest there until I am very old." PART III. Development anfc 2>esttns CHAPTER I. THE POSSIBILITIES OF INLAND NAVIGATION. WITH a country of continental proportions, the question of cheap and ready transportation is ever one of primary importance. Where water systems with navigable rivers intersect the country, its development is greatly facilitated, and the question of economic transportation is largely solved. This question may not be of such vital importance since the advent of railways, and yet it can hardly be said to have diminished in importance in conse- quence. The presence of large navigable rivers in the United States has certainly contributed very much to the rapid development of that country. In the Far West by this means the heart of the con- tinent could be readily reached, and cheap trans- portation afforded its products both before and since the development of modern railways. The absence of any great river system in the continent of Australia has certainly been a great detriment to the development of the interior of that great country. Since this question is of so great im- portance, it is worth while for us to have our thoughts turned in the direction of our own country with a view to learning what nature has done for us in this direction. 191 1 92 Our Canadian Heritage Great and advantageous as are the water systems of the United States, it may be said with all modesty that those of the Dominion are far more extensive and more far-reaching; perhaps no country in all the world has been so amply provided with facili- ties for inland navigation as has Canada. The smallness of the population in the past, and the undeveloped character of the great North-West, has not made it necessary to use, or possible to appre- ciate, these vast lakes and rivers to the extent that their possibilities imply. With the development of the country there will be a growing demand for cheap transportation for the ever-increasing har- vests and rapidly multiplying millions, there- fore a new importance must soon attach to these natural highways of commerce. It must not be inferred, however, that these in- land waterways have not already contributed very much to our present development and prosperity. Indeed, the country could not be what it is to-day if these facilities had not been at hand ; they have been essential to the prosecution of the lumbering industry, the fur trade and the opening up of the West. Had it not been for access to the far West afforded by this means, it is doubtful if it could have been held as a part of the Canadian Dominion. Up to the present time, we say, we owe almost every- thing to our marvellous system of natural water- ways ; but they are destined to be of much more importance in the future. In former chapters reference has been made to the presence of these great lakes and rivers, but this has been done chiefly in a local sense. It would be fitting now that we should view the system as a Possibilities of Inland Navigation 193 whole, for only in so doing can we understand the immensity of its possibilities. It will be noted that the great natural water system of the Dominion may be grouped in five divisions, namely : The Pacific, Yukon, Mackenzie, Hudson Bay and the St. Lawrence. The presence of the Rocky Mountains entirely separates the Pacific and Yukon systems from the rest of Can- ada, and perhaps their importance may never be greater than it is at the present time. They have, however, contributed very much to the opening up of the countries through which they pass, and, in their navigable portions, will become more and more made use of as population and general commerce increase. The water systems east of the Rocky Mountains hold a different relation to each other and to the future development of the country. It will be noticed as a peculiarity of the three great systems east of the Rockies that they overlap and interlace each other, and that the distances separat- ing them are comparatively small. Before contemplating the possibility of uniting these systems we may look at them separately and note their importance independent of each other. The St. Lawrence system is, of course, the best known and the most fully developed, as well as the most important as a highway of commerce. Perhaps, viewed from every standpoint, there is no river system in the world the equal of the St. Lawrence. First, we have a magnificent river with its broad mouth lying open to the commerce of Europe, at the shortest ocean distance, and extend- ing eight hundred miles into the interior. Then, losing its identity in a wonderful chain of fresh 13 194 Our Canadian Heritage water seas, such as are found in no other part of the world, it extends one thousand miles farther to the westward, into the very heart of the continent. The commerce that moves upon this great system of lakes and rivers is already stupendous, yet it is only now in its infancy. More vessel tonnage passes through the Soo canals in the seven months of their operation than make use of the Suez Canal in a whole year. Of course this great system has not reached its present state of usefulness without the expenditure of vast sums of money by way of improvement. The Canadian Government alone has spent well-nigh one hundred million dollars in perfecting the system, but the money has been well spent, and the value of this great waterway is simply incalculable to the country. It is now possible to load a ship with grain at Fort William, Duluth or Chicago, at tne head of Lakes Superior and Michigan, and never break cargo until she reaches Liverpool. Turning now to the Hudson Bay system, we find it even more extensive, though presenting, perhaps, more barriers to continuous navigation, and demand- ing lighter draught vessels. Lying in the centre of the continent is the great Lake Winnipeg, some three hundred miles long. Into the north-west angle of this lake flows the mighty Saskatchewan River, navigable in its northern branch for suitable craft to Edmonton, one thousand miles to the west, and on its southern branch to the Alberta boundary, one thousand miles to the south-west. The grand rapids at the mouth of this river are the only break in the navigation, and these present no serious barrier. Possibilities of Inland Navigation 195 Flowing into the south end of this great lake is the Red River of the North, with its several large tributaries, representing navigable water of not less than one thousand miles in extent. It is true, at the present time, that the St. Andrew's Rapids, near its mouth, prevent navigation between the lake and river, but they present no engineering difficulties, and it is said for a moderate cost this obstruction could be entirely removed. Doubtless it will receive the attention of the Government in the near future. There is also the English River, which receives the waters of Lac Seul and Rainy Lake, flowing into Lake Winnipeg. The great Nelson River of the north unites all the waters of this system, carrying them to the sea from the north end of Lake Winnipeg, reaching Hudson Bay on its west coast near York Factory. This is a magnificent river in every sense of the word, being four hundred miles in length, and scarcely less than the St. Lawrence in volume. Unfortunately the continuity of its navigation is broken in a number of places by falls and rapids, thus preventing its being used at the present time as a commercial highway. There are, however; stretches of considerable extent entirely free from any obstruction, and it has been estimated that four millions of dollars would overcome every barrier to navigation on this or the Hays River between the city of Winnipeg and Hudson Bay. So compara- tively small a sum, it is safe to say, will not long stand in the way of perfecting so important a system of interior navigation. Several thousands of miles of this system is now used, according to the demands of the present population, and even in their 196 Our Canadian Heritage present unimproved condition, various great rivers of this system are of vast importance to the coun- try. But what must be their importance if freight could be carried without breaking bulk from the base of the Rocky Mountains and Central Dakota to the salt water of Hudson Bay ! Some day this will be possible. It still remains to note briefly the possibilities of the great river systems of the Mackenzie Basin. The Mackenzie River itself, emptying into the Arctic Ocean, and having its birth in Great Slave Lake, is about one thousand miles long, and is entirely free from obstructions to navigation for vessels drawing five or six feet of water. With a proper survey of its channel and some dredging of its sandbars, it could quite easily be made to accom- modate vessels of much greater draught. Its chief tributary on the west is the" Liard, another large river, and navigable for a considerable dis- tance from its mouth. Its chief tributary on the east is the Bear River, emptying the waters of Great Bear Lake. This is a comparatively short 'river though considerably obstructed; but should necessity ever require it, navigation could be made possible to this, the most northern of Canada's great lakes. Reference has already been made to the navigable extent of Great Slave Lake, and uniting it with Athabasca Lake, is the Great Slave River, some two hundred miles in length. This great river has but one obstruction in its entire course, namely, the lines of rapids near Fort Smith, about midway be- tween the two lakes. The Hudson Bay steamer now navigates this system and its tributary waters from Fort Smith to the Arctic Ocean, affording over Possibilities of Inland Navigation 197 two thousand miles of navigable lake and river dis- tances. The rapids at Fort Smith could easily be overcome by a canal, and once overcome the naviga- tion of the great Peace River, Athabasca Lake, and Athabasca River to Fort McMurray would be made possible to the ocean, thus adding another one thou- sand miles free to the sea. With the exception of Vermilion Falls, easily overcome, the Peace River is navigable almost to the Rocky Mountains; and though the Athabasca River has somewhat serious obstructions in its middle course, if these were removed, as doubtless they could be, it would also be navigable considerably west of Athabasca Land- ing, and into Lesser Slave Lake. This accomplished, navigation would be uninterrupted from Fort St. John and Athabasca Landing to the sea. The future only can determine the importance of these great transportation systems and bring to light their mar- vellous possibilities. Whether any attempt will ever be made to unite these separated systems with each other it is diffi- cult to say. The proposition has already been made for the extension of the St. Lawrence system by way of Rainy River, uniting it with the waters of Lake Winnipeg. This accomplished, it would only remain to unite the Mackenzie valley system with them to complete the whole. This would probably be a smaller task than what has been done on the St. Lawrence. It will be observed that the Athabasca River comes within ninety miles of the Saskatchewan River, between Athabasca Landing and Edmonton. When we bear in mind what prominence has been given, and what expenditures have been made to 198 Our Canadian Heritage perfect inland navigation in both Germany and Russia in recent years, the difficulties in the way of uniting these vast systems seem insignificent. Should they be united it would, of course, be possible to pass up the St. Lawrence River, or Hudson Bay, and reach the Pacific Ocean by way of Mackenzie River without any hindering barrier. This would be, in- deed, the discovery of the long sought North-West Passage. Who can say that it shall not be accom- plished ? It is merely a matter of millions. CHAPTER II. RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT NORTHWARD. " Railways are the great arteries by which the country's commerce is onveyed to the markets of the world." THOUGH we have observed the truly wonderful and far-reaching inland water systems of Canada, and their possibilities for affording means of trans- portation, yet transportation facilities would not be complete, as understood in this age, and especially in a northern climate, without being supplemented by necessary lines of railway. This is emphatically the railway age, an age demanding rapid as well as economical transportation. Therefore, we must have the advantages of both ; the railway is a necessity where the river systems are frozen half the year. The isolation consequent thereupon is so great that it is difficult to induce settlement, and this can only be overcome by the introduction of rail- ways ; neither does this fact minimize the im- portance of the rivers and canals as a means of freight transportation, or even for local passenger traffic in the summer. It is not intended in this chapter to make any attempt to indicate the lines of railway possibly needed in time in the country, but merely to point out what might be suggestive of a natural and economical location for the great trunk lines. Spurs 199 2OO Our Canadian Heritage and branches from such railways come as the neces- sity for them arises, until the country is everywhere intersected by railroads. At the present time the only complete transcontinental road the country has is the C.P.R., which runs directly east and west almost paralleling the international boundary. This is highly proper, considering the purposes for which the line was built. The great need at that time, and one of the conditions of Confederation, was to con- nect British Columbia with Eastern Canada,, in order that the country might have union, in fact, as well as in name. Moreover, a secondary condition was the making possible an imperial highway, as well as a commercial route to the Far East. These factors made it imperative that the first of Can- ada's great transcontinental lines should run as directly east and west as possible ; such a line will always be important for the same reasons. It will be observed, however, that the geographi- cal features of the country, as well as the summer isotherms which determine its climate, both trend from south-east to north-west. Regarding Quebec City, for instance, as a central point, Canada's place on the North American continent west of Hudson Bay is, generally speaking, triangular, or like an extended fan. It follows, therefore, in order to reach the higher latitudes of the north-west and north, and to cover the country by railways reaching the eastern seaboard by the shortest route, that they also should, if ideally located, extend from the more contracted East to the broader West somewhat as the spokes of a wheel diverge from the hub. The products of the West must mainly find their natural markets in Great Britain and many other Railway Development Northward 201 European countries, and to a very large extent they must reach the eastern seaboard by rail. This is obvious for various reasons. We are now, of course, speaking of the prospective rather than the present needs of the country. As settlement and development in Canada is destined to proceed from south to north, so the de- velopment of trunk railways must proceed in the same manner. Regarding this question, then, from the standpoint of the strictest economy and the highest utility, we would expect the next transcon- tinental line, starting from some point in the Lower St. Lawrence, to trend more to the north-west in its progress across the continent. Chicoutimi possesses in its location many advantages for the eastern terminus of these inevitably divergent lines that are to spread out over the north and west. Of these advantages we shall speak later on. St. John, N.B., is also strategically situated as the winter terminus of these lines. A line having its eastern terminus at Chicou- timi, then, would naturally follow as direct a course as practicable to some point on or near the south of James Bay, probably Moose or Nottawa, and would .constitute the first section of the road. This would serve at once to open up the Hudson Bay country, making steamer connections possible with all parts ; its next objective point would be west- ward to Norway House, north of Lake Winnipeg, from which point it would proceed, almost in a direct line, till it reached the Rocky Mountains at the Peace River pass, from whence it would find its way to the Pacific Coast at Port Simpson or Essington. Such a road would pass through a mag- 2O2 Our Canadian Heritage nificent country in almost its entire course, and as a means of reaching transpacific points it would have an advantage of probably some seven hundred miles over the C. P. R. From some point on this road Norway House, for instance another line should branch still more to the north-westward, following the valley of the Churchill River, reaching the Athabasca River at Fort McMurray, at the head of steamboat navigation from Lake Athabasca ; thence crossing the territory of Athabasca and reaching the Peace River at Ver- milion Falls, the head of navigation on that stream; thence proceeding across the Cariboo Hills and down the valley of the Nelson, and up the valley of the Upper Liard ; thence reaching Pelly, and on to Dawson City, by way of the Yukon valley. This road would also travel through a splendid agricul- tural country all the way to the Rocky Mountains, giving rail communication to the Peace River country, and the Liard River country, and affording direct rail communication between the Klondike and Central and Eastern Canada. Possibly it may be found necessary in time to build still another line, having its objective point in the Mackenzie Valley and taking a fairly direct course thereto via Moose Factory, Fond du Lac, Fort Smith and Fort Simpson. NOTB. Since the writing of this chapter it has been most gratifying to note that some of the lines of railways here indicated have begun to materialize, notably the Grand Trunk Pacific. CHAPTER III. INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL CENTRES OF THE FUTURE. THE development of the country and the con- struction of railways northward presupposes a great increase in the general population and the occupy- ing of territories now uninhabited. Should our treatment of the subject of our possible develop- ment prove in the main correct, it would not only imply a great change in the present condition of existing centres of population, but also the locat- ing of centres not now existing. A growth from six to, say, seventy-five millions of people would simply revolutionize matters in this respect. Canada is still, as we have seen, a frontier coun- try, with little settlement at any great distance from the southern border. With the spreading of popu- lation more or less uniformly over the whole agri- cultural area, must, of course, come the birth of numerous towns and cities where now the wilder- ness is supreme. In proportion to our population we have a goodly number of cities, some of which are large, handsome and substantial. In this respect we compare favorably with any country of similar population, and doubtless some, at least, of the present leading cities will continue to keep pace with 203 2O4 Our Canadian Heritage the progress of the country, though they are situ- ated near the frontier. A study of most countries reveals the fact that the chief centres of population are not generally situated on the frontier, but in the interior. An exception, of course, is made with respect to the great entry ports, and even these, though on the coast, are not generally located near the border, except under special circumstances. Certain con- ditions, such as living beside a kindred and friendly race, separated by an extensive border-line, together with certain geographical peculiarities, would lend to the suggestion, however, that our frontier cities would be more numerous and larger than if these conditions did not prevail. Thus, Montreal, Toronto, Winnipeg, Vancouver, Victoria and other centres have grown and flourished, nor do we think that the fact that these centres lie near the outer edge of Canadian settlement will materially affect their growth or supremacy in the future. Nevertheless some of the great cities of the Dominion must, in time, grow up in the heart of the country. There are, however, causes which must con- tribute to the continued advance of many of our oldest cities ; this is especially true of the maritime cities of Halifax and St. John. Their location makes them each the commercial metropolis of their respec- tive provinces, and in addition to this fact, through their ports must pass the great bulk of Canadian freight and passenger traffic to the Old World, at least in the winter season. They may reasonably be expected to expand greatly and to keep pace with the country's progress. Similarly also with the ancient city of Quebec ; Industrial Centres of the Future 205 the extension of ocean traffic to Montreal has, to some extent, been detrimental to the growth of Quebec in the last generation, but with the advent of larger steamers and a demand for the quickest possible time, together with the extension of new lines of railway into new territories, Quebec is bound to share in the general trade of the St. Lawrence, though it is not necessary to regard her as a rival of Montreal. There will be sufficient prosperity for both. This ancient city, with so much of historic tragedy and romance, is still magnifi- cently located, and is bound to fulfil her early in- dications of greatness. "Like a light upon a hill which cannot be hid, the light of Quebec's brilliant history stands forth for all time pre-eminently bold, truly the sentinel of the St. Lawrence. Nature has lavished her gifts of grandeur and surrounded this grim, gaunt old rock of the ages with more of scenic wonder than the eye can read, the tongue can tell, or the pen and brush attempt to describe. Here the camera is foiled at the majestic expanse of the horizon's enclosure. As if created for man's protective use, this Gibraltar formation was forced up from the bowels of the earth directly opposite a similar phenomenon, the high bluff of Levis, on the other side of the river ; hence so contracting and con- fining the majestic St. Lawrence to one mile in width at this point, while below the waters come up from the ocean in a bay-like form and contain several large islands. Below, all the war vessels of the mighty nations of the world could be safey anchored, but to hostile ships Quebec has spoken no uncertain tongue of warning, ' Thus far shalt thou 206 Our Canadian Heritage go and no farther,' and we look forward to destiny and the time when the mighty ocean greyhounds shall peacefully beg permission to pass on to the heart of this great continent, situated by the sides of the great lakes, through that marvellous system of inland waterways. Yes ; then, now and for all time, Quebec is the guardian of this intermarine route of communication between the outer world and the inner world, both Canadian and States. Im- movable, impregnable, crowned with her mighty citadel, she majestically rules her world of water- ways." But what of the new cities that are to spring up when the country becomes populous, and where will they be located ? This is a very fascinating ques- tion, and one, of course, that cannot be fully answered. Different causes contribute to the growth of cities, and a combination of causes con- tribute to the upbuilding of great cities. A strategical position at the gateway of a great nation is almost sure to build up a great shipping port, or a strategical position with respect to manufactur- ing or mining, or the distribution of trade brings into existence manufacturing or mining or com- mercial centres ; where these factors combine the centre resulting would be still more important. Doubtless there are locations in Canada where one or all of these advantages may be found, and in time they will be revealed. A few of them we may venture to suggest. It would seem, for instance, that Sydney, in Cape Breton, must eventually become one of the very largest cities in the Dominion of Canada. Her situa- tion is certainly strategical for two reasons at Industrial Centres of the Future 207 least, namely, that of the great ocean terminus for freight and passengers, and, secondly, as one of the great manufacturing centres of the country. Al- ready the indications of this coming greatness are so apparent that it is doubtful if any centre in Eastern Canada will be able to compete with Sydney as a metropolis of the Maritime Provinces. What the next fifty years holds in store for her it is hard to say, but it would not be surprising if she con- tained one million inhabitants between that time and the end of the century. Moving farther westward we recall that in a previous chapter reference was made to the ap- parent advantages at some point at the south of James Bay, where, we believe, will be located another of the great cities of the Dominion. Its exact loca- tion may depend upon the securing of the best harbor, and opinion is divided as to the advantages of these, but at one of these points, because of its wonderful location with respect to northern naviga- tion and its relation to converging railway lines, there is almost sure to grow up in time a large and wealthy city. Its similarity of location would suggest for it a Chicago of the north. It is quite probable that cities of considerable importance, as we have already intimated, may be located at Fort George, on the east coast of James Bay, and also at Fort York or Churchill, on the west coast. The development of the United States indicates that at certain intervals large cities are uniformly found as distributing centres for large surround- ing sections ; this would suggest, as far as the Canadian North-West is concerned, a number of cities of considerable importance at reasonable in- 2o8 Our Canadian Heritage tervals. Probably one near the mouth of the great Saskatchewan, or at the head of Lake Winnipeg, perhaps another near Fort Chippawa on Lake Atha- basca, and probably another near Fort Providence on Great Slave Lake. These, however, must be regarded in the light of suggestion, as the undeveloped char- acter of the country gives no clue to any more definite knowledge. The more southern sections of the West are already sufficiently developed to indicate what are likely to be, at least, some of the important centres of that part of the country : The Soo, Fort Wil- liam, Regina, Calgary, Prince Albert and Edmonton have each something to suggest an assured future, so alio have some of the newer towns of southern British Columbia. In the northern part of British Columbia it is difficult to speak more than in a general way, though, as has already been intimated, there seems every reason to believe that a city of fair proportions will mark the terminus of a trans- continental railway somewhere near the mouth of the Skeena River. Dunvegan, also, has claims to future importance. Some of the most progressive cities of Canada are still in their infancy ; they have grown up as if by magic. This is especially so of Winnipeg and Vancouver, to say nothing of Dawson. History is constantly repeating itself, and this is pre-eminently the age of rapid development ; and it may be that some of these prospective cities may come into existence as rapidly as those already named; others may grow more slowly, but with all it is only a matter of time. CHAPTER IV. IMMIGRATION AND REPATRIATION. " Though unto the ends of the world fate lures us wide and far, Our heart's with the land of the pine, our home with the Northern Star, And tho' we have housed with strangers, and journeyed by sea and land, We are ever the sons of the North, as the world shall understand. " Not easy of speech are we with you, for whom we feign no art, And if little our lip has spoken, you know how full our heart ; So work, we shall work for you, till the name that is ours be yours ; Work, we shall work, knowing well we stand while the North endures. " With a faith as the faith of children, and the hunger of homeless men, Awaiting the time we northward turn, tho' we know not how nor when. We, Canadians to the heart-core, Canadian, blood and bone, We yet shall turn to our home-land, and some day know our own." Arthur J. Stringer. IT has already been pointed out that the great need of Canada at the present time is population. This emptiness of the land was the fact that made the deepest impression on the mind of the Duke of York while on his recent tour through the coun- try. His words in this connection will bear repeat- ing here : "No one who had the privilege of enjoying the experiences which we have had during our tour could fail to be struck with one all-prevailing and pressing demand the want of population. Even in the oldest of our colonies there were abundant signs 14 209 2IO Our Canadian Heritage of this need. Boundless tracts of country yet un- explored, hidden mineral wealth calling for develop- ment, vast expanses of virgin soil ready to yield profitable crops to the settlers. And these can be enjoyed under conditions of nealthy living, liberal laws, free institutions, in exchange for the crowded cities and the almost hopeless struggle for existence, which, alas, too often is the lot of many in the Old Country." The truthfulness of this to every studious Cana- dian is as apparent as it was to the Duke of York, and probably more painfully so. One of the great problems, therefore, which confronts our statesmen is that of the increasing of our population. The importance of this is the more apparent when it is remembered that this is pre-eminently the age of modern dispersion. There seems to be a spirit moving deeply in the minds of all people of continental Europe to migrate to an extent that has never been known before. " One of the most re- markable, and, perhaps, portentous movements of the present period of transition in the history of the world is to be seen in the general breaking up and spreading abroad into other lands of people who have been confined within the boundaries of their own countries for many centuries. A spirit of un- rest, with a desire for change, seems to have pene- trated the most stagnant regions, and lines of steam- ships profit by transporting shiploads of living human freight from east to west, the outflow of countries where a few years ago none such ever dreamed of emigrating from their ancestral homes." Let us hope, therefore, that in this important matter we stand on the threshold of a better day, by mak- Immigration and Repatriation 211 ing a stronger bid for the floating millions who seek the star of empire in the West. There can be no true prosperity until this conies to pass. However rich the resources of the country or fertile her plains, they count for comparatively little if there is not population to give them value. With an abundance of acres and but few people, land can be bought for a song ; when a contrary condi- tion prevails and population is dense, land values mount skyward. That is the reason that business lots in the heart of London are worth their area covered with guineas. The application of this truth to lands in the Canadian West is obvious. Here in Canada there is much land and few people. The Dominion has a larger area of land than the United States, but with one-twelfth of her population. The Republic has seventy-six million people. Canada has .less than six million. The United States lands are prac- tically exhausted. The Anglo-Saxon is born to be- come a land owner. It is one of the instincts of his nature to acquire some plot of earth that he may call his own. Those who possessed the land in the United States found the demand keen and the supply limited. As an inevitable result prices appreciated. In Canada that condition does not prevail to nearly the same extent, and in consequence prices are ad- vancing with much less ^apidity. There are, how- ever, abundant evidences that the upward tendency of land values has come to Canada. Let us seek to attract the seeking millions of other lands to our shores. There is another important respect in which the population of Canada can, and indeed, must be aug- 212 Our Canadian Heritage mented. In many respects it is of more importance than the matter of the incoming of foreign peoples. This is the checking of the exodus of the native born Canadians in its outflow to the neighboring republic, and also the repatriation of those who have already gone. The outflow of people from an old and densely populated country is a natural consequence, and a benefit alike to the people who go and those who remain, but the diversion of the scant population from a new and virgin country is both unnatural and disgraceful. Perhaps no other country in the world presents the same spectacle with regard to this as does Canada, though, perhaps it may be added in extenuation, that no country has had the same temp- tation placed before her citizens. It is estimated that there are at the present time over one million native born Canadians in the United States; this represents in round numbers one-fifth of our total population. The thought is appalling, but it is much more appalling when we remember that the people of Canadian extraction that have found homes across the border number not less than three millions. In other words, if all native Canadians had remained within their country, they, with their descendants, would have now made her population between three and four millions more than it is at the present time, giving us something like nine or ten millions of a population, instead of less than six. Canada has room and reward for all her sons, and more than that, has great need of their presence in the development of her virgin wealth. In the past it is true Canada has not been in a position to offer her sons the same advantages as were open to them elsewhere. Rich though the Immigration and Repatriation 213 country undoubtedly was, its riches were locked up and they could not be obtained without the golden key of capital with which to release them ; hence their removal to places where their abilities and talents won suitable recognition. These disad- vantages, however, have largely disappeared, and it is very doubtful if there are now any advantages to be had in seeking one's fortune in a foreign land. We cannot, however, be oblivious to the fact that there is still a great lack of national spirit in young Canadians, which makes it easy for them to sacri- fice their natural allegiance, and look with envious eyes at the prospects of a foreign country, at the same time regarding their native land as of very little value. It is notable that a native-born American should call the attention of young Canadians to this fact, thus pointing out their reproach. Mr. F. H. Clergue, Gf Sault Ste. Marie, not long since expressed the opinion that no other country in the world pos* sessed such great wealth of undeveloped resources as Canada, and declared that the chief reason why these resources have not been developed in the past, is that Canadians did not believe in their own coun- try. " The parents of young men begin to cor- respond for positions in the United States before they are out of school, and the Canadian laborer is con- stantly seeking protection to his life, liberty and property under the Stars and Stripes. . . This condition of things has long continued, and the in- habitants of Canada apparently have come to the conclusion that the imaginary line drawn between the two countries by treaty left everything desirable 214 Our Canadian Heritage to the south and everything intolerable to the north." This may not be very complimentary to Cana- dian patriotism, but it cannot be denied that it is, to a large extent, only too true. Let Canadians ponder these words of a stranger with shame. If bcott, as he thought of his little land, no larger than the province of New Brunswick, could be aroused to sing " Lives there a man with soul so dead, Who never to himself has said, This is my own, my native land?" surely Canadians, as they look over half a continent, with all its wondrous richness, should be able to sing the same song with more fervency and with a deeper meaning. Let the native energy of all Cana- dians, coupled with a worthy national spirit, born of faith in their country, make conditions such that in a national sense every son and daughter of the soil will say, both from sentiment and material motives, " There is no place like home." There is room to believe that simultaneously with the solving of the exodus problem would come, to a large degree, the solving of the expatriation problem. The vast majority of those who have gone over the border for material reasons still retain the tenderest memories of their native land, and only remain away because of supposed material advan- tages. They have no preference, as a rule, for the institutions or people with whom their lot is cast, while they hold nothing but sentiments of love and loyalty to the flag and country of their birth. Many, too, find that the material advantages which Immigration and Repatriation 215 they sought are, to a large extent, more imaginary than real. - Like the scattered Jews, for the most part these self-made Canadian exiles still cherish their dis- ? $ tinctive origin, and are organized for social pur- poses and retain their former citizenship. The memories of the dear old home are still precious ,,JJ and prompt their return. Only let the loving hand of a prosperous country and patriotic people be extended to these exiled sons and daughters, and right gladly will the majority of them come again to dwell with joy in the land of their birth. "Oh, land of dusky balsam And the darkling maple tree, When the cedar buds and berries, And the pine grows strong and free, My heart is weary and weary For my own country." -~Scott. CHAPTER V. ASSIMILATION. "No other subject in the larger politics of modern times, deserve more earnest attention than the problem of assimilating the foreign ele- ment in our population." SLOW as has been the rate of foreign immigra- tion to our country in the past, the percentage of foreign element in our population is already suffi- cient to make the question of assimilation one of deep and growing importance. How much more must this be the case when, in greater diversity of nationality and tenfold larger, flows the stream of foreigners coming into and possessing our land ? A population lacking in national sentiment and un- assimilated into a social and national fabric con- stitutes a grave menace to the prosperity and stability of the state, rather than a blessing. Popu- lation is essential, indeed, but with the coming of the stranger there must be brought into operation the machinery, or rather influences, by which the process of assimilation should keep pace with the advancing tide. No country has ever been confronted with the problem of assimilation in so extensive a form as has the United States, and no other country has succeeded so well in the work of the unifying of races, though much remains to be desired. The late 216 A ssimitation 217 Henry Ward Beecher on one occasion likened that country to a huge elephant gathering by its strong trunk the fruit, leaves and even branches of the surrounding trees, all of which were ravenously devoured, masticated, digested and rapidly incor- porated into the life of the monster, contributing to its vitality and growth. This is a fitting illustra- tration, and yet, well as the United States has accomplished the task of digesting and assimilat- ing the hordes of foreigners that have come to her, some, at least, of the many social weaknesses of that country are traceable to a lack of thorough assimila- tion. To avoid these evils we must do better work than they have done, and now is the time to make potent the agencies of unification. At the present time the influences operating to- wards the assimilation of foreign people, though, per- haps, stronger than ever before, are still very weak and imperfect. The United States has received and assimilated foreigners at the rate of about fifteen thousand a year to the million of her population. At this rate we should be able to incorporate into our national system, 'and infuse with our spirit about one hundred and twenty-five thousand foreigners annually. It is doubtful, however, if we effectually influence those that now annually seek our shores. The making of citizens is something very much more important than the matter of extending the franchise to a stranger who has lived sufficiently long in our country. The process of naturalization is technically legal and formal, while in reality it is educative and sentimental. It is comparatively easy to give a foreigner all the privileges of citizen- ship when the legal requirements have been ful- 218 Our Canadian Heritage filled, but it is quite another thing to infuse in him adequate ideas of what citizenship implies. His purpose is often selfish and generally personal, while the essence of true citizenship means the very opposite. It should mean, first of all, love and de- votion based on an intelligent appreciation of the country whose subject he becomes. This kind of citizen cannot be made by the simple process of legal machinery, but is the product of strong assimilative processes. Another chapter will be devoted to the educa- tion for citizenship, which is, in reality, a continua- tion of the present subject. It will, therefore, be more fully dealt with when that point has been reached. For the present let this serve to prepare the mind to the thought of the great necessity of these im- portant factors in our national life and institutions. If we might anticipate for a moment, we would point out the fact that one of the best ways to solve the question of assimilation is to seek a larger share of the two hundred and forty thousand British sub- jects who annually migrate from their " tight little island." At the present time we get an insignificant hand- ful of these, and yet there is no country in the British Empire so near their doors and where the conditions of life are more similar to what they are familiar with. They are already loyal British sub- jects and would need no assimilation. The im- portance of this has been fully comprehended by some, at least, of those in England as well as in this country, as the following utterances may indicate : " But one condition, and one only, is made by our colonial brethren, and that is, ' Send us suitable A ssimilation 219 immigrants.' I will go further and appeal to my fellow countrymen at home to prove the strength of the attachment of the Motherland to her children by sending to them only of her best. By this means we may still further strengthen, or at all events pass on unimpaired, that pride of race, that unity of senti- ment and purpose, that feeling of common loyalty and obligation, which, knit together, alone can maintain the integrity of our empire." " Canada's atmosphere must have the quality which transforms every receptive man who comes into it, whatever his race or nationality, into a true born Canadian. . . . There must be in Canada a unifying force able to receive racial material of every sort and to refashion it, not into uniformity, but into acceptance of the same principles of life and the same devotion and the same faith. Such must be the power of assimilation in this country that it soon becomes a matter of indifference from what country a man comes ; whether he speak the English, the German, the Italian, the Danish, or the French language. So strong must this influence be that in a brief time, if open to the influences which must play on every receptive human spirit, he will not only soon speak in the language of the country, but will speak out of a true Canadian heart." * New York Outlook (adapted). CHAPTER VI. FUSION. " Let Canada our watchword he, While lesser names we know no more ; One nation spread from sea to sea, And fused by love from shore to shore ; From sea to sea, from strand to strand, Spread our Canadian Fatherland." Fidelia. " 1 think our patriotism should be fused in one ; Canadian patriotism- with one unique object : Canada." Senator Bernier. THERE is another problem demanding attention akin to that of assimilation, and yet quite distinct and of scarcely less importance. This is the problem of fusion of races and the production of a distinctly Canadian type, neither English, French, or American, but Canadian. Perhaps few countries in the world have had so much to do with the question of race as Canada, and certainly in no country has it been handled with greater skill and success. The history and present conditions of Austro-Hungary, South Africa and some other countries are in sharp and painful contrast to the harmonious relations which exist in this country. Moreover, we have no doubt that these good relations and harmonious distinctions can be continued without friction in- 220 Fusion 221 definitely ; and yet, however harmonious, the race question always presents the thought of the possi- bility, under some unexpected conditions, of pre- cipitating strained relations and grave national disturbances. Not only, therefore, is it necessary that there be a fusion of the incoming people, but it is desirable for the highest good of the country that the two predominating races in the country should, if pos- sible, be fused into something like a distinctive Canadian type. There can be no true national sentiment as long as we speak of ourselves as English, or Scotch, or German, or French, or Cana- dian ; such a condition indicates the adolescence of youth, and is incompatible with a strong national sentiment and a great future. This does not imply any weakening of British sentiment, but rather the placing of it upon a securer foundation. There is a splendid harmony between the two races now, and the French-Cana- dian has abundantly proven his loyalty and devotion to the British Crown. The two dominant races in Canada to-day represent the two most ambitious nations in the Old World, and who can doubt that a thorough fusion of the two would not produce a type of man where the best qualities of each would be more apparent ? Moreover, let it be observed that there is no real or vital difference in the origin of these two races ; back beyond the foreground of their history they were one. " Differences of race in Canada are, when looked into, a complete illusion. The same Low Germans who occupied England occupied the northern part of France as far as Picardy, and 222 Our Canadian Heritage their language was there the language of the country. The same barbarous Norsemen or Nor- mans who poured down upon the English coasts poured down upon the French, meeting in both the same Gallic or Celtic people. It was long before Celt mingled with Norsemen or Saxon in either country to produce a common race. In Britain the Teutonic language held its own. In France it gave way as the Gallic had done before it, to the Latin. The adoption of Latin gave the French tne lead in culture and thus produced the all-conquering Nor- man race. It also produced the illusion we have spoken of, making the English think their Norman conquerers were a different people from themselves, as it to-day makes the French-Canadian imagine the English intruder to be of different blood. Many of the most princely houses of England, Ireland and Scotland are proudest of their old Norman French blood. It is from that strain the British nation inherits much of its empire-building, world-con- quering ambitions and dominating individuality." However desirable this fusion might be, there should be no attempt made to precipitate it. This could only result in a tendency in the opposite direction. Its accomplishment should be left to natural influences and the progress of time, aided by sympathetic encouragement and mutual con- cession on the part of both races. There must be no struggle, or even ambition, for the dominance of either race or language or religion, for whether we speak English or French, or some other language, is not of so much importance as that we are one race, a Canadian race. The present duty of both races is to seek to break down, by mutual desire, the Fusion 223 barriers, whatever they may be, which tend to keep the races apart. There are in both races, no doubt, those who would intensify the distinctions between us ; English-Canadians, who would have all to be English, and French-Canadians who may cherish the ambition for the dominance of that people. Such attitudes can only intensify and increase the distinctions which are now apparent, and neither of these views represent the true patriot, but rather the enemies of this country. It is, however, gratify- ing to know that there are many in both races who are capable of looking at this question from a broad standpoint, and with a wider discernment as to what is for the country's future good. There are evidences to indicate that this ten- dency toward ultimate fusion has already set in ; the foundations are surely being laid quietly, yet deeply and strongly for the fusion of all Canadians into one distinct people. The English Canadian has many characteristics quite apart and distinct from the Englishman, or the so-called American. There is no attempt made here to explain the causes of this difference ; it is simply a fact. Probably many factors contribute to these distinguishing character- istics. The same is, in a large measure, true of the French-Canadian, as compared with his blood rela- tions in Europe. These differences are also with him being constantly and rapidly intensified. The French-Canadian has very little, apart from language and religion, in common with the France of to-day. " Two centuries of existence on the American Continent have made antipodes of the French Cana- 224 Our Canadian Heritage dian, and, like the plants that grow in different soils, they have formed another variety of French- man, having the same sap, but a different foliage." " In our educational, physical, social and commer- cial training are found equal parts of English, Ameri- can and old French before the time of the Revolu- tion. We can find in ourselves nothing that is in common with modern France, whose methods we ignore, whose mental culture and science we do not possess, and where we do not know a single rela- tive." * Since we are neither English nor French, in the true sense of the word, each element with mutual desire and willing concession should strive to accelerate any movement by which the distinguish- ing features should be lost sight of, and by which the apparent, if somewhat mysterious, tendency to fusion could be promoted. It has been truly affirmed that "each race possesses sufficient qualities to com- plete the other and form a great nation." In the meantime, while this process goes on, let us have mutual respect and admiration for the other, and seek to look on affairs as far as possible from the standpoint of each other. There must be mutual forbearance. "We Canadians who are of Anglo-Celtic origin cannot rightly blame French-Canadians for being proud of their French origin. We are always proud of the fact that we are of English or Irish or Scotch or Welsh blood. Why should not a French-Canadian be proud of his Gallic descent, and still be a loyal British subject? "A country which has seen such glorious epochs, La Presse. Fusion 22$ a nation which has renewed its youth with almost an immortal vigor, a people who have risen swiftly and buoyantly from the most terrible calamities and flourished greater after every misfortune, repre-. sents a race whose blood is mingled with the best blood of Europe and America, and has lightened the world with its dreams of race autonomy. It has taken very many centuries to weld Celt and Saxon together into one race, and" glaring facts prove that much remains to be done. Still, the Anglo-Saxondom of which we boast is as much Celt as it is Saxon, and it is a curious fact that when we hear a specially warm boast for Anglo-Saxondom it comes in the majority of cases, from a man bearing a Celtic name. Here is hope that in the long run the two races which live together in Canada, which are not really two, being composed of the same ethnic elements and differing only in religion and language, will some day become absolutely one." * There is no more heroic page in all history than the French conquest of Canada, and its reclamation from nature's savagery and man's barbarity ; the exploration of nearly the whole continent, and the establishment of civilization from the frozen north to the tropic south, and from the Atlantic seaboard to the shadows of the Rockies. There is no more glorious record than the de-* fence of the feeble, far-flung line of civilization along the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes from the attacks of the most cruel savages that ever tortured a help- less victim. There is no loftier instance of devo- tion than when the scattered colonists, aided by a few regulars, gathered for the defence of New Yukon Sun. 15 226 Our Canadian Heritage France against the overpowering and disciplined armies and natives of Britain. " We will answer you from the mouth of our cannon," said grim, in- corrigible old Frontenac from the rampart of Que- bec, when he was summoned to surrender ; and he kept his word. And when the end came, when the feeble colony made its last great fight and lost, the valor of the defenders was recognized in the honor paid to the illustrious French General, Montcalm, whose name is linked in equal honor with that of his chivalrous antagonist, Wolfe. Such was the for- bearing and generous treatment of the vanquished, that twice in our sorest need have they been a bul- wark to our young and struggling country. Cer- tainly nothing now is to be feared from the duality of races. They have long since agreed to live in amity, recognizing the fact that amity is necessary to prosperity. But complete fusion into a distinct Canadian type should be the desired goal of all. " We have flung the challenge forward, Brothers, stand or fall as one ; She is coming out to meet us in the splendor of the sun, From the graves beneath the sky, where her nameless heroes lie, From the forelands of the future they are waiting our reply. We can face the roughest weather, if we only hold together, Marching forward to the future, marching shoulders firm together, For the nation yet to be." CHAPTER VII. THE NATIVE RACES AND THEIR FUTURE. HAVING spoken of that portion of Canadian ter- ritory chiefly occupied by the various tribes, a brief chapter on their present condition and future pros- pects may now be given. The latest report at the Indian Department shows that there are about one hundred thousand Indians, so far as known, in the Dominion of Canada. This is exclusive of the Eskimo. Contrary to the generally accepted theory, the native races, in this country at least, seem to be increasing rather than diminishing. A large num- ber of the Indian population are now under treaty with the Dominion Government, and receive certain annual payments in lieu of the forfeiture of their lands, besides having certain sections reserved for their own use. The Indian nature is somewhat complex and hard to thoroughly understand. His mode of life for centuries has been nomadic, and his means of subsistence has been the chase or the pursuit of war. It is therefore to be expected that he would not take readily to settled habits of life, or show any great aptitude to the cultivation of the soil. In consequence of this, therefore, no serious attempt has ever been made to turn the Indian from his natural born proclivities to the industries of civil- 227 228 Our Canadian Heritage ized labor. In this we believe a great mistake has been made, and an injustice done both to the Indian and to the country. This is the outcome of an im- perfect understanding of the capabilities of the Indian nature. The present treatment of the Indian, just as the Government may desire to be in their dealings with him, is calculated to debauch him and unman him rather than to uplift and bless ; and the whole system is pursued on the assumption that the Indian is incapable of civilization and unworthy of citizen- ship. It is gratifying to believe that opinion is be- ginning to change in this respect, though probably the present mistaken system of tutelage and segrega- tion will continue for some time, so difficult is it to break away from established usage. A movement in the right direction is now being made in some parts of the United States, but happily in this coun- try Indian affairs have been managed with much more justice, and the baleful effects upon the Indian have not been so apparent The Indian, complex as his composition may be, and mysterious as to his origin as he certainly is, has yet many redeeming qualities, and many noble representatives of the race have been raised up from time to time. It is doubtful if any race could produce better types of manhood than were exhibited in the characters of Tecumseh and Joseph Brant, and these are but samples of many who have lived, and do live even to-day, though not coming into the same degree of prominence. It is quite evident, how- ever, that the present system of dealing with the Indians does not tend to develop their highest quali- ties, and thus it is, after one hundred years have The Native Races and their Future 229 passed away, no real advance has been made upon these ancient noble red men, though, perhaps, they may be in some respects more highly educated. What the Indians really need is not segregation from the masses of the people, but every encourage- ment to mingle with them, to be thrown entirely on their own resources, and made to feel that all the responsibilities and privileges of citizenship are within their reach. In individual cases where this policy has been pursued the Indian has generally been a success. Dr. Oronhyatekha is a noble ex- ample of the possibilities of this noble race, as are others of lesser note ; and there is no reason to believe that vast numbers of Indians could not be readily assimilated with the general population, to the advantage of both. What a mistaken policy it would be if the Gov- ernment compelled all foreign peoples coming into our country to live by themselves, denying them the privileges of citizenship, or hope of assimilation into the body politic. A policy of this character pursued for any length of time would break down all national life, extinguish national sentiment and undermine the foundations of the State. There seems to be no better reason for pursuing this policy in connection with the Indians than with any other class of the population. It is, of course, true that his assimilation would of necessity be a slow pro- cess, but nevertheless it would not be impossible of accomplishment. In the early history of Canada we have evidences of the possibilities of this principle. Then the white people were a small minority and were largely dependent on the Indian, and the Indian's friend- 230 Our Canadian Heritage ship, for the success of the fur trade and for per- sonal safety, was essential. Under these conditions the Indian mingled with his white brother largely on the conditions of comparatively equality. Inter- course with the outside world was practically cut off, and the white trader or settler, both French and Scotch, frequently took an Indian wife, and as a consequence the population of Manitoba at the time of the union had many representatives of these unions. Some of these men rose to distinction, as, for instance, Hon. John Norquay, at one time Pre- mier of Manitoba, and many others. The conditions which prevailed in the early days of Manitoba's his- tory were the outcome of natural conditions, and tended to the general uplifting of the Indian, and doubtless if the present system of segregation were not in vogue, that tendency would be the same at the present time. In the meantime the experiment is being made in the United States, and will be watched with much interest. It seems impossible that the native Indian could ever remain a foreign element in the popula- tion of the country, and it is to be regretted that this policy of isolation is being pursued, even with the metis population of 'the West. There is cer- tainly less to recommend it in their case than that of the Indians, since they have white blood in their veins and bear the name of white men. Now that the country is receiving a considerable portion of foreigners, many from among the lower classes of European populations, without prejudice against the Indians, it is natural to suppose, if the Indians were treated as white men and educated in the duties of citizenship, they would take their place and sue- The Native Races and their Future 231 cessfully compete with these foreigners, and if they finally lost their identity by intermarriage and com- mingling it would be the very best method for all concerned for the solving of the Indian problem. This, at least, seems to be the ideal and rational destiny for the native races of our country, though it requires time for its accomplishment. This whole question of the treatment of our native races is worthy of the highest statesmanship of which the leaders of our country are capable. Let us hope for a new day to dawn in the prospects of these people, that it may be said of our Indians, as it is now being said of some of their kindred in the Indian Territory of the South. "Meanwhile the Indian is passing into the every-day world. He is leaving romance and becoming practical. He is getting the benefits of civilization and it is high time. He is better off than ever before, and if he has manhood he will show it." And doubtless he will, if given a proper chance. r CHAPTER VIII. CITIZENSHIP. Keep ye the law be swift in all obedience- Clear the land of evil, drive the road and bridge the ford, Make ye sure to each his own, That he reap where he hath sown, By the peace among our people let men know we Serve the Lord." Kipling. " This country is specially favored as a soil for the cultivation of noble ideals, which, if they are advanced by our public-spirited citizens and cherished by our people, as we believe they will be, will color with admirable effect the entire volume of our future history." Ethnological Society. CONSIDERABLE* space has been devoted to the de- scription of Canada's vast area and wealth, but it must be remembered that "wealth alone may ruin, but it cannot save a people." A nation is saved by ideas, inspiring formative ideas. Canada has, per- haps, more to offer her citizens by way of material T wealth than most other countries, and perhaps has as little of those principles and ideals of true great- ness and true citizenship as any country. Real assimilation and fusion can only be accomplished by having ideals and ideas of true citizenship set before the people and interwoven in their lives. True citizenship, and proper education for it, must depend on two chief lines, both of which are 232 Citizenship 233 gh quite distinct. One may be re- possession of high ideals in our rela- 4^--trvt^ been fearfully impressed upon the public mind in ^^^^recent years; its continuancy may be regarded as a menace to the country's prosperity, if not to her free institutions. "In many instances it is impossible to get an unbiased opinion of public expression through the ballot. The party machine that is in the best work- ing order and has the most money to spend can carry the majority of the electors on almost any Citizenship 237 issue. It is a sad condition of affairs when con- science, honor, influence and country are all at the disposal of the demigod with the largest purse to rattle or the most whiskey to offer. Both political parties must share the odium of this unhappy con- dition of Canadian politics. The whole country needs to be lifted out of this slough and mire of political impurity to the higher ground of a better citizenship. Education to this end is one of the im- perative needs of the hour. The native Canadian must set a better example to those seeking citizen- ship among us if the country is to be saved the pain of bitter consequences in the future." * In addition to these ideals to strive after, and which are to inspire us to a nobler national life, there are various social evils which demand the thought and effort of the best citizenship and states- 1)< manship to eradicate from our country. The c and only one which will be mentioned here is that oLthe blight of intemperance. It is true that Canada is not in this respect a greater sinner, or even as great as other nations, but for this very reason Can- ada is better fitted to take the lead in emancipating her subjects from a bondage so inimical to the largest measure of temporal prosperity, and to the highest moral virtues. Canada has taken somewhat ^. advanced ground in this direction already ; let it be 'To but a f oregleam of the fuller triumph of the glorious **: j^\ light of national virtue already beaming from the portals of the twentieth century. "May we not hope that, as civilization owes its ideas of religious faith to Palestine, of art to Athens, Hon. Geo. E. Foster. 238 Our Canadian Heritage and of law to Rome, so Canada may lay the whole world under tribute for those ideals of human con- duct and character which are the glory of the noblest sons of humanity ?" " Oli, make Thou us through centuries long In peace secure, in justice strong ; Around our gift of freedom draw The safeguards of Thy righteous law, And cast in some diviner mould, Let the new cycle shame the old." tyhittier. CHAPTER IX. EDUCATION FOR CITIZENSHIP. " Whene'er Canadian hearts awake To sing a song for her dear sake, Or catch the echoes, spreading far, That wake us to the noblest war Against each lurking ill and strife That weathers now our growing life, No line keep hand from clasping hand One is our young Canadian land." Miss Machar. " It is indeed a great honor to be a Canadian and every young man should know it." Montreal Star. 11 We need patriotism the fire that burns off the dross and leaves the metal pure." Hon. Qeo. E. Foster. IDEAL citizenship may never be reached, though an approach to it may, but it can only come through education. Already there are indications of im- provement in this regard, especially as it pertains to patriotism and probably also with respect to loyalty, though Canadian loyalty has ever been of a high order. With regard to patriotism fJa.nRfl1a.Ty* have been very deficient in the past. No truly patriotic people could change their allegiance so readily as do Canadians to become citizens of a country where their native land is almost constantly insulted. No truly patriotic people could so prefer 239 240 Our Canadian Heritage the products of a foreign country before those manu- factured in their own land, as Canadians have largely iJ> done in the past. An American label is to a great *~***~*~ many the determining factor in the choice of an im- plement or an article, to the detriment of the home product. Even this might be excusable if there was a corresponding difference in the merits of the articles, but this is seldom or never the case ; they charmed and sometimes cheated by the magic word "American," and a lack of patriotism is the cause-. Canada needs a National Consumers' League, by which Canadians would become pledged to use only Canadian products when the circumstances made it at all possible.* The whole country suffers finan- cially and otherwise by this great lack of patriot- ism. The present Finance Minister struck the true note in an address before the Manufacturers' Asso- ciation when he said : " I have one thought further to add. I do not believe the people of Canada have done their duty by the private purchases of the Canadian manufactured article." It is a misfortune that we should still hang on to the old idea that a thing must be better if we only bring it from a distance. There is the old saying, " Distant hills are green," and " Distance lends enchantment to the view." I know how prone people in Canada are to buy foreign goods, not because they are any better, but because that seems to be the right thing to buy goods that are imported. Our gracious Queen, on the occasion of the coronation, expressed the opinion that the people of England should honor the coronation by dressing Something like this has now been organized. Education for Citizenship 241 in the products of the people of England. No matter what government may be in power, whether they are something better, sometimes worse, let us show that we are loyal citizens, loyal to the factories of , the country, by purchasing Canadian goods, and that we are voicing the feeling of every loyal and patriotic Canadian. It is also doubtful if any truly patriotic people, ~f A^L/ possessed with a national spirit in adequate measure, _ |j could so complacently regard the use of a foreign flag as is constantly permitted in this country. Go into any Canadian town or city, especially in the summer, and the sight that greets the eye must be humiliating to every patriotic Canadian. It would be difficult to tell in some cities whether we were in the United States or Canada, so conspicuously displayed are the Stars and Stripes. Flagstaffs are generally made in such a way that the two flags may fly side by side in positions of perfect equality. Most people have much love and great respect for Americans and their flag, but it has its proper place and use, and that is not in being flaunted so freely in this country. The wonder is that there has not been a reaction against this wrong to the extent of perpetrating some insult against the American flag similar to what is almost constantly shown to the British flag in the United States. Such an attitude, of course, would be regrettable, but it would not be wholly without provocation. We are told that the American flag is displayed in this country out of deference to American visitors and tourists. If so, it is a deference that must make us despised and misunderstood in the eyes of those for whom it is professedly done. There Is a 16 242 Our Canadian Heritage suspicion that it would be more in harmony with truth to say that it is sometimes done out of deference to the dollars that are supposed to be in the pockets of visiting Americans, and, if so, this fact only makes it the more contemptible. The absence of the American flag would not make one particle of difference with the number of Americans coming to seek health and rest in our country. Besides, " We are not cotton spinners all, but some love England and her honor yet." How can we expect to retain our young people, or inspire them with a true patriotism, when such foolish and un- necessary familiarity is made of a foreign flag. Let Canadians have some self-respect in matters of this kind. Did you ever see the British flag displayed in the United States except officially or in religious gatherings ? Great lack, if not of patriotism, certainly of national sentiment, is evidenced in the sectionalism which characterizes us. In some provinces it is com- mon to speak of everything that originates outside, even though it comes from a sister province, as being foreign and as something imported. It is quite com- mon in the Maritime Provinces to refer to Quebec and Ontario as being " Up in Canada " ; and Ontario and Manitoba flour is styled " American." To a large extent this sectional feeling is shared by the people of Ontario with regard to Eastern Canada. A Canadian statesman referred to the Maritime Pro- vinces as the "shreds and tatters of the Dominion." Such narrowed sectionalism manifests great lack of rational spirit, and, indeed, we might say, true patriotism. The time has come for Canadians to regard themselves as one from ocean to ocean, with Education for Citizenship 243 less tendency to restrict their vision to merely provincial boundaries. How, then, are we to teach true Canadian patriotism? This is a question of great importance, and he who shows and leads the way will he a true benefactor to his country. There are no more or appropriate influences existing for the inculcating of these ideas than the home, the school, and the church ; and these have all been sadly deficient in the past. Hundreds of homes in our country are adorned with the pictures of George and Martha Washing- ton, and other American statesmen, while the family names are perhaps Garfield, Cleveland and Grant. Now, these are not bad names, but there are others more befitting the children of this country. Many a patriotic face has blushed while attending local school examinations listening to the declamations of the scholars, who have evidently made their selec- tions from some American reciter, as the very events to which our national life stands opposed are recited with gusto and evident admiration. No teacher should be permitted to teach where the school is devoted in this way to the undoing of national sentiment. It is, of course, lack of thought, but it is also lack of patriotism. The church is, to a large extent, open to the same charge, not that her ministers or members are disloyal, but they are often lacking in a true national spirit, and fail to recognize its place even in religion. Sabbath-school helps and general literature are, in very many cases, imported from the United States, and have "Yankee Doodle" written large on almost every page, thus the church, which is supposed to 244 Our Canadian Heritage teach love of country as being next to love of God, becomes recreant to one of its most sacred trusts and opportunities. Let these great institutions, the home, the school and church, which touch the lives of our future citizens in their formative period, guard with sacred care their obligations in these important respects. There are, however, other institutions and cus- toms of our country which, in a very powerful de- gree, might be expected to influence the minds of the people to a very large extent, but have not lived up to their privileges, and consequently have failed to exert the educative influences that would natur- al ly jj e expected of them. Perhaps this might not now be said of the public press of the country, but while the Canadian press has, generally speaking, been perfectly loyal, it has not always been as patriotic as it is to-day. It is now, however, making amends for its sins of omission. Our public national holidays have not in the past, and do not now, exert ' the educative influence or evoke the enthusiasm they Mucl1 more should be made of them for this purpose. Dominion Day, our national holiday, is in great contrast, so far as the ardor of its celebrations are concerned, to the Fourth of July, as celebrated across the border. In many parts of the country, except in large towns and cities, it is scarcely observed at all. Surely the press and public schools are partly to blame for this. The landing of the United Empire Loyalists in this country at the close of the Ameri- can Revolution laid the basis of our present popula- tion and our institutions. And these truly great and heroic people, who sacrificed all for the integrity Education for Citizenship 245 of the Empire, have, in their descendants, been the (. saving salt to our national prosperity and life, and yet, so far as known to the writer, in only one city * in the whole Dominion is their place in our history recognized by a holiday, and that only in a local sense. Here has been a great opportunity to perpetuate a noble idea, and to keep alive the fires of patriotism, but it has been neglected, though it is not too late to make reparation. Should not Canadian children celebrate a Forefathers' Day as well as the children of the United States, or are our forefathers not so worthy? Though there is a distinct Canadian flag, its in- fluence on deepening Canadian sentiment has been fa;- from what it should have been. This is largely due to the fact that the design has never been very popular with Canadians, so that the Union Jack, with out any distinctive emblem, is frequently substituted. Nothing is more promotive of patriotic feeings than an ensign that is popular and distinctive. Surely, after thirty-four years of united Canada, a design for a flag might be decided upon sufficiently simple and sufficiently characteristic for a symbol of Cana- dian patriotism. If there is to be a change in the present flag it seems a pity it had not been made before our soldiers went to South Africa. The events of the last few years would have helped to have given it a place in the hearts of our people and associate with it the sentiment of valor. It is quite true that " the flag is more than a piece o f bunting ; it means all that is best in the history of a people." St. John, New Brunswick. 246 Our Canadian Heritage Another institution of our national life which in all countries greatly influences public sentiment, and which with us is not above criticism, is our coinage and general currency. It is not as distinctive or complete as it should be. This is not intended as an objection to the decimal system, which is alto- gether satisfactory. Neither is any objection made to our banking system, which, in some respects, is unique, while the design for our bank notes, gener- ally speaking, is in harmony with national senti- ment. The same may also be said of the silver and copper coinage, as far as the mere design is con- cerned. But the trouble is, the terms used to desig- nate the coinage are not as distinctively national in character as they should be. In other words, we have simply borrowed the American system, and with the system, which is good enough, we have also borrowed American names. The American gold dollar is the Canadian standard, and about the only gold coin Canadians know. No objection whatever is apparently made to the fact that it bears the aggressive spread eagle. Canada is the fifth gold-producing country in the world, and should have a mint and a standard gold coin of her own. Australia, much younger and less populous, is much ahead of us in this respect ; and so is the little colony of Newfoundland. It is gratify- ing to know that this long-delayed institution is about to become an established fact. The designation of a coin, however, is another matter and worthy of every consideration. It may be regarded as too late now to make any change in even the designation of our coins, since they have become so established by custom. There are, how- -Education for Citizenship 247 ever, some who think the matter of the designation of our coins and general currency is quite as im- portant as that of the national ensign, so far as influencing sentiment is concerned. Various coun- tries of Europe have their florins, francs and roubles, as the case may be ; Great Britain has her pounds, shilling and pence ; the United States the dollar all as a sort of working standard. There seems to be no good reason why, if we gave up the British pound, we should have accepted the American dollar, though we adopted the decimal system. The word dollar has no meaning for us as expressive of any sentiment or fact in our past his- tory ; indeed, the word is of doubtful origin. The Americans having adopted it, it became distinctively expressive of the United States, and we became poor imitators. Our currency, therefore, loses a part of its educative value, or rather tends to educate us in the thought that we have more in common with the United States than we have with England, and there is almost absolutely nothing about our coins that speaks to us of the land in which we live. A very good and truly Canadian monetary system was being evolved in our own country through the trade relations which existed between the fur com- panies and the Indians. This system had reached, so far as names and values were concerned, a good degree of perfection, and was based on the decimal idea. Nothing could have been better or wiser when the change in our currency was made than to have adapted this truly Canadian currency to the needs of our national system. To this it would have readily lent itself, and the standard could have been precisely the same as it is now, thus bringing us in 248 Our Canadian Heritage harmony with the American system, though with different names for our various coins. The beaver, pack, bail and many other expressions could have readily been woven into our national system of currency. As the beaver, or castor, was the standard of value of the great Hudson's Bay Company, so it could have taken the place of the dollar in our national system. This would certainly have been more distinctly national and better in every way than the somewhat clumsy expressions now in use, such as quarters, fifty-cent pieces, and so on. But greatest of all, the educative value of such a coin- age would have been simply incalculable. CHAPTER X. CANADA FOR THE CANADIAN PEOPLE. As social and democratic views of life and government become more widespread, the idea pre- vails that governments exist for the good of those governed, and that the riches of the country exist for the benefit of those who dwell in it. This doc- trine is so out of harmony with ideas once prevail- ing concerning the rights of the populace that other views have been woven into the very fibre of human nature. Consequently it is, perhaps, difficult for governments to be true to their highest duties, and equally difficult for the people to demand their just rights. Governments sometimes think of surpluses and revenues without much thought as to how they are to be obtained, and the people think of a tem- porary prosperity, with little idea us to its general effect on the nation, and thus both often support a short-sighted policy. Privileges and resources involving preset or prosnective values to the citizens of the country^ are frequently disposed of to ^eir detriment A present temporary advantage is no compensation for privi- leges given which the people may shortly require and feel the need of for all time to come. For in- stance, at the time of the conquest of Canada, and by the Treaty of Settlement, certain rights on the 249 250 Our Canadian Heritage coast of Newfoundland were ceded to France. These concessions at that time had no especial value in the eyes of the British statesmen who framed the treaty. ~ '* They did not clash with the rights of any of her *-^~-~fe-A "*-> subjects, and were, therefore, readily acceded to. But the time came when these supposedly worth- less privileges became of vast importance to the loyal citizens of the Empire, but they were deprived of the advantages of their, own country ; besides it created a menace to international relations. Thus, we have an example of a short-sighted policy in the granting 'of treaty rights. The present hour, not the future century, was all these so-called statesmen seemed to think about, and in an evil hour they consented to that which has tended to handicap the oldest British colony for a century or more. It is truly good to be " the heirs of all the ages " when the inheritance is advantageous, but it is not always so. We have no right to place a mortgage on the inheritance of our children simply for our own benefit. It has been truly said "that the mark of a true statesman is his power to interpret the future, as well as to act for the present." * With this glaring example before us, we are warned not to fall into the same error, for the path- way of Canada's national life is not without its dangers in this respect. There are many of the natural resources of Canada, such as her fisheries and her forests, which, at the present time, are far in excess of our present needs, and there is, per- haps, a danger that privileges regarding these may be conceded without due thought for the demands This mistake has in part been corrected, but at great sacrifice. Canada for Canadian People 251 of future generations. Some present temporary advantages may be gained by sacrificing these priv- ileges, but when Canada is a hundred years older her own people and her own markets will need prob- ably all she has, and any advantage that any nation could give us will then, for the very same reason, lose its value. It is earnestly hoped, should the Joint High Commission resume its sittings, that no change will be made in the treaty governing our Atlantic fisheries, as seemed likely to occur at its last sittings. Rather let this motto govern our statesmen with respect to this national franchise, " By taking precautions to protect our fisheries, and guarding against destruction by improper methods of fishing, they may be preserved as a permanent source of wealth for the Canadian people." The same may be said of the lumber of Canada. No unnecessary sacrifice should be made to get free lumber into the markets of the United States, or any country. The home demand is increasing every day, and in a short time will afford all the mar- ket necessary. This growing young country is ab- sorbing increasing quantities of manufactured pro- ducts of all kinds, and, of course, it cannot advance in any line more rapidly than in buildings. " Build- ings are the most necessary accompaniment of any in a new land like Canada. The rapidly growing magnitude of our own market should therefore be present to the minds of our negotiators at Washing- ton." There is still another danger which threatens to prevent the Canadian people from participating in the benefit of the natural riches of their country, 252 Our Canadian Heritage and to which they have the best right. This threat- ened danger lurks in the unnecessary privileges likely be granted to monopolists and syndicates, and in the formation of trusts and combines for the eg- ploitation of our natural wealth, to the disadvantage of the masses of the peopled This evil has possibili- ties even more serious and more certain than those _ arising from the granting of ill-considered treaty rights. It is, of course, desirable, that the resources of e country should be properly developed, and for this purpose certain privileges should be given whereby capitalists would be encouraged to invest their money. But in every case the good of the country, as it is represented in the general good of the citizens at large, should be the controlling factor in the granting of franchises by the government. Any revenue obtained for natural resources of any kind, which are to be looked upon for the purpose of controlling prices, or given on such terms that the capitalists would be chiefly benefited, is a crime against the country and the people who live in it. The strictest watchfulness can only prevent the perpetration of this evil against this young country. The greed of capitalists, the increased competition in production, the desire for revenue and popula- lation and the very vastness of our resources all tend to make this evil more imminent. The history of the development of the United States has lessons for us. That great country has no love for the monopolist, and yet it has not been able to stay his hand or to withstand his power. Like the great octopus, by the consolidation of capital Canada for Canadian People 253 he has come to control almost every industry In the country, until the people are virtually at the mercy of the trusts. " The subject of trusts is justly regarded by the best minds of the country as to be the subject of consideration by the two great political parties of the nation, and has been the subject of Presidential messages, . . . and is now engaging the attention of various organizations of educated newspaper writers, and, indeed, may be regarded as one of the great problems of the time." * These great trusts or combines affect almosjt every department of trade in that great country steel, oil, transportation, sugar, beef, and, indeed^a!! lines of commerce until it has become modern slavery. "The serfs, vassals and villeins of Europe may not be able to appreciate the subtle superiority of the American type of serfdom, vessalage and villein- age, but it is there all right. The present genera- tions of Europeans have inherited their bonds ; the present generation of Americans can proudly boast that they are a self-made people, and have them- selves forged the fetters strong enough and good enough for the purpose. The first step in forming a 'trust,' or 'combine,' is to go to the legisla- ture, composed of representatives of the people, and ask for legislation to authorize the deal and when- ever there is found a link in the chain that needs to be strengthened or lengthened, resort is had to legislative enactment. Slavery there may be once more in the land of the free, but it will be white slavery, and the chains and fetters will not be rusty with age for a long time to come."f Modern Culture. t Montreal Star. 254 Our Canadian Heritage Let us be sure that if Americans have been enslaved in this way we are exposed to the same danger, and possibly greater, because we will have all the efforts of American capitalists with, per- haps, less power of resistance than the people of the United States. There is another aspect of this question, namely, as viewed from the standpoint of foreign capitalists sharing in the earnings of the country. It effects the volume of our foreign debt, and if the country were weak might also menace its independence. The public press of the country has already warned the public of these dangers, and they need not largely be dealt with here, though a reiteration of them cannot be superfluous. " As Canadians are a strong, law-abiding, self- governing nation, and a part of a great empire, there is not much danger in any case that United States men-of-war will be sent to threaten Halifax or Toronto, as recently one appeared off the coast of Venezuela, to enforce the subordination of that coun- try to some American money combination. It is, however, becoming increasingly difficult to keep clear of international trouble. . . . Canada's best course is not at all plain. The danger threatening her seems to arise out of the privileges granted to joint stock companies. Better control of these is certainly necessary. Certainly the strictest possible control of foreign corporations or combinations, or those under the control or direction of foreign directorates should be established and maintained. Foreign capital is necessary to the very rapid development of the rich resources of our sparsely Canada for Canadian People 255 inhabited but vast country, for which we are, per- haps, unwisely impatient, and it is not easy to see how it can be allowed free scope without giving it dangerous influence and power." " Every share, bond and debenture, mortgage or lien upon any real property in Canada, which is owned by foreigners, is a part of the foreign national debt of Canada, no matter what its nature is, and the interest thereon has to be earned by Canadians. There is no difference between shares in the Cana- dian Pacific Railway held by a foreign capitalist and Canadian Government bonds held by the same capitalist, so far as the source from which the dividend in the one case, or the interest in the other, is drawn. In both cases that source is the earning power of the labor energy of the Canadian people. The difference between the railway share and the Government bond is that the railway share represents part ownership of & line of rail- way and part control thereof, while the Gov- ernment bond is a blanket mortgage on the country, the ownership of which gives the proprietor no power of interference or control. In the case of government bonds, there is no danger of foreign interference so long as the interest is paid. When a defaulting country is irresponsibly squandering its resources and practically defies its creditors, there is likely to be pressure, and in cases where the defaulting country is weak and that of the creditors strong, even imperative interference. But alien ownership of controlling shares in rail- ways and industrial enterprises introduces direct foreign control and manipulation. Were foreign 256 Our Canadian Heritage owners mere individuals it might matter less, but now that they are liable to be enormous capitalistic combinations, able to sway governments, there is more reason for apprehension. " Let ' Canada for the Canadian people ' be the motto of fcoth legislatures and people respecting the development of our natural wealth, for in this matter eternal vigilance is the price of safety." CHAPTER XI. THE TWENTIETH CENTURY FOR CANADA. " Canada is in its formative period, and there stretches out vast possi- bilities, and the mystery of many things that may be brought to fulfilment and achievement." IN former chapters it has been sought to show that the possibilities of the country are great, both for the development of industries and its capacity for population. The question now of interest is, What is the prospect of the realization of these evident possibilities ? There is, of course, no oracle to consult whose word is infallible, yet there is data from which we may speak with something more than conjecture. The opening years of a century marks a period calculated to inspire thought, and to institute comparisons with the past, and indulge in forecasts of the future. What, then, should be the population of Canada, and the general state of g T~the close or tEe .twentieth century? These are questions which have, no doubt, come to the minds of many, and, in a general way, we shall now speak of them. In this connection it will be of interest to look briefly at the progress of the United States during the century just closed. Two countries of similar size, occupying parts of the same continent, peopled by the same race, and governed by the same general i7 257 258 Our Canadian Heritage principles, ought to afford an interesting and just comparison ; and the one should be fairly prophetic of the other. Let it be observed just here, however, that the growth of a nation and the development of a country must be in harmony with certain well defined laws. A building must first have a work of preparation and foundation laying, which may seem tedious and unprogressive, and yet it is essential to the stability of the structure which is to be erected upon it. The foundation work completed, however, the superstructure advances apace, and the build- ing rapidly appears in fair proportions and in symmetrical form. So it is in the building of a nation, and in the development of a country. There is a comparatively long period of preparation and foundation laying which may seem tedious, but which is essential, and, indeed, the more thoroughly the foundation has been laid the more permanent will be the national structure. This, of course, is less apparent in the newer nations than in the old, because of the changed conditions under which we now live. The United States is generally spoken of as a country of most rapid growth and marvellous development ; indeed, there has been no nation in the history of the world that has made such rapid progress. This is sometimes mistakenly attributed to their particular form of government, but such is not the case. The history of the United States cannot be studied apart from their colonial period. For one hundred and fifty years, or to about the beginning of 1800, they had been working at the slow, but essential, task of laying foundations for future % progress. During the century just closed The Twentieth Century for Canada 259 they have been engaged in the more rapid and con- genial task of nation building. During the present century the progress of the United States has been indeed marvellous, and it would be manifestly un- fair to make any comparison between that country and ourselves in the same period. They preceded us by an entire century in the history of their national life. The two countries represent two dif- ferent periods, and must be compared with this in view. We now start where they did one hundred years ago, and when our foundation period is com- pared with theirs, it seems to us that tfr r^^"^ western boundary of Iowa, or on an area equal to only one-quarter of the whole Union Thus, the most JJ. *]+ * populous and wealthy part of the United States adjoins this Dominion on the east and centre, while on the west their desert region abuts upon our arable lands. From this wide survey it is easy to see the direction which settlement must take on this continent. The time is likely to come during the present century, when the centre of Anglo-Saxon^ population on the North American continent will be north of the international boundary rather than south of it- CHAPTER XII. POPULATION. " Canada is a great country, with illimitable possibilities, and we be- lieve we are called upon to surpass the United States in the course of time. Let us be engaged in whatever we maj', whatever our difference of opinion, but let us try to work with the end of building up this beloved Canada of ours." THE question of the possibilities of our popula- tion is one which has engaged the attention of many, and has elicited a variety of opinions. Some have possibly estimated it too high ; others, and these are the more numerous, we think, have esti- mated the possibilities too low. Any estimate made can, of course, only be approximately correct, though there is a legitimate basis upon which to base our calculations. The ability of a country to sustain a population depends upon its extent and its pro- ductive power, though these facts are modified ~by the largeness or smallness of the demands of tn"e people who may occupy it, which, of course, varie^ greatly in different ages and with different people. England, for instance, alone sustains a population of over thirty millions of people, whose demands are very high, in an area of some fifty thousand square miles. This is a tremendous population, represent- ing about five hundred and seventeen to the square mile, but it is nevertheless sustained with ease and in comfort, indeed, one might say luxury, for nowhere in the world is there to be found an equal 262 Population 263 proportion of wealth. Moreover, this population is still rapidly on the increase. Now, if we apply this standard to the two mil- lion square * miles of Canada's habitable domain, it would give us the tremendous population of one billion souls at the same density. Of course, no reasonable person would likely make such a claim for our country ; population in this land will not likely ever become so uniformly dense, or anything like it. The question is, by what figure should we divide such an estimate, to come at a just and reasonable result. If we could sustain one-quarter the ^population of England per square mile it would still give us two hundred and fifty millions of people. Is this unreasonable ? To answer this we must pursue the question a little farther. We may turn to some other country, where the conditions of life are more similar to our own. Let us look at ot)u&. European Russia, for instance. Here is a country of large and varied area and resources, largely shar- ing our climatic conditions, and may fairly repre- sent the possibilities of our own country as to popula- tion. In European Russia, south of the 60th degree of north latitude, we have at present a density of population of about sixty-eight to the square mile. This, on a similar basis, would give us a population of about one hundred and forty millions, but Russia is still a rather sparsely settled country, and is rapidly increasing in population, and these figures do not represent her full possibility. Let us take at random a group of her older western provinces north of the 50th degree of north latitude. These provinces have a density of one hundred and seventy- nine to the square mile, which, if applied to Canada, would mean an ultimate populatir n, at the same rate, of 350,000,000. 264 Our Canadian Heritage There is still another country in Europe whose latitude, race and conditions of life are not dis- similar to our own, namely, Germany. Here we have a density of two hundred and thirty-nine to the square mile and a growing population. Our popu- lation, estimated on the basis of Germany's density, would give us six hundred and eighty millions. Which one of these estimates comes the nearest to our possibilities ? May we not here apply the law of averages with the three continental sections dis- cussed, for a general and just estimate ? An aver- age struck between these countries would give about one hundred and sixty-six to the square mile, and if applied to Canada's area, would mean a popula- tion of about three hundred and thirty millions. When we consider the large extent of country con- cerned in our comparisons, its high northerly loca- tion, and that their population is still rapidly in- creasing, the estimate cannot be regarded as an extravagant one. It seems quite reasonable, there- fore, to claim that our maximum capacity for popu- lation is from three hundred to three hundred and fifty millions. In a certain sense we are dealing with the present century, and how far these possibilities may be realized within the century it is impossible to say, certainly not to the fullest extent. We have already made some comparisons with the growth of our neighbors to the south, and that without disparage- ment to ourselves. It may not, therefore, be too much to expect a growth, even in population, within this century equal to theirs in the last, though this will depend largely on the energy put forth on the part of our immigration authorities and the wisdom of their policy. Population 265 Sixty-five or seventy millions at the close of the present century should not be beyond the ideal aimed at by every patriotic Canadian, or be regarded as unreasonable from a basis of sound calculation. It would, of course, be expected that the tide of foreign immigration would gradually increase as the country becomes better known and more fully appreciated abroad, and in proportion also to its development. It is difficult to make com- parisons in this regard from the immigration re- turns of the United States, inasmuch as the facili- ties have been so very different in the latter half of the century. The average yearly increase by immigration alone to the United States for the Jast twenty-five years has been about four hundred thou- sand annually, though in one particular year it reached the enormous figure of eight hundred thou- sand.* Taking all the circumstances into considera- tion, it does not appear that three hundred and ninety or four hundred thousand per year for the century would be too great to expect for this coun- try, though, of course, for some time to come the figures must be very much below this mark. If this may be regarded as a fair average for the century, we are well within the bounds of our calculations, as this, with our natural increase and present population, would give us an expected popu- lation of seventy-six millions in the year 2001. It is quite possible, of course, that it may fall below these figures, but it is also easily possible that they may be surpassed ; at least, it is a reasonable calculation. This figure has recently been surpassed. x CHAPTER XIII. HOW TO REALIZE OUR IDEALS. " What will the industrial life of Canada be twenty-five years from now, in the commercial and industrial war with the people of the south, with the great Australian Commonwealth, with the nations of Europe waking up, and with the old nations of China and Japan commencing to wake up ? It will be just what her young men will make it, if they apply themselves from this time forward to make themselves masters of industry." lion. Geo. E. Foster. THE purchasing power of the individual Cana^ dian is at the present time about double that of a citizen of the United States, and about fifteen times greater than that of the average Spanish-American.. Of course this high standard may be lowered upon the rapid increase of our population, but the manu- facturing and commercial possibilities of the people, now so well to the fore, can at least be imagined when they have multiplied twelvefold. The posses- sion of great resources is, however, a very different matter from the successful operation of them ; and the capacity for lofty ideals is quite different from their realization. Neither of these desired ends can be attained by leaving to chance that which demands the most careful attention. Let our ideals ever lead us on and upward, but never bring us to that place where our efforts cease. To feel the need of national effort and ambition too strongly may not be wise, but to look complacently on the achievements of the 266 How to Realize Our Ideals , 267 past is to doom ourselves to failure in the morning of life. Nothing can express the secret of a nation's suc- cess or the danger of its failure better than the words of Lord Rosebery respecting national self- complacency : " A great trained and intelligent population, capable of sustained thinking on public questions, is essential to success in the modern world. The nation which is satisfied is lost ; self- complacency is a fatal gift. A spirit of honest dis- satisfaction is essential, as opposed to complacency." If Lord Rosebery spoke this to Englishmen of Eng- land it is quite as applicable to this side of the Atlantic. The following comments on his words are worthy of repetition : " Complacency has no more place in the life of a growing nation than in the life of a growing man. No matter how great a man's achievement may be, if he has the right spirit he never indulges in complacency, because he is always measuring what he has done against his possibili- ties, and taking account of himself, not by com- parison with his competitors, but by comparison with his ideals. This is true of great nations. One of the obstacles against which China has to contend is the complacency of her people, the almost invin- cible self-satisfaction with which they are clothed, which shuts the minds of a great majority against any honest comparison of the condition of the coun- try with the condition of other countries. " There is too much censorious and thoughtless criticism in this country. There are too many people who, without mastering the facts of any situation, are ready to condemn tho policies of men and of parties, the attitude of individuals and of 268 Our Canadian Heritage the country. We have had enough of this kind of captious, irrational, unmanly criticism a criticism which is essentially effeminate knowledge. It is not the expression of judgment ; it is a combination of importance, ignorance and conceit There has been too much of this kind of criticism, which has bred an attitude towards public men that has sensibly diminished the dignity attached to their position, and, therefore, their influence. "We do need, however, another kind of dis- satisfaction ; that noble discontent which measures the achievement and attainments of the country with the highest possible standards, and which eliminates self-complacency by making the nation understand how little it has accomplished compared with what it ought to have done. A happy people is contented, but never satisfied ; it appreciates what it has secured and is -grateful for what has been given it, but it is never satisfied with what it has done. " Our people have put themselves in the fore- front of the modern world by virtue of their energy, their intelligence, their strong handling of their resources ; but he is a very blind citizen who does not carry in his heart the burden of unsolved prob- lems, and on his conscience the shame of unre- dressed wrongs. We do not want a discontented country, but we do want a dissatisfied country ; a country entirely free from self-complacency ; a country fully aware of its own defects and reso- lutely determined to overcome them ; a coun- try* which finds joy in its ideals, not in its attain- ments." The sentiments expressed above are equally applicable to Canada and are worthy of being pondered by the Canadian people. CHAPTER XIV. CANADA AND THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT. THERE has been, from time to time, in previous chapters, as occasion demanded, reference to the United States, by way of making comparisons. Owing to the fact that the North American con- tinent is, for the most part, occupied in nearly equal divisions by two sections of the samo race, such com- parisons are quite natural, and may still be further pursued in a friendly spirit. The comparisons which we now propose to make, however, do not relate to people or institutions or social status, but rather to economic and industrial conditions T based on natural resources and geographical positions. It is hard to conceive of two countries having so extensive a boundary in common, but yet possess- ing so many contrasting features. This diversity of natural features is fairly well denned by the international boundary. The United States is a comparatively elevated country, while Canada is quite the opposite, which fact is at least of great advantage to Canada. Canada is also a land of extensive forests of the most economic varieties of lumber, while the United States, though having extensive forests, partakes more of the nature of a prairie country through a great part of its area. 269 270 Our Canadian Heritage, In the extent, variety and distribution of the economic minerals, also, Canada can claim a dis- tinct superiority. Canada is also a land of lakes and rivers of endless number and variety, which marks another feature of contrast favorable to this country. Tl^e. hope of a nation to-day, according to present indi- cations, is not based so much on its extent as it is on its chances for commercial and industrial supremacy] England might be quoted in support of this fact. The question is, who has these advan- tages on the North American continent ? A dis- passionate view of the situation leads to the con- clusion that the advantage is largely in favor of this Dominion. Early as the time is in the development of Cana- dian resources, the advantages afforded by way of location and distribution, as well as of both quan- tity and quality, is already beginning to influence public opinion. For instance, in the matter of pulp- woofl. to which reference has already been made, Canada's position is incomparable, and there is no commodity in more demand by our present civiliza- tion. The present rate of consumption in the United States indicates an early exhaustion of their visible supply, and already they are largely dependent on the products of this country. "Evidences that home and British capital are going rapidly into the development of the vast spruce and pulp properties of Canada are of almost daily occurrence. Canada seems destined to be the great supply depot for the basis ot newspaper and most of the other commoner papers that America must continue to consume in tremendous volume. Canada and the North American Continent 271 What the United States has to guard against is any policy that might incite Canadians to prohibit the export of spruce logs or must we eventually buy finished paper of provincials ?" * Not only is this true of the pulpwood, but it is to the same extent true of the other varieties of timber which enter largely into the domestic needs of the United States ; this has been incidentally alluded to already, but the question is one of im- portance both to this country and to the neighbor- ing republic, though for different reasons, as the following will indicate : " In four states Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- mont and New York the forests are being denuded at the rate of 1,750 square miles per annum. " In New Hampshire the entire forest resources will be exhausted in twelve years and in other states in eight years. " The interest of the public generally, as dis- tinguished from the lumbermen, says the news- paper memorial, requires the conservation of the forests, and an enlightened self-interest should im- pel the commission in dealing with Canada ' to follow that provident policy which shall keep our future wants in view.' " With respect to the economic minerals Canada's possession is equally favorable. Take, for instance, the matter of coal, and it will be seen that Canada is generously supplied with this article of fuel, which is of excellent quality and advantageously distributed, but as this has been fully discussed In a previous chapter, further reference is unneces- sary, suffice it to say, that if coal is king his throne * New York Commercial. 272 Our Canadian Heritage is in Canada. So also is it true of iron, copper, nickel and many other of the economic minerals. It is true that in the past these great advantages the keys, we may say, to commercial supremacy have contributed comparatively little to our develop- ment and present prosperity, and what little has already been accomplished towards the development of our resources has largely been by the exploita- tions of foreigners. There is, however, no reason why these conditions of exploitation and exhaus- tion, without full compensation in advantages to the country, should continue. All that is necessary is the exercising of a patriotic and statesmanlike guardianship and control of these resources to make them contribute to the wealth and development of the country in which they are located. In this there are gratifying signs of improvement. It is evident from the foregoing, if Canada is true to herself, she holds the key to the coveted place of industrial supremacy in , the "W fia j'- ft g < World. " Let us as a people rid ourselves of the mistaken idea that Canada is an agricultural country only, whose destiny it is to supply_raw material and food staples to tne United Statesand Great Britain^ and to receive in return the manu- factures of these countries. The successful develop- ment in the past few years of nearly every branch of manufacture in Ontario and Quebec is almost in- credible to anyone not familiar with these pro- vinces." Since the following was not spoken by a Cana- dian it may be admitted here : " Canada has admittedly a greater store of raw material than the United States, to manufacture Canada and the North American Continent 273 which it has enormous water power. It can obtain electric power more cheaply than any other country in the world. It has, both on the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, in close proximity to deep water harbors, coal, iron and limestone, a condition of things which does not exist in the United States. Its ports are nearer to Europe and Asia than those of the Republic, and its inland caniage is cheaper, owing to the magnificent system of inland naviga- tion. " There is no reason why Canada should not beat America on her own terms for the foreign trade of the world. Britain is, after all, only a small por- tion of the Empire. When British manufacturers feel American competition too keenly let them re- move their plant to Canada. There, with the same machinery that is used south of the boundary line, they can fight the Yankees for the trade of the world, and have several points in their favor to start with." 18 CHAPTER XV. CANADA AND TRANSPORTATION. " With the (lc\i-loi>inciit of thf marine engine the sea unites, rather than divides, widely separated countries." THE wonderful advantages which nature has entrusted to Canada are still further emphasized when her geographical position is taken into con- sideration, and upon this fact must largely be deter- mined the transportation business between the vari- ous continents of the world. National inter- dependence is a fact made evident by the remotest history of our race ; one people have ever demanded the products of another. The east and the west, the north and the south, have from time immemorial met in the world's marts, finding transportation for their wares through various means. There may be a mighty gulf between the ancient caravan and the modern express train, but the one is the lineal descendent of the other. The modern steamship has been evolved from the most primitive craft. It is not now the rich, as of old, who demand the luxuries from the ends of the earth, but almost the humblest of the common people count them among the necessities of their everyday life. This is the time of keen competition in the commercial world, demanding strictest economy, 274 Canada and Transportation 275 and on no condition does this depend so much as upon cheap and rapid transportation between the markets of the world. Days, and even hours, con- sumed between ports in the transportation of freight, mails and passengers are matters of great im- portance ; it means all the difference between suc- cess and failure in commercial transactions. These conditions are becoming more and more the feature of the times in which we live, and must in the near future become of still greater importance. In view of these facts it is of interest for us to look briefly at the possibilities of Canada in the matter of transportation, as indicated by her geographical position, in relation to the great centres of the world's commerce. On the one side of us is England and the continent of Europe, while on the other is Japan, China and the Orient generally, all of which countries, both European and Asiatic, are densely populated, and demand ever more and more of the products of each other. It is, therefore, in- teresting to note that through Canada lies the short- est possible pathway between these two widely separated sections of the globe. It is not necessary here to submit any extended table of Atlantic or Pacific distances in support of this contention, it is sufficient to say that Sydney, Cape Breton, is about seven hundred and fifty miles nearer to Liverpool than New York, and is nearer Cape Horn or Good Hope than even New Orleans in the Gulf of Mexico.* The position of Vancouver, and more especially * It is claimed that the distance from Liverpool to St. John's, *ifld., could be covered in forty-four hours, being 1300 miles nearer England than New York. With the Newfoundland railway system this would, with the exception of Cabot Straits, end the sea voyage. 276 Our Canadian Heritage Port Simpson, on the Pacific coast, is equally advan- tageous as related to transpacific ports when com- pared with San Francisco ; and strange as it may seem, the northern rail haul is not as long as the southern. It is true that Canada has as yet received very little, if any, advantage from this most advan- tageous position given her hy nature, though it is believed that the advantage of the Canadian route cannot long be ignored. The prejudices and vested interests which have stood in the way on both sides of the Atlantic, cannot much longer work to the detriment, not only of Canada, but of the commerce of the world in general. Pacific connec- tions with the C. P. R. and the East are at present quite superior to any on the Pacific Ocean ; and if Canada had a line of transatlantic steamers of the most modern type and speed, the success of the route would be assured, and the voyage from Eng- land to America would easily be reduced to three and one-half days. Doubtless the near future will witness interest- ing developments in the matter of a Canadian rapid transit route for mails, passengers and freight be- tween the Orient and the Occident. " A fast steam- ship line to Canada will go farther towards the com- pletion of an Imperial girdle of singular value and impressiveness, which, coupled with the all-British cable, cannot fail to exercise an important influence upon future naval and military developments. By P. and O. from London to Japan, from Yokohama to Vancouver by one of the fine liners of the Cana- dian Pacific Railway, across Canada by Canadian Pacific Railway, from Sydney, Cape Breton, or other Canada and Transportation 277 selected terminus by quick steamer to Liverpool, should mean something very much under Jules Verne's eighty days, and stirring, indeed, is the thought that this brisk circuit would be completed entirely under the British flag." Comparative distances between Liverpool, Great Britain, and Yokohama, Japan : Lirerpool to New York, - 3,640 miles ^| Liverpool to Yokohama via New York to San Francisco 3,260 " > New York and San Francisco, San Francisco to Yokohama 4,098 " J 10,888. Liverpool to Quebec - 2,661 miles ^ Liverpool to Yokohama via Quebec to Vancouver - - 3,078 " Quebec and Vancouver (sum- Vancouver to Yokohama 4,290 " J mer only), 10,029. Liverpool to Halifax - 2,342 miles ^ Liverpool to Yokohama via *Halifax to Vancouver - 3,762 " V Halifax and Vancouver (all the Vancouver to Yokohama 4,290 " J year), 10,394. Liverpool to Chicoutimi 2,600 miles "I t Liverpool to Yokohama via Chicoutimi to Pt. Simpson 2,705 " > Chicoutimi and Port Simpson Port Simpson to Yokh'ma 3,940 " J (part of year), 9,245. Liverpool to York Factory 2, 966 milc-.s i {Liverpool to Yokohama via Y'k Factory to Pt. Simpson 1,500 " York Factory and Port Simp- Pt. Simpson to Yokohama 3,940 " J son (part of year), 8,406. Liverpool to E. Labrador, 1,900 miles^ {Liverpool to Yokohama via E. Lab'dor to P't Simpson 3,305 " Port Simpson and Labrador, Pt. Simpson to Yokohama 3,940 " J 9,141. * Via St. John, N.B., the distance is somewhat less though the ocean distance is a little longer, and via Sydney, C.B., the distance would be a little less, but with a longer mil haul. t Proposed line. Short Atlantic distance. CHAPTER XVI. CANADA'S SECURITY OF POSITION. THE northern position of Canada on the North American continent is generally associated with the thought of great disadvantages. If, however, there are disadvantages in this position, there are also advantages which are more than a compensation. This is very obvious when we come to consider the matter of national defence. In this respect Canada holds a position altogether unique. A thoroughly insular position of a compact, populous and highly developed and imperial country, such as Great Britain, has, it is true, distinct advantages in the matter of defence, though that defence demands that the nation be mistress of the seas. With a country of continental position and vast areas, sharing extended boundaries with possibly hostile neighbors, the question of defence is quite another matter. In the present state of the world, with its ever present possibilities of international strife, the matter of defence is one of the first im- portance. An ideally located country for matters of de- fence would be one with the maximum amount of area, with a mimimum amount of exposed frontier and coast-line. We know of no country, apart from Canada, where these conditions are so largely ful- 278 Canada's Security of Position 279 filled. It is true Canada has a frontier of some three thousand miles, but it must be remembered that this is shared by only one country, and that one peopled by the same race, and consequently pre- disposed to friendship. If these three thousand miles of frontier were shared by half a dozen dif- ferent nationalities more or less hostile, it would increase the liability to invasion by just that much. There are many on both sides of the international boundary who firmly believe that the War of 1812 witnessed the last open hostilities between Canada and the United States, and we would repeat what has been said : " Palsied be the hand that would be raised in favor of precipitating strife between these two kindred peoples." So far, therefore, as our frontier by land is concerned, extensive though it may be, the danger is reduced to a minimum. It will be interesting to observe that the exposed portion of Canada's coast-line is exceedingly limited, both on the Atlantic and Pacific, as compared with t the immensity of her area. Withou'- considering the coastal indentations, the extent of Canadian coast exposed to hostile attack on either side, the Atlantic or Pacific, is scarcely more than six hundred miles for each. It must be evident to all that this is very trivial when cpmpared with other countries of similar area. Russia, for instance, while not having a very extensive, vulnerable coast-line (not enough, in- deed), has a tremendous frontier to defend against ten different nationalities, several of which are strong and aggressive nations. The cost of adequately defending this frontier across two con- tinents is something enormous, and constitutes a 280 Our Canadian Heritage great financial burden which the Russian people are called upon to bear. The United States, as compared with Canada regarding the security of her position from attack, is not nearly so favorably situated. Be- sides her northern frontier she has a second one, scarcely less extensive, separating her from a people of entirely different race, while she has a coast-line on two oceans aggregating some five thousand miles, exclusive of minor indentations. It will readily be seen from this that to defend the United States with the same efficiency, it would require land and naval forces about four times in excess of our own requirements. This may seem to be an unimportant matter, and yet it is a matter which directly affects both the national treasury and the national security. Jack Frost effectually and gratuitously guards us on three thousand miles of our northern coast, and in this he does us a distinct service, greatly relieving national expendi- ture and contributing much to our sense of security. CHAPTER XVII. DESTINY. " In the grey ness of the dawning we have seen the pilot star, In the whisper of the morning we have heard the years afar. Shall we sleep and let them be, when they call to you and me ? Can we break the land asunder God has girdled with the sea? For the fog is floating o'er us, and the track is clear before us From the prairies to the ocean, let us lift the mighty chorus For the days that are to be." " Canada's true policy is to knit more closely, as she is doing, the strong ties, commercial, social, and political, which unite us to the Fatherland." HAVING viewed Canada from many standpoints with respect to her future possibilities it is only fitting that we should close by speaking of her pos- sible destiny. What are the tendencies of the present, and what do the years hold for us, not in material prospects alone, but with respect to her status as a nation, and our future as a people ? The ultimate destinies of all nations are, of course, matters of uncertainty, and perhaps there is a sense in which the destiny of a nation is especially associated with the greatest uncertainty when that nation is passing through its formative period. In the minds of some, there is much of uncertainty regarding the destiny which awaits our own coun- try in her relation to other nations in the twen- 281 282 Our Canadian Heritage tieth century. Evidently the present conditions cannot be indefinitely maintained. Influences are certainly operating which denote the coming of a change in our national status. What are these changes to be, and what do we gather from the signs of the times ? These questions will now briefly engage us. There are at least three possible destinies await- ing Canada, and so far as can be observed, only three ; some one of which lies in the immediate pathway of our not distant future. These are an- nexation with ' the United States, Canadian inde- pendence, or Imperial federation. Which of these shall it be ? This is a question now definitely before the Canadian people. Let us discuss them each briefly in order, and, if possible, arrive at conclusions dictated by existing circumstances and our highest advantages. First, then, what of annexation with the United States as one of our possible destinies ? What are the probabilities of its realization or its prospective advantages ? Has this doctrine of " manifest destiny " of " union with the continent to which we belong," any real advantages to offer Canadians ? It would, of course, give us the unrestricted markets with a nation of seventy-five million people. It is doubt- ful, however, if there is another single advantage to be named, and it is questionable if this even is a real advantage, foj^fcfaccept the advantages of this market on these terms would be to shut ourselves out from the markets of all the rest of the world, except at the pleasure of the officials at Washington. Moreover, the advantage of this market may possibly in the near future be open to us by treaty without Destiny 283 surrendering a vestige of our independence or in- dividuality. So small is the poulation of Canada as compared with that of the United States that her voice and influence would be nil in the national councils and in the shaping of the policy of the country. Furthermore, our natural resources would then be open to the merciless exploitation of Ameri- can syndicates, and last, but not least, we would cut ourselves adrift from all our past traditions and our legitimate heirship to a share in the glories of the Empire to which we belong, and these things are cherished by us above all things else. In brief, annexation with the United States would not give us a single advantage that we do not now possess, while it would deprive us of much that we regard beyond price. This, then, as a possible destiny is dismissed as impossible and undesirable. Neither is there any sentiment in the whole broad Dominion favoring such a destiny ; its very thought is repugnant to the Canadian people. If this sentiment ever had any real existence on this side of the line it is now buried in the oblivion of the past, and for which there is no resurrection. It is believed that the impossibility of this is now being recognized by the Americans themselves, though they seem loth to relinquish the idea. Since this destiny could only come about through the consent of the Canadian people or their conquest, its impossibility must be quite evident to all. " There is room enough and scope enough on this continent for the two Anglo-Saxon nations, Canada and the United States daughters of a com- mon mother, custodians of a common liberty to 284 Our Canadian Heritage work out their separate destinies without being jealous of each other or covetinp each other's patrimony and birthright." 41 Oh, we are the men of the Northern Zone ; Shall a bit be placed in our mouth ? If ever a Northman lost his throne, Did the conqueror come from the South ? Nay, nay and the answer blent In chorus is southward sent. " Since when has a Southerner's conquering steel Hewed out in the North a throne? Since when has a Southerner placed his heel On the men of the Northern zone ? " Having disposed of the question of annexation, what must be said with respect to Canadian inde- pendence ? It is readily conceded that so far as the testimony of history is concerned, it goes to show that as a rule colonies have, in due time, either forcibly, or by mutual consent, severed their con- nection with the Mother Country, though the his- tory of these same countries does not always go to show that this was the wisest course to pursue. It simply means that the art of color ization, and the purpose for which colonies are held, were altogether misunderstood in earlier times. They were sought to be held by force and for purposes of exploitation and colonists were universally despised. Owing to lack -of telegraphic communication, and the impos- sibility of rapid mobilization, it was only natural that when colonies became sufficiently strong they would attempt to throw off the maternal yoke. These conditions have, so far as Great Britain is concerned, entirely passed away, arjd .the desire to sever the Imperial tie is not only absent in Canada, Destiny 285 but throughout all parts of the British world. There are very material reasons for this, apart from the strong reason of sentiment. To have the strength and prestige of Britain withdrawn from this or any other British colony, would leave them at the present time a helpless prey to the greed and lust of other nations. Independence would be prac- tically impossible ; foreign credit would greatly depreciate, and the development of the country would for the time come to stagnation. There may be some in Canada who cherish dreams of Canadian independence, but looking at the ques- tion from all sides, the advantages do not appear, and at best, even as a thought, it must be very re- mote. The prevailing sentiment irdeed, we might say, the universal sentiment throughout Canada may be expressed in the well-known words of the late Sir John A. Macdonald : " A British subject I was born and a British subject I shall die." This brings us to the consideration of the one possible remaining destiny, and, ad reductio, we are shut up to accept it, as Canada's only rational and possible course Imperial federation. The reasons for and against Imperial federation are too many to be here reproduced, neither it is necessary that this should be done. It is evident to the most casual observer that forces are every day at work which are bringing this desired end nearer. Doubtless the federation of the British Empire would lay some new burdens, and some new responsibilities upon the colonies, which have in the past been as children in the lap of a nursing mother. But the assumption of these responsibilities and burdens is not only essential for our honor, but it is essential 286 Our Canadian Heritage for our good ; no nation that is continually coddled can ever rise to the highest manhood. These obliga- tions of empire simply must be assumed. " Secure in thy security, Though children, not unwise are we ; And filled with unplumed love for thee Call thou but once, if thou would'st see. When the grey bergs Come down from Labrador, and when The long Pacific rollers break Against the pines, for thy word's sake Each listeneth, alone awake, And with thy strength made strong to dare." The spectacle of a world-wide empire, sympathetic and cohesive in aft its parts, each co-related to the other, not as colonies to a motherland, but as sovereign states in an imperial un'ty, presents to our thought a grandeur which cannot be described by words, and yet such is the inevitable set of the current of public opinion throughout the vast extended domains of Britain, and especially in this beloved Canada of ours. Let it be borne in mind, however, that this is a matter not for politicians to fool with, or even statesmen to formally promote ; it must grow as the love grows between the mother and her child. The bonds that bind must be senti- mental rather than organic ; 'that is to say, organi- zation must ever follow in tne track of sentiment, but never precede it. Thus, and thus only, can this great work, which must make for the peace of man- kind, be accomplished, and this accomplished is the great climacteric work of the century upon whoae threshold we now stand. Destiny 287 " To the hearth of our people's people- To her well-ploughed windy sea, To the hush of our dread high-altars Where the Abbey made us. We. ' To the grist of the slow-ground ages, To the gain that is yours and mine To the Bank of the Open Credit, To the Power-house of the Line. ' We've drunk to the Queen God bless her ! We've drunk to our mother's land ; We've drunk to our English brother (And we hope he'll understand). We've drunk as much as we're able, And the Cross swings low to the dawn. Last toast and your foot on the table ! A health to the Native-born ! ' A health to the Native-born (Stand up) ! We're six white men arow, All bound to sing of the little things we care about With the weight of a six-fold blow ! By the might of our cable-tow (Take hands !) From the Orkneys to the Horn, All round the world (and a little loop to pull it by), All round the world (with a little strap to buckle it), A health to the Native-born !" Rudyard Kipling. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. Illar'HCfc RECTO <:o Ft8 151959 SENT ON ILL DEC 1 1 1997 U C BERKELEY General Library re 0894 J THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY